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Jami' al-tawarikh

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{{short description|Work of literature and history, produced in the Mongol Ilkhanate}}
[[File:Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din 1305.JPG|thumb|Mongol soldiers, in ''Jami al-tawarikh'' by [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]], BnF. MS. Supplément Persan 1113. 1430-1434 AD.]]
[[File:Khalil Jami 2.jpg|thumb|Mountains between India and China, [[Khalili Collection of Islamic Art]]]]
{{italic title}}
The '''''Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh''''' ([[Persian language|Persian]]/[[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{lang|fa|مجموعه تاريخ/جامع التواريخ|rtl=yes}}, {{lit.|Compendium of Chronicles|italic=yes}}) is a work of literature and history, produced in the Mongol [[Ilkhanate]].<ref>Inal. p. 163.</ref> Written by [[Rashid al-Din Hamadani]] (1247–1318 AD) at the start of the 14th century, the breadth of coverage of the work has caused it to be called "the first world history".<ref name="Melville">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Melville |first=Charles |title = JĀMEʿ AL-TAWĀRIḴ |url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/jame-al-tawarik |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |publisher=Columbia University |access-date=2 February 2012 }}</ref> It was in three volumes and published in [[Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] versions.

[[File:Persian manuscript in Japan1217 AD.jpg|thumb|[[Persian manuscript in Japan]], 1217 AD verses from Jami' al tawarikh]]
The surviving portions total approximately 400 pages of the original work. The work describes cultures and major events in world history from China to Europe; in addition, it covers [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] history, as a way of establishing their cultural legacy.<ref>Carey. p. 158</ref>
The lavish illustrations and calligraphy required the efforts of hundreds of scribes and artists, with the intent that two new copies (one in Persian, and one in Arabic) would be created each year and distributed to schools and cities around the [[Ilkhanate]], in the [[Middle East]], [[Central Asia]], [[Anatolia]], and the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Approximately 20 illustrated copies were made of the work during Rashid al-Din's lifetime, but only a few portions remain, and the complete text has not survived. The oldest known copy is an Arabic version, of which half has been lost, but one set of pages is currently in the [[Khalili Collection of Islamic Art]], comprising 59 folios from the second volume of the work. Another set of pages, with 151 folios from the same volume, is owned by the [[Edinburgh University Library]]. Two Persian copies from the first generation of manuscripts survive in the [[Topkapı Palace]] Library in [[Istanbul]]. The early illustrated manuscripts together represent "one of the most important surviving examples of Ilkhanid art in any medium",<ref>''Compendium of Chronicles'', p. 9</ref> and are the largest surviving body of early examples of the [[Persian miniature]].

== Contents ==
The ''Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh'' consists of four main sections of different lengths:

# The ''Taʾrīkh-ī Ghazānī'', the most extensive part, which includes:
#* The Mongol and Turkish tribes: their history, genealogies and legends
#* The history of the Mongols from [[Genghis Khan]] up to the death of Mahmud Ghazan
# The second part includes:
#* The history of the reign of Öljaitü up to 1310 (no known copy)
#* The history of the non-Mongol peoples of Eurasia (a [[Universal history (genre)|universal history]] from the time of Creation, following the organization of work of the Abbasid historian [[al-Tabari]] in his ''[[History of the Prophets and Kings]]'', often referred to as ''at-Tabari's HIstory,'' and to the historic Muslim history of [[Qazi Beiza'i]] in the ''Neẓām al-tawārīkh'':
#** [[Adam]] and the patriarchs
#** the kings of the [[history of Iran|pre-Islamic Iran]]
#** [[Muhammad]] and the Caliphs ([[Rashidun]], [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]], [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] and [[Fatimid Caliphate]]s)
#** the Islamic dynasties of Persia ([[Ghaznavids]], the shahs of [[Khwarezm]], the [[Nizari Ismaili state|Isma'ili state of Alamut]])
#** the [[Turkic peoples]],
#** the [[History of China]]
#** [[Jewish history]],
#** [[Frangistan]] (i.e., Europe, primarily the [[Papal States]] and [[Holy Roman Empire]])
#** the [[History of India|Indians]].
# The ''Shu'ab-i panjganah'' ("Five genealogies, of the Arabs, Jews, Mongols, Franks, and Chinese"). This text exists in two copies of the manuscript in the library of the Topkapı Palace in [[Istanbul]] (ms 2937), but has only been published on microfilm.
# The ''Suwar al-aqalim'', a geographical compendium. Unfortunately, it has not survived in any known manuscript.

