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Jamnagar refinery

2026-05-08T12:39:09Z

Tumita7029: Made first stub nd citations.

{{Short description|Oil refinery in Gujarat, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox oil refinery
| name = Jamnagar refinery
| image = Jamnagar Refinery.jpg
| caption = The Jamnagar refinery at night.
| location_map = India Gujarat
| location_map_width =
| location_map_text = The location of the Jamnagar refinery in Gujarat.
| coordinates = {{coord|22|20|53|N|69|52|8|E|type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref =
| country = [[India]]
| state = [[Gujarat]]
| city = Motikhavdi, [[Jamnagar district|Jamnagar]]
| operator =
| owner = [[Reliance Industries Limited]]
| founded = {{Start date|1999|07|14|df=yes}}
| closure =
| capacity_bbl/d = 1,840,0000
| complexity_index = 21.1<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.ril.com/ar2018-19/ril-annual-report-2019.pdf
|quote=Jamnagar site has a complexity index of 21.1
|publisher=Reliance Industries Limited
|title=Integrated Annual Report 2018-2019
|date=2019}}</ref>
| employees =
| ref units =
| oil tank =
| oil refining center =
}}

The '''Jamnagar refinery''', also known as '''RIL Jamnagar''' or '''RPL Jamnagar''', is a private sector crude [[oil refinery]] owned by [[Reliance Industries]] in Motikhavdi, [[Jamnagar district|Jamnagar]], Gujarat, India. The refinery was commissioned in July 1999 with an initial installed capacity of {{convert|668000|oilbbl/d}}. Its current installed capacity after expansion is {{convert|1240000|oilbbl/d}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ril.com/OurBusinesses/PetroleumRefiningAndMarketing.aspx |title=Petroleum Refining & Marketing}}</ref> It is currently the [[List of oil refineries|largest oil refinery in the world]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/reliance-commissions-worlds-biggest-refiner/402999 | title=Reliance commissions world's biggest refinery | newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] | date=26 December 2008 | access-date=9 January 2019 }}</ref>

__TOC__

== History ==
In December 2001, Reliance Petroleum Limited (RPL) announced the commissioning of its refinery into a Special Economic Zone in Jamnagar district of Gujarat, India. The completion of the RPL refinery has enabled Jamnagar to emerge as a 'Refinery land', housing the world's largest refining complex with an aggregate refining capacity of {{convert|1.24|Moilbbl|m3}} of oil per day, more than any other single location in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ril.com/html/business/refining_marketing.html |title=Growth through Energy Products |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070227141455/http://ril.com/html/business/refining_marketing.html |archive-date=2007-02-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The globally competitive RPL refinery was commissioned in 36 months. RPL contracted several companies having expertise in engineering construction and refining like [[Bechtel]], [[UOP LLC]] and [[Foster Wheeler]] ([[multinational corporation]]) amongst others. There were plans for the pipeline to process High Pour Point crude oil extracted at Barmer, [[Rajasthan]], although this would require an electrically heated traced pipeline to be set up from [[Barmer district|Barmer]] to Jamnagar.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cairn India starts work on Barmer-Jamnagar pipeline project|url=https://www.projectstoday.com/News/Cairn-India-starts-work-on-Barmer-Jamnagar-pipeline-project|access-date=2020-10-31|website=www.projectstoday.com}}</ref>

The entire complex, as of 2013, consists of manufacturing and allied facilities, utilities, off-sites, port facilities and a township (415 acres) with housing for its 2,500 employees, on over {{convert|7500|acre|ha sqmi|lk=on}} of land. If all of the pipes used in the refinery were laid out, one after another, they would connect the whole of India from north to south.<ref name="groundreport1">{{cite web|url=http://www.groundreport.com/Business/RIL-s-Jamnagar-Refinery-Listed-Among-The-World-s-T/2948964 |title=RIL's Jamnagar Refinery Listed Among The World's Top Five Refineries |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606064256/http://www.groundreport.com/Business/RIL-s-Jamnagar-Refinery-Listed-Among-The-World-s-T/2948964 |archive-date=2013-06-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ril.com/downloads/pdf/about_jamnagar.pdf |title=About Jamnagar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027062343/http://www.ril.com/downloads/pdf/about_jamnagar.pdf |archive-date=2011-10-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Export expansion ===
In 2019, during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] the domestic demand for polymer strongly declined in India. As a result, in order to keep production and sales running, [[Reliance Industries Limited]] management decided to refocus the production of polymer on export markets. With the help of the [[Maersk]] shipping and logistics group, exports from the Jamnagar refinery were quadrupled to over 10,000 x 40' containers, which transported and exported through [[Port Pipavav]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Keeping supply chains moving during COVID-19 | website=Maersk | date=8 July 2020 | url=https://www.maersk.com/news/articles/2020/07/08/keeping-supply-chains-moving-during-covid-19 | access-date=2021-04-14}}</ref>

In the 2020s, following [[International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine|sanctions imposed on Russia]] by mainly Western countries, but not by India, the Jamnagar refinery was one of the main refiners exporting oil products made from Russian oil to sanctioning nations.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=India exported USD 6.65 bn oil products derived from Russian oil to sanctioning nations: Report - ET EnergyWorld |url=https://energy.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/oil-and-gas/india-exported-usd-6-65-bn-oil-products-derived-from-russian-oil-to-sanctioning-nations-report/107897476 |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=ETEnergyworld.com |language=en}}</ref> The refinery has been the destination of [[Russian shadow fleet]] vessels.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-09 |title=China and India snub EU and UK sanctions as record volumes of Russia oil shipped on 'dark' or designated tankers |url=https://www.lloydslist.com/LL1150911/China-and-India-snub-EU-and-UK-sanctions-as-record-volumes-of-Russia-oil-shipped-on-dark-or-designated-tankers |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=Lloyd's List}}</ref>

== Labour and environmental issues ==
=== Labour issues ===
The Jamnagar refinery has been the site of several incidents involving labour issues, worker fatalities, and unrest.

In September 2005, tensions between local villagers and workers at the refinery escalated into violent clashes following a dispute over access to water, with the unrest spilling over to the nearby Essar oil refinery. The unrest was rooted in growing local resentment over the arrival of approximately 10,000 migrant labourers from Indian states such as [[Odisha]], [[Bihar]], and [[Uttar Pradesh]], who were working under precarious contracts. In response, village leaders forced their relocation to worker camps constructed by Reliance and [[Essar Group|Essar]], before the situation culminated in violent confrontations involving an estimated 5,000 workers and villagers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trivedi |first=Kamlesh |last2=Bhayani |first2=Himanshu |date=14 June 2013 |title=Reliance staff, villagers clash |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/reliance-staff-villagers-clash-105090901017_1.html |website=[[Business Standard]]}}</ref>

In September 2015, a construction worker employed on an expansion project at the refinery complex was found dead, hanging in a room within a labour colony near the site. While some sources reported that Reliance Industries stated the cause of death to be a heart attack,<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=17 September 2015 |title=Worker's death sparks violence near RIL's Jamnagar complex |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/worker-s-death-sparks-violence-near-ril-s-jamnagar-complex-115091701158_1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826055150/https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/worker-s-death-sparks-violence-near-ril-s-jamnagar-complex-115091701158_1.html |archive-date=26 August 2016 |website=[[Business Standard]]}}</ref> others cited cardiac arrest as the official explanation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=18 September 2015 |title=Labourer's death sparks violence at RIL's Jamnagar plant |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/violence-in-jamnagar-ril-refinery-after-labourers-death/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918183133/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/violence-in-jamnagar-ril-refinery-after-labourers-death/ |archive-date=18 September 2015 |website=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref> The colony, which accommodated over 50,000 migrant workers, became the focus of unrest following the incident.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=19 September 2015 |title=One killed in police firing after violence at RIL refinery |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/rajkot/one-killed-in-police-firing-after-violence-at-ril-refinery/articleshow/49022483.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308051644/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/rajkot/one-killed-in-police-firing-after-violence-at-ril-refinery/articleshow/49022483.cms |archive-date=8 March 2016 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Tensions escalated when a team of Reliance officials visited the colony to investigate, prompting a violent reaction from some labourers; believing the death to have resulted from a workplace accident, two worker groups torched vehicles and engaged in [[Stone pelting in India|stone-pelting]] at company officials and policemen.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=17 September 2015 |title=Labourers clash within RIL colony in Jamnagar |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/labourers-clash-within-ril-colony-in-jamnagar-115091700976_1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920013847/https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/labourers-clash-within-ril-colony-in-jamnagar-115091700976_1.html |archive-date=20 September 2015 |website=[[Business Standard]]}}</ref> Authorities later stated that the death was likely due to natural causes or suicide. Police forces were deployed, using [[tear gas]] and live fire, to control the situation, resulting in one death and three injuries.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

ln November 2016, a [[flash fire]] in the refinery complex led to the death of two workers with six others sustaining burn injuries. Refinery operations continued as normal.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=24 November 2016 |title=Two workers killed, 6 injured in fire at Reliance’s Jamnagar refinery |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/business/india-two-workers-killed-6-injured-in-fire-at-reliance-s-jamnagar-refinery-358059 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161125134550/https://www.indiatvnews.com/business/india-two-workers-killed-6-injured-in-fire-at-reliance-s-jamnagar-refinery-358059 |archive-date=25 November 2016 |website=[[India TV]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=25 November 2016 |title=Two dead, 6 injured in Reliance refinery fire |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/rajkot/Two-dead-6-injured-in-Reliance-refinery-fire/articleshow/55608776.cms |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=S |first=Rajalakshmi |title=Fire at RIL Jamnagar refinery leaves 2 dead, 6 injured |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/fire-at-ril-jamnagar-refinery-leaves-2-dead-6-injured/article64289932.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250416051459/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/fire-at-ril-jamnagar-refinery-leaves-2-dead-6-injured/article64289932.ece |archive-date=16 April 2025 |website=[[Business Line]]}}</ref>

=== Greenhouse gas emissions ===
The Jamnagar refinery is the world's largest [[greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas emitter]] among refineries. In 2022, its emissions were estimated at 19.76 million tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Varsano |first=Logan |date=9 October 2024 |title=RPL Jamnagar: the world’s largest oil refinery |url=https://climatetrace.org/news/rpl-jamnagar-the-worlds-largest-oil-refinery |website=[[Climate TRACE]]}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of oil refineries in India]]
*[[Petrochemicals]]
*[[Chemical engineering]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://www.ril.com}}

{{Oil refineries in India}}
{{Reliance Group}}

[[Category:Oil refineries in India]]
[[Category:Reliance Industries]]
[[Category:Jamnagar district]]
[[Category:1999 establishments in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Energy infrastructure completed in 1999]]
[[Category:Companies based in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Energy in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Manufacturing plants of Reliance Industries]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1999]]
[[Category:20th-century architecture in India]]
[[Category:Labour relations in India]]
[[Category:21st-century architecture in India]]

Chandni (1989 film)

2026-05-07T09:51:58Z

Tumita7029: adding new article w/ refs

{{short description|1989 Bollywood film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Chandni
| image = Chandni poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Yash Chopra]]
| producer = Yash Chopra
| writer =
| screenplay = [[Arun Kaul]] Umesh Kalbagh {{Infobox | decat=yes | child=yes | label1= Dialogues by | data1=[[Sagar Sarhadi]]}}
| story = [[Kamna Chandra]]
| based_on =
| starring = [[Sridevi]] [[Rishi Kapoor]] [[Vinod Khanna]] [[Waheeda Rehman]]
| narrator =
| music = [[Shiv-Hari]]
| cinematography = [[Manmohan Singh (director)|Manmohan Singh]]
| editing = Keshav Naidu
| studio = [[Yash Raj Films]]
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1989|09|15|df=y}}
| runtime = 179 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
}}

'''''Chandni''''' (''Moonlight'') is a 1989 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[musical romance]] film directed and co-produced by [[Yash Chopra]] from a story written by [[Kamna Chandra]] with a screenplay by Umesh Kalbagh, [[Arun Kaul]], and [[Sagar Sarhadi]]. The film stars [[Sridevi]] in the title role of Chandni Mathur, a young, effervescent woman torn between two suitors played by [[Rishi Kapoor]] and [[Vinod Khanna]]. [[Waheeda Rehman]], [[Anupam Kher]], [[Juhi Chawla]], [[Sushma Seth]], [[Mita Vashisht]], [[Manohar Singh]] feature in supporting roles.<ref name="Yahoo">{{cite web|last=Yahoo|title=Best of Yash Chopra|url=https://in.movies.yahoo.com/blogs/24fps/best-yash-chopra-174538425.html}}</ref>

The eighties marked a professional setback in Chopra's career, After a series of failed action films, Chopra decided to return to his roots and make a romantic musical, a film with all the hallmarks of what has come to be known as the "Yash Chopra style" – heroine-oriented, romantic, emotional, depicting the lifestyle of the super-elite, with melodic music used in songs picturized in foreign locations. The film marked the first collaboration between Chopra and Sridevi; they would collaborate again for the path-breaking ''[[Lamhe]]'' (1991).

''Chandni'' was theatrically released on 15 September 1989 by [[Yash Raj Films]]. The film emerged as a widespread critical and commercial success, ranking as the [[List of Hindi films of 1989|third highest-grossing Hindi film of the year]], with its soundtrack emerging as the [[Hindi film music|best-selling album of the year as well as the decade]], with more than 10 million copies sold. The massive success of the film and its soundtrack was instrumental in ending the era of violent action films in [[Indian Cinema]] and rejuvenating the romantic musical genre. The success of the film further reinforced Sridevi's position as the top female star of the era. Over the years, ''Chandni'' has been hailed as one of Chopra's finest films.<ref name="Yahoo" /><ref name="Rediff">{{cite web|last=Rediff|title=The Very Best of Yash Chopra|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-the-very-best-films-of-yash-chopra/20121022.htm}}</ref><ref name="Times of India">{{cite web|last=TOI|title=Top 10 Yash Chopra Films|website=[[The Times of India]] |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/entertainment/Top-10-Yash-Chopra-films/videols/16911320.cms}}</ref>

At the [[37th National Film Awards]], ''Chandni'' won [[National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment|Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment]]. At the [[35th Filmfare Awards]], the film received 10 nominations, including [[Filmfare Award for Best Film|Best Film]], [[Filmfare Award for Best Director|Best Director]] (Yash Chopra), [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] (Sridevi), [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] (Rishi Kapoor), [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] (Vinod Khanna) and [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] (Waheeda Rehman), and won [[Filmfare Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]].

==Plot==

Chandni Mathur, a middle-class naïve girl, travels to [[Delhi]] with her parents to attend her cousin's wedding. There she meets Rohit Gupta, her cousin's friend. Rohit instantly falls in love with the beautiful Chandni and starts courting her. After his continuous attempts, Chandni accepts him, and they eventually get engaged, though Gupta's family dislikes Chandni due to a difference in their social status. One day, Rohit calls Chandni and asks her to come to the roof of her home, where he is waiting for her in a helicopter to shower rose petals on her. While doing that, his helicopter crashes, paralyzing his right side. The Guptas blame Chandni for the mishap and mistreat her. Thinking he cannot be a good husband, Rohit lets Chandni go. Heartbroken, she leaves Delhi and travels to [[Mumbai]] and finds work at a travel agency. Lalit Khanna, the head of the travel agency, and a widower, falls for Chandni and asks her to marry him, and she accepts the proposal hesitantly.

Two years later, after much contemplation, Chandni agrees to marry Lalit and meets his mom, Lata, who likes her instantly. Lalit visits on a business trip and runs into Rohit, who is still undergoing treatment from professional therapists and physicians for his paralysis.

Having recovered, he befriends Lalit, and they share their respective love stories, unaware that they both love the same girl, Chandni. Back in India, Rohit visits Lalit's house to meet him. Chandni opens the door; she and Rohit are surprised to see each other. Rohit reveals that he is no longer paralyzed. They get keyed up with tears, and he seizes this chance to propose to her.

However, Chandni tells Rohit that she is engaged to marry Lalit. She also reminds him of what the Guptas did to her. He leaves regretfully. Lalit invites Rohit to his wedding as they have become friends. Rohit and Chandni pretend to be strangers. On the wedding day, he mumbles and stumbles down a flight of stairs in a drunken stupor. Out of panic, Chandni runs towards him, hugs him, and starts crying. Upon seeing this, Lalit realizes Chandni loves Rohit. In the hospital, Rohit regains consciousness. Lalit sacrifices his love for Chandni, and she marries Rohit. Lalit and Lata share a brief, sad moment upon seeing Chandni and Rohit leave.

==Cast==
* [[Sridevi]] as Chandni Mathur
* [[Rishi Kapoor]] as Rohit Gupta
* [[Vinod Khanna]] as Lalit Khanna
* [[Waheeda Rehman]] as Lata Khanna, Lalit's mother
* [[Sushma Seth]] as Armani Gupta
* [[Mita Vashisht]] as Kiran Chawla
* [[Anant Mahadevan]] as Brijbhan Chawla
* [[Achala Sachdev]]
* [[Beena Banerjee]]
* [[Manohar Singh]] as Nihaal Gupta
* [[Ram Gopal Bajaj]] as Shiv Prasad Mathur
* [[Lalit Tiwari]]
* [[Suhas Joshi]]
* Renu Arya
* [[Bharat Bhushan Bhalla]] as Dr. Aryamaan Das
* [[Anupam Kher]] as Ramesh Mehra
* [[Juhi Chawla]] as Devika Shastri
* Gajendra singh pal
* Bijendra singh

== Production ==
Speaking about the film with Karan Johar, Yash Chopra recalled when he was making [[Vijay (1988 film)|''Vijay'']] (1988), an action film, he felt like he was not supposed to make films like this. Later, he met with writer [[Kamna Chandra]], who had achieved popularity after having written [[Raj Kapoor]]'s ''[[Prem Rog]]'' (1982). She presented the story of a social romantic musical film to Chopra, who liked it and started casting the stars. However, at the launch party, Chopra had a change of heart and decided to change the second half of the script, wherein originally Chandni was supposed to marry Lalit and have a son. The idea of a paralyzed lead was suggested by Rishi Kapoor, who had seen the 1981 Hollywood movie [[Whose Life Is It Anyway? (film)|''Whose Life Is It Anyway?'']] and was inspired by the character played by [[Richard Dreyfuss]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mishra |first=Ritesh |date=4 September 2018 |title=Happy Birthday Rishi Kapoor: 10 Movies That Made Him The Star He Is Today! |url=https://www.koimoi.com/bollywood-news/happy-birthday-rishi-kapoor-10-movies-that-made-him-the-star-he-is-today/ |website=KoiMoi}}</ref>

Initially, [[Rekha]] was approached to play the titular role; however, upon her refusal, Chopra offered the role to Sridevi who accepted the offer.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2021-08-13 |title=Revisiting Chandni that established Sridevi's mystery and myth |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/revisiting-chandni-that-established-sridevis-mystery-and-myth-7450682/ |access-date=2023-08-14 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-14 |title=Sridevi And Rekha For Chandni {{!}} শ্রীদেবী চাঁদনির রোলে পা গলান রেখার জুতোয়! ছবির অফার ফিরিয়ে দিয়েছিলেন মাধুরী |url=https://www.thewall.in/entertainment/sridevi-and-rekha-for-chandni-by-yash-chopra/ |access-date=2023-08-14 |language=en-US}}</ref>

With the casting of [[Vinod Khanna]], distributors started demanding an action sequence in the film, to which Chopra refused. Originally, the script required Khanna to save Sridevi from a fire incident. However, upon watching the completed film, Chopra felt that it did not feel like a part of the film, so he called Sridevi and Khanna back for a day's shoot to re-film their first meeting sequence.

==Music==
The soundtrack of ''Chandni'' was composed by [[Shiv Kumar Sharma]] and [[Hariprasad Chaurasia]], known together as [[Shiv–Hari]]. The lyrics were provided by [[Anand Bakshi]]. In addition to the songs listed below, there was a recurring instrumental love melody, not part of a full song. That melody was further developed into the song "Kabhi Main Kahoon" for Chopra's next film ''[[Lamhe]]'' (1991), also scored by Shiv-Hari.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yash Chopra: World Directors 9780851708744, 9780851708751, 9781838710965, 9781839021329 |url=https://dokumen.pub/yash-chopra-world-directors-9780851708744-9780851708751-9781838710965-9781839021329.html |access-date=2025-02-05 |website=dokumen.pub |language=en}}</ref>

The film's soundtrack was a major success in India and sold more than 10 million copies, becoming the [[Hindi film music|best-selling soundtrack album of the year as well as the decade]].<ref name="india-today">{{cite journal |title=India Today |journal=[[India Today]] |date=1990 |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=103 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vk9DAAAAYAAJ |publisher=Thomson Living Media India Limited |quote=Yash Chopra's homage to good old-fashioned romance, is making it to the top. There are no fights, no villains, no politicians: "Nobody even shouts." says Chopra. Yet, the film is such a hit that many mini Chandnis are in the pipeline. Chopra sees the return of melody to Hindi film music as one of the reasons for his success: four platinum discs were sold by the time the film was released. But the diehard romanticist believes that a love story well told will neverfail at the box-office. He might be right. Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak at the end of the decade and Ek Duje Ke Liye, Love Story, Ram Teh Ganga Maili and Betaab certainly had the audience spellbound.}}</ref> It is believed that the soundtrack helped bring back the romantic musical genre, along with ''[[Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak]]'' (1988) and ''[[Maine Pyar Kiya]]'' (1989), with its songs and lyrics receiving major critical acclaim.<ref name="india-today"/><ref>{{cite journal |title=India Today |journal=[[India Today]] |date=1994 |page=342 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmkpAQAAIAAJ |publisher=[[Living Media]] |quote=Then, in 1988 ''Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak'', and later ''Maine Pyar Kiya'' and ''Chandni'' heralded the return of melody to Indian cinema.}}</ref> According to [[Yash Raj Films]], the soundtrack went 4× Platinum by the day of the premiere.<ref name="india-today"/>

The song ''Chandni O Meri Chandni'' was remixed and reused in the 2012 film ''[[Chaar Din Ki Chandni]]''

{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Mere Haathon Mein
| extra1 = [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
| lyrics1 =
| length1 = 05:34
| title2 = Mehbooba
| extra2 = Lata Mangeshkar, [[Vinod Rathod]]
| lyrics2 =
| length2 = 04:53
| title3 = Main Sasural Nahi Jaaungi
| extra3 = [[Pamela Chopra]]
| lyrics3 =
| length3 = 04:06
| title4 = Mitwa (Tere Mere Honton Pe)
| extra4 = Lata Mangeshkar, [[Babla Mehta]]
| lyrics4 =
| length4 = 04:31
| title5 = Aa Meri Jaan
| extra5 = Lata Mangeshkar
| lyrics5 =
| length5 = 04:21
| title6 = Dance Music
| extra6 = Instrumental
| lyrics6 =
| length6 = 03:16
| title7 = Chandni O Meri Chandni
| extra7 = [[Sridevi]], [[Jolly Mukherjee]]
| lyrics7 =
| length7 = 04:32
| title8 = Lagi Aaj Sawan Ki
| extra8 = [[Suresh Wadkar]], [[Anupama Deshpande]]
| lyrics8 =
| length8 = 03:25
| title9 = Parbat Se Kaali
| extra9 = [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Vinod Rathod]]
| lyrics9 =
| length9 = 04:22
| title10 = Tu Mujhe Suna
| extra10 = [[Nitin Mukesh]], [[Suresh Wadkar]]
| lyrics10 =
| length10 = 04:30
| title11 = Mere Haathon Mein
| extra11 = Instrumental
| total_length = 49:17
| lyrics11 =
| length11 = 05:47
}}

== Legacy ==
''Chandni'' received widespread critical acclaim upon its release, with many critics highlighting the film's impact in being instrumental in bringing an end to an era of violent action movies in [[Indian Cinema|Indian cinema]] and rejuvenating the [[romantic musical]] genre. The film emerged as a blockbuster and the [[List of Hindi films of 1989|third highest-grossing Hindi film of the year]].<ref>{{cite news |date=1 May 2020 |title=The Best Films Of Rishi Kapoor - Bobby Has Historic Numbers |publisher=boxofficeindia.com |url=https://boxofficeindia.com/report-details.php?articleid=6050 |access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Boxofficeindia.co.in|title=Worth Their Weight In Gold! (80s)|url=http://www.boxofficeindia.co.in/worth-their-weight-in-gold-80s/|access-date=16 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111104732/http://www.boxofficeindia.co.in/worth-their-weight-in-gold-80s/|archive-date=11 January 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ''[[The Hindu]]'' stated that "the film opened to full houses and distributors had to drastically increase the number of theatres".<ref>{{cite news|last= The Hindu|title=Yash, he can!|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/yash-he-can/article3961295.ece | location=Chennai, India}}</ref> It was cited by ''[[Times of India]]'' as "one of the most-watched films of Indian Cinema."<ref>{{cite news|last=Times of India|title=Top 10 Yash Chopra Films|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/entertainment/Top-10-Yash-Chopra-films/videols/16911320.cms | work=The Times Of India|date=23 October 2012}}</ref> ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' featured the movie in its list of 'Yash Chopra's Greatest Hits' saying "it was instrumental in ending the era of violence in Bollywood and bringing back the romance into Hindi films."

''Chandni'' consolidated Sridevi's position as the top female star of the era.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hindustan Times|title=Yash Chopra's greatest hits|work=Hindustan Times |date=23 October 2012 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/yash-chopra-s-greatest-hits/story-QTlhpiG6SlotqRfkCsj8eL.html}}</ref> Describing Sridevi's performance in the film, ''[[Indiatimes]]'' wrote "True to her screen-name, she was an epitome of radiance, warmth and vivacity. She effortlessly introduced us to the powerful streaks, her classic, angelic character was laden with."<ref>{{cite news|last=Indiatimes|title=Most Iconic Names in Yash Chopra Films!|url=http://www.indiatimes.com/bollywood/most-iconic-names-in-yash-chopra-films-44670.html | work=The Times Of India}}</ref> The scene where she confronts [[Rishi Kapoor]] was ranked by ''[[Rediff]]'' as one of the "10 Best Scenes from Yash Chopra Films."<ref>{{cite web |last=Rediff |title=The Ten Best Film Scenes from Yash Chopra|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-the-ten-best-scenes-from-yash-chopra-films/20120927.htm}}</ref> While Sridevi topped the ''[[Hindustan Times]]''{{'}} list of Yash Chopra's "Top 5 Heroines",<ref name="Hindustan Times">{{cite web|last=Hindustan Times|title=Top 50: Glorious moments from Yash Chopra's oeuvre|date=22 October 2012 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/top-50-glorious-moments-from-yash-chopra-s-oeuvre/story-QH3xRJkMt6sOInQwJOtxzK.html}}</ref> ''[[CNN-IBN]]'' ranked her #1 on its list of 'Yash Chopra's 10 Most Sensuous Heroines', saying that "Yash Chopra immortalized Sridevi as the perfect ''Chandni''."<ref>{{cite web|publisher=CNN-IBN|title=Yash Chopra's 10 Most Sensuous Heroines|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/photogallery/7690-1.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026040130/http://ibnlive.in.com/photogallery/7690-1.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-10-26}}</ref> The titular character became one of the most famous characters of [[Hindi cinema]], with ''[[India Today]]'' including it in its list of 'Yash Chopra's Iconic Characters'.<ref>{{cite web|last=India Today|title=Yash Chopra's iconic characters|date=22 October 2012 |url=http://m.indiatoday.in/story/yash-chopras-iconic-characters/1/225736.html}}</ref> ''[[CNN-IBN]]'' listed it among 'The Cult Characters Yash Chopra Created',<ref>{{cite web|publisher=CNN-IBN|title=The cult characters Yash Chopra created|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/angry-young-man-to-chandni-the-cult-characters-yash-chopra-created/301569-8-66.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022223232/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/angry-young-man-to-chandni-the-cult-characters-yash-chopra-created/301569-8-66.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-10-22}}</ref> while ''[[NDTV]]'' featured it in its list of 'Yash Chopra's Greatest Creations' stating that the film established Sridevi "as the nation's sweetheart" and "reinforced her position as the reigning actress in Bollywood."<ref>{{cite web|last=NDTV|title=Vijay, Chandni: Yash Chopra's greatest creations|url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/vijay-chandni-yash-chopra-s-greatest-creations-282649|access-date=16 April 2013|archive-date=22 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522033045/http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/vijay-chandni-yash-chopra-s-greatest-creations-282649|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Costume design in the film was done by [[Bhanu Athaiya]] and Leena Daru.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url =https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/22/obituaries/bhanu-athaiya-overlooked.html |title= Overlooked No More: Bhanu Athaiya, Who Won India Its First Oscar| website= New York Times|author=Anita Gates|date=April 22, 2021}}</ref> Sridevi's iconic {{'-}}''Chandni'' Look' revolutionized fashion in North India<ref name="iDiva">{{cite web|last=iDiva|title=Sridevi - The Dancing Queen|url=http://idiva.com/photogallery-entertainment/sridevi-the-dancing-queen/8403|access-date=16 April 2013|archive-date=24 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224051712/http://idiva.com/photogallery-entertainment/sridevi-the-dancing-queen/8403|url-status=dead}}</ref> and became synonymous with the actress,<ref>{{cite web|last=Mid Day|title=C for Chopra, C for chiffon|url=http://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/2012/oct/231012-C-for-Chopra-C-for-chiffon.htm}}</ref> with ''[[Rediff]]'' stating "A luminous Sridevi slips into every possible design in white for a major chunk of the romance and no one complains."<ref>{{cite web|last=Rediff|title=Yash Chopra's visions in white|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-yash-chopras-visions-in-white/20121112.htm}}</ref> Speaking about the look, Chopra told film critic [[Rajeev Masand]] "While making ''Chandni'', I had a vision of who I wanted this girl to be. I told Sridevi that most of her costumes in the film would be in white."<ref>{{cite web|last=RajeevMasand.com|title=Yash Chopra: "I see movies today, and I realize that love has changed"|url=http://www.rajeevmasand.com/whats-new/yash-chopra-i-see-movies-today-and-i-realize-that-love-has-changed/|access-date=16 April 2013|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220159/http://www.rajeevmasand.com/whats-new/yash-chopra-i-see-movies-today-and-i-realize-that-love-has-changed/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ''[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]'' wrote "Leena Daru scored a winner again when she created the ''Chandni'' look for Sridevi. Every street corner sold the salwar-kameez and dupatta that gave the heroine a refreshingly understated look, rarely seen on the Indian screen",<ref>{{cite web|last=The Tribune|title=Sunday Reading|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/1998/98dec06/sunday/head5.htm}}</ref> while ''[[Mid-Day]]'' reported "Leena Daru dressed Bollywood's beauties for several years. But it was her simple white churidar and kurta with the ''leheriya'' dupatta for Sridevi in ''Chandni'' that gave the Southern belle an angelic image and caused the [[Chandni Chowk]] stores to hit the jackpot with thousands of copies."<ref>{{cite web|last=Mid Day|title=Tinseltown Trendsetters|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/1998/98dec06/sunday/head5.htm}}</ref> ''BizAsia'' described the effect of the look saying "Chopra never quite got over his Sridevi hangover and almost always chose to present his future lead heroines in similar outfits ([[Juhi Chawla]] in ''[[Darr]]'' (1993), [[Madhuri Dixit]] in ''[[Dil To Pagal Hai]]'' (1997), [[Preity Zinta]] in ''[[Veer-Zaara]]'' (2004)), but none of them became half as iconic as Sridevi did after ''Chandni''."<ref>{{cite web|last=bizAsia|title=Yash Chopra classic flashback: 'Chandni' (1989)|url=http://www.media247.co.uk/showbiz/yash-chopra-classic-flashback-chandni-1989|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214030/http://www.media247.co.uk/showbiz/yash-chopra-classic-flashback-chandni-1989|archivedate=3 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The {{'-}}''Chandni'' Look' was also highlighted in the film's famous [[Tandava|tandav]] dance sequence by Sridevi, where ''[[Rediff]]'' said "the actress transformed into a mythical goddess in a white number."<ref name="rediff.com">{{cite web|last=Rediff|title=Your Favourite Sridevi Avatar Onscreen?|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-your-favourite-sridevi-avatar-onscreen-vote/20120824.htm}}</ref> Sridevi's chiffon sarees became equally popular with ''[[Indian Express]]'' writing "This film made the chiffon sari a must-have in every Indian woman's wardrobe."<ref>{{cite web|last=Indian Express|title=Yash Chopra: Timeline |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/Picture-Gallery/1847/3/1847-1.html}}</ref>

The music of ''Chandni'' became a multi-platinum success,<ref name="iDiva"/> with Sridevi's famous dance number "Mere Haathon Mein Nau Nau Choodiyan Hai" finding a place in ''[[Rediff]]''<nowiki/>'s chart of 'Bollywood's Top 25 Wedding Songs'.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rediff|title=Bollywood's Top 25 Wedding Songs|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-25-wedding-songs-for-the-season/20120510.htm}}</ref> Sridevi also lent her voice to the film's popular title-track "Chandni O Meri Chandni"<ref>{{cite web |last=Shastri |first=Samyukta |date=25 February 2013 |title=Any Body Can Sing! Bollywood Comes A Full Circle |url=http://businessofcinema.com/news/any-body-can-sing-bollywood-comes-a-full-circle/63140 |website=Business of Cinema}}</ref> which featured among the 'Top 5 Songs of Yash Chopra' by ''[[Hindustan Times]]''.<ref name="Hindustan Times"/> Talking about her role in ''Chandni'', Sridevi said it was "a lively and vibrant girl in the first half (who) becomes quiet and goes into a shell in the second half. I loved that transformation and when you have a director like Yash Chopra at the helm, you can be sure that he will make the best out of everything."<ref>{{cite web|last=Magnamags.com|title=I Felt Yashji Was Immortal: SRIDEVI|url=http://www.magnamags.com/newM/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=266&Itemid=229|access-date=16 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228050312/http://www.magnamags.com/newM/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=266&Itemid=229|archive-date=28 February 2014|url-status=usurped|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

== Awards and nominations ==
;[[37th National Film Awards]]<nowiki>:</nowiki><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hindilyrics.net/awards/national-film-awards-1990.html |title=National-film-awards-1990 |access-date=20 July 2010 |archive-date=12 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012044435/http://www.hindilyrics.net/awards/national-film-awards-1990.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment|Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment]] – [[Yash Chopra]] & [[T. Subbarami Reddy]]

;[[35th Filmfare Awards]]<nowiki>:</nowiki><ref>[http://filmfareawards.indiatimes.com/articleshow/articleshow/368588.cms Filmfareawards] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120708110302/http://filmfareawards.indiatimes.com/articleshow/articleshow/368588.cms |date=8 July 2012 }}</ref>
;'''Wins'''
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Cinematographer|Best Cinematography]] – [[Manmohan Singh (cinematographer)|Manmohan Singh]]
'''Nominations'''
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Film|Best Film]] – Yash Chopra & T. Subbarami Reddy
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Director|Best Director]] – Yash Chopra
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] – [[Sridevi]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] – [[Rishi Kapoor]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] – [[Vinod Khanna]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] – [[Waheeda Rehman]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]] – [[Shiv-Hari]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist|Best Lyricist]] – [[Anand Bakshi]] for "Lagi Aaj Sawan Ki"
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]] – [[Suresh Wadkar]] for "Lagi Aaj Sawan Ki"

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|id=0097045|title=Chandni}}

{{National Film Award Wholesome Entertainment}}
{{Yash Chopra}}

[[Category:1989 films]]
[[Category:1989 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1989 Indian films]]
[[Category:1989 romantic drama films]]
[[Category:1980s romantic musical films]]
[[Category:1980s musical drama films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Yash Chopra]]
[[Category:Films scored by Shiv-Hari]]
[[Category:Yash Raj Films films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic musical films]]
[[Category:Indian musical drama films]]
[[Category:Films set in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Films set in Delhi]]
[[Category:Films shot in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Delhi]]
[[Category:Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Films shot in Switzerland]]
[[Category:Hindi-language romance films]]
[[Category:1989 musical films]]

National Highway 911 (India)

2026-05-07T07:23:07Z

Tumita7029: Put up

{{short description|National Highway in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{infobox road
| country = IND
| type = NH
| route = 911
| length_km = 184
| map = {{Maplink|frame=yes|frame-width=290|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=line|stroke-width=3
| id= Q62050308|title=National Highway 911|text= Map of National Highway '''911''' in red }}
| map_custom = yes
| direction_a = South
| direction_b = North
| terminus_a = [[Bap, Rajasthan|Bap]]
| terminus_b = [[Sri Ganganagar]]
| junction =
| spur_type = NH
| spur_of = 11
| previous_type = NH
| next_type = NH
| previous_route = 11 
| next_route = 62 
| states = [[Rajasthan]]
| destinations =
}}

'''National Highway 911''', commonly referred to as '''NH 911''' is a [[National Highway (India)|national highway]] in [[India]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2017/180664.pdf|title=New national highways declaration notification|website=[[The Gazette of India]] - [[Ministry of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date=12 March 2019}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> It is a [[Spur route|spur]] road of [[National Highway 11 (India)|National Highway 11]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2011/E_574_2012_016.pdf|title=New Numbering of National Highways notification - Government of India|website=[[The Gazette of India]]|access-date=12 March 2019}}</ref> NH-911 runs in the state of [[Rajasthan]] in India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://morth.nic.in/showfile.asp?lid=2924|title=State-wise length of National Highways (NH) in India|website=[[Ministry of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date=12 March 2019}}</ref> The route of national highway 911 was further extended to Sri Ganganagar in Rajasthan.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2019/197177.pdf|title=Route extension of National Highway 911|website=[[The Gazette of India]] - [[Ministry of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date=21 June 2019}}</ref>

== Route ==
NH911 connects [[Bap, Rajasthan|Bap]], Naukh, Bikampur, Charanwala, Ranjitpura, Goru(Godu), R.D.95, Gokul, Dandkala, Jaggasar, Dantour, Pugal, Sattasar, chhattargarh, Rojhri, Gharsana, Anupgarh, Raisinghnagar, Gajsinghpur, karanpur and Sadhuwali([[Sri Ganganagar]]) in the state of Rajasthan.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />

== Junctions ==
{{RJL|date=November 2021}}
: {{jct|NH|11|country=IND}} Terminal near Bap.<ref name=":1" />
:
: {{jct|NH|62|country=IND}} Terminal near Sadhuwali (Sri Ganganagar).<ref name=":2" />

== See also ==
* [[List of national highways in India]]
* [[List of national highways in India by state]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [http://openstreetmap.org/browse/relation/7841560 NH 911 on OpenStreetMap]

{{Indian Highways Network}}
{{IND NH11 sr}}

[[Category:National highways of India]]
[[Category:National highways in Rajasthan]]

{{India-NH-stub}}

Bakhtiyar Khalji's Tibet campaign

2026-05-07T02:15:47Z

Tumita7029: new a pg - done

{{Short description|1206 Ghurid campaign to invade Tibet}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Bakhtiyar Khalji's Tibet campaign
| image = Gyantse.jpg
| caption = Bakhtiyar Khalji led his army through harsh terrain into the cultivated valley of mainland Kamrup and [[Tibet]], where he met fierce resistance and a guerrilla uprising
| map_type =
| latitude =
| longitude =
| map_caption =
| map_size =
| map_label =
| date = 1205<ref>{{cite book |author=VD Mahajan|title=History of Medieval India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC|date=2007|publisher=S. Chand Publishing|isbn=978-81-219-0364-6 |pages=73–74}}</ref> or 1206
| place = [[Chumbi Valley]], Tibet
| result = Tibetan victory
| combatant1 = [[Khalji dynasty of Bengal|Khaljis of Bengal]] '''Supported by''' [[Deshi people|Deshi Muslims]]
| combatant2 = [[Tibetan people|Tibetan tribes]]
| commander1 = [[Bakhtiyar Khalji]] [[Ali Mech]]
| commander2 = Tibetan tribal leaders
| commander3. =
| strength1 = {{circa}} 10,000<ref>{{cite book |author=Debajyoti Burman |title=Indo-Muslim Relations: A Study in Historical Background |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6hOAAAAMAAJ |date=1947 |publisher=Jugabani Sahitya Chakra |page=67}}</ref><ref name=":39" />
| strength2 = Unknown
| casualties1 = Nearly all except around hundred cavalry.<ref name=":39" />
| casualties2 = Unknown but less than Bakhtiyar
}}

[[Bakhtiyar Khalji]], the general of Qutubuddin Aibak, launched a campaign to invade [[Tibet]] in 1205 or 1206.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-2s9BAAAQBAJ&q=Tibetan+expedition+by+Islamic+Bengal&pg=PA19 |title=The Muslim Heritage of Bengal: The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of Great Muslim Scholars, Writers and Reformers of Bangladesh and West Bengal |last=Khan |first=Muhammad Mojlum |date=21 October 2013 |publisher=Kube Publishing Ltd |isbn=9781847740625 |pages=19 |language=en |access-date=31 July 2021 |archive-date=22 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240322173324/https://books.google.com/books?id=-2s9BAAAQBAJ&q=Tibetan+expedition+by+Islamic+Bengal&pg=PA19#v=snippet&q=Tibetan%20expedition%20by%20Islamic%20Bengal&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Ahmed2011" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahajan |first=V.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC |title=History of Medieval India |publisher=S. Chand Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=978-81-219-0364-6 |pages=73–74}}</ref>

Tibet was a source for horses, the most prized possession of any army, and Khalji was keen to control the lucrative trade between Tibet and India. Khajli's army commenced plundering the country around the [[Tibet]] region of the Chumbi Valley. The people of that area and the parts adjacent advanced to repel the invaders. From daybreak to the time of evening prayer, a fierce battle ensued, and a great number of Khalji's army were killed or wounded.{{Citation needed|date=June 2025}}

== Background ==
[[Bakhtiyar Khalji]], the general of [[Qutubuddin Aibak]], conquered [[Bihar]] and [[Nadia district|Nadia]], the capital of the [[Sena dynasty|Sena]] Kings of Bengal.<ref name="Ahmed2011" /> He subsequently became obsessed with ambitions of conquering Tibet. Historically, Bengal had trade relations with Tibet along the '[[Tea Horse Road|Tea-Horse Route]]', through Assam, [[Kingdom of Sikkim|Sikkim]] and [[Bhutan]], to parts of China and Southeast Asia, which were home to gold and silver mines.<ref name="Ahmed2011">{{cite book |author=Farooqui Salma Ahmed |title=A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sxhAtCflwOMC&pg=PA53 |year=2011 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-3202-1 |pages=53}}</ref> Tibet was also a source of horses.<ref name="Mishra1999">{{cite book |author=P. K. Mishra |title=Studies in Hindu and Buddhist Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AqSAQpCOifoC&pg=PA101 |year=1999 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-368-7 |pages=101}}</ref> The planned invasion also coincided with the [[Era of Fragmentation]] and the collapse of the [[Tibetan Empire]].

The expedition was aided by [[Ali Mech]], a tribal chief from the foothills of the [[Himalayas]] in the north of [[Bengal]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAUBCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 |title=Epigraphy and Islamic Culture: Inscriptions of the Early Muslim Rulers of Bengal (1205–1494) |last=Siddiq |first=Mohammad Yusuf |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317587460 |pages=36 |access-date=19 November 2016 |archive-date=22 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240322173325/https://books.google.com/books?id=nAUBCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> Mech was a recent convert to Islam, and he helped the expedition by acting as a guide.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAUBCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 |title=Epigraphy and Islamic Culture: Inscriptions of the Early Muslim Rulers of Bengal (1205–1494) |last=Siddiq |first=Mohammad Yusuf |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781317587460 |pages=36 |access-date=19 November 2016 |archive-date=22 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240322173325/https://books.google.com/books?id=nAUBCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Nadwi |first=Abu Bakr Amir-uddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18CTOgAACAAJ |title=Tibet and Tibetan Muslims |publisher=Library of Tibetan Works and Archives |year=2004 |isbn=9788186470350 |location=Dharamsala |pages=43–44 |translator-last=Sharma |translator-first=Parmananda |access-date=26 September 2020 |archive-date=22 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240322173326/https://books.google.com/books?id=18CTOgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Campaign ==
On his way north, Khalji invited the king of 'Kamrud'<ref name="GillYule2010">{{cite book |author1=William John Gill |author2=Henry Yule |title=The River of Golden Sand: The Narrative of a Journey Through China and Eastern Tibet to Burmah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uuk2OQeMwsMC&pg=PA43 |date=9 September 2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-01953-8 |pages=43 |access-date=20 October 2016 |archive-date=22 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240322173446/https://books.google.com/books?id=Uuk2OQeMwsMC&pg=PA43#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> to join him, but the latter refused. After marching for 16 days through the [[Teesta River]] area in [[North Bengal]] and [[Sikkim]],<ref name="Sengupta2011">{{cite book |author=Nitish K. Sengupta |title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA63 |date=1 January 2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-14-341678-4 |pages=63–64}}</ref> Khalji's army reached the [[Chumbi Valley]] and started looting Tibetan villages.<ref name="Sengupta2011"/> The rugged Himalayan mountain passes of Tibet were an unfamiliar terrain to the invading army, who were more used to the sultry and humid plains of Bengal. The [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]]s lured Khalji and his Turkic army into a trap, inflicted heavy casualties and prompted Khalji to retreat. All along the escape route, the Tibetans continued relentless guerrilla-style attacks on the retreating army. Khalji's badly defeated soldiers ate their own horses to stay alive.

On their retreat to Bengal, Khalji's army passed through the plains of [[North Bengal]]. Upon reaching the sub-alpine Himalayan region, the army tried to cross an ancient stone bridge on the foothills near the Teesta river.<ref name="Sengupta2011" /> Khalji's soldiers found the arches in the bridge had been destroyed by Kamrup forces, making it difficult to cross the deep river. In their desperate attempt to reach the other side of the river at Devkot, Khalji's forces lost a number of men and horses. It is said that of the 10,000-strong army that had marched into Tibet, only around 100 men returned.<ref name="Sengupta2011"/><ref name="GillYule2010"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhattacharya |first=Sabyasachi |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Comprehensive_History_of_Modern_Bengal.html?id=Z3GxzQEACAAJ&source=kp_book_description |title=A Comprehensive History of Modern Bengal, 1700-1950 |date=2020 |publisher=Asiatic Society |isbn=978-93-89901-95-5 |pages=39 |language=en |quote=In 1206, Bakhtiyar started from Devkot with 10,000 cavalry in the northward direction. After crossing the sub-montane tracts of the Himalayas, Bakhtiyar’s force suffered from logistical breakdown. The local tribes rebelled against him. There were no food and grass for his men and the horses. The Raja of Kamrup betrayed Bakhtiyar and cut his supply line. Bakhtiyar returned with only 100 cavalry.}}</ref> After crossing the river, Ali Mech guided Bakhtiyar Khilji back to Devkot (present-day [[Dakshin Dinajpur district]], West Bengal).<ref name="Sengupta2011"/>

== Aftermath ==
There are two accounts of what happened to Bakhtiyar Khalji following the [[Tibet]] and Kamrup debacle. One account speaks of him dying from ill health and injury during this retreat to [[Bengal]].<ref>{{Cite Banglapedia |author=Ahmed, ABM Shamsuddin |article=Bakhtiyar Khalji}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Another account notes that he was assassinated by [[Ali Mardan Khalji]] after returning to [[Devkot]] in Bengal.<ref name="Sengupta2011"/>

== See also ==
*[[British expedition to Tibet]]
*[[Raja Prithu]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Military campaigns involving India]]
[[Category:Invasions of Tibet]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1206]]
[[Category:Military expeditions]]
[[Category:Military history of Bengal]]
[[Category:Expeditions from India]]
[[Category:Medieval Bengal]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Delhi Sultanate]]
[[Category:History of Sikkim]]
[[Category:History of Islam in China]]
[[Category:13th-century Islam]]
[[Category:Military history of the Himalayas]]

Tamil Jains

2026-04-30T15:35:44Z

Tumita7029: Added Article.

{{Short description|Tamils who practice Jainism}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox religious group
| group = Tamil Jains
| image = Bhattaraka Laxmisena, Mel Sithamur Jain Math, Tamil Nadu.jpeg
| caption = [[Bhattaraka]] Swami [[Laxmisena]], [[Mel Sithamur Jain Math|Mel Sithamur]]
| population = 83,359<ref name="census"/>
| languages = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| religions = [[File:Ahimsa Jainism.svg|15px]] [[Jainism]]
}}
{{Jainism}}
[[File:Mel Sithamur Jain Math, Tamil Nadu.JPG|thumb|[[Mel Sithamur Jain Math]], the residence of [[Laxmisena]].]]
'''Tamil Jains''' ([[Tamil language|Tamil]] '''Samaṇar''', from [[Prakrit]] ''[[Śramaṇa|samaṇa]]'' "wandering renunciate") are ethnic-[[Tamils]] and migrants from other states such as Gujarat and Rajasthan in the [[Indian state]] of [[Tamil Nadu]], who practice [[Jainism]] ({{IAST|''Samaṇam''}} in Tamil). The Tamil Jain is a microcommunity of around 85,000 (around 0.13% of the population of Tamil Nadu). They are predominantly scattered in northern Tamil Nadu, largely in the districts of [[Tiruvannamalai]], [[Kanchipuram]], [[Vellore]], [[Villupuram]], [[Ranipet]] and [[Kallakurichi]].

Early [[Tamil-Brahmi]] inscriptions in Tamil Nadu date to the third century BCE and describe the livelihoods of Tamil Jains. ''Samaṇar'' wrote much [[Tamil literature]], including the important [[Sangam literature]], such as the ''[[Nālaṭiyār]]'', the ''[[Silappatikaram|Cilappatikaram]]'', the ''[[Valayapathi]]'' and the ''[[Seevaga Sindhamani|Civaka Cintamani]]''. Three of the five great epics of Tamil literature are attributed to Jains.<ref>Jaina Literature in Tamil, Prof. A. Chakravarti</ref>

==History==
===Origins===
[[File:Jambai Tamil Brahmi.jpg|thumb|left|[[Jambai]] [[Tamil Brahmi]] inscription near Jain Rock Beds.]]
Some scholars believe that Jain philosophy must have entered [[South India]] some time in the sixth century BCE. {{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

According to other scholars, Jainism must have existed in [[South India]] well before the era of Jain tirthankara Lord Mahaveer Swami. There are plenty of caves as old as fourth century with Jain inscriptions and Jain deities found around [[Madurai]], [[Tiruchirappalli|Tiruchirāppaḷḷi]], [[Kanyakumari]] and [[Thanjavur]].{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

A number of [[Tamil-Brahmi]] inscriptions have been found in [[Tamil Nadu]] that date from the second century BCE. They are regarded as associated with Jain monks and lay devotees.<ref>''Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the sixth Century A.D.'', Iravatham Mahadeva, Harvard University Press, 2003</ref><ref>http://jainsamaj.org/rpg_site/literature2.php?id=595&cat=42 RECENT DISCOVERIES OF JAINA CAVE INSCRIPTIONS IN TAMILNADU, by Iravatham Mahadevan</ref>

The exact origins of Jainism in Tamil Nadu is unclear. However, Jainism flourished in Tamil Nadu at least as early as the [[Sangam period]]. Tamil Jain tradition places their origins are much earlier. The [[Ramayana]] mentions that [[Rama]] paid homage to [[Jain monasticism|Jain monks]] living in [[South India]] on his way to [[Sri Lanka]]. Some scholars believe that the author of the oldest extant work of literature in Tamil (3rd century BCE), [[Tolkāppiyam]], was a Jain Shraman.<ref name=Encyclopaedia>{{Cite book | last = Singh | first = Narendra | title = Encyclopaedia of Jainism | publisher = Anmol Publications | year = 2001 | page = 3144 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pHZwgrLlOkUC | isbn = 978-81-261-0691-2}}</ref>

[[Tirukkural]] by [[Thiruvalluvar]] is considered by many to be the work of a Jain by scholars like V. Kalyanasundarnar, Vaiyapuri Pillai,<ref>Tirukkural, Vol. 1, S.M. Diaz, Ramanatha Adigalar Foundation, 2000,</ref> Swaminatha Iyer,<ref>Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural, Bharatiya Jnanapith, 1987</ref> and P. S. Sundaram.<ref>The Kural, P. S. Sundaram, Penguin Classics, 1987</ref> It emphatically supports strict [[vegetarianism]] (or [[veganism]]) (Chapter 26) and states that giving up animal sacrifice is worth more than thousand burnt offerings (verse 259).

[[Silappatikaram]], the earliest surviving epic in Tamil literature, was written by a Samaṇa, [[Ilango Adigal]]. This epic is a major work in [[Tamil literature]], describing the historical events of its time and also of then-prevailing religions, Jainism, Buddhism and [[Shaivism]]. The main characters of this work, [[Kannagi (Tamil mythology)|Kannagi]] and [[Kovalan]], who have a divine status among some [[Tamils]], [[Malayali|Malayalees]] and [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] were Jains.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

According to [[George L. Hart]], who holds the endowed chair in Tamil Studies by [[University of California]], [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], has written that the legend of the [[Tamil Sangams]] or "literary assemblies", was based on the Jain ''sangham'' at [[Madurai]]:
<blockquote>There was a permanent Jain assembly called a Sangha established about 604 CE in Madurai. It seems likely that this assembly was the model upon which tradition fabricated the Sangam legend.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tamil.berkeley.edu/html/chapter_1.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/19970709071128/http://tamil.berkeley.edu/html/chapter_1.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=1997-07-09 |title=The Milieu of the Ancient Tamil Poems, Prof. George Hart |date=1997-07-09 |access-date=2012-04-21 }}</ref></blockquote>

Jainism became dominant in Tamil Nadu in the fifth and sixth century CE, during a period known as the ''Kalabhra interregnum''.{{sfn|John E. Cort|1998|p=187}}

===Decline and survival===
Jainism began to decline around the eighth century CE, with many Tamil kings embracing [[Hinduism|Hindu religions]], especially [[Shaivism]]. Still, the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]], [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] and [[Pandya Dynasty|Pandya]] dynasties embraced Jainism. The Shaivite legend about the [[impalement of the Jains in Madurai]] claims that 8000 Jains were impaled after they lost a contest against the Saivites, Thirugnana Sambandhar was invited by the queen of Madurai to check the atrocities against Jains and their influence on the King; however, this legend is not mentioned in any Jain text<ref name="Ashim1984">{{cite book | author=Ashim Kumar Roy | title=A history of the Jainas | url=http://www.jainworld.com/book/historyofjainism/ch9a.asp | access-date=22 May 2013 | year=1984 | publisher=Gitanjali | chapter=9. History of the Digambaras | archive-date=23 February 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223170524/http://www.jainworld.com/book/historyofjainism/ch9a.asp | url-status=dead }}</ref> According to [[Paul Dundas]], the story represents the abandonment of Madurai by Jains for various reasons or the gradual loss of their political influence.<ref name="Paul2002">{{cite book | author=Paul Dundas | title=Jains | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ialKAbIyV4C&pg=PA127 | access-date=23 May 2013 | year=2002 | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-0-415-26606-2 | page=127 }}</ref>

Jainism survived in the region during the period of decline.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/41510989/Jainism_in_the_Tamil_Speaking_Region?email_work_card=thumbnail Jainism in the Tamil-Speaking Region, Christoph Emmrich, Brill Encyclopedia of Jainism, 2019]</ref> The Melsithamur matha was established by a monk Shantisager who arrived from Shravanabelgola sometime during the 9-12th century period as attested by the 12th century inscriptions. A Jain center associated by Acharya [[Akalanka]] in the eighth century survives at [[Thiruparuttikundram]] near [[Kanchi]]. The Tamil Jain texts of this period include 13th-century (orlater) Aruṅkalacceppu, 14th cent. Mērumantarapūrāṇam and the 15th-century Śrīpurāṇam.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

===Revival===
When India became independent in 1947, Madras Presidency became [[Madras State]], comprising present day Tamil Nadu, coastal Andhra Pradesh, South Canara district Karnataka, and parts of Kerala. The state was subsequently split up along linguistic lines. In 1969, Madras State was renamed Tamil Nadu, meaning ''Tamil country''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tamiljains.org |title = Jainism in Tamilnadu}}</ref><ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/tamil-jain/article5504164.ece Tamil Jain?] by Mahima Jain, The Hindu, 28 December 2013.</ref>
[[File:Tirumalai Jain temple hill.JPG|thumb|Tirumalai Jain temple hill.]]

Acharya Nirmal Sagar was the first Digambar Jain monk to reenter Tamilnadu in 1975 after a gap of several centuries.<ref>[http://www.herenow4u.net/index.php?id=107201 Acharya Nirmal Sagarji Maharaj, 1975, 03.08.2015]</ref> After him some of the Jain nuns have visited Tamilnadu resulting in a renaissance of Jainism among the Tamil Jains. Many abandoned and crumbling temples have been renovated as a result of renewed interaction between Tamil Jains and the Jains from the rest of India. Financial grants have been provided by [[Bharatiya Digambar Jain Tirth Samrakshini Mahasabha]] and the Dharmasthala institutions.<ref>Taminadu Digambar Jain Tirtha Kshetra Sandarshana, 2001</ref><ref>[https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mangaluru/anointment-rituals-of-lord-bahubali-performed-by-jains-from-tamil-nadu/articleshow/68364752.cms Anointment rituals of Lord Bahubali performed by Jains from Tamil Nadu, Times of India, 12 Mar 2019]</ref> Local Jain scholars and activists have started "Ahimsa walks" to bring attention to the Tamil Jain heritage.<ref>[https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/chennai-group-explores-hidden-not-so-famous-jain-temples-tamil-nadu-87504 This Chennai group explores the hidden, not-so-famous Jain temples of Tamil Nadu, Anjana Shekar, 30 August 2018]</ref><ref>[https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2018/may/22/the-jain-connection-in-tamil-nadu-1817657.html The Jain connection in Tamil Nadu, Tamanna Shah, Express News Service, 22 May 2018]</ref>

===Archaeological evidences===
Archaeological remains in Tamilnadu are discovered time to time that attest to popularity of Jainism in Tamilnadu. Most of the rock inscriptions are related to the Jain ascetics who used to commonly reside in hill caves.<ref>[https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Tiruchirapalli/Deciphering-Tamil-Brahmi-and-Vattezhuthu-scripts/article17175988.ece Deciphering Tamil-Brahmi and Vattezhuthu scripts, Nahla Nainar, Hindu, FEBRUARY 3, 2017]</ref>
The ruins of Anandamangalam vestiges were discovered in ''Anandamangalam'', a small hamlet near ''Orathi'' village in [[Kancheepuram district]] of [[Tamil Nadu]]. The ruins had the rock-cut sculptures of ''[[yakshini]]'' (tutelary deity) [[Ambika (Jainism)|Ambika]] and [[tirthankara]] [[Neminatha]] and [[Parshvanatha]].<ref>{{citation|last=Bhaskaran|first=S. Theodore|author-link=S. Theodore Baskaran|title=The Jain ruins of Anandamangalam in Tamil Nadu, though small in size, have sufficient details to merit close attention|url=http://www.frontline.in/arts-and-culture/heritage/jain-vestiges/article7866166.ece|publisher=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]|date=27 November 2015}}</ref>

==Population==
The total number of Jains in Tamil Nadu as per 2011 Indian census is 83,359,<ref name="census"/> which forms 0.12% of the total population of Tamil Nadu (72,138,958). This include the Jains who have migrated from North India (mainly Rajasthan and Gujarat).<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/magazine/tamil-jain/article5504164.ece | title=Tamil Jain?, Mahima Jain | newspaper=The Hindu | date=28 December 2013}}</ref> The population of Tamil Jains is estimated to be 25,000-35,000.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/southasia/2015/12/11/the-tamil-jains-a-minority-within-a-minority/ | title=The Tamil Jains: A minority within a minority | first=Mahima A. | last=Jain | location=South Asia @ London School of Economics | date=11 December 2015}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Jains in Tamil Nadu<ref name="census">{{cite web |url=http://census2001.tn.nic.in/religion.aspx |access-date=2023-04-17 |website=census2001.tn.nic.in |lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305140514/http://census2001.tn.nic.in/religion.aspx |url-status=unfit |archive-date=5 March 2012 |title=Directorate of Census Operations {{ndash}} Tamil Nadu}}</ref>
|-
! scope="col" | Parameter
! scope="col" | Population
! scope="col" | Male
! scope="col" | Female
|-
|Total Population
|83,359
|43,114
|40,245
|-
|Literates Population
|68,587
|36,752
|31,835
|-
|Workers Population
|26,943
|23,839
| 3,104
|-
|Cultivators Population
|2,216
|1,675
| 541
|-
|Agricultural Workers Population
|768
|325
|443
|-
|HH Industry Workers Population
|574
|441
|133
|-
|Other Workers Population
|23,385
|21,398
| 1,987
|-
|Non-Workers Population
|56,416
|19,275
|37,141
|}

The Tamil Jains are ancient natives of Tamil Nadu<ref>[https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/jgen/090/02/0191-0202 Genetic admixture studies on four in situ evolved, two migrant and twenty-one ethnic populations of Tamil Nadu, south India, G. SUHASINI et al, Journal of Genetics, Vol. 90, No. 2, August 2011., p. 191-202]</ref> and belong to the Digambara sect.<ref>[Volume 40 of People of India, Kumar Suresh Singh,
Volume 3 of People of India: Tamil Nadu, Anthropological Survey of India, Affiliated East-West Press for Anthropological Survey of India, 1997, p. 1437]</ref> They generally use the title Nainar. A few in Thanjavur District, use Mudaliar and Chettiar as titles.<ref>Reading History with the Tamil Jainas, A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation, R. Umamaheshwari, Springer, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, p.4, 111</ref>
The former [[North Arcot]] and [[South Arcot]] (now Tiruvannamalai, Vellore, Cuddalore and Villupuram Districts) districts have a large number of Jain temples, as well as a significant population of Tamil Jains.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Qv-Wr4MaEEsC&dq=Castes+and+Tribes+of+Southern+India+jain&pg=PT282 Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Volume II of VII By Edgar Thurston, Library of Alexandria],</ref>

The title Nainar has been used since antiquity for Jain monks. In Cilappatikaram a Jain temple is mentioned as Nayinar Koil and the Kalugumalai inscription refers to Jain munis as Nayinar.<ref>Identities in conflict: Jainism in early tamilakam, Maheshwari, R. Uma, Jawaharlal Nehru University PhD Dissertation, 2007, Chapter II
The Tamil Jaina Community: Questions of Identity, p. 85</ref> It is akin to the term [[Shah (surname)|Sahu]] or Sadhu in North Indian Jain inscriptions.

==Religious head==
===Laxmisena===
{{Main|Laxmisena|Jina Kanchi Jain Mutt}}
[[Bhattaraka Laxmisena|Laxmisena]] of the [[Jina Kanchi Jain Mutt]] or madam at Mel-Sithamoor (near [[Tindivanam]], [[Villupuram]] District) is one of the religious heads of the community. He performs the [[upadesha]] ceremony for Jain children. In the past, this mutt had been the centre for religious study, guiding and helping the economic activities of its members, organising religious discourses, maintenance of temples and such activities. The mutt was able to achieve such multifarious operations with the help and contributions of its members. At present the mutt is also maintaining a gousala (for cows and others).

The present finance position of the mutt is inadequate for even day-to-day maintenance. Planting of coconut and mango trees has been started to increase the revenue of the fund for the purpose of day-to-day maintenance of the mutt. The car ('[[Temple car|ther]]') in the mutt requires replacement of wooden wheels.

=== Dhavalakeerthi ===
{{Main|Arahanthgiri Jain Mutt}}

In addition to the above, a new mutt named [[Arahanthgiri Jain Math]] located at Thirumalai near Polur, [[Tiruvannamalai]] district, has been functioning from 8 February 1998 with the name [[Dhavalakeerthi]]. Now in the mutt around 2300 students are studying from primary to higher secondary school including Jain philosophy with free boarding and lodging. Maintenance of the above is done through contributions from donors.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.akalanka-educational-trust.com/about-us/about-swamiji.html |title=Swasthy Shree Dhavalakeerthi Swamiji |publisher=Akalanka-educational-trust.com |access-date=2012-05-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104091256/http://www.akalanka-educational-trust.com/about-us/about-swamiji.html |archive-date=4 January 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref>

==Lifestyle==
The traditional occupation of the majority of the Tamil Jain families has been landowners of agricultural land. Now many are teachers. A considerable number of them are settled in urban areas, they are employed in public and private sectors. A small population has settled overseas (US, Canada, UK, Australia and other places).

=== Cuisine ===
Tamil Jains are ardent vegetarians. With the turn of the 20th century, they were a self-sustained rural-based farming community. They were landowners and used contract labourers for their agricultural activities. Their household included large tracts of land, cattle, and milch cows. They had kitchen gardens growing vegetables for their daily need. Dairy food such as milk, curd, butter and ghee were cooked in house. Daily food was very simple consisting of a brunch with rice, cooked lentils (paruppu), ghee, vegetable sambar, curd, sun-dried pickles of mango, lemon or citron, and deep-fried sun-dried 'crispies' (vadavam) made from rice pie. Evening snacks of deep-fried lentil preparations and before sunset dinner consisting either idli, dosa or rice with buttermilk and lentil chutney (thogaiyal). While seniors, people undergoing religious fast and ardent followers of religious principles avoided garlic, onions and tubers in their daily food, these were occasionally used by others in the household.

===Identity===
Tamil Jains are well assimilated in Tamil society, without any outward differentiation. Their physical features are similar to Tamils. Apart from certain religious adherences, practices and [[Jain vegetarianism|vegetarianism]], their culture is similar to the rest of Tamil Nadu. However, they name their children by the names of Tirthankaras and characters from Jain literature. It is also notable that the men of the Tamil Jain community also wear the sacred thread.

===Lifetime ceremony===
Ezhankaapu - on the seventh day of its birth, a new born baby is adorned with bracelets.

Kaathu Kutthal - ear piercing and adorning child with earrings. This ceremony is mostly performed in either Aarpakkam temple or Thirunarangkondai i.e.Thirunarungkundram. (Appandai Nathar is the deity).

===Other Ceremonies===
[[File:Tirumalai Neminatha Statue.jpg|thumb|Tirumalai Neminatha Statue.]]
[[Upadesha|Upadesam]] - the formal induction into religious practices and adherences is called Upadesam. This is done to both boys and girls, at around the age of 15. After Upadesam, one is supposed to follow religious practices with vigor and seriousness.

[[Marriage]] - outwardly, Jain marriages resemble Hindu marriages. However, the [[mantra]]s chanted are Jain. There is no Brahmin priest; instead there is a Samaṇar called a ''Koyil Vaadhiyar'' or temple priest, who conducts the ceremonies.

[[Pilgrimage]] - most Jains go on pilgrimage to [[Tirtha (Jainism)|tirtha]]s and major [[Jain temples]] in [[North India]] - Sammed [[Shikharji]], [[Pawapuri|Pavapuri]], [[Champapuri]] and [[Urjayanta Giri]] - as well as places in [[South India]] such as [[Shravanabelagola]], Humcha or Hombuja [[Humbaj]], Simmanagadde in [[Karnataka]] and [[Ponnur Malai]] in [[Tamil Nadu]].

There are private amateur tour operators as well who take pilgrims to newly identified ancient Tamil Jain sites in western Tamil Nadu ([[Kongu Nadu|Kongunad]]) and northern Kerala ([[Wayanad district|Wayanad]]).

Funeral rites - the dead are placed on a pyre and incinerated. Ashes are then disbursed in water courses and ceremonies are performed on 10th or 16th day. Annual remembrance ceremonies similar to Hindu practice are not performed. But no festivities or functions are followed that year on the paternal side.

===Festivals===
*[[Akshaya Tritiya]] commemorates the first [[Tirthankara]], [[Rishabha (Jain tirthankar)|Rishabha]], partaking food after many long years of penance.
*Jinaratri commemorates Rishabha's [[moksha]].
*[[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak]] celebrates Tirthankara [[Mahavira]]'s birth.
*[[Diwali]] commemorates Mahavira's [[moksha]].
*[[Vasant Panchami]] honors the [[Jain Agamas]]
*[[Upaakarma]] commemorates the [[Chakravartin]] [[Jadabharata|Bharata]], son of Rishabha, acknowledging the true scholars by awarding them the [[Upanayana]].
*[[Karthikai Deepam]] at the onset of the month of [[Kartika (month)|Kartika]]
*[[Puthandu]] and [[Thai Pongal]] are the other common festivals celebrated along with other Tamils.

===Religious practices===

[[Full Moon|Full moon days]], [[Chaturdashi|Chaturdasi]] (14th day of the fortnight), [[Ashtami]] (8th day of the fortnight) are days chosen for [[fasting]] and religious observations. Women take food only after reciting the name of a [[tirthankara]] five times. People undertake such practices as a vow for certain period of time - sometimes even for years. On completion, Udhyapana festivals (special prayer services) are performed, religious books and memorabilia are distributed. People who take certain vows eat only after sunrise and before sunset.

==List of Tamil Jains==
* Thiruvalluvar Jain Saint {{Citation needed|reason=there are different opinions |date=July 2025}}
* Prof. A. Cakravarti Nayanar, scholar and author, including "Jain Literature in Tamil", 1941,<ref>The Ins and Outs of the Jains in Tamil Literary Histories, Christoph Emmrich, J Indian Philos (2011) 39:599–646</ref>
* Jeevabandhu T.S Sripal<ref>R. Umamaheshwari, ‘Retrieving’, Seeking, the Tamil Jaina Self: the Politics of Memory, Identity and Tamil Language, Reading History with the Tamil Jainas, 26 January 2018, pp 205-298</ref>
* [[S. Sripal]], Director General of Police in [[Tamil Nadu]].
*Prof. J. Srichandran, Founder, Varthamanan Padippagam
* Air Marshal Simhakutty Varthaman.<ref name=Abhinandan>[https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/other/tamil-nadu-village-prays-for-safe-return-of-pilot-abhinandan/ar-BBUcbaE Tamil Nadu village prays for safe return of pilot Abhinandan]</ref>
* Wing Commander [[Abhinandan Varthaman]].<ref name=Abhinandan />
* DMK MLA, A. Rajendran from Polur.

==Temple locations==

=== Cave temples ===
{{div col|colwidth=24em}}
* [[Tirumalai (Jain complex)]]
* [[Kalugumalai Jain Beds]]
* [[Thirakoil]]
* [[Samanar Hills]]
* [[Sittanavasal Cave]]
* [[Onampakkam#Kurathimalai|Kurathimalai]], [[Onampakkam]]
* [[Keelavalavu#Panchapandavar Malai|Panchapandavar Malai]]
* [[Seeyamangalam#Rock Cut Jain Temple|Seeyamangalam]]
* [[Kanchiyur#Jain cave and stone beds|Kanchiyur Jain cave and stone beds]]
* [[Ennayiram#Ennayira Malai .28Ancient Jain cave.2C beds and inscriptions.29|Ennayira Malai]]
* [[Cholapandiyapuram#Andimalai|Andimalai Stone beds]], [[Cholapandiyapuram]]
* [[Nehanurpatti#Adukkankal|Adukkankal]], [[Nehanurpatti]]{{div col end}}

=== Puja temples ===
:is done in the following old (built several centuries ago) and new (built in the last 100 years) Tamil Digambara Jain temples (in alphabetical order):
{{div col|colwidth=24em}}
*Aadhinath Jain Temple, [[Cuddalore]] (old)
*Anumanthakudi, [[Sivagangai]] dt.(new)
*Adambakkam, Adi Nath Digambar Jain Temple [[Chennai]] (New)
*Agalur, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Agarakorakottai, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (New)
*[[Alagramam Jain Temple]], [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*[[Arahanthgiri Jain Math]], [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Arani (S.V.Nagaram), [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Arani (Pudukamur), [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (New)
*Arani (Saidapet), [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (New)
*Arani (Palayam), [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (New)
*Arani (Kosapalayam) [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (New)
*Arani (sevoor) [[Tiruvannamalai|Thiruvannamalai]]
*Arungulam [[Kanchipuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Arpaakkam, [[Kanchipuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Arugavur, Solai, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*[[Avadi]], [[Chennai]] Dt.(New)
*Ayalavadi, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (New)
*[[Chitharal Jain Temple]],(Old) : ninth century temple
* [[Chitharal malaikovil]],(Old) : before 425 CE
*Cheyyar, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (New)
*Deepangudi, [[Nagapattinam]] Dt. (Old)
*Easaakolathur, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Elangadu, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Eyyil, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Erumbur, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt.(Old)
*[[George Town, Chennai]] Dt. (New)
*Gingee, [[Viluppuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Ilayangudi, [[Sivagangai]] Dt. (New)
*Kannalam, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Kallapuliyur, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Kallakullathur, [[Villupuram]] Dt. {old}
*[[Karanthai]], [[Kanchipuram]] Dt. (Old)
*[[Thanjavur district#Karanthai Jain Temple|Karanthai Jain Temple]], [[Thanjavur]] Dt. (Old)
* [[Kalugumalai Jain Beds]] Dt. (Old)
* [[Kanchiyur#Jain cave and stone beds|Kanchiyur Jain cave and stone beds]] Dt. (Old)
* Kattumalaiyanur, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (New)
*Keezh Villivanam, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Keezh Edayalam, [[Villupuram]] Dt.
*Kilsathamangalam, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Koliyanur, Villupuram Dt.(Old)
*Kolathur, [[Chennai]] Dt. (New)
*Kovilampoondi, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt (Old)
*[[Kumbakonam]], [[Thanjavur]] Dt. (Old)
*[[Mannargudi Mallinatha Swamy Jain Temple]], [[Nagapattinam]] Dt. (Old)
*Melapandal, [[Vellore]] Dt. (New)
*Melmalaiyanur, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*[[Mel Sithamur Jain Math]], [[Villupuram]] Dt.
*Mettu Street, [[Kanchipuram]] (New)
*Mudalur, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*[[Nallavanpalayam]], [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt.(New)
*Nallur, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*[[Nanganallur]], [[Chennai]] Dt. (New)
*Naval, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Nedimolliyanur [[Villupuram]] Dt. {old}
*Nelliyankulam, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Othalavaadi, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (New)
*Parshwa Padmavathi Jain Temple, Sundampatti, Orappam [[Krishnagiri district|Krishnagiri Dt.]] (Old)
*[[Pammal]], [[Chennai]] (New)
*Peranamallur, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt (Old)
*Perani, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Peravoor, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Periyakozhappalur, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Perumandur, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Perumbogai, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
* [[Poondi Arugar Temple]], Arani, [[Tiruvannamalai]] Dt(Old)
*Ponnur Malai, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*[[Puzhal]], [[Chennai]] Dt. (New)
*Renderipet, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (New)
*R.Kunnathur, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (New)
*[[Sathuvacheri#Digambar Jain Temple|Shri Vasupujya Temple]], Sathuvachari, [[Vellore]] Dt. (old)
*Sathuvachari, [[Vellore]] Dt. (New)
*Sevur, [[Vellore]] Dt. (Old)
*Sitharaal, [[Nagercoil]] Dt. (Old)
*[[Sittanavasal]], [[Pudukottai]] Dt. (Old)
*Sitthamur, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Oldest Jain temple and Jain math)
*Somaasipadi, [[Thiruvannamalai]] (New)
*Thellar, [[thiruvannamalai]]Dt.
*Thirunarunkundram, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*[[Kanchipuram#Jainism|Thiruparuthikundram temple]], [[Kanchipuram]] Dt. (Old)
*[[Thirupanamoor]], [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. near [[Kanchipuram]]
*Thachambadi, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Thatchur, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Thayanur, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Thennathur, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt.(old)
* [[Thirakoil]], Thiruvannamalai Dt. (Old)
* [[Jain sculpture in Thirupparankunram, Madurai, India|Thirupparankunram]], [[Madurai]] Dt.(Sangam literature Paripadal 19 step 51)
*[[Thiruvannamalai]], [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (New)
*Thondur, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Tindivanam, [[Villupuram]] Dt (New)
*[[Tirumalai (Jain complex)|Tirumalai]],Polur Dt.(Old)
*[[Trilokyanatha Temple]], [[Kanchipuram]] Dt (Old)
*[[Valathi]] / Valathy, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*[[Vandavasi]], [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Valapandal [[Vellore]] Dt. (Old)
*Veedur, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Veeranamur, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Vellimedupettai, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Vempoondi, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Venbakkam, [[Kanchipuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Vilangadupakkam, [[Chennai]] Dt. (Old)
*Vizhukkam, [[Villupuram]] Dt. (Old)
*Vijayamangalam, [[Erode]] Dt. (Old)
*Virudur, [[Thiruvannamalai]] Dt. (Old)
*Nasiyan Jain Temple,Prithvi Raj Road,ooty,dedicated to Rishabhdevji.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.mustseeindia.com/Ooty-Jain-Temple/attraction/15834 | title=Ooty: Jain Temple, Ooty | access-date=22 August 2013 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130821031454/http://www.mustseeindia.com/Ooty-Jain-Temple/attraction/15834 | archive-date=21 August 2013 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>
*Sri 1008 Vaupujya Swamy Swethambar Jain Temple, Ooty<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.jainheritagecentres.com/index.php/photo-gallery/special-events/ooty/sri-1008-vaupujya-swamy-swethambar-jain-temple-ooty-2063 |title=Gallery - Category: Ooty - Image: Sri 1008 Vaupujya Swamy Swethambar Jain Temple, Ooty |access-date=22 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826100332/http://www.jainheritagecentres.com/index.php/photo-gallery/special-events/ooty/sri-1008-vaupujya-swamy-swethambar-jain-temple-ooty-2063 |archive-date=26 August 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>{{div col end}}

==Photo gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" widths="200">
File:Thirakoil-mahaaveerar.JPG|[[Thirakoil]] Hill and the Digambara Jain Temple.
File:Südindischer Meister um 850 001.jpg|[[Sittanavasal]].
File:Samanar Padukkai.jpg|Samanar Padukkai in [[Sittanavasal]]
File:Samanar Malai Caves, Madurai.jpg|[[Samanar Malai]] near Madurai, where the eighth century Jain caves still exist.
File:Primary idol of Parshwanath, Mel Sithamur Jain Math, Tamil Nadu.JPG|Mulnayak [[Parshvanatha|Shri Parshvanath]] within the main temple at the [[Mel Sithamur Jain Math]].
File:Festival, Mel Sithamur Jain Math, Tamil Nadu.JPG|During a festival morning at the [[Mel Sithamur Jain Math]].
File:Gingee Jain Temple 6.jpg|[[Jain flag]] atop the Gingee Jain temple, [[Gingee]], [[Villupuram district]], Tamil Nadu, India.
File:Gingee Jain Temple 10.jpg|Members of the Tamil Jain community at the Gingee Jain temple, [[Gingee]], [[Villupuram district]], Tamil Nadu, India.
</gallery>

==Tamil Jain Books==
"Jeevaka Chinthamani", "Sripurana" by [[J Srichandran]].<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/For-this-87-year-old-bringing-epics-to-lay-readers-is-a-passion/articleshow/45801909.cms For this 87-year-old, bringing epics to lay readers is a passion] by MT Saju. The Times of India, 8 January 2015.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Religion|Tamils
}}
*[[Jain Sculpture]]
*[[Jainism in Tamil Nadu]]
*[[Shikharji]]
*[[Mandalapuruder]]

==Notes==

=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

===References===
* {{citation |editor=John E. Cort |editor-link=John E. Cort |title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoHfm7BgqTgC |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |date=1998 |isbn=0-7914-3785-X }}

==External links==
*[http://www.ifpindia.org/content/jain-sites-tamil-nadu French Institute of Pondicherry Project on Jain Temples of Tamil Nadu] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150426050237/http://www.ifpindia.org/content/jain-sites-tamil-nadu |date=26 April 2015 }} - a combined DVD/website project presently being prepared for publication that will include information on over 400 Jain sites around Tamil Nadu.
*[http://www.tamiljains.org Tamil Jains]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041127200504/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2004/07/05/stories/2004070502350400.htm Jain vestiges]
*{{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20060614115102/http://hinduonnet.com/thehindu/lf/2002/04/25/stories/2002042506980200.htm Unexploited vestiges of Jainism]}}
*[http://www.tamiljains.org/ Jainism in Tamilnadu Blog]
*[http://www.jainworld.com/JWTamil/jainworld/JWTamil.htm Jainism Resource Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125215821/http://jainworld.com/JWTamil/jainworld/JWTamil.htm |date=25 November 2010 }}
{{Jainism Topics}}
{{Vegetarianism}}

[[Category:Social groups of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Jainism in India|Tamil Jain]]
[[Category:Tamil society|Jain, Tamil]]
[[Category:Jain communities]]
[[Category:Vegetarian communities]]

Siege of Malakand

2026-04-25T17:06:09Z

Tumita7029: Added Stub

{{short description|1897 siege of a British garrison by Afghan tribesmen}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Siege of Malakand
| partof = the [[Anglo-Afghan wars]]
| image = Malakand camp south.jpg
| image_size = 270px
| caption = South Malakand Camp, August 1897
| date = 26 July – 2 August 1897
| place = [[Malakand Agency|Malakand]], [[British Raj|British India]]
{{coord|34|35|47|N|71|55|52|E|display=inline,title}}
| result = British victory
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Emirate of Afghanistan}} [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] [[Pashtun tribes|tribes]]
*[[Yusufzai]]
*[[Mohmand (tribe)|Mohmand]]
*[[Utmankhel]]
*[[Swat Yousfuzai tribe|Swat valley]]
*[[Buner District|Bunerwal]]{{efn|'Bunerwal' referred to the Yusufzai of the Buner Valley<ref>''[https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA549121.pdf Passing It On: Fighting the Pushtun on Afghanistan's frontier]'', General Sir Andrew Skeen (1932) (edited by Lester W. Grau & Robert G. Baee) </ref>}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Diary of a Spitfire Pilot:Over the English Channel and Over Darwin |author= Kevin James Baker · |date=2011 |page= 115 |publisher= Rosenberg |isbn= 9781921719394 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CbCAgAAQBAJ&dq=swati+bunerwals&pg=PA115 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ln_jAAAAMAAJ&q=malakand+field+bunerwal|title=The Frontier Ablaze: The North-west: Frontier Rising, 1897–98 |author= Michael Barthorp, Douglas N. Anderson |year=1996 |publisher=Windrow & Greene|isbn=9781859150337 }}</ref>
| commander1 = [[William Hope Meiklejohn]], [[Bindon Blood]]
| commander2 = [[Faqir|Faqīr]] [[Saidullah]]<ref>Edwards p. 263. also known as "Mullah Mastun" (Spain. 177, [[Eknath Easwaran|Easwaran]] p. 49) (Known by the Pashtun as: ''lewanai faqir'', ''lewanai'' (Beattie p. 171), and by the British as "The Great Fakir", "Mad Fakir" (Hobday p. 13), or the "Mad Mullah", (Elliott–Lockhart p. 28)</ref>
| strength1 = 10,630 on 26 July 1897<ref>Gore p. 403</ref>
| strength2 = 10,000<ref name="note">A number of sources cite between 50,000–100,000 tribesmen as being present in the region during the siege (Wilkinson–Latham p. 20, Gore p. 405) while others give a figure of 10,000 for the actual siege ([[Eknath Easwaran|Easwaran]] p. 49)</ref>
| casualties1 = 3,000
| casualties2 = 3,890
}}
The '''siege of Malakand''' was the 26 July – 2 August 1897 [[siege]] of the [[British Raj|British]] garrison in the [[Malakand Agency|Malakand]] region of colonial [[British India]]'s [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North West Frontier Province]].<ref name="Nevill1">Nevill p. 232</ref> The British faced a force of [[Pashtuns|Pashtun tribesmen]] whose [[Pashtun tribes|tribal lands]] had been bisected by the [[Durand Line]],<ref>Lamb p. 93</ref> the 1,519 mile (2,445 km) border between [[Afghanistan]] and [[British India]] drawn up at the end of the [[Anglo-Afghan wars]] to help hold back what the British feared to be the [[Russian Empire]]'s spread of influence towards the [[Indian subcontinent]].

