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Catherine Duleep Singh

2026-05-07T08:30:24Z

Thechhavigarg: created new biography

{{short description|English suffragette (1871 - 1942)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Catherine Duleep Singh
| image = Portrait of Princess Catherine Duleep Singh, by Lafayette Studio, 1897.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Portrait of Princess Catherine Duleep Singh, by Lafayette Studio, 1897
| birth_name = Catherine Hilda Duleep Singh
| birth_date = {{birth-date|27 October 1871}}
| birth_place = Elveden Hall, [[Elveden, Suffolk]], England
| death_date = {{death date and age|1942|11|8|1871|10|27|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Penn, Buckinghamshire]]
| father = [[Duleep Singh]]
| mother = [[Bamba Müller]]
| religion =
}}
'''Princess Catherine Hilda Duleep Singh''' (27 October 1871 – 8 November 1942) was the second daughter of [[Maharaja]] [[Duleep Singh|Sir Duleep Singh]] and his first wife [[Maharani]] [[Bamba Müller|Bamba (née Müller)]] and the granddaughter of Maharaja [[Ranjit Singh]] of the [[Sikh Empire]]. She was educated in England and in 1894 she was presented at Court. She became a [[suffrage|suffragist]] with her sisters, but did not take part in [[Emmeline Pankhurst]]’s [[Suffragette]] movement though her sister Sophia did.<ref>{{cite news |title=Celebrating Princess Catherine Duleep Singh |url=https://essexcdp.com/event/princesscatherine/ |access-date=24 July 2024 |work=Essex Cultural Diversity Project}}</ref>

She was a lifelong companion of governess Lina Schäfer and from 1904 lived with her in Germany until the latter's death in 1937. She requested her burial at Lina's side in her will. Catherine and Lina were instrumental in aiding many Jewish families escape from Germany during the 1930s.<ref name="auto">Homegrown article - [https://homegrown.co.in/homegrown-voices/meet-the-anti-fascist-lesbian-punjabi-princess-who-saved-countless-jewish-lives#:~:text=Catherine%20Duleep%20Singh%20was%20not,legacy%20of%20the%20eminent%20princess. <bdi>Meet The Anti-Fascist Lesbian Punjabi Princess Who Saved Countless Jewish Lives</bdi>]</ref>

In June 1997, her name was in the news upon the discovery of a dormant joint (with Schäfer) bank account in a Swiss bank. After several claimants had been rejected, the contents of the bank account were awarded by a Swiss tribunal to the family of a secretary of her elder sister [[Bamba Sutherland|Bamba]] in Pakistan.

== Biography ==
Singh was born on 27 October 1871 at [[Elveden Hall]], [[Suffolk]], in [[England]]. She was the second daughter of [[Maharaja Dalip Singh|Maharaja Duleep Singh]] and [[Bamba Müller]]. She had an elder sister [[Bamba Sutherland|Bamba Sofia Jindan]] (1869–1957), a younger sister [[Sophia Duleep Singh|Sophia Alexandra]] (1876–1948), three brothers{{snds}}[[Victor Duleep Singh|Victor Albert Jay]] (1866–1918), [[Frederick Duleep Singh|Frederick Victor]] (1868–1926), and Albert Edward Alexander (1879–1942), and two half-sisters{{snds}}[[Pauline Duleep Singh|Pauline Alexandra]] (1887–1941) and [[Irene Duleep Singh|Ada Irene Beryl]] (1889–1926) by Duleep Singh's second marriage, to Ada Douglas Wetherill. Sophia was the best known of the sisters as she was an active suffragette.
[[File:Photograph of three daughters (Sophia, Bamba, and Catherine) of Maharaja Duleep Singh and Bamba Müller in May 1895 (Peter Bance Collection) (cropped).jpg|thumb|250x250px|Catherine in centre with Bamba on the left and Sophia on the right]]
In 1886 her father attempted to move to India with his daughters but was prevented from entering India and forced to return from [[Aden]]. Catherine and her sisters then stayed at Folkestone, at 21{{nbsp}}Clifton Street. Initially, Queen Victoria had desired to put them under the care of Lady Login but on the advice of the [[India Office]] in London their care was entrusted to Arthur Oliphant and his wife; Oliphant's father had worked as an [[equerry]].<ref name="Net">{{Cite web|url=http://gw.geneanet.org/garric?lang=it&p=catherine+hilda&n=duleep+singh|title=Essai de Généalogie par Alain Garric: Catherine Hilda Duleep Singh|language=Italian|access-date=12 June 2016|publisher= Geneanet.org}}</ref> It was during this period that the princess was introduced to Fräulein Lina Schäfer, a German teacher and governess from [[Kassel]] who was twelve years her senior. The Princess then developed a deep and intimate bond with Schäfer that lasted until the latter's death.<ref name="Net" />
[[File:Photograph of Princess Catherine Duleep Singh with fellow students at Somerville Hall, Oxford University, 1893.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Princess Catherine Duleep Singh with fellow students at Somerville Hall, Oxford University, 1893]]

Singh and her older sister Bamba were educated at [[Somerville College, Oxford]].{{Sfn|Singh|Tatla|2006|p=45}}{{sfn|Visram|2002|p=103}}<ref name="Singh Oxford DNB">{{cite web|author=Bhupinder Singh Bance |title=Duleep Singh, Princess Catherine Hilda (1871–1942)
|url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-105619 |work=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |accessdate=21 April 2014 |date=October 2013}}</ref> During this period she received private instruction in violin and singing. She was also given swimming lessons.<ref name="Net" /> She was considered the prettiest among the three sisters; she and her sisters were [[debutante]]s at [[Buckingham Palace]] in 1895, dressed gracefully in fashionable white silk.<ref name="History">{{Cite web|url=http://historysheroes.e2bn.org/hero/timeline/3521|title=Princess Sophia Duleep Singh –Timeline|access-date=16 June 2016|publisher=History Heroes organization}}</ref> Like her sister Sophia, Catherine also became a [[suffragist]]. She was a member of the Fawcett Women's Suffrage Group and the [[National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies]] (NUWSS), also known as the Suffragists.<ref name="Lyell" />[[File:Princess Catherine Hilda Duleep Singh.png|thumb|right|Princess Catherine Hilda Duleep Singh (before 1940)]]In 1903, she toured India, went to her ancestral home in [[Lahore]] and other places such as [[Kashmir]], [[Dalhousie, India|Dalhousie]], [[Simla]], and [[Amritsar]]. She also visited the princely states of [[Kapurthala]], [[Nabha]], [[Jind]], and [[Patiala]] and interacted with both the royalty and the local people. After her return from India in March 1904 she lived in Europe with her former governess Lina Schäfer in the [[Black Forest]], in [[Kassel]] and in [[Dresden]] and also visited her family in Switzerland.<ref name="Net" />

Singh spent most of her adult life with Lina Schäfer.<ref name=Net/><ref name= Lyell/> During World War{{nbsp}}I she lived with Schäfer in Germany at the risk of being called a traitor. None of the family members seemed to have opposed this relationship, which Catherine is said to have appreciated.<ref name=Net/><ref name=Lyell>{{Cite web|last=Lyell|first=Carrie|url=http://www.divamag.co.uk/category/lifestyle/catherine-duleep-singh-sikh-suffragette.aspx|title=Remembering Catherine Duleep Singh As part of Black History Month, we remember a Sikh suffragette|date=21 October 2015|access-date=16 June 2016|publisher=DIVA magazine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807040634/http://www.divamag.co.uk/category/lifestyle/catherine-duleep-singh-sikh-suffragette.aspx|archive-date=2016-08-07|url-status=dead}}</ref> When the Nazis came to power, on the advice of Dr.{{nbsp}}Fritz Ratig, her neighbour and accountant, she left Germany in November 1937 after disposing of all her property and moved to England via Switzerland.<ref name=Net/> Schäfer died on 26{{nbsp}}August 1938 at the age of 79,<ref>[http://www.kassel-wilhelmshoehe.de/villen.html#07 Information about Lina Schäfer and her residence in Kassel (in German)] See text for house no. 15: "Sie starb am 26. August 1938 in ihrem Haus in der Schloßteichstraße 15 in Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe im Alter von 79 Jahren."</ref>

===Death===
Catherine Singh died due to a [[heart attack]] on 8{{nbsp}}November 1942 at [[Penn, Buckinghamshire|Penn]]. On the evening of her death she and her sister Sophia had attended a drama in the village, dined in Colehatch House, and retired for the night. The next morning, when the maid attending Singh found her room locked, she informed Sophia who rushed and broke open the door and found her sister dead. The doctor declared her death as due to heart failure. Sophia was inconsolable at her sister's death. She was the only relative who attended the cremation of Singh due to [[World War II]]. In memory of her sister, Sophia renamed the Colehatch House "Hilden Hall", adding Catherine's middle name, and sealed the room where she had died.{{Sfn|Anand|2015|pp=367–68}} Her last surviving sister took her ashes to Germany so that they could be placed with Lina's remains.<ref name="auto"/>

When Catherine Singh died she left a will dated 1935 in which she stated "I, Princess Catherine Hilda Duleep Singh desire to be cremated and the ashes buried at Elveden in Suffolk. I give my gold jewellery, my long pearl necklace and my wearing apparel to my sisters Princess Bamba Sofia Jindan Sutherland and Princess Sophia Alexandra Duleep Singh". In a [[codicil (will)|codicil]] she had also requested that a quarter of her ashes be "buried as near as possible to the coffin of my friend Fräulein Lina Schäfer at the Principal Cemetery at Kassel in Germany". However, there was no mention of a bank account and a vault in her name in a Swiss bank in [[Zurich]], which were revealed to the public many years later.<ref name=Dalip/>

==Legacy in Swiss bank==

In July 1997 a news item appeared which was related to a list of more than 5,000 dormant accounts in Swiss banks published by the [[Swiss Bankers Association]] at the insistence of [[Holocaust Survivors|Holocaust survivors]]. This list contained the name of the Princess with the address recorded as "Duleep Singh, Catherine (Princess), last heard of in 1942 living in Penn, Bucks", as one of the account holders. These accounts had not been operated since the end of the Second World War.{{Sfn|Singh|Tatla|2006|p=45}}<ref name=Dalip>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/m/maharaja-dalip-singh/|title=Maharaja Dalip Singh|access-date=16 June 2016|publisher= Victoria and Albert Museum}}</ref><ref name= Vinayak>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/heritage/story/20011217-descendants-of-lahore-based-muslim-family-surprise-inheritors-of-punjabi-princess-legacy-774834-2001-12-16|title=Claim to fame Descendants of a Lahore-based Muslim family are the surprise inheritors of a Punjabi princess' legacy|date=17 December 2001|access-date=16 June 2016|publisher=India Today}}</ref>

There were a large number of claimants to the joint account of the Princess with her governess Lina Schäfer, from the [[Government of India]] and relatives in Punjab and Pakistan. There were no recorded living direct descendants of the family as none of Duleep Singh's children had any offspring. A three-member Claims Resolution Tribunal was set up in [[Zurich]] to process the claims.

During the three years of hearings on the claims of various parties held by the tribunal, the Government of India's claim was considered untenable as the princess had not ruled over any princely state and her account in the bank was private. The tribunal also rejected all the claims from her relations in India and Europe.

The tribunal then identified the Supra family of Pakistan as potential beneficiaries. Catherine's 1935 will had named her sister Bamba as a beneficiary, and in 1942 Bamba, who was also childless, had bequeathed her fortune to her caretaker-cum-tutor Supra. The tribunal then gave its award in favour of Supra's "five living sons{{snds}}four in Pakistan and one in India{{snds}}and his deceased daughter's children would receive an equal share of the assets besides the interest on the amount". The assets totalled 137,323 Swiss Francs (Rs 39.8 lakh).<ref name="Vinayak" />

== Ancestry ==
{{ahnentafel|1. '''Princess Catherine Duleep Singh'''|2. [[Duleep Singh|High King Duleep Singh of Punjab]]|3. [[Bamba Müller]]|4. [[Ranjit Singh|High King Ranjit Singh of Punjab]]|5. [[Jind Kaur]]|6. Ludwig Müller|7. Sofiá|8. [[Maha Singh|Sardar Maha Singh]]|9. [[Raj Kaur]]|10. Manna Singh|collapsed=yes|align=center|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;|16=[[Charat Singh|Sardar Charat Singh]]|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;|32=[[Naudh Singh]]|64=[[Budha Singh]]}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last= Anand |first=Anita |title=Sophia: Princess, Suffragette, Revolutionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5SlBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA368|year=2015|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4088-3546-3}}
*{{cite book|last1= Singh |first1=Gurharpal |last2= Tatla |first2=Darsham Singh |title=Sikhs in Britain: The Making of a Community|url=https://archive.org/details/sikhsinbritainma0000sing|url-access= registration |page= [https://archive.org/details/sikhsinbritainma0000sing/page/45 45] |year=2006|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-84277-717-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Visram|first=Rozina |title=Asians In Britain: 400 Years of History|url=https://archive.org/details/asiansinbritain40068visr|url-access=registration|year= 2002|publisher=Pluto Press|isbn=978-0-7453-1378-8}}

== External links ==

* https://blog.hrp.org.uk/curators/hampton-court-princess-catherine-duleep-singh/
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Catherine Duleep}}
[[Category:Alumni of Somerville College, Oxford]]
[[Category:1871 births]]
[[Category:1942 deaths]]
[[Category:English socialites]]
[[Category:People from Elveden]]
[[Category:English suffragists]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era]]
[[Category:English people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:English people of German descent]]
[[Category:English expatriates in Germany]]
[[Category:English women civil rights activists]]

Shirol Assembly constituency

2026-05-06T22:32:15Z

Thechhavigarg: creating new post with sources...

{{Short description|Constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Shirol
| map_image = 280-Shirol.svg
| map_caption = Rajendra Patil, present MLA of Shirol
| mla = [[Rajendra Patil| Dr. Rajendra S. Patil (Yadravkar)]]
| party = {{Color box|#F58E7D}} [[Rajendra Patil|RSVA]]
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| state = [[Maharashtra]]
| district = [[Kolhapur district|Kolhapur]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Hatkanangle (Lok Sabha constituency)|Hatkanangle]]
| established = 1962
| reservation = None
| incumbent_image = Rajendra Patil Yadravkar.jpg
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 280
| electors = 329,732
}}

'''Shirol Assembly constituency''' is one of the 288 [[Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha|Vidhan Sabha]] (legislative assembly) constituencies in [[Maharashtra]] state in western [[India]].

==Overview==
Shirol (constituency number 280) is one of the ten Vidhan Sabha constituencies located in [[Kolhapur district]].<ref name=ceo>{{cite web|url=http://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/acs.php|title=District wise List of Assembly and Parliamentary Constituencies|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Maharashtra website|access-date=5 September 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225084439/http://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/acs.php|archive-date=25 February 2009}}</ref> This constituency covers the entire Shirol tehsil of this district.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|publisher=The Election Commission of India|page=274}}</ref>

Shirol is part of the [[Hatkanangle Lok Sabha constituency]] along with five other Vidhan Sabha segments, namely [[Shahuwadi Assembly constituency|Shahuwadi]], [[Hatkanangale Assembly constituency|Hatkanangale]] and [[Ichalkaranji Assembly constituency|Ichalkaranji]] in Kolhapur district and [[Islampur (Maharashtra) Assembly constituency|Islampur]] and [[Shirala Assembly constituency|Shirala]] in [[Sangli district]].<ref name=ceo/>

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFB2B2" | [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Bagade Rajaram Tukaram || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| bgcolor="#FFB2B2" | [[1957 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1957]] || Patil Satgonda Ravagonda || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1962]] || Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
| [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1967]] || rowspan="3" | [[Ratnappa Kumbhar|Dr. Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar]]
|-
| [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
|-
| [[1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
|-
| [[1980 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1980]] || Yadav Dinkarrao Bhausaheb || {{Full party name with color|Peasants and Workers Party of India}}
|-
| [[1985 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1985]] || Khanjire Sarojani Babasaheb || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
| [[1990 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1990]] || rowspan="2" | [[Ratnappa Kumbhar|Dr. Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar]]
|-
| [[1995 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1995]]
|-
| [[1999 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|1999]] || Satgonda Revgonda Patil
|-
| [[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2004]] || [[Raju Shetti]] || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[2009 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2009]] || Satgonda Revgonda Patil || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[2014 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2014]] || [[Ulhas Patil|Ulhas Sambhaji Patil]] || {{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena}}
|-
| [[2019 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2019]] || rowspan="2" | [[Rajendra Patil Yadravkar|Dr. Rajendra Patil Yadravkar]] || {{Full party name with color|Independent politician}}
|-
| [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election|2024]] || {{Full party name with color|Rajarshi Shahu Vikas Aghadi}}
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 2024 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Rajendra Patil Yadravkar|Dr. Rajendra Patil Yadravkar]] |party = Rajarshi Shahu Vikas Aghadi |votes = 134,630 |percentage = 52.21% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ganpatrao Appasaheb Patil |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 93,814 |percentage = 36.38% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Ulhas Patil|Ulhas Sambhaji Patil]] |party = Swabhimani Paksha |votes = 25,010 |percentage = 9.70% |change = {{decrease}}12.55 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,289 |percentage = 0.50% |change = {{decrease}}0.05 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 40,816 |percentage = 15.83% |change = {{increase}}3.88 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 259,133 |percentage = 78.59% |change = {{increase}}3.81 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 257,844}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 329,732 |ref = |change = {{increase}}5.23 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Rajarshi Shahu Vikas Aghadi |loser = Independent politician |swing = {{increase}}13.54 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2019 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2019 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref name="election2019">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/11699-maharashtra-legislative-assembly-election-2019/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 2019 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 2 February 2022 |url-access=limited}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Rajendra Patil Yadravkar|Dr. Rajendra Patil Yadravkar]] |party = Independent politician |votes = 90,038 |percentage = 38.67% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Ulhas Patil|Ulhas Sambhaji Patil]] |party = Shiv Sena |votes = 62,214 |percentage = 26.72% |change = {{decrease}}4.84 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Anil Alias Savkar Balu Madnaik |party = Swabhimani Paksha |votes = 51,804 |percentage = 22.25% |change = {{increase}}0.63 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Anilkumar Dinkarrao Yadav |party = Jan Surajya Shakti |votes = 14,776 |percentage = 6.35% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Sunil Ramchandra Khot |party = Vanchit Bahujan Aaghadi |votes = 9,589 |percentage = 4.12% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Pramoddada Suresh Patil |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,821 |percentage = 1.21% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,287 |percentage = 0.55% |change = {{decrease}}0.03 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 27,824 |percentage = 11.95% |change = {{increase}}3.02 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 234,318 |percentage = 74.78% |change = {{decrease}}3.62 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 232,811}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 313,330 |ref = |change = {{increase}}8.56 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Independent politician |loser = Shiv Sena |swing = {{increase}}7.11 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2014 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2014 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref name="election2014">{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/11699-maharashtra-legislative-assembly-election-2014/ |title=Maharashtra Legislative Assembly Election, 2014 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 2 February 2022 |url-access=limited}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Ulhas Patil|Ulhas Sambhaji Patil]] |party = Shiv Sena |votes = 70,809 |percentage = 31.56% |change = {{increase}}16.64 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Rajendra Patil Yadravkar|Dr. Rajendra Patil Yadravkar]] |party = Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 50,776 |percentage = 22.63% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Savakar Madnaik |party = Swabhimani Paksha |votes = 48,511 |percentage = 21.62% |change = {{decrease}}15.30 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Appasaheb Alias Satgonda Revgonda Patil |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 48,066 |percentage = 21.42% |change = {{decrease}}24.23 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kadale Suresh Mallu |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,580 |percentage = 1.15% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = None of the above |party = None of the above |votes = 1,291 |percentage = 0.58% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 20,033 |percentage = 8.93% |change = {{increase}}0.19 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 226,276 |percentage = 78.40% |change = {{increase}}4.50 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 224,350}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 288,630 |ref = |change = {{increase}}13.16 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Shiv Sena |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}14.09 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2009 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2009 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref>{{cite web|publisher= Chief Eletoral Officer, [[Maharashtra]]|title=General Elections to State Legislative Assembly 2009 |url=https://ceoelection.maharashtra.gov.in/pdff/vidhanresult.pdf|archive-url= http://web.archive.org/web/20240708005931/https://ceoelection.maharashtra.gov.in/pdff/vidhanresult.pdf|archive-date=8 July 2024|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Satgonda Revgonda Patil |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 85,941 |percentage = 45.65% |change = {{increase}}21.29 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Ulhas Patil|Ulhas Sambhaji Patil]] |party = Swabhimani Paksha |votes = 69,495 |percentage = 36.92% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kurade Raju Annu |party = Shiv Sena |votes = 28,084 |percentage = 14.92% |change = {{increase}}8.11 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Mane Shankarrao Krishnarao |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 2,452 |percentage = 1.30% |change = {{decrease}}0.58 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Bhandare Satish Bhagwan |party = Independent politician |votes = 2,280 |percentage = 1.21% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 16,446 |percentage = 8.74% |change = {{decrease}}2.00 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 188,507 |percentage = 73.90% |change = {{decrease}}0.02 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 188,252}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 255,072 |ref = |change = {{increase}}8.02 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Independent politician |swing = {{increase}}10.55 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 2004 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[2004 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Raju Shetti]] |party = Independent politician |votes = 61,254 |percentage = 35.10% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Magdum Rajanitai Vishwanath |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 42,507 |percentage = 24.36% |change = {{decrease}}20.45 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Patil Rajendra Shamrao Yadravakar |party = Independent politician |votes = 34,593 |percentage = 19.82% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Bhau Alias Pundlik Krishna Jadhav |party = Shiv Sena |votes = 11,884 |percentage = 6.81% |change = {{decrease}}12.63 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Patil Diliprao Baburao |party = Independent politician |votes = 11,550 |percentage = 6.62% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Faruk Faijulkhan Pathan |party = Jan Surajya Shakti |votes = 8,109 |percentage = 4.65% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Prof. Mane Bhagwan Maruti |party = Bahujan Samaj Party |votes = 3,281 |percentage = 1.88% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ramdas Bapuso Koli |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,348 |percentage = 0.77% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 18,747 |percentage = 10.74% |change = {{decrease}}0.01 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 174,548 |percentage = 73.92% |change = {{increase}}1.40 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 174,526}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 236,124 |ref = |change = {{increase}}12.82 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Independent politician |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}9.71 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1999 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1999 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1999 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-MH99.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117044316/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1999/StatisticalReport-MH99.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Satgonda Revgonda Patil |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 65,174 |percentage = 44.81% |change = {{decrease}}7.39 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Anna Alias Shamrao Patil Yadravkar |party = Nationalist Congress Party |votes = 49,540 |percentage = 34.06% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Khot Anna Alies Mansingrao Shankarrao |party = Shiv Sena |votes = 28,270 |percentage = 19.44% |change = {{increase}}16.96 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Anwar Chandan Jamadar |party = Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh |votes = 1,276 |percentage = 0.88% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Bhandare Devppanna Baburao |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,176 |percentage = 0.81% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 15,634 |percentage = 10.75% |change = {{decrease}}5.22 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 151,784 |percentage = 72.52% |change = {{decrease}}8.47 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 145,436}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 209,299 |ref = |change = {{increase}}1.70 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}7.39 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1995 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1995 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1995 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-MH95.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117121534/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1995/StatisticalReport-MH95.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Ratnappa Kumbhar|Dr. Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 85,533 |percentage = 52.20% |change = {{decrease}}0.42 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shamrao Patil (Yadravkar) Alias Shamgonda Babgonda Patil |party = Independent politician |votes = 59,365 |percentage = 36.23% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = K. B. Dange |party = Communist Party of India |votes = 6,961 |percentage = 4.25% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Nirmal Shankarrao Bala |party = Janata Dal |votes = 5,153 |percentage = 3.14% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Ghorpade Nivruti Baburao |party = Shiv Sena |votes = 4,058 |percentage = 2.48% |change = {{decrease}}2.12 }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 26,168 |percentage = 15.97% |change = {{increase}}1.41 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 166,671 |percentage = 80.99% |change = {{increase}}3.13 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 163,848}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 205,797 |ref = |change = {{increase}}17.48 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}0.42 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1990 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1990 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1990 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_MT_90.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117080722/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1990/StatRep_MT_90.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Ratnappa Kumbhar|Dr. Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 71,081 |percentage = 52.62% |change = {{decrease}}0.72 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shamgonda Kalgonda Patil |party = Independent politician |votes = 51,415 |percentage = 38.06% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Vilas Shripati Ugale |party = Shiv Sena |votes = 6,209 |percentage = 4.60% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Dinkarrao Bhauso Yadav |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 4,424 |percentage = 3.27% |change = {{decrease}}38.63 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Appaso Annapa Bandgar |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,057 |percentage = 0.78% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 19,666 |percentage = 14.56% |change = {{increase}}3.12 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 136,393 |percentage = 77.86% |change = {{increase}}9.21 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 135,084}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 175,176 |ref = |change = {{increase}}28.91 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}0.72 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1985 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1985 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1985 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201985.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117075119/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1985/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201985.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Khanjire Sarojani Babasaheb |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 49,103 |percentage = 53.34% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Yadav Dinkarrao Bhausaheb |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 38,571 |percentage = 41.90% |change = {{decrease}}9.07 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Jamadar Anwar Chandan |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,655 |percentage = 3.97% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 10,532 |percentage = 11.44% |change = {{increase}}8.49 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 93,290 |percentage = 68.65% |change = {{decrease}}8.15 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 92,049}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 135,891 |ref = |change = {{increase}}13.00 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Peasants and Workers Party of India |swing = {{increase}}2.37 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1980 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1980 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1980 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Maharashtra.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120117083555/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1980/Statistical%20Report%201980%20Maharashtra.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Yadav Dinkarrao Bhausaheb |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 46,288 |percentage = 50.97% |change = {{increase}}14.53 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Ratnappa Kumbhar|Dr. Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar]] |party = Indian National Congress (I) |votes = 43,610 |percentage = 48.02% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,678 |percentage = 2.95% |change = {{decrease}}11.33 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 92,357 |percentage = 76.80% |change = {{decrease}}5.68 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 90,819}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 120,253 |ref = |change = {{increase}}11.76 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Peasants and Workers Party of India |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}0.25 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1978 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1978 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1978 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%201978%20Maharashtra.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629182050/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1978/Statistical%20Report%201978%20Maharashtra.pdf|archive-date=29 June 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Ratnappa Kumbhar|Dr. Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 44,205 |percentage = 50.72% |change = {{decrease}}24.38 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Yadav Dinkarrao Bhausaheb |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 31,756 |percentage = 36.44% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Nimbalkar Rajsingh Appaseheb Alias Bantiraje Khardekar |party = Janata Party |votes = 10,675 |percentage = 12.25% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 12,449 |percentage = 14.28% |change = {{decrease}}38.27 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 88,743 |percentage = 82.48% |change = {{increase}}1.81 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 87,148}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 107,595 |ref = |change = {{increase}}4.48 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}24.38 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1972 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1972 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519183024/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1972/StatReport_MT_72.pdf|archive-date=19 May 2017|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Ratnappa Kumbhar|Dr. Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 61,330 |percentage = 75.10% |change = {{increase}}23.29 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Jadhav S. Rao Ganpatrao |party = Samyukta Socialist Party |votes = 18,412 |percentage = 22.55% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kore Shankarrao Shivling |party = Bharatiya Jana Sangh |votes = 1,923 |percentage = 2.35% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 42,918 |percentage = 52.55% |change = {{increase}}48.67 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 83,074 |percentage = 80.67% |change = {{decrease}}6.91 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 81,665}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 102,979 |ref = |change = {{increase}}19.51 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{increase}}23.29 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1967 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1967 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1967 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926233227/https://www.eci.nic.in/eci_main/statisticalreports/SE_1967/Statistical%20Report%20Maharashtra%201967.pdf|archive-date=26 September 2018|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Ratnappa Kumbhar|Dr. Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 37,897 |percentage = 51.81% |change = {{decrease}}16.32 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Satgonda Revgonda Patil |party = Independent politician |votes = 35,057 |percentage = 47.93% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 2,840 |percentage = 3.88% |change = {{decrease}}37.10 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 75,463 |percentage = 87.58% |change = {{increase}}1.18 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 73,149}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 86,167 |ref = |change = {{increase}}19.66 }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}16.32 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1962 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1962 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1962 to the Legislative Assembly of Maharashtra |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117085627/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1962/StatRep_Maharastra_1962.pdf|archive-date=17 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 40,986 |percentage = 68.13% |change = {{increase}}20.91 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Satgonda Revgonda Patil |party = Independent politician |votes = 16,335 |percentage = 27.15% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Imam Yakub Matwal |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 2,390 |percentage = 3.97% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Bhavarilal Devkaran Baladava |party = Independent politician |votes = 446 |percentage = 0.74% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 24,651 |percentage = 40.98% |change = {{increase}}37.90 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 62,211 |percentage = 86.40% |change = {{increase}}8.80 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 60,157}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 72,007 |ref = |change = {{increase}}17.29 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Indian National Congress |loser = Independent politician |swing = {{increase}}17.82 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1957 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1957 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1957 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Bombay_1957.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114093455/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1957/StatRep_Bombay_1957.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Patil Satgonda Ravagonda |party = Independent politician |votes = 23,965 |percentage = 50.31% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = [[Ratnappa Kumbhar|Dr. Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 22,496 |percentage = 47.22% |change = {{decrease}}8.03 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Patil Sitaram Sakharam |party = Independent politician |votes = 1,177 |percentage = 2.47% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 1,469 |percentage = 3.08% |change = {{decrease}}30.83 }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 47,638 |percentage = 77.60% |change = {{increase}}5.39 }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 47,638}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 61,391 |ref = |change = {{increase}}17.29 }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner = Independent politician |loser = Indian National Congress |swing = {{decrease}}4.94 }}
{{Election box end}}

=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Shirol <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114083220/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Bagade Rajaram Tukaram |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 20,883 |percentage = 55.25% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Managave Jinnappa Lingappa |party = Socialist Party (India, 1948) |votes = 8,067 |percentage = 21.34% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Yadav Dinkarrao Bhausaheb |party = Peasants and Workers Party of India |votes = 7,403 |percentage = 19.59% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kulkarni Malhar Dhondu |party = Independent politician |votes = 963 |percentage = 2.55% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Shah Devchand Uttamchand |party = Independent politician |votes = 483 |percentage = 1.28% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 12,816 |percentage = 33.91% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 37,799 |percentage = 72.21% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 37,799}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 52,343 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Shirol]]
* [[List of constituencies of Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Kolhapur district topics}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra}}
{{coord|16.74|74.60|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Kolhapur district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Politics of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1962]]
[[Category:1962 establishments in Maharashtra]]

Mughal fiscal system

2026-05-01T13:37:11Z

Thechhavigarg: started the pg nd citations...

{{Short description|Land revenue and taxation apparatus of the Mughal Empire (1526–1858)}}
{{About|the imperial fiscal apparatus of the Mughal Empire|the broader economy|Economy of the Mughal Empire|the cash-revenue assessment system|Zabt}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox
| name = Mughal fiscal system
| image = [[File:Manuscript painting of the author and advisor, Abul Fazl, seated on a terrace with the completed chronicles before him, from an illustrated 'Ain-i-Akbari' manuscript commissioned by the Sikh Empire.jpg|frameless|upright=1.12|alt=Manuscript painting of Abu'l-Fazl seated on a terrace with books and attendants]]
| caption = Later illustrated manuscript of [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abu'l-Fazl]] with the completed chronicles. The ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'' is the main contemporary record for Akbar's fiscal administration.
''zabt''–''dahsala'' revenue system.
| header1 = Territorial scope
| label2 = Empire
| data2 = [[Mughal Empire]]
| label3 = Period
| data3 = {{circa}} 1526–1858 (mature form {{circa}} 1580–1707)
| header4 = Fiscal architecture
| label5 = Assessment systems
| data5 = [[Zabt]] · [[Dahsala system|Dahsala]] · Nasaq · Kankut · Ghalla-bakhshi · Battai
| label6 = Principal coinage
| data6 = [[Mohur]] (gold) · Silver [[rupee]] · [[Dam (Indian coin)|Dam]] (copper)
| label7 = Assignment system
| data7 = [[Mansabdar|Mansab]]–[[jagir]]
| header8 = Administration
| label9 = Imperial head
| data9 = Diwan-i-Ala (occasionally titled Wazir)
| label10 = Provincial head
| data10 = Diwan-i-Suba
| label11 = Principal architect
| data11 = [[Todar Mal|Raja Todar Mal]], finance minister to [[Akbar]]
| header12 = Record
| label13 = Principal primary source
| data13 = ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'' ({{circa}} 1595)
| label14 = Imperial jama ({{circa}} 1595)
| data14 = {{circa}} 3.62 ''arab'' dams ({{circa}} ₹10.15 crore)
}}
{{History of South Asia|state=collapsed}}

The '''Mughal fiscal system''' was the land-revenue, taxation, and expenditure apparatus of the [[Mughal Empire]] in the Indian subcontinent from the early sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century. Centred on a cash-denominated land tax ({{lang|fa-Latn|jama}}) that funded a ranked nobility ([[mansabdar]]s) through revocable revenue assignments ({{lang|fa-Latn|jagir}}s), the system reached its mature form under [[Akbar]] (r. 1556–1605) and his finance minister [[Todar Mal|Raja Todar Mal]], whose measurement-based ''zabt'' and ten-year ''dahsala'' settlements of the 1580s were recorded in the ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'' of Abu'l-Fazl.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=228}}{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=79–93}} Its architecture drew on [[Delhi Sultanate]] and [[Sher Shah Suri|Suri]] precedents but was re-engineered into a uniform cash assessment keyed to pargana-level schedules of rates (''dastur-ul-amals'').{{sfn|Moreland|1929|pp=258}}

At its core were four interlocking institutions: a measured land tax, assessed on average produce and collected primarily in silver [[rupee]]s; a graded service elite whose ''dhat'' and ''suwar'' ranks fixed both status and military obligation; a system of revocable assignments that transferred the right to realise the tax from a defined territory in lieu of salary; and an imperial demesne ({{lang|fa-Latn|khalisa}}) whose collections flowed directly to the imperial treasury. Imperial finance was directed by the ''diwan-i-ala'', provincial finance by the ''diwan-i-suba'', and collection at the district and pargana levels by ''amils'', ''karoris'', ''qanungo''s, and [[Chowdhury|chaudhuris]].{{sfn|Alam|1986|pp=210}}{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=117}}

The system was never uniform across the empire. ''Zabt'' and ''dahsala'' were enforced comprehensively only across the Hindustani core of Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Allahabad, Awadh, Ajmer, and Malwa; [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]] operated on ''nasaq'' estimate-assessment, the [[Deccan]] retained its pre-Mughal ''deshmukhi'' structures within an imperial framework, and hilly or newly conquered tracts used crop-sharing variants (''ghalla-bakhshi'', ''battai'', ''kankut''). The operational vocabulary itself, Persian-Arabic for the imperial chancery and Indic for the pargana register, was layered on Delhi Sultanate and Suri precedent rather than invented wholly under Akbar.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=230–297}}{{sfn|Moreland|1929|pp=32}}

Non-agrarian revenue, including customs and transit dues ({{lang|fa-Latn|[[rahdari]]}}, {{lang|fa-Latn|[[Dastak (trade permit)|dastak]]}}), the poll tax on non-Muslims ([[jizya]]) reintroduced by [[Aurangzeb]] in 1679, escheat on the estates of deceased nobles, and ceremonial presents ({{lang|fa-Latn|[[nazr]]}} and ''peshkash''), supplemented the land tax but remained small relative to it.{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=93}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=242–247}} A bimetallic currency anchored on the silver rupee, gold [[mohur]], and copper [[Dam (Indian coin)|dam]], heavily supplied by bullion imports from Spanish America and Japan from the late sixteenth century onward, monetised the vast bulk of revenue flows.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=360–381}}{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=364}}

From the later seventeenth century the system entered a protracted crisis. Habib later identified the underlying mechanism as an [[Agrarian crisis of the Mughal Empire|agrarian crisis]] of the cultivator base, in which a high and rotating revenue demand produced peasant flight, zamindar militarisation, and a chronic gap between assessed (''jama'') and realised (''hasil'') revenue.<ref>{{cite book |last=Habib |first=Irfan |author-link=Irfan Habib |title=The Agrarian System of Mughal India 1556–1707 |edition=3rd |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New Delhi |orig-date=1963 |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-807742-8 |pages=364–405}}</ref> The mismatch between the number of sanctioned jagirs and the assignable revenue available (''bejagiri''), combined with [[Deccan wars|Aurangzeb's Deccan wars]], zamindar revolts, and shifts in bullion flows, eroded fiscal coherence across much of the empire.{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=27}}{{sfn|Alam|1986|pp=210}}{{sfn|Chandra|2002|pp=240–285}} After 1707 the imperial fiscal apparatus fragmented as successor states in [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]], [[Awadh]], [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]], and the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] dominion retained its vocabulary while capturing its revenues. Nineteenth-century British settlements, notably [[Permanent Settlement|Bengal's permanent settlement]], the [[mahalwari]] system of the north, and the [[ryotwari]] regimes of the Deccan and south, took as their baseline the Mughal jama, its subah geography, and its terminology of ''zamindar'', ''pargana'', and ''mauza''.{{sfn|Moreland|1923|pp=95–125}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=189}} Modern scholarship on the system was opened by [[William Harrison Moreland|W. H. Moreland]]'s interwar studies, systematised by the Aligarh school around [[Irfan Habib]], [[Satish Chandra]], and [[M. Athar Ali|Athar Ali]], and complicated from the 1980s by [[Muzaffar Alam]], [[Sanjay Subrahmanyam]], and [[John F. Richards]], who emphasised regional variation and the agency of provincial elites.{{sfn|Alam|Subrahmanyam|1998|pp=1–71}}{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=84}}

==Etymology and terminology==
The Mughal revenue administration drew its vocabulary from Persian, Arabic, and Indic sources, layered onto inheritances from the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and [[Sher Shah Suri|Suri]] regimes. "Fiscal" is a modern analytical label with no single contemporary equivalent; the chancery of [[Akbar]] used ''mal'' (wealth, revenue) and ''kharaj'' (land tax) from standard Islamic administrative usage, alongside paired Persian coinages such as ''jama'' (the assessed demand, literally "total") and ''hasil'' (the realised collection, literally "what has come in").{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=230–250}}{{sfn|Moreland|1929|pp=1–40}}

''Zabt'', literally "regulation" or "discipline", denoted the measurement-based cash-assessment system that [[Todar Mal|Raja Todar Mal]] systematised in the 1580s. ''Dahsala'' combined the Persian numeral ''dah'' ("ten") with ''sal'' ("year") and designated the rolling ten-year schedule of cash rates by pargana and crop first compiled around 1580.{{sfn|Abu'l-Fazl|1891|loc=vol 2, pp. 62–120}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=218}} Alternative assessment modes retained their pre-Mughal senses: ''nasaq'' (an estimate or rendering of accounts, not fresh measurement), ''kankut'' (an Indic-origin word for visual appraisal of standing grain), ''ghalla-bakhshi'' ("grain-sharing" at the threshing floor), and ''battai'' (division of the harvested crop).{{sfn|Moreland|1929|pp=248}}

The graded service elite used a fused Mongol and Central Asian vocabulary. ''Mansab'' meant literally "post" or "office"; the Mughals converted it into a double-number designation combining ''dhat'' (personal rank) and ''suwar'' (horsemen to be maintained).{{sfn|Alam|1986|pp=147}} ''Jagir'' ("holding place") denoted the revenue assignment that funded a mansabdar; the holder, a ''jagirdar'', was not a landowner but a fixed-term assignee of the imperial tax.{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=63–78}} ''Khalisa'' or ''khalsa'' (clear, reserved) designated revenue retained by the crown rather than assigned. The divergence between these categories and European notions of freehold would later structure colonial debate over whether the Mughal state had been a taxing sovereign or a proprietor of the land itself.{{sfn|Moreland|1929|pp=17}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=138–168}}

==Historical background==
===Pre-Mughal antecedents===
The fiscal institutions the Mughals inherited had developed over three centuries of Indo-Islamic rule. The [[Delhi Sultanate]], particularly under [[Alauddin Khalji]] (r. 1296–1316), had already imposed a measured land tax of up to half the produce across the Indo-Gangetic core and had experimented with pargana-level standardisation; the ''[[iqta']]'' assignment of revenue rights to cavalry commanders anticipated the later jagir in all but its bureaucratic apparatus.{{sfn|Moreland|1929|pp=148}}{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=86}} The [[Tughlaq dynasty]] under [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] (r. 1325–1351) pressed cash assessment further but collapsed the Doab economy in the process, and the fifteenth-century successor sultanates of Malwa, Gujarat, Jaunpur, and Bengal developed regionally distinct revenue schedules that the later Mughal surveyors would have to reconcile.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=79}}

[[File:Govardhan. Akbar With Lion and Calf ca. 1630, Metmuseum (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|alt=Mughal miniature painting of Emperor Akbar seated with a lion and calf|[[Akbar]] (r. 1556–1605), during whose reign the zabt and dahsala systems were codified. Miniature by Govardhan, {{circa}} 1630.]]

===Babur and Humayun===
The early Mughal regime lacked a distinctive fiscal system of its own. [[Babur]]'s 1526–1530 conquests rested on spoils, indemnities from vanquished Afghan nobles, and the assessments inherited from [[Ibrahim Lodi]]'s finance administration, which he instructed his officers to continue without disturbance.{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=6–18}} His son [[Humayun]] (r. 1530–1540, 1555–1556) retained these arrangements and experimented piecemeal with the distribution of jagirs among his Chaghatai and Persian nobles, but his defeats at the hands of [[Sher Shah Suri]] between 1539 and 1540 ended Mughal fiscal oversight north of the Indus for fifteen years.{{sfn|Alam|Subrahmanyam|1998|pp=83}}{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=6–18}}

===The Suri interregnum and Sher Shah's settlement===
The fiscal framework that Akbar inherited in 1556 was substantially the creation of Sher Shah Suri (r. 1540–1545) and his successor Islam Shah. Sher Shah ordered a measurement survey of the Doab using a standard bigha, assessed in cash at fixed rates by soil class and crop, and distinguished between the assessment nominally demanded from each village and the sum actually payable in cash after allowance for intermediaries.{{sfn|Moreland|1929|pp=80–140}}{{sfn|Moreland|1920|pp=117}} He also issued a reformed silver coin of 178 grains, the direct prototype of Akbar's rupee, which secured a stable monetary unit for the new assessments.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=360–381}} {{Quote box | quote = Many good men died from the severity of the exactions and the beatings, and many slew themselves in sheer desperation. | source = [['Abd al-Qadir Badayuni]], ''Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh'' (trans. W. H. Lowe, 1884){{sfn|Badauni|1884|loc=vol 2, pp. 189–220}} | align = right | width = 30% }}

On regaining [[Delhi]] in 1555 Humayun and then Akbar took over this apparatus without immediate redesign. The early Akbari reforms of the 1560s consolidated Suri precedent: the ''karori'' experiment of 1574, which appointed revenue officials responsible for the collection of one ''karor'' (ten million) of dams each, collapsed within eight years amid famine and corruption, and Abu'l-Fazl's contemporary [['Abd al-Qadir Badayuni|Abdul Qadir Badauni]] recorded that "many good men died" of the resulting exactions.{{sfn|Badauni|1884|loc=vol 2, pp. 189–220}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=232–246}} The failure of the karori scheme prompted the more ambitious redesign of the 1580s that became the zabt–dahsala system.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=207}}{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=104}}

==Structure and institutions==
[[File:Court of Akbar from Akbarnama.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|alt=Mughal miniature of Akbar holding court with nobles and officials|The court of Akbar, from the ''Akbarnama''. Fiscal policy emanated from the imperial diwan under direct supervision of the emperor.]]

===The imperial finance department===
At the apex of the fiscal apparatus stood the ''diwan-i-ala'' (or ''diwan-i-kul'', "supreme diwan"), an office usually identical with that of the ''wazir'' after Akbar abolished an independent vizierate in 1564. The diwan-i-ala supervised assessment, collection, the maintenance of the khalisa, the issue of jagir assignments through the ''khata-i-jagir'' register, and the audit of provincial accounts.{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=83}}{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=75–94}} Subordinate to the imperial diwan were the ''mustaufi'' (auditor general), the ''mushrif-i-mumalik'' (empire-wide accountant), and a pay office ({{lang|fa-Latn|bakhshi}}) that, after the military reorganisation of 1574, was formally distinct from the fiscal department but in practice interleaved with it because mansab pay and jagir revenue were two sides of the same ledger.{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=117}}{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=64–78}}

===Provincial finance===
Each of the twelve ''[[subah]]''s recorded in the ''Ain-i-Akbari'' of c. 1595 (later enlarged to fifteen with the annexation of Berar, Khandesh, and Ahmadnagar) was administered by four parallel imperial officers: a ''[[subahdar]]'' or provincial governor with military authority, a ''diwan-i-suba'' for finance, a ''[[Bakhshi (Mughal Empire)|bakhshi]]'' for mansab pay-rolls, and a ''sadr'' for charitable grants.{{sfn|Abu'l-Fazl|1891|loc=vol 2, pp. 115–400}}{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=94}} The deliberate separation of governor and diwan, both reporting directly to Agra or Delhi, was an administrative check against provincial fiscal autonomy; Akbar enforced it systematically from the 1580s.{{citation needed|date=April 2026}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=306}}

===District and pargana officers===
Below the province the collection chain ran through the sarkar (district) and pargana (sub-district). Each sarkar had its own bakhshi and ''[[faujdar]]'' (with police and revenue-enforcement authority).{{sfn|Abu'l-Fazl|1891|loc=vol 2, pp. 115–400}} At the pargana level the imperial officer was the ''amil'' (revenue collector), assisted by the ''[[karori]]'' (a revenue official nominally responsible for a quota of one karor of dams), the ''qanungo'' (local register-keeper), and the ''[[Chowdhury|chaudhuri]]'' (representative of local landholders).{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=230–297}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=286}} The qanungo and chaudhuri were hereditary offices drawn from the ''[[zamindar]]'' class; their local knowledge made Mughal assessment viable but also created a structural dependency on intermediary elites whose cooperation was indispensable but never fully aligned with imperial interests. Contemporary observers such as [[Francisco Pelsaert]] and [[François Bernier]] singled out these intermediaries as the principal agents of fiscal oppression on the ground.{{sfn|Pelsaert|1925|pp=85}}{{sfn|Bernier|1934|pp=225–260}}

==Land revenue==
Land revenue was the overwhelming source of Mughal state income; [[Shireen Moosvi]]'s statistical reconstruction of the ''Ain-i-Akbari'' returns puts it at roughly nine-tenths of all recorded revenue in 1595, a proportion that persisted through the seventeenth century.{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=160–190}}

[[File:AbulFazlPresentingAkbarnama.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|alt=Mughal miniature of Abu'l-Fazl presenting a bound manuscript to Akbar seated on a throne|[[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abu'l-Fazl]] presenting the ''[[Akbarnama]]'' to Akbar. Its third book, the ''[[Ain-i-Akbari]]'', recorded the cash rates per ''[[bigha]]'' on which the zabt assessment rested.]]

===Measurement: the zabt system===
The zabt system, systematised by Raja Todar Mal between 1582 and 1585, rested on three innovations. First, measurement of cultivated land in standardised ''[[bigha]]s'' using the ''jarib'' (a rope surveying instrument later replaced by a bamboo rod fitted with iron rings). Second, classification of each plot into one of four categories — ''polaj'' (continuously cultivated), ''parauti'' (temporarily fallowed), ''chachar'' (long-fallowed, three to five years), and ''banjar'' (uncultivated more than five years) — with graduated incentives for restoring abandoned land.{{sfn|Abu'l-Fazl|1891|loc=vol 2, pp. 62–120|p=81}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=263}} Third, recording of average produce per bigha for each crop and soil class over the preceding decade.{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=85}} The resulting schedules, the ''dastur-ul-amals'', fixed a cash demand per bigha per crop for each pargana.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=246–270}}

===Assessment methods===
Zabt, though archetypally Mughal, was never imposed uniformly across the empire. The ''Ain-i-Akbari'' records zabt only for the core zone of [[Agra Subah|Agra]], [[Delhi Subah|Delhi]], [[Subah of Lahore|Lahore]], [[Multan Subah|Multan]], [[Allahabad Subah|Allahabad]], [[Awadh Subah|Awadh]], [[Ajmer Subah|Ajmer]], and [[Malwa Subah|Malwa]], where the cultivation pattern and ecological uniformity made fixed rate schedules workable.{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=192}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=230–270}} Outside this zone, collection proceeded by alternative methods:

* '''Nasaq''' (estimate or book-assessment) was the dominant method in [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]] throughout the Mughal period. It dispensed with fresh measurement and levied a cash demand based on prior years' realised revenue, adjusted upward or downward at the diwan's discretion.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=185}}
* '''Ghalla-bakhshi''' and '''battai''' (both meaning "sharing") retained actual division of the grain heap at the threshing floor. Ghalla-bakhshi was the standard practice in forested, hilly, or newly conquered regions; battai was its equivalent in parts of central India and the Deccan.{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=69–109}}
* '''Kankut''' (visual appraisal) estimated the standing crop before harvest, applied where measurement was impractical but a cash demand was desired; it was common in Kashmir and the sub-Himalayan tracts.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=210}}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"
|+Comparison of Mughal land-revenue assessment methods
|-
! Method !! Literal meaning !! Payment basis !! Principal region
|-
| ''Zabt'' || Regulation || Cash per bigha per crop, fixed by ten-year ''dastur-ul-amal'' schedule || Hindustani core (Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Allahabad, Awadh, Ajmer, Malwa){{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=246–270}}
|-
| ''Nasaq'' || Estimate or rendering of accounts || Cash, adjusted from prior years' realised revenue at the diwan's discretion || Bengal throughout the Mughal period{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=270–280}}
|-
| ''Ghalla-bakhshi'' || Grain-sharing || Physical division of the grain heap at the threshing floor || Forested, hilly, and newly conquered tracts{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=192}}
|-
| ''Battai'' || Division || Physical division of the harvested crop || Central India and parts of the Deccan{{sfn|Moreland|1929|pp=248}}
|-
| ''Kankut'' || Visual appraisal || Cash demand estimated from the standing crop before harvest || Kashmir and the sub-Himalayan tracts{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=204}}
|}

These methods coexisted; a single sarkar could contain parganas under different systems, and a revenue schedule for a given year could mix zabt, nasaq, and sharing.{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=109}}

These methods coexisted; a single sarkar could contain parganas under different systems, and a revenue schedule for a given year could mix zabt, nasaq, and sharing.{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=124–155}}

===Rates and the jama-hasil distinction===
The demand rate under zabt varied by crop and soil. Abu'l-Fazl records rates ranging from below one ''dam'' per bigha for inferior millets to more than two hundred ''dams'' per bigha for sugar-cane and indigo; the overall Mughal claim on the gross produce in the zabt zones has been calculated by Habib at roughly one-third and by Moosvi at approximately one-half in the richest parganas, with a mean across all regions nearer to one-third.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=207}}{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=104–120}}

The distinction between ''jama'' (the assessed demand as booked) and ''hasil'' (the amount actually realised) was central to Mughal accounting. The ''Ain-i-Akbari'' records only the jama; the hasil was systematically lower, by margins that widened over the seventeenth century. Moosvi's analysis of the 1595 returns estimates the realised revenue at roughly 75–80 per cent of the booked jama in the zabt core.{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=233}} The gap between the two figures became, by the end of [[Aurangzeb]]'s reign, one of the principal diagnostics of fiscal stress.{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=92–94}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=207}}

===Collection cycle and safeguards===
Collection followed the harvest cycle in two instalments: the ''kharif'' (autumn) crop was settled after the October–November harvest and the ''rabi'' (spring) crop after March–April. Payment was due in cash and, in principle, from individual cultivators, though in practice the zamindar or village headman handed over a consolidated sum on behalf of the community.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=270–290}}

The system was protected by a dense apparatus of record-keeping. Each pargana maintained a ''daftar'' in Persian and in the Indian registers of the qanungo; balances, remissions, and arrears were tracked for every village and revised annually. Imperial directives repeatedly instructed collectors not to force cultivators to sell their produce to meet the cash demand, to allow remissions in years of famine, and to confine themselves to the scheduled rate; the persistence of these instructions across reigns indicates how often they were flouted.{{sfn|Moreland|1929|pp=105}}{{sfn|Moreland|1929|pp=105}}

==Mansabdari and jagir assignments==
The ranked service elite of mansabdars, paid primarily by assignment of land revenue rather than from a central treasury, was the mechanism through which the fiscal system financed the military and civil establishment of the empire. The two systems, mansab and jagir, were conceptually distinct but in practice operated as a single ledger.

[[File:Darbar of Shah Jahan, Page from the Windsor Padshahnama, ca. 1657, The Royal Library, Windsor Castle.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Mughal miniature of Shah Jahan enthroned with ranked nobles and courtiers arranged in tiers|Shah Jahan's ''[[Durbar (court)|durbar]]'' from the Windsor ''[[Padshahnama]]'', {{Circa|1657}}. The tiered arrangement of nobles mirrored the ''dhat''–''suwar'' grades of the imperial mansab list.]]

===The mansab: dhat and suwar===
Akbar introduced the double rank of ''dhat'' and ''suwar'' in the mid-1590s, after earlier experiments with a single-number grade. The dhat (or ''zat'') fixed the holder's personal rank, social precedence, and the notional salary; the suwar fixed the number of cavalry troopers to be maintained for imperial service.{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=117}}{{sfn|Abu'l-Fazl|1873|pp=292}} Ranks ran from 10 to 10,000, with the top grades reserved in practice for princes of the blood. The ''Ain-i-Akbari'' records several hundred senior rank-holders by the mid-1590s; the corps expanded substantially through the seventeenth century, reaching several thousand recorded mansabdars under [[Aurangzeb]] whose composition and grades are the subject of Athar Ali's register.{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=1–37}}

Ranks above 1,000 were normally salaried through jagir; below that, a combination of cash (''naqdi'') and jagir was possible, and [[ahadi]] troopers recruited individually by the emperor were paid in cash from the khalisa.{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=84}}{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=50}} Salary schedules were keyed both to the dhat rank and to the "month-scale" (''mahana''), a pro-rating mechanism that converted nominal annual pay into an effective monthly figure and through which the state absorbed most of the fiscal slack between jama and hasil.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=207}}{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=193–224}}

===Jagir categories and circulation===
The imperial finance ministry distinguished three principal categories of jagir.{{sfn|Alam|1986|pp=210}}{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=225–246}} ''Tankha'' jagirs were assignments given in lieu of salary and were transferable at the emperor's pleasure; the jagirdar typically held a given tankha for three to four years before being rotated to a fresh assignment. ''Watan'' jagirs were hereditary assignments granted to Rajput and other indigenous chiefs over their ancestral territories and, exceptionally, were not subject to transfer. ''Mashrut'' jagirs were conditional grants attached to a specific office, reverting to the crown on the office-holder's departure.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"
|+Principal categories of Mughal ''jagir''
|-
! Type !! Purpose !! Transferability !! Typical holder
|-
| ''Tankha'' || Assignment in lieu of salary || Transferable at the emperor's pleasure, typically every three to four years || Mansabdar of the imperial service{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=320–351}}
|-
| ''Watan'' || Hereditary assignment over ancestral territory || Not subject to transfer || Rajput and other indigenous chiefs{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=95}}
|-
| ''Mashrut'' || Conditional grant attached to a specific office || Reverts to the crown on the office-holder's departure || Officer holding a specified office{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=191}}
|}

The circulation of jagirs (tankha and mashrut) was the central administrative operation of the Mughal state. A prospective assignment began with a proposal from the imperial diwan, matched against a file of vacant territories (''paibaqi''), and was ratified by an imperial ''[[farman]]'' identifying the jagir by its booked jama, not its realised yield. Assignees bore the risk that the hasil would fall below the jama, and Mughal practice from the mid-seventeenth century onward was to adjust nominal dhat and suwar numbers downward through the month-scale rather than to revise the jama itself.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=320–351}}{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=52}}

Transfers were frequent to prevent jagirdars from entrenching themselves in a district and building independent bases. Abu'l-Fazl describes this rotation approvingly as an instrument of imperial oversight; later European observers, especially Bernier, read the same practice as a disincentive to investment and a structural cause of peasant poverty.{{sfn|Moosvi|2008|pp=280}}{{sfn|Bernier|1934|pp=211–225}}

===Khalisa: the imperial demesne===
The revenue retained for the direct use of the crown, the ''khalisa-yi sharifa'', was carved out of the booked jama of each subah and varied significantly across reigns. Under Akbar the khalisa reportedly held around a quarter of the imperial jama; by the reign of Shah Jahan it had fallen to perhaps one-seventh, as successful conquests had to be distributed in jagir to the enlarged nobility; Aurangzeb's Deccan wars returned briefly to a higher khalisa share in the late 1670s before the pressures of jagir demand pushed it back down.{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=79–93}}{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=27}} Khalisa income funded the central treasury, the imperial household, the ahadi cavalry, and the subsistence grants (''madad-i-maʻash'') issued to religious and scholarly beneficiaries, which themselves amounted to a small but politically significant fiscal outflow.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=310}}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"
|+Approximate share of imperial ''jama'' retained as ''khalisa'' across reigns
|-
! Reign !! Period !! Khalisa share !! Principal driver !! Source
|-
| [[Akbar]] || 1556–1605 || Around one-quarter || Baseline after the zabt consolidation of the 1580s || {{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=79–93}}
|-
| [[Shah Jahan]] || 1627–1658 || Around one-seventh || New conquests distributed as ''jagir'' to an enlarged nobility || {{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=79–93}}
|-
| [[Aurangzeb]] (late 1670s) || {{Circa}} 1677–1679 || Briefly higher, before falling back || Deccan territory briefly returned to the crown before ''jagir'' demand reabsorbed it || {{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=27}}
|}

==Non-agrarian revenue==
Non-agrarian receipts, though small relative to the land tax, accumulated to a significant share of imperial income and were disproportionately concentrated in the khalisa. Moosvi estimates that customs, mint profits, escheat, and miscellaneous levies together contributed between five and ten per cent of total receipts at Akbar's death, with higher shares in commercially dense parts of Gujarat and the Coromandel coast.{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=135–155}}{{sfn|Moosvi|2008|pp=75–150}}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;"
|+Principal non-agrarian revenue heads of the Mughal fiscal system
|-
! Head !! Basis !! Rate or principal data point !! Source
|-
| Customs duties || Levy on goods at ports and overland frontiers || 2.5 per cent for Muslim merchants; 3.5 to 5 per cent for others || {{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=170–173}}
|-
| Transit dues (''[[rahdari]]'') || Levy on the overland movement of goods || Widely collected; specific parties exempted by ''[[Dastak (trade permit)|dastak]]'' || {{sfn|Bernier|1934|pp=225–260}}
|-
| Poll tax (''[[jizya]]'') || Head tax on non-Muslim subjects, reimposed on 2 April 1679 || 48, 24, and 12 ''dirhams'' per year on rich, middling, and poor Hindu subjects respectively || {{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=170–173}}
|-
| Escheat (''khar mahal'') || Imperial recovery of deceased mansabdars' estates || Residue after audit became imperial property, a regular source of concentrated cash || {{sfn|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=204}}
|-
| Presents (''[[nazr]]'') and tribute (''peshkash'') || Ceremonial offerings at court, annual tribute from ''watan'' chiefs and tributary rulers || Reliable annual inflows; sizeable from Rajput chiefs and from Golconda and Bijapur before annexation || {{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=38}}
|}

===Customs, transit dues, and market taxes===
[[File:Sourratte int ryck vanden Grooten Mogol en Indien - Peeters Jacob - 1690.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Late seventeenth-century engraving of Surat harbour with merchant ships, warehouses, and coastal fortifications|[[Surat]] in 1690 from Jacob Peeters. After its absorption in 1573 Surat was the empire's principal customs station and produced a single revenue stream large enough to fund substantial imperial disbursements.]]
Customs were levied at principal ports and overland frontiers, at rates ranging from 2.5 per cent for Muslim merchants to between 3.5 and 5 per cent for others; the differential was formally abolished by Akbar in 1580 but reintroduced in practice under Aurangzeb.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=78}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=78}} [[Surat]], after its absorption in 1573, became the empire's principal customs station and produced a single stream of revenue large enough to fund substantial imperial disbursements.{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=94}}

Transit dues ({{lang|fa-Latn|[[rahdari]]}}) and market taxes ({{lang|fa-Latn|zakat}} on trade, distinct from religious zakat) were smaller but ubiquitous. [[Jahangir]] issued ''[[Dastak (trade permit)|dastak]]''s or passes that exempted specified officials or merchants from transit dues, a practice that [[Francois Bernier]] and other travellers identified as a source of friction and corruption at provincial frontiers.{{sfn|Bernier|1934|pp=225–260}}{{sfn|Jahangir|1909|loc=vol 1, pp. 10–20}}

===Jizya and its cycles===
The poll tax on non-Muslims ({{lang|fa-Latn|[[jizya]]}}) was levied at the beginning of Mughal rule in continuity with Sultanate practice, abolished by Akbar in 1579 as part of his pluralist religious policy, and reimposed by Aurangzeb on 2 April 1679. Under Aurangzeb it was graded at 48, 24, and 12 dirhams per year on rich, middling, and poor Hindu subjects respectively, with women, children, the poor, and government servants exempt.{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=170–173}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=242–247}} The tax provoked a series of protests and zamindar revolts from 1679 to 1687 and was repealed after Aurangzeb's death. Its overall contribution to imperial revenues was modest, in the range of a few per cent of total receipts, but its political effects were out of proportion to its fiscal yield.{{sfn|Alam|1986|pp=93}}

===Escheat, presents, and prerogative claims===
The crown's right of escheat ({{lang|fa-Latn|khar mahal}} or ''milkiyat-i-padshahi'') over the accumulated wealth of deceased mansabdars was a distinctive feature of the Mughal fiscal system and a regular source of concentrated cash receipts. On the death of a high noble, imperial officers sealed the estate and an audit recovered unpaid advances, outstanding jagir dues, and the difference between assessed and realised revenue from the holder's last assignment; the residue became imperial property.{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=84}}{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=117}}

Ceremonial presents ({{lang|fa-Latn|[[nazr]]}}) at court audiences, and annual tribute ({{lang|fa-Latn|peshkash}}) from tributary rulers, together constituted a third class of non-agrarian receipt. While formally gifts, they operated as reliable annual inflows; the peshkash due from the ''watan''-holding Rajput chiefs of [[Rajputana]] and the tributary rulers of [[Golconda Sultanate|Golconda]] and [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]] before their annexations were particularly sizeable.{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=38}}

==Treasury and expenditure==
The central treasury at [[Agra]] and, after 1648, [[Delhi]], received the khalisa revenue, customs profits from a handful of major ports, escheat, and the produce of the imperial mints. By the reign of Shah Jahan the treasury operated across parallel stores for cash, jewels, and gold ingots; Manucci, Bernier, and Tavernier all record estimates of the accumulated treasure at his death that vary widely but agree on its exceptional size.{{sfn|Manucci|1907|loc=vol 2, pp. 450–500}}{{sfn|Bernier|1934|pp=278}}

The principal outflow, by a wide margin, was military. The standing cavalry maintained by mansabdars did not appear in the imperial treasury's accounts except as the notional jama out of which it was paid, but the direct expenditures on the ahadi cavalry, the imperial artillery, and the building and manning of frontier forts were significant. Habib's estimates for Aurangzeb's reign suggest direct military expenditure absorbed between 50 and 70 per cent of khalisa disbursements in campaign years, rising in the late Deccan wars.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=207}}{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=156–170}}

[[File:TajMahalbyAmalMongia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|alt=The Taj Mahal complex with central mausoleum, flanking minarets, and reflecting pool|The [[Taj Mahal]], funerary mausoleum of [[Shah Jahan]] and [[Mumtaz Mahal]]. The imperial construction programme, alongside the [[Red Fort]] at Delhi and the [[Lahore Fort]], was financed out of surplus ''khalisa'' accumulation and dedicated ''[[waqf]]''s.]]

Household expenditure on the imperial ''karkhanas'' (workshops producing textiles, arms, and luxury goods), the maintenance of the ''[[harem]]'', stables, and elephant establishments, and court ceremonial was the second-largest outflow, supported by a sophisticated organisation under the ''khan-i-saman'' (steward of the household). Construction projects — the [[Taj Mahal]] and the [[Red Fort]] at Delhi under Shah Jahan, the [[Lahore Fort]], and a dense programme of caravanserais and gardens — were financed out of surplus khalisa accumulation and from dedicated waqfs.{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=283}}{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=58–78}}

Provincial retention was a negotiated share. Each subah retained from its realised revenue the sums needed to pay locally stationed mansabdars, local establishments, and governor's expenses; the residue moved to the central treasury in annual or semi-annual remittances by overland caravan under military escort. The ''arz-daasht'' (petition) and ''siyaha'' (day-book) record an extensive correspondence between provincial diwans and the imperial centre over arrears, remissions, and the distribution of surplus between khalisa and jagir lands.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=277}}

==Coinage and money==
The Mughal fiscal system was, to an unusual degree for an early modern empire, a monetised system: land revenue was assessed and realised in cash, mansab salaries were nominally denominated in cash before conversion into jagir assignments, and customs, market taxes, and ceremonial receipts all flowed in coin.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=360–381}}

[[File:Silver Rupee struck in the name of Mughal emperor Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, minted in Ahmadabad, Ilahi Type coin with having the Regnal Year 47, photographed from a personal collection, by Yogabrata Chakraborty.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|alt=Silver rupee coin of Akbar with Persian inscriptions on both faces|Silver rupee of [[Akbar]], Ilahi type, regnal year 47, struck at the Ahmadabad mint. The 178-grain silver rupee was the principal unit of Mughal fiscal reckoning.]]

===The silver rupee and Akbar's reform===
Akbar's monetary reforms of 1577 and 1582 regularised the standards inherited from Sher Shah Suri. The silver rupee was fixed at 178 grains of pure silver (approximately 11.66 grams), struck across a network of imperial mints that the ''Ain-i-Akbari'' lists at more than forty locations by the 1590s.{{sfn|Abu'l-Fazl|1873|pp=86}}{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=360–381}} The rupee was divided into forty copper dams for accounting purposes, a ratio retained throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries despite significant fluctuation in the actual market ratio, which by the second half of the seventeenth century had risen toward fifty dams per rupee under silver inflation.{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=82}}

[[File:Jalal al-Din Muhammad Akbar. AH 963-1014 AD 1556-1605. AV Mohur Falcon type. Asir mint. Dated Khurdad Ilahi year 45 (20 February – 20 March AD 1600).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|alt=Obverse and reverse of a gold mohur of Akbar with falcon imagery|Gold [[mohur]] of Akbar, falcon type, Asir mint, Ilahi year 45 (AD 1600). The mohur served as the apex unit of the tri-metallic Mughal currency.]]

===Gold mohur and copper dam===
The gold mohur, weighing approximately 170 grains, was used for prestige payments, major court ceremonial, and the hoarding of accumulated surplus rather than for daily fiscal transactions. The famous series of twelve zodiac mohurs struck in 1618 under Jahangir is the best-documented example of the mohur as a ceremonial instrument; for revenue transactions mohurs were rare.{{sfn|Jahangir|1909|loc=vol 1, pp. 10–20}} The copper dam, at the opposite end of the value scale, was the coin in which pargana revenue accounts and the ''Ain-i-Akbari'' itself were kept, an administrative convention that reflected the dam's role as the unit of rate schedules rather than its role in physical payments.{{sfn|Abu'l-Fazl|1891|loc=vol 2, pp. 62–120}}{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=82}}

[[File:Copper dam coin of Akbar, 1000 A. H., Zafar Qarin mint.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|alt=Copper dam coin of Akbar, obverse with mint legend|Copper [[Dam (Indian coin)|dam]] of Akbar, AH 1000 (AD 1591–92). Forty dams equalled one silver rupee in Akbari accounting, and pargana revenue schedules were recorded in dams.]]

===Bullion flows and the monetisation of revenue===
The operation of a cash-based fiscal system on the scale of the Mughal empire depended on sustained net inflows of silver, the subcontinent being a net importer of monetary metal throughout the period. From the later sixteenth century onward, silver from Spanish America reached India via the Levant, Yemen, and the [[Cape route]]; from the early seventeenth century, Japanese silver reached the Coromandel coast via Dutch and Portuguese intermediaries. Historians of the early modern monetary system estimate net silver inflows to India between the 1590s and the 1660s in the hundreds of millions of troy ounces, the bulk of it struck into rupees at the Mughal mints.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=360–381}}{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=375}}

This inflow sustained the monetisation of revenue but also produced modest price inflation across the seventeenth century. Moosvi's reconstructed price series shows a doubling of the silver price of grain between 1595 and 1670 in the Agra region; rates fixed in cash per bigha under the Akbari dahsala thus lost real value unless revised, and the disjunction contributed to the late-seventeenth-century fiscal squeeze.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=388}} A separate line of credit ran alongside the monetary system: the ''[[hundi]]'' (bill of exchange) network, operated by bankers (''sarrafs'') based in Surat, Ahmadabad, [[Agra]], and [[Patna]], allowed the state to transfer large sums between treasuries without the physical movement of coin and became an essential instrument of imperial fiscal liquidity.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=360–381}}

==Crisis and evolution==
The late seventeenth-century crisis of the Mughal fiscal system has been the single most contested problem in the field since the 1950s. Its main elements are widely agreed; their relative weight and their deeper causes remain subjects of debate.

[[File:Aurangzeb-portrait.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Mughal miniature of Emperor Aurangzeb in profile|[[Aurangzeb]] (r. 1658–1707), under whose reign the jagirdari crisis exposed the limits of the mansab–jagir framework.]]

===Expansion and the Deccan wars===
[[Aurangzeb]]'s conquests of [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]] (1686) and [[Golconda Sultanate|Golconda]] (1687), followed by a protracted campaign against the [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]] in the Deccan that lasted until his death in 1707, produced a major territorial expansion but at disproportionate fiscal cost. The incorporated Deccan revenues were nominally large but actually realised only partially, and the war-time subsistence of the imperial army absorbed a growing share of receipts.{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=117}}{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=93}}

===The jagirdari crisis===
The term ''jagirdari crisis'' was given its classic formulation by [[M. Athar Ali|Athar Ali]] in ''The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb'' (1966). Ali argued that between roughly 1660 and 1707 the gap between the number of jagirs required to pay the swollen mansabdar corps and the jagirs actually available from assignable territory became systemic. Aurangzeb's recruitment of Maratha and Deccani nobles during the Deccan wars intensified the imbalance; the shortfall, registered in imperial records as ''bejagiri'' (absence of jagir), produced a queue of officers waiting for assignment and depressed the effective salary of those who held them.{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=262}}{{sfn|Chandra|2002|pp=62}} [[Irfan Habib]]'s ''Agrarian System'' (1963) reached the same conclusion by a different route, arguing that rising rate schedules and widening jama-hasil gaps provoked zamindar and peasant revolts that in turn compounded the pressure on assignable revenue.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=347}}

[[Satish Chandra]]'s ''Parties and Politics'' (1959) added a factional dimension, arguing that the competition among Irani, Turani, and indigenous court factions for a shrinking pool of profitable jagirs was a principal mechanism by which the crisis translated into political fragmentation after 1707.{{sfn|Chandra|2002|pp=311}}

===Silver and bullion crisis===
A parallel monetary dimension of the crisis was argued by Najaf Haider and others in the 1990s, building on Moosvi's earlier price data. The thesis holds that a slackening of silver inflows from the Americas and Japan after roughly 1660, compounded by the fiscal drain of the Deccan wars, reduced the net silver supply and depressed the effective real revenue collected. The rupee itself was briefly debased in weight and fineness in the 1670s before being restored.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=376}}

===Fragmentation, 1707–1761===
After Aurangzeb's death in 1707 the imperial fiscal apparatus fragmented rather than collapsed. The [[Bengal Subah]] under Murshid Quli Khan established a de facto autonomous fiscal regime that remitted a fixed annual tribute to Delhi and retained the residue; [[Awadh]] under Saadat Khan (from 1722) and [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] under Asaf Jah I (from 1724) did the same. [[Muzaffar Alam]]'s ''Crisis of Empire'' (1986) demonstrated that these successor regimes preserved almost the entire Mughal fiscal vocabulary, including jama, hasil, mansab, jagir, and khalisa, even as they captured the revenues.{{sfn|Alam|1986|pp=1–91}}{{sfn|Alam|1986|pp=175–320}} The final blow to imperial finance was the sack of Delhi and the seizure of the accumulated treasure by [[Nader Shah|Nadir Shah]] in 1739, which ended the last significant concentration of cash at the centre; the rise of the Maratha confederacy in the 1740s and 1750s captured the bulk of the remaining revenue streams of northern and central India.{{sfn|Chandra|2002|pp=140–200}}{{sfn|Alam|Subrahmanyam|1998|pp=78}}

==Regional variations==
The fiscal system was never homogeneous, and regional variations were part of its design.

===The Hindustani core===
Across the subahs of Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Allahabad, Awadh, Ajmer, and Malwa, the zabt-dahsala system operated at its fullest. Measurement, cash assessment, and ten-year rate schedules were enforced, pargana accounts were maintained in Persian and Hindi, and the flow between khalisa and jagir was closely monitored.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=286}}{{sfn|Abu'l-Fazl|1891|loc=vol 2, pp. 115–400}}

===Bengal===
Bengal operated on nasaq throughout the Mughal period; the richness of its alluvium, the capacity of its trade-linked monetary economy, and the political influence of its diwanate under Murshid Quli Khan after 1700 made it the empire's single largest fiscal asset but also the one most institutionally distinct.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=189}}{{sfn|Alam|1986|pp=12–15}}

===The Deccan===
The annexations of Berar (1596), Khandesh (1600), and Ahmadnagar (1601–1636), and the later conquest of Bijapur and Golconda, integrated into the fiscal system regimes with their own ''nibhayat'' and ''deshmukhi'' institutions. Mughal practice at first retained these structures, interposing only the imperial diwan and the mansab-jagir framework; the full imposition of zabt proved impossible.{{sfn|Moosvi|2008|pp=228}}{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=170–204}}

===Gujarat and Malwa===
Gujarat's commercial economy made it disproportionately productive of customs and mint-profit revenue rather than agricultural jama; Malwa was the empire's principal source of opium revenue and of bulk grain for imperial markets. Both provinces retained pre-Mughal revenue institutions alongside zabt, and both became flashpoints during the succession wars of the early eighteenth century.{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=205}}{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=205}}

==Historiography==
The modern historiography of the Mughal fiscal system begins with [[William Harrison Moreland|W. H. Moreland]]'s interwar trilogy and has been structured since the 1950s by a dialogue between the Aligarh school and its critics.

===Moreland and the early twentieth-century baseline===
W. H. Moreland's three monographs, ''India at the Death of Akbar'' (1920), ''From Akbar to Aurangzeb'' (1923), and ''The Agrarian System of Moslem India'' (1929), established the basic periodisation and vocabulary later scholarship would use. Drawing on Blochmann's and Jarrett's translations of the ''Ain-i-Akbari'', on Persian chronicles, and on the commercial records of the English and Dutch East India Companies, Moreland reconstructed a quantitative picture of Akbar's 1595 assessments and argued that the system had declined through the seventeenth century under fiscal and demographic pressure.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=16}}{{sfn|Moreland|1923|pp=95–175}}{{sfn|Moreland|1929|pp=80–216}} His 1929 ''Agrarian System'' was also the first sustained argument that Indo-Islamic revenue practice had continuities across the Sultanate, Suri, and Mughal periods.

===The Aligarh school===
From the 1950s the [[Aligarh Muslim University]] history faculty, around [[Irfan Habib]], [[Satish Chandra]], [[M. Athar Ali|Athar Ali]], and later Shireen Moosvi, produced a comprehensive rewriting of the subject. Habib's ''The Agrarian System of Mughal India'' (1963; revised 1999) became the definitive study of land revenue and its social relations, arguing that the high rate schedules of the later seventeenth century precipitated peasant and zamindar revolts that in turn drove political fragmentation. Ali's ''Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb'' (1966) gave the jagirdari crisis its classical formulation; Chandra's ''Parties and Politics'' (1959) linked fiscal pressure to faction; Moosvi's statistical reconstruction of 1987 put the ''Ain-i-Akbari'' returns on a quantitative footing.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=189}}{{sfn|Ali|1997|pp=127}}{{sfn|Chandra|2002|pp=62}}{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=193–246}}

===Revisionist and Cambridge critiques===
From the 1980s a loosely associated group of scholars, many based at Cambridge and elsewhere, pressed a series of qualifications. [[Muzaffar Alam]]'s ''Crisis of Empire'' (1986), [[John F. Richards]]'s volume in the [[New Cambridge History of India]] (1993), and the [[Sanjay Subrahmanyam]] and Alam-edited collection ''The Mughal State 1526–1750'' (1998) argued that the fiscal crisis was as much the expression of realigned regional elites capturing an intact system as of systemic breakdown, and that the Aligarh emphasis on central state structures underweighted provincial and sub-provincial agency.{{sfn|Alam|1986|pp=28}}{{sfn|Richards|1993|pp=1–6}}{{sfn|Alam|Subrahmanyam|1998|pp=1–71}} A related strand argued for a monetary and commercial rather than a strictly agrarian interpretation of the crisis, emphasising the role of bullion flows and banker networks.

===Quantitative and regional turns===
A third phase, active from the 1990s onward, has combined Moosvi-style quantitative reconstruction with regional depth: studies of Bengal under the diwanate of Murshid Quli Khan, of the Deccan's absorption into the Mughal framework, and of the hundi-credit networks that sustained cash remittance. Najaf Haider, Farhat Hasan, and others have contributed strands that are difficult to assimilate to the older Aligarh and Cambridge binary. Current work increasingly frames the Mughal fiscal system as a variable regional assemblage rather than a single imperial machine, while retaining the Aligarh-era estimates as a baseline.{{sfn|Moosvi|2008|pp=xv–xxxv}}{{sfn|Alam|Subrahmanyam|1998|pp=1–71}}

==Legacy==
===Colonial land-revenue inheritance===
The three principal British Indian revenue regimes of the nineteenth century were explicit reworkings of Mughal precedent rather than fresh creations. The [[Permanent Settlement]] of Bengal (1793) fixed a perpetual demand on the zamindars of the Mughal diwanate; the [[mahalwari]] system of the North-Western Provinces settled assessment on the Mughal mahal (estate or pargana division) using the dastur-ul-amal rate schedules as evidentiary baseline; the [[ryotwari]] system of the [[Madras Presidency]] and [[Bombay Presidency]] followed [[Thomas Munro]]'s explicit rejection of the zamindar-intermediary model in favour of a direct assessment on the cultivator, but it retained the Mughal definition of the assessable bigha and of the crop classes.{{sfn|Moreland|1923|pp=95–175}}{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=393–405}} Scholars of British land-revenue debate, from Baden-Powell to Neil Rabitoy, have documented the constant recurrence in the settlement reports of explicit appeals to Akbari precedent.{{sfn|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=235–249}}

===Post-independence debates===
After 1947 the post-independence Indian state abolished the zamindari and intermediary tenures that the colonial settlements had preserved, but the pargana-level land-revenue registers (''khasra'' and ''khatauni'') that underlay village administration in much of north India remained in use and retained significant amounts of Mughal-era pargana and mahal nomenclature.{{sfn|Habib|1999|pp=184}} The historiographical argument over whether this constituted an "Indian feudalism" or a distinct fiscal-administrative formation dominated Indian medieval-history journals for a generation and remains a live question.{{citation needed|date=April 2026}}

===Persistent terminology===
The fiscal vocabulary of the Mughal state survives across modern Indian, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi administrative languages. ''Zamindar'', ''pargana'', ''mahal'', ''mauza'', ''[[Sarkar (administrative division)|sarkar]]'', ''[[subah]]'', ''khalsa'', ''inam'', and their derivatives remain in current use; the pargana continues to designate an intermediate administrative unit in parts of [[Odisha]] and [[Jharkhand]], and the silver rupee of Akbar's reform, under its later gold-standard and paper-standard successors, remains the currency name of five South Asian states.{{sfn|Moosvi|1987|pp=364}}

==See also==
* [[Economy of the Mughal Empire]]
* [[Mughal currency]]
* [[Jagirdari crisis]]
* [[Dahsala system]]
* [[Zabt]]
* [[Mansabdar]]
* [[Jagir]]
* [[Mughal successor states]]
* [[Shireen Moosvi]]
* [[Irfan Habib]]
* [[Permanent Settlement]]
* [[Mahalwari]]
* [[Ryotwari]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite book |last=Abu'l-Fazl |year=1891 |title=The Ā'īn-i Akbarī, Volume 2 |translator=H. S. Jarrett |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bengal |location=Calcutta |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.49435 |ref={{harvid|Abu'l-Fazl|1891}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Alam |first=Muzaffar |year=1986 |title=The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh and the Punjab 1707–1748 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Delhi |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12757}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Alam |editor-first1=Muzaffar |editor-last2=Subrahmanyam |editor-first2=Sanjay |year=1998 |title=The Mughal State 1526–1750 |series=Oxford in India Readings: Themes in Indian History |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Delhi |isbn=978-0-19-565225-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.118059 |ref={{harvid|Alam|Subrahmanyam|1998}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Ali |first=M. Athar |year=1997 |orig-date=1966 |title=The Mughal Nobility under Aurangzeb |edition=revised |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Delhi |isbn=978-0-19-565599-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/mughalnobilityun0000atha}}
* {{cite book |last=Badauni |first=ʻAbd al-Qadir |year=1884 |title=Muntakhabu-t-Tawarikh, Volume 2 |translator=W. H. Lowe |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bengal |location=Calcutta |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.196191 |ref={{harvid|Badauni|1884}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Bernier |first=François |year=1934 |orig-date=1891 |title=Travels in the Mogul Empire A.D. 1656–1668 |translator=Archibald Constable |others=Revised V. A. Smith |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.5104 |ref={{harvid|Bernier|1934}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Chandra |first=Satish |year=2002 |orig-date=1959 |title=Parties and Politics at the Mughal Court 1707–1740 |edition=4th |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-0-19-565444-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/partiespoliticsa0000chan}}
* {{cite book |last=Habib |first=Irfan |year=1999 |orig-date=1963 |title=The Agrarian System of Mughal India 1556–1707 |edition=revised |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-0-19-562329-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-agrarian-system-of-mughal-india-1556-to-1707}}
* {{cite book |last=Jahangir |year=1909 |title=The Tūzuk-i-Jahāngīrī, or Memoirs of Jahāngīr, Volume 1 |translator=Alexander Rogers |editor=Henry Beveridge |publisher=Royal Asiatic Society |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/b29352423_0001 |ref={{harvid|Jahangir|1909}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Manucci |first=Niccolao |year=1907 |title=Storia do Mogor; or, Mogul India 1653–1708, Volume 2 |translator=William Irvine |publisher=John Murray |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/storiadomogororm02manuuoft |ref={{harvid|Manucci|1907}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Moosvi |first=Shireen |year=1987 |title=The Economy of the Mughal Empire c. 1595: A Statistical Study |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Delhi |isbn=978-0-19-561725-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/economyofmughale0000moos}}
* {{cite book |last=Moosvi |first=Shireen |year=2008 |title=People, Taxation and Trade in Mughal India |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-0-19-569315-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/peopletaxationtr0000moos}}
* {{cite book |last=Moreland |first=W. H. |year=1920 |title=India at the Death of Akbar: An Economic Study |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924022895001}}
* {{cite book |last=Moreland |first=W. H. |year=1923 |title=From Akbar to Aurangzeb: A Study in Indian Economic History |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.venugopal.770}}
* {{cite book |last=Moreland |first=W. H. |year=1929 |title=The Agrarian System of Moslem India: A Historical Essay with Appendices |publisher=W. Heffer |location=Cambridge |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.501375}}
* {{cite book |last=Pelsaert |first=Francisco |year=1925 |title=Jahangir's India: The Remonstrantie of Francisco Pelsaert |translator1=W. H. Moreland |translator2=P. Geyl |publisher=W. Heffer |location=Cambridge |url=https://archive.org/details/jahangirsindiafranciscopelsaert |ref={{harvid|Pelsaert|1925}}}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Raychaudhuri |editor-first1=Tapan |editor-last2=Habib |editor-first2=Irfan |year=1982 |title=The Cambridge Economic History of India, Volume 1: c. 1200 – c. 1750 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-22692-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeeconomi0000unse_i6w9 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521226929 |ref={{harvid|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |year=1993 |title=The Mughal Empire |series=The New Cambridge History of India, I.5 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/mughalempire0000rich}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Chandra, Satish (1982). ''Medieval India: From Sultanate to the Mughals''. New Delhi: Har-Anand.
* Hasan, Farhat (2004). ''State and Locality in Mughal India: Power Relations in Western India, c. 1572–1730''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Haider, Najaf (1996). "Precious Metal Flows and Currency Circulation in the Mughal Empire". ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' 39 (3).
* Prakash, Om (1998). ''European Commercial Enterprise in Pre-Colonial India''. New Cambridge History of India, II.5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (2005). ''Explorations in Connected History: From the Tagus to the Ganges''. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
{{refend}}

{{Mughal Empire}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:Economic history of India]]
[[Category:History of taxation in India]]
[[Category:Public finance]]
[[Category:16th century in the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:17th century in the Mughal Empire]]
[[Category:18th century in the Mughal Empire]]

Sailendra Chandra Nath

2026-04-25T04:20:25Z

Thechhavigarg: creating basic page added tags

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = Bengali
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| order =
| office = Member of the [[Tripura Legislative Assembly]]
| status =
| term_start = 2023
| subterm =
| suboffice =
| alongside =
| monarch =
| president =
| governor_general =
| taoiseach =
| chancellor =
| governor =
| co-leader =
| deputy =
| lieutenant =
| succeeding =
| constituency = [[Jubarajnagar Assembly constituency|Jubarajnagar]]
| majority =
| predecessor = [[Malina Debnath]]
| successor =
| prior_term =
| order2 =
| office2 =
| subterm2 =
| suboffice2 =
| alongside2 =
| monarch2 =
| president2 =
| governor_general2 =
| chancellor2 =
| taoiseach2 =
| governor2 =
| co-leader2 =
| deputy2 =
| lieutenant2 =
| succeeding2 =
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| constituency2 =
| majority2 =
| prior_term2 =
| parents = Tarani Kumar Nath (Father)
| birth_date = 1967
| party = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
| alma_mater = [[Tripura University]]
| education = Graduate (B.com)
}}
'''Sailendra Chandra Nath''' is an Indian politician and Member of [[Tripura Legislative Assembly]] representing [[Jubarajnagar Assembly constituency|Jubarajnagar]] constituency.<ref>{{cite web |title=GENERAL ELECTION TO VIDHAN SABHA TRENDS & RESULT MARCH-2023 |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMar2023/ConstituencywiseS2357.htm?ac=57}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Tripura election result 2023: Full list of winners constituency-wise |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/tripura-election-winner-list-2023-bjp-ipft-congress-left-winner-candidate-list-for-tripura-assembly-election-2023-leading-trailing-candidate-party-101677728980359.html |access-date=8 July 2024 |work=Hindustan Times |date=2 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Tripura Assembly election results 2023: Check full list of winners |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/tripura-election-results-2023-constituency-winners-list-8473554/ |work=The Indian Express |date=2 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref> He is a member of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] from [[Tripura]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nath |first1=Abhijit |title=Tripura Opposition Leader Jitendra Chaudhury Urges Chief Secretary JK Sinha Immediate Intervention for Remote Areas' Livelihood Crisis |url=https://www.northeasttoday.in/2024/05/17/tripura-opposition-leader-jitendra-chaudhury-urges-chief-secretary-jk-sinha-immediate-intervention-for-remote-areas-livelihood-crisis/ |access-date=8 July 2024 |work=Northeast Today |date=17 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Nath |first1=Abhijit |title=Tripura : Left Front Announces Candidate List For Bye-Election In 4 Constituencies |url=https://www.northeasttoday.in/2022/05/30/tripura-left-front-announces-candidate-list-for-bye-election-in-4-constituencies/ |access-date=8 July 2024 |work=Northeast Today |date=30 May 2022}}</ref>

Nath was graduated B.Com. from [[Tripura University]] in 1988.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sailendra Chandra Nath(Communist Party of India (Marxist)(CPI(M))):Constituency- JUBARAJNAGAR(NORTH TRIPURA) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://myneta.info/Tripura2023/candidate.php?candidate_id=6816 |website=myneta.info}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:NATH, SAILENDRA CHANDRA}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Tripura MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:Communist Party of India (Marxist) politicians from Tripura]]
[[Category:1967 births]]

Dera Bassi Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:39:42Z

Thechhavigarg: created a article.

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Punjab State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Dera Bassi
| map_image = 112-Dera Bassi.svg
| mla = [[Kuljit Singh Randhawa]]
| party = [[Aam Aadmi Party]]
| latest_election_year = [[2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
| state = [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]
| district = [[Mohali district|Mohali]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Patiala (Lok Sabha constituency)|Patiala]]
| reservation = None
| electors = {{formatnum:287622}} (in 2022){{update after|2027|02}}
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 112
}}
'''Dera Bassi Assembly constituency''' (Sl. No.: 112) is a [[Punjab Legislative Assembly]] constituency in [[Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar district]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] state, India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ceopunjab.nic.in/English/Elections/SE/List%20Of%20AC%20Name.pdf |title=List of Punjab Assembly Constituencies |accessdate=19 July 2016 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423033326/http://ceopunjab.nic.in/english/Elections/SE/List%20Of%20AC%20Name.pdf |archivedate=23 April 2016 }}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!Picture
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
|[[2012 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Narinder Kumar Sharma]]<ref name=election2017/>
| rowspan="2" |
|{{Full party name with color|Shiromani Akali Dal|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2017 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
|-
|[[2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|[[Kuljit Singh Randhawa]]
|
| {{Full party name with color|Aam Aadmi Party}}
|}

== Election results ==
=== 2022 ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2022"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|Punjab Assembly election, 2022]]: Dera Bassi<ref>{{Cite web |title=General assembly Election Punjab Results - 2022 |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMar2022/ConstituencywiseS19112.htm?ac=112 |website=ECI}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party=Aam Aadmi Party|candidate=[[Kuljit Singh Randhawa]]<ref name="2022 Punjab AAP candidates">{{cite news |title=Punjab Elections 2022: Full list of Aam Aadmi Party candidates and their constituencies |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/punjab-elections-2022-full-list-of-aam-aadmi-party-candidates/2404732/ |access-date=23 January 2022 |work=The Financial Express |date=21 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>|votes={{formatnum:70032}}|percentage=35.1|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Deepinder Singh Dhillon]]<ref name="Punjab INC 2022">{{cite news |title=Punjab Elections 2022: Full list of Congress Candidates and their Constituencies |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/punjab-elections-2022-full-list-of-congress-candidates/2407341/ |access-date=18 February 2022 |work=FE Online |agency=The Indian Express Group |issue=The Financial Express (India) |date=February 18, 2022}}</ref>|votes={{formatnum:48311}}|percentage=24.21|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Shiromani Akali Dal|candidate=[[Narinder Kumar Sharma]]|votes={{formatnum:47731}}|percentage=23.92|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Sanjiv Khanna
|votes = {{formatnum:26963}}
|percentage = 13.51
|change = {{New}}
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|party = None of the above (India)
|votes = {{formatnum:1412}}
|percentage = 0.71
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|party=Right to Recall Party|candidate=Yog Raj Sahota|votes={{formatnum:224}}|percentage=0.11|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes={{formatnum:21721}}|percentage=10.89|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes={{formatnum:199529}}|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors = {{formatnum:287622}}
|ref=<ref name="Punjab Election 2022">{{cite web |title=Punjab General Legislative Election 2022 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14165-punjab-general-legislative-election-2022/ |website=Election Commission of India |access-date=18 May 2022}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box gain with party link no swing |winner = Aam Aadmi Party |loser = Shiromani Akali Dal |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}<section end="Assembly Election 2022"/>

=== 2017 ===
 <section begin="Assembly Election 2017"/> <section end="Assembly Election 2017"/>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2017 Punjab Legislative Assembly election|Punjab Assembly election, 2017]]: Dera Bassi<ref name=election2017>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3614-punjab-general-legislative-election-2017/ |title=Punjab General Legislative Election 2017 |author=Election Commission of India |access-date= 26 June 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Shiromani Akali Dal
|candidate = [[Narinder Kumar Sharma]]
|votes = {{formatnum:70792}}
|percentage =39.74
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Deepinder Singh Dhillon
|votes = {{formatnum:68871}}
|percentage = 38.66
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate =Sarabjit Kaur
|votes = {{formatnum:33150}}
|percentage = 18.61
| change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1345}}
|percentage = 0.6
| change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = {{formatnum:1921}}
|percentage = 1.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = {{formatnum:176795}}
|percentage = 74.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors = {{formatnum:239885}}
|ref=<ref name=electors2017>{{cite web |url=http://ceopunjab.nic.in/English/Elections/SE/VS2017/D03-Electors%20and%20Polling%20Stations%20VS%202017.pdf |title=Electors and Polling Stations - VS 2017 |author=Chief Electoral Officer - Punjab |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box hold with party link no swing |winner = Shiromani Akali Dal |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

===2012===
{|class="wikitable sortable" width="70%"
!Year||A C No.||Name||Party||Votes||Runner Up||Party||Votes
|-
|2012||112||Narinder Kumar Sharma||SAD||63285||Deepinder Singh Dhillon||IND||51248
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Record of all Punjab Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/86-punjab/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=14 March 2022}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Punjab}}
{{coord|30.59|76.84|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Mohali district]]
[[Category:2012 establishments in Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Politics of Punjab, India]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2012]]

Tuichang Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:36:02Z

Thechhavigarg: creating a data initial version...

{{Short description|Constituency of the Mizoram legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Tuichang
| type = SLA
| map_image = Legislative Assembly constituencies of Mizoram (Tuichang highlighted).png
| state = [[Mizoram]]
| constituency_no = 22
| district = [[Champhai district|Champhai]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Mizoram Lok Sabha constituency|Mizoram]]
| established = 2008
| reservation = ST
| mla = [[W. Chhuanawma]]
| party = [[Zoram People's Movement]]
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| electors = {{formatnum:14993}}
}}
'''Tuichang''' is one of the 40 [[Mizoram Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Mizoram]] state in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Assembly Elections December 2013 Results |work=ECI |publisher=Election Commission of India |url=http://eciresults.ap.nic.in |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215221429/http://eciresults.ap.nic.in/ |archivedate=2013-12-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is part of [[Champhai district]] and is reserved for candidates belonging to the [[Scheduled Tribes]].<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref>

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Election
!Name
!colspan=2|Party
|-
|[[2008 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2008]]<ref name=election2008>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3666-mizoram-2008/ |title=Mizoram General Legislative Election 2008 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref>
|rowspan=2| [[Lalrinliana Sailo]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2013 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2013]]<ref name=election2013>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3667-mizoram-2013/ |title=Mizoram General Legislative Election 2013 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[2018 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2018]]
| [[Tawnluia]]
| {{Full party name with color|Mizo National Front}}
|-
|[[2023 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|[[W. Chhuanawma]]<ref name=election2023/>
| {{Full party name with color|Zoram People's Movement}}
|}

==Election results==
===2023===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2023 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election]]: Tuichang<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/mizoram-legislative-election-2023-statistical-report |title=Mizoram Legislative Election 2023- Statistical Report |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=20 January 2024 |url-access=limited}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[W. Chhuanawma]]
|party = Zoram People's Movement
|votes = 6,988
|percentage = 47.03
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[Tawnluia]]|party=Mizo National Front|votes=6,079|percentage=40.91|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. Lalhriatpuia|party=Indian National Congress|votes=1,674|percentage=11.27|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Lalhmunsiami|party=Independent politician|votes=67|percentage=0.45|change=''New''}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[None of the Above]]|party=None of the above|votes=50|percentage=0.34|change=}}
{{Election box majority|votes=909|percentage=6.12|change=}}
{{Election box turnout|votes=82.4|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Zoram People's Movement
|loser = Mizo National Front
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2018===
{{Election box begin | title= [[2018 Mizoram Legislative Assembly election]]: Tuichang<ref>{{cite web|title=Mizoram Legislative Election 2018- Statistical Report|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/9687-mizoram-legislative-election-2018-statistical-report/|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|access-date=8 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Tawnluia]]
|party = Mizo National Front
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|party = None of the above
|votes = {{formatnum:}}
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes =
|percentage =
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner =
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Mizoram}}

{{coord|23.521|93.186|display=title}}

[[Category:Champhai district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Mizoram]]
[[Category:Politics of Mizoram]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Mizoram]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Bajpatti Assembly constituency

2026-04-19T19:23:41Z

Thechhavigarg: new.

{{Short description|Constituency of the Bihar legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
|name = Bajpatti Assembly constituency
|type= SLA
| map_image = 27-Bajpatti constituency.svg
| map_caption =
| map_alt =
|incumbent_image =
|mla = [[Rameshwar Mahto]] 
| party = {{Party index link|Rashtriya Lok Morcha}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]] 
|preceded_by = [[Mukesh Kumar Yadav]] (RJD)
|region =
|state = [[Bihar]]
|district = [[Sitamarhi district]]
|division =
| loksabha_cons = [[Sitamarhi (Lok Sabha constituency)|Sitamarhi]]
|constituency_no = [[List of constituencies of the Bihar Legislative Assembly|-]]
|established = 2008
| electors = 333,004
|reservation = None
|abolished = 
}}
[[File:Ramphal Mandal Tower Chowk, Bajpatti.jpg|thumb|Ramphal Mandal Tower Chawk]]
'''Bajpatti Assembly constituency''' is an [[Vidhan Sabha|assembly]] constituency in [[Sitamarhi district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[Bihar]].

== Overview ==
As per Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008, 27. Bajpatti Assembly constituency is composed of the following: Bajpatti and Bokhara [[Community Development Block in India|community development blocks]]; Birar, Bhadiyan, Janipur, Bahera Jahidpur, Dorpur, Majhaur, Rasulganj Urf Koili, Nanpur Uttari, Nanpur Dakshini, Dadri, Sirsi and Gauri [[gram panchayat]]s of Nanpur CD Block.<ref name=commission>{{cite web|url = http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf |title = Schedule – XIII of Constituencies Order, 2008 of Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly constituencies Order, 2008 of the Election Commission of India|work= Schedule VI Bihar, Part A – Assembly constituencies, Part B – Parliamentary constituencies |access-date = 2011-01-10 }}</ref>

Bajpatti Assembly constituency is part of [[Sitamarhi (Lok Sabha constituency)]].<ref name="commission" />

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Name
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
| colspan="4" |{{center|''Until 2008: Constituency did not exist''}}
|-
|[[2010 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2010]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Ranju Geeta]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Dal (United)|dab=y|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2015]]
|-
|[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2020]]
|[[Mukesh Kumar Yadav]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|-
|[[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|2025]]
|[[Rameshwar Mahto]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Lok Morcha}}
|-
|}

==Election results==
=== 2025 ===
{{Election box begin|title=[[2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Bajpatti<ref name="2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly Election Results: Bajpatti">{{cite news |title=2025 Bihar Legislative Assembly Election Results: Bajpatti |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2025/candidateswise-S0427.htm |access-date=27 December 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |date=14 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251227183915/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenNov2025/candidateswise-S0427.htm |archive-date=27 December 2025 |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Rameshwar Mahto]]
|party = Rashtriya Lok Morcha
|votes = {{formatnum:99144}}
|percentage = 45.02
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = [[Mukesh Kumar Yadav]]
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|votes = {{formatnum:95749}}
|percentage = 43.47
|change = +3.26
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate = Aajam Khan
|party = Jan Suraaj Party
|votes = {{formatnum:6174}}
|percentage = 2.8
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Md. Munna Mansuri
|votes = {{formatnum:3105}}
|percentage = 1.41
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = The Plurals Party
|candidate = Rakesh Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:3080}}
|percentage = 1.4
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Mohd. Zeyaur Rahman
|votes = {{formatnum:2480}}
|percentage = 1.13
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Deonandan Ram
|votes = {{formatnum:2186}}
|percentage = 0.99
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:2303}}
|percentage = 1.05
|change = +0.24
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:3395}}
|percentage = 1.55
|change = +0.03
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:220241}}
|percentage = 66.14
|change = +10.29
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|winner = Rashtriya Lok Morcha
|loser = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2020 ===
{{Election box begin |title=[[2020 Bihar Legislative Assembly election|Bihar Assembly election, 2020]]: Bajpatti<ref name="election2020">{{Cite web |date=2021-01-13 |title=Bihar General Legislative Election 2020 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/12787-bihar-legislative-election-2020/ |website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|candidate = [[Mukesh Kumar Yadav]]
|votes = {{formatnum:71483}}
|percentage = 40.21
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|candidate = [[Ranju Geeta]]
|votes = {{formatnum:68779}}
|percentage = 38.69
|change = -4.61
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Rashtriya Lok Samta Party
|candidate = Rekha Kumari
|votes = {{formatnum:11267}}
|percentage = 6.34
|change = -26.04
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Lok Janshakti Party
|candidate = Intekhab Alam
|votes = {{formatnum:6183}}
|percentage = 3.48
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Rashtriya Ulama Council
|candidate = Saiyad Neyaz Ahamad
|votes = {{formatnum:3191}}
|percentage = 1.79
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Md. Iftekhar
|votes = {{formatnum:2077}}
|percentage = 1.17
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Devendra Jha
|votes = {{formatnum:1908}}
|percentage = 1.07
|change = -1.08
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ramnihora Sah
|votes = {{formatnum:1629}}
|percentage = 0.92
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1441}}
|percentage = 0.81
|change = -1.86
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:2704}}
|percentage = 1.52
|change = -9.4
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:177777}}
|percentage = 55.85
|change = +1.21
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Rashtriya Janata Dal
|loser = Janata Dal (United)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2015 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2015 Bihar Legislative Assembly election]]: Bajpatti<ref name="Bajpatti Constituency Election Results 2015 - 2025">{{cite news |title=Bajpatti Constituency Election Results 2015 - 2025 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/bihar/constituency-show/bajpatti |access-date=27 December 2025 |publisher=The Times of India |date=14 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251227183836/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/bihar/constituency-show/bajpatti |archive-date=27 December 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Janata Dal (United)
|candidate = [[Ranju Geeta]]
|votes = {{formatnum:67194}}
|percentage = 43.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Rashtriya Lok Samta Party
|candidate = Rekha Kumari
|votes = {{formatnum:50248}}
|percentage = 32.38
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Rabindra Kumar Shahi
|votes = {{formatnum:8033}}
|percentage = 5.18
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Vijay Kumar Jha
|votes = {{formatnum:4190}}
|percentage = 2.7
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Shyam Babu Chaudhary
|votes = {{formatnum:3372}}
|percentage = 2.17
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Devendra Jha
|votes = {{formatnum:3339}}
|percentage = 2.15
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Fudan Kumar Jha
|votes = {{formatnum:1852}}
|percentage = 1.19
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Akhileshwar Kumar
|votes = {{formatnum:1624}}
|percentage = 1.05
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ash Narayan Jha
|votes = {{formatnum:1588}}
|percentage = 1.02
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = Ansar Ahmad
|votes = {{formatnum:1512}}
|percentage = 0.97
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:4138}}
|percentage = 2.67
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:16946}}
|percentage = 10.92
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:155175}}
|percentage = 54.64
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of all Bihar Assembly elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/68-bihar/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Vidhan Sabha constituencies of Bihar}}
{{Tirhut Division topics}}

{{coord|26|34|N|85|37|E|region:IN-{{IndAbbr|[[Bihar]]}}|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Bihar]]
[[Category:Politics of Sitamarhi district]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Bihar]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

Guldhar RRTS station

2026-04-18T07:23:18Z

Thechhavigarg: created article.

{{Short description|RapidX's Delhi–Meerut RRTS station}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Infobox station
| name = [[File:A05 Guldhar RRTS station.svg|40px]] DPS Rajnagar Guldhar
| type = {{RapidX Infobox station line|line=Delhi–Meerut}}
| style = RapidX
| image =
| image_size =
| image_caption =
| address = Meerut Road Industrial Area, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201017
| country = {{flagu|India}}
| coordinates = {{coord|28.69956|N|77.44582|E|display=inline}}
| elevation =
| line = {{rcb|RapidX|Delhi–Meerut|croute}} RRTS
| connections =
| structure = [[Elevated]], [[Double-track railway|Double track]]
| platform = [[Side platform]] Platform-1 → {{stl|RapidX|Duhai Depot}} '''/''' {{stl|RapidX|Modipuram}} Platform-2 → {{stl|RapidX|Sarai Kale Khan}}
| levels = 2
| tracks = 2
| parking = {{parking symbol}} Four-Wheeler Parking
| opened = {{start date and age|21 October 2023|df=yes}}
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified = {{25 kV 50 Hz}} through [[overhead catenary]]
| accessible = Yes {{access icon}}
| code =
| owned = [[National Capital Region Transport Corporation|NCRTC]]
| operator = [[National Capital Region Transport Corporation|NCRTC]]
| status = Operational
| former =
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| services = {{Adjacent stations|system=RapidX|line1=Delhi–Meerut|left1=Ghaziabad|right1=Duhai|to-right1=Duhai Depot or Modipuram}}
| pass_system =
| route_map = {{Delhi–Meerut Regional Rapid Transit System}}
| map_state = collapsed
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-marker = rail
| mapframe-marker-color = #FFFA4A
| mapframe-zoom = 14
}}

'''DPS Rajnagar Guldhar RRTS station'''<ref>{{cite web |title=DELHI-Ghaziabad-Meerut MAP |url=https://ncrtc.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/RevisedDELHI-Ghaziabad-Meerut-MAP.jpg |access-date=1 May 2023 |website=ncrtc.in}}</ref> (formerly known as '''Guldhar''') is an elevated RRTS station in the Ghaziabad district of [[Uttar Pradesh]], India. This serves as a RRTS station for higher-speed trains on the [[Delhi–Meerut Regional Rapid Transit System]] that reaches speeds of up to 180 km/h.