==Author==
{{main article|Rashid-al-Din Hamadani}}
Rashid-al-Din Hamadani was born in 1247 at [[Hamadan]], Iran into a Jewish family. The son of an [[apothecary]], he studied medicine and joined the court of the Ilkhan emperor, [[Abaqa Khan]], in that capacity. He converted to Islam around the age of thirty. He rapidly gained political importance, and in 1304 became the [[vizier]] of emperor and Muslim convert [[Ghazan]]. He retained his position until 1316, experiencing three successive reigns, but, convicted of having poisoned the second of these three [[Khan (title)|Khans]], [[Öljaitü]], he was executed on July 13, 1318.

Hamdani was responsible for setting up a stable social and economic system in Iran after the destruction of the Mongol invasions, and was an important artistic and architectural patron. He expanded the university at [[Rab'-e Rashidi]], which attracted scholars and students from Egypt and Syria to China, and which published his many works.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sadigh |first=Soudabeh |title = Ilkhanid Structures Discovered in Tabriz |url = http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=6754 |publisher=CHN|access-date=23 January 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120213151028/http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=6754 |archive-date=13 February 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was also a prolific author, though few of his works have survived: only a few theological writings and a correspondence which is probably apocryphal are known today in addition to the ''Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh''. His immense wealth made it said of him that he was the best paid author in Iran.

== Description ==
[[File:GhazanConversionToIslam.JPG|250px|left|thumb|"The conversion of [[Ghazan]] Khan to [[Islam]]", [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] manuscript, [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]], Supplément persan 1113, {{circa|1430}}]]

The ''Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh'' was one of the grandest projects of the Ilkhanate period,<ref name=enc>{{Cite book| publisher = Lorenz Books| isbn = 978-0-7548-2087-1| last = Carey| first = Moya| title = The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture| year = 2010|page=158}}</ref> "not just a lavishly illustrated book, but a vehicle to justify Mongol hegemony over Iran".<ref>Blair and Bloom, 3</ref> The text was initially commissioned by Il-Khan Ghazan, who was anxious for the Mongols to retain a memory of their nomadic roots, now that they had become settled and adopted Persian customs. Initially, the work was intended only to set out the history of the Mongols and their predecessors on the steppes, and took the name ''Taʾrīkh-ī Ghazānī'', which makes up one part of the ''Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh''. To compile the History, Rashid al-Din set up an entire precinct at the university of [[Rab'-e Rashidi]] in the capital of [[Tabriz]]. It contained multiple buildings, including a [[mosque]], hospital, library, and classrooms, employing over 300 workers.<ref name="enc" />

After the death of Ghazan in 1304, his successor [[Öljaitü]] asked Rashid al-Din to extend the work, and write a history of the whole of the known world. This text was finally completed in sometime between 1306 and 1311.