{{see also|Battle of Chakdara}}
The unrest caused by this division of the Pashtun lands of [[Pashtunistan|Afghania]] led to the rise of [[Saidullah]], a Pashtun [[fakir|faqir]] who led a great army of at least 10,000 tribesmen of the regional Yusufzai, Mohmand, Uthmankhel, Bunerwal, Swati tribes among others<ref name="note"/><ref name=DLT/> against the British garrison in Malakand. Although the British forces were divided among a number of poorly defended positions, the small garrison at the camp of Malakand South and the small fort at [[Chakdara]] were both able to hold out for six days against the much larger Pashtun army.

The siege was lifted when a relief column dispatched from British positions to the south was sent to assist General [[William Hope Meiklejohn]], commander of the British forces at Malakand South. Accompanying this relief force were Second Lieutenant [[Winston Churchill]], who later published his account as ''[[The Story of the Malakand Field Force: An Episode of Frontier War]]'',<ref name=":0">{{Gutenberg book | no=9404 | name=The Story of the Malakand Field Force: An Episode of Frontier War | author= [[Winston Churchill]]}}</ref> and [[Richard Stanley Hawks Moody|Major R. S. H. Moody]], who was second in command of the [[Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment)]], whom Churchill's book mentions.<ref name="RSH Moody Who Was Who">{{cite web|url=http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whowaswho/U214312|title=Entry for MOODY, Colonel Richard Stanley Hawks, in ''Who Was Who'' (A & C Black, Bloomsbury Publishing plc, 1920–2016)}}</ref>

==Background==
[[File:Pakistan - Khyber Pakhtunkhwa - Malakand.svg|thumb|left|[[Malakand District]] (red) in modern [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]. Inset: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan.]]

The rivalry between the [[British Empire|British]] and the [[Russian Empire]]s, named "[[The Great Game]]" by [[Arthur Conolly]],<ref>[[Peter Hopkirk|Hopkirk]] p. 1</ref> centred on Afghanistan during the late 19th century. From the British perspective, Russian expansion threatened to destroy the so-called "jewel in the crown" of the British Empire, [[British Raj|India]]. As the Tsar's troops in Central Asia began to subdue one [[Khanate]] after another, the British feared that Afghanistan would become a staging post for a Russian invasion.<ref>[[Peter Hopkirk|Hopkirk]] p. 72</ref> Against this background the British launched the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] in 1838, and attempted to impose a puppet regime under [[Shuja Shah]]. The regime was short-lived, however, and unsustainable without British military support. After the Russians sent an uninvited [[diplomatic mission]] to [[Kabul]] in July 1878, tensions were renewed and Britain demanded that the ruler of Afghanistan ([[Sher Ali Khan]]) accept a British diplomatic mission.<ref name=Curzon426>[[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Curzon]] p. 426</ref> The mission was turned back from the [[Khyber Pass]] in September, and by November the British and Afghans were at [[Second Anglo-Afghan War|war]].<ref name=Curzon426/>

After reaching a virtual stalemate with these two wars against the Afghans, the British imposed the Durand Line in 1893, which divided Afghanistan and [[British India]] (now [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] and [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] provinces of Pakistan).<ref>Hussain p. 240</ref> Named after Sir [[Mortimer Durand]],<ref name="lamb94">Lamb p. 94</ref> the foreign secretary of the British Indian government, it was agreed upon by the Emir of Afghanistan ([[Abdur Rahman Khan]]) and the representatives of the British Empire but deeply resented by the Afghans. Its intended purpose was to serve as a buffer zone to inhibit the spread of Russian influence down into British India.<ref name="lamb94"/>

===Malakand Field Force===
[[File:PashtunsatMalakand.jpg|thumb|right|[[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] tribesmen in the area around Malakand South]]

The British Malakand [[Field Force]] used the town of [[Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Nowshera]]<ref name="Nevill1"/> as a base of operations. Nowshera was located south of the [[Kabul River]] "six hours by rail from Rawal Pindi".<ref name=":0" /> Commanded by Colonel Schalch, the base served as a hospital while the normal garrison was serving 47 miles (76 km) away at Malakand Pass in what was known as the Malakand South Camp. This force consisted of one British cavalry regiment, one Indian cavalry regiment and one Indian infantry battalion.<ref>Elliott–Lockhart p. 27</ref> [[Winston Churchill]], who would accompany the relief force as a second lieutenant and war correspondent,<ref name="Winter"/> described the camp as "...a great cup, of which the rim is broken into numerous clefts and jagged points. At the bottom of this cup is the 'crater' camp."

Churchill goes on to state that the camp was viewed as purely temporary and was indefensible, as a result of its cramped conditions and the fact that it was dominated by the surrounding heights. A nearby camp, North Malakand, was also established on the plains of Khar, intended to hold the large number of troops that were unable to fit into the main camp. Both of these positions were garrisoned for two years with little fear of attack by a 1,000 strong force.<ref name="DLT" /> Officers brought their families, and the camp held regular [[polo]] matches and shooting competitions.

==Outbreak of the battle==
[[File:Troops at Malakand.jpg|thumb|left|A mixture of [[British troops]] and [[Sikh]] [[sepoy]]s fought in Malakand.]]
Towards 1897, news of unrest in the nearby Pashtun villages had reached the British garrisons in Malakand. [[Harold Arthur Deane|Major Deane]], the British political agent, noted the growing unrest within the Pashtun [[sepoy]]s<ref name="EL55">Elliott-Lockhart p. 55</ref> stationed with the British. His warnings were officially distributed to senior officers on 23 July; however, nothing more than a minor skirmish was expected.<ref name="EL55"/> Rumours of a new religious leader, Saidullah the Sartor [[Fakir]] (also known as Mullah of Mastun),<ref>Spain p. 177</ref><ref name="B171">Beattie p. 171</ref> arriving to "sweep away" the British and inspire a [[jihad]],<ref name="EL28">Elliott-Lockhart p. 28</ref><ref>Beattie p. 137</ref> were reportedly circulating the [[bazaar]]s of Malakand during July. Saidullah became known to the British as "The Great Fakir", "Mad Fakir"<ref>Hobday p. 13</ref> or the "Mad Mullah",<ref name="EL28"/> and by the Pashtuns as ''lewanai faqir'', or simply, ''lewanai'', meaning "love-intoxicated".<ref name="B171"/>

On July 26, while British officers were playing [[polo]] near camp Malakand North, indigenous spectators who were watching the match learned of an approaching Pashtun force and fled. Brigadier-General Meiklejohn, commander of the Malakand forces, was informed by Deane that "matters had assumed a very grave aspect" and that there were armed Pashtuns gathering nearby. Reinforcements from [[Mardan]] (32 miles (51 km) away) were requested, and Lieutenant P. Eliott-Lockhart departed at 1.30am. At 9.45pm, a final telegram was received informing the garrison that the Fakir had passed Khar and was advancing on Malakand. The telegram also stated that neither the levies nor the people would act against him, and that the hills to the east of the camp were covered with Pathans. Shortly after, the communication wire was cut.<ref name="EL31">Elliott-Lockhart p. 31</ref>

===Night of July 26/27===

====South camp====
During the night of 26 July, sometime after 10:00 pm, a messenger arrived with word that the enemy had reached the village of Khar, three miles from Malakand.<ref name="EL31"/> A bugle call was immediately sounded within the camp. Lieutenant-Colonel McRae, commanding the [[45th Sikhs]], two units from the [[31st Punjab Infantry]], two Guns from No. 8 Mountain Battery and one Squadron from the [[11th Bengal Lancers]], was to have been sent to Amandara Pass – a distance of four miles – with orders to hold the position; however, the Pashtun column had already arrived at the South Malakand camp, surprising the British defenders,<ref>Elliott–lockhart p. 30</ref> and began to open fire on the garrison with [[musket]]s. McRae immediately sent a small number of men under Major Taylor down a road from the "right flank" of the camp<ref>Elliott-Lockhart p. 32</ref> to ascertain the enemy's strength and location; McRae himself later followed with his own small group. Both parties aimed for a sharp turn in the oncoming road where, flanked by gorges, they hoped to hold the attacking force. McRae, with about 20 men, opened fire on the Pashtun tribesmen and began a fighting withdrawal 50 paces down the road before halting in an attempt to stop the attack. Taylor was mortally wounded in the incident and quickly died;<ref name="EL33">Elliott-Lockhart p. 33</ref> McRae suffered a neck wound. Nevertheless, by 2:00 am reinforcements under the command of Lieutenant Barff had enabled the British to repel the Pashtun attack.<ref name="EL33"/> The official dispatches of General Meiklejohn noted that:

<blockquote>There is no doubt that the gallant resistance made by this small body in the gorge, against vastly superior numbers, till the arrival of the rest of the regiment, saved the camp from being rushed on that side, and I cannot speak too highly of the behaviour of Lieutenant-Colonel McRae and Major Taylor on this occasion.</blockquote>
[[File:VCEdmondWilliamCostello.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Edmund William Costello]] in later life as a Brigadier-General]]

Meanwhile, Pashtun forces had successfully assaulted the camp in three other locations, and the [[24th Punjab Infantry]]'s picket lines were quickly overrun. Pashtun sharpshooters occupying the nearby heights inflicted casualties throughout the night, and the bazaar and surrounding buildings were occupied. Other units of the 24th, under [[Skipton Climo|Lieutenant Skipton H. Climo]], retook the area and held it until 10:45 pm, but under fire from sharpshooters they were driven back. The Pashtun forces broke through in a number of other locations. Lieutenant Watling commanding a group of British troops guarding the ammunitions stores at the Quarter Guard was wounded, losing the stores in the process. Meiklejohn led a small group of sappers, members of the 24th and Captain Holland, Lieutenant Climo from the earlier charge, and Lieutenant Manley to recapture the ammunition dump; Holland and the General were wounded, and the group severely depleted as it twice failed to retake the dump, but a third attempt by Climo proved successful. However, continuing crossfire from the enveloping Pashtun troops wounded a number of British officers, placing the command of the 24th with Climo. Towards 1:00 am on the morning of July 27, Lieutenant [[Edmund William Costello]] rescued a wounded [[havildar]] while under fire and was later awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for his actions.

As the night wore on, reinforcements arrived from a nearby British hill fort which had as yet been ignored by the Pashtun forces. At 4:15 pm, the attacking forces withdrew with their dead and wounded. The British had lost a large number of officers wounded, and recorded 21 deaths amongst the sepoys.

====North camp====
[[File:SepoyMalakand.jpg|thumb|right|Indian [[British Indian Army|sepoys]] from the 24th and 31st Punjab battalions received praise for their actions during the siege.<ref name="Tottenham">{{cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/6173431.stm |title=Photograph collection |last=Tottenham |first=Ben |publisher=[[BBC News]] |access-date=2007-05-31 | date=2007-01-03}}</ref>]]

During the first night of the battle, the garrison at Malakand North had not seen much action despite being in the more exposed position,<ref>Elliott-Lockhart p. 40</ref> and had spent much of the night firing flares and manoeuvring artillery units. In response Meiklejohn ordered a reconnaissance of the vicinity, whereupon Major Gibbs, the commander of the force, encountered large groups of tribesmen in the valley. Subsequently, he was eventually ordered to collect his forces and stores from Malakand North, and transfer them into the southern camp.
===July 27===
{{unsourced section|date=July 2022}}
The last remaining forces from the now evacuated northern camp arrived in Malakand South at 8:30 am on the 27th, coinciding with the arrival of more Pashtun reinforcements. In Nowshera, the [[11th Bengal Lancers]] awoke to news describing the situation, and, together with the [[38th Dogras]], the [[35th Sikhs]], No.1 and No.7 British Mountain Batteries, they set off to relieve the besieged garrison. Meanwhile, at Malakand South, fresh Pashtun attacks were repulsed by elements of the 24th led by Climo, whose unit captured a Pashtun standard.

At 7:30 pm the first of the British reinforcements arrived in the form of infantry from the [[Corps of Guides (British India)|Corps of Guides]] under Lieutenant Lockhart. The [[45th Sikhs]], supported by 100 men from the Guides and two guns, remained astride the main road into the camp, while the [[31st Punjab Infantry]] held the centre; the 24th, under Climo, held the north edge of Malakand South. Subadar Syed Ahmed Shah of the 31st held the area around the bazaar, though the market place itself was left unoccupied. Around 8:00 pm the Pashtuns simultaneously attacked all the British positions where, "Many thousands of rounds were discharged" and a number of assaults repulsed. Subadar Syed Ahmed Shah and his forces defended their position for several hours, however the Pashtuns were eventually successful in undermining the walls and killing the defenders. The surviving sepoys and their leader were awarded the [[Indian Order of Merit]]. The 24th also repelled a number of charges, with VC recipient Costello receiving a wound in the arm. Despite the constant harassment by musket fire, rifle fire and a barrage of rocks, Climo successfully led a counter-attack with two companies, pushing the attacking forces back two miles. The British records for the night of July 27 record 12 killed among the sepoy ranks, as well as the wounding of Costello.

===July 28===
The daylight hours of 28 July saw continuous fire from the Pashtun sharpshooters established in the hills surrounding Malakand South. The garrison surgeon, Lieutenant J.H. Hugo, treated a number of British casualties including an officer from the Guides. Despite further attacks during the night of July 28/29, the British recorded only two killed from the sepoy ranks, and the severe wounding of a Lieutenant Ford. Churchill records that Ford's bleeding artery was clamped shut by Hugo despite being under fire.

===July 29 – July 31===
Having re-established communication on the morning of 29 July, the British garrison signalled the approaching relief forces via [[heliograph]] at 8:00 am – "Heavy fighting all night. Expect more tonight. What ammunition are you bringing? When may we expect you?"<ref>Hobday p. 18</ref> During the day, the Pashtuns prepared for another night attack while the British destroyed the bazaar and the regions previously defended, and lost, by Subadar Syed Ahmed Shah and the men of the 31st. Trees were also cut down to improve fields of fire, attracting further attention from the Pashtun sharpshooters. Major Stuart Beatsen arrived at 4:00 pm on the 29th with the 11th Bengal Lancers who had been summoned from Nowshera two days previous. The 35th Sikhs and [[38th Dogras]] arrived at the mouth of the pass leading to Malakand South, but after losing between 19<ref>Elliott–Lockhart p. 53</ref> and 21 of their ranks through heat exhaustion, they were forced to halt.

At 2:00 a.m. on 30 July, the Pashtuns launched another attack, during which Costello, and the Pashtun [[Mullah]], were both wounded; the British also recorded one fatality among the sepoy contingent. That evening a further attack was repulsed by a bayonet charge of the [[45th Sikhs]]. The following morning, on 31 July, the remainder of the 38th Dogras and 35th Sikhs entered Malakand South under the command of Colonel Reid, bringing with them 243 mules carrying 291,600 rounds of ammunition.<ref>Hobday p. 22</ref> But with their attention now drawn towards the nearby British outpost of Chakdara, attacks by the Pashtuns on Malakand South began to reduce until they ceased altogether. Churchill records a total of three British officers killed in action and 10 wounded, seven sepoy officers wounded, and 153 [[non-commissioned officer]]s killed and wounded during the siege of Malakand South.

==Relieving Chakdara==
[[File:Shabkadr Fort outside Peshawar attacked by tribesmen.jpg|thumb|Pashtun tribesmen attacking a British–held fort in 1897]]
On 28 July, when word of the attacks were received, a division of "6800 bayonets, 700 lances or sabres, with 24 guns" was given to Major-General [[Sir Bindon Blood]]<ref name="EL55"/> with orders to hold "the
Malakand, and the adjacent posts, and of operating against the neighbouring tribes as may be required."<ref>Raugh p. 222</ref> Blood arrived at Nowshera on 31 July to take command,<ref name="EL55"/> and on 1 August he was informed that the Pashtun forces had turned their attention to the nearby British fort of Chakdara. This was a small, under-garrisoned fort with few supplies that had itself been holding out with 200 men since the first attacks in Malakand began, and had recently sent the signal "Help us" to the British forces.<ref>Hobday p. 32</ref> Blood reached Malakand at noon on the same day. While Blood and his relief force marched for Chakdara from the main camp at Nowshera, Meiklejohn set out from Malakand South with the 45th, 24th and guns from No. 8 Battery. An advance force of Guides cavalry under Captain Baldwin<ref>Elliott–Lockhart p. 56</ref> met with an enemy force along the road and were forced to retreat with two British officers and one sepoy officer wounded and 16 other ranks killed or wounded.<ref>Hobday p. 30</ref>

Following this failed attempt, Blood arrived and appointed Reid commander of the forces at Malakand South, giving command of the rescue force to Meiklejohn. The rescue column of 1,000 infantry, two squadrons from the 11th Bengal Lancers, two of the Guides cavalry, 50 sappers, two cannons and a hospital detail,<ref>Elliott–Lockhart p. 59</ref> rested on the night of August 1, despite a night attack by Pashtun forces. On the following day, the relief force advanced along the road to the abandoned Malakand North in order to avoid fire from the Pashtun sharpshooters who still occupied the heights around the Malakand South "cup".<ref>Elliott–Lockhart p. 58</ref> With low morale, the relief force assembled at 4:30 am on 2 August; however, with the use of diversionary attacks, they were successful in breaking out of the Pashtun encirclement without loss. This led to confusion amongst the Pashtun forces, "like ants in a disturbed ant–hill" as observed Blood. The 11th Bengal Lancers and the Guides cavalry went on to relieve the threatened fort at Chakdara, while the 45th Sikhs stormed nearby Pashtun positions. The British recorded 33 casualties from the action on August 2.

==Aftermath==
[[File:ChurchilMalakand.jpg|thumb|right|The outpost in Malakand from which [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] saw action in the days following the siege.<ref name="Tottenham" />]]

The campaigns of the Malakand Field Force continued beyond the siege of Malakand South, North, and of the Chakdara fort. Immediately after the siege, two brigades of the British garrison were relocated to a new camp a few miles away to relieve the pressure in the overcrowded Malakand South. These received only light fire during 5 August; however, on 8 August, Saidullah rallied his surviving Pashtun forces and attacked the British garrison at Shabkadr fort near [[Peshawar]]. These attacks put the continued loyalty of friendly Pashtun levies guarding the British supply lines to [[Chitral]] at risk, thus endangering the supply convoys and their small escorts.<ref>Elliott–Lockhart p. 80</ref> In response, on 14 August, the British advanced farther into Pashtun territory and engaged a force of "several thousand"<ref>Elliott–Lockhart p. 90</ref> Pashtun tribesmen, with General Meiklejohn leading a flanking manoeuvre which split the Pashtun army in two, forcing it to pull back to [[Lower Swat Valley|Landakai]].<ref>Elliott–Lockhart p. 93</ref> The British continued to engage Pashtun tribesmen throughout the day, suffering two officers and 11 other ranks killed.<ref>Elliott–Lockhart p. 100</ref>

The siege of Malakand was Winston Churchill's first experience of actual combat, which he later described in several columns for ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'',<ref name="Winter">{{cite web | url=http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=176 | title=Winter 1896–97 (Age 22) – "The University of My Life" | work=Sir Winston Churchill | access-date=2007-03-17 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529101930/http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=176 | archive-date=2007-05-29 }}</ref> receiving [[GBP|£]]5 per column; these articles were eventually compiled into his first published book, ''The Story of the Malakand Field Force'', beginning his career as a writer and politician.<ref>Jablonsky p. 300</ref> Of the book's publication he remarked, "[it] will certainly be the most noteworthy act of my life. Up to date (of course). By its reception I shall measure the chances of my possible success in the world."<ref name="Winter"/> Of the siege of Malakand, and of the entire campaign against the Pashtun tribes in northern India, Churchill remarked that they were a period of significant "transition".

The [[War Office]] authorized the award of the clasp ''Malakand 1897'' to the [[India Medal]] for those of the [[British Army|British]] and [[British Indian Army|Indian]] armies who participated in this action.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.medals.org.uk/united-kingdom/united-kingdom133.htm |title=United Kingdom: India Medal 1895–1902 |access-date=2007-05-31}}</ref><ref>Joslin p. 30</ref> The battleground remained closed to visitors and under military control since the publication of Churchill's memoirs, and is the location of a Pakistani military base. However, in 2006 the Pakistani government began opening the area to foreign visitors.<ref name=DLT>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/12/01/wpak01.xml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029160346/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2006%2F12%2F01%2Fwpak01.xml |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-10-29 |title=Pakistan asks tourists to Churchill's battlefield |publisher=Daily Telegraph |access-date=2007-07-17 |location=London |first=Isambard |last=Wilkinson |date=2006-12-01 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan|Bacha Khan]]
* [[Faqir of Ipi]]
** [[Waziristan campaign (1936–1939)|Waziristan campaign]]
* [[Pashtunwali]]
* [[Tirah campaign]]
* [[Mohmand campaign of 1897–1898|Mohmand campaign]]
* [[Waziristan campaign (1919–1920)|Waziristan War]]
* [[Pashtun nationalism|Pashtunistan]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{notelist}}

==References==
'''Printed sources:'''
* Beattie, Hugh ''Imperial Frontier: Tribe and State in Waziristan'', 2002 {{ISBN|0-7007-1309-3}}
* [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Curzon, George Nathaniel]] ''Russia in Central Asia in 1889 & the Anglo-Russian Question'', 1889
* Edwards, David B. ''Heroes of the age: Moral Fault Lines on the Afghan Frontier'', 1996 {{ISBN|0-520-20064-0}}
* Elliott–Lockhart, Percy C. and [[Alexander Murray, 8th Earl of Dunmore|Dunmore, Edward M. Earl of Alexander]] ''A Frontier Campaign: A Narrative of the Operations of the Malakand and Buner Field Forces, 1897–1898'', 1898
* [[Eknath Easwaran|Easwaran, Eknath]] ''[[Nonviolent Soldier of Islam|Nonviolent Soldier of Islam: Badshah Khan, a Man to Match His Mountains]]'' (see [[Nonviolent Soldier of Islam|Wikipedia article]]), 1999 {{ISBN|1-888314-00-1}}
* Gore, Surgeon General at Nowshera, for ''[[Dublin Journal of Medical Science|The Dublin Journal of Medical Science]]'', 1898
* Hobday, Edmund A. P. ''Sketches on Service During the Indian Frontier Campaigns of 1897'', 1898
* [[Peter Hopkirk|Hopkirk, Peter]] ''[[The Great Game: On Secret Service in High Asia]]'', 2001 {{ISBN|0-19-280232-1}}
* Hussain, Rizwan ''Pakistan And The Emergence Of Islamic Militancy In Afghanistan'', 2005 {{ISBN|0-7546-4434-0}}
* Jablonsky, David ''Churchill and Hitler: Essays on the Political–Military Direction of Total War'', 1994 {{ISBN|0-7146-4563-X}}
* Joslin, Edward Charles ''The Standard Catalogue of British Orders, Decorations and Medals'', 1972 {{ISBN|0-900696-48-6}}
* Lamb, Christina ''The Sewing Circles of Herat: A Personal Voyage Through Afghanistan'', 2004 {{ISBN|0-06-050527-3}}
* Nevill, Hugh Lewis ''Campaigns on the North–west Frontier'', 1912 (2005 publication: {{ISBN|1-84574-187-0}})
* Raugh, Harold E. ''The Victorians at War, 1815–1914: An Encyclopedia of British Military History'', 2004 {{ISBN|1-57607-925-2}}
* Spain, James William ''The Pathan Borderland'', 1963 {{ASIN|B0000CR0HH}}
* Wilkinson–Latham, Robert ''North–west Frontier 1837–1947'', 1977 {{ISBN|0-85045-275-9}}

'''Websites:'''
* A [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/6173431.stm collection] of photographs taken by Ben Tottenham, displayed on the BBC News retrieved 31 May 2007 
* {{cite web | url=http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=176 | title=Winter 1896 – 97 (Age 22) "The university of my life" | work=Sir Winston Churchill | access-date=2007-03-17 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529101930/http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=176 | archive-date=2007-05-29 }}
* [http://www.medals.org.uk/united-kingdom/united-kingdom133.htm United Kingdom: India Medal 1895 – 1902] retrieved 31 May 2007
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071029160346/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2006%2F12%2F01%2Fwpak01.xml ''Pakistan asks tourists to Churchill's battlefield''] ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' retrieved 17 July 2007

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Churchill |first1=Winston |author1-link=Winston Churchill |title=Story Of The Malakand Field Force: An Episode of Frontier War |date=1897 |publisher=Longmans, Green, and Co. |location=London |isbn=|oclc=867972780 |edition=1st |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.51975/page/n5/mode/2up |ref=none}}

{{British colonial campaigns}}
{{Pashtun nationalism}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1897|Malakand]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the United Kingdom|Malakand]]
[[Category:Sieges involving British India|Malakand]]
[[Category:Sieges involving Afghanistan|Malakand]]
[[Category:19th-century sieges|Malakand]]
[[Category:Military history of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]
[[Category:Military history of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:1897 in India]]
[[Category:July 1897 in Asia]]
[[Category:August 1897 in Asia]]

Belgaum border dispute

2026-04-22T23:41:27Z

Tumita7029: new details - done

{{Short description|Border dispute between states of India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2023}}
{{update|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Belgaum border dispute
| place = [[Belagavi district]]
| image = Belagavi in Karnataka (India).svg
| caption = Red corridor– Location of [[Belagavi district]]
| status = [[List of ongoing armed conflicts|Ongoing as a low-level insurgency]]
| combatant1 = {{tree list}}[[File:Flag of Maharashtra.svg|25px|border]] [[Maharashtra]]
** [[Nationalist Congress Party|NCP]]
**[[File:Shiv Sena flag.jpg|25px|border]] [[Shiv Sena]]{{tree list/end}}
| combatant2 = {{tree list}}[[File:Flag of Karnataka, India.svg|25px|border]] [[Karnataka]]
**[[Karnataka Police]]{{tree list/end}}
| date = December 1983–present
| casualties3 = 50 Kannada civilians injured <ref>{{cite web |url=https://kannada.oneindia.com/news/2006/10/27/mes.html|title=Tension in Khanapur town as MES holds convention|date=27 October 2006 |work=OneIndia |language=kn }}</ref>
}}

The '''Belgaum border dispute''' (or '''Belagavi border dispute''')<ref>{{Cite web|date=Jan 28, 2021|title=Karnataka-Maharashtra border dispute Explained: What is Belagavi border dispute between Karnataka and Maharashtra | India News - Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/explained-what-is-belagavi-border-dispute-between-karnataka-and-maharashtra/articleshow/80493402.cms|access-date=2022-03-27|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> is a dispute between the [[India]]n states of [[Karnataka]] and [[Maharashtra]] over the administration of the city of [[Belgaum]] and surrounding areas. During the [[British Raj]], the region was part of the [[Bombay Presidency]], a former [[History of the British Raj|colonial]] province that included western Maharashtra, north-western Karnataka, and much of [[Gujarat]], and then became part of the short-lived [[Bombay State]] after [[Indian independence movement|Indian independence]]. As part of the [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956|States Reorganisation Act]] based on linguistic lines in 1956, Belgaum—because of its [[Kannada]] plurality—was incorporated into the newly formed state of Karnataka. Adjacent [[Marathi language|Marathi]]-speaking areas remained in Maharashtra. Currently, Belgaum is administered as part of the [[Belagavi district]] in Karnataka.

==History==
===Background===
An 1881 census recorded a population of 864,014 residents in the Belgaum district. 556,397 (64.39 per cent) of them were [[Kannada people|Kannada speakers]] and 225,008 (26.04 per cent) spoke [[Marathi people|Marathi]].

With the independence of India in 1947, the Belgaum district of the former [[Bombay Presidency]] became a part of [[Bombay State]].<ref name="sorg1956">{{cite web |url=http://www.commonlii.org/in/legis/num_act/sra1956250/ |title=States Reorganization Act 1956 |access-date=1 July 2008 |publisher=Commonwealth Legal Information Institute |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516123014/http://www.commonlii.org/in/legis/num_act/sra1956250/ |archive-date=16 May 2008 }}</ref> In 1956, the [[States Reorganization Act]] incorporated the Belgaum district into the newly formed [[Mysore state]] (now [[Karnataka]]). This placed Belgaum, with its majority of [[Marathi people|Marathi]] speakers, within the Kannada-majority Karnataka.<ref>{{cite news|author= Jaishankar Jayaramiah|title = Karnataka caught in 'language' web|url= http://www.financialexpress.com/fe_full_story.php?content_id=109230|publisher= The Financial Express|date = 21 November 2005|access-date = 1 November 2006|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070310192251/http://www.financialexpress.com/fe_full_story.php?content_id=109230|archive-date = 10 March 2007|url-status = dead|df = dmy-all}}</ref> Adjoining areas with mostly Marathi-speaking citizens were incorporated into a newly formed [[Maharashtra]] state.

===Boundary Commission's decision===
Belgaum historically has been a part of the [[Kannada]] region and has seen many [[Kannadiga]] dynasties ruling over it. The demographics of the region changed in the 18th century as in other parts of India. The period saw the expansion of the [[Maratha Empire]] under the [[Peshwa]], culminating in its geographic spread memorialised as being from "[[Attock]] to [[Cuttack]]".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/attock-to-cuttack-pm-narendra-modi-causes-a-stir/articleshow/59332065.cms|title=Attock to Cuttack, PM Narendra Modi causes a stir|date=27 June 2017}}</ref> A large chunk of the Karnataka region became a part of the empire and was called the "Southern Maratha Country" (comprising most of North Karnataka, with its vast majority of Kannada speakers). When the British came to power, the region was dotted by remnants of the Maratha empire ruling over their [[jagir]]s and feudal states. The language of the land essentially remained Kannada. The prevailing situation was summed up by [[John Faithfull Fleet]] in ''The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of the Bombay Presidency'' (1894), which forms a part of the [[Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency]] (Vol-1, Part-II, Book-III) thus:<ref>The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of the Bombay Presidency"(1894) J.F.Fleet, Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency (Vol-1, Part-II, Book-III) {{ISBN|81-206-0277-3}}</ref>

{{cquote|1=In defining the limits of the Kanarese language, on the west and north may be designated "by a line drawn from [[Sadashivgad]] (Karwar), westward of Belgaum, Hukkeri through Kagal and [[Kurundwad]], passing between 'Keligaon' and 'Pandegaon' through Brahmapuri on Bhima and [[Solapur]] and thence east, to the neighbourhood of Bidar. This however wrongly excludes Kolhapur. As for Sholapur, which now officially counts as a Marathi District, Kanarese is still, to a great extent the vernacular of south east corner of it. And there are Kanarese inscriptions of the Western Chalukyas, Kalachurya and Devagiri Yadavas of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and some later ones, at Sholapur itself, and at Kudal and Mohol in that district, and at Karajgi, Kudal, and Tadwal in the [[Akalkot State|Akalkot state]]. ...In official language the four recognised Kanarese districts of this presidency viz. Belgaum, Bijapur and Dharwar collectorates together with the Kolhapur, Miraj and other Native states called the "Southern Maratha Country". A more misleading appellation, however it originated, could not well have been devised. It is true that, in one of the earliest inscriptions of [[Pulakeshin II|Pulakesin II]], this part of the country is included in what was known then and even many centuries before his time as [[Maharashtra]]. But this term meaning literally "the great country", does not inherently imply any of the racial and linguistic peculiarities which are now naturally attached to the terms 'Maratha' and 'Marathi', derived from it. In the whole area of so-called Southern Maratha country, not a single Marathi inscription has been discovered, of a greater age than two or three centuries. With the exception that two Prakrit records have been obtained at Banawasi in North Kanara and 'Malavalli' in Mysore, and that a few Prakrit words occur here and there in other records, the inscriptions are all either in pure [[Sanskrit]] or pure [[Kannada|Kanarese]], or in the two languages combined. This fact speaks of itself, as to what the vernacular of the country was in early times. In the present day, the people and the language of British districts are essentially Kanarese; and the Kanarese people and language have been displaced, to a certain extent, by the Marathi people and language in the Native States, only because those States were established by the [[aggression]]s of the [[Marathas]] from the north, whose local influence proved to be greater than that of the native rulers whom they dispossessed. Even in the Native States, and in Marathi official correspondence, the Political Agent at [[Kolhapur]] is, to the present day always addressed as the Political Agent, not of the "Dakshina Maharashtra" or "Southern Maratha Country, but of the "Karavira Ilakha and the Karnataka Prant.}}.

This was the background available on Belgaum to the commission that decided the linguistic reorganisation of Indian states. As a result, [[Maharashtra]] didn't include the '[[Maratha (caste)|Maratha]]'-ruled areas of [[Baroda]], [[Indore]] or [[Gwalior]] except for [[Kolhapur]], as the Commission considered the historical changes in the region and not just recent changes in demography.

===Four member committee===
Following a memorandum from the Maharashtra government on 23 June 1957, the Government of India constituted the Mahajan Committee on 5 June 1960 to decide on the reorganisation of Belgaum. The four member Committee consisted of two representatives from the Maharashtra government and two from the Mysore government. However, it failed to reach an agreement.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2225/stories/20051216008012500.htm|title=A troubled legacy|last=Sharma|first=Ravi|date=3 December 2005|work=Frontline|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301124537/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2225/stories/20051216008012500.htm|archive-date=1 March 2012}}
</ref>
Maharashtra wanted to adopt the following principles, and agreed to hand over Kannada majority villages to Mysore:
# Villages as a unit
# Geographical proximity/integrity
# Marathi or Kannada speakers "relative majority"; villages with no population should be merged with that state where the owners of that land reside
# The wish of the residents

The Mysore government, on the other hand, wanted ''[[status quo]]'' to be maintained.

===Mahajan Commission===
Maharashtra leader [[Senapati Bapat]] resorted to a hunger strike demanding that the government form a commission to address the border dispute. At Maharashtra's insistence, the Government of India constituted the Mahajan Commission on 25 October 1966. V.P. Naik, Maharashtra's Chief Minister at that time, announced on 9 November 1967 that Maharashtra will adhere to the Mahajan Commission's report, regardless of the outcome.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thatskannada.oneindia.in/sahitya/article/241105belgaum.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060528074020/http://thatskannada.oneindia.in/sahitya/article/241105belgaum.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 May 2006|title=However you see Belgaum belongs to Karnataka|date=24 November 2005|work=OneIndia|language=kn|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The commission was headed by the third Chief Justice of the [[Supreme Court of India]], Meher Chand Mahajan. The commission, upon review of Maharashtra's claims, recommended the exchange of several villages in Belgaum district between the two states, but rejected Maharashtra's claim on Belgaum city.<ref name=rejected>{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/May92006/panorama165059200658.asp|title=Singing the same old song again|publisher=Deccan Herald|date=9 May 2006|access-date=29 August 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224123625/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/May92006/panorama165059200658.asp|archive-date=24 February 2007|url-status=dead|df=dmy}}</ref>

The [[Mehr Chand Mahajan|Mahajan Commission]] received 2,240 memoranda and interviewed 7,572 people before submitting its report. Maharashtra had asked for 814 villages besides Belgaum. It was given 262 villages including Nippani, Khanapur and Nandgad. Mysore State had claimed 516 villages, of which Maharashtra admitted that 260 were Kannada-speaking ones. It was awarded 247 villages including claim to Solapur.<ref name=MahajanCommission>{{cite news| url = http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/ml.asp?Ref=VE9JQkcvMjAwNi8xMC8wNCNBcjAwNDAx&Mode=HTML&Locale=english-skin-custom| title = Tracing the History of Battle for Belgaum| work = The Times of India| date = 4 October 2006| access-date = 4 October 2006| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070311073023/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/ml.asp?Ref=VE9JQkcvMjAwNi8xMC8wNCNBcjAwNDAx&Mode=HTML&Locale=english-skin-custom| archive-date = 11 March 2007| url-status = dead}}</ref>

====Excerpts of the Mahajan Report====
Excerpts from the Mahajan Commission report regarding the rejection of Maharashtra's claim over Belgaum:<ref name=MahajanCommission/>
{{cquote|Maharashtra's claim for Belgaum is of recent origin. Though tabled in Parliament, Maharashtra MPs, especially from the treasury benches, did not vote against the amendment of Belgaum being part of their state. Belgaum is a cosmopolitan city. In 1920, when the AICC session was held in Belgaum, not a single leader from Maharashtra including N C Kelkar demanded that it be part of that state. Geographically, Kannada areas surround the city of Belgaum on three sides and by a smattering of villages belonging to Maharashtra on the fourth. Reorganisation will cause extreme hardship. Status quo should be maintained. From the records of rights of Belgaum city, it is seen that a majority of lands belong to Kannadigas. All the original records in the offices of the mamlatdar and collector are in Kannada. "On the appreciation of the whole material and assessing it objectively, I have reached the conclusion that I cannot recommend the inclusion of Belgaum city in the state of Maharashtra.
}}

The Mahajan commission report summarised its recommendations thus:

# Belgaum to continue in Karnataka
# Around 247 villages/places including Jatta, Akkalakote and Sholapur to be part of Karnataka
# Around 264 villages/places including Nandagad, Nippani and Khanapur to be part of Maharashtra
# Kasaragod (of Kerala) to be part of Karnataka<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/archives/mahajan-recommends-transfer-of-kasargod/article19803202.ece|title=Mahajan recommends transfer of Kasargod|date=2017-10-06|work=The Hindu|access-date=2020-01-26|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X|quote=The Mahajan Commission is understood to have upheld Mysore's claims for the areas in Kerala and recommended the transfer of the entire Kasargod taluk in Kerala, minus eight villages lying south of the Chandragiri river to Mysore. Kasargod town also will go to Mysore}}</ref>

The Maharashtra and Kerala government rejected these recommendations and demanded their review. The Maharashtra government termed the findings of the reports biased and self-contradictory because the "formula" applied for [[Kasaragod district|Kasaragod]] was not applied for Belgaum. It insisted that the report is against the "wish of the people" of Belgaum. [[Kerala]], on the other hand, refused to hand over Kasaragod to Karnataka. The Karnataka government continued to press for either the implementation of the report or the maintenance of ''status quo''.

====Maharashtra's arguments against the report====
Maharashtra insisted on the 1951 census being used to resolve the dispute as it had arisen due to the [[States Reorganisation Act]] of 1956. According to the 1951 census the percentages of Marathi-speakers (with Kannada-speakers in brackets) were as follows:
* Belgaum city: 60% (18.8%)
* [[Shahapur, Belgaum|Shahapura]]: 57.0% (33.2%)
* Belgaum cantonment: 33.6% (20.6%)
* Belgaum suburbs: 50.9% (21.8%)

The Mahajan commission, however, used the census of 1961, according to which Belgaum was surrounded by Kannada speaking areas on all sides. The commission said that its decisions on border dispute were not based on the number of Marathi schools and students in Belgaum.

Political leaders in Maharashtra insisted that the Mahajan Commission report was not the final word on the dispute and Shiv Sena leader [[Ramdas Kadam]] claimed that even ex-prime minister [[Rajiv Gandhi]] had said so.<ref name="Yuva_mes">{{cite web|url=http://esakal.com/esakal/10272006/2A0620CB0A.htm |title=Marathi speakers once again vow to merge with Maharashtra |access-date=27 October 2006 |date=27 October 2006 |publisher=Sakal |language=mr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009144059/http://esakal.com/esakal/10272006/2A0620CB0A.htm |archive-date=9 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The Maharashtra Government rejected the Mahajan Commission's report claiming that it was biased, illogical and against the wishes of the people.

===Emergence of the Maharashtra Ekikaran Samiti===
The [[Maharashtra Ekikaran Samiti]] (MES) was founded in 1948 with the sole objective of ensuring that Belgaum becomes part of Maharashtra.<ref name="belgaummajority1">{{cite news|author = Girish Kuber|title = District's always been bone of contention|url = http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1309841,curpg-2.cms|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160913163621/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1309841%2Ccurpg-2.cms|url-status = dead|archive-date = 13 September 2016|publisher = The Economic Times|date = 28 November 2005|access-date = 1 November 2006|df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="marathiintegrity">{{cite news|title = Belgaum: A tale of 2 languages, 2 states|url = http://in.news.yahoo.com/051123/48/618lt.html|publisher=Yahoo! India|access-date = 1 November 2006}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

==1980s and 1990s==
The first [[Belgaum City Corporation]] (BCC) elections were held in December 1983. The MES-dominated BCC made demands for the transfer of Belgaum to Maharashtra in 1990, 1996 and 2001. More than 250 MES-dominated gram and [[taluk]] [[Panchayati raj|panchayat]]s, and some other municipalities (such as neighbouring Khanapur) passed similar resolutions.<ref name="Frontline_A_dispute">{{cite news|author=Ravi Sharma|date=3–16 December 2005|title=A dispute revived|publisher=Frontline|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2225/stories/20051216007912400.htm|url-status=dead|access-date=24 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016232259/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2225/stories/20051216007912400.htm|archive-date=16 October 2006|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 1986, the dispute led to violence and large-scale arson, resulting in nine deaths in Belgaum.

During [[H.D. Deve Gowda]]'s tenure as Chief Minister of Karnataka (1994–96), the Karnataka organisation, Kannada Cheluvarigara Sangha, submitted a memorandum to the Karnataka Government, asking it to set up large industries in the region to provide employment to 20,000-30,000 people.<ref name="Frontline_A_dispute"/>

Pro-Marathi groups protested against government notices and records not being available in Marathi. The Officials Language Act, 1963 and 1981, states that "areas where the linguistic minorities constitute 15 per cent or more of the local population, arrangements have to be made to translate government circulars, orders, extracts and land records into the minority language". In a letter (DO No RB Kannada CR 09/2000-01), Belgaum's Deputy Commissioner, Shalini Rajneesh reasoned that while suitable instructions had been given to the local authorities for the translation of documents into Marathi, it did not happen because the staff was "overloaded with the basic work to be carried out in the official language, that is, Kannada".<ref name="Frontline_A_dispute"/>

==2005-2007==
===BCC's 2005 resolution===
On 27 October 2005, the MES-controlled BCC, amidst strong opposition by the [[Indian National Congress]], [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) and few independents, passed a resolution requesting the [[Karnataka]] State government and the Supreme Court of India to merge the disputed border areas in the districts of Belgaum (including Khanapura, Nippani and Belgaum city), [[Uttara Kannada]] (including Karwar and Haliyal) and [[Bidar]] (including Bhalki, Aurad and Basavakalyan) with Maharashtra. The entire opposition, including Congress, BJP and a few independents, boycotted the meeting. The meeting also witnessed intense verbal clashes between the MES and the opposition. Assistant Executive Officer, N.D. Achanur advised MES members not to pass a resolution against the interest of the [[Karnataka|state]]. When MES members refused to heed his advice, the officer walked out of the office. The officials of various departments present to provide details of their departments also walked out.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IEK20060228000002&Page=K&Title=Southern+News+-+Karnataka&Topic=0 |title=MES urges centre to solve border dispute |date=29 October 2006 |publisher=NewIndPress |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929103000/http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IEK20060228000002&Page=K&Title=Southern+News+-+Karnataka&Topic=0 |archive-date=29 September 2007 }}</ref>

Some members of Karnataka group called Kannada Rakshana Vedike manhandled the BCC mayor Vijay More, former mayor Shivaji Sunthakar and former legislator B I Patil, outside the Karnataka Legislators' Home in Bangalore. The attackers tore Vijay More's shirt and daubed him with black paint.

On 10 November, the Mayor was served with a showcause notice by the Karnataka Government asking why the resolution should not be cancelled under Section 98 and 99 of the KMC Act. On 17 November, the government cancelled the resolution, without waiting for the Mayor's reply. On 17 November, it served another notice that sought an explanation from the Mayor as to why the BCC should not be dissolved under Section 99 of the KMC Act.

On 19 November, T N Chaturvedi, the Governor of Karnataka, criticised BCC during a public function. A group of Kannada organisations set 22 November as the deadline for dissolving BCC and threatened to call a statewide bandh on 24 November. On 21 November 2005, the Karnataka government dissolved the council, under pressure from Kannada activists, citing the violation of Section 18 of the KMC Act.<ref name="Frontline_A_dispute"/>

The MES secretary, Maloji Astekar, insisted that the BCC resolution was in accordance with the provisions of the KMC Act, 1976, and Fundamental Rights enshrined under Article 19(1) of the [[Constitution of India]]. He accused the Karnataka Government of "step-motherly treatment". The legal team of MES pointed out that both the cancellation of the resolution and the dissolution of the council were done without giving 15 days' time as was stipulated in the notice to enable the Mayor to submit his explanations. MES called a [[bandh]] in protest. A delegation of MES leaders visited Mumbai and met Maharashtra leaders, including Chief Minister Vilasrao Deshmukh. Deshmukh wrote letters to Karnataka Chief Minister N. Dharam Singh and Prime Minister Dr. [[Manmohan Singh]] expressing displeasure over the action taken against the BCC.<ref name="Frontline_A_dispute"/>

The former mayor of Belgaum, Vijay More, a [[Dalit]], broke down in front of the media in Mumbai while describing the atrocities perpetrated on him by 30 Kannada fanatics in front of the Vidhana Soudha in Bengaluru. Vasant Patil, former Belgaum MLA, claimed that for the past several decades the Marathi-speaking population of Belgaum (population 5 lakh) had endured a host of atrocities by successive governments of Karnataka. "But we are determined to get justice", he added.<ref>{{cite news|title = Belgaum's ex-mayor tells about atrocities|url = http://www1.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1307681,curpg-1.cms|archive-url = https://archive.today/20130103074615/http://www1.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1307681,curpg-1.cms|url-status = dead|archive-date = 3 January 2013|publisher = Times of India|date = 25 November 2006|access-date = 1 November 2006}}</ref>

====MES's legal challenge to the dissolution====
After the MES-headed Belgaum City Corporation (BCC) was dissolved, the MES said that it would challenge the move in the Karnataka High Court, claiming that it discriminated against Marathi-speaking people. The MES had 49 corporators in the 58-strong civic body. The BCC was dissolved on several grounds, including passing a resolution seeking merger of Marathi-speaking areas in the border district with Maharashtra. Pre-empting the MES move, the Karnataka Government filed a caveat in the High Court, requesting it not to pass any order without hearing its counsel. The MES said that the government was hasty in taking such a decision when the state boundary case was still pending in the Supreme Court. MES working president Deepak Dalvi alleged that they "were being treated like slaves and hence will go to the High Court for justice" and the state government's action was "an assault on democracy". "A civic body elected by the people of Belagavi has been dissolved in an undemocratic manner. The unilateral decision has once again exposed the government's step-motherly treatment of Marathi-speaking people of Belagavi district", he added.

No developments on this particular litigation have been reported since its announcement.<ref>{{cite news|title = Karnataka government to be sued for dissolving civic body|url = http://in.news.yahoo.com/051123/43/616he.html|publisher=Yahoo! India|access-date = 1 November 2006}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

====MES changes stance====
Fearing the dissolution of Belgaum taluk panchayat, the MES changed its stance and told the government that it had 'just discussed the issue and not passed a resolution'. All 22 members who were issued showcause notices provided the same response to the government notice. The members also asked the government not to take any action, including termination of the elected body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IEK20060328032156&Page=K&Title=Southern+News+-+Karnataka&Topic=0& |title=MES does volte-face |date=29 October 2006 |publisher=NewIndPress |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929092910/http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IEK20060328032156&Page=K&Title=Southern+News+-+Karnataka&Topic=0& |archive-date=29 September 2007 }}</ref>

===Maharashtra's petition in the Supreme Court===
In December 2005, attempts were also made by the Congress-led government at the centre to re-initiate discussions on the dispute between the Chief Ministers of Maharashtra and Karnataka and the Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]].<ref name=congress>{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/dec22005/index2015162005121.asp|title=Line up before PM, Sonia tells CMs|publisher=Deccan Herald|date=2 December 2005|access-date=14 August 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060808050055/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/dec22005/index2015162005121.asp|archive-date=8 August 2006|url-status=dead|df=dmy}}</ref> This effort proved futile as Karnataka continued to press for the implementation of the report and Maharashtra continued to stake its claim on Belgaum City and a few other parts of Karnataka.

Finally, on 15 March 2006, the Maharashtra government filed a petition in the Supreme Court of India, staking a claim over Belgaum City. It cited "the feeling of insecurity among the Marathi speaking people living in Karnataka, in the recent days".<ref name=rejected/> Belgaum district along with Belgaum city continues to be a part of Karnataka state while Maharashtra awaits the Supreme Court's verdict.

===2006 developments===
====Maharashtra demands that the border region be brought under the centre's rule====
Maharashtra asked that the 865 disputed villages including Belgaum be placed under the central government's rule until the Supreme Court's final verdict. N.D Patil, the head of the legal committee appointed by the Maharashtra government, said that [[Karnataka]] is intensifying the problem. He added that Marathi people of border region are not able to live with honour and dignity under Karnataka's rule pointing to the 'unconstitutional' dissolution of Belgaum municipal council and manhandling of Belgaum mayor by Kannada activists in Bengaluru.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://maharashtratimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1324999.cms |title=Bring border region under centre's rule until problem is solved |access-date=29 October 2006 |date=9 December 2005|work=Maharashtra Times|language=mr }} {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}</ref>

====Karnataka Government's Assembly session====
On 25 September 2006, amidst vociferous protests by MES, the Karnataka state government convened a five-day Assembly session, for the first time outside capital Bengaluru, in Belgaum to assert its hold over the city.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.financialexpress.com/fe_full_story.php?content_id=142794|title= Belgaum in the limelight as border dispute hots up|author = Jaishankar Jayaramiah|date = 9 October 2006|access-date = 24 October 2006}} {{Dead link|date=September 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The Karnataka Government declared that Belgaum will be made Karnataka's second capital but subsequently Karnataka home minister denied it.<ref>{{Cite web|title=News: Latest & Breaking News, Latest News Headlines|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/|access-date=2022-03-27|website=Deccan Herald|language=en}}</ref> The Chief Minister H D Kumaraswamy declared that the joint legislative session will be held every year in Belgaum, and a mini ''Vidhana Soudha'' (state secretariat) will be built in the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=74545|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130123122552/http://www.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=74545|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 January 2013|title=K'taka-Maha dispute over Belgaum intensifies|date=27 September 2006|access-date=24 October 2006}}</ref>

The Houses unanimously adopted a resolution, endorsing the Mahajan Commission report which declared Belgaum a part of Karnataka. This was the fifth time that Karnataka has passed such a resolution, the first being in 1967 when S Nijalingappa was the CM.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2026993.cms|title=K'taka gets a second capital|date=26 September 2006|access-date=24 October 2006|work=The Times of India}}</ref>

The [[Indian National Congress|Congress]], the opposition party at the time, dubbed the Belgaum session "a gimmick and a waste of funds". Ironically, the decision to hold the legislative session at Belgaum was taken by the previous Dharam Singh government, when Congress was in power.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newkerala.com/news4.php?action=fullnews&id=27109|title=Karnataka legislature session in Belgaum amid protests|date=25 September 2006|access-date=25 October 2006|archive-url= https://archive.today/20061116174516/http://www.newkerala.com/news4.php?action=fullnews&id=27109| archive-date= 16 November 2006 | url-status= live}}</ref>

====MES ''Mahamelava''====
On the same day that the Karnataka Assembly session convened in Belgaum, the MES organised a ''mahamelava'' ("The Great Meet-up"), which received a huge response. The ''mahamelava'' was attended by the Maharashtra deputy Chief Minister, [[R. R. Patil]] and many leaders from [[Shiv Sena (1966–2022)|Shiv Sena]], [[Nationalist Congress Party|NCP]] and MES. Speaking to a gathering of about 50,000 people, R.R. Patil stated that if Belgaum and other Marathi-speaking areas were not merged with Maharashtra there would be no alternative but to take to the streets.<ref name="hindu_marathiresponse">{{cite news|author = Lyla Bavadam|title = Marathi response|url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=20061020004913300.htm&date=fl2320/&prd=fline&|work = The Hindu|access-date = 1 November 2006|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071105014410/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=20061020004913300.htm&date=fl2320%2F&prd=fline&|archive-date = 5 November 2007|url-status = usurped|df = dmy-all}}</ref> R R Patil said that "public opinion cannot be changed by using police force. Never in world history has anyone been able to change public opinion through use of force". The convention was intended to send a strong message "to all concerned" that the 10 crore people of Maharashtra were with the Marathi-speaking populace of the border areas in their "struggle". The leaders ridiculed the Karnataka Government's assembly session and vowed to merge Belgaum and adjoining areas into Maharashtra.<ref>{{cite news|title = R.R Patil sends message to govt on border issue|url = http://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=418394|publisher = Outlook|date = 25 September 2006|access-date = 1 November 2006|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080413065635/http://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=418394|archive-date = 13 April 2008|df = dmy-all}}</ref>

The Karnataka Government condemned R R Patil's address. It announced that Belgaum (Belgaon in Marathi) will be renamed to Belagavi.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

====Karnataka ''bandh''====
Karnataka Border Agitation Committee, an umbrella body of pro-Kannada outfits, called a statewide ''[[bandh]]'' in Karnataka in October 2006 to press for the implementation of Mahajan Commission report and to protest what the organisers called "step-motherly" treatment of the state by the centre. The Karnataka Chief Minister H D Kumaraswamy's appeal to call off the bandh was turned down by the organizers. BJP and JD(S), the ruling coalition partners in Karnataka extended their support to the bandh. The bandh affected normal life in [[Bangalore|Bengaluru]] and other parts of Karnataka.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2082913.cms|title=India's IT hub hit by bandh Add to Clippings|date=4 October 2006|access-date=24 October 2006|work=The Times of India}}</ref>

The bandh was total in most parts of [[Karnataka]] except coastal districts and [[Tumkur|Tumakuru]]. In Bangalore, the bandh was total and incident free.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/05/stories/2006100505430600.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001063744/http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/05/stories/2006100505430600.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 October 2007|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=Karnataka bandh total, peaceful|date=29 October 2006 }}</ref> [[Information technology]] and [[Business process outsourcing|BPO]] industries in [[Bangalore]] closed their facilities for the day, especially due to non-availability of public transport and disruption of traffic by activists supporting the bandh. Kannada Rakshana Vedike members allegedly tore [[Marathi language|Marathi]] signboards and saffron flags and forced the residents of Belgaum to close their businesses. MES alleged that the Karnataka bandh was backed by Karnataka Police. Karnataka Police later arrested many Marathi residents, who expressed displeasure as the police did not take action against Kannada chauvinists. Maharashtra home minister R.R.Patil warned that torture against Marathi speakers would result in an equivalent response by them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pudhari.com/Archives/oct06/05/index.HTML|title=Kannadigas disrupt Belgaum!|date=5 October 2006|access-date=26 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061121075741/http://www.pudhari.com/Archives/oct06/05/index.HTML|archive-date=21 November 2006|url-status=dead|df=dmy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pudhari.com/Archives/oct06/05/Link/rajyavartaE.htm|title=Maharashtrians will fight Karnataka's injustice with the same zest: R.R.Patil|date=5 October 2006|access-date=26 October 2006}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

====Yuva''melava''====
Maharashtra Ekikaran Samiti organised a youth convention at [[Khanapur]]a on 26 October 2006. It was well received and attended by Maharashtra's leader of opposition, Ramdas Kadam and state minister, Hassan Mushrif. Marathi residents in the border region once again resolved to merge with Maharashtra. Kadam warned [[Karnataka]] that atrocities against Maharashtrians will result in a similar response against [[Kannadigas]] in Maharashtra.

MES leaders said the success of ''mahamelava'' forced Karnataka to cancel its decision to make Belgaum the second capital.<ref name="Yuva_mes" /> The situation was tense in Khanapura because of the violence that erupted when MES activists tried to remove Kannada boards from shops. The posters and boards [[Marathi language|Marathi]] youth were carrying in the name of the Melava portrayed Kannadigas in poor light.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IEK20061027032357&Title=Southern+News+-+Karnataka&rLink=0 |title=Belgaum meet turns violent |date=29 October 2006 |publisher=NewIndPress |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929103325/http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IEK20061027032357&Title=Southern+News+-+Karnataka&rLink=0 |archive-date=29 September 2007 }}</ref> Violence was sparked when attendants clashed with police during the event. Police had to resort to lathis and shells to disperse the mob when the youth pelted stones at police. More than 50 people were injured and about 25 vehicles were damaged.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kannada.oneindia.com/news/2006/10/27/mes.html|title=Tension in Khanapur town as MES holds convention|date=27 October 2006 |work=OneIndia |language=kn }}</ref> Police allegedly went from house to house to search for and book miscreants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://esakal.com/esakal/10272006/915110CB00.htm |title=Violence in Khanapur youth-convention |date=27 October 2006 |publisher=Sakal |language=mr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007012112/http://esakal.com/esakal/10272006/915110CB00.htm |archive-date=7 October 2007 }}</ref> MES activists tried to set buses on fire on two occasions, and threw stones at people and shops.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kannadaprabha.com/pdf/epaper.asp?pdfdate=10/27/2006|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120712184147/http://kannadaprabha.com/pdf/epaper.asp?pdfdate=10/27/2006|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 July 2012|title=Violence in MES convention|date=27 October 2006 |publisher=Kannadaprabha|language=kn }}</ref> The situation was also tense in Macche and Ganebail near [[Belgaum]] as some pro-Maharashtrians hurled stones at the vehicles coming from Khanapura.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> The police beat up participants in MES Yuvamelava and arrested MES leaders and [[Marathi language|Marathi]] speakers to ensure a peaceful '[[Rajyotsava]] day' which MES planned to mark as a "Black Day".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pudhari.com/Archives/oct06/28/Link/stbelgaonA.htm|title=Ban on 1 November rally? Authorities worried about peaceful Rajyotsava|date=28 October 2006|publisher=Daily Pudhari|language=mr}} {{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The police department framed charges against Ramdas Kadam, opposition leader of Maharashtra assembly and several other Marathi leaders for making inflammatory speeches against Karnataka and Kannadigas at the Yuva Melava. The police booked cases against Ramdas Kadam under section 153, 153(A), [[Indian Penal Code|Indian Penal Code (IPC)]], which would put Kadam in jail for 3 years if convicted. Similar charges were framed against Nitin B Patil from [[Satara (city)|Satara]]. As many as 85 people responsible for violence including MES working president Deepak Dalvi, were sent to 14-day judicial custody.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IEK20061028012402&Page=K&Title=Southern+News+-+Karnataka&Topic=0& |title=Opposition leader, professor booked for Khanapur violence |date=30 October 2006 |publisher=NewIndPress |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929092230/http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IEK20061028012402&Page=K&Title=Southern+News+-+Karnataka&Topic=0& |archive-date=29 September 2007 }}</ref>

===Hearing of the Supreme Court===
{{update section|date=August 2018}}
The Supreme Court began its hearing on Maharashtra's petition on 17 January 2007.

==Recent (2022- )==
In December 2022, [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)|Union Minister of Home Affairs]], [[Amit Shah]] held meeting with both State's Chief Ministers. Both states agreed to form joint panel to see the issue. The Joint panel will include 6 observing ministers (3 from each state).<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Amit Shah reined in Maharashtra, Karnataka warring over Belagavi |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/how-amit-shah-reined-in-maharashtra-karnataka-warring-over-belagavi-2310627-2022-12-18 |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=India Today |date=18 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

While a separate committee headed by an IAS officer will monitor law and order in the [[Belagavi district|district]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Amit Shah reined in Maharashtra, Karnataka warring over Belagavi |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/how-amit-shah-reined-in-maharashtra-karnataka-warring-over-belagavi-2310627-2022-12-18 |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=India Today |date=18 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

On 27 December 2022, [[Maharashtra Legislative Assembly]] passed a unanimous resolution over border dispute with Karnataka. The resolution includes [[Belgaum]], [[Nipani|Nippani]], [[Karwar]], [[Bidar]], [[Bhalki]] cities with 865 Marathi-speaking villages of Karnataka to be part of Maharashtra and for this Maharashtra Government will pursuit legal proceedings in Supreme Court.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-27 |title=Every inch is part of Maharashtra: Eknath Shinde govt passes resolution on Belgaum border dispute |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/videos/times-now/india/every-inch-is-part-of-maharashtra-eknath-shinde-govt-passes-resolution-on-belgaum-border-dispute-video-96540135 |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=TimesNow |language=en}}</ref>

On Friday (February 21, 2025), NWKRTC bus conductor was assaulted after he asked a passenger to speak in Kannada.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first=|date=2025-02-23 |title=Karnataka-Maharashtra border remains tense as language row escalates; Ramalinga Reddy to visit Belagavi today |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/assault-on-nwkrtc-conductor-ramalinga-reddy-to-visit-belagavi-on-february-24/article69255505.ece |access-date=2025-02-24 |work=[[The Hindu]] |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> According to the police, the passenger in question, a college student, is a minor girl. The driver of the bus was also assaulted. The incident led to disruption in bus services between Karnataka and Maharashtra, with Kannada outfits in Karnataka and Shiv Sena activists on the Maharashtra side of the border protesting.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-02-23 |title=Maharashtra-Karnataka clash: Bus conductor assaulted, slapped with Pocso case after language row |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/maharashtra-karnataka-clash-bus-conductor-assaulted-slapped-with-pocso-case-after-language-row/articleshow/118488131.cms |access-date=2025-02-24 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051126044339/http://www.hindu.com/2005/11/24/stories/2005112406591100.htm Belagavi merger: flogging a dead horse]

{{coord missing|Karnataka|Maharashtra}}

{{Karnataka}}
{{Maharashtra}}

[[Category:Belagavi district]]
[[Category:History of Karnataka (1947–present)]]
[[Category:History of Maharashtra (1947–present)]]
[[Category:Inter-state disputes in India]]
[[Category:Internal territorial disputes of India]]
[[Category:Politics of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Politics of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Reorganisation of Indian states]]

Kishanganj, Madhepura Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T08:36:21Z

Tumita7029: Made initial article w/ sources.

{{Short description|Former constituency of the Bihar legislative assembly in India}}
{{For|constituency with the same name in [[Purnia division]]|Kishanganj Assembly constituency (disambiguation){{!}}Kishanganj Assembly constituency}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Kishanganj
| type = SLA
| map_image =
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
| state = [[Bihar]]
| district = [[Madhepura district|Madhepura]]
| division =
| loksabha_cons = [[Madhepura Lok Sabha constituency|Madhepura]]
| constituency_no =
| established = 1977
| reservation =
| abolished = 2008
| electors =
}}
'''Kishanganj Assembly constituency''' was an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in [[Madhepura district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Bihar]]. It was reserved for [[Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes|Scheduled castes]].

As a consequence of the orders of the [[Delimitation Commission of India]], [[Kishanganj, Bihar Assembly constituency|Kishanganj Assembly constituency]] ceased to exist in 2010.<ref name=commission>{{cite web|url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |title = Schedule – XIII of Constituencies Order, 2008 of Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008 of the Election Commission of India|work= Schedule VI Bihar, Part A – Assembly constituencies, Part B – Parliamentary constituencies |access-date = 2011-01-10 }}</ref>

It was part of [[Madhepura Lok Sabha constituency]].

==Results==
===1977-2005===
In the [[Bihar Assembly Election, Oct 2005|October 2005]] and [[Bihar Assembly Election, Feb 2005|February 2005 state assembly elections]], Renu Kumari of [[Janata Dal (United)|JD(U)]] won the Kishanganj assembly seat defeating her nearest rival Prof. Rabindra Charan Yadav, Independent/ [[Rashtriya Janata Dal|RJD]]. Contests in most years were multi cornered but only winners and runners are being mentioned. Prof. Rabindra Charan Yadav of RJD/ [[Janata Dal|JD]] defeated Md. Abdul Sattar of JD(U) in 2000, Jai Krishna Mehta of [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] in 1995, and Maheshwar Mehta of Congress in 1990. Rajnandan Prasad of [[Lok Dal|LD]] defeated Singheshwar Mehta of Congress in 1985. Singheshwar Mehta of Congress defeated Rajnandan Prasad of Janata Party (Secular – Charan Singh) in 1980. Rajnandan Prasad of [[Janata Party|JP]] defeated Bishnudeo Singh, Independent, in 1977.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://eci.gov.in/eci_main/electionanalysis/AE/S04/partycomp122.htm |title = 122 - Kishanganj Assembly Constituency |work = Partywise Comparison Since 1977 | publisher = Election Commission of India|access-date = 2011-01-15 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Coord|25.677|N|86.943|E|display=title|format=dms|}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Bihar}}
{{Kosi Division topics}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Bihar]]
[[Category:Politics of Madhepura district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1977]]
[[Category:1977 establishments in Bihar]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 2010]]
[[Category:2010 disestablishments in India]]

Vahisvaramudayar Temple, Malayadipatti

2026-04-16T01:00:03Z

Tumita7029: Added A Place

{{short description|Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu, India}}
'''Vahisvaramudayar Temple''' is a [[Hindu]] temple dedicated to the deity [[Shiva]], located at Malayadippatti in [[Kulathur taluk]] of [[Pudukkottai district]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], India.

==Location==
This cave temple is located at a distance of 33 km from Pudukottai, in Killukkottai.<ref name=pdk>புதுக்கோட்டை மாவட்டத் திருக்கோயில்கள் பயணியர் கையேடு, இந்து சமய அறநிலைய ஆட்சித்துறை, சென்னை, 2003</ref>

==Cave temples==
In Malayadippatti, two cave temples are found. While one is devoted for Shiva another is devoted for [[Pallikonda Perumal Temple, Malayadippatti|Vishnu]].<ref name=raja>Dr.J.Raja Mohamad, Art of Pudukottai (Art and Architecture), Historical Archives Committee, Pudukottai, 2003</ref> This is a twin temple.<ref name=dinamalar>[https://temple.dinamalar.com/en/new_en.php?id=1461 Ranganathar Temple, Dinamalar Temples]</ref> Shiva temple is known as Vahisvaramudayar Temple and Vishnu temple is known as [[Pallikonda Perumal Temple, Malayadippatti|Pallikonda Perumal Temple]].

==Presiding deity==
The presiding deity is known as Vahisvaramudayar. The goddess is known as Periyanlayaki.<ref name=pdk/>

==Specialities==
In one cave both [[Shiva]] and [[Pallikonda Perumal Temple, Malayadippatti|Vishnu]] Temples are found. This is Shiva temple. In this temple inscription of Nandivarma Pallava, 775-826 C.E., is found. From this inscription it is learnt that this temple was built around 730 C.E. by Kuvaavan Satthan who is also known as Vitel Vidugu Muttharayan.<ref name=pdk/>

==Puja==
[[Pujas]] are held four times daily at Kalasanthi (7.00 a.m.), Uttchikkalam (noon 12.00), Sayaratchai (6.00 p.m.) and arthajamam (8.30 p.m.).The temple is opened for worship from 6.00 to 12.00 noon and 5.00 to 8.00 p.m.<ref name=pdk/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://wikimapia.org/#lang=en&lat=10.689285&lon=78.880463&z=13&m=b விக்கிமேப்பியாவில் மலையடிப்பட்டி வாகீஸ்வரமுடையார் கோயில் அமைவிடம்]
{{Hindu temples in Pudukkottai district}}
{{coord missing|Tamil Nadu}}

[[Category:Hindu temples in Pudukkottai district]]
[[Category:Rock-cut architecture of India]]
[[Category:Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu]]

{{TamilNadu-hindu-temple-stub}}

Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya

2026-04-15T07:50:22Z

Tumita7029: adding new data added tags - done

{{Short description|Central university in Vadodara, Gujarat, India}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=November 2019}}
{{Advert|date=February 2021}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya
| former_name =
| image = Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya Logo.png
| image_size = 200px
| motto = {{lang|sa|adamyam utkṛṣṭatāyāḥ anusaraṇam}}
| mottoeng = ''Relentless Pursuit of Excellence''
| established = {{start date and age|2022}}
| type = [[Central university (India)|Central University]]
| endowment =
| undergrad =
| postgrad =
| address =
| city = [[Vadodara]]
| state = [[Gujarat]]
| country = [[India]]
| campus = [[Urban area|Urban]]
| website = {{URL|https://gsv.ac.in/}}
| other_name =
| chancellor = [[Ministry of Railways (India)|Union Minister of Railways]]
| vice_chancellor = Dr. Manoj Choudhary
}}

'''Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya''' ('''GSV''') ''Formerly'' '''National Rail and Transportation Institute (NRTI)''', is a [[central university (India)|Central University]] located in [[Vadodara]], [[Gujarat]], India. GSV is India's first Transportation and Logistics University, which was created by an Act of Parliament in August 2022.

==History==
In 2017, the [[Union Council of Ministers|Cabinet of India]] led by [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Narendra Modi]] approved the setting up of India's first university exclusively focused on transport-related education, multidisciplinary research and training,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-12-20 |title=Cabinet approves setting up of India's first rail university in Gujarat |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/railways/cabinet-approves-setting-up-of-indias-first-rail-university-in-gujarat/articleshow/62183361.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-09-19 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> called National Rail and Transportation Institute (NRTI). It was established in 2018.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |date=2018-05-13 |title=UGC approves deemed-to-be university status for NRTI |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/ugc-approves-deemed-to-be-university-status-for-nrti/articleshow/64142132.cms |access-date= |work=The Times of India}}</ref>

In 2022, NRTI was subsumed by Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya.

==Course and curriculum==

List of Current Programs offered are as follows:

'''Technology Stream:'''

'''B.Tech. Programs (Regular Students):'''

* B.Tech. in Civil Engineering (Specialization: Rail Engineering)
* B.Tech. in Electronics and Communication Engineering (Specialization: Rail Engineering)
* B.Tech. in Mechanical Engineering (Specialization: Rail Engineering)
* B.Tech. in Electrical Engineering (Specialization: Rail Engineering)
* B.Tech. in Artificial Intelligence and Data Science (Specialization: Transportation and Logistics)
* B.Tech. in Aviation Engineering
* B.Tech. in Maritime Engineering

Internships at the end of every year is a part of our curriculum, that offer for practical exposure. In addition, all the undergraduate students compulsorily have to submit a thesis/project at the end of their degree.

'''M.Tech. Programs (Exclusively for Working Industry Professionals):'''

* M.Tech. in Intelligent Transport System
* M.Tech. in Railway Engineering
* M.Tech. in Bridge and Tunnel Engineering
* M.Tech. in Roads and Highway Engineering

'''Management Stream: MBA (Regular):'''

* MBA (Logistics and Supply Chain Management)
* MBA (Ports and Shipping Logistics)

'''MBA (Exclusively for Working Industry Professionals) :'''

* MBA (Logistics & Supply Chain Management)
* MBA (Multi-modal Transportation)
* MBA (Metro Rail Management)
* MBA (Aviation and Operations Management)

'''Ph.D. Programs (Exclusively for Working Industry Professionals) :'''

* Ph.D. in Engineering
* Ph.D. in Management

'''Further, additional programs are being conceived, based on stakeholders' inputs.'''

== University Logo ==
'''Elements of the logo design:'''

* Symbols representing all modes of transportation ('''Land, Water, Air'''), showcasing the transportation sector (Railways, Roads and Highways, Metro, Aviation, Aerospace, Ports, Shipping, Maritime, Waterways, etc.)

* The "'''Banyan Tree'''" or "Vad Vriksha" from '''Vadodara''', symbolizing both '''knowledge and sustainability'''.

* A '''continuous "wheel" of progress''', depicting momentum and innovation.

* The Sanskrit ''śloka'' "अदम्यम् उत्कृष्टतायाः अनुसरणम्", translating to “'''Relentless Pursuit of Excellence'''”

== Admissions ==
'''Eligibility and Process'''

For '''Regular Students''', admissions to the university are only offered through following ways:

* '''For B. Tech. -''' Admissions will be offered via a national-level i.e. [[Joint Entrance Examination|JEE]] (Main), while allocation of seats will be through JOSAA and CSAB.
* '''For MBA -''' Admissions will be offered via [[Common Admission Test|CAT]], [[Management Aptitude Test|MAT]], [[XLRI Admission Test|XAT]], [[Common University Entrance Test|CUET - PG]] conducted by [[National Testing Agency]] (NTA)
* '''For''' '''Working Professionals''' - GSV conducts its own Entrance test followed by Personal interviews.
Being a Central university, GSV follows Government Regulations with respect to reservations.

For eligibility and application process, please head to our official website https://gsv.ac.in/admission/ to apply for the academic programes.

== Faculty and Students ==
At this moment GSV has approximately '''40 Regular''' and around '''50 Visiting Faculty'''. Further, it is constantly striving to attract more from the talent pool available in Industry and Academic Institutions countrywide.

As of September 2025, a total of around '''1070 students''' are pursuing their higher studies with GSV under B. Tech., MBA, M. Tech. and Ph.D programs. The students are from 22 different states of India, reflecting true diversity of the nation.

== Collaborations ==
Being an Innovation-led and Industry-driven University for creating, assimilating and imparting excellence of knowledge and actions accelerating development in the transport and logistics sectors, GSV has collaborated with various industry players to foster formidable and unparalleled Industry-Academia relations to help propel young minds toward building a Viksit Bharat by 2047.