DPS Rajnagar Guldhar RRTS station was commissioned on 20 October 2023 by Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] along with the 17 km long Sahibad-Duhaiyya section of [[Delhi–Meerut Regional Rapid Transit System|Delhi–Meerut RRTS]]<ref name="timesofindia-indiatimes32">{{cite web |author1=Abhijay Jha |title=RRTS section nears launch, but links to metro, bus stand will take longer |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ghaziabad/rrts-section-nears-launch-but-links-to-metro-bus-stand-will-take-longer/articleshow/99022765.cms?from=mdr |access-date=1 May 2023 |website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com |publisher=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Delhi-Meerut RRTS corridor: Duhai-Sahibabad section likely to open for public by April – Details inside |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/business/railways-delhi-meerut-rrts-corridor-duhai-sahibabad-section-likely-to-open-for-public-by-april-details-inside-2992108/ |access-date=1 May 2023 |website=www.financialexpress.com |language=en}}</ref> and was open to general public on 21 October 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Livemint |date=2023-10-20 |title=PM Modi inaugurates the priority section of Delhi-Ghaziabad-Meerut RRTS Corridor |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/delhimeerut-rrts-corridor-pm-modi-launches-namo-bharat-rapidx-train-connecting-Guldhar-to-duhai-depot-11697778894740.html |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=DHNS |title=PM Modi flags off NaMo Bharat, India's 1st Regional Rapid Rail Service (RRTS) {{!}} Details here |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/delhi/pm-modi-flags-off-namo-bharat-indias-1st-regional-rapid-rail-service-rrts-details-here-2735778 |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Staff Reporter |date=2023-10-20 |title=PM Narendra Modi Flags off India’s First Namo Bharat Train on Delhi-Meerut RRTS Corridor |url=https://www.metrorailnews.in/pm-narendra-modi-flags-off-indias-first-namo-bharat-train-on-delhi-meerut-rrts-corridor/ |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=Metro Rail News |language=en-US}}</ref>

== History ==
The [[National Capital Region Transport Corporation]] (NCRTC) had invited tenders for the construction of the DPS Rajnagar Guldhar RRTS station along with the 4.5 km long Guldhar–Duhai section of the 82.15 km Delhi-Meerut RRTS line. Apco Infratech and China Railway First Group ([[Joint venture|JV]]) emerged as the lowest bidder for construction work. Under the agreement, companies started construction of Guldhar RRTS station.<ref name="themetrorailguy1">{{cite web |title=APCO-CRFG & KEC-CCECC Resume Work on Delhi – Meerut RRTS Line |url=https://themetrorailguy.com/2020/05/25/apco-crfg-kec-ccecc-resume-work-on-delhi-meerut-rrts-line/ |website=www.themetrorailguy.com |publisher=The Metro Rail Guy |access-date=1 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

== Station layout ==
The DPS Rajnagar Guldhar RRTS station has three levels - platform, concourse and street level. Guldhar RRTS station will be 215 meters long and 26 meters wide. The rail tracks will be constructed at a height of 24 meters above the ground level.<ref name="msn">{{cite web |title=Delhi-Meerut RRTS update: Ghaziabad station to have 5 exits, to be linked with Naya Bus Stand Metro Station |url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/news/other/delhi-meerut-rrts-update-ghaziabad-station-to-have-5-exits-to-be-linked-with-naya-bus-stand-metro-station/ar-AA17f11J |website=www.msn.com |access-date=1 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

{{stack|{{Routemap
| title = [[File:A05 Guldhar RRTS station.svg|frameless|20px]] DPS Rajnagar Guldhar track layout
| title-bg = #{{rail color|RapidX|Delhi–Meerut}}
| legend = track
| collapsible = no
| map = vCONTgfa
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to [[File:A06 Duhai RRTS station.svg|frameless|20px]] {{stl|RapidX|Duhai}}
*'''P1'''\cPLT\vSTR\cPLT\*'''P2'''
cPLT\vSTR\cPLT ~~ ~~ ~~ to [[File:A04 Ghaziabad RRTS station.svg|frameless|20px]] {{stl|RapidX|Ghaziabad}}
vCONTgfe
| bottom = <div style="width:23.5em;text-align:center">Station with two tracks and two side platforms</div>
}}}}
{|table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;border-top:solid 1px gray;" width=50 valign=top|'''G'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=100 valign=top|Street level
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500 valign=top|Exit/Entrance
|-
|valign=top|'''L1'''
|valign=top|Mezzanine
|valign=top|Fare control, Station agent, Token vending machines, Crossover
|-
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=50 rowspan=4 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-top:solid 1px gray;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 2px black;text-align:center;" colspan=2|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=100|'''Platform 1''' '''Eastbound'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500|Towards → [[File:AS2_Duhai_Depot_RRTS_station.svg|frameless|20x20px]] {{stl|RapidX|Duhai Depot}} / [[File:A10 Meerut South RRTS station.svg|frameless|20x20px]] {{stl|RapidX|Meerut South}} '''Next Station:'''[[File:A06 Duhai RRTS station.svg|frameless|20px]] [[Duhai RRTS station|Duhai]]
|-
|'''Platform 2''' '''Westbound'''
|Towards ← [[File:A01 New Ashok Nagar RRTS station.svg|frameless|20x20px]] {{stl|RapidX|New Ashok Nagar}} '''Next Station:'''[[File:A04 Ghaziabad RRTS station.svg|frameless|20px]] [[Ghaziabad RRTS station|Ghaziabad]]
|-
|style="border-top:solid 2px black;border-right:solid 2px black;border-left:solid 2px black;border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" colspan=2 align=center|[[Side platform]] | Doors will open on the left {{access icon}}
|-
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=50 rowspan=2 valign=top|'''L2'''
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=100|
|style="border-bottom:solid 1px gray;" width=500|
|-
|}

There are 2 Gate points – 1 and 2. Commuters can use either of the points for their travel:-

* Gate 1 - Towards Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology (Meerut Side)
* Gate 2 - Towards Delhi Side

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{RapidX|Delhi–Meerut=yes}}

[[Category:Railway stations in Ghaziabad district]]
[[Category:Railway stations in India opened in 2023]]

List of institutions of higher education in Kollam district

2026-04-16T16:02:39Z

Thechhavigarg: started some place needs work

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
'''[[Kollam district]]''', earlier called Quilon district, is one of the 14 districts of [[Kerala]] [[States and territories of India|state]], [[India]]. The district is representative of all the natural attributes of Kerala states, and is endowed with a long coastal region, a major sea port on the [[Arabian Sea]], plains and the mountains, lakes, [[lagoon]]s and [[Kerala Backwaters]], forests and the farm land, and rivers and streams. The area had mercantile relationship with [[Phoenicia]]ns and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]].

==Universities==
* [[Sree Narayanaguru Open University]]

== Professional Colleges ==

===Engineering and Technology Colleges===
Source:<ref>[http://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/ET/Kerala_ET.pdf List of Approved Engineering & Tech Institutes in Kerala by AICTE ]</ref>

[[File:T K M Engineering College.jpg|thumb|right|300px|View of Kollam-Punalur Passenger Train passing by the TKM college.]]The TKM College of Engineering was the first Engineering College in Kollam, Later in 1999 College of Engineering Karunagappally was established it was the first Govt. Engineering College (Second Engineering College) in Kollam (Unit of IHRD, Govt of Kerala) Later in 2000 -2001 College of Engineering Perumon was established (Under CAPE, Govt. Of Kerala)
* '''Government & Aided Engineering Colleges'''
* [[TKMCE|Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineering, Kollam, Karikode]]<ref name="TKM">[http://www.tkmce.org.in TKM college website], TKM engg college website.</ref> (TKMCE)
* [[College of Engineering Karunagappally|College of Engineering, Karunagappally]]<ref name="CEK">[http://www.ceknpy.ac.in/ College of Engg, Karunagappally website (CEK)].</ref> (CEK)
* College of Engineering, Perumon (CEP)<ref name="CEP">[http://www.ceperumon.ac.in/ College of Engg, Perumon Website].</ref>
* College of Engineering, Kottarakkara (CEKRA)
* College of Engineering, Pathanapuram (CEPRM)
'''Private Self-Financing Engineering Colleges'''
* Pinnacle School of Engineering and Technology, Anchal, Kollam
* Basilous Mathew II College of Engineering, Sasthamcottah<ref name="BMII">{{cite web|url=http://www.bmce.ac.in/ |title=BMII college website |publisher=Bmce.ac.in |access-date=2011-11-01}}</ref>
* Bishop Jerome College of Engineering and Technology, [[Kollam]]
* Hindustan College of Engineering, Arippa, Kulathuppuzha
* [[MES Institute of Technology and Management|MES Institute of Technology And Management, Chathannoor]]
* S.H.M. Engineering College, Kadakkal
* [[TKM Institute of Technology|TKM Institute of Technology, Karuvelil]]<ref name="TKMI">[http://www.tkmit.ac.in/main/profile.asp college website] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210194011/http://www.tkmit.ac.in/main/Profile.asp |date=2013-12-10 }}, TKM Institute engg college website.</ref>
* Travancore Engineering College, Roadvila, Oyoor<ref name="TEC">{{cite web|title=TEC college website|url=http://www.travancoreengg.ac.in/|access-date=2011-11-01|publisher=travancoreengg.ac.in}}</ref>
* [[UKF College of Engineering and Technology|U K F College of Engineering & Technology]], Meenambalam.
* Younus College of Engineering & Technology, Pallimukku<ref name="YCE">{{cite web|url=http://www.ycet.ac.in/ |title=YCE college website |publisher=Ycet.ac.in |date=1991-10-26 |access-date=2011-11-01}}</ref>
* Younus College of Engineering for Women, Kottarakkara, Kollam
* Younus Institute of Technology, Kannanalloor.
* [[Amritapuri Campus|Amrita School of Engineering, Vallikavu, Clappana, Kollam]]<ref name="Amrita">{{cite web|url=http://www.amrita.edu |title=Amrite college website |publisher=Amrita.edu |access-date=2011-11-01}}</ref>

===Medical Institutions===
[[File:Azeezia Institute of Medical Science and Research.jpg|right|thumb|350px|[[Azeezia Medical College|Azeezia Institute of Medical Science and Research]], Meeyannoor, Kollam]]
* [[Government Medical College, Kollam]]
* [[Azeezia Medical College|Azeezia Medical College, Meeyannoor]]
* Travancore Medical College, Medicity, Kollam
* Sree Narayana Institute of Ayurvedic Studies & Research, Karimpinpuzha, Puthoor, Kollam
* Amrita Ayurveda Medical College, Karunagappally, Kollam

===Business & Management Institutes===
Source:<ref>[http://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/MGMT/Kerala_MGMT.pdf List of Approved Management Institutes in Kerala by AICTE ]</ref>
[[File:Bishop Jerome Institute, Kollam City.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Panoramic view of Bishop Jerome Group of Institutions, Kollam]]
* T K M Institute of Management, Kollam
* Member Sree Narayana Pillai Institute of Management & Technology, Mukundapuram, Chavara, Kollam
* Bishop Jerome School of Management, [[Kollam]]
* Institute of Management-Kerala, Kollam
* Institute of Management-Kerala, Kundara
* Travancore Business Academy, Vadakkevila, Kollam
* Gurudev Institute of Management Studies (GIMS), Kadakkal
* Sankar Institute of Science, Technology and Management, Chathannoor
* Horizon Educational Foundation, Kollam
* Quilon Institute of Technology for Women, Kollam
* Gurudev Institute of Management Studies, Kadakkal
* Sankar Institute of Science Technology and Management, Chathanoor
* MSN Institute of Management and Technology, Mukundapuram P.O, Chavara

===Architecture Colleges===
Source:<ref>[http://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/ATP/Kerala_ATP.pdf List of Approved Architecture and Town Planning Institutes in Kerala by AICTE ]</ref>
* [[TKMCE|Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineering]], Kollam, Karikode
* Nizar Rahim & Mark School of Architecture, Madannada, Kollam<ref>[http://epaper.deccanchronicle.com/articledetailpage.aspx?id=768371 New allotment to have 4 self finansing architecture colleges - Deccan chronicle] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808055113/http://epaper.deccanchronicle.com/articledetailpage.aspx?id=768371 |date=2014-08-08 }}</ref>
* Bishop Jerome Institute, Karbala, Kollam
[[File:KSID Campus.png|thumb|337x337px|A view of Kerala State Institute of Design campus]]

=== Design Institutes ===
* [[Kerala State Institute of Design]]<ref>{{Cite web|title = KSID|url = http://www.ksid.co.in|website = www.ksid.co.in|access-date = 2015-11-14|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151117021223/http://www.ksid.co.in/|archive-date = 17 November 2015|url-status = dead}}</ref>

===Law Colleges===
* [[Sree Narayana Guru College of Legal Studies]], Kollam
* N.S.S Law College, Kottiyam

===Nursing Colleges===
* Bishop Benziger College of Nursing, Kollam
* Upasana College of Nursing, Kollam
* Travancore College of Nursing, Kollam
* Holy Cross College of Nursing, Kottiyam
* Azeezia Nursing College, Meeyannoor, Kollam
* Mercy college of Nursing, Kottarakkara, Kollam
* Vijaya College of Nursing, Kottarakkara, Kollam
* Vellapalli Natesan Shashtiabdapoorthi Smaraka College of Nursing, Kollam
* St. Joseph's College of Nursing, Kollam
* Royal College of Nursing, Chathannoor

===Polytechnic Colleges===
[[File:SN Poly (S N P T C) kottiyam in 2008.jpg|thumb|right|300px|SN Polytechnic College (S.N.P.T.C) Kottiyam in 2008]]
* [[Sree Narayana Poly (SN Poly) Technic College]] (S N P T C), Kottiyam
* Government Polytechnic College, Punalur
* Government Polytechnic College, Ezhukone
* Model Polytechnic College, Karunagappally, Kollam

===Fashion Technology Colleges===
* Apparel Training and Design Center (ATDC Vocational College)<ref>[http://www.atdcindia.co.in ATDC Vocational College Website].</ref>
* Institute of Fashion Technology Kerala (IFTK), Vellimon, Kollam

===MCA Colleges===
Source:<ref>[http://www.aicte-india.org/downloads/MCA/Kerala_MCA.pdf List of Approved MCA Institutes in Kerala by AICTE ]</ref>
* Mar Baselios Institute of Technology, Anchal
* Marthoma College of Science and Technology, Ayur
* Sree Narayana Institute Of Technology, Vadakkevila, Kollam

===Training & B.Ed Centres===
* Badhiriya B.Ed.Training College
* Jamia Training College
* Valiyam Memorial College of Teacher Education
* Haneefa Kunju Memorial College Of Education
* Sri Vidyadhiraja Model College of Teacher Education
* Millath College Of Teacher Education, Sooranadu
* College of Teacher Education, Arkannoor, Ayur
* Sabarigiri College of Education, Anchal
* Fathima Memorial Training College, Mylapore
* Mannam Foundation Centre For Education Technology, Kollam
* Rama Vilasom Training College, Valakom
* Mannam Memorial Training College, Punalur
* Baselios Marthoma Mathews II Training College
* Fathima Memorial Training College, Pallimukku
* Karmela Rani Training College, Kollam
* Mount Tabor Training College, Pathanapuram
* Manjappara Educational And Charitable Trust B.Ed. College

==Arts and Science Colleges==
* Mar Thoma College of Science and Technology, Ayur
* Sree Narayana College, Kollam
* Sree Narayana College for Women, Kollam
* Fatima Matha National College, Kollam
* MMNSS College Kottiyam
* T.K.M. College of Arts & Science, Kollam
* Marthoma college of science & technology, Ayur
* Sree Sankara Sanskrit Vithyapeedom College Edakkidom
* Devaswom Board College, Sasthamcotta
* College of Applied Science IHRD, Kundara
* Baby John Memorial Government College, Chavara
* St. John's College, Anchal
* St. Stephen's College, Pathanapuram
* St. Gregorios College, Kottarakkara
* N.S.S. College, Nilamel
* Sree Narayana College, Punalur
* Sree Narayana College, Chathannur
* Sree Vidyadhiraja College of Arts and Science, Karunagappally
* P.M.S.A Pookoya Thangal Memorial Arts & Science College
* UIT, Mulamkadakom

==See also==
* [[List of colleges affiliated to University of Kerala]]
* [[List of colleges affiliated with Cochin University of Science and Technology]]
* [[List of Engineering Colleges in Kerala]]
* [[List of Medical Colleges in Kerala]]
* [[List of schools in Kollam district]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Kollam |state=expanded}}
{{Kerala |state=collapsed}}
{{Education in India}}

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges in Kerala]]
[[Category:Education in Kollam district]]

Bhatpar Rani Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:39:07Z

Thechhavigarg: done.

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Bhatpar Rani
| map_image = 340-Bhatpar Rani.svg
| mla = [[Sabhakunwar Kushawaha]]
| party = [[Bhartiya Janta Party]]
| latest_election_year = 2022
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| district = [[Deoria district|Deoria]]
| reservation = None
| type = SLA
| electors = 3,38,287
| constituency_no = 340
}}
'''Bhatpar Rani''' is a constituency of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] covering the city of Bhatpar Rani in the [[Deoria district]] of Uttar Pradesh, India.

Bhatpar Rani is one of five assembly constituencies in the [[Salempur Lok Sabha constituency|Lok Sabha constituency of Salempur]]. Since 2008, this assembly constituency is numbered 340 amongst 403 constituencies.

==Members of Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member<ref name="election2018">{{Cite web |title=Bhatpar Rani Election and Results 2018, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/bhatpar-rani.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1967 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|Ayodhya Prasad Arya
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1969 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|Harivansh Sahay
| style="background-color: {{party color|Samyukta Socialist Party}}" |
|[[Samyukta Socialist Party]]
|-
|[[1974 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1974]]
|Raghuraj Singh
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1977 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Raj Mangal
| style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Party}}" |
|[[Janata Party]]
|-
|[[1980 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
|Harivansh Sahay
| style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Party (Secular)}}" |
|[[Janata Party (Secular)]]
|-
|[[1985 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|Kameshwar Upadhyay
| style="background-color: {{party color|Independent}}" |
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-
|[[1989 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| rowspan="2" |Harivansh Sahay
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Dal}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Janata Dal]]
|-
|[[1991 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|-
|[[1993 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|Kameshwar Upadhyay
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1996 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
|Yogendra Singh
| style="background-color: {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
|[[Samajwadi Party]]
|-
|[[2002 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2002]]
| rowspan="3" |Kameshwar Upadhyay
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[2007 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
| rowspan="4" style="background-color: {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
| rowspan="4" |[[Samajwadi Party]]
|-
|[[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|-
|2013^
| rowspan="2" |[[Ashutosh Upadhyay]]
|-
|[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
|-
|[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|[[Sabhakunwar Kushawaha]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|}

==Election results==

=== 2022 ===
[[Sabhakunwar Kushawaha|Sabhakunwar Kushwaha]] from Party [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] won the seat of legislative Assembly by defeating [[Ashutosh Upadhyay]].

{{Election box begin|title = [[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election]]: Bhatpar Ran<ref name="election2022">{{Cite web |date=2022-05-25 |title=Uttar Pradesh General Legislative Election 2022|url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14185-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/|website=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Sabhakunwar
|votes = {{formatnum:91282}}
|percentage = 46.98
|change = +19.0
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Ashutosh Upadhyay
|votes = {{formatnum:73200}}
|percentage = 37.68
|change = +3.59
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Ajay
|votes = {{formatnum:18576}}
|percentage = 9.56
|change = -14.78
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Keshav Chand Yadav
|votes = {{formatnum:4486}}
|percentage = 2.31
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Jan Adhikar Party
|candidate = Ajimullah
|votes = {{formatnum:2154}}
|percentage = 1.11
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1589}}
|percentage = 0.82
|change = -0.32
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:18082}}
|percentage = 9.3
|change = +3.19
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:194282}}
|percentage = 57.43
|change = -0.05
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser = Samajwadi Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===
[[Samajwadi Party]] candidate '''[[Ashutosh Upadhyay]]''' won in last Assembly election of [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Elections]] defeating [[Bharatiya Janta Party]] candidate '''Jayanth Kushwaha''' by a margin of 11,097 votes.<ref name="election2017">{{Cite web|url=https://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/bhatpar-rani.html|title=Assembly result 2017|website=Elections.in|access-date=2017-08-25}}</ref>
{{Election box begin|title = [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election]]: Bhatpar Ran<ref name="election2017"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Ashutosh
|votes = {{formatnum:61862}}
|percentage = 34.09
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Jaynath Kushwaha Urf Guddan
|votes = {{formatnum:50765}}
|percentage = 27.98
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Sabhakunwar
|votes = {{formatnum:44161}}
|percentage = 24.34
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ashwani Kumar Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:13497}}
|percentage = 7.44
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:2039}}
|percentage = 1.14
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:11097}}
|percentage = 6.11
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:181465}}
|percentage = 57.48
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}
aliraj

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Uttar Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/92-uttar-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{coord|26.31|84.03|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Politics of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Deoria district]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1967]]
[[Category:1967 establishments in Uttar Pradesh]]

Oulgaret Assembly constituency

2026-04-15T23:32:54Z

Thechhavigarg: Created First Article Added Tags!

{{Short description|Former constituency of the Puducherry Legislative Assembly}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2025}}

{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = SLA
| name = Oulgaret
| state = [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]
| established = 1964
| abolished= 1969
| district =
| loksabha_cons =
| electors = 8,447
}}
'''Oulgaret''' was a [[Puducherry Legislative Assembly|state assembly constituency]] in the [[India]]n state of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]. It was in existence for the 1964<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceopuducherry.py.gov.in/PDF/SE1964.PDF |access-date=23 October 2023 |title=Union Territory of Pondicherry - General Elections 1964}}</ref> and 1969 assembly elections.

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Name
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
| [[1964 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|1964]] || S. Govindasamy || {{Full party name with colour|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1969 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election|1969]] || S. Muthu || {{Full party name with colour|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|}

== Election results ==
{{bar box
|float=right
|title= Vote share of winning candidates
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=300px
|barwidth=275px
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 1969|1969]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|50.15}}
{{bar percent|[[#Assembly Election 1964|1964]]|{{party color|Indian National Congress}}|40.92}}
}}

=== 1969 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1969 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election]]: Oulgaret<ref>{{cite web |title=Puducherry 1969 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3423-puducherry-1969/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917140530/https://eci.gov.in/files/file/3423-puducherry-1969/ |website=Election Commission of India|archive-date=17 September 2021 }}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=S. Muthu |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=3,452 |percentage=50.15% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=G. Rajamanickam |party=Indian National Congress |votes=1,823 |percentage=26.49% |change=-14.44% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=S. Govindasamy |party=Independent politician |votes=1,163 |percentage=16.90% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Latour Paul Joseph |party=Independent politician |votes=445 |percentage=6.47% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,629 |percentage=23.67% |change=23.18% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=6,883 |percentage=83.20% |change= 3.74% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 8,447 |change =7.78% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= 9.23% }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1964 ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1964 Pondicherry Legislative Assembly election]]: Oulgaret<ref>{{cite web |title=Puducherry 1964 |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3421-puducherry-1964/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515062755/https://www.eci.gov.in/files/file/3421-puducherry-1964/ |website=Election Commission of India|archive-date=15 May 2019 }}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=S. Govindasamy |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,511 |percentage=40.92% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=V. Narayanasamy |party=Indian People's Front |votes=2,481 |percentage=40.43% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=N. Damodaran |party=Independent politician |votes=1,144 |percentage=18.64% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=30 |percentage=0.49% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=6,136 |percentage=79.46% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 7,837 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Indian National Congress |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|11.931|79.776|display=title}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Puducherry}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Puducherry]]
[[Category:Politics of Puducherry]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1964]]
[[Category:1964 establishments in Pondicherry]]
[[Category:Constituencies disestablished in 1969]]
[[Category:1969 disestablishments in India]]

{{India-election-stub}}
{{Puducherry-geo-stub}}

Paddar

2026-04-14T18:51:22Z

Thechhavigarg:

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}

{{Use Indian English|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Paddar
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = Paddri, Bhoti
| other_name =
| settlement_type = Sub-division
| image_skyline = Gullabgarh Paddar.jpg
| image_caption = View of Gulabgarh Town and Paddar Valley
| nickname =
| image_map = Jammu and Kashmir Paddar Sub-district.png
| map_caption = Location of Paddar Sub-District, J&K, India
| coordinates = {{coord|33.155671|N|76.092911|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|Union Territory]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Government of Jammu and Kashmir.svg}} [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu & Kashmir]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of India|Division]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Jammu division|Jammu]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of Jammu and Kashmir|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Kishtwar district|Kishtwar]]
| established_title =
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for = Sapphire mine
| seat_type = [[Headquarters]]
| seat = Gulabgarh, Paddar
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 =
| area_rank =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 21548<ref name="Paddar Population">{{cite web|url=https://www.censusindia2011.com/jammu-kashmir/kishtwar/atholi-paddar-population.html|title=Paddar Population|work=Census India|access-date=29 August 2020}}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes = <ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/hlo/pca/pca_pdf/PCA-CRC-0100.pdf Census of India 2011]</ref>
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_rank =
| population_demonym =
| demographics_type1 = Society
| demographics1_title1 = Languages
| demographics1_info1 = [[Padri dialect|Padri]], [[Pangwali]], [[Hindi]], [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]], [[Kishtwari]], [[Urdu]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 182204
| registration_plate =
| website = http://www.paddar.com
| footnotes =
}}

'''Paddar''', also spelled '''Padar''' ({{langx|hi|pāḍar}}), is a sub-district and remote valley in the [[Kishtwar district]] of the [[union territory]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], India. It falls in the [[Jammu division|Jammu]] division. It consists of two tehsils: Machail and Atholi Paddar.<ref name="History of Paddar">{{cite web |last=Chauhan |first=Lalit Singh |title=History of Paddar |url=http://www.paddar.com/history.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527174752/http://www.paddar.com/history.html |archive-date=27 May 2012 |access-date=11 June 2012 |work=paddar.com}}</ref> The valley covers the entire southeastern portion of the Kishtwar district. It borders [[Zanskar]] ([[Ladakh]]) in the north and east, [[Pangi, Himachal Pradesh|Pangi]] ([[Himachal Pradesh]]) in the south and the rest of Jammu and Kashmir in the west. The valley is known for its [[Sapphire]] mines. It lies along the [[Chenab River|Chenab river]] in the [[Great Himalayas]]. Paddar is one of the most remote regions of Jammu and Kashmir. There are a number of small valleys within Paddar, such as Machail, Gandhari, Kabban, Ongai, Bhuzunu, Barnaj, Bhuzas, Kijai Nallah, Ishtiyari, Tiyari and Dharlang, among others.

==History==
It is unclear when humans first arrived in Paddar. Some theories suggest it was first settled in the 8th century by people from [[Kashmir]], and the northwestern region of the subcontinent ([[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|KPK]] or Eastern Afghanistan).<ref name="History of Paddar" /> They could be the descendants of ancient [[Hephthalites|White Huns]] or [[Scythians]]. The area is inhabited mostly by the Thakurs and Pandits (Brahmins).<ref name="History of Paddar" /> There is also an interesting thing to know many villages in the region have name that include Kashmiri surnames. E.g Bhatwas- literally translating to the Place or Abode of [[Bhat|Bhats]] Ganjuwas- the Abode of Ganjus

Paddar was under the rule of the Kashmiri Empire for centuries. Various manuscripts written in [[Sharada script|Sharada]] script have been found in the region. But most of the period of the history it remained under self rule because it was a difficult region to be accessible. At local level, the area were headed by local Ranas. Each Rana usually controlled one to three villages, often fighting with other Ranas for control of land. By the mid-17th century, Rana Sheetal Singh controlled the valley, being headquartered at Leondi village. Sheetal Singh was defeated in an ambush by the Raja of [[Chamba State|Chamba]] and his forces, and Paddar fell into the hands of Chamba rulers. After Chatur Singh's reign, the Rajas of Chamba exercised their sovereignty over Padder for six generations. The area enjoyed peace and prosperity thereafter. In the spring of 1836 A.D., Zorawar Singh took up arms against the Chamba forces and won, causing Paddar to be annexed to Kishtwar. Due to its history under Chamaba rule, Paddar has a strong relationship with Himachal Pradesh in terms of culture and history.{{Citation needed|date=August 2025}}

The residents of ancient Paddar were primarily serpent worshipers. However, they observed other Hindu rites and rituals as well. Besides [[Hindus]], [[Muslims]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] also settled in the valley. The Buddhists were spread in the upper reaches of the Machail, Kaban, and Gandhari valleys and in the town of [[Gulabgarh Zagir|Gulabgarh.]]The first Muslims came to Paddar during the period of the Raja Shantar Kantar from Chamba. The descendants of those Muslims still live in Atholi and Kijai.<ref name="History of Paddar" />

==Culture==
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2025}}
Paddar has an extensive cultural history.
[[File:Padderi_musical_instruments.png|220x124px|thumb|right|Dhol, Nagaras and flute]]
===Religion===
The majority of Padderi belong to the Hindu community, but their traditions and rituals are very different from mainstream Hinduism. They follow a unique Shiva-Shakti tradition which is similar to [[Kashmir Shaivism]]. They worship the nature and its sacred elements, e.g Zehryun devta or Megh raj, who is the god of Clouds and snow (Lord Indra), or Jwala mata, the god of fire, warmth and prosperity. [[Nāga|Nāgas]] i.e snake gods, are also an object of worship. Temples of various Nag devtas, or Serpent Gods, are still visible, and adorned with wood carvings of snakes of all kinds. The goddesss [[Parvati]], i.e Shakti, is worshipped in different forms, such as Kali, Chandi, Sheetla devi, etc. Different festivals are organized for their local dieties, during which customary dances and rituals are performed. They use dhoons and beinch (flute) to play ragad of devi-devtas.

In every household, three important ceremonies are held for every individual: Bishtyan ([[Upanayana|Yagyopavit]]) irrespective of their castes, [[Hindu marriage|Byah]] (Marriage), and last rites.

===Castes and Community===
The traditional life in the region is centered on community, religion and agriculture. Community plays an important role in the life of every individual, from every small family function to festivals.

Unlike other regions of North India, the [[Caste system in India|caste system]] is somewhat weak in the Paddar Valley. It is said that the Kashmir valley was primarily inhabited by [[Brahmin|Brahmins]], but in time they adopted agriculture and warfare and became ancestors of the present-day Rana or Thakur community. Due to this, there is no difference in the culture, practices and rituals of Brahmins and Thakurs. It is quite unique to the region that every individual irrespective of their caste still performs the [[Upanayana|Yagyopavit]] ceremony and follows brahminical rituals. This is why the Thakur community of this region is quite distinctive from the [[Rajput|Rajputs]].

An important theory about the origin of this culture is that once, the Kashmir valley was inhabited mostly by the Nagas and the Pishacha tribes, but that after the advent of [[Vedic period|Vedic culture]], they left the region. The pishachas are the ancestors of the present day Shina and Batli tribes; while the Nagas, who were worshipped serpents, migrated south of Kashmir i.e in the present-day [[Chenab Valley]]. Today still, various serpent gods are worshipped there. Naga deities like the Vasuki nag, Kausar nag, or Shesh nag, which are some of the primary deities of the region, trace their origin from Kashmir valley.

=== Music and dance ===
Due to isolation from the rest of the world, the region has special and unique dance forms that developed gradually.

Local songs are called gheet. Sugil is a unique form of singing in which the words are sung slowly; the word is also generally used to describe an event.

The most famous dance form of the region is kharzath. It is similar to the Kud dance of the [[Jammu division|Jammu region]], which is performed on special occasions and in temples.

Gurhey is a dance performed by women. They sing songs while holding each others' hand, and move slowly by matching footsteps. It is similar to Kashmir's rauf dance.

=== Clothing ===
In order to adapt to the cold and harsh climate of the region, residents wear woolen garments all year round. The women wear [[shalwar kameez]] inside, and cover it with a light but heat-insulating woolen shawl called a [[chador]], which is draped in a unique manner. Women also wear special caps called zuji on their heads, which resemble the caps worn by [[Kalash people|Kalash]] tribes in Chitral areas. In older times, they additionally used to wear heavy silver jewellery, which included head jewellery, big ear rings and nose pins, and heavy silver necklaces.

The men wear a loose long [[kurta]]-like tunic called a kamïr, or kamri, with a lower [[churidar]] which is tight at the bottom but loose above the knees. They often wear a piece of wool for a belt, called a mazerad.[[File:Traditional dress of Kishtawar-Padder-Pangi region.jpg|thumb|Traditional dress of Kishtwar-Padder-Pangi]]
[[File:Traditional dress of Padder-Pangi region.jpg|thumb|Traditional dress of Padder-Pangi region]]

[[File:Padderi_Pangwali_traditional_dress.png|220x124px|thumb|right|Traditional attire]]
[[File:Padderi_Pangwali_traditional_attire.png|220x124px|thumb|right|Padderi/Pangwali Dress]]

== Demographics ==

{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Paddar (2011)<ref name="Paddar Population"/>
|label1 = [[Hinduism]]
|value1 = 83.6
|color1 = DarkOrange
|label2 = [[Buddhism]]
|value2 = 9.5
|color2 = Gold
|label3 = [[Islam]]
|value3 = 6.8
|color3 = Green
|label4 = Others
|value4 = 0.1
|color4 = Grey
}}[[Hinduism]] is the largest religion in Paddar and is followed by around 83.63% of the population. Other significant religions are [[Buddhism]] (9.46%) and [[Islam]] (6.84%).<ref name="Paddar Population" />

Upper caste Hindu Communities i.e Thakurs and Pandits (Brahmins) form the overwhelming majority of the population with a significant minority of other castes such as Dom, Kumhar, Watal etc.

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Languages of Paddar (2011)<ref name="census2011-C16">{{cite report |title=C-16 Population By Mother Tongue – Jammu & Kashmir |url = https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-0100.XLSX |publisher = Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=22 October 2020}}</ref>
| label1 = [[Padri dialect|Padri]]
| value1 = 79.6
| color1 = pink
| label2 = [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]]
| value2 = 8.9
| color2 = seagreen
| label3 = [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]
| value3 = 5.9
| color3 = lightgreen
| label4 = Other
| value4 = 5.6
| color4 = grey
}}The majority of the population (nearly 80%) speaks [[Padri dialect|Padri]] as a first language. [[Pangwali]] and [[Kishtwari]] are also spoken in the valley. The Hindus in the valley speak the languages listed above. The Buddhist community speaks [[Ladakhi language|Bhoti]]. The Buddhist population of the valley is ethnically close to Lahaul, Himachal Pradesh and [[Ladakh]]. The Muslim population of the valley primarily speaks [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]].

==Villages==
*'''Karthai''' is among the most accessible villages in Paddar. The village lies in green paddy fields, with the river Chenab on one side and dense forest on the other. It is 58 km from the district capital and is a cultural centre.

*'''Gulabgarh''' is the sub-divisional headquarter and commercial center of Paddar and a hub for the area's economic activities. It has a sizeable market area and a TRC (Tourist Reception Area). Transport services run from here to [[Kishtwar]] town and [[Pangi, Himachal Pradesh|Pangi]]. It also hosts local cricket tournaments. Besides for its economy and recreational opportunities, Gulabgarh also hosts many government offices, J&K Bank,<ref name="J&K Bank Paddar">{{cite web|title=J&K Bank Paddar|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/wealth/ifsccode/bank-jammu-and-kashmir-bank-limited,state-jammu-and-kashmir,district-kishtwar,branch-paddar,ifsccode-JAKA0PADDAR.cms}}</ref> a police station and rest houses.<ref name="Villages of Paddar">{{cite web|title=Villages of Paddar|url=http://www.paddar.com/villages.html|work=Lalit Singh Chauhan|publisher=Lalit Singh Chauhan|access-date=11 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527175116/http://www.paddar.com/villages.html|archive-date=27 May 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Atholi_Padder.png|220x124px|thumb|right|Atholi]]
*'''Atholi''' is the administrative capital. It contains many sub-district level offices including the Atholi [[Tehsildar|Tehsildar's]] office, Munsiff Camp Atholi, the Paddar Forest Range Office, the Paddar ZEO office, the Atholi Tehsil Library, the Atholi fire station and post office, and the Paddar sub-district hospital. It is also known for a scenic spot called Pathaal and a water mill (known locally as Ghiraat) run by a waterfall in the village.,<ref name="Villages of Paddar" /> AEE office Jal Shakti Vibhaag, Higher Secondary School, Girl's High School and Degree college are other significant establishments in the town.
*'''Tatta Pani''' is known for its natural [[Hot spring]].There is a waterfall 'Hanswar Fall'.Sheshnag temple is also situated here.It also said that the of(kund) [[Hot Spring]] gives relief to joints pain.<ref name="Villages of Paddar" />
*'''Sohal''' is used by off-roaders and as a base camp when travelling to Chittoo, Kabban and Ongayee villages. The Kabban village is located along the Sohal/Kabban Nala. Then Ungaie Village along the Ungaie Nala. The Chenab river runs through the villages of Tiyari, Chitto, and Ishtyari.
[[File:Gandhari Padder in Summer.jpg|thumb|]]
*'''Gandhari''' is visited by mountaineers, hikers, and climbers, and is known for green pastures. Its first village, Bhatwas, is about 30 km from Gulabgarh, with 25 km accessible with motor vehicles. The rest can only be travelled by foot. The trek route from here continues to [[Machail]] in Paddar, [[Zanskar]] in [[Ladakh]], and [[Pangi, Himachal Pradesh|Pangi]].<ref name="Villages of Paddar"/> As per Sanskrit language, Gandhari means "girl from [[Gandhara]]", and is a prominent character in the [[Mahabharata]], an [[India]]n epic. Gandhari was a princess in [[Gandhara]] and the wife of [[Dhritrashtra]], the blind king of [[Hastinapura]]. She was the mother of a hundred sons, the [[Kaurava]]s. [[File:Chandi_Mata_Temple_Gandhari_Padder.png|220x124px|thumb|right|Chandi Mata Devi [[Mandir]]]]Maa Chandi's holy shrine, Shiva temple, Nag temple, and Buddhist Gompa Monastery are also located in the village. It is a popular spot for picnicking, touring, and adventuring, and is located approximately 9000 feet above sea level.
*'''Haloti and Hangoo''' are the nearest revenue villages to the [[Machel Mata|Machail Mata shrine]]. The majority of the residents in these two villages are Buddhists. This villages are known for [[Domestic yak|yaks]], which are found only in this area after [[Ladakh]]. These domesticated yaks are raised to provide milk and to plough fields for agriculture. Many Buddhist monasteries are also found here.<ref name="Villages of Paddar" />
*'''Machail''' is known for the Chandi Mata Temple and the annual Machail Yatra festival, during which lakhs of pilgrims visit the temple. Machail has recently been granted the status of [[tehsil]].
[[File:Buddhist_villages_Padder.png|220x124px|thumb|right|Buddhist village of Padder]]
*'''Lossani''' is the second closest revenue village to Machail's Chandi Mata Mandir. The majority of the settlements here are part of the Buddhist community. They are known for yaks and horses, which are used for the same purposes as in Haloti and Hangoo. Lossani is the second largest village in Paddar.

==Festivals==
Some notable festivals celebrated in Paddar are :

*[[Maha Shivaratri|Shivratri]] (Sheraeth): Shivratri, locally known as Sheraeth, is the most famous and significant festival of the Padder Valley. It is celebrated with great enthusiasm and devotion, involving numerous rituals, beliefs, and deep spirituality.

The festival lasts for four days.
The first two days are called Rekh and Kandey. According to local belief, these are the days when demons, spirits, and witches celebrate the festival. In the morning, after thoroughly cleaning and purifying their homes, people cover their doors and windows with thorns and leaves. In the evening, when no one remains outside, a rekha (white line) is drawn across the main entrance to prevent any negative energy from entering the house. People also draw portraits of demons on their rooftops and stay indoors all night, praying and playing kaudi, as it is believed that Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati loved this game. The elders of the family narrate stories of gods, demons, and Shivratri traditions to the younger generation.

The third day, known as Narath, is marked by sacrifices made in households. Special meals are prepared for the evening, and cooking mutton is considered an important custom.

The final day, called Vrath, is observed with fasting by the men of the family. Various pujas and rituals are performed, and offerings such as walnuts, dry fruits, and kheer are distributed as prasad. Snowfall on this day is regarded as an auspicious sign, symbolizing a prosperous harvest for the year ahead.

*Kanchaeth :- Gauri tritya which is locally known as Kanchaeth, is a Hindu festival primarily celebrated in the Chenab valley region of Jammu and Kashmir, particularly in Doda, Kishtwar, and Ramban districts. It commemorates the marriage of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati. Women observe a day-long fast, pray for the long life and well-being of their husbands, and break their fast with non-vegetarian delicacies, a unique aspect of this festival.
*'''Mela Magh''' is an annual celebration lasting three days in the village of Ligri. Thousands of people from villages in the surrounding area take part. The disciples (chelas) of gods and goddesses, wearing local woollen (pattu) dresses and locally made grass shoes, perform specific religious dances. The third day of the celebration is marked by a visit to the holy lack in the upper reaches of ''Munhal Dhaar''.<ref name="Festivals of Paddar">{{cite web|title=Festivals of Paddar|url=http://www.paddar.com/festivals.html|work=Lalit Singh Chauhan|publisher=Paddar.com|access-date=11 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527175047/http://www.paddar.com/festivals.html|archive-date=27 May 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*'''Zaagra''' is a celebration where a huge fire is lit in front of a temple of god/goddess during the night and the chelas (disciples), along with the other locals, dance around the fire to the music of [[dhol]]s and [[flute]]s.<ref name="Festivals of Paddar" />
*'''[[Losar]]''' is the [[Tibet]]an New Year, which is celebrated mostly by the [[Buddhist]] communities. Households observe Losar together. People drink the local brew [[Chhaang]] and celebrate for weeks. Losar generally occurs in the months of January and February.
*'''Naghoi''' '''Mela''' is celebrated in Gandhari in the middle of August every year. People across Paddar and Pangi (Himachal Pradesh) come here to celebrate the festival at the Chandi Mata Mandir Gandhari. It is a festival of two Days. This festival is celebrated for three days. It is also celebrated in villages of Pallali and Machail.<ref name="Festivals of Paddar" />
[[File:Cheti_Mela_Gandhari_Padder.png|220x124px|thumb|right|Cheti Festival]]
*'''Cheti''' is celebrated in Gandhari, Pallali and Machail amidst heavy snowfall. It is celebrated with great pomp. People take greetings to each other's homes. This festival is an opportunity for the people who are locked in the snow to meet each other to celebrate the winters.
*'''Mithyaag''' is celebrated to mark the onset of spring and to pray to Mother Earth for better crop yields. People gather at a holy sites and dance around the sacred weapons of the gods.<ref name="Festivals of Paddar" />
*'''Chandi Yatra''' is an annual pilgrimage to a shrine dedicated to the goddess Durga, popularly known as [[Machail Mata]], located in the village of Machel. Thousands of people, mainly from the Jammu region, visit the shrine every August. It takes approximately ten hours to travel from Jammu to the base camp Gulabgarh by road, after which a 32 km foot journey begins. It usually takes two days to reach the shrine on foot. There are many villages on the way where one can stay for the night. The chaddi takes three days to reach Machail. Many people organize roadside 'langars' (free food points) on the way to the Gulabgarh. The government of Jammu and Kashmir also arranges basic amenities for the pilgrims.
* '''Awaans''' is a festival in which a huge fire is lit in front of a temple in Karthie. All the religious pujaris (priests) from nearby villages come wearing traditional dress and are welcomed by local villagers. The festival happens once every three years, attracting people from across Paddar. Participants enjoy group dances and singing. This festival is a symbol of the rich and diverse culture of Paddar, which embraces love and respect for people irrespective of caste or colour.
*'''Uzzan''' is a festival of religious Sentiments. It is celebrated all over the valley it starts from remote village 'chitto' and ends in the village of 'Jar' 9 mens from chitto comes to 'tatapani' and stay at ''Sh.Balwan'' ji house main motive was to clean the kund situated in tatapani. After cleaning they went to different houses for biksha, eat rangai and return to chitto.

==Transport==
===Air===
The closest airports to Paddar are [[Jammu Airport]] and [[Sheikh ul-Alam International Airport|Srinagar International Airport]], which are 280 and 270 km away, respectively. The nearest helipad is located in Gulabgarh.

===Rail===
There is no railway station in Paddar. The nearest railway station is the [[Udhampur railway station]], which is 212 km away.

===Road===
Paddar Valley is connected to the rest of India by the Keylong-Tandi-Killar-Gulabgarh-Kishtwar road.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Travelling from Jammu to Paddar. A complete guide.|date=26 December 2017|url=https://www.paddar.com/travelling-jammu-paddar/|access-date=2021-03-10|language=en-US|archive-date=18 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818135128/https://www.paddar.com/travelling-jammu-paddar/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Jammu and Kashmir}}
{{Municipalities of Jammu and Kashmir}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Kishtwar district]]
[[Category:Valleys of Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Tehsils of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)]]

2022 India–Pakistan missile incident

2026-04-13T21:13:13Z

Thechhavigarg: details.

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{EngvarB|date=May 2023}}
{{Short description|Accidental firing of a missile}}
On 9 March 2022, [[India]] accidentally fired a [[BrahMos]] [[missile]] originating from [[Ambala]], [[Haryana]] that crashed into [[Mian Channu]], [[Khanewal District]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]].
{{Infobox event
| image = BrahMos supersonic cruise missile successfully test-fired from the Integrated Test Range, at Chandipur on 30 September 2019.jpg
| caption = A BrahMos missile similar to the one involved in the incident.
| date = {{start date|df=yes|2022|03|09}} ({{Time ago|09 Mar 2022}})
| cause = Claimed by India to be the result of a malfunction
| participants = India Pakistan
| outcome = Pakistan publicly condemns India
}}

==Incident==
On 9 March 2022, at 6:43 pm, Air Defence Operations Center of the [[Pakistan Air Force]] (PAF) picked up a high-speed flying object inside Indian territory. "From its initial course, the object suddenly maneuvered towards Pakistani territory and violated Pakistan's air space, ultimately falling near Mian Channu at 6:50 pm", according to Director General Maj Gen [[Babar Iftikhar]] of the [[Inter-Services Public Relations]] (ISPR).<ref name=ISPR/>

The crash near [[Mian Channu]], [[Khanewal District]], in [[Punjab, Pakistan]], caused damage to [[civilian]] property but no casualties.<ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan seeks joint probe into Indian missile fiasco|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2347607/pakistan-seeks-joint-probe-into-indian-missile-fiasco|newspaper=Express Tribune|date=12 March 2022}}</ref> The missile travelled 124 kilometers inside Pakistani territory in three minutes and 44 seconds, according to Air Vice Marshall Tariq Zia of PAF. Pakistan Air Force identified the missile's point of origin near Ambala, Haryana<ref name=ISPR/> and it crossed into Pakistan from [[Suratgarh]], [[Rajasthan]].<ref name=mofa/>

Earlier media reports suggested that an aircraft had crashed in the area.<ref>{{cite news |title=Trainer crashes in Mian Channu |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1679164 |work=Dawn |date=10 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Fighter jet crashes in Mian Channu |url=https://dunyanews.tv/en/Pakistan/644685-Fighter-jet-crashes-in-Mian-Channu- |work=Dunya News |date=9 March 2022}}</ref>

==Reaction==
===Pakistan===
Pakistan strongly condemned the incident and the military spokesperson said that Pakistan Air Force had "initiated requisite tactical actions" in response as it tracked the missile from its point of origin in India to its point of impact.<ref name="ISPR" /> Warning India against recurrence of such incident in the future, it demanded the Indians explain what caused the accident.<ref name="mofa" /> The military spokesperson added that the accidental firing of the missile "reflects very poorly on their [the Indians'] technological prowess and procedural efficiency". Pakistan also lamented the threat the missile incident had posed to the safety of many international and domestic passenger flights.<ref name=ISPR>{{cite news|title='India to explain what happened in Mian Channu,' says DG ISPR after Indian projectile falls in Pakistan|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1679289|newspaper=Dawn News|date=10 March 2022}}</ref><ref name=mofa>{{cite web |title=Pakistan registers strong protest over unprovoked violation of its airspace by a 'super-sonic flying object' of Indian origin |url=https://mofa.gov.pk/pakistan-registers-strong-protest-over-unprovoked-violation-of-its-airspace-by-a-super-sonic-flying-object-of-indian-origin-2/ |website=mofa.gov.pk | date=10 March 2022 | accessdate=15 May 2023 }}</ref>

On 11 March 2022, the [[Foreign Office of Pakistan]] summoned the Indian envoy to register Pakistan's protest over the unprovoked airspace violation by an Indian origin "super-sonic flying object", saying such "irresponsible incidents" reflected India's "disregard for air safety and callousness towards regional peace and stability".<ref>{{cite news |title=FO summons Indian envoy, registers strong protest over unprovoked violation of airspace |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1679431 |work=Dawn |date=11 March 2022}}</ref>

On 12 March 2022, the Foreign Office of Pakistan issued a statement demanding "a joint probe to accurately establish the facts surrounding the incident" while rejecting New Delhi's decision to hold an internal inquiry.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistan demands joint probe into 'accidental' India missile fire |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/pakistan-demands-joint-probe-into-accidental-india-missile-fire-2022-03-12/ |work=Reuters |date=13 March 2022}}</ref>

===India===
In a delayed admission of the accidental missile launch 48 hours after the incident, the Indian Defense Ministry said on 11 March 2022 that "a technical malfunction led to the accidental firing of a missile"<ref>{{cite news |title=India Accidentally Fires a Missile at Pakistan. Calm Ensues. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/12/world/asia/india-pakistan-missile.html |work=The New York Times |date=12 March 2022}}</ref> and that it was "deeply regrettable". India also said that they have ordered a high-level Court of Enquiry to look into the incident. While still unconfirmed by both the Indian and Pakistani authorities, sources said that the missile that was accidentally fired was a BrahMos.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 March 2022 |title=India accidentally fires missile into Pakistan |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-60711653 |access-date=12 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=11 March 2022 |title=India accidentally fired missile into Pakistan because of 'technical malfunction' |url=https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20220311-india-accidentally-fired-missile-into-pakistan-because-of-technical-malfunction |access-date=12 March 2022 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{ Cite web | title =Accidentally fired missile into Pakistan due to tech glitch, says India. 'It was BrahMos' |url=https://theprint.in/defence/accidentally-fired-missile-into-pakistan-due-to-tech-glitch-says-india-it-was-brahmos/869387/|access-date=11 March 2022 |website=The Print |date=11 March 2022| language=en}}</ref> [[Times of India]] claimed that conventional missiles like the BrahMos also don't have "self-destruct mechanisms" like the ones supposedly available on India's strategic or nuclear missiles. However, such assertions came from the media and not the Indian authorities.<ref>{{cite news|title=Missile firing: IAF inquiry on, but Pak seeks joint probe|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/missile-firing-iaf-inquiry-on-but-pak-seeks-joint-probe/articleshow/90176509.cms|newspaper=Times of India|date=13 March 2022}}</ref>

On 23 August 2022, 3 [[Indian Air Force]] officers were primarily held responsible for the incident for "deviation from the Standard Operating Procedures" and their services were terminated by the Indian government with immediate effect.<ref>{{Cite web |title=3 Air Force Officers Sacked For Missile Accidentally Fired Into Pakistan |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/for-brahmos-missile-accidentally-fired-into-pakistan-3-air-force-officers-sacked-3279621 |access-date=23 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=India sacks 3 for accidentally launching missile into Pakistan in March |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1706415/india-sacks-3-for-accidentally-launching-missile-into-pakistan-in-march |work=Dawn |date=23 August 2022}}</ref>

The Pakistani [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Pakistan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] later issued a statement rejecting the Indian investigations. Stating that "systemic loopholes and technical lapses of serious nature in handling of strategic weapons cannot be covered up beneath the veneer of individual human error", Pakistan maintained its demand for a joint investigation of the incident in the spirit of transparency.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mofa.gov.pk/pakistan-rejects-indias-purported-closure-of-the-incident-of-the-firing-of-a-supersonic-missile-into-pakistani-territory-on-9-march-2022-and-reiterates-demand-for-joint-probe/|website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs Government of Pakistan|title=Pakistan rejects India's purported closure of the incident of the firing of a supersonic Missile into Pakistani territory on 9 March, 2022 and reiterates demand for joint probe|date=24 August 2022}}</ref>

===China===
China's Foreign Ministry spokesman [[Zhao Lijian]] called for "a thorough investigation" into the incident while urging India and Pakistan to "strengthen information sharing" and establishing "a notification mechanism in time to avoid the recurrence of such incidents and to prevent miscalculation".<ref>{{cite news |title=US, China call for direct Pakistan-India talks |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1680048/us-china-call-for-direct-pakistan-india-talks |work=Dawn |date=March 15, 2022}}</ref>

===United States===
US State Department Spokesperson [[Ned Price]] while responding to a question about the incident, said that "we have no indication" that India's missile launch into Pakistan was "anything other than an accident".<ref>{{cite news |title=No indication India's missile launch into Pakistan was anything other than accident:US |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1680102/no-indication-indias-missile-launch-into-pakistan-was-anything-other-than-accident-us |work=Dawn |date=15 March 2022}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Pokhran missile incident]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{India–Pakistan relations}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:2022 India-Pakistan missile incident}}
[[Category:2022 in international relations]]
[[Category:2022 in Punjab, Pakistan]]
[[Category:2020s in Haryana]]
[[Category:March 2022 in India]]
[[Category:March 2022 in Pakistan]]
[[Category:India–Pakistan relations]]
[[Category:Khanewal District]]
[[Category:Sirsa, Haryana]]

Prakash Thuminad

2026-04-13T16:15:57Z

Thechhavigarg: Created A Page From Scratch

{{short description|Indian actor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Prakash Thuminad
| occupation = Actor
| awards =
| years_active = 2017-present
}}
'''Prakash Thuminad''' is an Indian film actor who works in [[Kannada cinema]]. He is best known for his role in the film ''[[Sarkari Hi. Pra. Shaale, Kasaragodu, Koduge: Ramanna Rai]]'' (2018).

==Career==
Thuminad is associated with the Kannada film, ''[[Ondu Motteya Kathe]]'' (2017), a romantic drama directed by [[Raj B. Shetty]]. In 2018, he appeared alongside [[Diganth]] and [[Pooja Devariya]], in [[Senna Hegde|Senna Hegde's]] Kannada drama ''[[Katheyondu Shuruvagide]]''. His performance in ''[[Sarkari Hi. Pra. Shaale, Kasaragodu, Koduge: Ramanna Rai]]'' was highly praised, that same year. His 2019 release included ''[[Lungi (film)|Lungi]]''. He played the role of a bank manager in ''[[Kshamisi Nimma Khaatheyalli Hanavilla]]'', starring Diganth and [[Aindrita Ray]].

== Filmography ==
*''All films are in Kannada, unless otherwise noted.''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Film
!Role
!Notes
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{refh}}
|-
|2017
|''[[Ondu Motteya Kathe]]''
|Srinivas
|
|<ref>{{Citation|title=Ondu Motteya Kathe Review {4/5}: The film is probably the best tribute to Dr Rajkumar made on Kannada screen till date|newspaper=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/ondu-motteya-kathe/movie-review/59469085.cms|access-date=2020-11-21}}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="3" |2018
|''[[Katheyondu Shuruvagide]]''
|Kutty
|
|
|-
|''[[Loudspeaker (2018 film)|Loudspeaker]]'' || ||
|-
|''[[Sarkari Hi. Pra. Shaale, Kasaragodu, Koduge: Ramanna Rai]]''
|Bhujanga
|[[8th_South_Indian_International_Movie_Awards#Acting|SIIMA Award for Best Comedian]]
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://kannada.news18.com/news/entertainment/rocking-star-yash-won-best-actor-award-for-kgf-movie-vijay-devarakonda-siima-award-list-sct-226571.html | title=SIIMA Awards: ಸೈಮಾದಲ್ಲಿ 'ಕೆಜಿಎಫ್' ಸಿನಿಮಾಗೆ 4 ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿ, ರಾಕಿಂಗ್ ಸ್ಟಾರ್ ಯಶ್ ಅತ್ಯುತ್ತಮ ನಟ; ಇಲ್ಲಿದೆ ಪೂರ್ತಿ ವಿವರ | date=16 August 2019 }}</ref>
|-
|rowspan="3" |2019
|''[[Yaana (film)|Yaana]]''
|Driver
|
|
|-
|''[[Lungi (film)|Lungi]]''
|
|
|
|-
|''[[Avane Srimannarayana]]''
|Drama Company artist
|
|
|-
|2020
|''2 Ekre''
|Nara alias Narayana
| [[Tulu language|Tulu]] film
|
|-
|rowspan="2" |2021
|''[[Yuvarathnaa]]''
|
|
|
|-
|''[[Bhajarangi 2]]''
|Alamelamma's husband
|
|
|-
|rowspan="5" |2022
|''[[Kshamisi Nimma Khaatheyalli Hanavilla]]''
|Bank Manager
|
|
|-
|''[[Gaalipata 2]]''
|Ramanna
|
|
|-
|''[[Kantara (film)|Kantara]]''
|Raampa
|Chittara Star Best-Comedian Award 2023
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.daijiworld.com/index.php/news/newsDisplay?newsID=1086409|title=Prakash Thuminad bags ‘Chittara Star Best-Comedian Award 2023’|date=4 June 2023|work=[[Daijiworld Media]]|access-date=16 February 2025|archive-date=5 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805171051/https://www.daijiworld.com/index.php/news/newsDisplay?newsID=1086409|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Dharani Mandala Madhyadolage (2022 film)|Dharani Mandala Madhyadolage]]''
|Marayade Ramanna
|
|
|-
|''[[Thimayya & Thimayya]]''
|Jagganna
|
|<ref>{{Cite web|title=Diganth, Anant Nag team up for Thimayya & Thimayya|url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/kannada/news/2021/oct/20/diganth-anant-nag-team-up-for-thimayya--thimayya-27383.html|access-date=2021-10-20|website=[[Cinema Express]]|language=en|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020034731/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/kannada/news/2021/oct/20/diganth-anant-nag-team-up-for-thimayya--thimayya-27383.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 2023 || ''[[Abhiramachandra]]'' || ||
|-
|rowspan="3"|2024
|''[[Bachelor Party (2024 film)| Bachelor Party]]''
|Prakash Anna
|
|
|-
|''[[Ekam (TV series)|Ekam]]'' || Mr. Kirikiri || Anthology television series; episode "Haaraata"
|-
|''[[Bagheera (2024 film)|Bagheera]]''
| Govinda
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 2025
| ''[[Forest (2025 film)|Forest]]''
|
|
|
|-
| ''[[Su From So]]''
|Chandra
|
|
|-
| ''[[Rippan Swamy]]'' || || ||
|-
| ''[[Kantara: Chapter 1]]''
|Chenna
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2026
| ''Non Veg''
|
|
|
|-
| ''Maarnami''
| Vasantha
|
|
|-
| ''Calendar''
|
|
|
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|8918477}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thuminad, Prakash}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Kannada male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tulu cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]

Nand Kishor Gurjar

2026-04-11T10:15:35Z

Thechhavigarg: started new post more to come...

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image =
| office =
| term_start =
| term_end =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| office1 = Member of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| prime_minister1 =
| term_start1 = 2017
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| office2 =
| prime_minister2 =
| term_start2 =
| term_end2 =
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| constituency1 = [[Loni (Assembly constituency)|Loni]]
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| occupation = Politician
| children =
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| alma_mater =
| profession = Politician
| sibling =
| website =
}}
'''Nand Kishor Gurjar''' is an Indian politician.<ref>{{cite web
| title = FIR against unknown bike bourne criminals for attack on Loni MLA
| publisher = Live Hindustan
|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/ncr/story-fir-against-unknown-bike-bourne-criminals-for-attack-on-loni-mla-nand-kishore-gurjar-2020475.html
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = Month after he returned official security, BJP MLA claims bid on life in UP
| publisher = Hindustan Times
|url=https://hindustantimes.com/india-news/month-after-he-returned-official-security-bjp-mla-claims-bid-on-life-in-up/story-AGef0wWSGx5JRpxCPArieP.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = Ghaziabad: RLD, BSP candidates file nominations, Cong,BJP nominees delay theirs
| publisher = Hindustan Times
|url=https://hindustantimes.com/noida/rld-bsp-candidates-file-nominations-cong-bjp-nominees-delay-theirs/story-ioT5hessDUwOR2yO7DdDsI_amp.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = NAND KISHOR GURJAR (Criminal & Asset Declaration)
| publisher =
|url=http://myneta.info/uttarpradesh2017/candidate.php?candidate_id=176}}</ref> He is [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] from [[Loni (Assembly constituency)]] of [[Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh]] since 2017. In the 2017 election he defeated Bahujan Samaj Party candidate Zakir Ali and [[Rashtriya Lok Dal]] candidate [[Madan Bhaiya]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 March 2017|title=Uttar Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2017: Bharatiya Janata Party wins five assembly seats in Ghaziabad|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/elections/uttar-pradesh-assembly-elections-2017/uttar-pradesh-assembly-election-results-2017-bharatiya-janata-party-wins-five-assembly-seats-in-ghaziabad/584674/|access-date=23 July 2020|website=The Financial Express}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gurjar, Nand Kishor}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Uttar Pradesh MLAs 2017–2022]]

Parva (film)

2026-04-09T00:00:35Z

Thechhavigarg: Created First Entry Added Tags

{{short description|2002 Indian Kannadafilm directed and written by Sunil Kumar Desai}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox film
|name = Parva
|image = Parva (film).jpg
|caption = VCD cover
|director = [[Sunil Kumar Desai]]
|producer = H. C. Srinivas
|writer = Sunil Kumar Desai
|narrator =
|starring = [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] [[Prema (actress, born 1977)|Prema]]
|music = [[Hamsalekha]]
|cinematography = H. C. Venu
|editing = R. Janardhan T. Govardhan
|studio = Srinivasa Productions
|released = {{Film date|2002|1|18|df=y}}
|runtime = 157 minutes
|country = India
|language = Kannada
}}

'''''Parva''''' is a 2002 Indian [[Kannada]]-language [[musical film|musical]] [[drama film]] directed and written by [[Sunil Kumar Desai]] and produced by H. C. Srinivas. The film stars [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] along with [[Prema (actress, born 1977)|Prema]] and [[Roja Selvamani|Roja]] in prominent roles. The music was written, scored and produced by [[Hamsalekha]].

The film released on 18 January 2002 to generally positive reviews from critics, but proved to be a commercial failure.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bellave |first1=Pradeep |title=Variety his forte |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/dec15/ent4.asp |website=Deccan Herald |access-date=31 March 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030423200421/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/dec15/ent4.asp |archive-date=23 April 2003 |date=15 December 2002}}</ref>

== Plot ==
This is one of the rare movies in Kannada cinema history. The movie starts with a song and also ends with a song and dance. This is probably the first time in Kannada cinema where the director uses a song to complete the climax for the movie.

Sagar (Vishnuvardhan) is a good singer and dancer. He starts searching for Suma (Prema) in a huge crowd. When the crowd starts wondering why is he looking for her commences the first flashback, which is one among the seven or so flashbacks in the movie.

Sagar is a nice guy who has taken up drinking due to failure in his love life. Suma lands at Sagar's place to learn bharathanatyam from his father, who is an expert. She tries to find out why Sagar has stopped singing. This leads to another flashback where Sagar explains as to how he was ditched by Sudha (Roja) and also narrates how he lost his mother. This forced him to stop singing and take up drinking. Sagar finally takes up singing after much persuasion from Suma and returns to the singing family. He also agrees to give a comeback show, but insists on Suma's presence in that show. Suma never turns up for the show. Here begins the search for her. He sets a deadline through a TV performance to Suma.

Suma turns up to Sagar's place and this leads to another flashback where she narrates as to why she couldn't attend the performance a year back. Bhattacharya is a very good singer. He and Suma's father (Dattatreya) have an argument because Bhattacharya's father insisted on his daughter winning the competition and forces him to go for a particular raga. This irritates Suma's father and he leaves the huge hall in a rage. He meets with an accident and dies. Bhattacharya insists on Suma not attending Sagar's performance as that will harm the growth of his daughter's image and that's the reason Suma doesn't turn up to Sagar's show (all this was a flashback). The rest of the movie is about the clash between Sagar and Bhattacharya. This leads to the climax song which is of 11–13 minutes duration and how he defeats Bhattacharya in a competition.<ref>{{cite web|title=Untitled|url=http://www.vishnuvardhan.com/parva.htm|access-date=2020-09-10|website=www.vishnuvardhan.com|archive-date=3 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100103075640/http://www.vishnuvardhan.com/parva.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Cast==
{{cast listing|
* [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] as Sagar
* [[Prema (actress, born 1977)|Prema]] as Suma
* [[Roja Selvamani|Roja]] as Sudha (Extended Special Appearance)
* [[Keremane Shivarama Hegde]] as Shastri
* [[Radha Ravi]] as Bhattacharya
* [[Ramesh Bhat]] as Shivaya
* [[Sparsha Rekha]] as Rekha
* [[Bhavana (Kannada actress)|Bhavana]] as Shanthala
* [[Naveen Mayur]] as Peter
* [[Sanketh Kashi]] as Kashi
* [[Mandeep Roy]]
* [[Arun Sagar]] as Shivamani
* [[Kishori Ballal]] as Gayathri (Guest Appearance)
* [[H. G. Dattatreya]] as Appanna Pandit (Guest Appearance)
* Aparna Vaidyanathan
* [[Renukamma Murgod]]
* [[Amulya]] (credited as Baby Amulya)
}}

==Production==
Director [[Sunil Kumar Desai]] conceived the film as a multi-dimensional narrative that would juxtapose [[Flashback (narrative)|flashback sequences with linear storytelling]]. He stated that there are "different shades" to their characterisation of the leading pair. [[Vishnuvardhan (actor)|Vishnuvardhan]] was cast as a singer and [[showman]], and [[Prema (Kannada actress)|Prema]] as a [[Indian classical dance|classical dancer]], opposite him. [[Roja Selvamani]] was cast as the second female lead, while [[Mandeep Roy]] and [[Sanketh Kashi]] were signed to play supporting roles.<ref name="dh2001">{{cite web |last1=Srinivasa |first1=Srikanth |title=First take |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/may20/ent3.htm |website=Deccan Herald |access-date=1 April 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011122042145/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/may20/ent3.htm |archive-date=22 November 2001 |date=20 May 2001}}</ref>

[[Yakshagana]] exponent [[Keremane Shivarama Hegde|Shambu Hegde]] was cast to play the father of Vishnuvardhan's character. Making his first screen appearance, he stated, "I was reluctant to accept the cinema offer because this is an unknown territory to me. Cinema and camera are all new to me. Film shooting is a new experience. Desai offered me the role of a dance teacher and a father. He insisted that I play this role which involves a lot of complexities concerned with the rhythm, pitch and musical beat that go into the character. I have entrusted the entire responsibility of saving my honour at the hands of Sunil Kumar Desai. This is not only a test for me but it is the same for the director."<ref name="dh2001"/>

It was reported that film had four dance choreographers – [[Ganesh Hegde]], Tara, [[Bhanumati Rao]] and Shivanand, with distinct styles. The reported added that filming would take place in [[Kalasa]], [[Kudremukh]], [[Maravanthe]], [[Ooty]], [[Madikeri]] and [[Bangalore]].<ref name="dh2001"/>

==Soundtrack==
The music of the film was composed and the lyrics written by [[Hamsalekha]].<ref>[http://musicmazaa.com/kannada/audiosongs/movie/Parva.html Songs]</ref> It was earlier rumored that singer [[Lata Mangeshkar]] would sing a song in the film. However, it turned out to be a mere gossip.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2001/apr/14ss.htm |title=The Nightingale to sing in Kannada! |access-date=23 April 2014 |archive-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211155244/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2001/apr/14ss.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> ''The Music Magazine'' wrote "Compared to Sandhyaraga, Hamsageete or even Upasane, the songs here do not make a huge impression. Hamsalekha is best at wit and street language, and while Parva has some interesting patches, a classical dance and music-oriented film like this perhaps calls for a different set of skills".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.themusicmagazine.com/parva.html |title=Musical from an ace director|work=Themusicmagazine.com|access-date=2022-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020828182425/http://themusicmagazine.com/parva.html|archive-date=28 August 2002}}</ref>

{{Infobox album
| name = Parva
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Hamsalekha]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = {{Start date|2001|}}
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length =
| label = Akash Audio
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

{{Track listing
| total_length =
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Pallavi Thane Haadina
| lyrics1 = [[Hamsalekha]]
| extra1 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[K. S. Chitra]]
| length1 =
| title2 = Ee Parva
| lyrics2 = Hamsalekha
| extra2 = Divya Raghavan
| length2 =
| title3 = Ee Parva Bhavasagara
| lyrics3 = Hamsalekha
| extra3 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[Mano (singer)|Mano]], [[Nanditha (singer)|Nanditha]], Divya Raghavan
| length3 =
| title4 = O Nanna Spoorthiye
| extra4 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
| lyrics4 = Hamsalekha
| length4 =
| title5 = Sadhane Paramapada
| extra5 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, K. S. Chitra
| lyrics5 = Hamsalekha
| length5 =
| title6 = Antharanga Aasegala
| extra6 = Divya Raghavan, [[Udit Narayan]]
| lyrics6 = Hamsalekha
| length6 =
| title7 = Elli Hode
| extra7 = [[Hariharan (singer)|Hariharan]], Nagachandrika
| lyrics7 = Hamsalekha
| length7 =
| title8 = Dolu Dolu Dangura
| extra8 = Udit Narayan
| lyrics8 = Hamsalekha
| length8 =
}}

==Reception==
''Indiainfo'' wrote "Sunil Kumar Desai has put his best efforts but fails, as the story is the same tried and tested formula. A musical movie, which lacks melody throughout. A neat performance by Vishnuvardhan. Diligent efforts by Prema and Roja. Full scores to Kare mane Shambhu Hegde for his excellent performance. Technically speaking Parva is a good film. Venu's photography is also one plus point of the film".<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020207213423/http://movies.indiainfo.com/kannada/reviews/index.html|url=http://movies.indiainfo.com/kannada/reviews/index.html|work=IndiaInfo|title=Indiainfo: Kannada movie review: Parva|access-date=7 December 2023|archive-date=7 February 2002}}</ref> ''Sify'' wrote "Parva is a non-stop dance party, which becomes tedious and boring. Director Sunilkumar Desai, had made action thrillers in the past but following the success of his love story Nammoora Mandara Hoove he has now changed track to love stories. But Desai fails in his attempt to portray various dimensions of love. He ends up borrowing bits and shards of films like Hum Kissise Kum Nahi, Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam, Taal and other Bollywood musicals".<ref>{{cite web|work=Sify|access-date=7 December 2023|url=http://sify.com/movies/kannada/review.php?id=10382163&ctid=5&cid=2427|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041225145525/http://sify.com:80/movies/kannada/review.php?id=10382163&ctid=5&cid=2427|archive-date=25 December 2004|title=Parva}}</ref>

==Awards==

* [[Karnataka State Film Award for Best Supporting Actor]] - Keremane Shambhu Hegde<ref>[http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/the-show-ends-for-shambhu-hegde/article346458.ece The show ends for Shambhu Hegde]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External source==
* [http://www.chitraloka.com/movie-reviews/2824-parva-review.html movie review]

{{Sunil Kumar Desai}}

[[Category:2002 Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:2000s musical drama films]]
[[Category:Indian musical drama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Hamsalekha]]
[[Category:Films directed by Sunil Kumar Desai]]
[[Category:2002 drama films]]
[[Category:2002 musical films]]

Bishnu Pada Roy

2026-04-04T03:49:56Z

Thechhavigarg: created a info.

{{Short description|Indian politician (1962 - 2023)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Bishnu Pada Ray
|image =
|caption =
|office1 = Member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
|term_start1 = 2 May 2021
|term_end1 = 25 July 2023
|predecessor1 = [[Mitali Roy]]
|successor1 = [[Nirmal Chandra Roy]]
|constituency1 = [[Dhupguri Assembly constituency|Dhupguri]]
|birth_date = 1962
|birth_place = [[West Bengal]], [[India]]
|death_date = 25 July 2023
|death_place = [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]
|occupation = [[Politician]]
|children =
|party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|other_party =
|alma_mater =
|profession =
|sibling =
|website =
}}
'''Bishnu Pada Roy''' was an [[Indian people|Indian]] politician from the state of [[West Bengal]]. He was a member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]] from 2021 to 2023, from the [[Dhupguri Assembly constituency|Dhupguri]] constituency.<ref name="West Bengal assembly election 2021: Full list of winners2">{{cite news|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/west-bengal-assembly-election-2021-full-list-of-winners/2243718/|title=West Bengal assembly election 2021: Full list of winners|last1=Financialexpress|date=3 May 2021|accessdate=17 March 2023|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317104451/https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/west-bengal-assembly-election-2021-full-list-of-winners/2243718/|archivedate=17 March 2023|language=en}}</ref>

He was a first-time MLA elected in 2021, he got elected after defeating the [[Trinamool Congress]] candidate and also the sitting MLA [[Mitali Roy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=West Bengal: TMC wrests Dhupguri assembly seat from BJP in bypoll |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/elections/west-bengal/west-bengal-tmc-wrests-dhupguri-assembly-seat-from-bjp-in-bypoll-2678264 |access-date=2024-10-22 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

==Death==
Dhupguri Bishnu Pada Ray complained of uneasiness and was admitted in [[SSKM Hospital]], [[Kolkata]] where he underwent surgery and his condition improved temporarily. But it again deteriorated at night and he died on 25 July 2023.<ref name="Bengal BJP MLA Bishnu Pada Roy dies at 61">{{cite news |newspaper=The Hindu |title=Bengal BJP MLA Bishnu Pada Roy dies at 61 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/bengal-bjp-mla-bishnu-pada-roy-dies-at-61/article67119121.ece |access-date=7 August 2024 |date=25 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240807160829/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/bengal-bjp-mla-bishnu-pada-roy-dies-at-61/article67119121.ece |archive-date=7 August 2024 |language=en-IN}}</ref><ref name="BJP MLA from Dhupguri Bishnu Pada Ray dies, PM Modi, Mamata condole his death">{{cite news |newspaper=The Indian Express |title=BJP MLA from Dhupguri Bishnu Pada Ray dies, PM Modi, Mamata condole his death |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/bjp-mla-from-dhupguri-bishnu-pada-ray-dies-pm-modi-mamata-condole-his-death-8860295/ |access-date=7 August 2024 |date=26 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240807161814/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/bjp-mla-from-dhupguri-bishnu-pada-ray-dies-pm-modi-mamata-condole-his-death-8860295/ |archive-date=7 August 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Bengal: BJP MLA Bishnu Pada Roy dies at 61">{{cite news |last1=Deccan Herald |title=Bengal: BJP MLA Bishnu Pada Roy dies at 61 |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/bengal-bjp-mla-bishnu-pada-roy-dies-at-61-1240597.html |access-date=7 August 2024 |date=25 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240807161800/https://www.deccanherald.com/india/bengal-bjp-mla-bishnu-pada-roy-dies-at-61-1240597.html |archive-date=7 August 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roy, Bishnu Pada}}
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2021–2026]]
[[Category:2023 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Jalpaiguri district]]
[[Category:1962 births]]

Tani Army

2026-03-31T13:08:18Z

Thechhavigarg: creating basic post more to come...

{{Short description|Tani separatist organisation in Northeast India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2025}}
{{Update|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox war faction
| name = Tani Army
| war = [[Insurgency in Northeast India]]
| image = Flag of the Tani People.webp
| caption = Flag of the Tani Army
| active = {{Start date|2005|6|df=yes}} – present
| leaders = * [[Anthony Doke]] (Chairman)
* Biri Ruja{{POW}}<ref>{{Cite news|title=Extortion notes, propaganda messages seized from UTA members|url=https://arunachaltimes.in/index.php/2025/09/17/extortion-notes-propaganda-messages-seized-from-uta-members/|access-date=2025-10-21|website=Arunachal Pradesh}}</ref> (Vice Chairman)
| ideology = [[Tani people|Tani]] nationalism
| headquarters = Undisclosed camps near the Indo-Myanmar border
| area = * [[Arunachal Pradesh]], India
* [[Assam]], India
* [[Sagaing Region]], [[Myanmar]]
* [[China]]
| size = Not publicly disclosed
| partof = '''National Socialist Council of Taniland''', formerly National Liberation Council of Taniland
| allies = [[NSCN]]-IM
| battles = [[Insurgency in Northeast India]]
| website = 
| designated_as_terror_group_by = {{flag|India}}
}}

The '''Tani Army''' is a [[Tani people|Tani]] insurgent group that serves as the military wing of the '''National Socialist Council of Taniland''' ('''NSCT'''), a separatist organization advocating a separate country called Taniland for the Tani people, encompassing areas inhabited by various Tani tribes, in the northeastern [[India|Indian]] state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Express News |date=2025-01-17 |title=Arunachal Pradesh police appeal to armed group members to return, key recruiter held |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2025/Jan/17/arunachal-pradesh-police-appeal-to-armed-group-members-to-return-key-recruiter-held?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=National Liberation Front of Arunachal (NLFA) |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/nlfa.htm#google_vignette |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=www.globalsecurity.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=other-data-india-insurgencynortheast-arunachalpradesh-recovery-of-arms_2015 |url=https://www.satp.org/other-data/india-insurgencynortheast-arunachalpradesh/recovery-of-arms_2015 |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=www.satp.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Arunachal police express surprise over NLCT demand |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/arunachal-police-express-surprise-over-nlct-demand-114022500364_1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805145736/https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/arunachal-police-express-surprise-over-nlct-demand-114022500364_1.html |archive-date=5 August 2023 |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=www.business-standard.com |language=en-US |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Activities ==
In December 2024, the UTA publicly opposed the construction of several large [[dam]]s in Arunachal Pradesh, demanding the cancellation of all [[memorandum of understanding]] and [[Memorandum of understanding|memorandum of agreement]] signed with hydropower developers.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2024-12-24 |title=United Tani Army seeks quashing of hydropower projects {{!}} The Arunachal Times |url=https://arunachaltimes.in/index.php/2024/12/24/united-tani-army-seeks-quashing-of-hydropower-projects/?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2025-01-19 |language=en-US}}</ref> The group released videos showcasing their camps, reportedly located near the Indo-Myanmar border, and displayed their arsenal of weapons.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2024-12-31 |title=United Tani Army's Anthony Doke releases base videos showing weapons {{!}} The Arunachal Times |url=https://arunachaltimes.in/index.php/2024/12/31/united-tani-armys-anthony-doke-releases-base-videos-showing-weapons/?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2025-01-19 |language=en-US}}</ref>

The activities of the UTA have prompted a heightened security response from Indian authorities. In January 2025, the [[Arunachal Pradesh Police]] arrested individuals allegedly involved in recruiting youths into the UTA. [[Anthony Doke]] the Commander in Chief of Tani army, has refuted these claims, asserting that the detained individuals are former NLCT members with no current affiliation to the UTA.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2025-01-18 |title=Arunachal: Police Refute UTA Chief's Claims, Arrest Key Recruiter |url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/north-east-india-news/arunachal-news/arunachal-police-refute-uta-chiefs-claims-arrest-key-recruiter?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=Sentinel Assam |language=en}}</ref>

In September 2025, the group's Vice-Chairman Biri Ruja, was arrested along with three other cadres by Arunachal Pradesh Police.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Extortion notes, propaganda messages seized from UTA members|url=https://arunachaltimes.in/index.php/2025/09/17/extortion-notes-propaganda-messages-seized-from-uta-members/|access-date=2025-10-21|website=Arunachal Pradesh}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Naga Army]]
* [[Insurgency in Northeast India]]
* [[Insurgency in Arunachal Pradesh]]
* [[1953 Achingmori incident]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Insurgency in Arunachal Pradesh]]

Anil Roychoudhury

2026-03-30T12:43:25Z

Thechhavigarg:

{{Short description|Assamese author, social scientist, freedom fighter, and intellectual}}
{{Orphan|date=November 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{infobox writer
| name = Anil Roychoudhury
| image = Anil Roychoudhury Assamese writter.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Roychoudhury in 2020
| pseudonym =
| birth_name =
| Parents_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1926|08|27}}
| birth_place = [[Barpeta]], [[Assam Province|Assam]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British Empire]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2020|05|1|1926|08|27}}
| death_place = [[Guwahati]], [[Assam]], [[India]]
| occupation = Author, freedom fighter, social scientist
| ethnicity =
| language = [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
| education =
| alma_mater = [[Guwahati University]]
| period =
| genre =
| subject =
| movement =
| notable_works =
| spouse = Bharati Roychoudhury
| children =
| relatives =
| influences =
| influenced =
| awards =
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| website =
| native_name = অনিল ৰায়চৌধুৰী
}}
'''Anil Roychoudhury''' ({{langx|as|অনিল ৰায়চৌধুৰী}}; 27 August 1926 - 1 May 2020) was an Assamese author, social scientist, freedom fighter and a progressive intellectual inspired by [[Communism|communist]] ideals.<ref name="Sentinel">{{cite web |title=Nonagenarian writer Anil Roychowdhury passes away at the age of 94 |url=https://www.sentinelassam.com/cities/guwahati-city/nonagenarian-writer-anil-roychowdhury-passes-away-at-the-age-of-94-470255 |website=The sentinel |date=2 May 2020 |publisher=The Sentinel Assam |access-date=3 Nov 2024}}</ref>

== Life ==
Born in 1926 in [[Barpeta]], Roychoudhury took part in the [[Indian Independence Movement]] during his school days. He was an accredited lyricist of the [[All India Radio|Akashvani Guwahati]] and wrote about 150 songs. After leaving behind eight jobs including Assam Secretariat, teaching, Central Excise Inspector etc., he was appointed as an employee of the administrative Department of [[Guwahati University]] in 1951.<ref name="niyamiya">{{cite web |title=Noted author, social-scintist Anil Roychoudhury no more |url=https://niyomiyabarta.com/assam/anil-rai-chodhuwray/ |website=Niyamiya barta |date=2 May 2020 |access-date=3 Nov 2024}}</ref> He played a key role in forming the Guwahati University Workers Union. He served jail terms for taking part in the trade union movement in 1962, 1965 and 1975. He retired in 1988 after serving for more than 37 years.{{fact|date=July 2025}}

He was also associated with ''Asom Atmarakshi Fouj'', [[Asam Sahitya Sabha]], and ''Karup District Krishak Sabha''. From 1971 he edited the ''Notun Prithiwi'' magazine. He was a founding member of ''Notun Sahitya Parishad''. Later he became the secretary of the parishad and president in 1998. He died on 1 May 2020 at his residence in [[Guwahati]]. As per his wish, his body was donated to [[Gauhati Medical College and Hospital]].<ref name="Tribune">{{cite web |title=Writer, freedom fighter Anil Roychoudhury no more |url=https://assamtribune.com/writer-freedom-fighter-anil-roychoudhury-no-more |website=The Assam Tribune online |date=15 September 2010 |publisher=The Assam Tribune |access-date=3 Nov 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roychoudhury, Anil}}
[[Category:1926 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:Writers from Assam]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian social scientists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian social scientists]]
[[Category:People from Barpeta]]
[[Category:Indian writers]]
[[Category:Indian independence activists from Assam]]

Jesus

2026-03-29T17:52:12Z

Thechhavigarg: slightly enhanced section as per guidelines and improved wording

{{Short description|Jewish preacher and religious leader}}
{{Redirect-several|Jesus|Christ|Jesus Christ|Jesus of Nazareth}}
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{{Infobox person
| name = Jesus
| image = Spas vsederzhitel sinay (cropped1).jpg
| alt = A depiction of Jesus, titled Christ Pantocrator, 6th century AD, holding Bible in front of the sun. Christ's features on his right side (the viewer's left) are theorized to represent the qualities of his human nature, while his left side (the viewer's right) represents his divinity.
| caption = {{longitem|The [[Christ Pantocrator (Sinai)|Christ Pantocrator]] of [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] at [[Mount Sinai]], 6th century AD{{efn|Christ's features on his right side (the viewer's left) are theorized to represent the qualities of his human nature, while his left side (the viewer's right) represents his divinity.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Weitzmann|title=Sinai, the Icons|page=15}}{{Full citation needed|date=October 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1-first=Manolis |author1-last=Chatzidakis |author1-link=Manolis Hatzidakis |translator1-first=Gerry |translator1-last=Walters |language=en |date=1967 |title=An encaustic icon of Christ at Sinai |journal=The Art Bulletin |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=199 |doi=10.2307/3048469 |quote=The two great eyes are not, themselves, completely identical either in dimension or in shape. They are not placed on the same level, and through the difference in movement of the eyebrows, each acquires a slightly different nuance of expression: the right eye is more calm, while the left, larger, is more lively.}}</ref>}}}}
| birth_date = {{circa|[[Date of the birth of Jesus|6 to 4 BC]]}}{{efn|[[John P. Meier]] writes that Jesus's birth year is {{circa|7 or 6 BC|lk=no}}.{{sfn|Meier|1991|p=407}} [[Karl Rahner]] states that the consensus among Christian scholars is {{circa|4 BC|lk=no}}.{{sfn|Rahner|2004|p=732}} [[E. P. Sanders]] also favours {{circa|4 BC|lk=no}} and refers to the general consensus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=10–11}} [[Jack Finegan]] uses the study of early Christian traditions to support {{circa|3 or 2 BC|lk=no}}.<ref name=Finegan>{{harvnb|Finegan|1998|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookbiblical00fine/page/n350 319]}}.</ref> }}
| birth_place = [[Herodian kingdom]], Roman Empire{{sfn|Brown|1977|p=513}}
| death_date = AD 30 or 33 (aged 33{{endash}}39)
| death_place = [[Jerusalem]], then in [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]], Roman Empire
| known_for = *Central figure of [[Jesus in Christianity|Christianity]]
*[[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestation of God]] in [[Baháʼí Faith]]
*Major prophet [[Jesus in Islam|in Islam]] and the [[Druze faith]]
| death_cause = [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]]{{efn|[[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]] writes that the baptism and crucifixion of Jesus "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}} [[Bart D. Ehrman]] states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|p=101}} [[John Dominic Crossan]] and Richard G. Watts state that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be.{{sfn|Crossan|Watts|1999|p=96}} Paul R. Eddy and [[Gregory A. Boyd]] say that non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus is now "firmly established".{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=173}} }}
| parents = [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]]{{efn|Traditionally, Christians believe that Mary conceived her son miraculously by the agency of the Holy Spirit. Muslims believe that she conceived her son miraculously by the command of God. Joseph was from these perspectives and according to the canonical gospels the acting adoptive father of Jesus.}}
}}
{{Jesus |right |width=22.0em}}


'''Jesus'''{{efn|{{langx|grc|Ἰησοῦς}}, {{small|romanized:}} {{transliteration|grc|Iēsoús}}, probably from {{langx|he|יֵשׁוּעַ|label=[[Hebrew]] or [[Aramaic]]}}, {{small|romanized:}} {{tlit|und|[[Yeshua|Yēšūaʿ]]}} }} ({{circa|6 to 4 BC}}{{snd}}AD 30 or 33), also referred to as '''Jesus Christ''',{{efn|[[Coptic language|Coptic]]: {{lang|cop|Ⲓⲏⲥⲟⲩⲥ Ⲡⲓⲭ́ρⲓⲥτⲟⲥ}}; [[Geʽez]]: {{lang|gez|መሲህ ኢየሱስ}}; [[Koine Greek|Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Ἰησοῦς Χριστός}}; [[Classical Hebrew|Hebrew]]: {{lang|hbo|ישוע המשיח}}; [[Latin]]: {{lang|la|Iesus Christus}}; [[Church Slavonic|Slavonic]]: {{lang|cu|І҆исоу́съ Хрїсто́съ}}; [[Classical Syriac|Syriac]]: {{lang|syc|ܝܫܘܥ ܡܫܺܝܚܳܐ}}}} '''Jesus of Nazareth''', and by various [[Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament|other names and titles]], was a 1st-century [[Jewish]] preacher and religious leader in the [[Judaea (Roman province)|Roman province of Judaea]].{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} He is the [[Jesus in Christianity|central figure]] of [[Christianity]], the [[major religious groups|world's largest religion]]. Most Christians consider Jesus to be the [[incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation]] of [[God the Son]] and the awaited [[Messiah#Christianity|messiah]], or [[Christ (title)|Christ]], a descendant of the [[Davidic line]] prophesied in the [[Old Testament]]. Virtually all modern scholars of [[classical antiquity|antiquity]] agree that [[Historicity of Jesus|Jesus existed historically]].{{efn |name=exist|In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, [[Bart D. Ehrman]] wrote, "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees."{{sfn|Ehrman|2011|p=[https://archive.org/details/forged_ehrm_2011_000_10544376/page/n298 285]}} [[Richard A. Burridge]] states: "There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church's imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more."<ref>{{cite book |title=Jesus Now and Then |first1=Richard A. |last1=Burridge |first2=Graham |last2=Gould |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-8028-0977-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusnowthen0000burr/page/34 34] |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusnowthen0000burr/page/34}}</ref> [[Robert M. Price]] does not believe that Jesus existed but agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Robert M. |last=Price |title=Jesus at the Vanishing Point |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus: Five Views |editor-last1=Beilby |editor-last2=Eddy |year=2009 |publisher=InterVarsity |isbn=978-0-8308-7853-6 |editor-first=James K. |pages=55, 61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O33P7xrFnLQC&pg=PA55 |editor2-first=Paul R. |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907112540/https://books.google.com/books?id=O33P7xrFnLQC&pg=PA55 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[James D. G. Dunn]] calls the theories of Jesus's non-existence "a thoroughly dead thesis".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus |encyclopedia=Sacrifice and Redemption |first=Stephen W. |last=Sykes |year=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-04460-8 |pages=35–36}}</ref> [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]] (a [[classicist]]), "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary."<ref>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Grant |title=Jesus|publisher=Phoenix |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-684-14889-2 |page=200}}</ref> [[Robert E. Van Voorst]] states that biblical scholars and classical historians regard theories of non-existence of Jesus as effectively refuted.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=16}} Writing on ''[[The Daily Beast]]'', [[Candida Moss]] and Joel Baden state that, "there is nigh universal consensus among biblical scholars – the authentic ones, at least – that Jesus was, in fact, a real guy."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/so-called-biblical-scholar-says-jesus-a-made-up-myth |title=So-Called 'Biblical Scholar' Says Jesus a Made-Up Myth |newspaper=The Daily Beast |date=5 October 2014 |author-first2=Joel |author-last2=Baden |author-link1=Candida Moss|author-first1=Candida |author-last1=Moss |access-date=14 July 2021 |archive-date=5 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205210029/https://www.thedailybeast.com/so-called-biblical-scholar-says-jesus-a-made-up-myth |url-status=live}}</ref>}} Accounts of [[Life of Jesus|Jesus's life]] are contained in the [[Gospel]]s, especially the [[four canonical Gospels]] of the [[New Testament]]. Since the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], [[quest for the historical Jesus|academic research]] has produced various views on the [[historical reliability of the Gospels]] and the extent to which they reflect the [[historical Jesus]].{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=168–173}}{{efn|Ehrman writes: "The notion that the Gospel accounts are not completely accurate but still important for the religious truths they try to convey is widely shared in the scholarly world, even though it's not so widely known or believed outside of it."<ref>Bart D. Ehrman. [http://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/historical-jesus.html Historical Jesus. 'Prophet of the New Millennium']. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123155853/https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/historical-jesus.html |date=23 January 2019 }} Course handbook, p. 10 (Lecture Three. V. B.), The Teaching Company, 2000, Lecture 24{{Clarify|reason=It's unclear if this citation is for one source or multiple sources. Is it a book or an audio lecture?|date=October 2025}}</ref> Sanders writes: "The earliest Christians did not write a narrative of Jesus' life, but rather made use of, and thus preserved, individual units—short passages about his words and deeds. These units were later moved and arranged by authors and editors. [...] Some material has been revised and some created by early Christians."{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=57}}}}{{Sfn|Bowman Jr.|Komoszewski|2019|p=22–23}}<ref>{{Cite journal|author-first1=Craig A. |author-last1=Evans|url=https://theologicalstudies.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/54.1.1.pdf|title=Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology|journal=Theological Studies |volume=54 |year=1993|pages= 13–14|quote=First, the New Testament Gospels are now viewed as useful, if not essentially reliable, historical sources. Gone is the extreme skepticism that for so many years dominated gospel research. Representative of many is the position of E. P. Sanders and Marcus Borg, who have concluded that it is possible to recover a fairly reliable picture of the historical Jesus.}}</ref>

According to [[Christian tradition]], as preserved in the Gospels and the [[Acts of the Apostles]], Jesus [[Circumcision of Jesus|was circumcised]] at eight days old, [[Presentation of Jesus|presented]] at the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] at forty days old, [[Baptism of Jesus|baptized]] by [[John the Baptist]] as a young adult, and, after [[Temptation of Christ|40 days and nights]] of fasting in the wilderness, began [[Ministry of Jesus|his public ministry]]. He was an [[itinerant teacher]] whom his followers believed to possess divine authority in interpreting [[Halakha|Jewish law]]. Jesus often debated with other Jews about how best to follow [[God in Judaism|God]], engaged in healings, taught in [[Parables of Jesus|parables]], and gathered followers, 12 of whom he appointed as his [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]]. According to the New Testament accounts, he was arrested in [[Jerusalem]] and tried by the [[Sanhedrin]],{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} handed over to the Roman authorities, and [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucified]] on the order of [[Pontius Pilate]], the Roman prefect of Judaea. After his death, his followers became convinced that he [[Resurrection of Jesus|rose from the dead]], and the community they formed eventually developed into the [[Early Christianity|early Christian Church]], which expanded into a [[spread of Christianity|worldwide movement]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=11, 14}}

[[Christian theology]] includes the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]], was [[Virgin birth of Jesus|born of a virgin]] named [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], performed [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], founded the [[Christian Church]], [[Crucifixion of Jesus|died by crucifixion]] as a sacrifice for [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement for sin]], [[Resurrection of Jesus|rose from the dead]] on the third day, and [[Ascension of Jesus|ascended]] into [[Heaven in Christianity|Heaven]], from where he [[Second Coming|will return]]. Christians commonly believe that Jesus enables people to be reconciled to [[God in Christianity|God]]. The [[Nicene Creed]] asserts that Jesus will [[Last Judgment|judge the living and the dead]], either [[Intermediate state (Christianity)|before]] or [[Christian mortalism|after]] their [[Resurrection of the dead#Christianity|bodily resurrection]], an event associated with the [[Second Coming|Second Coming of Jesus]] in [[Christian eschatology]]. The great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of [[God the Son]], the second of the three [[prosopon|persons]] of the [[Trinity]].{{efn|A small minority of Christian denominations reject trinitarianism, wholly or partly, as non-scriptural.}} The [[birth of Jesus]] in [[Bethlehem]] is celebrated annually, generally on 25 December,{{efn|Most Christians and [[Alawites]] celebrate Christmas. Part of the [[Eastern Christian]] churches celebrate Christmas on 25 December of the [[Julian calendar]], which currently corresponds to 7 January in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. Christmas celebrations begin on [[Christmas Eve]], generally on 24 December.}} as [[Christmas]]. His crucifixion is commemorated on [[Good Friday]] and his resurrection on [[Easter Sunday]]. The world's most widely used [[calendar era]]—in which the current year is [[Anno Domini|AD]] {{CURRENTYEAR}} (or {{CURRENTYEAR}} [[Common Era|CE]])—is traditionally based on the approximate [[date of the birth of Jesus]].<ref>{{cite dictionary |year=2003 |title=anno Domini |dictionary=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/Anno%20Domini |access-date=3 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222112520/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/anno%20domini |archive-date=22 December 2007 |quote=Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of our Lord |url-status=live}}.</ref>

Mainstream Judaism [[Jewish views on Jesus|rejects the belief]] that Jesus was the awaited messiah, holding that he did not fulfill [[Messiah in Judaism|messianic prophecies]], was not [[Anointing|lawfully anointed]], and was neither divine nor resurrected. In contrast, [[Jesus in Islam]]{{efn|Often referred to by his Quranic name, {{transliteration|ar|ISO|[[Isa (name)|ʿĪsā]]}}}} is considered the [[Messiah#Islam|messiah]] and a [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|prophet]] of [[God in Islam|God]], who was sent to the [[Israelites]] and [[Second Coming#Islam|will return to Earth]] before the [[Judgement Day in Islam|Day of Judgement]]. [[Muslims]] believe that Jesus was born of the virgin [[Mary in Islam|Mary]] but was neither God nor the son of God. Most Muslims [[Islamic views on Jesus's death|do not believe that he was killed or crucified]], but that God [[Entering heaven alive|raised him into Heaven while he was still alive]].{{efn|Some medieval Muslims believed that Jesus was crucified, as do the members of the modern Ahmadiyya movement; see {{slink||Islamic perspectives}}.}} Jesus is also revered in the [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]] and [[Druze faith]]s, as well as in [[Rastafari]].
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Name ==
{{Further|Jesus (name)|Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament|Holy Name of Jesus|Names of God in Christianity}}
[[File:JesusYeshua2.svg|thumb|From top-left: [[Aramaic]], [[Hebrew]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]], and English transcriptions of the name ''Jesus'']]

A typical Jewish person in Jesus's time [[Jewish name|had only one name]], sometimes followed by a [[patronymic]] phrase of the form "son of [father's name]", or by the person's home town.<ref name="Britannica" /> Thus, in the New Testament, Jesus is commonly referred to as "Jesus of [[Nazareth]]".{{efn|This article uses quotes from the [[New Revised Standard Version]] of the Bible.}} Jesus's neighbours in Nazareth referred to him as "the carpenter, the son of [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] and brother of [[James, brother of Jesus|James]] and [[Joses, brother of James the younger|Joses]] and [[Jude, brother of Jesus|Judas]] and [[Simon, brother of Jesus|Simon]]", "the carpenter's son", or "[[Saint Joseph|Joseph]]'s son"; in the Gospel of John, the disciple [[Philip the Apostle|Philip]] refers to him as "Jesus son of Joseph from Nazareth".<ref>{{bibleverse|John|1:45}}</ref>

The name ''Jesus'' is the English transliteration, through Latin ''Iesus'', of {{langx|grc|Ἰησοῦς}}, which is the Greek rendering of the [[Hebrew]] name Joshua (יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ ''Yehoshua'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strong's Greek: 2424. Ἰησοῦς (Iésous) -- Jesus |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/2424.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''The Greek name corresponds to the Hebrew "Joshua."''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Benson Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/benson/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''The name Jesus, in Greek, answers to Joshua, or rather, Jehoshuah, in Hebrew, which signifies Jehovah shall save;''}}</ref> The Hebrew/[[Aramaic]] name was common among [[Judea|Judean]] Jews at the time of Jesus's birth,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Barnes' Notes |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/barnes/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''It was a very common name among the Jews.''}}</ref> although by that period it had been shortened to יֵשׁוּעַ (''Yeshua'') from יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ (''Yehoshua'');<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 3442. יֵשׁ֫וּעַ (Yeshua) -- Yeshua, Joshua |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/3442.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=יֵשׁוּעַ (Yēšûaʿ) is the late, shortened spelling of the earlier name יְהוֹשׁוּעַ (Yehōšûaʿ, "Joshua").}}</ref> the contraction had already occurred in later biblical books such as [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=H3442 - yēšûaʿ - Strong's Hebrew Lexicon (KJV) |url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/gen/1/1/s_1001 |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=Blue Letter Bible |language=en |quote=''Gesenius' Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon: יֵשׁוּעַ [Jeshua] a contracted form of the proper name יְהוֹשֻׁעַ‎ used in the later Hebrew ... proper name of other men, mentioned in the books of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah''}}</ref> where [[Joshua]] is referred to as Yeshua.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nehemiah 8:17 Hebrew Interlinear: ... for the sons of Israel had not done, from the days of '''Jeshua [יֵשׁוּעַ, Yeshua] son of Nun''' ... |url=https://biblehub.com/interlinear/nehemiah/8-17.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com}}</ref>

The name means "[[Tetragrammaton|God]] saves" in Hebrew, literally "[[Yahweh]] saves",<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 3091. יְהוֹשׁ֫וּעַ (Yehoshua) -- Joshua |url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/3091.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Both Joshua son of Nun and Jesus of Nazareth bear the name "Yahweh saves"''}}</ref> from the [[Hebrew root|root]] ישׁע (''y-š-ʿ,'' 'to save') and the noun יְשׁוּעָה (y''eshuah'', 'salvation'). The [[Gospel of Matthew]] asserts the etymological significance of Jesus's name explicitly in the prophecy of the angel to Joseph about his birth: "you will call his name Jesus (Ἰησοῦς), for he will save (σώσει) his people from their sins".<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|1:21}}.</ref>

The fact that Moses' successor [[Joshua]] bears the same name as Jesus in the original Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic has been given theological significance by commentators, as a parallel is often drawn between the two leaders and the etymology of their shared name ('to save'): Joshua leads the Jews into the [[Promised Land]], while in Christianity Jesus is understood to save both Jews and Gentiles from their sins.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Matthew Poole's Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/poole/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Joshua had his name from the same word, because he was to be a temporal saviour to save the Jews, the whole body of the Jews, from the Canaanites their enemies. This Jesus was to save his people, all that should believe in his name, whether Jews or Gentiles, from their sins.''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Vincent's Word Studies |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/vws/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Under Joshua the enemies of Israel were conquered, and the people established in the Promised Land. So Jesus leads his people in the fight with sin and temptation.''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Benson Commentary |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/benson/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''It was not without reason that the successor of Moses was called by this name; for, by subduing the Canaanites, and putting the tribes of Israel in possession of the promised land, he showed himself to be, under God, the Saviour of his people. But this name agrees much better to our Jesus, who both delivers his followers from much more dangerous enemies, and divides unto them a much more glorious inheritance.''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Matthew 1 Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges |url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/cambridge/matthew/1.htm |access-date=2026-01-15 |website=biblehub.com |quote=''Joshua who led the Israelites into the Promised Land, and Joshua or Jeshua, who was high priest at the time of the return from the Babylonish Captivity, are types of Jesus Christ in respect both of work and name.''}}</ref>

=== Jesus Christ ===
Since the 1st century, Christians have commonly referred to Jesus as "Jesus Christ".{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=212}} The word [[Christ (title)|''Christ'']] is not a given name but was originally a [[threefold office|title or office]] ("the Christ"), meaning "The [[Messiah]]".{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|pp=30–31}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Theology of the New Testament |first=Rudolf K. |last=Bultmann |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-932792-93-5 |page=80 |publisher=Baylor University Press}}</ref> The term derives from the Greek {{lang|grc|[[wikt:Χριστός|Χριστός]]}} ({{tlit|grc|Christos}}),<ref>{{CathEncy |wstitle= Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ |first=Anthony J. |last= Maas}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Heil |first=John P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4u42_PsPNsC&pg=PA66 |title=Philippians: Let Us Rejoice in Being Conformed to Christ |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-58983-482-8 |page=66 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907173832/https://books.google.com/books?id=i4u42_PsPNsC&pg=PA66 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> a [[calque]] of the Hebrew word {{lang|he|[[wikt:מָשִׁיחַ|משיח]]}} ({{tlit|he|[[Messiah in Judaism|mashiakh]]}}), transliterated into English as ''[[messiah]]''.{{sfn|Vine|1940|pp=274–275}} The Hebrew term means "[[anointed]]", from the verb מָשַׁח (''mashaḥ''), "to rub with oil, to anoint".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Strong's Hebrew: 4886. מָשַׁח (mashach)|url=https://biblehub.com/hebrew/4886.htm|access-date=2026-01-21|website=biblehub.com|quote=Lexical summary: "to rub with oil, i.e. to anoint"}}</ref> In the [[Septuagint]], the Hebrew word was rendered into Greek as χριστός (''christos''), meaning "anointed",<ref>{{Cite web |title=χριστός Greek Word Study Tool|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=%CF%87%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%82&la=greek#lexicon|access-date=2026-01-21|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|quote=of persons, anointed}}</ref> from the verb χρίω (''chrio''), "to rub with oil, to anoint".<ref>{{Cite web |title=χρίω Greek Word Study Tool|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=%CF%87%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%89&la=greek#lexicon|access-date=2026-01-21|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|quote=Autenrieth: smear with oil, anoint, LSJ: rub, anoint with scented unguents or oil}}</ref> In biblical Judaism, [[Holy anointing oil|sacred oil]] was used to anoint certain exceptionally holy people and objects as part of their religious investiture.<ref>See [[Leviticus]] 8:10–12 and [[Exodus 30]]:29.</ref>

Early Christians designated Jesus as "the Christ" because they believed him to be the [[Messiah]] whose arrival is [[Jesus and messianic prophecy|prophesied]] in the [[Hebrew Bible]] (Old Testament). In post-biblical usage, ''Christ'' came to be viewed as a name—one part of "Jesus Christ". The term ''[[Christian]]'', meaning a follower of Christ, has been in use since the 1st century.{{sfn|Mills|Bullard|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA142 142]}}

== Life and teachings in the New Testament ==
{{Main|Life of Jesus}}

{{Further|New Testament places associated with Jesus}}
{{Gospel Jesus|state=collapsed}}

=== Canonical gospels ===
{{Main|Gospel|Gospel harmony|Historical reliability of the Gospels}}

[[File:Dublin, Chester Beatty Ms Papyrus 45 BP I ff.13-14 Luke 11.50-12.12; 12.18-37; 12.42-13.1; 13.jpg|alt=A four-page papyrus manuscript, which is torn in many places|thumb|A 3rd-century Greek [[papyrus]] of the [[Gospel of Luke]]]]
The four [[canonical gospel]]s ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], and [[Gospel of John|John]]) are the foremost sources for the life and message of Jesus.<ref name="Britannica" /> Other parts of the New Testament also include references to key episodes in his life, such as the [[Last Supper]] in [[1 Corinthians 11]]:23–26.<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|11:23–26|9}}.</ref>{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=441–442}}<ref name="Fahlbusch52" />{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–477}} [[Acts of the Apostles]]<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|10:37–38|9}} and {{bibleverse|Acts|19:4|9}}.</ref> refers to Jesus's early ministry and its anticipation by [[John the Baptist]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Book of the Acts|series=New International Commentary on the New Testament|first=Frederick F. |last=Bruce |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8028-2505-6 |page=362 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}}</ref>{{sfn|Rausch|2003|p=77}}{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} Acts 1:1–11<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|1:1–11|9}}.</ref> provides more detail about the [[Ascension of Jesus]]<ref>also mentioned in {{bibleverse|1 Timothy|3:16}}.</ref> than the canonical gospels do.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–530}} In the [[Pauline epistles#Authenticity|undisputed Pauline letters]], which were written earlier than the gospels, Jesus's words or instructions are cited several times.<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians 7:10–11, 9:14, 11:23–25|multi=yes}}, {{bibleverse|2 Corinthians|12:9}}.</ref>{{efn|Powell writes: "[Paul] does cite words or instructions of Jesus in a few places,<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Cor. 7:10–11; 9:14; 11:23–25|multi=yes}}; {{bibleverse|2 Cor.|12:9}}; cf. {{bibleverse|Acts|20:35}}</ref> but for the most part he displays little interest in the details of Jesus' earthly life and ministry."<ref>{{cite book |last=Powell |first=Mark A. |title=Introducing the New Testament |url=https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00powe |url-access=limited |date=2009 |publisher=Baker |page=[https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00powe/page/248 248] |isbn=978-0-8010-2868-7}}</ref>}}

Some [[early Christian]] groups had separate descriptions of Jesus's life and teachings that are not included in the New Testament. These include the [[Gospel of Thomas]], [[Gospel of Peter]], [[Gospel of Judas]], the [[Apocryphon of James]], and [[New Testament apocrypha|many other apocryphal writings]]. Most scholars conclude that these texts were written later and are less historically reliable than the canonical gospels.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=835–840}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=C. A. |title=Exploring the Origins of the Bible |date=2008 |publisher=Baker |page=154}}</ref>{{sfn|Keener|2009|p=56}}

==== Authorship, date, and reliability ====
The canonical gospels are four accounts, each attributed to a different author. The authors of the gospels are generally regarded as pseudonymous and are attributed by tradition to the [[four evangelists]], each associated with Jesus or his close followers:{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} Mark by [[John Mark]], an associate of [[Saint Peter|Peter]];<ref name="May Metzger Mark" /> [[Matthew the Apostle|Matthew]] to one of Jesus's disciples;{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] to a companion of [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]] mentioned in a few epistles;{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} and John to another of Jesus's disciples,{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} the "[[beloved disciple]]".{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=John, St.}}