After Rashid al-Din's execution in 1318, the Rab-i-Rashidi precinct was plundered, but the in-process copy that was being created at the time survived, probably somewhere in the city of Tabriz, possibly in the library of Rashid's son, Ghiyath al-Din. Later, Rashid's son became Vizier, in his own right, and expanded the restored university precinct of his father. Several of the ''Jāmiʿ''{{'}}s compositions were used as models for the later seminal illustrated version of the ''[[Shahnameh]]'' known as the [[Demotte Shahnameh|Demotte ''Shahnameh'']].<ref name=b31>Blair. pp. 31–32.</ref>

In the 15th century, the Arabic copy was in [[Herat]], perhaps claimed after a victory by the [[Timurid dynasty]]. It then passed to the court of the [[Mughal Empire]] in India, where it was in the possession of the emperor [[Akbar]] (r. 1556–1605). There is then a record of it passing through the hands of later Mughal emperors for the next few centuries. It was probably divided into two parts in the mid-1700s, though both sections remained in India until the 19th century, when they were acquired by the British. The portion now in the Edinburgh library was presented as a gift to Ali-I Ahmad Araf Sahib on October 8, 1761, and in 1800 was in the library of the Indian prince [[Farzada Kuli]]. This fragment was acquired by Colonel [[John Baillie of Leys]] of the [[East India Company]], and then in 1876 passed to the Edinburgh University Library.<ref name=b31/> The other portion was acquired by [[John Staples Harriott]] of the East India Company sometime prior to 1813. At some point during the next two decades it was brought to England, probably when Harriott came home on furlough, when the manuscript entered the collection of Major General [[Thomas Gordon (British Army officer)|Thomas Gordon]]. He then bequeathed it to the [[Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|Royal Asiatic Society]] in 1841. In 1948, it was loaned to the British Museum and Library, and in 1980 was auctioned at [[Sotheby's]], where it was purchased by the Rashidiyyah Foundation in Geneva for £850,000, the highest price ever paid for a medieval manuscript.<ref>Blair. p. 36</ref> The Khalili Collection acquired it in 1990.[[File:Battle of Badr2.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Badr]], from Topkapi MS H 1653, 1314]]

=== Sources ===
To write the ''Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh'', Rashid al-din based his work on many written and oral sources, some of which can be identified:
* From Iran, it is very similar to work by [[Ata-Malik Juvayni]], a [[Persian people|Persian]] historian who wrote an account of the [[Mongol Empire]] entitled ''[[Tarikh-i Jahangushay|Tārīkh-i Jahāngushāy]]'' "History of the World-Conqueror". Also from Iran, the ''[[Shahnameh]]'' is drawn upon.<ref>[http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/gallery/shahnameh/vgallery/section2.html?p=25&g=,13,14,15,16,18,23,24,25,26,27,28,29 Fitzwilliam Museum], Cambridge</ref>
* For Europe, the ''Chronicle of the Popes and the Emperors'' of [[Martin of Opava]]
* For the Mongols, it seems that he had access to the [[Altan Debter]], through the ambassador of the Great Khan to the court of the Il-Khanate.
* For China, the author knew the translation of four Chinese manuscripts: three on medicine and one on administration. Furthermore, it is known that he enjoyed calligraphy, painting and Chinese music. The links with this world were made all the easier because Mongols also ruled China.