A representative List of the collaboration are as follows:

* Airbus
* SAP
* CII
* DPIIT
* Karmayogi Bharat
* DFCCIL
* CONCOR
* Nokia
* Plasser India
* Jacobs
* Nippon Koei
* Indian Army
* Indian Air Force
* Indian Navy
* Delhi Metro Rail Corporation
* Indian Maritime University
* Monash University, Australia
* St. Petersburg State Transport University, Russia
* IIT - Mumbai
* IIT - Gandhinagar
* IIT - Jodhpur
* BITS Pilani

== Timeline ==
* Aug 2022: Established as a Central University by the act of Parliament.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lok Sabha passes Central Universities (Amendment), Bill 2022 |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1848087 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250225151105/https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1848087 |archive-date=2025-02-25 |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Universities in Gujarat}}
{{Indian Railways}}

[[Category:Training institutes of Indian Railways]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Vadodara]]
[[Category:2018 establishments in Gujarat]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges established in 2018]]
[[Category:Central universities in Gujarat|Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya]]

Sanjiv Kumar (Uttar Pradesh politician)

2026-04-12T00:40:56Z

Tumita7029: Added Bio

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{About|the politician from Uttar Pradesh|other people with the same name|Sanjiv Kumar (disambiguation){{!}}Sanjiv Kumar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Sanjeev Kumar
| image =
| caption =
| office = Member of [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Obra, Uttar Pradesh|Obra]], [[Sonbhadra]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1975|06|06}}
| birth_place = Billi Markundi, Sonbhadra, [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| spouse = Lila Devi
| term_start = 2017
}}

'''Sanjeev Kumar''' is an Indian politician and a member of 17th Legislative Assembly, [[Uttar Pradesh]] of India. He represents the [[Obra, Uttar Pradesh|Obra]] (reserved) constituency in [[Sonbhadra]] district of [[Uttar Pradesh]]. He is a member of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://myneta.info/uttarpradesh2017/candidate.php?candidate_id=5652|title=Myneta, Election Watch}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news18.com/news/politics/obra-election-results-2017-sanjiv-kumar-of-bjp-wins-1358889.html|title=Sanjiv Kumar of BJP Wins}}</ref>

==Political career==
Sanjeev Kumar has been an activist of the [[Bhartiya Janata Party]]. In the [[Uttar Pradesh]] assembly election held in 2017, he defeated his close contestant Ravi Gond from [[Samajwadi Party]] with a margin of 44,269 votes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://docs2.myneta.info/affidavits/ews3uttarpradesh2017/5652/SANJIV%20KUMAR.PDF|title=Sanjeev Kumar Affidavit, Myneta}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.india.com/assembly-election-2017/uttar-pradesh/obra/|title=Obra Assembly Election Results 2017}}</ref>

==Posts held==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! # !! From !! To !! Position !! Comments
|-
| 01 || 2017 || Incumbent || Member, [[17th Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh|17th Legislative Assembly]] ||
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Portal bar|India|Politics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kumar, Sanjiv}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2017–2022]]
[[Category:People from Sonbhadra district]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:1975 births]]

{{UttarPradesh-BJP-politician-stub}}

Manilal Vaghela

2026-04-10T20:22:35Z

Tumita7029:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Manilal Vaghela
|office = Former [[Member of Legislative assembly]] of [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]]
|term_start = 2012
|term_end = 2017
|successor = [[Jignesh Mevani]]
|birth_date =
|death_date =
|death_place =
|party = [[Indian National Congress]] (until 2021) [[Bhartiya Janata Party]] (2022–present)
|constituency = [[Vadgam (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Vadgam]]
}}
'''Manilal Jethabhai Vaghela''' is an Indian politician from [[Gujarat]].

==Political career==
Vaghela was elected as a member of the [[Gujarat Legislative Assembly]] from [[Vadgam (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Vadgam]] in 2012 as a candidate of the [[Indian National Congress]] (INC). When the INC supported independent candidate [[Jignesh Mevani]] from Vadgam in [[2017 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election]], he was moved to contest as an INC candidate from [[Idar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Idar]], where he was defeated. He resigned from INC in November 2021 and joined the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) in April 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |agency=PTI |date=2022-04-24 |title=Ex-Congress MLA Manilal Vaghela joins BJP ahead of Gujarat Assembly polls |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/ex-congress-mla-manilal-vaghela-joins-bjp-ahead-of-gujarat-assembly-polls/article65350914.ece |access-date=2022-05-09 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-01 |title=Arundhati Roy: Arundhati Roy donates Rs 3 lakh to Jignesh Mevani's campaign |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/arundhati-roy-donates-rs-3-lakh-to-mevanis-campaign/articleshow/61871035.cms |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=The Times of India}}</ref> He contested [[2022 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election]] from Vadgam as a BJP candidate but was defeated by his nearest rival, and INC candidate Jignesh Mevani.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ગુજરાત વિધાનસભા ચૂંટણી પરિણામઃ કોંગ્રેસના સૂપડા સાફ, માંડ 17 સીટ જીતી, આપ પાર્ટીનો 5 બેઠક પર વિજય |url=https://gujarati.indianexpress.com/gujarat/gujarat-election-result-2022-congress-winner-only-17-seats-aap-party-gets-5-seat/28453/ |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=Indian Express Gujarati |language=gu-IN}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vaghela, Manilal}}
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Gujarat MLAs 2012–2017]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{Gujarat-politician-stub}}

Manipal-Tata Medical College, Jamshedpur

2026-04-07T15:14:39Z

Tumita7029: Done!

{{Short description|Medical College in Jharkhand, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Manipal-Tata Medical College
| image =
| image_size = 200px
| motto =
| established = {{start date and age|2020}}
| type = Private
| dean = Dr. Harish Chander Bandhu
| director = Dr. Rajiva Dwivedi

| students = '''Totals:'''
* MBBS - 200
| address = Kadani Road
| city = [[Jamshedpur]]
| state = [[Jharkhand]]
| postcode =
| coordinates =
| affiliation = [[Manipal Academy of Higher Education]], [[National Medical Commission|NMC]]
| website = https://manipal.edu/mtmc-jamshedpur.html
}}

'''Manipal-Tata Medical College, Jamshedpur''', established in 2020, is a private [[medical college]] located in [[Jamshedpur]], [[Jharkhand]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Manipal-Tata Medical College in Jamshedpur|date=8 February 2022 |url=https://avenuemail.in/hope-manipal-tata-medical-college-provides-best-education-saryu/|access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref> It is one of the first medical colleges in private-private partnerships in India.<ref>{{cite web|title=MAHE Partners with TATA Steel to open Manipal Tata Medical College|url=https://educationasia.in/notice-details/mahe-partners-with-tata-steel-to-open-manipal-tata-medical-college|access-date=9 August 2022}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Manipal-Tata Medical College is affiliated with [[Tata Main Hospital (TMH)]] for ([[Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery|MBBS]]) courses and has an annual intake capacity of 200.

Apart from MBBS, MTMC also offers B.Sc. and M.Sc. programs in Allied Health Sciences (AHS),<ref>{{cite web|title=Allied Health Sciences Programs – Manipal Tata Medical College, Jamshedpur | url=https://www.manipal.edu/mtmc-jamshedpur/program-list/allied-health-sciences.html |website=Manipal Academy of Higher Education |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> in accordance with the [[National Commission of Allied Healthcare Professions]].<ref>{{cite web
|title=National Commission for Allied and Healthcare Professions
|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Commission_for_Allied_and_Healthcare_Professions
|website=Wikipedia |access-date=30 March 2026}}</ref> The AHS programs are offered in Cardiovascular Technology, [[Clinical Psychology]], Medical Laboratory Technology, Medical Imaging Technology, Renal Replacement Therapy & Dialysis Technology, Exercise & Sports Sciences, Health Information Management and Optometry under the aegis of [[Manipal College for Health Professions]], [[Manipal Academy of Higher Learning]], [[Manipal]] - 576104, [[Karnataka]], [[India]]. The college is affiliated with the [[Manipal Academy of Higher Education]] and recognized by the [[National Medical Commission]].<ref>{{cite web|title=List of Colleges, National Medical Commission|url=https://www.nmc.org.in/information-desk/for-students-to-study-in-india/list-of-college-teaching-mbbs/|access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref>

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|

*[[List of hospitals in India]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Medical colleges in Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Hospitals in Jharkhand]]
[[Category:Hospitals in Jamshedpur]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Jamshedpur]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges established in 2020]]

{{med-org-stub}}

Neethaane En Ponvasantham (soundtrack)

2026-04-06T13:57:31Z

Tumita7029: Page!

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2013}}
{{Infobox album
| name = Neethaane En Ponvasantham
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| cover = NEP TAMIL Artwork.jpeg
| alt =
| caption = Album cover
| released = 1 September 2012
| recorded = 2011–2012
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 42:00
| language = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| label = [[Sony Music India]]
| producer = [[Ilaiyaraaja]]
| prev_title = [[Mayilu]]
| prev_year = 2012
| next_title = [[Yeto Vellipoyindhi Manasu]]
| next_year = 2012
}}

'''''Neethaane En Ponvasantham''''' is the soundtrack album, composed by [[Ilaiyaraaja]], to the [[India]]n [[romance film]] [[Neethaane En Ponvasantham|of the same name]], directed by [[Gautham Vasudev Menon]] that stars [[Jiiva]] and [[Samantha Ruth Prabhu|Samantha]]. The album features eight tracks, with lyrics penned by [[Na. Muthukumar]]. The album was one of the most anticipated musicals of 2012 in Tamil cinema.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Samantha-says-Ilayaraja-is-great/articleshow/12935048.cms|title=Samantha says Ilayaraja is great| newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=30 April 2012 |accessdate=1 May 2012}}</ref> The production house sold the musical rights at an altitudinous price of {{INRConvert|20|m|lk=}}, setting a record price for audio rights acquirement which were sold to [[Sony Music India]].<ref name="auto1">{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-12/news-interviews/32193903_1_sony-music-audio-rights-santhanam |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130104025413/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-06-12/news-interviews/32193903_1_sony-music-audio-rights-santhanam |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 January 2013 |title=Sony Music acquires Neethane Enn Ponvasantham| newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=12 June 2012 |accessdate=17 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/2-crore-for-NEP-audio-rights/articleshow/13065333.cms|title=2 crore for NEP audio rights!| newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=10 May 2012 |accessdate=10 May 2012}}</ref> It was released during a live concert on 1 September 2012. The film's Telugu version, ''[[Yeto Vellipoyindhi Manasu]]'', also directed by Gautham Menon, reuses the same soundtrack.

==Development==
Menon approached [[Ilaiyaraaja]] to compose music for the film.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/70694.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924130337/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/70694.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 September 2011 |title=Gautham's does it for second time in 'Neethane En Ponvasantham' – Tamil Movie News |website=IndiaGlitz |date=7 September 2011 |accessdate=2012-09-28}}</ref> The film marked the first-time collaboration of Menon and Ilaiyaraaja.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-08-20/news-interviews/33286555_1_ilaiyaraaja-neethane-en-ponvasantham-yuvan-shankar-raja |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103102221/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-08-20/news-interviews/33286555_1_ilaiyaraaja-neethane-en-ponvasantham-yuvan-shankar-raja |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 January 2013 |title=Why Gautham took on Raja! |date=20 August 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |accessdate=2012-09-28}}</ref> Menon further clarified that he had decided to rope in Ilaiyaraaja for ''Neethaane En Ponvasantham'', while working on the scriptment of the film already.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-news-1/aug-12-03/gautham-menon-jiiva-20-08-12.html |title=Why Nep And Ilayaraja? Gautham Menon Opens Up – Gautham Menon – Jiiva – Samantha – Neethane En Ponvasantham – Neethane En Ponvasantham Teaser – Ilayaraja – Tamil Movie News |website=Behindwoods.com |date=20 August 2012 |accessdate=2012-09-28}}</ref> 7 singers have lent their voices for the songs, including composer [[Ilaiyaraaja]], [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], Raaja's son [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]], [[N. S. Krishnan]]'s grand daughter [[Ramya NSK]], [[Suraj Jagan]], [[Sunidhi Chauhan]] and [[Bela Shende]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The MAESTRO'S MAGIC continues|url=http://www.thehindu.com/arts/cinema/article3854443.ece|accessdate=7 September 2012|work=The Hindu}}</ref>

Ilaiyaaraja instantaneously composed the songs on [[Pump organ|harmonium]] with the singers in [[Chennai]]. In London, the rest of the recording with the background score was completed at [[Angel Recording Studios]] for which Anglo-Indian Music Productions was hired, providing singers, a 108-piece orchestra and percussion.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.firstpost.com/photos/ilayaraja-records-with-london-based-orchestra-for-tamil-film-261645.html |title=Ilayaraja records with London based orchestra for Tamil film |work=Firstpost |date=30 March 2012 |accessdate=12 August 2012}}</ref> The 108-piece live symphony orchestral music was revealed to be the opening part of a song.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.firstpost.com/bollywood/video-illayarajas-latest-melodies-for-tamil-film-ntepv-315322.html |title=Video: Ilaiyaraaja's latest melodies for Tamil film NTEPV |work=Firstpost |date=20 May 2012 |accessdate=22 May 2012}}</ref> A children's [[choir]] was also used as backing vocals in a song.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/gautham-records-with-ilayaraja-in-london-news-tamil-md0ma8jfdbb.html?ref=false |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108041845/http://www.sify.com/movies/gautham-records-with-ilayaraja-in-london-news-tamil-md0ma8jfdbb.html?ref=false |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 November 2017 |title=autham records with Ilayaraja in London |website=[[Sify]]|date=16 April 2012 |accessdate=17 April 2012}}</ref> Reports surfaced that the leading pair had lent their voices for the title track in the film,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/80774.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413145903/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/80774.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 April 2012 |title=Jiiva – Samantha to croon NEP title track! – Tamil Movie News |website=IndiaGlitz |date=11 April 2012 |accessdate=2012-09-28}}</ref> but the lead actress denied the rumour.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Dont-believe-in-rumors-about-Gauthams-film-Samantha/articleshow/12634655.cms|title=Don't believe in rumors about Gautham's film: Samantha| newspaper=The Times of India|date=12 April 2012 |accessdate=12 April 2012}}</ref> [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]] stated that he had sung two songs for the film and the respective Telugu version as well.<ref>L Romal M Singh (Wednesday, 20 June 2012, 20:29 IST). [http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report_karthik-just-karthik_1704578 "'Karthik, just Karthik!'"]. ''DNA-India''. Retrieved 30 June 2012, 20:32 IST.</ref> All lyrics were penned by [[Na. Muthukumar]], replacing film director Gautham Menon's usual associate lyricist [[Thamarai]] for the first time.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Gautham-Menons-choice-changed-for-NEPV/articleshow/12467995.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707014745/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-03-30/news-interviews/31260105_1_gautham-lyrics-pen |url-status=live |archive-date=7 July 2012 |title=Gautham Menon's choice changed for NEPV |date=30 March 2012 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=6 April 2012}}</ref>

The production house sold the musical rights at an altitudinous price of {{INRConvert|20|m}}, setting a record price of audio rights acquirement which were sold to [[Sony Music India]].<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto"/>

== Marketing ==
A short audio trailer featuring the instrumental part of a song with visuals depicting the director, the choir, the artistes and the music director during the recording sessions at Angel Recording Studios, London was released over the internet on 11 May 2012.<ref>{{cite news|date=11 May 2012|title=NEP's audio teaser out!|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-05-18/news-and-interviews/31765094_1_teaser-makers-nep-s|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103160847/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-05-18/news-and-interviews/31765094_1_teaser-makers-nep-s|archive-date=3 January 2013|url-status=dead|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=1 June 2012}}</ref> On 2 June 2012, coinciding with Ilaiyaraaja's 69th birthday, a short audio teaser of the song "Sayndhu Sayndhu Nee Paarkum Podhu" sung by [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]] was released over YouTube that received over fifty thousand playbacks in two days.<ref>{{cite web|date=4 June 2012|title=It is Ilayaraja, Gautham Menon and Yuvan Shankar Raja!|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-news-1/jun-12-01/isaignani-ilayaraja-gautham-menon-04-06-12.html|accessdate=5 June 2012|website=Behindwoods}}</ref> Nearly half-minute video teaser of the song was released online on 22 July 2012 by [[Sony Music India|Sony Music South]] via YouTube, sharing then through their official social networking pages.<ref>{{cite web|date=22 July 2012|title=The WAIT IS OVER!!|url=http://www.facebook.com/SonyMusicSouth/posts/339235186151747|accessdate=22 July 2012|publisher=Sony Music South on Facebook}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=October 2020}}<ref>{{cite news|date=20 July 2012|title=Saindhu Saindhu on Sunday|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Saindhu-Saindhu-on-Sunday/articleshow/15053927.cms|accessdate=20 July 2012}}</ref> On 14 August 2012 a forty second teaser preview of the song "Ennoda Vaa Vaa" crooned by singer [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]] was released on YouTube that garnered one lakh views in less than 48 hours.<ref>{{cite web|date=14 August 2012|title=Ennoda Vaa Vaa – Neethane En Ponvasantham Official New Song Teaser feat. Jiiva, Samantha|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tzzHHdktab0|accessdate=15 August 2012|work=[[Sony Music|Sony Music India]] Official YouTube Channel}}</ref>

==Release==

The album was released in a grand manner on 1 September 2012 at the [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Chennai|Jawaharlal Nehru Indoor Stadium, Chennai]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/nep-a-nostalgic-musical-night-from-gautham-menon-news-tamil-mjcrE9bjejd.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120903033248/http://www.sify.com/movies/nep-a-nostalgic-musical-night-from-gautham-menon-news-tamil-mjcrE9bjejd.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 September 2012 |title=NEP- A nostalgic musical night from Gautham Menon! | website= [[Sify]] |date=2 September 2012 |accessdate=2 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=23 August 2012|title=The countdown has begun: Two back to back days of gala celebration and legendary music on the 1st & 2nd of September.|url=https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=517220904970566&set=a.140874092605251.24415.138529366173057&type=1|accessdate=23 August 2012|publisher=[[Sony Music]] South via Facebook}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=January 2019}} Over one lakh audio CDs were booked in advance, prior to the audio launch.<ref>{{cite news|date=5 September 2012|title=Neethane En Ponvasantham audio sees record sales|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-09-05/news-interviews/33614655_1_rs-infotainment-nep-ilaiyaraaja|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103075133/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-09-05/news-interviews/33614655_1_rs-infotainment-nep-ilaiyaraaja|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|accessdate=13 September 2012}}</ref> Several noted film personalities were present at the event; directors [[K. Balachandar]], [[Bharathiraja]], [[Balu Mahendra]], [[P. Vasu]], [[Suresh Krissna|Suresh Krishna]], [[Venkat Prabhu]], [[Samuthirakani]] and [[R. Sundarrajan]], Ilaiyaraaja's sons and composers, [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]] and [[Karthik Raja]], actors [[Suriya (actor)|Suriya]], [[Karthi]], [[Jayam Ravi]] and [[Premji Amaren]] apart from the lead cast were among the attendees.<ref name="behindwoods1">{{cite web|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-events/Neethane-En-Ponvasantham-Audio-Launch-02-09-12.html|title=Raja Kayya Vecha… Adhu Wrong'a ponadhillae… | website=Behindwoods |date=2 September 2012 |accessdate=2 September 2012}}</ref> Gautham Menon hosted the event. The function featured a documentary on the composers, followed by instrumental renditions of some of Ilaiyaraaja's most popular compositions performed by a local orchestra. Selected songs from the soundtrack were first introduced by the main cast, director and actor Suriya and were later continued as stage performance by the respective singers.<ref name="behindwoods1"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/showbiz/kollywood/raja-captivate-fans-nep-audio-launch-424 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202151619/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/showbiz/kollywood/raja-captivate-fans-nep-audio-launch-424 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 February 2016 |title=Raja to captivate fans at NEP audio launch | newspaper=Deccan Chronicle |author = Anupama Subramanian|date=7 August 2012 |accessdate=8 August 2012}}</ref> The songs from the album were performed by Anglo-Indian Music Productions orchestra and the [[Hungarian National Philharmonic]] that was earlier chosen to work on the background score.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/regional/tamil/news-interviews/Raaja-on-a-Hungarian-note/articleshow/15892538.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130104195024/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-08-29/news-interviews/33451422_1_symphony-orchestra-isaignani-ilaiyaraaja-hungarian-national-philharmonic |url-status=live |archive-date=4 January 2013 |title=Raaja on a Hungarian note |date=29 August 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2012-09-28}}</ref> The audio launch function was telecast on 16 September 2012, 1430 hrs IST on [[Jaya TV]]. Parts of "Ennodu Va Va" were shown while singer Karthik was giving a live performance of the song.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/nep-a-nostalgic-musical-night-from-gautham-menon-news-tamil-mjcrE9bjejd.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120903033248/http://www.sify.com/movies/nep-a-nostalgic-musical-night-from-gautham-menon-news-tamil-mjcrE9bjejd.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 September 2012|title=NEP- A nostalgic musical night from Gautham Menon! | website=Sify Movies |date=2 September 2012 |accessdate=24 September 2012}}</ref>

== Track listing ==
The track list was revealed online on 29 August 2012.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ramchander|date=29 August 2012|title=Get Neethaane En Ponvasantham track list|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/tamil/news/2012/neethaane-en-ponvasantham-tracks-list-098632.html|access-date=30 August 2012|publisher=OneIndia Entertainment}}</ref>

{{track listing
| headline =
| extra_column = Artist(s)
| total_length = 42:00
| all_lyrics = [[Na. Muthukumar]]
| title1 = Kaatrai Konjam
| extra1 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]]
| length1 = 5:34
| title2 = Pudikale Maamu
| extra2 = [[Suraj Jagan]], Karthik
| length2 = 6:00
| title3 = Yennodu Vaa Va
| extra3 = Karthik
| length3 = 4:19
| note3 =
| title4 = Saayndhu Saayndhu
| extra4 = [[Yuvan Shankar Raja]], [[Ramya NSK]]
| length4 = 6:07
| title5 = Pengal Yendral
| extra5 = Yuvan Shankar Raja
| length5 = 4:06
| note5 =
| title6 = Mudhal Murai
| extra6 = [[Sunidhi Chauhan]]
| length6 = 3:55
| title7 = Sattru Munbu
| extra7 = Ramya NSK
| length7 = 5:57
| title8 = Vaanam Mella
| extra8 = [[Ilaiyaraaja]], [[Bela Shende]]
| length8 = 6:02
| note8 =
}}

==Reception==
{{Music ratings
| rev1 = Musicperk
| rev1Score = {{Rating|8.5|10}}<ref name="Musicperk.com">{{cite web|author=Sri Krishna|title=Neethane En Ponvasantham|url=http://www.musicperk.com/neethane-en-ponvasantham/|publisher=Musicperk|date=1 September 2012|access-date=2 September 2012|archive-date=3 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120903235949/http://www.musicperk.com/neethane-en-ponvasantham/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| rev2 = Music Aloud
| rev2Score = {{Rating|8.5|10}}<ref name="Music Aloud">{{cite web |author=Vipin|title=NEETHAANE EN PONVASANTHAM – MUSIC REVIEW (TAMIL MOVIE SOUNDTRACK) |url=http://www.musicaloud.com/2012/08/31/neethaane-en-ponvasantham-music-review-tamil-movie-soundtrack/ |publisher=Music Aloud|date=31 August 2012}}</ref>
| rev3 = Behindwoods
| rev3Score = {{Rating|3.5|5}}<ref name="Behindwoods">{{cite web|title=Neethaane En Ponvasantham perfect rendition of melody, trance |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-music-reviews/review-1/sep-12-01/neethaane-en-ponvasantham-music-review.html|website=Behindwoods|date=1 September 2012}}</ref>
| rev4 = Tamil Music Review
| rev4Score = {{Rating|8|10|score=7.8/10 stars}}<ref name="Tamil Music Review">{{cite web|title=Neethane En Ponvasantham Audio Review|url=http://movieblackbox.com/neethane-en-ponvasantham-music-review|publisher=Tamil Music Review|date=1 September 2012}}</ref>
| rev5 = Movie Black Box
| rev5Score = {{Rating|9|10|score=8.9/10 stars}}<ref name="MBox">{{cite web|title=Neethane en ponvasantham Music review |url=http://movieblackbox.com/neethane-en-ponvasantham-music-review|publisher=MBox|date=1 September 2012}}</ref>
}}
The soundtrack received positive reviews from music critics. ''Musicperk'' quoted, "A great musical from Raja after a long time. All hail the Maestro."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musicperk.com/neethane-en-ponvasantham/|author=Sri Krishna|title=Neethane En Ponvasantham|publisher=Musicperk|date=1 September 2012|access-date=2 September 2012|archive-date=3 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120903235949/http://www.musicperk.com/neethane-en-ponvasantham/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ''Milliblog'' called the soundtrack "every Raja fan's wet dream".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://itwofs.com/milliblog/2012/09/01/neethaane-en-ponvasantham-music-review-tamil-ilayaraja/ |title=Neethaane En Ponvasantham (Music review), Tamil – Ilayaraja |publisher=Milliblog! |date=1 September 2012 |accessdate=13 September 2012}}</ref> Music Aloud's review said – "A musical extravaganza was promised, and a musical extravaganza has been delivered."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.musicaloud.com/2012/08/31/neethaane-en-ponvasantham-music-review-tamil-movie-soundtrack/|title=Neethaane En Ponvasantham – Music Review|date=31 August 2012|work=Music Aloud|accessdate=1 September 2012}}</ref> ''Behindwoods'' said "It's a strong comeback for Ilaiyaraja and this has turned out to be another musical treat from Gautham Menon. A new superhit combo is born!!! [sic]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-music-reviews/review-1/sep-12-01/neethaane-en-ponvasantham-music-review.html |title=Neethaane En Ponvasantham Music Review – Neethaane En Ponvasantham Music Review |website=Behindwoods.com |accessdate=2012-09-28}}</ref> ''[[NDTV]]'' quoted "Neethaane En Ponvasantham perfect rendition of melody, trance" and said "You couldn't have asked for a better album. Pick up this album and get drenched in the musical shower".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/movie_story.aspx?section=Movies&Id=264260&keyword=regional&subcatg=MOVIESINDIA&nid=264260&pfrom=home-simplysouth |title=Neethaane En Ponvasantham perfect rendition of melody, trance |publisher=NDTV |date=7 September 2012 |accessdate=9 September 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Ilaiyaraaja}}{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Ilaiyaraaja soundtracks]]
[[Category:2012 soundtrack albums]]
[[Category:Sony Music India soundtracks]]
[[Category:Tamil film soundtracks]]

Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction – Kanpur section

2026-04-05T14:59:53Z

Tumita7029:

{{short description|Railway line in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox rail line
| box_width = 28em
| name = Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction – Kanpur section {{small|Mughalsarai–Kanpur section}}
| color = 800000
| logo = 
| logo_width = 100 px
| image = Train station in India (7554110486) (2).jpg
| image_width = 330
| caption = [[Prayagraj Junction railway station|Prayagraj Junction]] is an important railway station on Pt.DDU Junction–Kanpur section
| type =
| system =
| status = Operational
| locale = [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic Plain]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| start = {{stnlnk|Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction}}
| end = {{stnlnk|Kanpur Central}}
| stations =
| routes =
| daily_ridership =
| open = 1859 (partial, locally) 1866 (through main line)
| close =
| owner = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = [[North Central Railway zone|North Central Railway]] for main line [[North Eastern Railway zone|North Eastern Railway]] and [[Northern Railway zone|Northern Railway]] for certain branch lines
| character =
| depot = [[Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction]] and [[Kanpur Central railway station|Kanpur Central]]
| stock = [[Indian locomotive class WDM-2|WDM-2]], WDM-3A and WDS-5 diesel locos; [[Indian locomotive class WAM-4|WAM-4]], [[Indian locomotive class WAP-4|WAP-4]] and [[Indian locomotive class WAG-7|WAG-7]] electric locos
| linelength =
| tracklength = Main line: {{convert|346|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} Branch lines: Varanasi–Allahabad City {{convert|130|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} Varanasi–Phaphamau {{convert|122|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} Allahabad–Kanpur via Unnao {{convert|249|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}
| tracks =
| gauge = {{Track gauge|5ft6in|lk=on}} [[broad gauge]]
| old_gauge =
| minradius =
| racksystem =
| electrification = [[25 kV AC railway electrification|25 kV 50 Hz AC]] [[Overhead line|OHLE]] in 1968
| speed = {{cvt|130|km/h}}
| elevation =
| website =
| map = {{Mughalsarai–Kanpur section|inline=y}}
| map_state = collapsed
}}
The '''Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction – Kanpur section''', formerly '''Mughalsarai–Kanpur section''', officially '''Kanpur - Pt. Deen Dayal Upadhyay (CNB-DDU) section''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Detailed Project Report of "KAVACH" Works in CNB-DDU Section of North Central Railway, Mission Raftaar - 160 KMPH |date=2021 |work=North Central Railway, Prayagraj |url=https://ncr.indianrailways.gov.in/uploads/files/1646892992969-Kavach-B.pdf}}</ref> is a railway line connecting {{stnlnk|Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction}} (DDU) and {{stnlnk|Kanpur Central}} (CNB) stations. This {{convert|347|km|mi|0|abbr= on}} track is part of the [[Howrah–Delhi main line]] and [[Howrah–Gaya–Delhi line]]. The main line is under the jurisdiction of [[North Central Railway zone|North Central Railway]]. [[Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction]] is under the jurisdiction of [[East Central Railway zone|East Central Railway]]. Some branch lines are under the jurisdiction of the [[North Eastern Railway zone|North Eastern Railway]] and [[Northern Railway zone|Northern Railway]].

==Geography==
The main line was laid in the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic Plain]], south of the [[Ganges]].<ref>The Indian Empire – Its People, History and Products, by Sir William Wilson Hunter, page 546, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, First published 1886. {{OCLC|224519160}}.</ref><ref name=ian>{{cite web| url = http://www.irfca.org/articles/manning/kumaon.html |title = The Rohilkhand and Kumaon| first=Ian|last=Manning| publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 30 May 2013}}</ref> Between Naini and Prayagraj (Allahabad), it crosses the [[Yamuna]] and enters the [[doab]] region or the inland peninsula between the Ganges and Yamuna, still keeping south of the Ganges.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://ada.iiita.ac.in/documents/About%20Allahabad.pdf | title = History of Allahabad | access-date = 30 May 2013 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120314120807/http://ada.iiita.ac.in/documents/About%20Allahabad.pdf | archive-date = 14 March 2012 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Some branch lines came up on the northern side of the Ganges and got interlinked as bridges came up across the Ganges.<ref name=ian/>

Two places on these tracks are major pilgrimage centres – [[Prayagraj]] on the main line and [[Varanasi]], a little off the main line, on a branch line. Varanasi is connected by rail to places throughout India.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.trip-to-india.com/cities/varanasi-trip.html |title= Varanasi | publisher= Trip to India| access-date = 29 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.target-tours.com/pilgrimage-india/varanasi.html |title= Varanasi |publisher= Target Tours |access-date= 29 May 2013 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131207205915/http://target-tours.com/pilgrimage-india/varanasi.html |archive-date= 7 December 2013 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> The railways make special arrangements for the huge influx of pilgrims for the [[Kumbh Mela]] at Prayagraj.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/Railways-puts-in-place-arrangements-to-check-rush-of-Maha-Kumbh-pilgrims/articleshow/18666938.cms |archive-url= https://archive.today/20130629122046/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-02-25/allahabad/37288653_1_mela-specials-allahabad-railway-junction-special-trains |url-status= live |archive-date= 29 June 2013 |title= Railways puts in place arrangements to check rush of Maha Kumbh pilgrims|date=25 February 2013|work= [[The Times of India]] | access-date = 29 May 2013 }}</ref>

The railways played a major role in the development of [[Kanpur]] as an industrial centre.<ref>''Planning and Development of an Industrial Town: A Study of Kanpur'' by S.N.Singh, page 38, Mittal Publications, New Delhi. {{ISBN|978-81-7099-241-7}}</ref> The 1050 MW [[Feroze Gandhi Unchahar Thermal Power Plant]], in this section, consumed 5,022,000 tonnes of coal in 2006–07, which was transported by the railways.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/yearly/thermal_perfm_review_rep/0607/Section-9.pdf | title = Coal supply to various power stations | access-date = 21 May 2013 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140531090331/http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/yearly/thermal_perfm_review_rep/0607/Section-9.pdf | archive-date = 31 May 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

==History==
The [[East Indian Railway Company]] initiated efforts to develop a railway line from Howrah to Delhi in the mid nineteenth century. Even when the line to [[Mughalsarai]] was being constructed and only the lines near Howrah were put in operation, the first train ran from Allahabad (now Prayagraj) to Kanpur in 1859 and the Kanpur–Etawah section was opened to traffic in the 1860s. For the first through train from Howrah to Delhi in 1864, coaches were ferried on boats across the [[Yamuna]] at Allahabad. With the completion of the [[Old Naini Bridge]] across the Yamuna through trains started running in 1865–66.<ref name=irfcai>{{cite web| url = http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-hist.html |title = IR History: Early History (1832–1869) | publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 24 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ncr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,1,396,403,500| title = Allahabad Division: A Historical Perspective| publisher = North Central Railway| access-date = 24 May 2013| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130601154617/http://www.ncr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0%2C1%2C396%2C403%2C500| archive-date = 1 June 2013| df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Railways-enters-159th-year-of-its-journey/articleshow/12629710.cms | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120822142843/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-04-12/patna/31330356_1_indian-railways-danapur-division-railway-board | url-status = live | archive-date = 22 August 2012 |title = Railways enter 159th year of its journey|date=12 April 2012| work = [[The Times of India]] | access-date = 24 May 2013}}</ref>

In 1867, the [[Indian Branch Railway Company]] opened the Kanpur–Lucknow line.<ref name=irfcai/>

The [[Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway]] opened the line from Varanasi to Lucknow in 1872.<ref name=irfcaii/>

The construction of the [[Malviya Bridge|Dufferin Bridge]] (later renamed Malviya Bridge), across the [[Ganges]], in 1887, connected [[Mughalsarai]] and Varanasi.<ref name=irfcaii>{{cite web| url = http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-history2.html|title = IR History: Early Days II (1870-1899) | publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 24 May 2013}}</ref>

The opening of the Curzon Bridge, across the Ganges, in 1902, linked Allahabad to regions north of or beyond the Ganges.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/indiaofficeselect/PhotoShowDescs.asp?CollID=852 | title = India Office Select Materials | access-date = 24 May 2013 | archive-date = 5 March 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160305022012/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/indiaofficeselect/PhotoShowDescs.asp?CollID=852 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

The Varanasi–Allahabad City (Rambagh) line was constructed as a {{track gauge|1000mm}}-wide [[metre-gauge]] line by the Bengal and North Western Railway between 1899 and 1913. The line was converted to {{Track gauge|5ft6in|lk=on}} [[broad gauge]] in 1993–94.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://indianrailwaynotes.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/north-eastern-railway.pdf |title = Indian Railway History – North Eastern Railway| work= Former Bengal & North Western Railway lines|publisher= Wordpress| access-date = 24 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.ner.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,6,338,637 | title = Varanasi Division | publisher = North Eastern Railway | access-date = 24 May 2013 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140109151138/http://www.ner.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0%2C6%2C338%2C637 | archive-date = 9 January 2014 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

==Electrification==
Electrification in the Mughalsarai–Kanpur sector started in 1964–65 with the Mughalsarai–Dagmagpur section. In 1965–66, Mughalsarai Yard was electrified, along with the Dagmagpur–Cheoki and the Cheoki–Subedarganj sections. The Subedarganj–Manoharganj–Athasarai–Kanspur Gugauli–Panki and Chandari loops were electrified in 1966–67. Kanpur–Panki was electrified in 1968–69.<ref name= electric>{{cite web| url = http://irfca.org/docs/electrification-history.html|title = History of Electrification| publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 24 May 2013}}</ref> The entire Mughalsarai–Prayagraj–Kanpur section was electrified with AC overhead line in 1968.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-history4.html |title = IR History: IV (1947-1970) | publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 24 May 2013}}</ref>

The Kanpur–Kanpur Bridge–Unnao–Lucknow section was electrified in 1999–2000.<ref name= electric/>

The electrification work was completed in the Varanasi–Lohta–Janghai–Phaphamau–Unchahar and the Phaphamau–[[Prayag Junction railway station|Prayag]]–[[Prayagraj Junction railway station|Prayagraj Jn]] sections in early 2010s.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.core.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,294,302,532 |title = Brief on Railway Electrification| publisher= Central Organisation for Railway Electrification| access-date = 24 May 2013}}</ref>

==Sheds and workshops==
Mughal Sarai diesel loco shed is home to [[Indian locomotive class WDM-2|WDM-2]], WDM-3A and WDS-5 diesel locos. There was a Northern Railway diesel loco shed at Mughalsarai. It was decommissioned in 2001. Mughalsarai electric loco shed can hold more than 150 electric locos. Amongst them are [[Indian locomotive class WAM-4|WAM-4]], [[Indian locomotive class WAP-4|WAP-4]] and more than 70 [[Indian locomotive class WAG-7|WAG-7]] locos. Kanpur Central electric loco shed accommodates WAP-7, WAP-4, WAG-9 and WAG-7 electric locos.<ref name=sheds>{{cite web |url= http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-shed.html |title= Sheds and workshops|publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 29 May 2013 }}</ref>

The largest wagon repair workshop of Indian Railways is located at [[Mughalsarai]]. There are engineering workshops at Prayagraj.<ref name=sheds/>

==Marshalling yard==
Mughalsarai marshalling yard is the largest in Asia.<ref name=marshalling>{{cite web |url= http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-yard.html |title= Freight Sheds and Mashalling Yards |publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 29 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ecr.indianrailways.gov.in/uploads/files/1322119784210-Inf.pdf |title=General Information |publisher= East Central Railway| access-date = 29 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?210638 |title= Mughalsarai: Tracks to Nowhere|publisher= Outlook India, 8 January 2001| access-date = 29 May 2013 }}</ref> It is 12.5 km long and handles around 1,500 wagons daily. Wagon handling has come down after the railways discontinued piecemeal loading. At its peak, it handled 5,000 wagons a day.<ref name=marshalling/><ref>{{cite web |url= http://indianrailwayemployee.com/node/6016 |title= Marshalling Yards |publisher= Indian Railway Employee |access-date= 29 May 2013 |archive-date= 15 January 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130115212621/http://indianrailwayemployee.com/node/6016 |url-status= dead }}</ref>

==Speed limits==
The entire Howrah–Delhi line, via [[Howrah–Bardhaman chord]] and [[Grand Chord]] is classified as a "Group A" line which can take speeds up to 160 km/h.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/codesmanual/IRPWM/PermanentWayManualCh2_data.htm |title = Chapter II – The Maintenance of Permanent Way| publisher= IRFCA| access-date = 30 May 2013 }}</ref> However actual maximum permissible speed on Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction–Kanpur section is 130 km/h for Rajdhani, Shatabdi, Duronto, GR and a few Express trains.

==Passenger movement==
{{stnlnk|Mughalsarai Junction}}, {{stnlnk|Allahabad}} and {{stnlnk|Kanpur Central}} on the main line, and {{stnlnk|Varanasi Junction}} on a branch line are amongst the top hundred booking stations of Indian Railway.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianrail.gov.in/7days_Avl.html |title=Indian Railways Passenger Reservation Enquiry |work=Availability in trains for Top 100 Booking Stations of Indian Railways |publisher=IRFCA |access-date=30 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140510115649/http://www.indianrail.gov.in/7days_Avl.html |archive-date=10 May 2014 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Railways in Northern India}}

[[Category:5 ft 6 in gauge railways in India]]
[[Category:Railway lines in Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Railway lines opened in 1866]]
[[Category:1866 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya railway division|*]]
[[Category:Prayagraj railway division|*]]
[[Category:Transport in Mughalsarai]]
[[Category:Transport in Kanpur]]

Baldev Singh (ruler)

2026-03-29T21:16:48Z

Tumita7029: new bio

{{short description|Raja of Poonch from 1892 to 1918}}
{{infobox royalty
| title = Raja-i-Rajgan [[Raja]] Kalan Bahadur
| succession = [[Raja]] of [[Poonch Jagir|Poonch]]
| reign = {{circa|1892}} – 9 September 1918
| predecessor = [[Moti Singh (ruler)|Moti Singh]]
| successor = [[Sukhdev Singh (Raja of Poonch)|Sukhdev Singh]]
| death_date = 9 September 1918
}}
'''Baldev Singh''' was the [[Raja]] of [[Poonch Jagir|Poonch]] from 1892 until his death in 1918.

==Reign==
Upon the death of his father [[Moti Singh (ruler)|Moti Singh]] in 1892, he succeeded him as the [[Raja]] of [[Poonch Jagir|Poonch]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hutchison |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3btDw4S2FmYC |title=History of the Panjab Hill States |date=1994 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0942-6 |pages=96 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=The Imperial Publishing Co. |first=Lahore |url=https://archive.org/details/TwiK_his-imperial-majesty-king-george-5-and-the-princes-of-india-and-the-indian-empir/ |title=His Imperial Majesty King George 5 And The Princes Of India And The Indian Empire ( Historical Biographical) Compiled By K. R. Khosla, 1937, Lahore The Imperial Publishing Co., Lahore |pages=202}}</ref> On 25 March 1893, at his [[Durbar (court)|durbar]] in [[Jammu]], [[Pratap Singh of Jammu and Kashmir|Pratap Singh]], the [[Maharaja]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], swore him in as the [[Raja]] of [[Poonch Jagir|Poonch]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Grewal |first=Brigadier J. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOl-EAAAQBAJ |title=Poonch: India's Invincible Citadel |date=2022-08-01 |publisher=Lancer Publishers |isbn=978-81-7062-345-8 |pages=112–122 |language=en}}</ref> A ''dastur-ul-amal'' ({{Translation|[[organon]] or rules of practice}}) was given to him at the same time.<ref name=":0" /> Rather than ruling by his will and discretion, he was to follow it as a [[constitution]].<ref name=":0" /> When the authorities in [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] began interfering in the affairs of [[Poonch Jagir|Poonch]], he wrote to [[Pratap Singh of Jammu and Kashmir|Pratap Singh]], asserting that the status of his dominions was not the same as that of the jagirs of [[Ramkot, Jammu and Kashmir|Ramkot]] and [[Chenani]].<ref name=":0" /> However, his pleas were ignored, and the authorities in [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] imposed even stricter measures.<ref name=":0" /> He grew tired of their meddling in his state affairs and established direct links with the British authorities in [[Lahore]].<ref name=":0" /> In 1901, they granted [[Poonch Jagir|Poonch]] the status of a separate entity and instructed the authorities in [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] to use the term ilaqā instead of [[Jagir|jāgīr]] in official correspondence.<ref name=":0" />

During his reign, many reforms were introduced.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Khosla K. R. |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.1706/ |title=The States Estates and Who's Who In India and Burma |date=1942 |publisher=The Imperial Publishing Co., Railway Road, Lahore |pages=105}}</ref> He aligned the administration of [[Poonch Jagir|Poonch]] with modern standards.<ref name=":2" /> Like his father, he reigned with a secular attitude.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deo |first=Pratap Keshari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RVFuAAAAMAAJ |title=Memoirs of a Bygone Era |date=2000 |publisher=Minerva Press |isbn=978-81-7662-084-0 |pages=96–98 |language=en}}</ref> During [[World War I]], he remained loyal to the [[British Empire]].<ref name=":2" /> He supplied 18,000 recruits to the army and contributed Rs. 1.5 million to the war effort.<ref name=":2" />

== Personal life ==
He married Amba Devi and another daughter of Fateh Singh, [[Raja]] of [[Dhami State|Dhami]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balokhra |first=Jag Mohan |url=https://archive.org/details/the-wonderland-himachal-pradesh/ |title=The Wonderland Himachal Pradesh |date=2016 |pages=671}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Brentnall |first=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ayYbAvECXQwC |title=The Princely and Noble Families of the Former Indian Empire: Himachal Pradesh |date=2004 |publisher=Indus Publishing |isbn=978-81-7387-163-4 |pages=163 |language=en}}</ref>

== Death ==
He died on 9 September 1918 and was succeeded by his eldest son Sukhdev Singh.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

== Honours ==
He was appointed [[Knight Commander]] of the [[Order of the Indian Empire]] in January 1909.<ref name=":1" /> For his services during [[World War I]], he was gazetted with the honorary rank of [[Major (rank)|Major]] in the [[British Indian Army]] in 1916 and was granted a personal salute of nine guns in 1918.<ref name=":1" />

== References ==
<references />
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Date of birth unknown]]
[[Category: 1918 deaths]]
[[Category:Hindu monarchs]]
[[Category:People from British India]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:Indian knights]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire]]

Khaybar

2026-03-29T03:31:50Z

Tumita7029: added info

{{Short description|Oasis in Medina Province, Saudi Arabia}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox settlement
|name = Khaybar
|other_name =
|native_name = {{lang|ar|خَيْبَر}}
|native_name_lang = ar
|settlement_type =
|image_skyline = Khaybar - deserted houses.jpg
|imagesize =
|image_alt =
|image_caption = Ancient ruins of Khaybar
|image_map =
|image_seal =
|pushpin_map = Saudi Arabia
|pushpin_label_position =
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|coordinates = {{coord|25|41|55|N|39|17|33|E|region:SA|display=inline,title}}
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|subdivision_type1 = [[Regions of Saudi Arabia|Region]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Al Madinah Region]]
|subdivision_type2 =
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|established_title = established
|established_date =7thcentury
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|timezone = [[Arabia Standard Time|AST]]
|utc_offset = +3
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|footnotes =
}}

'''Khaybar'''{{Efn|Other [[Arabic transliteration|standardized Arabic transliterations]]: {{transliteration|ar|DIN|Ḫaybar}} / {{transliteration|ar|Wehr|ḵaybar}}. Anglicized pronunciation: {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|aɪ|b|ər}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|aɪ|b|ɑr}}.}} ({{IPA|ar|ˈxæjbɑr|lang}}, {{lang|ar|خَيْبَر}}) was an [[oasis]] in [[Medina Province (Saudi Arabia)|Medina Province]], [[Saudi Arabia]], situated some {{convert|153|km|mi|abbr=}} north of the city of [[Medina]]. Prior to the arrival of [[Islam]] in the 7th century, the area had been inhabited by [[Jewish tribes of Arabia|Arabian Jewish tribes]] until it was conquered by the [[Muslims]] under [[Prophet Muhammad]] during the [[Battle of Khaybar]] in 628 CE.

== History ==
[[File:Pre-Islamic_Bronze_Age_Khyber_Map.png|thumb|278x278px|'''Pre-Islamic Bronze Age Khayber Map''' Black markings are outer fortifications, pink markings are inner fortifications, brown represents elevations (i.e. valleys, plateaus, mountains)]]

===Bronze Age===
{{Main|Al-Natah}}
The archaeological site of [[al-Natah]] in the oasis covered about 1.5 hectares with some 500 residents, protected by ramparts. The occupation dates from around 2400 to 1500 BCE, from the late Early [[Bronze Age]] to the early Late Bronze Age.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2024-10-30 |title=Bronze Age Town of Al-Natah Represents 'Slow Urbanism,' Archaeologists Say |url=https://www.sci.news/archaeology/bronze-age-town-al-natah-13389.html |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=Sci.News: Breaking Science News}}</ref>

===Pre-Islamic===
[[Pre-Islamic Arabia|Before the advent of Islam]] in the 7th century [[Common Era|CE]], indigenous Arabs and [[Jews]] made up the population of Khaybar, but when Jewish settlement in northern Arabia began is unknown.{{Efn|In a research conducted by [[David Samuel Margoliouth]] and published in the ''[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]]'' in the last century, he points out the fact that the Jews of Khaybar and Yathrib (in Saudi Arabia), as early as the 6th century CE when Jews still lived there before they were evicted to places in [[Syria (region)|Syria]] and to the city of Al-[[Kufa]]h in Iraq, they did not differentiate between the non-accentuated "thau" ('''ת''') and the accentuated "tau" ('''תּ''') although both letters have distinct phonetic sounds by those scrupulous in the use of proper [[Hebrew grammar]] (See: Margoliouth, D.S.: "A poem attributed to Al-Samau'al." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Published by the Society, 22, Albemarle St. London W. London, 1906. p. 364).}} In 567, Khaybar was invaded and purged of its Jewish inhabitants by the [[Ghassanid]] Arab [[Christian]] king [[Al-Harith ibn Jabalah]]. He later freed the captives upon his return to the [[Levant]]. A brief account of the campaign is given by [[Ibn Qutaybah]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.islamport.com/b/5/adab/%df%ca%c8%20%c7%e1%c3%cf%c8/%c7%e1%e3%da%c7%d1%dd/%c7%e1%e3%da%c7%d1%dd%20005.html |title=Ibn Qutaybah: al-Ma'arif |access-date=2009-07-20 |archive-date=2012-09-09 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909212342/http://www.islamport.com/b/5/adab/%DF%CA%C8%20%C7%E1%C3%CF%C8/%C7%E1%E3%DA%C7%D1%DD/%C7%E1%E3%DA%C7%D1%DD%20005.html }}</ref> which may also be mentioned in the sixth-century [[Harran inscription]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.islamic-awareness.org/history/islam/inscriptions/harran|title=Harran Inscription: A Pre-Islamic Arabic Inscription From 568 CE|website=islamic-awareness.org|date = 29 January 2008|access-date=8 February 2026}}</ref><ref>[[Irfan Shahid|Shahid, Irfan]]: ''Byzantium and the Arabs in the sixth century'', p. 322</ref> ''Khaybar Oasis'' was completely surrounded by a massive wall in pre-Islamic times, similar to other large walled oases in northwestern Arabia and dates back to the Bronze Age, between ''2250 and 1950 BCE'' it would have been needed for protection against surrounding nomadic groups of populations from the desert, potentially carrying out raids on oasis settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Charloux |first=Guillaume |last2=Shabo |first2=Shadi |last3=Chung-To |first3=Guillaume |last4=Depreux |first4=Bruno |last5=Guermont |first5=François |last6=Guadagnini |first6=Kévin |last7=Terrasse |first7=Thomas |last8=Bussy |first8=Mylène |last9=Alshilali |first9=Saifi |last10=Albukaai |first10=Diaa |last11=Crassard |first11=Rémy |last12=AlMushawh |first12=Munirah |date=2024-02-01 |title=The ramparts of Khaybar. Multiproxy investigation for reconstructing a Bronze Age walled oasis in Northwest Arabia |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352409X23005308 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports |volume=53 |article-number=104355 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2023.104355 |issn=2352-409X}}</ref>

===7th century===
{{Main|Jewish community of Khaybar}}
As late as the 7th century, Khaybar was still inhabited by Jews, who pioneered the cultivation of the oasis.<ref>Yāqut, ''Šihāb al-Dīn ibn 'Abd Allah al-Ḥamawī al-Rūmī al-Baġdādī'' (ed. Ferdinand Wüstenfeld), Mu'jam al-Buldān, vol. IV, Leipzig 1866, p. 542 (reprint: Ṭaharān 1965, ''Maktabat al-Asadi''); Hayyim Zeev Hirschberg, ''Israel Ba-'Arav'', Tel Aviv 1946, p. 343 (Hebrew).</ref>

=== Military campaigns of Muhammad ===
{{Campaignbox Campaigns of Muhammad}}
{{Main|List of expeditions of Muhammad|Battle of Khaybar}}

==== Expedition of Fadak ====
In 627, Muhammad ordered the [[Expedition of Fadak]] to confront the [[Banu Sa'd|Bani Sa'd]] bin Bakr tribe because Muhammad received intelligence they were planning to help the Jews of Khaybar.<ref>Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 211. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110623155725/http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch4s13.html online])</ref> In this expedition one person was captured by Muslims, and the rest of the tribe fled.<ref name="Sa'd 1967 110">{{cite book|last=Sa'd|first=Ibn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_vnXAAAAMAAJ|title=Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir, By Ibn Sa'd, Volume 2|year=1967|publisher=Pakistan Historical Society|asin=B0007JAWMK|page=110|quote=SARIYYAH OF 'ALI IBN ABl TALIB AGAINST BANU SA'D IBN BAKR AT FADAK}}</ref>

==== Battle of Khaybar ====
The [[Battle of Khaybar]] took place in May/June 628.<ref name="Oxford University Press">{{cite book|author=Watt, W. Montgomery|author-link=Montgomery Watt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GfAGAQAAIAAJ |title=Muhammad at Medina|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1956|isbn=978-0-19-577307-1|page=2|quote=Muhammad had thus a straightforward reason for attacking Khaybar. The moment he chose for the attack May /June 628 (i/y) shortly after his return from the expedition of al-Hudaybiyah was one when it was also convenient for him to have booty to distribute to his followers whose expectations had recently been disappointed.}} ([https://archive.org/details/muhammadatmedina029655mbp free online])</ref> The Jewish [[Banu Nadir|Banū Naḍīr of Medina]], who claimed to be descendants of [[Aaron]] the priest, owned lands in Khaybar and had castles, fortresses and weapons there. After Muhammad expelled them from Medina in 625, their leaders moved to their estates in Khaybar to prepare for war against Muhammad and to recruit the aid of other non-Muslim Arab tribes. Muhammad first sent disguised guests to the homes of the leaders of Banū Naḍīr, who killed their hosts. Muhammad's victory over the Jews of Khaybar in the subsequent battle was also aided by the distance of the settlements and their castles from one another, the absence of co-ordination between the fighting forces, the death of the leader [[Sallam ibn Mishkam|Sallām ibn Mishkam]] and a Jew who showed the Muslims the secret entrances to one of the fortresses. The castles of Khaybar had tunnels and passages, which in wartime enabled the besieged to reach water sources outside the castles.<ref name="I. Ben-Ze'ev, 1946">I. Ben-Ze'ev, ''Ha-Yehudim ba-Arav'' (19572), index; H.Z. Hirschberg, ''Yisrael ba-Arav'' (1946), index; I. Ben Zvi, in: ''Keneset'', 5 (1940), 281–302; J. Braslavsky, ''Le-Ḥeker Arẓenu'' (1954), 3–52 (English summaries: 3–4, English section); S.D. Goitein, in: KS, 9 (1932/33), 507–21; Caetani, in: ''Annali dell' Islam'', 2 (1905), 8–41; R. Leszynsky, ''Juden in Arabien zur Zeit Mohammeds'' (1910)</ref> Between 16 and 18 Muslims and 93 Jews were killed in the battle.<ref name="Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar p. 238">Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 238. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20110829110530/http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/ch6s2.html online])</ref>

==== Aftermath ====
Captives of war and slaves from other countries were brought to Khaybar, and the people of Hejaz became more accustomed to agriculture. Jews continued to live in the oasis for several years until they were finally expelled by Caliph [[Umar]], who decided to expel the Jews of Khaybar in 642.<ref name="I. Ben-Ze'ev, 1946" />

===Expulsion of Jews===
During the reign of Caliph [[Umar]] (634–644), the Jewish community of Khaybar was transported alongside the Christian community of [[Najran]] to the newly conquered regions of Syria and [[Iraq]]. Umar also forbade [[Kafir|non-Muslims]] to reside in the [[Hejaz]] for longer than three days.<ref>[[Giorgio Levi Della Vida]] and [[Michael Bonner]], ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', and Madelung, ''The Succession to Prophet Muhammad'', p. 74</ref> Since then, the Jews of Khaybar travelled around many areas throughout the [[early Muslim conquests|Islamic Empire]] as artisans and merchants and they are still referred to in documents from the Middle Ages.<ref name="LS20102">{{Citation |last=Lowin |first=Shari |title=Khaybar |date=2010-10-01 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-jews-in-the-islamic-world/*-COM_0012910 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World |pages=148–150 |access-date=2023-06-22 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/1878-9781_ejiw_com_0012910|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Benjamin of Tudela ===
{{Main|Benjamin of Tudela}}
[[Benjamin of Tudela]] was a Jew from [[Tudela, Navarre|Tudela]], in the [[Kingdom of Navarre]], who travelled to Persia and Arabia in the 12th century. He visited and described Khaybar and neighboring [[Tayma]] sometime around 1170 and mentioned those places as Jewish habitations.<ref>{{cite book |author=Benjamin of Tudela |author-link=Benjamin of Tudela |title=The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela |editor-first=Marcus Nathan |editor-last=Adler |publisher=Oxford University Press |publication-place=London |year=1907 |pages=47–49 |url=https://sammlungen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/freimann/urn/urn:nbn:de:hebis:30:1-173334}}</ref>

== Khaybar in culture and politics ==
=== Folklore ===
Khaybar is referred to in various traditions outside the Hejaz. The [[Makhamra family]], a [[Palestinians|Palestinian]] extended family who lives in the city of [[Yatta, Hebron|Yatta]], in the southern [[Hebron Hills]], claims ancestry from the Jews of Khaybar. Over the years, there have been reports of locals in Yatta and its vicinity continuing to observe various Jewish rituals. In the late 19th century, peasants from [[Meithalun]], present-day northern [[West Bank]], associated a nearby ruin locally known as [[Khirbet Kheibar]] with an unnamed Jewish king and his daughter who, according to their tradition, resided in the area. Some scholars have suggested tying those two traditions to the expulsion of Jews from Khaybar and their settlement in the region.<ref name="LS20102"/>

=== Contemporary anti-Israel use ===
{{see also|Kheibar Shekan|Khaybar Khaybar ya yahud|Battle of Khaybar#Modern usage in the Arab–Israeli conflict}}

The tale of the Jews of Khaybar being vanquished and driven out has been revived in recent decades by the Palestinian Islamic [[Palestinian political violence|militant]] group [[Hamas]], who have used it as a political slogan against [[Israel]].<ref name="LS20102" /> The slogan has also been used by some at pro-Palestine protests and other anti-Israel events, as well as online.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 April 2022 |title=Death threat to Jews sung openly at rallies across the UK |url=https://www.thejc.com/news/news/death-threat-to-jews-sung-openly-at-rallies-across-the-uk-6OsCLjtY9Pwd1D7byF0Kpl |access-date=2023-11-19 |website=The Jewish Chronicle}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=20 November 2023 |title=Antisemitism online directly increases real-world violence, study finds |url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-773895 |access-date=4 February 2026 |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]]|author= Boden, Brooke Sarah}}</ref>

==Economy==
Historically, Khaybar is known for growing [[dates (fruit)|dates]]. The dates raised in the region were generally exported to [[Medina]].<ref name=Prothero83>{{cite book|last=Prothero|first=G. W.|title=Arabia|year=1920|publisher=H.M. Stationery Office |location=London |page=83 |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11767/view/1/83/}}</ref>

==Climate==
{{Weather box|location = Khaybar
|metric first = Y
|single line = Y

|Jan high C = 21.6
|Feb high C = 24.6
|Mar high C = 27.8
|Apr high C = 32.6
|May high C = 36.2
|Jun high C = 38.9
|Jul high C = 39.3
|Aug high C = 39.3
|Sep high C = 38.3
|Oct high C = 34.2
|Nov high C = 27.6
|Dec high C = 22.8
|Feb low C = 7.6
|Jan low C = 9.1
|Mar low C = 12.2
|Apr low C = 16.0
|May low C = 20.7
|Jun low C = 24.0
|Jul low C = 24.7
|Aug low C = 24.8
|Sep low C = 22.6
|Oct low C = 18.4
|Nov low C = 13.0
|Dec low C = 9.0

|Jan precipitation mm = 9
|Feb precipitation mm = 3
|Mar precipitation mm = 14
|Apr precipitation mm = 12
|May precipitation mm = 5
|Jun precipitation mm = 0
|Jul precipitation mm = 0
|Aug precipitation mm = 1
|Sep precipitation mm = 0
|Oct precipitation mm = 4
|Nov precipitation mm = 17
|Dec precipitation mm = 8
|year precipitation mm= 73

|source = [https://en.climate-data.org/location/47208/ Climate-data.org]
|date=06 March 2018}}

==See also==
* [[Harrat Khaybar]]
* [[Safiyya bint Huyayy]]
* [[List of expeditions of Muhammad]]
* [[David Reubeni]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links |wikt=no |c= |n=no |q=no |s=no |b=no |v=no |voy=yes}}
* Joseph Braslavi (Braslavski) and Leah Bornstein-Makovetsky (1972, 2006), [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0012_0_11088.html Khaybar], in ''[[Encyclopedia Judaica]]'', via [[Jewish Virtual Library]]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Historic Jewish communities]]
[[Category:Jewish Saudi Arabian history]]
[[Category:Oases of Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Populated places in Medina Province, Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Date palm orchards]]

Transport in Erode

2026-03-25T18:22:46Z

Tumita7029: formatting fix

{{Short description|Transport of a city in Tamil Nadu}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=May 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2018}}
[[Erode]] city being the headquarters of [[Erode district]], in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]], has an extensive road and rail transport network in all radial directions, as it lies landlocked.

==Road Transport==
===Roads===
[[File:Erode City Road Schematic2.jpg|right|thumb|Schematic representation of Road network in the city of Erode]]
[[Erode]] city is well-connected by roads. Erode can be accessed by three National Highways.
* [[National Highway 544 (India)|NH 544]] (part of North-South Corridor) connecting [[Salem, Tamil Nadu|Salem]] and [[Cochin]], bypasses the city via [[Lakshmi Nagar, Erode|Lakshmi Nagar]], [[Chithode]], [[Nasiyanur]] and [[Perundurai]].<ref name="urbaninfra44452">[[Erode#urban|Urban Infrastructure Report]] 2006, pp. 44-45</ref>
* [[National Highway 544H (India)|NH 544H]] connects Thoppur on NH-44 with Erode through [[Mettur]] and [[Bhavani, Tamil Nadu|Bhavani]].<ref name="statewise details of NH">{{cite web|url=http://morth.nic.in/showfile.asp?lid=2923|title=State-wise details of National Highways|publisher=[[Ministry of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date=28 October 2017|location=New Delhi}}</ref><ref name="statewise length of NH">{{cite web|url=http://morth.nic.in/showfile.asp?lid=2924|title=State-wise length of National Highways as on 30.07.2017|publisher=[[Ministry of Road Transport and Highways]]|access-date=28 October 2017|location=New Delhi}}</ref>
* [[National Highway 381A (India)|NH 381A]] connects [[Vellakoil]] on NH-81 with Erode and further to [[Sankagiri]] on NH-544.<ref name="New Numbers">{{cite web |title=The Gazette of India : Extraordinary, MORTH |publisher=Govt of India |url=http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2017/180664.pdf |date=5 December 2017 |access-date=16 March 2018}}</ref>
[[File:Erode brough road.JPG|right|thumb|170px|Busiest Arterial Road of the city – Brough Road]]
[[File:Erode street.JPG|right|thumb|170px|A road in Erode]]
Other major arterial roads include:
* [[State Highway 15 (Tamil Nadu)|SH-15]] connecting Erode – [[Gobichettipalayam]] – [[Sathy]] – [[Mettupalayam, Coimbatore|Mettupalayam]] – [[Kotagiri]] – [[Ooty]]
* [[State Highway 83A (Tamil Nadu)|SH-83A]] connects Erode with [[Arachalur]], [[Kangeyam]] and [[Dharapuram]]
* [[State Highway 79 (Tamil Nadu)|SH-79]] connects Erode with [[Tiruchengode]], [[Rasipuram]] and [[Attur]]
* [[State Highway 84 (Tamil Nadu)|SH-84]] connects Erode with [[Kodumudi]] and [[Karur]]
* [[State Highway 96 (Tamil Nadu)|SH-96]] connects Erode with [[Perundurai]], [[Chennimalai]] and [[Kangeyam]]
* [[Outer Ring Road, Erode|Outer Ring Road]] connects [[Kokkarayanpettai]] with [[Nanjanapuram]]
* Inner Ring Road (MDR-62) connects Thindal with [[Villarasampatti]], [[Periyasemur]] and [[BP Agraharam]]

===TNSTC Erode Region===
The Erode division of the [[Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation]](TNSTC), Coimbatore Limited, serves the district's road transport needs with a string of local (City bus) and mofussil ([[Intercity bus service]]). The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation (TNSTC) has a sub-divisional headquarters at Erode falling under the Coimbatore division. Originally called as Jeeva Transport Corporation (JTC), it started functioning from 1 April 1983 with a fleet strength of 317 buses. The corporation with the principal area of operation in the Erode district, parts of Tirupur, Namakkal, Salem and Karur Districts. The fleet strength as on 31 March 2005 was 1,218. During the year 2003–2005, 114 buses were purchased for replacement. After bifurcation and formation of new region based at Tiruppur, the TNSTC Erode Region has a total of770 buses attached with 13 [[Bus Depot]]s, as of 2021.<ref name="Depots and Fleet strength in Erode">{{cite web |date=2021-02-25 |title=70% TNSTC buses operated in Erode district |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Coimbatore/70-tnstc-buses-operated-in-erode-district/article33935407.ece |access-date=25 February 2021 |website=[[The Hindu]] |publication-place=Erode}}</ref>

The State Express bus Transport Corporation (SETC) operates express services to various places from Erode.

=== Bus station ===
The [[Erode Central Bus Terminus|Central Bus Station]] in Erode is the major transport hub of [[Erode]]. A large network of interstate and intercity bus services ply from here to various destinations. There is a good co-existence of both private and public transport networks in the city round the clock. It is an integrated bus station serving for [[City bus]] service and Minibus services also.

Additional Bus stations were proposed in the city at [[Solar, Erode|Solar]] and [[Periyasemur]] to reduce the traffic around Central BS (CBD area) of the city. The Solar Bus Terminal is now functional along Karur Road in an area of 24 acres with a facility to park 64 mofussil and 9 city buses. All the buses bound for South Tamil Nadu and delta districts are being operated from this new facility at Solar.

Also there is a plan to construct another Bus terminal near [[Periyasemur]] on Sathy road in an area of 14 acres.

==Rail Transport==
{{Main|Erode Junction}}
[[File:Erode-Junction-Railway-Station-ED.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Erode Junction Railway Station]]
[[Erode Junction]] railway station has a road junction nearby viz., [[Bull-fight Circle]]. There is a diesel locomotive shed and an electric locomotive shed at Erode Junction and is one of the most important railway stations under Southern Railway with connections all over India. Erode Junction has the distinction of being the ''third cleanest railway junction in India'', after {{rws|Rani Kamalapati}} ([[Bhopal]]) and [[Secunderabad Railway Station]] ([[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]) in India. It also serves as the hub for water filling facilities, food provision and toilet cleaning to all long-distance trains that run along the length and breadth of the country via Erode. The station is well connected by buses round the clock. The following are the lines running from Erode junction:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Line No.
!Towards
!Passing Through Station
!Type / Track
|-
|1
|Salem Junction
|Sankari Durg
|Broad, Electrified – Double Track
|-
|2
|Coimbatore Junction
|Tiruppur
|Broad, Electrified – Double Track
|-
|3
|Trichy Junction
|Karur
|Broad, Electrified - Single Track
|}

* Two New lines were proposed in the recent past following the original pre-independence revived proposal of Palani-Erode-Mysore link, which dates back to 1915. One is [[Erode–Palani line]] and the other is Erode to [[Chamarajanagar]] line via [[Sathyamangalam]].

==Air Transport==
The nearest airport is [[Coimbatore International Airport]] located at a distance of 90 km. which has regular flights from/to various domestic destinations like Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Bhubaneswar, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Kozhikode, Mumbai, Pune and international destinations like Sharjah and Singapore.

==Waterways==
Before 1950s when there were no or limited bridges were available across River Cauvery to connect Erode with Namakkal district the Inland ferry services are available along river [[Kaveri]] at places like [[Lakkapuram]], [[Natadreeswarar Temple]], [[Karungalpalayam]], and Nerunjipettai. Now most of them has been stopped except the one at Nerunjipattai connecting Poolampatti in Salem district and only a few services are available at other places supporting local tourism.

== References ==
{{commons category}}
{{reflist}}

{{Transport in Tamil Nadu}}
{{Transport in India}}

[[Category:Transport in Erode| ]]
[[Category:Transport in Tamil Nadu by city|Erode]]

Late Middle Ages

2026-03-25T18:17:53Z

Tumita7029:

{{short description|Period of European history between AD 1300 and 1500}}
[[File:Europe in the 14th Century.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Europe and the Mediterranean region, {{circa|1354}}]]
[[File:Great famine.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|From the Apocalypse in a ''[[Biblia Pauperum]]'' illuminated at [[Erfurt]] around the time of the [[Great Famine of 1315–1317|Great Famine]]. Death sits astride a lion whose long tail ends in a ball of flame (Hell). Famine points to her hungry mouth.]]
The '''Late Middle Ages''' or '''late medieval period''' was the [[Periodization|period]] of [[History of Europe|European history]] lasting from 1300 to 1500 AD. The late Middle Ages followed the [[High Middle Ages]] and preceded the onset of the [[early modern period]] (and in much of Europe, the [[Renaissance]]).<ref>Wallace K. Ferguson, ''Europe in transition, 1300–1520'' (1962) [https://archive.org/details/europeintransiti00ferg online].</ref>

Around 1350, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. A series of [[famine]]s and [[Plague (disease)|plagues]], including the [[Great Famine of 1315–1317]] and the [[Black Death]], reduced the population to around half of what it had been before the calamities.<ref>Austin Alchon, Suzanne (2003). ''A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective''. University of New Mexico Press. p. 21. {{ISBN|0-8263-2871-7}}.</ref> Along with depopulation came social unrest and [[endemic warfare]]. [[Kingdom of France|France]] and [[Kingdom of England|England]] experienced serious peasant uprisings, such as the [[Jacquerie]] and the [[Peasants' Revolt]], as well as over a century of intermittent conflict, the [[Hundred Years' War]]. To add to the many problems of the period, the unity of the [[Catholic Church]] was temporarily shattered by the [[Western Schism]]. Collectively, those events are sometimes called the [[crisis of the late Middle Ages]].<ref>Norman Cantor, ''The Civilization of the Middle Ages'' (1994) p. 480.</ref>

Despite the crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress in the arts and sciences. Following a renewed interest in ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] texts that took root in the High Middle Ages, the [[Italian Renaissance]] began. The absorption of Latin texts had started before the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]] through contact with Arabs during the [[Crusades]], but the availability of important Greek texts accelerated with the [[fall of Constantinople]] to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], when many [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] scholars had to seek refuge in the West, particularly Italy.<ref>Cantor, p. 594.</ref>

Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated the dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two developments would later contribute to the [[Reformation]]. Toward the end of the period, the [[Age of Discovery]] began. The expansion of the Ottoman Empire cut off trading possibilities with the East. Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes, leading to the Spanish expedition under [[Christopher Columbus]] to the [[Americas]] in 1492 and [[Vasco da Gama]]'s voyage to Africa and India in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.

The changes brought about by these developments have led many scholars to view this period as the end of the [[Middle Ages]] and the beginning of [[modern history]] and of [[early modern Europe]]. However, the division is somewhat artificial, since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society.<ref>{{cite book |last=Grafton |first=Anthony |title=The Foundation of Early Modern Europe, 1460-1559 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=1992}}</ref> As a result, there was [[Continuity thesis|developmental continuity]] between the [[Ancient history|ancient age]] (via [[classical antiquity]]) and the [[modern age]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hannam |first=James |title=God's philosophers: how the medieval world laid the foundations of modern science |date=2010 |publisher=Icon books |isbn=978-1-84831-150-3 |location=London}}</ref> Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the late Middle Ages at all; rather, they see the high period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance and the modern era.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cohn |first=Samuel K. |title=Lust for Liberty: The Politics of Social Revolt in Florence, 1200–1450 |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1992}}</ref>

{{TOC limit|limit=6}}

==Historiography and periodization==
{{Human history}}

The term "late Middle Ages" refers to one of the three periods of the [[Middle Ages]], along with the early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages. [[Leonardo Bruni]] was the first historian to use the tripartite periodization in his ''History of the Florentine People'' (1442).<ref name="Hankins">Leonardo Bruni, James Hankins, ''History of the Florentine people'', Volume 1, Books 1–4, (2001), p. xvii.</ref> [[Flavio Biondo]] used a similar framework in ''Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire'' (1439–1453). The tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian [[Christoph Cellarius]] published ''Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, and New Period'' (1683).{{citation needed|date=November 2025}}

For 18th-century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was the [[Renaissance]], with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit.<ref>Brady ''et al.'', p. xiv; Cantor, p. 529.</ref> The heart of this rediscovery lies in Italy, where, in the words of [[Jacob Burckhardt]], "Man became a spiritual individual and recognized himself as such."<ref>{{cite book|first=Jacob|last=Burckhardt|author-link=Jacob Burckhardt|title=The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy|year=1860|page=[https://archive.org/details/civilizationofre00burc_2/page/121 121]|publisher=Harper & Row |url=https://archive.org/details/civilizationofre00burc_2/page/121|isbn=0-06-090460-7}}</ref> This proposition was later challenged, and it was argued that the 12th century was a period of greater cultural achievement.<ref>{{cite book|first= Charles Homer|last=Haskins|author-link=Charles Homer Haskins|title= The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century|publisher= Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=1927|url=https://archive.org/details/renaissanceoftw00char|url-access= registration|isbn= 0-19-821934-2}}</ref>

As economic and demographic methods were applied to the study of history, the trend was increasingly to see the late Middle Ages as a period of recession and crisis. [[Belgium|Belgian]] historian [[Henri Pirenne]] continued the subdivision of [[early Middle Ages|Early]], [[High Middle Ages|High]], and late Middle Ages in the years around [[World War I]].<ref>"Les périodes de l'histoire du capitalisme", ''Académie Royale de Belgique. Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres'', 1914.</ref> Yet it was his [[Netherlands|Dutch]] colleague, [[Johan Huizinga]], who was primarily responsible for popularising the pessimistic view of the late Middle Ages, with his book ''[[The Autumn of the Middle Ages]]'' (1919).<ref>{{cite book|first=Johan|last=Huizinga|author-link=Johan Huizinga|title=The Waning of the Middle Ages: A Study of the Forms of Life, Thought and Art in France and the Netherlands in the XIVth and XVth Centuries|publisher=E. Arnold|location=London|year=1924|url=https://archive.org/details/waningofmiddle00huiz|isbn=0-312-85540-0}}</ref> To Huizinga, whose research focused on France and the [[Low Countries]] rather than Italy, despair and decline were the main themes, not rebirth.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last =Allmand|title =The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 7: c. 1415 – c. 1500|date =1998|page =299|publisher =Cambridge University Press|isbn =9780521382960|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Qzc8OeuSXFMC&pg=PA299|access-date =2023-12-07|archive-date =2024-06-10|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20240610000439/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qzc8OeuSXFMC&pg=PA299#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status =live}}</ref><ref>Norman Cantor, ''The Civilization of the Middle Ages'' (1994) p. 530.</ref>

Modern historiography on the period has reached a consensus between the two extremes of innovation and crisis. It is now generally acknowledged that conditions were vastly different north and south of the Alps, and the term "late Middle Ages" is often avoided entirely within Italian historiography.<ref>Le Goff, p. 154. See e.g. {{cite book|first=John M.|last=Najemy|title=Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300–1550|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2004|isbn=0-19-870040-7}}</ref> The term "Renaissance" is still considered useful for describing certain intellectual, cultural, or artistic developments but not as the defining feature of an entire European historical epoch.<ref name="Bradyxvii">Brady ''et al.'', p. xvii.</ref> The period from the early 14th century up until – and sometimes including – the 16th century is rather seen as characterized by other trends: demographic and economic decline followed by recovery, the end of Western religious unity and the subsequent emergence of the [[nation-state]], and the expansion of European influence onto the rest of the world.<ref name="Bradyxvii"/>

==History==
The limits of [[Christendom|Christian Europe]] were still being defined in the 14th and 15th centuries. While the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] was beginning to repel the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]], and the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] kingdoms were completing the [[Reconquista]] of the peninsula and turning their attention outward, the [[Balkans]] fell under the dominance of the [[Ottoman Empire]].{{efn|name="For references, see below"|For references, see below.}} Meanwhile, the remaining nations of the continent were locked in almost constant international or internal conflict.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 3; Holmes, p. 294; Koenigsberger, pp. 299–300.</ref>

The situation gradually led to the consolidation of central authority and the emergence of the [[nation state]].<ref name="BradyJones">Brady et al., p. xvii; Jones, p. 21.</ref> The financial demands of war necessitated higher levels of taxation, resulting in the emergence of representative bodies – most notably the [[Parliament of England|English Parliament]].<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 29; Cantor, p. 514; Koenigsberger, pp. 300–303.</ref> The growth of secular authority was further aided by the decline of the papacy with the [[Western Schism]] and the coming of the [[Protestant Reformation]].<ref>Brady et al., p. xvii; Holmes, p. 276; Ozment, p. 4.</ref>

===Northern Europe===
{{Main|History_of_Denmark#Middle_Ages|History_of_Norway#Middle_Ages|History_of_Sweden_(800–1521)#Middle_Ages|l1=Denmark in the Middle Ages|l2=Norway in the Middle Ages|l3=Sweden in the Middle Ages|Kalmar Union}}

After the failed union of [[Sweden]] and [[Norway]] of 1319–1365, the pan-Scandinavian [[Kalmar Union]], that also included [[Denmark]], was instituted in 1397.<ref>Hollister, p. 366; Jones, p. 722.</ref> The Swedes were reluctant members of the union from the start. In an attempt to subdue the Swedes, King [[Christian II of Denmark]] had large numbers of the Swedish aristocracy killed in the [[Stockholm Bloodbath]] of 1520. Yet this measure only led to further hostilities, and Sweden broke away for good in 1523.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 703</ref> Norway, on the other hand, became an inferior party of the union and remained united with Denmark until 1814.