According to [[Marcan priority]], the first to be written was the Gospel of Mark (AD 60–75), followed by the Gospel of Matthew (AD 65–85), the Gospel of Luke (AD 65–95), and the Gospel of John (AD 75–100).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&pg=PA58 |title=Can We Trust the Gospels?: Investigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John |publisher=Crossway |year=2007 |page=58 |isbn=978-1-4335-1978-9 |first=Mark D. |last=Roberts |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907174109/https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&pg=PA58 |url-status=live}}</ref> Most scholars agree that the authors of Matthew and Luke used Mark as a source for their gospels. Since Matthew and Luke also share some content not found in Mark, many scholars infer that they used a hypothetical [[Q source]] in addition to Mark, while a growing number support the [[Farrer hypothesis]] or [[Matthean Posteriority hypothesis|Matthean Posteriority]], in which Matthew and Luke used each other directly.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last=Runesson|first=Anders|title=Jesus, New Testament, Christian Origins|date=2021|publisher=Eerdmans|isbn=9780802868923}}</ref><ref name="TSP20222">{{Cite book |title=The Synoptic Problem 2022: Proceedings of the Loyola University Conference|publisher=Peeters Pub and Booksellers|year=2023|isbn=9789042950344|pages=5}}</ref>{{sfn|Licona|2010|pp=210–221}} Luke and Matthew treat their sources more conservatively than other ancient historians like [[Diodorus Siculus]], though the parallels and variations of the Synoptic gospels are typical of ancient historical biographies.<ref name="Kloppenborg 49–79">{{Cite journal |last=Kloppenborg|first=John|title=Variation in the Reproduction of the Double Tradition and an Oral Q?|journal=Ephemerides Theologicae Lovaniensis|volume=83|issue=1|pages=49–79}}</ref><ref name="Licona 2016 XIII-XIV">{{Cite book |last=Licona |first=Mike |title=Why are there Differences in the Gospels? What we can Learn from Ancient Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0190264260 |pages=XIII-XIV}}</ref>

One important aspect of the study of the gospels is the [[literary genre]] under which they fall. Genre "is a key convention guiding both the composition and the interpretation of writings".<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Burridge|first1=R. A. |year=2006|chapter=Gospels|editor-first1=J. W. |editor-last1=Rogerson|editor-first2=Judith M. |editor-last2=Lieu|title=The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=433}}</ref> Whether the gospel authors set out to write novels, myths, histories, or biographies has a significant impact on how their works ought to be interpreted. Some studies have suggested that the gospels ought to be seen as a form of ancient biography.<ref>Talbert, C. H. (1977). ''What is a Gospel? The Genre of the Canonical Gospels''. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press.</ref><ref>Wills, L. M. (1997). ''The Quest of the Historical Gospel: Mark, John and the Origins of the Gospel Genre''. London: Routledge. p. 10.</ref><ref>Burridge, R. A. (2004). ''What are the Gospels? A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography''. revised updated edn. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans.</ref> Although not without critics,<ref>e.g. Vines, M. E. (2002). ''The Problem of the Markan Genre: The Gospel of Mark and the Jewish Novel''. Atlanta, Georgia: Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 161–162.</ref> the view that the gospels are a type of ancient biography represents the consensus among scholars today.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stanton |first=Graham N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C |title=Jesus and Gospel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-00802-0 |page=192 |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226005236/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C |archive-date=26 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rogerson |first1=J. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC |title=The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies |last2=Lieu |first2=Judith M. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-925425-5 |page=437 |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225204746/https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC |archive-date=25 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Concerning the accuracy of the accounts, viewpoints range from considering them [[inerrant]] descriptions of Jesus's life,{{sfn|Grudem|1994|pp=90–91}} to doubting their historical reliability on various points,{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} to regarding them as providing very little historical information about his life beyond the basics.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=117–125}}{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=22–23}}

==== Comparative structure and content ====
{{Christianity sidebar}}
Matthew, Mark, and Luke are known as the Synoptic Gospels, from the Greek {{lang|grc|σύν}} ({{tlit|grc|syn}}, 'together') and {{lang|grc|ὄψις}} ({{tlit|grc|opsis}}, 'view'),<ref name="Haffner-2008" /><ref name="Scroggie-1995" /><ref>{{OED|synoptic}}</ref> because they are similar in content, narrative arrangement, language, and paragraph structure, and can readily be set side by side for synoptic comparison.<ref name="Haffner-2008">{{cite book |title=New Testament Theology |first=Paul |last=Haffner |year=2008 |isbn=978-88-902268-0-9 |page=135 |publisher=Gracewing}}</ref><ref name="Scroggie-1995">{{cite book |title=A Guide to the Gospels |first=W. Graham |last=Scroggie |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8254-9571-7 |page=128 |publisher=[[Kregel Publications]]}}</ref><ref>{{Britannica URL |title=Synoptic Gospels |url=topic/Synoptic-Gospels}}</ref> Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Gospel of John |first1=Francis J. |last1=Moloney |first2=Daniel J. |last2=Harrington |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8146-5806-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3 3] |publisher=Liturgical Press |url=https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3}}</ref> Many events—such as Jesus's baptism, crucifixion, and interactions with his [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]]—appear in the Synoptic Gospels, but incidents such as the [[Transfiguration of Jesus|transfiguration]] and Jesus's [[Exorcism|exorcising]] demons{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}} do not appear in John, which also differs on other matters, such as the [[cleansing of the Temple]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ladd |first=George E. |title=A Theology of the New Testament |year=1993 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-0680-2 |page=251 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&pg=PA251 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907103156/https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&pg=PA251 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Synoptics emphasize different aspects of Jesus. In Mark, Jesus is the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]] whose mighty works demonstrate the presence of [[God's Kingdom]].<ref name="May Metzger Mark" /> He is portrayed as a tireless wonder worker and the servant of both God and humanity.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits">{{Cite book|editor-last1=Thompson|editor-first1=Frank Charles|title=The Thompson Chain-Reference Bible|publisher=Kirk Bride Bible Company & Zondervan Bible Publishers|year=1983|pages= 1563–1564}}</ref> This short gospel records relatively few of Jesus's words or extended teachings.<ref name="May Metzger Mark" /> The Gospel of Matthew emphasizes that Jesus is the fulfilment of God's will as revealed in the Old Testament and the Lord of the Church.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|year=1977|chapter=Matthew|pages=1171–1212}}</ref> He is presented as the "[[Davidic line|Son of David]]", a "king", and the Messiah.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits" />{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=4–6}} Luke presents Jesus as the divine-human saviour who shows compassion to the needy.<ref name="May Metzger Luke">{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|year=1977|chapter=Luke|pages=1240–1285}}</ref> He is depicted as the friend of sinners and outcasts, who came to seek and save the lost.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits" /> This gospel includes well-known parables, such as the [[Good Samaritan]] and the [[Prodigal Son]].<ref name="May Metzger Luke" />

The [[prologue to the Gospel of John]] identifies Jesus as an incarnation of the divine Word ([[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]).<ref name="MayMetzgerJohn">{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|year=1977|chapter=John|pages=1286–1318}}</ref> As the Word, Jesus is described as eternally present with God, active in all creation, and the source of humanity's moral and spiritual nature.<ref name="MayMetzgerJohn" /> In this gospel, Jesus is portrayed as not only greater than any past human prophet but greater than any prophet could be: he not only speaks God's Word; he is God's Word.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}} In the Gospel of John, Jesus reveals his divine role publicly and is depicted as the [[Bread of Life]], the [[Light of the World]], the [[True Vine]], and more.<ref name="ThompsonPortraits" />

The authors of the New Testament generally showed little interest in establishing an absolute [[chronology of Jesus]]'s life or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.{{sfn|Rahner|2004|pp=730–731}} As stated in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#21:25|John 21:25]], the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events of Jesus's life.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Collins |first=Gerald |title=Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-955787-5 |pages=1–3}}</ref> The accounts were primarily written as theological documents in the context of [[early Christianity]], with timelines as a secondary consideration.<ref name="Wiarda75">{{cite book |title=Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology |first=Timothy |last=Wiarda |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8054-4843-6 |pages=75–78 |publisher=B&H}}</ref> The gospels devote about one third of their text to the last week of Jesus's life in [[Jerusalem]], referred to as [[Passion (Christianity)|the Passion]].<ref name="Turner613">{{cite book |title=Matthew |first=David L. |last=Turner |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8010-2684-3 |page=613 |publisher=Baker}}</ref> They do not provide enough detail to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, but it is possible to draw from them a general picture of Jesus's life story.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}}{{sfn|Rahner|2004|pp=730–731}}<ref name="Wiarda75" />

=== Genealogy and nativity ===
{{Main|Genealogy of Jesus|Nativity of Jesus}}

Jesus was Jewish,{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} born to [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], the wife of [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]].<ref>[[Matthew 1]]; [[Luke 2]].</ref> The Gospels of Matthew and Luke offer two different accounts of his [[genealogy]]. Matthew traces Jesus's ancestry to [[Abraham]] through [[David]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|1:1–16}}.</ref>{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}} while Luke traces Jesus's ancestry through [[Adam]] to God.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|3:23–38}}.</ref>{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC&pg=PA163 163]}} The lists are identical between Abraham and David but differ markedly from that point onward; Matthew has 27 generations from David to Joseph, whereas Luke has 42, with almost no overlap between the names on the two lists.{{efn|Compare {{bibleverse|Matthew|1:6–16|NIV}} with {{bibleverse|Luke|3:23–31|NIV}}. See also {{section link|Genealogy of Jesus|Comparison of the two genealogies}}.}}<ref>{{cite book |last=France |first=R. T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttTgacXnLV8C&pg=PA72 |title=The Gospel According to Matthew: An Introduction and Commentary |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8028-0063-3 |page=72 |author-link=R. T. France |access-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229004519/https://books.google.com/books?id=ttTgacXnLV8C&pg=PA72 |archive-date=29 February 2020 |url-status=live}} "From David the two lists diverge, as Matthew follows the line of succession to the throne of Judah from Solomon, whereas Luke's list goes through Nathan, ... and converges with Matthew's only for the two names of Shealtiel and Zerubabbel until Joseph is reached."</ref> Various theories have been put forward to explain why the two genealogies are so different.{{efn|For an overview of such theories, see {{section link|Genealogy of Jesus|Explanations for divergence}}.}}

[[File:Gerard van Honthorst - Adoration of the Shepherds (1622).jpg|thumb|left|''Adoration of the Shepherds'' by [[Gerard van Honthorst]], 1622|alt=A Nativity scene; men and animals surround Mary and newborn Jesus, who are covered in light]]
Both Matthew and Luke describe Jesus's birth, particularly that he was born to a virgin named Mary in [[Bethlehem]] in fulfilment of [[prophecy]]. Luke's account emphasizes events before the [[birth of Jesus]] and centres on Mary, while Matthew's mostly covers events after the birth and centres on Joseph.{{sfn|Mills|Bullard|1998|p=556}}<ref name="marsh37">{{cite book |title=Jesus and the Gospels |last=Marsh |first=Clive |author-last2=Moyise|author-first2= Steve |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-567-04073-2 |page=37 |publisher=Clark International |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecHpPzDLkhcC&pg=PA37 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907095218/https://books.google.com/books?id=ecHpPzDLkhcC&pg=PA37 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Morris|1992|page=26}} Both accounts state that Mary was engaged to a man named Joseph, who was descended from King David and was not Jesus's biological father, and both support the doctrine of the [[virgin birth of Jesus]], according to which Jesus was miraculously conceived by the [[Holy Spirit]] in Mary's womb when she was still a virgin.<ref name="Jeffrey">{{cite book |last=Jeffrey |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7R0IGTSvIVIC |title=A Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-85244-224-1 |pages=538–540 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=7R0IGTSvIVIC |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=30–37}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Who's Who in the New Testament |last=Brownrigg |first=Ronald |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-26036-7 |pages=96–100 |publisher=Taylor & Francis}}</ref> At the same time, there is evidence, at least in the Lukan ''Acts of the Apostles'', that Jesus was thought to have had, like many figures in antiquity, a dual paternity, since there it is stated that he descended from the seed or loins of David.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lincoln |first=Andrew T. |date=2013 |title=Luke and Jesus' Conception: A Case of Double Paternity? |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=132 |issue=3 |pages=639–658 |jstor=23487891 |issn=0021-9231}}</ref> By [[Adoption in Judaism|taking Jesus as his own son]], Joseph is understood to confer on him the necessary Davidic descent.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thesevernforum.org.uk/palette/lecture_lincoln_2015.pdf |last1=Lincoln|first1=Andrew T. |title=Conceiving Jesus: re-examining Jesus' conception in canon, Christology, and creed|publisher=The Severn Forum|date=5 March 2015|page= 4 |access-date=2 July 2019 |archive-date=10 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510100248/http://www.thesevernforum.org.uk/palette/lecture_lincoln_2015.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Some scholars suggest that Jesus had [[Levite]] heritage from Mary, based on her blood relationship with [[Elizabeth (biblical figure)|Elizabeth]].<ref>For example, {{citation |title=Carmen 18}}</ref>

[[File:Bellini-circumcision-NG1455-fm.jpg|thumb|alt=74.9 × 102.2 cm|''The Circumcision'' by [[Giovanni Bellini]], {{circa|1500|lk=no}}. The work depicts the [[circumcision of Jesus]].]]
In Matthew, Joseph is troubled because Mary, his betrothed, is pregnant,<ref>[[Matthew 1:19]]–[[Matthew 1:20|20]].</ref> but in the first of [[St. Joseph's dream|Joseph's four dreams]] an angel assures him not to be afraid to take Mary as his wife because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit.<ref name="Talbert">{{cite book |title=Matthew |first=Charles H. |last=Talbert |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8010-3192-2 |publisher=Baker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmoR2j0-sgC |pages=29–30 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmoR2j0-sgC |url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Matthew 2:1]]–[[Matthew 2:12|12]], [[Biblical Magi|wise men]] or [[Magi]] from the East bring gifts to the young Jesus as the [[Jesus, King of the Jews|King of the Jews]]. They find him in a house in Bethlehem. [[Herod the Great]] hears of Jesus's birth and, wanting him killed, [[Massacre of the Innocents|orders the killings of male infants]] in Bethlehem and its surroundings. However, an angel warns Joseph in his second dream, and the family [[Flight to Egypt|flees to Egypt]], later returning and settling in Nazareth.<ref name="Talbert" />{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–285}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Schnackenburg |first=Rudolf |title=The Gospel of Matthew |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-4438-5 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvR39Z9O01kC&pg=PA9 |pages=9–11 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907052207/https://books.google.com/books?id=pvR39Z9O01kC&pg=PA9 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In Luke 1:31–38, Mary learns from the angel [[Gabriel]] that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit.<ref name="marsh37" /><ref name="Jeffrey" /> When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census ordered by [[Caesar Augustus]]. While there, Mary gives birth to Jesus, and, as they have found no room in the inn, she places the newborn in a [[manger]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|2:1–7}}.</ref> An [[Annunciation to the shepherds|angel announces the birth to a group of shepherds]], who go to Bethlehem to see Jesus and subsequently spread the news abroad.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|2:8–20}}.</ref> Luke 2:21 recounts how Joseph and Mary [[circumcision of Jesus|have their baby circumcised on the eighth day after birth]] and name him Jesus, as Gabriel had commanded Mary.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|2:21}}.</ref> After the [[presentation of Jesus at the Temple]], Joseph, Mary, and Jesus return to Nazareth.<ref name="marsh37" /><ref name="Jeffrey" />

=== Early life, family, and profession ===
{{Main|Christ Child|Holy Family}}

{{See also|Return of the family of Jesus to Nazareth|Unknown years of Jesus|Brothers of Jesus}}
[[File:William Holman Hunt - The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple]]'' by [[William Holman Hunt]], 1860|alt=Mary and Joseph find Jesus in the Temple]]

Jesus's childhood home is identified in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew as Nazareth, a town in [[Galilee]] in present-day [[Israel]], where he lived with his family. Although Joseph appears in descriptions of Jesus's childhood, no mention is made of him thereafter.<ref>{{cite book |last=Perrotta |first=Louise B. |title=Saint Joseph: His Life and His Role in the Church Today |publisher=Our Sunday Visitor Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87973-573-9 |pages=21, 110–112}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Reverend Archdeacon Kinane |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EmUhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT138 |title=Saint Joseph: His Life, His Virtues, His Privileges, His Power |page=138 |chapter=Section VI – The perpetual virginity of St. Joseph |publisher=Aeterna Press|access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309230526/https://books.google.com/books?id=EmUhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT138#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> His other family members, including his mother Mary; [[Brothers of Jesus|his four brothers]], [[James, brother of Jesus|James]], [[Joses, brother of Jesus|Joses (or Joseph)]], [[Jude, brother of Jesus|Judas]], and [[Simon, brother of Jesus|Simon]]; and his unnamed sisters, are mentioned in the Gospels and other sources.<ref>{{cite book |title=Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth |last=Aslan |first=Reza |author-link=Reza Aslan |year=2013 |publisher=Random House |page=[https://archive.org/details/zealotlifetimeso00reza/page/756 36] |isbn=978-1-4000-6922-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/zealotlifetimeso00reza/page/756}}</ref> Jesus's maternal grandparents are named [[Joachim]] and [[Saint Anne|Anne]] in the [[Gospel of James]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Brownrigg |first=Ronald |title=Who's Who in the New Testament |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&q=joachim |page=194 |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-1-134-50949-2 |access-date=31 March 2023 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309230540/https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&q=joachim#v=snippet&q=joachim&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref> The Gospel of Luke records that Mary was a relative of Elizabeth, the mother of John the Baptist.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Luke|1:5, 36|KJV}}.</ref> Some extra-biblical contemporary sources consider Jesus and John the Baptist to be second cousins, based on the belief that Elizabeth was the daughter of [[Sobe (sister of Saint Anne)|Sobe]], the sister of Anne.<ref>[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 97.1325.</ref><ref>[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 120.189.</ref><ref>[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 145.760 ([[Nicephorus Callistus]], ''Historia ecclesiastica'', 2.3).</ref>

The Gospel of Mark reports that at the beginning of [[Ministry of Jesus|his ministry]], Jesus comes into conflict with his neighbours and family.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} Jesus's mother and brothers come to get him<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|3:31–35}}.</ref> because people are saying that [[Mental health of Jesus|he is out of his mind]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|3:21}}.</ref> Jesus responds that his followers are his true family. In the Gospel of John, Jesus and his mother attend a [[wedding at Cana]], where he performs his first miracle at her request.<ref>{{bibleverse|John|3:1–11}}.</ref> Later, she is present at his crucifixion, and he expresses concern for her well-being.<ref>{{bibleverse|John|19:25–27}}.</ref>

Jesus is called a {{lang|grc|τέκτων}} ({{tlit|grc|[[tektōn]]}}) in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#6:3|Mark 6:3]], a term traditionally understood as "carpenter" but which can also refer to makers of objects in various materials, including builders.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry G. |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |title=An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon: The Seventh Edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek–English Lexicon |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1889 |page=797}}</ref>{{sfn|Dickson|2008|pp=68–69}} Given the term's broad semantic range and "the socio-historical reality of a common Nazarene τέκτων", Matthew K. Robinson, a minister and academic, prefers to translate τέκτων as 'builder-craftsman'.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Matthew K. |title="Is This Not the Τέκτων?": Revisiting Jesus's Vocation in Mark 6:3 |journal=Neotestamentica |date=2021 |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=431–445 |doi=10.1353/neo.2021.0038}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Matthew Robinson |url=https://www.theology.ox.ac.uk/people/matthew-robinson |publisher=[[University of Oxford]] |access-date=1 April 2025 |language=en}}</ref> The Gospels indicate that Jesus could read, paraphrase, and debate scripture, but this does not necessarily mean that he received formal scribal training.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=Context, family and formation |encyclopedia=Cambridge companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA14 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N. A. |pages=14, 21 |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907175830/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA14 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live|doi=10.1017/CCOL0521792614.002}}</ref>

The Gospel of Luke reports two journeys of Jesus and his parents in Jerusalem during his childhood. They come to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] for the [[presentation of Jesus]] as a baby in accordance with Jewish Law, where a man named [[Simeon (Gospel of Luke)|Simeon]] prophesies about Jesus and Mary.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|2:22–35}}.</ref> When Jesus, at the age of twelve, goes missing on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem for [[Passover]], his parents [[Finding in the Temple|find him in the Temple]] sitting among the teachers, listening to them and asking questions, and the people are amazed at his understanding and answers. Mary scolds Jesus for going missing, to which Jesus replies that he must "be in his Father's house".<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|2:41–52}}.</ref>

=== Baptism and temptation ===
{{Main|Baptism of Jesus|Temptation of Christ}}

[[File:El bautismo de Jesús, por José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|''[[Baptism of Jesus|The Baptism of Christ]] by [[John the Baptist]]'', by [[Almeida Júnior]], 1895|alt=Jesus is baptised by John. The Holy Spirit in the form of a dove is overhead.]]

The [[synoptic gospels]] describe [[Baptism of Jesus|Jesus's baptism]] in the [[Jordan River]] and [[Temptation of Christ|the temptations he faced]] while spending forty days in the [[Judaean Desert]] as a preparation for his public ministry.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sheen |first=Fulton J. |title=Life of Christ |year=2008 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-0-385-52699-9 |page=65 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KyqQKohpVR4C&pg=PA65 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910165309/https://books.google.com/books?id=KyqQKohpVR4C&pg=PA65 |url-status=live}}</ref> In each of these accounts, the accounts of Jesus's baptism is preceded by information about John the Baptist.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–229}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=141–143}}{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=16–22}} They portray John preaching repentance for the forgiveness of sins, encouraging the giving of [[alms]] to the poor,<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke||3:11}}.</ref> baptizing people in the region of the Jordan River around [[Perea]], and foretelling the arrival of someone "more powerful" than he.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|3:16}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Eerdmans commentary on the Bible |first1=James D. G. |last1=Dunn |first2=John W. |last2=Rogerson |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8028-3711-0 |page=1010 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}}</ref>

[[File:Ary Scheffer - The Temptation of Christ (1854).jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Jesus and the Devil depicted in ''[[Temptation of Christ|The Temptation of Christ]]'', by [[Ary Scheffer]], 1854]]
In the Gospel of Mark, John the Baptist baptizes Jesus, and as Jesus comes up out of the water he sees the [[Holy Spirit]] descending on him like a dove, and a voice comes from heaven and declares him to be God's Son.<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|1:9–11}}.</ref> This is one of two events described in the Gospels where a voice from Heaven refers to Jesus as "Son", the other being the [[Transfiguration of Jesus|Transfiguration]].{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}}<ref name="Nobbs">{{cite book |last1=Harding|first1=Mark|title=The Content and the Setting of the Gospel Tradition|last2=Nobbs|first2=Alanna|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|year=2010|isbn=978-0-8028-3318-1|pages=281–282}}</ref> The Spirit then drives him into the wilderness, where he is tempted by [[Satan]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|1:12–13}}.</ref> After John's arrest, Jesus begins his ministry in Galilee.<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|1:14}}.</ref>

In the Gospel of Matthew, when Jesus comes to John to be baptized, John protests, saying, "I need to be baptized by you."<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|3:14}}.</ref> Jesus instructs him to proceed with the baptism "to fulfil all righteousness".<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|3:15}}.</ref> Matthew then narratives three specific temptations that Satan offers Jesus in the wilderness.<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|4:3–11}}.</ref> In the Gospel of Luke, the Holy Spirit descends in bodily form like a dove after all the people have been baptized and while Jesus is [[Prayers of Jesus|praying]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|3:21–22}}.</ref> Later, John implicitly acknowledges Jesus by sending his followers to inquire about him.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|7:18–23}}.</ref> Luke also describes three temptations experienced by Jesus in the wilderness before he begins his ministry in Galilee.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|4:1–14}}.</ref>

The Gospel of John does not narrate Jesus's baptism and temptation.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} Instead, John the Baptist testifies that he saw the Spirit descend and remain on Jesus.<ref>{{bibleverse|John|1:32}}.</ref>{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N0tLXRIiIe0C&pg=PA292 292]}} John publicly proclaims Jesus as the [[Lamb of God]], and some of John's followers become disciples of Jesus.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}} Before John is imprisoned, Jesus leads his followers to baptize,<ref>{{bibleverse|John|3:22–24}}.</ref> and they baptize more people than John.<ref>{{bibleverse|John|4:1}}.</ref>

=== Public ministry ===

{{Main|Ministry of Jesus}}

[[File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|thumb|''Sermon on the Mount'', by [[Carl Bloch]], 1877, depicts [[Sermon on the Mount|Jesus's important discourse]].|alt=Jesus sits atop a mount, preaching to a crowd]]

The Synoptics depict two main geographical settings in Jesus's ministry. The first takes place in Galilee, north of [[Judea]], where Jesus conducts a largely successful ministry; the second occurs in Jerusalem, where he is rejected and killed.<ref name="ISBEO">{{cite web |year=1939 |editor-last=Orr |editor-first=James |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online |url=http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/R/rabbi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817024703/http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/R/rabbi.html |archive-date=17 August 2016 |access-date=30 July 2016 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans}}</ref> Often referred to as "[[rabbi]]",<ref name="ISBEO" /> Jesus delivers his message orally.<ref name="Dunn2013">{{cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D. G. |title=The Oral Gospel Tradition |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=2013 |pages=290–291}}</ref> In these accounts, he forbids those who recognize him as the messiah— including people he heals and demons he is said to exorcise—to speak about it (see [[Messianic Secret]]).{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–296}} By contrast, the Gospel of John portrays Jesus's ministry as taking place primarily in and around Jerusalem rather than in Galilee, and his divine nature is more openly proclaimed and recognized.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}}

Scholars commonly divide the ministry of Jesus into several stages. The Galilean ministry begins when Jesus returns to Galilee from the [[Judaean Desert]] after resisting the temptations of [[Satan]]. He then preaches throughout Galilee, and in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#4:18|Matthew 4:18–20]] [[first disciples of Jesus|his first disciples]]—who will later form the core of the early Church— encounter him and begin to follow him.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=16–22}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=117–130}} This period includes the [[Sermon on the Mount]], one of Jesus's major discourses,{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=117–130}}<ref>{{cite book |title=The Sermon on the mount: a theological investigation |first=Carl G. |last=Vaught |year=2001 |publisher=Baylor University Press |isbn=978-0-918954-76-3 |pages=xi–xiv}}</ref> as well as the [[calming of the storm]], the [[feeding of the 5,000]], [[Jesus walking on water|walking on water]], and various other miracles and [[parables of Jesus|parables]].{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=143–160}} It concludes with the [[Confession of Peter]] and the Transfiguration.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Transfiguration, The |encyclopedia=The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Thought: Son of Man-Tremellius V11 |isbn=978-1-4286-3189-2 |publisher=Funk & Wagnalls |year=1909 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=js5-eDk13TcC&pg=PA493 |page=493 |last=Nash |first=Henry S. |editor-first=Samuel M. |editor-last=Jackson |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907052036/https://books.google.com/books?id=js5-eDk13TcC&pg=PA493 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Barton132">{{cite book |last=Barton |first=Stephen C. |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00bart_994 |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Gospels |date=23 November 2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80766-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00bart_994/page/n138 132]–133 |url-access=limited}}</ref>

As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, during what is often called the Perean ministry, he returns to the region where he was baptized, roughly a third of the way down from the [[Sea of Galilee]] along the Jordan River.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#10:40|John 10:40–42]].</ref>{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=137}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=211–229}} The [[Ministry of Jesus#Final ministry in Jerusalem|final phase of his ministry]], In Jerusalem, begins with his [[triumphal entry into Jerusalem|triumphal entry]] into the city on [[Palm Sunday]].{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} In the Synoptic Gospels, during that week Jesus [[Cleansing of the Temple|drives the money changers]] from the [[Second Temple]], and [[Bargain of Judas|Judas bargains to betray]] him. This period culminates in the [[Last Supper]] and, in the Johannine account, the [[Farewell Discourse]].{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–229}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=257–274}}

==== Disciples and followers ====
{{Main|Apostles in the New Testament|Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles}}

[[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Exhortation to the Apostles (Recommandation aux apôtres) - James Tissot.jpg|thumb|''The Exhortation to the Apostles'', by [[James Tissot]], portrays Jesus talking to his twelve disciples.]]

Near the beginning of his ministry, Jesus [[Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles|appoints twelve apostles]]. In Matthew and Mark, Jesus calls his first four apostles, who are fishermen, and they are described as immediately leaving their nets to follow him.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#4:18|Matthew 4:18–22]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#1:16|Mark 1:16–20]].</ref> In John, Jesus's first two apostles are initially disciples of John the Baptist; the Baptist sees Jesus and calls him the Lamb of God, and the two, hearing this, begin to follow Jesus.{{sfn|Brown|1988|pp=25–27}}{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pp=292–293}} In addition to the Twelve Apostles, the introduction of the [[Sermon on the Plain]] in Luke identifies a much larger group of people as disciples.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#6:17|Luke 6:17]].</ref> In [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#10:1|Luke 10:1–16]], Jesus sends [[Seventy disciples|70 or 72 of his followers]] out in pairs to prepare towns for his prospective visits; they are instructed to accept hospitality, heal the sick, and proclaim the [[Kingdom of God]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=The Gospel According to Luke |encyclopedia=New Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sdooTRyPMCwC&pg=PA255 |page=255 |first=Michael F. |last=Patella |editor-first=Daniel |editor-last=Durken |isbn=978-0-8146-3260-4 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910044704/https://books.google.com/books?id=sdooTRyPMCwC&pg=PA255 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Teachings and miracles ====
{{Main|Sermon on the Mount|Parables of Jesus|Miracles of Jesus}}

{{See also|Sermon on the Plain|Five Discourses of Matthew|Farewell Discourse|Olivet Discourse|Bread of Life Discourse}}
[[File:Hoffman-ChristAndTheRichYoungRuler.jpg|thumb|''[[Jesus and the rich young man]]'' by [[Heinrich Hofmann (painter)|Heinrich Hofmann]], 1889]]

In the Synoptics, Jesus teaches extensively—often in [[parable]]s{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=316–346}}—about the Kingdom of God. Jesus also speaks of the "[[Son of man (Christianity)|Son of Man]]", an [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] figure who will come to gather the chosen.<ref name="Britannica" /> Jesus calls people to repent of their sins and to devote themselves wholly to God.<ref name="Britannica">{{Britannica |id=303091 |title=Jesus Christ |first1=E. P. |last1=Sanders |first2=Jaroslav J. |last2=Pelikan}}</ref> He instructs his followers to observe [[Jewish law]], although he is perceived by some contemporaries as having broken the law himself, for example in relation to [[Sabbath|Sabbath observance]].<ref name="Britannica" /> When asked what the [[Great Commandment|greatest commandment]] is, Jesus replies: "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind ... And a second is like it: 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.{{'"}}<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#22:37|Matthew 22:37–39]].</ref> Other ethical teachings attributed to Jesus include [[Matthew 5:44|loving one's enemies]], refraining from [[hatred]] and [[lust]], [[turning the other cheek]], and [[Forgiveness|forgiving]] those who have sinned against oneself.<ref>[[Sermon on the Mount|Matthew 5–7]].</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Stassen |first1=Glen H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LlMVrmA-b-4C |title=Kingdom Ethics: Following Jesus in Contemporary Context |last2=Gushee |first2=David P. |publisher=InterVarsity |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8308-2668-1 |pages=102–103, 138–140, 197–198, 295–298 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226062140/https://books.google.com/books?id=LlMVrmA-b-4C |archive-date=26 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Gospel of John presents the teachings of Jesus not merely as his own preaching but as divine [[revelation]]. John the Baptist, for example, states in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#3:34|John 3:34]]: "He whom God has sent speaks the words of God, for he gives the Spirit without measure." In [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#7:16|John 7:16]], Jesus says, "My teaching is not mine but his who sent me." He reiterates this in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#14:10|John 14:10]]: "Do you not believe that I am in the Father and the Father is in me? The words that I say to you I do not speak on my own; but the Father who dwells in me does his works."<ref name="Osborn-1993" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Köstenberger |first=Andreas J. |title=The missions of Jesus and the disciples according to the Fourth Gospel |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8028-4255-8 |pages=108–109}}</ref>

[[File:Pompeo Batoni 003.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|''[[Parable of the Prodigal Son|The Return of the Prodigal Son]]'' by [[Pompeo Batoni]], 1773]]
Approximately 30 parables constitute about one-third of Jesus's recorded teachings.<ref name="Osborn-1993">{{cite book |first=Eric F. |last=Osborn |year=1993 |title=The emergence of Christian theology |url=https://archive.org/details/emergencechristi00osbo |url-access=limited |isbn=978-0-521-43078-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/emergencechristi00osbo/page/n115 98] |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=J. Dwight |last=Pentecost |year=1998 |title=The parables of Jesus: lessons in life from the Master Teacher |isbn=978-0-8254-9715-5 |page=10 |publisher=Kregel}}</ref> The parables appear both within longer sermons and at various other places in the narrative.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Sermons of Jesus the Messiah |first=E. Keith |last=Howick |year=2003 |publisher=WindRiver |isbn=978-1-886249-02-8 |pages=7–9}}</ref> They often contain symbolism and typically relate aspects of the physical world to [[Spirituality|spiritual]] realities.<ref>{{cite book |first=Friedrich G. |last=Lisco |year=1850 |title=The Parables of Jesus |publisher=Daniels and Smith Publishers |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OoIuAAAAYAAJ/page/n12 9]–11 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OoIuAAAAYAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Ashton |last=Oxenden |year=1864 |title=The parables of our Lord? |publisher=William Macintosh Publishers |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5bUCAAAAQAAJ/page/n15 6] |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5bUCAAAAQAAJ}}</ref> Common themes include the kindness and generosity of God, as well as the dangers and consequences of transgression.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPdANFaNgagC&pg=448 |title=Interpreting the Parables |publisher=InterVarsity |year=2012 |page=448 |isbn=978-0-8308-3967-4 |first=Craig L. |last=Blomberg |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910175429/https://books.google.com/books?id=dPdANFaNgagC&pg=448 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some parables, such as that of the [[Prodigal Son]],<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#15:11|Luke 15:11–32]].</ref> are relatively straightforward, while others, such as the [[Parable of the Growing Seed|Growing Seed]],<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#4:26|Mark 4:26–29]].</ref> are more complex, profound, and difficult to interpret.<ref>{{cite web |first=Madeleine I. |last=Boucher |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/parables.html |title=The Parables |website=Frontline|publisher=PBS |access-date=3 June 2013 |archive-date=10 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810144100/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/parables.html |url-status=live}}</ref> When his disciples ask why he speaks to the people in parables, Jesus replies that the chosen disciples have been granted "to know the secrets of the kingdom of heaven", unlike the rest, adding: "For the one who has will be given more and he will have in abundance. But the one who does not have will be deprived even more", and he goes on to say that most of their generation have developed "dull hearts" and are therefore unable to understand.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#13:10|Matthew 13:10–17]].</ref>

[[File:Christ cleans leper man.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Jesus cleansing a leper]], medieval [[mosaic]] from the [[Monreale Cathedral]], late 12th to mid-13th centuries|alt=Jesus, his head surrounded by a halo, puts his hands on a leper, thereby healing him]]
In the gospel accounts, Jesus devotes a substantial portion of his ministry to performing [[miracle]]s, especially healings.{{sfn|Green|McKnight |Marshall|1992|p=299}} These miracles are commonly classified into two main categories: healing miracles and nature miracles.{{sfn|Twelftree|1999|p=350}}{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charlesworth |first1=James H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&pg=PT113 |title=The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide |date=2008 |publisher=Abingdon Press |isbn=978-1-4267-2475-6 |page=113 |access-date=29 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221947/https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&pg=PT113 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The healing miracles include cures of physical ailments, [[exorcism]]s,{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}}{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=298}} and [[Miracles of Jesus#Resurrection of the dead|the raising of the dead]].{{sfn|Green|McKnight|Marshall|1992|p=300}}<ref name="Oxford Companion" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Tabor |first=James |date=22 March 2013 |title=What the Bible Says About Death, Afterlife, and the Future |url=https://clas-pages.uncc.edu/james-tabor/ancient-judaism/death-afterlife-future/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823115040/https://clas-pages.uncc.edu/james-tabor/ancient-judaism/death-afterlife-future/ |archive-date=23 August 2016 |access-date=13 June 2015 |publisher=UNCC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hoekema |first=Anthony A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2yT_7xw35sC |title=The Bible and the Future |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-85364-624-2 |pages=88–89 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=c2yT_7xw35sC |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The nature miracles demonstrate authority over the natural world and include [[turning water into wine]], walking on water, and calming a storm, among others. Jesus attributes his miracles to a divine source. When opponents accuse him of casting out demons by the power of [[Beelzebub]], the prince of demons, he replies that he does so by the "Spirit of God" ([[s:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#12:28|Matthew 12:28]]) or "finger of God", arguing that it would be illogical for Satan to undermine his own domain; he also asks, if he exorcises by Beelzebub, "by whom do your sons cast them out?"<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#11:20|Luke 11:20]].</ref><ref name="Britannica" /><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Js9nFESO0VAC&pg=PA100 |title=Zondervan King James Version Commentary: New Testament |last2=Mitchell |first2=Daniel R. |publisher=Zondervan |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-310-25150-7 |page=100 |first1=Edward E. |last1=Hindson |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910171333/https://books.google.com/books?id=Js9nFESO0VAC&pg=PA100 |url-status=live}}</ref> In Matthew 12:31–32, he further states that while all kinds of sin, including "insults against God" or "insults against the Son of Man", may be forgiven, blasphemy against "The [[Holy Spirit]]" will never be forgiven, and those guilty of it bear their sin permanently.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bible Gateway passage: Matthew 12:31-32 - New International Version|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2012%3A31-32&version=NIV|website=Bible Gateway|access-date=2026-01-30|language=en}}</ref>

In John, Jesus's miracles are described as "signs", performed to manifest his mission and identity.<ref name="Sign" />{{sfn|Ehrman|2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/page/84 84]}} In the Synoptic Gospels, when some teachers of the law and Pharisees ask him for a miraculous sign to validate his authority, Jesus refuses,<ref name="Sign">{{cite book |title=Introducing the New Testament: Its Literature and Theology |year=2001 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-3717-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00paul/page/198 198] |url=https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00paul/page/198 |first1=Paul J. |last1=Achtemeier |first2=Joel B. |last2=Green |first3=Marianne M. |last3=Thompson}}</ref> saying that no sign will be given to a corrupt and evil generation except the sign of the prophet [[Jonah]]. In the Synoptics, the crowds typically respond to his miracles with awe and press upon him to heal their sick, whereas in John, Jesus is depicted as less constrained by the crowds, who often respond to his signs with belief and trust.{{sfn|Twelftree|1999|p=236}} A feature common to all the miracle narratives is that Jesus performs them freely and does not request or accept payment.<ref>{{cite book |last=van der Loos |first=Hendrik |title=The Miracles Of Jesus |year=1965 |publisher=Brill |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4geAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA197 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910165838/https://books.google.com/books?id=n4geAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA197 |url-status=live}}</ref> The miracle stories are frequently interwoven with teachings, and the miracles themselves often carry a [[Didactic method|didactic]] dimension.<ref>{{cite book |title=The words and works of Jesus Christ |first=J. Dwight |last=Pentecost |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-310-30940-6 |page=212 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bh3M_AfgXZAC&pg=PA212 |publisher=Zondervan |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910063513/https://books.google.com/books?id=bh3M_AfgXZAC&pg=PA212 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Twelftree|1999 |p=95}} Many emphasize the importance of faith: in the [[Cleansing ten lepers|cleansing of ten lepers]] and the [[raising of Jairus's daughter]], for instance, the beneficiaries are told that their healing is due to their faith.{{sfn|Donahue|Harrington |2002|p=182}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Lockyer |first=Herbert |year=1988 |title=All the Miracles of the Bible |isbn=978-0-310-28101-6 |page=235 |publisher=Zondervan}}</ref>

In ''A Marginal Jew'', scholar [[John P. Meier]] argues that "the miracle traditions about Jesus' public ministry are already so widely attested in various sources" that any "total fabrication by the early church is, practically speaking, impossible". He bases this claim on literary sources such as the Gospels of Matthew, Luke, and John, as well as on the writings of the historian Josephus. Meier contends that the "criterion of multiple attestation of sources and forms" supports the conclusion that Jesus performed "extraordinary deeds" which his contemporaries regarded as miracles.<ref>John P. Meier, ''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Volume 2: Mentor, Message, and Miracles'' (New York: Doubleday, 1994), p. 630, available at https://archive.org/details/Marginal-Jew_vol-2_Meier_1994/10__a/page/630/mode/1up.</ref>

Scholar [[Paul J. Achtemeier]] argues that such miracles were not unique to Jesus in the ancient world and were perceived as ambiguous even by eyewitnesses. He notes that Jesus likely performed acts understood as exorcisms, which were "accepted as reality by his contemporaries", but that these should not be seen as having "probative value with respect to Jesus," since witnesses could claim that he was working with either Satan or God.<ref>Paul J. Achtemeier, "Miracles and the Historical Jesus: A Study of Mark 9:14–29," ''The Catholic Biblical Quarterly'' 37, no. 4 (1975): 471–491, p. 490, available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/43714056.</ref> Scholar [[Gregory Sterling]] observes that, in the case of Jesus's alleged exorcisms, "For first-century Galileans who believed in the personal presence of evil in the form of demons, Jesus' act was a validation of his ministry."<ref>Gregory E. Sterling, "Jesus as Exorcist: An Analysis of Matthew 17:14–20; Mark 9:14–29;
Luke 9:37–43a," ''The Catholic Biblical Quarterly'' 55, no. 3 (1993): 467–493, p. 493,
available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/43721315.</ref>

==== Proclamation, Transfiguration, and Passion Week ====
{{Main|Confession of Peter|Transfiguration of Jesus}}

[[File:Transfigurationbloch.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The [[Transfiguration of Jesus]], depicted by [[Carl Bloch]], 19th century]]

At approximately the midpoint of each of the three Synoptic Gospels, two significant events are narrated: the Confession of [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and the Transfiguration of Jesus—not mentioned in the Gospel of John.<ref name="Barton132" /><ref>{{cite book |title=The Christology of Mark's Gospel |url=https://archive.org/details/christologyofmar0000king |url-access=limited |first=Jack D. |last=Kingsbury |year=1983 |isbn=978-1-4514-1007-5 |publisher=Fortress Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/christologyofmar0000king/page/91 91]–95}}</ref>{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}}<ref name="Nobbs" />{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=John, Gospel of}} In the Confession of Peter, Peter declares to Jesus, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God";<ref>{{cite book |last=Karris|first=Robert J.|title=The Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament|publisher=Liturgical Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8146-2211-7|pages=885–886}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology|first1=Jack D.|last1=Kingsbury|first2=Mark A.|last2=Powell|first3=David R.|last3=Bauer|year=1999|isbn=978-0-664-25752-1|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|page=xvi}}</ref>{{sfn|Donahue|Harrington|2002|p=336}} Jesus affirms that this is a divinely revealed truth.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yieh|first=John Y. H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0-NaraCrAoC|title=One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2004|isbn=978-3-11-018151-7|pages=240–241|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221947/https://books.google.com/books?id=g0-NaraCrAoC|archive-date=8 October 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|pp=53–54}} Following this confession, Jesus begins to tell his disciples about his forthcoming suffering, death, and resurrection.<ref>Matthew 16:21, Mark 8:31, and Luke 9:22.</ref> In the Transfiguration,<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#17:1|Matthew 17:1–9]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#9:2|Mark 9:2–8]], and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#9:28|Luke 9:28–36]].</ref>{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}}<ref name="Nobbs" /><ref name="Barton132" /> Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles up an unnamed mountain, where "he was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his clothes became dazzling white".{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=72–76}} A bright cloud envelops them, and a voice from the cloud proclaims, "This is my Son, the Beloved; with him I am well pleased; listen to him."<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#17:1|Matthew 17:1–9]].</ref>{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}}

The description of the final week of Jesus's life—often referred to as [[Passion Week]]—occupies roughly one-third of the narrative in the canonical gospels.<ref name="Turner613" /> This section begins with Jesus's [[triumphal entry into Jerusalem]] and concludes with his crucifixion.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–229}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}}

==== Activities in Jerusalem ====
{{Main|Triumphal entry into Jerusalem|Cleansing of the Temple|Bargain of Judas}}

[[File:Gérôme - L'entrée du Christ à Jérusalem - cadre.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A painting of Jesus's [[Triumphal entry into Jerusalem|final entry into Jerusalem]], by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], 1897|alt=Jesus, riding a donkey colt, rides towards Jerusalem. A large crowd greets him outside the walls.]]

In the Synoptic Gospels, the final week in Jerusalem concludes the journey through Perea and Judea that Jesus began in Galilee.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} Jesus enters Jerusalem riding a young donkey, evoking the motif of [[the Messiah's Donkey|the Messiah's donkey]] from the [[Book of Zechariah]], in the humble king of the Jews comes to the city in this manner.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Zechariah|9:9|HE}}.</ref><ref name="May Metzger Mark">{{Cite book|editor-last1=May|editor-first1=Herbert G. |editor-first2=Bruce M. |editor-last2=Metzger|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha|year= 1977|chapter=Mark|pages= 1213–1239}}</ref> As he proceeds, people spread cloaks and small branches of trees ([[Palm branch|palm fronds]]) on the road before him and chant lines from Psalm 118:25–26.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Psalms|118:25–26|HE}}.</ref>{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pp=256–258}}{{sfn|Majerník|Ponessa|Manhardt|2005|pp=133–134}}{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=381–395}}

Jesus next expels the money changers from the Temple, accusing them of turning it into a den of thieves through their commercial activities. Most scholars agree that it is overwhelmingly likely that Jesus did something in the temple and mentioned its destruction.<ref>{{cite book |last= Sanders |first= E.P. |author-link= E.P. Sanders |year= 1985 |title= Jesus and Judaism |publisher= Fortress Press |page= 61 |isbn= 978-0800620615}}</ref>{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–296}} In John, the Cleansing of the Temple occurs at the beginning of Jesus's ministry instead of at the end.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|John 2:13–16]].</ref>{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}} Ancient compositional practices involved such chronological displacement and compression, with even reliable biographers like [[Plutarch]] displaying them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vytlačilová |first=Magdalena |date=2023 |title=Jesus, the Gospels, and the Galilean Crisis by Tucker S. Ferda (review) |journal=Neotestamentica |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=197–202 |doi=10.1353/neo.2023.a938405}}</ref>

Jesus comes into conflict with the Jewish elders, such as when they [[Authority of Jesus questioned|question his authority]] and when he [[Woes of the Pharisees|criticizes them and calls them hypocrites]].{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pp=256–258}}{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=381–395}} [[Judas Iscariot]], one of the [[twelve apostles]], secretly strikes a bargain with the Jewish elders, agreeing to betray Jesus to them for [[30 silver coins]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lockyer |first=Herbert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q7l-_UFHmYC |title=All the Apostles of the Bible |publisher=Zondervan |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-310-28011-8 |pages=106–111 |access-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229044027/https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q7l-_UFHmYC |archive-date=29 February 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts |first=Doremus A. |last=Hayes |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-313-53490-1 |page=88 |publisher=HardPress}}</ref>

The Gospel of John recounts two other feasts in which Jesus taught in Jerusalem before the Passion Week.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#7:1|John 7:1–10:42]].</ref>{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} In [[Bethany]], a village near Jerusalem, Jesus [[Raising of Lazarus|raises Lazarus from the dead]]. This potent sign{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}} increases the tension with authorities,{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} who conspire to kill him.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#11:1|John 11]].</ref>{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} [[Mary of Bethany]] anoints Jesus's feet, foreshadowing his entombment.{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|pp=401–470}} Jesus then makes his messianic entry into Jerusalem.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}} The cheering crowds greeting Jesus as he enters Jerusalem add to the animosity between him and the establishment.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–170}} In John, Jesus has already cleansed the Second Temple during an earlier Passover visit to Jerusalem. John next recounts Jesus's Last Supper with his disciples.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–272}}

==== Last Supper ====
{{Main|Last Supper}}

{{See also|Jesus predicts his betrayal|Denial of Peter|Last Supper in Christian art}}
[[File:Última Cena - Juan de Juanes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Last Supper]], depicted by [[Juan de Juanes]], {{circa|1562|lk=no}}|alt=A depiction of the Last Supper. Jesus sits in the centre, his apostles gathered around on either side of him.]]

The Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shared with his twelve apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels; Paul's [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]<ref>1 Corinthians [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#11:23|11:23–26]].</ref> also refers to it.<ref name="Fahlbusch52">{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity |volume=4 |first=Erwin |last=Fahlbusch |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5 |pages=53–56 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA53 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907101720/https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA53 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–477}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=180–191}} During the meal, [[Jesus predicts his betrayal|Jesus predicts]] that one of his apostles will betray him.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=182}} Despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray him, Jesus reiterates that the betrayer would be one of those present. Matthew 26:23–25 and John 13:26–27 identify Judas as the traitor.<ref name="Fahlbusch52" />{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–477}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=182}}

In the Synoptics, Jesus takes bread, breaks it, and gives it to the disciples, saying, "This is my body, which is given for you." He then has them all drink from a cup, saying, "This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood."<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#22:19|Luke 22:19–20]].</ref><ref name="Fahlbusch52" />{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Eucharist}} The Christian [[sacrament]] or [[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinance]] of the [[Eucharist]] is based on these events.<ref>{{CathEncy| wstitle=The Blessed Eucharist as a Sacrament |first=Joseph |last=Pohle}}</ref> Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread-and-wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6:22–59 (the [[Bread of Life Discourse]]) has a eucharistic character and resonates with the [[Origin of the Eucharist#Institution narratives|institution narratives]] in the Synoptic Gospels and in the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=792}}

In all four gospels, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him three times before the [[rooster|cock]] crows the next morning.<ref name="Denial">{{cite book |title=Peter: apostle for the whole church |first=Pheme |last=Perkins |publisher=Fortress Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-4514-1598-8 |page=85}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Gospel according to Matthew |volume=1 |first=Johann P. |last=Lange |year=1865 |publisher=Scribner |page=499}}</ref> In Luke and John, the prediction is made during the Supper.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#22:33|Luke 22:34]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#22:33|John 22:34]].</ref> In Matthew and Mark, the prediction is made after the Supper; Jesus also predicts that all his disciples will desert him.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#26:31|Matthew 26:31–34]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#14:27|Mark 14:27–30]].</ref>{{sfn|Walvoord|Zuck|1983|pp=83–85}} The Gospel of John provides the only account of [[Maundy (foot washing)|Jesus washing his disciples' feet]] after the meal.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–285}} John also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14–17 of the Gospel of John are known as the [[Farewell Discourse]] and are a significant source of [[Christological]] content.<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Day |first1=Gail R. |title=John |last2=Hylen |first2=Susan |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-664-25260-1 |pages=142–168}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ridderbos |first=Herman |title=The Gospel of John: A Theological Commentary|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8028-0453-2 |pages=546–576}}</ref>

==== Agony in the Garden, betrayal, and arrest ====
{{Main|Agony in the Garden|Kiss of Judas|Arrest of Jesus}}

[[File:The Taking of Christ-Caravaggio (c.1602).jpg|thumb|A depiction of the [[kiss of Judas]] and [[arrest of Jesus]], by [[Caravaggio]], {{circa|1602|lk=no}}|alt=Judas kisses Jesus, and soldiers rush to seize the latter.]]

In the Synoptics, Jesus and his disciples go to the garden [[Gethsemane]], where Jesus prays to be spared his coming ordeal. Then Judas comes with an armed mob, sent by the chief priests, [[Scribe#Judaism|scribes]] and elders. He [[Kiss of Judas|kisses Jesus]] to identify him to the crowd, which then [[arrest of Jesus|arrests Jesus]]. In an attempt to stop them, an unnamed disciple of Jesus uses a sword to cut off the ear [[Malchus|of a man]] in the crowd. After Jesus's arrest, his disciples go into hiding, and Peter, when questioned, thrice [[Denial of Peter|denies]] knowing Jesus. After the third denial, Peter hears the cock crow and recalls Jesus's prediction about his denial. Peter then weeps bitterly.{{sfn|Walvoord|Zuck|1983|pp=83–85}}{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–296}}<ref name="Denial" />

In John 18:1–11, Jesus does not pray to be spared his crucifixion, as the gospel portrays him as scarcely touched by such human weakness.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus}} The people who arrest him are [[Imperial Roman army|Roman soldiers]] and Temple guards.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Michaels |first1=J. Ramsey |title=John |series=Understanding the Bible Commentary Series |date=2011 |publisher=Baker Books |page=187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGr-amBm4PUC&pg=PT187 |isbn=978-1-4412-3659-3 |access-date=7 September 2017 |archive-date=26 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226071102/https://books.google.com/books?id=zGr-amBm4PUC&pg=PT187 |url-status=live}}</ref> Instead of being betrayed by a kiss, Jesus proclaims his identity, and when he does, the soldiers and officers fall to the ground. The gospel identifies Peter as the disciple who used the sword, and Jesus rebukes him for it.

==== Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod, and Pilate ====

{{Main|Sanhedrin trial of Jesus|Pilate's Court|Jesus at Herod's Court}}

{{See also|Jesus, King of the Jews|John 18:38|Ecce homo}}
After his arrest, Jesus is taken late at night to the private residence of the high priest, [[Caiaphas]], who had been installed by Pilate's predecessor, the Roman procurator [[Valerius Gratus]].<ref>[[Josephus]] Antiquities 18.2.2.</ref> The [[Sanhedrin]] was a Jewish judicial body.{{sfn|Brown|1997|p=146}} The gospel accounts differ on the [[Sanhedrin trial of Jesus|details of the trials]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bromiley |first=Geoffrey W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA1050 |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E–J |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8028-3782-0 |pages=1050–1052 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907182833/https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA1050 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> In Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53, and Luke 22:54, Jesus is taken to the house of the high priest, Caiaphas, where he is [[Mocking of Jesus|mocked]] and beaten that night. Early the next morning, the chief priests and scribes lead Jesus away into their council.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}<ref name="Holman608">{{cite book |title=Holman Concise Bible Dictionary |publisher=B&H |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8054-9548-5 |pages=608–609}}</ref> John 18:12–14 states that Jesus is first taken to [[Annas]], Caiaphas's father-in-law, and then to the high priest.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}<ref name="Holman608" />

[[File:Ecce homo by Antonio Ciseri (1).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Ecce homo!'' [[Antonio Ciseri]]'s 1871 depiction of [[Pontius Pilate]] presenting Jesus to the public|alt=A depiction of Jesus's public trial]]
During the trials Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defence, and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the priests' questions, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62, Jesus's unresponsiveness leads Caiaphas to ask him, "Have you no answer?".{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}<ref name="Holman608" /> In Mark 14:61, the high priest then asks Jesus, "Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?". Jesus replies, "[[I am (biblical term)|I am]]", and then predicts the coming of the Son of Man.<ref name="Britannica" /> This provokes Caiaphas to tear his own robe in anger and to accuse Jesus of blasphemy. In Matthew and Luke, Jesus's answer is more ambiguous:<ref name="Britannica" />{{sfn|Evans|2003|p=495}} in Matthew 26:64, he responds, "You have said so", and in Luke 22:70 he says, "You say that I am."{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–398}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Luke's presentation of Jesus: a christology |first=Robert F. |last=O'Toole |year=2004 |isbn=978-88-7653-625-0 |page=166 |publisher=Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico|series=Subsidia Biblica}}</ref>

The Jewish elders take Jesus to [[Pilate's Court]] and ask the Roman governor, [[Pontius Pilate]], to judge and condemn Jesus for various allegations: subverting the nation, opposing the payment of tribute, claiming to be Christ, a king, and claiming to be the son of God.{{efn|Matthew: "claiming to be king of the Jews". Mark: "King of the Jews". Luke: "subverting nation, opposing payment of taxes to Caesar, claiming to be Christ, a king" John: "breaking Jewish law, claiming to be the son of God".}}<ref name="Holman608" /> The use of the word "king" is central to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36, Jesus states, "My kingdom is not from this world", but he does not unequivocally deny being the King of the Jews.<ref>{{cite book |publisher=Twenty-Third Publications |title=The Names of Jesus |first=Stephen J. |last=Binz |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-58595-315-8 |pages=81–82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ironside |first=H. A. |title=John |publisher=Kregel |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8254-9619-6 |page=454}}</ref> In Luke 23:7–15, Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and thus comes under the jurisdiction of [[Herod Antipas]], the [[Herodian Tetrarchy|Tetrarch]] of Galilee and Perea.{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|p=172}}{{sfn|Majerník|Ponessa|Manhardt|2005|p=181}} Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried,{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=120–121}} but Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put an expensive robe on him to make him look like a king, and return him to Pilate,{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|p=172}} who then calls together the Jewish elders and announces that he has "not found this man guilty".{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=120–121}}

Observing a Passover custom of the time, Pilate allows one prisoner chosen by the crowd to be released. He gives the people a choice between Jesus and a murderer called [[Barabbas]] ({{lang|he|[[wikt:בר-אבא|בר-אבא]]}} or ''Bar-abbâ'', "son of the father", from the common given name ''[[Abba (given name)|Abba]]'': 'father').{{sfn|Evans|2012b|p=453}} Persuaded by the elders,<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#27:20|Matthew 27:20]].</ref> the mob chooses to release Barabbas and crucify Jesus.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=400–401}} Pilate writes a sign in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek that reads "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews" (abbreviated as [[INRI]] in depictions) to be affixed to Jesus's cross,<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#19:19|John 19:19–20]].</ref>{{sfn|Brown|1988|p=93}} then [[Flagellation of Christ|scourges Jesus]] and sends him to be crucified. The soldiers place a [[crown of thorns]] on Jesus's head and ridicule him as the King of the Jews. They beat and taunt him before taking him to [[Calvary]],<ref>{{cite book |title=The Passion of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew |first=Donald |last=Senior |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8146-5460-6 |publisher=Liturgical Press |page=124}}</ref> also called Golgotha, for crucifixion.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}<ref name="Holman608" />{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|p=402}}

==== Crucifixion and entombment ====
{{Main|Crucifixion of Jesus|Burial of Jesus}}

{{See also|Sayings of Jesus on the cross|Crucifixion darkness}}
[[File:Cristo crucificado.jpg|alt=A depiction of Jesus on the cross.|thumb|[[Diego Velázquez]]'s depiction of the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]], approx. 1632]]
Jesus's crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels. After the trials, Jesus is led to Calvary [[Christ Carrying the Cross|carrying his cross]]; the route traditionally thought to have been taken is known as the [[Via Dolorosa]]. The three Synoptic Gospels indicate that [[Simon of Cyrene]] assists him, having been compelled by the Romans to do so.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=211–214}} In Luke 23:27–28, Jesus tells the women in the multitude of people following him not to weep for him but for themselves and their children.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}} At Calvary, Jesus is offered a sponge soaked in a concoction usually offered as a [[painkiller]]. According to Matthew and Mark, he refuses it.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=211–214}}

The soldiers then crucify Jesus and [[Sortes (ancient Rome)|cast lots]] for his clothes. Above Jesus's head on the cross is Pilate's multilingual inscription, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews." Soldiers and passersby [[Mocking of Jesus|mock]] him about it. Two convicted thieves are crucified along with Jesus. In Matthew and Mark, both thieves mock Jesus. In Luke, [[Impenitent thief|one of them]] rebukes Jesus, while [[Penitent thief|the other]] defends him.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=271}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/page/82 82]}} Jesus tells the latter: "today you will be with me in Paradise."<ref>Luke 23:43.</ref> The four gospels mention the presence of [[Women at the crucifixion|a group of female disciples of Jesus]] at the crucifixion. In John, Jesus sees his mother Mary and the [[beloved disciple]] and tells him to take care of her.<ref>John 19:26–27.</ref>

In John 19:33–34, Roman soldiers break the two thieves' legs to hasten their death, but not those of Jesus, as he is already dead. Instead, [[Longinus|one soldier]] pierces Jesus's side with a [[Holy Lance|lance]], and [[Five Holy Wounds|blood and water]] flow out.{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=271}} The Synoptics report a [[Crucifixion darkness|period of darkness]], and the heavy curtain in the Temple is torn when Jesus dies. In Matthew 27:51–54, an earthquake breaks open tombs. In Matthew and Mark, terrified by the events, a Roman [[centurion]] states that Jesus was the Son of God.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=213–214}}

On the same day, [[Joseph of Arimathea]], with Pilate's permission and with [[Nicodemus]]'s help, [[Descent from the Cross|removes Jesus's body from the cross]], wraps it in a clean cloth, and buries it in a new [[Sepulchre|rock-hewn tomb]].{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}} In Matthew 27:62–66, on the following day the chief Jewish priests ask Pilate for the tomb to be secured, and with Pilate's permission the priests place seals on the large stone covering the entrance.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–520}}{{sfn|Morris|1992|p=727}}

=== Resurrection and ascension ===
{{Main|Resurrection of Jesus|Empty tomb|Ascension of Jesus}}

{{Further|Overview of resurrection appearances in the Gospels and Paul}}
{{See also|Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art|Ascension of Jesus in Christian art}}
[[File:Alexander Ivanov - Christ's Appearance to Mary Magdalene after the Resurrection - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Jesus appearing to Mary Magdalene after his [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection from the dead]], depicted by [[Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov]].|''Appearance of Jesus Christ to Maria Magdalena'' by [[Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov]], 1835]]

The Gospels do not describe the moment of the [[resurrection of Jesus]]. They describe the discovery of his [[empty tomb]] and several appearances of Jesus, with distinct differences in each narrative.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vermes |first=Geza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1PYcnn9WxVcC |title=The Resurrection |publisher=Penguin |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-14-191263-9 |place=London |page=141 |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309231513/https://books.google.com/books?id=1PYcnn9WxVcC |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the four Gospels, [[Mary Magdalene]] goes to the tomb on Sunday morning, alone or with one or several [[Myrrhbearers|other women]].{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=308–309}} The tomb is empty, with the stone rolled away, and there are one or two angels, depending on the accounts. In the Synoptics, the women are told that Jesus is not here and that he is risen.<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|16:5–6}}, {{bibleverse|Matthew|28:5–6}}, and {{bibleverse|Luke|24:4–6}}.</ref> In Mark and Matthew, the angel also instructs them to tell the disciples to meet Jesus in Galilee.<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|16:7}}, {{bibleverse|Matthew|28:7}}.</ref> In Luke, Peter visits the tomb after he is told it is empty.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|24:12}}.</ref> In John, he goes there with the beloved disciple.<ref>{{bibleverse|John|20:2–8}}.</ref> Matthew mentions Roman guards at the tomb,<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|28:7}}.</ref> who report to the priests of Jerusalem what happened. The priests bribe them to say that the disciples [[Stolen body hypothesis|stole Jesus's body]] during the night.<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|28:11–15}}.</ref>

The four Gospels then describe various appearances of Jesus in his resurrected body. Jesus first reveals himself to Mary Magdalene in Mark 16:9 and John 20:14–17,<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|16:9}}, {{bibleverse|John|20:14–17}}.</ref> along with "the other Mary" in Matthew 28:9,<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|28:9–10}}.</ref> while in Luke the first reported appearance is to [[Road to Emmaus appearance|two disciples]] heading to [[Emmaus]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|24:13–31}}.</ref> Jesus then reveals himself to the eleven disciples, in Jerusalem or in Galilee.<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|16:14}}, {{bibleverse|Matthew|28:16–17}}, and {{bibleverse|John|20:19–23}}.</ref> In Luke 24:36–43, he eats and shows them his [[Five Holy Wounds|tangible wounds]] to prove that he is not a spirit.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|24:36–43}}.</ref> He also shows them to [[Thomas the Apostle|Thomas]] to end [[doubting Thomas|his doubts]], in John 20:24–29.<ref>{{bibleverse|John|20:24–29}}.</ref> In the Synoptics, Jesus [[Great Commission|commissions the disciples]] to spread the gospel message to all nations,{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–285}}{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=297–301}} while in [[John 21]], he [[Restoration of Peter|tells Peter]] to take care of his sheep.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–530}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=216–226}}

Jesus's [[Entering Heaven alive|ascension into Heaven]] is described in Luke 24:50–53, Acts 1:1–11, and mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16. In the Acts of the Apostles, forty days after the Resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight". 1 Peter 3:22 states that Jesus has "gone into heaven and is at the right hand of God".{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–530}}

The Acts of the Apostles describes several appearances of Jesus after his Ascension. In Acts 7:55, [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] gazes into heaven and sees "Jesus standing at the right hand of God" just before his death.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bruce |first=Frederick F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2lN0ibbLOHEC&pg=PA210 |title=The Acts of the Apostles |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-8028-0966-7 |page=210 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222000/https://books.google.com/books?id=2lN0ibbLOHEC&pg=PA210 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> On the road to [[Damascus]], the Apostle [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|Paul is converted]] to Christianity after seeing a blinding light and hearing a voice saying, "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting."<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#9:5|Acts 9:5]].</ref> In Acts 9:10–18, Jesus instructs [[Ananias of Damascus]] in a vision to heal Paul.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Luke T. |title=The Acts of the Apostles |last2=Harrington |first2=Daniel J. |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8146-5807-9 |pages=164–167}}</ref> The [[Book of Revelation]] includes a revelation from Jesus concerning the [[Christian eschatology|last days of Earth]].<ref>{{CathEncy |wstitle=Apocalypse |last=Van den Biesen |first=Christian}}</ref>
{{clear}}

== Early Christianity ==
{{Main|Early Christianity}}

[[File:Good shepherd 02b close slightly improved.jpg|thumb|3rd-century depiction of Jesus as the [[Good Shepherd]]]]
After Jesus's life, his followers, as described in the first chapters of the [[Acts of the Apostles]], were all Jews either by birth or [[conversion to Judaism|conversion]], for which the biblical term "[[proselyte]]" is used,<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12481c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Proselyte] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610204154/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12481c.htm |date=10 June 2017 }}: "The English term 'proselyte' occurs only in the New Testament where it signifies a convert to the Jewish religion ({{bibleverse||Matthew|23:15|NAB}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|2:11|NAB}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|6:5|NAB}}; etc.), though the same Greek word is commonly used in the [[Septuagint]] to designate a foreigner living in Palestine. Thus the term seems to have passed from an original local and chiefly political sense, in which it was used as early as 300 BC, to a technical and religious meaning in the Judaism of the [[Apostolic Age|New Testament epoch]]."</ref> and referred to by historians as [[Jewish Christian]]s. The early Gospel message was spread [[oral gospel traditions|orally]], probably in Aramaic,{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=87–90}} but almost immediately also in [[Koine Greek|Greek]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jaeger |first1=Werner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYfAUnFMhPMC&pg=PA108 |title=Early Christianity and Greek Paideia |date=1961 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-22052-2 |pages=6, 108–109 |access-date=26 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217042345/https://books.google.com/books?id=kYfAUnFMhPMC&pg=PA108 |archive-date=17 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[New Testament]]'s Acts of the Apostles and [[Epistle to the Galatians]] record that the first Christian community was [[First Christian church|centred in Jerusalem]] and its leaders included [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[James (brother of Jesus)|James, the brother of Jesus]], and [[John the Apostle]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Galatians|2:9|NIV}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|1:13|NIV}}; See [[Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles]] for details.</ref>

After [[conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]], [[Paul the Apostle]] spread the teachings of Jesus to various [[non-Jewish]] communities throughout the eastern Mediterranean region. Paul's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other [[authorship of the New Testament|New Testament author]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=F. L. |edition=3rd rev. |chapter=Paul}}</ref> By the end of the [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st century]], Christianity began to be recognized internally and externally as a [[split of early Christianity and Judaism|separate religion from Judaism]] which itself was refined and developed further in the centuries after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 AD)|destruction of the Second Temple]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |title=From the Maccabees to the Mishnah |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |publication-place=Philadelphia |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-664-25017-1 |pages=224–225}}</ref>

Numerous quotations in the New Testament and other Christian writings of the first centuries indicate that early Christians generally used and revered the [[Hebrew Bible]] (the [[Tanakh]]) as [[religious text]], mostly in the Greek ([[Septuagint]]) or Aramaic ([[Targum]]) translations.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fee |first1=Gordon |author-link1=Gordon Fee |last2=Stuart |first2=Douglas |author-link2=Douglas Stuart (biblical scholar) |title=How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth: Fourth Edition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGBtAgAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Zondervan |isbn=978-0-310-51783-2 |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626225710/https://books.google.com/books?id=sGBtAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Early Christians wrote many religious works, including the ones included in the [[canon of the New Testament]]. The canonical texts, which have become the main sources used by historians to try to understand the historical Jesus and sacred texts within Christianity, were probably written between AD 50 and 120.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-508481-8 |page=8 |quote=The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen different authors, who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 C.E. (see box 1.4). As we will see, it is difficult to know whether any of these books were written by Jesus' own disciples. |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416082406/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |archive-date=16 April 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Historical views ==
{{Main|Historical Jesus|Quest for the historical Jesus|Scholarly interpretation of Gospel elements}}

{{See also|Biblical criticism}}
Prior to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], the Gospels were usually regarded as accurate historical accounts, but since then scholars have emerged who question the reliability of the Gospels and draw a distinction between the Jesus described in the Gospels and the Jesus of history.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=5}} Since the 18th century, three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during the quest that applied them.{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}}{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=19–23}} While there is widespread scholarly agreement on the existence of Jesus,{{efn|name=exist}} and a basic consensus on the general outline of his life,{{efn|[[Amy-Jill Levine]] writes: "There is a consensus of sorts on a basic outline of Jesus' life. Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God's will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate."<ref>{{harvnb|Levine|2006|p=4}}</ref>}} the portraits of Jesus constructed by various scholars often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the gospel accounts.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|p=5}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charlesworth |first1=James H. |last2=Pokorny |first2=Petr |title=Jesus Research |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |place=Grand Rapids, Michigan |date=15 September 2009 |isbn=978-0-8028-6353-9 |pages=1–2}}</ref>

Approaches to the historical reconstruction of the life of Jesus have varied from the "maximalist" approaches of the 19th century, in which the gospel accounts were accepted as reliable evidence wherever it is possible, to the "minimalist" approaches of the early 20th century, where hardly anything about Jesus was accepted as historical.{{sfn|Keener|2012|p=163}} In the 1950s, as the second quest for the historical Jesus gathered pace, the minimalist approaches faded away, and in the 21st century, minimalists such as [[Robert M. Price|Price]] are a small minority.{{sfn|Chilton|Evans|1998|p=27}}{{sfn|Evans|2012a|pp=4–5}} Although a belief in the [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrancy]] of the Gospels cannot be supported historically, many scholars since the 1980s have held that, beyond the few facts considered to be historically certain, certain other elements of Jesus's life are "historically probable".{{sfn|Chilton|Evans|1998|p=27}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Jesus in Contemporary Scholarship |first=Marcus J. |last=Borg |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-56338-094-5 |publisher=Continuum |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jesusincontempor00borg/page/4 4–6] |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusincontempor00borg/page/4}}</ref>{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|pp=142–143}} Modern scholarly research on the historical Jesus thus focuses on identifying the most probable elements.{{sfn|Anderson|Just|Thatcher|2007|p=131}}{{sfn|Meier|2006|p=124}}

=== Judea and Galilee in the 1st century ===
{{further|Historical background of the New Testament}}
[[File:The Ministry of Jesus.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Judea]], [[Galilee]] and neighbouring areas at the time of Jesus|alt=Topographical map of Palestine in the First Century highlighting places mentioned in the canonical gospels.]]
In AD 6, Judea, [[Idumea]], and [[Samaria]] were transformed from a [[Herodian dynasty|Herodian]] [[Client kingdoms in ancient Rome|client state]] of the [[Roman Empire]] into an imperial province, also called [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]]. A Roman [[prefect]], rather than a client ruler, governed the land. The prefect governed from [[Caesarea Maritima]], leaving Jerusalem to be run by the [[List of High Priests of Israel|High Priest of Israel]].<ref name="horsley">{{Cite book |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-61117-293-5 |last=Horsley |first=Richard A. |title=Jesus and the politics of Roman Palestine |location=Columbia, SC |date=2014 |pages=26–53}}</ref> As an exception, the prefect came to Jerusalem during religious festivals, when religious and patriotic enthusiasm sometimes inspired unrest or uprisings. [[Galilee]] with [[Perea]] was a Herodian client state under the rule of [[Herod Antipas]] since 4 BC.<ref name="horsley" /> Galilee was evidently prosperous, and poverty was limited enough that it did not threaten the social order.<ref name="Britannica" />
[[Philip the Tetrarch|Philip]] ({{died in|AD 34}}), half-brother of Herod Antipas, ruled as [[Herodian tetrarchy|Tetrarch]] yet another Herodian client state to the north and east of the sea of Galilee that included [[Gaulanitis]], [[Batanea]], and [[Iturea]]; it was mostly non-Jewish.<ref>{{Cite book |edition=2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-05438-6 |volume=10 |pages=737–781 |editor-first=Alan K. |editor-last=Bowman |editor-first2=Edward |editor-last2=Champlin |editor3=Andrew Lintott |last=Goodman |first=Martin |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |chapter=Judaea |access-date=16 December 2024 |year=1996 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/CBO9781139054386A034/type/book_part}}</ref> South of this on the east bank of the Jordan was the [[Decapolis]]; a collection of Hellenistic city-states that were clients of the Roman Empire. North of Galilee were the cities of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and [[Sidon]] which were in the Roman province of [[Roman Syria|Syria]]. Though non-Jewish lands surrounded the mostly Jewish territories of Judea and Galilee, Roman law and practice allowed Jews to remain separate legally and culturally.<ref name="Britannica" />

This was the era of [[Hellenistic Judaism]], which combined [[Judaism|Jewish religious tradition]] with elements of [[Hellenistic]] culture. Until the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] and the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] of the Eastern Mediterranean, the main centres of Hellenistic Judaism were [[Alexandria]] (Egypt) and [[Antioch]] (now Southern Turkey), the two main [[Greek colonies]] of the [[Middle East and North Africa]] area, both founded at the end of the {{century BC|4th}} in the wake of the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]]. Hellenistic Judaism also existed in [[Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period]], where there was conflict between Hellenizers and traditionalists (sometimes called [[Judaizers]]). The [[Hebrew Bible]] was translated from [[Biblical Hebrew]] and [[Biblical Aramaic]] into [[Jewish Koine Greek]]; the [[Targum]] translations into Aramaic were also generated during this era, both due to the decline of knowledge of Hebrew.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barr |first1=James |title=The Cambridge history of Judaism. Volume 2: The Hellenistic Age |date=1989 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-05512-3 |editor1-last=Davies |editor1-first=W. D. |pages=79–114 |chapter=Chapter 3 – Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek in the Hellenistic age |editor2-last=Finkelstein |editor2-first=Louis}}</ref>

Jews based their faith and religious practice on the [[Torah]], five books said to have been given by God to [[Moses]]. The three prominent religious parties were the [[Pharisees]], the [[Essenes]], and the [[Sadducees]]. Together these parties represented only a small fraction of the population. Most Jews looked forward to a time when God would deliver them from their pagan rulers, possibly through war against the Romans.<ref name="Britannica" />

=== Sources ===
{{Main|Sources for the historicity of Jesus}}

{{See also|Josephus on Jesus|Tacitus on Jesus}}
[[File:WorksJosephus1640TP.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A 1640 edition of the works of Josephus, a 1st-century [[Jews in the Roman Empire|Roman-Jewish]] historian who referred to Jesus{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=431–436}}]]

New Testament scholars face a formidable challenge when they analyse the canonical Gospels.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} The Gospels are not biographies in the modern sense, and the authors explain Jesus's theological significance and recount his public ministry while omitting many details of his life.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} [[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]] has argued that the accounts of his teachings and life were [[Oral gospel traditions|initially conserved by oral transmission]], which was the source of the written Gospels.<ref name="Dunn2013" /> The Gospels are commonly seen as literature that is based on oral traditions, Christian preaching, and Old Testament exegesis with the consensus being that they are a variation of Greco-Roman biography; similar to other ancient works such as Xenophon's [[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|''Memoirs of Socrates'']].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Gray |editor1-first=Patrick |title=The Cambridge Companion to the New Testament |date=2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108437707 |pages=98-99}}</ref>

The reports of supernatural events associated with Jesus's death and resurrection make the challenge even more difficult.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} Scholars regard the Gospels as compromised sources of information because the writers were trying to glorify Jesus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} Ed Sanders argues that surviving textual sources provide more reliable details for Jesus's thoughts than they do for the thoughts of [[Alexander the Great]], owing to the texts discussing Jesus being authored closer in time to the events they relate to. Biographies written about Alexander the Great during his own lifetime (who lived 330 years earlier) have all been lost, but are known of through references in biographies written by later authors. Although the texts about Jesus contain ideas from both Jesus and his later followers, it is possible to distinguish which parts originate from Jesus's own view, and which were ideas from his later followers.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}}

Scholars use several criteria, such as the [[criterion of independent attestation]], the [[Biblical criticism#Coherence|criterion of coherence]], and the [[criterion of discontinuity]] to judge the historicity of events.{{sfn|Rausch|2003|pp=36–37}} The historicity of an event also depends on the reliability of the source; indeed, the Gospels are not independent nor consistent records of Jesus's life. The [[Synoptic Gospels|Synoptics]], especially Mark, the earliest written gospel, have been considered the most reliable sources of information about Jesus for many decades.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=71}}{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}}<ref name="Britannica" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Paul N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |title=John, Jesus, and History |last2=Just |first2=Felix |last3=Thatcher |first3=Tom |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-58983-293-0 |volume=2 |page=291 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170334/https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> John, the latest written gospel, differs considerably from the Synoptic Gospels, and has been considered less reliable, although John's gospel is seen as having more reliability than previously thought or sometimes even more reliable than the synoptics since the third quest.{{sfn|Anderson|Just|Thatcher|2007|p=292}}<ref name="rout">{{cite book |title=The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415880886 |page=283 |chapter=Historical Criticism}}</ref><ref name="john JH">{{cite book |title=The Jesus Handbook |date=2022 |publisher=William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |isbn=9780802876928 |pages=138–140}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Blomberg |first1=Craig |title=The Historical Reliability of John's Gospel: Issues and Commentary |date=2011 |publisher=IVP Academic |isbn=978-0830838714}}</ref>

Some scholars (such as the [[Jesus Seminar]]) believe that the non-canonical [[Gospel of Thomas]] might be an independent witness to many of Jesus's parables and aphorisms. For example, Thomas confirms that Jesus blessed the poor and that this saying circulated independently before being combined with similar sayings in the [[Q source]].{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|pp=471–532}} The majority of scholars are sceptical about this text and believe it should be dated to the 2nd century AD.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Casey |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC |title=Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching |date=30 December 2010 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-567-64517-3 |access-date=18 May 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232056/https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings |date=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-508481-8 |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309231638/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Other select non-canonical Christian texts may also have value for historical Jesus research.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}}

Early non-Christian sources that attest to the historical existence of Jesus include the works of the historians [[Josephus]] and [[Tacitus]].{{efn|Tuckett writes: "All this does at least render highly implausible any far-fetched theories that even Jesus' very existence was a Christian invention. The fact that Jesus existed, that he was crucified under Pontius Pilate (for whatever reason) and that he had a band of followers who continued to support his cause, seems to be part of the bedrock of historical tradition. If nothing else, the non-Christian evidence can provide us with certainty on that score."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N. A. |title=Sources and methods |first=Christopher |last=Tuckett |year=2001 |encyclopedia=Cambridge Companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |pages=123–124}}</ref>}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=431–436}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|pp=39–53}} Josephus scholar [[Louis Feldman]] has stated that "few have doubted the genuineness" of Josephus's reference to Jesus in [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 9|book 20]] of the ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', and it is disputed only by a small number of scholars.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=83}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Maier |first=Paul L. |year=1995 |title=Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war |isbn=978-0-8254-3260-6 |page=285 |publisher=Kregel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2Tu1Yp3n0EC&pg=PA285 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907111405/https://books.google.com/books?id=c2Tu1Yp3n0EC&pg=PA285 |url-status=live}}</ref> Tacitus referred to Christ and his execution by Pilate in [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|book 15]] of his work ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]''. Scholars generally consider Tacitus's reference to the execution of Jesus to be both authentic and of historical value as an independent Roman source.<ref>{{cite book |title=Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies |first=Craig A. |last=Evans |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-391-04118-9 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DRcQ2bkLxc8C&pg=PA42 |publisher=Brill |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910175221/https://books.google.com/books?id=DRcQ2bkLxc8C&pg=PA42 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Non-Christian sources are valuable as they show that even neutral or hostile parties never show any doubt that Jesus existed. They present a rough picture of Jesus that is compatible with that found in the Christian sources: that Jesus was a teacher, had a reputation as a miracle worker, had a brother James, and died a violent death.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998}}

Archaeology helps scholars better understand Jesus's social world.{{sfn|Reed|2002|p=18}} For example, it indicates that [[Capernaum]], a city important in Jesus's ministry, was poor and small, without even a [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] or an [[agora]].<ref name="Gowler">{{cite book |title=What are they saying about the historical Jesus? |first=David B. |last=Gowler |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8091-4445-7 |publisher=Paulist Press |page=102}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Agoras and commercial structures |encyclopedia=Jesus and archaeology |editor-first=James H. |editor-last=Charlesworth |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8028-4880-2 |page=127 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA127 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907182047/https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA127 |url-status=live}}</ref> This archaeological discovery resonates well with the scholarly view that Jesus advocated reciprocal sharing among the destitute in that area of Galilee.<ref name="Gowler" />

=== Chronology ===
{{Main|Chronology of Jesus}}

{{See also|Anno Domini{{!}}''Anno Domini''|Saturnalia#Influence}}
{{Jewish Christianity}}
Jesus was a Galilean Jew,{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} born around the beginning of the 1st century, who died in AD 30 or 33 in [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]].{{sfn|Humphreys|Waddington|1992|p=340}} The general scholarly consensus is that Jesus was a contemporary of John the Baptist and was crucified as ordered by the Roman governor Pontius Pilate,{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} who held office from AD 26 to 36.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}}

The Gospels offer several indications concerning the year of Jesus's birth. Matthew 2:1 associates the birth of Jesus with the reign of [[Herod the Great]], who died around 4 BC, and Luke 1:5 mentions that Herod was on the throne shortly before the birth of Jesus,{{sfn|Maier|1989|pp=115–118}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=121–122}} although this gospel also associates the birth with the [[Census of Quirinius]] which took place ten years later.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=137–138}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=122–124}} Luke 3:23 states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" at the start of his [[ministry of Jesus|ministry]], which according to Acts 10:37–38 was preceded by John the Baptist's ministry, which was recorded in Luke 3:1–2 to have begun in the 15th year of [[Tiberius]]'s reign (AD 28 or 29).{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=121–122}}<ref name="Vermes-2010">{{cite book |first=Géza |last=Vermes |title=The Nativity: History and Legend |publisher=Random House Digital |year=2010 |pages=81–82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9EiEU_Yz_kC&pg=PA81 |isbn=978-0-307-49918-9 |access-date=25 January 2016 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503100006/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9EiEU_Yz_kC&pg=PA81 |url-status=live}}</ref> By collating the gospel accounts with historical data and using various other methods, most scholars arrive at a [[Date of the birth of Jesus|date of birth for Jesus]] between 6 and 4 BC,<ref name="Vermes-2010" />{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=324}} but some propose estimates that include a wider range.{{efn|For example, John P. Meier states that Jesus's birth year is {{circa|7/6 BC|lk=no}},{{sfn|Meier|1991|p=407}} while Finegan favours {{circa|3/2 BC|lk=no}}.<ref name=Finegan />}}

The date range for Jesus's ministry has been estimated using several different approaches.{{sfn|Köstenberger |Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=140}}{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=249}} One of these applies the reference in Luke 3:1–2, Acts 10:37–38, and the dates of Tiberius's reign, which are well known, to give a date of around AD 28–29 for the start of Jesus's ministry.{{sfn|Maier|1989|pp=120–121}} Another approach estimates a date around AD 27–29 by using the statement about the temple in John 2:13–20, which asserts that the temple in Jerusalem was in its 46th year of construction at the start of Jesus's ministry, together with Josephus's statement<ref>{{Citation |last=Josephus |title=Book XV |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV |work=The Antiquities of the Jews |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724214731/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV |url-status=live}}.</ref> that the temple's reconstruction was started by Herod the Great in the 18th year of his reign.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=140}}{{sfn|Maier|1989|p=123}} A further method uses the date of the [[death of John the Baptist]] and the marriage of [[Herod Antipas]] to [[Herodias]], based on the writings of Josephus, and correlates it with Matthew 14:4 and Mark 6:18.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Josephus on John the Baptist |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Context |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMbEyeDSQQgC&pg=PA55 |access-date=25 January 2016 |last=Evans |first=Craig |editor-last1=Levine |editor-first=Amy-Jill |pages=55–58 |isbn=978-0-691-00992-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503120729/https://books.google.com/books?id=wMbEyeDSQQgC&pg=PA55 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |editor-last2=Allison |editor-first3=John D. |editor-last3=Crossan |editor2-first=Dale C. |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Herodias: at home in that fox's den |first=Florence M. |last=Gillman |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8146-5108-7 |pages=25–30 |publisher=Liturgical Press}}</ref> Given that most scholars date the marriage of Herod and Herodias as AD 28–35, this yields a date about AD 28–29.{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=249}}

Various approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion of Jesus. Most scholars agree that he died in AD 30 or 33.{{sfn|Humphreys|Waddington |1992|p=340}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles |2009|p=398}} The Gospels state that the event occurred during the prefecture of Pilate.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=81–83}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Green |first=Joel B. |title=The gospel of Luke: New International Commentary on the New Testament Series |year=1997 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-2315-1 |page=168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425204312/https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=44–45}} The date for the [[conversion of Paul]] (estimated to be AD 33–36) acts as an upper bound for the date of Crucifixion. The dates for Paul's conversion and ministry can be determined by analysing the [[Pauline epistles]] and the Acts of the Apostles.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=398–400}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Barnett |title=Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8308-2699-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC&pg=PA21 |publisher=InterVarsity |page=21 |access-date=25 January 2016 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503144441/https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC&pg=PA21 |url-status=live}}</ref> Astronomers have tried to estimate the precise date of the Crucifixion by analysing lunar motion and calculating historic dates of [[Passover]], a festival based on the lunisolar [[Hebrew calendar]]. The most widely accepted dates derived from this method are 7 April AD 30, and 3 April AD 33 (both [[Julian calendar|Julian]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pratt |first=J. P. |year=1991 |title=Newton's Date for the Crucifixion |url=http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html |url-status=live |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=32 |pages=301–304 |bibcode=1991QJRAS..32..301P |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116085454/http://johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html |archive-date=16 January 2010 |access-date=17 May 2013}}</ref>

=== Historicity of events ===
{{Main|Historicity of Jesus}}

{{See also|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Historical criticism|Textual criticism|Historical reliability of the Gospels}}
{{multiple image
| footer = Roman senator and historian [[Tacitus]] (pictured left) mentioned the execution of "Christus" ('Jesus') by Pilate in a passage describing the [[Great Fire of Rome]] and [[Nero]]'s persecution of Christians in the ''[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|Annals]]'', a history of the Roman Empire during the 1st century.
| align = right
| image1 = Wien- Parlament-Tacitus.jpg
| width1 = 150
| caption1 =
| alt1 = A white statue of a man
| image2 = Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana Ms Codex Laurentianus Mediceus 68 II fol. 38r Tacitus, Annales, xv 44.3–8 Mention of Christians.jpg
| width2 = 152
| caption2 =
| alt2 = An apparently ancient document
}}

Nearly all historians (both modern and historical) agree that Jesus was a real person who historically existed.{{efn|name=exist}} Scholars have reached a limited consensus on the basics of Jesus's life.<ref name="White">{{cite book |title=Scripting Jesus: The Gospels in Rewrite |first=L. Michael |last=White |year=2010 |publisher=HarperOne}}</ref>

==== Family ====
{{See also|Brothers of Jesus}}
Many scholars including biblical ones agree that Joseph, Jesus's father, died before Jesus began his ministry. Joseph is not mentioned in the Gospels during Jesus's ministry. Joseph's death would explain why in Mark 6:3, Jesus's neighbors refer to Jesus as the "son of Mary" (sons were usually identified by their fathers).{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC&pg=PA64 64]}}

According to Theissen and Merz, it is common for extraordinary [[charismatic leaders]], such as Jesus, to come into conflict with their ordinary families.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=194}} In Mark, Jesus's family comes to get him, fearing that he is mad (Mark 3:20–34), and this account is thought to be historical because early Christians would probably not have invented it.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Robert W. Funk |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2-link=Jesus Seminar |author2=The Jesus Seminar |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1998 |chapter=Mark |pages=51–161}}</ref> After Jesus's death, many members of his family joined the Christian movement.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=194}} Jesus's brother [[James, brother of Jesus|James]] became a leader of the Jerusalem Church.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=James, St.}}

[[Géza Vermes]] says that the doctrine of the [[virgin birth of Jesus]] arose from theological development rather than from historical events.{{sfn|Vermes|1981|p=283}}
Other scholars take it as significant that the virgin birth is [[Criterion of multiple attestation|attested]] by two separate gospels, Matthew and Luke.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bromiley |first=Geoffrey William |title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |publication-place=Grand Rapids, Michigan|volume=4 |date=1979 |isbn=978-0-8028-3784-4 |page=991}}</ref>{{sfn|Keener|2009b|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8C2Y_HaL5W0C&pg=PA83 83]}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Hagner |first=Donald A. |title=Matthew 1-13 |publisher=Paternoster |publication-place=Nashville |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-8499-0232-1 |pages=14–15}} cited in the preceding.</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0PbBz6-XcssC&pg=PA761 |page=761 |title=Christian Theology |isbn=978-1-4412-0010-5 |last1=Erickson |first1=Millard J. |date=August 1998 |publisher=Baker |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913031951/https://books.google.com/books?id=0PbBz6-XcssC&pg=PA761 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Christmas – Philosophy for Everyone: Better Than a Lump of Coal |first=Scott C. |last=Lowe |publisher=Wiley |date=20 September 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hYEngEACAAJ |page=28 |isbn=978-1-4443-3090-8 |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913014940/https://books.google.com/books?id=2hYEngEACAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bruner |first=Frederick Dale |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jZlfg1yxIEC&pg=PA41 |title=Matthew a Commentary: The Christbook, Matthew 1–12 |volume=1 |date=30 April 2004 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-1118-9 |page=41 |author-link=F. Dale Bruner |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913024157/https://books.google.com/books?id=5jZlfg1yxIEC&pg=PA41 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |url-status=live|edition=Revised & Expanded}}</ref>

[[E. P. Sanders]] and Marcus Borg note that the [[Nativity of Jesus|birth narratives]] in [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] are ahistorical and the clearest cases of invention in the Gospel narratives of Jesus's life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Borg |first=Marcus |author-link=Marcus Borg |year=2007 |title=The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions |publisher=HarperOne |page=179 |isbn=978-0-06-128554-7}}</ref> [[Dale Allison]] and [[W. D. Davies]] argue that Matthew presents a unified and preexisting infancy narrative based on haggadic legends about [[Moses]], though they maintain that elements in the story such as the names of Mary and Joseph and Jesus being in Nazareth during [[Herod the Great|Herod]]'s reign are historical.{{sfn|Crossan|Watts|1999|pp=[https://archive.org/details/whoisjesusanswer00cros/page/11 11–12]}} Both accounts have Jesus born in [[Bethlehem]], in accordance with Jewish salvation history, and both have him growing up in Nazareth, but Sanders points out that the two report different explanations for how that happened. Luke's account of a worldwide census is not plausible, while Matthew's account is more plausible, but the story reads as though it was invented to identify Jesus as a new Moses, and the historian [[Josephus]] reports Herod the Great's brutality without ever mentioning that [[Massacre of the Innocents|he massacred little boys]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=85–88}} The differences found in the gospel accounts are typical of ancient historical biographies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Licona |first=Mike |title=Why are there Differences in the Gospels? What we can Learn from Ancient Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0190264260 |pages=2}}</ref> The contradictions were apparent to early Christians, with harmonizations present in the [[infancy gospels]] of [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas|Thomas]] and the [[Gospel of James]], which are dated to the 2nd century AD.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cousland |first=J. R. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |title=Holy Terror: Jesus in the Infancy Gospel of Thomas |date=16 November 2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-567-66817-2 |access-date=17 May 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232719/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Gambero |first=Luigi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero,+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church |title=Mary and the Fathers of the Church: The Blessed Virgin Mary in Patristic Thought |date=1999 |publisher=Ignatius Press |isbn=978-0-89870-686-4 |access-date=17 May 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232541/https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero,+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church#v=snippet&q=L.%20Gambero%2C%20Mary%20and%20the%20Fathers%20of%20the%20Church&f=false |url-status=live}}</ref>

Conservative scholars argue that despite the uncertainty of the details, the gospel birth narratives trace back to historical, or at least much earlier pre-gospel traditions.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/religion/nt-wright-history-scepticism-and-virgin-birth/13686186 |title=History, scepticism, and the question of the virgin birth|first1=N. T. |last1=Wright|website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=21 December 2021}}</ref><ref>[[R. T. France]] (2008), Matthew: An Introduction and Commentary, p. 81–82</ref>{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=243–244}}{{sfn|Brown|1977|pages=104-121}} For instance, according to [[Ben Witherington]]:
{{blockquote|What we find in Matthew and Luke is not the story of ... a [god] descending to earth and, in the guise of a man, mating with a human woman, but rather the story of a miraculous conception without the aid of any man, divine or otherwise. As such, this story is without precedent either in Jewish or pagan literature.<ref>Witherington (1992), Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, p. 70</ref>}}

Sanders says that the genealogies of Jesus are based not on historical information but on the author's desire to show that Jesus was the universal Jewish saviour.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}} In any event, once the doctrine of the virgin birth of Jesus became established, that tradition superseded the earlier tradition that he was descended from [[David]] through Joseph.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=196}} The Gospel of Luke reports that Jesus was a [[blood relative]] of John the Baptist, but scholars generally consider this connection to be invented.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}}<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Robert W. Funk |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2-link=Jesus Seminar |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1998 |chapter=Birth & Infancy Stories |pages=497–526}}</ref>

==== Baptism ====
[[File:ဗတ္တိဇံ.jpg|thumb|Baptism in the [[Jordan River]], the river where Jesus was baptized]]
Most modern scholars consider Jesus's baptism to be a historical fact, along with his crucifixion.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}} The theologian [[James D. G. Dunn]] states that they "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}} Scholars adduce the [[criterion of embarrassment]], saying that early Christians would not have invented a baptism that might imply that Jesus committed [[sin]]s and wanted to [[repent]].{{sfn|Powell|1998|p=47}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Murphy |first=Catherine |title=John the Baptist: Prophet of Purity for a New Age |year=2003 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-5933-5 |pages=29–30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=so_G78SBXAoC&pg=PA29 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907065554/https://books.google.com/books?id=so_G78SBXAoC&pg=PA29 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to Theissen and Merz, Jesus was inspired by John the Baptist and took over from him many elements of his teaching.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=235}}

==== Ministry in Galilee ====
Most scholars hold that Jesus lived in Galilee and Judea and did not preach or study elsewhere.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=The Spirit-Filled Experience of Jesus |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Recent Research |publisher=Eisenbrauns |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC&pg=PA303 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Borg |first=Marcus J. |editor-last1=Dunn |editor-first=James D. G. |page=303 |isbn=978-1-57506-100-9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910073549/https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC&pg=PA303 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |editor2-last=McKnight |editor2-first=Scot |url-status=live}}</ref> They agree that Jesus debated with Jewish authorities on the subject of God, performed some healings, taught in [[parable]]s and gathered followers.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} Jesus's Jewish critics considered his ministry to be scandalous because he feasted with sinners, fraternized with women, and allowed his followers to pluck grain on the Sabbath.{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} According to Sanders, it is not plausible that disagreements over how to interpret the Law of Moses and the Sabbath would have led Jewish authorities to want Jesus killed.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=205–223}}

According to Ehrman, Jesus taught that a coming kingdom was everyone's proper focus, not anything in this life.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=167–170}} He taught about the Jewish Law, seeking its true meaning, sometimes in opposition to traditions. Jesus put love at the centre of the Law, and following that Law was an apocalyptic necessity.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=164–167}} His ethical teachings called for forgiveness, not judging others, loving enemies, and caring for the poor.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=171–176}} Funk and Hoover note that typical of Jesus were [[paradox]]ical or surprising turns of phrase, such as advising one, when struck on the cheek, [[Turning the other cheek|to offer the other cheek]] to be struck as well.<ref>Luke 6:29.</ref>{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=294}}

The Gospels portray Jesus teaching in well-defined sessions, such as the Sermon on the Mount in the Gospel of Matthew or the parallel [[Sermon on the Plain]] in Luke. While these teaching sessions include authentic teachings of Jesus, Theissen and Merz contend that the scenes were invented by the evangelists to frame these teachings, originally recorded without context.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}} Le Donne, however, rejects the [[Form criticism|form-critical]] notion that smaller units of traditions held a defined stage of circulation before the gospels' composition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Le Donne |first=Anthony |title=Mnemonic Interplay: A Response to Byrskog, Bauckham, Zimmerman, and Schroter |journal=Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus |volume=16 |issue=2-3 |pages=175}}</ref> While Jesus's miracles fit within the social context of [[Ancient history|antiquity]], he defined them differently. First, he attributed them to the faith of those healed. Second, he connected them to [[end times]] prophecy.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=310}}

Jesus chose [[twelve disciples]] (the "Twelve"),{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=10}} According to Bart Ehrman, Jesus's promise that the Twelve would rule is historical, because the Twelve included [[Judas Iscariot]]. In Ehrman's view, no Christians would have invented a line from Jesus, promising rulership to the disciple who betrayed him.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–187}}

In Mark, the disciples play hardly any role other than a negative one. While others sometimes respond to Jesus with complete faith, his disciples are puzzled and doubtful. They serve as a [[Foil (literature)|foil]] to Jesus and to other characters. The failings of the disciples are probably exaggerated in Mark, and the disciples make a better showing in Matthew and Luke.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=123–124}} Recent studies tend to suggest that Mark is not as negative towards [[Saint Peter|Peter]] as a previous generation of scholars thought.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Bond |first1= Helen |author-link= Helen Bond |last2= Hurtado |first2= Larry |author-link2= Larry Hurtado |title= Peter in Early Christianity |year= 2015 |publisher= Eerdmans |page= 49 |isbn= 978-0802871718}}</ref>

Sanders says that Jesus's mission was not about [[repentance]], although he acknowledges that this opinion is unpopular. He argues that repentance appears as a strong theme only in Luke, that repentance was John the Baptist's message, and that Jesus's ministry would not have been scandalous if the sinners he ate with had been repentant.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=230–236}} According to Theissen and Merz, Jesus taught that God was generously giving people an opportunity to repent.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=336}}

==== Role ====
Jesus referred to himself as a "[[son of man]]" in the colloquial sense of "a person", but scholars do not know whether he also meant himself when he referred to the heavenly "Son of Man". Paul the Apostle and other early Christians interpreted the "Son of Man" as the risen Jesus.<ref name="Britannica" /> [[Dale Allison]] argues Jesus identified himself as the son of man in Daniel, rejecting the notion of another eschatological figure.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allison |first=Dale |title=The New Cambridge Companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2024 |isbn=978-1009232999 |pages=23}}</ref>

The Gospels refer to Jesus not only as a messiah but in the absolute form as "the Messiah" or, equivalently, "the Christ". In early Judaism, this absolute form of the title is not found, but only phrases such as "his messiah". The tradition is ambiguous enough to leave room for debate as to whether Jesus defined his [[eschatological]] role as that of the Messiah.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Messiah}} The Jewish messianic tradition included many different forms, some of them focused on a messiah figure and others not. Based on the Christian tradition, [[Gerd Theissen]] advances the hypothesis that Jesus saw himself in messianic terms but did not claim the title "Messiah".{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=533–540}} Bart Ehrman argues that Jesus did consider himself to be the Messiah, albeit in the sense that he would be the king of the new political order that God would usher in,<ref>{{cite web |last=Ehrman |first=Bart |url=http://ehrmanblog.org/judas-and-the-messianic-secret/ |title=Judas and the Messianic Secret |website=The Bart Ehrman Blog |date=1 December 2015 |access-date=15 February 2016 |archive-date=23 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223091403/http://ehrmanblog.org/judas-and-the-messianic-secret/ |url-status=live}}</ref> not in the sense that most people today think of the term.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ehrman |first=Bart |url=http://ehrmanblog.org/jesus-claim-to-be-the-messiah/ |title=Jesus' Claim to be the Messiah |website=The Bart Ehrman Blog |date=1 December 2015 |access-date=15 February 2016 |archive-date=23 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223082758/http://ehrmanblog.org/jesus-claim-to-be-the-messiah/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Passover and crucifixion in Jerusalem ====
Around AD 30, Jesus and his followers travelled from Galilee to Jerusalem to observe Passover.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=10}} Jesus caused a disturbance in the [[Second Temple]],{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} which was the centre of Jewish religious and civil authority. Sanders associates it with Jesus's prophecy that the Temple would be totally demolished.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=254–262}} Jesus held a last meal with his disciples, which is the origin of the [[Eucharist|Sacrament of the Holy Eucharist]]. According to [[John P. Meier]], Jesus having a final meal with his disciples is generally accepted among scholars, and belongs to the framework of the narrative of Jesus' life, with a majority viewing Mark 14 as substantially historical.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ferda |first=Tucker |title=Jesus and His Promised Second Coming: Jewish Eschatology and Christian Origins |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2024 |isbn=9780802879905 |page=694 |quote=Meier, Mentor, Message, and Miracles, 302, writes, "suffice it to say that the historicity of a final farewell meal held by Jesus with his disciples is generally accepted by scholars across the spectrum." E. P. Sanders, Jesus and Judaism (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985), 307, writes that the historicity of the Last Supper is "almost equally [as] certain" as the temple action. Some have been skeptical of the historicity of the words of institution but nonetheless regarded the prospect saying considered below to go back to Jesus in some form. See Jens Schröter, Das Abendmahl: Frühchristliche Deutungen und Impulse für die Gegenwart, SBS 210 (Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 2006), 132–33. Brant Pitre, Jesus and the Last Supper (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015), 499, offers that "the vast majority of scholars" believe that Mark 14:25 is "substantially historical."}}</ref> The meal appears to have pointed to Jesus's place in the Kingdom of God when Jesus probably knew he was to be killed, although he may have still hoped that God might intervene.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=263–264}}

The Gospels say that Jesus was betrayed to the authorities by a disciple, and many scholars consider this report to be highly reliable.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} He was executed on the orders of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect of Judaea.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} Pilate most likely saw Jesus's reference to the Kingdom of God as a threat to Roman authority and worked with the Temple elites to have Jesus executed.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=465–466}} The Sadducean high-priestly leaders of the Temple more plausibly had Jesus executed for political reasons than for his teaching.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} They may have regarded him as a threat to stability, especially after he caused a disturbance at the Second Temple.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}}<ref name="JE1906">{{cite web |last1=Jacobs |first1=Joseph |last2=Kohler |first2=Kaufmann |last3=Gottheil |first3=Richard |last4=Krauss |first4=Samuel |title=Jesus of Nazareth |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8616-jesus-of-nazareth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160226102548/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8616-jesus-of-nazareth |archive-date=26 February 2016 |website=Jewish Encyclopedia}} See ''Avodah Zarah 17a:1'', ''Sanhedrin 43a:20'', ''Gittin 57a:3–4'', and ''Sotah 47a:6''.</ref> Other factors, such as Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, may have contributed to this decision.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=269–273}} Most scholars consider Jesus's crucifixion to be factual because early Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}}{{sfn|Meier|2006|pp=126–128}}

==== After crucifixion ====
[[File:The Resurrection Beaufort arms in border (f. 131) Cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Resurrection of Christ from a 16th-century manuscript of ''La Passion de Nostre Seigneur'']]
After Jesus's death, his followers said he was restored to life, although the exact details of their experiences are unclear. The gospel reports contradict each other; Sanders suggests competition among those claiming to have seen him first rather than deliberate fraud, while [[L. Michael White|White]] emphasizes differences in the agendas of the evangelists.<ref name="White" />{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=276–281}} Differences between accounts were a feature of ancient biographies, such as the accounts of [[Otho]] in Suetonius and Plutarch.<ref name="auto">{{cite journal |last=Keener |first=Craig S. |year=2011 |title=Otho: A Targeted Comparison of Suetonius's Biography and Tacitus's History, with Implications for the Gospels' Historical Reliability |journal=Bulletin for Biblical Research |publisher=Penn State University Press |volume=21 |pages=331–355 |doi=10.2307/26424373 |jstor=26424373 |number=3}}</ref> Another common hypothesis among historians is that all reported perceptions of Jesus are [[confabulated]] or a case of [[Eyewitness_identification#Causes_of_eyewitness_error|mistaken identity]].<ref>Graieg, David. "RESURRECTION MISREMEMBERED? THE INTERPRETATIVE OPTIONS (PART TWO)." ''Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society'' 68.2 (2025): 267-84. ''ProQuest''. Web. 4 Feb. 2026.</ref> The followers of Jesus formed a community to wait for his return and the founding of his kingdom.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}}

=== Portraits of Jesus ===
{{Main|Historical Jesus|Quest for the historical Jesus}}

Modern research on the historical Jesus has not led to a unified picture of the historical figure, partly because of the variety of academic traditions represented by the scholars.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|pp=4–5}} Given the scarcity of historical sources, it is generally difficult for any scholar to construct a portrait of Jesus that can be considered historically valid beyond the basic elements of his life.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=117–125}}{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=22–23}} The portraits of Jesus constructed in these quests often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the Gospels.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|p=5}}{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Historical Jesus, Quest of the}}

Jesus is seen as the founder of, in the words of Sanders, a "renewal movement within Judaism". One of the criteria used to discern historical details in the "third quest" is the criterion of plausibility, relative to Jesus's Jewish context and to his influence on Christianity. A disagreement in contemporary research is whether Jesus was [[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic]]. Most scholars conclude that he was an apocalyptic preacher, like [[John the Baptist]] and [[Paul the Apostle]]. Certain prominent North American scholars, such as [[Burton Mack]] and John Dominic Crossan, advocate for a non-[[eschatological]] Jesus, one who is more of a Cynic [[Sage (philosophy)|sage]] than an apocalyptic preacher.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=1–15}} In addition to portraying Jesus as an apocalyptic prophet, a charismatic healer or a [[Cynicism (philosophy)|cynic philosopher]], some scholars portray him as the true messiah or an [[egalitarian]] prophet of [[social change]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity |volume=1 |first1=Margaret M. |last1=Mitchell |first2=Frances M. |last2=Young |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-81239-9 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UTfmw_zStsC&pg=PA23 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907180601/https://books.google.com/books?id=6UTfmw_zStsC&pg=PA23 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=124–125}} The attributes described in the portraits sometimes overlap, and scholars who differ on some attributes sometimes agree on others.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Why Study the Historical Jesus? |encyclopedia=Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |first=Colin |last=Brown |page=1416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LuKMmVu0tpMC&pg=PA1416 |isbn=978-90-04-16372-0 |editor1-first=Tom |editor1-last=Holmen |editor2-first=Stanley E. |editor2-last=Porter |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170524/https://books.google.com/books?id=LuKMmVu0tpMC&pg=PA1416 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Since the 18th century, scholars have occasionally put forth that Jesus was a political national messiah, but the evidence for this portrait is negligible. Likewise, the proposal that Jesus was a [[Zealot]] does not fit with the earliest strata of the Synoptic tradition.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}}

=== Language, ethnicity, and appearance ===
{{Further|Language of Jesus|Race and appearance of Jesus}}
[[File:CompositeJesus.JPG|thumb|The ethnicity of Jesus in art has been influenced by cultural settings.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}}<ref name="Erricker44" />|alt=Twelve depictions of Jesus from around the world.]]

Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.{{sfn|Green|McKnight|Marshall|1992|p=442}} The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the 1st century AD included [[Jewish Palestinian Aramaic]], [[Hebrew]], and [[Koine Greek|Greek]], with Aramaic being predominant.<ref>{{cite journal |first=James |last=Barr |title=Which language did Jesus speak |journal=Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester |year=1970 |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=9–29 |url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2973 |doi=10.7227/BJRL.53.1.2 |access-date=27 July 2011 |archive-date=3 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203184449/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2973 |url-status=live |issn=2054-9318}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Porter |first=Stanley E. |url=https://archive.org/details/handbooktoexeges00port |title=Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament |publisher=Brill |year=1997 |isbn=978-90-04-09921-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbooktoexeges00port/page/n124 110]–112 |url-access=limited}}</ref> There is substantial consensus that Jesus gave most of his teachings in Aramaic{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=313–315}} in the [[Galilean dialect]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1987 |title=Aramaic |encyclopedia=The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |url=https://archive.org/details/eerdmansbibledic00myer/page/72 |editor-last=Myers |editor-first=Allen C. |page=[https://archive.org/details/eerdmansbibledic00myer/page/72 72] |isbn=978-0-8028-2402-8 |quote=It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73).}}</ref><ref>{{Britannica |id=32043 |title=Aramaic language }}</ref> Other than Aramaic and Hebrew, it is likely that he was also able to speak Greek.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Stanley E. |author-link=Stanley E. Porter |title=Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament |publisher=Brill |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-09921-2 |pages=110–112}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hoffmann |first=R. Joseph |title=Jesus in history and myth |publisher=Prometheus Books |year=1986 |isbn=0-87975-332-3 |page=98}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Interpretation of Scripture in Early Judaism and Christianity: Studies in Language and Tradition |first=Craig A. |last=Evans |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-84127-076-0 |date=1 June 2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WbbUAwAAQBAJ&dq=G.R.+Selby,+Jesus,+Aramaic+and+Greek&pg=PA244 |access-date=13 August 2023 |archive-date=6 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906220012/https://books.google.com/books?id=WbbUAwAAQBAJ&dq=G.R.+Selby,+Jesus,+Aramaic+and+Greek&pg=PA244 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Modern scholars agree that Jesus was a Jew of 1st-century [[Judea]].{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|p=96}} {{tlit|grc|[[Ioudaios]]}} in New Testament Greek{{efn|In the New Testament, Jesus is described as Jewish / Judean ({{tlit|grc|Ioudaios}} as written in Koine Greek) on three occasions: by the Magi in [[Matthew 2:2]], who referred to Jesus as "King of the Jews" (''basileus ton ioudaion''); by both the [[Samaritan woman at the well]] in {{bibleverse|John|4:9|NKJV}} and {{bibleverse|John|4:20|NKJV}} and by Jesus himself in {{bibleverse|John|4:22|NKJV}}; and (in all four gospels) during the Passion, by the Romans, who also used the phrase "King of the Jews".<ref>{{cite journal |first=John |last=Elliott |author-link=John H. Elliott (biblical scholar) |journal=Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus |year=2007 |volume=5 |issue=119 |title=Jesus the Israelite Was Neither a 'Jew' nor a 'Christian': On Correcting Misleading Nomenclature |page=119 |doi=10.1177/1476869007079741 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Jesus was also described as "King of Israel" in {{bibleverse|John|1:49|NKJV}}, {{bibleverse|John|12:13|NKJV}}, {{bibleverse|Mark|15:32|NKJV}} and {{bibleverse|Matthew|27:42|NKJV}}.<ref>{{cite book |first=R. T. |last=France |title=The Gospel of Matthew |year=2007 |page=1048 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-2501-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ruP6J_XPCEC&pg=PA1048}}</ref>}} is a term which in the contemporary context may refer to religion ([[Second Temple Judaism]]), ethnicity (of Judea), or both.<ref>{{cite book |last=Garroway |first=Rabbi Joshua |url=https://archive.org/details/jewishannotatedn0000unse/page/524 |title=The Jewish Annotated New Testament |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-529770-6 |editor-last=Levine |editor-first=Amy-Jill |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jewishannotatedn0000unse/page/524 524–526] |chapter=Ioudaios |editor2=Brettler |editor-first2=Marc Z. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DZRJ5zXUI2QC&pg=PA524}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=David M. |last=Miller |title=The Meaning of ''Ioudaios'' and its Relationship to Other Group Labels in Ancient 'Judaism' |journal=Currents in Biblical Research |volume=9 |issue=1 |date=2010 |pages=98–126 |doi=10.1177/1476993X09360724 |s2cid=144383064}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Steve |last=Mason |title=Jews, Judaeans, Judaizing, Judaism: Problems of Categorization in Ancient History |journal=Journal for the Study of Judaism |volume=38 |issue=4 |date=2007 |pages=457–512 |url=http://www.stevemason.eu/resources/SMason-JSJ-2007-Jews-Judaism.pdf |doi=10.1163/156851507X193108 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325062826/http://www.stevemason.eu/resources/SMason-JSJ-2007-Jews-Judaism.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2015}}</ref> In a review of the state of modern scholarship, [[Amy-Jill Levine]] writes that the entire question of ethnicity is "fraught with difficulty", and that "beyond recognizing that 'Jesus was Jewish', rarely does the scholarship address what being 'Jewish' means".{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=10}}

The New Testament gives no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death—it is generally indifferent to racial appearances and does not refer to the features of the people it mentions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=Robin M. |last=Jensen |title=Jesus in Christian art |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Companion to Jesus |editor-first=Delbert |editor-last=Burkett |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4443-5175-0 |pages=477–502 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref><ref name="Perkinson30">{{cite book |last=Perkinson |first=Stephen |title=The likeness of the king: a prehistory of portraiture in late medieval France |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-226-65879-7 |location=Chicago |page=30}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world |url=https://archive.org/details/forgingracesrace00kidd |url-access=limited |first=Colin |last=Kidd |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-139-45753-8 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/forgingracesrace00kidd/page/n57 48]–51}}</ref> Jesus probably looked like a typical Jewish man of his time and place; standing around {{convert|166|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} tall with a thin but fit build, [[Olive skin|olive-brown skin]], brown eyes and short, dark hair. He also probably had a beard that was not particularly long or heavy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Joan E. |title=What did Jesus look like? |date=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury |location=London |page=168 |isbn=978-0-567-67150-9 |edition=1st |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/what-did-jesus-look-like-9780567671509/ |access-date=20 May 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222012/https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/what-did-jesus-look-like-9780567671509/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Christ myth theory ===
{{Main|Christ myth theory}}

The Christ myth theory is the hypothesis that Jesus of Nazareth never existed; or that if he did, he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity and the accounts in the [[gospels]].{{efn|Ehrman writes: "In simpler terms, the historical Jesus did not exist. Or if he did, he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity." Further quoting as authoritative the fuller definition provided by [[Earl Doherty]] in ''Jesus: Neither God Nor Man''. Age of Reason, 2009, pp. vii–viii: it is "the theory that no historical Jesus worthy of the name existed, that Christianity began with a belief in a spiritual, mythical figure, that the Gospels are essentially allegory and fiction, and that no single identifiable person lay at the root of the Galilean preaching tradition".{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|p=12}}}} Stories of Jesus's birth, along with other key events, have so many mythic elements that some scholars have suggested that Jesus himself was a myth.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=113–115}}

[[Bruno Bauer]] (1809–1882) taught that the first Gospel was a work of literature that produced history rather than described it. According to [[Albert Kalthoff]] (1850–1906), a social movement produced Jesus when it encountered Jewish messianic expectations. [[Arthur Drews]] (1865–1935) saw Jesus as the concrete form of a myth that predated Christianity.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=90}} Despite arguments put forward by authors who have questioned the existence of a [[historical Jesus]], virtually all scholars of antiquity accept that Jesus was a historical figure and consider the myth theory to be fringe.<ref>{{multiref2|{{harvnb|Ehrman|2011|pp=256–257}}: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees, based on certain and clear evidence."|{{cite journal |last=Gullotta |first=Daniel N. |title=On Richard Carrier's Doubts: A Response to Richard Carrier's On the Historicity of Jesus: Why We Might Have Reason for Doubt |journal=Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus |year=2017 |volume=15 |issue=2–3 |page=312 |quote=[Per Jesus mythicism] Given the fringe status of these theories, the vast majority have remained unnoticed and unaddressed within scholarly circles. |doi=10.1163/17455197-01502009}}|{{cite book |author-link=James D. G. Dunn |first=James D. G. |last=Dunn |chapter=Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus |title=Sacrifice and Redemption |editor-first=S. W. |editor-last=Sykes |date=3 December 2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-04460-8 |pages=35–36}}|{{cite book |last1=Burridge |first1=Richard A. |last2=Gould |first2=Graham |title=Jesus Now and Then |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-8028-0977-3 |page=34}}|{{cite book |last=Grant |first=Michael |title=Jesus |publisher=Rigel Publications |date=2004 |isbn=978-1-898799-88-7 |page=200}}|{{cite book |last=Stanton |first=Graham |author-link=Graham Stanton |title=The Gospels and Jesus |publisher=Oxford University Press, US |publication-place=Oxford [England]; New York |date=1989 |isbn=978-0-19-213241-3 |page=145}}|{{cite book |last=Voorst |first=Robert Van |author-link=Robert E. Van Voorst |title=Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |publication-place=Grand Rapids, Michigan|date=13 April 2000 |isbn=978-0-8028-4368-5 |page=16}}}}</ref>

== Religious perspectives ==
{{Main|Religious perspectives on Jesus}}

Jesus's teachings and the retelling of his life story have significantly influenced the course of [[human history]], and have directly or indirectly affected the lives of billions of people, even non-Christians, worldwide.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus |title=The Cambridge Companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |publication-place=Cambridge |date=8 November 2001 |isbn=0-521-79678-4 |pages=156–157}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Evans |first=C. Stephen |title=The Historical Christ and the Jesus of Faith |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1996 |isbn=0-19-826397-X |page=v}}</ref> He is considered by many people to be the most influential figure to have ever lived, finding a significant place in numerous cultural contexts.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bauckham |first1=Richard |title=Jesus: A Very Short Introduction |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957527-5 |pages=1–2}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first1=Steven |last1=Skiena |first2=Charles B. |last2=Ward |date=10 January 2014 |title=Who's the most significant historical figure? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/jan/30/whos-most-significant-historical-figure |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204180532/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/jan/30/whos-most-significant-historical-figure |url-status=live}}</ref>

Apart from his own disciples and followers,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Jewish believers in Jesus: the early centuries |last1=Skarsaune |first1=Oskar |publisher=Hendrickson Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-56563-763-4 |page=55 |last2=Hvalvik |first2=Reidar |url=https://archive.org/details/jewishbelieversi0000unse/page/55}}</ref> the Jews of Jesus's day generally [[Rejection of Jesus|rejected him as the messiah]],{{sfn|Levine|2007|p=61}} as does Judaism today.{{sfn|Levine|2007|p=17}} Christian theologians, [[ecumenical council]]s, reformers and others have written extensively about Jesus over the centuries. [[Christian denomination]]s have often been defined or characterized by their descriptions of Jesus. Meanwhile, [[Manichaeans]], [[Gnostics]], [[Muslims]], [[Druze]]s,<ref name=Hitti>{{cite book |title=The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings |first=Philip K. |last=Hitti |year=1966|orig-year=1928 |isbn=978-1-4655-4662-3 |page=37 |publisher=Library of Alexandria}}</ref> the [[Baháʼís]], and others have found prominent places for Jesus in their religions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=The quest for the real Jesus |encyclopedia=Cambridge companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA156 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Watson |first=Francis |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N. A. |pages=156–157 |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910064807/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA156 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The historical Christ and the Jesus of faith |first=C. Stephen |last=Evans |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-152042-6 |page=v}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Blackwell Companion to Jesus |last=Delbert |first=Burkett |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4443-5175-0 |page=1 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref>

=== Christianity ===
{{Main|Jesus in Christianity|Christ (title)|Christology}}

[[File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|thumb|The [[Trinity]] is the belief in Christianity that God is one God in three persons: [[God the Father]], [[God the Son]] ([[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]]), and [[God the Holy Spirit]].]]
[[File:Christ with beard.jpg|thumb|Jesus is depicted with the [[Alpha and Omega]] letters in the [[Catacombs of Rome]] from the 4th century.]]

Jesus is the central figure of Christianity.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=4–6}} Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize the key beliefs shared by the major [[Christian denomination|denominations]], as stated in their [[catechism|catechetical]] or [[Confessionalism (religion)|confessional]] texts.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Gregory L. |title=Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-615-16635-3 |pages=11–17 |publisher=Christian News}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to Its History, Doctrine |first=John A. |last=McGuckin |year=2010 |pages=6–7 |isbn=978-1-4443-9383-5 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Basic Christian doctrine |last=Leith |first=John H. |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-664-25192-5 |pages=1–2 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}</ref> Christian views of Jesus are derived from the texts of the [[New Testament]], including the [[canonical gospels]] and letters such as the [[Pauline epistles]] and the [[Johannine writings]]. These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life, and that he is the Christ and the Son of God.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schreiner |first=Thomas R. |title=New Testament Theology: Magnifying God in Christ |year=2008 |publisher=Baker |isbn=978-0-8010-2680-5 |pages=23–37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elw8xkVeTTUC&pg=PA23 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910052649/https://books.google.com/books?id=elw8xkVeTTUC&pg=PA23 |url-status=live}}</ref> Despite their many shared beliefs, not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines, and both [[East–West Schism|major and minor differences]] on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Great Schism}}

The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus is the foundation of the Christian faith.<ref>[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:12|1 Corinthians 15:12–20]].</ref><ref>{{Britannica |id=137622 |title=The Letter of Paul to the Corinthians }}</ref> Christians believe that through his sacrificial death and resurrection, humans can be [[reconciliation (theology)|reconciled with God]] and are thereby offered [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] and the promise of [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].<ref name="Oxford Companion">{{cite book |title=Oxford Companion to the Bible |first1=Bruce M. |last1=Metzger |first2=Michael D. |last2=Coogan |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458/page/649 649] |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458 |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-19-974391-9 |year=1993}}</ref> Recalling the words of John the Baptist in the [[gospel of John]], these doctrines sometimes refer to Jesus as the [[Lamb of God]], who was crucified to fulfil his role as the servant of God.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Christology of the New Testament |first=Oscar |last=Cullmann |translator-first1=Shirley C. |translator-last1=Guthrie|translator-last2=Hall|translator-first2=Charles A. M. |year=1959 |isbn=978-0-664-24351-7 |page=79 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Christology of Anselm of Canterbury |first=Dániel |last=Deme |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7546-3779-0 |publisher=Ashgate |pages=199–200}}</ref> Jesus is thus seen as the [[new Adam|new and last Adam]], whose obedience contrasts with [[Fall of man|Adam's disobedience]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Systematic Theology |volume=2 |first=Wolfhart |last=Pannenberg |author-link=Wolfhart Pannenberg |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-567-08466-8 |pages=297–303 |publisher=Continuum}}</ref> Christians view Jesus as a role model, whose God-focused life believers are encouraged to imitate.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=4–6}}

Most Christians believe that Jesus is both human and the Son of God.{{sfn|Ehrman|2014|loc="The reason most Christians today would have no trouble answering any of these questions is that one perspective from early Christianity emerged as triumphant in the debates over what to believe and how to live. This is the side that insisted that there was only one true God; he had created the world, called the Jews to be his people, and given them his scriptures. The world had been created good, but it had become corrupt because of sin. Eventually, though, God would redeem the world and all of his true followers in it. This redemption would come through his Son, Jesus Christ, who was both God and human at one and the same time, the one who died for the salvation of all who believe in him."}} While there has been [[Christological controversies|theological debate]] over his nature,{{efn|Following the [[Apostolic Age]], there was fierce and often politicized debate in the [[early church]] on many interrelated issues. [[Christology]] was a major focus of these debates, and was addressed at every one of the [[first seven ecumenical councils]]. Some early beliefs viewed Jesus as ontologically subordinate to the Father ([[Subordinationism]]), and others considered him an aspect of the Father rather than a separate person ([[Sabellianism]]), both were condemned as heresies by the Catholic Church.<ref name=Britannica />{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Antitrinitarianism}} The Church resolved the issues in ancient councils, which established the Holy Trinity, with Jesus both fully human and fully God.<ref name=Britannica />}} Trinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is the Logos, God's incarnation and [[God the Son]], both fully divine and fully human. The doctrine of the Trinity is not universally accepted among Christians.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Antitrinitarianism |url=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A597.html |last=Friedmann |first=Robert |encyclopedia=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia |access-date=24 October 2012 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020232847/http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A597.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Blessed Trinity|first=George H. |last= Joyce}}</ref> With the [[Reformation]], Christians such as [[Michael Servetus]] and the [[Socinian]]s started questioning the ancient creeds that had established Jesus's two natures.<ref name="Britannica" /> Nontrinitarian Christian groups include [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Mormonism 101: What is Mormonism |url=http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/mormonism-101 |work=MormonNewsroom.org |publisher=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|access-date=21 October 2014 |date=13 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021175426/http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/mormonism-101 |archive-date=21 October 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]].{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005 |loc=Antitrinitarianism}}

Christians revere not only Jesus but also [[Name of Jesus|his name]]. Devotions to the [[Holy Name of Jesus]] go back to the earliest days of Christianity.<ref>{{cite book |title=Outlines of dogmatic theology |volume=2 |first=Sylvester |last=Hunter |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-177-95809-7 |page=443 |publisher=Nabu Press}}</ref>{{sfn|Houlden|2006|p=426}} These devotions and feasts exist in both [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]] and [[Western Christianity]].{{sfn|Houlden|2006|p=426}}

=== Judaism ===
{{Main|Judaism's view of Jesus}}

{{See also|Jesus in the Talmud}}
Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus (or any future Jewish messiah) being God,<ref name="JE1906" /> or a mediator to God, or part of a Trinity.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kessler |first=Ed |title=Jesus the Jew |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/thepassion/articles/jesus_the_jew.shtml |publisher=BBC |access-date=18 June 2013 |archive-date=7 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121207081354/http://www.bbc.co.uk/thepassion/articles/jesus_the_jew.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> It holds that Jesus is not the messiah, arguing that he neither fulfilled the messianic prophecies in the [[Tanakh]] nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah.<ref>{{cite book |first=Asher |last=Norman |title=Twenty-six reasons why Jews don't believe in Jesus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tx5qrKz6dRMC&pg=PA59 |publisher=Feldheim Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-9771937-0-7 |pages=59–70 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910065007/https://books.google.com/books?id=tx5qrKz6dRMC&pg=PA59 |url-status=live}}</ref> Jews argue that Jesus did not fulfil prophecies to build the [[Third Temple]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ezekiel|37:26–28|HE}}.</ref> gather Jews back to Israel,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Isaiah|43:5–6|HE}}.</ref> bring world peace,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Isaiah|2:4|HE}}.</ref> and unite humanity under the God of Israel.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Zechariah|14:9|HE}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 May 2009 |author-last1=Simmons|author-first1= Rabbi Shraga |author-link1=Shraga Simmons|title=Do Jews Believe In Jesus? |url=https://aish.com/why-jews-dont-believe-in-jesus/ |access-date=24 July 2023 |website=Aish.com |archive-date=25 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825033652/https://aish.com/why-jews-dont-believe-in-jesus/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Furthermore, according to Jewish tradition, there were no prophets after [[Malachi]],<ref>{{cite web |author-last=Simmons |author-first=Shraga |author-link1=Shraga Simmons|url=http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Why_Jews_Dont_Believe_In_Jesus.asp |title=Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus |date=6 March 2004 |publisher=Aish.com |access-date=24 February 2006 |archive-date=16 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060316040138/http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Why_Jews_Dont_Believe_In_Jesus.asp |url-status=live}}</ref> who delivered his prophecies in the 5th century BC.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Malachi, Book of |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |access-date=3 July 2013 |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10321-malachi-book-of |archive-date=18 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518045350/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10321-malachi-book-of |url-status=live}}</ref>

Judaic criticism of Jesus is long-standing and includes a [[Jesus in the Talmud|range of stories]] found in the [[Talmud]], written and compiled between the 3rd and 5th centuries.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Talmud |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |access-date=3 July 2013 |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14213-talmud |archive-date=6 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906061120/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=32&letter=T |url-status=live}}</ref> In one such story, ''[[Yeshu]] HaNozri'' ('Jesus the Nazarene'), a lewd apostate, is executed by the Jewish high court for spreading idolatry and practising magic.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations |first1=Edward |last1=Kessler |first2=Neil |last2=Wenborn |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-44750-8 |page=416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QkI_JNv3rIwC&pg=PA416 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907090106/https://books.google.com/books?id=QkI_JNv3rIwC&pg=PA416 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to some, the form ''Yeshu'' is an [[acronym]] which in Hebrew reads "may his name and memory be blotted out".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Neuhaus |first=David M. |title=How Israeli Jews' Fear of Christianity Turned Into Hatred|date=6 February 2021|work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-02-06/ty-article/.highlight/how-israeli-jews-fear-of-christianity-turned-into-hatred/0000017f-dbd5-d3ff-a7ff-fbf562150000 |access-date=24 July 2023 |quote=The religious public in Israel is in many cases aware of the traditional interpretation of the term "Yeshu": an acronym in Hebrew for "may his name and memory be blotted out. |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165613/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-02-06/ty-article/.highlight/how-israeli-jews-fear-of-christianity-turned-into-hatred/0000017f-dbd5-d3ff-a7ff-fbf562150000 |url-status=live}}</ref> The majority of contemporary scholars consider that this material provides no information on the historical Jesus.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=74–75}} The ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'', a late 12th-century work of [[Jewish law]] written by [[Moses Maimonides]], states that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world to err and serve a god other than the Lord".<ref>{{cite book |last=Jeffrey |first=Grant R. |title=Heaven: The Mystery of Angels |year=2009 |publisher=Random House Digital |isbn=978-0-307-50940-6 |page=108 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xCW8fjiE-DYC&pg=PA108 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=14 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914213327/https://books.google.com/books?id=xCW8fjiE-DYC&pg=PA108 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Medieval Hebrew literature contains the anecdotal "Episode of Jesus" (known also as ''[[Toledot Yeshu]]''), in which Jesus is described as being the son of Joseph, the son of [[Tiberius Julius Abdes Pantera|Pandera]] (see: [[s:Translation:Story of Jesus|''Episode of Jesus'']]). The account portrays Jesus as an imposter.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vjilDDXfmqEC&pg=PA141 |title=Judaism and Enlightenment |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67232-0 |page=141 |access-date=11 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208000728/https://books.google.com/books?id=vjilDDXfmqEC&pg=PA141 |archive-date=8 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Manichaeism ===
{{Main|Jesus in Manichaeism}}

[[Manichaeism]], an ancient religious movement, became one of the earliest organized religions outside of Christianity to honour Jesus as a significant figure.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=57nFeeC3GKoC&q=Mani+declared+he+was+an+apostle+of+Jesus&pg=PA315 |title=The Manichean Debate |access-date=18 August 2012 |isbn=978-1-56548-247-0 |year=2006 |author=Augustine of Hippo |publisher=New City Press |author-link=Augustine of Hippo |editor-last=Ramsey |editor-first=Boniface |editor-link=Boniface Ramsey}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Reeves |first=John C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ewM1xTuRQaoC&pg=PA6 |title=Heralds of That Good Realm: Syro-Mesopotamian Gnosis and Jewish Traditions |publisher=Brill |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-04-10459-4 |pages=6– |access-date=27 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1930 |title=Manichaeism |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics |publisher=Kessinger |last=Bevan |first=A. A. |editor-last=Hastings |editor-first=James |volume=8 |isbn=978-0-7661-3666-3}}</ref> Within the Manichaean belief system, Jesus is revered alongside other prominent prophets such as [[Zoroaster]], [[Gautama Buddha]], and [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] himself.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gulácsi |first=Zsuzsanna |date=2015 |title=Mani's Pictures: The Didactic Images of the Manichaeans from Sasanian Mesopotamia to Uygur Central Asia and Tang-Ming China |series=Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies |volume=90 |place=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-30894-7 |url=https://gnosis.study/library/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B5%20%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8/ENG/Gul%C3%A1csi%20Z.%20-%20Mani's%20Pictures.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China |first=Samuel N. C. |last=Lieu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmNPz9teHqUC&q=manichaeism+divinity+of+Jesus&pg=PA161 |isbn=978-3-16-145820-0 |date=1992 |publisher=J. C. B. Mohr}}</ref>

=== Islam ===
{{Main|Jesus in Islam}}

{{Islamic prophets|collapsed=collapsed}}

A major figure in Islam,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/004-qmt.php#004.157 |title=Quran 3:46–158 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501064500/http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/004-qmt.php |archive-date=1 May 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Siddiqui |first=Mona |title=Christians, Muslims, and Jesus |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2013 |author-link=Mona Siddiqui |url=https://archive.org/details/christiansmuslim0000sidd |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-300-16970-6}}</ref><ref name="CEI" /> Jesus (often referred to by his Quranic name {{transliteration|ar|ISO|[[Isa (name)|''ʿĪsā'']]}} ({{IPA|ar|/ʕiːsaː/|}}) and in some {{transliteration|ar|ISO|[[qira'at|qira{{hamza}}at]]}} pronounced as {{transliteration|ar|ISO|ʿĪsē}} ({{IPA|ar|/ʕiːseː/|}}))<ref name="Al-Jallad-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Al-Jallad |first1=Ahmad |author-link=Ahmad Al-Jallad |last2=Al-Manaser |first2=Ali |year=2021 |title=The Pre-Islamic Divine Name ʿsy and the Background of the Qurʾānic Jesus |journal=[[Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association]] |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=107–136 |doi=10.5913/jiqsa.6.2021.a004}}</ref> is considered to be a [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|messenger]] of [[God in Islam|God]] and the messiah ([[Masih (title)|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|al-Masīḥ}}]]) who was sent to guide the [[Israelites|Children of Israel]] ({{transliteration|ar|ISO|Banī Isrāʾīl}}) with a new scripture, the Gospel (referred to in Islam as [[Gospel in Islam|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|Injīl}}]]).<ref name="CEI" /><ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |year=2003 |first=John L. |last=Esposito |page=158 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA159 |isbn=978-0-19-975726-8 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907105909/https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA159 |url-status=live}}</ref> The form ''{{transliteration|Narb|ʿĪsē}}'' is a pre-Islamic [[phono-semantic matching|phonosemantic]] correspondence with the [[Safaitic]] name ''{{transliteration|Narb|ʿsy}}'', attested in Arabian inscriptions.<ref name="Al-Jallad-2021" /> Muslims regard the gospels' accounts in the New Testament as partially authentic, and believe that Jesus's original message was altered ({{transliteration|ar|ISO|[[taḥrīf]]}}) and that [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] came later to revive it.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N. A. |title=Quests for the historical Jesus |first=James C. |last=Paget |year=2001 |encyclopedia=Cambridge companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA183 |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |page=183 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910045903/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA183 |url-status=live}}</ref> Belief in Jesus (and all other [[Prophets in Islam|messengers of God]]) is a requirement for being a [[Muslim]].<ref>{{cite AV media |title=The Muslim Jesus |publisher=ITV Productions |date=19 August 2007 |people=Ashraf, Irshad (Director) |medium=Television production}}</ref> The Quran mentions Jesus by name 25 times—more often than Muhammad<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1196 |title=Jesus, Son of Mary |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |access-date=3 July 2013 |archive-date=2 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702042354/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1196 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Aboul-Enein |first=Youssef H. |title=Militant Islamist Ideology: Understanding the Global Threat |year=2010 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=978-1-61251-015-6 |page=20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tX3suVDTJz0C&pg=PA20 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=14 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914213353/https://books.google.com/books?id=tX3suVDTJz0C&pg=PA20 |url-status=live}}</ref>—and emphasizes that Jesus was a mortal human who, like all other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message.<ref name="comparative" /> While the Quran affirms the Virgin birth of Jesus, he is considered to be neither an incarnation nor the [[Son of God (Christianity)|son of God]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Kahf – 4-5 |url=https://quran.com/en/al-kahf/4-5 |access-date=19 December 2024 |website=Quran.com}}</ref><ref name="Morgan" /> Islamic texts emphasize a strict notion of [[monotheism]] ({{transliteration|ar|ISO|[[tawḥīd]]}}) and forbid the association of partners with God, which would be [[Shirk (Islam)|idolatry]].<ref>{{cite book |last=George |first=Timothy |title=Is the Father of Jesus the God of Muhammad?: Understanding the Differences Between Christianity and Islam |year=2002 |publisher=Zondervan |isbn=978-0-310-24748-7 |pages=150–151 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5uVfN5xT3YC&pg=PA150 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907174156/https://books.google.com/books?id=A5uVfN5xT3YC&pg=PA150 |url-status=live}}</ref> 

{{Multiple image
| image1 = Maryamat the palm tree with baby Isa.jpg
| caption1 = Islamic [[Persian miniature|miniature]] of Maryam in labor shaking a date palm, with baby Isa and hidden voice below
| total_width = 300
| caption2 = Persian miniature depicting a man who outwardly appeared to the Jews as Jesus being hanged
| image2 = Berlin, Pertsch Persisch 1016 fol 207v execution of Isa-like man.jpg
| align = right
}}

The Quran describes the annunciation to Mary ([[Mary in Islam|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|Maryam}}]]) by the Holy Spirit that she is to give birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin. It calls the virgin birth a miracle that occurred by the will of God.<ref name="RobB32" /><ref name="Peters23" /> The Quran ({{qref|21|91}} and {{qref|66|12}}) states that God breathed [[Holy Spirit (Islam)|his spirit]] into Mary while she was chaste.<ref name="RobB32" /><ref name="Peters23">{{cite book |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |first=F. E. |last=Peters |year=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11553-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/23 23] |url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/23}}</ref> Jesus is called a "spirit from God" because he was born through the action of the Spirit,<ref name="RobB32">{{cite book |title=Christianity, Islam, and the West |first=Robert A. |last=Burns |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7618-5560-6 |page=32 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=akWUGyN7fwEC&pg=PA32 |publisher=University Press of America |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910174421/https://books.google.com/books?id=akWUGyN7fwEC&pg=PA32 |url-status=live}}</ref> but that belief does not imply [[Pre-existence of Christ|his pre-existence]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cooper |first1=Anne |first2=Elsie A. |last2=Maxwell |title=Ishmael My Brother: A Christian Introduction To Islam |year=2003 |publisher=Monarch Books |isbn=978-0-8254-6223-8 |page=59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X4J-p1E1OkwC&pg=PA59 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907085409/https://books.google.com/books?id=X4J-p1E1OkwC&pg=PA59 |url-status=live}}</ref>

To aid in his ministry to the Jewish people, Jesus was given the ability to perform miracles, by permission of God rather than by his own power.<ref name="Morgan">{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Diane |title=Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice |year=2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-36025-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg/page/45 45]–46 |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg |url-access=registration}}</ref> Through his ministry, Jesus is seen as a [[precursor (religion)|precursor]] to Muhammad.<ref name="comparative">{{cite book |last1=Fasching |first1=Darrell J. |url=https://archive.org/details/comparativerelig0000fasc/page/241 |title=Comparative Religious Ethics: A Narrative Approach |last2=deChant |first2=Dell |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-631-20125-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/comparativerelig0000fasc/page/241 241, 274–275]}}</ref> In the Quran ({{qref|4|157–159}}) it is said that Jesus was not killed but was merely made to appear that way to unbelievers,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://corpus.quran.com/translation.jsp?chapter=3&verse=54 |title=The Quranic Arabic Corpus – Translation |publisher=Corpus.quran.com |access-date=20 May 2016 |archive-date=18 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418170132/http://corpus.quran.com/translation.jsp?chapter=3&verse=54 |url-status=live}}</ref> and that he was raised into the heavens while still alive by God.<ref>{{qref|4|157|b=y}}: "''and for boasting, "We killed the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, the messenger of Allah." But they neither killed nor crucified him—it was only made to appear so. Even those who argue for this ˹crucifixion˺ are in doubt. They have no knowledge whatsoever—only making assumptions. They certainly did not kill him.''"</ref>
[[File:Chester_Beatty_T_414_fol_102v_Isa_ascends_to_heaven.jpg|left|thumb|16th-century Ottoman manuscript illustration depicting Isa ascending to heaven, carried by two angels; below him, the Jews who sought to kill him stand astonished in disbelief.]]
According to most classic [[Sunni]] and [[Twelver Shi'ite]] interpretations of these verses, the likeness of Jesus was cast upon a [[Substitution hypothesis|substitute]] (most often one of the apostles), who was crucified in Jesus's stead.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|2005}}; {{harvnb|Lawson|2009}}. The substitution theory was criticized and rejected by the Sunni Quran commentator [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]] (1150–1210); see {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|pp=156–162}}. According to [[Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi]] (d. 1037), the substitution theory was also applied to the death of [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] by the semi-legendary 7th-century figure [[Abdullah ibn Saba'|Abdallah ibn Saba']]; see {{harvnb|De Smet|2016|pp=98–99}}.</ref> Some medieval Muslims, including the [[ghulat|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|ghulāt}}]] writing under the name of [[al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi]], the [[Brethren of Purity]], various [[Isma'ili]] philosophers, and the Sunni mystic [[al-Ghazali]], affirmed the historicity of Jesus's crucifixion. These thinkers held the [[docetic]] view that, although Jesus's human body had died on the cross, his spirit had survived and ascended into heaven, so that his death was only an appearance.<ref>On the writings attributed to al‐Mufaddal ibn Umar al‐Ju'fi, see {{harvnb|De Smet|2016|p=93}}. On the Brethren of Purity, see {{harvnb|Robinson|1991|pp=55–57}}, {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|pp=129–133}} and especially {{harvnb|De Smet|2016|pp=100–101}}. On the Isma'ili philosophers (who include [[Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi|Abu Hatim al-Razi]], Abu Tammam, [[Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman]], [[Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani]] and [[Ibrahim al-Hamidi]]), see {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|pp=123–129}} and especially {{harvnb|De Smet|2016|pp=101–107}}. On al-Ghazali, see {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|pp=117–118}}. This type of interpretation of Quran 4:157–159 was specifically rejected by the Sunni Quran commentator al-[[Qadi Baydawi|Baydawi]] (d. 1319); see {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|p=155}}.</ref> Nevertheless, to Muslims it is the ascension rather than the crucifixion that constitutes a major event in the life of Jesus.<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-00477-1 |last=Khalidi |first=Tarif |author-link=Tarif Khalidi |title=The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/muslimjesussayin00/page/12 12] |url=https://archive.org/details/muslimjesussayin00/page/12}}</ref> There is no mention of his resurrection on the third day, and his death plays no special role in [[Soteriology#Islam|Islamic theories of salvation]].<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|2005}}.</ref> Jesus is a central figure in [[Islamic eschatology]]: Muslims believe that [[Second Coming#Islam|he will return to Earth]] at the [[Eschatology|end of time]] and defeat the [[Antichrist]] (''[[ad-Dajjal]]'') by killing him.<ref name="CEI">{{cite book |last=Glassé |first=Cyril |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7tu12gt4JYC&pg=PA270 |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7425-6296-7 |pages=270–271 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907070905/https://books.google.com/books?id=D7tu12gt4JYC&pg=PA270 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Garrett |first=James L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZEhBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA766 |title=Systematic Theology, Volume 2, Second Edition: Biblical, Historical, and Evangelical |publisher=Wipf & Stock |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-62564-852-5 |page=766 |access-date=5 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125164743/https://books.google.com/books?id=WZEhBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA766 |archive-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Grudem|1994|pp=568–603}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=The Nicene Creed |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |publisher=Robert Appleton |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11049a.htm |access-date=11 April 2016 |last=Wilhelm |first=Joseph |date=1911 |volume=11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417055109/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11049a.htm |archive-date=17 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the Quran, the coming of [[Muhammad]] (also called "Ahmad") was predicted by Jesus:
{{blockquote|And ˹remember˺ when Jesus, son of Mary, said, "O children of Israel! I am truly Allah's messenger to you, confirming the Torah which came before me, and giving good news of a messenger after me whose name will be Aḥmad." Yet when the Prophet came to them with clear proofs, they said, "This is pure magic."|{{qref|61|6|c=y}}}}
Through this verse, early Arab Muslims claimed legitimacy for their new faith in the existing religious traditions and the predictions of Jesus.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Virani |first=Shafique N. |title=Taqiyya and Identity in a South Asian Community |url=https://www.academia.edu/36996009 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |year=2011 |volume=70 |issue=1 |page=128 |doi=10.1017/S0021911810002974 |s2cid=143431047 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref>

==== Ahmadiyya ====
{{Main|Jesus in Ahmadiyya}}

The [[Ahmadiyya]] Muslim Community has [[Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam|several teachings]] about Jesus.<ref>{{harvnb|Friedmann|1989|pp=111–118}}.</ref> Ahmadis believe that he was a mortal man who survived his crucifixion and died a natural death at the age of 120 in [[Kashmir]], India, and is buried at [[Roza Bal]].<ref>{{harvnb|Friedmann|1989|p=114}}; {{harvnb|Melton|2010|p=55}}.</ref>

=== Druze ===
{{Further|Religious perspectives on Jesus#Druze}}
In the [[Druze faith]],<ref name="Hitti" /> Jesus is considered and revered as one of the seven spokesmen or prophets ({{tlit|ar|natiq}}), defined as messengers or intermediaries between God and mankind, along with figures including [[Moses]], [[Muhammad]] and [[Muhammad ibn Isma'il]], each of them sent at a different period of history to preach the message of God.<ref name="Hitti" /><ref>{{cite book |title=The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status |first=Nissim |last=Dana |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-903900-36-9 |page=47 |publisher=Michigan University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Druse, a Religious Community in Transition |first=Nissim |last=Dana |year=1980 |isbn=978-965-200-028-6 |page=11 |publisher=Turtledove}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Betts |first=Robert Brenton |title=The Druze |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-300-04810-0 |location=New Haven, CT |page=21}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The A to Z of the Druzes |first=Samy |last=Swayd |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-8108-7002-4 |page=xxxviii |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}}</ref> In Druze tradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah ({{tlit|ar|al-Masih al-Haq}}), the Messiah of all Nations ({{tlit|ar|Masih al-Umam}}), and the Messiah of Sinners. This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness.<ref>{{cite book |title=The A to Z of the Druzes |first=Samy |last=Swayd |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-8108-7002-4 |page=88 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |quote=Jesus is known in the Druze tradition as the "True Messiah" (al-Masih al-Haq), for he delivered what Druzes view as the true message. He is also referred to as the "Messiah of the Nations" (Masih al-Umam) because he was sent to the world as "Masih of Sins" because he is the one who forgives.}}</ref>

=== Baháʼí Faith ===
In the [[Baháʼí Faith]], Jesus is considered one of the [[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestations of God]],<ref>{{cite web |date=13 June 2014 |title=Who is Christ to Baha'is? |url=https://bahaiteachings.org/who-is-christ-to-bahais/|author-last1=Poirier|author-first1=Brent|website=BahaiTeachings.org}}</ref> defined as divine messengers or prophets sent by God to guide humanity, along with other religious figures such as Moses, [[Krishna]], [[Zoroaster]], [[Buddha]], Muhammad, and [[Baháʼu'lláh]]. Baháʼís believe that these religious founders or leaders have contributed to the [[Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)|progressive revelation]] by bringing spiritual and moral values to humanity in their own time and place.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Baha'i Faith |last=Hartz |first=Paula |publisher=Chelsea House Publishers |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60413-104-8 |location=New York |pages=14–15 |url=https://archive.org/details/bahaifaith0000hart/page/14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=William McElwee |url=https://archive.org/details/bahaifaithitshis0000mill/page/355 |title=The Baha'i faith: its history and teachings |publisher=William Carey Library |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-87808-137-0 |location=South Pasadena, CA |pages=355}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Jesus Christ in the Baháʼí Writings |first=Robert |last=Stockman |journal=[[Baháʼí Studies Review]] |volume=2 |issue=1 |year=1992 |url=http://bahai-library.com/stockman_jesus_bahai_writings |access-date=4 July 2010 |archive-date=7 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607061448/http://bahai-library.com/stockman_jesus_bahai_writings |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Juan |last=Cole |title=The Concept of Manifestation in the Bahaʼi Writings |year=1982 |journal=[[Baháʼí studies#Journals|Études Baháʼí Studies]] |volume=9 |pages=1–38 |url=http://bahai-library.com/cole_concept_manifestation |access-date=4 July 2012 |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517105145/http://bahai-library.com/cole_concept_manifestation |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |year=2008 |title=An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7zdDFTzNr0C&pg=PA107 |isbn=978-0-521-86251-6 |page=107}}</ref> As a Manifestation of God, Jesus is believed to reflect God's qualities and attributes, but is not considered the only saviour of humanity nor the incarnation of God.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adamson |first=Hugh C. |url=https://archive.org/details/atozofbahaifaith0000adam/page/188 |title=The A to Z of the Baháʼí Faith |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8108-6853-3 |location=Lanham, MD |pages=188}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Francis |url=https://archive.org/details/bahai0000beck/page/14 |title=Bahaʼi |publisher=Bethany House |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-87123-848-1 |location=Minneapolis, MN |pages=13–15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Garlington |first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/bahaifaithinamer0000garl_r5j0/page/175 |title=The Baha'i Faith in America |publisher=Praeger |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-6234-9 |location=Westport, CT |page=175}}</ref> Baháʼís believe in the virgin birth,<ref>{{cite book |title=In the Glory of the Father: The Baháʼí Faith and Christianity |first=Brian D. |last=Lepard |year=2008 |publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust |isbn=978-1-931847-34-6 |page=118 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2ob2Tw2k3MC&pg=PA118}}</ref><ref name="Cole">{{cite journal |last=Cole |first=Juan R. I. |title=Behold the Man: Baha'u'llah on the Life of Jesus |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |year=1997 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=51, 56, 60}}</ref> but see the resurrection and the miracles of Jesus as symbolic.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Smith |first=Peter |encyclopedia=A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title=peace |year=2000 |publisher=Oneworld |isbn=978-1-85168-184-6 |page=214 |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/214}}</ref><ref name="Cole" />

=== Other ===
{{See also|Criticism of Jesus}}
[[File:The Liberator masthead, 1861 Jan 11.jpg|thumb|Jesus depicted as the liberator of Black slaves, on the masthead of the [[abolitionism in the United States|abolitionist]] paper ''[[The Liberator (newspaper)|The Liberator]]'']]
[[File:Jesus Image on a Manichaean Temple Banner.jpg|thumb|Enthroned Jesus image on a [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]] temple banner from {{circa|10th-century|lk=no}} [[Qocho]]]]

In [[Christian Gnosticism]] (now a largely extinct religious movement),<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhpKxQT8n74C&pg=PA27 |title=The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2001 |page=27 |isbn=978-0-19-285439-1 |first=John |last=McManners |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907102122/https://books.google.com/books?id=DhpKxQT8n74C&pg=PA27 |url-status=live}}</ref> Jesus was sent from the divine realm and provided the secret knowledge ([[gnosis]]) necessary for salvation. It is important to note that Gnosticism is not a homogeneous religion, but an umbrella term used by modern scholars to describe diverse religious and philosophical ideas and systems that emerged in the late first century among [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] sects and other religious movements.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gnosticism {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/gnostic/ |access-date=2025-10-30 |language=en-US}}</ref> Most Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of "the Christ" at his baptism. This spirit left Jesus's body during the crucifixion but was rejoined to him when he was raised from the dead. Some Gnostics were [[docetics]], believing that Jesus did not have a physical body, but only appeared to possess one.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&pg=PA124 |title=Lost Christianities: The Battles For Scripture And The Faiths We Never Knew |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-518249-1 |pages=124–125 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222010/https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&pg=PA124 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Gnostic Jesus can both differ greatly from the Christian Jesus, but also build on him. For instance, the [[Testimony of Truth]], a Gnostic Christian text found in the [[Nag Hammadi library]] buried around 400 AD, explains that the [[Serpents in the Bible|serpent]] in Genesis 3 who instructs [[Adam]] and [[Eve]] is Jesus.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004438873 |title=Nag Hammadi Codices IX and X |date=1981-01-01 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-43887-3 |editor-last=Pearson |editor-first=Birger}}</ref>

Some [[Hinduism|Hindus]] consider Jesus to be an [[avatar]] or a [[sadhu]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/beliefs/jesus_1.shtml |title=Jesus in Hinduism |publisher=BBC |date=24 March 2009 |first=Shaunaka |last=Rishi Das |author-link=Shaunaka Rishi Das|access-date=4 June 2013 |archive-date=25 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125233747/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/beliefs/jesus_1.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Paramahansa Yogananda]], an Indian [[guru]], taught that Jesus was the reincarnation of [[Elisha]] and a student of John the Baptist, the reincarnation of [[Elijah]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Paramahansa |last=Yogananda |title=Autobiography of a Yogi |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-902562-0-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xsIi4ePN4hYC&pg=PA319 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910173606/https://books.google.com/books?id=xsIi4ePN4hYC&pg=PA319 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some [[Buddhist]]s, including [[Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama]], regard Jesus as a [[bodhisattva]] who dedicated his life to the welfare of people.<ref>{{cite web |last=Beverley |first=James A. |url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/june11/15.64.html?paging=off |title=Hollywood's Idol |publisher=Christianity Today |date=11 June 2011 |access-date=February 19, 2026 |archive-date=29 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329222548/https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/june11/15.64.html?paging=off |url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[New Age]] movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hutson |first=Steven |title=What They Never Taught You in Sunday School: A Fresh Look at Following Jesus |publisher=City Boy Enterprises |year=2006 |page=57 |isbn=978-1-59886-300-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVnT_hSpSBAC&pg=PA57 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907100719/https://books.google.com/books?id=sVnT_hSpSBAC&pg=PA57 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Theosophists]], from whom many New Age teachings originated,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/newageneopaganre00pike/page/56 |title=New Age and neopagan religions in America |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/newageneopaganre00pike/page/56 56] |isbn=978-0-231-12402-7 |first=Sarah M. |last=Pike}}</ref> refer to Jesus as the [[Master Jesus]], a spiritual reformer, and they believe that Christ, after [[reincarnation|various incarnations]], occupied the body of Jesus.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Treatise on Cosmic Fire |first1=Alice |last1=Bailey |first2=Djwhal |last2=Khul |isbn=978-0-85330-117-2 |publisher=Lucis |pages=678, 1150, 1193 |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3FAZi674omIC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222027/https://books.google.com/books?id=3FAZi674omIC |url-status=live}}</ref>
In the [[Anthroposophy]] founded by [[Rudolf Steiner]], Jesus Christ is a central balancing force mediating between the two opposing [[dualism|polarities]] of [[evil]], namely the fanatical exalted [[mysticism]] of [[Lucifer]], and the cold [[materialism]] of [[Ahriman]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rsarchive.org/Lectures/ChrLuc_index.html|title=Christ In Relation To Lucifer and Ahriman (GA 159)|date=1915|location=Linz|first1=Rudolf|last1=Steiner|translator-last1=Mollenhauer|translator-first1=Peter|publisher=The Rudolf Steiner Archive}}</ref>

''[[The Urantia Book]]'' teaches that Jesus is one of more than 700,000 heavenly sons of God.<ref>{{cite book |last=House |first=Wayne |title=Charts of Cults, Sects and Religious Movements |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rRbKQwAACAAJ |publisher=[[Zondervan]] |year=2000 |page=262 |isbn=978-0-310-38551-6 |access-date=12 May 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222014/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Charts_of_Cults_Sects_Religious_Movement/rRbKQwAACAAJ?hl=en |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Antony Theodore]] in the book ''Jesus Christ in Love'' writes that there is an underlying oneness of Jesus's teachings with the messages contained in [[Quran]], [[Vedas]], [[Upanishads]], [[Talmud]] and [[Avesta]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Theodore |first=Antony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cwcEAAAQBAJ&q=jesus+christ+in+love+antony |title=Jesus Christ in Love |publisher=Kohinoor Books |year=2019 |isbn=978-8-194-28353-9 |location=New Delhi, India |translator-last=Pradhan |translator-first=Tapan Kumar |access-date=13 June 2021}}</ref> [[Atheist]]s reject Jesus's divinity, but have different views about him—from challenging [[Mental health of Jesus|his mental health]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Schweitzer |first=Albert |url=https://archive.org/details/psychiatricstudy00schw |title=The Psychiatric Study of Jesus: Exposition and Criticism |publisher=Beacon Press |year=1948 |location=Boston, Massachusetts |translator-last=Joy |translator-first=Charles R. |lccn=48006488 |ol=6030284M |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bundy |first=Walter E. |title=The Psychic Health of Jesus |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |year=1922 |lccn=22005555 |ol=OL25583375M |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/psychichealthofj00bund}}</ref> to emphasizing his "moral superiority" ([[Richard Dawkins]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Dawkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yq1xDpicghkC&pg=PA284 |title=The God Delusion |page=284 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |access-date=13 December 2014 |isbn=978-0-547-34866-7 |date=2008 |archive-date=27 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327215018/http://books.google.com/books?id=yq1xDpicghkC |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Artistic depictions ==
{{Main|Depiction of Jesus|Life of Christ in art}}

[[File:Christ Healing the Paralytic - Dura-Europos circa 232.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Jesus healing a paralytic in one of the first known images of Jesus from [[Dura-Europos church|Dura Europos]] in the 3rd century<ref>{{cite web |title=Dura-Europos: Excavating Antiquity |url=http://media.artgallery.yale.edu/duraeuropos/dura.html |website=Yale University Art Gallery |access-date=3 March 2017 |archive-date=5 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505112511/http://media.artgallery.yale.edu/duraeuropos/dura.html |url-status=dead}}</ref>|alt=An ancient wall painting depicting Jesus]]


As in other [[Early Christian art]], the earliest depictions date to the late 2nd or early 3rd century, and surviving images are found in the [[Catacombs of Rome]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History |first=Robert |last=Benedetto |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-664-22416-5 |pages=51–53 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}</ref> Some of the earliest depictions of Jesus at the [[Dura-Europos church]] date to before 256.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=1992 |title=Early Christian and Jewish Art |encyclopedia=Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism |publisher=Wayne State University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVyzbHAJ_hAC&pg=PA283 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Gutmann |first=Joseph |editor-last1=Attridge |editor-first=Harold W. |pages=283–284 |isbn=978-0-8143-2361-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910060007/https://books.google.com/books?id=jVyzbHAJ_hAC&pg=PA283 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |editor-first2=Gohei |editor-last2=Hata |url-status=live}}</ref> A wide range of depictions of Jesus appeared during the next two millennia, influenced by cultural settings, political circumstances and theological contexts.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}}<ref name="Erricker44">{{cite book |title=Teaching Christianity: a world religions approach |first=Clive |last=Erricker |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-7188-2634-5 |page=44 |publisher=James Clarke & Co}}</ref><ref name="Perkinson30" />

The depiction of Christ in pictorial form was highly [[Aniconism in Christianity|controversial]] in the early Church.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schaff |first=Phillip |title=History of the Christian Church,8 volumes, 3rd edition |publisher=Hendrickson |date=1 July 2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NV8sAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA381 |isbn=978-1-56563-196-0 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910074209/https://books.google.com/books?id=NV8sAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA381 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|Philip Schaff commenting on Irenaeus, wrote, "This censure of images as a Gnostic peculiarity, and as a heathenish corruption, should be noted." (Footnote 300 on Contr. Her. .I.XXV.6. ANF.)}}<ref>[[Synod of Elvira]], 'Pictures are not to be placed in churches so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration', AD 306, Canon 36.</ref> From the 5th century, flat painted [[icon]]s became popular in the Eastern Church.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Icons}} The [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]] acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the 9th century, art was permitted again.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}} The [[Protestant Reformation]] brought renewed resistance to imagery, but total prohibition was atypical, and Protestant objections to images have tended to reduce since the 16th century. Although large images are generally avoided, few Protestants now object to book illustrations depicting Jesus.<ref>{{cite book |title=Reformation and the Visual Arts |first=Sergiusz |last=Michalski |year=1993 |isbn=978-1-134-92102-7 |publisher=Routledge |page=195}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Payton |first=James R. |title=Light from the Christian East: An Introduction to the Orthodox Tradition |publisher=InterVarsity |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8308-2594-3 |pages=178–179}}</ref> The use of depictions of Jesus is advocated by the leaders of denominations such as [[Anglicans]] and [[Catholics]]<ref>{{cite book |title=The Dwelling of the Light: Praying with Icons of Christ |last=Williams |first=Rowan |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8028-2778-4 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |page=83}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Karol J. |last=Wojtyła |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1997/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_29101997_en.html |publisher=Vatican Publishing House |title=General audience |date=29 October 1997 |access-date=20 April 2013 |archive-date=3 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303020028/http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1997/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_29101997_en.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20090506_en.html |publisher=Vatican Publishing House |title=General audience John Damascene|date=6 May 2009 |access-date=20 April 2013 |first=Joseph A. |last=Ratzinger |archive-date=3 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303064734/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20090506_en.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and is a key element of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] tradition.{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=231}}<ref>{{cite book |title=The Orthodox Christian World |first=Augustine |last=Casiday |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-415-45516-9 |page=447 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>

In Eastern Christian art, the [[Transfiguration of Jesus in Christian art|Transfiguration]] was a major theme, with every Eastern Orthodox monk trained in icon painting having to prove his craft by painting an icon depicting it.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bigham |first=Steven |title=The image of God the Father in Orthodox theology and iconography |publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-879038-15-8 |pages=226–227}}</ref> Icons receive the external marks of veneration, such as kisses and prostration, and they are thought to be powerful channels of divine grace.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Icons}}

In Western Europe, the [[Renaissance]] brought forth artists who focused on depictions of Jesus; [[Fra Angelico]] and others followed [[Giotto]] in the systematic development of uncluttered images.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}} Before the Protestant Reformation, the [[crucifix]] was common in Western Christianity. It is a model of the cross with Jesus crucified on it. The crucifix became the central ornament of the altar in the 13th century, a use that has been nearly universal in Roman Catholic churches since then.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Crucifix}}

== Associated relics ==
{{Main|Relics associated with Jesus}}

[[File:Shroud of Turin 001.jpg|thumb|The [[Shroud of Turin]], Italy, is the best-known claimed relic of Jesus and one of the most studied artefacts in human history.<ref name="NatureMaterials">{{Cite journal |last=Ball |first=P. |year=2008 |title=Material witness: Shrouded in mystery |journal=Nature Materials |volume=7 |issue=5 |page=349 |bibcode=2008NatMa...7..349B |doi=10.1038/nmat2170 |pmid=18432204 |doi-access=free}}</ref>]]

The total destruction that ensued with the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 AD)|siege of Jerusalem]] by the Romans in AD 70 made the survival of items from 1st-century Judea very rare and almost no direct records survive about the history of Judaism from the last part of the 1st century to the 2nd century.{{sfn|Levine|2006|pp=24–25}}<ref name="Koester382">{{Cite book|author-link=Helmut Koester|first1=Helmut|last1=Koester|chapter=Introduction to the New Testament|volume= 1|title= History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age|location=Berlin, Germany|publisher=[[de Gruyter Press]]|year= 1995|page= 382}}</ref>{{efn|[[Flavius Josephus]] writing (about 5 years later, c. AD 75) in ''[[The Jewish War]]'' (Book VII 1.1) stated that Jerusalem had been flattened to the point that "there was left nothing to make those that came thither believe it had ever been inhabited".<ref>{{Cite book|author=Flavius Josephus|title=The Jewish War|others=Book VII, section 1.1}}</ref> And once what was left of the ruins of Jerusalem had been turned into the Roman settlement of [[Aelia Capitolina]], no Jews were allowed to set foot in it.<ref name=Koester382 />}} Biblical scholar [[Margaret M. Mitchell]] writes that, although [[Eusebius]] reports (''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'' III 5.3) that the early Christians left Jerusalem for [[Pella, Jordan|Pella]] just before Jerusalem was subjected to the final lockdown, we must accept that no items from the early Jerusalem Church have survived.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-first1=Margaret M. |editor-last1=Mitchell|title=The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 1: Origins to Constantine|publisher= Cambridge University Press |year=2006|page= 298|editor-last2=Young|editor-first2=Frances M. }}</ref> [[Joe Nickell]] writes, "as investigation after investigation has shown, not a single, reliably authenticated relic of Jesus exists."<ref>{{cite book |last=Nickell |first=Joe |title=Relics of the Christ |year=2007 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=978-0-8131-3731-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/relicsofchrist00joen/page/191 191] |url=https://archive.org/details/relicsofchrist00joen |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{efn|Polarized conclusions regarding the Shroud of Turin remain.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Habermas |first=Gary R. |title=Shroud of Turin |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization |year=2011 |doi=10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc1257 |isbn=978-1-4051-5762-9}}</ref> According to former ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' editor [[Philip Ball]], "it's fair to say that, despite the seemingly definitive tests in 1988, the status of the Shroud of Turin is murkier than ever. Not least, the nature of the image and how it was fixed on the cloth remain deeply puzzling."<ref name="NatureMaterials" />}}

Throughout the history of Christianity, [[relic]]s attributed to Jesus have been claimed, but doubt has been cast on them. The 16th-century Catholic theologian [[Erasmus]] wrote sarcastically about the proliferation of relics and the number of buildings that could have been constructed from the wood claimed to be from the [[True Cross|cross used in the Crucifixion]].{{sfn|Dillenberger|1999|p=5}} Similarly, while experts debate whether Jesus was crucified with three nails or four, at least thirty [[holy nail]]s are venerated as relics across Europe.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle =Holy Nails|title=Holy Nails|first= Herbert|last=Thurston}}</ref>

Some relics, such as purported remnants of the [[crown of thorns]] placed on the head of Jesus, receive only a modest number of [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrims]], while the [[Shroud of Turin]] (which is associated with an approved [[Catholic devotion]] to the [[Holy Face of Jesus]]), has received millions,<ref>{{cite news |last=Delaney |first=Sarah |title=Shroud exposition closes with more than 2 million visits |url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/1002157.htm |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100608223917/http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/1002157.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 June 2010 |agency=Catholic News Service |date=24 May 2010}}</ref> including the popes [[John Paul II]] and [[Benedict XVI]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Wojtyła |first=Karol J. |title=Pope John Paul II's address in Turin Cathedral |url=https://w2.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/travels/1998/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone.html |publisher=Vatican Publishing House |date=24 May 1998 |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-date=19 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219114758/https://w2.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/travels/1998/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Squires |first=Nick |title=Pope Benedict says Shroud of Turin authentic burial robe of Jesus |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0503/Pope-Benedict-says-Shroud-of-Turin-authentic-burial-robe-of-Jesus |newspaper=Christian Science Monitor |date=3 May 2010 |access-date=19 June 2013 |archive-date=1 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401072455/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0503/Pope-Benedict-says-Shroud-of-Turin-authentic-burial-robe-of-Jesus |url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* {{anl|Jesuism}}
* {{anl|Jesus in comparative mythology}}
* [[Last Adam]] – Title of Jesus
* {{anl|Life of Christ in art}}
* [[Liminal deity]] – Deity who is a crosser of boundaries
* [[List of books about Jesus]]
* [[List of founders of religious traditions]]
* [[List of messiah claimants]]
* [[List of people claimed to be Jesus]]
* [[List of people who have been considered deities]]
* [[List of statues of Jesus]]
* [[Outline of Jesus]]
* [[Sexuality and marital status of Jesus]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
{{notelist|30em}}

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=20em}}

=== Sources ===
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* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Meier |first=John P. |title=How do we decide what comes from Jesus |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Recent Research |editor-last1=Dunn |editor-last2=McKnight |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-57506-100-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC |editor1-first=James D. G. |publisher=Eisenbrauns |editor2-first=Scot |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222035/https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Melton |first1=J. Gordon |year=2010 |chapter=Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam Hazrat |editor1-last=Melton |editor1-first=J. Gordon |editor2-last=Baumann |editor2-first=Martin |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |volume=1 |pages=54–56 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-1-59884-203-6 |location=Santa Barbara |publisher=ABC-CLIO |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA55 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=21 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021175959/https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA55 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mills |first1=Watson E. |last2=Bullard |first2=Roger A. |year=1998 |title=Mercer Dictionary of the Bible |publisher=Mercer University Press |isbn=978-0-86554-373-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018095243/https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Morris |first=Leon |author-link=Leon Morris |year=1992 |title=The Gospel According to Matthew |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-85111-338-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=2 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802002134/https://books.google.com/books?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Niswonger |first=Richard L. |title=New Testament History |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-310-31201-7 |publisher=Zondervan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uyAXaNnz9sUC}}
* {{cite book |last=Pannenberg |first=Wolfhart |author-link=Wolfhart Pannenberg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWfvlpURwiIC |title=Jesus: God and Man |year=1968 |isbn=978-0-334-00783-8 |publisher=S. C. M. Press |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222035/https://books.google.com/books?id=zWfvlpURwiIC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Powell |first=Mark A. |author-link=Mark Allan Powell |title=Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-664-25703-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusasfigureinh0000powe |url-access=registration |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Rahner |first=Karl |author-link=Karl Rahner |title=Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise ''Sacramentum Mundi'' |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-86012-006-3 |publisher=Continuum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727115653/https://books.google.com/books?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=Who Is Jesus? An Introduction to Christology |first=Thomas P. |last=Rausch |author-link=Thomas Rausch |year=2003 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-5078-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OJCa6euw5gC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OJCa6euw5gC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Redford |first=Douglas |title=The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7847-1900-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dDMQz5BVFbEC |publisher=Standard Publishing |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=dDMQz5BVFbEC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: A Re-examination of the Evidence |first=Jonathan L. |last=Reed |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-56338-394-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrav1ge-A_sC |publisher=Continuum |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=4 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504050031/https://books.google.com/books?id=Xrav1ge-A_sC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Neal |year=1991 |title=Christ in Islam and Christianity |location=Albany |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0559-8}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Robinson |first=Neal |year=2005 |title=Jesus |editor1-last=McAuliffe |editor1-first=Jane Dammen |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00099}}
* {{cite book |last=Sanders |first=E. P. |author-link=E. P. Sanders |title=The Historical Figure of Jesus |publisher=Allen Lane Penguin Press |year=1993 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC |isbn=978-0-14-192822-7 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=18 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418040039/https://books.google.com/books?id=lkbTL36ZgPIC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Theissen |first1=Gerd |author-link1=Gerd Theissen |last2=Merz |first2=Annette |author-link2=Annette Merz |year=1998 |title=The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide |isbn=978-1-4514-0863-8 |publisher=Fortress Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805091805/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=The Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria |first1=Gerd |last1=Theissen |first2=Dagmar |last2=Winter |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-664-22537-7 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qB5ulgKx4OUC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222036/https://books.google.com/books?id=qB5ulgKx4OUC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |first=Graham H. |last=Twelftree |author-link=Graham Twelftree |title=Jesus the Miracle Worker: A Historical & Theological Study |isbn=978-0-8308-1596-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusmiraclework00grah/page/95 |year=1999 |publisher=InterVarsity |page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusmiraclework00grah/page/95 95]}}
* {{cite book |last=Van Voorst |first=Robert E. |year=2000 |title=Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-4368-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwzliMSRGGkC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819143206/https://books.google.com/books?id=lwzliMSRGGkC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words |last=Vine |first=William E. |author-link=William Edwy Vine |orig-year=1940 |year=1985|publisher=Fleming H. Revell |isbn=978-0-916441-31-9|ref={{SfnRef|Vine|1940}} }}
* {{cite book |title=Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels |last=Vermes |first=Geza |author-link1=Geza Vermes |year=1981 |publisher=First Fortress |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-8006-1443-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament |first1=John F. |last1=Walvoord |author-link1=John Walvoord |first2=Roy B. |last2=Zuck |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-88207-812-0 |publisher=David C. Cook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth |first=Ben |last=Witherington |author-link=Ben Witherington III |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8308-1544-9 |publisher=InterVarsity |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222039/https://books.google.com/books?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Jesus Spoken Version.ogg|date=28 October 2013}}

*''LatinVulgate.com'', [https://latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx The Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ] in parallel Latin and English, provided by Mental Systems, Incorporated

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Byzantine Empire

2026-03-26T17:44:26Z

Thechhavigarg: small improved content as per guidelines additionally and improved wording

{{Short description|Continuation of the Roman Empire (330–1453)}}
{{Redirect|Byzantine}}
{{Protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = Byzantine Empire
| life_span = 330–1453
| image_map = Justinian555AD.png
| image_map_size = 320px
| image_map_caption = The empire in 555 under [[Justinian I]], its greatest extent since the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], [[vassal state|vassals]] shaded in pink
| capital = [[Constantinople]]
| common_languages = [[Medieval Greek|Greek]]
| national_languages =
| religion = [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|Christianity]] ([[State religion|official]])
| government_type = [[Absolute monarchy]]
| title_leader = [[List of Byzantine emperors|Notable emperors]]
| leader1 = [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]]
| year_leader1 = 306–337
| leader2 = [[Theodosius I]]
| year_leader2 = 379–395
| leader3 = [[Theodosius II]]
| year_leader3 = 408–450
| leader4 = [[Justinian I]]
| year_leader4 = 527–565
| leader5 = [[Heraclius]]
| year_leader5 = 610–641
| leader6 = [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]]
| year_leader6 = 717–741
| leader7 = [[Nikephoros II Phokas|Nikephoros II]]
| year_leader7 = 963–969
| leader8 = [[John I Tzimiskes|John I]]
| year_leader8 = 969–976
| leader9 = [[Basil II]]
| year_leader9 = 976–1025
| leader10 = [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]]
| year_leader10 = 1081–1118
| leader11 = [[John II Komnenos|John II]]
| year_leader11 = 1118–1143
| leader12 = [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel I]]
| year_leader12 = 1143–1180
| leader13 = [[Michael VIII]]
| year_leader13 = 1261–1282
| leader14 = [[Constantine XI Palaiologos|Constantine XI]]
| year_leader14 = 1449–1453
| era = [[Late antiquity]] to {{nwr|[[Late Middle Ages]]}}
| stat_year1 = 457
| ref_pop1 = {{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=137}}
| stat_pop1 = 16,000,000
| stat_area1 = 2,350,000
| stat_year2 = 565
| ref_pop2 = {{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=278}}
| stat_pop2 = 20,000,000
| stat_area2 = 3,400,000
| stat_year3 = 775
| ref_pop3 = {{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=236}}
| stat_pop3 = 7,000,000
| stat_area3 = 880,000
| stat_year4 = 1025
| stat_pop4 = 12,000,000
| stat_area4 = 1,675,000
| ref_pop4 = {{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=570}}
| stat_year5 = 1320
| ref_pop5 = {{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=236}}
| stat_pop5 = 2,000,000
| currency = [[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]], [[follis]], and [[hyperpyron]]
}}

The '''Byzantine Empire''', also known as the '''Eastern Roman Empire''', was the continuation of the [[Roman Empire]] centred on [[Constantinople]] during [[late antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]]. Having survived [[History of the Roman Empire|the events]] that caused the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in the 5th century{{Nbsp}}AD, it endured until the [[fall of Constantinople]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1453. The term 'Byzantine Empire' was coined only after its demise; its citizens used the term 'Roman Empire' and called themselves '[[Rhomaioi (endonym)|Romans]]'.{{Efn|{{Langx|grc-x-medieval|Ῥωμαῖοι|Rhōmaîoi}}. Due to the imperial seat's move to [[Byzantium]], the [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|adoption of state Christianity]], and the predominance of [[Medieval Greek|Greek]] instead of [[Latin]], most historians make a distinction between the earlier ''Roman Empire'' and the later ''Byzantine Empire''.{{sfnm|Millar|2006|1pp=2, 15|Kaldellis|2007|2pp=2–3}}}}

During the early centuries of the Roman Empire, the western provinces were [[Romanization (cultural)|Latinised]], but the eastern parts kept their [[Hellenistic culture]]. [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] ({{Reign|324|337}}) legalised [[Christianity]] and moved the capital to Constantinople. [[Theodosius I]] ({{Reign|379|395|lk=no}}) made Christianity the [[state religion]] and Greek gradually replaced Latin for official use. The empire adopted a defensive strategy and, throughout its remaining history, experienced recurring cycles of decline and recovery.

The Byzantine Empire reached its greatest extent under the reign of [[Justinian I]] ({{Reign|527|565|lk=no}}), who briefly reconquered much of Italy and the western [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean coast]]. A [[Plague of Justinian|plague began]] around 541, and a [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|prolonged warfare with Persia]] placed fiscal and military strain on the empire, contributing to political and strategic challenges in the decades that followed. In the 630s and 640s the [[early Muslim conquests|Arab conquests]] defeated Byzantine field armies in [[Roman Syria|Syria]] and [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], resulting in the permanent loss of those provinces to the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. In 698, Africa [[Battle of Carthage (698)|was lost]] to the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], but the empire stabilised under the [[Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty|Isaurian dynasty]]. It expanded once more under the [[Macedonian dynasty]], experiencing [[Macedonian Renaissance|a two-century-long renaissance]]. Thereafter, periods of civil war and [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk]] incursion resulted in the loss of most of [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]]. The empire recovered during the [[Komnenian restoration]], and Constantinople remained the largest and wealthiest city in Europe until the 13th century.

The empire was largely dismantled in 1204, following the [[sack of Constantinople]] during the [[Fourth Crusade]]; its former territories [[Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae|were then divided]] into competing Greek [[rump state]]s and [[Frankokratia|Latin realms]]. Despite the eventual [[Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty|recovery of Constantinople]] in 1261, the reconstituted empire wielded only regional power during its final two centuries. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans in [[Byzantine–Ottoman wars|a series of wars]] fought in the 14th and 15th centuries. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 brought the empire to an end.

== Nomenclature ==
{{See also|Names of the Greeks}}

The empire's inhabitants, generally known as [[Demography of the Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], regarded themselves as [[Roman people#Survival of the Roman Empire in the east|Romans]] (in Greek, {{Lang|grc|Ῥωμαῖοι}} or {{transliteration|grc|[[Romaioi]]}}).{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2022a|1pp=351|2a1=Aschenbrenner|2a2=Ransohoff|2y=2022a|2p=1}} Similarly, their Islamic contemporaries called their empire the "land of the Romans" ({{transliteration|ar|Bilād al-Rūm}}).{{sfn|Aschenbrenner|Ransohoff|2022a|p=1}} After 800 AD, Western Europe called them "Greeks" ({{lang|la|Graeci}}), as the Papacy and medieval German emperors regarded themselves as the true inheritors of Roman identity.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=2|2a1=Aschenbrenner|2a2=Ransohoff|2y=2022a|2p=2}} The adjective "Byzantine", derived from [[Byzantium|{{transliteration|grc|Byzantion}}]] ({{lang|la|Byzantium}} in Latin), the name of the Greek settlement [[Constantinople]] was established on, was only used to describe the inhabitants of the city; it did not refer to the empire, called {{transliteration|grc|Rhomanía}} ({{Lang|grc|Ῥωμανία}} or "Romanland") by its citizens.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2022a|1pp=349, 351|2a1=Cormack|2a2=Haldon|2a3=Jeffreys|2y=2008|2p=4}}

Following the empire's fall, [[early modern]] scholars referred to it by many names, including the "Eastern Empire", the "Low Empire", the "Late Empire", the "Empire of the Greeks", "Empire of Constantinople", and "Roman Empire".{{sfn|Aschenbrenner|Ransohoff|2022a|p=2}} The increasing use of "Byzantine" and "Byzantine Empire" may have started with [[Theodore Metochites]]{{sfn|Magdalino|2025|pp=41-43}} or [[Laonikos Chalkokondyles]] whose work was widely propagated by [[Hieronymus Wolf]].{{sfn|Kaldellis|2022a|p=352}} "Byzantine" was used adjectivally alongside terms such as "Empire of the Greeks" until the 19th century.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2022a|pp=352, 355, 357}} It is now the primary term, used to refer to all aspects of the empire; a minority of modern historians believe it should not be used because it was originally a prejudicial and inaccurate term.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=2–3|2a1=Cormack|2a2=Haldon|2a3=Jeffreys|2y=2008|2p=4|3a1=Stouraitis|3y=2022b|3pp=20, 29, 31, 33-36|Treadgold|2025|4pp=xiii–xiv}}

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Byzantine Empire}}

===Start date===
Given the significant overlap in historiographical [[periodization|periodisation]]s of "[[Later Roman Empire|Late Roman history]]", "[[late antiquity]]", and "Byzantine history", there is no consensus on a foundation date for the Byzantine Empire. Scholarship with links to Greece or [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] has customarily placed it in the early 300s.{{sfn|Cameron|2002|pp=190–191}} The growth of the study of "late antiquity" has led to some historians setting a start date in the seventh or eighth centuries.{{sfnm|Cameron|2002|1pp=166, 191|Kaldellis|2015|Howard-Johnston|2024|3p=7}} Others believe a "new empire" began during changes {{circa|300}}{{Nbsp}}AD.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=3, 34}} Geoffrey Greatrex believes that it is impossible to precisely date the foundation of the Byzantine Empire.{{sfn|Greatrex|2008|p=232}}

=== Pre-518: Constantinian, Theodosian, and Leonid dynasties ===
{{Further|Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties|Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty}}

[[File:Tetrarchy map3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Four-way division of the [[Roman Empire]] under the [[Tetrarchy]] system established by [[Diocletian]]|alt=A map showing the division of the Roman empire {{circa|300}}]]
Between the 3rd and 1st centuries{{Nbsp}}BC, the [[Roman Republic]] established [[hegemony]] over the [[eastern Mediterranean]], while [[Ancient Rome#Government|its government]] developed into the one-person rule of [[Roman emperors|an emperor]].{{sfn|Greatrex|2008|p=233}} The [[Roman Empire]] enjoyed a period of [[Pax Romana|relative stability]] until [[Crisis of the Third Century|the 3rd century AD]], when external threats and internal crises caused it to splinter, as regional armies acclaimed their generals as "[[Barracks emperor|soldier-emperors]]".{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=233|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=16-17|Treadgold|1997|3p=7}} One of these, [[Diocletian]] ({{reign|284|305}}), recognised that the state was too big to be ruled by a single person.{{sfn|Greatrex|2008|p=233}} He instituted the [[Tetrarchy]], a system which divided the empire into eastern and western halves.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=17–18|Treadgold|1997|2pp=15, 17–18}} The Tetrarchy quickly failed, but the division of the empire proved an enduring concept.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=235|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=17–18|Treadgold|1997|3p=14}}

[[Constantine I]] ({{reign|306|337|link=no}}) secured absolute power in 324.{{sfn|Greatrex|2008|p=235}} Over the next six years, he rebuilt the city of Byzantium as a new [[capital city|capital]] that he called "New Rome" (later named [[Constantinople]]).{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=235|Treadgold|1997|2pp=39–40|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=18}} The old capital [[Rome]] was farther from the prosperous eastern provinces and in a less strategically important location; it was not esteemed by the "soldier-emperors", who ruled from the frontiers, or by the empire's population.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=17, 20}} [[Constitutio Antoniniana|Having been granted citizenship]], they considered themselves just as Roman as those in the city of Rome.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=18–20}} He continued reforms of the empire's military and civil administration and instituted the [[solidus (coin)|gold solidus]] as a stable currency.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=235–236|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=43–44}} He [[Constantine the Great and Christianity|favoured Christianity]] and became an opponent of paganism.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=236–237|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=81–84|Treadgold|1997|3pp=31–33, 40–42}} Constantine's dynasty prioritised [[Perso-Roman wars of 337–361|a lengthy conflict]] against the comparably powerful [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanid Persia]] and ended in 363 with the death of his nephew [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]].{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=238|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=93, 98, 111-112|Treadgold|1997|3pp=52-53, 59–62}} The reign of the short [[Valentinianic dynasty]], marked by [[Gothic Wars#Fourth century|wars against the Goths]], religious debates, and anti-corruption campaigns, ended in the East with the death of [[Valens]] at the [[Battle of Adrianople]] in 378.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=239–240|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=114–118, 121–123|Treadgold|1997|3pp=63–67}}

[[File:Roman-empire-395AD.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Division of the empire after the death of Theodosius I in 395{{Legend|#85d295|The Western Roman Empire}} {{Legend|#ed9595|The Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire}}|alt=A map showing the Western and Eastern Roman empires {{circa|395}}, divided in the Balkans and North Africa]]

Valens's successor, [[Theodosius I|Theodosius I]] ({{reign|379|395|link=no}}), secured peace in the east by allowing the [[Goths]] to settle in Roman territory;{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=240|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=128–129|Treadgold|1997|3p=73}} he also twice intervened in the western half, defeating the usurpers [[Magnus Maximus]] and [[Eugenius]] in 388 and 394, respectively.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=241|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=129-130, 135–137|Treadgold|1997|3pp=74–75}} He [[Persecution of pagans under Theodosius I|actively condemned paganism]], confirmed the primacy of [[Nicene Christianity|Nicene Orthodoxy]] over [[Arianism]] in the East, and established [[Christianity as the Roman state religion]].{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=240–241|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=126–128|Treadgold|1997|3pp=70-74}} He was the last emperor to rule both the western and eastern halves of the empire.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=136}} After his death, the West was destabilised but the East thrived due to the civilian administrators who continued to hold power.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=165|Treadgold|1997|2p=87}} [[Theodosius II|Theodosius II]] ({{reign|408|450|link=no}}) largely left the rule of the East to officials such as [[Anthemius (praetorian prefect)|Anthemius]], who constructed the [[Theodosian Walls]].{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=165–167, 244}} Constantinople had now entrenched itself as the empire's capital.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=242|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=15, 20-21}}

Aside from Constantinople's walls, Theodosius' reign was also marked by the compilation of the ''[[Codex Theodosianus]]''{{sfnm|Shepard|2009|1p=22-23|Treadgold|1997|2pp=91-92}} and the theological dispute over [[Nestorianism]] (a doctrine later deemed [[heretical]]).{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=242|Kaldellis|2023|2p=173|Treadgold|1997|3pp=92}} His reign also saw the arrival of [[Attila]]'s [[Huns]], who ravaged the [[Balkans]], leading to a large [[tribute]] being exacted from the eastern empire.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=193–196|Treadgold|1997|2pp=94–95}} Attila switched his attention to the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|rapidly-deteriorating western empire]],{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=200|Treadgold|1997|2p=209}} and his people fractured after his death in 453.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|pp=242–243}} Later, [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] ({{reign|457|474|link=no}}) failed in his [[Basiliscus#Military career|468 attempt to reconquer]] the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|West]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=209|Greatrex|2008|2pp=243|Treadgold|1997|3pp=153}} The warlord [[Odoacer]] deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]] in 476 and after the assassination of his titular successor [[Julius Nepos]] in 480, abolished the office of western emperor.{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1pp=244|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=214|Treadgold|1997|3pp=158–159}}

Through a combination of fortune and good political decisions, the Eastern Empire never experienced rebellious barbarian vassals or rule by barbarian warlords—the problems which ensured the downfall of the West.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=243–245}} [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] ({{reign|474|491|link=no}}) convinced the problematic [[Ostrogoth]] king [[Theodoric the Great|Theodoric]] to take control of Italy from Odoacer;{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=244|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=220|Treadgold|1997|3pp=162, 164}} dying when the empire was at peace, he was succeeded by [[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius I]] ({{reign|491|518|link=no}}).{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=244|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=220|Treadgold|1997|3pp=164}} His belief in [[monophysitism]] brought occasional issues, but Anastasius was a capable administrator and instituted successful financial reforms including the abolition of the [[Collatio lustralis|chrysargyron tax]].{{sfnm|Greatrex|2008|1p=244|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=224}} He was the first emperor since Diocletian not to face any serious problems affecting the empire during his reign.{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=172}}

=== 518–717: Justinian and Heraclian dynasties ===
{{Further|Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty}}
{{Multiple image
| perrow = 2
| align = right
| image1 = Mosaic of Justinianus I - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna).jpg
| alt1 = A close up photograph of a mosaic of a person painted on a golden coloured background. The person has a dark brown cloth covering up his upper body till the neck, three jewels on his right shoulder, a crown with two pendants each hanging from both ends and an aura like circle around his head
| image2 = Belisarius mosaic.jpg
| alt2 = A close up photograph of a mosaic of a person painted on a golden coloured background. The person has a white cloth covering up his upper body till the neck, an embroidered pattern on his right shoulder, wavy hair, a stubble beard and a moustache
| footer = Emperor [[Justinian I]] (''left'') and his general [[Belisarius]] (''right''). [[Mosaic]]s, 6th century, from the [[Basilica of San Vitale]], Ravenna, Italy
| direction =
| total_width = 270
}}


The reign of [[Justinian I|Justinian I]] was a high point in east Roman history.{{sfn|Haldon|2008a|p=250}} Following his accession in 527, the legal code was rewritten as the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'', which streamlined Roman law across the empire;{{sfnm|Louth|2009a|1pp=108–109|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=269–271|Treadgold|1997|3pp=179}} he reasserted imperial control over religion and morality through purges of pagans, heretics, and other "deviants";{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=272|Louth|2009a|2pp=116|Treadgold|1997|3pp=80}} and having ruthlessly subdued [[Nika riots|the 532 Nika revolt]] he rebuilt much of Constantinople, including the [[Hagia Sophia]].{{sfnm|Louth|2009a|1pp=111, 120|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=274–276}} Justinian I took advantage of the confusion, following Theoderic the Ostrogoth's death, to attempt the reconquest of Italy.{{sfn|Haldon|2008a|p=252}} The [[Vandal Kingdom]] in North Africa [[Vandalic War|was subjugated in late 533]] by the general [[Belisarius]],{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=281|Moorhead|2009|2p=202}} who [[Gothic War (535–554)|then invaded Italy]]; the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]] mostly ended in 554.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=306|Moorhead|2009|2p=209|Haldon|2008a|3p=253}}

In the 540s, Justinian began to suffer reversals on multiple fronts.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=297}} Capitalising on Constantinople's preoccupation with the West, [[Khosrow I|Khosrow I]] of the Sasanian Empire invaded Byzantine territory and sacked [[Antioch]] in 540.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=297|Treadgold|1997|2pp=193–194|Haldon|2008a|3pp=252–253}} [[Plague of Justinian|A devastating plague]] killed a large proportion of the population and severely reduced the empire's social and financial stability.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=300–301}} The most difficult period of the Ostrogothic war, against their king [[Totila]], came during this decade;{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=305}} while divisions among Justinian's advisors undercut the administration's response.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1pp=197–198, 201|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=298, 305–306}} He also did not fully heal the divisions in [[Chalcedonian Christianity]], as the [[Second Council of Constantinople|fifth ecumenical council]] failed to make a real difference.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1pp=210–211, 214|Louth|2009a|2pp=117–118|Haldon|2008a|3p=253}} Justinian died in 565; his reign was more successful than any other emperor, yet he left behind an unstable empire.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=318–319|Treadgold|1997|2p=217}}

[[Justin II|Justin II]] ({{reign|565|578}}) inherited an empire stretched thin both financially and territorially.{{sfn|Haldon|2008a|p=254}} He was soon at war on many fronts.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008a|1p=254|Treadgold|1997|3pp=220–221}} Fearing the aggressive [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], the [[Lombards]] conquered much of northern Italy by 572.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008a|1p=254|Treadgold|1997|2pp=220–221}} The [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591|Sasanian wars restarted]] in the same year, and would not conclude until 591;{{sfn|Haldon|2008a|p=254}} by this time, the Avars and [[Slavic migrations to the Balkans|Slavs had repeatedly invaded the Balkans]], causing great instability.{{sfnm|Louth|2009a|1pp=126–127|Haldon|2008a|2p=254|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=336}} [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] [[Maurice's Balkan campaigns|campaigned extensively in the region]] during the 590s, and although he re-established Byzantine control up to the [[Danube River|Danube]], he pushed his troops too far in 602—they mutinied, proclaimed an officer named [[Phocas]] as emperor, and executed Maurice.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=336–338|Treadgold|1997|2pp=234–235|Haldon|2008a|3p=254}} The Sasanians seized their moment and [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|reopened hostilities]];{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=347-348|Louth|2009b|2pp=226}} Phocas was unable to cope and soon faced [[Heraclian revolt|a major rebellion]] led by [[Heraclius]].{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=348}} Phocas lost Constantinople in 610 and was executed;{{sfnm|Haldon|2008a|1p=254|Louth|2009b|2pp=226}} this destructive civil war accelerated the empire's decline.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=349|Treadgold|1997|2p=241}}

[[File:Walls of Constantinople.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1.2|The [[Walls of Constantinople|Theodosian Walls]] of Constantinople, very important during the [[siege of Constantinople (717–718)|717–718 siege]]|alt=A photograph of a large double-layered fortification.]]

Under [[Khosrow II|Khosrow II]], the Sassanids occupied the [[Levant]] and Egypt and advanced into Asia Minor, and the Avars and Slavs raided in the Balkans.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008a|1pp=254–255|Treadgold|1997|2pp=290-293|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=352, 355-356, 360}} The Empire's control of Italy also weakened.{{sfn|Haldon|2008a|pp=254–255}} After successfully repelling [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|a siege of Constantinople]] in 626,{{sfn|Haldon|2008a|p=255}} Heraclius won a decisive victory at the [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|Battle of Nineveh]],{{sfn|Treadgold|1997|p=398}} eventually defeating the Sassanids later that year.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=365-366|Louth|2009b|2pp=227–229}} The triumph would prove short-lived.{{sfnm|Louth|2009b|1p=229|Kaldellis|2023|2p=372}} The [[early Muslim conquests|Arab conquests]] soon saw the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|conquest of the Levant]], [[Arab conquest of Egypt|Egypt]], and [[Muslim conquest of Persia|the Sassanid Empire]] by the newly formed Arab [[Rashidun Caliphate]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=375|Haldon|2008a|2p=256|Louth|2009b|3pp=229–230}} By Heraclius' death in 641, the empire had been severely reduced economically and territorially—the loss of the wealthy eastern provinces had deprived the empire of as much as three-quarters of its revenue.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=387|Haldon|2008a|2p=256}}

The next century is poorly documented.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=387}} [[Arab–Byzantine wars#Arab attacks on Anatolia and sieges of Constantinople|Arab raids into Asia Minor]] started quickly, and the Empire responded by holding fortified centres and avoiding battle wherever possible.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008a|1p=257|Kaldellis|2023|2p=387}} Although Anatolia was invaded annually, it avoided permanent Arab occupation.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=387}} The outbreak of the [[First Fitna]] in 656 gave the Empire breathing space, which it used sensibly:{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=389}} some order was restored in the Balkans by [[Constans II|Constans II]] ({{reign|641|668|link=no}}){{sfn|Louth|2009b|pp=230–231}} following his administrative reorganisation which over time evolved into the "[[Theme (Byzantine district)|theme system]]", a structure that allocated troops to defend specific provinces.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1pp=315–316|Louth|2009b|2pp=239–240}} [[Constantine IV]] ({{reign|668|685|link=no}}) repelled the Arab efforts to [[Siege of Constantinople (674–678)|capture Constantinople in the 670s]] using [[Greek fire]],{{sfnm|Treadgold|1997|1pp=323–327|Haldon|2008a|2p=258|Louth|2009b|3pp=233}} but suffered a reversal against the [[Bulgars]], who soon established [[First Bulgarian Empire|an empire in the northern Balkans]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=403|Haldon|2008a|2pp=257–258|Louth|2009b|3pp=233}} Nevertheless, he had done enough to secure the empire's position,{{sfn|Louth|2009b|p=235}} especially as the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] was undergoing [[Second Fitna|another civil war]].{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=403}}

Beginning in 695, when Constantine's son [[Justinian II|Justinian II]] was first deposed, the empire entered an [[Twenty Years' Anarchy|era of political instability]] that lasted for the next 22 years.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008a|1p=257|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=438–440|Auzépy|2009|3p=265}} While Justinian had stabilised the situation with the divided Arabs,{{sfn|Haldon|2008a|p=257}} the threat of the reconstituted caliphate was met by [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] when he [[siege of Constantinople (717–718)|repelled the 717–718 siege]], the first serious challenge against Arab expansion.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008a|1p=257|Auzépy|2009|2p=265}}

=== 718–867: Isaurian, Nikephorian, and Amorian dynasties ===
{{Further|Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty}}
[[File:Solidus-Leo III and Constantine V-sb1504.jpg|thumb|Gold ''solidus'' of [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] (left) and his son and heir, [[Constantine V]] (right)|alt=Two gold coins, each depicting a man]]

The emperors Leo III ({{reign|717|741}}) and [[Constantine V]] ({{reign|741|775|lk=no}}) were very effective leaders, both in government and warfare.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008a|1pp=258–259|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=443}} They withstood continued Arab attacks,{{sfnm|Haldon|2008a|1pp=257|Auzépy|2009|2pp=255}} as well as civil war and natural disasters.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=450-451|Auzépy|2009|2pp=255, 258-259}} Constantine's success reestablished the state as a major regional power.{{sfn|Haldon|2008a|p=259}} Leo's reign produced the ''[[Ecloga]]'', a code of law that evolved that of Justinian I.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=444–445|Auzépy|2009|2pp=275–276}} He also continued to reform the theme system in order to lead offensive campaigns against the Muslims,{{sfnm|Auzépy|2009|p=255}} culminating in [[Battle of Akroinon|a notable victory in 740]].{{sfnm|Auzépy|2009|1pp=265-269|Kaegi|2009|2pp=386|Kaldellis|2023|3p=450}} Constantine overcame an early civil war against his brother-in-law [[Artabasdos]], created stability against the new [[Abbasid Caliphate]], [[Constantine V#Repeated campaigns against the Bulgarians|campaigned successfully]] against the Bulgars, and continued to make administrative and military reforms.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008a|1p=260|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=450-451, 453-454}} Due to both emperors' support for the [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]], where the use of [[icon|religious icons]] was banned, they were later vilified by biased authors, creating issues that continue to impact modern scholarship;{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=443, 447–449|Haldon|2008a|2pp=258, 260–261|Auzépy|2009|3pp=253–254}} Constantine's reign also saw the loss of [[Ravenna]] to the [[Kingdom of the Lombards|Lombards]], and the beginning of a split from the [[Papal States|Roman papacy]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=459–561|Auzépy|2009|2pp=284–287}}

In 780, Empress [[Irene of Athens|Irene]] assumed power as regent for her son [[Constantine VI]].{{sfnm|Haldon|2008a|1p=261|Treadgold|2002|2pp=141–142|Magdalino|2002|3p=170}} Although she was a capable administrator who temporarily resolved the iconoclasm controversy,{{sfnm|Haldon|2008a|1p=261|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=464–469}} the empire was destabilised by her conflict with her son. The Bulgars and Abbasids inflicted numerous defeats on the Byzantine armies, and the papacy crowned [[Charlemagne]] as Roman emperor in 800.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=470–473|Magdalino|2002|2pp=169–171|Haldon|2008a|3p=261}} In 802, the unpopular Irene was overthrown by [[Nikephoros I|Nikephoros I]]; he reformed the empire's administration but died [[Battle of Pliska|in battle against the Bulgars]] in 811.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=473–474, 478–481}} Military defeats and societal disorder, especially the resurgence of iconoclasm, characterised the next eighteen years.{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1p=265|Auzépy|2009|2pp=257, 259, 289|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=482–483, 485–491}}

[[File:Byzantine Empire 814.svg|thumb|The Byzantine Empire {{Circa|814}}|alt=Map centred on Western Europe. The territories of the Byzantine Empire are shaded dark green; namely the Italian islands, southern Greece, south-central Bulgaria, southern Crimea and most of Turkey.]]

Stability was somewhat restored during the reign of [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] ({{reign|829|842|link=no}}). He capitalised on economic growth to complete construction programmes, including rebuilding the [[Walls of Constantinople#Sea walls|sea walls of Constantinople]], overhaul provincial governance, and wage inconclusive campaigns against the Abbasids.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=491–495|Holmes|2008|2p=265|Auzépy|2009|3pp=273–274}} After his death, his empress [[Theodora (wife of Theophilos)|Theodora]], ruling on behalf of her son [[Michael III|Michael III]], permanently extinguished the iconoclastic movement;{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=498–501|Holmes|2008|2p=266}} the empire prospered under their sometimes-fraught rule. Michael was posthumously vilified by historians loyal to the dynasty of his successor [[Basil I|Basil I]], who had him assassinated in 867 and was credited with his predecessor's achievements.{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1pp=265–266|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=504–505|Auzépy|2009|3p=254|Tougher|2009|4pp=292–293, 296}}

=== 867–1081: Macedonian and Doukas dynasties ===
{{Further|Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty}}

Basil I ({{reign|867|886}}) continued Michael's policies.{{sfnm|Tougher|2009|1pp=292, 296|Holmes|2008|2p=266}} His armies campaigned with mixed results in Italy but [[Battle of Bathys Ryax|defeated]] the [[Paulician principality of Tephrike|Paulicians of Tephrike]].{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1p=266|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=522–524|Treadgold|1997|3pp=455–458}} His successor [[Leo VI the Wise|Leo VI]] ({{reign|886|912|link=no}}){{efn|Leo VI was officially the son of Basil I, but a persistent rumour alleged that he had been fathered by Michael III, who had previously taken Leo's mother [[Eudokia Ingerina]] as his mistress. One of Leo's first acts was to rebury Michael III in Basil's mausoleum in the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]] complex, which exacerbated the rumours.{{sfnm|Tougher|2009|1p=296|Kaldellis|2023|2p=526}}}} compiled and propagated a huge number of written works. These included the ''[[Basilika]]'', a Greek translation of Justinian I's legal code incorporating over 100 new laws created by Leo; the ''[[Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise|Tactica]]'', a military treatise; and the ''[[Book of the Prefect|Book of the Eparch]]'', a manual on Constantinople's trading regulations.{{sfnm|Shepard|2009b|1pp=493, 496–498|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=429–433|Holmes|2008|3p=267}} In non-literary contexts Leo was less successful: the empire [[Siege of Taormina (902)|lost in Sicily]] and [[Battle of Boulgarophygon|against the Bulgarians]],{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1p=267|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=534–535}} and he provoked theological scandal by marrying four times in an attempt to father a legitimate heir.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=537–539|Holmes|2008|2p=267|Shepard|2009b|3p=503}}

The early reign of this heir, [[Constantine VII]], was tumultuous, as his mother [[Zoe Karbonopsina|Zoe]], his uncle [[Alexander (Byzantine emperor)|Alexander]], the patriarch [[Nicholas Mystikos|Nicholas]], the powerful [[Simeon I of Bulgaria|Simeon I of Bulgaria]], and other influential figures jockeyed for power.{{sfnm|Shepard|2009b|1p=505|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=540–543|Holmes|2008|3p=267}} In 920, the admiral [[Romanos I Lekapenos|Romanos I]] used his fleet to secure power, crowning himself and demoting Constantine to the position of junior co-emperor.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=543–544|Shepard|2009b|2pp=505–507}} His reign, marked by [[Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 913–927#Peace treaty|the end of the war against Bulgaria]] and successes in the east under the general [[John Kourkouas]], ended in 944 due to the machinations of his sons, whom Constantine then usurped.{{sfnm|Shepard|2009b|1pp=508–509|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=546–552|Holmes|2008|3p=268}} Constantine's ineffectual sole rule has often been construed as [[Macedonian Renaissance|the zenith of Byzantine learning]], but the works compiled were largely intended to legitimise and glorify the emperor's [[Macedonian dynasty]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=553–555|Holmes|2008|2p=268}} [[Romanos II|His son and successor]] died young; under two soldier-emperors, [[Nikephoros II Phokas|Nikephoros II]] ({{reign|963|969|link=no}}) and [[John I Tzimiskes]] ({{reign|969|976|link=no}}), the army claimed numerous military successes, including the [[Byzantine conquest of Cilicia|conquest of Cilicia]] and [[Siege of Antioch (968–969)|Antioch]], and a [[Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria|victory against Bulgaria and the Kievan Rus']] in 971. John in particular was an astute administrator who reformed military structures and implemented effective fiscal policies.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=563–573|Holmes|2008| 2pp=268–269|Magdalino|2002|3p=176}}

After John's death, Constantine VII's grandsons [[Basil II|Basil II]] and [[Constantine VIII]] ruled jointly for half a century, although the latter exercised no real power.{{sfn|Holmes|2008|p=268}} Their early reign was occupied by conflicts against two prominent generals, [[Bardas Skleros]] and [[Bardas Phokas the Younger|Bardas Phokas]], which ended in 989 after the former's death and the latter's submission, and a power struggle against the eunuch [[Basil Lekapenos|Basileios]], who was dismissed in 985.{{sfnm|Shepard|2009b|1pp=522–526|Magdalino|2002|2p=202|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=573–578}} Basil, who never married or had children, subsequently refused to delegate any authority: he sidelined the military establishment by taking personal command of the army and promoting officers loyal to him.{{sfnm|Shepard|2009b|1pp=526, 531|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=578–579|Holmes|2008|3p=269}} His reign witnessed [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria|the decades-long campaign against Bulgaria]], which ended in total Byzantine victory at the [[Battle of Kleidion]] in 1014.{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1p=269|Shepard|2009b|2pp=526–29|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=579–582}} Diplomatic efforts, critical for this success,{{sfnm|Shepard|2009b|1p=529|Holmes|2008|2p=271}} also contributed to the [[Byzantine–Georgian treaty of 1022|annexation of several Georgian provinces]] in the 1020s and coexistence with the new [[Fatimid Caliphate]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=584|Holmes|2008|2pp=270–271|Magdalino|2002|3p=180}} When he died in 1025, Basil's empire stretched from the Danube and Sicily in the west to the [[Euphrates]] in the east; his swift expansion was unaccompanied by administrative reforms.{{sfnm|Shepard|2009b|1pp=531–536|Holmes|2008|2p=271}}

[[File:The seizure of Edessa in Syria by the Byzantine army and the Arabic counterattack from the Chronicle of John Skylitzes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The seizure of [[Edessa]] (1031) by the Byzantines under [[George Maniakes]] and the counterattack by the [[Seljuk Turks]]|alt=Depiction of an army attacking a walled town]]

After Constantine VIII's death in 1028, his daughters, the empresses [[Zoe Porphyrogenita|Zoe]] ({{reign|1028|1050|link=no}}) and [[Theodora Porphyrogenita|Theodora]] ({{reign|1042|1056|link=no}}), held the keys to power: four emperors ([[Romanos III Argyros|Romanos III]], [[Michael IV the Paphlagonian|Michael IV]], [[Michael V Kalaphates|Michael V]], and [[Constantine IX Monomachos|Constantine IX]]) ruled only because of their connection to Zoe, while [[Michael VI Bringas|Michael VI]] ({{reign|1056|1057|link=no}}) was selected by Theodora.{{sfnm|Magdalino|2002|1pp=202–203|Holmes|2008|2pp=271–272|Angold|2009|3pp=587–588|Kaldellis|2023|4pp=588–589}} This political instability, regular budget deficits, a series of expensive military failures, and other problems connected to over-extension led to substantial issues in the empire;{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=590, 593|Magdalino|2002|2pp=181–182|Angold|2009|3pp=587–598}} its strategic focus moved from maintaining its hegemony to prioritising defence.{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|p=602}}

The empire soon came under sustained assault on three fronts, from the [[Byzantine–Seljuk wars|Seljuk Turks in the east]], the [[Pechenegs|Pecheneg nomads]] in the north, and the [[Norman conquest of southern Italy|Normans in the west]]. The Byzantine army struggled to confront these enemies, who did not organise themselves as traditional states, and were thus untroubled by defeats in set-piece battles.{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1pp=272–273|Magdalino|2002|2p=182|Kaldellis|2023|3p=636}} In 1071 [[Bari]], the last remaining Byzantine settlement in Italy, was [[Siege of Bari|captured by the Normans]], while the Seljuks won a decisive victory at the [[Battle of Manzikert]], taking the emperor [[Romanos IV Diogenes]] prisoner.{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1p=273|Magdalino|2002|2pp=184–185, 189}} The latter event sparked a decade-long civil war, and as a result the Seljuks took possession of Anatolia up to the [[Sea of Marmara]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=629–637|Angold|2009|2pp=609–610}}

=== 1081–1204: Komnenos and Angelos dynasties ===
{{further|Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty}}
One prominent general, [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]], usurped the throne in 1081. In contrast to the prior turmoil, the three reigns of Alexios ({{reign|1081|1118}}), his son [[John II Komnenos|John II]] ({{reign|1118|1143|link=no}}), and his grandson [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel I]] ({{reign|1143|1180|link=no}}) lasted a century and [[Komnenian restoration|restored the empire's regional authority]] for the final time.{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1pp=273–274|Angold|2009|2p=611}} Alexios immediately faced the Normans under [[Robert Guiscard]] and [[Byzantine–Norman wars#First Norman invasion of the Balkans (1081–1085)|repelled them through warfare and diplomacy]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=639–642|Holmes|2008|2p=275|Magdalino|2002|3p=190}} He then targeted the Pechenegs and [[Battle of Levounion|decisively defeated them in 1091]] with help from the [[Cumans]], who were in turn defeated three years later.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=642–644|Holmes|2008|2p=275|Angold|2009|3pp=611–612}} Finally, looking to recover Asia Minor from the Seljuks, he approached [[Pope Urban II|Pope Urban II]] for help {{circa|1095}}. He did not anticipate the scale of western Christendom's response—the [[First Crusade]] led to the recapture of western Anatolia, although Alexios and its leaders soon fell out.{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1p=275|Magdalino|2002|2p=190|Angold|2009|3pp=621–623}} The rest of his reign was spent [[Treaty of Devol|dealing with the Normans]] and Seljuks, establishing a new, loyal aristocracy to ensure stability, and carrying out fiscal and ecclesiastical reforms.{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1pp=274–275|Angold|2009|2pp=612–613, 619–621, 623–625|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=645–647, 659–663}}

[[File:Comnenus mosaics Hagia Sophia.jpg|thumb|A [[mosaic]] from the [[Hagia Sophia]] of Constantinople (modern Istanbul), depicting [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] and [[Jesus]], flanked by [[John II Komnenos|John II Komnenos]] (left) and his wife [[Irene of Hungary]] (right), 12th century|alt=A mosaic depicting a haloed woman holding a baby, flanked by a man and woman, both crowned and haloed]]

Alexios' concentration of power in the hands of his [[Komnenos dynasty]] meant the most serious political threats came from within the imperial family—before his coronation, John II had to overcome [[Irene Doukaina|his mother Irene]] and [[Anna Komnene|his sister Anna]], and the primary threat during his reign was [[Isaac Komnenos (son of Alexios I)|his brother Isaac]].{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1p=274|Magdalino|2009|2pp=629–630}} John campaigned annually and extensively—he fought the Pechenegs in 1122, the [[Byzantine–Hungarian War (1127–1129)|Hungarians in the late 1120s]], and the Seljuks throughout his reign, waging [[Byzantine–Seljuk wars#Byzantine counter-attack: 1118–1180|large campaigns in Syria]] in his final years—but he did not achieve large territorial gains.{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1p=275|Magdalino|2009|2pp=631–633|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=664–670}} In 1138, John raised the imperial standard over the Crusader [[Principality of Antioch]] to intimidate the city into allying with the Byzantines, but did not attack, fearing that it would provoke western Christendom to respond.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=669|Holmes|2008|2p=275}}

Manuel I used his father's overflowing imperial treasury in pursuit of his ambitions, and also to secure the empire's position in an increasingly multilateral geopolitical landscape.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=670, 676–677|Magdalino|2009|2pp=644–646}} Through a combination of [[Byzantine diplomacy|diplomacy and bribery]], he cultivated a ring of allies and clients around the empire: the Turks of the [[Sultanate of Rum]], the [[Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)|Kingdom of Hungary]], the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Cilician Armenians]], Balkan princes, Italian and Dalmatian cities, and most importantly Antioch and the [[Crusader States]], marrying [[Maria of Antioch|one of their princesses]] in 1161.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=678, 683–688|Holmes|2008|2pp=275–276}} Manuel averted the threat of war during the tumultuous passage of the [[Second Crusade]] through Byzantine territories in 1147, but the campaign's failure was blamed on the Byzantines by western contemporaries.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=679–681|Magdalino|2009|2pp=637–638}} He was less successful militarily: an invasion of [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]] was decisively defeated by [[William I of Sicily|King William I]] in 1156, leading to tensions with [[Frederick Barbarossa]], the Holy Roman Emperor;{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=682–683|Magdalino|2002|2p=194|Magdalino|2009|3pp=638–641}} two decades later, an invasion of Anatolia was resoundingly defeated at the [[Battle of Myriokephalon]].{{sfnm|Magdalino|2009|1pp=643–644|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=692–693}}

[[File:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 012.jpg|thumb|[[Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople|''The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople'']], by [[Eugène Delacroix]] (1840)|alt=A painting of an army marching into a city gate with much smoke in the background]]

Manuel's death left the empire rudderless and it soon came under intense pressure.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=695}} His son [[Alexios II Komnenos|Alexios II]] was too young to rule, and his troubled regency was overthrown by his uncle [[Andronikos I Komnenos]]: he was replaced by [[Isaac II Angelos|Isaac II]] in 1185.{{sfnm|Magdalino|2002|1p=194|Holmes|2008|2p=276}} Centrifugal forces swirled at the borders as ambitious rulers seized their chance: Hungary and the Turks captured Byzantine territories, [[Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus|an exiled Komnenian prince]] seized Cyprus; and most injuriously, [[Uprising of Asen and Peter|a revolt in 1185]] caused the foundation of a [[Second Bulgarian Empire|resurrected Bulgarian state]].{{sfnm|Holmes|2008|1p=276|Magdalino|2002|2pp=194–195|Magdalino|2009|3p=655}} Relations with the West deteriorated further after Constantinople allied with [[Saladin]], the vanquisher of the [[Third Crusade]], whose leaders also fought against Byzantium as they passed through its territory.{{sfnm|Magdalino|2002|1pp=195–196|Magdalino|2009|2pp=648–651|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=706–710}} In 1195, Isaac II was deposed by his brother [[Alexios III Angelos|Alexios III]]; this quarrel proved fatal.{{sfn|Holmes|2008|p=276}}

The [[Fourth Crusade]] was originally intended to target [[Ayyubid Sultanate|Egypt]], but amid strategic difficulties, Isaac II's son [[Alexios IV Angelos|Alexios Angelos]] convinced the crusaders to restore his father to the throne in exchange for a huge tribute.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=718–720|Magdalino|2009|2pp=651–652}} They [[Siege of Constantinople (1203)|attacked Constantinople in 1203]], reinstating Isaac II and his son to the throne. The new rulers swiftly grew unpopular and were deposed by [[Alexios V Doukas|Alexios V]], an event used by the crusaders as a pretext to [[Sack of Constantinople|sack the city in April 1204]], ransacking the wealth it had accumulated over nine centuries.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=720–724|Magdalino|2009|2pp=652–653}}

=== 1204–1453: Palaiologos dynasty ===
{{Further|Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty}}
[[File:LatinEmpire2.png|thumb|upright=1.15|The partition of the empire following the [[Fourth Crusade]], {{Circa|1204}}{{sfnm|Laiou|2008|1p=280|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=733–734|Reinert|2002|3pp=250–253|Angold|2009b|4p=731}}|alt=A map showing the competing states after the Fourth Crusade.]]