=== Illustrations ===
[[File:Sacred_Tree_of_Bouddha_-_Jami_al-Tawarikh_-_Folio_36_Verso.png|thumb|An illustration from the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh of Rashid al-Din located in the Khalili collections depicting the Bodhi tree (far right) where the Buddha achieved enlightenment.<ref name="Blair 819–842">{{Cite journal|last=Blair|first=Sheila|date=2017-02-13|title=Illustrating History: Rashid al-Din and his Compendium of Chronicles|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00210862.2016.1268376|journal=Iranian Studies|volume=50|issue=6|pages=819–842|doi=10.1080/00210862.2016.1268376|s2cid=165138088 |issn=0021-0862}}</ref>]]
Much of the illustration for the various copies of the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh was done at the Rab-al Rashidi university complex, though they were also done elsewhere in the Mongol empire.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-01-01|editor-last=Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan M.|editor2-last=Blair|editor2-first=Sheila S.|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780195309911.001.0001|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195309911.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 }}</ref> The illustrations in this text are part of the artistic tradition of [[Persian miniature]]s and the medium of the numerous Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh manuscripts vary slightly, with most of the miniatures being made using ink, watercolor, and occasionally silver. The images within, designed to correspond to its texts, depict historical and religious events, courtly scenes, and authority figures spanning nationalities and ethnicities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Ghiasian|first=Mohamad Reza|date=2019-01-02|title=Images of the Peoples of the World Encountered by the Mongols in the Jamiʿ al-tawarikh|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/05786967.2019.1578542|journal=Iran|volume=57|issue=1|pages=71–82|doi=10.1080/05786967.2019.1578542|s2cid=192538646 |issn=0578-6967}}</ref> Because of [[Rashid al-Din Hamadani|Rashid al-Din]]’s mandate for an Arabic and Persian version of the text to be produced every year<ref>{{Cite web|last=Foundation|first=Encyclopaedia Iranica|date=2010-05-25|title=JĀMEʿ al-TAWĀRIḴ ii. Illustrations|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/jame-tawarikh-ii|access-date=2021-12-05|website=iranicaonline.org|language=en-US}}</ref> there was an adopted standard style for the illustrations, giving characters Mongol countenance and dress, that made the differentiation between key figures difficult.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Carboni and Qamar|first=Stefano and Adamjee|date=October 2003|title=Folios from the Jami' al-tavarikh (Compendium of Chronicles).|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/khan8/hd_khan8.htm}}</ref>

'''Stylistic Influences'''

Elements of the illustrations are influenced by [[Chinese painting]] techniques; most notably, the use of dark outlines and transparent washes, in contrast to the opaque watercolor style which would later become characteristic of Persian painting. The rendition of the landscape echoes conventions of Chinese painting under the Yuan dynasty, as seen in handscrolls and woodblock illustration.<ref name="Blair 819–842"/> The illustrations also reflect late [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] influence in the elongation and gesture of the figures.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Rogers|first=J.M.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/734930827|title=The arts of Islam : treasures from the Khalili Collection|date=2010|publisher=The Overlook Press|pages=156–164|oclc=734930827}}</ref> Illustrators of the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh likely used Byzantine illustrations as references for some of the scenes depicted in the first section of the non-Mongol history of the world, about Adam and the patriarchs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Terry|first=Allen|date=1985|title=Byzantize Sources for the Jāmi' al-tāwarīkh of Ra shīd Al-Dīn|journal=Ars Orientalis|volume=15|pages=121–136|via=JSTOR}}</ref>

'''Hazines 1653 & 1654'''

Hazine 1653 (MS H 1653), made in 1314, includes later additions on the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid era]] for Sultan [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shah Rukh]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Ghiasian|first=Mohamad Reza|date=2018-05-04|title=The Topkapı Manuscript of the Jāmiʿ al-Tawārikh (Hazine 1654) from Rashidiya to the Ottoman Court: A Preliminary Analysis|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00210862.2018.1428085|journal=Iranian Studies|language=en|volume=51|issue=3|pages=399–425|doi=10.1080/00210862.2018.1428085|s2cid=166136446 |issn=0021-0862}}</ref> The full collection, known as the Majmu'ah, contains [[Bal'ami]]'s version of [[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]]'s chronicle, the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh, and [[Nizam al-Din Shami]]'s biography of [[Timur]]. These portions of the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh cover most of the history of Muhammad and the Caliphate, plus the post-caliphate dynasties of the [[Ghaznavids]], [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuks]], [[Anushtegin dynasty|Khwarazmshahs]], [[Isma'ilism|Is'mailis]], and the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]].<ref name=":2" /> MS H 1653 contains 68 paintings in the Ilkhanid style.[[File:Abraham_and_the_Three_Angels_-_Jami_al-Tawarikh_-_Folio_47_Verso.png|thumb|An illustration from the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh of Rashid al-Din located in the Khalili collections depicting Jacob (fourth from left), his three sons, and his two wives. The composition may have been based on an old testament illustration of Abraham and three angels.<ref name=":1" />]]Hazine 1654 (MS H 1654), a fragmentary piece of the second volume of the Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh is the most complete surviving example of the Persian transcriptions made in [[Rab'-e Rashidi]].The illustrations in this version of the text are made up of direct copies of illustrations from MS H 1653 and emulate illustrations from the Arabic Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh. The manuscript was left unfinished by the Ilkhanids after the inscription's completion in 1317, with only seven illustrations having been added to the beginning and other pages having blank spaces left for illustrations.<ref name=":2" /> A selection of the illustrations would be completed at the end of the fourteenth century.<ref name=":2" /> MS H 1654 later came into the ownership, along with the Arabic and other Persian versions, of the Timurid ruler [[Shah Rukh|Shahrukh]], whose royal library both refurbished and added illustrations to the Hazine 1654.<ref name=":0" />