[[Iceland]] benefited from its relative isolation and was the last [[Scandinavia]]n country to be struck by the [[Black Death]].<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 673.</ref> Meanwhile, the [[Norse Greenland|Norse colony in Greenland]] died out, probably under extreme weather conditions in the 15th century.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 193.</ref> These conditions might have been the effect of the [[Little Ice Age]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/NatSci102/NatSci102/text/extlittleice.htm|title=The Little Ice Age: When global cooling gripped the world|newspaper=The Washington Post|author=Alan Cutler|date=1997-08-13|access-date=2008-03-12|archive-date=2019-10-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022092543/http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/NatSci102/NatSci102/text/extlittleice.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Northwest Europe===
{{Main|England in the Late Middle Ages|Scotland in the Late Middle Ages|Wales in the Late Middle Ages|History of Ireland (1169–1536)}}
{{Further|Hundred Years' War|Wars of the Roses|Wars of Scottish Independence}}
[[File:Schlacht von Azincourt.jpg|thumb|The Battle of Agincourt, 15th-century miniature, [[Enguerrand de Monstrelet]]]]

The death of [[Alexander III of Scotland]] in 1286 threw the country into a [[succession crisis]], and the English king, [[Edward I of England|Edward I]], was brought in to arbitrate. Edward claimed overlordship over Scotland, leading to the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]].<ref>Jones, pp. 348–349.</ref> The English were eventually defeated, and the Scots were able to develop a stronger state under the [[House of Stuart|Stewarts]].<ref>Jones, pp. 350–351; Koenigsberger, p. 232; McKisack, p. 40.</ref>

From 1337, England's attention was largely directed towards France in the [[Hundred Years' War]].<ref>Jones, p. 351.</ref> [[Henry V of England|Henry V's]] victory at the [[Battle of Agincourt]] in 1415 briefly paved the way for a unification of the two kingdoms, but his son [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]] soon squandered all previous gains.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 458; Koenigsberger, p. 309.</ref> The loss of France led to discontent at home. Soon after the end of the war in 1453, the dynastic struggles of the [[Wars of the Roses]] (c. 1455–1485) began, involving the rival dynasties of the [[House of Lancaster]] and [[House of York]].<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 458; Nicholas, pp. 32–33.</ref>

The war ended in the accession of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] of the [[House of Tudor]], who continued the work started by the Yorkist kings of building a strong, centralized monarchy.<ref>Hollister, p. 353; Jones, pp. 488–492.</ref> While England's attention was thus directed elsewhere, the [[Hiberno-Norman]] lords in [[Ireland]] were becoming gradually more assimilated into Irish society, and the island was allowed to develop virtual independence under English overlordship.<ref>McKisack, pp. 228–229.</ref>

===Western Europe===
{{Main|France in the Middle Ages|Duchy of Burgundy|Burgundian Netherlands}}
[[File:Map France 1477-en.svg|thumb|France by 1477: a mosaic of feudal territories]]

The [[France|French]] [[House of Valois]], which followed the [[House of Capet]] in 1328, was at its outset marginalized in its own country, first by the English invading forces of the [[Hundred Years' War]] and later by the powerful [[Duchy of Burgundy]].<ref>Hollister, p. 355; Holmes, pp. 288–289; Koenigsberger, p. 304.</ref> The emergence of [[Joan of Arc]] as a military leader changed the course of war in favour of the French, and the initiative was carried further by King [[Louis XI of France|Louis XI]].<ref>Duby, pp. 288–293; Holmes, p. 300.</ref>

Meanwhile, [[Charles the Bold]], [[Duke of Burgundy]], met resistance in his attempts to consolidate his possessions, particularly from the [[Old Swiss Confederacy|Swiss Confederation]] formed in 1291.<ref>Allmand (1998), pp. 450–455; Jones, pp. 528–529.</ref> When Charles was killed in the [[Burgundian Wars]] at the [[Battle of Nancy]] in 1477, the [[Duchy of Burgundy]] was reclaimed by France.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 455; Hollister, p. 355; Koenigsberger, p. 304.</ref> At the same time, the [[County of Burgundy]] and the wealthy [[Burgundian Netherlands]] came into the [[Holy Roman Empire]] under [[Habsburg]] control, setting up conflict for centuries to come.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 455; Hollister, p. 363; Koenigsberger, pp. 306–307.</ref>

===Central Europe===
{{Main|Holy Roman Empire|Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1348–1526)|History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty|5=Old Swiss Confederacy|6=Grand Duchy of Lithuania|7=Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)}}
[[File:Silver mine, Kutna Hora.jpg|thumb|left|Silver mining and processing in [[Kutná Hora]], Bohemia, 15th century]]

[[Bohemia]] prospered in the 14th century, and the [[Golden Bull of 1356]] made the king of Bohemia the first among the [[Prince-elector|imperial electors]], but the [[Hussite Wars|Hussite revolution]] threw the country into crisis.<ref>Holmes, pp. 311–312; Wandycz, p. 40</ref> The [[Holy Roman Empire]] passed to the [[House of Habsburg]] in 1438, where it remained until its [[Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire|dissolution]] in 1806.<ref>Hollister, p. 362; Holmes, p. 280.</ref> Yet in spite of the [[Habsburg monarchy|extensive territories held by the Habsburgs]], the Empire itself remained fragmented, and much real power and influence lay with the individual principalities.<ref>Cantor, p. 507; Hollister, p. 362.</ref> In addition, financial institutions, such as the [[Hanseatic League]] and the [[Fugger]] family, held great power, on both economic and political levels.<ref>Allmand (1998), pp. 152–153; Cantor, p. 508; Koenigsberger, p. 345.</ref>

The [[Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)|Kingdom of Hungary]] experienced a golden age during the 14th century.<ref>Wandycz, p. 38.</ref> In particular the reigns of the [[Capetian House of Anjou|Angevin]] kings [[Charles I of Hungary|Charles Robert]] (1308–42) and his son [[Louis the Great]] (1342–82) were marked by success.<ref>Wandycz, p. 40.</ref> The country grew wealthy as the main European supplier of gold and silver.<ref>Jones, p. 737.</ref> Louis the Great led successful campaigns from Lithuania to Southern Italy, and from Poland to Northern Greece.

He had the greatest military potential of the 14th century with his enormous armies (often over 100,000 men). Meanwhile, [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Poland]]'s attention was turned eastwards, as its [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] with [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]] created an enormous entity in the region.<ref>Koenigsberger, p. 318; Wandycz, p. 41.</ref> The union, and the conversion of Lithuania, also marked the end of [[paganism]] in Europe.<ref>Jones, p. 7.</ref>

[[File:Beckov Horne nadvorie 01.jpg|thumb|[[Ruins]] of [[Beckov Castle]] in [[Slovakia]]]]

Louis did not leave a son as heir after his death in 1382. Instead, he named as his heir the young prince [[Sigismund of Luxemburg]]. The Hungarian nobility did not accept his claim, and the result was an internal war. Sigismund eventually achieved total control of Hungary and established his court in Buda and Visegrád. Both palaces were rebuilt and improved, and were considered the richest of the time in Europe. Inheriting the throne of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire, Sigismund continued conducting his politics from Hungary, but he was kept busy fighting the [[Hussites]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]], which was becoming a menace to Europe in the beginning of the 15th century.

King [[Matthias Corvinus]] of Hungary led the largest army of mercenaries of the time, the [[Black Army of Hungary]], which he used to conquer [[Moravia]] and [[Austria]] and to fight the [[Ottoman Empire]]. After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the [[Renaissance]] appeared.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Louis A.|last1=Waldman|first2=Péter|last2=Farbaky|title=Italy & Hungary: Humanism and Art in the Early Renaissance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l-OKuQAACAAJ|year=2011|publisher=Villa I Tatti|isbn=978-0-674-06346-4|access-date=2021-02-10|archive-date=2024-06-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610000505/https://books.google.com/books?id=l-OKuQAACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the glory of the Kingdom ended in the early 16th century, when the King [[Louis II of Hungary]] was killed in the [[Battle of Mohács]] in 1526 against the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Hungary then fell into a serious crisis and was invaded, ending its significance in central Europe during the medieval era.

===Eastern Europe===
{{Main|Grand Duchy of Moscow}}
[[File:Europe in 1470.PNG|thumb|Medieval [[List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine|Russian states]] {{Circa|1470|lk=no}}, including [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]], [[Principality of Tver|Tver]], [[Pskov Republic|Pskov]], [[Principality of Ryazan|Ryazan]], [[Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast|Rostov]] and [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Moscow]]]]

The state of [[Kievan Rus']] fell during the 13th century in the [[Mongol invasion of Rus|Mongol invasion]].<ref>Martin, pp. 100–101.</ref> The [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] rose in power thereafter, winning a great victory against the [[Golden Horde]] at the [[Battle of Kulikovo]] in 1380.<ref>Koenigsberger, p. 322; Jones, p. 793; Martin, pp. 236–237.</ref> The victory did not end Tatar rule in the region, however, and its immediate beneficiary was the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], which extended its influence eastwards.<ref>Martin, p. 239.</ref>

Under the reign of [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan the Great]] (1462–1505), Moscow became a major regional power, and the annexation of the vast [[Republic of Novgorod]] in 1478 laid the foundations for a Russian national state.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 754; Koenigsberger, p. 323.</ref> After the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, the Russian princes started to see themselves as the heirs of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. They eventually took on the imperial title of [[Tsar|Tzar]], and Moscow was described as the [[Third Rome]].<ref>Allmand, p. 769; Hollister, p. 368.</ref>

===Southeast Europe===
{{Main|Byzantine Empire|Second Bulgarian Empire|Serbian Empire|Albanian principalities|Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Siegebelgrade.jpg|thumb|Ottoman miniature of the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|siege of Belgrade]] in 1456]]

The Byzantine Empire had for a long time dominated the [[eastern Mediterranean]] in politics and culture.<ref>Hollister, p. 49.</ref> By the 14th century, however, it had almost entirely collapsed into a [[Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire|tributary state of the Ottoman Empire]], centered on the city of Constantinople and a few enclaves in [[Greece]].<ref>Allmand (1998), pp. 771–774; Mango, p. 248.</ref> With the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was permanently extinguished.<ref>Hollister, p. 99; Koenigsberger, p. 340.</ref>

The [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] was in decline by the 14th century, and the ascendancy of [[Serbia]] was marked by the Serbian victory over the Bulgarians in the [[Battle of Velbazhd]] in 1330.<ref>Jones, pp. 796–797.</ref> By 1346, the Serbian king [[Stefan Dušan]] had been proclaimed emperor.<ref>Jones, p. 875.</ref> Yet Serbian dominance was short-lived; the Serbian army led by the [[Lazar Hrebeljanovic]] was defeated by the [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Army]] at the [[Battle of Kosovo]] in 1389, where most of the [[Serbian nobility]] was killed and the south of the country came under [[Ottoman Serbia|Ottoman occupation]], as much of [[southern Bulgaria]] had become Ottoman territory in the [[Battle of Maritsa]] 1371.<ref name="Hollister, p p. 339">Hollister, p. 360; Koenigsberger, p. 339.</ref> Northern remnants of Bulgaria were finally conquered by 1396, Serbia fell in 1459, Bosnia in 1463, and Albania was finally subordinated in 1479 only a few years after the death of [[Skanderbeg]]. [[Belgrade]], a Hungarian domain at the time, was the last large Balkan city to fall under Ottoman rule, in the [[Siege of Belgrade (1521)|siege of Belgrade]] of 1521. By the end of the medieval period, the entire [[Balkans|Balkan]] peninsula was annexed by, or became [[vassal]] to, the Ottomans.<ref name="Hollister, p p. 339"/>

===Southwest Europe===
{{Main|Italy in the Middle Ages|Spain in the Middle Ages|Portugal in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Batalha de Aljubarrota 02.jpg|thumb|[[Battle of Aljubarrota]] between Portugal and Castile, 1385]]

[[Avignon]] was the seat of the [[Pope|papacy]] from 1309 to 1376.<ref>Hollister, p. 338.</ref> With the return of the Pope to [[Rome]] in 1378, the [[Papal State]] developed into a major secular power, culminating in the morally corrupt papacy of [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]].<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 586; Hollister, p. 339; Holmes, p. 260.</ref> [[Florence]] grew to prominence amongst the Italian city-states through financial business, and the dominant [[Medici]] family became important promoters of the [[Renaissance]] through their patronage of the arts.<ref>Allmand, pp. 150, 155; Cantor, p. 544; Hollister, p. 326.</ref> Other city-states in [[northern Italy]] also expanded their territories and consolidated their power, primarily [[Milan]], [[Venice]], and [[Genoa]].<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 547; Hollister, p. 363; Holmes, p. 258.</ref> The [[War of the Sicilian Vespers]] had by the early 14th century divided [[southern Italy]] into an [[House of Trastámara|Aragon]] [[Kingdom of Sicily]] and an [[House of Valois-Anjou|Anjou]] [[Kingdom of Naples]].<ref>Cantor, p. 511; Hollister, p. 264; Koenigsberger, p. 255.</ref> In 1442, the two kingdoms were effectively united under Aragonese control.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 577.</ref>

The 1469 marriage of [[Isabella I of Castile]] and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and the 1479 death of [[John II of Aragon]] led to the creation of modern-day [[Spain]].<ref>Hollister, p. 356; Koenigsberger, p. 314</ref> In 1492, [[Granada]] was captured from the [[Moors]], thereby completing the [[Reconquista]].<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 162; Hollister, p. 99; Holmes, p. 265.</ref> [[Portugal]] had during the 15th century – particularly under [[Henry the Navigator]] – gradually explored the coast of [[Africa]], and in 1498, [[Vasco da Gama]] found the sea route to [[India]].<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 192; Cantor, 513.</ref> The Spanish monarchs met the Portuguese challenge by financing the expedition of [[Christopher Columbus]] to find a western sea route to India, leading to the discovery of the [[Americas]] in 1492.<ref>Cantor, 513; Holmes, pp. 266–267.</ref>

==Late medieval European society==
{{See also|Crisis of the Late Middle Ages|Black Death|Little Ice Age}}
[[File:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry octobre detail.jpg|thumb|Peasants preparing the fields for the winter with a [[Harrow (tool)|harrow]] and sowing for the winter grain. The background shows the [[Louvre castle]] in Paris, {{Circa|1410|lk=no}}; October as depicted in the [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]].]]

Around 1300–1350, the [[Medieval Warm Period]] gave way to the [[Little Ice Age]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Jean M.|last=Grove|title=The Little Ice Age|publisher=Routledge|location=London|year=2003|isbn=0-415-01449-2}}</ref> The colder climate resulted in agricultural crises, the first of which is known as the [[Great Famine of 1315–1317]].<ref>Jones, p. 88.</ref> The demographic consequences of this [[famine]], however, were not as severe as the [[pandemic|plagues]] that occurred later in the century, particularly the [[Black Death]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Barbara F.|last=Harvey|editor-last=Campbell|editor-first=B.M.S.|contribution=Introduction: The 'Crisis' of the Early Fourteenth Century|title=Before the Black Death: Studies in The 'Crisis' of the Early Fourteenth Century|year=1991|pages=1–24|place=Manchester|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=0-7190-3208-3}}</ref> Estimates of the death rate caused by this epidemic range from one third to as much as sixty percent.<ref>Jones, pp. 136–8;Cantor, p. 482.</ref> By around 1420, the accumulated effect of recurring plagues and famines had reduced the [[population of Europe]] to perhaps no more than a third of what it was a century earlier.<ref>Herlihy (1997), p. 17; Jones, p. 9.</ref> The effects of natural disasters were exacerbated by armed conflicts; this was particularly the case in France during the [[Hundred Years' War]].<ref>Hollister, p. 347.</ref> It took 150 years for the European population to regain similar levels to 1300.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do;jsessionid=649DA1AEFC71F2AB21FD38D0A9C3E1FD.omni_as07?p=WHIC&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CCX3426200028&asid=1537416000000~a9206f91|title=World History in Context - Document - The Late Middle Ages|access-date=19 September 2018|archive-date=10 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610000509/https://galeapps.gale.com/apps/auth?userGroupName=&origURL=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Bjsessionid%3D649DA1AEFC71F2AB21FD38D0A9C3E1FD.omni_as07%3Fp%3DWHIC%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3DGALE%257CCX3426200028%26asid%3D1537416000000%7Ea9206f91&prodId=WHIC|url-status=live}}</ref>

As the European population was severely reduced, land became more plentiful for the survivors, and labour was consequently more expensive.<ref>Duby, p. 270; Koenigsberger, p. 284; McKisack, p. 334.</ref> Attempts by landowners to forcibly reduce wages, such as the English 1351 [[Statute of Laborers]], were doomed to fail.<ref>Koenigsberger, p. 285.</ref> These efforts resulted in nothing more than fostering resentment among the peasantry, leading to rebellions such as the French [[Jacquerie]] in 1358 and the English [[English peasants' revolt of 1381|Peasants' Revolt]] in 1381.<ref>Cantor, p. 484; Hollister, p. 332; Holmes, p. 303.</ref> The long-term effect was the virtual end of [[serfdom]] in Western Europe.<ref>Cantor, p. 564; Hollister, pp. 332–333; Koenigsberger, p. 285.</ref> In Eastern Europe, on the other hand, landowners were able to exploit the situation to force the peasantry into even more repressive bondage.<ref>Hollister, pp. 332–333; Jones, p. 15.</ref>

The upheavals caused by the Black Death left certain minority groups particularly vulnerable, especially the [[Jew]]s,<ref>Chazan, p. 194.</ref> who were often blamed for the calamities. [[Antisemitism|Anti-Jewish]] [[pogrom]]s were carried out all over Europe; in February 1349, two thousand Jews were murdered in [[Strasbourg]].<ref>Hollister, p. 330; Holmes, p. 255.</ref> States were also guilty of discrimination against the Jews. Monarchs gave in to the demands of the people, and the Jews were expelled from England in 1290, from France in 1306, from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497.<ref>Brady et al., pp. 266–267; Chazan, pp. 166, 232; Koenigsberger, p. 251.</ref>

While the Jews were suffering persecution, one group that probably experienced increased empowerment in the late Middle Ages was women. The great social changes of the period opened up new possibilities for women in the fields of commerce, learning, and religion.<ref name="Klapisch-Zuber268">Klapisch-Zuber, p. 268.</ref> Yet at the same time, women were also vulnerable to incrimination and persecution, as belief in [[witchcraft]] increased.<ref name="Klapisch-Zuber268"/>

The accumulation of social, environmental, and health-related problems also led to an increase in interpersonal violence in most parts of Europe. Population increase, religious intolerance, famine, and disease led to an increase in violent acts in vast parts of medieval society. One exception to this was North-Eastern Europe, whose population managed to maintain low levels of violence due to a more organized society resulting from extensive and successful trade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baten |first1=Joerg |last2=Steckel |first2=Richard H. |date=2019 |title=The History of Violence in Europe: Evidence from Cranial and Postcranial Bone Traumata |journal=The Backbone of Europe: Health, Diet, Work and Violence over Two Millennia |pages=300–324}}</ref>

Up until the mid-14th century, Europe had experienced steadily increasing [[urbanization]].<ref>Hollister, p. 323; Holmes, p. 304.</ref> Cities were also decimated by the Black Death, but the role of urban areas as centres of learning, commerce, and government ensured continued growth.<ref>Jones, p. 164; Koenigsberger, p. 343.</ref> By 1500, Venice, Milan, Naples, Paris, and [[Constantinople]] each probably had more than 100,000 inhabitants.<ref name="Allmand125">Allmand (1998), p. 125</ref> Twenty-two other cities were larger than 40,000; most of these were in Italy and the Iberian peninsula, but there were also some in France, the Empire, and the Low Countries, as well as London in England.<ref name="Allmand125"/>

==Military history==
{{Main|Medieval warfare}}

{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|[[Medieval warfare]]
|-
|
[[File:Battle of crecy froissart.jpg|thumb|center|
Miniature of the [[Battle of Crécy]] (1346) 
Manuscript of [[Jean Froissart]]'s ''[[Froissart's Chronicles|Chronicles]]''. 
----
The [[Hundred Years' War]] saw many military innovations.
]]
|}
Through battles such as [[Battle of the Golden Spurs|Courtrai]] (1302), [[Battle of Bannockburn|Bannockburn]] (1314), and [[Battle of Morgarten|Morgarten]] (1315), it became clear to the great territorial princes of Europe that the military advantage of the feudal [[cavalry]] was lost and that a well equipped [[Infantry in the Middle Ages|infantry]] was preferable.<ref>Jones, p. 350; McKisack, p. 39; Verbruggen, p. 111.</ref> Through the [[Wales in the Late Middle Ages|Welsh Wars]], the English became acquainted with, and adopted, the highly efficient [[English longbow|longbow]].<ref>Allmand (1988), p. 59; Cantor, p. 467.</ref> Once properly managed, this weapon gave them a great advantage over the French in the Hundred Years' War.<ref>McKisack, p. 240, Verbruggen, pp. 171–2</ref>

The introduction of [[Black powder|gunpowder]] affected the conduct of war significantly.<ref>Contamine, pp. 139–40; Jones, pp. 11–2.</ref> Though employed by the English as early as the [[Battle of Crécy]] in 1346, [[firearms]] initially had little effect in the field of battle.<ref>Contamine, pp. 198–200.</ref> It was through the use of [[cannon]]s as [[Siege engine|siege weapons]] that major change was brought about; the new methods would eventually change the architectural structure of [[fortification]]s.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 169; Contamine, pp. 200–7.</ref>

Changes also took place within the recruitment and composition of armies. The use of the [[Conscription|national]] or [[feudal levy]] was gradually replaced by paid troops of domestic [[retinue]]s or foreign [[Mercenary|mercenaries]].<ref>Cantor, p. 515.</ref> The practice was associated with [[Edward III of England]] and the [[condottieri]] of the Italian city-states.<ref>Contamine, pp. 150–65; Holmes, p. 261; McKisack, p. 234.</ref> All over Europe, [[Swiss mercenaries]] were in particularly high demand.<ref>Contamine, pp. 124, 135.</ref> At the same time, the period also saw the emergence of the first permanent armies. It was in [[House of Valois|Valois]] France, under the heavy demands of the Hundred Years' War, that the armed forces gradually assumed a permanent nature.<ref>Contamine, pp. 165–72; Holmes, p. 300.</ref>

Parallel to the military developments emerged also a constantly more elaborate [[Chivalry|chivalric]] code of conduct for the warrior class.<ref>Cantor, p. 349; Holmes, pp. 319–20.</ref> This newfound ethos can be seen as a response to the diminishing military role of the aristocracy, and it gradually became almost entirely detached from its military origin.<ref>Hollister, p. 336.</ref> The spirit of chivalry was given expression through the new ([[secular]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03691a.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Chivalry|access-date=2010-01-26|archive-date=2018-01-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109062419/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03691a.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> type of [[chivalric order]]s; the first of these was the [[Order of Saint George (Kingdom of Hungary)|Order of St. George]], founded by [[Charles I of Hungary]] in 1325, while the best known was probably the English [[Order of the Garter]], founded by Edward III in 1348.<ref>Cantor, p. 537; Jones, p. 209; McKisack, p. 251.</ref>

==Christian conflict and reform==

===The Papal Schism===
{{Main|Western Schism}}

The French crown's increasing dominance over the [[Papacy]] culminated in the transference of the [[Holy See]] to [[Avignon]] in 1309.<ref>Cantor, p. 496.</ref> When the Pope returned to [[Rome]] in 1377, this led to the election of different popes in Avignon and Rome, resulting in the [[Western Schism]] (1378–1417).<ref>Cantor, p. 497; Hollister, p. 338; Holmes, p. 309.</ref> The Schism divided Europe along political lines; while France, her ally Scotland, and the Spanish kingdoms supported the Avignon Papacy, France's enemy England stood behind the pope in Rome, together with Portugal, Scandinavia, and most of the German princes.<ref>Hollister, p. 338; Koenigsberger, p. 326; Ozment, p. 158.</ref>

At the [[Council of Constance]] (1414–1418), the Papacy was once more united in Rome.<ref>Cantor, p. 498; Ozment, p. 164.</ref> Even though the unity of the Western Church was to last for another hundred years, and though the Papacy was to experience greater material prosperity than ever before, the Great Schism had done irreparable damage.<ref>Koenigsberger, pp. 327–8; MacCulloch, p. 34.</ref> The internal struggles within the Church had impaired her claim to universal rule and promoted [[anti-clericalism]] among the people and their rulers, paving the way for reform movements.<ref>Hollister, p. 339; Holmes, p. 260; Koenigsberger, pp. 327–8.</ref>

===Protestant Reformation===
{{Main|Reformation|Hussites|Lollardy}}
[[File:Jan Hus at the Stake.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Jan Hus]] burnt at the stake]]
[[File:Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[All Saints' Church, Wittenberg|All Saints' Church]] in [[Wittenberg]], where [[Martin Luther]] posted his ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'', giving rise to [[Protestantism]]]]

Though many of the events were outside the traditional time period of the Middle Ages, the end of the unity of the Western Church (the [[Protestant Reformation]]) was one of the distinguishing characteristics of the medieval period.<ref name="Bradyxvii"/> The [[Catholic Church]] had long fought against heretic movements, but during the late Middle Ages, it started to experience demands for reform from within.<ref>A famous account of the nature and suppression of a heretic movement is [[Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie]]'s {{cite book|title=Montaillou: Cathars and Catholics in a French Village, 1294–1324|publisher=Scolar Press|location=London|year=1978|isbn=0-85967-403-7|author=Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie.}}</ref> The first of these came from [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] professor [[John Wycliffe]] in England.<ref>MacCulloch, p. 34–5.</ref> Wycliffe held that the [[Bible]] should be the only authority in religious questions, and he spoke out against [[transubstantiation]], [[celibacy]], and [[indulgence]]s.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 15; Cantor, pp. 499–500; Koenigsberger, p. 331.</ref> In spite of influential supporters among the [[English language|English]] aristocracy, such as [[John of Gaunt]], the movement was not allowed to survive. Though Wycliffe himself was left unmolested, his supporters, the [[Lollards]], were eventually suppressed in England.<ref>Allmand (1998), pp. 15–6; MacCulloch, p. 35.</ref>

The marriage of [[Richard II of England]] to [[Anne of Bohemia]] established contacts between the two nations and brought Lollard ideas to her homeland.<ref>Holmes, p. 312; MacCulloch, pp. 35–6; Ozment, p. 165.</ref> The teachings of the [[Czech lands|Czech]] priest [[Jan Hus]] were based on those of John Wycliffe, yet his followers, the [[Hussites]], were to have a much greater political impact than the Lollards.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 16; Cantor, p. 500.</ref> Hus gained a great following in [[Bohemia]], and in 1414, he was requested to appear at the Council of Constance to defend his cause.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 377; Koenigsberger, p. 332.</ref> When he was burned as a heretic in 1415, it caused a popular uprising in the Czech lands.<ref>Koenigsberger, p. 332; MacCulloch, p. 36.</ref> The subsequent [[Hussite Wars]] fell apart due to internal quarrels and did not result in religious or national independence for the [[Czechs]], but both the Catholic Church and the German element within the country were weakened.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 353; Hollister, p. 344; Koenigsberger, p. 332–3.</ref>

[[Martin Luther]], a German monk, started the [[German Reformation]] by posting [[95 theses]] on the castle church of [[Wittenberg]] on October 31, 1517.<ref>MacCulloch, p. 115.</ref> The immediate provocation spurring this act was [[Pope Leo X]]'s renewal of the indulgence for the building of the new [[St. Peter's Basilica]] in 1514.<ref>MacCulloch, pp. 70, 117.</ref> Luther was challenged to recant his heresy at the [[Diet of Worms]] in 1521.<ref>MacCulloch, p. 127; Ozment, p. 245.</ref> When he refused, he was placed under the ban of the Empire by [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]].<ref>MacCulloch, p. 128.</ref> Receiving the protection of [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony|Frederick the Wise]], he was then able to translate the Bible into [[German language|German]].<ref>Ozment, p. 246.</ref>

To many secular rulers, the Protestant Reformation was a welcome opportunity to expand their wealth and influence.<ref>Allmand (1998), pp. 16–7; Cantor, pp. 500–1.</ref> The Catholic Church met the challenges of the reforming movements with what has been called the Catholic Reformation, or [[Counter-Reformation]].<ref>MacCulloch, p. 107; Ozment, p. 397.</ref> Europe became split into northern [[Protestant]] and southern Catholic parts, resulting in the Religious Wars of the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref>MacCulloch, p. 266; Ozment, pp. 259–60.</ref>

==Trade and commerce==

=== Major trade routes ===
{| style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"|Medieval merchant routes
|-
|
[[File:Late Medieval Trade Routes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|center|
Main trade routes of late medieval Europe 
----
{{color box|Black|border=silver}} [[Hanseatic League|Hansa]] 
{{color box|Blue|border=silver}} [[Venice|Venetian]] 
{{color box|Red|border=silver}} [[Genoa|Genoese]] 
{{color box|Purple|border=silver}} Venetian and Genoese 
{{color box|#6a6a6a|border=silver}} (''stippled'') Overland and river routes
]]
|}

The increasingly dominant position of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] presented an impediment to trade for the Christian nations of the west, who in turn started looking for alternatives.<ref>Allmand (1998), pp. 159–60; Pounds, pp. 467–8.</ref> Portuguese and Spanish explorers found new trade routes – south of [[Africa]] to [[India]], as well as across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to [[Americas|America]].<ref>Hollister, pp. 334–5.</ref> As [[Genoa|Genoese]] and [[Venice|Venetian]] merchants opened up direct sea routes with [[Flanders]], the [[Champagne fairs]] lost much of their importance.<ref>Cipolla (1976), p. 275; Koenigsberger, p. 295; Pounds, p. 361.</ref>

=== Shifts in exports and the commercial revolution ===
At the same time, English wool export shifted from raw wool to processed cloth, resulting in losses for the cloth manufacturers of the Low Countries.<ref>Cipolla (1976), p. 283; Koenigsberger, p. 297; Pounds, pp. 378–81.</ref> In the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] and [[North Sea]], the [[Hanseatic League]] reached the peak of their power in the 14th century but started going into decline in the fifteenth.<ref>Cipolla (1976), p. 275; Cipolla (1994), p. 203, 234; Pounds, pp. 387–8.</ref>

In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a process took place – primarily in Italy but partly also in the Empire – that historians have termed a "commercial revolution".<ref>Koenigsberger, p. 226; Pounds, p. 407.</ref> Among the innovations of the period were new forms of [[Corporation|partnership]] and the issuing of [[insurance]], both of which contributed to reducing the risk of commercial ventures; the [[Negotiable instrument#Bill of exchange|bill of exchange]] and other forms of credit that circumvented the [[Canon law|canonical laws]] for [[gentile]]s against [[usury]] and eliminated the dangers of carrying [[Precious metal|bullion]]; and new forms of [[accounting]], in particular [[Double-entry bookkeeping system|double-entry bookkeeping]], which allowed for better oversight and accuracy.<ref>Cipolla (1976), pp. 318–29; Cipolla (1994), pp. 160–4; Holmes, p. 235; Jones, pp. 176–81; Koenigsberger, p. 226; Pounds, pp. 407–27.</ref>

With the financial expansion, trading rights became more jealously guarded by the commercial elite. Towns saw the growing power of [[guilds in the Middle Ages|guilds]], while on a national level, special companies would be granted monopolies on particular trades, like [[the English wool Staple]].<ref>Jones, p. 121; Pearl, pp. 299–300; Koenigsberger, pp. 286, 291.</ref> The beneficiaries of these developments would accumulate immense wealth. Families like the [[Fugger family|Fuggers]] in Germany, the [[House of Medici|Medicis]] in Italy, and the [[Duke of Suffolk|de la Poles]] in England and individuals like [[Jacques Cœur]] in France would help finance the wars of kings, achieving great political influence in the process.<ref>Allmand (1998), pp. 150–3; Holmes, p. 304; Koenigsberger, p. 299; McKisack, p. 160.</ref>

Though there is no doubt that the demographic crisis of the 14th century caused a dramatic fall in production and commerce in ''absolute'' terms, there has been a vigorous historical debate over whether the decline was greater than the fall in population.<ref>Pounds, p. 483.</ref> While the older orthodoxy held that the artistic output of the Renaissance was a result of greater opulence, more recent studies have suggested that there might have been a so-called "depression of the Renaissance".<ref>{{cite journal|first=C.M.|last=Cipolla|author-link=Carlo Maria Cipolla|year=1964|title=Economic depression of the Renaissance?|journal=[[The Economic History Society|Economic History Review]]|volume=xvi|issue=3|pages=519–24|doi=10.2307/2592852|jstor=2592852}}</ref> In spite of convincing arguments for the case, the statistical evidence is simply too incomplete for a definite conclusion to be made.<ref>Pounds, pp. 484–5.</ref>

==Arts and sciences==


In the 14th century, the predominant academic trend of [[scholasticism]] was challenged by the [[Renaissance humanism|humanist]] movement. Though primarily an attempt to revitalise the [[classical language]]s, the movement also led to innovations within the fields of science, art, and literature, helped by impulses from [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] scholars who had to seek refuge in the West after the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453.<ref>Allmand (1998), pp. 243–54; Cantor, p. 594; Nicholas, p. 156.</ref>

In science, classical authorities like [[Aristotle]] were challenged for the first time since antiquity. Within the arts, humanism took the form of the [[Renaissance]]. Though the 15th-century Renaissance was a highly localised phenomenon – limited mostly to the city-states of northern Italy – artistic developments were taking place also further north, particularly in the Netherlands.{{efn|name="For references, see below"}}

===Philosophy, science and technology===
{{Main|Medieval philosophy|History of science in the Middle Ages|Medieval technology}}

[[File:European Output of Manuscripts 500–1500.png|thumb|European output of manuscripts (500–1500). The rising trend in medieval book production saw its continuation in the period.<ref>Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the “Rise of the West”: Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 69, No. 2 (2009), pp. 409–445 (416, table 1)</ref>]]
[[File:Printing towns incunabula.svg|thumb|300px|[[Global spread of the printing press|Spread of printing]] by [[Johannes Gutenberg]] from [[Mainz]] in Europe in the 15th century]]

The predominant school of thought in the 13th century was the [[Thomism|Thomistic]] reconciliation of the teachings of [[Aristotle]] with [[Christian theology]].<ref>Jones, p. 42; Koenigsberger, p. 242.</ref> The [[Condemnations (University of Paris)#Condemnation of 1277|Condemnation of 1277]], enacted at the [[University of Paris]], placed restrictions on ideas that could be interpreted as heretical, restrictions that had implication for [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] thought.<ref name="SEP 1277">{{cite web|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/condemnation/|title=Condemnation of 1277|publisher=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|author=Hans Thijssen|year=2003|access-date=2008-04-21|archive-date=2017-03-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311030803/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/condemnation/|url-status=live}}</ref> An alternative was presented by [[William of Ockham]], following the manner of the earlier Franciscan [[John Duns Scotus]], who insisted that the world of reason and the world of faith had to be kept apart. Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony – or [[Occam's razor]] – whereby a simple theory is preferred to a more complex one and speculation on unobservable phenomena is avoided.<ref>Grant, p. 142; Nicholas, p. 134.</ref> This maxim is, however, often misquoted. Occam was referring to his nominalism in this quotation. Essentially saying the theory of absolutes, or metaphysical realism, was unnecessary to make sense of the world.

This new approach liberated scientific speculation from the dogmatic restraints of Aristotelian science and paved the way for new approaches. Particularly within the field of theories of [[Motion (physics)|motion]], great advances were made, when such scholars as [[Jean Buridan]], [[Nicole Oresme]], and the [[Oxford Calculators]] challenged the work of Aristotle.<ref>Grant, pp. 100–3, 149, 164–5.</ref> Buridan developed the theory of ''impetus'' as the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was an important step towards the modern concept of [[inertia]].<ref>Grant, pp. 95–7.</ref> The works of these scholars anticipated the [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric]] worldview of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]].<ref>Grant, pp. 112–3.</ref>

Certain technological inventions of the period – whether of [[Arab]] or [[China|Chinese]] origin or unique European innovations – were to have great influence on political and social developments, in particular [[gunpowder]], the [[printing press]], and the [[compass]]. The introduction of gunpowder to the field of battle not only affected military organisation but also helped advance the nation-state. [[Johann Gutenberg|Gutenberg]]'s [[movable type]] [[printing press]] made possible not only the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] but also a dissemination of knowledge that would lead to a gradually more egalitarian society. The [[compass]], along with other innovations such as the [[cross-staff]], the [[mariner's astrolabe]], and advances in shipbuilding, enabled the navigation of the [[World Ocean]]s and the early phases of [[colonialism]].<ref>Jones, pp. 11–2; Koenigsberger, pp. 297–8; Nicholas, p. 165.</ref> Other inventions had a greater impact on everyday life, such as [[Glasses|eyeglasses]] and the weight-driven [[clock]].<ref>Grant, p. 160; Koenigsberger, p. 297.</ref>

===Visual arts and architecture===
{{Main|Medieval art|Medieval architecture}}

[[File:MZK 003 Nr 01 Fig 27 - Holzwohnhaus Halberstadt Aufbau.jpg|thumb|upright|Urban dwelling house, late 15th century, [[Halberstadt]], Germany]]

A precursor to [[Renaissance]] art can be seen already in the early 14th-century works of [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]]. Giotto was the first painter since antiquity to attempt the representation of three-dimensional reality and endow his characters with true human emotions.<ref>Cantor, p. 433; Koenigsberger, p. 363.</ref> The most important developments, however, came in 15th-century Florence. The affluence of the merchant class allowed extensive patronage of the arts, and foremost among the patrons were the Medici.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 155; Brotton, p. 27.</ref>

The period saw several important technical innovations, like the principle of [[Perspective (graphical)|linear perspective]] found in the work of [[Masaccio]] and later described by [[Filippo Brunelleschi|Brunelleschi]].<ref>Burke, p. 24; Koenigsberger, p. 363; Nicholas, p. 161.</ref> Greater realism was also achieved through the scientific study of anatomy, championed by artists like [[Donatello]].<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 253; Cantor, p. 556.</ref> This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models.<ref>Cantor, p. 554; Nichols, pp. 159–60.</ref> As the centre of the movement shifted to Rome, the period culminated in the [[High Renaissance]] masters [[Leonardo da Vinci|da Vinci]], [[Michelangelo]], and [[Raphael]].<ref>Brotton, p. 67; Burke, p. 69.</ref>

The ideas of the [[Italian Renaissance]] were slow to cross the Alps into northern Europe, but important artistic innovations were made also in the Low Countries.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 269; Koenigsberger, p. 376.</ref> Though not – as previously believed – the inventor of oil painting, [[Jan van Eyck]] was a champion of the new medium and used it to create works of great realism and minute detail.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 302; Cantor, p. 539.</ref> The two cultures influenced each other and learned from each other, but painting in the Netherlands remained more focused on textures and surfaces than the idealized compositions of Italy.<ref>Burke, p. 250; Nicholas, p. 161.</ref>

In northern European countries, [[Gothic architecture]] remained the norm, and the Gothic cathedral was further elaborated.<ref>Allmand (1998), pp. 300–1, Hollister, p. 375.</ref> In Italy, on the other hand, architecture took a different direction, also here inspired by classical ideals. The crowning work of the period was the [[Santa Maria del Fiore]] in [[Florence]], with Giotto's clock tower, [[Lorenzo Ghiberti|Ghiberti]]'s baptistery gates, and [[Filippo Brunelleschi|Brunelleschi]]'s cathedral [[dome]] of unprecedented proportions.<ref>Allmand (1998), p. 305; Cantor, p. 371.</ref>

===Literature===
{{Further|Medieval literature}}
[[File:Dante Domenico di Michelino.jpg|left|thumb|[[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] as portrayed by [[Domenico di Michelino]], from a fresco painted in 1465]]

The most important development of late medieval literature was the ascendancy of the [[vernacular]] languages.<ref>Jones, p. 8.</ref> The vernacular had been in use in England since the 8th century and France since the 11th century, where the most popular genres had been the [[chanson de geste]], [[Troubadour|troubadour lyrics]], and romantic epics, or the [[Romance (heroic literature)|romance]].<ref>Cantor, p. 346.</ref> Though Italy was later in evolving a native literature in the vernacular language, it was here that the most important developments of the period were to come.<ref>Curtius, p. 387; Koenigsberger, p. 368.</ref>

[[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[The Divine Comedy|Divine Comedy]]'', written in the early 14th century, merged a medieval worldview with classical ideals.<ref>Cantor, p. 546; Curtius, pp. 351, 378.</ref> Another promoter of the [[Italian language]] was [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio]] with his ''[[The Decameron|Decameron]]''.<ref>Curtius, p. 396; Koenigsberger, p. 368; Jones, p. 258.</ref> The application of the vernacular did not entail a rejection of [[Latin]], and both Dante and Boccaccio wrote prolifically in Latin as well as Italian, as would [[Petrarch]] later (whose ''[[Il Canzoniere|Canzoniere]]'' also promoted the vernacular and whose contents are considered the first modern [[lyric poem]]s).<ref>Curtius, p. 26; Jones, p. 258; Koenigsberger, p. 368.</ref> Together, the three poets established the [[Tuscan dialect]] as the norm for the modern [[Italian language]].<ref>Koenigsberger, p. 369.</ref>

The new literary style spread rapidly and in France, influenced such writers as [[Eustache Deschamps]] and [[Guillaume de Machaut]].<ref>Jones, p. 264.</ref> In England, [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] helped establish [[Middle English]] as a literary language with his ''[[The Canterbury Tales|Canterbury Tales]]'', which contained a wide variety of narrators and stories (including some translated from Boccaccio).<ref>Curtius, p. 35; Jones. p. 264.</ref> The spread of vernacular literature eventually reached as far as Bohemia and the Baltic, Slavic, and Byzantine worlds.<ref>Jones, p. 9.</ref>

===Music===
{{Main|Medieval music}}

[[File:Vielle.jpg|right|thumb|A musician plays the [[vielle]] in a 14th-century [[Medieval]] [[manuscript]].]]

Music was an important part of both secular and spiritual culture, and in the universities, it made up part of the ''[[quadrivium]]'' of the liberal arts.<ref>Allmand, p. 319; Grant, p. 14; Koenigsberger, p. 382.</ref> From the early 13th century, the dominant sacred musical form had been the [[motet]], a composition with text in several parts.<ref>Allmand, p. 322; Wilson, p. 229.</ref> From the 1330s and onwards emerged the [[Polyphony|polyphonic]] style, which was a more complex fusion of independent voices.<ref>Wilson, pp. 229, 289–90, 327.</ref> Polyphony had been common in the secular music of the [[Provence|Provençal]] [[troubadour]]s. Many of these had fallen victim to the 13th-century [[Albigensian Crusade]], but their influence reached the papal court at Avignon.<ref>Koenigsberger, p. 381; Wilson, p. 329.</ref>

The main representatives of the new style, often referred to as ''[[ars nova]]'' as opposed to ''[[ars antiqua]]'', were the composers [[Philippe de Vitry]] and [[Guillaume de Machaut]].<ref>Koenigsberger, p. 383; Wilson, p. 329.</ref> In Italy, where the Provençal troubadours had also found refuge, the corresponding period goes under the name of [[Music of the Trecento|trecento]], and the leading composers were [[Giovanni da Cascia]], [[Jacopo da Bologna]], and [[Francesco Landini]].<ref>Wilson, pp. 357–8, 361–2.</ref> A prominent reformer of [[Eastern Orthodox music|Orthodox Church music]] from the first half of the 14th century was [[John Kukuzelis]]; he also introduced a system of notation widely used in the [[Balkans]] in the following centuries.

===Theatre===
{{Main|Medieval theatre}}

In the [[British Isles]], plays were produced in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages. These vernacular [[Mystery plays]] were written in cycles of a large number of plays: [[York Mystery Plays|York]] (48 plays), [[Chester Mystery Plays|Chester]] (24), [[Wakefield Mystery Plays|Wakefield]] (32), and [[N-Town Plays|Unknown]] (42). A larger number of plays survive from [[France]] and [[Germany]] in this period, and some type of religious drama was performed in nearly every European country in the late Middle Ages. Many of these plays contained [[comedy]], [[devil]]s, [[villain]]s, and [[clown]]s.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 86)</ref>

[[Morality plays]] emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550, an example being ''[[The Castle of Perseverance]]'', which depicts [[Human|mankind]]'s progress from birth to death. Another famous morality play is ''[[Everyman (15th-century play)|Everyman]]''. Everyman receives [[Death]]'s summons, struggles to escape, and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted by [[Kinship|Kindred]], [[Good (economics)|Goods]], and Fellowship – only [[Good works|Good Deeds]] goes with him to the grave.

At the end of the late Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear in [[England]] and [[Europe]]. [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] and [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] both maintained small companies of professional actors. Their plays were performed in the [[Great Hall]] of a nobleman's residence, often with a raised platform at one end for the audience and a "screen" at the other for the actors. Also important were [[Mummers Play|Mummers' plays]], performed during the [[Christmas]] season, and court [[masque]]s. These masques were especially popular during the reign of [[Henry VIII]] who had a House of Revels built and an [[Master of the Revels|Office of Revels]] established in 1545.<ref name="BH101">Brockett and Hildy (2003, 101-103)</ref>

The end of medieval drama came about due to a number of factors, including the weakening power of the [[Catholic Church]], the [[Protestant Reformation]], and the banning of religious plays in many countries. [[Elizabeth I]] forbid all religious plays in 1558, and the great cycle plays had been silenced by the 1580s. Similarly, religious plays were banned in the [[Netherlands]] in 1539, the [[Papal States]] in 1547, and [[Paris]] in 1548. The abandonment of these plays destroyed the international theatre that had thereto existed and forced each country to develop its own form of drama. It also allowed dramatists to turn to secular subjects and the reviving interest in [[ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] theatre provided them with the perfect opportunity.<ref name="BH101"/>

===After the Middle Ages===
{{Main|Early modern period}}

After the end of the late Middle Ages period, the [[Renaissance]] spread unevenly over continental Europe from the southern European region. The intellectual transformation of the Renaissance is viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era. Europeans would later begin an [[Age of Discovery|era of world discovery]]. Combined with the influx of classical ideas was the invention of [[printing]] which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would lead to the [[Protestant Reformation]]. Europeans also discovered new trading routes, as was the case with [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]' travel to the [[Americas]] in 1492, and [[Vasco da Gama]]'s circumnavigation of [[Africa]] and [[Indian subcontinent|India]] in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.

==Ottomans and Europe==
{{Main|Ottoman wars in Europe}}

{| style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
|-
! style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Ottomans and Europe
|-
|
[[File:Battle of Nandorfehervar.jpg|thumb|center|
Saint [[John of Capistrano]] and the Hungarian armies fighting the [[Ottoman Empire]] at the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|siege of Belgrade]] in 1456
]]
|-
|[[File:The wars of Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (1458-1490).png|thumb|center|
King [[Matthias Corvinus]]'s Black Army campaigns
]]
|}

By the end of the 15th century, the [[Ottoman Empire]] had advanced all over [[Southeast Europe]], eventually conquering the [[Byzantine Empire]] and extending control over the Balkan states. Hungary was the last bastion of the Latin Christian world in the East, and fought to keep its rule over a period of two centuries. After the death of the young king [[Vladislaus I of Hungary]] during the [[Battle of Varna]] in 1444 against the Ottomans, the Kingdom was placed in the hands of Count [[John Hunyadi]], who became Hungary's regent-governor (1446–1453). Hunyadi was considered one of the most relevant military figures of the 15th century: Pope [[Pius II]] awarded him the title of ''[[Athleta Christi]]'', or Champion of Christ, for being the only hope of resisting the Ottomans from advancing to Central and Western Europe.

Hunyadi succeeded during the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|siege of Belgrade]] in 1456 against the Ottomans, the biggest victory against that empire in decades. This battle became a real crusade against the Muslims, as the peasants were motivated by the [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] friar Saint [[John of Capistrano]], who came from Italy predicating him holy war. The effect that it created in that time was one of the main factors that helped in achieving the victory. However the premature death of the Hungarian lord left [[Pannonia]] defenseless and in chaos. In an extremely unusual event for the Middle Ages, Hunyadi's son, Matthias, was elected as [[king of Hungary]] by the [[Hungarian nobility]]. For the first time, a member of an aristocratic family (and not from a royal family) was crowned.

King [[Matthias Corvinus]] of [[Hungary]] (1458–1490) was one of the most prominent figures of the period, directing campaigns to the West, conquering Bohemia in answer to the pope's call for help against the Hussite Protestants. Also, in resolving political hostilities with the German emperor [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III of Habsburg]], he invaded his western domains. Matthew organized the [[Black Army of Hungary|Black Army]] of mercenary soldiers; it was considered as the biggest army of its time. Using this powerful tool, the Hungarian king led wars against the Turkish armies and stopped the Ottomans during his reign. After the death of Matthew, and with end of the Black Army, the Ottoman Empire grew in strength and Central Europe was defenseless. At the [[Battle of Mohács]], the forces of the Ottoman Empire annihilated the Hungarian army and [[Louis II of Hungary]] drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle. This is considered to be one of the final battles of medieval times.

==Timeline==
{{Main|Timeline of the Middle Ages}}

<timeline>
ImageSize = width:800 height:310
PlotArea = width:720 height:275 left:65 bottom:20
AlignBars = justify

Colors =
id:time value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) #
id:period value:rgb(1,0.7,0.5) #
id:age value:rgb(0.95,0.85,0.5) #
id:era value:rgb(1,0.85,0.5) #
id:eon value:rgb(1,0.85,0.7) #
id:filler value:gray(0.8) # background bar
id:black value:black

Period = from:1300 till:1500
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1300
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1300

PlotData =
align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:10 shift:(0, -3)

bar:General color:era
from: 1300 till: 1350 text:[[Crisis of the Late Middle Ages|Middle Ages Crisis]]
from: 1350 till: 1450 text:Late Middle Ages
bar:General color:filler
from: 1450 till: 1500 shift:(2,4) text:[[Modern]]
from: 1450 till: 1500 shift:(2,-7) text:[[Early modern|(Early period)]]
bar:N.Europe color:age
from: 1300 till: 1400 text:[[Christianization of Scandinavia|Christianization]]
from: 1400 till: 1500 text:[[Kalmar Union]]
bar:British.Isles color:age
from: 1300 till: 1500 text:[[Kingdom of England]]
bar:Iberia color:age
from: 1300 till: 1492 text:[[Reconquista]]
bar:Iberia color:filler
from: 1492 till: 1500 text:[[Renaissance]]
bar:E.Europe color:age
from: 1300 till: 1400 text:[[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]]
from: 1400 till: 1487 text:[[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Moscow]]
bar:E.Europe color:filler
from: 1487 till: 1500 text:[[Renaissance]]
bar:C.Europe color:age
from: 1300 till: 1494 text:[[Holy Roman Empire]]
bar:C.Europe color:filler
from: 1494 till: 1500 text:[[German Renaissance]]
bar:Apennines color:age
from: 1300 shift:(0,-7) till: 1500 text:([[Italian Renaissance]])
from: 1300 shift:(0,4) till: 1500 text:[[Renaissance]]
bar:Balkans color:age
from: 1300 till: 1345 text:[[Second Bulgarian Empire|2nd Bulgarian Empire]]
from: 1345 till: 1389 text:[[Serbian Empire]]
from: 1389 till: 1500 text:[[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]
bar:Caucasus color:age
from: 1300 till: 1490 text:[[Kingdom of Georgia]]
bar:M.East color:age
from: 1300 till: 1500 text:[[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluks]]
bar:C.Asia color:age
from: 1300 till: 1500 shift:(-120,-7) text:[[Chagatai Khanate]]
from: 1300 till: 1500 shift:(-120,4) text:[[Golden Horde]]
bar:China color:age
from: 1300 till: 1368 text:[[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]]
from: 1368 till: 1500 text:[[Ming Dynasty|Ming]]
bar:Japan color:age
from: 1300 till: 1333 text:[[Kamakura period|Kamakura]]
from: 1333 till: 1336 text:[[Kenmu restoration|Kenmu]]
from: 1336 till: 1500 text:[[Muromachi period|Muromachi]]
bar:Korea color:age
from: 1300 till: 1392 text:[[Goryeo]]
from: 1392 till: 1500 text:[[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon]]
bar:India color:age
from: 1300 till: 1500 text:[[Islamic empires in India|Islamic empires]]
bar:N.Americas color:age
from: 1300 till: 1500 shift:(0,-4) text:[[Mississippian culture]]
bar:C.Americas color:age
from: 1300 till: 1500 shift:(0,-4) text:Late Postclassic
bar:S.Americas color:age
from: 1300 till: 1500 text:Classic

</timeline>
''Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details''
{{color box|#ffd880|border=silver}}{{color box|#f2d97f|border=silver}} Middle Ages themes {{color box|#cccccc|border=silver}} Other themes

{{see also|World history (field)}}

'''14th century'''
{{Main|14th century}}

{{plainlist}}
{{div col|colwidth=35em}}
* 1305: [[William Wallace]] was executed
* 1307: The [[Knights Templar]] were destroyed
* 1309: Beginning of [[Avignon papacy]]
* 1310: [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] began the ''[[Divine Comedy]]''
* 1314: [[Battle of Bannockburn]]
* 1315–1317 [[Great Famine of 1315–1317|Great Famine]]
* 1321–1328 [[Byzantine civil war of 1321–28|Byzantine civil war]]
* 1328: [[First War of Scottish Independence]] ends
* 1337: The [[Hundred Years' War]] begins
* 1346: [[Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia|Stephen Dušan]] established a short-lived [[Serbian Empire]]
* 1347: The [[Black Death]] begins
* 1347: [[Charles University in Prague|University of Prague]] was founded
* 1348: [[Giovanni Villani]] finishes work on ''[[Nuova Cronica]]''
* 1348–1349: [[Byzantine–Genoese War (1348–49)|Byzantine–Genoese War]]
* 1362: [[Battle of Blue Waters]]
Lithuania defeats Golden Horde. Principality of Kiev becomes part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
* 1364: [[Jagiellonian University]] was founded
* 1371: [[Battle of Maritsa]]—first substantial Ottoman victory in Europe; partition of [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]]
* 1376: [[Avignon Papacy]] ended
* 1380: [[Battle of Kulikovo]]
* 1380: The ''[[Canterbury Tales]]''
* 1381: [[Peasants' Revolt]] (England)
* 1381: [[John Wycliffe]] translated the Bible
* 1385: [[Union of Krewo]], initiation of the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]]
* 1385: [[Battle of Aljubarrota]]
* 1386: [[University of Heidelberg]] was founded
* 1389: [[Battle of Kosovo]]—Serbian and Bosnian forces defeated by the Ottomans
* 1342–1392: Partitioning of the [[Kingdom of Rus]] (Galicia) between Poland and Lithuania ([[Galicia–Volhynia Wars]])
* 1396: [[Battle of Nicopolis]] and first Ottoman conquest in Europe
* 1397: [[Kalmar Union]]
{{div col end}}
{{endplainlist}}

'''15th century'''
{{Main|15th century}}

{{plainlist}}
{{div col|colwidth=35em}}
* 1402: [[Battle of Ankara]]
* 1409: [[Venetian Dalmatia]]
* 1410: [[Battle of Grunwald]]
* 1415: [[Conquest of Ceuta]]
* 1415: [[Battle of Agincourt]]
* 1415: [[Jan Hus]] was burned at the stake
* 1417: The [[Council of Constance]]
* 1419–1434: [[Hussite Wars]] in [[Bohemia]]
* 1428–1429: [[Siege of Orléans (1428–1429)|Siege of Orléans]]
* 1431: [[Joan of Arc]] was burned at the stake
* 1434: The [[Medici family]] in [[Florence]]
* 1439: [[Johannes Gutenberg]] first used movable type printing in Europe
* 1444: [[Battle of Varna]]
* 1445: [[Battle of Suzdal]]
* 1453: [[Fall of Constantinople|Constantinople falls]] to Ottoman conquest
* 1455: [[Gutenberg Bible]] printed in Mainz
* 1456: [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|Siege of Belgrade]]
* 1461: The [[Empire of Trebizond]] fell to the Turks
* 1469: [[Catholic Monarchs]]
* 1470: [[Battle of Lipnic]]
* 1474–1477: [[Burgundian Wars]]
* 1478: [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]] conquered [[Novgorod]]
* 1478: The [[Catholic Monarchs]] established the [[Spanish Inquisition]]
* 1479: [[Battle of Breadfield]]
* 1480: [[Great Stand on the Ugra River]]. The end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke over the Russian principalities.
* 1485: [[Thomas Malory]] (''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]'')
* 1492: [[Alhambra Decree]]
* 1492: [[Reconquista]] ended with the [[Battle of Granada|fall of Granada]]
* 1492: [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the "[[New World]]"
* 1494: [[Treaty of Tordesillas]]
* 1497–1498: Portuguese explorer [[Vasco da Gama]]'s first voyage reached India after circumnavigating Africa
* 1499: [[Battle of Zonchio]]
{{div col end}}
{{endplainlist}}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry juin.jpg|Peasants in fields ''[[Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry|Très Riches Heures]]''
File:Contemporaine afb jeanne d arc.png|[[Joan of Arc]] ([[Hundred Years' War]])
File:Chronicon Pictum I Karoly Robert.jpg|[[Charles I of Hungary|Charles I]] ([[Kingdom of Hungary]])
File:Jan Hus at the Stake.jpg|[[Jan Hus]] ([[Bohemian Reformation]])
Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Martin Luther, 1528 (Veste Coburg).jpg|[[Martin Luther]] ([[Protestantism]])
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal bar|Middle Ages|History}}
* [[List of basic medieval history topics]]
* [[Timeline of the Middle Ages]]
* [[Church and state in medieval Europe]]
* [[Jews in the Middle Ages]]
* [[Gothic book illustration]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|24em}}

==Further reading==

===Surveys===
* {{New Cambridge Medieval History|volume=6}}
* {{New Cambridge Medieval History|volume=7}}
* {{cite book |title=Handbook of European History, 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance and Reformation |publisher=E.J. Brill |location=Leiden, New York |editor-last2=Tracy |editor-first2=James D. |editor-last3=Brady |editor-first3=Thomas A. |year=1994 |isbn=90-04-09762-7 |editor-last=Oberman |editor-first=Heiko Augustinus}}
* {{cite book|first=Norman|last=Cantor|author-link=Norman Cantor|title=The Civilization of the Middle Ages|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=New York|year=1994|isbn=0-06-017033-6|url=https://archive.org/details/civilizationofmi00cant}}
* Ferguson, Wallace K. ''Europe in transition, 1300-1520'' (1962) [https://archive.org/details/europeintransiti00ferg online].
* {{cite book|first=Denys|last=Hay|author-link=Denys Hay|title=Europe in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries|edition=2nd|publisher=Longman|location=London|year=1988|isbn=0-582-49179-7}}
* {{cite book|first=C. Warren|last=Hollister|title=Medieval Europe: A Short History|edition=10th|publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education|year=2005|isbn=0-07-295515-5|url=http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072346574/}}
* {{cite book|editor-first=George|editor-last=Holmes|author-link=George Holmes (professor)|title=The Oxford History of Medieval Europe|edition=New|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2001|isbn=0-19-280133-3}}
* {{cite book|first=Maurice|last=Keen|author-link=Maurice Keen|title=The Penguin History of Medieval Europe|edition=New|publisher=Penguin Books|location=London|year=1991|isbn=0-14-013630-4}}
* Koenigsberger, H.G. ''Medieval Europe 400 - 1500'' (1987) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0582494036/ref=rdr_ext_tmb excerpt]
* {{cite book|first=Jacques|last=Le Goff|author-link=Jacques Le Goff|title=The Birth of Europe: 400–1500|publisher=WileyBlackwell|year=2005|isbn=0-631-22888-8|url=https://archive.org/details/birthofeurope00lego}}
* {{cite book|first1=Daniel|last1=Waley|first2=Peter|last2=Denley|title=Later Medieval Europe: 1250–1520|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|location=London|year=2001|isbn=0-582-25831-6}}

===Specific regions===
* {{cite book|first=David|last=Abulafia|author-link=David Abulafia|title=The Western Mediterranean Kingdoms: The Struggle for Dominion, 1200-1500|publisher=Longman|location=London|year=1997|isbn=0-582-07820-2|url=https://archive.org/details/westernmediterra0000abul|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|first=Georges|last=Duby|author-link=Georges Duby|title=France in the Middle Ages, 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc|edition=New|publisher=WileyBlackwell|year=1993|isbn=0-631-18945-9|url=https://archive.org/details/franceinmiddleag00geor|url-access=registration}}
* {{The Late Medieval Balkans}}
* {{cite book|first=E.F.|last=Jacob|author-link=E. F. Jacob|title=The Fifteenth Century: 1399–1485|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=1961|isbn=0-19-821714-5}}
* {{cite book|first=May|last=McKisack|author-link=May McKisack|title=The Fourteenth Century: 1307–1399|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=1959|isbn=0-19-821712-9}}
* {{cite book|editor-first=Cyril|editor-last=Mango|author-link=Cyril Mango|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2002|isbn=0-19-814098-3}}
* {{cite book|first=Janet|last=Martin|title=Medieval Russia, 980–1584|edition=2nd|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2007|isbn=978-0-521-85916-5}}
* {{cite book|editor-first=John M.|editor-last=Najemy|title=Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300–1550|edition=New|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2004|isbn=0-19-870040-7}}
* {{cite book|first=Piotr|last=Wandycz|title=The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present|edition=2nd|publisher=Routledge|location=London|year=2001|isbn=0-415-25491-4}}

===Society===
* {{cite book|first=Doris|last=Behrens-Abouseif|title=Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture|edition=Reprint|publisher=University of Michigan Press|location=Ann Arbor|year=1994|isbn=0-472-08260-4}}
* {{cite book|first=Robert|last=Chazan|title=The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom: 1000–1500|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2006|isbn=0-521-61664-6}}
* {{cite book|first=David|last=Herlihy|author-link=David Herlihy|title=Medieval Households|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts; London|year=1985|isbn=0-674-56375-1|url=https://archive.org/details/medievalhousehol00herl}}
* {{cite book|first=David|last=Herlihy|title=Medieval Culture and Society|publisher=Macmillan|location=London|year=1968|isbn=0-88133-747-1|url=https://archive.org/details/medievalcultures00herl_0}}
* {{cite book|first=William Chester|last=Jordan|author-link=William Chester Jordan|title=The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=New Jersey|year=1996|isbn=0-691-01134-6}}
* {{cite book|first=Christiane|last=Klapisch-Zuber|title=A history of women in the West|edition=New|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts; London|year=1994|isbn=0-674-40368-1}}

===The Black Death===
* {{cite book|first=Ole J.|last=Benedictow|author-link=Ole Jørgen Benedictow|title=The Black Death 1346–1353: The Complete History|publisher=Boydell Press|location=Woodbridge|year=2004|isbn=0-85115-943-5}}
* {{cite book|first=David|last=Herlihy|author-link=David Herlihy|title=The Black Death and the transformation of the West|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts; London|year=1997|isbn=0-7509-3202-3}}
* {{cite book|first=Rosemary|last=Horrox|title=The Black Death|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|year=1994|isbn=0-7190-3497-3|url=https://archive.org/details/blackdeathmanche00rose}}
* {{cite book|first=Kevin|last=Shillington|title=Encyclopedia of African History, Volume 1|edition=1st|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Taylor & Francis, Inc.|year=2004|isbn=9781579582456|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ftz_gtO-pngC&q=Cambridge+History+of+Egypt+Mamluk&pg=PA766}}
* {{cite book|first=Philip|last=Ziegler|author-link=Philip Ziegler|title=The Black Death|edition=New|publisher=Sutton Publishing Ltd.|location=Sutton|year=2003|isbn=0-7509-3202-3}}

===Warfare===
* {{cite book|first=Christopher|last=Allmand|title=The Hundred Years War: England and France at War c. 1300–c. 1450|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=1988|isbn=0-521-31923-4}}
* {{cite book|first=Kenneth|last=Chase|title=Firearms: A Global History to 1700|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2003|isbn=9780521822749|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esnWJkYRCJ4C&pg=PA103}}
* {{cite book|first=Philippe|last=Contamine|title=War in the Middle Ages|publisher=Blackwell|location=Oxford|year=1984|isbn=0-631-13142-6}}
* {{cite book|first=Anne|last=Curry|author-link=Anne Curry|title=The Hundred Years War|publisher=Macmillan|location=Basingstoke|year=1993|isbn=0-333-53175-2}}
* {{cite book|first=Paul K.|last=Davis|title=100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2001|isbn=0195143663|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nv73QlQs9ocC&q=Ain+Jalut+Mamluks&pg=PA141}}
* {{cite book|first=Maurice|last=Keen|title=Chivalry|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|year=1984|isbn=0-300-03150-5|url=https://archive.org/details/chivalry00keen}}
* {{cite book|first=J. F.|last=Verbruggen|title=The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages: From the Eighth Century to 1340|edition=2nd|publisher=Boydell Press|location=Woodbridge|year=1997|isbn=0-85115-630-4}}

===Economy===
* {{cite book|first=Carlo M.|last=Cipolla|author-link=Carlo Maria Cipolla|title=Before the Industrial Revolution: European Society and Economy 1000–1700|edition=3rd|publisher=Routledge|location=London|year=1993|isbn=0-415-09005-9}}
* {{cite book|editor-first=Carlo M. |editor-last=Cipolla|title=The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Volume 1: The Middle Ages|edition=2nd|publisher=Fontana Books|location=New York|year=1993|isbn=0-85527-159-0}}
* {{cite book|first=M.M.|last=Postan|author-link=Michael Postan|title=Mediaeval Trade and Finance|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=2002|isbn=0-521-52202-1}}
* {{cite book|first=N.J.P.|last=Pounds|title=An Economic History of Medieval Europe|edition=2nd|publisher=Longman|location=London and New York|year=1994|isbn=0-582-21599-4}}

===Religion===
* {{cite book|first=Anthony|last=Kenny|author-link=Anthony Kenny|title=Wyclif|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=1985|isbn=0-19-287647-3}}
* {{cite book|first=Diarmaid|last=MacCulloch|author-link=Diarmaid MacCulloch|title=The Reformation|publisher=Penguin|year=2005|isbn=0-14-303538-X|url=https://archive.org/details/reformation00diar_0}}
* {{cite book|first=Steven E.|last=Ozment|author-link=Steven Ozment|title=The Age of Reform, 1250–1550: An Intellectual and Religious History of Late Medieval and Reformation Europe|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven and London|year=1980|isbn=0-300-02477-0|url=https://archive.org/details/ageofreform125010000uozm}}
* {{cite book|first=John H.|last=Smith|title=The Great Schism, 1378|publisher=Hamilton|location=London|year=1970|isbn=0-241-01520-0}}
* {{cite book|first=R.W.|last=Southern|author-link=Richard Southern|title=Western society and the Church in the Middle Ages|publisher=Penguin Books|location=Harmondsworth|year=1970|isbn=0-14-020503-9|url=https://archive.org/details/westernsocietyc00sout}}

===Arts and sciences===
* {{cite book|first=Jerry|last=Brotton|author-link=Jerry Brotton|title=The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2006|isbn=0-19-280163-5}}
* {{cite book|first=Peter|last=Burke|author-link=Peter Burke (historian)|title=The European Renaissance: Centres and Peripheries|edition=2nd|publisher=Blackwell|location=Oxford|year=1998|isbn=0-631-19845-8}}
* {{cite book|first=Ernest Robert|last=Curtius|author-link=Ernst Robert Curtius|title=European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages|edition=New|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=New York|year=1991|isbn=0-691-01899-5}}
* {{cite book|first=Edward|last=Grant|author-link=Edward Grant|title=The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|year=1996|isbn=0-521-56762-9}}
* {{cite book|first=James|last=Snyder|title=Northern Renaissance Art: Painting, Sculpture, the Graphic Arts from 1350 to 1575|edition=2nd|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=2004|isbn=0-13-189564-8}}
* {{cite book|first=Evelyn|last=Welch|title=Art in Renaissance Italy, 1350–1500|edition=reprint|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2000|isbn=0-19-284279-X|url=https://archive.org/details/artinrenaissance00evel}}
* {{cite book|first=David Fenwick|last=Wilson|title=Music of the Middle Ages|publisher=Schirmer Books|location=New York|year=1990|isbn=0-02-872951-X|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/musicofmiddleage0000wils}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Late Middle Ages}}
* [http://mcllibrary.org/ The Medieval and Classical Literature Library: Original sources on the Late Middle Ages]
* [http://www.historyteacher.net/APEuroCourse/WebLinks/WebLinks-Late%20Middle%20Ages.htm Historyteacher.net: Collection of links on the Late Middle Ages in Europe]

{{Middle Ages}}
{{History of Europe}}
{{Western culture}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Late Middle Ages| ]]
[[Category:Middle Ages|.03]]
[[Category:14th century in Europe|.]]
[[Category:15th century in Europe|.]]
[[Category:16th century in Europe|.]]
[[Category:14th-century establishments in Europe|.]]
[[Category:1520 disestablishments in Europe|.]]
[[Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines]]

StayUncle

2026-03-25T16:06:50Z

Tumita7029: Added Article.

{{Orphan|date=October 2018}}
{{Infobox website
| name = StayUncle
| logo = File:Logo, StayUncle.jpg
| company_type = [[Private company|Private]]
| predecessor = 
| successor = 
| founded = 2015
| founder = Sanchit Sethi, Blaze Arizanov
| industry = [[Hospitality]]
| headquarters = [[New Delhi]], India
| area_served = 
| products = Hotels for couples in India
| owner = 
| num_employees = 20
| num_employees_year = 
| parent =
| website = {{URL|https://stayuncle.com/}}
| current_status = Out of Business
}}

'''StayUncle''' is a hotel booking website in [[India]] for both married and unmarried couples.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://qz.com/655949/in-conservative-india-a-startup-is-helping-unmarried-couples-find-a-room-and-taking-on-moral-policing/|title=In conservative India, a startup is helping unmarried couples find a room|last=Balachandran|first=Manu|newspaper=Quartz|language=en-US|access-date=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=BBC Hindi|title=Hotel booking facility for unmarried couples (BBC Hindi)|date=2016-09-13|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TZJaVvJu5lA|accessdate=2016-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Seeker Stories|title=Why India's Youth Are Dating In Secret|date=2016-08-18|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=37NvyfKyOu4|accessdate=2016-10-28}}</ref> The site books hotel rooms in 40 Indian cities, who will now allow unmarried couples coming from StayUncle with local ID proof to stay in their properties. The site also allows booking of rooms for 12 hours, rather than the customary 24.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.india.com/whatever/looking-for-a-room-as-an-unmarried-couple-stayuncle-actually-makes-your-hunt-easier-1101539/|title=Looking for a room as an unmarried couple? StayUncle actually makes your hunt easier!|date=12 April 2016|work=india.com|accessdate=18 November 2016}}</ref>

The company was founded in 2014, by Blaze Arizanov and Sanchit Sethi. It initially targeted business and transit travellers, but reoriented towards the young couples' segment at the beginning of 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.in/This-bold-startup-aims-to-help-unmarried-couples-find-a-room-without-being-harassed/articleshow/51792266.cms|title=StayUncle: This bold startup aims to help unmarried couples find a room without being harassed|work=businessinsider.in|accessdate=18 November 2016}}</ref> Arizanov is now Chief Marketing Officer; Sethi is chief executive officer.

Investors in the company include Ajay Naqvi, the former country head of [[Airbnb]] India.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{official website|http://www.stayuncle.com}}
* http://www.mensxp.com/special-features/today/30292-this-website-that-lets-unmarried-couples-book-hotel-rooms-in-india-is-definitely-a-welcome-change.html
* http://qz.com/655949/in-conservative-india-a-startup-is-helping-unmarried-couples-find-a-room-and-taking-on-moral-policing/
*https://www.scoopwhoop.com/startup-helping-unmarried-couples-rent-rooms/

[[Category:Indian travel websites]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2015]]

Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent

2026-03-25T00:58:32Z

Tumita7029: cleanup structure further and added references

{{Short description|Gradual process of replacement of in India, ended around the 13th or 14th century}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
[[File:Nalanda_university.jpg|thumb|The Buddhist [[Nalanda]] university and monastery was a [[Ancient higher-learning institutions|major institution of higher-learning]] in [[ancient India]] from the 5th century CE until the 12th century.<ref name="Scharfe 2002">{{cite book |author-last=Scharfe |author-first=Hartmut |year=2002 |chapter=From Monasteries to Universities |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GMyiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA144 |title=Education in Ancient India |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Brill’s Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 2: South Asia |volume=16 |pages=144–145 |doi=10.1163/9789047401476_010 |isbn=978-90-47-40147-6 |lccn=2002018456 |issn=0169-9377}}</ref>]]
{{Buddhism}}

[[Buddhism]], which originated in [[Indian subcontinent|India]], gradually dwindled in that region starting in the 4th–6th century CE, and was largely ousted by [[Hinduism]] approximately by the 12th century,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XjjwjC7rcOYC|title=A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early has been Mahāyāna|author1=Akira Hirakawa|author2=Paul Groner|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1993|isbn=978-81-208-0955-0 |pages=227–240}}</ref><ref name="Keown2004p208">{{cite book|author=Damien Keown |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=985a1M7L1NcC&pg=PA208 |title=A Dictionary of Buddhism |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-157917-2 |pages=208–209}}</ref> in a centuries-long process.{{sfn|Fogelin|2015|p=218}} Lack of appeal among the rural masses, who instead embraced religious rituals and beliefs developed during the [[Hindu synthesis]], as well as Turkic invasions and dwindling financial support from trading communities and royal elites, were major factors in the decline of Buddhism in its Indian homeland.<ref>Sarao, ''Decline of Buddhism in India''</ref>{{full citation needed|date = November 2024}} Across many centuries, Buddhism largely spread to other regions of Asia.

The total Buddhist population in 2010 in the Indian subcontinent – excluding that of Sri Lanka, Bhutan (both Buddhist majority states), and Nepal – was about 10 million, of which about 92.5% in India, 7.2% lived in Bangladesh and 0.2% in Pakistan.<ref name="pewforum.org">[http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-numbers/ Religion population totals in 2010 by Country] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325193107/http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-numbers/ |date=25 March 2018 }} Pew Research, Washington DC (2012)</ref>

==Growth of Buddhism==
[[File:Asoka̠ Buddhist Missions.png|thumb|Map of the Buddhist missions during the reign of [[Ashoka]].]]

Buddhism expanded in the Indian subcontinent in the centuries after the death of the Buddha, particularly after receiving the endorsement and royal support of the [[Maurya Empire]] under [[Ashoka]] in the 3rd century BCE. It spread even beyond the [[Indian subcontinent]] [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|to Central Asia]] and [[Chinese Buddhism|China]].

The Buddha's period saw not only urbanisation, but also the beginnings of centralised states.<ref>[[Richard Gombrich]], ''A Global Theory of Intellectual Change.'' Harvard University Press, 2000, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC&pg=PA177 p. 205].</ref> The successful expansion of Buddhism depended on the growing economy of the time, together with an increase in the number of centralised political organisations capable of change.<ref>[[Richard Gombrich]], ''A Global Theory of Intellectual Change.'' Harvard University Press, 2000, p. 184.</ref>

Buddhism spread across [[Outline of ancient India|ancient India]] and state support by various regional regimes continued through the 1st millennium BCE.{{sfn|Collins|2000|p=182}} The consolidation of monastic organisations made Buddhism the centre of religious and intellectual life in India.{{sfn|Collins|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2HS1DOZ35EgC&pg=PA208 208]}} The succeeding [[Kanva dynasty|Kanva Dynasty]] had four Buddhist Kanva Kings.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |page=53 |title=History of India |author=Sir Roper Lethbridge}}</ref>

==Gupta Empire (4th–6th century)==

===Religious developments===
During the [[Gupta Empire]] (4th to 6th century), [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]] and other Hindu sects became increasingly popular, while [[Brahmin]]s developed a new relationship with the state. The differences between Buddhism and Hinduism blurred, as [[Mahayana]] Buddhism adopted more ritualistic practices, while Buddhist ideas were adopted into Vedic schools.{{Sfn|Collins|2000|pp=207–211}} As the system grew, Buddhist [[Vihara|monasteries]] gradually lost control of land revenue. In parallel, the Gupta kings built Buddhist temples such as the one at [[Kushinagar]]a,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Gina Barns|title=An Introduction to Buddhist Archaeology|journal=World Archaeology|volume = 27| number = 2|year=1995|pages=166–168}}</ref><ref name=stoddardp3>{{cite journal|author=Robert Stoddard|year=2010 |journal= Pilgrimage and Buddhist Art |title= The Geography of Buddhist Pilgrimage in Asia |publisher= Yale University Press |url= http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/geographyfacpub/27| volume = 178|pages=3–4}}</ref> and monastic universities such as those at [[Nalanda]], as evidenced by records left by three Chinese visitors to India.<ref name=scharfe2002p144>{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Handbook of Oriental Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7s19sZFRxCUC |year=2002|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-12556-6|pages=144–153}}</ref><ref name="Craig Lockard 2007 188">{{cite book|author=Craig Lockard|title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions: Volume I: A Global History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC |year=2007|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|isbn=978-0618386123 |page=188}}</ref><ref name=higham2014p121>{{cite book|author=Charles Higham |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC |year=2014|publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-1-4381-0996-1 |pages=121, 236}}</ref>

===Hun invasions (6th century)===
Chinese scholars travelling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries, such as [[Faxian]], [[Xuanzang]], [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]], Hui-sheng, and [[Song Yun]], began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist ''[[sangha]]'' in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent, especially in the wake of the [[Huna people|Hun]] invasion from central Asia in the 6th century CE. Xuanzang wrote that numerous monasteries in northwestern India had been reduced to ruins by the Huns.<ref name="Merriam155">{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440 |url-access=registration|year=1999|publisher=Merriam-Webster|isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/155 155]–157 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/Historical-Development#toc68658|title=Historical Development of Buddhism in India – Buddhism under the Guptas and Palas|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=12 September 2015}}</ref>

[[Mihirakula]], the [[Alchon Hun]] ruler who ruled in the northwestern region (modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and north India) from 515–540 CE, was known for his [[Alchon_Huns#Persecution_of_Buddhism|persecution of Buddhists]].<ref name=Grousset1970>{{cite book|last=Grousset|first=René|translator-last=Walford|translator-first=Naomi|title=The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia|page=[https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou/page/71 71]|publisher=Rutgers University Press|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|year=1970|isbn=978-0-8135-0627-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou|url-access=registration|sbn=8135-0627-1}}</ref> He ordered the expulsion of monks and the destruction of many Buddhist monasteries throughout [[Gandhara]], and even as far away as modern-day [[Prayagraj]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Nakamura |first=Hajime |title=Indian Buddhism: A Survey With Bibliographical Notes |year=1980 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |isbn=8120802721 |page=146}}</ref> Between 525 and 532 CE, [[Yashodharman]] (ruler of the [[Malavas|Malava Empire]]) and rulers of the [[Gupta Empire]] reversed Mihirakula's campaign and ended the Mihirakula era.<ref name="Sagar">Foreign Influence on Ancient India by Krishna Chandra Sagar [https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA216 p. 216]</ref><ref name="Majumdar1977p242">{{cite book|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|title=Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNxiN5tzKOgC&pg=PA242|year=1977|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0436-4|pages=242–244}}</ref>

The religion recovered slowly from these invasions during the 7th century, with the "Buddhism of Punjab and Sindh remaining strong". The reign of the [[Pala Empire|Pala Dynasty]] (8th to 12th century) saw Buddhism in North India recover due to royal support from the Palas, who supported various Buddhist centers like [[Nalanda mahavihara|Nalanda]]. By the eleventh century, Pala rule had weakened, however.{{sfn|Harvey|2013|p=194}}

==Socio-political change and religious competition==
[[File:Indian Kanauj triangle map.svg|thumb|During the period of the [[Tripartite Struggle]] (7–12th centuries), most major and minor Indian dynasties gradually shifted their support towards various forms of [[Hinduism]] or [[Jainism]] (with the exception of the [[Pala Empire|Palas]]).{{sfn|Fogelin|2015|pp=204–205}}]]

The regionalisation of India after the end of the [[Gupta Empire]] (320–650 CE) led to the loss of patronage and donations.{{sfn|Berkwitz|2012|p=140}} The prevailing view of decline of Buddhism in India is summed by [[Arthur Llewellyn Basham|A. L. Basham]]'s classic study which argues that the main cause was the rise of an ancient Hindu religion again, "[[Hinduism]]", which focused on the worship of deities like [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]] and became more popular among the common people while Buddhism, being focused on monastery life, had become disconnected from public life and its life rituals, which were all left to Hindu [[Brahmin]]s.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

===Religious competition===
{{see also|Buddhism and Hinduism}}

The growth of new forms of [[Hinduism]] (and to a lesser extent [[Jainism]]) was a key element in the decline in Buddhism in India, particularly in terms of diminishing financial support to Buddhist monasteries from laity and royalty and also not having any support of kings
.{{sfn|Fogelin|2015 |pp=218–219}}<ref name="Murthy 1987 91">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tD-7sojtDdYC&pg=PA91 |title=Glimpses of Art, Architecture, and Buddhist Literature in Ancient India |last=Murthy |first=K. Krishna |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-7017-226-0 |page=91}}</ref><ref name="BUDDHISM IN ANDHRA PRADESH">{{cite web |url=http://www.metta.lk/english/buddhism-ap.htm?bcsi_scan_40D940621B5BD15F=0&bcsi_scan_filename=buddhism-ap.htm |title=BUDDHISM IN ANDHRA PRADESH |work=metta.lk |access-date=27 June 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518034805/http://www.metta.lk/english/buddhism-ap.htm?bcsi_scan_40D940621B5BD15F=0&bcsi_scan_filename=buddhism-ap.htm |archive-date=18 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> According to Kanai Hazra, Buddhism declined in part because of the rise of the Brahmins and their influence in socio-political process.<ref name="Kanai Lal Hazra 1995 371–385">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N3wEAAAAYAAJ |title=The Rise And Decline of Buddhism in India |author=Kanai Lal Hazra |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |year=1995 |isbn=978-81-215-0651-9 |pages=371–385}}</ref> According to Randall Collins, [[Richard Gombrich]] and other scholars, Buddhism's rise or decline is not linked to Brahmins or the caste system, since Buddhism was "not a reaction to the caste system", but aimed at the salvation of those who joined its monastic order.{{sfn|Collins|2000 |pp=205–206}}{{sfn|Queen|King|1996 |pages=17–18}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Richard Gombrich |title=Buddhist Precept & Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqp4LuZQnHsC |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-15623-6 |pages=344–345}}</ref>

The disintegration of central power also led to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} Rural and devotional movements arose within Hinduism, along with [[Shaivism]], [[Vaishnavism]], [[Bhakti movement|Bhakti]] and [[Tantra]],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}} that competed with each other, as well as with numerous sects of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=42}}{{sfn|Inden|1978|p=67}} This fragmentation of power into feudal kingdoms was detrimental for [[Buddhism]], as royal support shifted towards other communities and [[Brahmin]]s developed a strong relationship with Indian states.{{sfn|Berkwitz|2012|p=140}}{{sfn|Collins|2000 |pp=189–190}}{{sfn|Fogelin|2015 |pp=218–219}}<ref name="Murthy 1987 91"/><ref name="BUDDHISM IN ANDHRA PRADESH"/><ref name="Kanai Lal Hazra 1995 371–385"/>

Over time the new Indian dynasties which arose after the 7th and 8th centuries tended to support Hinduism, and this conversion proved decisive. These new dynasties, all of which supported Hinduism, include "the [[Karkoṭa Empire|Karkotas]] and [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty]] of the north, the [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] of the Deccan, and the [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandyas]] and [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] of the south" (the [[Pala Empire|Pala Dynasty]] is one sole exception to these).{{citation needed|date=June 2021}} One of the reasons of this conversion was that the Brahmins were willing and able to aid in local administration, and they provided councillors, administrators and clerical staff.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2011|p=99}} Moreover, Brahmins had clear ideas about society, law and statecraft (and studied texts such as the [[Arthashastra]] and the [[Manusmriti]]) and could be more pragmatic than the Buddhists, whose religion was based on monastic renunciation and did not recognise that there was a [[Kshatriya|special warrior class]] that was divinely ordained to use violence justly.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2011|pp=99–101}} As [[Johannes Bronkhorst]] notes, Buddhists could give "very little" practical advice in response to that of the Brahmins, and Buddhist texts often speak ill of kings and royalty.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2011|p=103}}

Bronkhorst notes that some of the influence of the Brahmins derived from the fact that they were seen as powerful, because of their use of incantations and spells (mantras) as well as other sciences like [[astronomy]], [[astrology]], [[Calendar|calendrics]] and [[divination]]. Many Buddhists refused to use such "sciences" and left them to Brahmins, who also performed most of the rituals of the Indian states (as well as in places like Cambodia and Myanmar).{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2011|p=108}}

Lars Fogelin argues that the concentration of the sangha into large monastic complexes like Nalanda was one of the contributing causes for the decline. He states that the Buddhists of these large monastic institutions became "largely divorced from day-to-day interaction with the laity, except as landlords over increasingly large monastic properties".{{sfn|Fogelin|2015 |p=210}} [[Padmanabh Jaini]] also notes that Buddhist laypersons are relatively neglected in the Buddhist literature, which produced only one text on lay life and not until the 11th century, while Jains produced around fifty texts on the life and conduct of a Jaina layperson.<ref>Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1980): "The disappearance of Buddhism and the survival of Jainism: a study in contrast". ''Studies in History of Buddhism''. Ed. A. K. Narain. Delhi: B. R. Publishing. pp. 81–91. Reprint: Jaini, 2001: 139–153.</ref>

These factors all slowly led to the replacement of Buddhism in the South and West of India by Hinduism and Jainism. Fogelin states that
{{blockquote|While some small Buddhist centers still persisted in South and West India in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, for the most part, both monastic and lay Buddhism had been eclipsed and replaced by Hinduism and Jainism by the end of the first millennium CE.{{sfn|Fogelin|2015 |p=219}}}}

Buddhist sources also mention violence against Buddhists by Hindu Brahmins and kings. Hazra mentions that the eighth and ninth centuries saw "Brahminical hostilities towards Buddhism in South India"<ref>Kanai Lal Hazra (1995). ''The Rise And Decline of Buddhism in India''. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 356. {{ISBN|978-81-215-0651-9}}.</ref>

===Religious convergence and absorption===
[[File:Le temple de Chennakesava (Somanathapura, Inde) (14487936463).jpg|thumb|Buddha as [[Vishnu]] at [[Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura|Chennakesava]] Temple (Somanathapura).]]