Byzantine territories fragmented into competing political entities. The crusaders crowned [[Baldwin I, Latin Emperor|Baldwin I]] as the ruler of a new [[Latin Empire]] in Constantinople; it soon suffered [[Battle of Adrianople (1205)|a crushing defeat]] against the Bulgarians in 1205. It also failed to expand west or east, where three Greek successor states had formed: the [[Empire of Nicaea]] and the [[Empire of Trebizond]] in Asia Minor, and the [[Despotate of Epirus]] on the Adriatic. The Venetians acquired many ports and islands, and the [[Principality of Achaea]] emerged in southern Greece.{{sfnm|Laiou|2008|1p=280|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=733–734|Reinert|2002|3pp=250–253|Angold|2009b|4p=731}} Trebizond [[Siege of Sinope|lost]] the key port of [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinope]] in 1214 and thereafter was unable to affect matters away from the southeastern Black Sea.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=755–758|Angold|2009b|2p=737}} For a time, it seemed that Epirus was the one most likely to reclaim Constantinople from the Latins, and its ruler [[Theodore Komnenos Doukas|Theodore Doukas]] crowned himself emperor, but he suffered a critical defeat at the [[Battle of Klokotnitsa]] in 1230, and Epirote power waned.{{sfnm|Laiou|2008|1p=283|Reinert|2002|2p=254|Angold|2009b|3pp=737–738|Kaldellis|2023|4pp=766–770}}

Nicaea, ruled by the [[Laskaris|Laskarid dynasty]] and composed of a mixture of Byzantine refugees and native Greeks, blocked the Latins and the Seljuks of Rum from expanding east and west respectively.{{sfnm|Reinert|2002|1p=253|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=760–762}} [[John III Doukas Vatatzes|John III]] ({{reign|1221|1254}}) was a very capable emperor.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=771|Laiou|2008|2pp=282–283}} His [[protectionist]] economic policies strongly encouraged Nicaean [[Autarky|self-sufficiency]],{{sfnm|Angold|2009b|1p=740|Laiou|2008|2pp=282–283|Kaldellis|2023|3p=772}} and he made many diplomatic treaties, especially after [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] armies [[Mongol invasion of Bulgaria and Serbia|ravaged Bulgaria]] and [[Battle of Köse Dağ|defeated Rum]] between 1237 and 1243. This chaos was an opportunity for John, and he fought many successful campaigns against the states disrupted by the [[Mongol invasions]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=774–781|Reinert|2002|2p=254}} Soon after his death, [[John IV Laskaris|his grandson]] was usurped by [[Michael VIII Palaiologos|Michael VIII]], founder of the [[Palaiologos|Palaiologos dynasty]], who [[Reconquest of Constantinople|recaptured Constantinople]] in 1261.{{sfnm|Laiou|2008|1p=283|Reinert|2002|2p=254}}

Michael desired to restore the empire's glory through a rebuilding programme in Constantinople, clever diplomatic alliances, and expansionist wars in Europe.{{sfnm|Reinert|2002|1pp=256–257|Laiou|2008|2p=286}} He staved off the threatening [[Charles I of Anjou]] first by recognising papal primacy and certain Catholic doctrines at the 1274 [[Second Council of Lyon]], and then by aiding the [[Sicilian Vespers]] against Charles in 1282.{{sfnm|Reinert|2002|1pp=257–258|Laiou|2009|2pp=803–804}} However, his religious concessions were despised by most of the populace, and were repudiated by his successor [[Andronikos II Palaiologos|Andronikos II]] ({{reign|1282|1328}}).{{sfnm|Reinert|2002|1pp=258|Laiou|2008|2p=287}} He and his grandson [[Andronikos III Palaiologos|Andronikos III]] ({{reign|1328|1341}}) led several campaigns to restore imperial influence, succeeding in Epirus and Thessaly. They also made several critical mistakes, including dismissing the fleet in 1285, hiring the mercenary [[Catalan Company]], who turned on the Byzantines, in the 1300s, and fighting each other between 1320 and 1328.{{sfnm|Laiou|2008|1pp=287–288|Reinert|2002|2pp=260–263|Kaldellis|2023|3p=847}} A disastrous civil war between 1341 and 1354 caused long-term economic difficulties, while the [[Ottoman Turks]] gradually expanded.{{sfnm|Laiou|2008|1pp=289–290|Reinert|2002|2pp=265–268}}

[[File:Le siège de Constantinople (1453) by Jean Le Tavernier after 1455.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Fall of Constantinople|siege of Constantinople]] in 1453, depicted in a 15th-century French miniature|alt=A painting of a siege of a city]]

The diminished and weak Byzantine state only survived for another century through effective diplomacy and fortunately timed external events.{{sfn|Laiou|2008|p=291}} The Ottomans gradually subjugated Anatolia and simultaneously expanded into Europe from 1354, taking [[Philippopolis (Thrace)|Philippopolis]] in 1363, [[Adrianopolis]] in 1369, and [[Thessalonica]] in 1387.{{sfnm|Laiou|2008|1p=291|Reinert|2002|2pp=268–269}} Emperors were crowned and deposed at the whim of the Venetians, Genoese, and Ottomans.{{sfn|Laiou|2009|p=829}} After [[Manuel II Palaiologos|Manuel II]] ({{reign|1391|1425}}) refused to pay homage to Sultan [[Bayezid I]] in 1394, [[Siege of Constantinople (1394–1402)|Constantinople was besieged]] until the rampaging warlord [[Timur]] decisively [[Battle of Ankara|defeated Bayezid]] in 1402, with the city perilously close to surrender.{{sfnm|Reinert|2002|1pp=273–274|Laiou|2009|2pp=831–832|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=887–889}}

Manuel II oversaw two decades of peace while the [[Ottoman Interregnum|Ottomans convulsed in civil war]].{{sfnm|Reinert|2002|1pp=274–276|Laiou|2008|2p=292|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=892–894}} In 1421, his unsuccessful backing of the claimant [[Mustafa Çelebi]] led to a [[Siege of Constantinople (1422)|renewed Turkish assault]].{{sfn|Reinert|2002|p=276}} Although [[John VIII Palaiologos|John VIII]] ({{reign|1425|1448}}) reconciled with the Catholic West at the [[Council of Florence]], his empire steadily diminished.{{sfnm|Reinert|2002|1pp=278–279|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=903–908}} In 1452, Sultan [[Mehmed II]] resolved to capture Constantinople, and laid siege early the following year. On 29 May 1453, [[Fall of Constantinople|the city was captured]], the last emperor, [[Constantine XI Palaiologos|Constantine XI]], died in battle, and the Byzantine Empire ended.{{sfnm|Reinert|2002|1pp=280–283|Laiou|2008|2pp=292–293|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=910–914}}

== Structures of the state ==
{{Multiple image
| footer =
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Byzantine Empire Themata-750-en.svg
| width1 = 220
| alt1 = A map centred on Turkey. From west to east and north to south with the corresponding colours in brackets; are the themes of Opsikion (light purple), Thracesians (light grey), Cibyrrhaeots (light green), Optimatoi (green), Anatolic (brown), Bucellarians (orange) and Armeniacs (purple). On the map are marked the major rivers; the Aegean, Black and Mediterranean Seas; the cities of Ephesos, Constantinople, Ancyra, Tarsus, Adana, Antioch and Edessa; and the islands of Samos, Crete and Cyprus.
| caption1 = The ''themes'' of Asia Minor, {{Circa|750}}
| image2 = Byzantine Empire Themata-950-en.svg
| width2 = 220
| alt2 = A map centred on Turkey. From west to east and north to south with the corresponding colours in brackets; are the themes of Opsikion (light purple), Samos (dark grey), Thracesians (light grey), Cibyrrhaeots (light green), Optimatoi (dark grey), Anatolic and Seleucia (brown), Bucellarians (orange), Paphlagonia (navy blue), Cappadocia (green), Charsianon (pink), Armeniacs (purple), Lycandus and Mesopotamia (brown), Sebastea (blue), Koloneia (dark green) and Chaldia (light blue). On the map are marked the major rivers; the Aegean, Black and Mediterranean Seas; the cities of Ephesos, Constantinople, Ancyra, Tarsus, Adana, Antioch and Edessa; and the islands of Crete and Cyprus.
| caption2 = The ''themes'' of Asia Minor, {{Circa|950|lk=off}}
}}

=== Governance ===
{{See also|Subdivisions of the Byzantine Empire}}

Diocletian and Constantine's 4th-century reforms reorganised the empire's provinces into overarching [[Roman diocese|Dioceses]] and then into [[Praetorian prefecture]]s, separating the army from the civil administration.{{sfnm|Louth|2005|1pp=306–308|Treadgold|1997b|2pp=82–83}} The central government, led by the [[Roman emperor|emperor]] from the time of the earlier [[pax romana]] and into the late [[Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty|Palaiologan era]], typically focused on the military, foreign relations, administering the law, and collecting taxes.{{sfnm|Browning|1992|1p=98|Stewart|2022|2pp=10-11}} A person usually ascended into the position of emperor [[Coronation of the Byzantine emperor|after a ceremony]]. The [[Byzantine senate|senate]] evolved into a ceremonial body within the imperial court.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=35|Howard-Johnston|2024|2p=8|Browning|1992|3p=98}}

Cities had been a collection of self-governing communities with central government and church representatives from the 5th century.{{sfnm|Browning|1992|1p=98|Kaldellis|2023|2p=185}} However, constant warfare significantly altered this, as regular raids and ongoing conflict led to power centralising due to the empire's fight for survival.{{sfnm|Browning|1992|1p=98|Howard-Johnston|2024|2p=67|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=397, 407–409}} After the 7th century, the prefectures were abandoned, and in the 9th century, the provinces were divided into administrative units called [[Theme (Byzantine district)|''themes'' (or ''themata'')]], governed solely by a military commander (''[[strategos]]'').{{sfnm|Louth|2005|1p=303|Treadgold|1997b|2pp=430–431|Kaldellis|2023|3pp=418, 421}}

=== Law ===
{{Main|Byzantine law}}

Theodosius II ({{reign|408|450|link=no}}) formalised [[Roman law]] by appointing five jurists as principal authorities and compiling legislation issued since Constantine's reign into the [[Codex Theodosianus]].{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|Stein|1999|Kaiser|2015|1p=168|3p=120|2pp=14, 16, 28}} This process culminated in the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' under Justinian I ({{reign|527|565|link=no}}), who commissioned a complete standardisation of imperial decrees since Hadrian's time and resolved conflicting legal opinions of the jurists.{{sfnm|Gregory|2010|Stein|1999|1p=135|2pp=33–35|Dingledy|2019|3pp=2–14|Kaiser|2015|4pp=123–126}} The result became the definitive legal authority. This body of law covered [[Civil law (legal system)|civil matters]] and also [[public law]], including imperial power and administrative organisation.{{sfnm|Stein|1999|1p=8|2a1=Merryman|2a2=Pérez-Perdomo|2y=2007|2p=21}} After 534, Justinian issued the [[Novellae Constitutiones|Novellae (New Laws)]] in Greek, which marked a transition from Roman to Byzantine law. Legal historian Bernard Stolte distinguishes Roman law as this because Western Europe inherited law through the Latin texts of the ''Corpus Juris Civilis'' only.{{sfnm|Stolte|2015|1pp=356, 370|Stolte|2018|2pp=231–232}}

Zachary Chitwood argues that the ''Corpus Juris Civilis'' was largely inaccessible in Latin, particularly in the provinces.{{sfn|Chitwood|2017|p=23}} Following the 7th-century Arab conquests, people began questioning the development and application of law, leading to stronger ties between law and Christianity.{{sfn|Chitwood|2017|p=185}} This context influenced Leo III ({{Reign|717|741|link=no}}) to develop the ''[[Ecloga]]'', which placed an emphasis on humanity.{{sfnm|Chitwood|2017|1p=185|Nicol|1988|2pp=23–24|2p=65}} The Ecloga inspired practical legal texts like the ''Farmers' Law, Seamen's Law,'' and ''Soldiers' Law'', which Chitwood suggests were used daily in the provinces as companions to the ''Corpus Juris Civilis''.{{sfn|Chitwood|2017|pp=23, 132, 364}} During the Macedonian dynasty, efforts to reform law began with the publication of the ''Procheiron'' and the ''Eisagoge'', which aimed to define the emperor's power under prevailing laws, and to replace the ''Ecloga'' due to its association with [[iconoclasm]].{{sfnm|Browning|1992|Kaldellis|2023|Chitwood|2017|1p=97|2p=529|3pp=25–32, 44}} Leo VI ({{Reign|886|912|link=no}}) completed a [[Codification (law)|complete codification]] of Roman law in Greek through the ''[[Basilika]]'', a work of 60 books which became the foundation of Byzantine law.{{sfnm|Browning|1992|Chitwood|2017|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=97–98|2pp=32–35|3p=529}} In 1345, Constantine Harmenopoulos compiled the ''[[Constantine Harmenopoulos|Hexabiblos]]'', a six-volume law book derived from various Byzantine legal sources.{{sfn|Stein|1999|p=35}}

=== Christianity and the Church ===
{{Main|Christianity as the Roman state religion}}

{{See also|History of Christianity|History of the Eastern Orthodox Church#Byzantine period|History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire}}

Christianity, bolstered by [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]]'s support, began shaping all aspects of life in the early Byzantine Empire.{{sfnm|Papaconstantinou|2016|1p=xxxii|Cameron|2016|2p=31|Cameron|2006b|3pp=544-551|Drake|2007|4pp=418, 422|Greatrex|2008|5p=236}} Despite the transition, the historian [[Anthony Kaldellis]] views Christianity as "bringing no economic, social, or political changes to the state other than being more deeply integrated into it".{{sfn|Kaldellis|2023|pp=141, 186, 342}} When the Roman state in the West collapsed politically, cultural differences began to divide the Christian churches of the East and West.{{sfnm|Brown|1976|1p=8|Löhr|2007|2p=9}} Internal disputes within the Eastern churches led to the migration of monastic communities to Rome, exacerbating tensions between Rome and Constantinople.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=390|Cameron|2017|2at=A United Church, chapter 1}} These disputes,{{efn|[[Arianism]], one of the first major controversies, shook the empire until it was addressed by the [[Nicene Creed]].{{sfnm|1a1=Berndt|1a2=Steinacher|1y=2014|1pp=1-2, 8-19|2a1=Löhr|2y=2007|2p=14}} Other controversies persisted, leading to schisms, such as debates on the fundamental definitions of Christ's nature at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451.{{sfnm|Sabo|2018|1pp=vi, 9|Löhr|2007|2pp=14–23}}}} particularly in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean, eventually split the church into three branches: [[Chalcedonian Christianity|Chalcedonian]], Monophysite (Coptic), and [[Church of the East|Nestorian]].{{sfnm|Adams|2021|1p=366|Micheau|2006|2pp=373, 375}} The Chalcedonian group maintained dominance within the empire's territories, while the Monophysite and Nestorian branches largely fell under Muslim rule in the 7th century.{{sfn|Micheau|2006|pp=373-374, 376}}

Eastern patriarchs frequently sought the Papacy's mediation in doctrinal and practical matters, but the pope's authority was not universally acknowledged, even in nearby regions like Northern Italy.{{sfnm|Nicholson|1960|1pp=54, 60|2a1=Casiday| 2a2=Norris|2y=2007a|2p=3}} By 600, the Slavic settlement of the Balkans disrupted communication between Rome and Constantinople, further widening the divide.{{Sfnm|Louth|2008|1p=47|Kolbaba|2008|2pp=214-215}} The Arab and Lombard invasions, and the increased [[Franks|Frankish]] presence, deepened this estrangement and intensified disputes over jurisdiction and authority between the two spiritual centres.{{Sfn|Kolbaba|2008|pp=213–215, 218-221}} Differences in ritual and theology, such as the use of [[Azymite|unleavened bread]] and the [[Filioque|Filioque clause]], as well as divergences in ecclesiology—[[plenitudo potestatis]] versus the authority of [[Ecumenical Councils]]—and issues of mutual respect, contributed to the separation of Western Christianity from Eastern Christianity.{{Sfnm|Meyendorff|1979|1pp=95,97 101|Kolbaba|2008|2p=223}} This separation began by 597 and culminated in 1054 during the [[East–West Schism]].{{Sfnm|Brown|2008|1p=13|Kolbaba|2008|2p=223}}

== Warfare ==

===Military evolution===
{{Main|Eastern Roman army|Byzantine army|Byzantine navy}}

In the late 6th century, following Justinian I's wars, seven mobile [[field armies]] called ''[[comitatenses]]'', numbering around 150,000 troops, were deployed around the empire; they remained the finest armies in Europe.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1995|1pp=63–64, 206|Haldon|1999|2p=67}} They were aided by twenty-five frontier garrisons of approximately 195,000 lower-quality ''[[limitanei]]'' troops.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1995|1pp=63, 204|Haldon|1999|2p=67|Decker|2013|3p=71}} Additional troops included [[Foederati|subsidised allied forces]] and [[imperial guard|imperial guard units]] like the ''[[Scholae Palatinae]]''.{{sfn|Haldon|1999|p=68}} Naval forces were limited: [[flotilla]]s were based at key locations, while 30,000 oarsmen were assembled to row 500, mostly requisitioned, [[Maritime transport|transports]] to support the [[Vandalic War]] in Africa in 533.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1995|1pp=63–64|Haldon|1999|2pp=68–69|Haldon|2008b|3p=554}}

The losses suffered in the 7th-century [[Early Muslim conquests|Arab conquests]] led to fundamental changes.{{sfnm|Haldon|1999|1p=74|Decker|2013|2p=74}} The field armies were withdrawn into the core Anatolian territories and assigned to settle in specific districts, which became known as ''themata'' and eventually replaced the [[Roman province#Late imperial period|old provinces]].{{sfnm|Treadgold|1995|1p=23|Haldon|2008b|2pp=554–555}} The thematic armies, supported by the proceeds of their districts, came to resemble a provincial [[militia]] with a small professional core, aided by foreign mercenaries and imperial regiments at Constantinople.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008b|1pp=555–556|Kaldellis|2021a|2p=463}} To defend against [[Early Caliphate navy|its new Muslim enemy]], the navy was similarly reorganised into several provincialised fleets.{{sfnm|Haldon|1999|1p=74|Haldon|2008b|2p=559}} It became the dominant power in the eastern Mediterranean, with [[dromon]]s equipped with [[Greek fire]] proving crucial on several occasions.{{sfnm|Decker|2013|1pp=207–208, 222–224|Kaldellis|2021a|2p=463|Howard-Johnston|2008|3p=947}}

As the 8th-century empire stabilised, the thematic militias proved rebellious and only suitable for defensive operations.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2021a|1p=463|Treadgold|1995|2pp=25, 209|Decker|2013|3pp=77–78}} The professional ''[[Tagma (military)|tagmata]]'' regiments, first introduced in the mid-700s and consisting of native Byzantine units alongside foreign forces such as the [[Varangian Guard]], had completely replaced them by the 11th century.{{sfnm|Haldon|1999|1p=92|Decker|2013|2pp=78–82}} The mobile ''tagmata'', suitable for offensive warfare, evolved new tactical and strategic structures;{{sfn|Haldon|2008b|p=556}} the late 10th-century army, perhaps the highest-quality force the empire produced, numbered approximately 140,000, up from below 100,000 in the late 700s.{{sfnm|Treadgold|1995|1p=67|Kaldellis|2021a|2p=463|Kaldellis|2023|3p=562}} However, its defensive capacities were neglected, especially during the 11th-century civil wars, leading to the loss of Anatolia to the Seljuks.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008b|1p=557|Treadgold|1995|2pp=214–218}} The navy had also been reduced, as the empire increasingly relied on potentially hostile powers such as [[Republic of Venice|Venice]].{{sfn|Haldon|2008b|p=560}}

Post-1081 reforms re-established an effective army; the institution of [[feudal]]-like ''[[pronoia]]'' grants provided revenue to individuals in exchange for soldiers.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008b|1p=557|Kaldellis|2021a|2p=464|Bartusis|1997|3pp=5–6}} The new army heavily relied on foreign mercenaries alongside indigenous Byzantine troops, but the financial demands of a standing army proved too much for the Byzantine state, which succumbed to the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008b|1p=557|Bartusis|1997|2pp=5–7|Decker|2013|3p=82}} The [[Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)|army of the Palaiologan dynasty]], which retook Constantinople in 1261, was generally composed of a similar mix of mercenaries and indigenous troops, but it had lost all offensive capability by the late 1200s.{{sfnm|Haldon|2008b|1pp=557–558|Decker|2013|2pp=82–83}} The empire's continued survival depended on foreign armies; attempts in the 1340s to rebuild the fleet, unwisely disbanded in 1284, were forcibly halted by [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]].{{sfnm|Haldon|2008b|1pp=558–560|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=812, 860–861}} No post-1204 Byzantine field army fielded more than 5,000 troops, and less than 8,000 defended [[Fall of Constantinople|the final siege of Constantinople]] in 1453.{{sfnm|Decker|2013|1p=40|Haldon|2008b|2p=559}}

=== Diplomacy ===
{{Further|Byzantine diplomacy|Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire}}
[[File:John the Grammarian as ambassador before Theophilos and Mamun.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|The embassy of [[Patriarch John VII of Constantinople|John the Grammarian]] in 829, sent by emperor [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] to the Abbasid caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]]|alt=Manuscript illustration of an embassy travelling between two rulers]]

Byzantine strategy was primarily defensive, aside from the brief period of aggression between the ninth and eleventh centuries, because of the empire's habitual lack of resources.{{sfnm|Howard-Johnston|2008|1p=940|Kaldellis|2021a|2p=463}} To avoid risky and expensive military campaigns, the Byzantines [[Byzantine diplomacy|engaged in extensive diplomatic efforts]].{{sfnm|Haldon|1999|1p=278|Decker|2013|2p=130|Kaldellis|2021a|3p=465}} These took various forms, including: formal embassies, client management, alliance or peace negotiations, political marriages, [[propaganda]] and bribery, or even [[espionage]] and assassination.{{sfnm|Decker|2013|1p=130, 135–137|Kazhdan|1990|2pp=15–17}}

Defensively oriented Byzantine diplomacy was intended to protect the ''[[Ecumene|oikoumenē]]'', the civilised Christian world which the empire rightfully ruled.{{sfnm|Kazhdan|1990|1pp=10–11|Decker|2013|2p=129}} The decline of the key [[Limitrophe states|''limitrophe'' system]], wherein client states along the borders served as intermediaries between the empire and other large enemies, exposed the empire to attack. By the eleventh century, Byzantine diplomacy was more bilateral and balanced.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1990|pp=11–15, 18–21}} Although it lost some important advantages post-1204, diplomacy, including the still-influential Orthodox church, was nevertheless a central element in the empire's lengthy survival until 1453.{{sfnm|Howard-Johnston|2008|1p=945|Kazhdan|1990|2pp=20–21|Bartusis|1997|3p=348|Kaldellis|2021a|4p=466}}

== Society ==

=== Demography ===
{{Main|Demography of the Byzantine Empire}}

{{See also|Rhomaioi (endonym)}}

Scholars associate the Roman, Hellenic, and Christian imperial identities with the general population, but there is ongoing debate about how these and other regional identities blended together.{{sfnm|Stewart|2022|1pp=2-7, 10|Muthesius|2022|2pp=81, 96|Kaldellis|2022b|3pp=248, 258|Pohl|2018|4p=20|Stouraitis|2018|5pp=125-127}}

As many as 27 million people lived in the empire at its peak in 540, but this fell to 12 million by 800.{{Sfnm|Treadgold|1997b|1pp=197, 384–385|Kaldellis|2023|2pp=21–22|Stathakopoulos|2008|3p=310}} Although plague and territorial losses to Arab Muslim invaders weakened the empire, it eventually recovered and by the near end of the [[Macedonian dynasty]] in 1025, the population is estimated to have been as high as 18 million.{{Sfnm|Stathakopoulos|2008|1p=312|Treadgold|1997b|2pp=931–932}} A few decades after the recapture of Constantinople in 1282, the empire's population was in the range of 3–5 million; by 1312, the number had dropped to 2 million.{{Sfnm|Stathakopoulos|2008|1p=313|Treadgold|1997b|2p=1112}} By the time the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, there were only 50,000 people in the city, one-tenth of its population in its prime.{{Sfnm|Stathakopoulos|2008|1pp=310, 314|Stathakopoulos|2023|2p=31|Kaldellis|2023|3p=21}}

=== Cuisine and dining ===
{{Main|Byzantine cuisine}}

Feasting was central to the culture.{{sfn|Bryer|2008|p=673}} By the 10th century, dining shifted from [[Triclinium|reclining]] to tables with clean linen.{{sfn|Ash|1995|pp=244-245}} The introduction of the [[fork]] and [[salad dressing]] (with [[food oil|oil]] and [[vinegar]]) further shaped Italian and Western traditions.{{Sfnm|Ash|1995|1p=244|Decker|2008|2p=496}} Classical Greco-Roman era foods were common such as the condiment {{lang|grc-Latn|[[garum|garos]]}} (similar to fermented [[fish sauce]]s today) as well as the still popular [[baklava]].{{Sfnm|Faas|2005|1pp=184–185|Bryer|2008|2p=671|Ash|1995|3p=233|Vryonis|1971|4p=482}} Fruits like [[aubergine]] and [[orange (fruit)|orange]], unknown during classical times, were added to diets.{{Sfn|Davidson|2014|p=123}} Foods that have continued into the modern era include the cured meat [[pastirma|paston]], [[Feta]] cheese, salt roe similar to the modern [[boutargue]], Black sea [[caviar]], [[tiropita]], [[dolma]]des, and the soup {{lang|grc-Latn|[[tarhana|trachanas]]}}.{{Sfnm|Ash|1995|1p=244|Davidson|2014|2p=123|Bryer|2008|3p=671|Salaman|1986|4p=184}} There were famed medieval sweet wines such as the [[Malvasia]] from [[Monemvasia]], the [[Commandaria]], and the eponymous [[Rumney wine]] which were drunk, as were [[millet beer]] (known as {{lang|grc-Latn|boza}}) and [[retsina]].{{Sfnm|Bryer|2008|1pp=672-673|Unwin|2010|2p=185}}

=== Recreation ===
[[File:Tabula - boardgame - Zeno game.svg|thumb|A game of [[tabula (game)|τάβλι (tabula)]] played by the [[Byzantine]] emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] in 480 and recorded by [[Agathias]] in {{Circa|530}} because of a very unlucky dice throw for Zeno (red){{Sfn|Horn|Schädler|2019}}|alt=A depiction of a board game]]

[[Chariot racing|Chariot races]] were held from the early era until 1204, becoming one of the world's longest continuous sporting events.{{sfnm|Jeffreys|2008a|1pp=681-682|Kaldellis|2023|2p=13, 138}} [[Mime artist|Mimes]], the [[pantomime]] and some wild animal shows were prominent until the 6th century.{{sfn|Jeffreys|2008a|p=680}} Because Christian bishops and pagan philosophers did not like these activities, the state's funding for them ceased, leading to their decline and a move to private entertainment and sporting.{{sfnm|Jeffreys|2008a|1pp=678-683|Kaldellis|2023 |2pp=187, 233}} A Persian version of polo introduced by the Crusaders called [[Tzykanisterion|Tzykanion]] was played by the nobility and urban aristocracy in major cities during the middle and late eras, as was the sport of jousting introduced from the West.{{Sfnm|Kazhdan|1991a|1p=2137, "Tzykanisterion" |Kazanaki-Lappa|2002|2p=643|Jeffreys |2008a|3p=683 |Kaldellis|2023|4pp=672, 844}} Over time, [[Board game|game boards]] like [[Tabula (game)|tavli]] became increasingly popular.{{Sfn|Jeffreys|2008a|p=683}}

=== Language ===
{{further|Medieval Greek}}
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Mudil_Psalter.jpg
| width1 = 140
| alt1 = A photograph of two pages of a book written in a Greek script. The lower portions of both pages are damaged.
| caption1 =
| image2 = Joshua_Roll.jpg
| width2 = 146
| alt2 = A photograph of an illustrated manuscript written in Greek. At the left are two people who are standing talking to a person who is seated, while 5 soldiers listen. At the right are a group of soldiers going somewhere.
| caption2 =
| footer = Left: The Mudil Psalter, the oldest complete [[psalter]] in the Coptic language ([[Coptic Museum]], Egypt, [[Coptic Cairo]]). 
Right: The [[Joshua Roll]], a 10th-century illuminated Greek manuscript possibly made in Constantinople ([[Vatican Library]], Rome).
}}

[[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] were the primary languages of the late Roman Empire, with the former prevalent in the west and the latter in the east.{{sfn|Horrocks|2008|p=778}} Although Latin was historically important in the military, legal system, and government, its use declined in Byzantine territories from 400 AD.{{sfnm|Horrocks|2010|1p=208|Rochette|2023|2pp=282–283}} Greek had begun to replace it even in those functions by the time of [[Justinian I]] ({{reign|527|565|link=no}}), who may have tried to arrest Latin's decline. Its extinction in the east was thereafter inevitable.{{sfnm|Horrocks|2008|1p=778|Rochette|2023|2pp=283–284}} A similar process of linguistic [[Hellenization]] occurred in Asia Minor, whose inhabitants had mostly abandoned their indigenous languages for Greek by early Byzantine times.{{sfn|Horrocks|2010|pp=208–209}} Still, much of the population of the empire would have known neither Latin nor Greek, especially in rural areas—their languages included [[Armenian language|Armenian]] in [[Byzantine Armenia]], [[Aramaic]] dialects such as [[Syriac language|Syriac]] in Mesopotamia and the Levant, [[Coptic language|Coptic]] in Egypt, [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] on the Levant coast and in [[Carthage]], and [[Berber languages|Berber]] in rural North Africa.{{sfnm|Horrocks|2008|1pp=778–779|Horrocks|2010|2pp=207–210}}

The empire lost its linguistic diversity in the wars of the 7th and 8th centuries, becoming overwhelmingly Greek-speaking.{{sfn|Treadgold|2002|p=142}} During this troubled period, classical [[Attic Greek]]—one of the [[Register (sociolinguistics)|linguistic registers]] the Byzantine Greeks inherited—fell out of use, while the [[vernacular|everyday vernacular]] registers were still used.{{sfn|Browning|1982|p=51}} As the empire gained some stability from the 9th century onwards, and especially after the [[Komnenian restoration]], Attic Greek came back into fashion for written works. In a phenomenon called [[diglossia]], the gap between vernacular spoken Greek, which was rarely written in published works, and literary registers only spoken in formal contexts, became very wide.{{sfnm|Browning|1982|1p=51|Horrocks|2008|2pp=781–782}}

During the [[Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty|Palaiologan period]], although classically written works remained the normal style, Western-inspired writers began to use more vernacular elements, especially for [[Romance (prose fiction)|romances]] or near-contemporary histories. One example is the ''[[Chronicle of the Morea]]'', probably written by a French immigrant who was ignorant of formal Greek literature and who incorporated spoken Greek into his work.{{sfnm|Horrocks|2008|1p=783|Horrocks|2010|2pp=216–218|3a1=Jeffreys|3a2=Mango|3y=2002|3pp=298–300}} All such written vernacular was in verse form, becoming the ancestor of [[modern Greek]] poetry, while prose remained classically written.{{sfnm|Browning|1982|1pp=51–52|2a1=Jeffreys|2a2=Mango|2y=2002|2p=299}}

== Economy ==
{{Main|Byzantine economy}}

{{Further|Byzantine silk|Sino-Roman relations}}

The empire's geographic and maritime advantages reduced the costs of transporting goods and facilitated trade, making it a key driver of economic growth from antiquity and through the post-classical period.{{sfnm|Whittow|2009|1p=473|2a1=Laiou|2a2=Morrisson|2y=2007|2p=13}} Infrastructure, including roads, public buildings, and the legal system, supported trade and other economic activities.{{sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|p=24}} Regions like Asia Minor, the Aegean islands, Egypt, the Levant, and Africa thrived as mature economic centres despite political challenges and military insecurities.{{sfnm|Whittow|2009|1p=467|2a1=Laiou|2a2=Morrisson|2y=2007|2p=246}} From the mid-6th century onward, plagues, invasions, and wars caused populations and economies to decline, leading to the collapse of the ancient economy.{{sfnm|Whittow|2009|1pp=472, 474, 479|Laiou|2002c|2p=698|3a1=Laiou|3a2=Morrisson|3y=2007|3p=24}} Major cities like Constantinople, Antioch, [[Alexandria]], and [[Thessaloniki]] continued to support substantial populations exceeding 100,000, while the countryside transitioned into fortified settlements.{{sfnm|Laiou|2002a|1p=177|2a1=Laiou|2a2=Morrisson|2y=2007|2pp=25-26}} These rural areas developed into hamlets and villages, reflecting an economic shift between historical periods towards more efficient land use.{{sfnm|Whittow|2009|1p=465, 471|2a1=Laiou|2a2=Morrisson|2y=2007|2pp=25-26, 232}}

Low population density prompted emperors to encourage migration and resettlement, stimulating agriculture and demographic growth.{{sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|pp=44-46}} By the 9th century, the economy began to revive, marked by increased agricultural production and urban expansion.{{sfnm|Whittow|2009|1pp=473-474|Laiou|2002a|2pp=269-270}} Advances in science, technical knowledge, and literacy gave the empire a competitive edge over its neighbours.{{sfn|Laiou|Morrisson|2007|pp=19-22, 24}} The 11th and 12th centuries witnessed consistent and rapid population growth, marking the peak of this revival.{{sfnm|Whittow|2009|1p=476|2a1=Laiou|2a2=Morrisson|2y=2007|2pp=90-92}} Italian merchants, particularly the Venetians, Genoese, and Pisans, took control of international trade, thus reducing the influence of native merchants.{{sfnm|Whittow|2009|1pp=473-476|Laiou|2002a|2pp=25, 402}} The political system grew increasingly extractive and authoritarian, contributing to the empire's collapse in 1204.{{sfnm|Laiou|2002a|1p=23|Laiou|2002b|2p=1164|3a1=Laiou|3a2=Morrisson|3y=2007|3p=233}}

The fall of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204 destroyed centuries of its wealth.{{sfn|Magdalino|2002b|p=535}} Large landholdings were confiscated, and the empire fragmented into smaller rump states ruled by competing factions, making governance inefficient and increasing the costs of doing business.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=739|2a1=Laiou|2a2=Morrisson|2y=2007|2pp=167-168}} The state gradually lost control over trade practices, price regulations, the outflow of precious metals, and possibly even the minting of coins.{{Sfn|Matschke|2002|pp=805–806}} Italian merchants further dominated trade as the events of 1204 opened the Black Sea to Western merchants, permanently altering the empire's fortunes.{{sfnm|Whittow|2009|1p=477|Matschke|2002|2pp=771-772|3a1=Laiou|3a2=Morrisson|3y=2007|3p=203}} Farmers and manufacturers increasingly produced goods for local use and were affected by the insecurity of constant warfare.{{sfnm|Matschke|2002|1p=779|2a1=Laiou|2a2=Morrisson|2y=2007|2p=168}} Despite these challenges, the empire's mixed economy (characterised by state interventions, public works, and market liberalisation){{sfn|Laiou|2002c|p=754}} remained a model of medieval economic adaptability, even as it deteriorated under external pressures.{{sfnm|Whittow|2009|1p=471|2a1=Laiou|2a2=Morrisson|2y=2007|2pp=232-235}}

== Arts and sciences ==

===Art and architecture===
{{main|Byzantine art|Byzantine architecture}}

{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 340
| image1 = Spas vsederzhitel sinay.jpg
| image2 = Hosios Loukas Katholikon (nave, South-West squinch) - Baptism - detail 02.jpg
| image3 = Meister von Nerezi 001.jpg
| image4 = Ivoire Barberini - Musée du Louvre Objets d'art OA 9063 ; MND 211.jpg
| image5 = Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (focused on the original Roman building).jpg
| footer = Clockwise, from top left:
* [[Christ Pantocrator (Sinai)|Christ Pantocrator]] icon, 6th century, [[Sinai Monastery]]
* [[Hosios Loukas]] mosaics, detail, early 11th century
* [[Barberini ivory]], an early 6th-century ivory diptych{{sfn|Cormack|2018|p=39}}
* The [[Hagia Sophia]] exterior
* ''Dead Christ and Mourners'', {{circa|1164}}, [[Church of Saint Panteleimon, Gorno Nerezi|Gorno Nerezi]]{{sfn|James|2003|loc=§ para. 3}}
}}

Subjects in [[Byzantine art]] were primarily [[Christian art|Christian]] and typically non-naturalistic in their representation.{{sfn|James|2003|loc=§ paras. 2 and 13}} Emerging from both the [[Early Christian art and architecture|earliest Christian]] and [[Late Antique art]],{{sfnm|1a1=Rodley|1y=1994|1p=2|2a1=Cormack|2y=2018|2pp=11–12}} many early examples were lost amid the [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|Roman Persecutions]]; the fragmented mosaics of the 3rd-century [[Dura-Europos church]] are a unique exception.{{sfn|Rodley|1994|pp=12–14}} Such [[Byzantine mosaics]], known for their [[gold ground]] style, became a hallmark of the empire, displaying both secular and sacred themes in diverse places, including churches ([[Basilica of San Vitale]]), the circus ([[Hippodrome of Constantinople]]), and the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]].{{sfnm|1a1=Rodley|1y=1994|1p=34|2a1=James|2y=2003|2loc=§ paras. 3–4}} The early 6th-century reign of Justinian I saw systemic developments: [[religious art]] came to dominate, and once-popular public marble and bronze [[monumental sculpture]] fell out of favour due to [[pagan]] associations.{{sfnm|1a1=Rodley|1y=1994|1pp=32–33, 56–57|2a1=Cormack|2y=2018|2p=14}} Justinian commissioned the monumental [[Hagia Sophia]] church, and its influential elements became architectural hallmarks for the empire: the immense size, large [[dome]], innovative use of [[pendentive]]s and highly decorative interior were imitated as far north as the [[Cathedral of Saint Sophia, Novgorod|Cathedral of Saint Sophia]] in [[Novgorod]] and the [[Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv|Saint Sophia Cathedral]] in [[Kiev]].{{sfnm|1a1=James|1y=2003|1loc=§ para. 10|2a1=Cormack|2y=2018|2pp=33–40|3a1=Curl|3a2=Wilson|3y=2021|3loc=§ paras. 3 and 5}} The Hagia Sophia's creators, the engineer-architects [[Isidore of Miletus]] and [[Anthemius of Tralles]], are uniquely esteemed;{{sfnm|1a1=Rodley|1y=1994|1p=67}} most Byzantine artists were unrecorded and typically deemed to have little importance.{{sfn|James|2003|loc=§ para. 7}}

Smaller-scale art flourished throughout the entire Byzantine period: costly [[ivory carving]]s—often as diptychs ([[Barberini ivory]]) or triptychs ([[Harbaville Triptych]])—featured imperial commemorations or religious scenes and were particularly valued, as were [[metalwork]] and [[Byzantine enamel|enamel]]s.{{sfnm|1a1=James|1y=2003|1loc=§ para. 4|2a1=Cormack|2y=2018|2p=39}} Other costly objects included [[Byzantine illuminated manuscripts|illuminated manuscripts]], which were lavishly illustrated for a wide range of texts, and [[Byzantine silk|silk]]s, often dyed in the prized [[imperial purple]]; both became highly popular in Western Europe.{{sfn|James|2003|loc=§ paras. 4–5}} The rise of small, portable [[icon]] paintings, used for both public and private religious worship, grew increasingly controversial.{{sfnm|1a1=Rodley|1y=1994|1pp=101–102|2a1=Cormack|2y=2018|2p=2}} During two periods of [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]] (726–843), possibly influenced by [[Aniconism in Islam|Islamic prohibitions on religious images]],{{sfn|Lowden|1997|pp=147–148}} icons were suppressed and enormous amounts of figurative religious art was destroyed.{{sfn|Matthews|Platt|1997|p=185}} [[Iconoclast]]s condemned their use, likening them to pagan [[idolatry]] and ascribing recent [[Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180)#Raids under the last Umayyads and the rise of Iconoclasm|Umayyad defeats]] as [[divine retribution]] for their use. [[Iconophile]]s eventually prevailed, maintaining their essential use for [[veneration]], considered distinct from [[worship]], and found precedent in [[gospel]] references.{{sfnm|1a1=Rodley|1y=1994|1pp=115–116|2a1=Lowden|2y=1997|2pp=147–151}}

[[Macedonian art (Byzantine)|Post-iconoclast Macedonian art]] (867–1056) saw a [[Macedonian Renaissance|cultural renaissance]], and many artworks from this period survive.{{sfnm|1a1=Rodley|1y=1994|1p=132|2a1=Lowden|2y=1997|2pp=187–188}} Subjects and styles became standardised, particularly [[cross-in-square]] churches, and already-existing frontality and [[symmetry]] evolved into a dominant artistic aesthetic, observable in the small [[Pala d'Oro]] enamel and the large mosaics of the [[Hosios Loukas]], [[Daphni Monastery|Daphni]], and [[Nea Moni of Chios|Nea Moni]] monasteries.{{sfnm|1a1=James|1y=2003|1loc=§ para. 3|2a1=Cormack|2y=2018|2pp=146–147}} The subsequent Komnenos-Angelos periods (1081–1204) saw increased imperial patronage, alongside figurative artwork of increased emotional expression (''Dead Christ and Mourners'', {{circa|1164}}).{{sfn|James|2003|loc=§ para. 3}} Byzantine artistic influence spread widely to [[Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture|Norman Sicily]] (the ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]'') and Venice (the mosaics of [[St Mark's Basilica]]).{{sfn|James|2003|loc=§ para. 3}} Serbian churches flourished, as three successive [[Medieval Serbian architecture|schools of architecture]]—[[Raška architectural school|Raška]] (1170–1282), [[Serbo-Byzantine architecture|Byzantine Serbia]] (1282–1355), and [[Morava architectural school|Morava]] (1355–1489)—combined a [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] aesthetic with increasingly voluminous decorations and domes.{{sfn|Curl|Wilson|2021|loc=§ para. 7}} As smaller [[Palaeologan Renaissance#Art and architecture|Palaeologan artworks]] (1261–1453) gained [[relic]] status in Western Europe—many looted in the 1204 Fourth Crusade—they greatly influenced the [[Italo-Byzantine]] style of [[Cimabue]], [[Duccio]], and later [[Giotto]]; the latter is traditionally regarded by art historians as the inaugurator of [[Italian Renaissance painting]].{{sfnm|1a1=Rodley|1y=1994|1p=166|2a1=Cormack|2y=2018|2pp=159, 186|3a1=Andronikou|3y=2022|3pp=2–4}}

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Byzantine literature}}

[[Byzantine literature]] concerns all [[Greek literature]] from the [[Middle Ages]].{{sfn|Browning|2022|loc=§ para. 1}} Although the empire was [[Languages of the Roman Empire|linguistically diverse]], the vast majority of extant texts are in [[medieval Greek]],{{sfn|Papaioannou|2021a|pp=1–2, 5–7}} in two [[Diglossia|diglossic]] variants: a scholarly form based on [[Attic Greek]], and a [[vernacular]] based on [[Koine Greek]].{{sfn|Browning|1991a}} Most contemporary scholars consider all medieval Greek texts to be literature,{{sfn|Papaioannou|2021a|p=10}} but some offer varying constraints.{{sfnm|1a1=Kazhdan|1y=1999|1p=1|2a1=van Dieten|2y=1980|2pp=101–105}} The literature's early period ({{circa|330–650}}) was dominated by the competing cultures of [[Hellenistic period|Hellenism]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Christianity]] and [[Religion in ancient Rome|Paganism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Browning|1y=2022|1loc=§ paras. 1–2|2a1=Kaldellis|2y=2021|2pp=162–163}} The [[Church Fathers#Greek Fathers|Greek Church Fathers]]—educated in an Ancient Greek [[rhetoric]] tradition—sought to synthesise these influences.{{sfn|Browning|2022|loc=§ para. 1}} Important early writers include [[John Chrysostom]], [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] and [[Procopius]], all of whom aimed to reinvent older forms to fit the empire.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1236}} Theological [[miracle]] stories were particularly innovative and popular;{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1236}} the ''[[Sayings of the Desert Fathers]]'' (''Apophthegmata Patrum'') were copied in nearly every Byzantine monastery.{{sfn|Martín|2021|p=685}} During the [[Byzantine Dark Ages]] ({{circa|650–800|lk=no}}), production of literature mostly stopped, though some important theologians were active, such as [[Maximus the Confessor]], [[Germanus I of Constantinople]] and [[John of Damascus]].{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1236}}

The subsequent cultural Macedonian Renaissance ({{circa|800–1000|lk=no}}; the "Encyclopedism period") saw a renewed proliferation of literature and revived the earlier Hellenic-Christian synthesis.{{sfn|Browning|2022|loc=§ para. 1}} Works by [[Homer]], [[List of ancient Greek philosophers|Ancient Greek philosophers]] and [[Greek tragedy|tragedians]] were translated, and [[hagiography]] was heavily reorganised.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1236}} After this early flowering of monastic literature, there was a dearth until [[Symeon the New Theologian]] in the late 10th century.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1236}} A new generation ({{circa|1000–1250|lk=no}}), including Symeon, [[Michael Psellos]] and [[Theodore Prodromos]], rejected the Encyclopedist emphasis on order, and were interested in individual-focused ideals variously concerning [[Christian mysticism|mysticism]], [[authorial voice]], heroism, humour and love.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|pp=1236–1237}} This included the Hellenistic-inspired [[Byzantine romance]] and [[chivalry|chivalric]] approaches in rhetoric, historiography and the influential epic ''[[Digenes Akritas]]''.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1236}} The empire's final centuries saw a renewal of hagiography and increased Western influence, leading to mass Greek to Latin translations.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1237}} Authors such as [[Gemistos Plethon]] and [[Bessarion]] exemplified a new focus on human [[vice]]s alongside the preservation of classical traditions, the latter greatly influenced the [[Italian Renaissance]].{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991b|p=1237}}

===Music===
{{Main|Byzantine music}}

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|alt = A cropped image of a mosaic, which depicts two women playing a church organ like instrument
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[[Byzantine music]] is eclectically descended from early [[Plainsong|Christian plainsong]], [[Jewish music]], and a variety of [[ancient music]]; its exact connections to [[Musical system of ancient Greece|ancient Greek music]] remain uncertain.{{sfnm|1a1=Velimirović|1y=1990|1pp=28–29|2a1=Conomos|2y=1991|2p=1426}} It included both [[Sacred music|sacred]] and [[Secular music|secular]] traditions, but the latter is little known, whereas the former remains the central music of [[Eastern Orthodox]] liturgy into the 21st century.{{sfnm|1a1=Conomos|1y=1991|1pp=1424–1426|2a1=Levy|2a2=Troelsgård|2y=2016|2loc=§ Introduction}} The empire's church music, known as Byzantine [[chant]], was exclusively unaccompanied [[Monody|monodic]] vocal music, sung in Greek.{{sfn|Velimirović|1990|pp=26–27, 29}} From the 8th century, chant melodies were governed by the ''[[Oktōēchos]]'' framework, a set of eight [[Mode (music)|modes]]—[[echos]] ({{lang|grc|ἦχος}}; {{lit.|sound}})—each of these provide predetermined [[Motif (music)|motivic]] formulae for composition.{{sfnm|1a1=Velimirović|1y=1990|1pp=45–46|2a1=Conomos|2y=1991|2p=1425|3a1=Levy|3a2=Troelsgård|3y=2016|3loc=§5 "System of eight modes ('oktōēchos')", §7 "Formulaic chants"}} These formulae were chosen for proper [[text stress]] and occasionally for [[text painting]], then collated through [[centonisation]] into [[hymn]]s or [[psalm]]s.{{sfnm|1a1=Velimirović|1y=1990|1p=29|2a1=Levy|2a2=Troelsgård|2y=2016|2loc=§7 "Formulaic chants"}}

Byzantine chant was central to the [[Byzantine Rite]]; the earliest music was not [[musical notation|notated]],{{sfn|Velimirović|1990|pp=26–27}} including early mono[[strophic]] short hymns like the [[troparion]].{{sfn|Levy|Troelsgård|2016|loc=§10 "Syllabic hymn settings"}} Proto-[[Ekphonetic notation]] (9th century onwards) marked simple [[recitation]] patterns. The [[neumatic]] Palaeo-Byzantine notation system emerged in the 10th century, and the Middle Byzantine "Round Notation" from the mid-12th century onwards is the first fully [[:wikt:diastematic|diastematic]] scheme.{{sfnm|1a1=Velimirović|1y=1990|1pp=48–51|2a1=Levy|2a2=Troelsgård|2y=2016|2loc=§3 "Melodic notation"}} Several major forms developed alongside [[List of Byzantine composers|well-known composers]]: the long [[kontakion]] (5th century onwards), popularised by [[Romanos the Melodist]]; the also-extensive [[Canon (hymnography)|kanōn]] (late 7th century onwards), developed by [[Andrew of Crete]]; and the shorter [[sticheron]] (at least 8th century onwards), championed by [[Kassia]].{{sfnm|1a1=Conomos|1y=1991|1p=1425|2a1=Levy|2a2=Troelsgård|2y=2016|2loc=§3 "Melodic notation"|3a1=Mellas|3y=2020|3p=2}} By the Palaiologan period, the dominance of strict compositional rules lessened and [[John Koukouzeles]] led a new school favouring a more [[Ornament (music)|ornamental]] "kalophonic" style which deeply informed post-empire Neo-Byzantine music.{{sfn|Conomos|1991|pp=1425–1426}}

Secular music, often state-sponsored, was ubiquitous in daily life and featured in a variety of ceremonies, festivals, and theatre.{{sfn|Touliatos|2001|loc=§ Introduction}} Secular vocal music was rarely notated, and extant manuscripts date much later, suggesting the tradition was passed through [[oral tradition]] and likely [[improvised]].{{sfn|Touliatos|2001|loc=§ "Sources"}} Prohibited for liturgical use, a wide variety of Byzantine [[Musical instrument|instrument]]s flourished in secular contexts, although no notated instrumental music survives.{{sfn|Conomos|Kazhdan|1991|p=1426}} It is uncertain to what extent instrumentalists improvised or if they doubled vocalists monophonically or [[Heterophony|heterophonically]].{{sfnm|1a1=Conomos|1a2=Kazhdan|1y=1991|1p=1426|2a1=Touliatos|2y=2001|2loc=§2 "Instruments and performing practice"}} Among the best known instruments are the [[hydraulic organ]], used for circus and imperial court events; the [[Music of ancient Greece|ancient Greek]]-descended [[aulos]], a [[wind instrument]]; the [[tambouras]], a plucked [[string instrument]]; and mostly popularly, the [[Byzantine lyra]].{{sfnm|1a1=Conomos|1a2=Kazhdan|1y=1991|1p=1426|2a1=Touliatos|2y=2001|2loc=§2 "Instruments and performing practice"}} Prominent genres included [[acclamatio]]n chants of laudation or salutation; the celebratory [[Acritic songs]]; symposia instrumental [[banquet]]s, based on ancient [[symposium]]s; and [[dance music]].{{sfn|Touliatos|2001|loc=§3 "Genres and composers"}}

=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Byzantine science}}

{{See also|List of Byzantine inventions|Byzantine philosophy|List of Byzantine scholars}}
[[File:20131203 Istanbul 048.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Interior of the [[Hagia Sophia]]; the influence of [[Archimedes]]' principles of solid geometry is evident.|alt=A photograph of the interior of a building built with blue arches and pillars and ornate yellow walls]]

The scholars of the empire played a principal role in transmitting classical knowledge to the [[Greek contributions to the Islamic world|Islamic world]] and [[Italian Renaissance|Renaissance Italy]], as well as producing commentaries that helped expand scientific knowledge.{{sfnm|Robins|1993|1pp=8-9|Lazaris|2020a|2p=17|Telelis|2020|3p=186}} This medieval Greek scholarship was not only based on scientific treatises from antiquity but also drew from Islamic, Latin, and Hebrew works, which helped spearhead new developments as late as the 11th and 12th centuries.{{sfnm|1a1=Lazaris|1y=2020a|1pp=3, 11|2a1=Inglebert|2y=2020|2p=27|3a1=Tatakes|3a2=Moutafakis|3y=2003|3p=180}} Although the Empire is sometimes not associated with scientific innovation or major discoveries,{{sfnm|Mango|2008|1p=958|2a1=Nicolaidis et al.|2y=2016|2pp=544–545}} its scientific contributions have also been described as underestimated.{{sfn|Tihon|2013|p=206}} Incomplete assessments of Byzantine texts{{sfn|Tihon|2013|p=206}} and the challenges of applying modern definitions of science to pre-modern contexts are factors in these ongoing debates.{{sfn|Lazaris|2020a|pp=1–5}}

[[File:Liquid fire granades Chania.jpg|thumb|upright|Ceramic grenades which were filled with [[Greek fire]], surrounded by [[caltrop]]s, 10th–12th century, [[National Historical Museum (Greece)|National Historical Museum]], Athens|alt=Two pots surrounded by caltrops]]

Key people passed on important traditions that underpinned this scholarship, especially in the realms of philosophy, geometry, astronomy, and grammar.{{Sfn|Manolova|2020|p=66}} For example, the Hagia Sophia architect [[Isidore of Miletus]] ({{Circa|530}}), compiled [[Archimedes]]' works which [[Leo the Mathematician]] ({{Circa|850|lk=no}}) incorporated into formal courses, and is why the [[Archimedes Palimpsest]] is known today.{{Sfnm|Manolova|2020|1p=66|Jones|2005|2p=520-521}} [[John Philoponus]] and his critiques of [[Aristotelian physics]], the pharmacologist [[Pedanius Dioscorides]], and Ptolematic geography and astronomy had an important influence on western science, as seen with [[Ptolemy]]'s influence on [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]] and Philoponus on [[Bonaventure]], [[Gersonides]], [[Jean Buridan|Buridan]], [[Nicole Oresme|Oresme]] and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]].{{sfnm|Wildberg|2018|1p=|Lindberg|1992|2p=162}}

Military innovations included the [[Stirrup|riding stirrup]] which provided stability for mounted archers and dramatically transformed the army; a specialised type of [[horseshoe]]; the [[Lateen|lateen sail]], which improved a ship's responsiveness to wind; and [[Greek fire]]—an incendiary weapon capable of burning even when doused with water, first appearing around the time of the [[Siege of Constantinople (674–678)]].{{sfnm|Lazaris|2020a|1p=16|Salmon|2020|2pp=445-446|Partington|1999|3p=13}} In [[Byzantine medicine|healthcare]], the empire pioneered the concept of the hospital as an institution offering medical care and the possibility of a cure for the patients, rather than merely being a place to die.{{sfnm|Lindberg|1992|1p=349|Nutton|1984|2p=9|Miller|1997|3pp=ix, 3–4|Bennett|2016|4pp=7-14}}

== Legacy ==
{{Main|Legacy of the Roman Empire}}

=== Political aftermath ===
{{See also|Succession to the Byzantine Empire}}

[[File:Eastern Mediterranean 1450.svg|thumb|The Eastern Mediterranean just before the [[Fall of Constantinople]]|alt=A map centred on Greece and Turkey in 1450 AD. The Byzantine Empire holds only Southern Greece and northwestern Turkey]]

After Constantinople fell, the Ottomans quickly absorbed the remaining independent territories, including [[Acciaioli family|Acciaiuoli]] Athens in 1458, Morea in 1460, Trebizond in 1461, and [[Gattilusio|Gattilusi]] [[Lesbos]] in 1462.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=914|Nicol|1993|2pp=407-408|Bryer|2009|3p=856}} They dismantled the Empire's political and secular institutions, leaving the impoverished Church to manage what would be later called the ''[[Rum Millet]]'', primarily as a tool for taxing its followers.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=914–915|Bryer|2009|2p=869 |Papademetriou|2015|3p=52}} As the sole sovereign Orthodox state, Russia developed the [[Moscow, third Rome|Third Rome doctrine]], emphasising its cultural heritage as distinct from Western Europe, because the latter had inherited much of the empire's secular learning.{{sfnm|Seton-Watson|1967|1p=31|Kaldellis|2023|2p=901|Mango|2008|3pp=960-961}} The [[Danubian Principalities]] became a haven for Orthodox Christians and [[Phanariots|Phanariot]] Greeks who sought to recreate a Byzantine Greek Empire.{{sfn|Clark|2000|p=215}} In modern Greece, members of the ''Rum Millet'' [[Names of the Greeks#Romans (Ῥωμαῖοι)|increasingly identified as Greeks]], eventually leading to a [[Greek War of Independence|successful war of independence]] in the 19th century.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=915|Treadgold|1997b|2p=1125}} The modern Greek state nearly doubled its territory through the pursuit of the [[Megali Idea]]—a vision of reclaiming the former lands of the eastern empire—achieving limited success during the [[Crimean War]] but making significant gains during the [[Balkan Wars]].{{sfnm|1a1=Ivanova|1a2=Anderson|1y=2024|1p=1240|2a1=Kaldellis|2y=2022b|2p=360}}

Since the 15th century, Byzantine history has been deeply politicised, woven into nationalist, colonialist, and imperialist narratives.{{sfnm|1a1=Ivanova|1a2=Anderson|1y=2024|1pp=1233, 1235, 1248|2a1=Aschenbrenner|2a2=Ransohoff|2y=2022b|2p=372|3a1=Kaldellis|3y=2022b|3p=352}} This politicisation appears not only in Greece but also in Bulgarian, Romanian, Serbian, Hungarian, and Turkish nationalism, as well as in former French and Russian imperialist agendas.{{sfnm|1a1=Ivanova|1a2=Anderson|1y=2024|1pp=1229-41, 1234, 1238|2a1=Haarer|2y=2010|2pp=18–19}} In the English-speaking world, interpretations of Byzantine history frequently surface in political debates, alongside the growing appreciation for its legacy.{{sfnm|1a1=Ivanova|1a2=Anderson|1y=2024|1p=1248|2a1=Haarer|2y=2010|2pp=10-12|3a1=Goldwyn|3y=2022|3p=325|4a2=Mango|4y=2008|4p=958}} The complexity of this history makes it a sensitive topic, especially regarding Greece's role in Europe's evolving sense of identity and the origin stories of many European nations.{{sfnm|1a1=Ivanova|1a2=Anderson|1y=2024|1p=1248|2a1=Haarer|2y=2010|2p=18-19|3a1=Stewart|3y=2022|3p=3|4a1=Kaldellis|4y=2023|4pp=2-3|5a1=Cameron|5y=2010|5pp=177-178}}

=== Cultural aftermath ===
{{See also|Succession of the Roman Empire|Greek scholars in the Renaissance}}
[[File:Sousoší Cyrila a Metoděje 09.jpg|thumb|Monument to [[Saints Cyril and Methodius|St. Cyril and St. Methodius]], Byzantine missionaries to the Slavs, on [[Radhošť|Mt. Radhošť]] in Czechia|alt=A photograph of statue, which depicts two bearded and hooded men; the one on the left is holding up a cross and the one on the right is holding up a book]]

The Byzantine Empire distinctively blended Roman political traditions, Greek literary heritage, and Christianity, creating the civilisational framework that laid the foundation for medieval Europe.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1pp=3-4|Cameron|2010|2p=175}} The Empire preserved European civilisation by acting as a shield against forces from Eurasian Steppe people such as the Avars, Bulgars, Cumans, Huns, Pechenegs, and Turks.{{sfnm|Mango|2008|1pp=958-959|Obolensky|1994|2p=3}}

The empire's legal codes significantly influenced the civil law traditions of continental Europe, Russia, Latin America, Ethiopia, and even the English-speaking common law countries; and possibly influenced Islamic legal traditions as well.{{sfnm|Stolte|2015|2a1=Merryman|2a2=Pérez-Perdomo|2y=2007|Stein|1999|1pp=10–11|2pp=367–368|3p=36}}{{sfn|Salogubova|Zenkov|2018}} It also preserved and transmitted classical learning and manuscripts, making important contributions to the intellectual revival which fuelled [[Renaissance humanism|Italian humanism]].{{sfnm|Cameron|2010|1p=165|Mango|2008|2p=960}}

The Byzantine Empire played a pivotal role in shaping Christianity by supporting early Church fathers and the decisions of Church councils; developing the institution of [[Christian monasticism|monasticism]]; and fostering the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox tradition]] which continues to define much of Eastern European identity.{{sfnm|Poppe|1991|1p=25|Cameron|2010|2p=261|Mango|2008|3p=358}} It was also instrumental in preserving the Greek language and is credited with developing the [[Glagolitic script|Glagolitic alphabet]], which later evolved into the [[Cyrillic script]] and [[Old Church Slavonic]].{{sfnm|Poppe|1991|1p=25|Ivanič|2016|2p=127|Mango|2008|3pp=959, 961}} These innovations provided the first literary language for the Slavs and formed the educational foundation for all Slavic nations.{{sfnm|Poppe|1991|1p=25|Ivanič|2016|2p=127|Cameron|2010|3p=165|Shepard|2006|4pp=7–8}}

== See also ==
* [[List of Byzantine emperors]]
* [[Byzantine dress]]
* [[Family tree of Byzantine emperors]]
* [[List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars]]
* [[List of Byzantine wars]]
* [[List of Roman dynasties]]
* [[Outline of the Byzantine Empire]]

{{clear}}

== References ==

=== Notes ===
{{Notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==

=== Books ===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last=Andronikou |first=Anthi |year=2022 |title=Italy, Cyprus, and Artistic Exchange in the Medieval Mediterranean |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-316-51092-6 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=vkeEEAAAQBAJ}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ash |first=John |author-link=John Ash (writer) |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantinejourney00ashj |title=A Byzantine Journey |publisher=Random House |date=1995 |isbn=978-1-84511-307-0 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Bartusis |first=Mark |date=1997 |title=The late Byzantine army: arms and society, 1204-1453 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-8122-1620-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Berndt |first1=Guido M. |author1-link=:de:Guido M. Berndt |last2=Steinacher |first2=Roland |author2-link=Roland Steinacher |year=2014 |title=Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8RsGDAAAQBAJ |location=London |publisher=Routledge |edition=1st |isbn=978-1-4094-4659-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Bennett |first=David |title=Medicine and Pharmacy in Byzantine Hospitals: A Study of the Extant Formularies |isbn=978-0-3678-7908-2 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Browning |first=Robert |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantineempire/ |title=The Byzantine Empire |publisher=The Catholic University of America Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-8132-0754-4 |location=Washington DC |url-access=registration |author-link=Robert Browning (Byzantinist)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cameron |first=Averil |title=The Byzantines |date=2010 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-9833-2 |series=The Peoples of Europe |location=Oxford}}
* {{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Averil |author-link=Averil Cameron |title=Byzantine Christianity: A Very Brief History |publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge |year=2017|isbn=9780281076147 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chitwood |first=Zachary |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/byzantine-legal-culture-and-the-roman-legal-tradition-8671056/EDF3AD1A74C4461805235605257DF9D6 |title=Byzantine Legal Culture and the Roman Legal Tradition, 867–1056 |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-18256-1 |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite book |last=Clark |first=Victoria |url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_o2c0 |title=Why Angels Fall: A Journey through Orthodox Europe from Byzantium to Kosovo |publisher=Macmillan |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-312-23396-9 |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Constantelos |first=Demetrios |author-link=Demetrios Constantelos |title=Christian Hellenism: Essays and Studies in Continuity and Change |year=1998 |publisher=Aristides D. Caratzas |series=Studies in the Social & Religious History of the Medieval Greek World |volume=3 |location=New Rochelle |isbn=978-0-89241-588-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/christianhelleni0000cons/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Cormack |first=Robin |author-link=Robin Cormack |year=2018 |orig-year=2000 |title=Byzantine Art |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-877879-0 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=JnlQDwAAQBAJ}} }}
* {{Cite book |last=Davidson |first=Alan |editor-first1=Tom |editor-last1=Jaine |author-link=Alan Davidson (food writer) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Companion to Food |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-967733-7 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514144822/https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live |editor1-link=Tom Jaine}}
* {{cite book |last=Decker |first=Michael |date=2013 |title=The Byzantine Art of War |publisher=Westholme Publishing |location=[[Yardley, Pennsylvania|Yardley]] |isbn=978-1-5941-6168-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Faas |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXGlAr17oekC |title=Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-226-23347-5 |orig-date=1994 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=30 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730151401/https://books.google.com/books?id=YXGlAr17oekC |url-status=live |location=Chicago}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a5GFAgAAQBAJ |last=Garland |first=Lynda |author-link=Lynda Garland |title=Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527–1204 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-415-14688-3 |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-date=16 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116221034/https://books.google.com/books?id=a5GFAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gregory |first=Timothy E. |title=A History of Byzantium |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-4051-8471-7 |location=Malden |author-link=Timothy E. Gregory}}
* {{cite book |last=Haldon |first=John |author-link=John Haldon |date=1999 |title=Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World |publisher=[[UCL Press]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-8572-8495-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Jonathan |title=Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium |date=2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-4742-5466-3 |edition=Second |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hodgkin |first=Thomas |title=Early Church history to the death of Constantine |date=1892 |edition = Third | publisher=Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent |location=London | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5fBMAQAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book |title=Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers |year=2010 |last1=Horrocks |first1=Geoffrey |isbn=978-1-4051-3415-6 |edition=2nd |publisher=Wiley |author-link1=Geoffrey Horrocks (philologist)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Howard-Johnston |first=James |title=Byzantium: Economy, Society, Institutions 600–1100 |date=2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198897880 |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kaldellis |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Kaldellis |title=Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformations of Greek Identity and the Reception of the Classical Tradition |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-87688-9 |location=Cambridge}}
* {{cite book |last=Kaldellis |first=Anthony |title=The New Roman Empire: A History of Byzantium |date=2023 |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |author-mask=3 |isbn=978-0197549322}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Kazhdan |first1=Alexander Petrovich |author-link=Alexander Kazhdan |title=Change in Byzantine Culture in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries |last2=Wharton |first2=Annabel Jane |author-link2=Annabel Jane Wharton |publisher=University of California Press |year=1990 |isbn=9780520069626 |series=Transformation of the Classical Heritage |volume=7 |location=Berkeley}}
* {{cite book |last=Kazhdan |first=Alexander |year=1999 |title=A History of Byzantine Literature (650–850) |publisher=Institute for Byzantine Research |location=Athens |url=https://archive.org/details/Kazhdan1999ByzLit01/mode/2up |url-access=registration |isbn=978-960-371-010-3 |author-mask=3}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Laiou |first1=Angeliki E. |title=The Byzantine Economy |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/byzantine-economy/59786C4CA132FDEAA9F7F31472FAC2CB |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-84978-4 |last2=Morrisson |first2=Cécile}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David |author-link=David C. Lindberg |title=The Beginnings of Western Science |title-link=The Beginnings of Western Science |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1992 |isbn=9780226482057 |location=Chicago}}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1017/CHO9780511974007 |title=The Cambridge History of Science |volume=2: Medieval Science |year=2013 |editor-last1=Lindberg |editor-first1=David C. |editor-last2=Shank |editor-first2=Michael H. |isbn=978-0-511-97400-7 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
** {{harvc |last=Tihon |first=Anne |c=Science in the Byzantine Empire |year=2013 |in1=Lindberg |in2=Shank |pages=190–206}}
* {{cite book |last=Lowden |first=John |author-link=John Lowden |year=1997 |title=Early Christian & Byzantine Art |publisher=Phaidon Press |location=London |isbn=978-0-7148-3168-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_2900714831687}}
* {{cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Roy T. |last2=Platt |first2=F. DeWitt |title=The Western Humanities |date=1997|publisher=Michigan State University|isbn=9781559344333|location=East Lansing}}
* {{cite book |last=Mellas |first=Andrew |year=2020 |title=Liturgy and the Emotions in Byzantium: Compunction and Hymnody |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-108-76736-1}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Merryman |first1=John Henry |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm81252739 |title=The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America |last2=Pérez-Perdomo |first2=Rogelio |date=2007 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-5568-9 |edition=3rd |location=Stanford, California |author1-link=John Henry Merryman}}
* {{cite book |last=Meyendorff |first=John |author-link=:ru:Мейендорф, Иван Феофилович |title=Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends and Doctrinal Themes |publisher=Fordham University Press |year=1979 |edition=illustrated, reprint, revised |isbn=978-0-8232-0967-5 |location=New York |url=https://www.thetbs.org/study-materials/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Byzantine-Theology-Historical-Trends-and-Doctrinal-Themes-by-John-Meyendorff-z-lib.org_.epub_.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240823182542/https://www.thetbs.org/study-materials/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Byzantine-Theology-Historical-Trends-and-Doctrinal-Themes-by-John-Meyendorff-z-lib.org_.epub_.pdf |archive-date=23 August 2024 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Millar |first=Fergus |author-link=Fergus Millar |url=https://archive.org/details/greekromanempire00ferg |title=A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408–450) |publisher=University of California Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-520-24703-1 |location=Berkeley}}
* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Timothy S. |title=The Birth of the Hospital in the Byzantine Empire |isbn=978-0-8018-5657-0 |location=Baltimore|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1997}}
* {{cite book |first=Donald M. |last=Nicol |author-link=Donald Nicol |title=The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsC |year=1993 |publisher=Rupert Hart-Davis |location=London |isbn=9780521439916 |access-date=11 December 2023 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709030914/https://books.google.com/books?id=y2d6OHLqwEsC |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Obolensky |first=Dimitri |title=Byzantium and the Slavs |publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |date=1994 |isbn=978-0-88141-008-2 |location=Yonkers |author-link=Dimitri Obolensky}}
* {{Cite book |last=Partington |first=J. R. |author-link=J. R. Partington |title=A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1999 |isbn=9780801859540 |location=Baltimore}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ring |first=Trudy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC |title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa |publisher=Taylor & Francis |date=1994 |isbn=978-1-884964-03-9 |volume=4 |access-date=23 October 2016 |archive-date=9 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609091417/https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC |url-status=live |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Robins |first=Robert Henry |title=The Byzantine Grammarians: Their Place in History |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |date=1993 |isbn=978-3-11-013574-9 |location=Berlin |author-link=R. H. Robins}}
* {{cite book |last=Rodley |first=Lyn |year=1994 |title=Byzantine Art and Architecture: An Introduction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-35724-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantineartarch0000rodl/page/n3/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rosser |first=John H. |title=Historical Dictionary of Byzantium |date=2011 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810874770 |location=Lanham, Maryland}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rotman |first=Youval |title=Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World |date=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-03611-6 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rotman |first=Youval |title=Slaveries of the First Millennium |date=2022 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-1-64189-172-1 |author-mask=3 |location=Amsterdam |doi=10.2307/j.ctv2175h0p |jstor=j.ctv2175h0p}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sabo |first1=Theodore |title=From Monophysitism to Nestorianism: AD 431–681 |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-5275-0959-7|location=Newcastle upon Tyne}}
* {{Cite book |last=Seton-Watson |first=Hugh |title=The Russian Empire, 1801–1917 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1967 |isbn=978-0-1982-2152-4 |author-link=Hugh Seton-Watson |location=London |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/russianempire1800000seto/mode/2up}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stathakopoulos |first=Dionysios Ch. |title=A Short History of the Byzantine Empire |date=2023 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-350-23340-9 |series=Short Histories |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stein |first=Peter |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511814723 |title=Roman Law in European History |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-64372-6 |location=Cambridge |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511814723 |author-link=Peter Stein (legal scholar)}}
* {{Cite book |location=London |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781136727870 |title=The Byzantine World |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-72787-0 |editor-last=Stephenson |editor-first=Paul}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Tatakes |first1=Vasileios N. |title=Byzantine Philosophy |last2=Moutafakis |first2=Nicholas J. |publisher=Hackett |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-8722-0563-5 |location=Indianapolis}}
* {{Cite book |last=Treadgold |first=Warren T. |title=Byzantium and its Army: 284–1081 |date=1995 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-3163-8 |location=Stanford |author-link=Warren Treadgold}}
* {{A History of the Byzantine State and Society}}
* {{Cite book |last=Treadgold |first=Warren T. |title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society |date=1997b |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-7937-1 |location=Redwood City}}
* {{cite book|last = Treadgold |first = Warren |author-link = Warren Treadgold |title= A Concise History of Byzantium, 25th Anniversary Edition |year =2025 |publisher = Bloomsbury Academic |isbn = 978-1-350-54133-7 |url= {{GBurl|zYNJEQAAQBAJ}} }}
* {{Cite book |last=Unwin |first=P. T. H. |title=Wine and the Vine: An Historical Geography of Viticulture and the Wine Trade |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-14416-2 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Vryonis |first=Speros |author-link=Speros Vryonis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wBpIAAAAMAAJ |title=The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century |publisher=University of California Press |date=1971 |isbn=978-0-520-01597-5 |location=Berkeley |access-date=25 June 2016 |archive-date=26 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626102729/https://books.google.com/books?id=wBpIAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}
{{Refend}}

=== Journals ===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite journal |last=Adams |first=Robert Merrihew |author-link=Robert Merrihew Adams |title=Nestorius and Nestorianism |year=2021 |journal=The Monist |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=366–375 |doi=10.1093/monist/onab005}}
* {{cite journal |last=Brown |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Brown (historian) |title=Eastern and Western Christendom in Late Antiquity: A Parting of the Way |journal=Studies in Church History |year=1976 |volume=13 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1017/S0424208400006574}}
* {{cite journal |last=Browning |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Browning (Byzantinist) |date=1982 |title=Greek diglossia yesterday and today |journal=[[International Journal of the Sociology of Language]] |issue=35 |pages=49–68 |doi=10.1515/ijsl.1982.35.49}}
* {{cite journal |last=Cameron |first=Averil |title=Late Antiquity and Byzantium: An Identity Problem |journal=[[Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies]] |year=2016 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=27–37 |doi=10.1017/byz.2015.4}}
* {{cite journal |last=van Dieten |first=Jan Louis |year=1980 |title=Die Byzantinische Literatur – Eine Literatur Ohne Geschichte? |trans-title=Byzantine Literature – A Literature Without History? |language=de |journal=[[Historische Zeitschrift]] |volume=231 |issue=H 1 |pages=101–109 |doi=10.1524/hzhz.1980.231.jg.101 |jstor=27621785}}
* {{Cite conference |last=Dingledy |first=Frederick |date=2019-05-02 |title=The Corpus Juris Civilis: A Guide to Its History and Use |doi=10.31228/osf.io/meq6c |journal=Legal Reference Services Quarterly |volume=35 |issue=4 |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Harper |first=Kyle |date=2010 |title=Slave Prices in Late Antiquity (and in the Very Long Term) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27809564 |journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=206–238 |doi=10.25162/historia-2010-0013 |issn=0018-2311 |jstor=27809564 |s2cid=160720781}}
* {{Cite conference |last1=Horn |first1=Fred |title=Foundations of Digital Archæoludology |date=2019-05-31 |arxiv=1905.13516 |access-date=2025-01-10 |last2=Schädler |first2=Ulrich |chapter=3.4 Forensic Game Reconstruction |pages=9–10 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336574703}}
* {{cite journal |last=Ivanič |first=Peter |title=The Origins of Christianity in the Territory of Czech and Slovak Republics Within the Contexts of Written Sources |url=https://www.academia.edu/70908086 |journal=European Journal of Science and Theology |volume=12 |issue=6 |date=2016 |pages=123–130 |access-date=9 June 2023 |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606030707/https://www.academia.edu/70908086 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Ivanova |first1=Mirela |last2=Anderson |first2=Benjamin |date=2024-10-01 |title=The Politics of Byzantine Studies: Between Nations and Empires |url=https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article/139/600/1230/7742107 |journal=The English Historical Review |volume=139 |issue=600 |pages=1230–1249 |doi=10.1093/ehr/ceae159 |issn=0013-8266 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |first=Alexander |last=Jones |title=The Works of Archimedes: Translation and Commentary. Volume 1: The Two Books On the Sphere and the Cylinder |journal=Notices of the AMS |volume=52 |issue=5 |url=https://www.ams.org/notices/200505/rev-jones.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302190047/https://www.ams.org/notices/200505/rev-jones.pdf |archive-date=2 March 2022 |year=2005 |pages=520–525}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Karras |first=Valerie A. |date=2004 |title=Female Deacons in the Byzantine Church |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4146526 |journal=Church History |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=272–316 |doi=10.1017/S000964070010928X |jstor=4146526 |s2cid=161817885 |issn=0009-6407 |access-date=2 February 2024 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305131943/http://www.jstor.org/stable/4146526 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kazhdan |first=Alexander |date=1990a |title=Byzantine Hagiography and Sex in the Fifth to Twelfth Centuries |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291623 |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=44 |pages=131–143 |doi=10.2307/1291623 |jstor=1291623 |issn=0070-7546 |access-date=30 January 2024 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Lavan |first=Myles |date=2016 |title=The Spread of Roman Citizenship, 14–212 ce: Quantification in the Face of High Uncertainty |url=https://academic.oup.com/past/article-abstract/230/1/3/2460651?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=Past & Present |issue=230 |pages=3–46 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gtv043 |issn=0031-2746 |hdl=10023/12646 |hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Magdalino |first=Paul |date=2025-12-18 |title=The Foundation of Constantinople and the Beginnings of Byzantine Studies |url=https://doi.org/10.66292/ebpb.2025.02 |journal=Études byzantines et post-byzantines |volume=7 |pages=23–43 |doi=10.66292/ebpb.2025.02 |issn=0259-0913}}
* {{cite journal |last=Nicholson |first=Graham |title=The Understanding of Papal Supremacy as Revealed in the Letters of Pope Gregory the Great |journal=Theological Studies |volume=11 |year=1960 |pages=25–51 |url=https://www.medievalists.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/Understanding-of-Papal-Supremacy.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231107095542/https://www.medievalists.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/Understanding-of-Papal-Supremacy.pdf |archive-date=7 November 2023 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/688704 |title=Science and Orthodox Christianity: An Overview |year=2016 |last1=Nicolaidis |first1=Efthymios |last2=Delli |first2=Eudoxie |last3=Livanos |first3=Nikolaos |last4=Tampakis |first4=Kostas |last5=Vlahakis |first5=George |journal=Isis |volume=107 |issue=3 |pages=542–566 |pmid=28707856 |ref={{SfnRef|Nicolaidis et al.|2016}}}}
* {{cite journal |last=Poppe |first=Andrzej |year=1991 |title=Christianity and Ideological change in Kievan Rus': The First Hundred Years |journal=Canadian-American Slavic Studies |volume=25 |issue=1–4 |pages=3–26 |doi=10.1163/221023991X00038}}
* {{Cite journal |title=Review of: Response: Rotman on Lenski on Youval Rotman, Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World |first=Youval |last=Rotman |url=https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010.07.02 |journal=Bryn Mawr Classical Review |issn=1055-7660 |access-date=9 January 2024 |archive-date=9 January 2024 |date=2010-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109104527/https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010.07.02 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Salogubova |first1=Elena |last2=Zenkov |first2=Alan |date=2018-06-15 |title=Roman Law's Influence on Russian Civil Law and Procedure |journal=Russian Law Journal |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=118–133 |doi=10.17589/2309-8678-2018-6-2-118-133  |doi-broken-date=16 August 2025 |issn=2312-3605 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234045831.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250110105849/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234045831.pdf |archive-date=10 January 2025 |url-status=live}}
{{Refend}}

=== Book chapters and encyclopaedias ===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Angold |editor-first=Michael |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |volume=5 |isbn=9781139054089 |editor-link=Michael Angold |location=Cambridge}}
** {{harvc |last=Micheau |first=Françoise |c=Eastern Christianities (Eleventh to Fourteenth Century): Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites |year=2006 |in=Angold |pp=371–403}}
** {{harvc |last=Shepard |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Shepard |c=The Byzantine Commonwealth 1000–1550 |in=Angold |year=2006 |pp=1–52}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Invention of Byzantium in Early Modern Europe |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-88402-484-2 |last2=Ransohoff |first2=Jake |last1=Aschenbrenner |first1=Nathanael |location=Washington DC}}
** {{harvc |last2=Ransohoff |first2=Jake |pages=1–23 |c=Introduction |last1=Aschenbrenner |first1=Nathanael |in1=Aschenbrenner |in2=Ransohoff |anchor-year=2022a |year=2022}}
** {{harvc |pages=349–367 |chapter=From "Empire of the Greeks" to "Byzantium" |last=Kaldellis |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Kaldellis |in1=Aschenbrenner |in2=Ransohoff |year=2022 |anchor-year=2022a }}
** {{harvc |last2=Ransohoff |first2=Jake |pages=369–382 |c=Conclusion |last1=Aschenbrenner |first1=Nathanael |in1=Aschenbrenner |in2=Ransohoff |anchor-year=2022b |year=2022}}
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** {{harvc |last=Laiou |first=Angeliki |c=The Palaiologoi And The World Around Them (1261–1400) |in=Shepard |year=2009 |pp=803–833}}
** {{harvc |last=Louth |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Louth |c=Justinian and his legacy (500–600) |in=Shepard |year=2009 |anchor-year=2009a |pp=97–129}}
** {{harvc |last=Louth |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Louth |c=Byzantium Transforming (600–700) |in=Shepard |year=2009 |pp=221–248 |anchor-year=2009b}}
** {{harvc |last=Magdalino |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Magdalino |c=The Empire of the Komnenoi (1118–1204) |in=Shepard |year=2009 |pp=627–663}}
** {{harvc |last=Moorhead |first=John |author-link=John Moorhead |c=Western Approaches (500–600) |in=Shepard |year=2009}}
** {{harvc |last=Shepard |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Shepard |c=Equilibrium to Expansion (886–1025) |in=Shepard |year=2009 |anchor-year=2009b |pp=493–536}}
** {{harvc |last=Tougher |first=Shaun |c=After Iconoclasm (850–886) |in=Shepard |year=2009 |pp=292–304}}
** {{harvc |last=Whittow |first=Mark |c=The Middle Byzantine Economy (600–1204) |in=Shepard |year=2009 |pp=465–492 |author-link=Mark Whittow}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Routledge Handbook on Identity in Byzantium |date=2022 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-367-14341-1 |editor-last=Stewart |editor-first=Michael Edward |series=The Routledge History Handbooks |location=New York |editor-last2=Parnell |editor-first2=David Alan |editor-last3=Whately |editor-first3=Conor}}
** {{harvc |last=Stewart |first=Michael |c=Finding Byzantium |in1=Stewart |in2=Parnell |in3=Whately |year=2022 |pp=1–15}}
** {{harvc |last1=Muthesius |first1=Anna |c=Imperial identity: Byzantine silks, art, autocracy, theocracy, and the image of the Basileia|in1=Stewart| in2=Parnell |in3=Whately |year=2022 |pp=81-103}}
** {{harvc |last1=Kaldellis |first1=Anthony |c=Provincial identities in Byzantium|in1=Stewart| in2=Parnell |in3=Whately |year=2022 |anchor-year=2022b |pp=248-261}}
** {{harvc |last=Goldwyn |first=Adam J. |c=Byzantium in the American Alt-Right Imagination: Paradigms of the Medieval Greek Past Among Men's Rights Activists and White Supremacists |year=2022 |pp=424–436 |in1=Stewart| in2=Parnell |in3=Whately}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stolte |first=Bernard |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/27972/chapter/211607076 |chapter=Byzantine Law: The Law of the New Rome |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-last=Pihlajamäki |editor-first=Heikki |volume=1 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198785521.013.10 |editor-last2=Dubber |editor-first2=Markus D. |editor-last3=Godfrey |editor-first3=Mark |pages=230–249 |location=Oxford |title=The Oxford Handbook of European Legal History |isbn=9780191827426}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://academic.oup.com/edinburgh-scholarship-online/book/51597 |title=Identities and Ideologies in the Medieval East Roman World |date=2022-10-31 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-1-4744-9362-8 |editor-last=Stouraitis |editor-first=Yannis |edition=1 |language=en |doi=10.3366/edinburgh/9781474493628.001.0001}}
** {{harvc |last=Stouraitis |first=Yannis |c=1 Is Byzantinism an Orientalism? Reflections on Byzantium's Constructed Identities and Debated Ideologies |in1=Stouraitis |year=2022 |anchor-year=2022b |pp=19-47}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Byzantines |date=1997 |last=Talbot |first=Alice-Mary |author-link=Alice-Mary Talbot |chapter=Chapter 5: Women |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-09791-6 |editor-last=Cavallo |editor-first=Guglielmo |editor1-link=Guglielmo Cavallo |location=Chicago |pages=117–143}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Touliatos |first=Diane |year=2001 |encyclopedia=[[Grove Music Online]] |title=Byzantine Secular Music |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.48192 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000048192}} {{Grove Music subscription}}
* {{cite book |last=Velimirović |first=Miloš |author-link=Miloš Velimirović |editor-first1=Richard |editor-last1=Crocker |editor-first2=David |editor-last2=Hiley |editor-link2=David Hiley |year=1990 |title=The New Oxford History of Music |volume=II: The Early Middle Ages To 1300 |chapter=Byzantine Chant |pages=26–68 |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-316329-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/new-oxford-history-of-music/New%20Oxford%20History%20of%20Music%202a%20The%20Early%20Middle%20Ages%20to%201300%20II/mode/2up}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wildberg |first=Christian |author-link=Christian Wildberg |chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/philoponus/ |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2018 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-link=Edward N. Zalta |access-date=8 February 2025 |chapter=John Philoponus |edition=Winter 2021}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Library resources box |onlinebooks = yes}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ball |first=Jennifer |date=2005 |title=Byzantine Dress: Representations of Secular Dress in Eighth- to Twelfth-Century Painting |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cksBDgAAQBAJ |edition=1st |series=The New Middle Ages |location=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-6700-8}}
* {{harvc |last=Sarris |first=Peter |c=The Eastern Roman Empire from Constantine to Heraclius (306–641) |in=Mango |year=2002 |pages=19–70}}

== External links ==
* {{In Our Time|Byzantine Empire|p00547j9|Byzantine_Empire}}
* [http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ 12 Byzantine Rulers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718092221/http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ |date=18 July 2016}} by Lars Brownworth of [[The Stony Brook School]]; audio lectures.
* [http://www.cit.gu.edu.au/~s285238/Roman/RomanEmpire.html 18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman] (Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080410123427/http://www.doaks.org/Byzantine.html Byzantine studies homepage] at [[Dumbarton Oaks]]. Includes links to numerous electronic texts.
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ Byzantium: Byzantine studies on the Internet]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008060507/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ |date=8 October 2014}}. Links to various online resources.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111107172532/http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans.html Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700–1204]. Online sourcebook.
* [http://www.deremilitari.org/ De Re Militari]. Resources for medieval history, including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars.
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html Medieval Sourcebook: Byzantium], hosted by [[Fordham University]]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814170022/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html |date=14 August 2014}}. Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history.
* [http://www.univie.ac.at/byzantine/ Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life]. Hosted by the [[University of Vienna]]; in English.
* [http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/greek-resources-constantinople.asp Constantinople Home Page]. Links to texts, images and videos on Byzantium.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160816053828/http://graal.org.ua/en/theodoro-principality Byzantium in Crimea: Political History, Art and Culture].
* [http://www.oeaw.ac.at/byzanz/ Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (with further resources and a repository with papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Empire)]

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Rajshahi

2026-03-25T16:04:10Z

Thechhavigarg: slightly rework structure for clarity and added references as per guidelines

{{Short description|Metropolitan city in North-Western Bangladesh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox settlement

| name = Rajshahi
| native_name = রাজশাহী
| nicknames = Education City, Silk City<ref>{{cite web | url=https://oldweb.lged.gov.bd/DistrictLGED.aspx?DistrictID=48 | title=District LGED }}</ref>
| settlement_type = [[Metropolis]]
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 300
| image_style =
| perrow = 1/2/1
| image1 = Rajshahi city (3).jpg
| caption1 = Skyline of Rajshahi City
| image2 = Street lights of Rajshahi city 21.jpg
| caption2 = Rajshahi at night
| image3 = Rajshahi City 05.jpg
| caption3 = Nagar Bhabon Rajshahi
| image4 = Varendra Research Museum 10.jpg
| caption4 = [[Varendra Research Museum]]
}}
| image_map = {{maplink
| frame = yes
| frame-width = 300
| frame-height = 300
| frame-lat = 24.3745
| frame-long = 88.6042
| frame-align = center
| zoom = 11
| type = shape
| id = Q3791
| fill = #FFFFFF
| stroke-color = #FF0000
| stroke-width = 3
| text = Interactive map outlining Rajshahi
}}
| pushpin_map = Bangladesh Rajshahi division#Bangladesh#South Asia#Asia#Earth
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Rajshahi Division##Location in Bangladesh##Location in South Asia##Location in Asia##Location on Earth
| pushpin_mapsize = 300
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_relief = yes
| coordinates = {{coord|24|22.476|N|88|36.027|E|region:BD|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Bangladesh}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Divisions of Bangladesh|Division]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Rajshahi Division|Rajshahi]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of Bangladesh|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Rajshahi District|Rajshahi]]
| established_title = Establishment
| established_date = 1634
| established_title2 = Municipality
| established_date2 = 1876
| established_title3 = Granted city status
| established_date3 = 1991
| government_footnotes =
| government_type = [[Mayor-Council]]
| governing_body = {{nowrap|[[Rajshahi City Corporation]]}}
| leader_title = [[Mayor of Rajshahi|Administrator]]
| leader_name = Mahfuzur Rahman
| leader_title1 =
| leader_name1 =
| leader_title2 = [[List of city corporations in Bangladesh#City Council|City Council]]
| leader_name2 = [[Rajshahi City Corporation#Ward and councillor list|30 constituencies]]
| leader_title3 = [[Parliament of Bangladesh|Parliament]]
| leader_name3 = [[List of constituencies of the Jatiya Sangsad#Rajshahi Division|1 constituencies]]
| area_footnotes = <ref name="bangladesh1">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbs.gov.bd/dataindex/census/municip.pdf|title=Area, Population and Literacy Rate by Paurashava −2001|publisher=[[Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics]]|access-date=19 August 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217230450/http://www.bbs.gov.bd/dataindex/census/municip.pdf|archive-date=17 December 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.risingbd.com/english/PM-opens-8-new-police-stations-in-Rajshahi/51855|title=PM opens 8 new police stations in Rajshahi|date=22 February 2018|work=Rising Sun|access-date=15 September 2018|language=en|archive-date=23 March 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250323022743/https://www.risingbd.com/english/PM-opens-8-new-police-stations-in-Rajshahi/51855|url-status=live}}</ref>
| area_urban_km2 = 121
| area_urban_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web| title=Factsheet Rajshahi City in Bangladesh | url=https://www.apn-gcr.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Factsheet-Rajshahi-City-in-Bangladesh.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229230901/https://www.apn-gcr.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Factsheet-Rajshahi-City-in-Bangladesh.pdf | archive-date=2024-02-29}}</ref>
| population_as_of = 2022
| population_footnotes = <ref name=bangladesh2>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbs.gov.bd/dataindex/pby/pk_book_08.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419080055/http://www.bbs.gov.bd/dataindex/pby/pk_book_08.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Statistical Pocket book 2008, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics|archive-date=19 April 2009}}</ref>
| population_urban = 552,791
| population_urban_footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web| title=Census of Population and Housing 2022 Preliminary Report | url=https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bbs.portal.gov.bd/page/b343a8b4_956b_45ca_872f_4cf9b2f1a6e0/2022-07-28-14-31-b21f81d1c15171f1770c661020381666.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813235827/https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bbs.portal.gov.bd/page/b343a8b4_956b_45ca_872f_4cf9b2f1a6e0/2022-07-28-14-31-b21f81d1c15171f1770c661020381666.pdf | archive-date=2022-08-13}}</ref>
| population_density_urban_km2 = auto
| area_metro_km2 = 377.1
| population_metro = 1,032,000
| population_metro_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web |title=Rajshahi, Bangladesh Metro Area Population 1950-2025 |url=https://www.macrotrends.net/global-metrics/cities/20131/rajshahi/population |website=macrotrends |access-date=9 March 2025 |archive-date=17 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417065422/https://www.macrotrends.net/global-metrics/cities/20131/rajshahi/population |url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_density_metro_km2 = auto
| population_demonym = Rajshahian
| timezone = [[Bangladesh Standard Time|BST]]
| utc_offset = +6
| population_blank1_title = Metro rank
| population_blank1 = [[List of cities and towns in Bangladesh|4th in Bangladesh]]
| blank_name = National Calling Code
| blank_info = +880
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] (2023)
| blank_info_sec1 = 0.700 {{color|#093|high}} · [[List of regions of Bangladesh by Human Development Index|6th of 22]]
| blank2_name = [[Telephone numbers in Bangladesh|Calling code]]
| elevation_m = 23
| elevation_ft = 75
| postal_code_type = [[List of postal codes in Bangladesh|Postal code]]
| postal_code = 6000, 6100, 620x
| area_code_type = [[Telephone numbering plan|National calling code]]
| area_code = [[List of country calling codes|+880]]
| demographics_type1 = [[Languages of Bangladesh|Languages]]
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]{{*}}[[Bangladeshi English|English]]
| demographics1_title2 = Regional
| demographics1_info2 = [[North Central Bengali]]
| demographics1_title3 =
| demographics1_info3 =
| demographics2_title2 =
| demographics2_info2 =
| demographics2_footnotes = <ref name="BBS">{{cite web | url=https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c | title=বাংলাদেশ পরিসংখ্যান ব্যুরো | access-date=13 July 2025 | archive-date=6 May 2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506162520/https://bbs.portal.gov.bd/site/page/b432a7e5-8b4d-4dac-a76c-a9be4e85828c | url-status=live }}</ref>
| demographics2_title1 =
| demographics2_info1 =
| blank1_name = [[UN/LOCODE]]
| blank1_info = BD RJH
| blank2_info = [[Telephone numbers in Bangladesh|+880 721]]
| blank3_name_sec1 =
| blank3_info_sec1 =
| blank4_name_sec1 = [[Police]]
| blank4_info_sec1 = [[Rajshahi Metropolitan Police]]
| blank5_name_sec1 = [[Airport]]
| blank5_info_sec1 = [[Shah Makhdum Airport]]
| blank6_name_sec1 = Planning Authority
| blank6_info_sec1 = [[Rajshahi Development Authority]]
| blank7_name_sec1 = Water Supply and Sewerage Authority
| blank7_info_sec1 = [[Rajshahi WASA]]
| leader_party =
| website = {{URL|erajshahi.portal.gov.bd}}
| footnotes =
| official_name =
| image_blank_emblem =
| blank_emblem_size = 120px
| blank_emblem_type = Logo of the [[Rajshahi City Corporation]]
}}
{{Contains special characters|Bengali}}

'''Rajshahi''' ({{langx|bn|রাজশাহী}}, {{IPA|bn|radʒ.ʃaɦi|pron|LL-Q9610 (ben)-Tahmid-রাজশাহী.wav}}) is a [[metropolis|metropolitan city]] and a major [[Urban area|urban]], administrative, commercial and educational centre of [[Bangladesh]]. It is also the administrative seat of the eponymous [[Rajshahi Division|division]] and [[Rajshahi District|district]]. It is also the largest city of [[North Bengal]]. Located on the north bank of the [[Padma River]], near the [[Bangladesh–India border]], the city is surrounded by the satellite towns of Nowhata and Katakhali of [[Paba Upazila]], which together build an urban agglomeration of about 1 million population.<ref name="citypopulation.de">{{Cite web|url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/bangladesh/rajshahicity/admin/|title=Bangladesh: Rajshahi City Corporation (City Districts and Wards) - Population Statistics, Charts and Map|website=www.citypopulation.de|access-date=28 May 2025|archive-date=13 May 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250513083329/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/bangladesh/rajshahicity/admin/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Rajshahi is a historic center of [[silk]] production. [[Varendra Research Museum]], the oldest of its kind in Bangladesh, is located in the city. Sometimes the city is referred to as the ''City of Education'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-28 |title=Rajshahi will be the city of entrepreneurs in 5 years |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/supplement/rajshahi-will-be-city-entrepreneurs-5-years-363544 |access-date=2023-05-20 |website=The Business Standard |language=en}}</ref> on account of being home to many renowned educational institutions of Bangladesh. The head office of [[Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan Bank|Rajshahi Agricultural Development Bank]] and [[Barind Multipurpose Development Authority]] is situated in the city. [[Shah Makhdum Airport|The Shah Makhdum Airport]] and [[Rajshahi railway station]] serves Rajshahi.

According to ''[[The Guardian]]'', Rajshahi is the cleanest city of Bangladesh,<ref name="guardianharrison" /> and it is also the most environmentally friendly city in the country.<ref name="tbs4Jan2020">{{Cite news |date=2020-01-04 |title=Rajshahi awarded eco-friendly city of the year |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/rajshahi-awarded-eco-friendly-city-year |access-date=2025-03-09 |work=The Business Standard |language=en |archive-date=9 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709174634/https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/rajshahi-awarded-eco-friendly-city-year |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="dt4Jan2020">{{Cite news |date=4 January 2020 |title=Rajshahi: A city fresh and green |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/197929/rajshahi-a-city-fresh-and-green |access-date=2025-03-09 |work=Dhaka Tribune |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
Modern [[Rajshahi Division|Rajshahi]] lies in the ancient region of [[Pundravardhana]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pundravardhana - Banglapedia |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Pundravardhana? |access-date=2025-06-09 |website=en.banglapedia.org}}</ref> The foundation of the city dates to 1634, according to epigraphic records at the mausoleum of [[Sufi]] saint [[Shah Makhdum]]. The area hosted a [[Dutch settlement in Rajshahi|Dutch settlement]] in the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Rajshahi|title=Rajshahi | Riverside City, Silk Production | Britannica|date=22 May 2025|website=www.britannica.com|access-date=28 May 2025|archive-date=3 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403170316/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/490171/Rajshahi|url-status=live}}</ref>

Rajshahi district was a part of the [[Pundra Kingdom|Pundra region]] of ancient [[Bengal]] ruled by the [[Pundra Kingdom]]. The capital of [[Prince Vijaya]], the king who led military operations in [[Sri Lanka]] and Southeast Asia was located 14 kilometres (9 mi) to the west of Rajshahi town. Rajshahi was dominated by various [[Maharaja|Maharajas]], Rajas and [[Zamindars]]. During ''Deo Raja'''s period, the region was known as Mohakalgarh. In 1288-89 the Raja was defeated by [[Shah Makhdum Rupos]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=আজাদ |first=আবুল কালাম মুহম্মদ |date=2021-10-11 |title=মহাকালগড় থেকে রাজশাহী, শহরটি এখনো শান্তির |url=https://www.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%9C-%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF-%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B-%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0 |access-date=2025-11-16 |website=Prothomalo |language=bn |archive-date=11 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011115042/https://www.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%9C-%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF-%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B-%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0 |url-status=live }}</ref> The administrative district was established in 1772 and the municipal corporation during the [[British Raj]] in 1876.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Life at Rajshahi – Institute of Bangladesh Studies |url=https://www.ru.ac.bd/ibs/life-at-rajshahi/ |access-date=2025-11-16 |language=en-US |archive-date=25 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250325185049/https://www.ru.ac.bd/ibs/life-at-rajshahi/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Its wealth peaked under the [[Pala Empire]], when the [[Barind Tract|Barind]] [[Varendra|area]] became an important agricultural and cultural zone.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=EVERYDAY LIFE IN THE PALA EMPIRE |url=https://ia801504.us.archive.org/13/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.125557/2015.125557.Everyday-Life-In-The-Pala-Empire_text.pdf |journal=[[Asiatic Society of Pakistan]]}}</ref> In the [[Mughal period]], the area gained further prominence for its silk production.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-08 |title="Rajshahi silk" A stunning raw materials in Fashion Industry |url=https://textilefocus.com/rajshahi-silk-stunning-raw-materials-fashion-industry/ |access-date=2025-11-16 |language=en-US |archive-date=17 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260117132450/https://textilefocus.com/rajshahi-silk-stunning-raw-materials-fashion-industry/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Rajshahi Raj]] was the largest ''[[zamindari]]'' (feudatory kingdom) during the British Raj which occupied a vast position of [[Bengal]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajshahi Raj - Banglapedia |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Rajshahi_Raj |access-date=2025-11-16 |website=en.banglapedia.org |language=en |archive-date=18 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118220208/https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Rajshahi_Raj |url-status=live }}</ref> When [[Murshid Quli Khan|Nawab Murshid Quli Khan]] divided the [[Bengal Subah]] into 13 divisions in 1717, Rajshahi was included as one of the divisions .<ref>{{Cite web |title=History - Banglapedia |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/History |access-date=2025-11-16 |website=en.banglapedia.org |language=en |archive-date=29 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241229062902/https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/History |url-status=live }}</ref>

During the [[British raj]], it was also known as "Beuleah" and was the administrative headquarters of the Rajshahi district in [[Eastern Bengal and Assam]]. It was originally chosen as a commercial factory for the silk trade, which was being officially encouraged by the agricultural department of that time. The town contained a government college and an industrial school for [[sericulture]]. Most of the public buildings were severely damaged by the [[1897 Assam earthquake|earthquake of 12 June 1897]].<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle= Rajshahi |volume= 22 |page= 876 |short=1}}</ref> Throughout much of the early part of the twentieth century there was a daily [[Steamboat|steamer]] service on the [[Ganges]] which connected it to rail-heads that led to the then provincial capital of [[Calcutta]] as well as other cities in the province of Bengal.

Rajshahi was made a city corporation in 1991.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population and Housing Census 2011 |url=http://nsds.bbs.gov.bd/storage/files/1/Publications/PHC_2011%20Community%20Report/RAJSHAHI%20DIVISION/Rajshahi.pdf |access-date=16 November 2025}}</ref>

=== Etymology ===
The region came to be known as '''Rampur Boalia''' after the establishment of an administrative office in 1825. The origin of the present name of "Rajshahi" is debated among scholars. Most say that it takes its name from [[Hindu]] Kings [[Rajshahi Raj]] (or "[[Raja|Rajas]]") as '''Raj''' and the persianised '''[[Shah|Shahi]]'''; both of which mean "royal" or "kingdom".<ref>{{Cite journal |title=An Inquiry and Documentation of Architectural Styles of Residential Building Facades in Old Rajshahi, Bangladesh |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374053749 |journal=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |script-title=bn:রাজশাহী সিটি কর্পোরেশন |url=https://erajshahi.portal.gov.bd/site/page/d111d49a-1f23-46fd-a540-6cb11e2e482e/History-of-Rajshahi-Location-Area |access-date=2025-03-08 |website=erajshahi.portal.gov.bd |language=en}}</ref>

==Geography==
===Topography===
Geographically Rajshahi is situated within [[Barind Tract]], 23 m (75 ft) above sea level, and lies at {{Coord|24|22|26|N|88|36|04|E|type:city_region:BD}}. The city is located on the alluvial plains of the [[Padma River]], which runs through the southern side of the city. It is bounded on the east, north, and west by [[Paba Upazila]] (a subdivision of a district) of the district.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Rajshahi topographic map, elevation, terrain |url=https://en-gb.topographic-map.com/map-rn4nh/Rajshahi/ |access-date=2025-02-19 |website=Topographic maps |language=en |archive-date=14 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250114230115/https://en-gb.topographic-map.com/map-rn4nh/Rajshahi/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rajshahi District is bounded by [[Naogaon District]] to the north, [[Natore District]] to the east, and [[Chapai Nawabganj District]] and the river Padma & [[Kushtia District]] to the south.<ref name=":0" />

===Climate===
Under the [[Köppen climate classification]], Rajshahi has a [[humid subtropical climate]] (Cwa), with its coldest month being below 18 °C (64 °F). The climate of Rajshahi is generally marked with [[monsoon]]s, high temperature, considerable [[humidity]] and moderate rainfall. The hot season commences early in March and continues till the middle of July. The maximum mean temperature observed is about {{convert|32|to|36|C|F}} during April, May, June, and July and the minimum temperature recorded in January is about {{convert|7|to|16|C|F}}. The highest rainfall is observed during the months of monsoon. The annual rainfall in the district is about {{convert|1448|mm|in|1}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate: Rajshahi in Bangladesh |url=https://www.worlddata.info/asia/bangladesh/climate-rajshahi.php |access-date=2025-02-19 |website=Worlddata.info |language=en |archive-date=28 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250628073508/https://www.worlddata.info/asia/bangladesh/climate-rajshahi.php |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Rajshahi weatherbox}}
Although once noted for its [[air pollution]], since 2014 the levels of [[particulates]] have been dramatically reduced by various efforts to switch to cleaner fuels and to battery-powered vehicles, to pave earth streets, to encourage walking and bicycle transport, and to plant vegetation.<ref name="guardianharrison">{{cite news |last1=Graham-Harrison |first1=Emma |last2=Doshi |first2=Vidhi |date=17 June 2016 |title=Rajshahi: the city that took on air pollution – and won |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jun/17/rajshahi-bangladesh-city-air-pollution-won |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=9 July 2016}}</ref> The levels of PM10 dropped by 67% and PM2.5 which are particularly harmful to human health, dropped from 70 to 37 micrograms per cubic meter between 2014 and 2016.<ref name="guardianharrison" /> Lowest recorded temperature in Rajshahi was 3.4 °C on 9 January 2003 and highest recorded temperature was 45.1 °C on 18 May 1972.

===Parks and greenery===
[[File:Kid's ride seen from top of the Ferris wheel at Shaheed A.H.M Qamaruzzaman Central Park, Rajshahi.jpg|right|thumb|Rajshahi Central Park|263x263px]]
[[Shaheed A.H.M Qamaruzzaman Central Park and Zoo]] is one of the popular public places in Rajshahi city. A wide area with green trees and grass houses different animal species. It is located by the bank of the [[Padma River]]. Other parks in the city are Bhubon Mohon Park and Captain Monsur Ali Park. Shahid Zia's children's park is specially designed for children's amusement. The bank of the Padma River along the city is also a destination for recreation. The bank is a planned zone in many parts of the city to accommodate city dwellers for recreation purposes. In 2015, Munsguard Park near the old Dutch [[Boro Kuthi]] building and Lalonshah Park near Shahmukhdum Eidgah was built bordering the bank<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.kalerkantho.com/online/country-news/2015/11/08/288346|script-title=bn:লালন শাহ পার্ক লিজ দেওয়া হবে না: রাসিক|newspaper=Kaler Kanthao |date=November 2015 |language=bn |access-date=28 August 2019}}</ref> to provide residents a place to enjoy the views of the Padma river. The points of interest of the city includes: Banks of the [[Padma River]], [[Varendra Research Museum]], Shrine of [[Shah Makhdum Rupos]], [[Shaheed A.H.M Qamaruzzaman Central Park and Zoo]], [[University of Rajshahi]], [[Boro Kuthi]], Shahid Zia Park, and Bangabandhu Novo Theatre.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bangladeshpost.net/posts/construction-work-of-bangabandhu-novo-theatre-goes-on-in-full-swing-in-rajshahi-22937|title=Construction work of Bangabandhu Novo Theatre goes on in full swing in Rajshahi|access-date=26 February 2020|archive-date=26 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226170355/https://www.bangladeshpost.net/posts/construction-work-of-bangabandhu-novo-theatre-goes-on-in-full-swing-in-rajshahi-22937|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Administration==
[[File:Rajshahi City Corporation.jpg|thumb|right|[[Rajshahi City Corporation]] headquarter|256x256px]]
Rajshahi is the headquarters of one of the eight administrative [[divisions of Bangladesh]]. The Divisional Commissioner, who is the administrative chief of the Rajshahi Division, the DIG for the Rajshahi division, and other divisional civil servants have their own offices in the city, which function as part of the government administrative setup. Deputy Commissioner (DC) who is the administrative chief of Rajshahi District, Civil Surgeon, and other district-level civil servants have their offices in the city. District judges as well as Metropolitan magistrates have their offices within the city.<ref>{{Cite web |title=রাজশাহী সিটি নির্বাচন {{!}} Rajshahi City Election {{!}} প্রথম আলো |url=https://www.prothomalo.com/topic/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF-%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%A8 |access-date=2025-08-29 |website=Prothomalo |language=bn}}</ref>

Rajshahi is one of seven metropolitan cities in Bangladesh. One mayor and 30 ward commissioners are elected for five-year terms by direct votes. [[Rajshahi City Corporation]] is responsible for all the administrative work related to city governance under its jurisdiction.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-06-15 |title=Rajshahi City Corporation Election 2013 |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news/rajshahi-city-corporation-election-2013 |access-date=2025-08-29 |website=The Daily Star |language=en}}</ref>

Rajshahi Unnayan Kortripokhkho/Rajshahi Development Authority (RDA) plans and coordinates the development-related works within the metropolitan area. Rajshahi WASA is responsible for the water supply and drainage system within the city area.