While increasingly simplified, the illustrations from the MS H 1654 are significant in that they display an increase in production under Ilkhanid and Timurid workshops<ref name=":2" /> and help modern scholars fill in the gaps from fragmentary manuscripts made earlier that cover non-Islamic histories. Mongol, Shahrukh, and Timurid styles are exemplified among these depictions of Ughuz Turks and Chinese, Jewish, Frankish, and Indian history.<ref name=":0" />

===Questions about work===
There is little reason to doubt Rashid al-Din's editorial authorship but the work is generally considered a collective effort. It may also be possible that it was compiled by a group of international scholars under his leadership. Yet, a number of questions remain about the writing of the ''Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh.'' Several others, such as [[Abu al-Qasim Kashani|Abu’l Qasim al-Kashani]], claimed to have written the ''universal history''. Rashid al-Din was, of course, a very busy man, with his public life and would have employed assistants to handle the materials assembled and to write the first draft: Abu'l Qasim may have been one of them. Furthermore, not all of the work is original: for instance, the section on the period following the death of Genghis Khan in particular is directly borrowed from Juvayni. Other questions concern the objectivity of the author and his point of view: it is after all an official history, concerning events with which Rashid al-Din in his political capacity was often involved at first hand (for the history of the Ilkhanate in particular). Nonetheless, the work "is characterized by a matter-of-fact tone and a refreshing absence of sycophantic flattery."<ref name="Melville" />

== Contemporary manuscripts ==
[[File:Mahmud ibn Sebuktegin attacks the rebel fortress (Arg) of Zarang in Sijistan in 1003 AD. From the illuminated manuscript of Rashid ad-Din's Jami al-Tawarikh, written in about 1307. Edinburgh University Library.jpg|thumb|250px|Folio from the Edinburgh collection, showing a miniature painting of Mongols besieging a city. Note the elements protruding beyond the frame.]]

The ''Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh'' was the center of an industry for a time, no doubt in part due to the political importance of its author. The workshop was ordered to produce one manuscript each in Arabic and Persian every year, which were to be distributed to different cities.<ref>Carey, pp. 158–159</ref> Although approximately 20 of the first generation of manuscripts were produced, very few survive, which are described below. Other later copies were made from the first set, with some illustrations and history added to match current events.<ref>Canby, 31</ref>

===Arabic manuscripts===
The earliest known copy is in Arabic, dated to the early 1300s. Only portions of it have survived,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/khan8/hd_khan8.htm |title=Folios from the Jami' al-tavarikh|work=Timeline of Art History|publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]|access-date=January 15, 2012|quote=Today only two early-fourteenth-century Persian copies of the Compendium and part of one Arabic copy survive.}}</ref> divided into two parts between the [[University of Edinburgh]] (Or Ms 20, 151 folios) and the [[Khalili Collection of Islamic Art]] (MSS 727, 59 folios), although some researchers argue for these being from two different copies. Both sections come from the second volume, with the pages interwoven. The Edinburgh part covers some of the earlier history up through a section about the Prophet Muhammad, and then this story is continued in the Khalili portion, with further narratives weaving back and forth between the two collections, ending with the final section also being in the Edinburgh collection.