Buddhism's distinctiveness also diminished with the rise of Hindu sects. Though [[Mahayana]] writers were quite critical of Hinduism, the devotional cults of Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism likely seemed quite similar to laity, and the developing [[Tantra|Tantrism]] of both religions were also similar.{{sfn|Harvey|2013|p=140}} Also, "the increasingly esoteric nature" of both Hindu and [[Vajrayana|Buddhist tantrism]] made it "incomprehensible to India's masses", for whom Hindu [[Bhakti|devotionalism]] and the worldly power-oriented [[Nath]] Siddhas became a far better alternative.{{sfn|Elverskog|2011|p=95–96}}{{sfn|White|2012|p=7}}{{refn|group=note|Elverskog is quoting David Gordon White (2012), ''The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India'', p.7, who writes: "The thirty-six or thirty-seven metaphysical levels of being were incomprehensible to India's masses and held few answers to their human concerns and aspirations." Yet, White is writing here about Hindu tantrism, and states that only the Nath Siddhas remained attractive, because of their orientation on ''worldly'' power.}} Buddhist ideas, and even the Buddha himself,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Religions/paths/BuddhismDisappear.doc |title=Vinay Lal, ''Buddhism's Disappearance from India'' |access-date=28 February 2017 |archive-date=25 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525144408/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Religions/paths/BuddhismDisappear.doc |url-status=dead }}</ref> were absorbed and adapted into orthodox Hindu thought,{{sfn|Collins|2000|pp=239–240}}{{sfn|Harvey|2013|p=140}}<ref>Govind Chandra Pande (1994). ''Life and thought of Śaṅkarācārya''. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. {{ISBN|978-81-208-1104-1}}, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1104-1}}. Source: [https://books.google.com/books?id=xKJCLHc1mAQC&q=sramana] (accessed: Friday, 19 March 2010), p.255; "The relationship of Śaṅkara to Buddhism has been the subject of considerable debate since ancient times. He has been hailed as the arch critic of Buddhism and the principal architect of its downfall in India. At the same time, he has been described as a Buddhist in disguise. Both these opinions have been expressed by ancient as well as modern authors—scholars, philosophers, historians, and sectaries."</ref> while the differences between the two systems of thought were emphasised.<ref name="eroer1">{{cite book |translator=Edward Roer |year=1908 |title=Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad |pages=3–4 |chapter=Shankara's Introduction |chapter-url={{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|plain-url=yes|page=3}}}}</ref><ref name="eroer2">{{cite book |translator=Edward Roer |year=1908 |chapter=Shankara's Introduction |chapter-url={{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|plain-url=yes|page=3}} |title=Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad |page=3 |oclc=19373677}}</ref><ref>KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0619-1}}, pp. 246–249, from note 385 onwards</ref><ref>Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2217-5}}, p. 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]] is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."</ref><ref>{{cite book |translator=Edward Roer |year=1908 |title=Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad |chapter=Shankara's Introduction |chapter-url={{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|plain-url=yes|page=2}} |pages=2–4}} Katie Javanaud (2013), [https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana "Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913132314/https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana |date=13 September 2017 }}, ''Philosophy Now''</ref><ref>John C. Plott et al. (2000), ''Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0158-5}}, p. 63. "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".</ref>

Elements which medieval [[Hinduism]] adopted during this time included vegetarianism, a critique of animal sacrifices, a strong tradition of monasticism (founded by figures such as [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]]) and the adoption of the Buddha as an avatar of [[Vishnu]].{{sfn|Harvey|2013|p=195}} On the other end of the spectrum, Buddhism slowly became more and more "Brahmanized", initially beginning with the adoption of Sanskrit as a means to defend their interests in royal courts.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2011|p=153}} According to Bronkhorst, this move to the Sanskrit cultural world also brought with it numerous Brahmanical norms which now were adopted by the Sanskrit Buddhist culture (one example is the idea present in some Buddhist texts that the Buddha was a Brahmin who knew the Vedas).{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2011|pp=156, 163}} Bronkhorst notes that with time, even the [[Caste system in India|caste system]] eventually became widely accepted for "all practical purposes" by Indian Buddhists (this survives among the [[Newar Buddhism|Newar Buddhists]] of Nepal).{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2011|p=162}} Bronkhorst notes that eventually, a tendency developed in India to see Buddhism's past as having been dependent on Brahmanism and secondary to it. This idea, according to Bronkhorst, "may have acted like a Trojan horse, weakening this religion from within".{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2011|pp=156, 168}}

The political realities of the period also led some Buddhists to change their doctrines and practices. For example, some later texts such as the [[Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra|Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra]] and the Sarvadurgatipariśodhana Tantra begin to speak of the importance of protecting Buddhist teachings and that killing is allowed if necessary for this reason. Later Buddhist literature also begins to see kings as [[bodhisattva]]s and their actions as being in line with the dharma (Buddhist kings like [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]] and [[Jayavarman VII]] also claimed this).{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2011|p=235}} Bronkhorst also thinks that the increase in the use of [[Apotropaic magic|apotropaic]] rituals (including for the protection of the state and king) and spells ([[mantra]]s) by 7th century Indian Buddhism is also a response to Brahmanical and [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] influence. These included fire sacrifices, which were performed under the rule of Buddhist king [[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]] (r. c. 775–812).{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2011|pp=238–241}} Alexis Sanderson has shown that Tantric Buddhism is filled with imperial imagery reflecting the realities of medieval India, and that in some ways work to sanctify that world.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2011|p=244}} Perhaps because of these changes, Buddhism remained indebted to the crept in Brahmanical thought and practice now that it had adopted much of its world-view. Bronkhorst argues that these somewhat drastic changes "took them far from the ideas and practices they had adhered to during the early centuries of their religion, and dangerously close to their much-detested rivals."{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2011|p=245}} These changes which brought Buddhism closer to Hinduism, eventually made it much easier for it to be absorbed into Hinduism and lose its separate identity for them.{{sfn|Harvey|2013|p=140}}

===Patronage===
In ancient India, regardless of the religious beliefs of their kings, states usually treated all the important sects relatively even-handedly.{{sfn|Collins|2000|p=182}} This consisted of building monasteries and religious monuments, donating property such as the income of villages for the support of monks, and exempting donated property from taxation. Donations were most often made by private persons such as wealthy merchants and female relatives of the royal family, but there were periods when the state also gave its support and protection. In the case of Buddhism, this support was particularly important because of its high level of organisation and the reliance of monks on donations from the laity. State patronage of Buddhism took the form of land grant foundations.{{sfn|Collins|2000|pp=180, 182}}

Numerous copper plate inscriptions from India as well as [[Tibet]]an and [[China|Chinese]] texts suggest that the patronage of [[Buddhism]] and Buddhist monasteries in medieval India was interrupted in periods of war and political change, but broadly continued in Hindu kingdoms from the start of the common era through the early first millennium CE.<ref name="Nakamura1980p146">{{cite book|author=Hajime Nakamura|title=Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0A7y4TCeVQC |year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0272-8 |pages=145–148 with footnotes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Akira Shimada|title=Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stūpa at Amarāvatī (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pfUyAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA200 |year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-90-04-23326-3 |pages=200–204 }}</ref><ref name="Schopen1997p259">{{cite book|author=Gregory Schopen|title=Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks: Collected Papers on the Archaeology, Epigraphy, and Texts of Monastic Buddhism in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rxdZ-BVNm_IC&pg=PA259|year=1997|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-1870-8|pages=259–278}}</ref> The Gupta kings built Buddhist temples such as the one at Kushinagara,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Gina Barns|title=An Introduction to Buddhist Archaeology|journal=World Archaeology|volume = 27| number = 2|year=1995|pages=166–168|doi=10.1080/00438243.1995.9980301}}</ref><ref name=stoddardp3/> and monastic universities such as those at Nalanda, as evidenced by records left by three Chinese visitors to India.<ref name=scharfe2002p144/><ref name="Craig Lockard 2007 188"/><ref name=higham2014p121/>

===Internal social-economic dynamics===
According to some scholars such as Lars Fogelin, the decline of Buddhism may be related to economic reasons, wherein the Buddhist monasteries with large land grants focused on non-material pursuits, self-isolation of the monasteries, loss in internal discipline in the ''sangha'', and a failure to efficiently operate the land they owned.<ref name="Schopen1997p259"/>{{sfn|Fogelin|2015 |pp=229–230}} With the growing support for Hinduism and Jainism, Buddhist monasteries also gradually lost control of land revenue.

==Turkic invasions and conquest (10th to 12th century)==

===Invasions===
[[File:The end of Buddhist Monks, A.D. 1193.jpg|thumb|The image, in the chapter on India in ''Hutchison's Story of the Nations'' edited by [[James Meston, 1st Baron Meston|James Meston]], depicts the Turkic general Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji's massacre of Buddhist monks in Bihar. Khalji destroyed the [[Nalanda]] and [[Vikramshila]] universities during his raids across North Indian plains, massacring many [[Buddhist]] and [[Brahmin]] scholars.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sanyal|first=Sanjeev|title=Land of seven rivers: History of India's Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xu-O9eNmQXMC&pg=PT130|date=15 November 2012|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-81-8475-671-5|pages=130–131}}</ref>]]

According to [[Peter Harvey (Buddhism)|Peter Harvey]]:

{{blockquote|
From 986 CE, the Turks started raiding northwest India from Afghanistan, plundering western India early in the eleventh century. Forced conversions to Islam were made, and Buddhist images smashed, due to the Islamic dislike of idolatry. Indeed in India, the Islamic term for an 'idol' became 'budd'.
|Peter Harvey|An Introduction to Buddhism{{sfn|Harvey|2013|p=194}}}}

The [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]] was the first great [[Iconoclasm|iconoclastic]] invasion into the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>Levy, Robert I. Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1990 1990.</ref> As early as the 8th century, Arab conquerors invaded present-day Pakistan. In a second wave, from the 11th through the 13th centuries, Turkic, Turkic-Mongolian and Mongolian overtook the northern Indian plains.<ref>{{cite book |last= Chandra|first= Satish|date= 2004|title= Medieval India: from Sultanat to the Mughals – Part One: Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526)|location= New Delhi|publisher= Har-Anand Publications|page= 41}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Saunders|first= Kenneth|date= 1947|title= A Pageant of India |location= Oxford|publisher= Oxford University Press|pages=162–163}}</ref> The Persian traveller Al Biruni's memoirs suggest Buddhism had vanished from [[Ghazni]] (Afghanistan) and medieval [[Punjab]] region (northern Pakistan) by early 11th century.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Muhammad ibn Ahmad Biruni|translator=Edward C. Sachau |title=Alberuni's India: An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about AD 1030 |year=1888|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-04720-3 |pages=253–254 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfUH7Qnm1VkC}}</ref> By the end of the twelfth century, Buddhism had further disappeared,<ref name="Merriam155" /><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhism/Historical-Development#toc68658|title=Historical Development of Buddhism in India – Buddhism under the Guptas and Palas |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=13 September 2015}}</ref> with the destruction of monasteries and [[stupas]] in medieval north-west and western Indian subcontinent (now Pakistan and north India).<ref name="Mcleod">McLeod, John, ''The History of India'', Greenwood Press (2002), {{ISBN|0-313-31459-4}}, pp. 41–42.</ref> The chronicler of Shahubuddin Ghori's forces records enthusiastically about attacks on the monks and students and victory against the non-Muslims. The major centers of Buddhism were in north India and the direct path of the armies. As centers of wealth and non-Muslim religions they were targets.<ref name="Powers">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-uoCgAAQBAJ&q=buddhism+decline+pockets&pg=PA44 |title = The Buddhist World|isbn = 9781317420170|last1 = Powers|first1 = John|date = 5 October 2015| publisher=Routledge }}</ref> Buddhist sources agree with this assessment. [[Taranatha]] in his ''History of Buddhism in India'' of 1608,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090319060424/http://www.thdl.org/texts/reprints/bot/bot_06_02_03.pdf Chap. XXVII-XLIV], Synopsis by Nalinaksha Dutt, Accounts of [[Pala Empire|Pala]], [[Sena dynasty|Sena]] kings, [[Vikramshila]], [[Turkic peoples|Turushkas]] and status of Buddhism in India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia</ref> gives an account of the last few centuries of Buddhism, mainly in Eastern India. [[Mahayana]] Buddhism reached its zenith during the [[Pala Empire|Pala dynasty]] period, a dynasty that ended with the Islamic invasion of the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic plains]].<ref name="Keown2004p208"/>

According to William Johnston, hundreds of Buddhist monasteries and shrines were destroyed, Buddhist texts were [[Book burning|burnt]] by the armies, monks and nuns killed during the 12th and 13th centuries in the Gangetic plains region.<ref name="Johnston2000p335">{{cite book|author=William M. Johnston|title=Encyclopedia of Monasticism: A–L|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GfC0TDkJJNgC&pg=PA335 |year=2000|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-57958-090-2 |pages=335 }}</ref> The Islamic invasions plundered wealth and destroyed Buddhist images.{{sfn|Harvey|2013|p=194}}

The Buddhist university of [[Nalanda]] was mistaken for a fort because of the walled campus. The Buddhist monks who had been slaughtered were mistaken for Brahmins according to [[Minhaj-i-Siraj]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eraly |first=Abraham |date=April 2015 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyEoAwAAQBAJ&q=bakhtiyar+mistook+buddhist+fort&pg=PT508 |title=The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=9789351186588}}</ref> The walled town, the [[Odantapuri]] monastery, was also conquered by his forces. Sumpa basing his account on that of Śākyaśrībhadra who was at [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] in 1200, states that the Buddhist university complexes of [[Odantapuri]] and [[Vikramashila|Vikramshila]] were also destroyed and the monks massacred.<ref>''A Comprehensive History of India'', Vol. 4, Part 1, pp. 600–601.</ref> forces attacked the north-western regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]] many times.<ref>C. J. Bleeker, G. Widengren, ''Historia Religionum: Handbook for the History of Religions'' p. 381.</ref> Many places were destroyed and renamed. For example, [[Odantapuri]]'s monasteries were destroyed in 1197 by [[Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji]] and the town was renamed.<ref>{{cite book |page=41 |title=Where the Buddha Walked |author=S. Muthiah}}</ref> Likewise, [[Vikramashila]] was destroyed by the forces of [[Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji]] around 1200.<ref>Sanderson, Alexis. "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period". In:'' Genesis and Development of Tantrism'', edited by Shingo Einoo. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pp. 89.</ref> Many Buddhist monks fled to [[Nepal]], Tibet, and [[South India]] to avoid the consequences of war.<ref>Mark W. Walton, George F. Nafziger, Laurent W. Mbanda, ''Islam at War: A History'' (p. 226)</ref> Tibetan pilgrim Chöjepal (1179–1264), who arrived in India in 1234,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Holy Land Reborn: Pilgrimage and the Tibetan Reinvention of Buddhist India |date=15 September 2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjzSpGf1eM0C&q=Ch%C3%B6jepal&pg=PA66 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226356501}}</ref> had to flee advancing troops multiple times, as they were sacking Buddhist sites.<ref>Roerich, G. 1959. ''Biography of Dharmasvamin (Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal): A Tibetan Monk Pilgrim''. Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute. pp. 61–62, 64, 98.</ref>

The north-west parts of the Indian subcontinent fell to Islamic control, and the consequent take over of land holdings of Buddhist monasteries removed one source of necessary support for the Buddhists, while the economic upheaval and new taxes on laity sapped the laity support of Buddhist monks.{{sfn|Fogelin|2015 |pp=229–230}} Not all monasteries were destroyed by the invasions (Somapuri, Lalitagiri, Udayagiri), but since these large Buddhist monastic complexes had become dependent on the patronage of local authorities, when this patronage dissipated, they were abandoned by the sangha.{{sfn|Fogelin|2015|p=222}}

In the north-western parts of medieval India, the Himalayan regions, as well as regions bordering central Asia, Buddhism once facilitated trade relations, states Lars Fogelin. With the Islamic invasion and expansion, and central Asians adopting Islam, the trade route-derived financial support sources and the economic foundations of Buddhist monasteries declined, on which the survival and growth of Buddhism was based.{{sfn|Fogelin|2015 |pp=229–230}}<ref name="Wink1997">{{cite book|author=André Wink|title=Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75FlxDhZWpwC&pg=PA348 |year=1997|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-10236-1 |pages=348–349 }}</ref> The arrival of Islam removed the royal patronage to the monastic tradition of Buddhism, and the replacement of Buddhists in long-distance trade eroded the related sources of patronage.<ref name="Mcleod"/><ref name="Wink1997"/>

===Re-assessing impact of invasions===
{{See also|Conversion of non-Hindu places of worship into temples#Conversion_of_Buddhist_temples_into_Hindu_temples|label1=Conversion of Buddhist sites into Hindu temples}}

However, according to some scholars, fresh re-assessments of evidence from archaeology{{sfn|Verardi|2011}} in addition to historical records{{sfn|Auer|Strauch|2019}} have disputed this view of Muslim invasions as the major cause of the decline of Buddhism in India or the destruction of Buddhist sites — arguing, instead, "that [[Brahmin|Brahmanical]] hostility toward Buddhists resulted in the destruction of [[Sarnath]] and other sites".{{sfn|Asher|2020|p=11}} According to archaeologist [[Giovanni Verardi]]: "Contrary to what is usually believed, the great monasteries of Gangetic India, from Sarnath to Vikramaśīla, from Odantapurī to Nālandā, were not destroyed by the Muslims, but appropriated and transformed by the Brahmans with only the occasional intervention of the Muslim forces".{{sfn|Verardi|2011}} According to Verardi, "orthodox" Brahmins — who had been gaining in power and influence during the [[Gahadavala dynasty|Gahadavala]] (11th-12th c.) and [[Sena dynasty|Sena]] dynasties (11th-12th c.), the [[Sena-Gahadavala Conflicts|rival]] Hindu-revivalist dynasties of northern/eastern India — "accepted Muslim rule in exchange for the extirpation of Buddhism and the repression of the social sectors in revolt."{{sfn|Verardi|2011}} Archaeologist Federica Barba writes that the [[Gahadavala dynasty|Gahadavala Rajputs]] built large [[Hindu temple]]s in traditional Buddhist sites such as Sarnath, and converted Buddhist shrines into Brahmanical ones: Evidence indicates that Buddhists had been expelled from Sarnath during the mid 12th-century, under the Gahadavala rule, and it already was in the process of being converted to a large [[Shaivism|Shiva temple]] compound before Muslim invaders arrived.<ref>{{cite book | last=Barba | first=Federica | chapter=Appendix 2, Sarnath: A Reassessment of the Archaeological Evidence with Particular Reference to the Final Phase of the Site | editor-last=Verardi | editor-first=Giovanni | title=Hardships and Downfall of Buddhism in India | publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors | date=2011 | isbn=978-81-7304-928-6 | url = https://www.academia.edu/112184736}}</ref>{{sfn|Asher|2020|p=11}} During Sena rule in Bengal many Buddhists migrated from Bengal proper to eastern Bengal crossing [[Meghna River]] due to persecution by the Hindus.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Atul Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/History_of_Bengal.html?id=AacsAAAAMAAJ |title=History of Bengal: Mughal Period, 1526-1765 A.D. |date=1968 |publisher=Nababharat Publishers |pages=222 |language=en |quote=Long before the advent of the Mughals in Bengal, the latter had at one time close relation with Arrakan. During the hegemony of the Sena rulers of Bengal, Buddhists, due to persecutions by the Hindus, Eastern Bengal specially east of the Meghna river.}}</ref>

===Decline under Islamic rule===
[[File:Vikramshila Ruins.JPG|thumb|Ruins of [[Vikramashila]], it was one of the most important centers of learning, during the Pala Empire, established by Emperor [[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]]. [[Atiśa]], the renowned [[pandita (Buddhism)|pandita]], is sometimes listed as a notable [[abbot]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Alexis Sanderson |author-link1=Alexis Sanderson |editor1-last=Einoo |editor1-first=Shingo |title=Genesis and Development of Tantrism |date=2009 |publisher=Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo |location=Tokyo |pages=89 |chapter=The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period}}</ref>]]

After the conquest, Buddhism largely disappeared from most of India, surviving in the [[Buddhism in Nepal|Himalayan regions]] and south India.<ref name="Merriam155" />{{sfn|Harvey|2013|p=194}}{{sfn|Collins|2000|pp=184–185}} [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]] stated that there was scarcely any trace of Buddhists left. When he visited [[Kashmir]] in 1597, he met with a few old men professing Buddhism, however, he "saw none among the learned".<ref name="Ramesh Chandra Majumdar 1951 426">{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|page=426|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|year=1951|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref>

According to Randall Collins, Buddhism was already declining in India by the 12th century, but with the pillage by invaders it nearly became extinct in India in the 1200s.{{sfn|Collins|2000|pp=184–185}} In the 13th century, states Craig Lockard, Buddhist monks in India escaped to Tibet to escape Islamic persecution;<ref>{{cite book|author=Craig Lockard|title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions |volume=I: A Global History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJPlCpzOY_QC |year=2007|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=978-0-618-38612-3 |pages=364 }}</ref> while the monks in western India, states Peter Harvey, escaped persecution by moving to south Indian Hindu kingdoms that were able to resist the power.{{sfn|Harvey|2013|pp=194–195}}

Brief accounts and the one eye-witness account of Dharmasmavim in wake of the conquest during the 1230s talk about abandoned viharas being used as camps by the Turukshahs.<ref name="Wink3">{{cite book|author=André Wink|title=Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75FlxDhZWpwC&pg=PA348 |year=1997|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-10236-1}}</ref> Later historical traditions such as Taranatha's are mixed with legendary materials and summarised as "the Turukshah conquered the whole of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] and destroyed many monasteries and did much damage at [[Nalanda]], such that many monks fled abroad" thereby bringing about a demise of Buddhism with their destruction of the Viharas.<ref name="Wink3" />

While they sacked the Buddhists viharas, the temples and ''[[stupas]]'' with little material value survived. After the collapse of monastic Buddhism, Buddhist sites were abandoned or reoccupied by other religious orders. In the absence of viharas and libraries, scholastic Buddhism and its practitioners migrated to the [[Himalayas]], China and Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Fogelin|2015 |pp=223–224}} The devastation of agriculture also meant that many laypersons were unable to support Buddhist monks, who were easily identifiable and also vulnerable. As the Sangha died out in numerous areas, it lacked the ability to revive itself without more monks to perform ordinations. Peter Harvey concludes:

{{blockquote|Between the alien, with their doctrinal justification of "holy war" to spread the faith, and Hindus, closely identified with Indian culture and with a more entrenched social dimension, the Buddhists were squeezed out of existence. Lay Buddhists were left with a folk form of Buddhism, and gradually merged into Hinduism, or converted to Islam. Buddhism, therefore, died out in all but the fringes of its homeland, though it had long since spread beyond it.{{sfn|Harvey|2013|p=196}}}}

Fogelin also notes that some elements of the Buddhist sangha moved to the Himalayas, China, and Southeast Asia, or they may have reverted to secular life or become wandering ascetics. In this environment, without monasteries and scholastic centers of their own, Buddhist ascetics and laypersons were eventually absorbed into the religious life of [[medieval India]].{{sfn|Fogelin|2015|p=224}}

==Survival of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent==
[[File:Janabaha.jpg|thumb|Entrance to Buddhist Jana Baha, Kel Tol, [[Kathmandu]]]]

Buddhist institutions survived in eastern India right until the Islamic invasion. Buddhism still survives among the [[Barua (Bangladesh)|Barua]] (though practising Vaishnavite elements<ref>Sukomal Chaudhuri, ''Contemporary Buddhism in Bangladesh''</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2018}}<ref>Bimala Churn Law, ''Indological Studies'', p. 180</ref>), a community of Bengali Magadh descent who migrated to [[Chittagong]] region. Indian Buddhism also survives among [[Newar people|Newars]] of Nepal, who practice unique form of [[Vajrayana]] known as [[Newar Buddhism]] and among the weavers of the villages of Maniabandha and Nuapatna in the [[Cuttack District]] of [[Odisha]], a long-isolated region.

[[File:Janabaha durbar.jpg|thumb|Procession of [[Jana Baha Dyah Jatra]], the Bodhisattva of compassion in [[Kathmandu]]]]
In Bihar and Bengal, many Buddhist shrines and temples have remained intact with the Buddha or Bodhisattva inside being reappropriated and worshipped as a Brahmanical deity. Around the neighbourhood of Nalanda, the remains of votive stupas are worshipped as [[Lingam|Shiva lingas]]. An image of the Buddha in bhūmisparśa mudrā at the village of [[Telhara monastery|Telhara]] receives full-fledged pūjā as [[Hanuman]] during [[Rama Navami]]. A sculpture of the Buddha has ended up as [[Vāsudeva]] at Gunaighar in [[Comilla]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prasad |first1=Birendra Nath |title=Archaeology of Religion in South Asia: Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jaina Religious Centres in Bihar and Bengal, c. AD 600–1200 |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |page=614 |isbn=9781000416756 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TB4gEAAAQBAJ&q=Pīṭhipati}}</ref>

[[File:Bodh gaya before restoration.jpg|thumb|[[Mahabodhi Temple]], [[Bodh Gaya]], before the 19th century restoration]]
While the Buddhist monastic centers like [[Nalanda]] had been sacked, the temples and ''[[stupas]]'' at pilgrimage sites (such as [[Bodh Gaya]]) didn't receive the same treatment. The reason these were left unharmed was because they were "not material legitimations of rival royal families".{{sfn|Fogelin|2015 |pp=223–224}} The last abbot of Bodh Gaya Mahavihara was [[Śāriputra (15th-century)|Sariputra]] who was active during the 14th and 15th centuries before he left India for Nepal.<ref name=McKeown2018>{{cite book |last1=McKeown |first1=Arthur P. |title=Guardian of a Dying Flame: Śāriputra (c. 1335-1426) and the End of Late Indian Buddhism |date=2018 |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=463 pages |isbn=9780674984356 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb86tAEACAAJ}}</ref> Inscriptions at [[Bodh Gaya]] show that the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] was in some use till 14th century. According to the 17th century Tibetan Lama [[Taranatha]]'s ''History of Buddhism in India'', the temple was restored by a Bengali queen in the 15th century, later passing on to a landowner and becoming a [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] center.{{sfn|Fogelin|2015 |pp=223–224}} Inscriptions at [[Bodh Gaya]] mention Buddhist pilgrims visiting it throughout the period of Buddhist decline:<ref>Middle Land, Middle Way: A Pilgrim's Guide to the Buddha's India, Shravasti Dhammika, Buddhist Publication Society, 1992, p. 55–56.</ref>

* 1302–1331: Several groups from [[Sindh]]
* 15th or 16th century: a pilgrim from [[Multan]]
* 2nd half of the 15th century, monk Budhagupta from South India
* 16th century Abhayaraj from Nepal
* 1773 Trung Rampa, a representative of the [[Panchen Lama]] from Tibet, welcomed by Maharaja of Varanasi
* 1877, Burmese mission sent by King [[Mindon Min]]

[[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]], the courtier of [[Mughal emperor]] [[Akbar]], states, "For a long time past scarce any trace of them (the Buddhists) has existed in Hindustan." When he visited [[Kashmir]] in 1597 he met with a few old men professing Buddhism, however, he 'saw none among the learned'. This can also be seen from the fact that Buddhist priests were not present amidst learned divines that came to the [[Ibadat Khana]] of Akbar at [[Fatehpur Sikri]].<ref name="Ramesh Chandra Majumdar 1951 426"/>

After the Islamization of Kashmir by sultans like [[Sikandar Butshikan]], much of Hinduism was gone and a little of Buddhism remained. Fazl writes, "The third time that the writer accompanied His Majesty to the delightful valley of Kashmir, he met a few old men of this persuasion (Buddhism), but saw none among the learned."<ref>{{cite book|title=Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India|author=Kishori Saran Lal|page=110|publisher=Aditya Prakashan|year=1999|author-link=Kishori Saran Lal}}</ref>

[['Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni]] mentions, "Moreover samanis and Brahmans managed to get frequent private audiences with His Majesty." The term ''samani'' ([[Sanskrit]]: ''[[Sramana]]'' and [[Prakrit]]: ''Samana'') refers to a devotee a monk. [[Irfan Habib]] states that while William Henry Lowe assumes the Samanis to be Buddhist monks, they were Jain ascetics.<ref>{{cite book|title=Akbar and His India|author=Irfan Habib|page=98|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1997|author-link=Irfan Habib}}</ref>

Taranatha's history which mentions Buddhist sangha surviving in some regions of India during his time<ref>Tharanatha; Chattopadhyaya, Chimpa, Alaka, trans. (2000). ''History of Buddhism in India''. Motilal Books UK, p. 333–338 {{ISBN|8120806964}}.</ref> which includes Konkana, Kalinga, Mewad, Chittor, Abu, Saurastra, Vindhya mountains, Ratnagiri, Karnataka etc. A Jain author Gunakirti (1450–1470) wrote a Marathi text, Dhamramrita,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1781 ''Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Devraj to Jyoti''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231135657/https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1781 |date=31 December 2021 }}, Volume 2, Amaresh Datta, Jain Literature (Marathi), Sahitya Akademi, 1988 p. 1779</ref> where he gives the names of 16 Buddhist orders. Dr. Johrapurkar noted that among them, the names Sataghare, Dongare, Navaghare, Kavishvar, Vasanik and Ichchhabhojanik still survive in Maharashtra as family names.<ref>Shodha Tippana, Pro. Vidyadhar Joharapurkar, in Anekanta, June 1963, pp. 73–75.</ref>

Buddhism survived in [[Gilgit]] and [[Baltistan]] until 13–14th century, perhaps slightly longer in the nearby [[Swat Valley]]. In [[Ladakh]] region, adjacent to Kashmir valley, Tibetan Buddhism survives to this day. The historic prevalence and history of Tibetan Buddhism in the above-mentioned northern regions of [[Kashmir]] is reported in the [[Rajatarangini]] of [[Kalhana]] written in 1150/1 CE. It survived in the Kashmir Valley at least until the introduction of Islam in 1323 by the Ladakhi Rinchana, who as King of Kashmir converted to Islam, and even beyond, into the 15th century, when King Zain ul Abidin (1419–1470) had a Buddhist minister.

In [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Kerala]], Buddhism survived until 15–16th century, as witnessed by the manuscript of the Manjusrimulakalpa. At [[Nagapattinam]], in [[Tamil Nadu]], Buddhist icons were cast and inscribed until this time, and the ruins of the [[Chudamani Vihara]] stood until they were destroyed by the [[Jesuits]] in 1867.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.buddhistnews.tv/current/tamil-nadu-100704.php |title=tibetan translation buddhist teachings hindu at buddhistnews.tv |access-date=21 June 2006 |archive-date=9 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009222827/http://www.buddhistnews.tv/current/tamil-nadu-100704.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> In the South in some pockets, it may have survived even longer.

Buddhism was virtually extinct in [[British Raj]] by the end of the 19th century, except its Himalayan region, east and some niche locations. According to the 1901 census of British India, which included modern Bangladesh, India, Burma, and Pakistan, the total population was 294.4 million, of which total Buddhists were 9.5 million. Excluding Burma's nearly 9.2 million Buddhists in 1901, this colonial-era census reported 0.3 million Buddhists in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan in the provinces, states and agencies of British India or about 0.1% of the total reported population.<ref name=1901census>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/statistics/1894_excel/ No. 7.-Distribution of Population according to Religion (Census of 1901)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127150447/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/statistics/1894_excel/ |date=27 November 2021 }}, South Asia Library, University of Chicago</ref>

The 1911 census reported a combined Buddhist population in British India, excluding Burma, of about 336,000 or about 0.1%.<ref>[https://dsal.uchicago.edu/statistics/1910_excel/index.html No. 7.-Distribution of Population according to Religion (Census of 1911)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612110226/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/statistics/1910_excel/index.html |date=12 June 2021 }}, South Asia Library, University of Chicago</ref>

<gallery widths="180" heights="140">
File:Ladakh Monastery.jpg|[[Thikse Monastery]] is the largest [[gompa]] in [[Ladakh]], built in the 1500s.
File:Tawang Monastery (Tibetan Buddhist).jpg|[[Tawang Monastery]] in [[Arunachal Pradesh]], was built in the 1600s, is the largest monastery in India and second-largest in the world after the [[Potala Palace]] in [[Lhasa]], [[Tibet]].
File:Vikramjit-Kakati-Rumtek.jpg|[[Rumtek Monastery]] in [[Sikkim]] was built under the direction of [[Changchub Dorje, 12th Karmapa Lama]] in the mid-1700s.<ref>Achary Tsultsem Gyatso; Mullard, Saul & Tsewang Paljor (Transl.): "A Short Biography of Four Tibetan Lamas and Their Activities in Sikkim", in: ''Bulletin of Tibetology'' Nr. 49, 2/2005, p. 57.</ref>
</gallery>

==Revival==
{{further|Buddhism in India|Navayana|Dalit Buddhist movement}}
[[File:Diksha Bhumi.jpg|thumb|[[Deekshabhoomi]] Stupa in [[Nagpur]], a replica of the [[Sanchi]] stupa, where [[B. R. Ambedkar]] became a Buddhist]]

In 1891, the Sri Lankan ([[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]]) pioneering Buddhist activist Don David Hewavitarne (later known as [[Anagarika Dharmapala]]) visited India. His campaign, in cooperation with [[Theosophical Society in America|American Theosophists]] such as [[Henry Steel Olcott]] and [[Madame Blavatsky]], led to the revival of Buddhist pilgrimage sites along with the formation of the [[Maha Bodhi Society]] and Maha Bodhi Journal. His efforts increased awareness and raised funds to recover Buddhist holy sites in [[British Raj|British India]], such as Bodh Gaya in India and those in Burma.{{sfn|Queen|King|1996|pages=22–25}}

In the 1950s, [[B. R. Ambedkar]] pioneered the [[Dalit Buddhist movement]] in India for the [[Dalit]]s (formerly referred to as "[[untouchability|untouchables]]"). Dr. Ambedkar, on 14 October 1956 in [[Deekshabhoomi|Nagpur]] converted to Buddhism along with his 365,000 followers. Many other such mass-conversion ceremonies followed.<ref>{{cite web| last=Pritchett| first=Frances|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/timeline/1950s.html| publisher=Columbia University| title=in the 1950s| access-date=2 August 2006}}</ref> Many converted employ the term "[[Navayana]]" (also known as "Ambedkarite Buddhism" or "Neo Buddhism") to designate the [[Dalit Buddhist movement]], which started with Ambedkar's conversion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Roots of Ambedkar Buddhism in Kanpur |url=http://www.maren-bellwinkel.de/artikel/ambedkarbuddhism.pdf |author=Maren Bellwinkel-Schempp |year=2004}}</ref> Now [[Marathi Buddhists]] are the largest Buddhist community in India.<ref name="census2011">{{cite web|title=Population by religion community – 2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS|website=Census of India, 2011|publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825155850/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01%20MDDS.XLS|archive-date=25 August 2015}}</ref>

In 1959, [[14th Dalai Lama|Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama]], escaped from [[Tibet]] to India along with numerous Tibetan refugees, and set up the [[Central Tibetan Administration|government of Tibet in Exile]] in [[Dharamshala]], India,<ref>Sidney Piburn, ''The Dalai Lama: A Policy of Kindness'' p. 12</ref> which is often referred to as "Little [[Lhasa]]", after the Tibetan capital city. Tibetan exiles numbering several thousand have since settled in the town. Most of these exiles live in Upper Dharamsala, or [[McLeod Ganj]], where they established monasteries, temples, and schools. The town has become one of the centres of Buddhism in the world.

In India, the most influential representative of [[Vipassana movement]] is the Vipassana Research Institute founded by [[S. N. Goenka]] (1924–2013) who promoted Buddhist [[Vipassanā|Vipassanā Meditation]] in a modern and non-sectarian manner. This form of Buddhist meditation is mainly practised by elite and [[middle class]] Indians, and the Vipassana movement has also spread to many other countries in [[Europe]], [[Americas|America]] and [[Asia]].<ref>[http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/vipassana-pioneer-sn-goenka-is-dead_880114.html "Vipassana pioneer SN Goenka is dead"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021210557/http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/vipassana-pioneer-sn-goenka-is-dead_880114.html |date=21 October 2013 }}. Zeenews.india.com. 30 September 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2013.</ref> In November 2008, the construction of the [[Global Vipassana Pagoda]] was completed on the outskirts of [[Mumbai]]. Ten-day Vipassanā meditation courses are regularly conducted free of charge at the Dhamma Pattana Meditation Centre that is part of the Global Vipassana Pagoda complex.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pattana.dhamma.org/|title=Dhamma Pattana Vipassana Centre website|access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref>

The Buddhist population in the modern era nation of India grew at a decadal rate of 22.5% between 1901 and 1981, due to birth rates and conversions, or about the same rate as Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism, but faster than Christianity (16.8%), and slower than Islam (30.7%).<ref>{{cite book|author=Chris Park|title=Sacred Worlds: An Introduction to Geography and Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSeIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-87735-5|pages=66–68}}</ref>

According to a 2010 Pew estimate, the total Buddhist population had increased to about 10 million in the nations created from British India. Of these, about 7.2% lived in Bangladesh, 92.5% in India and 0.2% in Pakistan.<ref name="pewforum.org"/>

==See also==
{{Portal|Religion|India}}
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Gautama Buddha]]
* [[Edicts of Ashoka]]
* [[History of Buddhism]]
* [[History of Buddhism in India]]
* [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism]]
* [[Early Buddhist Texts]]
* [[Vipassana Movement]]
* [[Maha Bodhi Society]]
* [[Bengal Buddhist Association]]
* [[Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan]]
* [[Bengali Buddhists]]
* [[Marathi Buddhists]]
* [[Buddhist Society of India]]
* [[Dalit Buddhist movement]]
* [[Lord Buddha TV]]
* [[Ambedkar]]
* [[Navayana]]
* [[Buddhist flag]]
* [[Bodh Gaya]]
*[[Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India]]
* [[Buddhism in Himachal Pradesh]]
* [[Buddhism in North Karnataka]]
* [[Buddhism in Kashmir]]
* [[Bodh Gaya bombings]]
* [[Central Tibetan Administration]]
* [[Tibetan diaspora]]
* [[Tibetan flag]]
* [[14th Dalai Lama]]
* [[Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Index of Buddhism-related articles]]
* [[List of converts to Buddhism from Hinduism]]
* [[Religion in India]]
* [[Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent]]
* [[Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques]]
* [[Persecution of Buddhists]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* Anand, Ashok Kumar (1996), ''"Buddhism in India"'', Gyan Books, {{ISBN|978-81-212-0506-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Asher|first=Frederick M.|title=Sarnath: A Critical History of the Place Where Buddhism Began|publisher=Getty Research Institute|location=Los Angeles|year=2020|isbn=978-1606066164|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMHEDwAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book | last1=Auer | first1=Blain | last2=Strauch | first2=Ingo | title=Encountering Buddhism and Islam in Premodern Central and South Asia | publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG | date=19 August 2019 | isbn=978-3-11-062986-6}}
* {{Citation | last =Berkwitz | first =Stephen C. | year =2012 | title =South Asian Buddhism: A Survey | publisher =Routledge}}
* Bhagwan, Das (1988), ''Revival of Buddhism in India and Role of Dr. Baba Saheb B.R. Ambedkar'', Dalit Today Prakashan, Lucknow -226016, India. {{ISBN|8187558016}}
* {{cite book|last=Bronkhorst |first=Johannes |year=2011 |title=Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism |publisher=BRILL}}
* {{cite book|last=Collins |first=Randall |year=2000 |title=The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-00187-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Dhammika |first=S. |title=The Edicts of King Ashoka |publisher=Buddhist Publication Society |year=1993 |location=Kandy, Sri Lanka |url=http://www.bps.lk/olib/wh/wh386.pdf |isbn=978-955-24-0104-6 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131222214905/http://www.bps.lk/olib/wh/wh386.pdf |archive-date=22 December 2013 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book| last =Doniger| first =Wendy| title =Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of World Religions| work =Encyclopædia Britannica| year =2000| url =https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/1378| isbn =978-0-87779-044-0| page =[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/1378 1378]| publisher =Merriam-Webster| url-access =registration}}
* {{Citation |last=Elverskog |first=Johan |year=2011 |title=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&pg=PA96| isbn=978-0812205312}}
* {{cite book|last=Fogelin |first=Lars |year=2015 |title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-994823-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yPZzBgAAQBAJ}} {{ISBN|978-0-19-994822-2}}. ([https://books.google.com/books?id=yPZzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA219 p. 219]) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223 p. 223] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205144236/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223 |date=5 December 2022 }})
* {{cite book|last=Harvey|first=Peter|year=2013|title=An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-85942-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u0sg9LV_rEgC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Inden |first=Ronald |title=Kingship and Authority in South Asia |publisher=South Asian Studies |year=1978 |editor=John F. Richards |location=New Delhi |chapter=Ritual, Authority, and Cycle Time in Hindu Kingship |author-link=Ronald Inden}}
* {{Citation | last= Inden | first =Ronald B. | year =2000 | title =Imagining India | publisher =C. Hurst & Co. Publishers }}
* {{Citation | last =Michaels | first =Axel | author-link = Axel Michaels | year =2004 | title =Hinduism. Past and present | place =Princeton, New Jersey | publisher =Princeton University Press }}
* {{cite book|last1=Queen |first1=Christopher S. |last2=King |first2=Sallie B. |year=1996 |title=Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZsTgY1lNNsC |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-2844-3}}
*{{cite book | last=Verardi | first=Giovanni | title=Hardships and Downfall of Buddhism in India | publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors | date=2011 | isbn=978-81-7304-928-6}}
* {{Citation | last =White | first =David Gordon |year =2012 | title =The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India | publisher =University of Chicago Press}}
* {{cite book|last1=Willemen|first1=Charles |last2=Dessein|first2=Bart |last3=Cox|first3=Collett |year=1998 |title=Sarvastivada Buddhist Scholasticism |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-9-004-10231-6}}
* Wink, André (2004), ''"Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World"'', BRILL, {{ISBN|90-04-10236-1}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062872 Archaeology and Protestant Presuppositions in the Study of Indian Buddhism], Gregory Schopen (1991), ''History of Religions''.
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2952516 Commerce and Culture in South Asia: Perspectives from Archaeology and History], Kathleen D. Morrison (1997), ''Annual Reviews''.

{{Religious persecution}}
{{Buddhism topics}}

[[Category:Demographic history of India]]
[[Category:History of Buddhism in India]]
[[Category:History of Buddhism in Pakistan]]
[[Category:History of Buddhism in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Persecution by Muslims]]
[[Category:Religious demographics]]
[[Category:Disengagement from religion]]

Mohammad Inam

2026-03-24T20:16:28Z

Tumita7029: Article!

{{Short description|Indian footballer (born 2000)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{distinguish|Muhammad Inam}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Mohammad Inam
| full_name =
| image = [[File:Mohammad Inam playing for Real Kashmir FC.jpg|300px|Image: 300 pixels]]
| caption = Mohammad Inam playing for Real Kashmir FC
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2000|October|27|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Srinagar]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], India
| height = 1.73 m
| position = [[Midfielder]]
| currentclub = [[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]]
| clubnumber = 7
| youthyears1 =
| youthclubs1 = [[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]]
| years1 = 2021
| clubs1 = [[Lonestar Kashmir FC|Lonestar Kashmir]]
| caps1 = 6
| goals1 = 0
| years2 = 2021-2022
| clubs2 = [[Delhi FC|Delhi]]
| caps2 = 5
| goals2 = 0
| years3 = 2022-2023
| clubs3 = [[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]]
| caps3 = 1
| goals3 = 0
| years4 = 2022-2023
| clubs4 = [[Delhi FC|Delhi]]
| caps4 = 6
| goals4 = 1
| years5 = 2023-2024
| clubs5 = [[Downtown Heroes FC|Downtown Heroes]]
| caps5 = 3
| goals5 = 0
| years6 = 2023- 24
| clubs6 = [[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]]
| caps6 = 11
| goals6 = 2
| years7 = 2024-25
| clubs7 = [[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]]
| caps7 = 22
| goals7 = 3
}}
'''Mohammad Inam''' (born 27 October 2000) is an Indian professional [[association football|footballer]] who plays as a [[midfielder]] for [[I-League]] club [[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Media |first1=AIFF |title=AIFF Profile |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/players/profile/91908?type=club |website=www.the-aiff.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sportstar |first=Team |date=28 November 2023 |title=I-League 2023-24: Real Kashmir moves to third on points table with a comfortable 4-0 victory against Inter Kashi |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/indian-football/real-kashmir-vs-inter-kashi-i-league-2023-24-rk-v-it-highlights-indian-football-news-goals-news/article67583170.ece |access-date=10 December 2023 |website=Sportstar |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Watch |first=Kashmir Sports |date=28 November 2023 |title=Real Kashmir outplay Inter-Kashi 4-0, jumps to 3rd place |url=https://ksportswatch.com/real-kashmir-outplay-inter-kashi-4-0-jumps-to-3rd-place/ |access-date=10 December 2023 |website=Ksportswatch |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2 December 2023 |title=Real Kashmir FC to face Aizawl FC in today's I League match |pages=14 |work=Rising Kashmir |url=https://epaper.risingkashmir.com/ |access-date=10 December 2023}}</ref>

== Career ==
Born and brought up in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu & Kashmir]], Inam started playing football at the age of 10. At the age of 15, Inam was invited by [[All India Football Federation]] for [[Asian Football Confederation]] U-16 trials.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 February 2018 |title=Real Kashmir's Inam gets India Camp call - The Kashmir Monitor |url=https://www.thekashmirmonitor.net/real-kashmirs-inam-gets-india-camp-call/ |access-date=10 December 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Guest |title=Sgr youth called for India Trails by AIFF |url=https://kashmirreader.com/2018/02/23/sgr-youth-called-for-india-trails-by-aiff/ |access-date=10 December 2023 |website=Kashmir Reader |date=23 February 2018 |language=en-US}}</ref> He gave the performance while representing [[Real Kashmir FC]] in [[Youth League (India)|U-15]] years.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Excelsior |first=Daily |date=22 February 2018 |title=Inam to attend U-16 India Football trials |url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/inam-attend-u-16-india-football-trials/ |access-date=10 December 2023 |website=DailyExcelsior |language=en-US}}</ref>

In September 2021, Mohammad Inam signed for [[Delhi FC]]. He featured a total of 5 matches in the [[I-League 2|I-League Qualifiers]]. He also featured [[Delhi FC]] in the [[2021 Durand Cup]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Biswas |first=Joseph |title=Real Kashmir FC set to sign Mohammad Inam for upcoming I-League season |url=https://khelnow.com/football/i-league-2022-23-real-kashmir-fc-sign-mohammad-inam |access-date=10 December 2023 |website=Khel Now |language=English}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Inam, Mohammad}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian men's footballers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:I-League 2 players]]
[[Category:I-League players]]
[[Category:2000 births]]
[[Category:Real Kashmir FC players]]
[[Category:Footballers from Jammu and Kashmir]]
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{{India-footy-midfielder-stub}}

Jayasurya filmography

2026-03-23T19:24:02Z

Tumita7029: minor edit

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}
[[File:Jayasurya_in_2016.jpg | thumb |Jayasurya in 2016]]
[[Jayasurya]] is an Indian actor, playback singer, and producer who works in [[Malayalam film]]s.

==Filmography==
=== 1990s ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Jayasurya acting credits in the 1990s{{sronly| List of Jayasurya Malayalam film credits in the 1990s}}
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Three Men Army]]'' || Boy in theatre || Debut film in Junior artist
|-
| 1996 || ''K.L. 7/95 Ernakulam North'' || Jewellery salesman || Junior artist
|-
| 1997 || ''Ancharakalyanam'' || Passenger in bus || Junior artist
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Graama Panchaayathu]]'' || Bus conductor ||
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Pathram]]'' || [[News Reporter]]
|
|}

=== 2000s ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Jayasurya acting credits in the 2000s{{sronly| List of Jayasurya Malayalam film credits in the 2000s}}
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2001
| ''[[Dhosth (2001 Malayalam film)|Dhosth]]'' || College Student ||
|-
| ''Aparanmaar Nagarathil''||Sahadevan
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2002
| ''Kalachakram'' || Prashanth's friend
|Uncredited
|-
| ''[[Oomappenninu Uriyadappayyan]]'' || Bobby
|
|-
| ''[[Pranayamanithooval]]'' || Vinod
|
|-
| ''[[Kattuchembakam]]'' || Chandru
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2003
| ''Achante Kochumol'' || style="text-align: center;"|Unknown
|Uncredited
|-
| ''[[Swapnakkoodu]]'' || Ashtamoorthy
|
|-
| ''[[Pulival Kalyanam]]'' || Harikrishnan
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2004
| ''[[Kerala House Udan Vilpanakku]]'' || Dineshan Kondody
|
|-
| ''[[Vellinakshatram (2004 film)|Vellinakshathram]]'' || Indu's fiancee
|
|-
| ''[[Chathikkatha Chanthu]]'' || Chanthu
|
|-
| ''[[Greetings (2004 film)|Greetings]]'' || Gopan
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2005
| ''[[Immini Nalloral]]'' || Iranikara Jeevan
|
|-
| ''[[Bus Conductor (2005 film)|Bus Conductor]]'' || Najeeb
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2006
| ''[[Kilukkam Kilukilukkam]]'' || Balu
|
|-
| ''[[Smart City (film)|Smart City]]'' || Varun
|
|-
| ''[[Classmates (2006 film)|Classmates]]'' || Satheeshan Kanjikkuzhy
|
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2007
| ''[[Changathipoocha]]'' || Sivankutty
|
|-
| ''[[Athishayan]]'' || Roy
|
|-
| ''[[Arabikkatha]]'' || Sidharthan
|
|-
| ''[[Kichamani MBA]]'' || Sajan
|
|-
| ''[[Chocolate (2007 film)|Chocolate]]'' || Renjith
|
|-
| ''[[Hareendran Oru Nishkalankan]]'' || Gopalakrishnan
|
|-
| ''[[Kangaroo (2007 film)|Kangaroo]]'' || Monichan
|
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2008
| ''[[De Ingottu Nokkiye]]'' || Vettikadu Sivan
|
|-
| ''[[Positive (2008 film)|Positive]]'' || ASP Aniyan
|
|-
| ''[[Shakespeare M.A. Malayalam]]'' || 'Shakespeare' Pavithran
|
|-
| ''[[Minnaminnikoottam]]'' || Maani Kunju
|
|-
| ''[[Parunthu]]'' || Vinayan
|
|-
| ''[[Twenty:20 (film)|Twenty:20]]'' || James
|Special appearance
|-
| ''[[LollyPop]]'' || Francis aka Praanchi
|
|-
| rowspan="11" | 2009
| ''[[Love in Singapore (2009 film)|Love in Singapore]]'' || Tony
|
|-
| ''[[Currency (2009 film)|Currency]]'' || Keshu
|
|-
| ''[[Ivar Vivahitharayal]]'' || Vivek
|
|-
| ''[[Dr. Patient]]'' || Dr. Ruben Isaac (Bobby)
|
|-
| ''[[Oru Black And White Kudumbam]]'' || Adithya Varma
|
|-
| ''[[Vairam: Fight For Justice]]'' || Jose Kutty
|
|-
| ''[[Robin Hood (2009 film)|Robin Hood]]'' || ACP Harris
|
|-
| ''[[Utharaswayamvaram]]'' || Prakash
|
|-
| ''[[Kerala Cafe#Island Express .28Second segment.29|Kerala Cafe – Island Express]]'' || Vishal Krishna
|
|-
| ''[[Patham Nilayile Theevandi]]'' || Ramu
|
|-
| ''[[Gulumal: The Escape]]'' || Jerry
|
|}

=== 2010s ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Jayasurya acting credits in the 2010s{{sronly| List of Jayasurya Malayalam film credits in the 2010s}}
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2010
| ''[[Happy Husbands (2010 film)|Happy Husbands]]'' || John Mathai || ||
|-
| ''[[Nallavan (2010 film)|Nallavan]]'' || Kocherukkan || ||
|-
| ''[[Cocktail (Malayalam film)|Cocktail]]'' || Venkatesh || ||
|-
| ''[[Four Friends (2010 film)|Four Friends]]'' || Amir || ||
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2011
| ''[[Payyans (film)|Payyans]]'' || Josy || ||
|-
| ''[[Janapriyan]]'' || Priyadarshan || ||
|-
| ''[[The Train (2011 film)|The Train]]'' || Karthik || ||
|-
| ''[[Sankaranum Mohananum]]'' || Sankaran and Mohanan ||[[Dual role]]||
|-
| ''[[Three Kings (2011 film)|Three Kings]]'' || Shankar Unni Raja || ||
|-
| ''[[Beautiful (2011 film)|Beautiful]]'' || Stephen Louis || ||
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2012
| ''[[Kunjaliyan]]'' || Jayaraman || ||
|-
| ''[[Vaadhyar]]'' || Anoop Krishnan || ||
|-
| ''[[Namukku Parkkan]]'' || C.I. Velu Nagarajan || Guest appearance ||
|-
| ''[[Trivandrum Lodge]]'' || Abdu || ||
|-
| ''[[Husbands in Goa]]'' || Govinda || ||
|-
| ''[[101 Weddings]]'' || Jyothishkumar || ||
|-
| ''[[Poppins]]'' || || ||
|-
| rowspan="12" | 2013
| ''Players'' || Sivan || ||
|-
| ''[[David and Goliath (2013 film)|David and Goliath]]'' || David || ||
|-
| ''[[Ithu Pathiramanal]]'' || Johnkutty || ||
|-
| ''[[Mumbai Police (film)|Mumbai Police]]'' || ACP Aaryan John Jacob || ||
|-
| ''[[Hotel California (2013 film)|Hotel California]]'' || Jimmy || ||
|-
| ''[[English: An Autumn in London]]'' || Shankaran || ||
|-
| ''[[Pigman (film)|Pigman]]'' || Sreekumar || ||
|-
| ''[[Thank You (2013 film)|Thank You]]'' || Vinay Krishna || ||
|-
| ''[[Anchu Sundharikal]]'' || Basil Shajan || Segment – Gauri ||
|-
| ''[[D Company (film)|D Company]]'' || Varaalu Jaison || ||
|-
| ''[[Philips and the Monkey Pen]]'' || Roy Philip || ||
|-
| ''[[Punyalan Agarbattis]]'' || Joy Thakkolkaran || ||
|-
| rowspan="7" | 2014
| ''[[Happy Journey (2014 Malayalam film)|Happy Journey]]'' || Aaron || ||
|-
| ''[[Apothecary (film)|Apothecary]]'' || Subin Joseph || ||
|-
| ''[[Iyobinte Pustakam]]'' || Angoor Rawther || ||
|-
| ''[[Lal Bahadur Shastri (film)|Lal Bahadur Shastri]]'' || Lal || ||
|-
| ''[[Mathai Kuzhappakkaranalla]]'' || Mathai || ||
|-
| ''[[Seconds (2014 film)|Seconds]]'' || Veeramani || ||
|-
| ''[[Aamayum Muyalum]]'' || Kallu || ||
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2015
| ''[[Aadu (film)|Aadu Oru Bheegara Jeevi Aanu]]'' || [[Aadu (franchise)#Shaji Pappan|Shaji Pappan]] || ||
|-
| ''[[Kumbasaram]]'' || Alby || ||
|-
| ''[[Lukka Chuppi]]'' || Raghuram || ||
|-
| ''[[Jilebi (2015 film)|Jilebi]]'' || Sreekuttan || ||
|-
| ''[[Amar Akbar Anthony (2015 film)|Amar Akbar Anthony]]'' || Akbar || ||
|-
| ''[[Su Su Sudhi Vathmeekam]]'' || Sudhi Vathmeekam || ||
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2016
| ''[[School Bus (film)|School Bus]] '' || Joseph || ||
|-
| ''[[Shajahanum Pareekuttiyum]] '' || Prince || ||
|-
| ''[[IDI - Inspector Dawood Ibrahim]]'' || Dawood Ibrahim || ||
|-
| '' [[Pretham]]'' || John Don Bosco || ||
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2017
| ''[[Fukri]]'' || Lucky || ||
|-
| ''[[Ramante Edanthottam]]'' || rowspan="2" | Himself || rowspan="2" | Cameo appearance ||
|-
| ''[[Honey Bee 2.5]]'' ||
|-
| ''[[Punyalan Private Limited]]'' || Joy Thakkolkaaran || ||
|-
| ''[[Aadu 2]]'' || [[Aadu (franchise)#Shaji Pappan|Shaji Pappan]] || || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/jayasurya-s-aadu-2-breaks-record-held-mammootty-s-masterpiece-73344|title=Jayasurya's 'Aadu 2' breaks record held by Mammootty's 'Masterpiece' |date=18 December 2017 |access-date=29 December 2021 |work=The News Minute}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2018
| ''[[Captain (2018 film)|Captain]]'' || [[V. P. Sathyan]] || || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/jayasuryas-transformation-play-footballer-vp-sathyan-his-latest-film-captain-77000|title=Jayasurya's transformation to play footballer VP Sathyan in his latest film, 'Captain' |date=25 February 2018 |access-date=29 December 2021 |work=The News Minute}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Njan Marykutty]] '' || Marykutty || || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/njan-marykutty-review-jaysurya-delivers-his-career-best-performance-83127|title='Njan Marykutty' review: Jayasurya delivers his career best performance |date=15 June 2018 |access-date=29 December 2021 |work=The News Minute}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Pretham 2]] '' || John Don Bosco || || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/pretham-2/amp_movie_review/67191849.cms|title=Pretham 2 movie review: Ranjith Shankar has managed to tell the story of a spirit whom the new generation can connect with |date=21 December 2018 |access-date=29 December 2021 |work=The Times Of India}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2019
| ''[[Puzhikkadakan]]'' || District Collector Krishnakumar || Extended Cameo Appearance || <ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/jayasuryas-next-role-is-inspired-by-a-real-life-collector/articleshow/70241475.cms |title=Jayasurya's next role is inspired by a real-life collector |date=17 July 2019 |access-date=29 December 2021 |work=The Times Of India }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Thrissur Pooram (2019 film)|Thrissur Pooram]]'' || Pullu Giri || || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2019/Nov/12/jayasuryas-action-film-thrissur-pooram-to-release-on-december-20-2060315.html|title=Jayasurya's action film 'Thrissur Pooram' to release on December 20 |date=12 November 2020 |access-date=29 December 2021 |work=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
|}

=== 2020s ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Jayasurya acting credits in the 2020's{{sronly| List of Jayasurya Malayalam film credits in the 2020s}}
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2020
| ''[[Anveshanam]]'' || Aravind || || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://malayalam.news18.com/news/film/movies-jayasurya-starrer-anweshanam-releasing-on-november-1-mm-157629.html|title=ജയസൂര്യയുടെ അന്വേഷണം നവംബർ ഒന്ന് മുതൽ|date=14 September 2019|website=News18 Malayalam}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Sufiyum Sujathayum]]'' || Rajeev || || <ref>{{Cite news |date=21 September 2019 |title=Jayasurya joins Aditi Rao in 'Sufiyum Sujatayum' |work=[[The New Indian Express]] |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2019/sep/21/jayasurya-joins-aditi-rao-in-sufiyum-sujathayum-2036662.html |access-date=15 May 2020}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2021
| ''[[Vellam (2021 film)|Vellam]]'' || Murali Nambiar || || <ref>{{cite web|date=12 December 2019|title='Vellam' is the most challenging role I've done: Jayasurya|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/vellam-most-challenging-role-i-ve-done-jayasurya-113931|publisher=The News Minute}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Sunny (2021 film)|Sunny]]'' || Sunny || 100th film || <ref>{{Cite news |title=Jayasurya's 100th film Sunny to release on Amazon Prime Video on September 23 to universal acclaim. |language=en |work=India Today |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/jayasurya-s-100th-film-sunny-to-release-on-amazon-prime-video-on-september-23-1853122-2021-09-15 |url-status=live |access-date=20 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210916134012/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/jayasurya-s-100th-film-sunny-to-release-on-amazon-prime-video-on-september-23-1853122-2021-09-15 |archive-date=16 September 2021}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2022
| ''[[Meri Awas Suno]]'' || RJ Shankar || ||
|-
| ''[[John Luther (film)|John Luther]]'' || CI John Luther || ||
|-
|''Padma''
|Angel statue
|Voiceover
|
|-
| ''[[Eesho (film)|Eesho]]'' || Shivan/Eesho || || <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/makers-launch-the-second-motion-poster-of-jayasurya-starrer-eesho/articleshow/85068892.cms|date=5 August 2021|title=Makers launch the second motion poster of Jayasurya starrer 'Eesho' |website=The Times of India|access-date=11 September 2021}}</ref>
|-
| 2023 || ''[[Enthada Saji]]'' || Roy|| || <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/teaser-of-kunchacko-bobans-enthada-saji-receives-nearly-1-million-views-7240609.html |title=Teaser Of Kunchacko Boban's Enthada Saji Receives Nearly 1 Million Views |date=7 March 2023 |website=news18.com}}</ref>
|-
| 2026 || ''[[Aadu 3|Aadu 3: One Last Ride - Part 1]]'' ||[[Aadu (franchise)#Shaji Pappan|Shaji Pappan]] and Maharaja Padmanabha Thamburaan ||[[Dual role]] ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jayasurya's Aadu 3: One Last Ride Goes On floors {{!}} Filmfare.com |url=https://www.filmfare.com/news/south/jayasuryas-aadu-3-one-last-ride-goes-on-floors-73723.html |access-date=2025-05-25 |website=www.filmfare.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| 2026 || {{Pending film| [[Kathanar – The Wild Sorcerer]]}} || [[Kadamattathu Kathanar]] || || <ref>{{cite news |title=Kathanar The Wild Sorcerer first look: Jayasurya looks gothic in Raji Thomas' intriguing fantasy drama. Watch |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/kathanar-the-wild-sorcerer-first-look-jayasurya-looks-gothic-raji-thomas-intriguing-fantasy-drama-watch-8918206/ |access-date=31 August 2023 |work=The Indian Express |date=31 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
|}

=== Other languages ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Jayasurya acting credits in other languages {{sronly| List of Jayasurya non-Malayalam film credits}}
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" | Language
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
| 2002 || ''[[En Mana Vaanil]]'' || Ganesh || rowspan="4" | [[Tamil language|Tamil]]|| Remake of ''[[Oomappenninu Uriyadappayyan]]'' || style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/fr/2002/09/20/stories/2002092000880201.htm |title=En Mana Vaanil ... |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=20 September 2002 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225160250/http://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/fr/2002/09/20/stories/2002092000880201.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=25 February 2008 }}</ref>
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Vasool Raja MBBS]]'' || Zahir ||Remake of ''[[Munna Bhai M.B.B.S.|Munna Bhai MBBS]]'' (2003) || style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=yqc9AAAAIBAJ&sjid=t3sFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4587%2C1504481 |title=Another comic turn by Kamalhaasan |last=Vijiyan |first=K.N. |date= 23 August 2004 |work=[[New Straits Times]] |page=27}}</ref>
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Manathodu Mazhaikalam]]''|| Karthik || || style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://entertainment.oneindia.in/tamil/reviews/manathodu-mazhaikalam-220906.html |title=Manathodu Mazhaikalam – Review |work=Oneindia |access-date=2011-03-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022101745/http://entertainment.oneindia.in/tamil/reviews/manathodu-mazhaikalam-220906.html |archive-date=22 October 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
| 2008 || ''[[Chakkara Viyugam]]'' || Sathish Mishra || || style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/movies/chakravuyaham-review-tamil-14666507.html|title=Chakravuyaham|work=Sify|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140222084118/http://www.sify.com/movies/chakravuyaham-review-tamil-14666507.html|archive-date=22 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
|2011
| ''Sogasugara'' || Keshwa
|[[Kannada]]|| Remake of ''[[Oomappenninu Uriyadappayyan]]'' || style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/sogasugara-what-for-telugu-news-69657|title='Sogasugara' what for? - Telugu News|date=11 August 2011|website=IndiaGlitz.com}}</ref>
|}

== As producer ==
As a producer, his debut venture was the movie ''[[Punyalan Agarbattis]]'' (2013).
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of Jayasurya credits as a producer {{sronly| List of Jayasurya film credits as producer}}
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2013
| ''[[Punyalan Agarbattis]]''
|
|-
| 2015
| ''[[Su Su Sudhi Vathmeekam]]''
|
|-
| 2015
| ''Moonamidam''
|Short film
|-
| 2016
| ''[[Pretham]]''
|
|-
| 2017
| ''[[Punyalan Private Limited]]''
|
|-
| 2018
| ''[[Pretham 2]]''
|
|}

== Discography ==
Jayasurya has recorded a devotional song album at Vani Studio, Kochi. The album, ''Krishnakavyam'', was produced by Goodluck Audios.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of songs sung by Jayasurya {{sronly| List of Jayasurya song credits}}
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Song
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Co-singers
! scope="col" | Music director
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
| 2008 || "Adhyaamaai" || ''Ormathalukal'' || [[Manjari (Indian singer)|Manjari]] || Anil Peter ||
|-
| 2011 || "Bilsila Hai Bilsila" || ''[[Three Kings (2011 film)|Three Kings]]'' || rowspan="2" | Solo Song || [[Ousepachan]] ||
|-
| 2013 || "Aashichavan" || ''[[Punyalan Agarbattis]]'' || [[Bijibal]] || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/music/music-reviews/punyalan-agarbattis-music-review/articleshow/26736815.cms |title=Punyalan Agarbattis |date=2 December 2013 |access-date=14 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
| 2014 || "Maiyya Morre" || ''[[Happy Journey (2014 Malayalam film)|Happy Journey]]'' || [[Gopi Sunder]] || [[Gopi Sunder]] ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2015 || "Chingaariyaadu" || ''[[Aadu Oru Bheegara Jeevi Aanu]]'' || Harsha KH, Muhammad Ashad || [[Shaan Rahman]] ||
|-
|"Premamennaal" || ''[[Amar Akbar Anthony (2015 film)|Amar Akbar Anthony]]'' || [[Nadirshah]], [[Prithviraj Sukumaran|Prithviraj]], [[Indrajith Sukumaran|Indrajith]], [[Kalabhavan Shajon]] || [[Nadirshah]] || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/prithviraj-jayasurya-indrajith-and-shajon-croon-a-kallu-song/articleshow/48232018.cms |title=Prithviraj, Jayasurya, Indrajith and Shajon croon a 'kallu' song |date=27 July 2017 |access-date=14 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2016 || "Kuruthakkedinte Koodanu" || ''[[Pavada (film)|Paavada]]'' || Solo Song || [[Aby Tom Cyriac]] || <ref name="timesofindia">{{cite news|date=28 September 2015|title=Jayasurya sings for Prithviraj|work=timesofindia|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/Jayasurya-sings-for-Prithviraj/articleshow/49126369.cms|url-status=live|access-date=21 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222112016/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/Jayasurya-sings-for-Prithviraj/articleshow/49126369.cms|archive-date=22 December 2015}}</ref>
|-
|"Chithira Muthe" || ''[[Shajahanum Pareekuttiyum]]'' || [[Vijay Yesudas]], [[Afsal]], Divya S Menon || [[Gopi Sunder]] ||
|-
| 2019 || "Kappalandi" || ''Ilayaraja'' || Solo Song || [[Ratheesh Vegha]] || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/jayasurya-sings-guinness-pakru-ilayaraja-96878 |title=Jayasurya sings for Guinness Pakru in 'Ilayaraja' |date=17 February 2019 |access-date=14 November 2021 |work=The News Minute}}</ref>
|}

== Television ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ List of Jayasurya credits in television{{sronly| List of Jayasurya television credits}}
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Program
! scope="col" | Role
! scope="col" | Channel
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2000 || ''Jagathy vs Jagathy'' || Host || [[Kairali TV]] || || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/did-you-know/jayasurya-was-a-tv-anchor/articleshow/45717138.cms |title=Jayasurya was a TV anchor! |date=1 January 2015 |access-date=14 November 2021 |work=The Times Of India}}</ref>
|-
| ''Fun Day Jackpot'' || Host || || || <ref>{{cite news |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/mobile/movies-music/interview/i-couldn-t-stop-dreaming-about-the-big-screen-jayasurya-1.4925489 |title=I couldn't stop dreaming about the big screen: Jayasurya |date=23 July 2020 |access-date=14 November 2021 |work=English Mathrubhumi News }}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2015 || ''Idavelayil'' || Guest || [[Mazhavil Manorama]] || Talk Show ||
|-
| ''Comedy Super Nite'' || Guest || [[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers TV]] || Comedy Talk Show || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/jayasurya-on-comedy-super-nite/articleshow/50008228.cms |title=Jayasurya on 'Comedy Super Nite' |date=2 December 2015 |access-date=14 November 2021 |work=The Times Of India}}</ref>
|-
| ''I Personally'' || Guest || [[Kappa TV]] || Talk Show ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2017 || ''Cinema Chirima'' || Guest || [[Mazhavil Manorama]] || Comedy Show || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/entertainment-news/2017/12/01/when-abi-recounted-his-special-association-with-jayasurya.html |title=When Abi appeared on stage and recounted his special association with Jayasurya |date=1 December 2017 |access-date=14 November 2021 |work=Onmanorama}}</ref>
|-
| ''Fukri with Peekrees'' || Guest || [[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers TV]] || Talk show ||
|-
| ''[[Lal Salam (TV series)|Lal Salam]]'' || Guest || [[Amrita TV]] || Talk Show ||
|-
| rowspan="5" | 2018 || ''Badai Bungalow'' || Guest || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] || Comedy Talk Show || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/shaji-pappan-and-team-to-visit-mukeshs-badai-bungalow/articleshow/62743789.cms |title='Shaji Pappan' and team to visit Mukesh's Badai Bungalow |date=1 February 2018 |access-date=14 November 2021 |work=The Times Of India}}</ref>
|-
| ''Comedy Utsavam'' || Guest || [[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers TV]] || Comedy Show || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/comedy-utsavam-to-celebrate-its-200th-episode-with-marykutty/articleshow/64574011.cms |title=Comedy Utsavam to celebrate its 200th episode with 'Marykutty' |date=13 June 2018 |access-date=14 November 2021 |work=The Times Of India}}</ref>
|-
| ''Nayika Nayakan'' || Guest || [[Mazhavil Manorama]] || Reality Show || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/jayasurya-spends-quality-time-on-nayika-nayakan/articleshow/64667392.cms |title=Jayasurya spends quality time on Nayika Nayakan |date=21 June 2018 |access-date=14 November 2021 |work=The Times Of India}}</ref>
|-
| ''Thakarppan Comedy'' || Guest || [[Mazhavil Manorama]] || Comedy Talk Show ||
|-
| ''Nakshatrathilakkam'' || Guest || [[Mazhavil Manorama]] || Talk Show ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2019 || ''Sa Re Ga Ma Pa'' || Guest || [[Zee Keralam]] || Reality Show || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/sa-re-ga-ma-pa-keralam-to-welcome-contestant-jasim-jamals-sister/articleshow/71837599.cms |title=Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Keralam to welcome contestant Jasim Jamal's sister |date=31 October 2019 |access-date=14 November 2021 |work=The Times Of India}}</ref>
|-
| ''Swapnakoodile Thamaasakkar'' || Guest || [[Surya TV]] || Onam Special Talk Show ||
|-
| 2020 || ''[[Funny Nights with Pearle Maaney]]'' || Guest || [[Zee Keralam]] || Talk Show || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/funny-nights-with-pearle-maaney-from-this-weekend-onwards/articleshow/74612498.cms |title='Funny Nights with Pearle Maaney' from this weekend onwards |date=13 March 2020 |access-date=14 November 2021 |work=The Times Of India}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2021 || ''Comedy Mamangam'' || Performer || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] || Comedy Show || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/star-studded-comedy-mamangam-to-welcome-suresh-gopi-dileep-and-jayasurya/articleshow/85205294.cms |title=Star-studded 'Comedy Mamangam' to welcome Suresh Gopi, Dileep and Jayasurya |date=10 August 2021 |access-date=14 November 2021 |work=The Times Of India}}</ref>
|-
| ''Star Magic'' || Chief Guest || [[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers TV]] || Game Show || <ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/actor-jayasurya-to-make-a-dashing-entry-in-star-magic-heres-the-first-teaser/articleshow/85271091.cms |title=Actor Jayasurya to make a dashing entry in Star Magic. Here's the first teaser |date=12 August 2021 |access-date=14 November 2021 |work=The Times Of India}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name| 1334389|Jayasurya}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jayasurya}}
[[Category:Indian filmographies]]
[[Category:Male actor filmographies]]

Damadamm!

2026-03-23T15:38:19Z

Tumita7029: slightly added information for clarity further and improved wording

{{Use British English|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Damadamm
| image = Damadamm.jpg
| alt = 
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Swapna Waghmare Joshi]]
| producer = [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| writer = Subrat Sinha
| starring = Himesh Reshammiya [[Sonal Sehgal]] [[Purbi Joshi]]
| music = Himesh Reshammiya [[Sachin Gupta (musician)|Sachin Gupta]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| studio =
| distributor = [[HR Musik Limited]]
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2011|10|27}}
| runtime = 122 min
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Damadamm!''''' ({{Translation|Fun!}}) is a 2011 [[Bollywood]] [[romantic comedy]] film directed by [[Swapna Waghmare Joshi]]. The film stars [[Himesh Reshammiya]], [[Sonal Sehgal]] and [[Purbi Joshi]]. Reshammiya plays a [[scriptwriter]] who is fed up with his girlfriend who always suspects him, though after she goes on holiday he openly parties and flirts with other girls. The real chaos starts once his girlfriend returns. The film was released on 27 October 2011, coinciding with the [[Diwali]] festival.

==Plot==
''Damadamm'' is about the life of Sameer, a writer who writes scripts for Indian films. He works with his girlfriend, Shikha, in the industry. Shikha is overly possessive over Sameer and suspects him all the time. Due to a specialty, Sameer cannot dump her either. He has no idea how to get rid of Shikha's suspicion, until one day her family invites her over for a relatives' wedding. She leaves for a few weeks, and until then, Sameer gets his total freedom. He drinks, parties, and even flirts with random girls. One day, a new girl, Sanjana, enters his office, and it is [[love at first sight]] for both of them. The two are then assigned to work together on a film, but Sameer has to be careful, as Sanjana is his boss' younger sister. Whilst working together, Sameer and Sanjana start to fall in love.