[[Rajshahi Metropolitan Police]] (RMP), headed by a Commissioner, controls law and order as well as traffic movements within the metropolitan area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=metropolitanpolice.rajshahi |url=https://metropolitanpolice.rajshahi.gov.bd/en |access-date=2025-08-29 |website=metropolitanpolice.rajshahi.gov.bd}}</ref>

[[Rajshahi Cantonment]] is a military base and the headquarters of the [[Bangladesh Infantry Regiment]]. The city is home to two battalions of [[Border Guard Bangladesh|BGB]], a battalion of [[Bangladesh Ansar]], a headquarter of [[Rapid Action Battalion#Location|RAB]] and a camp of [[River Police (Bangladesh)|River Police]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ansar and VDP, Rajshahi Range |url=https://ansarvdp.rajshahidiv.gov.bd/en |access-date=2025-08-29 |website=ansarvdp.rajshahidiv.gov.bd |archive-date=13 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213230750/http://ansarvdp.rajshahidiv.gov.bd/en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Border Guard Bangladesh |url=https://bgb.rajshahidiv.gov.bd/en |access-date=2025-08-29 |website=bgb.rajshahidiv.gov.bd}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=River police force begins operating in Rajshahi |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/180134/river-police-force-begins-operating-in-rajshahi |access-date=2025-08-29 |website=Dhaka Tribune |language=en}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{bar box
|title=Religions in Rajshahi city (2022)<ref name="khulnacensus"/>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Islam in Bangladesh|Islam]]|green|94.15}}
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in Bangladesh|Hinduism]]|darkorange|5.09}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Bangladesh|Christianity]]|dodgerblue|0.51}}
{{bar percent|[[Buddhism in Bangladesh|Buddhism]]|yellow|0.02}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.04}}
}}

At the time of the 2022 census, Rajshahi had a population of 553,288 in 213,467 households. Rajshahi has a sex ratio of 942 females per 1000 males and a literacy rate of 75.17%<ref name="khulnacensus">{{Cite web |title=Community Series - Rajshahi District |url=http://203.112.218.65:8008/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/PopCen2011/Rajshahi.pdf |website=bbs.gov.bd |publisher=[[Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics]] |access-date=16 December 2022 |archive-date=29 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929195632/http://203.112.218.65:8008/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/PopCen2011/Rajshahi.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Bengali language|Bengali]] is the main language for the citizens of the city. Many distinctive Bengali dialects and regional languages are also spoken. There is a minority Urdu-speaking population, who are descendants of displaced Muslims from the eastern part of British India who sought refuge during the separation of India and Pakistan in 1947.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajshahi – BoNY |url=https://www.bengalisofnewyork.com/rajshahi/ |access-date=2025-02-19 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{See also|Rajshahi silk}}
{{Pie chart
|[
{"label": "Trade", "value": 42},
{"label": "Transportation and storage", "value": 23},
{"label": "Education", "value": 17},
{"label": "Manufacturing", "value": 8},
{"label": "Accommodation", "value": 6},
{"label": "Health", "value": 2},
{"label": "Other", "value": 2},
]
| labelformat = $percent [$value]: $label
| thumb = left
| legend = true
| autoscale = true
| caption = Key Economic Activities in Rajshahi<ref name= "meow">{{Cite web |title=Factsheet {{!}} Rajshahi City in Bangladesh |url=https://www.apn-gcr.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Factsheet-Rajshahi-City-in-Bangladesh.pdf |access-date=23 August 2025 |website=[[Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research]] |archive-date=29 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229230901/https://www.apn-gcr.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Factsheet-Rajshahi-City-in-Bangladesh.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| radius = 100
}}
Rajshahi’s economy is composed of trade (42%), transportation and storage (23%), education (17%), manufacturing (8%), accommodation (6%), health (2%), and other sectors (2%).<ref name= "meow"/>

Rajshahi has been famous for its silk textiles since the British period, which has a special status as clothing material in the Indian subcontinent. There are also several jute mills in Rajshahi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fresh lifeline to northern jute mills |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-161032 |access-date=2026-03-22 |website=The Daily Star |language=en}}</ref> It is the home of the region's best mangoes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-06-28 |title=From blossoms to bounty: The mango season that revives Rajshahi |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/features/panorama/blossoms-bounty-mango-season-revives-rajshahi-1176156 |access-date=2026-03-22 |website=The Business Standard |language=en}}</ref> The lichis of the city also has a great popularity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Litchi trees in bloom, hopes for good harvest in Rajshahi {{!}} District |url=https://www.bssnews.net/district/364606 |access-date=2026-03-22 |website=BSS |archive-date=28 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260228123700/https://www.bssnews.net/district/364606 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Rajshahi City Corporation has constructed two [[Bangladesh Small and Cottage Industries Corporation]]. Industrial City-01 is located near the Rajshahi Cantonment, and Industrial City-02 is located in Paba Upazila. BSCIC-1 is operational,<ref>{{Cite web |title=27 entrepreneurs get BSCIC plot allocations in Rajshahi |url=https://www.bssnews.net/news-flash/152990 |access-date=2026-03-22 |website=BSS}}</ref> but BSCIC-2 did not attract any significant investment.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-07-26 |title=Rajshahi’s BSCIC-2 stalls amid high price of plots, absence of utility services |url=https://www.newagebd.net/post/mis/271255/rajshahis-bscic-2-stalls-amid-high-price-of-plots-absence-of-utility-services |access-date=2026-03-22 |work=[[New Age (Bangladesh)]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-08 |title=High plot price drives away entrepreneurs from Rajshahi Bscic-2 |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/economy/industry/high-plot-price-drives-away-entrepreneurs-rajshahi-bscic-2-564478 |access-date=2026-03-22 |website=The Business Standard |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Rajshahi Hi-Tech Park.jpg|thumb|Silicon Tower, Rajshahi Hi-Tech Park]]
The Silicon Tower in Rajshahi Hi-Tech Park has attracted significant interest from investors, with 16 different companies currently occupying the facility, including [[Starlink]]. Out of these, 11 companies are operational. Bondstein Technology, a local company involved in the infrastructure development and management for Starlink in Bangladesh, plans to establish a Robotics and [[Internet of things|IoT]] Research Center within the park.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-16 |title=Renewed investment optimism at Rajshahi Hi-Tech Park after 5 August pause |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/tech/renewed-investment-optimism-rajshahi-hi-tech-park-after-august-5-pause-1213106 |access-date=2025-08-23 |website=The Business Standard |language=en}}</ref>

In 2025, [[PRAN-RFL Group|Pran-RFL]] revived Barendra Rajshahi Textile Mills after 22 years, creating 2,000 jobs in just 6 months. They aim to create a total of 12,000 jobs with a planned investment of 350 crore.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-08-06 |title=Pran-RFL's Barendra Rajshahi Textile creates 2,000 jobs in just 6 months, aims for 12,000 |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/economy/industry/pran-rfls-barendra-rajshahi-textile-creates-2000-jobs-just-6-months-aims-12000v |access-date=2025-08-23 |website=The Business Standard |language=en}}</ref>

There is also a char on the banks of the river Padma near the city of Rajshahi. Rajshahi City Corporation has plans to build another economic zone on the char. When the construction of the char is completed, it will become the commercial center of [[North Bengal]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bss |first=Rajshahi |date=2016-07-31 |title=Rajshahi to get economic zone by 2019 |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/city/economic-zone-going-be-set-rajshahi-1261987 |access-date=2025-08-23 |website=The Daily Star |language=en |archive-date=16 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816014338/http://www.thedailystar.net/city/economic-zone-going-be-set-rajshahi-1261987 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Culture==
===Arts and festivals===
[[File:Pohela Boishak rally at Rajshahi.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Pahela Baishakh|Bengali New Year / বাংলা নববর্ষ]] celebration rally at Rajshahi city]]
Rajshahi is also the location of [[Barendra Museum]], which is known for its collection of local sculptures and other artifacts dating from medieval times.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Varendra Museum: A Review of the First Museum of Bangladesh |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/life-living/news/varendra-museum-review-the-first-museum-bangladesh-3066226 |access-date=2026-03-22 |website=The Daily Star |language=en |archive-date=2 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240902065545/https://www.thedailystar.net/life-living/news/varendra-museum-review-the-first-museum-bangladesh-3066226 |url-status=live }}</ref>

''[[Pohela Baishakh]]'', the Bengali New Year, and [[Pahela Falgun]], the first day of [[Spring (season)|spring]] of the Bengali month [[Falgun]], in the [[Bengali calendar]], is festively celebrated in the city. There are widespread celebrations of [[Muslim]] festivals of [[Eid ul-Fitr]], [[Eid ul-Adha]], and [[Muharram]];<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eid, approaching summer boost Rajshahi silk sales |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/business/economy/news/eid-approaching-summer-boost-rajshahi-silk-sales-4127536 |access-date=2026-03-22 |website=The Daily Star |language=en |archive-date=13 March 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260313072312/https://www.thedailystar.net/business/economy/news/eid-approaching-summer-boost-rajshahi-silk-sales-4127536 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hindu festivals of [[Durga Puja]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Puja shopping gains momentum in Rajshahi {{!}} Business |url=https://www.bssnews.net/business/315315 |access-date=2026-03-22 |website=BSS |archive-date=15 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260215085446/https://www.bssnews.net/business/315315 |url-status=live }}</ref> the Buddhist festival of [[Buddha Purnima]]; and the Christian festival of [[Christmas]] across the city.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Christmas Day celebrated in Rajshahi |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/nation/399570/christmas-day-celebrated-in-rajshahi |access-date=2026-03-22 |website=Dhaka Tribune |language=en}}</ref>

===Media===
There are many Bengali daily newspapers published in the city, including ''Sonali Sangbad'', ''Uttorbongo Protidin'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uttorbongoprotidin.com/|title=UttorbongoProtidin.Com 24/7 Bengali and English National Newsportal from Bangladesh.|website=UttorbongoProtidin.Com 24/7 Bengali and English National Newsportal from Bangladesh.|access-date=18 January 2024|archive-date=12 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412180652/https://uttorbongoprotidin.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> Shadhin Janapad,<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.shadhinjanapad.com/|script-title=bn:স্বাধীন জনপদ|language=Bengali}}</ref> ''Sunshine'', ''Dainik Barta'', ''Sonar Desh'', ''Natun Provat'', and ''Amader Rajshahi''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rajshahi.gov.bd/node/207115/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE|script-title=bn:পত্র-পত্রিকা|language=bn}}</ref> There are also many online news portal such as Uttarkal, Padmatimes24, AjkerRajshahi, rajshahinews24.com, silkcitynews.com, Priyojon TV and others.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}

State-owned [[Bangladesh Television]] and [[Bangladesh Betar]] have transmission centers in Rajshahi. The BTV [[BTV Rajshahi|relay station]] in Rajshahi is headquartered in the Kazihata neighborhood and has been operating since 2001.<ref name="rajshahi">{{Cite news|script-title=bn:অবশেষে আসছে বিটিভির 'রাজশাহী উপকেন্দ্র'|url=https://www.banglanews24.com/national/news/bd/38679.details|date=3 May 2011|access-date=8 November 2024|work=BanglaNews24|language=bn|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240830183138/https://www.banglanews24.com/national/news/bd/38679.details|archive-date=30 August 2024}}</ref>

A local FM radio station, [[Radio Padma]], transmits at 99.2 [[MHz]] frequency and [[Radio Foorti]] transmits at 88.0 [[MHz]].

There are also five press clubs in Rajshahi City. Known as Rajshahi City Press Club, Rajshahi Press Club, Rajshahi Metropolitan Press Club, Rajshahi Varendra Press Club, and Rajshahi Padma Press Club.

===Sports===
[[File:Shaheed Kamruzzaman Stadium (28686945853).jpg|thumb|right|[[Shaheed Qamaruzzaman Stadium]]]]
There are three 15,000+ capacity stadiums in the city. One is at the center of the city which is normally called the [[Rajshahi District Stadium]], another is inside the Rajshahi University and the last one used for cricket is located at Terokhadia called [[Shaheed Qamaruzzaman Stadium]]. This is the home ground of [[Rajshahi Division cricket team]]. There is also an international standard tennis complex and a few sports training academies in the city.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muktijuddho Sriti Stadium (Rajshahi District Stadium), former home to Fortis FC, Bangladesh - Football Ground Map |url=https://www.footballgroundmap.com/ground/muktijuddho-sriti-stadium-rajshahi-district-stadium/swadhinata-ks |access-date=2025-02-19 |website=www.footballgroundmap.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Shahid Kamruzzaman Stadium - Cricket Ground in Rajshahi, Bangladesh |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricket-grounds/shahid-kamruzzaman-stadium-rajshahi-56669 |access-date=2025-02-19 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref>

Many national-level footballers groomed in the city such as former [[Bangladesh national football team|Bangladesh national team]] captain [[Mohammed Mohsin (footballer, born 1963)|Mohammed Mohsin]] and recent midfielder [[Manik Hossain Molla]]. The city is the home of several national-level club teams like Diganta Proshari Sangha<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/news-detail-89280|title=Champions Club Cup from today|date=22 May 2009|access-date=21 January 2024|work=The Daily Star}}</ref> and Sonali Otit Club. There are also a few football training academies including one in Rajshahi's central ''eidgah'' (large open ground used on special occasions for Muslim prayers) and in the Zilla stadium.

The city is an important place for cricket in Bangladesh. As a regular supplier of cricketers in the national team, it is also the home of [[Bangladesh Premier League]] team [[Rajshahi Kings|Rajshahi Warriors]], which won the BPL title once. The city has two cricket academies, Banglatrack and Clemon, to grow and train upcoming cricketers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Khulna Tigers vs Rajshahi Royals, Final, Jan 17, Bangladesh Premier League 2019-20 |url=https://www.cricbuzz.com/live-cricket-scores/24409/klt-vs-rsr-final-bangladesh-premier-league-2019-20 |access-date=2025-02-19 |website=Cricbuzz |language=en}}</ref>

Rajshahi is also known for hockey. Many local hockey practice clubs allow playing at national, inter-university, college, and school levels. There are National Team hockey players from Rajshahi. Late Mintu was one of them and by his name, there is "Mintu Chottor" at Lokkhipur Mor, Rajshahi.

It also has multiple Tennis complexes, which regularly host national and international competitions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajshahi ready to host international tennis tournament {{!}} District |url=https://www.bssnews.net/district/317391 |access-date=2025-11-16 |website=BSS}}</ref>

=== Achievements ===
Rajshahi has received the National Environment Award in 2013 and 2021,<ref name="dt4Jan2020" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rajshahi City Corporation wins National Environment Award 2021 |url=https://businesspostbd.com/corporate/rajshahi-city-corporation-wins-national-environment-award-2021-2022-06-07 |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=businesspostbd.com |language=en}}</ref> and the Environment Friendly City of the Year title in 2020.<ref name="tbs4Jan2020" /> The city also earned the Prime Minister's National Award for Tree Plantation in 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2013.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news |date= |title=RCC takes steps to check air pollution |url=https://www.daily-sun.com/printversion/details/233110 |access-date=2025-03-09 |work=Daily Sun |language=en}}</ref>

==Transport==

===Road===
Rajshahi is connected to most other parts of the country via the [[N6 (Bangladesh)|N6]] national highway. There are two intercity bus terminals in the city. It takes about 5 to 6 hours by road to reach the capital city [[Dhaka]]. Several bus services, including air-conditioned, non-air-conditioned and [[sleeper bus|sleeper]] buses, are available to and from Dhaka. Bus services to other major cities and the district's headquarters are also available from Rajshahi.<ref>{{Cite news |title=1,700km more rural roads being constructed in Rajshahi |url=https://www.bssnews.net/news/159892 |work=Bangladesh Sanbad Sangstha }}</ref>

===Railway===
[[File:Rajshahi Railway Station Building.jpg|thumb|Rajshahi central railway station]]
Rajshahi has a central railway station with a total of five platforms. This station is the home of five intercity trains.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-06-02 |title=Rajshahi Railway Station - Train Schedule, Tickets, Contact & Facilities |url=https://bangladeshrailwaybd.com/rajshahi-railway-station/ |access-date=2025-08-29 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Four inter-city train services are operated by Bangladesh Railway, named ''Silk City Express'', ''Padma Express'' and ''Dhumketu Express'', and [[Bonolota Express]] between Dhaka and [[Rajshahi railway station]] regularly.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thedailystar.net/city/dhaka-rajshahi-new-train-service-bonolota-express-starts-test-run-1734586|title=First Rajshahi-Dhaka direct train launched|newspaper=The Daily Star|access-date=11 July 2019|archive-date=21 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821205501/https://www.thedailystar.net/city/dhaka-rajshahi-new-train-service-bonolota-express-starts-test-run-1734586|url-status=live}}</ref> There are other inter-city trains operated from Rajshahi to [[Khulna]] and other regions of the country. There are also mail/express trains.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Intercity and mail/express trains |url=https://railway.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/railway.portal.gov.bd/page/e64d9448_0615_4316_87f0_deb10f5c847d/Intercity%20Trains.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511220001/https://railway.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/railway.portal.gov.bd/page/e64d9448_0615_4316_87f0_deb10f5c847d/Intercity%20Trains.pdf |archive-date=2024-05-11 |access-date=2025-08-29 |website=railway.portal.gov.bd}}</ref>

There are two other railway stations in the city, ''Rajshahi Court'' and ''Rajshahi University''.

===Air===
[[File:shah mokhdum airport.JPG|thumb|right|[[Shah Makhdum Airport]], Rajshahi]]

The city is served by [[Shah Makhdum Airport]], named after the Islamic preacher [[Shah Makhdum Rupos]], situated at Nowhata, a commuter town of the city. [[Biman Bangladesh Airlines]], [[Novoair]], and [[US-Bangla Airlines]] operate domestic flights to and from [[Dhaka]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Live Flight Tracker - Real-Time Flight Tracker Map |url=https://www.flightradar24.com/data/airports/rjh |access-date=2025-02-18 |website=Flightradar24 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928052238/https://www.flightradar24.com/data/airports/rjh |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Public transport===
Electric [[auto rickshaw#Bangladesh|auto rickshaws]] and electric [[rickshaws in Bangladesh|rickshaws]] are the primary modes of transport within the city and metro area.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Unlicensed auto-rickshaws rise in Rajshahi City |url=https://www.observerbd.com/news.php?id=434583 |access-date=2024-03-07 |work=The Daily Observer}}</ref> Once there were plenty of [[Horse-drawn vehicle|Tomtoms]] (horse-driven cart) in the city, which have since faded in use. Some parts of the city are also serviced by CNG auto rickshaws.

==Healthcare==
[[File:Islami Bank Medical College & Hospital 04.jpg|thumb|Islami Bank Medical College & Hospital]]
The city has many government, private and NGO-run hospitals. [[Rajshahi Medical College]] Hospital (RMCH) is a tertiary-level public hospital with a teaching facility for graduate and postgraduate medical education. There are two private medical college hospitals, and another two are under construction in the city. There is also a government-run children's hospital, one chest hospital, a district-level government hospital, and a Christian missionary hospital within the city area.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=bn:রাজশাহী মেডিকেল কলেজ হাসপাতাল, রাজশাহী |url=https://rmch.portal.gov.bd/ |access-date=2025-02-18 |website=rmch.portal.gov.bd}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |script-title=bn:আমাদের সম্পর্কে – RMCH |url=https://rmch.gov.bd/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87/ |access-date=2025-02-18 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Education ==
[[File:Administration Building, University of Rajshahi.jpg|right|200px|thumb| Administrative building of [[University of Rajshahi]]]]

[[File:Administration Building of Rajshshi College.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Administrative building of [[Rajshahi College]]]]

[[File:Rajshahi Medical College 37.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Administrative building of [[Rajshahi Medical College]]]]

Rajshahi, commonly referred to as '''Education City''' ''(Sikkha Nogori)'', is home to many government, private and autonomous educational institutions.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=শিক্ষার প্রাণকেন্দ্র রাজশাহী |url=https://bonikbarta.com/magazine/KOmw4IUs/npa9hTTa0SElX0Yh |access-date=2026-01-01 |website=[[Bonik Barta]]}}</ref>

The [[Secondary school|secondary]] and [[Higher secondary school|higher secondary]] institutions in the city fall under the jurisdiction of the [[Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Rajshahi]].<ref name=":1" />

The city is home to the [[Rajshahi College]]- which is the third oldest college in Bangladesh after [[Dhaka College]], and [[Chittagong College]]. [[Rajshahi Medical College]] is the second oldest medical college in erstwhile East Pakistan. The [[University of Rajshahi]] is the second oldest and one of the largest public universities in the country. Rajshahi Engineering College, now known as [[RUET]], was the second engineering college established in East Pakistan in 1964. For Technical Education [[Rajshahi Polytechnic Institute]] was Established in 1963, This Institute is under the [[Bangladesh Technical Education Board]].''<ref name=":1" />''

Rajshahi consistently leads in pass rates and GPA 5 achievements in [[Secondary School Certificate (Bangladesh)|SSC]] and [[Higher Secondary Certificate|HSC]] results.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 October 2024 |script-title=bn:রাজশাহী শিক্ষা বোর্ডে সেরা রাজশাহী, দ্বিতীয় বগুড়া |url=https://thedailycampus.com/higher-secondary/156619 |access-date=5 January 2025 |website=The Daily Campus}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Rajshahi Board attains 81.24 pc pass rate in HSC exams {{!}} News |url=https://www.bssnews.net/news/216374#:~:text=RAJSHAHI,%20Oct%2015,%202024%20(,Secondary%20Certificate%20(HSC)%20examinations. |access-date=2025-01-05 |work=BSS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Rajshahi Education Board attains 89.26 pc successes in SSC {{!}} News |url=https://www.bssnews.net/news/188628 |access-date=2025-01-05 |work=BSS}}</ref>

===Notable educational institutions===
{{Main|List of educational institutions in Rajshahi}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[University of Rajshahi]]
* [[Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology]]
* [[North Bengal International University]]
* [[Rajshahi Medical University]]
* [[Institute of Health Technology, Rajshahi]]
* [[Rajshahi Medical College]]
* [[Islami Bank Medical College]]
* [[Rajshahi Polytechnic Institute]]
* [[Rajshahi College]]
* [[New Government Degree College, Rajshahi]]
* [[Rajshahi Government City College]]
* [[Shahid A.H.M. Kamaruzzaman Govt. Degree College]]
* [[Rajshahi Collegiate School]]
* [[Masjid Mission Academy]]
* [[Govt. Laboratory High School, Rajshahi]]
* [[Rajshahi Government Girls' High School]]
* [[Haji Muhammad Mohsin Government High School, Rajshahi]]
* [[Rajshahi Loknath High School]]
* [[Rajshahi University School]]
{{div col end}}

==Notable residents==
* [[Abul Hasnat Muhammad Qamaruzzaman]], politician
* [[A. H. M. Khairuzzaman Liton]], politician
* [[Akshay Kumar Maitreya]], historian
* [[Andrew Kishore]], singer
* [[Manzila Uddin, Baroness Uddin|Baroness Uddin]], activist
* [[Bidya Sinha Saha Mim]], actress
* [[Enamul Karim Nirjhar]], architect
* [[Fazle Hossain Badsha]], politician
* [[Hasanuzzaman Khan Bablu]], footballer
* [[Hasan Azizul Huq]], linguist
* [[Ila Mitra]], activist
* [[Jadunath Sarkar]], historian
* [[Junaid Siddique]], cricketer
* [[Khaled Mashud]], cricketer
* [[Mahiya Mahi]], actress
* [[Malay Bhowmick]], playwright and director
* [[Manik Hossain Molla]], footballer
* [[Mizanur Rahman Minu]], politician
* [[Mohammad A. Arafat]], politician
* [[Mohammed Mohsin (footballer, born 1963)|Mohammed Mohsin]], footballer
* [[Mohammad Shamsuzzoha]], academic
* [[Mostakim Wazed]], footballer
* [[Mrinal Haque]], sculptor
* [[Najmul Hossain Shanto]], cricketer
* [[Nusrat Imrose Tisha]], actress
* [[Rajanikanta Sen]], poet
* [[Ritwik Ghatak]], filmmaker
* [[Sabbir Rahman]], cricketer
* [[Saleh Hasan Naqib]], researcher
* [[Sarfaraz Ahmed Rafiqui]], fighter pilot
* [[Selina Hossain]], novelist
* [[Shahriar Alam (politician)|Shahriar Alam]], politician
* [[Shakil Hossain (footballer)|Shakil Hossain]], footballer

==Twin towns and sister cities==
Rajshahi's twin town and [[Sister city|sister cities]] are:
* {{flagicon|Norway}} [[Kristiansand]], Norway (1979)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kristiansand.kommune.no/aktuelt/kunstlotteri-for-rajshahi/ |title=Kunstlotteri for Rajshahi |trans-title=Art lottery for Rajshahi |website=Kristiansand Municipality |language=no |quote=[Every three years Kristiansands schools and kindergartens hold an action for Rajshahi in Bangladesh, our sister city since 1979.] }}{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Norway keens to Rajshahi city's development: Envoy |url=https://www.observerbd.com/news/184474 |access-date=2025-02-21 |work=The Daily Observer}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|China}} [[Yiyang]], China (2018)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bangladesh's Rajshahi city signs friendship LoI with China's Yiyang city |url=https://en.imsilkroad.com/p/115447.html}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Rajshahi District]]
* [[Rajshahi Division]]
* [[North Bengal]]
* [[North Bengal Province]]
* [[List of cities and towns in Bangladesh]]
{{Portal|Bangladesh}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Rajshahi|voy=Rajshahi}}
* [http://www.amaderrajshahi.com/rajshahi/images/Rajsahi_Disrict.png Map of Rajshahi District]
* [http://www.erajshahi.gov.bd/app/index/index.php E-Rajshahi (in English)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110101130700/http://www.erajshahi.gov.bd/app/index/index.php |date=1 January 2011 }}, an online portal for information and government services managed by Rajshahi City Corporation
* [http://www.financialexpress-bd.com/index3.asp?cnd=3/6/2006&section_id=8&newsid=17737&spcl=no FinancialExpress-bd.com], News about LSE survey
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060210014327/http://www.betar.org.bd/Engineer.htm Betar.org.be], Radio Bangladesh website for information on Bangladesh Betar
* [http://www.world-airport-codes.com/bangladesh/rajshahi-6196.html World-Airport-Codes.com], information on Shah Mokhdum Airpor

{{Geographic location
| Centre = Rajshahi
| North = [[Mohanpur Upazila]], [[Rajshahi District]]
| Northeast = [[Durgapur Upazila, Rajshahi|Durgapur Upazila]], [[Rajshahi District]]
| East = [[Puthia Upazila]], [[Rajshahi District]]
| Southeast = [[Charghat Upazila]], [[Rajshahi District]]
| South = [[West Bengal]], [[India]]
| Southwest = [[West Bengal]], [[India]]
| West = [[Godagari Upazila]], [[Rajshahi District]]
| Northwest = [[Tanore Upazila]], [[Rajshahi District]]
}}

{{Rajshahi}}
{{Bangladesh cities}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Rajshahi| ]]
[[Category:Populated places in Rajshahi Division]]
[[Category:Cities in Bangladesh]]

South Goa district

2026-03-16T06:16:08Z

Thechhavigarg: basic fixed intro and fixed typos per sources

{{No footnotes|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = South Goa district
| native_name=
| settlement_type = [[Districts of Goa|District of Goa]]
| total_type = Total
| image_map = South_Goa_Political_Map.png
| map_caption = Location of South Goa district in Goa Red: Velhas Conquistas (old Portuguese conquests) Pink: Novas Conquistas (new Portuguese conquests) Yellow: District Capital
| coordinates =
| coor_pinpoint = Margao
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|}} [[Goa]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of India|Division]]
| subdivision_name2 =
| established_title = Established
| established_date =
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Margao]]
| parts_type = [[Tehsils of India|Talukas]]
| parts_style = para
| p1 = {{olist |[[Salcete]] |[[Mormugao]] |[[Ponda taluka|Ponda]]}}
| area_total_km2 = 1966
| area_rank = [[List of districts of Goa|1st]]
| area_footnotes =
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_total = 6,40,537
| population_footnotes =
| population_urban = 64.59%
| population_rank = [[List of districts of Goa|2nd]]
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Demographics
| demographics1_title1 = [[Literacy in India|Literacy]]
| demographics1_info1 = 85.53%
| demographics1_title2 = Sex ratio
| demographics1_info2 = 980
| leader_title2 = [[Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha constituencies]]
| leader_name2 = [[South Goa (Lok Sabha constituency)|South Goa]]
| leader_title3 = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]]
| leader_name3 = [[Viriato Fernandes]] ([[Indian National Congress|INC]])
| leader_title = [[District collector]]
| leader_name =
| leader_title1 = [[Superintendent of police (India)|Superintendent of Police]]
| leader_name1 =
| leader_title4 = [[District council (India)|Zilla Parishad, Chairperson]]
| leader_name4 =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 4032xx ,4034xx, 4036xx, 4037xx,4038xx (South Goa) <ref> [https://indiapincodes.net/Goa/South-goa/ South Goa]</ref>
| area_code = +91 0832
| area_code_type = Telephone
| blank1_name_sec1 = Largest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Cuncolim]] (28.7 km2)
| blank2_name_sec2 = Largest city (by population)
| blank2_info_sec2 = [[Mormugao]]
| blank3_name_sec2 = [[Climate of India|Climate]]
| blank3_info_sec2 = [[Tropical monsoon climate|Am]] {{small|([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]])}}
| registration_plate =[[List of RTO districts in India#Goa|GA]]-02
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Roads in India|Major highways]]
| blank_info_sec1 = 1.[[National Highway 66 (India)|National Highway 66]], 2.[[National Highway 4A (India)|National Highway 4A]]
| blank_name_sec2 =
| blank_info_sec2 =
| website = {{URL|http://southgoa.nic.in}}
}}

'''South Goa district''' is one of the [[List of districts of Goa|three districts]] that together constitute the state of [[Goa]], India, within the region known as the [[Konkan]]. It is bounded by [[North Goa district]] to the north, while the [[Arabian Sea]] forms its western coast. It ranks among the top 25 developed districts of India. The district capital city is Margao, which also serves as the commercial capital of Goa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Places of Interest {{!}} South Goa District {{!}} India |url=https://southgoa.nic.in/places-of-interest/ |access-date=2025-08-25 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==History==
The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] established a colony in Goa in 1510 and expanded the colony to its present boundaries during the 17th and 18th centuries. Goa was annexed by India on 19 December 1961. Goa and two other former Portuguese enclaves became the [[union territory]] of Goa, Daman, and Diu, and Goa was organised into a single district in 1965. On 30 May 1987, Goa attained [[states and territories of India|statehood]] (while [[Daman and Diu]] became a separate union territory), and Goa was reorganised into two districts, North Goa and South Goa.

==Administration==
Asvin Chandru A,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.witnessinthecorridors.com/BureaDetails.aspx?id=40729 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319120618/https://www.witnessinthecorridors.com/BureaDetails.aspx?id=40729 | archive-date=19 March 2023 | title=Witness in the Corridors }}</ref> an officer of the [[Indian Administrative Service]], is the Collector and District Magistrate of South Goa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Who's Who {{!}} South Goa District {{!}} India |url=https://southgoa.nic.in/about-district/whos-who/ |website=southgoa.nic.in |access-date=25 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210325183859/https://southgoa.nic.in/about-district/whos-who/|archive-date=25 March 2021}}</ref> There are deputy collectors and ''mamlatdars'' for each subdivision/''taluka''.

The headquarters of the district is [[Margao]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://southgoa.nic.in/profile.htm |title=District Profile - South Goa District Website, Goa, India |access-date=17 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528122315/http://southgoa.nic.in/profile.htm |archive-date=28 May 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

There are 205 revenue villages in South Goa District under seven ''Talukas'' (subdistricts) headed each by the Mamlatdar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://southgoa.nic.in/tehsil/|title=Tehsil {{!}} South Goa District {{!}} India|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref>

==Divisions==
[[File:Salcete scenery.jpg|thumb|Rural Salcete, South Goa]]
[[Margao]] is the administrative headquarters of the district. The 'Matanhy Saldanha Administrative Complex', the collectorate building, named after former minister and social activist Mr Mathany Saldanha, is located on the outskirts of the city, adjoining the intercity bus stand.<ref>
{{Cite news
| author = TNN
| url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/South-Goa-collectorate-named-after-Matanhy/articleshow/20358438.cms
| title = South Goa collectorate named after Matanhy
| work = [[The Times of India]]
| publisher = [[The Times Group]]
| location = [[Margao]]
| date = 31 May 2013
| access-date = 10 December 2019
}}
</ref>

The district was divided into five subdivisions—[[Ponda, Goa|Ponda]], [[Mormugao]]-[[Vasco da Gama, Goa|Vasco]], Margao, [[Quepem]], and [[Dharbandora]]; and seven ''[[Tehsil|talukas]]''—[[Ponda taluka|Ponda]], [[Dharbandora]], [[Sanguem]], [[Mormugao taluka|Mormugao]] (Vasco), [[Salcete]] (Margao), [[Quepem taluka|Quepem]], and [[Canacona taluka|Canacona]] ([[Chaudi]]).

Ponda taluka that was previously part of North Goa district became part of South Goa district in January 2015.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-01-17 |title=Ponda taluka in South Goa soon |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/ponda-taluka-in-s-goa-soon/articleshow/45916913.cms |access-date=2026-03-15 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==Politics==
{{transcluded section|source=8th Goa Assembly}}
{{#section:8th Goa Assembly|Table Caption}}
{{#section:8th Goa Assembly|South Goa district}}
|}

==Transport==
Frequent buses are available between Margao and North Goa.

==Demographics==
{{historical populations|11=1900|12=181439|13=1910|14=180429|15=1920|16=181455|17=1931|18=191667|19=1940|20=204297|21=1950|22=216574|23=1960|24=240330|25=1971|26=336808|27=1981|28=439728|29=1991|30=504989|31=2001|32=589095|33=2011|34=640537|percentages=pagr|footnote=source:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/A2_Data_Table.html|title=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|website=www.censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>|align=middle}}
According to the [[2011 census of India|2011 census]] South Goa has a [[Demographics of India|population]] of 640,537<ref name=districtcensus>{{cite web|url=http://www.census2011.co.in/district.php|title=District Census 2011|access-date=30 September 2011|year=2011|publisher=Census2011.co.in}}</ref> which is roughly equal to the nation of [[Montenegro]]<ref name="cia">{{cite web|author=US Directorate of Intelligence|title=Country Comparison:Population|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004507/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 June 2007|access-date=1 October 2011|quote=Montenegro 661,807 July 2011 est.}}</ref> or the US state of [[Vermont]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/apportionment-pop-text.php|title=2010 Resident Population Data|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=30 September 2011|quote=Vermont 625,741}}</ref> This gives it a ranking of 515th in India (out of a total of [[Districts of India|640]]). The district has a population density of {{convert|326|PD/sqkm|PD/sqmi}}. Its [[Family planning in India|population growth rate]] over the decade 2001–2011 was 8.63%. South Goa has a [[sex ratio]] of 980 [[Women in India|females]] for every 1000 males, and a [[Literacy in India|literacy rate]] of 85.53%.<ref name=districtcensus/> The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 1.22% and 14.47% of the population of the district.<ref>{{Cite web |title=South Goa District Population, Goa, List of Talukas in South Goa |url=https://www.censusindia2011.com/goa/south-goa-population.html |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=Censusindia2011.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Religion ===
{{bar box
| title = Religion in South Goa district<ref name="Religion"/>
| titlebar = #Fcd116
| left1 = Religion
| right1 = Percent
| float = right
| bars =
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|darkorange|53.34}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|dodgerblue|36.21}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|green|9.93}}
{{bar percent|Others|black|0.50}}
}}
[[Hinduism]] (53%) is followed by the majority of population of South Goa. [[Christians]] (36%) form significant minority.<ref name="Religion">{{cite web |title=C-1 Population By Religious Community |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01/DDW30C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=census.gov.in |access-date=15 September 2020}}</ref>

===Language===
{{Pie chart
| thumb = left
| caption = Languages of South Goa district (2011)<ref>{{cite web |title=C-16 Population By Mother Tongue - Goa |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-3000.XLSX |website=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=4 October 2019}}</ref>
| label1 = [[Konkani language|Konkani]]
| value1 = 66.44
| color1 = salmon
| label2 = [[Hindi]]
| value2 = 12.38
| color2 = orange
| label3 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| value3 = 6.45
| color3 = red
| label4 = [[Kannada language|Kannada]]
| value4 = 3.62
| color4 = darkslateblue
| label5 = [[Urdu]]
| value5 = 3.39
| color5 = green
| label6 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]
| value6 = 1.00
| color6 = cornflowerblue
| label7 = Others
| value7 = 6.72
| color7 = grey
}}

At the time of the [[2011 Census of India]], 66.44% of the population in the district spoke [[Konkani language|Konkani]], 12.38% [[Hindi]], 6.45% [[Marathi language|Marathi]], 5.98% [[Kannada]], 3.39% [[Urdu]], 1.00% [[Malayalam]], 0.86% [[Telugu language|Telugu]], 0.55% [[Bengali language|Bengali]], 0.49% [[Tamil language|Tamil]], 0.49% [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], 0.44% [[Odia language|Odia]] and 0.42% [[English language|English]] as their first language.<ref>{{cite web |title=C-16 Population By Mother Tongue - Goa |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-3000.XLSX |website=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=4 October 2019}}</ref>

==Education==
There are many educational institutions in South Goa. The prominent colleges include:
*[[National Institute of Technology Goa ]] in Cuncolim .
* [[Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani – Goa Campus]] in Zuarinagar.
* [[The Parvatibai Chowgule College]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://59.165.134.221/chowgule/jsp/introduction/about_SPCC.jsp |title=Parvatibai Chowgule College - About SPCC |access-date=25 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140425201156/http://59.165.134.221/chowgule/jsp/introduction/about_SPCC.jsp |archive-date=25 April 2014 }}</ref> in Margao.
* [[Govind Ramnath Kare College of Law]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.grkarelaw.edu.in/aboutus.html |title=G. R. Kare College of Law - About Us |access-date=9 May 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528185518/http://grkarelaw.edu.in/aboutus.html |archive-date=28 May 2014 }}</ref> in [[Margao]].
* [[Padre Conceicao College of Engineering]] (PCCE)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pccegoa.org/|title=Padre Conceição College Of Engineering|website=www.pccegoa.org}}</ref> in [[Verna, Goa|Verna]].
* [[MES College]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mescollege.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1&Itemid=3 |title=M.E.S. College of Arts & Commerce |website=www.mescollege.org}}</ref> in [[Vasco da Gama]].

==See also==

* [[Kushavati district]]

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=<ref name="Goa 2022">{{Cite web |date=14 September 2022 |title=8 Goa Congress MLAs defect to BJP |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/goa/goa-congress-mlas-join-bjp-8149937/ |access-date=14 September 2022 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[http://southgoa.nic.in/ South Goa district Website]

{{Geographic location
|Centre = South Goa district
|North = [[North Goa district]]
|Northeast =
|East =
|Southeast = [[Uttara Kannada district]], [[Karnataka]]
|South =
|Southwest =
|West = ''[[Arabian Sea]]''
|Northwest =
}}

{{Goa topics}}

{{coord|15.2724|N|73.9583|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}

[[Category:South Goa district| ]]
[[Category:Districts of Goa]]
[[Category:1987 establishments in Goa]]

Mananthavady

2026-03-16T05:50:26Z

Thechhavigarg:

{{Short description|Town in Kerala, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Mananthavady
| native_name = 
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Municipality
| pushpin_map = India Kerala#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala, India
| coordinates = {{coord|11|48|N|76|0|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body = Municipality
| leader_title = Municipal Chairperson
| leader_name = Jacob Sebastian([[Indian National Congress|INC]])
| leader_title1 = Member of the Legislative Assembly of Kerala (MLA)
| leader_name1 = [[O. R. Kelu]]
| leader_title3 = Member of Parliament
| leader_name3 = [[Priyanka Gandhi]] ([[Indian National Congress]])
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 80.1
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 760
| population_total = 47,974
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], English
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 670645 Mananthavady town
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| area_code = 04935
| registration_plate = KL-72
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 1051[[female|♀]]/[[male|♂]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = Literacy
| blank2_info_sec1 = 91.98%
| website =
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-KL]]
| footnotes =
| image_skyline = Mananthavady Church.jpg
| image_caption = Mananthavady Town Church
}}
'''Mananthavady''' is a Municipality, Taluk and town in the [[Wayanad district]] of [[Kerala]], India. The municipal boundaries are defined by Tirunelli Panchayat to the north, [[Kabini River]] to the east and south, and Thavinhal Panchayat to the west.<ref>{{cite web |title=St. Thomas Orthodox Church - Mananthavady |url=https://directory.mosc.in/parishes/st-thomas-orthodox-church-45/ |website=directory.mosc.in |publisher=MOSC Publications |access-date=17 June 2024}}</ref> Mananthavady is the largest muncipality in Wayanad District.It is situated 35km northeast of the district headquarters, Kalpetta, 80km east of Thalassery, and 110km northeast of Kozhikode.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kallivalli |title=Jeevan's KALLI VALLI : My town Mananthavady |url=http://kallivalli.blogspot.com/2015/06/my-town-mananthavady.html |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=Jeevan's KALLI VALLI}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The popular view on the etymology is that the word is derived from "Maane Eytha Vady" (English: "The place where an arrow was shot at the deer"). This view is strengthened by the existence of a place called ''Ambukuthy'', literally "the location where the arrow pierced", on the outskirts of the town.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lsgkerala.in/mananthavadypanchayat/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091228081138/http://lsgkerala.in/mananthavadypanchayat |archive-date=28 December 2009 |title=മാനന്തവാടി ഗ്രാമപഞ്ചായത്ത്}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Early history ===
From the dawn of the [[Neolithic|Neolithic Age]], [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]] has been home to a culturally rich population.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-03-16 |title=മാനന്തവാടി ഗ്രാമപഞ്ചായത്ത് (Mananthavady Grama Panchayat) » ചരിത്രം |url=http://lsgkerala.in/mananthavadypanchayat/history/ |access-date=2024-07-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316075650/http://lsgkerala.in/mananthavadypanchayat/history/ |archive-date=16 March 2016 }}</ref> The [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] period of the region is evidenced through the [[myth]]s and [[tradition]]s of various indigenous groups found here. According to an inscription found in [[Edakkal caves|Edakkal Cave]], it appears that the Girivar tribe governed Wayanad in ancient times. The last rulers of this tribe were Arippan and Vettan, two family members of the same lineage. All the northern territories of [[Panamaram]] were under the rule of King Arippan. It was through the deceit of the Kumbala Maippadi King that the Vettan dynasty eventually lost its prominence.

Various tribes such as the [[Paniya people|Paniyar]], Mullakurumar, Ooralaikkurumar, Kattu Naikkar, [[Adiyan]], and [[Kurichiya]]r have been present in different parts of Wayanad for centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tribal population, Wayanad, Kerala, India |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/wayanad/tribal-population.php |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=Kerala Tourism - Wayanad |language=en}}</ref> The Paniyar, who were permanent settlers in the mountains, and the Kurumbar, known for their prominence in the Vettan dynasty, along with the Naga Makkal of Ooralaikkurumar and the Adiyan, descendants of Keeoruthiyan and Melorachavan, are noted for their significant cultural heritage. Among these, the Adiyan tribe is most commonly found in Mananthavady after Tirunelli. The region surrounding Mananthavady is associated with myths of the Adiyan tribe connected to Thirunelli and Pakki. Their rich tradition of storytelling and singing is well known.

Mananthavady houses numerous sites related to the Paniyar tribe, extending from [[Palakkad district|Palakkad]] to [[Malappuram district|Malappuram]]. The [[Valliyoorkkavu|Valliyoor Kavu temple]], in particular, has a special place reserved for them.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Heritage |date=2022-01-31 |title=Valliyoorkavu Temple: Goddess of the Tribes |url=https://www.hearitage.in/2022/01/valliyoorkavu-temple-goddess-of-tribes.html |access-date=2024-07-27 |language=en}}</ref> The Ooralaikkurumar, known for their skills in craftsmanship among the indigenous tribes, can be found in places like Tholpetty, Begur, Appapara, Panamaram, Kalpetta, Pulppally, and Mullanthara in Mananthavady. They self-produce all the essential tools and materials required by human society.

Kurichiyars, who were companions of the [[Pazhassi Raja]], provide clear evidence that the early inhabitants of Wayanad understood the use of the wheel from ancient times.<ref>{{Cite web |title=An ode to Kerala's freedom struggle |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/travel/kerala/2018/06/30/kerala-freedom-struggle-british-rule-pazhassi-raja-revolt-satyagraha-independence-day.html |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=Onmanorama}}</ref> This is supported by the discovery of a wooden wheel from the riverbanks of Wayanad. Wayanad is one of the few ancient centres in India where trees were carved into circular shapes, cut into wheels, and fitted onto axles to create vehicles. An inscription from the 5th century AD by Vishnusharma is found in Edakkal Cave.

=== Regional Administration History ===
According to the inscription found in [[Edakkal caves|Edakkal Cave]], the Girivar tribe was the governing authority in Wayanad during ancient times.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Edakkal Caves {{!}} Welcome to Wayanad {{!}} India |url=https://wayanad.gov.in/en/tourist-place/edakkal-caves/ |access-date=2024-07-27 |language=en-US}}</ref> The last rulers of this tribe were Arippan and Vettan, two family members from the same lineage. All the northern territories of Panamaram were under the rule of King Arippan. The Vettan dynasty eventually fell due to the deceit of the Kumbala Maippadi King. In 1810, the history of Wayanad was compiled and recorded orally by the Malabar District Court. This is also noted in Mackenzie’s manuscripts.<ref>{{Citation |last=Wolffhardt |first=Tobias |title=Unearthing the Past to Forge the Future |chapter=Chapter 6. Knowledge for the Future |date=2017-10-01 |pages=180–214 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781785336904-011/pdf?licenseType=restricted |access-date=2024-07-27 |publisher=Berghahn Books |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781785336904-011 |isbn=978-1-78533-690-4}}</ref>

After the downfall of the Vettan rulers, the Kottayam Raja began governing Wayanad, having also seized the rights of the Parrayikkumithal Mādampi. During Hyder Ali's invasion, Ravi Varma, the Raja of Kottayam, sought refuge in Travancore with his family. During the second Mysore invasion, Ravi Varma returned with a military force and regained control of Wayanad. After the war, Wayanad was divided into several regions, with Ilamkur being part of the present-day Mananthavady. Vemooth Nambiar was the Mādampi (local ruler) of this region.

On March 18, 1792, the Treaty between the East India Company and Tipu Sultan transferred the sovereignty of Malabar to the British.<ref>Dodwell, pp. 336–337</ref> Since the Company did not comply with the condition of handing over authority to local rulers, Pazhassi Raja took a strong stand against it. To subdue Pazhassi Raja, the British authorities employed various strategies. By the end of April 1805, Pazhassi Raja was unable to hold his ground. With the takeover of the Company’s forces by the Malabar Sub-Collector T.H. Baber, Pazhassi Raja’s position became increasingly precarious. On November 30, 1805, he met his heroic end in Mavilathottam at [[Pulpally|Pulppally]]. His body was brought to Mananthavady the next day under heavy guard and was interred at Thazhankari with Brahmin rituals. The stone monument erected by the British and the tree that grew on it still stand as historical witnesses. To preserve the memories of the battles and to store ammunition, the British also constructed a gunpowder magazine near Chuttakkadavu, which still stands today despite its weathered condition. Pazhassi Raja died at the age of 47. With his fall, the Kurichiyapad was plundered.

In 1856, Robinson's report indicated that the Ilamkur division, including Mananthavady, was re-divided into new administrative sections, including Vemooth and Tirunelli. By 1830, private coffee plantations were already present around Mananthavady, but it was Pugh, a Ceylonese, who started coffee plantations in Mananthavady around 1835. The initial coffee plantation was started by soldiers stationed in Mananthavady as a form of rest work. In 1854, tea plantations began in Chirakkara and Jessia. By 1892, Pyari & Company established a foothold in the area. According to William Logan's Malabar Manual of 1887, Mananthavady had offices of the Deputy Collector, Police Inspector, Sub Registrar, and Sub Assistant Conservator, among others. There were also government-run middle schools and a post office in Mananthavady. Before 1886, medical officers in Mananthavady were Europeans. There was also a club for Europeans and a canteen selling necessary goods.

During the early days of the East India Company's rule, Mananthavady was under the Talassery Sub-Collector. Later, during the British government’s rule, it came under the authority of a specific Deputy Collector. From 1859 to 1879, the Deputy Collector of Mananthavady had civil powers. In 1859, with the formation of the Forest Department, the forests of Wayanad were divided into 14 blocks. A forest officer, a Sub Assistant Conservator, and 20 forest guards were appointed for district forest management, with the Sub Assistant Conservator's office located in Mananthavady. The Mananthavady Panchayat was formed in 1935. The regions of Kaniyaram and Ozhakkodi were not included in the Panchayat at that time. The Panchayat had an area of about twenty square kilometres.

=== Socio-Cultural History ===
The agricultural characteristics of the Wayanad region, known for its fertile lands, are reflected in the agricultural sector of the Mananthavady Panchayat.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FEDAR {{!}} Foundation for Futuristic Education and Research |url=https://fedarfoundation.com/research/agrarian-migration-and-socio-economic-transformation-in-wayanad |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=fedarfoundation.com |language=en}}</ref> Most of the agricultural lands in Mananthavady were under the jurisdiction of the Sreevalliyurkkav Devaswom and the Koilery Vadyoor Devaswom. Landowners included [[Brahmin]]s, [[Chettiar|Chettiyars]], and Goudas, along with tenants. The tenant-landlord relationship, which existed in earlier times, was managed through a system of rent payment in paddy, which was equivalent to the seed required for cultivation. The rate for irrigated land was five rupees per acre.

The agricultural workers for the landowners included Paniyans, Kurichiyars, Adiyans, and Kurumbas. Migration began actively in the 1930s and continued into the 1960s, with rice cultivation being the main agricultural activity. The Mananthavady Panchayat consists of Hindus, Christians, Muslims, Jains, and other groups, including Yadavs, Chettiyars, and Tamil Brahmins. The onset of World War II led to food shortages, causing an influx of Christian families from Todupuzha, Muvattupuzha, and Palai into various parts of the Panchayat. During Tipu Sultan's military campaign, the settlers of the Panchayat included families from the region and subsequent Muslim immigrants.

The indigenous communities in the Panchayat are known for their superior and diverse cultural heritage. Mananthavady was once a region with abundant wild animals. Many of the places in the Mananthavady town, which are now densely populated, were once thick forests. Roads, bridges, and electricity were very limited. Authorities took necessary measures to light up the important locations in the Panchayat at night. There was bus service to Talassery, Kozhikode, and Mysore. During World War II, when there was a shortage of petrol, buses operated using bullocks and horses. Seeking medical treatment from Krishna Vaidyan in Vadakara was a common practice for the people of Mananthavady. The malaria epidemic that affected Wayanad also reached Mananthavady. In 1946–47, there was a suspected plague outbreak, leading to the closure of Mananthavady town and the destruction of houses' roofs to eradicate rats.

Many notable local freedom fighters were active in the Panchayat. Early cinema screenings in Mananthavady were conducted through touring talkies, with the main center being in Ampukuthy. A well-known place of worship in Mananthavady is Valliyoor Kavu, which follows the Dravidian architectural style. The first Christian temple, Amaloothbhava Devalayam, was established in 1848. Initially, there was a small church at the present site and another church in Pathivayal, intended for worship by converts from the Kurichiyar community. Later, temples for different communities, including Jains and Yadavs, were built in various regions. The Pattanipalli Mosque and the Muslim mosque in the town were among the first of their kind. The worship practices of different indigenous communities and their distinct temples add to the cultural uniqueness of the Panchayat.

==Transportation==
The Thalassery–Bavali Road passes through Mananthavady and is the town's main road, allowing connection to [[Mysore]], [[Karnataka]]. The road to Mysore through [[Nagarhole National Park]] has been declared a National Highway by the central government; it is parallel to the [[Kabini River]], night travel in this road is regulated so that the road is closed from 6PM to 6AM. The highway goes from Kainatty (at the junction of NH 766) to Mysore via Bavali, Jayapura.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/Centre-Agrees-to-Upgrade-1656km-of-State-and-National-Highways/2016/01/15/article3228708.ece|title=Centre Agrees to Upgrade 1,656km of State and National Highways|work=The New Indian Express|access-date=2018-03-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311222305/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2016/jan/15/Centre-Agrees-to-Upgrade-1656km-of-State-and-National-Highways-869143.html|archive-date=2018-03-11}}</ref> Another road permits access to [[Gonikoppal]], [[Kodagu district]], {{convert|60|km|abbr=on}} away via [[Kattikkulam|Kartikulam]], Tholpetty forest, [[Kutta]] and [[Ponnampet]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.old.kerala.gov.in/district_handbook/Wayanad.pdf|title=Wayanad District|work=District Handbooks of Kerala|author=P. P.Chandran|publisher=Department of Information and Public Relations, Government of Kerala|location=Thiruvananthapuram|date=April 2003|access-date=2012-02-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216080429/http://www.old.kerala.gov.in/district_handbook/Wayanad.pdf|archive-date=16 December 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Climate==
Mananthavady experiences a [[tropical monsoon climate]], characterized by moderate temperatures and high [[humidity]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abraham |first1=Minu Treesa |last2=Satyam |first2=Neelima |last3=Rosi |first3=Ascanio |last4=Pradhan |first4=Biswajeet |last5=Segoni |first5=Samuele |date=2020-04-01 |title=The Selection of Rain Gauges and Rainfall Parameters in Estimating Intensity-Duration Thresholds for Landslide Occurrence: Case Study from Wayanad (India) |journal=Water |language=en |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=1000 |doi=10.3390/w12041000 |doi-access=free |issn=2073-4441|hdl=10453/146667 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The monsoon season brings significant rainfall, which supports the region's lush greenery and agricultural activities. The weather is generally pleasant, with temperatures ranging from mild to warm throughout the year.{{Weather box/concise C
| location=Mananthavady, Kerala
| source=Climate-Data.org<ref name="Climate-Data.org">"Climate: Mananthavady", Climate-Data.org. Web: [http://en.climate-data.org/location/47865/].</ref>
| 27.2|29.0|30.6|30.4|29.4|25.8|24.4|24.9|25.9|26.7|26.6|26.5
| 16.7|18.0|19.6|20.7|20.9|19.8|19.4|19.4|19.3|19.4|18.6|17.0
| 3|9|20|101|186|515|1096|565|211|203|82|19
|width=10}}

== Demographics ==
{{bar box
|title=Religions in Mananthavady Taluk
(2011)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.census2011.co.in/data/religion/district/280-kottayam.html | title=Towns in Kottayam - Religion 2011 | publisher=Indian Population Census 2011 | access-date=22 September 2016 }}</ref>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hindu]]|orange|46.31}}
{{bar percent|[[Christians]]|blue|23.6}}
{{bar percent|[[Muslims]]|green|29.52}}
{{bar percent|[[Buddhist]]|yellow|0.02}}
{{bar percent|[[Jains]]|yellow|0.00}}
{{bar percent|[[Sikhs]]|pink|0.01}}
{{bar percent|Others|black|0.03}}
{{bar percent|Not available|grey|0.23}}
|caption=Distribution of religions
}}
Mananthavady has Majority Hindu Community with [[Nair]],[[Ezhava|Thiyyas]] and Various [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Tribes]] forming the majority ,Followed by Muslims and Christians.The Taluk has a significant [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|Scheduled Tribes]] Population.Schedule Tribe (ST) constitutes Around 22 % while Schedule Caste (SC) were 2.5 % of total population in Mananthavady .

Mananthavady is home to [[Eparchy of Mananthavady]],Indicating a significant [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] population.Most of them are Migrants from [[Kanjirappally]] and [[Pala, Kerala|Pala]],As Part Of [[Malabar Migration]].

==Municipality Members==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Mananthavady Municipality Election Results
|-
! Ward No. !! Ward Name !! Councilor Name !! Party !! Alliance
|-
| 001 || Pancharakolli || K. V. Jubair || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 002 || Jessy || V. K. Sivan || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 003 || Pilakkavu || Pradeepan (Manoj) || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 004 || Kalliyottu || Rajila || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 005 || Kallumottamkunnu || Jinsha Sunish || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 006 || Ambukuthi || Rasina Siddique || [[Indian Union Muslim League|IUML]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 007 || Choyimoola || Sharanya M. C. || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 008 || Ondayangadi || P. T. Biju || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 009 || Vincent Giri || Biji A. || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 010 || Varadimoola || Rajanish M. R. || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 011 || Mudramoola || Anitha || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 012 || Cheroor || Kousalya Appachan || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 013 || Kurukanmoola || Shelly James Thennamkuzhiyil || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 014 || [[Kuruvadweep|Kuruva]]|| Shibu K. George || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 015 || Kadankolli || Lissy Jose || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 016 || [[Payyampally]]|| Jacob Sebastian || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 017 || Puthiyidam || Sabitha V. P. || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 018 || Kollery || Manjula Ashokan || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 019 || Thannikal || Smitha Anilkumar || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 020 || [[Valliyoorkkavu]]|| Sharanya Sreejith || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 021 || Mythrinagar || Sheeja Francis || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 022 || Chettapalam || C. Kunjabdulla || [[Indian Union Muslim League|IUML]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 023 || Arattuthara || Manoj Gopalan || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 024 || Peruvaka || Sashikumar || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 025 || Thazheyangadi || Hamsa P. K. || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 026 || Mananthavady Town || Adv. Sindhu Sebastian || [[Independent politician|Ind]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 027 || Gorimoola || P. V. S. Moosa || [[Indian Union Muslim League|IUML]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 028 || Erumatheruvu || Annamma George || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 029 || Club Kunnu || Sajna Teacher || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 030 || Pariyaramkunnu || John || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 031 || Ozhakodi || P. V. George || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 032 || Palakkuli || Lekha Rajeevan || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 033 || Kuzhinilam || Raju Michael || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 034 || Kaniyaram || V. U. Joy || [[Indian National Congress|INC]] || [[United Democratic Front (Kerala)|UDF]]
|-
| 035 || Puthanpura || Akilesh K. S. || [[Nationalist Congress Party (Sharadchandra Pawar-Sharadchandra Pawar|NCP-SP]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 036 || Kuttimoola || Usha Kelu || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|-
| 037 || Chirakara || V. R. Praveej || [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)|CPI(M)]] || [[Left Democratic Front (Kerala)|LDF]]
|}

== Notable Landmarks ==

* [[Edakkal caves|Edakkal Caves]] – These ancient caves are renowned for their prehistoric petroglyphs and inscriptions, providing insights into the early history of the region.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-10-18 |title=₹2.9-crore project to improve amenities around Edakkal Caves |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/29-crore-project-to-improve-amenities-around-edakkal-caves/article67434392.ece |access-date=2024-07-27 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
* [[Valliyoorkkavu|Valliyoor Kavu Temple]] – An important religious site known for its Dravidian architectural style and historical significance.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chinta |first=Indu |date=2022-03-25 |title=A festival of togetherness |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/2022/Mar/25/a-festival-of-togetherness-39823.html |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=Indulgexpress |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Pazhassi Raja|Pazhassi Raja's Resting place]] – The Pazhassi Tomb and Museum, a significant memorial dedicated to one of Kerala’s esteemed heroes, is located in Mananthavady.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mananthavady in Wayanad {{!}} Districts of Malabar |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/ |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=www.keralatourism.org |language=en}}</ref> Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, celebrated as the Lion of Kerala, is honoured here for his unwavering loyalty to his people until the end. The tomb, built on the site where the King was cremated, stands on the banks of the Kabani River. In 1996, it was transformed into a museum that now displays various items of memorabilia related to Pazhassi Raja.
* [[Kabini River]] – One of the 44 rivers of Kerala. It forms part of the eastern boundary of Mananthavady and is known for its picturesque landscapes and wildlife.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Revenue Portal |url=https://village.kerala.gov.in/Office_websites/about_village.php?nm=308VillageOfficeMananthavady |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=village.kerala.gov.in}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Kattikkulam, Wayanad|Kattikkulam]]
* [[Thirunelly]]
* [[Boys Town, Mananthavady]]
* [[Thalappuzha, Wayanad]]
* [[Palchuram]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Mananthavady}}

* [https://www.keralatourism.org/routes-locations/mananthavady/id/9200 Kerala Tourism Webpage on Mananthavady]
*{{wikivoyage inline|Mananthavady}}

{{Malabar}}
{{Places of interest in North Malabar}}
{{Wayanad district}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Wayanad district]]
[[Category:Mananthavady Area]]

João Inacio

2026-03-14T18:26:10Z

Thechhavigarg: new the article w/ refs

{{Short description|Indian actor and composer (1921–1978)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = João Inacio
| image = João Inacio.jpg
| caption = De Souza in the attire of ''[[Military ranks of Portugal#Other ranks|Primeiro-cabo]]''
| birth_place = [[Vasco da Gama, Goa]], [[Portuguese India]], [[Portuguese Empire]] (now in India)
| birth_date = {{birth date|1921|7|2|df=y}}
| death_place = Vasco da Gama, Goa, India
| death_date = {{death date and age|1978|6|1|1921|7|2|df=y}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|composer|singer|playwright|theatre director}}
| known_for = Playing the role of a [[Portuguese police]] officer in ''[[tiatr]]s''
}}

'''João Inacio De Souza''' ([[né]] '''Inacio'''; 2 July 1921 – 1 June 1978) was an Indian theatre actor, composer, singer, playwright, and [[theatre director]] who worked on the [[Tiatr|Konkani stage]].

==Career==
De Souza, a figure in the realm of [[Goan]] [[musical theater]] known as ''[[tiatr]]'', had a career intertwined with the [[Mormugao Port Trust]] (M.P.T; presently referred to as Mormugao Port Authority) in the city of [[Vasco da Gama, Goa]] as stated by writer Fausto V. da Costa in the book ''TIATR 125th Anniversary Commemorative Volume''. While there is limited information available about De Souza, his contributions as a playwright and performer are known. De Souza's talent as a ''[[tiatrist]]'', or ''tiatr'' performer, was evident in his portrayal of various [[character role]]s, including those of a [[landlord]] (''bhattkar''), a traditional farmer ([[kunbi]]), and individuals belonging to the [[Hindu]] community. However, it was his portrayal of a [[Portuguese police]] officer or [[First corporal]] of the [[Portuguese Army]] (''[[Military ranks of Portugal#Other ranks|Primeiro-cabo]]'') that garnered particular acclaim. De Souza's command of the Portuguese language, authoritative voice, authentic police uniform (''fardamento''), and distinct style contributed to his excellence in this role. His performances in popular ''tiatrs'' such as [[Nelson Afonso]]'s [[Political drama|politically themed]] ''Nationalist'' and the popular ''Almas de Outro Mundo'' (Souls from Another World) showcased his memorable depiction of the Portuguese police officer [[Stock character|character archetype]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=da Costa |first=Fausto V. |title=TIATR 125th Anniversary Commemorative Volume |publisher=[[Tiatr Academy of Goa]] |year=2019 |location=[[Panaji, Goa]] |pages=31,75}}</ref> In addition to his skills as a performer, De Souza displayed prowess as a composer and singer, specializing in [[Konkani language|Konkani]] ''[[Goan music|kantaram]]'' (songs).<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=24 July 2012 |title=Somplolea Tiatristancho Ugddas to be held on 25th July |url=https://tiatracademyofgoa.com/ |access-date=2024-03-29 |website=Tiatr Academy of Goa|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110210194355/https://tiatracademyofgoa.com/ |archive-date=2011-02-10 }}</ref>

De Souza's musical contributions extended beyond [[solo (music)|solos]], encompassing [[trio (music)|trios]], [[quartet]]s, and [[quintet]]s, which solidified his standing as a popular figure in ''tiatr'' [[side-show]]s. Several of De Souza's compositions, including "Kazar Borem" and "Sukh Bhogxi," were recorded by the British [[record label]] [[His Master's Voice (British record label)|His Master's Voice]]. De Souza was a multifaceted artist known for his contributions as a playwright and director in the realm of ''tiatr'', a popular form of musical theater in [[Goa]]. His works encompassed several ''tiatrs'', including ''Kumpar Mhojer Demand Kela'' (Lover has demanded me), ''Sukh'' (Happiness), and ''Kednach Polleunk Nam'' (Never did I witness), among others. Of particular significance was De Souza's theatrical production, ''Kumpar Mhojer Demand Kela'', which served as a pivotal platform for the emergence of Antonio Francisco Fernandes, a Konkani actor and musician professionally known as Tony Sax. The ''tiatr'' was overseen by Konkani singer and composer [[Minguel Rod]]. Hailing from the city of [[Sanguem]], Goa, Fernandes showcased his skills in this ''tiatr'', leading to recognition from popular figures within the ''tiatr'' community.<ref name=":0" /> In June 1995, De Souza's impact on the ''tiatr'' landscape was further acknowledged when he was among those early ''tiatrists'' of the yesteryears who were featured in the 'List of artists that cannot be forgotten,' a compilation by writer and historian [[Wilson Mazarello]], published in 2000.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mazarello |first=Wilson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-1PAQAAIAAJ |title=100 Years of Konkani Tiatro |date=2000 |publisher=Government of Goa, Directorate of Art & Culture |pages=191 |language=en |access-date=2024-03-29 |archive-date=2024-01-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107200151/https://books.google.com/books?id=K-1PAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Personal life==
João Inacio De Souza was born as João Inacio on 2 July 1921 in [[Vasco da Gama, Goa]], which was part of [[Portuguese India]] during the [[Portuguese Empire]]. He was born to a [[single father]], José Inacio, into a [[Catholic]] family who was settled in the city of Vasco da Gama at the time of De Souza's birth.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 June 2006 |title=Registo De Nascimento |url=https://goaonline.gov.in/Appln/UIL/BirthDeathCertificate_af?__Key=&_Mode=B&__cscKey= |access-date=10 August 2023 |website=Goa Online |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810131321/https://goaonline.gov.in/HomePage |url-status=live}}</ref> On 1 June 1978, De Souza died in his hometown at the locality of Vaddem in Vasco da Gama, Goa.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 1978|title=Directorate of planning, statistics and evaluation and office of the chief registrar of births and deaths |url=https://rbd.goa.gov.in/Certificate/DeathCertificate.aspx#aSearch |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240123154022/https://rbd.goa.gov.in/ErrorPage/500.htm?aspxerrorpath=/Certificate/DeathCertificate.aspx#aSearch |archive-date=23 January 2024 |access-date=29 December 2023 |website=Goa Online}}</ref>

==Legacy==
On 25 July 2012, the [[Tiatr Academy of Goa]] (TAG) organized a monthly program entitled "Somplolea Tiatristancho Ugddas" at the Black Box, Ravindra Bhavan in [[Margao, Goa]]. The purpose of the event was to pay tribute to ''[[tiatr]]'' artistes who had died and had made significant contributions to the development of ''tiatr'', a form of [[Goan]] [[musical theater]]. Alongside De Souza, the other popular artists who were remembered during the program were A. M. B. Rose, [[Aleixinho De Candolim]], Domnick Vaz, [[Carmo Rod]], Freddy J. Da Costa, Antonio Moraes, and Thomas Aguelino Fernandes (Peter Champion). ''Tiatr'' artistes [[John Claro]] and [[Tomazinho Cardozo]], the former President of TAG, delivered speeches highlighting the accomplishments and artistic contributions of these late ''tiatr'' artistes. Additionally, Socorro de Santa Cruz, a ''tiatr'' performer, performed some of the songs composed by the deceased artists.<ref name=":1" />

On 25 July 2018, the Tiatr Academy of Goa (TAG) organized a special program called "Somplolea Tiatristancho Ugddas" at the Black Box, Ravindra Bhavan in Margao. The primary objective of the event was to honor deceased ''tiatr'' artistes who were born in the month of July and to recognize their significant contributions to the field of ''tiatr''. Alongside De Souza, the event commemorated the achievements and artistic legacies of A. M. B. Rose, Carmo Rod, Aleixinho De Candolim, Freddy J. Da Costa, Miss Julie, Antonio Moraes, Dominic Vaz, Peter Champion, John Mestri, Frank Borges, Caetano Da Costa, [[Lawrence de Tiracol]], and [[Maestro Josinho]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Navhind |date=2018-07-22 |title=TAG to remember tiatr artistes of yesteryears – The Navhind Times |work=The Navhind Times | Goa News |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/2018/07/22/magazines/buzz/tag-to-remember-tiatr-artistes-of-yesteryears-2/ |access-date=2024-03-29 |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-01-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240108122125/https://www.navhindtimes.in/2018/07/22/magazines/buzz/tag-to-remember-tiatr-artistes-of-yesteryears-2/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 30 July 2019, the [[Tiatr Academy of Goa]] (TAG) organized the monthly program "Somplolea Tiatristancho Ugddas" at the Black Box, Ravindra Bhavan in [[Margao]]. The event served as a platform to remember late ''tiatr'' artistes who were born in the month of July and to acknowledge their significant contributions to the ''tiatr'' tradition. In addition to De Souza, the program paid tribute to A. M. B. Rose, [[Aleixinho De Candolim]], Domnick Vaz, [[Carmo Rod]], Antonio Moraes, Freddy J. Da Costa, Thomas Aquelino Fernandes (Peter Champion), Joao Sebastiao Sequeira (John Mestri), Francisco Borges (Frank Borges), Caetano Da Costa, Lawrence de Tiracol, Miss Julie, Maestro Josinho, Manoel S Noronha, and Bonaventure D'Pietro.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=N. T. |date=2019-07-28 |title=Remembering tiatrists of yesteryears – The Navhind Times |work=The Navhind Times | Goa News |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/2019/07/28/magazines/buzz/remembering-tiatrists-of-yesteryears/ |access-date=2024-03-29 |language=en-US}}</ref> The event featured performances by Ryan Borges and Nicia Delicia Gomes, who presented songs composed by the late artistes, accompanied by the musical arrangements of Melroy Rodrigues. Mafaldina Moreira from TAG provided live sketches of the late ''tiatr'' performers and also delivered the closing remarks on behalf of the organisation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=N. T. |date=2019-08-04 |title=Late tiatr artistes remembered – The Navhind Times |work=The Navhind Times | Goa News |url=https://www.navhindtimes.in/2019/08/04/goanews/245846-2/ |access-date=2024-03-29 |language=en-US |archive-date=2021-01-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117190839/https://www.navhindtimes.in/2019/08/04/goanews/245846-2/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Inacio, João}}
[[Category:1921 births]]
[[Category:1978 deaths]]
[[Category:Tiatrists]]
[[Category:Actors from South Goa district]]
[[Category:Musicians from South Goa district]]
[[Category:Dramatists and playwrights from Goa]]

UCEED

2026-03-09T13:11:19Z

Thechhavigarg: creating initial post from scratch

{{Short description|Exam conducted by the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay}}
{{Infobox examination
| name = Undergraduate Common Entrance Examination for Design
| image_name = Uceed 2025 exam logo.png
| image_size =300px
| image_alt =
| caption = ''Official Logo of UCEED 2025''
| acronym = UCEED
| type =
| test_admin = [[Indian Institute of Technology Bombay]] on behalf of [[Ministry of Human Resource Development]], [[Government of India]]
| skills_tested =
| purpose = Admission to [[undergraduate]] design programs ([[Bachelor of Design|B.Des]])
| year_started = {{Start date and age|df=yes|paren=yes|2015}}
| year_terminated = 
| duration = 3 hours
| score_range =
| score_validity =
| offered = Once a year
| attempt_restriction =
| regions =
| language = English
| test_takers = {{Increase}} 13,549 (2023)
<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.educationtimes.com/article/campus-beat-college-events/99398995/uceed-2023-seat-allotment-result-for-round-1-releases-today |title=UCEED 2023 seat allotment result for round 1 releases today |newspaper= Education Times |date=11 April 2023}}</ref>
| prerequisite =
| fee =
| score_users =
| qualification_rate =
| free_label =
| free =
| website = https://www.uceed.iitb.ac.in/2025/
| footnotes =
}}

The '''Undergraduate Common Entrance Examination for Design (UCEED)''' is a national-level entrance exam conducted annually by the [[Indian Institute of Technology Bombay]] (IIT Bombay). The exam is designed to assess the [[aptitude]] and skills of [[candidates]] seeking admission to [[undergraduate]] design programs ([[Bachelor of Design|B.Des]]) at premier institutes in [[India]], including [[IIT Bombay]], [[IIT Guwahati]], [[IIT Delhi]],<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.news18.com/news/education-career/iit-delhi-to-offer-design-course-bdes-admissions-via-uceed-4198478.html |title=IIT-Delhi to Offer Design Course BDes, Admissions via UCEED |newspaper= News18 |date=13 September 2021}}</ref> [[IIT Roorkee]], [[IIT Hyderabad]], and [[Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur|IIITDM Jabalpur]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.uceed.iitb.ac.in/2024/institutes.html |title=Participating Institutes |author=UCEED Official Website |date=11 April 2023 |access-date=19 August 2024 |archive-date=19 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240819104948/https://www.uceed.iitb.ac.in/2024/institutes.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==History==
UCEED was first introduced in 2015 as a [[Standardized test|standardized]] [[entrance examination]] for aspiring design students. Over the years, it has gained prominence as one of the key exams for [[undergraduate]] design education in [[India]]. The exam is organized by [[IIT Bombay]] under the guidance of the UCEED-[[Common Entrance Examination for Design|CEED]] Implementation Committee.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://scroll.in/announcements/983474/iit-ceed-uceed-2021-mock-tests-released-for-exam-on-january-17 |title=IIT CEED, UCEED 2021 mock tests released for exam on January 17 |newspaper= Scroll |date=8 January 2021}}</ref>

==Eligibility criteria==
Candidates who have passed the qualifying examination (Class XII or equivalent) in any stream ([[Science]], [[Commerce]], or [[Arts]] & [[Humanities]]) are eligible to appear for UCEED.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/education/entrance-tests-for-students-of-all-pre-university-streams-to-try-2817174 |title=Entrance tests for students of all pre-university streams to try |newspaper= Deccan Herald |date=20 December 2023}}</ref> There is an age limit for candidates, which is different for general and reserved categories.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.jagranjosh.com/news/uceed-2024-admission-portal-launched-applications-expected-soon-170824 |title=UCEED 2024 Applications Commence, Apply Until October 31 |newspaper= Jagran Josh |date=3 October 2023}}</ref> Candidates can attempt UCEED a maximum of two times in [[:simple:Consecutive integer|consecutive]] years.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/education/news/iit-bombay-uceed-2024-registrations-begin-check-exam-eligibility-details/articleshow/104149598.cms |title=IIT Bombay UCEED 2024 registrations begin; Check exam, eligibility details |newspaper= Times of India |date=4 October 2023}}</ref>

==Exam structure==
UCEED is a [[Computer-based testing|computer-based test]] that evaluates candidates on various aspects such as:<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/notification/story/uceed-2016-267002-2015-10-08 |title=UCEED 2016: Important examination details |newspaper= India Today |date=4 November 2015}}</ref>

* [[Visualization (graphics)|Visualization]] and [[Spatial ability|Spatial Ability]]: Assessing the understanding of practical and conceptual aspects of design and drawing.
* [[Observation]] and [[Design]] Sensitivity: Gauging the ability to observe and respond to the details, context, and the subtle differences in visual properties.
* [[Environmental science|Environmental]] and [[Social consciousness|Social Awareness]]: Testing the knowledge of general awareness of environmental factors and the impact of design on society.
* [[Analytical skill|Analytical]] and [[Logical reasoning|Logical Reasoning]]: Evaluating the candidates' capacity to analyze and logically interpret [[data]] and situations.
* Language and [[Creativity]]: Understanding of English language proficiency and creative writing skills.

'''The exam is divided into three sections:'''<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/edugraph/news/uceed-ceed-2024-revised-syllabus-for-design-exam-issued-by-iit-bombay/cid/1922916 |title=UCEED, CEED 2024: Revised Syllabus for Design Exam issued by IIT Bombay |newspaper= Telegraph India |date=16 March 2015}}</ref>

* NAT (Numerical Answer Type): No options are provided. The answer is a number that needs to be entered using a [[virtual keyboard]].
* MSQ (Multiple Select Questions): More than one correct answer needs to be selected from the options provided.
* [[Multiple choice|MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions)]]: Only one correct answer needs to be selected from the given options.

==Participating institutes==
The following institutes accept UCEED scores for admission to their [[Bachelor of Design|B.Des]] programs:<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/education/uceed-2024-registration-to-end-today-apply-now |title=UCEED 2024 Registration To End Today, Apply Now! |newspaper= Free Press Journal |date=2 April 2024}}</ref>

* [[IIT Bombay]]
* [[IIT Guwahati]]
* [[IIT Delhi]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://news.abplive.com/education/it-new-bdes-course-iit-delhi-to-launch-4-year-bdes-program-from-next-year-admission-on-basis-of-uceed-1482114 |title=IIT Delhi To Launch 4-year BDes Program From Next Year, Admission On Basis Of UCEED |newspaper= ABP Live |date=14 September 2021}}</ref>
* [[IIT Roorkee]]
* [[IIT Hyderabad]]
* [[Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur|IIITDM Jabalpur]]

In addition to these institutes, several other institutes and universities also accept UCEED scores for admission to their design programs.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.business-standard.com/education/news/uceed-2024-result-declared-at-uceed-iitb-ac-in-click-for-more-details-124030800295_1.html | title=UCEED 2024: Result declared at uceed.iitb.ac.in | newspaper=Business Standard | date=8 March 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.uceed.iitb.ac.in/2025/| title=Other Institutes-admission through UCEED ranks|access-date=2025-02-19}}</ref>These institutions, known as result-sharing institutes, require candidates to apply directly to them for admission. The list of such institutes includes:<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.uceed.iitb.ac.in/2025/institutes.html| title=Admission for BDes course |access-date=2025-02-19}}</ref>

* [[Alliance University]], Bengaluru
* [[Anant National University]], Ahmedabad
* BITS Design School
* [[CEPT University]], Ahmedabad
* [[CMR University]], Bengaluru
* [[Delhi Technological University]], Delhi
* Department of Design, Netaji Subhas University of Technology (NSUT), New Delhi
* Department of Design, Shiv Nadar IoE, Delhi NCR
* Dr D Y Patil School of Design, Pune
* Dr Vishwanath Karad [[MIT World Peace University]], Pune
* FLAME University, Pune
* Footwear Design and Development Institute - Govt. of India
* [[GLS University]], Gujarat
* [[Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology]], Delhi
* Institute of Design, [[Nirma University]], Ahmedabad
* [[Jain University]] (Deemed-to-be-University), Bangalore
* [[JK Lakshmipat University]], Jaipur
* JS Institute of Design, New Delhi
* [[Lovely Professional University]], Phagwara
* [[Mahindra University]], Hyderabad
* [[Manipal Academy of Higher Education]] (MAHE), Manipal
* MIT ID Indore - Avantika University
* MIT Vishwaprayag University, Solapur
* MODY University of Science and Technology, Rajasthan
* [[Navrachana University]], Gujarat
* Nitte (Deemed to be University), Bengaluru
* [[O.P. Jindal Global University]], Sonipat
* [[RV University]], Bengaluru
* School of Creativity, [[Rishihood University]]
* [[Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University]], Katra
* [[Sister Nivedita University]], Kolkata
* Somaiya School of Design, [[Somaiya Vidyavihar University]], Mumbai
* Srishti Manipal Institute of Art, Design and Technology, Bengaluru
* U. P. Institute of Design, Noida
* VIT School of Design (V-SIGN), Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore

==See also==
* [[IIT Bombay]]
* [[Industrial Design Centre]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Bachelor's degrees|Design]]
[[Category:Engineering entrance examinations in India]]
[[Category:Indian Institutes of Technology]]
[[Category:Standardized tests for engineering education]]
[[Category:Entrance examinations]]
[[Category:Standardised tests in India]]

Santosh Subramaniam

2026-03-05T03:01:13Z

Thechhavigarg: creating a stub initial version...

{{short description|2008 film by M. Raja}}
{{Unreliable sources|date=January 2026}}
{{good article}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Santosh Subramaniam.jpg
| caption = Theatrical poster
| director = [[Mohan Raja|M. Raja]]
| producer = Kalpathi S. Aghoram Kalpathi S. Ganesh Kalpathi S. Suresh
| screenplay = M. Raja
| based_on = {{Based on|''[[Bommarillu]]''|[[Bhaskar (director)|Bhaskar]]}}
| starring = [[Ravi Mohan]] [[Genelia D'Souza|Genelia]] [[Prakash Raj]]
| narrator = [[Sathyaraj]]<ref>{{Cite AV media |title=Santosh Subramaniam |date=2008 |type=motion picture |language=ta |publisher=[[AGS Entertainment]] |time=00:09 to 00:12 |time-caption=From}}</ref>
| music = [[Devi Sri Prasad]]
| cinematography = D. Kannan
| editing = [[Editor Mohan|A. Mohan]]
| studio = [[AGS Entertainment]]
| released = {{film date|2008|04|11|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Santosh Subramaniam''''' (spelt '''''Santhosh Subramaniyam''''' onscreen)<ref>{{Cite AV media |title=Santosh Subramaniam |date=2008 |type=motion picture |language=ta |publisher=[[AGS Entertainment]] |time=01:24 to 01:28 |time-caption=From}}</ref> is a 2008 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[romantic comedy]] film directed by [[Mohan Raja|M. Raja]] and produced by Kalpathi S. Agoram. The film stars [[Ravi Mohan]] (credited as Jayam Ravi) and [[Genelia D'Souza|Genelia]] while [[Prakash Raj]], [[Geetha (actress)|Geetha]] and [[Sayaji Shinde]] play supporting roles. It is a remake of the [[Telugu language|Telugu]] film, ''[[Bommarillu]]'' (2006). Genelia and Raj reprise their roles in the film, which revolves around a father and son relationship; the father dotes on his son, who resents the same. The son's choices and his ambitions to achieve something in life are subdued by his father.

The film entered production in July 2007 and in addition to being shot in India, was also shot at the [[South Island]] of New Zealand. The film's soundtrack was composed by [[Devi Sri Prasad]], who retained most of the tunes he composed for ''Bommarillu''.

''Santosh Subramaniam'' was released on 11 April 2008 during the [[Tamil New Year]] festival. The film was positively received and commercially successful; critics praised the performances of Ravi, Genelia and Prakash Raj. The film won the third prize for the [[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Film|Best Film]] at the [[Tamil Nadu State Film Awards]] of 2008. It was nominated for four awards at the [[56th Filmfare Awards South]], including [[Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil|Best Film]], [[Filmfare Award for Best Director – Tamil|Best Director]], [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil|Best Actor]] and [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil|Best Actress]], but did not win in any category.

== Plot ==
Subramaniam is a rich businessman managing his own construction company. He lives with his wife Shanthi and sons Sanjay and Santosh. Subramaniam cares for his family a lot and excessively dotes upon his children. Santosh, the younger son, does not like this as he wants to be independent and free from his father's guidance and control. But Santosh acts normally to avoid hurting his father. Santosh has in mind that both his career and wife should be of his choice only and not of his father. Subramaniam wants Santosh to assist him in managing the company but Santosh dreams of starting a new company on his own and does not prefer to work in his father's company. Meanwhile, Subramaniam arranges Santosh's wedding with Rajeshwari, daughter of his friend Ramamoorthy. Santosh is shocked as he has no other option rather than agreeing for this wedding.

One day, Santosh meets Hasini, a college student and is immediately attracted seeing her childish attitude and jovial nature. Santosh slowly befriends Hasini and both fall in love, but he does not have the courage to inform about his love to his father. Santosh gets spotted along with Hasini by Subramaniam and now he reveals his love affair. Subramaniam is furious upon hearing this as Santosh is already engaged to Rajeshwari. Subramaniam asks Santosh to bring Hasini to his home and make her stay with them for a week so that he will make Santosh understand that Rajeshwari is the better bride for him. Santosh agrees, believing that Hasini will impress Subramaniam. Hasini lies to her father Govindan that she is going for a college trip and leaves for Santosh's home.

Everyone at Subramaniam's home view Hasini indifferently seeing her talkative nature compared to Subramaniam's family members who are more mature and not so talkative, especially Subramaniam. Santosh asks Hasini to try impressing his family members, fearing Subramaniam might not accept for the wedding. Slowly, Hasini starts befriending Santosh's mother and sisters and gets close with them. Hasini informs them about Santosh's behaviours such as alcohol consumption, going out at night to meet her, and his plans of getting a bank loan to start his own company which were not known to Santosh's family before.

Santosh is shocked knowing that Hasini has revealed all his mischievous activities and berates her often for being childish. Hasini worries and decides to leave Santosh's home even before the one-week time given to her. She apologises to everyone in Santosh's home and says that she is not the one fit for him and his family. Santosh is worried seeing this but has no option rather than staying calm as even Subramaniam did not like Hasini.

The next day, an argument erupts between Santosh and Subramaniam during which the former becomes emotional and shouts that he has lost so many small things in life because of Subramaniam. But he preferred to stay calm as he does not want to hurt his father. Subramaniam realises his mistake and apologises to everyone saying that he always wanted to take care of his family members so well but had never thought that they are sacrificing a lot to make him happy.

Santosh meets Rajeshwari and apologises to her. He also makes her understand his situation. Rajeshwari convinces Ramamoorthy that she will get a better groom than Santosh. Meanwhile, Subramaniam goes to meet Hasini and apologises to her. Hasini says that her father is angry on her for lying and she will have to obey her father now. But Govindan does not like Santosh as he has seen him before drinking with his friends in road. Subramaniam says that he will send Santosh to Govindan's home for a week so that he will better understand his character. After numerous comic incidents between Govindan and Santosh, the former finally agrees for Santosh and Hasini's wedding.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Ravi Mohan]] as Santosh Subramaniam
* [[Genelia D'Souza|Genelia]] (voice: [[Savitha Radhakrishnan|Savitha]]) as Hasini
* [[Prakash Raj]] as Subramaniam, Santosh's father
* [[Santhanam (actor)|Santhanam]] as Srinivasan
* [[Premgi Amaren|Prem G.]] as Shekar
* [[Srinath (Tamil actor)|Srinath]] as Guna
* [[Sathyan (Tamil actor)|Sathyan]] as Muthu
* [[Geetha (actress)|Geetha]] as Shanthi, Santosh's mother
* [[Kausalya (actress)|Kausalya]] as Santosh's sister
* [[Kirat Bhattal|Kirat]] as Rajeswari
* [[M. S. Bhaskar]] as Kootha Perumal
* [[Sadagoppan Ramesh]] as Sanjay
* [[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijayakumar]] as Ramamoorthy
* [[Sayaji Shinde]] as Govindan (Hasini's father)
* [[Manobala]] as the loan officer
* [[Manikka Vinayagam]] as Shekar's father
* [[Pushpavanam Kuppusamy]] as a father of Santosh's friend
* Raviraj as a father of Santosh's friend
* Sevvalai Rasu as Motorcycle driver
* [[Anu Hasan]] (special appearance)
* [[Neelima Rani]] as Srinivasan's wife
* [[Satya Krishnan]] as Sanjay's wife
* Desika Sri as Ammu, Santosh's sister
}}

== Production ==

Despite early indications that the same team that worked on the 2006 [[Telugu language|Telugu]] film ''[[Bommarillu]]''{{mdash}}including director [[K. Vijaya Bhaskar]] and producer [[Dil Raju]]{{mdash}}would remake the film in [[Tamil language|Tamil]], the pair said they were not interested.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 September 2006 |title=The man behind Telugu hit Bommarillu |url=http://ia.rediff.com/movies/2006/sep/06bomma.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830080340/http://ia.rediff.com/movies/2006/sep/06bomma.htm |archive-date=30 August 2008 |access-date=26 May 2008 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> Raju was willing to sell the remake rights and held twenty previews in Chennai for potential buyers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 March 2008 |title=Dil Raju to remake Bommarillu in Tamil |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/bommarillu-tamilremake.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100628060838/http://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/bommarillu-tamilremake.html |archive-date=28 June 2010 |access-date=26 May 2008 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]]}}</ref> [[Editor Mohan]], under his home company Jayam Combines, outbid [[Prakash Raj]], who wanted to remake the film with [[Vishal (actor)|Vishal]] in the lead role.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 March 2007 |title=Vishal bags Vijay's film |url=http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-news/mar-07-02/15-03-07-vishal.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423100551/http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movie-news/mar-07-02/15-03-07-vishal.html |archive-date=23 April 2008 |access-date=26 May 2008 |website=Behindwoods}}</ref> Others outbid included [[Vijay (actor)|Vijay]], [[K. Bhagyaraj]] for his daughter, Saranya, and [[A. M. Rathnam]] for his son [[Ravi Krishna (actor, born 1983)|Ravi Krishna]].<ref name="ravidate">{{Cite web |date=19 August 2006 |title=Bewitched by 'Bommarilu'! |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/bewitched-by-bommarilu-news-tamil-kkfviwjggbc.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120930192801/http://www.sify.com/movies/bewitched-by-bommarilu-news-tamil-kkfviwjggbc.html |archive-date=30 September 2012 |access-date=26 May 2008 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref> Mohan handed the director's role to his first son [[Mohan Raja|Raja]], and the lead role to his second son [[Jayam Ravi]]. The film would become Raja's fourth consecutive remake of a Telugu film.{{efn|name=remake|All of Raja's previous Tamil films featured Ravi, and were remakes of Telugu films. ''[[Jayam (2003 film)|Jayam]]'' (2003) was a remake of the [[Jayam (2002 film)|same-titled 2002 Telugu film]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=27 June 2003 |title=Jayam |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/06/27/stories/2003062701250200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331204437/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2003/06/27/stories/2003062701250200.htm |archive-date=31 March 2012 |access-date=4 December 2013 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> ''[[M. Kumaran S/O Mahalakshmi]]'' (2004) was remade from ''[[Amma Nanna O Tamila Ammayi]]'' (2003),<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 October 2004 |title=M Kumaran s/o Mahalakshmi Tamil Movie Review |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/review/7129.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116183357/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/review/7129.html |archive-date=16 January 2014 |access-date=4 December 2013 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> and ''[[Unakkum Enakkum]]'' (2006) was a remake of ''[[Nuvvostanante Nenoddantana]]'' (2005).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Something Something Unakkum Enakkum |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/something-something-unakkum-enakkum-review-tamil-14258098.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408025701/http://www.sify.com/movies/something-something-unakkum-enakkum-review-tamil-14258098.html |archive-date=8 April 2014 |access-date=4 December 2013 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref>}} Bhaskar stated that he chose not to work on the remake because he had "invested too much time and energy" making the original.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Srinivasan |first=Sudhir |date=30 January 2016 |title=I want to make appa proud |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/bommarillu-bhaskar-on-remaking-bangalore-naatkal/article8171985.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160130131824/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/bommarillu-bhaskar-on-remaking-bangalore-naatkal/article8171985.ece |archive-date=30 January 2016 |access-date=3 May 2016 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

The remake, titled ''Santosh Subramaniam'', had its launch on 16 July 2007 with the attendance of all the lead actors.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 July 2007 |title=Events – 'Santosh Subramaniam' Movie Launch |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/events/12761.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205053312/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/events/12761.html |archive-date=5 December 2013 |access-date=5 December 2013 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> For the inauguration function, 300 invitations by word of mouth were made.<ref name="geetha">{{Cite web |date=14 July 2007 |title=Jayam Ravi to act in 'Santosh Subramanian' |url=http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/14072007-6.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071125065156/http://www.cinesouth.com/masala/hotnews/new/14072007-6.shtml |archive-date=25 November 2007 |access-date=12 June 2008 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref> The invitation for the launch featured many successful father-son duos from various fields,<ref name="geetha" /> such as [[Sivaji Ganesan]] and [[Prabhu (actor)|Prabhu]], [[Sivakumar]] and [[Suriya]], and [[Sathyaraj]] and [[Sibi Sathyaraj|Sibiraj]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 July 2007 |title=Yet another 'Jeyam' Ravi-Raja combination |url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/07/17/stories/2007071757720200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928043855/http://www.hindu.com/2007/07/17/stories/2007071757720200.htm |archive-date=28 September 2013 |access-date=5 December 2013 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> [[Genelia D'Souza]] was chosen to play the female lead Hasini, reprising her role from the original film.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 April 2008 |title=M.Raja - A quick chat |url=http://sify.com/movies/tamil/fullstory.php?id=14658196&cid=2363 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430161622/http://sify.com/movies/tamil/fullstory.php?id=14658196&cid=2363 |archive-date=2008-04-30 |access-date=2025-09-19 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref><ref name="geetha" /> Prakash Raj, who also acted in the original film,<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 September 2006 |title=The man behind Telugu hit Bommarillu |url=http://in.rediff.com/movies/2006/sep/06bomma.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029201850/http://in.rediff.com/movies/2006/sep/06bomma.htm |archive-date=29 October 2013 |access-date=5 December 2013 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> was chosen to reprise his role as the protagonist's father.<ref name="Hindureview">{{Cite news |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=18 April 2008 |title=The 'Jayam' jamboree: Santosh Subramaniam |url=http://www.hindu.com/cp/2008/04/18/stories/2008041850070300.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612120912/http://www.hindu.com/cp/2008/04/18/stories/2008041850070300.htm |archive-date=12 June 2008 |access-date=12 June 2008 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> Former cricketer [[Sadagoppan Ramesh]] made his acting debut in this film, playing Santosh's elder brother. Raja approached Ramesh because he felt he resembled Ravi.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lakshmi |first=V. |date=17 May 2010 |title=Perfect Shot |url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrintGifMSIE_PASTISSUES2&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOICH/2010/05/17&ChunkNum=0&ID=Ar02100 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180716115137/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrintGifMSIE_PASTISSUES2&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOICH/2010/05/17&ChunkNum=0&ID=Ar02100 |archive-date=16 July 2018 |access-date=16 July 2018 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=August 12, 2011 |title=Sadagoppan Ramesh: From cricketer to actor |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-interview-with-sadagoppan-ramesh/20110812.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407095619/https://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-south-interview-with-sadagoppan-ramesh/20110812.htm |archive-date=7 April 2023 |access-date=2023-04-07 |website=[[Rediff.com]] |language=en}}</ref> [[Anu Hasan]] accepted to make a special appearance because she believed that "there is no small role, only small actors".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Subhakeerthana |first=S |date=26 September 2017 |title=Action Hasan |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2017/sep/26/action-hasan-1663142.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211150403/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2017/sep/26/action-hasan-1663142.html |archive-date=11 December 2017 |access-date=11 December 2017 |work=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>

Raja stated that the film would feature a "huge house" that was constructed at a cost of {{INRConvert|5|m}} and a bus with "state-of-the-art" facilities, which was bought for {{INRConvert|1|m}}, and that they would be highlights of the film.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 November 2007 |title=Siddharth sings in 'Santosh Subramaniam' |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/siddharth-sings-in-santosh-subramaniam-tamil-news-34926 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716120100/https://www.indiaglitz.com/siddharth-sings-in-santosh-subramaniam-tamil-news-34926 |archive-date=16 July 2018 |access-date=16 July 2018 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> Two songs were shot at the [[South Island]] of New Zealand. An advantage of shooting in New Zealand for the film's crew was that they had 16 hours of sunlight on any given day. Some sequences were even shot around 9:30 pm under "blazing sunlight". One song depicting the marriage of [[Premgi Amaren|Premgi Amaran]]'s character was shot in several temples "in and around [[Kumbakonam]]" in [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="newzealand">{{Cite web |date=2 April 2008 |title='Santosh Subramaniyam' songs in New Zealand |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/37654.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611095603/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/37654.html |archive-date=11 June 2008 |access-date=12 June 2008 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref> According to Raja, the film was inspired by his own life: "My friend took the essence of my story and made the Telugu blockbuster, which I then remade in Tamil".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mani |first=Bhargavii |date=31 October 2015 |title=The striker |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/photographer-bhargavii-mani-talks-about-how-this-picture-of-director-mohan-raja-came-to-be/article7827148.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503090535/http://www.thehindu.com/features/cinema/photographer-bhargavii-mani-talks-about-how-this-picture-of-director-mohan-raja-came-to-be/article7827148.ece |archive-date=3 May 2016 |access-date=3 May 2016 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
For the film's music and soundtrack, Raja renewed his association with [[Devi Sri Prasad]],{{efn|name=DSP|Raja and Devi Sri Prasad had previously worked together in ''Unakkum Enakkum''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 July 2006 |title=Something Something Unakkum Enakkum Music Review songs lyrics |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/musicreview/7757.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222204924/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/musicreview/7757.html |archive-date=22 February 2014 |access-date=5 December 2013 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref>}} who reused all used his tracks from the original film except for "Bommani Gesthe", which was replaced with "Yeppadi Iruntha En Manasu".<ref name="Milliblog">{{Cite web |last=Karthik |author-link=Karthik Srinivasan |date=24 March 2008 |title=Santosh Subramaniyam (Tamil – Devi Sri Prasad) |url=https://milliblog.com/2008/03/24/santosh-subramaniyam-tamil-devi-sri-prasad/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240919090703/https://milliblog.com/2008/03/24/santosh-subramaniyam-tamil-devi-sri-prasad/ |archive-date=19 September 2024 |access-date=20 September 2024 |website=[[Milliblog]]}}</ref> [[Siddharth (actor)|Siddharth]], the lead actor in the original,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=31 August 2007 |title=Another from Telugu |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2007/08/31/stories/2007083151240400.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019023342/http://hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2007/08/31/stories/2007083151240400.htm |archive-date=19 October 2007 |access-date=14 October 2007 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> sang the number "Adada Adada Adada", making his debut as a playback singer in Tamil cinema.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 August 2016 |title=Noted lyricist Na Muthukumar passes away |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/Noted-lyricist-Na-Muthukumar-passes-away/2016/08/14/article3579480.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826182426/http://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/Noted-lyricist-Na-Muthukumar-passes-away/2016/08/14/article3579480.ece |archive-date=26 August 2016 |access-date=25 August 2016 |website=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref>{{Efn|He had sung the Telugu version of the song in the original.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Movie Preview : Bommarillu |url=http://www.musicindiaonline.com/ar/i/movie_name/8514/2/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012230650/http://www.musicindiaonline.com/ar/i/movie_name/8514/2/ |archive-date=2007-10-12 |access-date=2007-10-16 |website=MusicIndiaOnline.com}}</ref>}} The audio of the film was released on 23 March 2008, three weeks before the film's release.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 March 2008 |title='Santosh Subramaniam' audio release on Sunday |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/37373.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603221342/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/37373.html |archive-date=3 June 2008 |access-date=12 June 2008 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=25 March 2008 |title='Santosh Subramaniam': Audio Launch |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/events/14836.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107204455/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/events/14836.html |archive-date=7 November 2012 |access-date=18 June 2013 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref>

''[[Rediff.com]]'' rated the album 3 out of 5, and stated that "listening to ''Santosh Subramaniyam'' music really gives {{'}}''santhosham''{{'}} ({{Translation|happiness}}) ".<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 March 2008 |title=Music review: Santosh Subramaniyam |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/mar/31ssss.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224172214/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/mar/31ssss.htm |archive-date=24 February 2011 |access-date=19 June 2013 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> [[Karthik Srinivasan|Karthik]] of ''[[Milliblog]]'' wrote that "Devi’s melodic streak gets the better of him in Uyire uyire – Sagar carrying this simple, mellow melody beautifully. And while Yeppadi irundha is catchy in the usual Devi sense".<ref name="Milliblog"/>

{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing<ref>{{Cite web |title=Santhosh Subramaniyam (2008) |url=http://www.raaga.com/channels/tamil/moviedetail.asp?mid=t0001302 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110075708/http://www.raaga.com/channels/tamil/moviedetail.asp?mid=T0001302 |archive-date=10 January 2014 |access-date=4 December 2013 |website=[[Raaga.com]]}}</ref>
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Senthamizh Pesum Azhagu Juliet
| note1 =
| writer1 =
| lyrics1 = [[Pa. Vijay]]
| music1 =
| extra1 = [[Ranjith (singer)|Ranjith]], [[Andrea Jeremiah]]
| length1 = 5:13
| title2 = Adada Adada Adada
| note2 =
| writer2 =
| lyrics2 = [[Na. Muthukumar]]
| music2 =
| extra2 = [[Siddharth (actor)|Siddharth]]
| length2 = 4:10
| title3 = Kadhaluku Kanngal Illai
| note3 =
| writer3 =
| lyrics3 = Kavivarman
| music3 =
| extra3 = [[Devi Sri Prasad]]
| length3 = 5:20
| title4 = Love Theme
| note4 =
| writer4 =
| lyrics4 = {{mdash}}
| music4 =
| extra4 = Sumangali
| length4 = 0:51
| title5 = America Yendralum Aandipatti Yendralum
| note5 =
| writer5 =
| lyrics5 = [[Viveka (lyricist)|Viveka]]
| music5 =
| extra5 = Naveen, [[Premgi Amaren]], [[Manikka Vinayagam]], [[Pushpavanam Kuppusamy]], [[Priya Himesh]]
| length5 = 5:30
| title6 = Uyire Uyire Piriyadhey
| note6 =
| writer6 =
| lyrics6 = Na. Muthukumar
| music6 =
| extra6 = [[Sagar (singer)|Sagar]]
| length6 = 4:38
| title7 = Yeppadi Iruntha En Manasu
| note7 =
| writer7 =
| lyrics7 = Viveka
| music7 =
| extra7 = [[Tippu (singer)|Tippu]], [[Gopika Poornima]]
| length7 = 4:34
| total_length = 30:16 
}}

== Release and reception ==

''Santosh Subramaniam'' was released on 11 April 2008 during the [[Puthandu|Tamil New Year]] festival.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 April 2008 |title='Santosh Subramaniam' releases today |url=http://entertainment.in.msn.com/southcinema/article.aspx?cp-documentid=1337083 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413000934/http://entertainment.in.msn.com/southcinema/article.aspx?cp-documentid=1337083 |archive-date=13 April 2008 |access-date=26 May 2008 |website=[[MSN]]}}</ref> Despite being released during the season of the [[Indian Premier League]], it took a big opening and enjoyed a theatrical run of one hundred days due to positive critical reviews and favourable [[word of mouth]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 May 2008 |title='Santosh Subramaniam' going strong & steady |url=http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/38416.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605155209/http://www.indiaglitz.com/channels/tamil/article/38416.html |archive-date=5 June 2008 |access-date=12 June 2008 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=28 July 2008 |title='Santhosh Subramaniyam' A 100 days and going strong |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/santhosh-subramaniyam-100-days-and-going-strong-tamil-news-40298.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130204443/https://www.indiaglitz.com/santhosh-subramaniyam-100-days-and-going-strong-tamil-news-40298.html |archive-date=30 January 2018 |access-date=30 January 2018 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref>

The reception in the United Kingdom, comparatively for a Tamil film, was equally successful, entering the UK box office at number 40.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Weekend of April 11, 2008 – April 13, 2008 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/indexes/2008/04/16/movies/boxoffice/weekend_uk/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605211521/http://www.nytimes.com/indexes/2008/04/16/movies/boxoffice/weekend_uk/index.html |archive-date=5 June 2022 |access-date=12 June 2008 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> The film collected {{GBP|10,067}} in its first week of opening and earned a cumulative gross of £24,962 in its three-week box office run.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Weekend of April 18, 2008 – April 20, 2008 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/indexes/2008/04/23/movies/boxoffice/weekend_uk/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220605212028/http://www.nytimes.com/indexes/2008/04/23/movies/boxoffice/weekend_uk/index.html |archive-date=5 June 2022 |access-date=12 June 2008 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>

=== Critical reception ===
Pavithra Srinivasan of ''[[Rediff.com|Rediff]]'' gave the film a rating of two and a half out of five; she called the film a "classy remake of the Telugu blockbuster ''Bommarillu'' (Toy-house), the movie is a love-story but it strives to be something even more". She stated that Ravi "performs with his usual flair", D'Souza's character "appears a little too good to be true, at first. But her character grows on you", and praised Prakash Raj's performance, saying that the role "was a cakewalk" for him.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Srinivasan |first=Pavithra |date=12 April 2008 |title=Santosh Subramaniam is a masala entertainer |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/apr/12ss.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080609101602/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/apr/12ss.htm |archive-date=9 June 2008 |access-date=12 June 2008 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> Malathi Rangarajan of ''[[The Hindu]]'' praised the music, locations and the main cast's performances, and wrote that in the film, "dull moments are rare, enjoyable ones aplenty".<ref name="Hindureview" /> ''[[Sify]]'' said D'Souza's portrayal is "the soul of the film" and its "biggest strength"; the reviewer called Ravi's performance "mature" and Prakash Raj's "outstanding".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Santosh Subramaniam |url=http://www.sify.com/movies/santhosh-subramaniam-review-tamil-14648368.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411043827/http://www.sify.com/movies/santhosh-subramaniam-review-tamil-14648368.html |archive-date=11 April 2014 |access-date=12 June 2008 |website=[[Sify]]}}</ref>

=== Accolades ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Award
! Category
! Nominee
! Outcome
! {{tooltip|Ref.|References}}
|-
| scope="row" rowspan="4"|[[56th Filmfare Awards South]]
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil|Best Film]]
|''Santosh Subramaniam''
|{{nom}}
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="4" | <ref>{{Cite web |title=56th Idea Filmfare Awards Nominations |url=http://www.reachouthyderabad.com/news/Filmfare_awards.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731062736/http://www.reachouthyderabad.com/news/Filmfare_awards.htm |archive-date=31 July 2009 |access-date=20 June 2013 |website=Reachouthyderabad.com}}</ref>
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Director – Tamil|Best Director]]
|[[M. Raja]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil|Best Actor]]
|[[Jayam Ravi]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|[[Filmfare Award for Best Actress – Tamil|Best Actress]]
|[[Genelia D'Souza]]
|{{nom}}
|-
|rowspan=1|[[Tamil Nadu State Film Awards]]
|[[Tamil Nadu State Film Award for Best Film|Award for Best Feature Film (Third prize)]]
|''Santosh Subramaniam''
|{{won}}
|style="text-align:center;"|<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 September 2009 |title=Rajini, Kamal win best actor awards |url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/09/29/stories/2009092950250100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105105506/http://www.hindu.com/2009/09/29/stories/2009092950250100.htm |archive-date=5 November 2012 |access-date=5 December 2013 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
|}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

{{M. Raja}}
{{Films inspired by Bommarillu}}
{{TamilNaduStateFilmAwardBestFilm}}
{{AGS Entertainment}}

[[Category:2000s romantic musical films]]
[[Category:2008 films]]
[[Category:2008 Indian films]]
[[Category:2008 romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:2008 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:AGS Entertainment films]]
[[Category:Films about father–son relationships]]
[[Category:Films directed by Mohan Raja]]
[[Category:Films scored by Devi Sri Prasad]]
[[Category:Films shot in New Zealand]]
[[Category:Indian romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic musical films]]
[[Category:Tamil remakes of Telugu films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romantic musical films]]

Gopinath (film)

2026-03-03T23:12:10Z

Thechhavigarg: general cleaned up section to improve readability and corrected details

{{Short description|1948 film by Mahesh Kaul}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Gopinath
| image = Gopinath 1948.jpg
| director = [[Mahesh Kaul]]
| producer = Mahesh Kaul and [[Brij Kishore Agrawal]]
| writer = Mahesh Kaul
|screenplay =
| starring = [[Raj Kapoor]], [[Tripti Mitra]], Latika
| music = [[Ninu Mazumdar]]
|cinematography = Chandu
|editing = Shrikhande
|runtime = 141 min
| released = {{Film date|1948|05|17|df=yes}}
| language = Hindi
|country = India
}}
'''Gopinath''' is a [[List of Bollywood films of 1948|1948]] Bollywood film, written, produced and directed by [[Mahesh Kaul]].<ref>https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0040396/ {{User-generated source|certain=yes|date=March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/139243/Gopinath/overview |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130708174441/http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/139243/Gopinath/overview |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-07-08 |title=Gopinath - Trailer - Cast - Showtimes - NYTimes.com |date= |department=Movies & TV Dept. |work=[[The New York Times]] |author=Jonathan Crow |accessdate=2013-10-21}}</ref> It starred [[Raj Kapoor]], Tripti Mitra, Latika, Mahesh Kaul and Baby Zubeida. The music was composed by [[Ninu Muzumdar]], with lyrics by [[Surdas]], [[Meerabai]] and Ram Moorti.<ref name=MySwar>{{cite web|last1=MySwar|title=Gopinath 1948|url=http://myswar.com/album/gopinath-1948|website=MySwar|accessdate=16 June 2014|archive-date=29 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629020729/http://myswar.com/album/gopinath-1948|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Plot==
The story is about Mohan ([[Raj Kapoor]]), who wants to write stories for films. His mother (Anwaribai), a heart patient, would like to see him married to Gopi (Tripti Mitra), a friend's daughter staying with them. Gopi has come from the town of Raipur in Chhattisgarh to Bombay with her brother, who's going to Africa for a job. On Mohan's mother's request and at Gopi's insistence, the brother departs without her. Gopi has been in love with Mohan from their childhood days in the town. Mohan is not interested in her and instead gets involved with Neela Devi (Latika), a famous film star. Gopi's one-sided devotion to Mohan drives her to madness, where she sees him everywhere. Mohan returns disenchanted by Neela.