====Edinburgh folios====
The Edinburgh part has a page size of 41.5 × 34.2 cm, with a written area of 37 × 25 cm, and contains 35 lines per page written in [[Naskh (script)|Naskhi]] calligraphy. There are some omissions: folios 1, 2, 70 to 170, and the end; and it is dated to 1306–1307, in a later inscription, which is nonetheless accepted. The text comprises four parts: the history of Persia and pre-Islamic Arabia, the story of the Prophet and Caliphs, the history of the [[Ghaznavids]], [[Seljuks]] and [[Atabey]]s, and the history of the sultans of [[Khwarezm]]. This part of the manuscript was discovered in the 1800s by [[Duncan Forbes (linguist)|Duncan Forbes]], who found it among the papers of Colonel John Baillie, so this section is sometimes referred to as "Baillie's collection".

Seventy rectangular [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniature]]s adorn the manuscript, which reflect the cosmopolitan nature of [[Tabriz]] at the time of its production. In this capital, a crossroads of trade routes and influences, and a place of great religious tolerance, Christian, Chinese, Buddhist and other models of painting all arrived to feed the inspiration of the artists.

The miniatures have an unusual horizontal format and only take up about a third of the written area; this may reflect the influence of Chinese scrolls. Some parts of the surviving text are heavily illustrated and other parts not at all, apparently reflecting the importance accorded to them. The miniatures are ink drawings with [[watercolour]] washes added, a technique also used in China; although they are generally in good condition, there was considerable use of metallic silver for highlights, which has now oxidized to black. Borrowings from Christian art can also be seen; for example the ''Birth of Muhammad'' adapts the standard Byzantine composition for the ''[[Nativity of Jesus in art|Nativity of Jesus]]'', but instead of the [[Biblical Magi]] approaching at the left there is a file of three women.<ref>Blair and Bloom, 28; Canby, 31</ref> The section includes the earliest extended cycle of illustrations of the [[Depictions of Muhammad|life of Muhammad]]. Like other early Ilkhanid miniatures, these differ from the relatively few surviving earlier Islamic book illustrations in having coherent landscape backgrounds in the many scenes set outside, rather than isolated elements of plants or rocks. Architectural settings are sometimes given a sense of depth by different layers being shown and the use of a three-quarters view.<ref>Min Yong Cho, 12-18</ref>

Rice distinguished four major painters and two assistants:

* The ''Painter of [[Iram of the Pillars|Iram]]'': the most influenced by China (reflected in Chinese elements, such as trees, interest in the landscape, interest in contemplative characters). The work is characterized by open drawing, minimal modelling, linear drapery, extensive details, stripped and balanced compositions, delicate and pale colours, and a rare use of silver. He painted mostly the early miniatures, and may have been assisted by the ''Master of [[Tahmura]]''.
* The ''Painter of [[Lohrasp]]'': characterized by a variety of subjects, including many throne scenes, a variable and eclectic style, quite severe and angular drapery, a variety of movements, stripped and empty backgrounds. His absence of interest in landscape painting shows a lack of Chinese influences, which is compensated for by inspiration from Arab, Syrian and Mesopotamian painting. His work is of variable quality, and uses silver systematically. His assistant: the ''Master of Scenes from the Life of the Prophet''.
* The ''Master of the Battle Scenes'': a somewhat careless painter, as becomes evident when the number of arms does not match the number of characters, or a leg is missing among the horses. He is notable for a complete lack of focus and horror, and for strong symmetry, his compositions usually comprising two parties face to face composed of a leader and two or three followers. Decoration is limited to grass, indicated in small vegetative clumps, except during sieges and attacks on the city.
* The ''Master of [[Alp Arslan]]'' appears briefly, at the end of the manuscript. His style is crude and unbalanced, his characters often badly proportioned.