During this, Sameer even starts to ignore Shikha's phone calls. Getting fed up, Shikha arrives back home, and when she sees how close Sameer and Sanjana have gotten within 15 days, she gets jealous, causing an argument with Sameer, and the two break up. She then starts a friendship with Sameer after his boss arranges for Sameer and Sanjana's wedding. But before the wedding, Sameer eventually realises he truly loved Shikha and cannot live without her, so he breaks the marriage with Sanjana. Therefore, his boss sacks him, whereas Sameer replies that he would rather pick his girlfriend Shikha than his work. Sameer manages to convince Shikha to give him another chance.

Later, the boss rehires both Sameer and Shikha and even throws them a party. (The film ends with celebrations and the song "Umrao Jaan").

==Cast==
* [[Himesh Reshammiya]] as Sameer "Sam" / Babu
* [[Purbi Joshi]] as Shikhaa
* [[Sonal Sehgal]] as Sanjana
* [[Rajesh Khattar]] as Sameer's boss / Sanjana's brother
* Lily Patel as Lily Aunty

==Reception==
[[Taran Adarsh]] of [[Bollywood Hungama]] gave the film 2 out of 5, writing, "On the whole, DAMADAMM isn't bad, but it isn't great either. Though it has a hit score to its credit and some endearing moments, it will have to rely on a strong word of mouth to withstand a mighty opponent ([[Ra.One]])."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/damadamm/critic-review/damadamm-movie-review/|title=Damadamm! Review 2/5 | Damadamm! Movie Review | Damadamm! 2011 Public Review | Film Review|first=Bollywood|last=Hungama|date=27 October 2011}}</ref> [[Mayank Shekhar]] of [[Hindustan Times]] added, "This film actually has a darn good script"<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/reviews/Mayank-Shekhar-s-review-Damadamm/Article1-762144.aspx |title=Damadamm! Review |work=Hindustan Times |access-date=16 November 2011 |archive-date=30 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111030023013/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/reviews/Mayank-Shekhar-s-review-Damadamm/Article1-762144.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Dainik Bhaskar]] reviews it as "The story is simple, predictable with pinch of humour and emotions. This love saga is something anyone would have watched millions of times, however, what's noteworthy is the placement of the sequences which are successful in letting the story be a simple one and not complicating it further".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/ENT-movie-review-damadamm-2524310.html |title=Movie Review: Damadamm |access-date=20 November 2011 |archive-date=18 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118094001/http://daily.bhaskar.com/article/ENT-movie-review-damadamm-2524310.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Damadamm!
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 9 September 2011
| recorded = 2011
| venue = [[Mumbai]]
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack]]
| length = 45:30
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]] and HR Musik
| producer = Himesh Reshammiya
| prev_title = [[Bodyguard (2011 Hindi film)|Bodyguard]]
| prev_year = 2011
| next_title = [[Dangerous Ishhq]]
| next_year = 2012
}}

Damadamm! was called one of the top 11 soundtracks of 2011 by [[Bollywood Hungama]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/features/type/view/id/2959?fb_comment_id=fbc_10150569655310639_21512072_10150569709575639andref=notifandnotif_t=open_graph_comment#f300caa6069cf74|title=Top 11 soundtracks of 2011 – Bollywood Hungama}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/sachingupta1208/status/159161066776039424|title=Sachin Gupta on Twitter: "Arjun I tweeted about it yesterday too.. The lyrics are mine :) "@arjunKR: bro please confirm who wrote lyrics for #bhooljaaun ? is it HR?""}}</ref>

===Track list===
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| all_music = [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| title1 = Damadamm
| length1 = 05:54
| lyrics1 = [[Shabbir Ahmed (lyricist)|Shabbir Ahmed]]
| extra1 = Himesh Reshammiya, Vinit Singh, [[Alamgir Khan (singer)|Alamgir Khan]], [[Palak Muchhal]], [[Shabab Sabri]], Sabina Shaikh, Rubina Shaikh, [[Punnu Brar]]
| title2 = Umrao Jaan
| length2 = 04:12
| lyrics2 = [[Sameer (lyricist)|Sameer]]
| extra2 = Himesh Reshammiya, [[Purbi Joshi]]
| title3 = Aaja Ve
| length3 = 02:46
| lyrics3 = Shabbir Ahmed
| extra3 = Himesh Reshammiya
| title4 = Madhushala
| length4 = 04:50
| lyrics4 = Sameer
| extra4 = Himesh Reshammiya, [[Aditi Singh Sharma]]
| title5 = Yun Toh Mera Dil
| length5 = 02:58
| lyrics5 = Sameer
| extra5 = Himesh Reshammiya, [[Sadhana Sargam]]
| title6 = Hum Tum
| length6 = 05:49
| lyrics6 = Sameer
| extra6 = Himesh Reshammiya, [[Vaishali Mhade]]
| title7 = Tere Bina
| length7 = 05:57
| lyrics7 = Sameer
| extra7 = Himesh Reshammiya
| title8 = I Need My Space
| length8 = 05:04
| lyrics8 = Sameer
| extra8 = Himesh Reshammiya
| title9 = Mango
| length9 = 03:40
| lyrics9 = Sameer
| extra9 = Himesh Reshammiya, Aditi Singh Sharma
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|1503640|Damadamm}}

[[Category:Films scored by Himesh Reshammiya]]
[[Category:2011 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2011 Indian films]]
[[Category:2011 films]]
[[Category:HR Musik films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Swapna Waghmare Joshi]]

Well Done Baby

2026-03-23T06:24:13Z

Tumita7029:

{{Short description|2021 Indian film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Well Done Baby
| image = Well Done Baby film poster.jpg
| caption = Official release poster
| native_name = {{Infobox name module|mr|वेल डन बेबी}}
| director = Priyanka Tanwar
| writer = Marmabandha Gavhane
| screenplay =
| producer = [[Anand Pandit]] [[Pushkar Jog]] Mohaan Nadaar
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Pushkar Jog]]
*[[Amruta Khanvilkar]]
*[[Vandana Gupte]]
*[[Sanjay Jadhav]]
}}
| cinematography = Santonio Terzio
| editing = Mandar Khanvilkar Sandeep Francis
| music = [[Rohan-Rohan]]
| studio = Anand Pandit Motion Pictures Goosebumps Entertainment The Production Headquarters
| distributor = [[Amazon Prime Video]]
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2021|04|09}}
| runtime = 99 minutes
| country = India
| language = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''[[Well Done Baby]]''''' (stylized as '''''वेल डन Baby''''') is a 2021 Indian [[Marathi language|Marathi]]-language [[Drama (film and television)|drama film]] directed by Priyanka Tanwar and produced under Anand Pandit Motion Pictures, Goosebumps Entertainment and The Production Headquarters. The film stars [[Pushkar Jog]], [[Amruta Khanvilkar]], [[Vandana Gupte]] and [[Sanjay Jadhav]]. Music by [[Rohan-Rohan]].

''Well Done Baby'' was originally scheduled for a theatrical release on 12 June 2020, but the release was postponed due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. The film was released on OTT [[Amazon Prime Video]] 9 April 2021<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 March 2021 |title= Marathi film Well Done Baby to stream on OTT from this date |url=https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/bollywood-news/article/marathi-film-well-done-baby-to-stream-on-ott-from-this-date-23166162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213124614/https://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/bollywood-news/article/marathi-film-well-done-baby-to-stream-on-ott-from-this-date-23166162 |archive-date=13 December 2022 |access-date=13 December 2022 |website= [[Mid-Day]] |language=English
}}</ref> and re-release theatrical on 14 January 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2022 |title= Pushkar Jog and Amruta Khanvilkar starrer 'Well Done Baby' to hit theatres on January 14, 2022 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/pushkar-jog-and-amruta-khanvilkar-starrer-well-done-baby-to-hit-theatres-on-january-14-2022/articleshow/88849852.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213123954/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/pushkar-jog-and-amruta-khanvilkar-starrer-well-done-baby-to-hit-theatres-on-january-14-2022/articleshow/88849852.cms?from=mdr |archive-date=13 December 2022 |access-date=13 December 2022 |website= [[The Times of India]] |language=English
}}</ref>

== Synopsis ==
Aditya and Meera, a modern couple, struggle to keep their marriage afloat. However, as they are about to give up on each other, fate gives them a purpose to maintain their togetherness.
==Cast==
* [[Pushkar Jog]] as Aditya
* [[Amruta Khanvilkar]] as Meera
* [[Vandana Gupte]] as Nirmala
* [[Sanjay Jadhav]] as Marriage councillor
* [[Sonali Khare]] as Doctor Simone
* Rahul Awasthi as Aditya's Father
* Radhika Ingle as Aditya's Mother
* [[Neha Shitole]] as Doctor
* [[Suan-Li Ong]] as Joanna
* Ranjna Garg as Mayura
* Vladimir Mladenov Free-Man as Homeless Begger
* Henrietta Szentes as Emma
* Pradeep Shembekhar
* Bhushan Telang
* Archana Malu Tapuria as Archana

== Production ==
The film was announced on 8 October 2019 via a promotional poster,<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 October 2019 |title= Exclusive! Amruta Khanvilkar and Pushkar Jog to share the screen for the first time in 'Well Done Baby' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/exclusive-amruta-khanvilkar-and-pushkar-jog-to-share-the-screen-for-the-first-time-in-well-done-baby/articleshow/71490731.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213125258/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/exclusive-amruta-khanvilkar-and-pushkar-jog-to-share-the-screen-for-the-first-time-in-well-done-baby/articleshow/71490731.cms?from=mdr |archive-date=13 December 2022 |access-date=13 December 2022 |website= [[The Times of India]] |language=English
}}</ref> with official confirmation that film actor [[Pushkar Jog]]. [[Principal photography]] began on 21 October 2019 in [[London]]. On 11 November 2019, entire shooting of the film has been wrapped up.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2019 |title= Well Done Baby': Pushkar Jog shares a fun video from the sets of the film as they wrap up London schedule |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/well-done-baby-pushkar-jog-shares-a-fun-video-from-the-sets-of-the-film-as-they-wrap-up-london-schedule/articleshow/72003947.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213125717/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/well-done-baby-pushkar-jog-shares-a-fun-video-from-the-sets-of-the-film-as-they-wrap-up-london-schedule/articleshow/72003947.cms |archive-date=13 December 2022 |access-date=13 December 2022 |website= [[The Times of India]] |language=English
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-07-01 |title=Amruta Khanvilkar dubs for Well Done Baby |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/amruta-khanvilkar-dubs-for-well-done-baby/articleshow/76737754.cms |access-date=2023-11-01 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Well Done Baby
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = Rohan Pradhan
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2021<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 April 2021 |title= Well Done Baby song 'Aai Baba': Rohan-Rohan's melodious track celebrates arrival of new life |url=https://www.cinestaan.com/articles/2021/apr/5/29342/well-done-baby-song-aai-baba-rohan-rohan-s-melodious-track-celebrates-arrival-of-new-life |access-date=13 December 2022 |website= Cinestaan.com |language=English
}}</ref>
| recorded = 2021
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 3:06
| language = Marathi
| label =
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year = 2020
| year = 2022
| next_title =
| next_year = 2021
| misc = {{external music video| header = Official audio
|{{YouTube|0JlMJHF7NBc| Well Done Baby – Full Album}}
}}
}}

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 6.14
| title1 = Aai Baba
| music1 = [[Rohan-Rohan]]
| extra1 = Rohan Pradhan
| title2 = Halki Halki
| length2 = 3:08
| lyrics2 = Valay Mulgund
| music2 = Rohan Rohan
| extra2 = Arpita Chakraborty
| length1 = 3:06
| lyrics1 = Valay Mulgund
}}

== Critical reception ==
''Well Done Baby'' received negative to mixed reviews from critics. Mihir Bhanage of [[The Times of India|''The Times of'' India]] gave the film 2.5 stars out of 5 and wrote "Well Done Baby ultimately ends up being a film that could've been in sync with the young viewers' perception".<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 April 2021 |title= Well Done Baby Movie Review: Well-intentioned, but not well-executed |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movie-reviews/well-done-baby/movie-review/82017303.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213130756/http://web.archive.org/screenshot/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movie-reviews/well-done-baby/movie-review/82017303.cms |archive-date=13 December 2022 |access-date=13 December 2022 |website= [[The Times of India]] |language=English
}}</ref> Shefali Deshpande of ''[[The Quint]]'' gave the film 1.5 stars out of 5 and wrote "This film fails for many reasons, and it pains me to even say so because the treatment of the subject and characters both makes it clear that the intention was good but the delivery leaves a lot to be desired".<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 April 2021 |title= Review: 'Well Done Baby' Is a Hot Mess of Clichés |url=https://www.thequint.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/review-well-done-baby-is-a-hot-mess-of-cliches |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213131524/https://www.thequint.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/review-well-done-baby-is-a-hot-mess-of-cliches |archive-date=13 December 2022 |access-date=13 December 2022 |website= [[The Quint]] |language=English
}}</ref> Keyur Seta of ''Cinestaan.com'' gave the film 2 stars out of 5 and says "Amruta Khanvilkar is adequate but Pushkar Jog, who is credited with the concept for the film, is a disappointment, particularly in the important scene where he has an emotional outburst.".<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 April 2021 |title= Well Done Baby review: Dull film about parents-to-be on the brink of divorce |url=https://www.cinestaan.com/reviews/well-done-baby-43029 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213132124/https://www.cinestaan.com/reviews/well-done-baby-43029 |archive-date=13 December 2022 |access-date=13 December 2022 |website= Cinestaan.com|language=English
}}</ref> Jaideep Pathaki of ''[[Maharashtra Times]]'' gave the film 2.5 stars out of 5 and wrote "Of course, there is nothing new about these topics because they come up frequently in the contemporary media. 'Well Done Baby' is definitely worth a watch. However, the fact remains that it does not show anything different".<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 April 2021 |title= वेल डन बेबी |url=https://maharashtratimes.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/well-done-baby/moviereview/82029975.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213132852/http://web.archive.org/screenshot/https://maharashtratimes.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/well-done-baby/moviereview/82029975.cms |archive-date=13 December 2022 |access-date=13 December 2022 |website= [[Maharashtra Times]] |language=Marathi
}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|tt11131988}}

[[Category:2021 films]]
[[Category:2021 Marathi-language films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Films not released in theaters due to the COVID-19 pandemic]]
[[Category:2021 direct-to-video films]]

Sanat Dey

2026-03-21T02:44:58Z

Tumita7029: Added New Entry

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image = Sanat Dey.png
| office = Member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Naihati Assembly constituency|Naihati]]
| term_start = 23 November 2024
| term_end =
| profession = Politician
| predecessor = [[Partha Bhowmick]]
| party = [[All India Trinamool Congress]]
}}
'''Sanat Dey'''<ref name=":N18"/> is an Indian politician from West Bengal. He is a [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly|member of the West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] since 2024, representing [[Naihati Assembly constituency]] as a Member of the [[All India Trinamool Congress]].<ref name=":N18">{{cite web |title=Naihati Bypoll Election Result 2024 LIVE: Sanat Dey OF TMC Wins |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/naihati-bypoll-election-result-2024-live-leading-winner-mla-9130439.html |website=News18 |access-date=23 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Bharat |first1=E. T. V. |title=নৈহাটিতে বিপুল ভোটে জয়ী তৃণমূল, দাগ কাটতে ব্যর্থ লিবারেশন |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/bn/!state/naihati-assembly-bye-election-result-tmc-wins-over-49-thousand-vote-west-bengal-news-wbs24112302410 |website=ETV Bharat News |access-date=23 November 2024 |language=bn |date=23 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bengal Bypolls Results 2024: TMC Candidates Declared Elected From Naihati, Sitai; Leading In 4 Others Seats Too |url=https://www.zeenews.india.com/india/bengal-bypolls-results-2024-tmc-candidates-declared-elected-from-naihati-sitai-leading-in-4-others-seats-too-2823672.html/amp |website=Zee News |access-date=23 November 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of chief ministers of West Bengal]]
* [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dey, Sanat}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Trinamool Congress politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2021–2026]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Politicians from North 24 Parganas district]]

{{WestBengal-AITC-politician-stub}}

Amaravati Drone Summit 2024

2026-03-19T13:52:17Z

Tumita7029:

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox summit meeting
| summit_name = Amaravati Drone Summit
| logo =
| logo_size =
| image = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 280
| image_style =
| perrow = 2/2
| image1 = An Agriculture Sprayer UAV displayed at Amaravati Drone Summit by Aries Agro Ltd. (07).jpg
| image2 = An UAV displayed by RFly Innovations Pvt. Ltd. at Amaravati Drone summit (01).jpg
| image3 = An UAV displayed by Thermal Systems at Amaravati Drone summit (02).jpg
| image4 = Drone Battery cooling system (Closed) by Dronehub Technologies.jpg}}
| country = {{flagicon|India}} [[India]]
| date = 22–23 October 2024
| venues = [[Mangalagiri]]
| cities = [[Amaravati]]
| participants = [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]], [[Civil aviation in India|Union Civil Aviation Department]], The Drone Federation of India
|motto=''Advancing the Future of Flight''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Amaravati Drone Summit |url=https://www.businesstrust.in//#:~:text=Advancing%20the%20Future%20of%20Flight |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006230712/https://amaravatidronesummit.com/#:~:text=Advancing%20the%20Future%20of%20Flight |url-status=usurped |archive-date=6 October 2024 |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=amaravatidronesummit.com}}</ref>
|website={{Official URL}}
|chairperson=[[N. Chandrababu Naidu]], [[Kinjarapu Ram Mohan Naidu]]
}}

The '''Amaravati Drone Summit 2024''' took place on 22 and 23 October in [[Mangalagiri]], [[Andhra Pradesh]]. It was organized by the Andhra Pradesh Drone Corporation, in collaboration with the [[Ministry of Civil Aviation (India)|Ministry of Civil Aviation]] and the Drone Federation of India. More than 6,900 participants attended the event, including industry professionals, researchers, and students. According to the organizers, the high attendance reflected increasing interest in drone technology. The summit featured panel discussions, technical workshops, and exhibitions focused on drone applications in areas such as agriculture, logistics, and public services. It also provided a space for interaction between government agencies, academic institutions, and private industries.

A drone display was held at Punnami Ghat in [[Vijayawada]], where over 5,500 drones were used in a coordinated aerial performance. The show included laser projections, fireworks, and music. According to organizers and media reports, the performance was recognized by [[Guinness World Records]] for five record-setting achievements, including being the largest drone show held in India to date. The organizers stated that the summit aimed to attract investments of approximately ₹2,000 [[crore]] and projected revenue of around ₹6,000 crore over a five-year period. The plans include training over 20,000 individuals as drone pilots, with a target of creating approximately 30,000 job opportunities in the sector.

== Background ==

The Amaravati Drone Summit 2024 was held at [[Mangalagiri]], Andhra Pradesh, as part of an effort to promote drone technology in the state. The event aimed to place [[Amaravati]] as a center for drone-related activity and brought together participants from different sectors, including government bodies, private companies, and research institutions.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Srinivas |first=Rajulapudi |date=2024-10-20 |title=Over 4,000 participants register for Amaravati Drone Summit |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/over-4000-participants-register-for-amaravati-drone-summit/article68776191.ece |access-date=2024-10-22 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The summit was organized by the Andhra Pradesh Drone Corporation in collaboration with the [[Civil aviation in India|Union Civil Aviation Department]], the Drone Federation of India, and the [[Confederation of Indian Industry]] (CII).<ref name="Arrangements">{{Cite news |date=2024-10-16 |title=Elaborate arrangements made for Amaravati Drone Summit-2024 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/elaborate-arrangements-made-for-amaravati-drone-summit-2024/article68761274.ece |access-date=2024-10-22 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The two-day event was held at the CK Convention Centre on 22 and 23 October 2024. It drew a wide variety of attendees like students, entrepreneurs, engineers, officials, and others with an interest in drones.<ref name="Summit">{{Cite web |date=2024-10-22 |title=Two-day Amaravati Drone Summit to kick off on Tuesday, Andhra to sign two MoUs |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2024/Oct/22/two-day-amaravati-drone-summit-to-kick-off-on-tuesday-andhra-to-sign-two-mous |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> Several sessions focused on how drones are currently being used in fields such as agriculture, logistics, healthcare, and emergency services. Some talks also emphasized opportunities for younger participants, including discussions on skill development, education, and startup support.<ref name="5,000 Drones">{{Cite web |title=Over 5,000 Drones To Take Part In Amaravati Drone Summit 2024 |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/over-5-000-drones-to-participate-in-amaravati-drone-summit-2024-6843397 |first=Amit |last=Rajpurohit |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=NDTV.com}}</ref>

== Objectives ==
The Amaravati Drone Summit 2024 brought people together to talk about how drone technology can grow in Andhra Pradesh. The Chief Minister, [[N. Chandrababu Naidu]], pointed out that having clear rules is really important if the drone industry is going to take off. During the summit, government officials and industry representatives had conversations about the kind of policies India needs to become a big player in drones by 2030.<ref name="Arrangements"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-12 |title=Bharat Drone Association appointed as Technical Partner by Andhra Drone Corporation for Amaravati Drone Summit 2024 |url=https://www.suasnews.com/2024/10/bharat-drone-association-appointed-as-technical-partner-by-andhra-drone-corporation-for-amaravati-drone-summit-2024/ |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=sUAS News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

Another goal was to encourage cooperation between the government, universities, and the businesses. Representatives from engineering colleges, including [[Indian Institutes of Technology|IITs]], joined to share ideas and promote innovation. The government planned to sign two MoUs during the event: one with the [[Quality Council of India]] to allow Andhra Pradesh to issue Drone Remote Pilot License certificates, and another with [[IIT Tirupati]] to help with education and training in drone technology.<ref name="Summit"/> The summit also focused on attracting investment and creating new jobs. The state expects to bring in around ₹2,000 crore in investment and generate ₹6,000 crore in revenue over the next five years. Also a plan to train over 20,000 people as drone pilots, which could lead to about 30,000 new jobs in the state.<ref name ="5,000 Drones"/>

== The Summit ==
The Amaravati Drone Summit had exhibitions, workshops, and keynote speeches from experts in the drone industry. Over 6,900 people registered for the event, including 1,711 delegates and 1,306 visitors from a variety of educational and professional backgrounds. This diverse group reflects the growing interest in drone technology and its wide range of applications.<ref name="Summit"/>
Throughout the summit, participants attended sessions covering key topics such as drone regulations, disaster response, agriculture, and logistics. Hackathons were also held, where attendees collaborated to develop innovative ideas and practical solutions to challenges facing the drone sector. The event concluded on 22 October with a large drone show at Punnami Ghat, featuring more than 5,500 drones flying in coordinated formations. The display was executed by BotLab Dynamics<ref name="BotLabDynamics">{{Cite web |title=BotLab Dynamics – Official Website |url=https://botlabdynamics.com/ |access-date=27 February 2026 |website=BotLab Dynamics}}</ref> and was described as the largest drone show held in India. The evening also included live music, laser light displays, and fireworks, combining entertainment with a demonstration of advances in drone technology.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-17 |title=More than 5,000 drones to dazzle at Amaravati Summit |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/vijayawada/2024/Oct/17/more-than-5000-drones-to-dazzle-at-amaravati-summit |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nagpal |first=Harshita |date=2024-10-22 |title=BotLab sets sights on new international records with 5,500-drone show in Andhra |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2024/Oct/22/botlab-sets-sights-on-new-international-records-with-5500-drone-show-in-andhra |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref name="DroneLife2025">{{cite news
|title=India Sets Five World Records with 5,500 Drone Light Show at Amaravati Drone Summit 2024
|url=https://dronelife.com/2025/01/31/india-sets-five-world-records-with-5500-drone-light-show-at-amaravati-drone-summit-2024/
|work=DroneLife
|date=31 January 2025
|access-date=27 February 2026
}}</ref><ref name="ThePrint2025">{{cite news
|title=Indian drone light show company breaks 5 world records at Amaravati Drone Summit 2024
|url=https://theprint.in/ani-press-releases/indian-drone-light-show-company-breaks-5-world-records-at-amaravati-drone-summit-2024/2328589/
|work=ThePrint
|date= 25 October 2024
|access-date=27 February 2026
}}</ref>

During the event, the Amaravati Drone Show set five new [[Guinness World Records]]. Representatives from Guinness World Records presented certificates to Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu. The records recognized included the largest planet formation, largest landmark creation, largest plane formation, largest national flag display by drones, and the largest aerial logo formation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bharat |first=E. T. V. |date=2024-10-22 |title=Amaravati Drone Show Creates 5 Guinness Records; Drone Tech a Game Changer, Says Chandrababu |url=https://www.businesstrust.in/ |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Commons category}}

[[Category:2020s in Amaravati]]
[[Category:2020s in Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:September 2024 in India]]
[[Category:Science events in India]]
[[Category:Science and technology in Andhra Pradesh]]

H. S. Panag

2026-03-19T06:52:05Z

Tumita7029: added structure after review and added references

{{Short description|Indian army general}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = [[Lieutenant General]]
| name = H S Panag
| honorific_suffix = [[PVSM]], [[Ati Vishisht Seva Medal|AVSM]], [[Aide-de-camp|ADC]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image =
| image_size = 200px
| alt =
| caption = Panag in 2018
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1948|12|4}}
| death_date = 
| birth_place = [[Fatehgarh Sahib district|Mahadian]], [[East Punjab]], [[India]]
| death_place =
| placeofburial =
| placeofburial_label =
| placeofburial_coordinates = 
| nickname =
| birth_name =
| allegiance = {{IND}}
| branch = {{army|India}}
| serviceyears = 1969 - 2008
| rank = [[File:Lieutenant General of the Indian Army.svg|22px]] [[Lieutenant General]]
| servicenumber =
| unit = [[Mechanised Infantry Regiment|578 ASC BN]]
| commands = [[File:IA_Central_Command.jpg|20px]] [[Central Command (India)|Central Army]] [[File:IA_Northern_Command.jpg|20px]][[Northern Command (India)|Northern Army]] [[XXI Corps (India)|XXI Corps]] [[31st Indian Armoured Division|31 Armoured Division]] 192 Mountain Brigade 43 Armoured Brigade [[Mechanised Infantry Regiment|1 Mech Inf]]
| battles =
| battles_label =
| awards = [[File:Param Vishisht Seva Medal ribbon.svg|20px]] [[Param Vishisht Seva Medal]] [[File:Ati_Vishisht_Seva_Medal_ribbon.svg|20px]] [[Ati Vishisht Seva Medal]]
| relations = [[Gul Panag]] (Daughter)
Sherbir Panag (Son)
| laterwork =
| signature =
| website =
| other_name =
| memorials =
| signature_size =
| signature_alt =
| module =
}}

'''Harcharanjit Singh Panag''', [[Param Vishisht Seva Medal|PVSM]], [[Ati Vishisht Seva Medal|AVSM]] is a retired [[lieutenant general]] of the [[Indian Army]]. He is presently a defence analyst and commentator on strategic affairs. A proponent of use of [[robotics]] by Indian armed forces<ref>{{cite news|last=Army|first=Indian|title=It's time industry, academia joined hands on AI for forces|url=https://www.sify.com/finance/it-s-time-industry-academia-joined-hands-on-ai-for-forces-news-defence-tjxwbzgjdecgb.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928105626/https://www.sify.com/finance/it-s-time-industry-academia-joined-hands-on-ai-for-forces-news-defence-tjxwbzgjdecgb.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 September 2019}}</ref> he is very active on [[social media]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/fyi/story/abhijeet-singer-general-panag-kashmir-stone-pelting-army-jeep-viral-video-971868-2017-04-17|title=Lt Gen HS Panag destroys singer Abhijeet, who called him Pakistan supporter, in a single tweet|date=17 April 2017|website=India Today}}</ref>

== Personal life and family ==

Panag was born on 4 December 1948 in a [[Jatt Sikh]] family at Mahadian village, [[Fatehgarh Sahib district|Fatehgarh Sahib]] district, in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. His father, Colonel Shamsher Singh was a distinguished personality known for taking social initiatives in the field of development, education, ex-servicemen issues, gender equality and child rights. He was elected unopposed as the Sarpanch of his village for 20 years.<ref>{{cite news|last=Panag|first=Gul|url=http://www.colshamshersingh.org/about-col-shamsher-singh.html |title=The Col. Shamsher Singh Foundation |date=30 July 2011 |accessdate=2014-06-19}}</ref> Panag has two children, a daughter and a son. His daughter, [[Gul Panag]], is a Bollywood actress and social activist. His son, Sherbir Panag is the founder of the Law Offices of Panag & Babu, a boutique financial crime specialist law firm.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://zicklincenter.wharton.upenn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Sherbir-Panag_Bio_12102018.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130123336/https://zicklincenter.wharton.upenn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Sherbir-Panag_Bio_12102018.pdf|url-status=dead |title=Sherbir Panag|archivedate=30 January 2020|website=zicklincenter.wharton.upenn.edu}}</ref> Sherbir is a top ranked lawyer for white collar crime in the Asia Pacific<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globalinvestigationsreview.com/article/investigations-what-watch-out-in-2015|title=Investigations: what to watch out for in 2015|website=globalinvestigationsreview.com}}</ref> and is a senior fellow at the Wharton School's Zicklin Centre for business ethics.<ref name="auto"/> He has a sister, Ms. Gurdeepak Kaur, a social activist who joined [[Aam Aadmi Party|AAP]].{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} His brother, also an army man, Major General Charanjit Singh Panag (retired) has various publications to his credit.<ref name="Sikhs in Service of the Indian Army">{{cite news|url=http://www.the-south-asian.com/Jan-March2010/Sikh-Regiment.htm|work=Maj Gen (Retd) CS Panag, YSM, VSM, The South Asian Life & Times|date= January–March 2010 |title=SIKHS IN SERVICE OF THE INDIAN ARMY}}</ref>

== Military career ==
Panag was commissioned into the 4th Battalion of the [[Sikh Regiment]] on 21 December 1969.<ref>{{cite news|last=Army|first=Indian|url=http://indianarmy.nic.in/writereaddata/documents/miora/ltgen_miora.pdf|title=List of retired Generals, Indian Army|date=1 January 2009|work=Indian Army Official Website|accessdate=2014-06-19|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723182756/http://indianarmy.nic.in/writereaddata/documents/miora/ltgen_miora.pdf|archivedate=23 July 2015}}</ref> He subsequently served in the 5th Battalion of the [[5th Gorkha Rifles|5th Gorkha Rifles (FF)]] and the 9th Battalion of the [[Mechanised Infantry Regiment]], finally going on to command the 1st Battalion of the Mechanised Infantry. He is an alumnus of the [[National Defence Academy]], Khadakwasla, [[Indian Military Academy]], Dehradun, [[Defence Services Staff College]], [[Wellington Cantonment|Wellington]], [[Army War College, Mhow]] and the [[National Defence College, India|National Defence College]], [[New Delhi]]. He has authored several publications concerning Indian defence forces and national security.

Panag is experienced in both [[counter-insurgency]] and [[Mountain warfare|high-altitude]] operations. He also saw action in various wars and military operations. During his career he has served in various positions:

* Instructor in the Indian Military Officers Training Academy.
* Commanded an Infantry brigade.
* Commanded the 31 Armoured Division.
* Commanded XXI Corps, the strike formation of Southern Command.
* [[General officer commanding|GOC-in-C]] of the army's [[Northern Command (India)|Northern Command]], Udhampur.
* [[General officer commanding|GOC-in-C]] of the army's [[Central Command (India)|Central Command]], Lucknow.
Panag also held the post of Additional Director General (Perspective Planning) at the Army HQ.<ref name="Lt Gen Kapoor to be new VCOAS; Panag, Jamwal to head N, E Cmds">{{cite news|url=http://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/India/20061226/546720.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304195458/http://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/India/20061226/546720.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 March 2016|accessdate=2014-06-19|work=Indian Army|date=26 December 2006|title=Lt Gen Kapoor to be new VCOAS; Panag, Jamwal to head N, E Cmds}}</ref> He retired as a [[Lieutenant General|lieutenant general]] on 31 December 2008. He was appointed an Administrative Member of the [[Armed Forces Tribunal]], Chandigarh Bench in June 2009 after retiring from the army. An upright officer he initiated as many as 120 Courts of Inquiry on corruption charges, soon after he took charge of Northern Command in 2007, after which he was transferred to Central Command in early 2008.<ref>{{cite news|last=Army|first=Indian|title=Ask No Questions|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/ask-no-questions/2368846}}</ref>

Panag made the 1st arrest of [[Prisoner of War|PoW]] even before the start of [[Bangladesh War]] when he arrested Flt. Lt [[Pervaiz Mehdi Qureshi]] who later became [[Air Chief Marshal|ACM]] of [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Army|first=Indian|title=What Happens When a Prisoner of War is Held: From Lt Gen (Retd) Panag Who Captured India's First POW|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/what-happens-when-a-prisoner-of-war-is-captured-from-lt-gen-retd-hs-panag-who-captured-indias-first-pow-2051907.html}}</ref>

As [[Brigade Commander]] Panag, in April 2000, oversaw a military operation on the [[Chorbat Valley|Chorbat la]] sector to capture [[Point 5310]] across LoC as well as another operation to capture 3 more features across the [[Yaldor]] sector.<ref>{{cite news|last=Army|first=Indian|title=As Indians watch Uri, time for Army to talk about other daring and unsung operations|url=https://theprint.in/opinion/as-indians-watch-uri-time-for-army-to-talk-about-other-daring-and-unsung-operations/182638/}}</ref>

Panag along with Lt. Gen. [[Rustom K. Nanavatty]] devised a [[military operation]] codenamed 'Operation Kabaddi' in mid-2001 to capture 25–30 Pakistan army posts from [[Batalik]] in [[Ladakh]] to Chamb-Jaurian in [[Jammu]] sector on the [[Line of Control|LoC]]. The plan was to execute the operation in October 2001, but could not be carried out due to changed [[geopolitical]] scenarios after [[September 11 Attacks]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Army|first=Indian|title=9/11 derailed Army's plan to capture Pakistani posts along LoC|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/911-derailed-army-plan-to-capture-pakistani-posts-along-loc/article26044550.ece}}</ref>

== Politics ==
Panag became a member of the [[Aam Aadmi Party|Aam Aadmi Party (AAP)]] in January 2014 after retiring from the Armed Forces Tribunal. He campaigned for his actress daughter, [[Gul Panag]] in the [[2014 Indian general election|2014 Lok Sabha election]] in [[Chandigarh (Lok Sabha constituency)|Chandigarh]] which she lost to another actress [[Kirron Kher|Kiran Kher]].

== Honours and awards ==
Panag won the following awards during his career:<ref name="Lt. Gen. H.S. Panag, List of Retired Officers">{{cite news|url=http://indianarmy.nic.in/writereaddata/documents/madras050412.pdf|accessdate=2014-06-18|work=Indian Army|date=1 January 2009 |title=Lt. Gen. H.S. Panag, List of Army Officers}}</ref><ref name="Gallantry Awards List">{{cite news|url=http://archive.india.gov.in/hindi/myindia/gallantry_awardslist.php?start=1520|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140619134235/http://archive.india.gov.in/hindi/myindia/gallantry_awardslist.php?start=1520|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 June 2014|accessdate=2014-06-19|work=Government of India|date=2008|title=Lt. Gen. H.S. Panag, Gallantry Awards List, Govt. of India}}</ref>
*[[Param Vishisht Seva Medal]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=34900 |title=Republic Day gallantry and other Defence decorations|work=Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Ministry of Defence |date=25 January 2008 |accessdate=2014-06-19}}</ref>
*[[Ati Vishisht Seva Medal]]

===Military awards===
{| style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|colspan="4"|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Param Vishisht Seva Medal ribbon.svg|width=106}} {{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Ati Vishisht Seva Medal ribbon.svg|width=106}} {{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND Poorvi Star Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND Special Service Medal Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND Sangram Medal Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND Operation Vijay medal.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND Operation Parakram medal.svg|width=106}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND Sainya Seva Medal Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND High Altitude Medal Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND Videsh Seva Medal Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND 50th Anniversary Independence medal.svg|width=106}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND 25th Anniversary Independence medal.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND 30 Years Long Service Ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND 20YearsServiceMedalRibbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=IND 9YearsServiceMedalRibbon.svg|width=106}}
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
|colspan="1"|[[Param Vishisht Seva Medal]]
|colspan="2"|[[Ati Vishist Seva Medal]]
|colspan="1"|[[Indian military decorations#Service and campaign medals|Poorvi Star]]
|-
|[[Indian military decorations#Service and campaign medals|Special Service Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Service and campaign medals|Sangram Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Service and campaign medals|Operation Vijay Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Service and campaign medals|Operation Parakram Medal]]
|-
|[[Indian military decorations#Service and campaign medals|Sainya Seva Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Service and campaign medals|High Altitude Service Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Service and campaign medals|Videsh Seva Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Service and campaign medals|50th Anniversary of Independence Medal]]
|-
|[[Indian military decorations#Service and campaign medals|25th Anniversary of Independence Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Long service awards|30 Years Long Service Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Long service awards|20 Years Long Service Medal]]
|[[Indian military decorations#Long service awards|9 Years Long Service Medal]]
|-
|}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{Twitter}}
* {{WordPress|rwac48}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-mil}}
{{succession box | before = Lt Gen O P Nandrajog|title = [[General officer commanding#Usage in the Indian Army|General Officer-Commanding-in-Chief]] [[Central Command (India)|Central Command]]| years = 2008–2008| after = Lt Gen J K Mohanty}}
{{succession box | before = Lt Gen [[Deepak Kapoor]]|title = [[General officer commanding#Usage in the Indian Army|General Officer-Commanding-in-Chief]] [[Northern Command (India)|Northern Command]]| years = 2006–2008| after = Lt Gen P C Bhardwaj}}
{{s-end}}
{{Aam Aadmi Party}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Panag, Harcharanjit Singh}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian generals]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Param Vishisht Seva Medal]]
[[Category:People from Chandigarh district]]
[[Category:Indian military personnel of the India–Pakistan war of 1971]]
[[Category:Aam Aadmi Party politicians]]
[[Category:National Defence College, India alumni]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Ati Vishisht Seva Medal]]
[[Category:Army War College, Mhow alumni]]
[[Category:Defence Services Staff College alumni]]
[[Category:National Defence Academy (India) alumni]]

K. P. Sasi

2026-03-12T15:36:29Z

Tumita7029: Made some details v1.

{{Short description|Indian film director and cartoonist (1958–2022)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| name = K. P. Sasi
| image = K. P. Sasi August 2005.jpg
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1958|3|14}}
| birth_place = [[Thrissur]], [[Kerala]], India
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2022|12|25|1958|3|14}}
| death_place = Thrissur, Kerala, India
| occupation = [[Film director]] and [[cartoonist]]
}}
'''Karuvannur Puthanveettil Sasi'''<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/his-camera-speaks-truth-to-power/article4183206.ece|title = His camera speaks truth to power|newspaper = The Hindu|date = 10 December 2012|last1 = Praveen|first1 = S. r.}}</ref> (Malayalam: കെ. പി. ശശി; 14 March 1958 – 25 December 2022) was an Indian film director and cartoonist from [[Bangalore|Bengaluru]].

==Life and career==
Sasi's father [[K. Damodaran]] (25 February 1912 – 3 July 1976) was a Marxist theoretician and writer and one of the founder leaders of the [[Communist Party of India]].{{citation needed|date= September 2022}}

Sasi started working as a cartoonist while being a student at [[Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi|JNU]] during the late seventies. He started experimenting with films on 8mm during the early eighties. His documentaries include ''A Valley Refuses to Die'', ''We Who Make History'', ''Living in Fear'', ''In the Name of Medicine'', ''Voices from a Disaster'', ''Fabricated!'', ''America America'', ''Resisting Coastal Invasion'' and ''Development at Gunpoint''.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Director KP Sasi passes away |language=en |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/director-kp-sasi-passes-away-1.8164350 |access-date=2022-12-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Film, documentary maker KP Sasi passes away |language=en |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2022/12/25/documentary-director-kp-sasi-passes-away.html |access-date=2022-12-25}}</ref>

His feature films include ''[[Ilayum Mullum]]'', on the social and psychological violence on women in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.labourfile.com/section-detail.php?aid=387 |title=Ilayum Mullum — Suicides in 'God`s Own Country' |work=Labour File |author=K. P. Sasi |date=2006 |publisher=Labour File |access-date=30 September 2025}}</ref> ''[[Ek Alag Mausam]]'' (A Different Season) (Hindi: एक अलग मौसम) is a 2003 [[Hindi]] language [[movie]] directed by Sasi and starring [[Nandita Das]], [[Anupam Kher]], [[Renuka Shahane]], [[Rajit Kapur]], [[Arundathi Nag]], Sreelatha and Sally Whittaker. ''Ssh..Silence Please''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindu.com/lf/2003/05/29/stories/2003052901310200.htm |title=The Hindu : When silence is golden |website=www.thehindu.com |access-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150311110746/http://www.thehindu.com/lf/2003/05/29/stories/2003052901310200.htm |archive-date=11 March 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> is a silent comedy film on development.

Sasi was a founder member of [[ViBGYOR Film Festival]].{{citation needed|date= September 2022}}

Sasi died in Thrissur, Kerala, on 25 December 2022, at the age of 64.<ref>[https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/director-kp-sasi-passes-away-1.8164350 Director KP Sasi passes away]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://maktoobmedia.com/2022/12/25/veteran-filmmaker-kp-sasi-dies-at-64/amp/|title=Veteran filmmaker KP Sasi dies at 64(1994)|access-date=25 December 2022|archive-date=27 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227055257/https://maktoobmedia.com/2022/12/25/veteran-filmmaker-kp-sasi-dies-at-64/amp/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

As part of the [[Kerala State Chalachitra Academy]]’s Smrithianjali series, the book ''The Third Eye of Human Rights'', edited by Mustafa Desamangalam, presents the life story of Sasi.<ref>{{cite book | last = Desamangalam | first = Mustafa | title = മനുഷ്യവകാശങ്ങളുടെ മൂന്നാംകണ്ണ്: കെ പി ശശിയുടെ ചലച്ചിത്രജീവിതം | publisher = Kerala State Chalachithra Akademy | year = 2023 | location = Trivandrum | editor = Mustafa Desamangalam}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=മണ്മറഞ്ഞ പ്രതിഭകൾക്ക് മേളയുടെ ആദരം |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-news/2023/12/11/international-film-festival-of-kerala-homage-category.html |website=Malayala Manorama |date=2023-12-11 |accessdate=2025-10-01}}</ref>

==Filmography==

===As director===
*2016 – ''Voices from the Ruins''
*2014 – ''Fabricated'''
*2009 – ''A climate call from the coast ''
*2009 – ''Like leaves in a storm'''
*2009 – ''Tsunami rehabilitation an unfinished business''
*2009 – ''Gaon chodab nahin''
*2007 – ''Resisting Coastal Invasion''
*2006 – ''If It Rains Again'''
*2005 – ''Redefining Peace – Women lead the way''
*2005 – ''America, America''
*2004 – ''The Source of Life for Sale''
*2003 – ''Ssh..Silence Please''
*2002 – ''Development at Gunpoint''
*2001 – ''Voices from a Disaster''
*1998 – ''[[Ek Alag Mausam]]''
*1994 – ''The Wings of Kokkrebellur''
*1993 – ''Appukkuttan in Time Runs''
*1991 – ''[[Ilayum Mullum]]''
*1988 – ''A Valley Refuses to Die''
*1989 – ''A Campaign Begins''
*1988 – ''The Rope''
*1987 – ''In the Name of Medicine''
*1986 – ''Living in Fear''
*1985 – ''We Who Make History'' and ''That Angry Arabian Sea''
*1984 – ''Science to People''

===As cartoonist===
* 2004 – ''InPosters''

===Books===
* 2000 – ''When the Birds Stop Singing''

==References==
{{Reflist}}



{{commons category|K.P. Sasi}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sasi, K.P.}}
[[Category:1958 births]]
[[Category:2022 deaths]]
[[Category:Film directors from Thrissur]]
[[Category:Malayalam film directors]]
[[Category:Writers from Thrissur]]
[[Category:Indian editorial cartoonists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian people]]

Tarang (film)

2026-03-03T23:57:34Z

Tumita7029: Added New Post.

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Tarang तरंग
| image = Tarang fim poster.jpg
| caption =
| director = [[Kumar Shahani]]
| producer =
| writer = [[Kumar Shahani]] Roshan Shahani
| starring = [[Amol Palekar]] [[Smita Patil]] [[Shreeram Lagoo]] [[Om Puri]] [[Girish Karnad]]
| music = [[Vanraj Bhatia]]
| cinematography = [[K. K. Mahajan]]
| editing = [[Ashok Tyagi]]
| distributor = [[National Film Development Corporation of India|National Film Development Corporation]] (NFDC)
| released = {{Film date|1984|df=yes}}
| runtime = 171 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
}}

'''''Tarang''''' (Hindi: तरंग "wave") English title '''''Wages and Profits''''', is a 1984 Indian Hindi-language [[drama film]] written and directed by [[Kumar Shahani]]. The film is Shahani's second feature film after his most famous work, ''[[Maya Darpan]]'', and took him more than 12 years to raise funding for.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tarang |url=http://mubi.com/films/wages-and-profits |publisher=MUBI}}</ref> The movie is considered, along with Shahani's other features, to be a seminal work of India's [[Parallel Cinema]] movement. The movie stars several big actors who were prominent in the Indian art cinema scene of the early '80s, including [[Amol Palekar]], [[Smita Patil]], [[Girish Karnad]], [[Om Puri]], and [[Shreeram Lagoo]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Tarang IMDb Page |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0088227/fullcredits?ref_=tt_cl_sm#cast|publisher=IMDb }}</ref>

==Synopsis==
Sethji (Shreeram Lagoo) is a widowed businessman who lives a comfortable life with his only daughter, Hansa, his son-in-law, Rahul (Amol Palekar), and a grandson, Munna. Rahul is Sethji's right-hand man, and his nephew Dinesh (Girish Karnad) is his assistant. Over time, petty rivalries and jealousies have grown in the family, and Sethji and Rahul feel that Dinesh is trying to undermine the business. They make a plan to get rid of him without attracting any attention to themselves and succeed, but the after-effects are not kind towards Sethji's health, which grows worse eventually leading to his untimely death. Shortly thereafter, Hansa also dies, leaving her husband Rahul to look after the business on his own. Things start to turn controversial once Rahul begins an affair with the maidservant Janki (Smita Patil), and it is soon revealed that Hansa's death may not have been a suicide, but was a cover-up. As the mysteries start to unfold, they leave a scarring emotional impact on Rahul, and test his relationship with his late wife's family and his new lover.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tarang IMDb Page |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0088227/plotsummary?ref_=tt_ov_pl|publisher=IMDb }}</ref>

==Music==
Music is composed by [[Vanraj Bhatia]] with lyrics by Raghuveer Sahay.

*"Barse Ghan Saari Raat" - [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
*"Tarang Tarang" - [[Asha Bhosle]]

== Analysis and criticism ==
Unlike ''Maya Darpan'', ''Tarang'' is considered to be uncharacteristically traditional and conventional for a Kumar Shahani film. Its storyline follows a typical arch, and the film also features several song sequences, considered normal for mainstream [[Bollywood]] films, but very abnormal for an independent parallel cinema film. In an interview on the film, Shahani stated his approach was to "take into account the way our traditions are surviving in popular art. Both folk and [[popular art]] always have [[epic (genre)|epic]] elements. Even pulp literature is a distortion of the epic form."<ref>{{cite web|title=Interview with Kumar Shahani |url=http://projectorhead.in/archives/four/interview-with-kumar-shahani/|publisher=Projectorhead Film Magazine}}</ref>

''The Seventh Art'' film blog reviewed the film positively stating, "A staunch [[Marxist]], Shahani examines the [[class struggle]] on multiple fronts: in the writing that nearly recites the [[Labor theory of value|labour theory of value]], in the densely layered soundtrack where various voices vie for power and the casting, where the star value of the actors is in conflict with the characters they play."<ref>{{cite web|title=Tarang Review |url=http://theseventhart.info/tag/kumar-shahani/|publisher=The Seventh Art}}</ref>

Film blog ''The Case for Global Film'', in a piece of Indian Parallel Cinema stated that "Kumar Shahni felt while making ''Tarang'', ''It is a pity that societies tend to make museum pieces of art when, in fact, the need for it is as natural and as instinctive in people as eating and drinking.'' That is probably why Tarang comes through to the discerning viewer as a moving experience, even if he is completely unaware of the intricacies of Shahani’s personal imagination."<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Parallel Cinema |date=10 October 2008 |url=http://itpworld.wordpress.com/2008/10/10/parallel-or-new-cinema-in-india/|publisher=The Case for Global Film}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|0088227|Tarang}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tarang (film)}}
[[Category:1984 films]]
[[Category:1984 drama films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:1984 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Hindi-language drama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Vanraj Bhatia]]

Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain

2026-03-03T23:33:46Z

Tumita7029: Made the article w/ infobox.

{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain
| image = Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain.JPG
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Satish Kaushik]]
| producer = [[D. Ramanaidu]]
| writer = [[Jainendra Jain (screenwriter)|Jainendra Jain]]
|based_on = {{based_on|''[[Pavithra Bandham]]'' |[[Muthyala Subbaiah]]}}
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[Anil Kapoor]]
* [[Kajol]]
}}
| music = [[Anu Malik]]
| cinematography = Kabir Lal
| editing = {{Plainlist|
* E. M. Madhavan
* Chaitanya Tanna
* [[Marthand K. Venkatesh]]
}}
| studio = [[Suresh Productions]]
| distributor = Melody International
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1999|1|22}}
| runtime = 164 minutes<ref name="BBFC">{{Cite web |title=Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain |url=https://www.bbfc.co.uk/release/hum-aapke-dil-mein-rehte-hain-q29sbgvjdglvbjpwwc0zmdawmtu |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106032110/https://www.bbfc.co.uk/release/hum-aapke-dil-mein-rehte-hain-q29sbgvjdglvbjpwwc0zmdawmtu |archive-date=6 November 2020 |access-date=6 November 2020 |website=[[British Board of Film Classification]]}}</ref>
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget = {{INR}}6.25 crore<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://boxofficeindia.com/movie.php?movieid=2455|title=Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain – Movie|publisher=[[Box Office India]]}}</ref>
| gross = {{INR}}36.65 crore<ref name="auto"/>
}}

'''''Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain''''' ({{Translation|''I Live in Your Heart''}}) is a 1999 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[romantic drama film]] directed by [[Satish Kaushik]] and produced by [[D. Ramanaidu]] for his production company [[Suresh Productions]]. It stars [[Anil Kapoor]] and [[Kajol]], with [[Anupam Kher]], [[Shakti Kapoor]] and [[Parmeet Sethi]] in supporting roles. Written by [[Jainendra Jain (screenwriter)|Jainendra Jain]], the film tells the story of Megha (Kajol), who enters into a one-year contract marriage with industrialist Vijay (Anil Kapoor).

''Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain'' serves as a remake of [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language film ''[[Pavitra Bandham]]'' (1996). With a budget of {{INRConvert|6.25|c|year=1999}}, [[principal photography]] took place in India and Switzerland and finished in December 1998. Kabir Lal served as the cinematographer, while E.M. Madhavan, Chaitanya Tanna and [[Marthand K. Venkatesh]] edited the film. The music was composed by [[Anu Malik]] and the lyrics were written by [[Sameer (lyricist)|Sameer]].

''Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain'' was released on 22 January 1999 and emerged as a commercial blockbuster, with a total gross of {{INRConvert|36.65|c|year=1999}} worldwide. It received mixed-to-positive critical reviews, with mostly praise directed towards its story and Kajol's performance. For her portrayal, Kajol was nominated for the Best Actress category at the [[Filmfare Awards]], the [[International Indian Film Academy Awards]], the [[Screen Awards]], and the [[Zee Cine Awards]].

== Plot ==
Vishwanath is a multi-millionaire industrialist, living with his only son, Vijay. After Vijay completed his education in the [[United States]], Vishwanath forces him to get married but Vijay refuses to, saying that he still wants to be single. Disappointed, Vishwanath (who is suffering from [[diabetes]]) tries to convince his son with sweets; it makes Vijay immediately agrees to his demand. Megha, a hardworking girl struggling to support her family, is Vishwanath's personal assistant in his office. Vishwanath asks Megha to quit her job and marry his son, but she refuses when she hears Vijay wants the marriage to be on a contract basis for a year and, if he does not fall in love with his wife in that duration, the marriage will be annulled and Megha will get money as a return. However, Megha's family is in dire financial straits and, so, she has to reconsider this offer.

Vijay and Megha are married. After the marriage, they become friendly with each other and Megha goes out of her way to look after Vijay after he is in a car accident. At the end of the year, however, Vijay decides to annul the marriage, as had been agreed upon, and he regards her as a friend. Megha leaves Vijay and returns home. After the separation, Vijay seems to be enjoying himself; but slowly and eventually, he starts to feel regret after he found the facts that she gets social sanctions for the contract.

In order to support herself, Megha starts a job in a new company; to her surprise, when the company's managing director arrives, he turns out to be Vijay. He later confesses to her that he is a changed person and wants her back. But, even after repeated persuasion, she disagrees because her faith in him has been shattered. Vijay continues to pursue her. Later, Megha finds out that she is pregnant with Vijay's child. Near the completion of her pregnancy, she along with her family then hold a ceremony for the well-being of her to-be-born child. In the ceremony, which Vishwanath and Vijay attends, Megha reveals that the latter to be her husband and tells all the guests about the marriage-contract. An argument follows; Vijay and his father walk out, followed by all the guests.

As a last ditch effort, Vijay's friends make a plan to lure Megha to meet him again. His friends tell her that troublemakers Khairati Lal and Yeshwant Kumar, who had once attempted to kill Vijay in the car accident, have escaped from prison. They are out looking for Vijay, who had fired them from his father's company for cheating and fraud.

Megha gets anxious and tries to reach Vijay as soon as possible. On the way, she learns that the whole thing was a set-up, when she caught one of Vijay's friends call him by a payphone. Enraged, Megha heads to Vijay's house to criticize him for this shameless act. Unbeknownst to both Megha and Vijay however, the aforementioned criminals arrive in Vijay's house to kill him. They beat up Vijay, but he soon overpowers them. Eventually though, Yeshwant stabs Vijay in the stomach with a broken wine bottle thrice, and Khairati with a large knife in his back twice. As soon as they hear Megha's footsteps however, they flee the scene, leaving Vijay seriously injured.

As soon as Megha meets Vijay, she angrily berates him for playing a prank on her and orders him to never see her again. However, as she turns to leave, Vijay staggers and takes out the broken wine bottle from his stomach, causing blood to pour from the wound. Megha upon seeing the wound, realizes Vijay really was attacked and runs toward him. However, she slips and falls down, and goes into labor. Vijay, summoning up all his strength, takes Megha to the hospital. There, he is treated for his injuries and she delivers a healthy baby boy. Megha and Vijay recover and get reconciled.

== Cast ==
The cast is listed below.<ref name="Cast&Crew01">{{Cite web |title=Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain Cast & Crew |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/cast/6446/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312214006/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/cast/6446/index.html |archive-date=12 March 2008 |access-date=10 November 2011 |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Cast&Crew02">{{Cite web |title=Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain Cast |url=https://boxofficeindia.com/cast_crew.php?movieid=2455 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103111509/https://boxofficeindia.com/cast_crew.php?movieid=2455 |archive-date=3 November 2020 |access-date=3 November 2020 |website=Box Office India |language=en}}</ref>
{{colbegin}}
* [[Anil Kapoor]] as Vijay
* [[Kajol]] as Megha
* [[Gracy Singh]] as Maya
* [[Sudha Chandran]] as Manju
* [[Anupam Kher]] as Mr. Vishwanath, Vijay's father
* [[Rakesh Bedi]] as Salim
* [[Satish Kaushik]] as German, Vijay's secretary
* [[Adi Irani]] as Manju's husband
* [[Shakti Kapoor]] as Khairati Lal
* [[Smita Jaykar]] as Megha's mother
* [[Sadhu Meher]] as Badri Prasad
* [[Raju Shrestha]] as Sudhakar
* [[Parmeet Sethi]] as Yeshwant Kumar
* [[Mink Brar]] as Anita
* [[Johnny Lever]] as Sunny
* [[Dinesh Hingoo]] as Pandit Ramprasad
{{colend}}
[[Kumar Sanu]], [[Anuradha Paudwal]] and [[Anu Malik]] made special appearances in the song "Kasam Se Kasam Se".<ref name="Cast&Crew01" />

== Production ==
The film is a remake of [[Muthyala Subbaiah]]'s 1996 [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language film ''[[Pavitra Bandham]]'', and it marks the producer [[D. Ramanaidu]]'s return to [[Hindi cinema]] after a long hiatus; he had last produced ''[[Taqdeerwala]]'' in 1995.<ref name="Rediff.com">{{Cite web |last=Mirza |first=S. B. |date=14 December 1998 |title=Love after divorce |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/1998/dec/14had.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031212044758/https://www.rediff.com/movies/1998/dec/14had.htm |archive-date=12 December 2003 |access-date=3 November 2020 |website=[[Rediff.com]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |year=1999 |title=(unknown title) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TNWAAAAYAAJ&q=Hum+Aapke |url-status=live |magazine=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]] |language=en |publisher=Hathway Investments Pvt. Ltd. |volume=5 |issue=1–11 |page=81 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323090328/https://books.google.com/books?id=-TNWAAAAYAAJ&q=Hum+Aapke |archive-date=23 March 2021 |access-date=6 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Taqdeerwala (1995) |url=https://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b7e57a86a |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20201103111805/https://www2.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2b7e57a86a |archive-date=3 November 2020 |access-date=3 November 2020 |website=[[British Film Institute]]}}</ref> In an interview with [[Rediff.com]], Ramanaidu said that his involvement in the project was a way to prove his mettle as a producer in the Hindi film industry: "As far as Telugu films are concerned, I have achieved whatever I wanted to. I want to hit the jackpot in Bollywood with this film."<ref name="Rediff.com" /> Anil Kapoor was cast as the antagonist Vijay and Anupam Kher as his father, Vishwanath.<ref name="Cast&Crew01" /><ref name="Rediff.com" /> According to Kapoor, the role had changed his screen image, and he later stated that he took the part to avoid [[typecasting]].<ref name="Rediff.com" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chatterjee |first=Saibal |author-link=Saibal Chatterjee |date=7 September 2005 |title=I hate being typecast |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |agency=[[Press Trust of India]] |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/i-hate-being-typecast/story-mGdp8WRiEXzPq771uEzb1N.html |url-status=live |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105032954/https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/i-hate-being-typecast/story-mGdp8WRiEXzPq771uEzb1N.html |archive-date=5 November 2020}}</ref> Meanwhile, Kajol was cast as the film's protagonist Megha, her first such role.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chowdhury |first=Nandita |date=22 November 1999 |title=The artful survivor |work=[[India Today]] |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/profile/story/19991122-artful-survivor-after-two-decades-in-bollywood-actor-anil-kapoor-still-goes-on-and-on-781491-1999-11-22 |url-status=live |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105070928/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/profile/story/19991122-artful-survivor-after-two-decades-in-bollywood-actor-anil-kapoor-still-goes-on-and-on-781491-1999-11-22 |archive-date=5 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 December 2003 |title=Salman's claim to fame in 2003 |url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/2003/dec/26list.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103111856/https://m.rediff.com/movies/2003/dec/26list.htm |archive-date=3 November 2020 |access-date=3 November 2020 |website=Rediff.com |language=en}}</ref> Interviewed by ''[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]]'', she stated that her role "seemed like a great character on paper, but [it] didn't translate well on screen".<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 November 2010 |title=Bad worse |work=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/bad-worse/cid/460948 |url-status=live |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121041240/https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/bad-worse/cid/460948 |archive-date=21 January 2021}}</ref>

Satish Kaushik was suggested by Kapoor, who has collaborated with him in several films, including ''[[Mr. India (1987 film)|Mr. India]]'' (1987),<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dhawan |first=M. L. |date=21 July 2002 |title=Year of the invisible hero |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020721/spectrum/main5.htm |url-status=live |access-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021002052526/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020721/spectrum/main5.htm |archive-date=2 October 2002}}</ref> ''[[Joshilaay]]'' (1989)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joshilay Cast & Crew |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/joshilay/cast/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427040254/https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/joshilay/cast/ |archive-date=27 April 2017 |access-date=9 November 2020 |website=Bollywood Hungama|date=10 February 1989 }}</ref> and ''[[Ram Lakhan]]'' (1989),<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tulasi |first=Abhilash |date=21 October 2003 |title=Ram Lakhan: Where good wins over evil |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2003/oct/21ghai.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031023010747/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2003/oct/21ghai.htm |archive-date=23 October 2003 |access-date=9 November 2020 |website=Rediff.com}}</ref> to direct this film.<ref name="Rediff.com" /> Kaushik compared it with his previous directorial ventures—''[[Roop Ki Rani Choron Ka Raja]]'' (1993) and ''[[Prem (film)|Prem]]'' (1995)—and found ''Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain'' "very different", explaining that it "emphasised feelings and that the accent here was on treatment"; for instance, the former was dominant with costume and the latter was based on [[reincarnation]].<ref name="Rediff.com" /> He said, "I do not resort to any gimmicks in [''Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain'']. I'm not playing with camera angles or juggling shots. You will not find 50 dances here... My film has been set against a contemporary backdrop."<ref name="Rediff.com" /> [[Jainendra Jain (screenwriter)|Jainendra Jain]] and Bhupati Raja wrote the dialogue and story, respectively.<ref name="Cast&Crew02" />

[[Principal photography]] started in [[Hyderabad]] and handed by Kabir Lal.<ref name="BOI">{{Cite web |title=Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/Movies/movie_detail/hum_aapke_dil_mein_rehte_hain |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150805010206/http://boxofficeindia.com/Movies/movie_detail/hum_aapke_dil_mein_rehte_hain |archive-date=5 August 2015 |access-date=26 October 2020 |website=[[Box Office India]] |language=en |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Cast&Crew01" /><ref name="Rediff.com" /> [[Saroj Khan]] and [[Chinni Prakash]] were the choreographers, while Raja was the action director.<ref name="Cast&Crew01" /> Its production design was completed by [[Sharmishta Roy]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dutta |first=Sujan |date=10 November 1999 |title=Tollywood touches crore mark |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/tollywood-touches-crore-mark/cid/910208 |url-status=live |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105063950/https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/tollywood-touches-crore-mark/cid/910208 |archive-date=5 November 2020}}</ref> Some songs were recorded at the Hotel de Rougemont in Switzerland.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Devgan |first=Kavita |date=7 October 2014 |title=The Indian producer, director and well-known comedy actor can stay in Hotel de Rougemont in Switzerland all his life and never get bored |work=Outlook |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/travelnews/story/46041/satish-kaushik |url-status=live |access-date=3 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103113308/https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/travelnews/story/46041/satish-kaushik |archive-date=3 November 2020}}</ref> After filming finished around December 1998, it was edited by E.M. Madhava, Chaitanya Tanna and [[Marthand K. Venkatesh]].<ref name="Cast&Crew01" /><ref name="Rediff.com" />

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album
| name = Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Anu Malik]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 21 December 1998
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = {{duration|m=49|s=40}}
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| producer = Anu Malik
| prev_title = [[Ishq (1997 film)|Ishq]]
| prev_year = 1997
| next_title = [[Refugee (2000 film)|Refugee]]
| next_year = 2000
}}
The soundtrack for ''Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain'' was completed by [[Anu Malik]] and the lyrics were written by [[Sameer (lyricist)|Sameer]].<ref name="Cast&Crew01" /><ref name="Rediff.com" /> It contains nine songs, with vocals performed by [[Kumar Sanu]], [[Anuradha Paudwal]], [[Udit Narayan]], [[Alka Yagnik]], [[Sonu Nigam]], [[Hema Sardesai]], Rahul Seth, [[Anu Malik]], [[Abhijeet Bhattacharya]], [[Shankar Mahadevan]] and [[Anuradha Sriram]].<ref name="Cast&Crew01" /><ref name="iTunes" /> The album was released on 21 December 1998 by [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]].<ref name="Cast&Crew01" /><ref name="iTunes">{{Cite web |title=Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rahte Hain (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) |url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/hum-aapke-dil-mein-rahte-hain-original-motion-picture/1140506173 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103111954/https://music.apple.com/us/album/hum-aapke-dil-mein-rahte-hain-original-motion-picture/1140506173 |archive-date=3 November 2020 |access-date=3 November 2020 |website=[[iTunes]] |language=en}}</ref>

{{Track listing
| headline = Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)<ref name="iTunes" />
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain
| extra1 = [[Kumar Sanu]], [[Anuradha Paudwal]]
| length1 = 5:22
| title2 = Zara Aankhon Mein Kaajal
| extra2 = Kumar Sanu, Anuradha Paudwal
| length2 = 6:11
| title3 = Chhup Gaya
| extra3 = [[Udit Narayan]], [[Alka Yagnik]]
| length3 = 6:42
| title4 = Dhingtara Dhingtara
| extra4 = [[Sonu Nigam]], [[Hema Sardesai]], Rahul Seth
| length4 = 6:14
| title5 = Kasam Se Kasam Se
| extra5 = Anuradha Paudwal, Kumar Sanu
| length5 = 5:53
| title6 = Hai Hai Hai Jata Hai Kahan
| extra6 = [[Anu Malik]], Hema Sardesai
| length6 = 5:45
| title7 = Papa Main Papa Ban Gaya
| extra7 = [[Abhijeet Bhattacharya]], [[Shankar Mahadevan]], [[Anuradha Sriram]]
| length7 = 5:48
| title8 = Patni Pati Ke Liye
| extra8 = Shankar Mahadewan
| length8 = 5:35
| title9 = Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain
| note9 = Female Version
| extra9 = Anuradha Paudwal
| length9 = 2:10
| total_length = 49:40
}}

== Release ==
Produced by [[Suresh Productions]] and distributed by Melody International, ''Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain'' was released on 22 January 1999 and ran at theatres for 25 weeks.<ref name="BBFC" /><ref name="BOI" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.screenindia.com/20001027/fartic.htm |title=Satish Kaushik: An amazing all-rounder, a success story |date=27 October 2001 |work=[[Screen (magazine)|Screen]] |last=John |first=Ali Peter |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001208232200/http://www.screenindia.com/20001027/fartic.htm |archive-date=8 December 2000 |access-date=24 March 2021 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It faced strong competition from [[Rishi Kapoor]]'s ''[[Aa Ab Laut Chalen]]'', [[Gulzar]]'s ''[[Hu Tu Tu]]'' and Shakeel Norani's ''[[Bade Dilwala]]'', all of which were released on the same day.<ref name="competition">{{Cite web |last=Taliculam |first=Sharmila |date=3 February 1999 |title=One out of four |url=https://www.rediff.com/entertai/1999/feb/03film.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991001135421/https://www.rediff.com/entertai/1999/feb/03film.htm |archive-date=1 October 1999 |access-date=4 November 2020 |website=Rediff.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Somaaya |first=Bhawana |author-link=Bhawana Somaaya |date=5 February 1999 |title=Redefining rules |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.cscsarchive.org/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/52C14E19A16046B965256940004D0DE8?OpenDocument |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214151004/http://www.cscsarchive.org/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/52C14E19A16046B965256940004D0DE8?OpenDocument |archive-date=14 February 2008 |url-status=live |access-date=15 January 2021}}</ref> The film opened to a wide audience, with 190 screens across India, and grossed {{INRConvert|57|l|year=1999}} on its opening day.<ref name="BOI" /> ''Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain'' earned {{INRConvert|1.84|c|year=1999}} on its first weekend and {{INRConvert|36.4|c}} after its first week.<ref name="BOI" /> [[Box Office India]] estimated the film's total gross at {{INRConvert|29|c|year=1999}} in India and $1.8 million overseas, and concluded its final commercial performance with the verdict "super hit".<ref name="BOI" /> The film thus emerged as one of the highest-grossing female-led films of the year.<ref name="BOI" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Top Hits 1999 |url=https://www.boxofficeindia.com/hit-down.php?txtYearlyData=2000-2009&year=1999 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104125851/https://www.boxofficeindia.com/hit-down.php?txtYearlyData=2000-2009&year=1999 |archive-date=4 November 2020 |access-date=4 November 2020 |website=Box Office India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Gupta |first=Shubhra |date=21 March 2008 |title=Show me the money |work=[[Business Line]] |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-life/article1115049.ece |url-status=live |access-date=4 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222143717/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-life/article1115049.ece |archive-date=22 February 2014 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

A [[DVD]] version was released on 17 July 2007 in a single-disc pack.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rahte Hai |url=https://www.amazon.com/Hum-Aapke-Dil-Mein-Rahte/dp/B0000DINNL |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522034903/https://www.amazon.com/Hum-Aapke-Dil-Mein-Rahte/dp/B0000DINNL |archive-date=22 May 2009 |access-date=6 November 2020 |publisher=[[Amazon (company)|Amazon]]}}</ref>

=== Critical reception ===
''Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain'' addressed the issue of [[prenuptial agreement]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Menon |first=Rajitha |date=16 July 2019 |title=Wedding contracts are rare |work=[[Deccan Herald]] |location=Bengaluru, India |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/metrolife/metrolife-on-the-move/wedding-contracts-are-rare-747559.html |url-status=live |access-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109070404/https://www.deccanherald.com/metrolife/metrolife-on-the-move/wedding-contracts-are-rare-747559.html |archive-date=9 November 2020}}</ref> It received mixed-to-positive reviews, with critics praising its story, melodramatic climax and the performances, mostly that from Kajol.<ref name="competition" /><ref name="Rediffreview" /> Sharmila Taliculam, writing for [[Rediff.com]], described the film as a "usual run-of-the-mill story", noting its "sprinkling of drama, comedy, fight [and] romance".<ref name="Rediffreview">{{Cite web |last=Taliculam |first=Sharmila |date=23 January 1999 |title=Till incompatibility do us part |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/1999/jan/23hum.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030816015601/https://www.rediff.com/movies/1999/jan/23hum.htm |archive-date=16 August 2003 |access-date=4 November 2020 |website=Rediff.com}}</ref> She opined that Kajol "manages her role well", with "her eyes [giving] good effect in many scenes", and thought her chemistry with Kapoor managed to "save the film from going downhill in a rush".<ref name="Rediffreview" /> Taliculam argued that Kapoor's portrayal, which she found "par excellence", would remind the audiences of his roles in ''[[Lamhe]]'' (1991), ''[[Mr. Bechara]]'' (1996) and ''[[Judaai (1997 film)|Judaai]]'' (1997).<ref name="Rediffreview" /> A critic from [[Bollywood Hungama]] said, "''Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain'' is a good enough film if you go for that kind of family tear-jerker."<ref>{{Cite web |year=1999 |title=Movie Review: Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain |url=http://www.indiafm.com/news3.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990427193256/http://www.indiafm.com/news3.htm |archive-date=27 April 1999 |access-date=5 November 2020 |website=Bollywood Hungama}}</ref> K. N. Vijiyan of the ''[[New Straits Times]]'' shared similar thoughts, saying, "[It] will be a treat for those who love Anil Kapoor and Kajol, and for those who want something different."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vijiyan |first=K. N. |date=27 February 1999 |title=This title goes a long way! |page=19 |work=[[New Straits Times]] |publisher=[[New Straits Times Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VqJOAAAAIBAJ |url-status=live |access-date=31 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210323090406/https://books.google.com/books?id=VqJOAAAAIBAJ |archive-date=23 March 2021}}</ref> In a column for the same publication, he added that the story is "quite refreshing".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vijayan |first=K. N. |date=29 December 1999 |title=Pirates hijacks Hindi films |page=3 |work=New Straits Times |publisher=New Straits Times Press}}</ref> Mukhtar Anjoom from ''[[Deccan Herald]]'' wrote that "Kajol excels. She combines grace and intensity with uncommon talent. Suave Anil is as sleek and convincing as ever. Anu Malik’s music is melodious. The ‘comedy’ of Satish Kaushik, Johnny Lever and Rakesh Bedi is unbearable — the clatter sounds like a herd of asses braying at a reunion party. Except for this, the film is clean and enjoyable."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anjoom |first=Mukhtar |date=2007-12-19 |title=Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rahte Hain (Hindi) |url=http://www.cscsarchive.org:80/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/0824C765C191B144652569400062A399?OpenDocument |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=www.cscsarchive.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219181318/http://www.cscsarchive.org:80/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/0824C765C191B144652569400062A399?OpenDocument |archive-date=19 December 2007 }}</ref>

Conversely, Mukhtar Anjoom of ''[[The Times of India]]'' saw that the comedic scene make the film "clean and enjoyable".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Anjoom |first=Mukhtar |date=24 January 1999 |title=Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rahte Hain |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=http://www.cscsarchive.org/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/0824C765C191B144652569400062A399?OpenDocument |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219181318/http://www.cscsarchive.org/MediaArchive/art.nsf/(docid)/0824C765C191B144652569400062A399?OpenDocument |archive-date=19 December 2007 |url-status=live |access-date=29 December 2020}}</ref> [[Deepa Gahlot]] thought that the film's story was inspired by Indian mythologies and folk tales.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gahlot |first=Deepa |author-link=Deepa Gahlot |date=1999 |title=Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain |url=http://www.indiamovies.com/now29.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000830181603/http://www.indiamovies.com/now29.htm |archive-date=30 August 2000 |access-date=23 November 2020 |website=India Movies}}</ref> In ''Eena Meena Deeka: The Story of Hindi Film Comedy'', [[Sanjit Narwekar]] said that Kaushik had proved himself as "a leading director" with the film's success.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Narwekar |first=Sanjit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-lkAAAAMAAJ |title=Eena Meena Deeka: The Story of Hindi Film Comedy |publisher=Rupa & Company |year=2005 |isbn=978-81-29108-59-3 |page=264 |author-link=Sanjit Narwekar |access-date=6 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103080105/http://books.google.com/books?id=8-lkAAAAMAAJ |archive-date=3 January 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Accolades ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope="col"| Award{{efn|Awards, festivals and organizations are in alphabetical order.}}
! scope="col"| Date of ceremony{{efn|Date is linked to the article about the awards held that year, wherever possible.}}
! scope="col"| Category
! scope="col"| Recipient(s)
! scope="col"| Result
! scope="col" class="unsortable"| {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Filmfare Awards]]
| [[45th Filmfare Awards|13 February 2000]]
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
| rowspan="2" | {{sort|Kajol|[[Kajol]]}}
| {{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;"| <ref>{{Cite web |title=Kajol: Awards & nominations |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/awards/8615/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204151341/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrities/awards/8615/index.html |archive-date=4 December 2009 |access-date=26 October 2020 |website=Bollywood Hungama |language=en}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite news |last=Press Trust of India |date=13 February 2000 |title=Aishwarya, Sanjay win Filmfare awards |language=en |work=The Tribune |location=Mumbai, India |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000214/main5.htm |url-status=live |access-date=29 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020825020442/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000214/main5.htm |archive-date=25 August 2002}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2"| [[International Indian Film Academy Awards]]
| rowspan="2"| [[1st IIFA Awards|24 June 2000]]
| [[IIFA Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
| {{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"| <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catchuslive.com:80/iifa/iifa_polling.html |title=The 1st IIFA Awards 2000 Nominations Polling |website=CatchUsLive.com |publisher=[[International Indian Film Academy Awards]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000620083756/http://www.catchuslive.com/iifa/iifa_polling.html |archive-date=20 June 2000 |access-date=5 July 2022 |url-status=dead }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite episode |title=International Indian Film Academy Awards 2000 |series=International Indian Film Academy Awards |network=[[StarPlus]] |date=24 June 2000}}</ref>
|-
| [[IIFA Award for Best Story|Best Story]]
| {{sort|Raja|Bhupathi Raja}}
| {{nom}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="6"| [[Screen Awards]]
| rowspan="6"| [[6th Screen Awards|23 January 2000]]
| [[Screen Award for Best Film|Best Film]]
| ''Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain''
| {{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="6"| <ref>{{Cite news |last=Express News Service |date=8 January 2000 |title=Sixth Annual Screen-Videocon Awards nominations |language=en |work=[[The Indian Express]] |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/Storyold/139648/ |access-date=26 October 2020 }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=6th Annual Screen Awards – Nominees & Winners for the year 1999 |url=http://www.indiafm.com:80/awards/screen/nominees1999.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040118035703/http://www.indiafm.com/awards/screen/nominees1999.shtml |archive-date=18 January 2004 |access-date=29 October 2020 |website=Bollywood Hungama |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| [[Screen Award for Best Director|Best Director]]
| {{sort|Kauthik|[[Satish Kaushik]]}}
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Screen Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]]
| {{sort|Kajol|Kajol}}
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Screen Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]
| {{sort|Kher|[[Anupam Kher]]}}
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Screen Award for Best Dialogue|Best Dialogue]]
| {{sort|Jain|[[Jainendra Jain (screenwriter)|Jainendra Jain]]}}
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Screen Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]]
| {{sort|Malik|[[Anu Malik]]}}
| {{nom}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="5"| [[Zee Cine Awards]]
| rowspan="5"| [[2000 Zee Cine Awards|11 March 2000]]
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor – Female|Best Actor – Female]]
| {{sort|Kajol|Kajol}}
| {{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="5"| <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.zeenext.com/entertainment/events/zca/win_pop/home.html |title=The 3rd Zee Cine Awards 2000 Popular Awards Nominees |work=[[Zee Next]] |access-date=5 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010114051900/http://www.zeenext.com/entertainment/events/zca/nominee_pop/home.html |archive-date=14 January 2001 |agency=[[Zee Entertainment Enterprises]]}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite episode |title=Zee Cine Awards 2000 |series=Zee Cine Awards |network=[[Zee Entertainment Enterprises]] |date=26 February 2000}}</ref>
|-
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Male|Best Actor in a Supporting Role – Male]]
| {{sort|Kher|Anupam Kher}}
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Actor in a Comic Role|Best Actor in a Comic Role]]
| {{sort|Lever|[[Johnny Lever]]}}
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]]
| {{sort|Malik|Anu Malik}}
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Zee Cine Award for Best Editing|Best Editing]]
| {{sort|Tanna|Chaitanya Tanna}}
| {{nom}}
|-
|}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{portal|Bollywood}}
* {{IMDb title|id=0189592|title=Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama title|id=201837|title=Hum Aapke Dil Mein Rehte Hain}}

{{Satish Kaushik}}

[[Category:1999 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Hindi remakes of Telugu films]]
[[Category:1999 films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Anu Malik]]
[[Category:Indian romantic drama films]]
[[Category:1999 romantic drama films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Satish Kaushik]]
[[Category:Suresh Productions films]]
[[Category:Films produced by D. Ramanaidu]]
[[Category:Hindi-language romantic drama films]]

Valiyangadi (film)

2026-03-03T20:47:02Z

Tumita7029: general improved formatting based on references

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Valiyangadi
| image = Valiyangadi.jpg
| caption =
| director = [[Salim Baba]]
| producer = Unni T. Prakash
| writer =
| starring = [[Manikkuttan]] [[Varada (actress)|Varada]] [[Kalabhavan Mani]]
| music = Sayan Anwar
| cinematography = Vipin Mohan
| editing = K Sreenivas
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=y|2010|3|5}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Valiyangadi''''' is a 2010 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language film directed by [[Salim Baba]]. The movie features [[Manikkuttan]], [[Varada (actress)|Varada]] and [[Kalabhavan Navas]] in the lead roles.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nowrunning.com/movie/6997/malayalam/valiyangadi/2513/review.htm|title=Valiyangadi Review | Valiyangadi Malayalam Movie Review by Veeyen|date=9 March 2010|website=Nowrunning.com|access-date=26 April 2022|archive-date=11 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411095238/https://www.nowrunning.com/movie/6997/malayalam/valiyangadi/2513/review.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/valiyangadi-review-malayalam-movie-11898|title=Valiyangadi review. Valiyangadi Malayalam movie review, story, rating|website=Indiaglitz.com|access-date=26 April 2022}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Valiyangadi movie is all about Ananthu who is a graduate born in a big ancestral family, who opted to become a head load worker.