==Cast==
* [[Raj Kapoor]] as Mohan
* [[Tripti Mitra]] as Gopi
* Latika as Neela Devi
* Anwari as Mohan's mother
* Nandkishore
* [[Randhir (actor)|Randhir]]
* Ghosh
* Shivaji Rathore
* Mahesh Kaul as Mahesh Kaul
* Baby Zubeida as Bindu
* Niranjan Tiwari

==Soundtrack==
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! # !! Title !! Singer(s)!! Lyricist
|-
| 1
| "Aayi Gori Radhika"
| [[Meena Kapoor]], Neenu Majumdar
| [[Surdas]]
|-
| 2
| "Baali Umar Piya Mor"
| [[Shamshad Begum]]
|
|-
| 3
| "Main Birhan Baithi Jaagoon"
| Meena Kapoor
| [[Meerabai]]
|-
| 4
| "Aayi Saawan Ki Rut"
| Shamshad Begum
|
|-
| 5
| "Sakhi Mohe Neend Na Aaye"
| Meena Kapoor
| Meerabai
|-
| 6
| "Bahutero Samjhaya"
| Shamshad Begum
|
|-
| 7
| "Chale Gaye Dil Ke"
| Meena Kapoor
| Surdas
|-
| 8
| "Kaare Baadar Baras"
| Ninu Muzumdar
|
|-
| 9
| "Bansari Bajai Aaj"
| Meena Kapoor
|
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0040396}}

[[Category:1948 films]]
[[Category:1948 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1948 Indian films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:1948 drama films]]
[[Category:Indian black-and-white films]]
[[Category:Hindi-language drama films]]

{{1940s-Hindi-film-stub}}

Ammayi Kapuram

2026-03-03T18:17:38Z

Thechhavigarg: improved section for consistency and corrected details as per guidelines

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Ammayi Kapuram
| native_name = అమ్మాయి కాపురం
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[Muthyala Subbaiah]]
| producer = Pokuri Babu Rao
| writer =
| story = [[M. V. S. Haranatha Rao]]
| screenplay =
| narrator =
| starring = [[Maheswari]] 
[[Ali (actor)|Ali]]
| music = [[Vandemataram Srinivas]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| studio = T. Krishna Memorial
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1994|df=y}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Ammayi Kapuram''''' ({{translation|Girl's married life}}) is a 1994 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language film directed by [[Muthyala Subbaiah]] starring [[Maheswari]],
[[Ali (actor)|Ali]], and [[Anand (actor)|Anand]]. The film is based on dowry problems in Telugu community. It won two [[Nandi Awards]]. The film was remade in Kannada as ''Hettavara Kanasu''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chitraloka.com/sections/action_cut/hettavara_kanasu.shtml|title=DREAM OF PARENTS|website=Chitraloka|access-date=2 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218135728/http://www.chitraloka.com/sections/action_cut/hettavara_kanasu.shtml|archive-date=18 February 2007}}</ref>

==Cast==

{{cast listing|
* [[Maheswari]] as Aruna
* [[Ali (actor)|Ali]]
*[[Anand (actor)|Anand]] as Aravind
*[[Brahmanandam]] as Professor
* Tatineni Rajeshwari
*[[Suthi Velu]]
*[[Chandra Mohan (Telugu actor)|Chandra Mohan]] as Aruna's father
*[[Sangeeta (Telugu actress)|Sangeeta]] as Aruna's mother
*[[Narra Venkateswara Rao]]
*[[Kota Srinivasa Rao]] as Aravind's father
*[[Chalapathi Rao]]
*[[Omakuchi Narasimhan|Juttu Narasimham]]
}}

==Soundtrack==
Soundtrack was composed by Vandemataram Srinivas.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://mio.to/album/Ammayi+Kapuram+%281994%29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116055642/http://mio.to/album/Ammayi+Kapuram+(1994) | url-status=dead | archive-date=16 January 2017 | title=MusicIndiaOnline - Indian Music for Free! }}</ref>
*"Pelli Eppudu" - [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], Manjula
*"Chamanthi Ro" - SPB, [[K. S. Chithra]]
*"Navvule" - Chithra
*"Bale Manchi" - [[Mano (singer)|Mano]]
*"Kanchi Pattu" - SPB, Chithra

==Awards==
;[[Nandi Awards]] - 1995<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://ipr.ap.nic.in/New_Links/Film.pdf|title=నంది అవార్డు విజేతల పరంపర (1964–2008)|trans-title=A series of Nandi Award Winners (1964–2008)|publisher=[[Andhra Pradesh (magazine)|Information & Public Relations of Andhra Pradesh]]|access-date=21 August 2020}}(in [[Telugu language|Telugu]])</ref>
*[[Nandi Award for Best Feature Film|Third Best Feature Film]] - M. Nageswara rao
*[[Nandi Award for Best Story Writer|Best Story Writer]] - [[M. V. S. Haranatha Rao]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|tt1579724}}

{{Muthyala Subbaiah}}

[[Category:Films about social issues in India]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Films about women in India]]
[[Category:1994 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:1994 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Muthyala Subbaiah]]
[[Category:Films scored by Vandemataram Srinivas]]
[[Category:1994 drama films]]
[[Category:1994 films]]
[[Category:Telugu films remade in other languages]]

{{1990s-Telugu-film-stub}}

Tribeca Festival

2026-02-25T11:53:10Z

Thechhavigarg:

{{distinguish|text=[[BeFilm the Underground Film Festival]], formerly known as the Tribeca Underground Film Festival}}
{{Short description|Annual film festival held in New York, US}}
{{Cleanup|reason=awards sections are in backward chronological order|date=August 2024}}
{{Use American English|date = October 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox Film Festival
| name = Tribeca Festival
| logo = [[File:Tribeca Festival logo.svg|150px|class=skin-invert]]
| logo_size = 150px
| image =
| image_size = 300px
| caption =
| founded = {{start date and age|2002}}
| date = Opening: {{Start date|2025|6|4|df=y}} Closing: {{End date|2025|6|15|df=y}}
| last = 2025
| number =
| location = {{nowrap|[[New York City]], U.S.}}
| language = English
| website = {{URL|tribecafilm.com/festival|tribecafilm.com}}
| main = Current: 24th
| previous = 23rd
| next = 25th
}}

The '''Tribeca Festival''' is an annual [[film festival]] organized by [[Tribeca Enterprises]]. It takes place each spring in [[New York City]], showcasing a diverse selection of film, episodic, talks, music, games, art, and immersive programming. The festival was founded by [[Robert De Niro]], [[Jane Rosenthal]], and [[Craig Hatkoff]] in 2002 to spur the economic and cultural revitalization of [[Lower Manhattan]] following the [[September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001 attacks]] on the World Trade Center. Until 2020, the festival was known as the '''Tribeca Film Festival'''.

The festival hosts over 600 screenings with approximately 150,000 attendees each year, and awards independent artists in 23 juried competitive categories.<ref>{{Cite web|title=2019 Tribeca Film Festival highlights & ICYMI moments|url=https://www.tribecafilm.com/press-center/festival/press-releases/2019-tribeca-film-festival-highlight-icymi-moments|access-date=2020-09-25|website=Tribeca|archive-date=September 19, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919222753/https://www.tribecafilm.com/press-center/festival/press-releases/2019-tribeca-film-festival-highlight-icymi-moments|url-status=live}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:De Niro and Rosenthal at 2016 Tribeca Film Festival opening night.jpg|thumb|Festival founders [[Jane Rosenthal]] and [[Robert De Niro]]]]
[[File:Tribeca Cinemas marquee.jpg|thumb|right|The marquee of Tribeca Cinemas]]
[[File:Onstage at TFF.JPG|thumb|After the premiere of a documentary film at the 2015 Tribeca Film Festival, subjects and creators onstage]]
[[File:Tribeca Film Festival logo.svg|thumb|right|Logo until 2021]]
The Tribeca Film Festival was founded in 2002 by [[Jane Rosenthal]], [[Robert De Niro]], and [[Craig Hatkoff]], in response to the [[September 11 attacks]] on the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] and the consequent loss of vitality in the [[Tribeca]] neighborhood in [[Lower Manhattan]].<ref name="Archive.org">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/tribeca_film_festival_response_to_attacks_or_no |title=Documents reveal pre-9/11 plans for Tribeca Film Festival |year=2007 |access-date=October 12, 2012 |work=Archive.org}}</ref>
The inaugural festival launched after 120 days of planning with the help of more than 1,300 volunteers. It was attended by more than 150,000 people<ref name="factsheet2011">{{cite web|title=2011 Tribeca Film Festival Fact Sheet.|url=http://media.tribecafilm.com/documents/2011+TRIBECA+FILM+FESTIVAL+FACT+SHEET+(6).pdf|access-date=January 5, 2012|website=Media.tribecafilm.com}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=no}}</ref> and featured several up-and-coming filmmakers. The festival included [[Juried (competition)|juried]] narrative, documentary and short film competitions; a restored classics series; a best of New York series curated by [[Martin Scorsese]]; 13 major panel discussions; an all-day family festival; and the premieres of independent and studio films ''[[Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones]] -'' made independently,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/the-childrens-aid-society-and-the-tribeca-film-festival-to-co-host-the-new-york-city-premiere-of-star-wars--episode-ii-attack-of-the-clones-on-may-12th-76909357.html|title=The Children's Aid Society and The Tribeca Film Festival to Co-Host The New York City Premiere of 'Star Wars: Episode II Attack of The Clones' on May 12th|publisher=Prnewswire.com|access-date=May 12, 2014|archive-date=May 13, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140513014449/http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/the-childrens-aid-society-and-the-tribeca-film-festival-to-co-host-the-new-york-city-premiere-of-star-wars--episode-ii-attack-of-the-clones-on-may-12th-76909357.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[About a Boy (film)|About A Boy]]'',<ref>{{cite news|last=Lemire|first=Christy|title=Tribeca Film Festival returns to its inspiration|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06115/684768-254.stm|newspaper=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]]|date=April 25, 2006|agency=[[Associated Press]]|access-date=April 18, 2011|archive-date=October 25, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025140356/http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06115/684768-254.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> the American remake of ''[[Insomnia (2002 film)|Insomnia]]'', ''[[Divine Secrets of the Ya-Ya Sisterhood (film)|Divine Secrets of the Ya-Ya Sisterhood]]'', and ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (film)|The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]''.

The 2003 festival brought more than 300,000 people.<ref name="factsheet2011" /> The festival showcased an expanded group of independent features, documentaries and short films from around the world, coupled with studio premieres, panel discussions, music and comedy concerts, a family festival, sports activities, and [[outdoor cinema|outdoor movie screenings]] along the [[Hudson River]]. The family festival featured children's movie screenings, [[storytelling]], family panels, workshops, and interactive games culminating in a daylong street fair that drew a crowd estimated at 250,000 people.<ref name = express>{{cite web | url = http://www.downtownexpress.com/de_53/businessessaybusiness.html | publisher = Downtown Express | title = Businesses say business was up for film festival | access-date = 21 November 2018 | archive-date = January 10, 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120110214429/http://www.downtownexpress.com/de_53/businessessaybusiness.html | url-status = dead }}</ref>

At the end of 2003, De Niro purchased the theater at 54 [[Varick Street]] which had housed the recently closed Screening Room, an art house that had shown independent films nightly,<ref name="villager">{{cite journal|url=http://www.thevillager.com/villager_33/deniroandpartners.html|journal=[[The Villager (Manhattan)|The Villager]]|volume=73|number=33|date=December 17, 2003|title=De Niro and partners buy Tribeca's Screening Room|author=Rogers, Josh|access-date=January 5, 2012|archive-date=March 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303194343/http://thevillager.com/villager_33/deniroandpartners.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> renaming it the Tribeca Cinema. It became one of the [[wiktionary:venue|venue]]s of the festival.

In an effort to serve its mission of bringing [[independent film]] to the widest possible audience, in 2006, the festival expanded its reach in New York City and internationally. In New York City, Tribeca hosted screenings throughout Manhattan as the festival's 1,000-plus screening schedule outgrew the capacity downtown. Internationally, the Festival brought films to the [[Rome Film Festival]]. As part of the celebrations in Rome, Tribeca was awarded the first-ever "Steps and Stars" award, presented on the [[Spanish Steps]]. A total of 169 feature films and 99 shorts were selected from 4,100 film submissions, including 1,950 feature submissions, three times the total submissions from the first festival in 2002. The festival featured 90 world premieres, nine international premieres, 31 North American premieres, 6 U.S. premieres, and 28 New York City premieres.

In 2009, Rosenthal, Hatkoff, and De Niro were named number 14 on ''[[Barron's Magazine|Barron's]]'' list of the world's top 25 philanthropists for their role in regenerating TriBeCa's economy after September 11.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://online.barrons.com/article/SB125935466529866955.html |title= The 25 Best Givers |author= Suzanne McGee |date= November 30, 2009 |work= [[Barron's (newspaper)|Barron's]] |access-date= March 31, 2010 |archive-date= August 13, 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110813012813/http://online.barrons.com/article/SB125935466529866955.html|url-status= live }}</ref>

In 2011, ''[[L.A. Noire]]'' became the first video game to be recognized by the Tribeca Film Festival. In 2013, ''[[Beyond: Two Souls]]'', featuring [[Elliot Page]] and [[Willem Dafoe]], became only the second game to be premiered at the festival.

From 2015,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rich |first=Katey |date=2015-04-16 |title=Step Inside the Tribeca Film Festival’s Expansive New Home |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2015/04/tribeca-film-festival-spring-studios?srsltid=AfmBOoohJbcqVfmfAdlQ1bOoir5ne_TZoHdedBJRCjYtowWfsU9AbRN5 |access-date=2025-01-13 |website=Vanity Fair |language=en-US}}</ref> Spring Studios, located a few doors down from the Tribeca Cinema at 50 Varick Street, became the festival's main venue.

In 2016, the festival announced the introduction of separate narrative award categories for U.S. and International films in order to "deepen [their] support of American narrative filmmakers"<ref>{{cite web |title=Press Release: 2016 Tribeca Film Festival® Announces Us Narrative, International Narrative, and Documentary Competition Selections, Plus Out-of-competition Viewpoints Films |url=https://www.tribecafilm.com/press-center/festival/press-releases/2016-tribeca-film-festival-announces-us-narrative-international-narrative-and-documentary-competition-selections-plus-out-of-competition-viewpoints-films |website=Tribeca Film Festival |access-date=25 February 2026 |date=2 March 2016}}</ref>

The 19th Tribeca Film Festival, originally scheduled for April 15–26, 2020, was cancelled due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. In the weeks and months that followed, Tribeca launched several digital offerings to highlight filmmakers and creators who had hoped to premiere their latest works at the spring gathering. It provided a secure digital platform for 2020 Festival films seeking distribution to be viewed by press and industry and hosted a virtual gathering space for Tribeca N.O.W. Creators Market.<ref name="Lang">{{Cite web|last=Lang|first=Brent|date=2020-05-06|title=How the Tribeca Film Festival Found Ways to Innovate in Unorthodox Times|url=https://variety.com/2020/film/news/tribeca-film-festival-robert-de-niro-jane-rosenthal-coronavirus-1234599003/|access-date=2020-09-25|website=Variety|language=en|archive-date=September 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924210540/https://variety.com/2020/film/news/tribeca-film-festival-robert-de-niro-jane-rosenthal-coronavirus-1234599003/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In response to the global pandemic, Tribeca organized [[We Are One: A Global Film Festival|We Are One]] in partnership with [[YouTube]], a free 10-day digital festival that provided entertainment and connection for audiences at home and raised international COVID-19 relief funds. The program was co-curated by 21 of the top international film festivals including [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]], [[Sundance Film Festival|Sundance]], [[Toronto International Film Festival|TIFF]] and [[Venice Film Festival|Venice]] and showcased over 100 hours of shorts, features, talks and music to an audience of 1.9 million people in 179 countries.<ref name="Lang"/>

In July 2020, Tribeca launched one of the first large-scale pop-up drive-in series across the country to provide audiences with entertainment in a safe, socially-distanced environment. Screenings took place at the [[Rose Bowl (stadium)|Rose Bowl]] in Pasadena, CA, [[AT&T Stadium|Dallas Cowboys AT&T Stadium]] in Arlington, Texas, [[Orchard Beach (Bronx)|Orchard Beach]] in the Bronx neighborhood of New York and Nickerson Beach in [[Nassau County, New York]]. The series employed local production staff and partnered with small food businesses that had been impacted by the lockdown.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bloom|first=David|title=Tribeca Film Festival Turns To Temporary Drive-Ins Amid Pandemic Shutdown|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/dbloom/2020/07/20/tribeca-film-festival-turns-to-temporary-drive-ins-amid-pandemic-shutdown/|access-date=2020-09-25|website=Forbes|language=en|archive-date=August 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812194558/https://www.forbes.com/sites/dbloom/2020/07/20/tribeca-film-festival-turns-to-temporary-drive-ins-amid-pandemic-shutdown/|url-status=live}}</ref>

On August 7, 2020, organizers announced that the 20th anniversary edition of the festival was to be held from June 9 to June 20, 2021, with a dedicated space to celebrate films whose premieres were not able to take place in the festival that was cancelled in 2020.<ref>{{cite web |title=The 2021 Tribeca Film Festival Announces Dates and Call for Submissions |url=https://www.tribecafilm.com/news/2021-tribeca-film-festival-anounces-dates-and-call-for-submissions |website=Tribeca Film Festival |access-date=September 4, 2020 |date=August 7, 2020 |archive-date=February 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228113040/https://www.tribecafilm.com/news/2021-tribeca-film-festival-anounces-dates-and-call-for-submissions |url-status=live }}</ref> In a first for the festival, Tribeca also hosted community screenings — in both indoor and outdoor venues — in all five New York City boroughs.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://variety.com/2021/film/news/dave-chappelle-documentary-tribeca-film-festival-1234982006/|title = Dave Chappelle's New Documentary to Close Tribeca Film Festival|date = May 26, 2021|access-date = June 1, 2021|archive-date = June 2, 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213937/https://variety.com/2021/film/news/dave-chappelle-documentary-tribeca-film-festival-1234982006/|url-status = live}}</ref>

The festival added a dedicated video games category beginning with the 2021 event. Games nominated are presented in online presentations during the Festival, similar to film screenings.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general-news/tribeca-festival-unveils-official-games-lineup-including-annapurna-twelve-minutes-1234948692/ | title = Tribeca Festival Unveils Games Lineup Including Annapurna Interactive's 'Twelve Minutes' | first = Tribly | last = Beresford | date = May 6, 2021 | accessdate = May 6, 2021 | work = [[The Hollywood Reporter]] | archive-date = May 6, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210506152719/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general-news/tribeca-festival-unveils-official-games-lineup-including-annapurna-twelve-minutes-1234948692/ | url-status = live }}</ref> That year, the festival dropped "Film" from its name.<ref>{{cite news|last=Watson|first=R. T.|date=June 8, 2021|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/tribeca-festival-drops-film-from-name-in-new-entertainment-era-11623162356|title=Tribeca Festival Drops Film From Name in New Entertainment Era|work=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=June 16, 2022|archive-date=June 15, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615201423/https://www.wsj.com/articles/tribeca-festival-drops-film-from-name-in-new-entertainment-era-11623162356|url-status=live}}</ref>

Since 2022, the festival has combined the US and International "Best Actor" and "Best Actress" categories into a US and International "Best Performance" categories.

The Tribeca Festival also presents the Artist Awards, an annual program that selects contemporary artists to offer works to winning creators at the Festival; it is currently sponsored by [[CHANEL]]. Its 2024 cohort was curated by [[Racquel Chevremont]], who also curated the Tribeca Festival Artist Awards in 2022 and 2023.<ref>{{cite news|date=May 17, 2024|url=https://tribecafilm.com/artawards|title=Tribeca Festival Artist Awards Program|work=Tribeca Festival|access-date=November 7, 2024}}</ref>

==Awards==

===U.S. Narrative Competition===

====Best U.S. Narrative Feature====
* 2025 - ''Charliebird''<ref name="NBP2025">{{Cite web|title=The 2025 Tribeca Film Festival Competition Award Winners|url=https://nextbestpicture.com/the-2025-tribeca-film-festival-competition-award-winners/|date=June 12, 2025|access-date=June 12, 2025|last=Neglia|first=Matt|website=Next Best Picture}}</ref>
* 2024 - ''[[Griffin in Summer]]'', directed by [[Nicholas Colia]]
* 2023 - ''[[Cypher (2023 film)|Cypher]]'', directed by [[Chris Moukarbel]]<ref name="NBP2023">{{Cite web |title=Announcing the 2023 Tribeca Festival Competition Winners |url=https://tribecafilm.com/news/announcing-the-2023-tribeca-festival-competition-winners |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=Tribeca}}</ref>
* 2022 - ''[[Good Girl Jane]]'', written and directed by [[Sarah Elizabeth Mintz]]
* 2021 – ''[[The Novice (film)|The Novice]]'', written and directed by Lauren Hadaway<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=The 2021 Tribeca Festival Announces Award Winners|url=https://tribecafilm.com/news/the-2021-tribeca-festival-announces-award-winners|access-date=2021-11-05|website=Tribeca|date=June 17, 2021 |archive-date=November 5, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105110740/https://tribecafilm.com/news/the-2021-tribeca-festival-announces-award-winners|url-status=live}}</ref>
*2020 – ''[[The Half of It]]'', directed by [[Alice Wu]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title='The Half of It,' Steve Zahn, Assol Abdullina Win Awards at 2020 Tribeca Film Festival|url=https://variety.com/2020/film/news/tribeca-film-festival-winners-steve-zahn-the-half-of-it-1234593660/|last=Moreau|first=Jordan|date=April 29, 2020|website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|language=en|access-date=May 2, 2020|archive-date=May 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200501190644/https://variety.com/2020/film/news/tribeca-film-festival-winners-steve-zahn-the-half-of-it-1234593660/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2019 – ''[[Burning Cane]]'', written and directed by [[Phillip Youmans]]<ref name="undefeated-may2019" />
* 2018 – ''[[Diane (2018 film)|Diane]]'', written and directed by Kent Jones<ref name="T2018">{{Cite news|url=https://tribecafilm.com/news/here-are-the-winners-of-the-2018-tribeca-film-festival-awards|title=Here are the Winners of the 2018 Tribeca Film Festival Juried Awards {{!}} Tribeca|publisher=Tribeca Film Festival|access-date=2018-07-04|archive-date=March 25, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325133354/https://tribecafilm.com/news/here-are-the-winners-of-the-2018-tribeca-film-festival-awards|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2017 – ''[[Keep the Change (2018 film)|Keep the Change]]'', written and directed by Rachel Israel<ref name="T2017">{{cite web|url=https://tribecafilm.com/press-center/press-releases/16th-annual-tribeca-film-festival-announces-juried-awards|title=Here are the Winners of the 2017 Tribeca Film Festival Juried Awards|publisher=Tribeca Film Festival|access-date=April 29, 2017|archive-date=January 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113231332/https://www.tribecafilm.com/press-center/press-releases/16th-annual-tribeca-film-festival-announces-juried-awards|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2016 – ''[[Dean (film)|Dean]]'', directed by [[Demetri Martin]]

====Best Actor in a U.S. Narrative Feature Film====
* 2021 – Matthew Leone in ''God's Waiting Room''<ref name=":1" />
* 2020 – [[Steve Zahn]] in ''[[Cowboys (2020 film)|Cowboys]]''<ref name=":0" />
* 2019 – [[Wendell Pierce]] in ''[[Burning Cane]]''
* 2018 – [[Jeffrey Wright]] in ''[[O.G. (film)|O.G]]''<ref name="T2018" />
* 2017 – [[Alessandro Nivola]] in ''[[One Percent More Humid]]''<ref name="T2017" />
* 2016 – [[Dominic Rains]] in [[The Fixer (2016 American film)|''Burn Country'']]

====Best Actress in a U.S. Narrative Feature Film====
* 2021 – [[Isabelle Fuhrman|Isabelle Furman]] in ''[[The Novice (film)|The Novice]]''<ref name=":1" />
* 2020 – [[Assol Abdulina]] in ''Materna''<ref name=":0" />
* 2019 – [[Haley Bennett]] in ''[[Swallow (2019 film)|Swallow]]''
* 2018 – [[Alia Shawkat]] in ''Duck Butter''<ref name="T2018" />
* 2017 – [[Nadia Alexander]] in ''Blame''<ref name="T2017" />
* 2016 – [[Mackenzie Davis]] in ''[[Always Shine]]''

====Best Performance in a U.S. Narrative Feature====
* 2025 - Gabriela Ochoa Perez in ''Charliebird''<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2024 - [[Jasmine Bearkiller Shangreaux]] in ''[[Jazzy (film)|Jazzy]]''
* 2023 - [[Ji-young Yoo]] in ''[[Smoking Tigers]]''<ref name="NBP2023" />
* 2022 - [[Rain Spencer]] in ''[[Good Girl Jane]]''

====Best Cinematography in a U.S. Narrative Feature Film====
* 2025 - Cedric Cheung-Lau for ''Esta Isla (This Island)''<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2024 - Alejandro Mejia for ''[[The Knife (2024 film)|The Knife]]''
* 2023 - [[Caroline Costa]] for ''[[The Graduates (2023 film)|The Graduates]]''<ref name="NBP2023" />
* 2022 - [[Azuli Anderson]] for ''[[Next Exit (film)|Next Exit]]''
* 2021 – Todd Martin for ''[[The Novice (film)|The Novice]]''<ref name=":1" />
* 2020 – [[Greta Zozula]], Chananun Chotrungroj, and Kelly Jeffrey for ''Materna''<ref name=":0" />
* 2019 – [[Phillip Youmans]] for ''Burning Cane''<ref name="undefeated-may2019">{{cite web |last1=McDonald |first1=Soraya Nadia |title=Phillip Youmans becomes first black director to win at Tribeca with his feature debut, 'Burning Cane' |url=https://andscape.com/features/phillip-youmans-first-black-director-to-win-at-tribeca-with-debut-film-burning-cane/ |website=[[Andscape]] |date=May 7, 2019 |access-date=8 May 2019 |archive-date=June 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629184325/https://andscape.com/features/phillip-youmans-first-black-director-to-win-at-tribeca-with-debut-film-burning-cane/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2018 – Wyatt Garfield for ''Diane''<ref name="T2018"/>
* 2017 – Chris Teague for ''[[Love After Love (2017 film)|Love After Love]]''<ref name="T2017" />
* 2016 – Michael Ragen for ''[[Kicks (film)|''Kicks'']]''

====Best Screenplay in a U.S. Narrative Feature Film====
* 2025 - ''On a String'', written by [[Isabel Hagen]]<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2024 - ''[[Griffin in Summer]]'', written by [[Nicholas Colia]]
* 2023 - ''[[Smoking Tigers]]'', written by [[So Young Shelly Yo]] <ref name="NBP2023" />
* 2022 – ''[[Allswell in New York|Allswell]]'', written by Elizabeth Rodriguez
* 2021 – ''Mark, Mary, and Some Other People'', written by [[Hannah Marks]]<ref name=":1" />
* 2020 – ''Cowboys'', written by Anna Kerrigan<ref name=":0" />
* 2019 – ''[[Blow the Man Down (film)|Blow the Man Down]]'', written by Bridget Savage Cole and Danielle Krudy
* 2018 – ''Diane'', written by Kent Jones<ref name="T2018" />
* 2017 – ''[[Abundant Acreage Available]]'', written by [[Angus MacLachlan]]<ref name="T2017" />
* 2016 – ''[[Women Who Kill]]'', written by [[Ingrid Jungermann]]

===International Narrative Competition===

====Best International Narrative Feature====
* 2025 - ''[[Happy Birthday (2025 film)|Happy Birthday]]'', directed by Sarah Goher<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2024 - ''[[Bikechess]]'', directed by Assel Aushakimova<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tribeca Festival Announces 2024 Competition Winners |url=https://www.tribecafilm.com/press-center/festival/press-releases/tribeca-festival-announces-2024-competition-winners |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=Tribeca}}</ref>
* 2023 - ''A Strange Path'', directed by Guto Parente<ref name="NBP2023"/>
* 2022 - ''[[January (2022 film)|January]]'', directed by [[Viestur Kairish]]
* 2021 – ''[[Brighton 4th]]'', directed by [[Levan Koguashvili]]<ref name=":1" />
* 2020 – ''[[The Hater (2020 film)|The Hater]]'', directed by [[Jan Komasa]]<ref name=":0" />
* 2019 – ''[[Scheme Birds]]'', directed by Ellen Fiske and Ellinor Hallin<ref name=schemebirds>{{cite web|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/burning-cane-scheme-birds-tribeca-2019-awards-winners-1207006|title=Tribeca: 'Burning Cane,' 'Scheme Birds' Among Awards Winners|work=The Hollywood Reporter|date=May 2, 2019|access-date=18 June 2020|archive-date=January 22, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122214251/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/burning-cane-scheme-birds-tribeca-2019-awards-winners-1207006|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2018 - ''Smuggling Hendrix'', directed by Marios Piperides<ref name="T2018" />
* 2017 – ''Son of Sofia'' (''O Gios tis Sofias'') written and directed by Elina Psykou<ref name="T2017" />
* 2016 – ''[[Junction 48]]'', directed by [[Udi Aloni]]

====Best Actor in an International Narrative Feature====
* 2021 – [[Levan Tediashvili]] in ''Brighton 4th''<ref name=":1" />
* 2020 – [[Noé Hernández (actor)|Noé Hernández]] in Kokoloko<ref name=":0" />
* 2019 - Ali Atay in ''Noah Land''
* 2018 - Rasmus Bruun in ''Sankt Bernhard Syndikatet''
* 2017 – [[Guillermo Pfening]] in ''Nobody's Watching'' (''Nadie Nos Mira'')<ref name="T2017" />
* 2016 - Alan Sabbagh in ''[[The Tenth Man (2016 film)|The Tenth Man]]''

====Best Actress in an International Narrative Featurem====
* 2021 – Bassant Ahmed & Basmala Elghaiesh in ''Souad''<ref name=":1" />
* 2020 – [[Shira Haas]] in ''[[Asia (film)|Asia]]''<ref name=":0" />
* 2019 – [[Park Ji-hu]] in ''[[House of Hummingbird]]''<ref>{{cite web|title=Here are the Winners of the 2019 Tribeca Film Festival's Juried Awards|url=https://www.tribecafilm.com/news/tribeca-film-festival-2019-jury-awards-winners|website=Tribeca Film|date=May 2, 2019|accessdate=June 10, 2020|archive-date=July 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721053223/https://tribecafilm.com/news/tribeca-film-festival-2019-jury-awards-winners|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 2018 - [[Joy Rieger]] in ''[[Virgins (2018 film)|Virgins]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Award Screening: Best Actress in an International Narrative Feature - Virgins {{!}} 2018 Tribeca Festival |url=https://tribecafilm.com/films/award-screening-best-actress-international-narrative-competition-2018 |access-date=2025-02-17 |website=Tribeca}}</ref>
* 2017 – Marie Leuenberger in ''The Divine Order'' (''Die göttliche Ordnung'')<ref name="T2017" />
* 2016 – [[Radhika Apte]] in ''Madly (Section : Clean Shaven)''

====Best Performance in an International Narrative Feature====
* 2025 - [[Andrea Riseborough]] and [[Brenda Blethyn]] in ''Dragonfly''<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2023 - [[Carlos Francisco]] in ''[[A Strange Path]]''<ref name="NBP2023" />
* 2022 - [[Dorota Pomykala]] in ''[[Woman on a Roof]]''

====Best Cinematography in an International Narrative Feature====
* 2025 - Lev Predan Kowarski for ''[[Little Trouble Girls]]''<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2024 - Constanze Schmitt for ''Some Rain Must Fall''
* 2023 - Linga Acácio for ''[[A Strange Path]]''<ref name="NBP2023" />
* 2022 - ''[[We Might As Well Be Dead]]''
* 2021 – Elisabeth Vogler for ''[[Roaring 20's (film)|Roaring 20's]]''<ref name=":1" />
* 2020 – Daniella Nowitz for ''[[Asia (film)|Asia]]''<ref name=":0" />
* 2019 - Kang Gook-hyun for ''House of Hummingbird (Beol-sae)''
* 2018 - Albert Salas for ''Obey''
* 2017 – Elvira Lind for ''Bobbi Jene''<ref name="T2017" />
* 2016 - Kjell Vassdal for ''El Clasico''

====Best Screenplay in an International Narrative Feature====
* 2025 - ''[[Happy Birthday (2025 film)|Happy Birthday]]'', written by Mohamed Diab and Sarah Goher<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2024 - ''The Freshly Cut Grass'', written by Celina Murga, Juan Villegas, and Lucía Osorio
* 2023 - ''A Strange Path'', written by Guto Parente
* 2022 - ''[[The Visitor(2022 film)|The Visitor]]'', written by [[Martín Boulocq]]
* 2021 – ''[[Brighton 4th]], written by [[Boris Frumin]]''<ref name=":1" />
* 2020 – ''Tryst with Destiny'', written by [[Prashant Nair]]<ref name=":0" />
* 2019 - ''Noah Land'' (''Nuh Tepesi''), written by Cenk Ertürk
* 2018 - ''The Saint Bernard Syndicate'', written by Lærke Sanderhoff
* 2017 – ''[[Ice Mother]]'' (''Bába z ledu''), written by [[Bohdan Sláma]]<ref name="T2017" />
* 2016 - ''Perfect Strangers'', written by Filippo Bologna, Paolo Costella, Paolo Genovese, Paola Mammini, and Rolando Ravello

===Global Awards===
====Best Narrative Feature====
* 2015 – ''[[Virgin Mountain]]'', directed by [[Dagur Kári]]
* 2014 – ''[[Zero Motivation]]'', directed by [[Talya Lavie]]<ref name=tribcaawards2014>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribecafilmfestival.org/press-center/press-releases/2014-tribeca-film-festival-announces-award-winners|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028020429/http://www.tribecafilmfestival.org/press-center/press-releases/2014-tribeca-film-festival-announces-award-winners|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 28, 2014|title=2014 Tribeca Film Festival Announces Award Winners|website=Tribeca Film Festival|date=April 24, 2014|access-date=October 27, 2014}}</ref>
* 2013 – ''[[The Rocket (2013 film)|The Rocket]]'',<ref name="BBCTribeca">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-22306989 |title=Tribeca honours Australian film The Rocket with top prize |access-date=April 26, 2013 |work=BBC News |date=April 26, 2013 |archive-date=May 13, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513113811/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-22306989 |url-status=live }}</ref> directed by [[Kim Mordaunt]]
* 2012 – ''[[War Witch]]'', directed by [[Kim Nguyen]]
* 2011 – ''[[She Monkeys]]'', directed by [[Lisa Aschan]]
* 2010 – ''[[When We Leave]]'', directed by [[Feo Aladag]]
* 2009 – ''[[About Elly]]'', directed by [[Asghar Farhadi]]
* 2008 – ''[[Let the Right One In (film)|Let the Right One In]]'', directed by [[Tomas Alfredson]]
* 2007 – ''[[My Father My Lord]]'', directed by David Volach
* 2006 – ''[[Iluminados por el fuego]]'', directed by [[Tristán Bauer]]
* 2005 – ''[[Stolen Life (2005 film)|Stolen Life]]'', directed by [[Li Shaohong]]
* 2004 – ''[[Green Hat]]'', directed by [[Liu Fendou]]
* 2003 – ''[[Blind Shaft]]'', directed by [[Li Yang (director)|Li Yang]]
* 2002 – ''[[Roger Dodger (film)|Roger Dodger]]'', directed by [[Dylan Kidd]]

====Best Actor in a Narrative Feature Film====
* 2015 – Gunnar Jónsson in ''[[Virgin Mountain]]''
* 2014 – [[Paul Schneider (actor)|Paul Schneider]] in ''[[Goodbye to All That (film)|Goodbye to All That]]''<ref name=tribcaawards2014 />
* 2013 – Sitthiphon Disamoe in ''[[The Rocket (2013 film)|The Rocket]]''
* 2012 – Dariel Arrechada and Javier Nuñez Florian in ''[[Una Noche (film)|Una Noche]]''
* 2011 – Ramadhan "Shami" Bizimana in ''Grey Matter''
* 2010 – [[Eric Elmosnino]] in ''[[Gainsbourg (Vie héroïque)]]''
* 2009 – [[Ciarán Hinds]] in ''[[The Eclipse (2009 film)|The Eclipse]]''
* 2008 – [[Thomas Turgoose]] and Piotr Jagiello in ''[[Somers Town (film)|Somers Town]]''
* 2007 – Lofti Ebdelli in ''Making Of. (Akher film)''
* 2006 – [[Jürgen Vogel]] in ''[[The Free Will|Der Freie Wille]]''
* 2005 – [[Cees Geel]] in ''[[Simon (2004 film)|Simon]]''
* 2004 – [[Ian Hart]] in ''[[Blind Flight]]''
* 2003 – Igor Bareš in ''Výlet'' and [[Ohad Knoller]] in ''[[Yossi & Jagger]]''

====Best Actress in a Narrative Feature Film====
* 2015 – [[Hannah Murray]] in ''[[Bridgend (film)|Bridgend]]''
* 2014 – [[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]] in ''[[Human Capital (2013 film)|Human Capital]]''<ref name=tribcaawards2014 />
* 2013 – [[Veerle Baetens]] in ''[[The Broken Circle Breakdown]]''
* 2012 – [[Rachel Mwanza]] in ''[[War Witch]]''
* 2011 – [[Carice van Houten]] in ''[[Black Butterflies]]''
* 2010 – [[Sibel Kekilli]] in ''[[When We Leave]]''
* 2009 – [[Zoe Kazan]] in ''The Exploding Girl''
* 2008 – [[Eileen Walsh]] in ''Eden''
* 2007 – [[Marina Hands]] in ''[[Lady Chatterley (film)|Lady Chatterley]]''
* 2006 – [[Eva Holubová]] in ''Holiday Makers''
* 2005 – [[Felicity Huffman]] in ''[[Transamerica (film)|Transamerica]]''
* 2004 – [[Fernanda Montenegro]] in ''[[The Other Side of the Street|O Outro Lado da Rua]]''
* 2003 – [[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]] in ''[[It's Easier for a Camel...]]''

====Best Cinematography in an Narrative Feature====
* 2015 – Magnus Jønck for ''[[Bridgend (film)|Bridgend]]''
* 2014 – Damian García for ''Gueros''
* 2013 – Marius Matzow Gulbrandsen for ''Before Snowfall''
* 2012 – Trevor Forrest and Shlomo Godder for ''[[Una Noche (film)|Una Noche]]''
* 2011 – Lisa Tillinger for ''Artificial Paradises''

====Best Screenplay in a Narrative Feature====
* 2015 – Dagur Kári for ''[[Virgin Mountain]]''
* 2014 – [[Guillaume Nicloux]] for ''[[The Kidnapping of Michel Houellebecq]]''
* 2013 – Carl Joos and [[Felix Van Groeningen]] for ''[[The Broken Circle Breakdown]]''
* 2012 – [[Daniel Burman]] and Sergio Dubcovsky for ''[[La suerte en tus manos]]''
* 2011 – [[Jannicke Systad Jacobsen]] for ''[[Turn Me On, Dammit!]]''

====Best Narrative Editing====
* 2015 – Oliver Bugge Coutté for ''[[Bridgend (film)|Bridgend]]''
* 2014 – Keith Miller for ''Five Star''

===Best New Directors===
====Best New Narrative Filmmaker====
* 2025 - Lorraine Jones Molina and Cristian Carretero for ''Esta Isla (This Island)''<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2024 - Nnamdi Asomugha for ''The Knife''
* 2022 - [[Michelle Garza Cervera]] for ''[[Huesera]]''
* 2021 – [[Nana Mensah (actress)|Nana Mensah]] for ''[[Queen of Glory]]''<ref name=":1" />
* 2020 – Gaspar Antillo for ''[[Nobody Knows I'm Here]]''<ref name=":0" />
* 2019 – Ellen Fiske and Ellinor Hallin for ''Scheme Birds''<ref name=schemebirds />
* 2017 – Rachel Israel for ''Keep the Change''<ref name="T2017" />
* 2015 – Zachary Treitz for ''[[Men Go to Battle]]''
* 2014 – Josef Wladyka for ''Manos Sucias''<ref name=tribcaawards2014 />
* 2013 – [[Emanuel Hoss-Desmarais]] for ''[[Whitewash (2013 film)|Whitewash]]''
* 2012 – [[Lucy Mulloy]] for ''[[Una Noche (film)|Una Noche]]''
* 2011 – [[Park Jung-bum]] for ''[[The Journals of Musan]]''
* 2010 – Kim Chapiron for ''[[Dog Pound (film)|Dog Pound]]''
* 2009 – Rune Denstad Langlo for ''[[North (2009 film)|North]]''
* 2008 – Huseyin Karabey for ''My Marlon and Brando''
* 2007 – Enrique Begne for ''Two Embraces''
* 2006 – [[Marwan Hamed]] for ''[[The Yacoubian Building (film)|The Yacoubian Building]]''
* 2005 – Alicia Scherson for ''[[Play (2005 film)|Play]]''
* 2004 – [[Liu Fendou]] for ''[[Green Hat]]''
* 2003 – [[Valeria Bruni Tedeschi]] for ''[[It's Easier for a Camel...]]''
* 2002 – [[Eric Eason]] for ''[[Manito (film)|Manito]]''

====Best New Documentary Filmmaker====
* 2025 - Augusto Zegarra for ''Runa Simi''<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2022 - Edward Buckles Jr. for ''[[Katrina Babies]]''
* 2020 – Jessica Earnshaw for ''Jacinta''<ref name=":0" />
* 2017 – [[Sarita Khurana]] and Smriti Mundhra for ''A Suitable Girl''<ref name="T2017" />
* 2016 – [[David Feige]] for ''Untouchable''
* 2015 – Ewan McNicol and Anna Sandilands for ''Uncertain''
* 2014 – Alan Hicks for ''Keep On Keepin' On''<ref name=tribcaawards2014 />
* 2013 – Sean Dunne for ''Oxyana''
* 2011 – Pablo Croce for ''Like Water''
* 2010 – [[Clio Barnard]] for ''[[The Arbor (film)|The Arbor]]''
* 2009 – Ian Olds for ''[[Fixer: The Taking of Ajmal Naqshbandi]]''
* 2008 – Carlos Carcass for ''Old Man Bebo''
* 2007 – [[Vardan Hovhannisyan]] for ''[[A Story of People in War and Peace]]''
* 2006 – Pelin Esmer for ''The Play''
* 2005 – [[Jeff Zimbalist]] and Matt Mochary for ''[[Favela Rising]]''
* 2004 – Paulo Sacramento for ''The Prisoner of the Iron Bars: Self-Portraits''

===Documentary===
====Best Documentary Feature====
* 2025 – ''Natchez'', directed by Suzannah Herbert<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2022 – ''[[The Cave of Adullam]]'', directed by Laura Checkoway
* 2020 – ''Socks on Fire'', directed by Bo McGuire<ref name=":0" />
* 2017 – ''Bobbi Jene'', directed by Elvira Lind<ref name="T2017" />
* 2015 – ''Democrats'', directed by Camilla Nielsson
* 2014 – ''[[Point and Shoot (film)|Point and Shoot]]'', directed by [[Marshall Curry]]<ref name="tribcaawards2014" />
* 2013 – ''[[The Kill Team (2013 film)|The Kill Team]]'', directed by [[Dan Krauss]]
* 2012 – ''[[The World Before Her]]'', directed by [[Nisha Pahuja]]
* 2011 – ''[[Bombay Beach (film)|Bombay Beach]]'', directed by [[Alma Har'el]]
* 2010 – ''[[Monica & David]]'', directed by Alexandra Codina
* 2009 – ''[[Racing Dreams (film)|Racing Dreams]]'', directed by [[Marshall Curry]]
* 2008 – ''[[Pray the Devil Back to Hell]]'', directed by Gini Reticker
* 2007 – ''[[Taxi to the Dark Side]]'', directed by [[Alex Gibney]]
* 2006 – ''[[The War Tapes]]'', directed by [[Deborah Scranton]]
* 2005 – ''El Perro Negro: Stories from the Spanish Civil War'', directed by [[Péter Forgács]]
* 2004 – ''[[Kill Your Idols (film)|Kill Your Idols]]'', directed by [[Scott Crary]]
* 2003 – ''A Normal Life'', directed by [[Elizabeth Chai Vasarhelyi]] and Hugo Berkeley
* 2002 – ''Chiefs'', directed by Daniel Junge

==== Best Cinematography in a Documentary ====
* 2025 - Chance Falkner and Johnny Friday for ''The Last Dive''<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2022 – Boris Levy for ''[[The Wild One (2023 film)|The Wild One]]''

==== Best Documentary Editing ====
* 2025 - Soren B. Ebbe and Hayedeh Safiyari for ''An Eye for an Eye''<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2020 – Amy Foete for ''[[Father Soldier Son|Father, Soldier, Son]]''
* 2017 – Adam Nielson for ''Bobbi Jene''

===Shorts===
====Best Narrative Short====
* 2025 - ''Beyond Silence'', directed by Marnie Blok<ref name="NBP2025" />
* 2020 – ''No More Wings'', directed by Abraham Adeyemi<ref name=":0" />
* 2017 – ''[[Retouch (film)|Retouch]]'', directed by [[Kaveh Mazaheri]]<ref name="T2017" />
* 2015 – ''Listen'', directed by Hamy Ramezan and Rungano Nyoni
* 2014 – ''[[The Phone Call (2014 film)|The Phone Call]]'', directed by [[Mat Kirkby]]<ref name=tribcaawards2014 />
* 2013 – ''The Nightshift Belongs to the Stars'', directed by Edoardo Ponti
* 2010 – ''Father Christmas Doesn't Come Here'', written by [[Bongi Ndaba]], Sibongile Nkosana directed by Bekhi Sibiya
* 2009 – ''The North Road'', directed by Carlos Chahine
* 2008 – ''[[New Boy (film)|New Boy]]'', directed by [[Steph Green]]
* 2007 – ''The Last Dog in Rwanda'', directed by [[Jens Assur]]
* 2006 – ''The Shovel'', directed by Nick Childs
* 2005 – ''[[Cashback (film)|Cashback]]'', directed by [[Sean Ellis]]
* 2004 – ''Shock Act'', directed by Seth Grossman
* 2002 – ''Bamboleho'', directed by [[Luis Prieto (director)|Luis Prieto]]

====Best Documentary Short====
* 2025 - ''I hope this email finds you well'', directed by Asia Zughaiar
* 2022 – ''[[Heart Valley]]'', directed by Christian Cargill
* 2021 – ''Coded'', directed by Ryan White
* 2020 – ''My Father The Mover'', directed by Julia Jansch<ref name=":0" />
* 2017 – ''The Good Fight'', directed by Ben Holman<ref name="T2017" />
* 2015 – ''[[Body Team 12]]'', directed by [[David Darg]]
* 2014 – ''One Year Lease'', directed by Brian Bolster<ref name=tribcaawards2014 />
* 2013 – ''Coach'', directed by Bess Kargman
* 2010 – ''[[White Lines and the Fever: The Death of DJ Junebug]]'', directed by Travis Senger
* 2009 – ''Home'', directed by Mathew Faust
* 2008 – ''Mandatory Service'', directed by Jessica Habie
* 2007 – ''A Son's Sacrifice'', directed by Yoni Brook
* 2006 – ''[[Native New Yorker (film)|Native New Yorker]]'', directed by Steve Bilich
* 2005 – ''[[The Life of Kevin Carter: Casualty of the Bang Bang Club|The Life of Kevin Carter]]'', directed by Dan Krauss
* 2004 – ''[[Sister Rose's Passion]]'', directed by [[Oren Jacoby]]
* 2003 – ''Milton Rogovin: The Forgotten Ones'', directed by [[Harvey Wang]]
* 2002 – ''All Water Has a Perfect Memory'', directed by Natalia Almada

==== Best Animated Short ====
* 2025 – ''[[Playing God (2024 film)|Playing God]]'' directed by Matteo Burani
* 2023 – ''[[Starling (film)|Starling]]'' directed by Mitra Shahidi<ref name="NBP2023" />
* 2017 – ''[[Odd is an Egg]]'' (''Odd er et egg'') directed by Kristin Ulseth<ref name="T2017" />

===Viewpoints===
Viewpoints is dedicated to discovering the most boundary-pushing, rule-breaking new voices in independent film. Starting in 2024, films selected in the Viewpoints section were presented in competition.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bergesen |first1=Samantha |title=Tribeca Film Festival 2024 Lineup |url=https://www.indiewire.com/news/festivals/tribeca-film-festival-2024-lineup-1234974694/ |access-date=19 April 2024 |publisher=Indie Wire |date=17 April 2024}}</ref>

===Student Visionary Award===
* 2021 – ''Six Nights'', directed by Robert Brogden<ref name=":1"/>
* 2020 – ''Cru-Raw'', directed by David Oesch<ref name=":0" />
* 2017 – ''Fry Day'', directed by Laura Moss<ref name="T2017" />
* 2015 – ''Catwalk'', directed by Ninja Thyberg
* 2014 – ''Nesma's Bird'', directed by Najwan Ali and Medoo Ali<ref name=tribcaawards2014 />
* 2013 – ''Life Doesn't Frighten Me'', directed by Stephen Dunn
* 2010 – ''some boys don't leave'', directed by Maggie Kiley
* 2009 – ''Small Change'', directed by Anna McGrath
* 2008 – ''Elephant Garden'', directed by Sasie Sealy
* 2007 – ''Good Luck Nedim'', directed by Marko Santic and ''Someone Else's War'', directed by Lee Wang
* 2006 – ''Dead End Job'', directed by Samantha Davidson Green
* 2005 – ''Dance Mania Fantastic'', directed by Sasie Sealy
* 2004 – '''Independent Lens' (American Made)'', directed by Sharat Raju

=== Nora Ephron Prize===
* 2020 – Ruthy Pribar for ''[[Asia (film)|Asia]]''<ref name=":0" />
* 2019 – [[Rania Attieh and Daniel Garcia|Rania Attieh]] for ''Initials S.G.''
* 2018 – [[Nia DaCosta]], for ''[[Little Woods]]''
* 2017 – [[Petra Volpe]], writer/director of ''[[The Divine Order]]''<ref name="T2017" />
* 2016 – Rachel Tunnard for ''[[Adult Life Skills]]''
* 2015 – Laura Bispuri for ''[[Sworn Virgin (2015 film)|Sworn Virgin]]''
* 2014 – [[Talya Lavie]] for ''[[Zero Motivation]]''
* 2013 – [[Meera Menon]] for ''[[Farah Goes Bang]]''

===Storyscapes Award===
* 2017 — ''TREEHUGGER : WAWONA'' created by Barnaby Steel, Ersin Han Ersin and Robin McNicholas<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribecafilm.com/stories/tribeca-2017-jury-awards|title=Here are the 2017 Tribeca Film Festival Juried Award Winners {{!}} Tribeca|work=Tribeca|access-date=2018-03-25|archive-date=August 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818020654/https://www.tribecafilm.com/stories/tribeca-2017-jury-awards|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Audience Awards===
==== Narrative Award ====
* 2023 - ''[[The Perfect Find]]'', directed by [[Numa Perrier]]<ref name="NBP2023" />
* 2022 - ''[[In Her Name]]'', written and directed by [[Sarah Carter]]
* 2021 – ''[[Catch the Fair One]]'', written and directed by Josef Kubota Wladyka
* 2019 – ''[[Plus One (2019 film)|Plus One]]'', written and directed by Jeff Chan and Andrew Rhymer
* 2018 – ''[[To Dust]]'', directed by Shawn Snyder
* 2017 – ''[[The Divine Order]]'', directed by [[Petra Volpe]]
* 2016 – ''[[Here Alone (film)|Here Alone]]'', directed by Rod Blackhurst
* 2015 – ''[[King Jack]]'', directed by Felix Thompson <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://tribecafilm.com/news/the-2015-tribeca-film-festival-audience-awards-winners |title=The 2015 Tribeca Film Festival Audience Awards Winners Are... |work=Tribeca News |date=April 25, 2015 |access-date=June 16, 2023 |archive-date=June 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616073722/https://tribecafilm.com/news/the-2015-tribeca-film-festival-audience-awards-winners |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Documentary Award ====
* 2021 – Blind Ambition, directed by Warwick Ross and Robert Coe
* 2019 – ''[[Gay Chorus Deep South]]'', directed by David Charles Rodrigues
* 2018 – ''[[United Skates]]'', directed by [[Dyana Winkler]] and Tina Brown
* 2017 – ''[[Hondros (film)|Hondros]]'', directed by [[Greg Campbell (author)|Greg Campbell]]
* 2016 – The Return, directed by Kelly Duane and Katie Galloway

===Audio Storytelling Awards===
In 2022, Tribeca added an audio storytelling awards category.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tribecafilm.com/press-center/festival/press-releases/tribeca-festival-announces-2022-competition-winners|title=TRIBECA FESTIVAL ANNOUNCES 2022 COMPETITION WINNERS|date=16 June 2022|access-date=3 July 2023|archive-date=March 24, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324161652/https://tribecafilm.com/press-center/festival/press-releases/tribeca-festival-announces-2022-competition-winners|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://tribecafilm.com/press-center/festival/press-releases/tribeca-festival-announces-2023-competition-winners|title=TRIBECA FESTIVAL ANNOUNCES 2023 COMPETITION WINNERS|date=15 June 2023|access-date=3 July 2023|archive-date=June 21, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621221739/https://tribecafilm.com/press-center/festival/press-releases/tribeca-festival-announces-2023-competition-winners|url-status=live}}</ref>
====Fiction Audio Storytelling Award====
* 2024 – ''The Skies Are Watching'' by Jon Frechette and Todd Luoto
* 2023 – ''The Very Worst Thing That Could Possibly Happen'' by Alex Kemp
* 2022 – ''The Hollowed Out'' by Brit and Nick Kewin

====Narrative Nonfiction Audio Storytelling Award====
* 2024 – ''Delejos'' by Julie Piñero and Cristal Duhaime
* 2023 – ''[[Free From Desire]]'' by Aline Laurent-Mayard
* 2022 – ''Mother Country Radicals'' by Zayd Ayers Dohrn

====Independent Fiction Audio Storytelling Award====
* 2024 – ''Red for Revolution'' by Jana Naomi Smith
* 2023 – ''Aisha'' by Cory Choy and Feyiṣayo Aluko

====Independent Nonfiction Audio Storytelling Award====
* 2024 – ''Back to the Water: More Than One'' by Catherine Jaffee, Pippa Ehrlich, and Zolani Mahola
* 2023 – ''Shalom, Amore'' by David Modigliani

=== Tribeca Games Award ===
The Tribeca Games Award honors an unreleased video game, "recognizing its potential for excellence in art and storytelling through design, artistic mastery and highly immersive worlds."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Beresford |first1=Trilby |title=Tribeca: ''Norco'' Wins First-Ever Games Award at Festival |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/digital/tribeca-norco-wins-first-ever-games-award-festival-1234970215/ |website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |publisher=[[MRC (company)#PMRC|PMRC]] |date=June 18, 2021 |access-date=May 16, 2022 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503050316/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/digital/tribeca-norco-wins-first-ever-games-award-festival-1234970215/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2024 - ''[[Goodnight Universe]]'' <ref>{{Cite web |title=Tribeca Festival Announces 2024 Competition Winners |url=https://www.tribecafilm.com/press-center/festival/press-releases/tribeca-festival-announces-2024-competition-winners |access-date=2024-08-14 |website=Tribeca}}</ref>
* 2023 - ''[[Goodbye Volcano High]]''
* 2022 - ''[[Thirsty Suitors]]''
* 2021 – ''[[Norco (video game)|Norco]]'' (inaugural award)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Beresford |first1=Trilby |title=Tribeca: ''Norco'' Wins First-Ever Games Award at Festival |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/digital/tribeca-norco-wins-first-ever-games-award-festival-1234970215/ |website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |publisher=[[MRC (company)#PMRC|PMRC]] |date=June 18, 2021 |access-date=May 16, 2022 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503050316/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/digital/tribeca-norco-wins-first-ever-games-award-festival-1234970215/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|New York City|Film|United States}}
* [[Tribeca Film Institute]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Tribeca Film Festival}}
* {{official|https://tribecafilm.com/festival}}

{{Robert De Niro}}
{{Tribeca, Manhattan}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Film festivals in New York City]]
[[Category:Film festivals established in 2002]]
[[Category:2002 establishments in New York City]]
[[Category:Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema]]
[[Category:Impact of the September 11 attacks on cinema]]
[[Category:Tribeca|Film Festival]]
[[Category:Robert De Niro]]

Zeeshan Mirza

2026-02-19T02:51:00Z

Thechhavigarg:

{{Short description|Indian herpetologist and arachnologist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Zeeshan A. Mirza
| birth_name = Zeeshan Ayaz Mirza
| image = Zeeshan A. Mirza.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Zeeshan A. Mirza
| birth_date = March 1988
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| fields = [[Herpetology]], [[Arachnology]], [[Systematics]], [[Molecular phylogenetics]], [[Developmental biology]]
| workplaces = [[Max Planck Institute for Biology]] [[National Centre for Biological Sciences]]
| alma_mater = Bhavan's College [[University of Mumbai]]
| known_for = Description of 60+ new species Genus ''[[Cilantica]]'' ''[[Trimeresurus salazar]]'' ''Anguiculus dicaprioi''
| awards = Vincent Roth Award (2009) Sanctuary Asia Young Naturalist Award (2010)
| website = {{URL|https://zeeshanamirza.com}}
}}
'''Zeeshan Mirza''' (born March 1988) is an Indian [[herpetologist]] and [[arachnologist]], who is a doctoral candidate at the [[Max Planck Institute for Biology]] in [[Tübingen]], [[Germany]].<ref name="maxplanck">{{cite web|url=https://www.bio.mpg.de/person/126747/82208|title=Zeeshan Mirza|website=Max Planck Institute for Biology|access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref><ref name="mongabay2025">{{cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2025/03/exploring-india-finding-new-species-interview-with-biologist-zeeshan-mirza/|title=Exploring India, finding new species: Interview with biologist Zeeshan Mirza|last=Kimbrough|first=Liz|date=29 March 2025|website=Mongabay|access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref> Specializing in [[systematics]], [[molecular phylogenetics]], and [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]], Mirza is recognized for having described more than 60 new species of [[reptile]]s and [[arachnid]]s, including [[snake]]s, [[tarantula]]s, [[gecko]]s, and [[scorpion]]s.<ref name="mongabay2025" /><ref name="wikispecies">{{cite web|url=https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Zeeshan_Ayaz_Mirza|title=Zeeshan Ayaz Mirza|website=Wikispecies|access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref>

His discoveries include species of significant media interest, such as the snake ''[[Trimeresurus salazar]]'', named after the [[Harry Potter]] character Salazar Slytherin, and ''Anguiculus dicaprioi'', named in reference to actor [[Leonardo DiCaprio]].<ref name="mongabay2025" /><ref name="mongabay_dicaprio">{{cite web|url=https://india.mongabay.com/2025/01/an-instagram-photo-led-researchers-to-a-snake-discovery/|title=Meet DiCaprio's Himalayan serpent|website=Mongabay India|date=6 January 2025|access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref> Mirza also described the tarantula genus ''[[Cilantica]]'' in 2024, endemic to the [[Western Ghats]] of India.<ref name="mirza2024">{{cite journal|last=Mirza|first=Zeeshan A.|title=Systematics of the Western Ghats endemic tarantula subfamily Thrigmopoeinae with the description of a new genus and four new species|journal=Travaux du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle "Grigore Antipa"|volume=67|issue=2|pages=183–234|year=2024|doi=10.3897/travaux.67.e112517|doi-access=free }}</ref> His research focuses primarily on the [[biodiversity]] of the Western Ghats and the [[Himalayas]], two of India's most important biogeographic regions.<ref name="mongabay2025" />

== Early life and education ==

Zeeshan Ayaz Mirza was born in Mumbai in March 1988 and grew up near Aarey Milk Colony, an urban green area located in the city's suburbs.<ref name="sanctuary">{{cite web|url=https://www.sanctuarynaturefoundation.org/award/zeeshan-mirza|title=Zeeshan Mirza|website=Sanctuary Nature Foundation|access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref> His interest in nature developed from childhood, when he explored local biodiversity and conducted snake rescues in the Mumbai metropolitan area.<ref name="mongabay2025" /> By age 22, Mirza had accumulated field experience equivalent to that of researchers twice his age and had published more than 20 scientific papers.<ref name="sanctuary" />

Mirza graduated with a Bachelor of Science in zoology from Bhavan's College, affiliated with the University of Mumbai, and subsequently completed a master's degree in life sciences.<ref name="mongabay2025" /> His academic journey was marked by an unconventional path, with strong emphasis on field work and independent research from his undergraduate years. During this period, he initiated collaborations with Indian and international research institutions, establishing the foundations for his prolific scientific career.

Currently, Mirza is a doctoral candidate at the Max Planck Institute for Biology in Tübingen, Germany, where his research has shifted focus to [[developmental biology]], studying developmental plasticity in [[nematode]]s of the genus ''Pristionchus''.<ref name="maxplanck" /><ref name="zeeshansite">{{cite web|url=https://zeeshanamirza.com/|title=Zeeshan A. Mirza - Biologist|website=Official website|access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref> Despite this shift in research area, he maintains active collaborations in herpetology and arachnology, continuing to describe new species and revise complex taxonomic groups.

== Career and research ==

Mirza's scientific career began in earnest during his undergraduate studies, when he started documenting the reptile and arachnid fauna near Mumbai. His first taxonomic paper on snakes not only described a new species but also established a new genus, marking the beginning of a series of significant contributions to Asian vertebrate and invertebrate systematics.<ref name="mongabay2025" />

Before joining the Max Planck Institute, Mirza was a research associate at the National Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS), affiliated with the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in Bangalore.<ref name="diplurid">{{cite journal|last=Mirza|first=Zeeshan A.|title=A new genus and new species of diplurid spider (Araneae: Mygalomorphae: Dipluridae) from northeast India|journal=Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity|volume=10|pages=32–38|year=2017 |doi=10.1016/j.japb.2016.03.013 |doi-access=free}}</ref> At this institution, he developed much of his research in reptile and arachnid systematics, with emphasis on integrative approaches combining morphology, molecular phylogenetics, and biogeographic analysis.

His field research spans various regions of India, with special focus on the Western Ghats and the Himalayas. Between 2014 and 2024, Mirza conducted extensive expeditions through states including [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Mizoram]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Kerala]], [[Tamil Nadu]], and [[Karnataka]].<ref name="mongabay2025" /><ref name="mongabay_gecko">{{cite web|url=https://india.mongabay.com/2023/07/new-species-of-parachute-gecko-recorded-in-mizoram/|title=New species of parachute gecko recorded in Mizoram|date=9 July 2023|website=Mongabay India|access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref> A single month-and-a-half expedition to Arunachal Pradesh in 2019, for example, resulted in the discovery of three new snake species, two new bent-toed gecko species, and an entirely new genus of lizards.<ref name="mongabay_gecko" />

Mirza works regularly in collaboration with other researchers, with Rajesh Sanap being one of his main collaborators in arachnid studies.<ref name="mongabay2025" /> His methodologies include detailed morphological analyses, DNA sequencing, phylogenetic studies, and comprehensive taxonomic revisions. Notably, Mirza has also incorporated unconventional tools into his research, such as using social media for species identification. In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, a photograph of a snake posted on Instagram by Virender Bhardwaj led Mirza to identify a new species, ''Oligodon churahensis'', from Churah Valley in Himachal Pradesh.<ref name="mongabay_dicaprio" />

His areas of expertise include the snake genera ''Trimeresurus'', ''Oligodon'', ''Liopeltis'', and ''Gongylosoma'', as well as various groups of arachnids, including tarantulas from the subfamilies Thrigmopoeinae and Eumenophorinae, and geckos from the genera ''Cnemaspis'', ''Gekko'', and ''Hemidactylus''.<ref name="wikispecies" /> With over 70 published scientific papers and 857 citations on Google Scholar, Mirza has established himself as one of the leading authorities on Indian subcontinent biodiversity.<ref name="mongabay2025" />

== Notable discoveries ==

=== Snakes ===

One of Mirza's most widely publicized discoveries was ''[[Trimeresurus salazar]]'', a green pit viper found in [[Arunachal Pradesh]] in 2020 and named after Salazar Slytherin, a character from [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[Harry Potter]] series.<ref name="salazar">{{cite journal|last=Mirza|first=Zeeshan A.|display-authors=etal|title=A new species of green pit vipers of the genus Trimeresurus Lacépède, 1804 (Reptilia, Serpentes, Viperidae) from western Arunachal Pradesh, India|journal=Zoosystematics and Evolution|volume=96|issue=1|pages=123–138|year=2020|doi=10.3897/zse.96.48431|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="pensoft">{{cite web|url=https://blog.pensoft.net/2020/04/21/welcome-to-the-house-of-slytherin-salazars-pit-viper-a-new-green-pit-viper-from-india/|title=Welcome to the House of Slytherin: Salazar's pit viper, a new green pit viper from India|website=Pensoft Publishers|date=21 April 2020|access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref> The species was discovered near Pakke Tiger Reserve and is characterized by a unique orange-red stripe along the head and body of males. The name choice was motivated by Slytherin being a wizard capable of speaking to snakes (Parselmouth) and founder of Slytherin House, whose symbol is a serpent.<ref name="salazar" />

In 2024, Mirza described ''Anguiculus dicaprioi'', a Himalayan snake named in honor of actor [[Leonardo DiCaprio]] for his environmental activism.<ref name="mongabay_dicaprio" /><ref name="dicaprio">{{cite journal|last=Mirza|first=Zeeshan A.|display-authors=etal|title=Phylogeny and systematics of the colubrid snake genera Liopeltis and Gongylosoma (Squamata: Colubridae) and description of a new Himalayan endemic genus and species|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=14|year=2024|issue=1 |article-number=24743 |doi=10.1038/s41598-024-74271-1 |pmid=39433812 |pmc=11494134 |bibcode=2024NatSR..1424743M }}</ref> The discovery was initiated when a photograph of the snake was posted on Instagram by Virender Bhardwaj in June 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic. Mirza, upon viewing the image in his timeline, recognized it as a potentially new species, leading to three years of detailed investigations that confirmed not only a new species but an entirely new genus, ''Anguiculus''.<ref name="mongabay_dicaprio" />

Another notable case involving social media was the discovery of ''Oligodon churahensis'', from Churah Valley in [[Himachal Pradesh]], also resulting from a photograph shared on Instagram.<ref name="mongabay_dicaprio" /> In 2016, Mirza described the genus ''Wallaceophis'', named in honor of [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], the British naturalist who formulated the theory of natural selection independently of [[Charles Darwin]].<ref name="wallaceophis">{{cite journal|last=Mirza|first=Zeeshan A.|display-authors=etal|title=A New Miocene-Divergent Lineage of Old World Racer Snake from India|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=3|year=2016|article-number=e0148380 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0148380|doi-access=free |pmid=26934509 |pmc=4774991 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1148380M }}</ref><ref name="mongabay_wallaceophis">{{cite web|url=https://news.mongabay.com/2016/03/new-snake-species-highlights-how-little-we-know-about-biodiversity-in-under-explored-regions-of-india-researchers-say/|title=New snake species highlights how little we know about biodiversity in under-explored regions of India|date=8 March 2016|website=Mongabay|access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref> The species ''Wallaceophis gujaratensis'' was discovered in [[Gujarat]], a region considered less biodiverse in India, highlighting the need for scientific exploration in neglected areas. Mirza is a great admirer of Wallace, stating that "everybody knows Darwin, but nobody knows his contemporary genius, Wallace".<ref name="theprint">{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/science/this-researcher-has-named-his-latest-find-after-modi-govts-top-science-official/168953/|title=This researcher has named his latest find after Modi govt's top science official|date=26 December 2018|website=The Print|access-date=17 January 2026}}</ref>

=== Tarantulas ===

In 2024, Mirza published a comprehensive systematic revision of the subfamily Thrigmopoeinae, endemic to the Western Ghats, describing the genus ''[[Cilantica]]'' and four new tarantula species.<ref name="mirza2024" /> The work involved detailed morphological and phylogenetic analyses, transferring species previously classified in other genera and establishing new taxonomic relationships within the group. The discovery highlighted the rich diversity of arachnids in the Palakkad Gap region, an important biogeographic discontinuity in the Western Ghats.<ref name="mirza2024" />

Mirza has also worked extensively with other arachnid groups, including spiders of the family Dipluridae and various scorpion genera. His arachnology research is frequently developed in collaboration with Rajesh Sanap, with whom he has published numerous papers on Indian spider taxonomy and systematics.<ref name="mongabay2025" />

=== Geckos and other reptiles ===

During a single month-and-a-half expedition to Arunachal Pradesh in 2019, Mirza discovered 12 new species of geckos in the genus ''Cnemaspis'', demonstrating the extraordinary undocumented diversity of the region.<ref name="mongabay_gecko" /> In 2023, he described ''Gekko mizoramensis'', a parachute gecko from [[Mizoram]], characterized by extensive interdigital membranes that allow it to glide between trees.<ref name="mongabay_gecko" /> Mirza also named the gecko ''Hemidactylus vijayraghavani'' in honor of K. VijayRaghavan, then Principal Scientific Advisor to the Indian government and a professor who granted him laboratory space at NCBS.<ref name="theprint" />

== Awards and recognition ==

At age 22, Mirza was awarded the Vincent Roth Award by the American Arachnological Society in 2009, recognizing his exceptional contributions to arachnology at a young age.<ref name="sanctuary" /> The following year, he received the Sanctuary Asia - RBS Young Naturalist Award in 2010, a prize granted by the Sanctuary Nature Foundation to young Indian conservationists with significant contributions to the country's biodiversity knowledge.<ref name="sanctuary" /> At the time of the award, Mirza had already published more than 20 scientific papers and accumulated field experience equivalent to that of researchers twice his age.<ref name="sanctuary" />

Mirza is a member of several [[IUCN]] Species Survival Commission specialist groups, including the Spider and Scorpion Specialist Group, the Skink Specialist Group, and the Snake Specialist Group, participating in conservation status assessments of threatened species.<ref name="mongabay2025" /> He also serves as associate editor of the scientific journal Herpetology Notes, contributing to peer review of manuscripts on reptile and amphibian systematics and ecology.<ref name="mongabay2025" />

His scientific output includes over 70 papers published in high-impact journals such as PLOS ONE, Zoosystematics and Evolution, Scientific Reports, and PeerJ, with 857 citations recorded on Google Scholar.<ref name="mongabay2025" /> Mirza is internationally recognized as one of the leading authorities on reptile and arachnid biodiversity of the Indian subcontinent.

== Conservation and activism ==

Mirza is a vocal advocate for Indian biodiversity conservation and a critic of illegal wildlife trade. An emblematic example he cites is that of ''Haploclastus devamatha'' (currently ''[[Cilantica devamatha]]''), a tarantula scientifically described in 2014 that appeared for sale in international pet markets only eight months after its original description.<ref name="mongabay2025" /> This pattern repeats with other rare species, which quickly become targets of illegal collectors once their locations are published in scientific papers.

To mitigate this problem, Mirza adopts the practice of omitting precise geographic coordinates in his publications, providing only general locality information.<ref name="mongabay2025" /> He also advocates for requiring valid collection permits as a prerequisite for manuscript submission to scientific journals, and for encouraging consumption of certified captive-bred specimens rather than potentially smuggled animals from developing countries.<ref name="mongabay2025" />

In an interview with Mongabay in 2025, Mirza expressed concern about human population growth as the main threat to biodiversity. When asked about the biggest challenge for conservation in India, he stated: "The increasing number of humans. Nature cannot coexist with humanity, especially in the way we humans currently are. Without effective population policies in the country, species will continue to decline".<ref name="mongabay2025" /> Despite this somber view, Mirza remains optimistic about discovering new species, noting that dedicated expeditions continue to reveal previously unknown biodiversity even in seemingly well-studied regions.

During his studies in Mumbai, Mirza conducted educational tours at Sanjay Gandhi National Park and Aarey Milk Colony, introducing people to local biodiversity and promoting conservation awareness.<ref name="mongabay2025" /> He remains active on social media, sharing scientific discoveries and educating the public about the importance of preserving Indian fauna and flora.

== Selected publications ==

* {{cite journal |last1=Mirza |first1=Zeeshan A. |last2=Bhardwaj |first2=Virender K. |last3=Pal |first3=Saunak |last4=Lalremsanga |first4=H. T. |last5=Vogel |first5=Gernot |last6=Campbell |first6=Patrick D. |last7=Patel |first7=Harshil |title=Phylogeny and systematics of the colubrid snake genera Liopeltis and Gongylosoma (Squamata: Colubridae) and description of a new Himalayan endemic genus and species |journal=Scientific Reports |date=2024 |volume=14 |issue=1 |article-number=24743 |doi=10.1038/s41598-024-74271-1 |pmid=39433812 |bibcode=2024NatSR..1424743M }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mirza |first1=Zeeshan A. |title=Systematics of the Western Ghats endemic tarantula subfamily Thrigmopoeinae with the description of a new genus and four new species |journal=Travaux du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle "Grigore Antipa" |date=2024 |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=183–234 |doi=10.3897/travaux.67.e112517 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mirza |first1=Zeeshan A. |last2=Bhosale |first2=Harshal S. |last3=Phansalkar |first3=Pushkar U. |last4=Sawant |first4=Mandar |last5=Gowande |first5=Gaurang G. |last6=Patel |first6=Harshil |title=A new species of green pit vipers of the genus Trimeresurus Lacépède, 1804 (Reptilia, Serpentes, Viperidae) from western Arunachal Pradesh, India |journal=Zoosystematics and Evolution |date=2020 |volume=96 |pages=123–138 |doi=10.3897/zse.96.48431 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mirza |first1=Zeeshan A. |last2=Sanap |first2=Rajesh V. |last3=Kunte |first3=Krushnamegh |title=A new genus and new species of diplurid spider (Araneae: Mygalomorphae: Dipluridae) from northeast India |journal=Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity |date=2017 |volume=10 |pages=32–38 |doi=10.1016/j.japb.2016.03.013|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mirza |first1=Zeeshan A. |last2=Vyas |first2=Raju |last3=Patel |first3=Harshil |last4=Maheta |first4=Jaydeep |last5=Sanap |first5=Rajesh V. |title=A New Miocene-Divergent Lineage of Old World Racer Snake from India |journal=PLOS ONE |date=2016 |volume=11 |issue=3 |article-number=e0148380 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0148380 |doi-access=free |pmid=26934509 |pmc=4774991 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1148380M }}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|https://zeeshanamirza.com/}}
* [https://www.bio.mpg.de/person/126747/82208 Profile at Max Planck Institute for Biology]
* [https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Zeeshan_Ayaz_Mirza Zeeshan Ayaz Mirza] at Wikispecies
* [https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=8DqIOoEAAAAJ Google Scholar profile]
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mirza, Zeesham}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1988 births]]
[[Category:People from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Arachnologists]]
[[Category:Indian herpetologists]]
[[Category:Indian biologists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian zoologists]]
[[Category:University of Mumbai alumni]]

S. K. Venkataranga

2026-02-18T01:03:34Z

Thechhavigarg: formatting fix

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{multiple issues|
{{confusing|date=February 2009}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2009}}
}}
'''S. K. Venkatranga Iyengar''' (1900–1989) was an Indian lawyer. He lived in [[Gandhinagar]], [[Bangalore]].

==Life==
Venkatranga Iyengar obtained his B.A. from the [[University of Mysore]], and a law degree from the [[University of Mumbai]]. He was selected for the [[Indian Civil Service]], however failed to attend a required interview in the UK. Venkataranga was offered an administrative post in the state of [[Baroda]]. Venkataranga declined the offer, opting instead for a career practicing law in the [[Mysore]] High Court. This position allowed Venkatranga to remain legally in [[Bangalore]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}

Venkatranga Iyengar was associated with the [[Indian independence movement|Indian Independence movement]] and chauffeured [[Gandhi]] in his visit to [[Karnataka]] cities.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}

==Career==
Venkatranga declined elevation to judgeship in [[Karnataka High Court|Mysore High Court]] and subsequently took up constitutional matters in the [[Supreme Court of India]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} He fought many "[[writ of mandamus]]" cases to get justice for [[Civil service|public servants]] and admission to students who were denied their rights due to reservation policy after independence.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} He was a member of the [[Constituent assembly]] for [[Mysore State|Mysore state]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}

He was a member of the [[Bangalore Mahanagara Palike|Bangalore city corporation]] with his uncle and grandfather.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} He was responsible for getting the [[Hebbar Srivaishnava Sabha]] their premises in [[Gandhinagar]] in the early 1930s.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}

He fought to resolve the disputes in the [[Melkote]] shrine between [[Thenkalai]] and [[Vadakalai]] priests and was a devout worshipper at [[Biligirirangan Hills#Biligirirangaswamy Temple|Biligirirangaswamy Temple]] in [[Biligirirangan Hills]] and [[Venugopala Krishna]] in [[Malleswaram]] temple.<ref>[http://pulivahanan.wetpaint.com/page/Sri.Venugopalaswamy+Temple, Bangalore wetpaint.com]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Hebbar Iyengar]]

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110715190208/http://www.rishabhdara.com/sc/view.php?case=2209 Indian Supreme Court case- The University of Mysore & ANR V. C. D. Govinda Rao & ANR 1963 RD-SC 177 (26 August 1963)]}}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110715190214/http://www.rishabhdara.com/sc/view.php?case=2911 Indian Supreme Court case- Divisional Personnel Officer, Souther Railway V. S. Raghavendrachar 1965 RD-SC 301 (16 December 1965)]}}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110715190220/http://www.rishabhdara.com/sc/view.php?case=4691 Indian Supreme Court case- K. D. Kamath & CO V. C.I.T., Bangalore 1971 RD-SC 280 (11 October 1971)]}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121103215350/http://www.hindu.com/2001/04/12/stories/0412210m.htm The Hindu news story- Inauguration of Sri S.K. Venkataranga Iyengar Trust]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Venkataranga, S. K.}}
[[Category:Scholars from Mysore]]
[[Category:1900 births]]
[[Category:1989 deaths]]
[[Category:University of Mysore alumni]]
[[Category:University of Mumbai alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian lawyers]]

Bunny Reuben

2026-02-06T06:10:33Z

Thechhavigarg: created entry.

{{Short description|Indian film historian (1926–2007)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Bunny Reuben
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 1926
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2007|2|15|1926|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Historian, journalist, publicist
| years_active = 1940s–2007
| known_for =
| notable_works =
| spouse =
| children = 3
}}
'''Bunny Reuben''' (1926 – 15 February 2007) was an Indian film historian, journalist, and [[publicist]]. He wrote several books, both fiction and non-fiction. He started his career as a film-focusing journalist in the 1940s, and worked for several publications, including ''[[Filmfare]]''. According to [[Randhir Kapoor]], a son of the actor [[Raj Kapoor]], whose biography Reuben wrote, "It is a great loss to the RK family and the film industry. He was not only a good journalist and publicist, he was a great film historian."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/raj-kapoors-biographer-reuben-passes-away/articleshow/1625206.cms |title=Raj Kapoor's biographer Reuben passes away |date=16 February 2007 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=20 February 2022 |archive-date=20 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220095335/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/raj-kapoors-biographer-reuben-passes-away/articleshow/1625206.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> Navras Jaat Aafreedi of the [[Presidency University, Kolkata]] described Reuben in 2016 as one of the most prominent [[Bene Israel]] figures of India.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://asianjewishlife.org/asia/india/ajl-issue17-the-jews-of-bollywood/ |title=The Jews of Bollywood: How Jews Established the World's Largest Film Industry |date=January 2016 |journal=Asian Jewish Life |issue=17 |last=Aafreedi |first=Navras Jaat |publisher=[[Presidency University, Kolkata]] |pages=20–25 |access-date=21 February 2022 |archive-date=18 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418183355/https://asianjewishlife.org/asia/india/ajl-issue17-the-jews-of-bollywood/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Bibliography ==
* {{Cite book |title=Monkeys on the Hill of God: Eight Angry Stories of India |last=Reuben |first=Bunny |date=1969 |publisher=Pearl Publications |oclc=3554943 }}
* {{Cite book |title=You, I, and Her: A Novel |date=1973 |last=Reuben |first=Bunny |publisher=Vikas Publications |oclc=2507046 }}
* {{Cite book |title=The Shalimar Adventure |date=1979 |last=Reuben |first=Bunny |publisher=Vikas Publications |oclc=8285878 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Raj Kapoor: The Fabulous Showman |date=1988 |publisher=[[National Film Development Corporation of India]] |last=Reuben |first=Bunny |isbn=978-81-85304-03-8 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Follywood Flashback: A Collection of Movie Memories |date=1993 |last=Reuben |first=Bunny |publisher=Indus |isbn=978-81-72231-06-4 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Mehboob: ...India's DeMille |date=1994 |last=Reuben |first=Bunny |publisher=Indus |oclc=59650553 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Savage Trio: Three Stories |date=2000 |last=Reuben |first=Bunny |publisher=Unknown |oclc=53997546 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Dilip Kumar: Star Legend of Indian Cinema |date=2004 |last=Reuben |first=Bunny |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |isbn=978-81-72235-68-0 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Reuben |first=Bunny |title=...and Pran: A Biography |date=2005 |publisher=HarperCollins and [[Living Media]] |isbn=978-81-72234-66-9}}
* {{Cite book |title=Contributions of the Jews to the Indian Film Industry |date=2005 |last=Reuben |first=Bunny |publisher=Unknown |oclc=58840498 }}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reuben, Bunny}}
[[Category:1926 births]]
[[Category:2007 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian film historians]]
[[Category:Indian male journalists]]

{{India-historian-stub}}

Voodoo Child (band)

2026-02-06T04:51:13Z

Thechhavigarg: updated details

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Voodoo Child
| image = Voodoo_Child,_Guwahati.jpg
| caption = Voodoo Child (2015)
| origin = [[Guwahati]], India
| years_active = 2002–present
| genre = [[Classic rock]], [[Rock and roll]]
| label = Independent
| website = {{URL|www.voodoochild.co.in}}
| current_members = Rittique Phukan [[Jim Ankan Deka]] Rajib Hazarika Bobo Bardoloi
}}

'''Voodoo Child''' is a [[rock and roll]] band from [[Guwahati]], Assam, India.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/music/An-evening-out-with-the-Voodoo-Child/articleshow/35470854.cms An evening out with the Voodoo Child], ''[[The Times of India]]''</ref> The band is primarily made up of Rittique Phukan (guitar/vocals/drums/songwriter), [[Jim Ankan Deka]] (keys/guitar), Rajib Hazarika (lead guitar), Priyanku Bordoloi ( Guitars) and Bobo Bardoloi (bass), although they frequently team up with session musicians (on drums, guitar, bass, organ and other backup instruments) when on tour.Pankaj Rajkhowa who is a Bangalore bassed musician does plays as a session Bassist during tour in South India.Pankaj Rajkhowa was a full time Bassist with The band from 2002 to 2006.<ref>[http://www.musicmalt.com/2015/04/16-rock-bands-from-north-east-india.html 16 Rock Bands from North-East India you don't want to miss], ''Music Malt''</ref> The band has released 3 full length albums: ''We Own the Night'', ''20 Years on the Road'', and ''Underneath the Stars'',<ref>[http://www.northeasttoday.in/voodoo-child/ Voodoo Child], ''Northeast Today''</ref> and 7 singles so far.{{When|When is 'so far'?|date=November 2021}}

==History==
Voodoo Child is a Guwahati-based classic rock band, which came together in 2002. The band has performed many concerts in [[Northeast India]] and in other parts of the country. The band has gone through a few line-up changes since its inception because of alternative careers of band members.<ref>[http://www.hindustantimes.com/music/rock-and-roll-is-a-way-of-life-for-voodoo-child/story-mAyHz9hJUzWAk9iIDMcbEL.html Rock and Roll is a way of life for Voodoo Child], ''[[Hindustan Times]]''</ref>

Phukan was the founder of the band and came up with the name Voodoo Child in 2002. Amborish Saikia (ex member of [[Euphoria (Indian band)|Euphoria]] and [[KK (singer)|KK]]) joined as the lead guitarist.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304140414/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1070123/asp/guwahati/story_7295555.asp Healing touch for Voodoo rocker], ''[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]]''</ref> Although Phukan used to play the drums along with vocals, later Tanmoy Ray Choudhury (present drummer of [[Angaraag Mahanta]] and Papon and The East India Company) joined as the drummer and Phukan concentrated on vocals and rhythm guitar. In 2005 Deka joined the band as the keyboardist, Pankaj Rajkhowa as the Bassist and David Goldsmith as the other vocalist.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040111174504/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1040102/asp/guwahati/story_2742507.asp Ulubari jives to roadside rock show], ''[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]]''</ref>

In 2015, the line up changed to the present set up.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20150512113116/http://www.polkacafe.com/popular-music-groups-from-north-east-india-1359.html 15 Bands From Northeast India That Have The World Grooving To Their Tunes]}}, ''Polka Cafe''</ref>

Voodoo Child has played in almost all the top clubs of Assam and some parts of Northeast India.<ref>[http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/Jprs9wk6UvLswMvCsEEwwK/The-Mint-Planner-07-November-2014.html The Mint Planner, 7 November 2014] ''[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]]''</ref> The band also performed at different clubs and pubs in Delhi, [[Bangalore]], Goa and other parts of India.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150329093326/http://indulge.newindianexpress.com/chart-the-week-ahead-15/bangalore/20371 Chart the Week Ahead], ''[[The New Indian Express]]''</ref><ref>[http://www.musicmalt.com/2014/10/voodoo-child-in-bangalore.html Listen up Bangalore! Voodoo Child is on its way!], ''Music Malt''</ref>

==Festivals and events==
Voodoo Child has performed at many festivals and events including ''Shine A Light'' in [[Cherrapunji]], ''World Music Day'' in Guwahati etc. The band opened for Danish pop/soft rock band [[Michael Learns to Rock]] on 13 December 2015 at the [[Indira Gandhi Athletic Stadium]] in Assam. This was the first time an international band had performed in Guwahati.

==Albums==
We Own The Night (2017)

20 Years on the Road (2020)

Underneath The Stars (2021)

==Singles==
* Typical Love Song (2014)
* Good Die Young (2014)
* Little Love, Little Peace (2014)
* Taqi Song (2014)
* Your World Below (2015)
* Nights Go By (2015)

==Band members==
* Rittique Phukan (Vocals, Rhythm guitar, songwriter, Drummer)
* [[Jim Ankan Deka]] (Lead guitar, Keyboard)
* Priyanku Bordoloi (Guitars)
* Rajib Hazarika (Lead guitar)
* Bobo Bardoloi (Bass)

== Ex members ==
* Pankaj Rajkhowa ( Bass )
* Ambarish Saikia ( Guitar)
* David Goldsmith ( Vocals )

==See also==
* [[Music of India]]
* [[Indian rock]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.voodoochild.co.in Official website]
* [http://www.reverbnation.com/VoodooChildIndia Voodoo Child] at [[Reverbnation]]
* [http://www.last.fm/music/Voodoo+Child+India Voodoo Child] at [[Last.fm]]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Indian rock music groups]]
[[Category:Musical groups established in 2002]]
[[Category:2002 establishments in Assam]]
[[Category:Rockabilly music groups]]
[[Category:Guwahati]]

Milind Ramji Narote

2026-01-26T01:08:00Z

Thechhavigarg: started basic info w/ refs...

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2024}}

'''Milind Ramji Narote''' (born 30 July 1985){{Citation needed|date=April 2025}} is an Indian politician from [[Maharashtra]]. He is a member of the Maharashtra Legislative Assembly from [[Gadchiroli Assembly constituency]], which is reserved for Scheduled Tribe community, in [[Gadchiroli district]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-26 |title=गडचिरोलीत भाजपकडून विद्यमान आमदार होळींना डच्चू, डॉ. मिलिंद नरोटे यांना उमेदवारी; 'लोकसत्ता'चे भाकीत खरे ठरले |url=https://www.loksatta.com/nagpur/in-gadchiroli-incumbent-mla-devrao-holi-rejected-and-dr-milind-narote-is-candidates-from-bjp-ssp-89-mrj-95-4675457/ |access-date=2024-11-26 |website=Loksatta |language=mr}}</ref> He won the [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]], representing the Bharatiya Janata Party.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr. Milind Ramji Narote, BJP Election Results LIVE: Latest Updates On Dr. Milind Ramji Narote, Assembly Election Constituency Seat |url=https://www.ndtv.com/elections/maharashtra/assembly-election-candidates-list-2024/dr-milind-ramji-narote-13068-1 |access-date=2024-11-26 |website=ndtv.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=गडचिरोलीत भाजपने भाकरी फिरवली, सलग दोनदा निवडून आलेल्या आमदाराला डच्चू; 'या' तरुण डॉक्टरला संधी |url=https://marathi.indiatimes.com/maharashtra/gadchiroli/gadchiroli-vidhan-sabha-constituency-candidate-milind-narote-bjp-refused-sitting-mla-devrao-holi/articleshow/114628495.cms |access-date=2024-11-26 |website=Maharashtra Times |language=mr}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Narote is from [[Gadchiroli]], Maharashtra. He is the son of Ramji Narote. He completed his MBBS in 2012 at NPK SIMS, Nagpur.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Dr. Milind Ramji Narote(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- GADCHIROLI (ST)(GADCHIROLI) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/Maharashtra2024/candidate.php?candidate_id=504 |access-date=2024-11-26 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref>

== Career ==
Narote is a first time MLA winning from Gadchiroli Assembly constituency representing the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] in the [[2024 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election]]. He polled 116,540 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Manohar Tulshiram Poreti of the [[Indian National Congress]], by a margin of 15,505 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-23 |title=Gadchiroli, Maharashtra Assembly Election Results 2024 Highlights: BJP's Dr. Milind Ramji Narote defeats INC's Manohar Tulshiram Poreti with 15505 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/gadchiroli-maharashtra-assembly-election-results-2024-live-updates-maelb-2638172-2024-11-23 |access-date=2024-11-26 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr. Milind Ramji Narote, BJP Candidate from Gadchiroli Assembly Election 2024 Seat: Electoral History & Political Journey, Winning or Losing - News18 Assembly Election 2024 Result News |url=https://www.news18.com/elections/assembly/maharashtra/dr.-milind-ramji-narote-s13aed2008a068e2024c002/ |access-date=2024-11-26 |website=www.news18.com |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Narote, Milind Ramji}}
[[Category:1985 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Maharashtra MLAs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:People from Gadchiroli district]]

{{Maharashtra-BJP-politician-stub}}

Rana Sanga's invasion of Gujarat

2026-01-19T22:55:15Z

Thechhavigarg: refined article and updated info to improve readability

{{Short description|1520 Mewari military campaign}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2017}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Rajput invasion of Gujarat
| partof =
| image =
| caption =
| date = 1520
| place = [[Gujarat]], India
| territory = * Northern Gujarat annexed by Sanga
* Idar conquered by Rana Sanga
*Idar given to Rao Rai Mal [[Rathore dynasty|Rathore]]
| result = Rajput victory
| combatant1 = [[File:In mewar-state.png |25px]] [[Kingdom of Mewar]]<ref>{{Cite book |author=R.C Majumdar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKVFAQAAMAAJ|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: Volume 6|date=1960|publisher=Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan|pages=344|quote= Mewar were considerably extended. On the north, they were pushed up as far as the Bayana River. In the east, Raisen, Sarangpur, Bhilsa, Kalpi and Chanderi, were included within her territories. In the south, Dungarpur and Banswara were held by a vassal, and her frontiers ran far into the heart of Malwa. To the south-west, Sirohi was ruled by the Rana’s son-in-law. Even the chiefs of Marwar and Amber, according to Tod, acknowledged his allegiance}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=R.V Somani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcIBAAAAMAAJ|title=History of Mewar from Earliest time to 1751 A.D|date=1976|publisher=Mateshwari Publications|pages=39–40|quote= The Mewar army proceeded towards Sirohi and collected necessary tribute from its ruler. The Sultan of Gujrat, when heard the advancement of Maharana, was desitous of sending reinforcement* at Idar, But some of his Ministers being inimical to Mubarize ul-Mulk refrained the Sultan from sending his army. The Maharana then proceeded towards Dungarpur, the ruler of which place also accompanied him. Mubariz-ul-Mulk, wrote the account of these developments to the Sultan, But at this time also the Ministers misrepresented the facts and reinforcement could not be sent at Idar. The Maharana acting energetically came down swiftly upon dar with immense army consisting of more than 40,000 cavalry, By this time, Rao Ganga of Jodhpur and Biramdeva Medatiya also joined him with 7 and 6 thousand cavalry respectively}}</ref> '''Vassal states'''{{bulleted list|[[Kingdom of Marwar]]|[[Idar State]]|Kingdom of [[Vagad]]}}
| combatant2 = [[Gujarat Sultanate]]
| commander1 = [[Rana Sanga]] [[Ganga Rathore of Marwar|Rao Ganga]] Ajja Jhala Rawal Udai Singh of Vagad Rao Viram deo [[Rathore dynasty|Rathore]] of Merta Rai Mal [[Rathore dynasty|Rathore]] [[Haridas Kesaria]]
| commander2 = [[Muzaffar Shah II]] Nizam Khan-ul-mulk{{WIA}}
| strength1 = '''Total: 53,000 cavalry'''<ref>{{Cite book |author=R.V Somani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcIBAAAAMAAJ|title=History of Mewar from Earliest time to 1751 A.D|date=1976|publisher=Mateshwari Publications|pages=39–40|quote= The Mewar army proceeded towards Sirohi and collected necessary tribute from its ruler. The Sultan of Gujrat, when heard the advancement of Maharana, was desitous of sending reinforcement* at Idar, But some of his Ministers being inimical to Mubarize ul-Mulk refrained the Sultan from sending his army. The Maharana then proceeded towards Dungarpur, the ruler of which place also accompanied him. Mubariz-ul-Mulk, wrote the account of these developments to the Sultan, But at this time also the Ministers misrepresented the facts and reinforcement could not be sent at Idar. The Maharana acting energetically came down swiftly upon dar with immense army consisting of more than 40,000 cavalry, By this time, Rao Ganga of Jodhpur and Biramdeva Medatiya also joined him with 7 and 6 thousand cavalry respectively}}</ref>
 
<hr>{{Bullet list|40,000 from Mewar|7,000 from Marwar|6,000 from Vagad}}
| strength2 = Unknown
}}

In 1520 [[Rana Sanga]], the [[Rana (title)|Rana]] of [[Kingdom of Mewar|Mewar]], led [[Rajput]] armies of [[Kingdom of Mewar]] and its vassal states to invade the [[Gujarat Sultanate]]. He reinstated Raimal [[Rathore dynasty|Rathore]] as the Rao of [[Idar State|Idar]] and defeated the Gujarat forces under the command of Nizam Khan. Rana Sanga drove the army of [[Muzaffar Shah II|Muzaffar II]] deep into Gujarat and chased them up to [[Ahmedabad]].<ref name=GJ>{{Cite book|first=Rima|last=Hooja|title=A History of Rajasthan|chapter=The State of Mewar, AD 1500 - AD 1600|publisher=Rupa & Company|year=2006|isbn=9788129108906|pages=451|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ&q=Muzaffar+II|access-date=2020-09-16}}</ref> The Sultan of Gujarat was forced to flee to [[Champaner|Muhammadabad]].<ref>[https://archive.org/details/maharanasangahin00sardrich Maharana Sanga] by Har Bilas Sarda</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2018}}<ref>{{cite book |author=J. Chaube|title=History of Gujarat Kingdom, 1458-1537|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m94BAAAAMAAJ|year=1975|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |page=147|isbn=978-0-88386-573-6 }}</ref> After a series of successful military campaigns Sanga successfully captured Northern Gujarat.<ref name="Majumdar">{{Cite book |editor-first=R. C.|editor-last=Majumdar|editor-link=R. C. Majumdar|url=http://archive.org/details/delhisultanate00bhar |title=History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 06, The Delhi Sultanate |date=1967 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan }}</ref>{{pn|date=September 2024}}

==Background==
The growing power of Mewar was seen as a threat by the Sultan of Gujarat. They had previously had disputes due to the succession of the state of Idar. In 1519 the two claimants of Idar, Raimal and Bharmal both sought the support of Sanga and Muzaffar II, leading to the invasion of Idar by the Gujarat forces, who were supporting Bharmal.<ref name=GJ/>

==Battle==
Upon knowing of the invasion, Rana Sanga immediately came to the support of Raimal [[Rathore dynasty|Rathore]] and started with 40,000 cavalry from Chittorgarh. He first went towards Sirohi whose ruler paid necessary tribute to the Maharana. When Sultan of Gujarat came to know about the developments happened above. He tried to send reinforcements but he was stopped by his nobles who were anxious of Mubariz-ul-Mulk, then holding Idar for Gujarat Sultanate. Next, Maharana's army reached Dungarpur whose ruler also accompanied him. Mubariz-ul-Mulk wrote letter to Sultan asking for counterattack and also informing him about the present situation. However, nobles mis-interpreted the fact and stopped Sultan from taking necessary action. Then a battle was fought in Idar where the Sultans forces were defeated by the Maharana. Idar was captured and forces of Marwar and Vagad under their respective Kings Rao Ganga Rathore and Biramdeva Medatiya with 7000 and 6,000 cavalry each joined him.<ref>{{Cite book |author=R.V Somani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcIBAAAAMAAJ|title=History of Mewar from Earliest time to 1751 A.D|date=1976|publisher=Mateshwari Publications|pages=39–40|quote= The Mewar army proceeded towards Sirohi and collected necessary tribute from its ruler. The Sultan of Gujrat, when heard the advancement of Maharana, was desitous of sending reinforcement* at Idar, But some of his Ministers being inimical to Mubarize ul-Mulk refrained the Sultan from sending his army. The Maharana then proceeded towards Dungarpur, the ruler of which place also accompanied him. Mubariz-ul-Mulk, wrote the account of these developments to the Sultan, But at this time also the Ministers misrepresented the facts and reinforcement could not be sent at Idar. The Maharana acting energetically came down swiftly upon dar with immense army consisting of more than 40,000 cavalry, By this time, Rao Ganga of Jodhpur and Biramdeva Medatiya also joined him with 7 and 6 thousand cavalry respectively}}</ref> Gujarat army were pushed back as far as Ahmedabad which was put to siege and looted. Mewari army plundered and captured [[Vadnagar]] and also attacked Visalnagar which also submitted to Maharana.<ref>{{Cite book |author=R.V Somani|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcIBAAAAMAAJ|title=History of Mewar from Earliest time to 1751 A.D|date=1976|publisher=Mateshwari Publications|pages=39–40}}</ref><ref name=GJ/>

==Aftermath==
The north of Gujarat was successfully absorbed into the Kingdom of Mewar after the invasion.<ref name="Majumdar"/>{{pn|date=September 2024}} This defeat led to the alliance between the sultanates of Gujarat, Malwa and Delhi against Mewar. The two Sultans of Malwa and Gujarat led their forces to Mandsaur where they failed to take the fort and were forced to retreat. The sultan of Delhi tried to annex Ajmer but was defeated at Ranthambore by Sanga.<ref name=GJ/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Kingdom of Mewar]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Rajputs]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Rajputs]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Marwar]]
[[Category:Gujarat Sultanate]]

Jogaranjan Halder

2026-01-02T20:09:07Z

Thechhavigarg: brief add citations for accuracy also and improved wording to improve readability

{{short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Jogaranjan Halder
| image =
| caption =
| office = Member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start = 2011
| term_end =
| constituency = [[Kulpi Assembly constituency|Kulpi]]
| predecessor = [[Sakuntala Paik]]
| successor =
| term_start1 = 2001
| term_end1 = 2006
| constituency1 = [[Kulpi Assembly constituency|Kulpi]]
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 = [[Sakuntala Paik]]
| birth_place =
| birth_date =
| spouse =
| party = [[All India Trinamool Congress|AITC]]
| residence = [[South 24 Parganas district]], [[West Bengal]]
| alma_mater =
| profession = Politician
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
''' Jogaranjan Halder''' is an Indian politician member of [[All India Trinamool Congress]].<ref>{{Cite web|title= Jogaranjan Halder Election Affidavit|work=[[Election Commission of India]]|url= https://affidavit.eci.gov.in/show-profile/MTAwMzI=/MTY=/MTA=/Mw==/QUM= |access-date=24 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Jogaranjan Halder is a TMC candidate from Kulpi constituency in the 2021 West Bengal Assembly elections |work=[[News18]]|url= https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2021/west-bengal/jogaranjan-halder-kulpi-candidate-s25a133c002/ |access-date=24 June 2021}}</ref> He is an [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]], elected from the [[Kulpi (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Kulpi]] constituency in the [[2001 West Bengal state assembly election]].<ref>{{Cite web|title= Kulpi Assembly Constituency |work=[[Business Standard]]|url= https://www.business-standard.com/elections/west-bengal-assembly-election-2021/kulpi-election-results-36_3323.html-36_3323.html |access-date=24 June 2021}}</ref> In 2011, 2016 and [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election|2021]] assembly election he was re-elected from the same constituency.<ref>{{Cite web|title= 2016 Winner Jogaranjan Halder |work=[[Hindustan Times]]|url= https://www.hindustantimes.com/elections/west-bengal-assembly-election/kulpi-1954730682 |access-date=24 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Kulpi, West Bengal Assembly election result 2021|work=[[India Today]]|url= https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/story/kulpi-west-bengal-assembly-election-result-2021-live-updates-1797213-2021-05-02 |access-date=24 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=West Bengal Assembly Election Candidate Jogaranjan Halder|work=[[NDTV]]|url=https://ndtv.in/elections/west-bengal/vidhan-sabha-election-candidates-list-2021/jogaranjan-halder-25133-4|access-date=24 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204756/https://ndtv.in/elections/west-bengal/vidhan-sabha-election-candidates-list-2021/jogaranjan-halder-25133-4|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Jogaranjan Halder - कुलपी विधानसभा चुनाव 2021 परिणाम|work=[[Amar Ujala]]|url=https://www.amarujala.com/election/vidhan-sabha-elections/west-bengal/candidates/jogaranjan-halder-aitc-2021-kulpi-150-west-bengal |access-date=24 June 2021}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Halder, Jogaranjan}}
[[Category:Trinamool Congress politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from South 24 Parganas district]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2021–2026]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2001–2006]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2011–2016]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2016–2021]]

{{WestBengal-AITC-politician-stub}}

Chaubara Dera No. 1

2025-12-30T02:07:06Z

Thechhavigarg: created new entry.

{{Distinguish|Chaubara Dera No. 2}}

{{infobox temple
| image = 0102221 Chaubara Dera 1 temple, Un Madhya Pradesh 017.jpg
| location = Un, [[Madhya Pradesh]]
}}
'''Chaubara Dera No. 1''', otherwise simply known as the '''Chaubara Dera Temple''', is a temple in the village of Un, in the Indian state of [[Madhya Pradesh]]. It is the largest of a cluster of ruined temples in the village.

The original name of the temple has been lost. The ''[[shikhara]]'' is completely destroyed, and the main deity within the sanctum has also been lost. Due to a large amount of Shaivite imagery present within the temple, it is assumed that this was probably a [[Shiva]] temple.

==History==
[[File:Chaubara Dera No. 1.png|thumb|Chaubara Dera No. 1, c. 1920]]
[[File:Interior of Chaubara Dera No. 1.png|thumb|Interior]]
The date of the temple's construction is not known. Due to the inscription within the temple which mentions [[Udayaditya]] (r. 1070–1093 CE), some ascribe its construction to him. However, Adhikari ascribes its construction to [[Bhoja]] (r. 1010–1055 CE).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adhikari |first=Swati Mandal |title=Un: A village of temples |pages=118 |chapter=Chronology of Un Temples |chapter-url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8443/jspui/bitstream/10603/156669/16/16_chapter%2012.pdf}}</ref>

However, from the inscription, it becomes clear that the temple was a center of learning and religious importance during the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] period.{{Sfn|Adhikari|2001|p=989}} Subsequently, it was abandoned, albeit remaining well preserved. The main sanctum of this temple was pulled down by a contractor sometime in the early 20th century, for the rubble to be utilized in other constructions.<ref name=":0" />

The group was temples in Un was brought to scholarly attention in the 20th century, with a 1919 report by the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] publishing a description as well as photographs of the temples. The locals had named the temple ''Chaubara Dera'' (lit. four-sided camp), and it is generally referred to as "Chaubara Dera No. 1" in sources to avoid confusion with another temple nearby with the same name.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |url=https://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/6628.pdf |title=Progress Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle, for the year ending 31st March 1919 |publisher=Government Central Press |year=1920 |location=Bombay |page=62}}</ref>

==Description==
Chaubara Dera No. 1 is the largest of a cluster of ruined temples in the village. It is built out of local sandstone in dry masonry.{{sfn|Adhikari|2001|pp=986}} The temple building faces east, with entrance through the main porch on the eastern side. Two smaller porches are provided to the sides. The temple consists of a square ''[[mandapa]]'' (pillared hall), a rectangular ''[[antarala]]'' (ante-chamber), and a square ''[[garbhagriha]]'' (sanctum).{{sfn|Adhikari|2001|pp=987}}

On the same platform is another, smaller temple.

===Porch===
The porch is supported by two pillars. These have a square base and lower shaft, with the upper shafts being octagonal. They display geometric and floral patterns.

===Pillared Hall===
[[File:0102221 Chaubara Dera 1 temple, Un Madhya Pradesh 073.jpg|thumb|Pillars of the mandapa]]
The main porch as well as the smaller porches lead into a square ''[[mandapa]]'' (pillared hall). On the lintel of the door leading from the main porch to the pillared hall, Shiva, along with seven mothers, is represented.