Just as distinguishable are different racial and ethnic types, made manifest not just in the physical attributes of the characters, but also their clothes and their hats. One can thus distinguish a remarkably well observed group of [[People of Ethiopia|Abyssinians]], Western-style figures based on Syrian Christian manuscripts, Chinese, Mongols, Arabs, and so on.

The Edinburgh folios were displayed at an exhibition at the [[Edinburgh University Library|University of Edinburgh Main Library]] in summer 2014<ref>{{cite web|last1=Smith|first1=Emma|last2=Skeldon|first2=Steven|title=The World History of Rashid al-Din, 1314. A Masterpiece of Islamic Painting|url=http://libraryblogs.is.ed.ac.uk/blog/2014/07/14/the-world-history-of-rashid-al-din-1314-a-masterpiece-of-islamic-painting/|website=libraryblogs.is.ed.ac.uk|access-date=16 February 2015}}</ref>

====Khalili folios====
[[File:Buddha offers fruit to the devil - from Jami al-Tawarikh.jpg|250px|right|thumb|''Buddha offers fruit to the devil'', [[Khalili Collection of Islamic Art]]]]
The portion in the [[Khalili Collection of Islamic Art]], where it is referred to as MSS 727, contains 59 folios, 35 of them illustrated.
Until sold in 1980 it was owned by the [[Royal Asiatic Society]] in London. It is a different section of the History than that of the Edinburgh version, possibly from a different copy. Each page measures {{convert|43.5|by|30|cm|in}} (slightly different dimensions to the Edinburgh portion due to different models copied). According to Blair's description of the collection, "Two major sections were lost after division: thirty-five folios (73-107) covering the life of Muhammad up to the caliphate of Hisham, and thirty folios (291-48) going from the end of the Khwarazmshahs to the middle of the section on China. The latter may have been lost accidentally, but the former block may have been jettisoned deliberately because it had no illustrations. The folios about the life of the Prophet were further jumbled, and four were lost. The final three folios (301-303) covering the end of the section on the Jews were also lost, perhaps accidentally, but judging from the comparable section in MS.H 1653, they had no illustrations and may also have been discarded."<ref>Blair. p. 34.</ref>

The manuscript was brought to Western attention by William Morley, who discovered it in 1841 while he was cataloguing the collection of the Royal Asiatic Society in London. For some time this collection was displayed in the [[King's Library]] of the [[British Museum]]. It includes twenty illustrations, plus fifteen pages with portraits of the emperors of China. The text covers the history of Islam, the end of China's history, the history of India, and a fragment from the history of the Jews. The work of the Painter of Luhrasp and Master of Alp Arslan is again evident. Some differences in style can be observed, but these can be attributed to the difference in date. A new painter appears for the portraits of Chinese leaders, which uses special techniques that seem to mimic those of [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] mural painters (according to S. Blair): an attention to line and wash, and the use of black and bright red. This artist seems to be very familiar with China.<ref>{{Cite book
| publisher = Nour Foundation in association with Azimuth Editions and [[Oxford University Press]]
| isbn = 978-0-19-727627-3
| last = Blair
| first = Sheila
| title = A compendium of chronicles: Rashid al-Din's illustrated history of the world
| year = 1995
}}</ref> The folios are dated 1314, and it was transcribed and illustrated in [[Tabriz]] under the supervision of Rashid al-Din.

===Persian manuscripts===
[[File:Assassination_of_Nizam_al-Mulk.jpg|thumb|left|An [[Hashshashin|Assassin]] (left, in white turban) fatally stabs [[Nizam al-Mulk]], a Seljuk vizier, in 1092, from Topkapi MS H 1653.]]