An idealist who wanted to prove the worth of every jobs, Ananthu easily became the leader of the entire trade union workers of Valiyangadi market in a very short while. Without any differentiation in politician, religion or language, every independent worker of the market adorned him as their unquestionable leader and hero, for whom they were ready to do anything.

But for shrewd, cunning businessmen and corrupt politicians, this tie up was more a menace and they plotted ways to somehow corner Ananthu and throw him out of the market. Some smaller issues created troubles for Ananthu, which he managed to clear off with his sincere ways.

But when he had a love affair with Gowry who is a girl born in the nearby slums and reared by the market folks, everyone started to doubt his intentions. As the relation was presented with a lot of false stories, many starts to dislike him. Ananthu was not prepared to fail in his life, even for his love Angelna. And he now decides to take on the business mafia and their evil ways.

What Anandu does to resolve the problem forms the rest of the story...

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Manikkuttan]] as Ananthu
* [[Varada (actress)|Varada]] as Gowri
* Kalabhavan Navas as Parikutty
* [[Narayanan Kutty]] as Lazer
* [[Saju Kodiyan]] as Abutty
* [[Shweta Menon]] as Lakshmi
* [[T. G. Ravi]] as Divakaran
* [[Urmila Unni]] as Sethulakshmi
* [[Zeenath]] as Parikutty's mother
* [[Abu Salim (actor)|Abu Salim]] as Police officer Prathap
* [[Shivaji Guruvayoor]] as Anandhu's father
* [[Santhosh (actor)|Santhosh]] as SI Abdul Jabbar
* [[Sudheesh]] as Umman Kora
* Boban Alummoodan as Minister
* [[Kottayam Nazeer]] as Anthappan
* [[Chembil Ashokan]] as Kottarathil Pappachan
* [[Subair]] as Bhattadiri sir
* Salu Kuttanad as Sulaiman
* Savithri Sreedharan as Namboothiri's wife
}}

==Home video==
The movie was released on DVD, VCD by Blueberry Communications, just a month after its theatrical release

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:2010 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:2010 Indian films]]

{{2010s-Malayalam-film-stub}}

Trimohini Sangam

2026-03-03T16:11:07Z

Tumita7029: Added A Article.

{{Short description|Confluence of rivers in Bihar, India}}
'''Trimohini Sangam''' is a [[confluence]] of rivers located near [[Kursela]] village in [[Katihar district]], [[Bihar]] state, India. There the river [[Koshi River|Koshi]] meets with the [[Ganges]], with which a small stream of [[Kalbalia river]] originates. Trimohini Sangam is one of the 12 banks on which the ashes of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] were immersed on 12 February 1948.

In order to develop this place as a tourist destination, the Bihar State Tourism Department approved a plan of Rs 3.50 crore in the 2017-18 financial year.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

== Attractions ==
This area has been named as Sunder Nagar by Sangam Baba for the coast{{clarify|date=July 2022}}. The construction of a temple has been started{{when|date=July 2022}} for the establishment of Raneshwar Kamna Linga near this site.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

* Guide Dam Lake: the shore bandh done on the banks of Koshi, a tributary of Trimohini Sangam, which is known as Guide Dam Lake. More than 150 species of birds are present.
*Baba Bateshwarnath Temple: near the Sangam is the temple of Baba Bateshwarnath.
*Maghi Purnima Mela: a [mMelā]] is held annually at Trimohini Sangam on the occasion of [[Maghi Purnima]]. Thousands of devotees from many districts of Bihar and also from Nepal reach Trimohini Sangam for bathing in the Ganges.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/katihar-kat-news-20019256.html|title=Trimuhani Sangam Beach throngs of devotees. |website=Dainik Jagran|language=en|access-date=2021-06-13}}</ref>
*Kartik Purnima: pilgrims from India and abroad bathe at Trimohini Sangam on [[Kartik Purnima]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.public.app/video/sp_wlw70ue03mxrr|title=Ganga Maiya established at the Trimohini Sangam site of Kursela|website=Public App|language=en|access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/bihar/katihar/story-ganga-kosi-sangam-site-at-sitaram-yagya-today-2842684.amp.html|title= Sitaram Yagya at Ganga-Kosi Sangam site|website=live hindustan|language=en|access-date=2022-01-22}}</ref>

=== Mahatma Gandhi's Samadhi Sthal ===
After the death of [[Mahatma Gandhi]], his ashes were immersed on 12 February 1948 at Trimohini Sangam beach, along with 12 other Sangam beaches of the country.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}} An agricultural fair used to be held at the beach every year to commemorate it.

=== Proposed tourism development plan ===
In January 2021, a development plan was proposed to build a cafeteria, pathway, parking lot, entrance, and water supply in the area. The estimated time to completion was two years.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bhaskar.com/amp/local/bihar/bhagalpur/katihar/news/trimuhani-ganga-kosi-sangam-beach-to-be-built-as-a-tourist-destination-128073541.html|title=पर्यटन स्थल के रूप में बनेगा त्रिमुहानी गंगा-कोसी संगम तट|trans-title=Trimuhani Ganga-Kosi Sangam beach to be built as a tourist destination|newspaper=[[Dainik Bhaskar ]]|language=hi|access-date=2022-01-22}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord missing|Bihar}}

[[Category:Rivers of Bihar]]
[[Category:Katihar district]]

Asalu

2026-03-03T09:18:09Z

Tumita7029: new a article - done

{{Short description|2023 Indian Telugu-language film by Uday–Suresh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Asalu poster.jpg
| caption = Release poster
| director = Uday Bandari{{ndash}}Suresh Khambhampati
| writer = [[Ravi Babu]]
| screenplay =
| story =
| producer = Ravi Babu
| starring = {{plain list|
* [[Shamna Kasim|Poorna]]
* Ravi Babu
}}
| cinematography = Charan Madhavaneni
| editing = Satyanarayana Balla
| music = S S Rajesh
| studio = [[Flying Frogs]]
| distributor = [[ETV Win]]
| released = {{Film date|2023|4|13|df=y}}
| runtime = 102 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Asalu''''' ({{Translation|Original}}) is a 2023 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[Crime film|crime]] [[Thriller film|thriller]] film directed by Uday Bandari{{ndash}}Suresh Khambhampati ,and written and produced by [[Ravi Babu]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=ABN |date=2023-04-12 |title=Direct OTT Release: ఈ వారం రెండు సినిమాలు డైరెక్ట్‌గా ఓటీటీలోకి.. {{!}} 2 Movies Direct OTT Release In This Week KBK |url=https://www.chitrajyothy.com/2023/ott/2-movies-direct-ott-release-in-this-week-kbk-44052.html |access-date=2025-02-20 |website=Chitrajyothy Telugu News |language=te |archive-date=26 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426045829/https://www.chitrajyothy.com/2023/ott/2-movies-direct-ott-release-in-this-week-kbk-44052.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The film features [[Shamna Kasim|Poorna]] and Ravi Babu in important roles.

The film was released on 13 April 2023 on [[ETV Win]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=India |first=The Hans |date=2023-04-08 |title=Ravi Babu's Latest Crime Thriller Asalu Trailer Unveiled |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/ravi-babus-latest-crime-thriller-asalu-trailer-unveiled-791901 |access-date=2025-02-20 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en |archive-date=20 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240520024713/https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/ravi-babus-latest-crime-thriller-asalu-trailer-unveiled-791901 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Plot ==
In Asalu (2023), forensic pathology professor Chakravarthy is murdered during an online class, shocking his students and colleagues. CID Officer Ranjith Rao is assigned the investigation and quickly realizes that the case is more complex than it appears, involving multiple suspects with potential motives. Vandhana, a colleague of Chakravarthy, assists Ranjith in his inquiry as they uncover hidden relationships and conflicting narratives. As the investigation progresses, Ranjith must sift through evidence, interrogate suspects, and unravel the truth behind the professor’s death while navigating deception and unforeseen revelations. The film unfolds as a traditional whodunit, gradually revealing the motivations of each character linked to the case.<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |date=13 April 2023 |title=Asalu Movie Review |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/asalu/ottmoviereview/99485742.cms |access-date=20 February 2026 |website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Asalu Review: Ravi Babu, Poorna's whodunit has many loose ends |url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/asalu-review-ravi-babu-purnaas-whodunit-has-many-loose-ends/90dbcc98da301 |access-date=20 February 2026 |website=OTTPlay}}</ref>

==Cast==
* [[Shamna Kasim|Poorna]] as Vandana
* [[Ravi Babu]] as Ranjith Rao
* [[Surya (Telugu actor)|Surya Kumar Bhagawan Das]] as Chakravarthy
* [[Satya Krishnan]]
* Pranavi Manukonda
* Meena Vasu
* Manava Koteswara Rao
* Delhi Rajeswari

== Release and reception ==
''Asalu'' was released on 13 April 2023 on [[ETV Win]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ravi Babu: రవిబాబు 'అసలు' మూవీ.. నేరుగా ఓటీటీలో రిలీజ్! |url=https://telugu.samayam.com/telugu-movies/cinema-news/ravi-babu-starrer-asalu-movie-ready-for-streaming-in-ott-platform/articleshow/99441747.cms |access-date=2025-02-20 |website=Samayam Telugu |language=te}}</ref>

''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the film 2.5 out of 5.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Asalu Review : Asalu |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/asalu/ottmoviereview/99485742.cms |access-date=2025-02-20 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519131249/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/asalu/ottmoviereview/99485742.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Srivathsan Nadadhur of ''[[OTTPlay]]'' gave a rating of 2 out of 5 and wrote that "the investigative thriller is too generic and does little to grab your attention with the story or the storytelling".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asalu review: Ravi Babu, Purnaa's whodunit has many loose ends |url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/asalu-review-ravi-babu-purnaas-whodunit-has-many-loose-ends/90dbcc98da301 |access-date=2025-02-20 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|id=27191945|title=Asalu}}
* [https://www.etvwin.com/original-movies/asalu ''Asalu''] on [[ETV Win]]
[[Category:2023 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2023 Indian films]]
[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:2023 direct-to-video films]]
[[Category:Indian direct-to-video films]]
[[Category:2023 crime thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian crime thriller films]]
[[Category:Films shot in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:ETV Win original films]]

Vana Pa

2026-02-26T07:47:52Z

Tumita7029: Added New Entry

{{Short description|Mizo pasaltha and counsellor}}
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = Pasalṭha
| name = Vana Pa
| honorific_suffix = Chawngthu
| image =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| birth_name = Thangzachhinga
| other_name =
| nickname =
| birth_date = {{circa|1800s}}
| birth_place =
| disappeared_date =
| disappeared_place =
| death_date = 1871 (disputed) 1891 (disputed)
| death_place = Zawlnghak (disputed) Tuithoh Kamah
| death_cause =
| placeofburial =
| placeofburial_label =
| placeofburial_coordinates = 
| allegiance = [[Lalsavunga]] [[Vanhnuailiana]]
| branch =
| branch_label = 
| serviceyears =
| serviceyears_label =
| rank =
| rank_label =
| servicenumber =
| unit =
| commands =
| known_for =
| battles =
| battles_label =
| awards =
| memorials =
| alma_mater =
| spouse = 
| children =
| relations =
| laterwork =
| signature =
| signature_size =
| signature_alt =
| website = 
| module =
}}
'''Pasalṭha Vana Pa''' born '''Thanzachhinga''' was a famed [[Mizo people|Mizo]] tactician and counsellor under Chief [[Lalsavunga]] and his son [[Vanhnuailiana]].

==Pasalṭha==
Vana Pa had a reputation for having a bad temper. For this reason, he was not married until he was around forty years old. After the birth of his son Vana, he would be referred to as Vana Pa (Father of Vana). Vana Pa was not successful at manual labour but was considered an expert in basket weaving and handicrafts, which was his primary occupation.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=94}}

After realizing his temper was holding him back, Vana Pa reformed himself to the village's surprise. He was relentlessly tested on his reformation by being teased, having his work spoilt or breaking his necklace. However, Vana Pa succeeded in managing his temper and became a sporting villager in his community. He lived in Lalsavunga's village of Hlimen. Lalsavunga's policy of offering the right to select jhum plots via the purchasing of guns encouraged Vana Pa to sell his handicrafts and purchase a musket for himself. Vana Pa was unique as a pasaltha for not committing any great acts but forming a reputation as being a tactful, skilled and wise counsellor. His resourcefulness in battle was highly effective among his contemporaries. {{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=94}} Despite earning the right of priority selection of the jhum plots, the system was unfair to the widows and the poor who would have little choice but to take the wild plots with poor harvests. Vana Pa as a result willingly took the worst plots to allow the poor and vulnerable to have better harvests.{{sfn|Jha|1997|p=76}}

Vana Pa also became reputed for his honor code of [[Tlawmngaihna|{{lang|lus|Tlâwmngaihna|cat=no}}]]. During hunting expeditions, Vanapa would preserve his camp with supplies for other hunters who might be in need of supplies. One incident recalls how Vana Pa and his party ran out of food and found some wild root. Vana Pa refused to eat any until the rest of the men had their fill. Another hunting expedition oversaw Vana Pa nearly lose his temper as a fat bison was scared by a young village hunter. However, Vana Pa collected himself and congratulated the party for each providing one game each for the village.{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=95}}

Under Vanhnuailiana, Vana Pa was considered a wise counsellor. In reward, Vanhnuailiana offered reward to Vana Pa by allowing him to become chief of a village. However Vana Pa refused instead preferring his son to be allowed to become a counsellor. Vana Pa was most closely associated with the Pasalṭha [[Chawngduma]].{{sfn|Lalbiakthanga|1978|p=95}} As a tactician Vana Pa was instrumental in the overthrowing of the Hmars and the repelling of attacks of the Thlanrawn from Burma.{{sfn|Goswami|1979|p=170}}
==Death==
Two dates are offered for Vana Pa's death. The earlier date discusses 1871 where Vana Pa in ill health died after exposure to heavy rainfall while travelling the mountain side during his stay in Khuanglam. He was buried in Zawlnghak (Rabung) village. The grave was excavated in 1992 without concrete evidence to support the claim. Another offered date for Vana Pa's death is 1891 in Zawlnghak.{{sfn|Hlima|2016}}

Vana Pa was succeeded by three sons, Vana, Lanchungnunga and Ralduha.{{sfn|Hlima|2016}}

==Legacy==
Vana Pa was one of the named battalions of the [[Mizo National Front uprising]] that formed the dagger brigade.{{sfn|Goswami|1979}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
==Sources==
*{{cite book |last1=Lalbiakthanga |title=The Mizos: A Study in Racial Personality |date=1978 |publisher=United Publishers |location=Guahati}}
*{{cite web |last1=Hlima |first1=L.T. |title=Pasaltha Vanapa |url=https://sakeibaknei.com/2016/08/pasaltha-vanapa/ |website=Sakeibaknei |access-date=4 April 2025}}
*{{cite book |last=Goswami |first=B.B |date=1979 |title=The Mizo Unrest: A Study of Politicisation of Culture |location=Jaipur |publisher=Aalekh Publishers}}

{{Lushai frontier}}

[[Category:Pasalṭha]]

Soolamangalam

2026-02-23T15:50:40Z

Tumita7029: Added Entry.

{{Short description|Neighbourhood in Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
|name = Soolamangalam
|native_name =
|native_name_lang = ta
|other_name =
|settlement_type = Neighbourhood
|image_skyline =
|image_alt =
|image_caption =
|nickname =
|image_map =
|map_alt =
|map_caption =
|pushpin_map = Tamil Nadu
|pushpin_label_position = left
|pushpin_map_alt =
|pushpin_map_caption = Soolamangalam, [[Thanjavur district]], Tamil Nadu
|coordinates = {{coord|10.8810|N|79.1958|E|display=inline,title}}
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
|subdivision_type1 = [[States and Territories of India|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[File: TamilNadu Logo.svg|23x16px|border|alt=Tamil Nadu]] [[Tamil Nadu]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Thanjavur district|Thanjavur]]
|established_title = <! -- Established -->
|government_type =
|government_body =
|unit_pref = Metric
|area_footnotes =
|area_rank =
|area_total_km2 =
|elevation_footnotes =
|elevation_m = 61.66
|elevation_ft =
|population_total = 1,859
|population_as_of = 2011
|population_rank =
|population_density_km2 =
|demographics_type1 = [[Language|Languages]]
|demographics1_title1 = [[Office|Official]]
|demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|demographics1_title2 = [[Speech]]
|demographics1_info2 = Tamil
|timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|utc_offset1 = +5:30
|postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
|postal_code = 614206
|area_code_type = Telephone code
|area_code =
|registration_plate =
|blank1_name_sec1 =
|blank1_info_sec1 =
|blank2_name_sec1 = Corporation
|blank2_info_sec1 =
|blank3_name_sec1 = [[District Magistrate|District Collector]]
|blank3_info_sec1 =
|blank4_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha|LS]]
|blank4_info_sec1 = [[Mayiladuthurai Lok Sabha constituency|Mayiladuthurai]]
|blank5_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha|VS]]
|blank5_info_sec1 = [[Papanasam Assembly constituency|Papanasam]]
|blank6_name_sec1 = [[Member of Parliament|MP]]
|blank6_info_sec1 =
|blank7_name_sec1 = [[Member of Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]
|blank7_info_sec1 =
|website =
|footnotes =
}}

'''Soolamangalam''' is a village in [[Thanjavur district]] of Tamil Nadu state in India.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZmfAAAAMAAJ&q=soolamangalam |title=Sangeet Natak |date=1969 |publisher=Sangeet Natak Akademi |language=en}}</ref>

== Location ==
Soolamangalam is located with the [[Geographic coordinate system|coordinates]] of ({{coord|10.8810|N|79.1958|E}}) with the PIN 614206 in Thanjavur district.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Soolamangalam Pin Code - 614206, All Post Office Areas PIN Codes, Search thanjavur Post Office Address |url=https://news.abplive.com/pincode/tamil-nadu/thanjavur/soolamangalam-pincode-614206.html#:~:text=Soolamangalam%2520comes%2520under%2520Thanjavur%2520district. |access-date=15 October 2024 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref>

{{Location map many | India Tamil Nadu
| width = 200
| float = middle
| label1 = Soolamangalam
| pos1 = left
| bg1 = lightgreen
| label1_width = 8
| mark1size = 6
| coordinates1 = {{coord|10.8810|N|79.1958|E}}
}}
== Population ==
As per the [[2011 census of India]], the total population of Soolamangalam village which is under [[Papanasam|Papanasam panchayat union]], was 1,859, out of which 934 persons weremales and 925 were females.<ref>[https://www.tnrd.tn.gov.in/databases/census_of_india_2011TN/pdf/15Thanjavur.pdf - Population of Soolamangalam]</ref>

== Politics ==
Soolamangalam village comes under [[Papanasam Assembly constituency]] and also it belongs to [[Mayiladuthurai Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref>[https://www.elections.tn.gov.in/PS26032019/dt21/English/AC172.pdf]</ref>
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
[https://www.tnrd.tn.gov.in/databases/census_of_india_2011TN/pdf/15Thanjavur.pdf - Population of Soolamangalam]

[[Category:Villages in Thanjavur district]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Thanjavur district]]

Veerabhadram Chowdary

2026-02-21T00:36:02Z

Tumita7029: Added A Stub.

{{Short description|Indian film director}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Veerabhadram Chowdary
| image =
| caption = Veerabhadram Chowdary in Cinivaram Programme (2021)
| spouse =
| children =
| occupation = Film director
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| yearsactive = 2011–present
}}
'''Veerabhadram Chowdary''' is an [[Indian film]] director known for his works in [[Telugu cinema]].
He made his directorial debut in 2011 through ''[[Aha Naa Pellanta (2011 film)|Aha Naa Pellanta]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thesouthfirst.com/entertainment/ott-is-a-boon-for-small-time-filmmakers-says-veerabhadram-chowdary/|title=Interview: OTT is a boon for low-budget directors, says Veerabhadram Chowdary|first=Y.|last=Sunita|date=25 February 2023|website=The South First | News, Politics, Sports, Entertainment & Live Updates}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/director-veerabhadram-chowdary-and-naresh-agastya-join-hands-for-a-crime-comedy/1e470d89558|title=Director Veerabhadram Chowdary and Naresh Agastya join hands for a crime comedy|website=OTTPlay}}</ref>

==Career==
He worked as an assistant director to [[E. V. V. Satyanarayana]] from ''[[Akkada Ammayi Ikkada Abbayi]]'' (1996) till ''[[Kanyadanam (1998 film)|Kanyadanam]]'' (1998) and for [[Teja (director)|Teja]] from ''[[Nuvvu Nenu]]'' (2001) till ''[[Nijam]]'' (2003). He also worked on ''[[Shankar Dada M.B.B.S.]]'' (2004), ''[[Danger (2005 film)|Danger]] '' (2005), and ''[[Happy (2006 film)|Happy]]'' (2006).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/veerabhadram.html|title=Veerabhadram interview - Telugu Cinema interview - Telugu film director|website=www.idlebrain.com}}</ref>

==Filmography ==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Film!! Notes
|-
| 2011 || ''[[Aha Naa Pellanta (2011 film)|Aha Naa Pellanta]]''||
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Poola Rangadu (2012 film)|Poola Rangadu]]''||
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Bhai (2013 film)|Bhai]]''||
|-
| 2016 || ''[[Chuttalabbai]]''|| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/010417/veerabhadram-chowdary-announces-his-next-a-thriller.html|title=Veerabhadram Chowdary announces his next, a thriller | Veerabhadram Chowdary announces his next, a thriller|first=Pranita|last=Jonnalagedda|date=1 April 2017|website=www.deccanchronicle.com}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chowdary, Veerabhadram}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Film people from West Godavari district]]
[[Category:Telugu film directors]]
[[Category:Film directors from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian people]]
[[Category:1975 births]]

Ashwani Kumar Sharma

2026-02-14T17:02:31Z

Tumita7029: adjusted structure further and cleaned formatting

'''Ashwani Kumar Sharma''' may refer to:

* [[Ashwani Kumar Sharma (Punjab politician)]]
* [[Ashwani Kumar Sharma (Jammu and Kashmir politician)]]

{{hndis|Sharma, Ashwani Kumar}}

Beniapukur

2026-02-11T13:33:56Z

Tumita7029:

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement



|name = Beniapukur 
|official_name =
|other_name =
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|settlement_type = Neighbourhood in Kolkata (Calcutta)
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|image_skyline = File:Nonapukur depot2.jpg
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|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{IND}}
|subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
|subdivision_type2 = City
|subdivision_name2 = [[Kolkata]]
|subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of West Bengal|District]]
|subdivision_name3 = [[Kolkata district|Kolkata]]
|subdivision_type4 = [[Kolkata Metro|Nearest Metro Station]]
|subdivision_name4 = [[Rabindra Sadan metro station|Rabindra Sadan]], [[Maidan metro station|Maidan]], [[Park Street metro station (Kolkata)|Park Street]], [[Sealdah metro station|Sealdah]] and [[Barun Sengupta metro station|Barun Sengupta]](under construction)
|subdivision_type5 =
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|seat_type = [[Municipal Corporation]]
|seat = [[Kolkata Municipal Corporation]]
|parts_type = [[Kolkata Municipal Corporation|KMC]] wards
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|parts = [[Ward No. 59, Kolkata Municipal Corporation|59]], [[Ward No. 60, Kolkata Municipal Corporation|60]], [[Ward No. 61, Kolkata Municipal Corporation|61]]
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|population_total = For population see linked KMC ward page
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|coordinates = {{coord|22.546333|N|88.369525|E|region:IN-{{IndAbbr|[[West Bengal]]}}|display=inline,title}}

|postal_code_type = PIN
|postal_code = 700014
|area_code = +91 33
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Kolkata Dakshin (Lok Sabha constituency)|Kolkata Dakshin]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Ballygunge (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Ballygunge]]
|website =
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{{OSM Location map 
| coord = {{coord|22.546333|88.369525}} 
| zoom = 15 
| label = Beniapukur
| mark-coord = {{coord|22.546333|88.369525}}
| label-pos = right
| float = left
}}

'''Beniapukur''' is a neighbourhood of [[Kolkata|Central Kolkata]] in [[Kolkata district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]]. It is adjacent to [[Park Circus]].

==Etymology==
The name of the neighbourhood is derived from two words, ''benia'' and ''pukur''. Influential ''[[Bania (caste)|benias]]'' or merchants, particularly ''gandhabaniks'', perfume and spice traders, settled here. They had dug a tank or ''pukur'' in the area.<ref name="Nair">Nair, P. Thankappan, ''The Growth and Development of Old Calcutta'', in ''Calcutta, the Living City'', Vol. I, edited by Sukanta Chaudhuri, pp. 18-19, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-563696-3}}.</ref>

==History==
The [[East India Company]] obtained from the [[Mughal emperors|Mughal emperor]] [[Farrukhsiyar]], in 1717, the right to rent from 38 villages surrounding their settlement. Of these 5 lay across the [[Hooghly River|Hooghly]] in what is now Howrah district. The remaining 33 villages were on the Calcutta side. After the fall of [[Siraj-ud-daulah]], the last independent [[Nawab of Bengal]], it purchased these villages in 1758 from [[Mir Jafar]] and reorganised them. These villages were known en-bloc as ''[[Dihi Panchannagram]]'' and Beniapukur was one of them.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1916_PART_A_DCHB_KOLKATA.pdf |title = District Census Handbook Kolkata, Census of India 2011, Series 20, Part XII A |work = Pages 6-10: The History | publisher= Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal| access-date = 20 February 2018}}</ref><ref>Cotton, H.E.A., ''Calcutta Old and New'', first published 1909/reprint 1980, pages 103-4 and 221, General Printers and Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref><ref name="Nair"/>

The Maratha Ditch was dug in 1742 and it was partly filled up in 1799 to create the Circular Road (now [[AJC Bose Road & APC Road|Acharya Jagaidsh Chandra Bose Road]]).<ref name="Nair"/>

Entally, Maniktala, Beliaghata, Ultadanga, Chitpur, Cossipore, parts of Beniapukur, Ballyganj, Watganj and Ekbalpur, and parts of Garden Reach and Tollygunj were added to [[Kolkata Municipal Corporation]] in 1888. Garden Reach was later taken out.<ref>Bagchi, Amiya Kumar, ''Wealth and Work in Calcutta, 1860-1921'', in ''Calcutta, the Living City'', Vol. I, p. 213.</ref>

In 1888, one of the 25 newly organized police section houses was located in Beniapukur, which is mentioned from the mid-eighteenth century, but the ''thana'' dates from the early 19th century.<ref name="Nair"/>

==Geography==
===Police district===
Beniapukur police station is part of the [[Divisions of Kolkata Police|South East division]] of [[Kolkata Police]]. It is located at 48A, Gorachand Road, Kolkata-700014.<ref name="police">{{cite web |url = http://kolkatapolice.gov.in/division.asp?ID=6&Division=N |title = Kolkata Police |work = South East Division |publisher = KP |access-date = 21 March 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180314034534/http://www.kolkatapolice.gov.in/division.asp?ID=6&Division=N |archive-date = 14 March 2018 |url-status = dead }}</ref>

[[Park Circus#Police district|Karaya Women police station]], has jurisdiction over all police districts under the jurisdiction of the South East Division, i.e. Topsia, Beniapukur, Ballygunge, Gariahat, Lake, Karaya, Rabindra Sarobar and Tiljala.<ref name="police"/>

==Education==
*Pratt Memorial School at Beniapukur is an English-medium girls only school. The school prepares its students for the [[Indian School Certificate]] (ISC) and the [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education]] (ICSE) examinations. The school was founded in 1876 in memory of Archdeacon John Henry Pratt primarily for the education of Anglo-Indian and Christian children. It is under the Diocese of Kolkata, the [[Church of North India]], and is an unaided minority institution.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://prattmemorialschool.com/|title = Pratt Memorial School | publisher= PMC| access-date = 5 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.icbse.com/schools/pratt-memorial-school/wb022 |title = Pratt Memorial School | publisher= ICBSE| access-date = 5 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://schoolconnects.in/pratt-memorial-school-beniapukur| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180407182710/https://schoolconnects.in/pratt-memorial-school-beniapukur| url-status = dead| archive-date = 7 April 2018| title = Pratt Memorial School, Beniapukur| publisher = School Connects| access-date = 5 April 2018}}</ref>
*[[The Frank Anthony Public School, Kolkata]] at Beniapukur is an English-medium co-educational school. The foundation stone of the school was laid by social activist [[Frank Anthony]] in 1965. The school prepares its students for the [[Indian School Certificate]] (ISC) and the [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education]] (ICSE) examinations.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://calcutta.faps.edu.in/tiki-index.php?page=Affiliations | title = The Frank Anthony Public School | publisher = FAPS | access-date = 5 April 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180407120028/http://calcutta.faps.edu.in/tiki-index.php?page=Affiliations | archive-date = 7 April 2018 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==Healthcare==
[[File:CALCUTTA NATIONAL MEDICAL COLLEGE 2008.jpg|thumb|Academic Section of [[Calcutta National Medical College|Calcutta National Medical College and Hospital]] (Chittaranjan Hospital)]]
*[[Calcutta National Medical College|Calcutta National Medical College and Hospital]] (Chittaranjan Hospital) at Beniapukur offers MBBS, Post graduate (MD, MS, Diploma) and Post Doctoral (DM, Mch) courses and is affiliated to the [[West Bengal University of Health Sciences]]. The Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons was set up in 1911 at Bow Bazar. The name was later changed to National Medical College of India and still later became Calcutta Medical College on land donated by [[Manindra Chandra Nandy|Maharaja Sir Manindra Chandra Nandy]] on Upper Circular Road. Another medical institute at Bow Bazar started as Calcutta Free Hospital in 1910, became Kings Hospital National Medical College (''Jatiya Vaidya Shastrapith'') and later changed its name to National Medical Institute (''Jatiya Aurvigyan Vidyalaya''). Both the medical institutions were merged in 1923, and became Calcutta Medical Institute. In 1925, [[Chittaranjan Das|Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das]], then Mayor, allotted a plot of land at Beniapukur for construction of a hospital of National Medical Institute. He also laid the foundation stone for the hospital and it was for some time named after him. In 1948, Calcutta National Medical Institute was formed with the amalgamation of National Medical Institute and Calcutta Medical Institute. The latter's property at Upper Circular Road was disposed of. Calcutta National Medical College and Hospital was totally moved to Beniapukur in 1964 and in 1967, it was taken over by the government.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://cnmckolkata.webs.com/ | title = Welcome to Calcutta National Medical College | publisher = Calcutta National Medical College and Hospital | access-date = 5 April 2018 | archive-date = 7 April 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180407073925/http://www.cnmckolkata.webs.com/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> Calcutta National Medical College and Hospital, a [[Healthcare in Kolkata|state government hospital]] has 1,470 beds.<ref name="bed">{{cite web| url = https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/other_files/Hospitals.pdf| title = Health and Family Welfare Department| work = Health Statistics -> Hospital| publisher = Government of West Bengal| access-date = 6 April 2018| archive-date = 14 September 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200914160418/https://www.wbhealth.gov.in/other_files/Hospitals.pdf| url-status = dead}}</ref>

==Transport==
===Road===
Many buses ply along [[AJC Bose Road & APC Road|Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Road]], [[Park Street, Kolkata|Park Street]], Suhrawardy Avenue, Darga Road and CIT Road in Beniapukur. Nonapukur tram depot-cum-workshop, where all manufacturing, modernisation and refurbishing of trams are done, is also situated here. [[Trams in Kolkata|Kolkata tram]] route no. 25 serves Beniapukur (via Nonapukur-[[AJC Bose Road & APC Road|AJC Bose Road]]-[[Park Street, Kolkata|Park Street]]-[[Park Circus]]).<ref>Google maps</ref>
===Train===
[[Park Circus railway station]] on [[Sealdah South Lines]] is the nearest railway station. [[Sealdah Station]], one of the major railway-terminals of the city, is also located nearby.

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage-inline|Kolkata/South}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Neighbourhoods in Kolkata}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Kolkata]]

Chola dynasty

2026-02-08T04:38:11Z

Tumita7029: fixes

{{Short description|Tamil dynasty of South India }}{{About|the Chola Dynasty|the medieval empire|Chola Empire}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
{{anchor|Chola kings}}
{{Infobox family
| name = Chola Dynasty
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = Chola Vamsam
| coat_of_arms = Chola Kings. Rajaraja I. 985-1014 CE Uncertain Tamilnadu mint (AV). Chola, conqueror of the Gangas in Tamil, seated tiger with two fish.jpg
| coat_of_arms_size = 250px
| coat_of_arms_caption = Imperial coin of Emperor [[Rajaraja I]] (985–1014). Uncertain Tamilnadu mint. Legend "Chola, conqueror of the Gangas" in Tamil, seated tiger with two fish.
| type = [[Empire|Imperial]], and [[Realm|Royal]], dynasty
| parent house =
| country = {{Collapsible list
| expand =
| framestyle =
| titlestyle =
| title =
| liststyle =
| hlist =
| bullets =
|[[Chola Empire]]
|[[Early Cholas|Chola Kingdom]]
|[[Anuradhapura Kingdom]]
|[[Kakatiya dynasty]]
|[[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Chodaganga Dynasty ]]
[[Chola invasion of Srivijaya#Aftermath|Kadaram]]
|[[Velanati Chodas|Kingdom of Velanati]]
|[[Nellore Chodas|Kingdom of Nellore]]
|Kingdom of Pottapi
|Kingdom of Nannuru
|Kingdom of Konidena
|[[Nidugal Cholas|Kingdom of Niduga]]
| Other smaller historical states
}}
| etymology = [[Chola Nadu]]
| founded = 
| founder = [[Ilamchetchenni]] (first documented)
| current_head =
| dissolution =
| final_ruler = [[Rajendra III]] (main branch)
| final_head = 
| motto =
| motto_lang =
| motto_trans =
| estate =
| titles = {{Collapsible list
| expand =
| framestyle =
| titlestyle =
| title =
| liststyle =
| hlist =
| bullets =
}}
| deposition = 1279
| cadet branches = *[[Telugu Chodas|Andhra Choda Dynasties]]
**[[Velanati Chodas|Chodas of Velanati]]
**[[Nellore Chodas|Chodas of Nellore]]
**[[Telugu Chodas#Renati Chodas|Chodas of Renati]]
**[[Telugu Chodas#Pottapi Chodas|Chodas of Pottapi]]
**[[Telugu Chodas#Konidena Chodas|Chodas of Konidena]]
**[[Telugu Chodas#Pottapi Nannuru|Chodas of Nannuru]]
*[[Nidugal Cholas|Cholas of Nidugal]]
*[[Chodaganga|Chodaganga Dynasty]]
}}

{{Chola history}}{{TNhistory}}
The '''Chola dynasty'''{{Efn|Also spelled '''Cōḷa dynasty'''<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MjwuAAAAMAAJ |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica: Micropædia |date=1993 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |isbn=978-0-85229-571-7 |pages=441 |language=en}}</ref>}} ({{IPA|ta|t͡ʃoːɻɐr|lang}}) was a [[Tamil dynasties|Tamil dynasty]] originating from [[Southern India]]. At its height, it ruled over the [[Chola Empire]], an expansive [[Thalassocracy|maritime]] empire. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign of [[Ashoka]] of the [[Maurya Empire]]. The Chola empire was at its peak and achieved imperialism under the [[Medieval Cholas]] in the mid-9th century CE. As one of the [[Three Crowned Kings]] of [[Tamilakam]], along with the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] and [[Pandya dynasty|Pandya]], the dynasty continued to govern over varying territories until the 13th century CE.

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the [[Kaveri River]]. They ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the latter half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. They unified peninsular India south of the [[Tungabhadra River]] and held the territory as one state for three centuries between 907 and 1215 CE.<ref name="sastri5">[[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''A History of South India'', p 157</ref> Under [[Rajaraja Chola I|Rajaraja I]] and his successors [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]], [[Rajadhiraja Chola|Rajadhiraja I]], [[Rajendra Chola II|Rajendra II]], [[Virarajendra Chola|Virarajendra]], and [[Kulothunga Chola I]], the empire became a military, economic and cultural powerhouse in [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]].{{sfn|Keay|2011|p=215}}

==Origins==
There is very little written evidence for the Cholas before the 7th century CE. The main sources of information about the early Cholas are [[Sangam literature|ancient Tamil literature]] of the [[Sangam period]] ({{circa}} 600 BCE),{{efn|The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between the evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by ancient Greek and Romans such as ''Periplus''. [[K.A. Nilakanta Sastri]], ''A History of Cyril and Lulu Charles'', p 106. It is likely to extend not longer than five or six generations.{{sfnp|Sastri|1984|p=3|ps=}}}} oral traditions, religious texts, temple and [[Copper-plate grant|copperplate inscriptions]]. Later [[medieval Cholas]] also claimed a long and ancient lineage. The Cholas are mentioned in [[Ashokan Edicts in Delhi|Ashokan Edicts]] (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE) as one of the Mauryan empire's neighbours to the South ([[Ashoka Major Rock Edict No.13]]),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html|title=KING ASHOKA: His Edicts and His Times|website=www.cs.colostate.edu|access-date=2018-10-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Red Lilies and Frightened Birds|author=Ma. Ile Taṅkappā, Ā. Irā Vēṅkaṭācalapati|publisher=Penguin Books India, 2011|page=xii}}</ref> who, though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.{{efn|The Ashokan inscriptions speak of the Cholas in the plural, implying that, in his time, there were more than one Chola.{{sfnp|Sastri|1984|p=20|ps=}}}} There are also brief references to the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce in the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (''Periplus Maris Erythraei''), and in the slightly later work of the geographer [[Ptolemy]]. ''[[Mahāvaṃsa]]'', a [[Buddhist]] text written down during the 5th century CE, recounts several conflicts between the inhabitants of [[Sri Lanka]] and Cholas in the 1st century BCE.<ref>John Bowman,''Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture'', p.401</ref>

A commonly held view is that ''Chola'' is, like ''[[Chera dynasty|Chera]]'' and ''[[Pandyan dynasty|Pandya]]'', the name of the ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity. The annotator [[Parimelazhagar]] said: "The charity of people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever generous despite their reduced means". Other names in common use for the Cholas are ''Choda'',{{sfnp|Prasad|1988|p=120|ps=}} ''Killi'' (கிள்ளி), ''Valavan'' (வளவன்), ''Sembiyan'' (செம்பியன்) and ''Cenni''.<ref>{{cite book|title=History and Culture of the Tamils: From Prehistoric Times to the President's Rule|first=Raju|last=Kalidos|publisher=Vijay Publications, 1976|page=43}}</ref> ''Killi'' perhaps comes from the Tamil ''kil'' (கிள்) meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea of a digger or a worker of the land. This word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like [[Nedunkilli]], [[Nalankilli]] and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. ''Valavan'' is most probably connected with "''valam''" (வளம்) – fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country. ''Sembiyan'' is generally taken to mean a descendant of [[Shibi (king)|Shibi]] – a legendary hero whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends and forms the subject matter of the [[Sibi Jataka]] among the [[Jataka]] stories of [[Buddhism]].{{sfnp|Sastri|1984|pp=19-20|ps=}} In Tamil lexicon ''Chola'' means ''Soazhi'' or ''Saei'' denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of ''Pandya'' or the old country.<ref>Archaeological News
A. L. Frothingham, Jr. ''The American Journal of Archaeology and the History of the Fine Arts'', Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1998), pp. 69–125</ref> ''Cenni'' in Tamil means ''Head''.

==History==
The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the [[Early Cholas]] of the [[Sangam literature|Sangam]] literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval Cholas under [[Vijayalaya Chola|Vijayalaya]] (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the [[Later Chola]] dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.{{efn|The direct line of Cholas of the Vijayalaya dynasty came to an end with the death of Virarajendra Chola and the assassination of his son [[Athirajendra Chola]]. Kulothunga Chola I, ascended the throne in 1070.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|pp=170-172|ps=}}}}

===Early Cholas===
{{Main|Early Cholas}}

{{Further|Legendary early Chola kings}}

The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the late centuries before the common era and the early centuries of the common era.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zvelebil|first=Kamil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ&q=info:3mNeiVqlnhoJ:scholar.google.com/&pg=PR9|title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India|date=1973|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-03591-1|language=en}}</ref> The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. It records the names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|pp=19-20, 104-106|ps=}}

The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings.{{sfnp|Tripathi|1967|p=457|ps=}} These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage [[Agastya]], whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I}}</ref> Two names are prominent among those Chola kings who feature in Sangam literature: [[Karikala Chola|Karikala]] and [[Kocengannan]].{{sfnp|Majumdar|1987|p=137|ps=}}{{sfnp|Kulke|Rothermund|2001|p=104|ps=}}{{sfnp|Tripathi|1967|p=458|ps=}}{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|p=116|ps=}} There are no sure means of settling the order of succession, of fixing their relations with one another and with many other princelings of around the same period.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|pp=105-106|ps=}}{{efn|The only evidence for the approximate period of these early kings is the Sangam literature and synchronisms with the [[history of Sri Lanka]] as given in the ''[[Mahavamsa]]''. [[Gajabahu I]] who is said to be the contemporary of the Chera [[Senguttuvan]], belonged to the 2nd century and this means the poems mentioning Senguttuvan and his contemporaries date to that period.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}}} [[Urayur]] (now a part of [[Thiruchirapalli]]) was their oldest capital.{{sfnp|Tripathi|1967|p=457|ps=}} [[Kaveripattinam]] also served as an early Chola capital.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|p=113|ps=}} The ''[[Mahavamsa]]'' mentions that a Chola prince known as [[Ellalan]], invaded the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and conquered it in 235 BCE with the help of a [[Mysore]] army.{{sfnp|Tripathi|1967|p=457|ps=}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yhXRDSgBuL0C|title=History of the Kannada Language|last=R|first=Narasimhacharya|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=1942|isbn=978-81-206-0559-6|pages=48}}</ref>

===Interregnum===
[[File:South India in BC 300.jpg|left|thumb|South India in BC 300, showing the Chera, Pandya and Chola countries]]
There is not much information about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas and [[Pallava dynasty|Pallavas]] dominated the Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, the [[Kalabhras]] invaded Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled during that time.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|pp=130, 135, 137|ps=}}{{sfnp|Majumdar|1987|p=139|ps=}}{{sfnp|Thapar|1995|p=268|ps=}} They were displaced by the Pallava dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty in the 6th century.{{sfnp|Kulke|Rothermund|2001|p=104|ps=}}{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|p=135|ps=}} Little is known of the fate of the Cholas in Tamil land during the succeeding three centuries. The Cholas disappeared from the Tamil land almost completely in this debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of the fifth century CE in Rayalaseema—the [[Telugu Chodas|Telugu-Cholas]], whose kingdom is mentioned by Yuan Chwang in the seventh-century CE.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=K.A. |first=Nilakanta Sastri |title=A History of South India from Prehistoric to the Fall of Vijayanagar |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1955 |pages=Page=139–140 |language=English}}</ref> Due to Kalabhra invasion and the growing power of Pallavas, [[Cholas]] migrated from their native land [[Uraiyur]] to Telugu country and ruled from there as chieftains of Pallavas at least since 540 CE. Several [[Telugu Chodas|Telugu Chola]] families like Renati Cholas, Pottapi Cholas, [[Nellore Chodas|Nellore Cholas]], [[Velanati Chodas|Velanati Cholas]], Nannuru Cholas, Kondidela Cholas existed and claimed descent from ancient Tamil king [[Karikala Chola]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hultzsch |first=Eugene |date=1911–1912 |title=Epigraphia Indica |journal=Epigraphia Indica |volume=11 |pages=339 |via=Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India}}</ref> The Cholas had to wait for another three centuries until the accession of [[Vijayalaya Chola]] belonging to Pottapi Chola family in the second quarter of the ninth century to re-establish their dynasty as independent rulers by overthrowing Pallavas and Pandyas.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=K.A. |first=Nilakanta Sastri |title=A History of South India from Prehistoric to the Fall of Vijayanagar |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1955 |pages=Page=139–140 |language=English}}</ref>

[[Epigraphy]] and literature provide a few glimpses of the transformations that came over this line of kings during this long interval. It is certain that when the power of the Cholas fell to its lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them,{{sfnp|Tripathi|1967|p=458|ps=}}{{sfnp|Sastri|1984|p=102|ps=}} this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals.{{sfnp|Kulke|Rothermund|2001|p=115|ps=}}{{efn|Pandya [[Kadungon]] and Pallava [[Simhavishnu]] overthrew the Kalabhras. Acchchutakalaba is likely the last Kalabhra king.{{sfnp|Sastri|1984|p=102|ps=}}}} Despite their reduced powers, the Pandyas and Pallavas accepted Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out of regard for their reputation.{{efn|''[[Periyapuranam]]'', a [[Shaivism|Shaivite]] religious work of the 12th century tells us of the Pandya king Nindrasirnedumaran, who had for his queen a Chola princess.{{sfnp|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|p=95|ps=}}}} Numerous Pallava inscriptions of this period mention their having fought rulers of the Chola country.{{efn|Copperplate grants of the Pallava Buddhavarman (late 4th century) mention that the king as the "underwater fire that destroyed the ocean of the Chola army".{{sfnp|Sastri|1984|pp=104-105|ps=}} Simhavishnu (575–600) is also stated to have seized the Chola country. Mahendravarman I was called the "crown of the Chola country" in his inscriptions.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}}}

[[File:Chola coin with legend "Uttama" (south India).jpg|thumb|An early silver coin of [[Uththama Chola|Uttama Chola]] found in Sri Lanka showing the tiger emblem of the Chola and in Nagari script.{{sfnp|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|p=31|ps=}}]]

=== Imperial Cholas ===
{{Main| Medieval Cholas}}
{{See also| List of Chola Temples in Bangalore}}

The [[Chola Empire]] was founded in 848 CE by [[Vijayalaya Chola|Vijayalaya]], a descendant of [[Early Cholas]].{{sfnp|Sen|1999|pp=477-478|ps=}}

[[File:Raraja detail.png|thumb|left|Detail of the statue of [[Rajaraja Chola|Rajaraja I]] at [[Brihadisvara Temple]] at [[Thanjavur]].]]

The early Chola kings expanded their territory and influence. During the early 10th century, the second Chola King, [[Aditya I]], defeated the Pallava dynasty and Pandyan dynasty capturing [[Tondaimandalam]] and [[Kongu Nadu]]. Later Aditya's son [[Parantaka I]] defeated the [[Rashtrakuta dynasty]] in the battle of Vallala and also defeated the Pandyas.{{sfnp|Sen|1999|pp=373|ps=}}

[[Rajaraja I]] and [[Rajendra I]] would expand the dynasty to its imperial state in the 11th century, creating an influential empire in the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The [[Brihadeeswarar Temple]] was also built in this era.<ref>{{cite web|title=Endowments to the Temple|url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_cholabt_endowments.asp|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India}}</ref> The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the 11th century.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|p=157|ps=}}

Rajendra I conquered [[Odisha]] and [[Pala empire|Pala dynasty]] of [[Bengal]] and reached the Ganges river in north India.<ref>''The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India'' by Balaji Sadasivan p.133</ref> Rajendra Chola I built a new capital called [[Gangaikonda Cholapuram]] to celebrate his victories in northern India.<ref>''A Comprehensive History of Medieval India'', by Farooqui Salma Ahmed, Salma Ahmed Farooqui p.25</ref> Rajendra Chola I successfully invaded the [[Srivijaya]] kingdom in Southeast Asia which led to the decline of the empire there.<ref>''Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium'' by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67</ref><ref>''History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000-1800'' by Geoffrey C. Gunn p.43</ref>{{sfnp|Sen|2009|p=91|ps=}}<ref>''Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations'' by Tansen Sen p.226</ref> He also completed the conquest of a kingdom in [[Rajarata]] within Sri Lanka and sent three diplomatic missions to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077.{{sfnp|Dehejia|1990|p=xiv|ps=}}{{sfnp|Majumdar|1987|p=407|ps=}}

[[File:Gopuram Corner View of Thanjavur Brihadeeswara Temple..JPG|thumb|Gopuram Corner View of Thanjavur [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadisvara Temple]].]]
[[File:Top of Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur.jpg|thumb|The [[sikhara]] of [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadisvara Temple]], a cupolic dome (25 tons), is octagonal and rests on a single block of granite, weighing 80 tons.{{Citation needed|date=October 2022}}]]

[[File:Airavateswara Temple, Darasuram in Thanjavur District.jpg|thumb|[[Airavateswara temple]], [[Darasuram]] in [[Thanjavur District]].]]

The [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukya empire]] under [[Satyashraya]] and [[Someshvara I]] tried regularly to loose itself from Chola domination, primarily due to the Chola influence in the [[Vengi]] kingdom.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|p=158|ps=}} The Western Chalukyas mounted several unsuccessful attempts to engage the Chola emperors in war, and except for a brief occupation of the Vengi territories between 1118 and 1126, allied with Prince [[Vikramaditya VI]].<ref>''Ancient India: Collected Essays on the Literary and Political History of Southern India'' by Sakkottai Krishnaswami Aiyangar p.233</ref> Cholas usually managed to dominate over the Chalukyas in the western [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] by defeating them in war and levying tribute on them.<ref>ndia: The Most Dangerous Decades by Selig S. Harrison p.31</ref> With the occupation of Dharwar in North Central Karnataka by the [[Hoysalas]] under [[Vishnuvardhana]], where he based himself with his son Narasimha I in charge of the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudra around 1149, and with the [[Kalachuris of Kalyani|Kalachuris]] occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years from around 1150–1151, the Chalukya kingdom had already started to dissolve.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|p=184|ps=}}

The Cholas under [[Kulothunga Chola III]] collaborated to herald the dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding the Hoysalas under [[Veera Ballala II]], the son-in-law of the Chola monarch, and defeated the Western Chalukyas in a series of wars with [[Someshvara IV]] between 1185 and 1190. The last Chalukya king's territories did not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power though the Chalukyas existed only in name for the period 1135–1140. But the Cholas remained stable until 1215, and were then absorbed by the Pandyan empire and ceased to exist by 1279.{{sfnp|Mukund|2012|p=xlii|ps=}}

On the other hand, from 1150 CE to 1280 CE, the Pandya dynasty became the staunchest opponents of the Cholas and tried to win independence for their traditional territories. Thus, this period saw constant warfare between the Cholas and the Pandyas. Besides, the Cholas regularly fought with the [[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Eastern Gangas]] of [[Kalinganagar|Kalinga]]. Moreover, under Chola's protection, Vengi remained largely independent. Cholas also dominated the entire eastern coast with their feudatories, the Telugu Cholas of Velanati and Nellore among others. These feudatories always aided the Cholas in their successful campaigns against the Chalukyas and levied tribute on the Kannada kingdoms. Furthermore, the Cholas fought constantly with the Sinhala kings from the Rohana kingdom of Sri Lanka, who repeatedly attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Rajarata and unify the island. But until the later Chola king Kulottunga I, the Cholas had firm control over the area. In one such instance, the Chola king, [[Rajadhiraja Chola II]], was able to defeat the Sinhalese, aided by their traditional ally, a confederation of five Pandya princes, and kept the control of Rajarata under Chola rule. His successor, the last great Chola monarch [[Kulottunga Chola III]] reinforced the hold of the Chola territories by quelling further rebellions and disturbances in the Rajarata area of Sri Lanka and Madurai. He also defeated Hoysala generals who fought under Veera Ballala II at Karuvur. Furthermore, he also continued holding on to traditional territories in Tamil country, Eastern Gangavadi, Draksharama, Vengi, and Kalinga. However, after defeating Veera Ballala II, Kulottunga Chola III entered into a marital alliance with him through Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess, which improved Kulottunga Chola III's relationship with the Hoysalas.{{sfnp|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|pp=107-109|ps=}}{{efn|"After the second Pandya War, Kulottunga undertook a campaign to check the growth of Hoysala power in that quarter. He re-established Chola suzerainty over the Adigaimans of Tagadur, defeated a Chera ruler in battle and performed a ''vijayabhisheka'' in Karuvur (1193). His relations with the Hoysala Ballala II seems to have become friendly afterwards, for Ballala married a Chola princess".{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|p=178|ps=}}}}

===Overseas conquests===
{{See also|Chola invasion of Srivijaya|Chola rule in Sri Lanka}}
[[File:Chola Empire Map (1).svg|left|thumb|420x420px|Map of the [[Chola Empire]] at its greatest extent under Emperor [[Rajendra Chola I|Rajendra I]]. {{circa|1030}}]]
During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the Chola armies invaded Sri Lanka, the Maldives and parts of Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia and Southern Thailand<ref>Between 2 Oceans (2nd Edn): A Military History of Singapore from 1275 to 1971 by Malcolm H. Murfett, [[John Miksic]], Brian Farell, Chiang Ming Shun p.16</ref> of the Srivijaya Empire in the 11th century. Rajaraja Chola I launched several naval campaigns that resulted in the capture of Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar Coast.<ref>''South India'' by Stuart Butler, Jealous p.38</ref> In 1025, Rajendra Chola launched naval raids on the ports of Srivijaya and against the Burmese kingdom of Pegu.<ref>''Asia: A Concise History'' by Arthur Cotterell p.190</ref> A Chola inscription states that he captured or plundered 14 places, which have been identified with Palembang, [[Tambralinga]] and Kedah among others.{{sfnp|Paine|2014|p=281|ps=}} A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola, who conquered [[Kedah]] in Malaysia of Srivijaya in the late 11th century.<ref>''History of Asia'' by B.V. Rao p.211</ref> Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder the wealth of Srivijaya. However, this invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms. Although the invasion was not followed by direct Cholan occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm traditionally controlled by Malay traders and the Tamil guilds' influence increased on the Malay Peninsula and the north coast of Sumatra.

===Later Cholas (1070–1279)===
{{Main| Later Cholas }}

[[File:Kulothunga territories a.png|thumb|Later Chola Kingdom under Kulothunga Chola I (1070–1120 C.E)]]

Marital and political alliances between the [[Eastern Chalukyas]] began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya{{sfnp|Majumdar|1987|p=405|ps=}} and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince [[Rajaraja Narendra]].{{sfnp|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|p=120|ps=}} Virarajendra Chola's son, [[Athirajendra Chola]], was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Ammanga Devi and Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne. Thus began the Later Chola dynasty.{{sfnp|Majumdar|1987|p=408|ps=}}

The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga Chola I, his son [[Vikrama Chola]], other successors like Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II, and Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, [[Eelam|Ilam]], and [[Kataha]]. However, the rule of the later Cholas between 1218, starting with [[Rajaraja Chola II]], to the last emperor [[Rajendra Chola III]] was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850 and 1215. Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern [[Mysore]] districts) to the [[Hoysala Empire]]. However, these were only temporary setbacks, because immediately following the accession of King Vikrama Chola, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in recovering the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Chola empire, though not as strong as between 850 and 1150, was still largely territorially intact under Rajaraja Chola II (1146–1175) a fact attested by the construction and completion of the third grand Chola architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped [[Airavatesvara Temple]] at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam. Chola administration and territorial integrity until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up to 1215, but during his rule itself, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16.{{sfnp|Tripathi|1967|p=471|ps=}} Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/CholasI |title=Cholas I}}</ref>

In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India, a lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile Pandyan territories prompted several claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the ''[[Mahavamsa]]'' as well as the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.<ref>''South Indian Inscriptions'', Vol. 12</ref>{{sfnp|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|pp=128-129|ps=}}

===Decline===
The setbacks suffered during the final years of Kulothunga I left a somewhat diminished empire. Kulothunga's successors [[Vikrama Chola]] (1118–1135 CE) and [[Kulothunga Chola II]] (1133–1150 CE) were capable and compassionate leaders who took care not to involve their subjects in unnecessary and unwinnable wars.<ref>{{cite book |author=Rajeshwari Ghose |title=The Tyagaraja Cult in Tamilnadu: A Study in Conflict and Accommodation |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited |year=1996 |pages=323–324}}</ref> Rajaraja II (1146–1173 CE), Rajadhiraja II (1166–1178 CE) and [[Kulothunga Chola III]] (1178–1218 CE) took active roles in the politics of the emerging revival of the [[Pandyas]].{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|pp=195-196|ps=}} Meanwhile, the Chola succession was getting murkier and murkier with disputes and intrigues during the periods of Rajadhiraja II and Kulothunga III.{{sfnp|Tripathi|1967|p=472|ps=}}

The Cholas under [[Kulothunga Chola III]] collaborated to herald the dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas under [[Veera Ballala II]], the son-in-law of the Chola monarch and defeated the Western Chalukyas in a series of wars with [[Someshvara IV]] between 1185 and 1190. The last Chalukya king's territories did not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135–1140. But the Cholas remained stable until 1215, were absorbed by the Pandyan empire and ceased to exist by 1279.{{sfnp|Mukund|2012|p=xlii|ps=}}

His successor, the last great Chola monarch [[Kulottunga Chola III]] reinforced the hold of the Chola territories by quelling further rebellions and disturbances in the Rajarata area of Sri Lanka and Madurai. He also defeated Hoysala generals who fought under Veera Ballala II at Karuvur. Eastern Gangavadi, Draksharama, Vengi, and Kalinga. However, after defeating Veera Ballala II, Kulottunga Chola III entered into a marital alliance with him through Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess, which improved the Kulottunga Chola III's relationship with Hoysalas.{{sfnp|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|pp=107-109|ps=}}

==Administration and society==

===Chola territory===
{{Main|Chola Nadu}}
{{Continental Asia in 1100 CE|right}}
According to Tamil tradition, the Chola country comprised the region that includes the modern-day [[Tiruchirapalli District]], [[Tiruvarur District]], [[Nagapattinam District]], [[Ariyalur District]], [[Perambalur district]], [[Pudukkottai district]], [[Thanjavur District]] in [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karaikal District]]. The river Kaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape of generally flat country that gradually slopes towards the sea, unbroken by major hills or valleys. The river, which is also known as the ''Ponni'' (''Golden'') river, had a special place in the culture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, known as ''[[Adiperukku]]'', in which the whole nation took part.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

Kaveripoompattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town.{{sfnp|Tripathi|1967|p=457|ps=}} Ptolemy knew of this, which he called Khaberis, and the other port town of [[Nagappattinam]] as the most important centres of Cholas.<ref>''Proceedings, American Philosophical Society'' (1978), vol. 122, No. 6, p 414</ref> These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce and attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism.{{efn|The Buddhist work ''Milinda Panha'' dated to the early Christian era, mentions Kolapttna among the best-known seaports on the Chola coast.{{sfnp|Sastri|1984|p=23|ps=}}}} Roman ships found their way into these ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found near the Kaveri delta.{{sfnp|Nagasamy|1981|ps=}}{{page needed|date=April 2015}}{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|p=107|ps=}}

The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known as [[Kumbakonam]].{{sfnp|Tripathi|1967|p=457|ps=}} After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur lost its importance.{{sfnp|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|p=106|ps=}}

==Cultural contributions==
[[File:thanjavur temple.jpg|thumb|220px|Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple.]]

Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in [[art]], [[religion]], [[music]] and [[literature]].{{sfnp|Mitter|2001|p=2|ps=}} In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun at an earlier age under the Pallavas.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|p=418|ps=}} Monumental architecture in the form of majestic [[temples]] and [[sculpture]] in stone and [[bronze]] reached a finesse never before achieved in India.{{sfnp|Thapar|1995|p=403|ps= Quote: "It was, however, in bronze sculptures that the Chola craftsmen excelled, producing images rivalling the best anywhere."}}

The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts with the [[Mid-Imperial China|Chinese Empire]], enabled them to influence the local cultures.{{sfnp|Kulke|Rothermund|2001|p=159|ps=}} Examples of the [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Hindu cultural influence]] found today throughout Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas. For example, the great temple complex at [[Prambanan]] in Indonesia exhibits several similarities with South Indian architecture.{{sfnp|Sastri|1984|p=789|ps=}}{{sfnp|Kulke|Rothermund|2001|pp=159-160|ps=}}

According to the Malay chronicle ''Sejarah Melayu'', the rulers of the [[Malacca sultanate]] claimed to be descendants of the kings of the Chola empire.<ref>A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development by Kenneth R. Hall</ref>{{full citation needed|date=April 2015}} Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many princes there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such being [[Raja Chulan]], the Raja of [[Perak]].<ref>Aryatarangini, the Saga of the Indo-Aryans, by A. Kalyanaraman p.158</ref>{{full citation needed|date=April 2015}}<ref>India and Malaya Through the Ages: by S. Durai Raja Singam</ref>{{full citation needed|date=April 2015}}

===Literature===
{{Main| Chola literature}}
[[File:Cholacrop.jpg|thumb|Chola bronze from the [[Ulster Museum]]]]

The Imperial Chola era was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance of literature. Chola records cite many works, including the ''Rajarajesvara Natakam'', ''Viranukkaviyam'' and ''Kannivana Puranam''.{{sfnp|Sastri|1984|pp=663-664|ps=}}

The revival of [[Hinduism]] from its nadir during the [[Kalabhra dynasty|Kalabhras]] spurred the construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Shaiva and Vaishnava devotional literature.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|p=333|ps=}} Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|p=339|ps=}} ''[[Jivaka-chintamani]]'' by [[Tirutakkatevar]] and ''Sulamani'' by Tolamoli are among notable works by non-Hindu authors.{{sfnp|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|p=188|ps=}}{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|pp=339-340|ps=}}{{sfnp|Ismail|1988|p=1195|ps=}} The grammarian [[Buddhamitra]] wrote a text on Tamil grammar called ''Virasoliyam''.<ref>''Ancient India: Collected Essays on the Literary and Political History of southern India'' by Sakkottai Krishnaswami Aiyangar p.127</ref> Commentaries were written on the great text ''Tolkāppiyam'' which deals with grammar but which also mentions ethics of warfare.<ref>''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics'' by Roland Greene, Stephen Cushman, Clare Cavanagh, Jahan Ramazani, Paul F. Rouzer, Harris Feinsod, David Marno, Alexandra Slessarev p.1410</ref>{{sfnp|Singh|2008|p=27|ps=}}<ref>''Portraits of a Nation: History of Ancient India'', by Kamlesh Kapur p.617</ref> ''Periapuranam'' was another remarkable literary piece of this period. This work is in a sense a national epic of the Tamil people because it treats the lives of the saints who lived in all parts of Tamil Nadu and belonged to all classes of society, men and women, high and low, educated and uneducated.<ref name="Kulwant Rai Gupta p.288">''Concise Encyclopaedia Of India'' by Kulwant Rai Gupta, Amita Gupta p.288</ref>

[[Kamban]] flourished during the reign of [[Kulothunga Chola III|Kulothunga III]]. [[Jayamkondar|Jayamkondar's]] ''Kalingattuparani'', draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions.{{sfnp|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|p=116|ps=}}{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|pp=20, 340-341|ps=}} The Tamil poet [[Ottakoothar|Ottakuttan]] was a contemporary of [[Kulottunga I|Kulothunga I]] and served at the courts of three of Kulothunga's successors.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|pp=184, 340|ps=}}{{sfnp|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|p=20|ps=}}

''Nannul'' is a Chola era work on Tamil grammar. It discusses all five branches of grammar and, according to Berthold Spuler, is still relevant today and is one of the most distinguished normative grammars of literary Tamil.{{sfnp|Spuler|1975|p=194|ps=}}

The [[Telugu Chodas|Telugu Choda]] period was in particular significant for the development of Telugu literature under the patronage of the rulers. It was the age in which the great Telugu poets [[Tikkana]], [[Mulaghatika Ketana|Ketana]], Marana and Somana enriched the literature with their contributions. Tikkana Somayaji wrote Nirvachanottara Ramayanamu and Andhra Mahabharatamu. Abhinava Dandi Ketana wrote Dasakumaracharitramu, Vijnaneswaramu and Andhra Bhashabhushanamu. Marana wrote Markandeya Purana in Telugu. Somana wrote Basava Purana. Tikkana is one of the kavitrayam who translated Mahabharata into Telugu language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/south-asia/book/the-history-of-andhra-country/d/doc220044.html|title=The Telugu Cholas of Konidena (A.D. 1050-1300) [Part 1]|last=www.wisdomlib.org|date=2018-06-23|website=www.wisdomlib.org|access-date=2019-01-07}}</ref>

Of the devotional literature, the arrangement of the Shaivite canon into eleven books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of the 10th century.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|pp=342-343|ps=}}{{sfnp|Chopra|Ravindran|Subrahmanian|2003|p=115|ps=}} However, relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the Later Chola period, possibly because of the rulers' apparent animosity towards them.{{sfnp|Sastri|1984|p=681|ps=}}

===Religion===
[[File:NatarajaMET.JPG|thumb|left|220px|[[Bronze]] [[Chola]] Statue of ''[[Nataraja]]'' at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City]]

In general, Cholas were followers of [[Hinduism]]. They were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and [[Jainism]] as were the kings of the Pallava and Pandya dynasties. Kocengannan, an Early Chola, was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the [[Saivism|Shaivite]] canon as a Hindu saint.{{sfnp|Sastri|2002|p=116|ps=}}

Among the Tamil film and entertainment industry, there is a rising trend of terming the Cholas as non-Hindus. Noted Tamil film director, producer and screenwriter [[Vetrimaaran]] asserted at a function in 2022 that the Cholas were not Hindus. At the same event, another leading Tamil actor, film director, film producer, screenwriter, choreographer, playback singer, lyricist, television presenter, social activist and politician [[Kamal Haasan]], while supporting Vetrimaaran asserted Hindu religion did not exist during the Chola period.<ref>{{cite web |title=कमल हासन के "चोल काल में कोई हिंदू धर्म नहीं था" वाले बयान पर विवाद |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/kamal-haasans-remark-sparks-row-no-hindu-religion-during-chola-period-3409830 |website=ndtv.com |publisher=NDTV |access-date=15 October 2024}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
[[File:StandingHanumanCholaDynasty11thCentury.jpg|thumb|upright|Standing [[Hanuman]], Chola Dynasty, 11th century.]]

The Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors.{{sfnp|Das|1995|p=108|ps=}} The most important work of this genre is the popular ''[[Ponniyin Selvan]]'' (The son of ''Ponni''), a historical novel in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] written by [[Kalki Krishnamurthy]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Versatile writer and patriot |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/03/20/stories/13200178.htm |work=The Hindu |access-date=2008-05-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223230606/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/03/20/stories/13200178.htm |archive-date=23 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Written in five volumes, this narrates the story of Rajaraja Chola, dealing with the events leading up to the ascension of [[Uttama Chola]] to the Chola throne. Kalki had used the confusion in the succession to the Chola throne after the demise of Parantaka Chola II.{{sfnp|Das|1995|pp=108-109|ps=}} The book was serialised in the Tamil periodical ''[[Kalki (Tamil magazine)|Kalki]]'' during the mid-1950s.<ref>{{cite news |title=English translation of Ponniyin Selvan |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/lr/2003/01/05/stories/2003010500100100.htm |work=The Hindu |access-date=2008-05-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224000702/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/lr/2003/01/05/stories/2003010500100100.htm |archive-date=24 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The serialisation lasted for nearly five years and every week its publication was awaited with great interest.<ref>{{cite news |title=Lines that Speak |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/07/23/stories/13230766.htm |work=The Hindu |access-date=2008-05-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081223191223/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/07/23/stories/13230766.htm |archive-date=23 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Kalki's earlier historical romance, ''[[Parthiban Kanavu]]'', deals with the fortunes of the imaginary Chola prince Vikraman, who was supposed to have lived as a feudatory of the Pallava king [[Narasimhavarman I]] during the 7th century. The period of the story lies within the interregnum during which the Cholas were in decline before Vijayalaya Chola revived their fortunes.{{sfnp|Das|1995|p=109|ps=}} ''Parthiban Kanavu'' was also serialised in the ''Kalki'' weekly during the early 1950s.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

[[Sandilyan]], another popular Tamil novelist, wrote ''Kadal Pura'' in the 1960s. It was serialised in the Tamil weekly ''[[Kumudam]]''. ''Kadal Pura'' is set during the period when Kulothunga Chola I was in exile from the Vengi kingdom after he was denied the throne. It speculates the whereabouts of Kulothunga during this period. Sandilyan's earlier work, ''[[Yavana Rani]]'', written in the early 1960s, is based on the life of Karikala Chola.<ref>''Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature, vol. 1'', pp 631–632</ref> More recently, [[Balakumaran]] wrote the novel ''[[Udayar (novel)|Udaiyar]]'', which is based on the circumstances surrounding Rajaraja Chola's construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur.<ref>{{cite news|title=Book review of Udaiyar|url=http://www.hindu.com/br/2005/02/22/stories/2005022200101501.htm|work=The Hindu|access-date=2008-05-30|location=Chennai, India|date=2005-02-22|archive-date=1 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201013535/http://www.hindu.com/br/2005/02/22/stories/2005022200101501.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

There were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during the 1950s and in 1973 [[Sivaji Ganesan]] acted in a screen adaptation of a play titled ''[[Rajaraja Cholan]]''. The Cholas are featured in the [[History of the World (board game)|History of the World]] board game, produced by [[Avalon Hill]].{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

The Cholas were the subject of the 2010 Tamil-language film ''[[Aayirathil Oruvan (2010 film)|Aayirathil Oruvan]]'', the 2022 film ''[[Ponniyin Selvan: I]]'' and the 2023 film ''[[Ponniyin Selvan: II]]''. The 2022 and 2023 movies were based on the [[Ponniyin Selvan|novel of the same name]].

==See also==
*[[Chola Empire]]
*[[Telugu Cholas]] of Andhra
*[[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Chodagangas]] of Kalinga
*[[Nidugal Cholas]] of Karnataka
* [[History of Tamil Nadu]]
* [[Karungalakudi]]
* [[List of Tamil monarchs]]
* [[Tamil inscriptions in the Malay world|Tamil inscriptions in Malaysia]]
* [[Mutharaiyar dynasty]]

==References==
=== Notes ===
{{Notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

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{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=250 UNESCO World Heritage sites – Chola temples]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924034325/http://www.indianartcircle.com/arteducation/page_14_artofCholas.shtml Art of Cholas] (archived 24 September 2015)
* [http://lakdiva.org/coins/medievalindian/rajaraja_chola.html Chola coins of Sri Lanka]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052031/http://lakdiva.org/coins/medievalindian/rajaraja_chola.html |date=4 March 2016 }}.

{{India topics}}
{{Chola dynasty topics}}
{{Tribes and kingdoms of the Mahabharata}}
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}
{{empires}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Chola dynasty| ]]
[[Category:Chola Empire|*]]
[[Category:1279 disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1st-millennium BC establishments in India]]
[[Category:Coromandel Coast]]
[[Category:History of Thanjavur]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1279]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 4th century BC]]
[[Category:Tamil monarchs]]
[[Category:Solar dynasty]]
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]

Dipankar Chatterji

2026-02-02T07:49:58Z

Tumita7029:

{{Short description|Indian molecular biologist (born 1951)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{use Indian English|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Dipankar Chatterji
| image = Dipankarchatterji1.jpg
| imagesize =
| honorific-prefix = [[Padma Shri]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1951|04|20}}
| birth_place = [[West Bengal]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| restingplace =
| restingplacecoordinates =
| othername =
| occupation = Molecular biologist
| yearsactive = 1973–present
| known for = Research on [[bacterial transcription]] and [[bacterial stress response]]
| spouse =
| domesticpartner =
| children =
| parents =
| website = http://mbu.iisc.ac.in/~dclab/
| signature =
| awards = [[Padma Shri]] Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award Millennium Gold Medal Ranbaxy Research Award [[IISc]] Alumnus Award
}}

'''Dipankar Chatterji''' (born 20 April 1951) is an Indian molecular biologist and the Honorary Professor at Molecular Biophysics Unit, [[Indian Institute of Science]], a multidisciplinary research institute under the Department of Science and Technology of the [[Government of India]].<ref name="Dipankar Chatterji on JNCASR">{{cite web | url=http://www.jncasr.ac.in/profile/dipankar.html | title=Dipankar Chatterji on JNCASR | publisher=Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research | date=2016 | access-date=26 July 2016}}</ref> He is known for his pioneering research on [[bacterial transcription]].<ref name="Prof. Chatterji's Lab">{{cite web | url=http://mbu.iisc.ernet.in/~dclab/ | title=Prof. Chatterji's Lab | publisher=MBU - IISc | date=2016 | access-date=27 July 2016}}</ref> He is a recipient of [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize]] and is an elected fellow of all the major Indian science academies. The Government of India awarded him the fourth highest civilian honour of the [[Padma Shri]], in 2016, for his contributions to science and engineering.<ref name="Padma Awards">{{cite web | url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/PadmaAwards_25012016.pdf | title=Padma Awards | publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India | date=2016 | access-date=3 January 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803085913/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/PadmaAwards_25012016.pdf | archive-date=3 August 2017 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Biography ==
Chatterji was born on 20 April 1951<ref name="Fellow Profile">{{cite web | url=http://www.ias.ac.in/describe/fellow/Chatterji,_Prof._Dipankar | title=Fellow Profile | publisher=Indian Academy of Sciences | date=2016 | access-date=27 July 2016}}</ref> in the Indian state of [[West Bengal]] and did his graduate and master's degree at [[Jadavpur University]], Kolkata.<ref name="IISc genome expression expert gets Padma Shri">{{cite web | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/IISc-genome-expression-expert-gets-Padma-Shri/articleshow/50720829.cms | title=IISc genome expression expert gets Padma Shri | work=The Times of India| date=25 January 2016 | access-date=26 July 2016}}</ref> Subsequently, he completed his doctoral studies under the supervision of [[Sunil Kumar Podder|S. K. Podder]] and obtained a doctoral degree (PhD) in molecular biology from the [[Indian Institute of Science]] in 1973, after which he started his career as a faculty member at the School of Life Sciences of [[University of Hyderabad]] in 1978. This was followed by a stint at [[Albert Einstein College of Medicine]] and at [[Stony Brook University]], for his post-doctoral research, and Chatterji returned to India in 1999 to join the [[Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology]] (CCMB), Hyderabad as a research assistant before moving to the Molecular Biophysics Unit of IISc where he became the chair of the Biology and Genetics Unit, a post he held till 2005.<ref name="IISc genome expression expert gets Padma Shri" />

Chatterji, who is known to have done research on bacteria such as [[Escherichia coli]] and [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]] as well as the Omega factor with regard to the [[bacterial transcription]] mechanism and [[Gene expression|genome expression]],<ref name="Prof. Chatterji's Lab" /> is an adjunct professor of the [[Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata]] (IISER) and holds the Distinguished Research Professorship of the Institute of Life Sciences, Hyderabad.<ref name="IISc genome expression expert gets Padma Shri" /> His researches have been documented by way of over 150 articles published in peer-reviewed international journals<ref name="On Google Scholar">{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ZwC4W_sAAAAJ&hl=en | title=On Google Scholar | publisher=Google Scholar | date=2016 | access-date=27 July 2016}}</ref> and he mentors 31 research scholars in his laboratory.<ref name="Prof. Dipankar Chatterji awarded Padma Shri">{{cite web | url=http://bio.iisc.ac.in/?q=article/prof-dipankar-chatterji-awarded-padma-shri | title=Prof. Dipankar Chatterji awarded Padma Shri | publisher=Indian Institute of Science | date=2016 | access-date=27 July 2016 | archive-date=5 October 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005183940/http://bio.iisc.ac.in/?q=article/prof-dipankar-chatterji-awarded-padma-shri | url-status=dead }}</ref> Chatterji is a recipient of the IISc Alumnus Award and is the president of the Indian Institute of Science.<ref name="Prof. Dipankar Chatterji awarded Padma Shri" /> He has served as a visiting fellow at [[National Institute of Genetics]], Japan and [[Johns Hopkins University]]<ref name="IISc genome expression expert gets Padma Shri" /> and has served as a council member of the [[Indian National Science Academy]] from 2002 to 2004.<ref name="Indian Fellow">{{Cite web |url=http://insaindia.res.in/detail/N97-1212 |title=Indian Fellow |date=2016 |publisher=Indian National Science Academy |access-date=27 July 2016 |archive-date=4 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204113628/http://insaindia.res.in/detail/N97-1212 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Chatterji presided over the council of the Indian Academy of Sciences from 2013 to 2015 besides holding the position of its secretary from 2010 to 2012.<ref name="Fellow Profile" /> Chatterji has also been involved as a member in the advisory committee for 'International Conference on Genome Biology 2019 (ICGB-2019)' organized by the School of Biological Sciences, [[Madurai Kamaraj University]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.readkong.com/page/school-of-biological-sciences-madurai-kamaraj-university-6308630|title= School of Biological Sciences Madurai Kamaraj University Madurai - 625021, India|publisher= School of Biological Sciences Madurai Kamaraj University|access-date=1 May 2010}}</ref>

== Awards and honors ==
Chatterji, a J. C. Bose National Fellow and a Homi Bhabha Fellow,<ref name="Homi Bhabha Fellowship">{{cite web | url=http://homibhabhafellowships.com/HomiBhabhaFellow.aspx?id=45 | title=Homi Bhabha Fellowship | publisher=Homi Bhabha Fellowship Council | date=2016 | access-date=27 July 2016}}</ref> is also an elected Fellow of the [[Indian Academy of Sciences]] (1994), [[The World Academy of Sciences]], [[Indian National Science Academy]] (1997) and the [[National Academy of Sciences, India]] (1989).<ref name="NASI Fellow">{{cite web | url=http://www.nasi.org.in/fellows.asp?RsFilter=C | title=NASI Fellow | publisher=National Academy of Sciences, India | date=2016 | access-date=27 July 2016 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315111634/http://nasi.org.in/fellows.asp?RsFilter=C | archive-date=15 March 2016 }}</ref> He received the [[Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize]], the highest Indian award in the Science and Technology categories, from the [[Council of Scientific and Industrial Research]] in 1992.<ref name="Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize">{{cite web | url=http://ssbprize.gov.in/Content/Detail.aspx?AID=426 | title=Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize | publisher=Council of Scientific and Industrial Research | date=2016 | access-date=27 July 2016}}</ref> Chatterji is also a recipient of the [[Millennium Gold Medal]] (2000) and [[Ranbaxy Research Award]] (2001). The Government of India included him in the [[Indian honours system|Republic Day honors]] list, in 2016, for the civilian award of the [[Padma Shri]].<ref name="Padma Awards" />

== See also ==
* [[Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology]]
* [[Indian Institute of Science Education and Research]]
* [[Institute of Life Sciences]]
{{Portal|India|Biology}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jYb3RPOTv4E | title=Lecture by Prof. Dipankar Chatterji | publisher=Indian Academy of Sciences | work=[[YouTube]] video | date=27 December 2015 | access-date=27 July 2016}}
* {{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HHwVI3i1bWM | title=Prof. Dipankar Chatterji, Dept. of Molecular Biology Unit, IISc, Bengaluru | publisher=Prasenjit Chakraborty - JBNSTS | work=[[YouTube]] video | date=31 January 2016 | access-date=27 July 2016}}

{{2000s Padma Shri Award Recipients in Science & Engineering}}
{{SSBPST recipients in Biological Science}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chatterji, Dipankar}}
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in science & engineering]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award in Biological Science]]
[[Category:1951 births]]
[[Category:Indian molecular biologists]]
[[Category:Scientists from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Indian Institute of Science]]
[[Category:Jadavpur University alumni]]
[[Category:Indian Institute of Science alumni]]
[[Category:Albert Einstein College of Medicine alumni]]
[[Category:Stony Brook University alumni]]
[[Category:Johns Hopkins University faculty]]
[[Category:Fellows of The World Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy]]
[[Category:Fellows of the National Academy of Sciences, India]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian biologists]]

Avik Bhattacharya

2026-01-28T18:05:42Z

Tumita7029: new article - done

{{short description|Microwave remote sensing specialist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Avik Bhattacharya
| image = Dr.Avik Bhattacharya.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Kharagpur]], [[India]]
| citizenship = India
| website = http://www.mrslab.in/Avik/
| fields = [[Remote sensing|Radar remote sensing]]
| workplaces = [[IIT Bombay|Indian Institute of Technology Bombay]] [[Canada Centre for Mapping and Earth Observation|Canadian Centre for Remote Sensing]]
| alma_mater = [[IIT Kharagpur|Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]] [[Télécom Paris|Télécom ParisTech]], [[France]] [[INRIA]] [[Sophia Antipolis]], [[France]]
| doctoral_advisor = [[Henri Maître]] [[Josiane Zerubia]]
| known_for = [[Synthetic Aperture Radar|Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)]] [[Polarimetry|Radar Polarimetry]] Bio and Geophysical Parameter Estimation
}}

'''Avik Bhattacharya''' (born 1976) is a professor at the [[Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering, IIT Bombay|Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering]], [[Indian Institute of Technology Bombay]],<ref name="avik">{{cite web |title=Avik Bhattacharya |url=http://www.mrslab.in/Avik/ |website=www.mrslab.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Faculty {{!}} Center of Studies in Resources Engineering (CSRE), IIT Bombay |url=http://www.csre.iitb.ac.in/faculty.php |website=www.csre.iitb.ac.in}}</ref> Mumbai, India. He has been working in the field of [[Polarimetry|radar polarimetry]] theory and applications for more than a decade. His main focuses on the use of [[Synthetic-aperture radar|synthetic aperture radar]] (SAR) data for land use classification, change detection and qualitative and quantitative biophysical and geophysical information estimation.