Four pillars of the mandapa support four lintels, which in turn support the domed roof of the hall. The domed roof is elaborately decorated, in a manner similar to the [[Dilwara Temples]]. Other adornments to the roof of the hall, apart from the dome, are in the form of small pendentives.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dhariwal |first=L. C. |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.127534 |title=The Indore State Gazetteer (Revised And Enlarged) |date=1931 |publisher=Superintendent Holkar Government Press |volume=II: Archaeology |location=Indore |pages=68}}</ref>

The base and lower portion of the shaft are square, with the upper portions of the shaft being circular. These four pillars are elaborately carved. All four faces of the base of each pillar contain carved images of seated gods and goddesses. Above the base, in the four faces of the lower shaft, are images of ''[[apsara]]s''. Further above are six rows, of which five contain the figures of gods and goddesses, while the top row displays dancers and musicians.{{sfn|Adhikari|2001|pp=988}}

===Ante-chamber===
[[File:0102221 Chaubara Dera 1 temple, Un Madhya Pradesh 065.jpg|thumb|The elaborately carved entrance to the ante-chamber]]
In the lintel of the entrance of the ante-chamber there are images of [[Ganesha]], [[Brahma]], [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], and [[Saraswati]] in niches.

====Inscriptions====
In the walls of the ante-chamber are three inscriptions. The first of these is an alphabetical chart. The second mentions the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] king [[Udayaditya]]. The third contains Sanskrit grammatical rules.

===Sanctum===
The sanctum has been destroyed. Among the surviving part of the sanctum are some scenes from the Kama Sutra. The main deity present within has been lost.

===Smaller temple===
In the northwest corner of the temple, a smaller temple is situated.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{Cite journal |last=Adhikari |first=Swati Mandal |date=2001 |title=The Chaubara Dera Temple at Un in Madhya Pradesh |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44155838 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=62 |pages=986–997 |jstor=44155838 |issn=2249-1937}}

{{Commons category|Chaubara Dera 1, Un}}{{Group of temples at Un, Madhya Pradesh}}

{{coord|21.82171|75.45458|format=dms|type:landmark_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Temples in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Hindu temples in Madhya Pradesh]]

Disqualification of convicted representatives in India

2025-12-14T16:57:43Z

Thechhavigarg: refine formatting per standard format and improved wording

{{Short description|none}}

{{EngvarB|date=November 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
[[Supreme Court of India]], in its judgement dated 10 July 2013 while disposing the [[Lily Thomas]] v. Union of India case (along with Lok Prahari v. Union of India),<ref>{{cite web | url=http://indiankanoon.org/doc/63158859/ | title=Lily Thomas vs Union of India & Ors. on 10 July, 2013 | publisher=indiankanoon.org | access-date=3 November 2013}}</ref> ruled that any [[Member of Parliament (India)|Member of Parliament]] (MP), [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] (MLA) or [[Member of the Legislative Council]] (MLC) who is [[convicted]] of a crime and given a minimum of two years' imprisonment, loses membership of the House with immediate effect. This is in contrast to the earlier position, wherein convicted members held on to their seats until they exhausted all judicial remedy in lower, state and Supreme Court of India. Further, Section 8(4) of the [[Representation of the People Act (India)|Representation of the People Act]], which allowed elected representatives three months to appeal their conviction,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1784702/ | title=Section 8 in The Representation of the People Act, 1951 | publisher=indiankanoon.org | access-date=22 October 2013}}</ref> was declared [[unconstitutional]] by the bench of Justice [[A. K. Patnaik]] and Justice [[S. J. Mukhopadhaya]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/mps-mlas-to-be-disqualified-on-date-of-criminal-conviction/article4901596.ece | title=MPs, MLAs to be disqualified on date of criminal conviction | work=The Hindu | date=10 July 2013 | access-date=21 October 2013| last1=Venkatesan | first1=J. }}</ref>

== Resistance from government ==
In an attempt to overturn this decision, the Representation of the People (Second Amendment and Validation) Bill, 2013, was introduced into the [[Rajya Sabha]] on 30 August by Law Minister [[Kapil Sibal]]; by the proposed amendment, representatives would not be disqualified immediately after conviction.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://newindianexpress.com/nation/Bill-for-no-immediate-disqualification-of-convicted-MPs-MLAs/2013/08/30/article1759870.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906052347/http://newindianexpress.com/nation/Bill-for-no-immediate-disqualification-of-convicted-MPs-MLAs/2013/08/30/article1759870.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=6 September 2013 | title=Bill for no immediate disqualification of convicted MPs, MLAs | work=The New Indian Express | date=30 August 2013 | access-date=22 October 2013}}</ref> The Indian government also filed a [[review petition]], which the Supreme Court dismissed.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/130904/news-current-affairs/article/sc-dismisses-govt-review-petition-convicted-politicians | title=SC dismisses govt review petition on convicted politicians, sticks to its stand | work=Deccan Chronicle| date=4 September 2013 | access-date=22 October 2013 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023071641/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/130904/news-current-affairs/article/sc-dismisses-govt-review-petition-convicted-politicians | archive-date=23 October 2013}}</ref> On 24 September, a few days before the [[fodder scam]] verdict, the government tried to bring the bill into effect as an [[Act of Parliament|ordinance]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ahead-of-fodder-case-verdict-comes-ordinance-to-protect-lawmakers/article5164164.ece | title=Ahead of fodder case verdict comes ordinance to protect lawmakers | work=The Hindu | date=24 September 2013 | access-date=22 October 2013| last1=Gupta | first1=Smita }}</ref> However, [[Rahul Gandhi]], then vice-president of the [[Indian National Congress]], made his opinion of the ordinance clear in a press meeting: "It's complete nonsense. It should be torn up and thrown away."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Rahul-Gandhi-trashes-ordinance-shames-government/articleshow/23180950.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930174638/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-09-28/india/42480591_1_rahul-gandhi-pm-manmohan-singh-ordinance | url-status=live | archive-date=30 September 2013 | title=Rahul Gandhi trashes ordinance, shames government | date=28 September 2013 | work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=22 October 2013}}</ref> Members of opposition parties claimed that Gandhi's comments indicated total confusion within the government, and called for the resignation of Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/bjp-seeks-pm-s-resignation-opposition-parties-slam-government-113092701182_1.html | title=BJP seeks PM's resignation, opposition parties slam government | work=Business Standard| date=27 September 2013 | access-date=22 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/pm-should-quit-if-he-disagrees-with-rahul-gandhi-on-ordinance-chandrababu-naidu/1175570/ | title=PM should quit if he with Rahul Gandhi on ordinance: Chandrababu Naidu | work=The Indian Express | date=28 September 2013 | access-date=22 October 2013}}</ref> Within 5 days, both the ordinance and the bill were withdrawn on 2 October.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/nonsense-ordinance-withdrawn/article5192427.ece | title='Nonsense' ordinance withdrawn | work=Business Line | date=2 October 2013 | access-date=22 October 2013}}</ref>

On 1 October 2013, [[Rasheed Masood]] became the first MP to lose his membership of parliament under the new guidelines, when he was sentenced to four years' imprisonment for cheating, forgery and corruption.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/rasheed-masood-jailed-for-4-years-in-mbbs-seat-scam-loses-rs-seat/425697-37-64.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001092617/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/rasheed-masood-jailed-for-4-years-in-mbbs-seat-scam-loses-rs-seat/425697-37-64.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=1 October 2013 | title=Congress's Rasheed Masood jailed for 4 years in MBBS seat scam, loses RS seat | publisher=CNN IBN | access-date=22 October 2013}}</ref>

== List of elected representatives disqualified ==
List of elected representatives disqualified after conviction by a court of law:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Representative
!colspan=2|Party
! Representation
! Case
! Date of conviction
! Status
|-
|[[Kanwar Lal Meena]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|MLA from [[Anta Assembly constituency]] in [[Baran district]], [[Rajasthan]]
|Convicted for 3 years for charges of threatening government officials, obstructing public duty, and damaging property.
|23 May 2025
|Disqualified<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 May 2025 |title=Anta BJP MLA Kanwar Lal Meena disqualified following conviction in 20-year-old criminal case. |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/anta-bjp-mla-kanwar-lal-meena-disqualified-following-conviction-in-20-year-old-criminal-case-1503436333.html |access-date=23 May 2025 |work=The Statesman}}</ref>
|-
|[[Irfan Solanki]]
|{{Full party name with color|Samajwadi Party}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Sishamau Assembly constituency|Sishamau]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|Convicted for 7 years for charges of arson, assault and threatening to kill a widow for land grabbing.
|7 June 2024
|Disqualified.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Roushan |first=Anurag |date=2024-06-07 |title=SP MLA Irfan Solanki sentenced to 7-year jail term in Kanpur arson case, set to lose Assembly membership |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/uttar-pradesh/samajwadi-party-mla-irfan-solanki-sentenced-to-seven-year-jail-term-in-kanpur-arson-case-set-woman-set-widow-house-on-fire-in-jajmau-2024-06-07-935772 |access-date=2024-06-08 |website=www.indiatvnews.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Dhananjay Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}
|Former [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha MP]] from [[Jaunpur Lok Sabha constituency|Jaunpur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|Seven years imprisonment for abusing a project manager at gunpoint
|{{DTS|2024-03-07|format=dmy}}
| Disqualified and barred from contesting again<ref>{{cite news |last=Kumar |first=Mayank |date=2024-03-07 |title=Former MP Dhananjay Singh sentenced to seven years jail term for kidnapping, extortion |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/former-mp-dhananjay-singh-sentenced-to-seven-years-jail-term-for-kidnapping-extortion/article67921121.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312011338/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/former-mp-dhananjay-singh-sentenced-to-seven-years-jail-term-for-kidnapping-extortion/article67921121.ece |archive-date=2024-03-12 |access-date=2024-03-19 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>
|-
|[[Manoj Manzil]]
|{{Full party name with color|Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) Liberation}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Agiaon Assembly constituency|Agiaon]], [[Bihar]]
|Life time imprisonment on murder case
|{{dts|format=dmy|2024|2|16}}
|Disqualified<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-16 |title=CPI-ML MLA Manoj Manzil disqualified from Bihar assembly |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2024/Feb/16/cpi-ml-mla-manoj-manzil-disqualified-from-bihar-assembly |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Sunil Chhatrapal Kedar]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Savner Assembly constituency|Savner]], [[Maharashtra]]
|Convicted for 5 years in misappropriation of funds at the Nagpur District Central Cooperative Bank (NDCCB).
|{{dts|format=dmy|2023|12|22}}
| Disqualified<ref name="Indian Express 2023">{{cite web | title=Maharashatra Cong MLA disqualified after conviction in bank scam case | website=Indian Express| date=24 December 2023 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/congress-mla-sunil-kedar-disqualified-from-maharashtra-assembly-after-conviction-in-bank-scam-9081003/ | access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref>
|-
|[[Afzal Ansari]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}
|[[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha MP]] from [[Ghazipur Lok Sabha constituency|Ghazipur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|Sentenced to 4 years in prison by MP/MLA court in Ghazipur in 2007 Gangsters Act case
|1 May 2023
|Disqualified<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-01 |title=BSP MP Afzal Ansari loses Lok Sabha seat after conviction in 2007 Gangsters Act case |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/bsp-mp-afzal-ansari-brother-of-gangster-politician-mukhtar-ansari-loses-lok-sabha-seat-after-conviction-101682949948884.html |access-date=2023-05-02 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Rahul Gandhi]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha MP]] from [[Wayanad Lok Sabha constituency|Wayanad]], [[Kerala]]
|[[Disqualification of Rahul Gandhi|Defamation case]] by [[BJP]] MLA [[Purnesh Modi]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dhillon |first=Amrit |date=2023-03-23 |title=Rahul Gandhi found guilty of defaming Narendra Modi |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/mar/23/rahul-gandhi-found-guilty-of-defaming-narendra-modi-india-prime-minister-remark-2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323110331/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/mar/23/rahul-gandhi-found-guilty-of-defaming-narendra-modi-india-prime-minister-remark-2019 |archive-date=2023-03-23 |access-date=2024-03-19 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
|{{DTS|2023-03-23|format=dmy}}
|Conviction stayed by Supreme Court and disqualification lifted <ref>{{Cite news |last=Ellis-Petersen |first=Hannah |date=2023-08-04 |title=India's supreme court suspends Rahul Gandhi's two-year defamation jail term |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/aug/04/rahul-gandhi-wins-supreme-court-appeal-against-defamation-conviction |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230804113822/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/aug/04/rahul-gandhi-wins-supreme-court-appeal-against-defamation-conviction |archive-date=2023-08-04 |access-date=2024-03-19 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
|-
|[[Abdullah Azam Khan]]
|{{Full party name with color|Samajwadi Party}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Suar Assembly constituency|Suar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|Sentenced to 2 years in jail by Moradabad court under section 353 of [[Indian Penal Code|IPC.]]
|13 February 2023
|Disqualified<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-02-15 |title=SP MLA Abdullah Azam Khan disqualified from UP Assembly after conviction in 15-year-old case |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/sp-mla-abdullah-azam-khan-disqualified-from-up-assembly-after-conviction-in-15-year-old-case/articleshow/97949511.cms |access-date=2023-05-01 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>
|-
|[[Mamta Devi]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Ramgarh, Jharkhand Assembly constituency|Ramgarh]], [[Jharkhand]]
|Sentenced to 5 years rigorous imprisonment for rioting.
|13 December 2022
|Disqualified and conviction stayed by High Court.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-14 |title=Jharkhand News: रामगढ़ की विधायक ममता देवी को 5 साल की सजा, जाएगी विधायकी, हाईकोर्ट में देंगी चुनौती |url=https://www.prabhatkhabar.com/state/jharkhand/ramgarh/ramgarh-gola-goli-kand-mla-mamta-devi-sentenced-to-5-years-will-go-to-legislature-srn |access-date=2024-12-25 |website=Prabhat Khabar |language=hi}}</ref>
|-
|[[Anil Kumar Sahani]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Kurhani Assembly constituency|Kurhani]], [[Bihar]]
|Sentenced to 2 years imprisonment for allowance fraud.
|29 October 2022
|Disqualified<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-10-15 |title=RJD MLA Anil Kumar Sahni disqualified from Bihar legislative assembly |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/rjd-mla-anil-kumar-sahni-disqualified-from-bihar-legislative-assembly/articleshow/94870303.cms |access-date=2024-12-25 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|[[Azam Khan (politician)|Azam Khan]]
|{{Full party name with color|Samajwadi Party}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Rampur, Uttar Pradesh Assembly constituency|Rampur]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|Sentenced to 3 years in jail by an MP-MLA court in a hate speech case over comments against Yogi Adityanath
|27 October 2022
|Disqualified<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kumar |first=Mayank |date=2022-10-27 |title=Samajwadi Party leader Azam Khan gets three years in jail for hate speech against U.P. Chief Minister Yogi Adityanath |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/sp-leader-azam-khan-convicted-in-hate-speech-case/article66060675.ece |access-date=2023-05-01 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-10-29 |title=Azam Khan disqualified from membership of UP Legislative Assembly |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/azam-khan-disqualified-from-membership-of-up-legislative-assembly/articleshow/95149846.cms |access-date=2023-05-01 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>
|-
|[[Vikram Singh Saini]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Khatauli Assembly constituency|Khatauli]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|Convicted for 2 years
|12 October 2022
|Disqualified
|-
|[[Anant Kumar Singh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Mokama Assembly constituency|Mokama]], [[Bihar]]
|Convicted for 10 years for possession of arms and ammunition; Later acquitted.
|21 July 2022
|Disqualified and acquitted 2 years later.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mittal |first=Yash |date=2024-08-14 |title=Patna High Court Acquits Ex-RJD MLA Anant Kumar Singh Booked In Arms Act Case For Alleged Possession Of Rifles, Magazines |url=https://www.livelaw.in/high-court/patna-high-court/patna-high-court-acquits-ex-rjd-mla-anant-kumar-singh-in-arms-act-case-266782 |access-date=2024-12-25 |website=www.livelaw.in |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Bandhu Tirkey]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Mandar Assembly constituency|Mandar]], [[Jharkhand]]
|Convicted for 3 years for financial irregularities.
|28 March 2022
|Disqualified<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pioneer |first=The |title=Speaker passes disqualification order of MLA Bandhu Tirkey |url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2022/state-editions/speaker-passes-disqualification-order-of-mla-bandhu-tirkey.html |access-date=2024-12-25 |website=The Pioneer |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Pardeep Chaudhary]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Kalka Assembly constituency|Kalka]], [[Haryana]]
|Convicted for 3 years for rioting.
|14 January 2021
|Conviction stayed and disqualification lifted.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-05-20 |title=Haryana: Disqualified Kalka MLA Pradeep Chaudhary's assembly membership restored |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/haryana-disqualified-kalka-mla-pradeep-chaudharys-assembly-membership-restored/articleshow/82804715.cms |access-date=2024-12-25 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|[[Kuldeep Singh Sengar]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Bangarmau Assembly constituency|Bangarmau]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|Sentenced to life imprisonment for rape.
|20 December 2019
|Disqualified<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-02-25 |title=Kuldeep Sengar loses UP Assembly membership after rape conviction |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/kuldeep-sengar-loses-up-assembly-membership-after-rape-conviction-1649772-2020-02-25 |access-date=2024-12-25 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Raj Ballabh Yadav]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Nawada Assembly constituency|Nawada]], [[Bihar]]
|Sentenced to life imprisonment for rape.
|15 December 2018
|Disqualified<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-12-26 |title=Bihar Assembly disqualifies RJD MLA Raj Ballabh Yadav after court awards him life sentence |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/Dec/26/bihar-assembly-disqualifies-rjd-mla-raj-ballabh-yadav-after-court-awards-him-life-sentence-1916902.html |access-date=2024-12-25 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Ilyas Hussain]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Dehri Assembly constituency|Dehri]], [[Bihar]]
|Convicted for 5 years in Alkatra scam.
|27 September 2018
|Disqualified<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-02-22 |title=Ex-Minister sentenced in Bihar bitumen scam |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/ex-minister-sentenced-in-bihar-bitumen-scam/article26344262.ece |access-date=2024-12-25 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
|-
|[[Kamal Kishore Bhagat]]
|{{Full party name with color|All Jharkhand Students Union}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Lohardaga Assembly constituency|Lohardaga]], [[Jharkhand]]
|Convicted for attempt to murder case
|{{dts|format=dmy|2015|6}}
|Disqualified<ref name="The TOI June 2015">{{cite web | title=Jharkhand MLA Kamal Kishore Bhagat jailed for 7 years for attempt to murder | website=The Times of India| date=23 June 2015 | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Jharkhand-MLA-Kamal-Kishore-Bhagat-jailed-for-7-years-for-attempt-to-murder/articleshow/47783551.cms | access-date=1 October 2015}}</ref>
|-
|[[J. Jayalalithaa]]
|{{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|[[Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu]],
[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Srirangam Assembly constituency|Srirangam]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
|Convicted for 4 years and fined of {{INRConvert|100|c}} in [[Disproportionate assets case against J. Jayalalithaa|disproportionate assets case]]
|{{DTS|2014|09|27|format=dmy}}
|Accquited on 11 May 2015, however Supreme Court upheld the Trial court verdict.
|-
|Suresh Halvankar
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Ichalkaranji Assembly constituency|Ichalkaranji]], [[Maharashtra]]
|Convicted for 3 years in power theft case
|{{dts|format=dmy|2014|5}}
|Disqualified<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/no-hc-relief-for-disqualified-bjp-mla-in-power-theft-case-114092501209_1.html | title=No HC relief for disqualified BJP MLA in power theft case | work=Business Standard| date=25 September 2014 | access-date=28 September 2014}}</ref>
|-
|[[T. M. Selvaganapathy]]
|{{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|[[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha|Rajya Sabha MP]] from [[Tamil Nadu]]
|Convicted for 2 years in cremation shed case
|{{dts|format=dmy|2014|4}}
|Resigned<ref>{{cite news | url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/a-day-after-conviction-dmk-leader-t-m-selvaganapathy-resigns-from-rajya-sabha/articleshow/33913736.cms | title=A day after conviction, DMK leader T M Selvaganapathy resigns from Rajya Sabha | work=Economic Times | date=18 April 2014 | access-date=19 April 2014}}</ref>
|-
|[[Babanrao Gholap]]
|{{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Deolali Assembly constituency|Deolali]], [[Maharashtra]]
|Convicted for 3 years in disproportionate assets case
|{{dts|format=dmy|2014|3}}
|Disqualified<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-bombay-high-court-dismisses-5-time-shiv-sena-mla-plea-for-suspension-of-graft-conviction-2016488 | title=Bombay High Court dismisses 5-time Shiv Sena MLA plea for suspension of graft conviction | work=DNA India | date=7 September 2014 | access-date=28 September 2014}}</ref>
|-
|[[Anosh Ekka]]
|{{Full party name with color|Jharkhand Party}}
| [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Kolebira Assembly constituency|Kolebira]], [[Jharkhand]]
|Convicted for life imprisonment
| {{DTS|2014|format=dmy}}
|Disqualified<ref>{{cite web | title=Convicted Jharkhand MLA Enos Ekka loses Kolebira assemblyseat
|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/ranchi/convicted-jharkhand-mla-enos-ekka-loses-kolebira-assembly-seat/story-aiKwXrMYV75u4uVAH571sK.html | access-date=1 October 2015}}</ref>
|-
|[[Asha Rani (politician)|Asha Rani]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Bijawar Assembly constituency|Bijawar]], [[Madhya Pradesh]]
|Convicted for abetting suicide of maid
|{{dts|format=dmy|2013|11}}
|Disqualified<ref name="The Pioneer 2015">{{cite web | title=BJP MLA, Bhaiya Raja get 10-yr in jail | website=The Pioneer | date=1 February 2015 | url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/state-editions/bhopal/bjp-mla-bhaiya-raja-get-10-yr-in-jail.html | access-date=1 February 2015}}</ref>
|-
|[[Rasheed Masood]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|[[Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha|Rajya Sabha MP]] from [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|Convicted for 4 years in MBBS seats scam
|{{dts|format=dmy|2013|9}}
|Disqualified<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Convicted-Congress-MP-Rasheed-Masood-disqualified-from-Rajya-Sabha/articleshow/24484085.cms |title=Convicted Congress MP Rasheed Masood disqualified from Rajya Sabha |work=The Times of India |date=1 January 1970 |access-date=21 October 2013}}</ref>
|-
|[[Lalu Prasad Yadav]]
|{{Full party name with color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}
|[[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha MP]] from [[Saran Lok Sabha constituency|Saran]], [[Bihar]]
|Convicted for 5 years in [[Fodder scam]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2013|9}}
|Disqualified<ref name="fodder scam">{{cite web | url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/fodder-scam-lalu-prasad-yadav-jd-u-mp-formally-disqualified-from-lok-sabha_884900.html | title=Fodder scam: Lalu Yadav, Jagdish Sharma disqualified from Lok Sabha | publisher=Zee News | date=22 October 2013 | access-date=22 October 2013}}</ref>
|-
|[[Jagdish Sharma]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Dal (United)}}
|[[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha MP]] from [[Jahanabad Lok Sabha constituency|Jahanabad]], [[Bihar]]
|Convicted for 4 years in [[Fodder scam]]
|{{dts|format=dmy|2013|9}}
|Disqualified<ref name="fodder scam" />
|}

== See also ==

* [[Disqualification of convicted representatives in France]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2013 in India]]
[[Category:Supreme Court of India cases]]
[[Category:Indian politicians disqualified from office|*]]
[[Category:Indian politicians convicted of crimes]]

Shanti Stupa, Ladakh

2025-12-09T03:22:17Z

Thechhavigarg: Improved article clarity and structure

{{short description|Stupa in Ladakh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}

{{Infobox Tibetan Buddhist monastery
|name =Shanti Stupa
|image = Leh, Shanti Stupa, Ladakh, India.jpg
|image size =
|alt =4
|caption =
|coordinates = {{coord|34|10|25|N|77|34|29|E|type:landmark_region:IN-JK|display=inline,title}}
|map_caption = Location within India
|location_country = India {{citation needed|date=February 2022}}
|location=Chanspa, [[Leh district]], [[Ladakh]], [[India]]
|founded_by = Ladakh Shanti Stupa Committee under Bhikshu Gyomyo Nakamura{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}
|founded = 2011
|architecture =Bhikshu Gyomyo Nakamura
|footnotes =
}}
'''Shanti Stupa''' is a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] white-domed [[Stupa]] (chorten) on a hilltop in Chanspa, [[Leh district]], [[Ladakh]], in north [[India]].<ref name="Temples"/> It was built in 1991 by Japanese Buddhist monk [[Bhikshu Gyomyo Nakamura|Gyomyo Nakamura]]. The Shanti Stupa holds the [[relic]]s of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] at its base, enshrined by the [[14th Dalai Lama]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Leh|url=http://www.ndtv.com/ndtvtravels/travel_xtopspot.aspx?topspot=Leh |publisher=[[NDTV]] }}</ref> The Stupa has become a tourist attraction not only due to its religious significance but also due to its location which provides panoramic views of the surrounding landscape.

==Construction==
The Shanti Stupa was built by both Japanese Buddhists and Ladakh Buddhists. The original idea belonged to The Great King Ashoka{{cn|date=June 2023}}. [[Nichidatsu Fujii]] implemented his idea to modern time as a symbol of peace.<ref name = "bhasin"/> The mission of Nichidatsu Fujii was to build Shanti Stupa as a symbol of peace.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

Construction of the Shanti Stupa began in April 1983 under the supervision of [[Bhikshu Gyomyo Nakamura]], and [[19th Kushok Bakula Rinpoche|Kushok Bakula]], a [[Head Lama]] of Ladakh, helped his activities from New Delhi because he was member of the Minority Commission of Govt of India. The project was built with the help of Ladakhi Buddhists, who offered voluntary labour, and financially supported by Japanese Buddhists as well as Indian supporters. The then [[Prime Minister of India]], [[Indira Gandhi]], sanctioned the construction of a vehicular road to the stupa in 1984.<ref name = "bhasin"/> The Indian Army continued support during the construction period. The State Government of J&K provided construction materials for this project.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} The 14th [[Dalai Lama]], [[14th Dalai Lama|Tenzin Gyatso]] inaugurated foundation of Stupa in August 1985.<ref name="Temples">{{cite web|url=https://www.buddhist-temples.com/buddhist-monastery/ladakh/shanti-stupa.html|title=Shanti Stupa|publisher=Buddhist-temples.com|access-date=19 October 2009}}</ref><ref name = "bhasin"/><ref name="bajwa"/>

==Description and significance==
[[File:Shanti stupa main buddha.jpg|thumb|upright|Main Buddha]]
[[File:Shanti Stupa ( Winters).jpg|thumb|Shanti Stupa in winter]]
The Shanti Stupa features the photograph of the Dalai Lama with the relics of the Buddha at its base.<ref name = "bhasin"/> The Stupa is built as a two-level structure. The first level features the central reliicc of [[Dharmachakra]] with deer on each side. A central golden Buddha image sits on a platform depicting the "turning wheel of Dharma" (Dharmachakra). The second level has reliefs depicting the "birth" of Buddha, the death of Buddha (''mahanirvana'') and Buddha "defeating the devils" while meditating.<ref>The titles of the reliefs are given on the plaques under the reliefs at the Shanti Stupa.</ref> Both levels feature a series of smaller meditating Buddha reliefs.

The Shanti Stupa was built to promote world peace and prosperity and to commemorate 2500 years of Buddhism.<ref name="Temples"/><ref name = "bhasin"/> It is considered a symbol of the ties between the people of Japan and India.<ref name = "bhasin"/>

==Tourist attraction==
Since the time of its inauguration, Shanti Stupa has become a popular tourist attraction. According to ''[[The Hindu]]'' it is the "most famous tourist attraction" around Leh, though its architectural style is different from the Ladakhi style.<ref name="Temples"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/08/21/stories/2005082100341100.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060412080709/http://www.hindu.com/2005/08/21/stories/2005082100341100.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 April 2006|title=Ladakh monuments cry for renovation |last=Luv Puri|date= 21 August 2005|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=1 December 2009}}</ref> The Shanti Stupa overlooks the city of Leh, providing panoramic views of the city, the village of Chanspa, [[Namgyal Tsemo]] in the distance and the surrounding mountains.<ref>{{cite book|title=Frommer's India|date=4 March 2008|publisher=Wiley Publishing Inc.|location=Hoboken, NJ, USA|pages=524|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMqBvtL_nI0C&q=shanti+stupa+Ladakh&pg=PT534 | isbn=978-0-470-16908-7}}</ref><ref name="visitladakh">{{cite web|url=http://www.visitladakh.com/places-to-see/leh-.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122201140/http://www.visitladakh.com/places-to-see/leh-.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 November 2019|title=Leh: Places to see|work=VISITLADAKH.COM |access-date=1 December 2009}}</ref> Sunrise and sunset are considered to provide the best views from Shanti Stupa.<ref name = "tour"/> The Stupa is illuminated with lights at night. The Stupa is open for tourists between 8:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m.<ref name="tour">{{cite web|url=http://www.buddhist-tourism.com/countries/india/temples-monuments/shanti-stupa.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702132706/http://www.buddhist-tourism.com/countries/india/temples-monuments/shanti-stupa.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 July 2007|title=Shanti Stupa|year=2007|work=Buddhist-Tourism.Com|access-date=1 December 2009}}</ref>

[[File:Shanti Stupa on the hills in Leh.jpg|centre|thumb|350px|Shanti Stupa, Leh]]

==Access==
[[File:Shanti Stupa with nature's tricolor, Leh.jpg|thumb|A distant view of Shanti Stupa in Leh]]
Situated at a height of {{convert|3609|m|ft}},<ref name="bajwa">{{cite book|last= Jagir Singh Bajwa, Ravinder Kaur|title=Tourism Management|pages=117|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TVXCiwdwPxsC&q=shanti+stupa+Ladakh&pg=PA117 | isbn=978-81-313-0047-3 | year=2007 | publisher=APH Publishing}}</ref> the Stupa is located {{convert|5|km|mi}} from [[Leh]] - the former capital of Ladakh - on a steep hill facing the [[Leh Palace]].<ref name = "bhasin">{{cite book|last= Bhasin|first=Sanjeev Kumar|title=Amazing land Ladakh: places, people, and culture|pages=119–20|chapter=Shanti Stupa|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8IZloNzI8BgC&q=shanti+stupa+Ladakh&pg=PA120 | isbn=978-81-7387-186-3 | year=2006 | publisher=Indus Publishing}}</ref> The Stupa can be reached by a drivable road or on foot using a series of 555 steep steps to the hilltop.

==See also==
*[[Peace Pagoda]]
*[[Bhikshu Gyomyo Nakamura]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Shanti Stupa (Ladakh)}}

{{Buddhist monasteries in Ladakh}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1991]]
[[Category:Stupas in India]]
[[Category:Tourism in Ladakh]]
[[Category:Leh]]
[[Category:1991 establishments in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Ladakh]]
[[Category:20th-century architecture in India]]

Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)

2025-12-08T09:02:20Z

Thechhavigarg: new the info first draft

{{Short description|International kabaddi competition}}
{{For|other World Cup competitions in kabaddi|Kabaddi World Cup (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox sports league
| title = Kabaddi World Cup
| current_season = 2025 Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)
| upcoming_season =
| logo =
| logo_size =
| caption =
| formerly =
| sport = [[Kabaddi#Standard style|Standard style Kabaddi]]
| founded = {{Start date and age|df=yes|2004}}
| region = Global
| administrator = [[International Kabaddi Federation]]
| inaugural = {{ubl
| '''M:''' [[2004 Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)|2004]]
| '''W:''' [[2012 Women's Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)|2012]]
}}
| last = {{ubl
| '''M:''' [[2016 Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)|2016]]
| '''W:''' [[2025 Women's Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)|2025]]
}}
| teams = 12
| champion = {{ubl
| '''M:''' {{kd|IND}} (3rd title)
| '''W:''' {{WKabaddi|IND}} (2nd title)
}}
| most_champs = {{ubl
| '''M:''' {{kd|IND}} (3 titles)
| '''W:''' {{WKabaddi|IND}} (2 titles)
}}
}}
The '''Kabaddi World Cup''', is an indoor international [[kabaddi]] tournament conducted by the [[International Kabaddi Federation]] (IKF). It follows the [[Kabaddi#Standard style|standard style]] (indoors on a rectangular court) and is contested by men's and women's national teams. The format involves a [[Round-robin tournament|round-robin]] [[group stage]], including 5 teams in 2 pools, with the first and second place finishers of each group progressing to the [[semi-finals]].

The IKF World Cup men's tournament has been held three times and the women's event has been held only once. The tournaments were all held in India. In all cases, the events were won by the India team, and the team from Iran has always been the runner-up. The men's events were in 2004 in [[Mumbai]], in 2007 in [[Panvel]], and in 2016 in [[Ahmedabad]].<ref name=SportskeedaReturn>{{Cite web |first=Vinay |last=Chhabria |title=Kabaddi World Cup to return after 9 years, India to host mega event in January 2025 |url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/kabaddi/news-kabaddi-world-cup-return-9-years-india-host-mega-event-january-2025-5a842be1 |date=7 May 2024 |website=[[Sportskeeda]] }}</ref>{{better source |reason=Sportskeeda is not a reliable source; see WP:SPORTSKEEDA. |date=February 2025}} The women's tournament was held in 2012 in [[Patna]].

With the return of international kabaddi post the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and the [[Kabaddi at the 2022 Asian Games|2022 Asian Games]], the IKF announced the resumption of the Men's World Cup in January 2025 and Women's World Cup in 2026, with the men's and women's events taking place every alternate year thereafter.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kabaddiikf.com/images/calendar.pdf|title= Sports Calendar of Activities for the year 2024 – 2025|publisher=IKF|accessdate=7 March 2024}}</ref> It was later reported that the men's event may take place later in the year, possibly in Bangladesh,<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Kabaddi World Cup sans Bangladesh |url=https://www.dhakatribune.com/sport/other-sports/371289/a-kabaddi-world-cup-sans-bangladesh |access-date=15 February 2025 |website=[[Dhaka Tribune]] |language=en}}</ref> while the women's event will take place in November 2025 in Bangladesh.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rescheduling of the 2nd Women's Kabaddi World Cup 2025 |url=https://www.kabaddiikf.com/images/Revised_circular_2nd_Women_Kabaddi_World_Cup_2025.pdf |access-date=2025-09-30 |website=IKF }}</ref>

==Editions and results==
===Men===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan=2|Year
! rowspan=2|Host
! colspan=3|Final
! colspan=2 rowspan=2|Third place
|-
! Champions
! Score
! Runner-up
|-
| 2004 {{DetailsLink|2004 Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)}}
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mumbai]]
| {{kd|IND}}
| '''55–27'''
| {{kd|IRI}}
| {{kd|BAN}}
| {{kd|CAN}}
|-
| 2007 {{DetailsLink|2007 Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)}}
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Panvel]]
| {{kd|IND}}
| '''29–19'''
| {{kd|IRI}}
| {{kd|BAN}}
| {{kd|JPN}}
|-
| 2016 {{DetailsLink|2016 Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)}}
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Ahmedabad]]
| {{kd|IND}}
| '''38–29'''
| {{kd|IRI}}
| {{kd|KOR}}
| {{kd|THA}}
|-
| 2025 {{DetailsLink|2025 Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)}}
| colspan=7|''TBD''
|}

===Women===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan=2|Year
! rowspan=2|Host
! colspan=3|Final
! colspan=2 rowspan=2|Third place
|-
! Champions
! Score
! Runner-up
|-
| 2012 {{DetailsLink|2012 Women's Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)}}
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Patna]]
| {{WKabaddi|IND}}
| '''25–19'''
| {{WKabaddi|IRI}}
| {{WKabaddi|JAP}}
| {{WKabaddi|THA}}
|-
| 2025 {{DetailsLink|2025 Women's Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)}}
|{{flagicon|BAN}} [[Dhaka]]
| {{WKabaddi|IND}}
| '''35–28'''
| {{WKabaddi|TPE}}
| {{WKabaddi|IRI}}
| {{WKabaddi|BAN}}
|}

==Medal table ==
===Men===
{{Medals table
| caption =
| host =
| flag_template = kd
| event =
| team =
| gold_IND = 3 | silver_IND = 0 | bronze_IND = 0
| gold_IRN = 0 | silver_IRN = 3 | bronze_IRN = 0
| gold_BAN = 0 | silver_BAN = 0 | bronze_BAN = 2
| gold_JPN = 0 | silver_JPN = 0 | bronze_JPN = 1
| gold_CAN = 0 | silver_CAN = 0 | bronze_CAN = 1
| gold_KOR = 0 | silver_KOR = 0 | bronze_KOR = 1
| gold_THA = 0 | silver_THA = 0 | bronze_THA = 1
}}

===Women===
{{Medals table
| caption =
| host =
| flag_template = WKabaddi
| event =
| team =
| gold_BAN = 0 | silver_BAN = 0 | bronze_BAN = 1
| gold_IND = 2 | silver_IND = 0 | bronze_IND = 0
| gold_IRN = 0 | silver_IRN = 1 | bronze_IRN = 1
| gold_JPN = 0 | silver_JPN = 0 | bronze_JPN = 1
| gold_THA = 0 | silver_THA = 0 | bronze_THA = 1
| gold_TPE = 0 | silver_TPE = 1 | bronze_TPE = 0
}}

==Team results==
===Men===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
!Team
!{{flagicon|India}} [[2004 Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)|2004]]
!{{flagicon|India}} [[2007 Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)|2007]]
!{{flagicon|India}} [[2016 Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)|2016]]
!Total
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Afghanistan|2013}}
| ||GS|| ||'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Argentina}}
| || ||GS||'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Australia}}
| || ||GS||'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Bangladesh}}
|bgcolor=cc9966|'''SF'''||bgcolor=cc9966|'''SF'''||GS||'''3'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Canada}}
|bgcolor=cc9966|'''SF'''|| || ||'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|England}}
|QF||GS||GS||'''3'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Germany}}
|GS|| || ||'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|India}}
|bgcolor=gold|'''1st'''||bgcolor=gold|'''1st'''||bgcolor=gold|'''1st'''||'''3'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Iran}}
|bgcolor=silver|'''2nd'''||bgcolor=silver|'''2nd'''||bgcolor=silver|'''2nd'''||'''3'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Italy}}
| ||GS|| ||'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Japan}}
|QF||bgcolor=cc9966|'''SF'''||GS||'''3'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Kenya}}
| || ||GS||'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Malaysia}}
|GS||QF|| ||'''2'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Nepal}}
|GS||QF|| ||'''2'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Poland}}
| || ||GS||'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|South Korea}}
|GS||GS||bgcolor=cc9966|'''SF'''||'''3'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Sri Lanka}}
| ||QF|| ||'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Thailand}}
|GS||QF||bgcolor=cc9966|'''SF'''||'''3'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|Turkmenistan}}
| ||GS|| ||'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|United States}}
| || ||GS||'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{kd|West Indies}}
|GS||GS|| ||'''2'''
|-
!Total||12||14||12||
|}

===Women===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
!Team
!{{flagicon|India}} [[2012 Women's Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)|2012]]
!{{flagicon|Bangladesh}} [[2025 Women's Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)|2025]]
!Total
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Bangladesh}}
|QF
|bgcolor=cc9966|'''SF'''
|'''2'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Canada}}
|GS
|
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Germany}}
|
|GS
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Chinese Taipei}}
|GS
|bgcolor=silver|'''2nd'''
|'''2'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|India}}
|bgcolor=gold|'''1st'''
|bgcolor=gold|'''1st'''
|'''2'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Indonesia}}
|QF
|
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Iran}}
|bgcolor=silver|'''2nd'''
|bgcolor=cc9966|'''SF'''
|'''2'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Italy}}
|GS
|
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Japan}}
|bgcolor=cc9966|'''SF'''
|
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Kenya}}
|
|GS
|1
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Malaysia}}
|GS
|
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Mexico}}
|GS
|
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Nepal}}
|GS
|GS
|'''2'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Poland}}
|
|GS
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|South Korea}}
|QF
|
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Sri Lanka}}
|QF
|
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Thailand}}
|bgcolor=cc9966|'''SF'''
|GS
|'''2'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Turkmenistan}}
|GS
|
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Uganda}}
|
|GS
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|United States}}
|GS
|
|'''1'''
|-
|align=left|{{WKabaddi|Zanzibar}}
|
|GS
|'''1'''
|-
!Total||16||11||22
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Kabaddi World Cup}}
{{International Kabaddi}}
{{Main world cups}}
{{Main world championships}}

[[Category:Kabaddi World Cup (International Kabaddi Federation)|*]]
[[Category:World championships in combat sports]]

Prithwi Singh

2025-11-19T16:50:49Z

Thechhavigarg: Created A Biography More To Come!

{{short description|Maharaja of Kishangarh (1841 - 1879)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2025}}
{{infobox royalty
| name = HH Maharaja Prithvi Singh
| title =
| succession = [[Maharaja]] of [[Kishangarh State|Kishangarh]]
| reign = {{circa|1841}} – {{circa|1879}}
| predecessor = [[Mohkam Singh (ruler)|Mohkam Singh]]
| successor = [[Maharaja]] [[Madan Singh (ruler)|Sadul Singh]]
| birth_name = Kunwar Surtan Singh
| birth_date = 14 May 1838
| birth_place = Kacholia, [[Kishangarh]]
| death_date = 25 December 1879
| death_place = Kishangarh Fort, [[Kishangarh]]
| spouse = Maharaniji Sa Sisodiniji of [[Shahpura State]]
| issue = [[Sardul Singh|Sadul Singh]]

Maharajkumarji Jawan Dikshit Singh

Maharajkumarji Raghunath Singh

Maharajkumariji Jawahar Kanwarji m.to [[Maharana]] [[Sajjan Singh of Udaipur]]-[[Mewar]]

Maharajkumariji Shringar Kanwarji m.to [[Maharaja]] [[Rao (title)|Rao]] [[Mangal Singh Prabhakar]] of [[Alwar]]

Maharajkumariji Saubhag Kanwarji m.to [[Maharaja]] [[Sawai Madho Singh II]] of [[Jaipur]]

Maharajkumariji Kishan Kanwarji m.to [[Maharaj]] [[Rana (title)|Rana]] [[Zalim Singh II]] of [[Jhalawar]]
| house = {{flagicon image|Flag_of_Kishangarh.svg}} [[Kishangarh State|Kishangarh]]
| father = Rajvi Bhim Singh of Kacholia
}}
'''HH Umda-e-Raja-e-Buland Makam Shri Maharaja Sir Prithvi Singh''' was the [[Maharaja|Rathore-Rajput]] ruler of its Kishan-Singhot Jodha sub-clan of [[Kishangarh State]] from the year 1841 until his untimely death in 1879.

== Birth ==
He was born to Bhim Singh.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Sumahendra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UPPqAAAAMAAJ |title=Splendid Style of Kishangarh Painting |date=1995 |publisher=Jaipur Printers, Publication Division |pages=13 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Mathur |first=Vijay Kumar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfjqAAAAMAAJ |title=Marvels of Kishangarh Paintings: From the Collection of the National Museum, New Delhi |date=2000 |publisher=Bharatiya Kala Prakashan |isbn=978-81-86050-43-9 |pages=16 |language=en}}</ref> His father was the third son of Bagh Singh of Fatehgarh, who was the [[jagirdar]] of Kacholia.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> He was a [[Rajput]] of the [[Rathore (Rajput clan)|Rathore]] clan.<ref name=":5" />

== Reign ==
When [[Mohkam Singh (ruler)|Mohkam Singh]] died in 1841 without leaving any issue of the body or an adopted heir, the [[throne]] of [[Kishangarh State|Kishangarh]] became vacant.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Hooja |first=Rima |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tosMAQAAMAAJ |title=A History of Rajasthan |date=2006 |publisher=Rupa & Company |isbn=978-81-291-0890-6 |pages=853 |language=en}}</ref> That same year, [[Mohkam Singh (ruler)|Mohkam]]'s widow formally adopted Prithwi as her son, and he succeeded [[Mohkam Singh (ruler)|Mohkam]] on the [[throne]] of [[Kishangarh State|Kishangarh]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> Throughout his reign, he conducted the administration of his state with competence and success.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last1=Solomon |first1=R. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47sfj8DUwNgC |title=Indian States: A Biographical, Historical, and Administrative Survey |last2=Bond |first2=J. W. |date=2006 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1965-4 |pages=346 |language=en}}</ref> He laid the foundation upon which administrative reforms were later introduced in [[Kishangarh State|Kishangarh]].<ref name=":4" />

== Death ==
He died in 1879 and was succeeded by his son, [[Sardul Singh|Sadul Singh]], as the [[Maharaja]] of [[Kishangarh State|Kishangarh]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CIoZAAAAYAAJ |title=Imperial Gazetteer of India ... |date=1908 |publisher=Clarendon Press |pages=312 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Vadivelu |first=A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LfoxAQAAMAAJ |title=The Ruling Chiefs, Nobles and Zamindars of India |date=1915 |publisher=G.C. Loganadham |pages=186 |language=en}}</ref>

== Titles and styles ==
His full style was: "[[His Highness]] Umdai Rajahai Buland Makan [[Maharaja]] [[Shri]] Prithwi Singh, [[Maharaja]] of [[Kishangarh State|Kishangarh]]."<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_YvAQAAIAAJ |title=Encyclopaedia Indica: Princely States in colonial India |date=1996 |publisher=Anmol Publications |isbn=978-81-7041-859-7 |pages=255 |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
<references />
[[Category: 1838 births]]
[[Category: 1879 deaths]]
[[Category: People from British India]]
[[Category:Maharajas in Rajputana]]
[[Category: Hindu monarchs]]
[[Category: Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:Kishangarh]]
[[Category: Rathore (clan)]]

Virander Singh Chauhan

2025-11-07T17:34:54Z

Thechhavigarg: creating basic biography and citations

{{Short description|Indian scientist}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Virander Singh Chauhan
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth-date and age|3 March 1950}}
| birth_place = India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| restingplace =
| restingplacecoordinates =
| othername =
| occupation = Scientist
| yearsactive = Since 1979
| spouse =
| domesticpartner =
| children =
| parents =
| website =
| awards = [[Padma Shri]] Dr. MOT Iyengar Memorial Award Ranbaxy Research Award Om Prakash Bhasin Award ICMR Basanti Devi Amir Chand Prize Raj Kristo Dutt Memorial Award BioSpectrum Person of the Year Award
}}
'''Virander Singh Chauhan''' is an Indian scientist<ref name="Profile on Vidwan Database">{{cite web | url=http://vidwan.inflibnet.ac.in/searchr.php?id=15361 | title=Profile on Vidwan Database | publisher=Vidwan Database | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> and a [[Rhodes Scholar]]<ref name="The Rhodes Trust">{{cite web | url=http://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/news-and-events/recent-appointments-of-rhodes-scholars/virander-singh-chauhan-india-st-catherines-1974 | title=The Rhodes Trust | publisher=The Rhodes Trust | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> working in the fields of [[genetic engineering]] and [[biotechnology]]. He is known for his contributions to the development of a [[recombinant vaccine]] for [[malaria]].<ref name="Biotech Park">{{cite web | url=http://www.biotechpark.org.in/Annaul_day/Biodata%20of%20Dr.%20CHauhan.pdf | title=Biotech Park | publisher=Biotech Park | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref><ref name="INSA Profile">{{cite web | url=http://insaindia.org/detail.php?id=n99-1246 | title=INSA Profile | publisher=INSA | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref><ref name="ICGEB">{{cite web | url=http://www.icgeb.org/virander-chauhan.html | title=ICGEB | publisher=ICGEB | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> and for synthetic structural peptides with biological functions. He was honored by the [[Government of India]] in 2012 with the fourth highest Indian civilian award of [[Padma Shri]].<ref name="Padma Shri">{{cite web | url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf | title=Padma Shri | publisher=Padma Shri | date=2014 | access-date=November 11, 2014 | archive-date=October 15, 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015193758/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="TOI Padma">{{cite web | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/15-Delhiites-grace-Padma-list-tricolour-skier-on-top-of-world/articleshow/11634406.cms?referral=PM | title=TOI Padma | publisher=TOI Padma | date=26 January 2012 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> He is the present Chancellor of the [https://www.gitam.edu/ Gandhi Institute of Technology and Management].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://telanganatoday.com/gitam-appoints-dr-virander-singh-as-new-chancellor | title=GITAM appoints Dr Virander Singh as new Chancellor | date=6 August 2021 }}</ref>

==Biography==
Virander Singh Chauhan, born on 3 March 1950,<ref name="Biotech Park" /> graduated in Chemistry (BSc) from the [[University of Delhi]] in 1969 and secured his post graduation (MSc) from the same university in 1971.<ref name="Biotech Park" /><ref name="INSA Profile" /><ref name="ICGEB" /> His career started as the faculty member of Chemistry at the [[St. Stephen's College, Delhi|St. Stephen's College]], Delhi and continued his research at Delhi University.<ref name="Qatar Foundation">{{cite web | url=http://www.qf-qfirst.info/bio/Dr_Virander_Singh_Chauhan.html | title=Qatar Foundation | publisher=Qatar Foundation | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> In 1974, he obtained a Ph.D., after which he moved to [[Oxford University]], on temporary leave from the college, on a Rhodes Scholarship where he stayed till 1977.<ref name="Biotech Park" /><ref name="INSA Profile" /><ref name="ICGEB" /> At Oxford he obtained his D.Phil. in chemistry<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr Virander Chauhan |url=https://www.etiservices.org/drviranderchauhan |access-date=2023-03-28 |website=ETI |language=en}}</ref> in 1977.On his return from Oxford, he resumed his duties at St. Stephen's College where he worked till 1979.<ref name="Biotech Park" /> In between, he had a brief stay of one year as a post doctoral fellow at the [[University of Georgia]] during 1977-78.<ref name="INSA Profile" /><ref name="ICGEB" /><ref name="Qatar Foundation" />

In 1979, Chauhan joined the [[Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur]] as an Assistant Professor and returned to Delhi University in 1982 as the Reader of the Department of Chemistry.<ref name="ICGEB" /> In 1986, he was promoted as the Professor and worked there till 1988.<ref name="Biotech Park" /><ref name="INSA Profile" /><ref name="ICGEB" /><ref name="Qatar Foundation" /> Resigning from the university, Chauhan joined the [[International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology]] (ICGEB), a non profit research organization under the aegis of [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization]]<ref name="ICGEB Home">{{cite web | url=http://www.icgeb.org/about-the-centre.html | title=ICGEB Home | publisher=ICGEB Home | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> as senior scientist and was entrusted the leadership of the workgroup involved in the research on Malaria. In 1998, he was appointed as the Director of the institute,<ref name="Biotech Park" /><ref name="INSA Profile" /> a post he held till 2014.<ref name="ICGEB" />[5] Besides academic achievements Chauhan was also an outstanding athlete who represented Delhi University and Oxford University in Athletics and Cross-Country running. Chauhan continued his research at ICGEB as a DBT distinguished biotechnology professor fellow, JC Bose fellow and Arturo Falaschi Fellow till the end of 2022.<ref name="Virander S. Chauhan">{{Cite web |date=2020-06-16 |title=Virander S. Chauhan |url=https://www.icgeb.org/virander-s-chauhan/ |access-date=2023-03-28 |website=ICGEB |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Positions==
Virander Chauhan was the secretary of the Indian arm of [[Rhodes Scholarships]] UK and is a member of the selection committees of such as Inlaks, Felix and Dr. Manmohan Singh scholarships.<ref name="Biotech Park" /> Chauhan has been on the selection committees for the last 42 years without a break.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AWARDS AND HONOURS - YoungBites |url=http://youngbites.com/newsdet.aspx?q=289293 |access-date=2023-03-28 |website=youngbites.com}}</ref> A former president of the Society of Biological Chemists during 2009-2011, Chauhan is an elected member (1992) of all the three National Academies of Sciences including the [[Indian National Science Academy]] (INSA)[[National Academy of Sciences, India|,National Academy of Sciences]] (NASI) and [[Indian Academy of Sciences]] (IAS)<ref name="Virander S. Chauhan"/> as well as [[Guha Research Conference]] and [[The World Academy of Sciences]] TWAS.<ref name="Biotech Park" /><ref name="INSA Profile" /><ref name="Qatar Foundation" /> He has served as the president of Indian Peptide Society and as a member of scientific institutions such as [[New York Academy of Sciences]], American Society of Microbiology, Indian Biophysical Society and Indian Immunology Society.<ref name="INSA Profile" /> [4] Chauhan was deeply involved in the establishment of several prestigious government funded institutions including Translational Health Science and Technology Institute (THSTI), Regional Centre for Biotechnology (RCB), National Institute of Biomedical Genomics (NIBMG), Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics (CDFD), National Agri-Food Biotechnology Institute (NABI). He has been the member of the governing council of the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF), the Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Chairman of governing board of the L V Prasad Eye Institute (LVPEI),<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lvpei.org/about-us/board-members |title=Boards Of Management |access-date=2023-04-02 |website=www.lvpei.org}}</ref> the International Clinical Epidemiology Network (INCLEN), the Inter-University Accelerator Centre (IUAC).

He has been a member of the executive councils of [[Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi|Jawaharlal Nehru University]], Delhi and the [[Department of Biotechnology]] (DBT) for their Indo-US Vaccine Action Programme.<ref name="INSA Profile" /> He has also been a part of other initiatives by Department of Biotechnology, ''Rotaviral Diarrhoea Vaccine Product Development Project'' and ''Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry Programme'' and has served as the part-time chairman of ''Bharat Immunologicals and Biologicals Corporation Limited'', a vaccine manufacturing company under DBT.<ref name="INSA Profile" />

Chauhan has been associated with international bodies such as the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) as the member of the ''Expert Advisory Panel on Vaccines and Biological Standards'', [[International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology]] (IUBMB) and Asia-Pacific International Molecular Biology Network (A-IMBN),<ref name="AIMBN">{{cite web | url=http://www.a-imbn.org/ | title=AIMBN | publisher=AIMBN | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> South Korea, as a member of their ''Technical Research Groups''.<ref name="INSA Profile" /> He has also been a part of the editorial boards of several national and international journals like ''International Journal of Biomedical Science'',<ref name="IJBS">{{cite web | url=http://www.ijbs.org/HomePage.aspx | title=IJBS | publisher=IJBS | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> ''Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology'',<ref name="JBB">{{cite web | url=http://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=15850&tip=sid | title=JBB | publisher=Scimagojr | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> [[Journal of Peptide Science]], ''Asian Biotechnology and Development Review'',<ref name="ABDR">{{cite web | url=http://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=14967&tip=sid&clean=0 | title=ABDR | publisher=Scimagojr | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> ''Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences'',<ref name="PJBS">{{cite web | url=http://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=3900148614&tip=sid&clean=0
| title=PJBS | publisher=Scimagojr | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> ''Indian Journal for Biochemistry and Biophysics'',<ref name="IJBB">{{cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/journal/0301-1208_Indian_journal_of_biochemistry_biophysics | title=IJBB | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> [[Journal of Molecular Structure]] and ''The Open Vaccine Journal''.<ref name="INSA Profile" /><ref name="TOV">{{cite web | url=https://www.researchgate.net/journal/1875-0354_The_Open_Vaccine_Journal | title=TOV | publisher=TOV | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=INSA :: Indian Fellow Detail |url=https://insaindia.res.in/detail.php?id=N99-1246 |access-date=2023-03-28 |website=insaindia.res.in}}</ref> The Fruiteries of Immunology.

His many other national responsibilities include member of University Grants Commission (UGC)<ref name="Virander S. Chauhan"/> for two terms, Acting Chairman of University Grants Commission (UGC) for one year (2017) as well as the Chairman of the Executive Council of the National Assessment and Accreditation Council<ref name="Virander S. Chauhan"/> (NAAC), Government of India. Chauhan was also the Chairman of the Academic Committee of the 7th pay Commission, Government of India and was responsible for major reforms both at the UGC and NAAC. He is also an independent director of the Higher Education Financing Agency<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-28 |title=About Us {{!}} HEFA |url=https://hefa.co.in/about-us/ |access-date=2023-03-28 |language=en-US}}</ref> (HEFA) since its inception. He is also the Chairman of the Governing Council of the Sun Pharma Research Foundation.

==Legacy==
Virander Chauhan was the leader of the workgroup engaged in the development of a vaccine during his early years in the [[International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology]].<ref name="ICGEB" /> His team is known to have developed a [[recombinant vaccine]],<ref name="Qatar Foundation" /> the first time such vaccine developed entirely in India, which is now in its clinical trials stage.<ref name="Biotech Park" /><ref name="INSA Profile" /><ref name="ICGEB" /> His research has also assisted in the understanding of [[artemisinin]] and [[chloroquine]], drugs used in the treatment of Malaria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pandey|first1=A. V.|last2=Tekwani|first2=B. L.|last3=Singh|first3=R. L.|last4=Chauhan|first4=V. S.|date=1999-07-02|title=Artemisinin, an endoperoxide antimalarial, disrupts the hemoglobin catabolism and heme detoxification systems in malarial parasite|journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry|volume=274|issue=27|pages=19383–19388|doi=10.1074/jbc.274.27.19383|issn=0021-9258|pmid=10383451|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Biotech Park" /><ref name="ICGEB" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pandey|first1=A. V.|last2=Bisht|first2=H.|last3=Babbarwal|first3=V. K.|last4=Srivastava|first4=J.|last5=Pandey|first5=K. C.|last6=Chauhan|first6=V. S.|date=2001-04-15|title=Mechanism of malarial haem detoxification inhibition by chloroquine|journal=The Biochemical Journal|volume=355|issue=Pt 2|pages=333–338|doi=10.1042/0264-6021:3550333|issn=0264-6021|pmc=1221743|pmid=11284719}}</ref> It is also reported to have helped in the development of ''high throughput screens'' for the discovery of drugs for Malaria.<ref name="INSA Profile" /><ref name="ICGEB" /> He has also done research on conformationally defined [[Peptides]], which is of significance for developing antibiotic peptides as well as anti-fibrillizing structures (anti [[amyloids]]) that may help in finding treatment protocols for diseases like [[HIV/AIDS|HIV]] and [[Diabetes mellitus type 2]].<ref name="Biotech Park" /> The work has also led to the formation of [[nanostructures]] to be used as biomolecular delivery agents.<ref name="INSA Profile" /><ref name="ICGEB" />

Virander Singh Chauhan is known to have guided over 50 research students<ref name="Biotech Park" /><ref name="Qatar Foundation" /> and is credited with over 300 research papers, published in peer reviewed international journals.<ref name="Biotech Park" /><ref name="Qatar Foundation" /> His papers are also featured on known research databases such as [[Microsoft Academic Search]],<ref name="Microsoft Academic Search">{{cite web | url=http://65.54.113.239/PublicationList?srcType=2&desType=2&srcID=18445769&desID=19813534 | title=Microsoft Academic Search | publisher=Microsoft Academic Search | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> PubFacts<ref name="PubFacts">{{cite web | url=http://www.pubfacts.com/author/Virander+Singh+Chauhan | title=PubFacts | publisher=PubFacts | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> and [[Pubget]].<ref name="PubGet">{{cite web | url=http://pubget.com/author/virander-singh-chauhan | title=PubGet | publisher=PubGet | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> He has also delivered keynote addresses at many seminars and conferences,<ref name="Keynote address">{{cite web | url=http://www.niper.ac.in/ISRAM_web/Conference_Programmee_Schedule.pdf | title=Keynote address | publisher=NIPER | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}</ref> workshops and convocations at several universities.

==Awards and recognitions==
Virander Chauhan, a Rhodes Scholar of 1974 and a Fellow of the [[Academy of Sciences for the Developing World]] (TWAS),<ref name="INSA Profile" /> received Dr. MOT Iyengar Memorial Award from the [[Indian Council of Medical Research]] (ICMR) in 1995.<ref name="INSA Profile" /> This was followed by [[Ranbaxy]] Research Award in 2001, Om Prakash Bhasin Award in 2002 and [[Indian Council for Medical Research|ICMR]] Basanti Devi Amir Chand Prize in 2003.<ref name="Biotech Park" /><ref name="INSA Profile" /> He is also a recipient of Raj Kristo Dutt Memorial Award of the [[Indian Science Congress Association]] in 2010 and the BioSpectrum Person of the Year Award in 2011.<ref name="Biotech Park" /> In 2012, the [[Government of India]] awarded him the civilian honor of [[Padma Shri]].<ref name="Biotech Park" /><ref name="Padma Shri" /> He also holds the Fellowships of [[Indian Academy of Sciences]], [[National Academy of Sciences, India]], and [[Indian Society for Parasitology]].<ref name="INSA Profile" />

==See also==
{{portal|India}}
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Recombinant vaccine]]
* [[Malaria]]
* [[International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology]]
* [[National Academy of Agricultural Sciences]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal | title=Malaria and HIV Infection in Mozambican Pregnant Women Are Associated With Reduced Transfer of Antimalarial Antibodies to Their Newborns. |vauthors=Moro L, Bardají A, Nhampossa T, Mandomando I, Serra-Casas E, Sigaúque B, Cisteró P, Chauhan VS, Chitnis CE, Ordi J, Dobaño C, Alonso PL, Menéndez C, Mayor A | journal=J Infect Dis |date=September 2014 | pmid=25271267 | doi=10.1093/infdis/jiu547 | volume=211 |issue=6 | pages=1004–14| doi-access=free | hdl=2445/99564 | hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal | title=Self-assembled nanoparticles based on modified cationic dipeptides and DNA: novel systems for gene delivery |vauthors=Panda JJ, Varshney A, Chauhan VS | journal=Journal of Nanobiotechnology |date=June 2013 | volume=11 | issue=18 |pages=18 | doi=10.1186/1477-3155-11-18 | pmid=23800286 | pmc=3707807 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal | title=Current status of malaria vaccines |vauthors=Gaur D, Chauhan VS | journal=Indian J Pediatr. |date=June 2013 | volume=80 | issue=6 | pages=441–3 | pmid=23604615 | doi=10.1007/s12098-013-1031-x|s2cid=32668560 | doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal | title=Breath test by Indian scientists promises faster diagnosis of TB |url = https://www.livemint.com/Politics/pLE0duz08fQqMVGWHZAkRO/Breath-test-by-Indian-scientists-promises-faster-diagnosis-o.html}}

==External links==
* {{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OV4F4sUV7xE | title=Civil Investiture Ceremony - Padma Shri | publisher=YouTube | work=Video | date=4 April 2012 | access-date=December 1, 2014}}
* {{cite web | url=http://www.pubfacts.com/author/Virander+Singh+Chauhan | title=Listing on PubFacts | publisher=PubFacts | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}
* {{cite web | url=http://65.54.113.239/PublicationList?srcType=2&desType=2&srcID=18445769&desID=19813534 | title=Listing on Microsoft Academic Search | publisher=[[Microsoft Academic Search]] | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}
* {{cite web | url=http://pubget.com/author/virander-singh-chauhan | title=Listing on PubGet | publisher=PubGet | date=2014 | access-date=December 11, 2014}}

{{authority control}}
{{2000s Padma Shri Award Recipients in Science & Engineering}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chauhan, Virander Singh}}
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in science & engineering]]
[[Category:Indian geneticists]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Indian Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Fellows of the National Academy of Sciences, India]]
[[Category:Indian biotechnologists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian biologists]]
[[Category:Om Prakash Bhasin Award recipients]]

Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Tamil Li'l Champs season 4

2025-11-03T14:54:29Z

Thechhavigarg: Created Initial Post Basic Info

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox television season
| image = Saregamapa Lil Champs Season 4.webp
| image_alt = Saregamapa Lil Champs Season 4 images with judges
| bgcolour = black
| caption = Saregamapa Lil Champs Season 4
| module1 = {{Infobox reality competition season
| presenter = [[Archana Chandhoke]]
| judges = {{Plainlist|
* [[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivas]]
* [[Shweta Mohan]]
* [[S. P. Charan]]
* [[Saindhavi]]
}}
| winner = [[Divinesh]]
| runner_up = Yogashree
}}
| num_episodes = 62
| network = [[Zee Tamil]] [[ZEE5]]
| first_aired = {{start date|df=yes|2024|11|02}}
| last_aired = {{end date|df=y|2025|5|12}}
| prev_season = [[Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Tamil Li'l Champs season 3|Season 3]]
| next_season = [[Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Tamil Li'l Champs season 5|Season 5]]
}}

'''''Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Tamil Li'l Champs season 4''''' is a season of the [[reality television]] series [[Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Lil Champs]].

Anchor [[Archana Chandhoke]] return as host for the fourth season of Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Tamil Li'l Champs. [[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivas]] and [[Saindhavi]] continues as judge of the fourth season, alongside new judge [[Shweta Mohan]] and [[S. P. Charan]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=18 November 2024 |title=Zee Tamil's SRGMP Lil Champs Season 4 captivates Tamil Nadu |url=https://www.medianews4u.com/zee-tamils-srgmp-lil-champs-season-4-captivates-tamil-nadu/ |website=www.medianews4u.com |language=en}}</ref> The show is provides an inspiring platform for aspiring child singers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 November 2024 |title=Young Voices soar high on Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li'l Champs|url=https://www.adgully.com/young-voices-soar-high-on-sa-re-ga-ma-pa-li-l-champs-153065.html|website=www.adgully.com|language=en}}</ref> The mega auditions saw the four judges along with special judges with well-known playback singers, such as [[Vijay Prakash]] and [[Vaikom Vijayalakshmi]].

The six finalists of ''Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Tamil Li'l Champs season 4'' are Hemithra, Sreemathi, Yogashree, [[Divinesh]], Abinesh and Mahathi. The Grand Finale was held on 11 May 2024 on Sunday at 16:30 on Live. At the finals, [[Divinesh]] was the title winner and Yogashree claimed the first runners-up. Several guests that included in the grand finale are actors [[Sivakarthikeyan]], [[Arya (actor)|Arya]] and [[Santhanam (actor)|Santhanam]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/sa-re-ga-ma-pa-lilchamp-season-4-winner-divinesh-lifts-the-trophy/articleshow/121102380.cms|title=Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Lil’champ season 4 winner: Divinesh lifts the trophy|website=[[The Times of India]]|access-date= 12 May 2025|language=en}}</ref>

== Judges ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Judges
!
!Description
|-
|[[Shweta Mohan]]
|[[File:Shweta_Mohan.jpg|146x146px]]
|Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Hindi singer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MSN |url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/entertainment/bollywood/shweta-mohan-mourns-the-demise-of-bhavatharini-she-told-my-mum-that-i-sang-well-and-that-i-must-train-in-music/ar-BB1hioEz?ocid=BingNewsVerp&apiversion=v2&noservercache=1&domshim=1&renderwebcomponents=1&wcseo=1&batchservertelemetry=1&noservertelemetry=1 |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=www.msn.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-05-13 |title=Exclusive - 'Super Singer season 9' judge and singer Swetha Mohan on her debut song from Bombay at the age of 11, says 'it was at the age of 11 that magical movement happened' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/exclusive-super-singer-season-9-judge-and-singer-swetha-mohan-on-her-debut-song-from-bombay-at-the-age-of-11-says-it-was-at-the-age-of-11-that-magical-movement-happened/photostory/100197627.cms |access-date=2024-11-24 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|[[S. P. Charan]]
|[[File:S. P. B. Charan.jpg|146x146px]]
|He is a Telugu and Tamil playback singer as well as a host .<ref>{{Cite news | date=2024-02-16 |title=S.P. Charan sends legal notice to makers of Telugu film 'Keedaa Cola' for recreating late SPB's voice through A.I. |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/sp-charan-sends-legal-notice-to-makers-of-telugu-film-keedaa-cola-for-recreating-late-spbs-voice-through-ai/article67852538.ece |access-date=2024-11-24 |newspaper=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> S. P. Charan is the son of legendary playback singer [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-16 |title=SP Balasubrahmanyam's son sends legal notice to Keedaa Cola team for using legendary singer's voice through AI, deepfake |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chennai/spb-son-keedaa-cola-ai-deepfake-legal-notice-9165513/ |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|}

== Format ==
The open auditions are conducted in various cities in [[Tamil Nadu]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 August 2024 |title=Zee Tamil Announces Auditions for 'Mahanadigai' and 'Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Lil Champs' Season 4 Across Tamil Nad|url=https://www.medianews4u.com/zee-tamil-announces-auditions-for-mahanadigai-and-sa-re-ga-ma-pa-lil-champs-season-4-across-tamil-nadu/|website=www.medianews4u.com|language=en}}</ref> resulting in 48 contestants advancing to mega auditions, and are the first stage in determining judges will select 26 finalists.

== Contestants ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%"
! scope="col" |#
! scope="col" |Name
! scope="col" |Hometown
! scope="col" |Age
! scope="col" |Statut
|-
!9
| Geena
| [[Kanyakumari]]
| 14
|{{evicted}}
|-
!2
| Yogashree
| [[Karur]]
| 13
|{{Runner-up}}
|-
!3
| Sanchita
| [[Tambaram, Chennai]]
| 13
|{{evicted}}
|-
!4
| Sreemathi
| [[Nagapattinam]]
| 13
|{{evicted}}
|-
!5
| Mahathi
| [[Kanchipuram]]
| 8
|{{evicted}}
|-
!6
| Jeevamprika
| [[Madurai]]
| 13
|{{evicted}}
|-
!7
| Harini
| [[Coimbatore]]
| 14
|{{evicted}}
|-
!8
| Akshatha
| [[Bangalore]]
| 9
|{{evicted}}
|-
!1
| [[Divinesh]]
| [[Chennai]]
| 11
|{{won|Winner}}
|-
!10
| Bhuvanesh
| [[Ooty]]
| 6
|{{evicted}}
|-
!6
|Yogeshwaran
|[[Kuthalam]]
|14
|{{evicted}}
|-
!12
| Harshika
| [[Puducherry (city)|Pondicherry]]
| 10
|{{evicted}}
|-
!3
| Hemithra
| [[Malaysia]]
| 12
|style="background:#7FFFD4;" |2nd Runner-up
|-
|}

== Episodes ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%"
! scope="col" |Episode Number
! scope="col" |Air Date(s)
! scope="col" |Round Name
! scope="col" |Prize winners (weekly)
! scope="col" |Special Guest(s) & Judge(s)
|-
|1
|2 November 2024
| rowspan="4" | Mega Auditions<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2024 |title=Catch the Magic of Music as Zee Tamil launches Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li'l Champs season 4|url=https://www.passionateinmarketing.com/catch-the-magic-of-music-as-zee-tamil-launches-sa-re-ga-ma-pa-lil-champs-season-4/|website=www.passionateinmarketing.com|language=en}}</ref>
|
| rowspan="2" | [[Vijay Prakash]] and [[Vaikom Vijayalakshmi]]
|-
|2
|3 November 2024
|-
|3
|9 November 2024
|
| rowspan="4" | N/A
|-
|4
|10 November 2024
|
|-
|5
|16 November 2024
| rowspan="2" | Introduction Round<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 November 2024 |title=Zee Tamil celebrates Children's Day with special 'Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li'l Champs' episode|url=https://mediabrief.com/zee-tamil-sa-re-ga-ma-pa-lil-champs-season-4/|website=mediabrief.com|language=en}}</ref>
| rowspan="2" | Yogashree ₹ 5000 (Gift)
|-
|6
|17 November 2024
|}

== Production ==
=== Promotion ===
From 14 to 17 November 2024, [[Zee Tamil]] was promoted this show by making To mark [[Children's Day]], pread joy across [[Chennai]] by distributing 30,000 colorful balloons at key city hubs over four days.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 November 2024 |title=Zee Tamil's *SRGMP Lil Champs season 4 is alive and already winning Hearts|url=https://www.passionateinmarketing.com/zee-tamils-srgmp-lil-champs-season-4-is-alive-and-already-winning-hearts/|website=www.passionateinmarketing.com|language=en}}</ref>
From 19 to 21 Sare ga ma Pa lilchamps season 4 mahasangam

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.zee5.com/global/tv-shows/details/sa-re-ga-ma-pa-lil-champs-season-4/0-6-4z5646232 ''Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li'l Champs 4''] at [[ZEE5]]

{{Sa Re Ga Ma Pa (Tamil)}}
{{Zee Tamil shows}}
[[Category:Zee Tamil original programming]]
[[Category:2024 Tamil-language television seasons]]
[[Category:Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Tamil|Champs]]
[[Category:2025 Tamil-language television series endings]]

Sanjay Goyal

2025-10-04T05:47:24Z

Thechhavigarg: creating a details added tags

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Sanjay Goyal
| term_start = 8 February 2025
| constituency = [[Shahdara Assembly constituency|Shahdara]]
| office = [[Delhi Legislative Assembly|Member of Delhi Legislative Assembly]]
| predecessor = [[Ram Niwas Goel]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
}}

'''Sanjay Goyal''' is an Indian politician from [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] from [[Delhi]]. He was elected as a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] in the [[8th Delhi Assembly]] from [[Shahdara Assembly constituency]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shahdara Election Results 2025: How Sanjay Goyal, Jitender Singh Shunty performed in Shahdara constituency |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/elections/delhi/delhi-assembly-elections-2025-results-how-sanjay-goyal-jitender-singh-shunty-performed-in-shahdara-constituency-2-3396533 |access-date=2025-02-08 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-08 |title=Shahdara, Delhi Assembly Election Results 2025 Highlights: BJP's Sanjay Goyal defeats AAP's Jitender Singh Shunty with 5178 votes |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/assembly/story/shahdara-delhi-assembly-election-results-2025-live-updates-aap-bjp-congress-daelb-2676428-2025-02-08 |access-date=2025-02-08 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Shahdara Constituency Election Results 2025">{{cite news |date=8 February 2025 |title=Shahdara Constituency Election Results 2025 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/delhi/constituency-show/shahdara |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250228172802/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/delhi/constituency-show/shahdara |archive-date=28 February 2025 |access-date=28 February 2025 |work=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Delhi Assembly Elections Results 2025 - Shahdara">{{cite news |date=8 February 2025 |title=Delhi Assembly Elections Results 2025 - Shahdara |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenFeb2025/candidateswise-U0562.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250228172843/https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenFeb2025/candidateswise-U0562.htm |archive-date=28 February 2025 |access-date=28 February 2025 |work= |publisher=Election Commission of India |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Goyal, Sanjay}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Politicians from Delhi]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Delhi]]
[[Category:Delhi MLAs 2025–2030]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{Delhi-BJP-politician-stub}}

Gorabazar, Dum Dum

2025-09-09T17:38:51Z

Thechhavigarg: created a article.

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox settlement
|name = Gora Bazar
|official_name =
|nickname =
|settlement_type = Neighbourhood
|image_skyline = File:Dum Dum Municipal Office.jpg
|imagesize = 300px
|image_caption = Dum Dum Municipal Headquarters
|pushpin_map = India Kolkata#India West Bengal#India
|pushpin_label_position =
|pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kolkata
|pushpin_mapsize =
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
|subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of West Bengal|Division]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Presidency division|Presidency]]
|subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of West Bengal|District]]
|subdivision_name3 = [[North 24 Parganas district|North 24 Parganas]]
|subdivision_type4 = [[Kolkata Metro|Metro Station]]
|subdivision_name4 = [[Dum Dum Cantonment metro station|Dum Dum Cantonment]]
| subdivision_type5 = [[Kolkata Suburban Railway|Railway Station]]
| subdivision_name5 = [[Dum Dum Cantonment railway station|Dum Dum Cantonment]]
|government_type = [[Municipal Corporations in India|Municipality]]
|governing_body = [[Dum Dum Municipality]]
|established_title = 
|established_date =
|area_magnitude =
|unit_pref = Metric
|area_footnotes =
|area_total_km2 =
|elevation_footnotes =
|elevation_m =
|elevation_ft =
|population_as_of =
|population_footnotes =
|population_note =
|population_total =
|population_density_km2 = auto
|demographics_type1 = Languages
|demographics1_title1 = Official
|demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]]
|timezone = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|utc_offset = +5:30
|coordinates = {{coord|22.6352|N|88.4143|E|display=inline,title}}
|postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
|postal_code = 700028
|area_code_type = Telephone code
|area_code = +91 33
|registration_plate = WB
|blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
|blank1_info_sec1 = [[Dum Dum (Lok Sabha constituency)|Dum Dum]]
|blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
|blank2_info_sec1 = [[Dum Dum (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Dum Dum]]
|website =
|footnotes =
}}
'''Gora Bazar''' is a neighbourhood in [[Dum Dum]] of [[North 24 Parganas district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]]. It is one of the largest markets in the Dum Dum Cantonment area.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sylhetiyouthwelfareassociation.wordpress.com/2013/10/11/dum-dum-cantonment/|title=History of Dum Dum Cantonment|date=11 October 2013 |publisher=|access-date=10 Feb 2025}}</ref> It is a part of the area covered by [[Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority]] (KMDA).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kmda.wb.gov.in/page/cms/introducing_kmda_011393|title=Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority|publisher=KMDA|access-date=10 Feb 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kmda.wb.gov.in/page/cms/map_of_kma_c1fed8|title=Kolkata Metropolitan Area Map|publisher=KMDA|access-date=10 Feb 2025}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{OSM Location map 
| coord = {{coord|22.6352|88.4143}} 
| zoom = 15 
| label = Gora Bazar
| mark-coord = {{coord|22.6352|88.4143}}
| label-pos = right
| float = left
}}

===Post Office===
[[File:Dum Dum Head Post Office and Passport Seva Kendra.jpg|thumb|Dum Dum Head Post Office and Passport Seva Kendra]]
'''Dum Dum''' has a delivery Head post office, with [[Postal Index Number|PIN]] 700028 in the Kolkata North Division of Kolkata district in Calcutta region. Other post offices with the same PIN are Ordnance Factory, Kumarpara, Kamalapur and Rajabagan.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://pincode.net.in/WEST_BENGAL/KOLKATA/D/DUMDUM | title = Dum Dum Head Post Office | publisher = pincode.net.in |access-date = 17 Feb 2025}}</ref>
===Police station===
[[File:Dum Dum police station.jpg|thumb|Dum Dum police station]]

'''Dum Dum''' police station under [[Barrackpore Police Commissionerate]] has jurisdiction over Gora Bazar areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://barrackporecitypolice.in/|title=Barrackpore Police Commissionerate|website=barrackporecitypolice.in|access-date=17 Feb 2025}}</ref>

==Transport==
=== Railways ===
[[Dum Dum Cantonment railway station]] on the [[Sealdah-Hasnabad-Bangaon-Ranaghat line|Sealdah-Bangaon line]] is situated nearby.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indiarailinfo.com/station/blog/dum-dum-cantt-ddc/8004|title=DDC/Dum Dum Cantt.|publisher=indiarailinfo|access-date=16 Feb 2025}}</ref>
=== Metro ===
[[Dum Dum Cantonment metro station]] of [[Yellow Line (Kolkata Metro)|Yellow Line]] is situated nearby.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/kolkatas-airport-metro-set-to-launch-in-march-2025-key-developments-and-benefits/articleshow/114480956.cms|title=Airport metro dream may come true in March|work=The Times of India|date=23 October 2024 |access-date=16 Feb 2025}}</ref>

=== Bus ===
Bus route number 30D serves the area which runs from Dum Dum Cantonment to Babughat.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tellmyroute.com/kolkota/Route/30D|title=30D Bus Route|access-date=16 Feb 2025}}</ref>
=== Air ===
[[Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport]] is just 3.9 Km away from Dum Dum Cantonment.
==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in North 24 Parganas district]]

==External links==
* {{Wikivoyage inline|Kolkata/Dum Dum}}
*[https://dumdummunicipality.wordpress.com/ Dum Dum Municipality website]
{{North 24 Parganas District}}
{{North 24 Parganas topics}}
{{Kolkata neighbourhoods}}
{{Municipalities of West Bengal}}

Aryan Niraj Lamba

2025-08-27T09:15:36Z

Thechhavigarg:

{{short description|Indian association football player}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Aryan Lamba
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| fullname = Aryan Niraj Lamba
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|2002|10|28|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Gujarat]], India
| height = {{height|m=1.85}}
| position = [[Goalkeeper (association football)|Goalkeeper]]
| currentclub = [[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]]
| clubnumber = 41
| youthyears1 =
| youthclubs1 = [[ATK (football club)|ATK]]
| years1 = 2020–2022
| clubs1 = [[ATK Mohun Bagan FC|ATK Mohun Bagan]]
| caps1 = 0
| goals1 = 0
| years2 = 2021
| clubs2 = → [[Chennai City FC|Chennai City]] (loan)
| caps2 = 2
| goals2 = 0
| years3 = 2021–2022
| clubs3 = → [[Kerala United FC|Kerala United]] (loan)
| caps3 = 1
| goals3 = 0
| years4 = 2022–
| clubs4 = [[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]]
| caps4 = 18
| goals4 = 0
| nationalyears1 =
| nationalteam1 =
| nationalcaps1 =
| nationalgoals1 =
| club-update = 18:33, 12 March 2023 (UTC)
| nationalteam-update =
}}

'''Aryan Niraj Lamba''' (born 28 October 2002) is an Indian professional [[Association football|footballer]] who plays as a [[Goalkeeper (association football)|goalkeeper]] for [[I-League]] club [[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]].

==Club career==
===ATK Mohun Bagan===
Born in [[Gujarat]], Lamba was part of the youth team at [[Indian Super League]] club [[ATK (football club)|ATK]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Lamba makes the India U19 squad |url=https://twitter.com/atkmohunbaganfc/status/1133984199944224768?lang=en |website=ATK Mohun Bagan FC (Twitter)}}</ref> Prior to the [[2020–21 Indian Super League|2020–21]] season, Lamba was announced as part of the [[ATK Mohun Bagan FC|ATK Mohun Bagan]] first-team.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Richards |first1=Dominic |title=ISL 2020-21 preview: ATK Mohun Bagan eyes top spot against shaky NorthEast United |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/isl/isl-news/isl-2020-atk-mohun-bagan-northeast-united-preview-antonio-hebas-roy-krishna-kwesi-appiah-manvir-singh-gerard-nus/article33481374.ece |access-date=12 March 2021 |work=Sportstar The Hindu |date=2 January 2021}}</ref>

====Chennai City (loan)====
On 15 January 2021, Lamba joined [[I-League]] club [[Chennai City FC|Chennai City]] on loan for the [[2020–21 I-League|2020–21]] season.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chennai City sign Aryan Niraj Lamba |url=https://twitter.com/ChennaiCityFC/status/1349946633455247363 |website=Chennai City FC (Twitter)}}</ref> That day, Lamba made his professional debut, starting in a 2–0 defeat against [[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chennai City 0–2 Real Kashmir |url=https://us.soccerway.com/matches/2021/01/15/india/i-league/chennai-city/real-kashmir/3429936/ |website=Soccerway}}</ref>

==Career statistics==
=== Club ===
{{updated|16 April 2023}}<ref>{{soccerway|aryan-niraj-lamba/680998}}</ref>

{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|-
!rowspan="2"|Club
!rowspan="2"|Season
!colspan="3"|League
!colspan="2"|Cup
!colspan="2"|[[Asian Football Confederation|AFC]]
!colspan="2"|Total
|-
!Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals
|-
| rowspan="1" |[[ATK Mohun Bagan FC|ATK Mohun Bagan]]
|[[2020–21 Indian Super League|2020–21]]
| rowspan="1" |[[Indian Super League]]
|0||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||0||0
|-
| rowspan="1" |[[Chennai City FC|Chennai City]] (loan)
|[[2020–21 I-League|2020–21]]
| rowspan="1" |[[I-League]]
|2||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||2||0
|-
| rowspan="1" |[[Kerala United FC|Kerala United]] (loan)
|[[2021 I-League Qualifiers|2021]]
| rowspan="1" |[[I-League 2|I-League 2nd Division]]
|1||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||1||0
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]]
|[[2021–22 I-League|2021–22]]
| rowspan="2" |I-League
|8||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||8||0
|-
|{{nowrap|[[2022–23 I-League|2022–23]]}}
|10||0||4{{efn|name=SuperCup|Appearance(s) in [[Super Cup (India)|Super Cup]]}}||0|| colspan="2" |—||14||0
|-
! colspan="2" |Sreenidi Deccan total
!18!!0!!4!!0!!0!!0!!22!!0
|-
! colspan="3" |Career total
!21!!0!!4!!0!!0!!0!!25!!0
|}
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.the-aiff.com/players/profile/437?type=club Profile] at the [[All India Football Federation]]
* [https://www.indiansuperleague.com/players/goalkeeper-144805-aryan-niraj-lamba-profile Profile] at the [[Indian Super League]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lamba, Aryan Niraj}}
[[Category:2002 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian men's footballers]]
[[Category:Men's association football goalkeepers]]
[[Category:Mohun Bagan Super Giant players]]
[[Category:Chennai City FC players]]
[[Category:I-League players]]
[[Category: Footballers from Gujarat]]
[[Category:ATK (football club) players]]
[[Category:I-League 2 players]]
[[Category:Indian Super League players]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Kerala United FC players]]
[[Category:Sreenidi Deccan FC players]]

{{India-footy-goalkeeper-stub}}

Sangamner taluka

2025-08-26T10:05:52Z

Thechhavigarg: Revised and enhanced article content

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Sangamner taluka
| settlement_type = [[Tehsil]]
| image_map = Sangamner Tehsil in Ahmednagar District.jpg
| map_caption = Location of Sangamner in [[Ahmednagar district]] in [[Maharashtra]]
| coordinates =
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Maharashtra]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Ahilyanagar district|Ahilyanagar]]
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Talukas_in_Ahilyanagar_district#Sangamner|Sangamner]]
| parts_type = [[Administrative divisions of India|Major villages]]
| parts_style = para
| p1 =
| leader_title = [[Tehsildar]]
| leader_name =
| leader_title1 = [[Lok Sabha|Lok Sabha constituency]]
| leader_name1 = [[Shirdi (Lok Sabha constituency)]]
| leader_title2 = [[Vidhan Sabha|Assembly constituency]]
| leader_name2 = [[Sangamner (Vidhan Sabha constituency)]]
| leader_title3 = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]
| leader_name3 = [[ Shree. Amol Khatal]]
| population_total = 487939
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_urban = 87664
| population_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 1705.06
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Demographics
| demographics1_title1 = [[Literacy in India|Literacy rate]]
| demographics1_info1 = 65.21
| demographics1_title2 = Sex ratio
| demographics1_info2 =
| blank_name_sec1 = Rain
| blank_info_sec1 = 416 mm
| website = {{official website|http://ahmednagar.gov.in/html_docs/Taluka-Sangamner.htm}}
| footnotes =
}}
'''Sangamner taluka''', is a [[taluka]] in Sangamner subdivision of [[Ahilyanagar district]] in [[Maharashtra]] state of [[India]].<ref>[http://ahmednagar.gov.in/html_docs/GEO-Main.htm Talukas in Ahilyanagar district]</ref>

==Area==
The table below shows area of the taluka by land type.<ref>[http://ahmednagar.gov.in/html_docs/GEO-Main.htm Talukas geographic information]</ref>
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center" width=30%
!Type of Land || Area (km2) || % of Total Area
|-
|Agriculture || 1202.9 || 70.55
|-
|Forest || 194.89 || 11.43
|-
|Other || 307.27 || 18.02
|- class='sortbottom'
!Total || 1705.06 || 100
|}

==Villages in Sangamner==
There are at least 172 villages in [https://www.sangamneri.com Sangamner] taluka. ''For list of villages see [[Villages in Sangamner taluka]]''.

==Population==
{{bar box
|title=Religions in Sangamner taluk (2011)<ref name="Religion">{{Cite web|date=2011|title=Table C-01 Population by Religion: Maharashtra |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11382/download/14495/DDW27C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>
|titlebar=#FCD116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism in Maharashtra|Hinduism]]|darkorange|91.65}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam in Maharashtra|Islam]]|green|7.24}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|1.11}}
}}

Sangamner taluka has a population of 487,939 according to the 2011 census. Sangamner had a literacy rate of 79.96% and a sex ratio of 943 females per 1000 males. 87,664 (17.97%) lived in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 8.36% and 10.59% of the population respectively.<ref name="districtcensus">{{cite web |title=District Census Hand Book – Ahmednagar |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/772/download/2738/DH_2011_2726_PART_A_DCHB_AHMADNAGAR.pdf |website=[[Census of India]] |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

{{Pie chart
|thumb = left
|caption = Languages of Sangamner taluk (2011)<ref name="langs" />
|label1 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]] |value1 = 90.08 |color1 = red
|label2 = [[Urdu]] |value2 = 4.00 |color2 = green
|label3 = [[Hindi]] |value3 = 3.26 |color3 = orange
|label4 = Others |value4 = 2.66 |color4 = grey
}}

At the time of the [[2011 Census of India]], 90.08% of the population in the district spoke [[Marathi language|Marathi]], 4.00% [[Urdu]] and 3.26% [[Hindi]] as their first language.<ref name="langs">{{cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Maharashtra |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10212/download/13324/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-2700.XLSX |website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

==Rain Fall==
The Table below details of rainfall from year 1981 to 2004.<ref>[http://ahmednagar.gov.in/html_docs/rainfall_information_of_district.htm Rainfall information of Ahemadnagar district]</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center" width=30%
|-
!Year || Rainfall (mm)
|-
|1981 || 459
|-
|1982 || 315
|-
|1983 || 363
|-
|1984 || 204
|-
|1985 || 204
|-
|1986 || 260
|-
|1987 || 306
|-
|1988 || 461
|-
|1989 || 558
|-
|1990 || 445
|-
|1991 || 450
|-
|1992 || 342
|-
|1993 || 435
|-
|1994 || 416.6
|-
|1995 || 290
|-
|1996 || 566
|-
|1997 || 402
|-
|1998 || 489
|-
|1999 || 348
|-
|2000 || 528
|-
|2001 || 337
|-
|2002 || 459
|-
|2003 || 380
|-
|2004 || 570
|-
|2005 || 200
|-
|2006 || 169
|-
|2007 || 225

|}

==Notable people==
*[[Indurikar Maharaj]] - comedian kirtankar, and social educator<ref>{{cite web |title=Kirtankar Indurikar Maharaj Biography in marathi (इंदुरीकर महाराज्यांचे जीवन चरित्र) |url=https://www.marathimadhe.in/2020/06/indurikar-maharaj-biography-in-marathi.html |access-date=1 January 2021 |date=June 9, 2020 |language=mr-IN |archive-date=24 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124161114/https://www.marathimadhe.in/2020/06/indurikar-maharaj-biography-in-marathi.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=इंदुरीकर महाराजांचा माफीनामा; वाचा दिलगिरीचं सविस्तर पत्रक |url=https://www.loksatta.com/maharashtra-news/indurikar-maharaj-apologize-his-statement-nck-90-2087948/ |access-date=1 January 2021 |work=Loksatta |date=18 February 2020 |language=mr-IN}}</ref>
*[[Ajinkya Rahane]], Indian cricketer born at [[Ashwi KD|Ashwi Khurd]] village, Sangmner on 6 June 1988.

==See also==
* [[Talukas in Ahmednagar district]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}

{{Talukas in Ahmednagar district}}

[[Category:Talukas in Ahmednagar district]]
[[Category:Talukas in Maharashtra]]

Diocese of Muzaffarpur

2025-08-24T08:48:59Z

Thechhavigarg: created a post

{{Short description|Latin Catholic diocese in Bihar, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox diocese
|jurisdiction = Diocese
|name = Muzaffarpur
|latin = Dioecesis Muzaffarpurensis
|country = [[India]]
|metropolitan =
|province = [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Patna|Patna]]
|denomination = [[Catholic Church]]
|sui_iuris_church = [[Latin Church]]
|rite = [[Roman Rite]]
|cathedral = Cathedral of St Francis Assisi in [[Muzaffarpur]]
|cocathedral =
|established = 6 March 1980
|map = Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Muzaffarpur_in_India.jpg
|area_km2 = 27,120
|population = 29,436,742
|population_as_of = 2004
|catholics = 4,638
|catholics_percent= 0.0
|pope = {{Incumbent pope}}
|bishop = Cajetan Francis Osta
|metro_archbishop = William D'Souza
|coadjutor =
|auxiliary_bishops=
|website =
|image=|coat=|flag=|territory=|headquarters=|parishes=|churches=|founded=|dissolved=|patron=|language=}}

The '''Diocese of Muzaffarpur''' ({{langx|la| Muzaffarpuren(sis)}}) is a [[diocese]] located in the city of [[Muzaffarpur]] in the [[ecclesiastical province]] of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Patna|Patna]] in India.

==History==
* March 6, 1980: Established as Diocese of Muzaffarpur from the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Patna|Diocese of Patna]].

==Leadership==
* [[Bishop]]s of Muzaffarpur
** Bishop John Baptist Thakur, S.J. (March 6, 1980 – July 11, 2014)
** Bishop Cajetan Francis Osta (July 11, 2014 – present)

==References==

{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/diocese/muza0.htm GCatholic.org] [[Wikipedia:SPS|{{sup|[''self-published'']}}]]
* [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/dmuza.html Catholic Hierarchy] [[Wikipedia:SPS|{{sup|[''self-published'']}}]]

{{coord|26.1200|N|85.3769|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muzaffarpur}}
[[Category:Roman Catholic dioceses in India]]
[[Category:Christian organizations established in 1980]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic dioceses and prelatures established in the 20th century]]
[[Category:Christianity in Bihar]]
[[Category:1980 establishments in Bihar]]
[[Category:Muzaffarpur]]

{{India-RC-diocese-stub}}

Kolakaluri Enoch

2025-06-26T21:20:41Z

Thechhavigarg: new new article first draft

{{Short description|Indian writer and educationist (born 1939)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Kolakaluri Enoch
| image = Kolakaluri Enoch.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Kolakaluri Enoch after Sahitya Akademi award
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1939|07|01}}
| birth_place = Vejandla, [[Guntur]], [[Madras Presidency]], [[British India]] (now [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]])
| death_date =
| death_place =
| restingplace =
| restingplacecoordinates =
| othername =
| occupation = Indian [[writer]] and [[educationist]]
| yearsactive =
| spouse =
| domesticpartner =
| children =
| parents = Ramaiah Veeramma
| website = {{URL||http://kolakalurienoch.com/}}
| awards = [[Padma Shri]]
}}

'''Kolakaluri Enoch''' (born 1 July 1939) is an Indian [[writer]], [[teacher]], and former [[Vice Chancellor]] of [[Sri Venkateswara University]], [[Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh|Tirupati]].<ref name="The Hindu">{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/padmashri-kolakaluri-felicitated/article5867939.ece | title= 'Padmashri' Kolakaluri felicitated | newspaper=The Hindu | date=3 April 2014 | access-date=28 June 2018 }}</ref> He was honoured by the [[Government of India]], in 2014, by bestowing on him the [[Padma Shri]], the fourth highest civilian award, for his contributions to the field of literature.<ref name="Padma">{{cite web|url=http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=102735 |title=Padma Awards Announced |publisher=Press Information Bureau, Government of India |work=Circular |date=25 January 2014 |access-date=23 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222101141/http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=102735 |archive-date=22 February 2014 }}</ref>

==Biography==
{{quotebox|align = right|width=21em|''My writings are my tears.'' says Professor Kolakaluri Enoch<ref name="Bio">{{cite web | url=http://kolakalurienoch.com/index.php | title=Bio | publisher=kolakurichienoch | date=2013 | access-date=30 September 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006122834/http://kolakalurienoch.com/index.php | archive-date=6 October 2014 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}
[[File:Andhra University.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Entrance to the Andhra University - Kolakaluri Enoch's Alma Mater]]

Kolakaluri Enoch was born in a family with meagre financial resources, to Ramaiah and Veeramma, in the small village of Vejandla, in [[Guntur district]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=India |first1=The Hans |title=Sahitya Akademi awardee Kolakaluri Enoch feted |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Telangana/2018-12-26/Sahitya-Akademi-awardee-Kolakaluri-Enoch-feted/464776 |work=www.thehansindia.com |date=26 December 2018 |language=en}}</ref> in the present day [[Andhra Pradesh]] state of India.<ref name="Bio" /><ref name="New Indian Express">{{cite web | url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/Padma-Bhushan-for-Pullela-Padma-Shri-for-Enoch/2014/01/26/article2020857.ece?service=print | title=New Indian Express | publisher=New Indian Express | date=26 January 2014 | access-date=30 September 2014 | archive-date=6 October 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006221729/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/Padma-Bhushan-for-Pullela-Padma-Shri-for-Enoch/2014/01/26/article2020857.ece?service=print | url-status=dead }}</ref> His higher education was at the [[Andhra University]] from where he secured BA (Hons) in 1959. During his college days, he received the first prize for short story, poem, and play in the annual competitions for three years consecutively, from 1957 to 1959. Subsequently, he joined [[Sri Venkateswara University]], in the temple town of [[Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh|Tirupati]], and obtained a PhD.

Kolakaluri Enoch started his career by joining [[Andhra University]] as a faculty member.<ref name="New Indian Express" /> He had a notable career which took him to the post of the Vice Chancellor of the [[Sri Venkateswara University]], Tirupati, the institution from where he secured his doctoral degree.<ref name="Career">{{cite web | url=http://kolakalurienoch.com/writer.php | title=Career | publisher=kolakurichi enoch | date=2013 | access-date=30 September 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006205526/http://kolakalurienoch.com/writer.php | archive-date=6 October 2014 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Career and legacy==
Kolakaluri Enoch has a fairly large body of work, which comprises 180 poems, 180 stories, 9 novels and 30 plays apart from other efforts on literary criticisms and Children's literature. Many of his works have been translated into other languages such as English, Hindi, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam. His works have been subjected to critical studies for educational purposes and nine PhDs and 5 MPhils have been reported to be based on them. One of his stories, ''Talalenodu'' (A Person without head), was a prescribed text book for intermediate course at Andhra University during the period from 1987 to 1995.

Enoch, belonging to a backward community, was also reported to be a social activist and, championed the cause of [[Dalit]]s through his works.<ref name="New Indian Express" /> He was a member of the jury for T. V. Nandi awards<ref name="TV Nandi">{{cite web | url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/nandi-television-awards-may-include-more-categories/article2472832.ece | title=TV Nandi | work=The Hindu | date=21 September 2011 | access-date=1 October 2014}}</ref> of the [[Government of Andhra Pradesh]] in the year 1992.<ref name="Career" />

==Awards and recognitions==
Kolakaluri Enoch was awarded the [[Padma Shri]], in 2014, by the [[Government of India]]<ref name="Padma" /> He has also received many other awards such as:
*Awarded with the 29th Moortidevi Award by Bharatiya Jnanpith for his novel Ananta Jeevanam<ref>{{cite news |title=enoch: Telugu author Kolakaluri Enoch bags Moortidevi Award {{!}} India News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/telugu-author-kolakaluri-enoch-bags-moortidevi-award/articleshow/54594317.cms |work=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
* Telugu Bharati Puraskaram - C. P. Brown Academy, Alfa foundation, Hyderabad – 2010<ref name="Career" /><ref name="CP Brown Academy">{{cite web | url=http://www.cpbrownacademy.org/Telugu_Bharathi_Puraskaram.asp | title=CP Brown Academy | publisher=CP Brown Academy | date=2012 | access-date=30 September 2014 | archive-date=6 October 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006070800/http://www.cpbrownacademy.org/Telugu_Bharathi_Puraskaram.asp | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Akademi Award (for Adunika Sahitya Vimarsha Sutram) - 1998
* Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Akademi Award (for Munivahanudu) - 1988
* Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Akademi Award (for Urabavi (Short Story Arthology)) - 1986
* Mallemala Sahitya Puraskaram - Mallemala Trust, Kadapa – 2010<ref name="Career" />
* Telugu Sakha Swarnotshava Puraskaram - [[Sri Venkateswara University|S. V. University]], Tirupati - 2009<ref name="Career" />
* Duvvuri Ramanamma Puraskaram - DRW College, Gudur - 2009<ref name="Career" />
* Viswavidyalaya Pratibha Puraskaram - Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur - 2007<ref name="Career" />
* Life achievement Award - Siddhartha Kalapeetham, Vijayawada - 2006<ref name="Career" />
* Telugu Bhashotsava Puraskaram - Government of Andhra Pradesh - 2004<ref name="Career" />
* [[NTR Trust|N. T. R.]] Lalitha Kala Puraskaram N. T. R. Foundation Trust, Hyderabad - 2008<ref name="Career" />
* ''Sahiti Puraskaram'' - [[Potti Sreeramulu Telugu University]] - 1999
* [[Sahitya Academy Award|Sahitya Academy Award Telugu]] for ''Vimarshini'' in 2018 <ref>{{cite web|url=http://sahitya-akademi.gov.in/sahitya-akademi/pdf/sahityaakademiawards2018.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205151530/http://sahitya-akademi.gov.in/sahitya-akademi/pdf/sahityaakademiawards2018.pdf|title=Sahitya|url-status=dead|date=5 December 2018|archivedate=5 December 2018|accessdate=30 January 2019}}</ref>
He is also reported to have received the Ambedkar National Literary Award (1997), Juluri Nagarajarao Literary Award (1977), Paidi Lakshmaiah Literary Award (1998), and Madras Telugu Akademi Literary Award (2001)<ref name="Career" /> Some of the educational awards received by him are:
* Best Teacher Award - Government of Andhra Pradesh - 1993<ref name="Career" />
* Best Educationalist Award - All India Ambedkar Association, Andhra Pradesh - 1994<ref name="Career" />
* National Integration Award - Government of Andhra Pradesh - 1994<ref name="Career" />
* Best Educational Award - Delhi Telugu Association, New Delhi - 1998<ref name="Career" />
Some of the titles conferred on him by local cultural bodies are the ''Andhra Shri'' by the Sri Saraswati Journal in 1961, ''Kalasaraswati'' by Kalavedika, Hyderabad in 1985, ''Sahiti Samrat'' by Kalarayam, Hyderabad in 1991 and ''Kathaka Chakravarti'' by Joshua Samithi, [[Vinukonda]] in 1999.

== Literary contributions==
Enoch is credited with over 180 poems, 180 stories, 9 novels and 30 plays. Some of his notable works are:<ref name="Career" />
'''Poems'''
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Asha Jyothi
* Shara Mamulee
* Kulam Dhanam
* Nannu Kalagananivvandi
* Kalala Karkhana
* Tridrava Pathakam
* Cheppulu
* Adi-Andhrudu
* Merupula Akasam
* Kannitigonthu
* Voice of Silence
* Nissabdaswaram
{{div col end}}

'''Dramas'''
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Key
* Jai Hind
* Manalanti Manishi
* Munivahanudu
* Sakshi
* Edugo Aesu Kristhu
* Needa
* Votlata
* The fifth Estate
{{div col end}}

'''One Act Plays'''
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Dristi (Collection of Playlets)
* Jyothi (Collection of Playlets)
* Abhyudayam (Collection of Playlets)
* Radio Natikalu (Collection of Playlets)
* T. V. Natikalu (Collection of Playlets)
* Amma (Collection of Playlets)
* K. E. Nataka Sahityam (Collection of Playlets)
{{div col end}}

'''Novels'''
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Samata
* Anatha
* Soundaryavati
* Sowbhagyavati
* Erulalo Virulu
* Ekkadundi Prasanthi?
* Rendu Kallu-Mudu Kallu
* Sarkaru Gaddi
* Anantajivanam
* Majimanishi
* Kalameghalu
* Stridarshanam (Collection of Novels)
* Dalitha Nivedanam (Collection of Novels)
* Samaja Sandarshanam (Collection of Novels)
{{div col end}}

'''Short Story Anthologies'''
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Gulabi Navvindi
* Bhavani
* Eda Jivitham?
* Uoorabavi
* Suryudu Taletthadu
* Kattadi
* Kolupulu
* Asprisyaganga
* Kaki
* Dalitha Kathanikalu
* Peddammagudi
{{div col end}}

'''Research Papers'''
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Telugu Vyasa Parinamam
* Telugu Basha Charitra
* Adhunika Sahitya Vimarsha Sutram
* Janapadula Sahitya Vimarsha
* Teluguloo Toli Navala
* Telugu Vyasam
* Telugu Vimarshanam
* Telugu Vachana Tattwam
* Mitra Samasame
* Punarukti Guname
* Telugu Sahityamloo Harijanulu
* Adhunikandhra Sahityamloo Muslimlu
{{div col end}}

'''Literary Criticism'''
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Telugu Vyasalu
* Sahityadarshini
* Sahitya Sandarshanam
* Samikshanam
* Samiksha Sahityam
* Pithika Sahityam
* Telugu Kathanika Parinamam
* Chinni Kayitala Vennela
* Telugu Navala Vikasam
* Sahitya Prayojanam
* Shudrakavi Shubhamurthi Vasucharitra Vaisisthyam
{{div col end}}

'''Translations'''
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* New Testament - Kotha Odambadika
* Kshamabhiksha – Itara Kathalu - Alms of pardon & Other Stories
* Votlata - The Game of Votes
* Anantajivanam - The Cyclone Endless
* Kanniti Gonthu - Shurpanakha Still weeps
{{div col end}}

'''Children's literature'''
* Amma - Dance & Music Playlets
Enoch's writings have been translated into English, Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, and Hindi. His works have been subjected to critical studies, both for literary and educational purposes.<ref name="Career" />
{{portal|India}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=50em}}

==External links==
* {{cite web | url=http://www.marymartin.com/web/SearchAuthor;jsessionid=581FC2584CD5A5E5EE99A8B33202903C?authorParam=Kolakaluri+Enoch | archive-url=https://archive.today/20140930140721/http://www.marymartin.com/web/SearchAuthor;jsessionid=581FC2584CD5A5E5EE99A8B33202903C?authorParam=Kolakaluri+Enoch | url-status=dead | archive-date=30 September 2014 | title=Book List on Mary Martin | publisher=Mary Martin | date=2014 | access-date=30 September 2014 }}
* {{cite web | url=http://kolakalurienoch.blogspot.in/ | title=Kolakaluri Enoch - Blog | publisher=Blogger | date=2014 | access-date=30 September 2014}}
* {{cite web | url=http://vrdarla.blogspot.in/2008/07/life-reflections-of-madigas-in-telugu.html | title=Write up on Enoch's writings | publisher=Blogger | date=2014 | access-date=30 September 2014}}
* {{cite web | url=http://sudheeradh.wordpress.com/tag/kolakaluri-enoch/ | title=Civil Investiture Ceremony - Padma Shri | publisher=Wordpress | date=2014 | access-date=30 September 2014}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | title=Sahitya Vyasalu | publisher=Nabu Press | author=Kolakaluri Enoch | date=15 September 2011 | pages=134 | isbn=978-1245596879| edition=Telugu }}
* {{cite book | url=https://www.amazon.com/Anadha-Navala-Kolakaluri-Enoch/dp/B0000CQ47Q/ref=sr_1_2?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1412075414&sr=1-2 | title=Anadha: Navala | publisher=Navayuga Publishers | author=Kolakaluri Enoch | year=1963 | pages=270 | asin=B0000CQ47Q}}
* {{cite book | url=http://www.marymartin.com/web/selectedIndex?mEntry=148597 | title=Votlaata : A political drama | publisher=Mary Martin | author=Kolakaluri Enoch | year=2012 | pages=110 | isbn=9788192309880 | access-date=1 October 2014 | archive-date=14 December 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214193207/http://www.marymartin.com/web/selectedIndex?mEntry=148597 | url-status=dead }}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Literature & Education}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Enoch, Kolakaluri}}
[[Category:1939 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Writers from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Educators from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Sri Venkateswara University alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian short story writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian translators]]
[[Category:Indian literary critics]]
[[Category:People from Guntur district]]
[[Category:Telugu-language writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian educational theorists]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Telugu]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Moortidevi Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in literature and education]]