==Education==
Bhattacharya received his M.Sc. degree in mathematics from [[Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]], [[West Bengal]], India, in 2000, and the Ph.D. degree in ''Indexing of Satellite Images Using Structural Information''<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Avik |title=Indexing of satellite images using structural information |date=14 December 2007 |pages=1–179 |url=https://pastel.hal.science/pastel-00006275 |publisher=Télécom ParisTech |journal=Thèses en ligne de ParisTech|language=en}}</ref> from jointly at the Department of Traitement et Interprétation des Images, [[Télécom Paris|Télécom Paris-Tech]], [[Paris]], [[France]] and [[INRIA]], ARIANA Project Group, [[Sophia Antipolis]], [[France]] in 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title=TélécomParisTech/TSI -- PhD Defense of Avik Bhattacharya |url=http://www.tsi.telecom-paristech.fr/pages/events/the-bhattacharya.html |website=www.tsi.telecom-paristech.fr |publisher=Télécom ParisTech/TSI}}</ref>

== Professional career==
Bhattacharya joined the [[Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering, IIT Bombay|Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering]], [[Indian Institute of Technology Bombay]], in 2011, as an assistant professor.<ref name="avik"/> He has been the principal and co-principal investigator of numerous projects sponsored by the [[Department of Science and Technology (India)|Department of Science and Technology]] (DST), [[Defence Research and Development Organisation|Defense Research and Development Organization]] (DRDO), [[Indian Space Research Organisation|Indian Space Research Organization]] (ISRO) and ''GEOGLAM-JECAM'' SAR Inter-Comparison Experiment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jecam.org/studysite/india-vijayawada/|title=JECAM SAR Inter-Comparison Experiment|last=|first=|date=6 June 2018|website=www.geoglam.org|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> He has authored several scientific publications in refereed international journals and conference proceedings

Bhattacharya was the [[editor-in-chief]] of the [[IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society|''IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters'']] (GRSL) (2019-2024).<ref>{{cite web |title=Editor-in-Chief of IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters (GRSL) 2019 {{!}} IIT Bombay |url=http://www.iitb.ac.in/en/award/editor-chief-ieee-geoscience-and-remote-sensing-letters-grsl-2019 |website=www.iitb.ac.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=GRSL Archives |url=http://www.grss-ieee.org/publication-category/grsl/ |website=GRSS {{!}} IEEE {{!}} Geoscience & Remote Sensing Society|date=14 February 2021 }}</ref><ref name="chapters">{{cite web |title=Chapters |url=http://www.grss-ieee.org/community/chapters/ |website=GRSS {{!}} IEEE {{!}} Geoscience & Remote Sensing Society}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/aboutJournal.jsp?punumber=8859|title=IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters (GRSL)|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> He is also the founding chairperson of the [[IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society]] (GRSS) Chapter, Bombay section, India.<ref name="chapters" />

Bhattacharya has also served as a visiting professor at the following institutes:
*LISTIC – [[Polytech'Savoie|Polytech Annecy-Chambéry]], [[Université Savoie-Mont Blanc]], France (2018)<ref>{{cite web |title=ATELIER RECHERCHE ''IMAGERIE RADAR ET CRYOSPHÈRE'' À L'ÉCOLE D'INGÉNIEURS |url=https://www.polytech.univ-smb.fr/en/single-news/observer-la-terre-par-teledetection-avec-le-laboratoire-listic.html |website=www.polytech.univ-smb.fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Séminaire Dr. Avik Bhattacharya – jeudi 23 mai 2019 – 13h30 – A126 |url=https://www.listic.univ-smb.fr/seminaire-dr-avik-bhattacharya-jeudi-23-mai-2019-13h30-a126/ |website=LISTIC |language=fr-FR |date=23 May 2019}}</ref>
*Instituto Gulich, [[National University of Córdoba]], Argentina Space Agency [[Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales|(CONAE)]], Argentina, (2018)<ref>{{cite web |title=Remote Sensing Spring School in Argentina – SAR for Environmental and Production Monitoring |url=https://accedacris.ulpgc.es/bitstream/10553/69296/1/Remote%20Sensing%20Spring%20School%20in%20Argentina%20SAR%20for%20Environmental%20and%20Production%20Monitoring.pdf |website=accedacris.ulpgc.es}}</ref>
*Visiting Scientist at the [[Canada Centre for Mapping and Earth Observation|Canadian Centre for Remote Sensing]] Ottawa, ON, Canada (2011)<ref name="ccrs">{{cite web |title=Radar Remote Sensing: Perspectives and Applications |url=https://www.tifr.res.in/~aset/talk122818.html |website=tifr.res.in |publisher=Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR)}}</ref>

== Major research contributions ==

*'''Stochastic Distance Based Y4O Polarimetric SAR Decomposition (SDY4O)'''
This is a radar polarimetric decomposition technique based on the field of statistical information theory. Here a method is devised to estimate the polarization (OA) orientation angle from the full polarimetric SAR data using the Hellinger distance.<ref name ="summary">{{cite journal |last1=Muhuri |first1=Arnab |last2=De |first2=Shaunak |last3=Manickam |first3=Surendar |last4=Dhingra |first4=Swinky |last5=Hariharan |first5=Siddharth |last6=Maity |first6=Abhishek |last7=Ratha |first7=Debanshu |last8=Bhattacharya |first8=Avik |title=Novel Scattering Power Decomposition Techniques for Full and Compact Polarimetric SAR Data |journal=National Symposium on Recent Advances in Remote Sensing and GIS with Special Emphasis on Mountain Ecosystems & Annual Conventions of Indian Society of Remote Sensing & Indian Society of Geomatics |date=December 7, 2016 |url=https://www.infona.pl/resource/bwmeta1.element.ID-a0689551-94b4-4c0b-b76c-7efb021b6a17 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bhattacharya|first1=Avik|last2=Muhuri|first2=Arnab|last3=De|first3=Shaunak|last4=Manickam|first4=Surendar|last5=Frery|first5=Alejandro C.|date=July 2015|title=Modifying the Yamaguchi Four-Component Decomposition Scattering Powers Using a Stochastic Distance|journal=IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing|volume=8|issue=7|pages=3497–3506|doi=10.1109/jstars.2015.2420683|issn=1939-1404|bibcode=2015IJSTA...8.3497B|arxiv=1504.01000|s2cid=6498352}}</ref>
*'''Adaptive General Four-Component Scattering Power Decomposition'''
In this method, one out of the two types of complex special unitary transformation matrices is identified and chosen
to transform a unitary rotated coherency matrix in real space based on the greatest value of degree of polarization (DOP) commonly termed as adaptive general four-component scattering power decomposition method (AG4U).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bhattacharya|first1=Avik|last2=Singh|first2=Gulab|last3=Manickam|first3=Surendar|last4=Yamaguchi|first4=Yoshio|date=October 2015|title=An Adaptive General Four-Component Scattering Power Decomposition With Unitary Transformation of Coherency Matrix (AG4U)|journal=IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters|volume=12|issue=10|pages=2110–2114|doi=10.1109/lgrs.2015.2451369|issn=1545-598X|bibcode=2015IGRSL..12.2110B|s2cid=27146811}}</ref><ref name ="summary"/>
*'''Sen4Rice – A cloud-based SAR processing pipeline with Google Earth Engine'''
Here a framework for monitoring and mapping of rice fields especially from rice cultivation regions of India using time-series of [[Sentinel-1]] data is developed using the [[Google Cloud Platform|Google Earth Engine's cloud]] computing platform.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mandal|first1=Dipankar|last2=Kumar|first2=Vineet|last3=Bhattacharya|first3=Avik|last4=Rao|first4=Yalamanchili Subrahmanyeswara|last5=Siqueira|first5=Paul|last6=Bera|first6=Soumen|date=December 2018|title=Sen4Rice: A Processing Chain for Differentiating Early and Late Transplanted Rice Using Time-Series Sentinel-1 SAR Data With Google Earth Engine|journal=IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters|volume=15|issue=12|pages=1947–1951|doi=10.1109/lgrs.2018.2865816|issn=1545-598X|bibcode=2018IGRSL..15.1947M|s2cid=56172393}}</ref>

===Other research===
Other significant research includes development of various methods like relative de-correlation Measure in Polarimetric SAR decomposition,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ratha|first1=D.|last2=Surendar|first2=M.|last3=Bhattacharya|first3=A.|date=2016-12-22|title=Improvement of PolSAR decomposition scattering powers using a relative decorrelation measure|journal=Remote Sensing Letters|volume=8|issue=4|pages=340–349|doi=10.1080/2150704x.2016.1271159|issn=2150-704X|arxiv=1704.06054|s2cid=119349808}}</ref> decomposition algorithm development consisting (S-Ω) and Modified (m-χ) and <ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bhattacharya|first1=A.|last2=De|first2=S.|last3=Muhuri|first3=A.|last4=Surendar|first4=M.|last5=Venkataraman|first5=G.|last6=Das|first6=A.K.|date=2015-09-25|title=A new compact polarimetric SAR decomposition technique|journal=Remote Sensing Letters|volume=6|issue=12|pages=914–923|doi=10.1080/2150704x.2015.1088669|bibcode=2015RSL.....6..914B |s2cid=124418207|issn=2150-704X}}</ref><ref name ="summary"/> crop monitoring using machine learning.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Subramani |first1=Balaram Vishnu |last2=Raman |first2=Spoorthy |title=Machine learning helps monitor crop growth {{!}} IIT Bombay |url=http://www.iitb.ac.in/en/research-highlight/machine-learning-helps-monitor-crop-growth |website=www.iitb.ac.in}}</ref> In past, Prof. Bhattacharya was also actively involved in study related to snow dynamics in Himalayas involving SAR data from satellites like [[Radarsat-2|RADARSAT-2]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Muhuri |first1=Arnab |last2=Manickam |first2=Surendar |last3=Bhattacharya |first3=Avik |title=Scattering Mechanism Based Snow Cover Mapping Using RADARSAT-2 C-Band Polarimetric SAR Data |journal=IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing |date=July 2017 |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=3213–3224 |doi=10.1109/JSTARS.2017.2681719 |bibcode=2017IJSTA..10.3213M |s2cid=23560686 |issn=1939-1404}}</ref>

== Honors and awards ==
* [[IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society]] Regional Leader Award (2024)<ref>{{cite news |title=IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society (GRSS)'s Post |url=https://www.linkedin.com/posts/ieee-grss_exciting-wrap-up-of-igarss-2024-it-was-activity-7218990791413616640-E2tF |work=www.linkedin.com |publisher=[[IEEE]] |date=16 July 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
* Australian Government [[Endeavour Awards|Endeavor Executive Fellowship]] Award (2016)<ref>{{cite web |title=2007–2018 Endeavour Scholarship and Fellowship Recipients |url=https://internationaleducation.gov.au/Scholarships/Scholarships-and-Fellowships/2019/Documents/2007-2018%20Endeavour%20Scholarship%20and%20Fellowship%20recipients.pdf |website=www.internationaleducation.gov.au |publisher=The Department of Education, Skills and Employment, Australian Government}}</ref>
* Young Faculty Award, [[Indian Institute of Technology Bombay]] (2011)<ref name="avik"/>
* Visiting Scientist Fellowship at the [[Canada Centre for Remote Sensing]] under ''Canadian National Laboratories'' (2008)<ref name="ccrs"/>

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Polarimetry]]
* [[Synthetic Aperture Radar]]
* [[Remote sensing]]
* [[Interferometric synthetic-aperture radar|Interferometric SAR]]
* [[Satellite crop monitoring]]
* [[Remote sensing (geology)]]
{{div col end}}

==Selected bibliography==
=== Articles ===
*{{cite journal |last1=Bhogapurapu|first1=Narayanarao |last2=Dey|first2=Subhadip|last3=Bhattacharya |first3=Avik |last4=Mandal |first4=Dipankar |last5=Lopez-Sanchez|first5=JM |last6=McNairn|first6=Heather |last7=Lopez-Martinez|first7=Carlos |last8=Rao |first8=Y.S. |title=Dual-polarimetric descriptors from Sentinel-1 GRD SAR data for crop growth assessment. |journal=ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing |date=August 2021 |volume=178 |pages=20–35|doi=10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2021.05.013 |bibcode=2021JPRS..178...20B |hdl=10045/115962 |s2cid=236594150 |hdl-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Vineet |last2=Mandal |first2=Dipankar |last3=Bhattacharya |first3=Avik |last4=Rao |first4=Y.S. |title=Crop characterization using an improved scattering power decomposition technique for compact polarimetric SAR data |journal=International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation |date=June 2020 |volume=88 |article-number=102052 |doi=10.1016/j.jag.2020.102052|bibcode=2020IJAEO..8802052K |ref=none|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Ratha |first1=Debanshu |last2=Pottier |first2=Eric |last3=Bhattacharya |first3=Avik |last4=Frery |first4=Alejandro C. |title=A PolSAR Scattering Power Factorization Framework and Novel Roll-Invariant Parameter-Based Unsupervised Classification Scheme Using a Geodesic Distance |journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing |date=May 2020 |volume=58 |issue=5 |pages=3509–3525 |doi=10.1109/TGRS.2019.2957514|bibcode=2020ITGRS..58.3509R |s2cid=195700216 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/12471650 |ref=none|arxiv=1906.11577 }}
*{{cite journal |last1=De |first1=Shaunak |last2=Bruzzone |first2=Lorenzo |last3=Bhattacharya |first3=Avik |last4=Bovolo |first4=Francesca |last5=Chaudhuri |first5=Subhasis |title=A Novel Technique Based on Deep Learning and a Synthetic Target Database for Classification of Urban Areas in PolSAR Data |journal=IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing |date=January 2018 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=154–170 |doi=10.1109/JSTARS.2017.2752282|bibcode=2018IJSTA..11..154D |s2cid=29626919 |ref=none}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Muhuri |first1=Arnab |last2=Manickam |first2=Surendar |last3=Bhattacharya |first3=Avik |title=Scattering Mechanism Based Snow Cover Mapping Using RADARSAT-2 C-Band Polarimetric SAR Data |journal=IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing |date=July 2017 |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=3213–3224 |doi=10.1109/JSTARS.2017.2681719|bibcode=2017IJSTA..10.3213M |s2cid=23560686 |ref=none}}

===Books===
*{{cite book |last1=Mandal |first1=Dipankar |last2=Bhattacharya |first2=Avik |last3=Rao |first3=Yalamanchili Subrahmanyeswara |title=Radar Remote Sensing for Crop Biophysical Parameter Estimation |date=2021 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-16-4423-8 |pages=XVIII, 236 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISBN9789811644238 |language=en}}

== References ==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Google Scholar id |RNtSqRgAAAAJ}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhattacharya, Avik}}
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Academic staff of IIT Bombay]]
[[Category:IIT Kharagpur alumni]]
[[Category:Télécom Paris alumni]]
[[Category:Remote sensing professionals]]
[[Category:People from Kharagpur]]

Tandoor

2026-01-27T11:38:20Z

Tumita7029: expand lead for clarity and added references

{{short description|Cylindrical clay oven used in South Asian cooking}}
{{For|the web series|Tandoor (web series)}}
{{Distinguish|Tabun oven}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
[[File:Luxury tandoor.png|upright=1.2|thumb|Modern ceramic wood-fired tandoors]]

A '''tandoor''' ({{IPAc-en|t|æ|n|ˈ|d|ʊər}} or {{IPAc-en|t|ɑ:|n|ˈ|d|ʊər}}) is a large vase-shaped [[oven]], usually made of [[clay]]. Since antiquity, tandoors have been used to bake unleavened [[flatbreads]], such as [[roti]] and traditional [[lavash]], as well as leavened ones, such as [[naan]] and [[tandoor bread]] or [[matnakash]]. It is also used to roast meat and vegetables. Tandoors are predominantly used in [[South Asia]], [[West Asia|Western Asia]], [[Central Asia]], and the [[Horn of Africa]].

The standard heating element of a tandoor is an internal [[charcoal]] or wood fire, which cooks food with direct heat and smoke. Tandoors can be fully above ground, or partially buried below ground, often reaching over a meter in height/depth. Temperatures in a tandoor can reach {{convert|480|C|F K|-1}}, and they are routinely kept lit for extended periods. Therefore, traditional tandoors are usually found in restaurant kitchens. Modern tandoors are often made of metal. Variations, such as tandoors with gas or electric heating elements, are more common for at-home use.

==Etymology==

The English word comes from the [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ''tandūr'', which came from [[Persian language|Persian]] {{transliteration|fa|tanūr}} ({{Wikt-lang|fa|تنور}}) and ultimately from the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word {{transliteration|akk|tinūru}} (𒋾𒂟), which consists of the parts {{transliteration|akk|tin}} {{gloss|mud}} and {{transliteration|akk|nuro}}/{{transliteration|akk|nura}} {{gloss|fire}} and is mentioned as early as in the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', cf. or [[Avestan]] {{transliteration|ae|tanûra}} and [[Middle Persian]] {{transliteration|pal|tanûr}}. In [[Sanskrit]], the tandoor was named {{transliteration|sa|kandu}}.<ref name="AutoO0-1"/><ref name="AutoO0-2"/>

== Operation ==

The first time a tandoor is used, the temperature must be gradually increased to condition the oven's interior. This step is crucial in ensuring the longevity of the tandoor. Conditioning can be done by starting a very small fire and slowly adding fuel to increase the amount of heat inside the tandoor gradually. Hairline cracks might form during conditioning; this is normal and will not interfere with the performance of the tandoor oven. When the oven cools off, the hairline cracks may barely be noticeable. They are essential in allowing the clay body of the tandoor to breathe (i.e. [[Thermal expansion|thermal expansion and contraction]]). The slower the temperature inside the tandoor increases during its first use, the fewer hairline cracks it will develop.<ref name="AutoO0-4"/>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180 caption="Modern tandoors">
File:Charcoal Fired S.Steel Body Tandoor, with ash tray & temp. meter.JPG|Charcoal-fired stainless-steel tandoor, with ash tray and thermometer
File:Coal fired Drum Tandoor.jpg|A coal-fired tandoor with a [[mild steel]] drum
File:200612 Yemen-212 (354275379).jpg|[[Yemen]]i modern ''tannour'' making ''[[Malawach|Mulawah]]'' flatbread
</gallery>

==Types==

===Arab world: tannour / tannur===

{{further|Clay oven#Tannour / Tannur|tabun oven}}

===West Asia and South Asia===

====Armenian tonir====

[[File:Ավանդական հացի պատրաստումը 01.jpg|thumb|Armenian ''tonir'' oven]]

In [[Armenia]], the oven is called ''tonir'' ({{Langx|hy|Թոնիր}}). In [[Ancient Armenia|ancient times]], it was worshipped by the Armenians as a symbol of the sun in the ground. Pagan Armenians made ''tonirs'' resembling the setting [[sun]] "going into the ground" (the [[Solar deity|Sun]] being the main deity). The underground ''tonir'', made of clay and stone, is one of the first tools in Armenian cuisine as an oven and thermal treatment tool. Therefore, the ''tonir'' used to be placed in the middle of most ancient Armenian households. Armenians are said to have invented underground ''tonirs''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Armenian Tonir BBQ: The Sun in the Ground |url=https://phoenixtour.org/blog/armenian-tonir-bbq/ |website=Phoenix Tour}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Armenian tonir as the symbol of the sun |url=https://www.arevogi.com/post/armenian-tonir-as-a-symbol-of-the-sun |website=Arevogi}}</ref>

Multiple [[Armenian cuisine|Armenian dishes]] are prepared using the ''tonir''. Most of the dishes prepared by using a ''tonir'' are either breads, meats, or vegetables. The most popular bread dishes to be cooked by using a ''tonir'' are [[lavash]], [[matnakash]] and [[Tandoor bread|tonir bread]], also known as ''tonri hats'' ({{Langx|hy|թոնիր հաց}}). Lavash is a very thin flatbread used for wrapping meat, vegetables and other ingredients, while matnakash is thicker and used on the side. Matnakash is said to have a [[Focaccia|foccacia]]-like texture. ''Tonri hats'' is similar to matnakash, but what differentiates it from matnakash is its round shape and soft texture that resembles [[bhatura]] in a way. Some also use the ''tonir'' to bake filled sweet breads, like [[Gata (food)|gata]]. The bread is baked by sticking it on the walls of the ''tonir'', where it is evenly cooked. Armenian bread (especially ''tonri hats'') is mainly flavored with [[black pepper]], [[mahleb]], [[Sesame|sesame seeds]], [[Nigella sativa|nigella seeds]], [[cumin]], and sometimes [[cinnamon]], or [[anise]].<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Lavash, the preparation, meaning and appearance of traditional bread as an expression of culture in Armenia, ''Inscribed in 2014 (9.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity''. Country(ies): Armenia |url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/decisions/9.COM/10.3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317141436/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/decisions/9.COM/10.3 |archive-date=March 17, 2016 |access-date=16 March 2016 |website=unesco.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bread in the life of Armenians |url=https://www.armgeo.am/en/armenian-lavash/ |website=Armenian Geographic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Demystifying the Breads of Armenia |url=https://www.saveur.com/story/food/demystifying-breads-of-armenia/ |website=Saveur}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gata making master class |url=https://hyurservice.com/de/attractions-activities-armenia/gata-making-master-class |website=Hyur Service}}</ref>

''[[Khorovats]]'', ''khashlama'', fish like the [[sevan trout]], and ''[[Khash (dish)|khash]]'' are the most popular meat-dishes that are prepared by using a ''tonir''. ''Khorovats'' is made by stacking seasoned meat (traditionally [[pork]], but [[Lamb and mutton|lamb]] and [[chicken]] are also common) and other ingredients like [[potato]]es and [[onion]]s on a skewer, before cooking them inside the ''tonir''. Wet cloth is put on the opening of the ''tonir'' to cook the meat more efficiently and to create a smoky flavor. Armenian "tonir meats" are mostly spiced with black pepper, [[paprika]], [[garlic]], [[sumac]], onions and in some regions, [[fenugreek]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Armenian khorovats in tonir |url=https://artisantandoors.com.au/armenian-khorovats/ |website=Artisan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Khashlama: Armenian Stew |url=https://www.jidlonacestach.cz/en/khashlama/ |website=Food on the Move}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Traditional Armenian Dishes You Must Try When Visiting Armenia |url=https://halaarmenia.com/en/traditional-armenian-dishes-food-cuisine-en/ |website=Hala Armenia}}</ref><ref name="Armenian Food">{{cite book |last1=Petrosian |first1=Irina |title=Armenian Food: Fact, Fiction & Folklore |last2=Underwood |first2=David |publisher=Yerkir Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-4116-9865-9 |location=Bloomington, Indiana |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0oXYX9Qzx9oC&dq=Khorovats&pg=PA74 76]}}</ref>

Sometimes, Armenians only use vegetables to be cooked inside ''tonirs''. In that case [[eggplant]]s, [[tomato]]es, [[bell pepper]]s, [[onion]]s, [[potato]]es and other local Armenian vegetables are cooked just like meat is cooked inside ''tonirs''.<ref name=":0"/>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180 caption="Baking in the Armenian ''tonir''">
File:20160604 025 Zwischenstopps-Armenien-011a.jpg|Armenian ''tonri'' hats
File:Ավանդական հացի պատրաստումը 03.jpg|''[[Lavash]]'' flatbread
File:Tonir Zuchau 1.jpg|''[[Khorovats]]'' kebabs
File:Թոնրի բանջարեղէն.jpg|Baked vegetables
</gallery>

====Turkmen ''tamdyr''====

The baking of a traditional, white bread called {{lang|tk|çörek}} in [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] is a medieval practice in [[Turkmenistan]], using a clay {{lang|tk|tamdyr}} oven.<ref name="Nuriev">{{cite journal |last1=Nuriev |first1=Ahmetjan |title=Bread baking is an ancient ritual in Turkmenistan |journal=Turkmenistan, the Analytic Illustrated Magazine |date=2005 |pages=80–83}}</ref>

Most [[Turkmens|Turkmen families]] living in the rural area have tamdyrs in their households. Occasionally, housewives get together and bake {{lang|tk|çörek}} for several families. One of the most famous kinds of {{lang|tk|çörek}} baked in the Turkmen tamdyr is {{lang|tk|etli çörek}} (bread with meat), made during [[public holidays in Turkmenistan|holidays in Turkmenistan]]. Turkmens bake not only bread in the tamdyr but also several dishes, the most famous of which is ''somsa'', a folded [[pie]] like a [[samosa]] or [[pasty]] with a filling, usually beef. Various [[spice]]s can be added to the Turkmen bread: [[cumin]], [[cinnamon]], [[olive]]s, [[mustard seed]]s, [[sunflower seed]]s, and other flavoring ingredients.<ref name="orient.tm">{{cite web |last1=Zarembo |first1=Vladimir |title=Tamdyr in the yard - peace on Earth (in Russian) |url=https://orient.tm/tamdyr-vo-dvore-mir-na-zemle/ |website=Orient |access-date=14 September 2020 |archive-date=2 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102054048/https://orient.tm/tamdyr-vo-dvore-mir-na-zemle/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> To prepare the ''tamdyr'' for baking; first the fire is made directly inside the ''tamdyr'', usually using dried cotton stalks. The bread maker then watches the color of the ''tamdyr''{{'s}} inner walls. When they turn white, the ashes are shoveled into the center of the oven, and the lower ash-pit is closed.<ref name="Nuriev"/> The bread must be thrown into the oven carefully but deftly so that it does not lose shape and neatly sticks to the wall.<ref name="orient.tm"/>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180 caption="Baking in the Turkmen tamdyr">
File:Turkmenistan bread baking.jpg|Baking çörek and [[Samosa|somsa]]
File:Tamdyr6.jpg|Baking {{lang|tk|çörek}} in a Turkmen tamdyr
</gallery>

====Punjabi tandoor====

[[File:Tandoori Chicken with oven.jpg|thumb|[[Tandoori chicken]] cooked inside a tandoor]]

The [[Punjabi tandoor]] from [[South Asia]] is traditionally made of clay and is a bell-shaped oven, which can either be set into the earth or rest above the ground and is fired with wood or charcoal, reaching temperatures of about {{convert|480|C|F K|-1}}.<ref name="AutoO0-5"/> Tandoor cooking is a traditional aspect of [[Punjabi cuisine]] in undivided [[Punjab]].<ref name="apnaorg.com"/>

In [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], tandoori cooking was traditionally associated with the [[Punjab region|Punjab]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Daniel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IcAGtDUWtYEC&dq=tandoor+rajasthan&pg=PA47 |title=The Rough Guide to Rajasthan, Delhi & Agra |last2=Thomas |first2=Gavin |date=October 2010 |publisher=Rough Guides Limited |isbn=978-1-84836-555-1 |language=en}}</ref> as Punjabis embraced the tandoor on a regional level,<ref name="AutoO0-7"/> and became popular in the mainstream after the 1947 partition when Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus resettled in places such as Delhi.<ref name="AutoO0-8"/> In rural Punjab, it was common to have communal tandoors.<ref name="apnaorg.com"/> Some villages<ref name="AutoO0-9"/> still have a communal tandoor, a common sight before 1947.<ref name="AutoO0-10"/>

====Azerbaijani tandir====

[[File:Tandoor in Boyuk Bahmanly, Fuzuli of Azerbaijan 04.jpg|thumb|Azerbaijani tandir]]

In medieval times, the people that used to live where [[Azerbaijan]] is situated today ([[lezgins]], [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tat Iranians]] and later [[Turkic peoples|Turks]]) used to cook bread and other dishes inside the tandir.<ref name="AutoO0-13"/>

Tandir bread (təndir çörəyi) is a widespread bread type in [[Azerbaijan]]. Tandir bread is baked from the heat of the tandir's walls, which ensures very fast baking.<ref name="AutoO0-14"/><ref name="AutoO0-15"/>

One of the world's biggest tandoors was built in Azerbaijan's southern city of [[Astara, Azerbaijan|Astara]] in 2015. The height of the tandoor is {{convert|6.5|m|ft|abbr=in}} and the diameter is {{convert|12|m|ft|abbr=in}}. The tandoor consists of 3 parts.<ref name="AutoO0-16"/>

====Georgian tone====

The outside of the Georgian ''tone'' is made of a mixture of clay and quartz sand which is wrapped in linen and eventually hardens into a hard fireproof surface. Georgian bakers stick bread to the interior walls of the tone to let it bake, which is lined with fireproof bricks.<ref name="AutoO0-11"/>

== Dishes ==

{{further|Tandoor bread|Tandoori chicken}}

[[File:Թոնրի խորոված 3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|Chicken [[khorovats]], onions and potato slices with pork fat, roasted in an Armenian ''tonir'' ]]

A tandoor may be used to bake many [[Tandoor bread|types of flatbread]]. Some of the most common are [[lavash]], [[tandoori roti]], [[tandoori naan]], tandoori laccha [[paratha]], missi roti, [[laffa]], and tandoori [[kulcha]]. [[Armenian cuisine|Armenian]] dishes prepared using a ''tonir'' are varied. There are bread dishes like tonri hats, [[matnakash]] and a sweet filled bread named [[Gata (food)|gata]], while there also are meat dishes like [[khorovats]], khashlama, the meat of [[Khash (dish)|khash]] and fish like [[sevan trout]], as well as vegetables that are cooked using a ''tonir''.<ref name="Armenian Food"/>

[[Tandoori chicken]] is a roasted chicken [[delicacy]] that originated in [[Punjab]] region of South Asia.<ref name="AutoO0-17"/><ref name="AutoO0-18"/> The chicken is marinated in yogurt seasoned with [[garam masala]], [[garlic]], [[ginger]], [[cumin]], [[cayenne pepper]], and other spices depending on the recipe. In hot versions of the dish, cayenne, red chili powder, or other spices give the typical red color; in milder versions, [[food coloring]] is used.<ref name="AutoO0-19"/>

[[Chicken tikka]] is a dish that originated in the [[Punjab]] region. It is made by grilling small pieces of boneless chicken which have been [[marinate]]d in [[spices]] and [[yogurt]]. It is traditionally cooked on skewers in a tandoor and is usually boneless.<ref name=Curryclub>{{cite book |last=Chapman |first=Pat |author-link=Pat Chapman (food writer) |title=Curry Club Tandoori and Tikka Dishes |year=1993 |publisher=[[Judy Piatkus|Piatkus]] |location=London |isbn=0-7499-1283-9 |pages= }}</ref> It is used in preparing the British curry [[chicken tikka masala]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/videos/food-dining/chicken-tikka-recipes.html |title=Chicken Tikka Recipes |date=12 January 2019 |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |access-date=24 January 2019 |archive-date=24 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124102333/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/videos/food-dining/chicken-tikka-recipes.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

A [[samosa]] is a fried or baked pastry shell with a savory filling, which may include spiced potatoes and vegetables, or ground lamb or chicken. In [[Central Asia]] , samosas are typically baked in a tandoor, while they are usually fried elsewhere.<ref name="Davidson">{{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Alan |year=2014 |chapter=Samosa |pages=709–710 |title=The Oxford Companion to Food |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0-19-211579-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA709 |access-date=29 February 2020 |archive-date=4 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240904032000/https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA709#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==

* {{annotated link|Kamado}}
* {{annotated link|List of cooking appliances}}
* {{annotated link|Masonry oven}}
* {{annotated link|Primitive clay oven}}
* {{annotated link|Tabun oven}}

== References ==

{{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="AutoO0-1">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/1872sanskriten00moniuoft|page=[https://archive.org/details/1872sanskriten00moniuoft/page/201 201]|title=A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: ...with Special Reference to Greek, Latin, Gothic, German, Anglo-Saxon...|last=Monier-Williams|first=Monier|date=1872|publisher=Clarendon}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cFcH2ZHWLcC|title=Indian Food Tradition A Historical Companion|author=Achaya K. T.|year=1994|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-562845-6|access-date=6 February 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-4">{{cite web|url=https://luxury-tandoors.com/customer-care/user-guide/|title=User Guide|work=luxury-tandoors.com}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-5">{{cite web|url=http://www.vahrehvah.com/indianfood/tandoori-chicken/|title=Tandoori Chicken|work=vahrehvah.com}}</ref>
<ref name="apnaorg.com">{{Cite web|url=http://apnaorg.com/books/gurmukhi/kehal-1/book.php?fldr=book|title=Gurmukhi Book - Alop Ho Reha Virsa; Pure|website=apnaorg.com}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-7">{{cite web|url=http://www.indiacurry.com/faqhistory/mughalcuisine.htm|title=What is Mughalai Cuisine?|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010004646/http://www.indiacurry.com/faqhistory/mughalcuisine.htm|archive-date=10 October 2013}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-8">{{cite news|last=Raichlen|first=Steven|title=A Tandoor Oven Brings India's Heat to the Backyard|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/11/dining/a-tandoor-oven-brings-indias-heat-to-the-backyard.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|access-date=17 January 2015|work=The New York Times|date=10 May 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-9">Pind Diyan Gallian PTC Channel - Bilga (Jalandhar) has a communal Tandoor also known as tadoor in Punjabi</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-10">{{cite web|url=http://www.shvoong.com/medicine-and-health/nutrition/1866706-specialities-punjabi-cuisine/|title=specialities Punjabi cuisine|work=shvoong.com|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-date=14 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914172944/http://www.shvoong.com/medicine-and-health/nutrition/1866706-specialities-punjabi-cuisine|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-11">{{cite web|url=https://georgiaabout.com/2012/06/07/about-food-georgian-bread-part-1/|title=About Food – Georgian Bread (Part 1)|work=Georgia About}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-13">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20170620-life-on-earths-biggest-pressure-cooker|title=Life on Earth's biggest pressure cooker|date=25 February 2022 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-14">{{cite web|url=http://www.travelphotoreport.com/2012/03/27/tandyr-bake-bread-baku-azerbaijan/|title=What is Tandyr or how traditional bread is baked in Baku|date=27 March 2012|work=travelphotoreport.com|access-date=20 September 2017|archive-date=3 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200203144338/http://www.travelphotoreport.com/2012/03/27/tandyr-bake-bread-baku-azerbaijan/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-15">{{cite web|url=http://www.geniuskitchen.com/recipe/tendir-choreyi-azerbaijan-471885|title=Tendir Choreyi Azerbaijan Recipe|work=geniuskitchen.com}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-16">{{Cite web|url=https://en.azvision.az/news/16919/news.html|title=Azerbaijan to build the world's biggest tandoor|website=en.azvision.az|language=en|access-date=2 September 2019}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-17">{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2008/11/24/stories/2008112450160200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629015351/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2008/11/24/stories/2008112450160200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 June 2011 |title=Metro Plus Delhi / Food : A plateful of grain |date=24 November 2008 |access-date=7 May 2009 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-18">{{cite web|url=http://blogs.hindustantimes.com/rude-hotels/2009/02/01/where-does-biryani-come-from/|title=Where does biryani come from?|work=Hindustan Times|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624141257/http://blogs.hindustantimes.com/rude-hotels/2009/02/01/where-does-biryani-come-from/|archive-date=24 June 2016}}</ref>
<ref name="AutoO0-19">For instance, see the recipe in [[Madhur Jaffrey]]'s ''Indian Cookery'' pp66-69</ref>
}}

== Further reading ==

{{commons category}}

{{refbegin}}
* ''Curry Club Tandoori and Tikka Dishes'', Piatkus, London — {{ISBN|0-7499-1283-9}} (1993)
* ''Curry Club 100 Favourite Tandoori Recipes'', Piatkus, London — {{ISBN|0-7499-1491-2}} & {{ISBN|0-7499-1741-5}} (1995)
* ''India: Food & Cooking'', New Holland, London — {{ISBN|978-1-84537-619-2}} (2007)
{{refend}}

{{Cooking Techniques}}
{{Cuisine of India}}
{{Curry in the United Kingdom}}
{{Armenian cuisine}}

[[Category:Fireplaces]]
[[Category:Cooking appliances]]
[[Category:Barbecue]]
[[Category:Earth oven]]
[[Category:Arab cuisine]]
[[Category:Armenian cuisine]]
[[Category:Azerbaijani cuisine]]
[[Category:Bengali cuisine]]
[[Category:Georgian cuisine]]
[[Category:Indian cuisine]]
[[Category:Israeli cuisine]]
[[Category:Iraqi cuisine]]
[[Category:Kazakh cuisine]]
[[Category:Kyrgyz cuisine]]
[[Category:Pakistani cuisine]]
[[Category:Palestinian cuisine]]
[[Category:Punjabi cuisine]]
[[Category:Syrian cuisine]]
[[Category:Tajik cuisine]]
[[Category:Turkish cuisine]]
[[Category:Turkmen cuisine]]
[[Category:Uzbekistani cuisine]]
[[Category:Firing techniques]]
[[Category:Indian food preparation utensils]]

Masterpeace (TV series)

2026-01-24T19:04:53Z

Tumita7029: Stub!

{{Short description|Indian drama series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Masterpeace Malayalam.jpeg
| genre = [[Comedy drama]]
| creator =
| developer =
| screenplay =
| story =
| writer = Praveen S
| director = Sreejith N
| creative_director =
| starring = {{Plain list|
* [[Nithya Menen]]
* [[Sharaf U Dheen]]
* [[Renji Panicker]]
* [[Parvathi T.]]
* [[Ashokan (actor)|Ashokan]]
* [[Shanthi Krishna]]
}}
| theme_music_composer =
| opentheme =
| open_theme =
| composer = [[Bijibal]]
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 5
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer =
| producer = Mathew George
| location =
| cinematography = Aslam K Purayil
| editor = Riyas K Badhar
| camera = [[Single-camera]]
| runtime = 45 minutes
| company = Central Advertising
| network = [[Disney+ Hotstar]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=yes|2023|10|25}}
| last_aired =
| related =
}}
'''''Masterpeace''''' is an Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[comedy drama]] [[streaming television]] series written by Praveen S and directed by Sreejith N.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/malayalam-director-sreejith-n-talks-about-his-web-series-masterpeace-starring-nithya-menen-and-sharafudheen/article67200794.ece | title=Malayalam director Sreejith N talks about his web series 'Masterpeace,' starring Nithya Menen and Sharafudheen | newspaper=The Hindu | date=18 August 2023 | last1=Nagarajan | first1=Saraswathy | access-date=4 November 2023 | archive-date=4 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104043834/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/malayalam-director-sreejith-n-talks-about-his-web-series-masterpeace-starring-nithya-menen-and-sharafudheen/article67200794.ece | url-status=live }}</ref> The series was produced by Mathew George under the banner of Central Advertising, stars [[Nithya Menen]], [[Sharaf U Dheen]], [[Renji Panicker]], [[Parvathi T.]], [[Ashokan (actor)|Ashokan]] and [[Shanthi Krishna]] in the lead.<ref name="cast" >{{cite web | url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/masterpeace-sharafudheen-nithya-menen-star-in-disney-hotstars-new-malayalam-comedy-web-series/72bded02ea178 | title=Masterpeace: Sharafudheen, Nithya Menen star in Disney+ Hotstar's new Malayalam comedy web series | access-date=4 November 2023 | archive-date=4 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104043453/https://www.ottplay.com/news/masterpeace-sharafudheen-nithya-menen-star-in-disney-hotstars-new-malayalam-comedy-web-series/72bded02ea178 | url-status=live }}</ref> It premiered on [[Disney+ Hotstar]] on 25 October 2023.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theweek.in/news/entertainment/2023/10/24/koffee-with-karan-master-peace-life-on-our-planet-the-enfield-poltergeist-ott-releases-this-week.html | title=Koffee with Karan, Master Peace, Life on Our Planet, the Enfield Poltergeist: OTT releases this week | website=[[The Week (Indian magazine)|The Week]] | access-date=4 November 2023 | archive-date=4 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104043653/https://www.theweek.in/news/entertainment/2023/10/24/koffee-with-karan-master-peace-life-on-our-planet-the-enfield-poltergeist-ott-releases-this-week.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

==Synopsis==
Set in [[Kochi]], Riya and Binoy, a recently married couple living in a high-end apartment, they love each other but usually have some quarrels over some silly issues. In such a quarrel, Binoy accidentally tapped on Father Savarios, his relative's phone number in his phone and called. Binoy didn't know about the call, Savarios heard their quarrel and informed Aniyamma, Binoy's mother. Aniyamma informed Riya's parents too. Both parents suspect that Riya and Binoy are acting as happy couple in front of them. To check this and solve the issues, their parents planned a visit to their apartment without informing them. Rest of the story is about how Riya and Binoy convinces their parents about their life.

==Cast==
* [[Nithya Menen]] as Riya
* [[Sharaf U Dheen]] as Binoy
* [[Renji Panicker]] as Chandichan
* [[Parvathi T.]] as Aniyamma
* [[Ashokan (actor)|Ashokan]] as Kuriyachan
* [[Shanthi Krishna]] as Lisamma
* [[Roshan Mathew]] as Adam Michel Anchallo
* [[Jude Anthany Joseph]] as Father Savarios
* Anand Manmadhan as Adarsh
* [[Divya Pillai]] as Aparna
* [[Srikant Murali]] as Viji Sir
* [[Pooja Mohanraj]] as Rashmitha
* Vineeth Thattil David as Ankamali Alochana
* Laly PM as Roslin Anty
* Anakha as Inner Peace model
* Priya as Achumani
* [[Althaf Salim]] as Binoy's assistant

==Production==
The announcement of the series was made on [[Disney+ Hotstar]], consisting of five episodes.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/teaser-of-nithya-menen-sharaf-u-dheen-starrer-masterpeace-out/article67218844.ece | title=Teaser of Nithya Menen, Sharaf U Dheen starrer 'Masterpeace' out | newspaper=The Hindu | date=21 August 2023 | access-date=4 November 2023 | archive-date=4 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104043536/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/teaser-of-nithya-menen-sharaf-u-dheen-starrer-masterpeace-out/article67218844.ece | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Nithya Menen]], [[Sharaf U Dheen]], [[Renji Panicker]], [[Parvathi T.]], [[Ashokan (actor)|Ashokan]] and [[Shanthi Krishna]] joined the cast.<ref name="cast" />

==Reception==
Janani K of ''[[India Today]]'' awarded the series 2.5/5 stars.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/binge-watch/reviews/story/masterpeace-review-nithya-menen-sharaf-u-dheen-quirky-comedy-is-partly-enjoyable-2453866-2023-10-26 | title='Masterpeace' Review: Nithya Menen, Sharaf's quirky comedy is partly enjoyable | date=26 October 2023 | access-date=4 November 2023 | archive-date=4 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104043930/https://www.indiatoday.in/binge-watch/reviews/story/masterpeace-review-nithya-menen-sharaf-u-dheen-quirky-comedy-is-partly-enjoyable-2453866-2023-10-26 | url-status=live }}</ref> Anandu Suresh of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' gave the series 2.5/5 stars.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/masterpeace-review-rating-nithya-menen-sharaf-u-dheen-series-is-fun-but-unnecessarily-stretched-8998539/ | title=Masterpeace review: Nithya Menen, Sharaf U Dheen series is fun, but unnecessarily stretched | date=25 October 2023 | access-date=4 November 2023 | archive-date=4 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104044046/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/masterpeace-review-rating-nithya-menen-sharaf-u-dheen-series-is-fun-but-unnecessarily-stretched-8998539/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Sanjith Sidhardhan of ''[[OTTPlay]]'' rated the series 3/5 stars.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/masterpeace-review-nithya-menens-web-series-on-generation-gap-is-fun-in-parts-but-wears-out-its-welcome-fast/25368c6dda919 | title=Masterpeace review: Nithya Menen's web series on generation gap is fun in parts }}</ref> Raisa Nasreen of ''[[Times Now]]'' gave the series 3/5 stars.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/web-series/masterpeace-review-nithya-menen-show-is-fun-but-stretched-review-104770285 | title=Masterpeace Review: Nithya Menen Show is Fun, but Stretched | date=28 October 2023 | access-date=4 November 2023 | archive-date=4 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104044127/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/web-series/masterpeace-review-nithya-menen-show-is-fun-but-stretched-review-104770285 | url-status=live }}</ref> Sajin Shriijth of ''[[Cinema Express]]'' rated the film 4/5 stars.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/review/2023/oct/27/masterpeace-series-reviewgenerations-clash-in-this-ultimate-stress-buster-48989.html | title=Masterpeace Series Review: Generations clash in this ultimate stress-buster | website=[[Cinema Express]] | date=27 October 2023 | access-date=4 November 2023 | archive-date=31 October 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031212400/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/review/2023/oct/27/masterpeace-series-reviewgenerations-clash-in-this-ultimate-stress-buster-48989.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

The series was also reviewed by S.R. Praveen for ''[[The Hindu]]''.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/masterpeace-series-review-a-loud-humorous-antidote-for-regressive-television-serials/article67469895.ece | title='Masterpeace' series review: A loud, humorous antidote for regressive television serials | newspaper=The Hindu | date=28 October 2023 | last1=Praveen | first1=S. R. | access-date=4 November 2023 | archive-date=4 November 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231104044020/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/masterpeace-series-review-a-loud-humorous-antidote-for-regressive-television-serials/article67469895.ece | url-status=live }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.hotstar.com/in/shows/masterpeace/1260148141 ''Masterpeace'']{{Dead link|date=January 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }} on [[Disney+ Hotstar]]

{{Portal bar|India|Television}}

[[Category:2023 web series debuts]]
[[Category:Indian drama television series]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language television shows]]
[[Category:Disney+ Hotstar original programming]]
[[Category:Malayalam-language web series]]

Bhutu

2026-01-22T17:10:52Z

Tumita7029: new new details - done

{{short description|Indian Hindi language children's comedy-drama television series}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox television
| alt_name =
| image =
| caption =
| genre = [[Comedy]] [[Drama]]
| creator =
| based_on =
| developer =
| story = Sahana Raghuvir Shekhawat Damini Joshi
| screenplay = Rahul Pandey
| director = Hemant N Mishra
| creative_director = Riya Sengupta
| presenter =
| starring = {{plainlist|
*[[Arshiya Mukherjee]]
*[[Sana Amin Sheikh]]
*[[Kinshuk Mahajan]]
*Akanksha Chamola
*[[Anjali Priya]]
}}
| judges =
| voices =
| narrated =
| theme_music_composer = Prakash, Viraj '''Title Song Lyrics''' [[Sanjeev Tiwari]]
| opentheme =
| endtheme =
| composer = Dony Hazarika
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_episodes = 214
| num_seasons =
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer =
| producer = [[Shrikant Mohta]] Mahendra Soni
| location = [[Naigaon]]
| cinematography = Hanif Sheikh
| editor = Dharmesh Patel Pramod Kunder
| camera = [[Multiple-camera setup|Multi-camera]]
| runtime = 22 minutes
| company = [[Shree Venkatesh Films]]
| first_aired = {{start date|2017|08|21|df=y}}
| last_aired = {{end date|2018|06|15|df=y}}
| related = ''[[Bhootu]]''
| image_alt =
| network = [[Zee TV]]
}}

'''''Bhutu''''' is an Indian [[Hindi]] language children's comedy-drama television series which aired on [[Zee TV]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Zee TV's Bhootu to end on 15 June|url=https://www.iwmbuzz.com/television/news/zee-tvs-bhootu-end-15-june/2018/06/08/amp|work=IWM Buzz|access-date=2023-07-01|date=8 June 2018}}</ref> The series revolves around a friendly girl ghost, "Bhutu", who always tries to help others, often causing light mischief and mayhem in the process.<ref>{{cite web|title=Zee TV presents to you it's[sic] latest show Bhootu|url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/tv/news-gossip/zee-tv-presents-you-its-latest-show-bhootu-385493%3famp|work=Pinkvilla|access-date=2023-07-01|date=20 August 2017}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> It is an adaptation of the [[Bengali language|Bengali]] series ''[[Bhootu]]'' by [[Zee Bangla]]. The show replaced ''[[Bin Kuch Kahe]]'' in its timeslot.

==Plot==
''Bhutu'' is a story about a cute little ghost. The show revolves around Pihu/Bhutu, a 7-year-old friendly ghost who still longs for her mother after her untimely death. Though she loves to play with her friends, she is very sad and disheartened that no one can see her.<ref>{{cite web|title=Zee TV brings fun and emotions with a child ghost|url=https://bestmediainfo.com/2017/08/zee-tv-brings-fun-and-emotions-with-a-child-ghost|work=Best Media Info|access-date=2023-07-01|date=22 August 2017}}</ref> One day, Gopal ([[Krishna]]) appears as her companion and promises that he will help her reunite with her mother.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bhootu: Sana Sheikh and Kinshuk Mahajan ousted from the show; here's why|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/soaps/story/bhootu-sana-sheikh-and-kinshuk-mahajan-ousted-from-the-show-here-s-why-1154189-2018-01-25|work=[[India Today]]|access-date=2023-07-01|date=25 January 2018}}</ref>

==Cast==
===Main===
* [[Arshiya Mukherjee]] as Pihu Subodh Bose (Bhutu) / Shona (Bhutu's doppelganger)<ref>{{cite web|title=Khushbu Thakkar joins Tushar Khanna in 'Bhootu'|url=http://www.bombaytimes.com/tv/india/whats-new-on-tv/articleshow/62863720.cms|work=[[Bombay Times]]|access-date=2023-07-01|date=12 February 2018|archive-date=12 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212193914/http://www.bombaytimes.com/tv/india/whats-new-on-tv/articleshow/62863720.cms|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Viraj Kapoor as Baal [[Gopal (Krishna)]]
* [[Sana Amin Sheikh]] as Suchi Sharma / Suchi Aarav Randhawa / Burburi
* [[Kinshuk Mahajan]] as Aarav Randhawa
* [[Akanksha Chamola]] as Anandita Subodh Bose

===Recurring===
* [[Kapil Nirmal]] as Vikram
* [[Khushbu Thakkar]] as Barbie<ref>{{cite web|title=TV Actress Khushbu Thakkar to enter Zee Tv's Bhootu|url=http://www.abplive.in/television/tv-actress-khushbu-thakkar-to-enter-zee-tvs-bhootu-649400?rs_type=internal&rs_origin=section&rs_medium=article&rs_index=1|work=[[ABP Live]]|access-date=2023-07-01|date=12 February 2018|archive-date=2018-02-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216025055/http://www.abplive.in/television/tv-actress-khushbu-thakkar-to-enter-zee-tvs-bhootu-649400?rs_type=internal&rs_origin=section&rs_medium=article&rs_index=1|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Shivangi Verma as Mohini
* Tushar Khanna as Badripasad / Bobby
* Aliraza Namdar as Barbie's father
* [[Sameer Sharma]] / Vimarsh Roshan as Subodh Bose (Pihu's father)
* Dharmik Joisar as Gulgule Sharma
* Tanushree Kaushal as Aarav's mother
* [[Neetha Shetty]] as Mansi Randhawa, Aarav's sister
* Cindrella Dcruz as Suman, Suchi's Chhoti Maa
* Vipin Krishan Chahal as Sankalp Sharma, Suchi's brother
* Anjali Priya as Sheetal Sankalp Sharma
* Gaurav Vasudev as Tantarik (Bhootnath)
* Archana Mittal as Sarita Sharma, Suchi's mother
* Karim Hajee as Shuchi's father
* Drishti Chopra as Pooja, Suchi's friend
* Neeraj Goswami as Rishabh
* Shalini Vishnudev as Rakhi Mehta

== Adaptations ==
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; margin-right:0;"
! style="background:orange; width:10%;"| Language
! style="background:orange; width:25%;"| Title
! style="background:orange; width:20%;"| Original release
! style="background:orange; width:10%;"| Network(s)
! style="background:orange; width:10%;"| Last aired
! style="background:orange; width:10%;"| Notes
|-
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| ''[[Bhootu]]'' ভুতু
| 14 March 2016
| [[Zee Bangla]]
| 25 February 2017
| Original
|-
| [[Hindi]]
| ''Bhutu'' भुतू
| 21 August 2017
| [[Zee TV]]
| 15 June 2018
| Remake
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.zee5.com/kids/kids-shows/bhootu-hindi/0-6-1176 ''Bhutu''] at [[ZEE5]]

{{Children television series in India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhutu}}
[[Category:Indian children's television series]]
[[Category:Indian comedy television series]]
[[Category:2017 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:2018 Indian television series endings]]
[[Category:Zee TV original programming]]
[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]

Vaddepalli Srinivas

2026-01-08T00:36:04Z

Tumita7029: Added New Entry

{{Short description|Indian singer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{family name hatnote|Vaddepalli|lang=Telugu}}

{{Infobox person
| name = Vaddepalli Srinivas
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1960|07|04|df=y}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.v6velugu.com/singer-vaddepalli-srinivas-passed-away |title=సింగర్ వడ్డేపల్లి శ్రీనివాస్ కన్నుమూత |date=March 2024 |access-date=6 February 2025 |archive-date=16 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416024630/https://www.v6velugu.com/singer-vaddepalli-srinivas-passed-away |url-status=live }}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Warangal district|Warangal]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India (now in [[Telangana]], India)
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2024|02|29|1960|07|04|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Hyderabad]], [[Telangana]], India
| occupation = {{hlist|Singer}}
| years_active = 1994–2024
| spouse = Indira
| module = {{Infobox musical artist
| embed = yes
| genre = {{hlist|Folk|filmi|world music}}
| instrument = {{hlist|Vocals}}
| label =
}}
}}

'''Vaddepalli Srinivas''' (4 July 1960{{Ndash}}29 February 2024) was an Indian singer and folk artist who worked in [[Telugu cinema]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Velugu |first=V6 |date=2024-02-29 |title=Vaddepalli Srinivas: ప్రముఖ జానపద గాయకుడు వడ్డేపల్లి శ్రీనివాస్ కన్నుమూత |url=https://www.v6velugu.com/telangana-folk-singer-vaddepalli-srinivas-passes-away |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=V6 Velugu |language=te |archive-date=16 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416084541/https://www.v6velugu.com/telangana-folk-singer-vaddepalli-srinivas-passes-away |url-status=live }}</ref> He had won [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer – Telugu]] for the song "Gannulanti Kannulunna Pilla" from [[Gabbar Singh (film)|''Gabbar Singh'']] (2012).<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-01-15 |title=Filmfare Awards (2012) winners list |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/filmfare-awards-2012-winners-list/articleshow/21189454.cms |access-date=2025-02-06 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Early life and career ==
Vaddepalli Srinivas was born in [[Warangal district]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]] (now in [[Telangana]]), India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=telugu |first=NT News |date=2024-03-01 |title=సినీ జానసద గాయకుడు వడ్డేపల్లి శ్రీనివాస్‌ కన్నుమూత |url=https://www.ntnews.com/cinema/film-and-folk-playback-singer-vaddepalli-srinivas-passed-away-1492773 |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=www.ntnews.com |language=te |archive-date=1 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240301070931/https://www.ntnews.com/cinema/film-and-folk-playback-singer-vaddepalli-srinivas-passed-away-1492773 |url-status=live }}</ref> His family moved to [[Hyderabad]] in his childhood. He started singing at the age of 3. He was initially interested in sports and worked as a [[physical education teacher]] at a school in [[Krishna district]]. Later, he released an independent album ''Kaliki Chilukalu'' in 1994 through Meghana Audio which became popular.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ABN |date=2020-02-07 |title=-జానపద గాయకుడు- కత్తులతో బెదిరించారు.. నా స్టూడియోనూ తగలబెట్టారు |url=https://www.andhrajyothy.com/2020/open-heart/authors-and-artists/vaddepalli-srinivas-781.html |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=Andhrajyothy Telugu News |language=te |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529180504/https://www.andhrajyothy.com/2020/open-heart/authors-and-artists/vaddepalli-srinivas-781.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ABN |date=2024-03-01 |title=Vaddepalli Srinivas: జానపద గాయకుడు వడ్డేపల్లి శ్రీనివాస్‌ ఇకలేరు! {{!}} Folk Singer Vaddepalli Srinivas is no more avm |url=https://www.chitrajyothy.com/2024/viral/folk-singer-vaddepalli-srinivas-is-no-more-avm-51459.html |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=Chitrajyothy Telugu News |language=te}}</ref> The same year he debuted as a playback singer with "Garam Garam Pyai Gajjala Sanari" song, composed by [[Raj–Koti]] from the film ''Namste Anna''. He has later sung many independent folk songs.

== Discography ==

=== Songs ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! rowspan="1" |Year
! rowspan="1" |Song(s)
! rowspan="1" |Work
|-
|1994
|"Garam Garam Pyai Gajjala Sanari"
|''Namste Anna''
|-
|1995
|"Yem Konetattu Ledu"
|''Errodu''
|-
|2008
|"Yenthapani Chestiviro"
|[[King (2008 film)|''King'']]
|-
|2012
|"Gannulanti Kannulunna Pilla"
|[[Gabbar Singh (film)|''Gabbar Singh'']]
|-
|2018
|"Raaye Raaye Chinni"
|[[Bengal Tiger (2015 film)|''Bengal Tiger'']]
|}

=== Studio albums ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Title
!Studio
|-
|1994
|''Kaliki Chilukalu''
| rowspan="2" |[[Sony Music India|Sony Music]]
|-
|2000
|''Oh Pilla Bangarama''
|-
|2008
|''Palleturi Pilla''
|Gayatree Music
|}

== Death ==
Srinivas died on 29 February 2024, aged 64, at his residence in Hyderabad due to health related issues.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Velugu |first=V6 |date=2024-03-01 |title=సింగర్ వడ్డేపల్లి శ్రీనివాస్ కన్నుమూత |url=https://www.v6velugu.com/singer-vaddepalli-srinivas-passed-away |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=V6 Velugu |language=te |archive-date=16 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416024630/https://www.v6velugu.com/singer-vaddepalli-srinivas-passed-away |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Awards and nominations ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|+
! scope="col" | Award
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Category
! scope="col" | Work
! scope="col" | Result
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference(s)}}
|-
! scope="row" |[[Filmfare Awards South]]
|[[60th Filmfare Awards South|2013]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer – Telugu|Best Male Playback Singer – Telugu]]
|"Gannulanti Kannulunna Pilla" (from [[Gabbar Singh (film)|''Gabbar Singh'']])
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=N |first=Ramesh |date=2024-02-29 |title='గబ్బర్ సింగ్' గాయకుడు వడ్డేపల్లి శ్రీనివాస్ కన్నుమూత |url=https://www.dishadaily.com/telangana/popular-folk-singer-vaddepalli-srinivas-passes-away-303691 |access-date=2025-02-06 |website=www.dishadaily.com |language=te}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|id=4999182}}
{{Authority control}}{{Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer – Telugu}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Vaddepalli, Srinivas}}
[[Category:Indian folk singers]]
[[Category:Indian male playback singers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male singers]]
[[Category:Telugu-language playback singers]]
[[Category:Indian male singers]]
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:People from Warangal]]
[[Category:Filmfare Awards South winners]]

Aabchand Caves

2025-12-18T16:51:18Z

Tumita7029: new details

{{Short description|Caves and archaeological site in India}}
{{Infobox settlement
| native_name = Aabchand Caves
| native_name_lang =
| settlement_type = Caves and archaeological site
| official_name = Aabchand Caves
| image_skyline = Aabchand caves.png
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Aabchand rock Shelter's
| map_alt =
| pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh#India3
| pushpin_relief = yes
| pushpin_map_alt = Sagar
| coordinates = {{coord|23.78|N|79.00|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = District
| subdivision_name2 = [[Sagar district|Sagar]]
}}
'''Aabchand Caves''' are in Aapchand village in [[Sagar District]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]], near the banks of Gadheri River.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/35/Abchand2.html|title=Maps, Weather, and Airports for Abchand, India|website=www.fallingrain.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sagar.nic.in/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8/|title=रुचि के स्थान | जिला सागर, मध्यप्रदेश शासन | भारत}}</ref>

==History==
There are around a dozen rock caves. They reveal prehistoric human occupation, with the life and daily routine of humans depicted on stones.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/view/exploresagar/aabchand-rock-shelters|title=Aabchand Rock Shelters|website=sites.google.com}}</ref>

==Caves and paintings==
The largest cave is around 40 feet in length and its walls contain more than a dozen paintings showing prehistoric activities, including hunting scenes representing individuals and groups of hunters with bows and arrows, spears and other weapons. The game animals shown include bison, bulls, antelopes, tigers, and boars.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.travelwithpreeti.in/2021/07/abchand-caves-sagar.html?m=1|title=आबचंद की गुफाएं सागर - Abchand Caves Sagar|date=March 4, 2021}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Sagar Division}}

[[Category:Tourist attractions in Sagar district]]
[[Category:Caves of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Prehistoric art in India]]
{{improve categories|date=November 2024}}

{{Cave-stub}}

Koparkhairane railway station

2025-11-08T14:43:17Z

Tumita7029:

{{Short description|Railway station on trans-harbour line}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|50px|up|link=Mumbai Suburban Railway]] Koparkhairane
| type = [[Mumbai Suburban Railway]] station
| style = Mumbai Suburban Railway
| image = Kopar khairane entrance.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| address =
| coordinates = {{Coord|19.1033|73.0113|type:railwaystation_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| line = [[Trans-Harbour Line (Mumbai Suburban Railway)|Trans-Harbour Line]]
| other =
| structure = Standard on-ground station
| platform = 2
| depth =
| levels =
| tracks =
| parking =
| bicycle =
| baggage_check =
| opened = 9 November 2004
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| status = Active
| electrified = Yes
| accessible =
| code = KPHN
| owned = [[Ministry of Railways (India)|Ministry of Railways]], [[Indian Railways]]
| zone = [[Central Railway zone|Central Railways]]
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| mpassengers =
| services = {{Adjacent stations|system=Mumbai Suburban Railway|line=Trans-Harbour|left=Ghansoli|right=Turbhe}}
| map_type = India#Maharashtra#Mumbai
| map_dot_label = Koparkhairane
| route_map = {{MSR Trans-Harbour line}}
| map_state = collapsed
}}

'''Koparkhairane''' is a railway station<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Koparkhairane/@19.1033769,73.0090919,17z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x3be7c0deaac1091f:0xe049f27c08f0334f!8m2!3d19.1033718!4d73.0112806?shorturl=1|title=Koparkhairane|website=Koparkhairane|access-date=2019-06-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indiarailinfo.com/station/news/news-kopar-khairane-kphn/9483|title=Kopar Khairane Railway Station News – Railway Enquiry|website=India Rail Info|access-date=2019-06-13}}</ref> (KPHN) on the [[Trans-Harbour line (Mumbai Suburban Railway)|Trans-Harbour line]] of the Indian [[Mumbai Suburban Railway]] network in [[Navi Mumbai]], Maharashtra, India.
[[File:Stationboard - kopar khairane.jpg|thumb|Station board – Kopar Khairane]]
[[File:Platformboard - kopar khairane.jpg|thumb|Platform board – Kopar Khairane]]

Koparkhairane, is local train railway station is on the [[Thane]]–[[Turbhe]]–[[Nerul]]/[[Vashi]] Railway Line, which was commissioned on 9 November 2004. It is situated at a distance of 12 km from {{stnlnk|Thane}} and 7 km from {{stnlnk|Vashi}}.

The railway station is located in Sector 8A of the node. It is accessible from both the [[Thane–Belapur road]] on the eastern side and the [[Koparkhairane]] node on the western side. Koparkhairane is the fifth railway station on the Thane–Koparkhairane–Vashi/Nerul Rail Corridor, a 23-km-long corridor connecting [[Thane]] with [[Navi Mumbai]].

As of 2008, there were seventeen services a day on this rail line in either direction. There are 212<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kopar Khairane (KPHN) Railway Station: Station Code, Schedule & Train Enquiry – RailYatri|url=https://www.railyatri.in/stations/kopar-khairane-kphn|access-date=2022-05-19|website=railyatri.in}}</ref> trains that pass through daily the Koparkhairane Railway station. Some of the major trains passing through KPHN are – (PANVEL Fast & Slow, BELAPUR CBD Slow, Vashi Slow, etc.). It takes 15 minutes to reach Nerul and 11 minutes to reach [[Vashi railway station]].

[[File:Kopar Khairne station.jpg|thumb|Kopar Khairne station]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{commons category|Kopar Khairane railway station}}
{{Mumbai - Suburban Railway, Trans-Harbour}}

[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 2004]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Thane district]]
[[Category:Mumbai Suburban Railway stations]]
[[Category:Mumbai CR railway division]]
[[Category:Transport in Navi Mumbai]]

{{Maharashtra-railstation-stub}}

London Dreams (soundtrack)

2025-09-15T10:13:18Z

Tumita7029: Post!

{{short description|Film soundtrack album}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox album
| name = London Dreams
| type = [[Soundtrack]]
| artist = [[Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy]]
| cover = Londondreams.jpg
| alt =
| released = <div style="white-space: nowrap;">16 September 2009</div>
| recorded = 2009
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]] [[Rock music|Rock]]
| length = 54:43
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| producer =
| prev_title = [[Sikandar (2009 film)|Sikandar]]
| prev_year = 2009
| next_title = [[Wake Up Sid]]
| next_year = 2009
}}

'''''London Dreams''''' is the soundtrack to the 2009 [[Bollywood]] film [[London Dreams|with the same name]] directed by [[Vipul Amrutlal Shah]] starring [[Salman Khan]], [[Ajay Devgan]] and [[Asin]]. The music is composed by [[Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy]], while the lyrics are penned by [[Prasoon Joshi]].

The album was released on 16 September 2009 by [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/award/filmfare-award/2009-2/ |title=T-Series acquires music rights of London Dreams |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=2009-08-24 |accessdate=2011-06-29}}</ref>


The song style is generally rock inspired to match the motifs in the movie. "Khanabadosh", "Shola Shola", "Barso Yaaron", "Khwab" and "Man Ko Ati Bhavey Saiyaan" were very popular songs; "Man Ko Ati Bhavey" and "Khanabadosh" being the most popular ones.<ref>{{cite web|title= A Rocking Album Again From Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy|url=http://www.gomolo.in/Movie/MovieMusicReviewUser.aspx?mid=21428&murID=58677}}</ref>

==Development==
Initially, [[A.R. Rahman]] was approached for composing the music for the film, but he opted out due to other commitments. Vipul then roped in the critically acclaimed trio Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy, who scored music for ''[[Rock On!!]]'', the first rock musical in [[Bollywood]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planetradiocity.com/musicreporter/news.php?newscatid=1&newsid=422 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201120205/http://planetradiocity.com/musicreporter/news.php?newscatid=1&newsid=422 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=1 February 2010 |title=Purab Kohli excited about his role in Rock On | Music News |publisher=Planetradiocity.com |date= |accessdate=2011-06-29}}</ref>

The soundtrack consists of eight original songs and three remix versions. "Barso Yaaron" by [[Vishal Dadlani|Vishal]] and [[Roop Kumar Rathod]] is a rock number that ends with "[[Hanuman Chalisa]]". "Manko Ati Bhavey Saiyaan" is a romantic song picturized on [[Asin Thottumkal|Asin]] and [[Salman Khan|Salman]] at the [[Eiffel Tower]]. Then follows the folksy "Tapkey Masti" by Feroz Khan and [[Bhangra (music)|bhangra beat number]] with aesthetics of [[qawaali]] - "Yaari Bina" by Roop Kumar Rathod. "Khanabadosh" is crooned by Mohan, accompanied with rich and layered instrumentations. Abhijeet Ghoshal's "Jashn Hai Jeet Ka", a soft mellow song is then followed by [[Rahat Fateh Ali Khan|Rahat]]-[[Shankar Mahadevan|Shankar]] duo's "Khwab Jo". Finally, there is [[Zubin Garg]]'s "Shola Shola", [[Rock music|rock]] track with a [[Techno music|techno]] twist to it.<ref>{{cite web|author=Karthik |url=http://itwofs.com/milliblog/2009/09/19/music-review-london-dreams-hindi-shankar-ehsaan-loy/ |title=Music review: London Dreams (Hindi – Shankar Ehsaan Loy) by Milliblog! |publisher=Itwofs.com |date=2009-09-19 |accessdate=2011-06-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/audiolisting/12833/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008111151/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/audiolisting/12833/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 October 2008 |title=London Dreams : Soundtrack listing and details |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=2009-10-30 |accessdate=2011-06-29}}</ref>

All the songs in the soundtrack are rendered by male singers, which is a rarity in Bollywood.{{or?|date=August 2025}}

==Track listing==
{{Track listing
| all_music = [[Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy]]
| all_lyrics = [[Prasoon Joshi]]
| extra_column = Artist(s)
| total_length = 54:43
| title1 = Barso Yaaron | extra1 = [[Vishal Dadlani]], [[Roop Kumar Rathod]] | length1 = 05:48
| title2 = Man Ko Ati Bhavey Saiyaan | extra2 = [[Shankar Mahadevan]] | length2 = 05:14
| title3 = Tapkey Masti | extra3 = Feroz Khan | length3 = 04:29
| title4 = Khanabadosh | extra4 = K.Mohan | length4 = 04:41
| title5 = Khwab | extra5 = [[Rahat Fateh Ali Khan]], Shankar Mahadevan | length5 = 06:15
| title6 = Yaari Bina | extra6 = Roop Kumar Rathod, Milind Diwadkar | length6 = 04:32
| title7 = Jashn Hai Jeet Ka | extra7 = Abhijeet Ghoshal | length7 = 04:11
| title8 = Shola Shola | extra8 = [[Zubeen Garg]] | length8 = 05:31
| title9 = Khanabadosh | note9 = Remix | extra9 = K.Mohan | length9 = 05:00
| title10 = Man Ko Ati Bhavey | note10 = Remix | extra10 = Shankar Mahadevan | length10 = 05:30
| title11 = Tapke Masti | note11 = Remix | extra11 = Feroz Khan | length11 = 04:20
}}

==Reception==

{{Album ratings
| rev1 = [[Bollywood Hungama]]
| rev1Score = {{rating|3|5}}<ref name=bh />
| rev2 = [[Rediff.com]]
| rev2Score = {{rating|3.5|5}}<ref name=rediff />
| rev3 = [[PlanetBollywood.com]]
| rev3Score = {{rating|8|10}}<ref name=pb />
| rev4 = [[GlamSham]]
| rev4Score = {{rating|3.5|5}}<ref name=glam />
}}
The music was met with positive critical response upon release. Joginder Tuteja of ''[[Bollywood Hungama]]'' said, "Once you are into the album the fifth time over, you realize that London Dreams does carry some good stuff to make heads turn. The songs are bound to find much better acceptance if the film succeeds at the box office."<ref name=bh>{{cite web|url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/musicreview/12833/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008111544/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/musicreview/12833/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 October 2008 |title=London Dreams : Music Review by Joginder Tuteja |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date= |accessdate=2011-06-29}}</ref>

[[GlamSham]], in its review, remarked, "London Dreams sizzles out with rock-music genre of soundtracks and accompanies all other varied genres ('bhangra', 'qawalli') in its packaging with promising results. Overall, it's a satisfying listening experience from trio and 'must-grab' musical package for all rock music lovers."<ref name=glam>{{cite web|url=http://www.glamsham.com/music/reviews/21-london-dreams-music-review-090907.asp |title=London Dreams music review |publisher=glamsham.com |date= |accessdate=2011-06-29}}</ref>

Chandrima Pal of [[Rediff]], in her three and a half star review, described the album as, "tight, meticulously planned and power-packed, with hardly any weak link" and called it "one of the most engaging albums to have emerged this season."<ref name=rediff>{{cite web|url=http://movies.rediff.com/report/2009/sep/21/london-dreams-is-all-about-the-boys.htm |title=London Dreams is all about the boys - Rediff.com Movies |publisher=Movies.rediff.com |date=2009-09-21 |accessdate=2011-06-29}}</ref>

[[PlanetBollywood.com]]'s review was along the similar lines too, which read, "London Dreams deserves high praise for its lyrics and vocals, where the music also becomes experimental in nature in the case of this particular album where the trio really go wild with their music. A must-buy for SEL and Prasoon Joshi enthusiasts and music lovers alike, as this album has come to impress all the way."<ref name=pb>{{cite web|url=http://www.planetbollywood.com/displayReview.php?id=m092109033304 |title=London Dreams - music review by Ankit Ojha |publisher=PlanetBollywood.com |date=2009-09-17 |accessdate=2011-06-29}}</ref>

Vibhuti Patel of ''[[BBC UK]]'' gave the album a thumbs up, calling the album "a class above the usual bollywood fare."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/reviews/g84z/ |title=Music - Review of Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy - London Dreams |publisher=BBC |date= |access-date=2011-06-29}}</ref>

==Controversy==
The song "[[Barso Yaaron]]" ran into controversy as the song had a part where Salman Khan chants the [[Hanuman Chalisa]] in a rock concert. The [[Censor Board of India|censor board]] felt this might hurt some religious sentiments and asked director Vipul Shah to change the visuals. So Vipul went to Delhi and approached the tribunal, which accepted his point of view and passed the promos.<ref name=chalisasalman>{{cite news|last=Shah|first=Kunal|title=Salman can sing Hanuman Chalisa |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-09-21/news-interviews/28079645_1_hanuman-chalisa-promos-vinayak-azad|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120902080810/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-09-21/news-interviews/28079645_1_hanuman-chalisa-promos-vinayak-azad|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-09-02|accessdate=29 June 2011|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=2009-09-21}}</ref>

Composer [[Ehsaan Noorani]] of the trio, later commented, "First there was a bit of worry because you know how in this country everything is sensitive. When it came through, it is a very innocent depiction of Hanuman Chalisa. It is very valid. Whenever we start our concert, we start with a Ganesh shloka."<ref name=ehsaanchalisa>{{cite web|last=Mahaldar|first=Manisha|title=Chalisa in London Dreams not derogator: Ehsaan|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/ehsaan-says-hanuman-chalisa-in-london-dreams-not-derogatory/104243-8.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102060739/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/ehsaan-says-hanuman-chalisa-in-london-dreams-not-derogatory/104243-8.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 November 2009|publisher=IBNLive|accessdate=29 June 2011}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy}}
[[Category:Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy soundtracks]]
[[Category:2009 soundtrack albums]]

Harsud

2025-07-23T15:29:19Z

Tumita7029: minor fixed references based on references and added references

{{Use Indian English|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Harsud
| native_name = हरसूद (छनेरा)
| native_name_lang = hi
| other_name = Channera
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Madhya Pradesh#India3
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Madhya Pradesh, India
| coordinates = {{coord|22.1|N|76.73|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Khandwa district|Khandwa]]
| established_title =  [[700 year old]]
| established_date =
| founder = [[Harshvardhan]]
| named_for =
| government_type = Nagar Parishad
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 15
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 244
| population_total = 22052
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = Hindi
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate = [[Vehicle registration plates of India|MP]]-12
| website =
}}
'''Harsud''' was a town and [[municipality]] in [[Khandwa]] in the Indian [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]]. Although the town was more than 700 years old, it was submerged under the waters of the [[Indirasagar Dam|Indira Sagar dam]] in July 2004.

==Geography==
Harsud was located at {{Coord|22.1|N|76.73|E|}}<ref>[http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/35/Harsud.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Harsud]</ref> and had an average elevation of 243 metres (800 feet). The town was relocated to [[Chhanera]] ('''New Harsud''')<ref>{{cite web|title=Only 5696 families moved out of Harsud|url=http://www.outlookindia.com/news/article/Only-5696-families-moved-out-of-Harsud/232028|publisher=OutlookIndia|accessdate=10 October 2014}}</ref> after the old town was submerged.

==Wards==
15 Wards in Harsud.
* Gandhi Ward
* Tilak Ward
* Asaf Ali Nagar
* Laxmibai Ward
* Mirza Ward
* Tughlaq Ward
* Meghnagar
* Jyotinagar
* Nehru Ward
* Sarojini Nagar
* Azamnagar
* Roopnagar
* Harsud Panchayat
* Sultania Ward
* Hanuman Nagar

==Demographics==
As of the 2001 Indian [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archivedate=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|accessdate=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> Harsud had a population of 15,871, and was 52% male and 48% female. Harsud's average [[literacy rate]] of 69%, 77% male literacy and 61% female literacy, was higher than the national average of 59.5%. 14% of Harsud's population was under 6 years of age.

== Religions ==

As of the 2011 Indian [[census]]

Hindu 81.87%

Muslim 16.61%

[[Jain]] 01.16%

Christian 0.32%

[[Sikh]] 0.01%

Others 0.02%

==References==
<references/>

{{Indore Division}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Khandwa district]]
[[Category:Khandwa]]