There are two early 14th century copies in Persian in the [[Topkapi Palace]] Library, [[Istanbul]].
* MS H 1653, made in 1314, containing 68 Ilkhanid-style paintings.
* MS H 1654, made in 1317, which includes 118 illustrations, including 21 pages of portraits of Chinese emperors. It was copied for Rashid al-Din, and like H 1653 was later owned by Shahrukh.<ref>Blair. pp. 27–28, and note 35.</ref>

=== Later versions and manuscripts ===
[[File:Jonah and the Whale, Folio from a Jami al-Tavarikh (Compendium of Chronicles).jpg|thumb|Folio from the Jami' al-tawarikh. Jonah and the Whale. (Compendium of Chronicles) Iran, {{circa|1400}}]]

Interest in the work continued after the Ilkhans were replaced as Persia's ruling dynasty by the [[Timurids]]. [[Timur]]'s youngest son, [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shahrukh]], who ruled the eastern portion of the empire from 1405 to 1447, owned incomplete copies of the ''Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh'' and commissioned his court historian [[Hafiz-i Abru]] to complete it. The earliest dated manuscript made for Shahrukh includes the original text and additions by Hafiz-i Abru, along with other histories, and is dated 1415–16 (Topkapi Palace Library, MS B 282). The Topkapi MS H 1653, discussed above, combines an incomplete Ilkhanid ''Jāmiʿ'' with Timurid additions, which are dated 1425. Another ''Jāmiʿ'' is in Paris ([[BnF]], Supplément persan 1113), dated to about 1430, with 113 miniatures. Most of the miniatures for these volumes copy the horizontal format and other features of the Ilkhanid manuscripts, while retaining other features of Timurid style in costume, colouring and composition, using what is sometimes known as the "Historical style".<ref>Blair and Bloom, 58 and notes</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Persian literature]]
* [[Islamic art]]
* [[Depictions of Muhammad]]
* [[List of most expensive books and manuscripts]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* "Rashid al-Din Tabib", in [[Encyclopedia of Islam]], Brill, 1960 (2nd edition)
* Allen, Terry, ''Byzantine Sources for the Jāmiʿ al-Tawārīkh of Rashīd Al-Dīn'', 1985, ''Ars Orientalis'', Vol. 15, pp. 121–136, {{JSTOR|4543049}}
* S. Blair, ''A compendium of chronicles : Rashid al-Din’s illustrated history of the world'', 1995, 2006 {{ISBN|1-874780-65-X}} (contains a complete set of the folios from Khalili collection, with discussion of the work as a whole)
* S. Blair and J. Bloom, ''The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250–1800'', [[Yale University Press]], 1994 {{ISBN|0-300-05888-8}}
* Canby, Sheila R., ''Persian Painting'', 1993, British Museum Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7141-1459-0}}
* O. Grabar, ''Mostly Miniatures: An Introduction to Persian Painting'', [[Princeton University Press]], 2000 {{ISBN|0-691-04941-6}}
* B. Gray, ''Persian painting'', [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]], 1978 {{ISBN|0-333-22374-8}}
* B. Gray, ''The 'World history' of Rashid al-Din: A study of the Royal Asiatic Society manuscript'', Faber, 1978 {{ISBN|0-571-10918-7}}
* {{cite journal |last = Inal |first = Guner |title = Some miniatures of the 'Jami' al-Tavrikh' in Istanbul, Topkapi Museum, Hazine Library No. 1654 |journal = Ars Orientalis |volume=5 |year=1963 |pages=163–175 |publisher = Freer Gallery of Art, The Smithsonian Institution and Department of the History of Art, University of Michigan |jstor=4629187 }}
* Min Yong Cho, ''How land came into the picture: Rendering history in the fourteenth-century "Jami al-Tawarikh"'' (Dissertation), 2008, ProQuest, {{ISBN|0-549-98080-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-549-98080-3}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ap5RfoE68F4C&pg=PA19 fully online]
* D. T. Rice, [[Basil Gray]] (ed.), ''The illustrations to the “World History”'' of Rashid al-Din, [[Edinburgh University Press]], 1976 {{ISBN|0-85224-271-9}}
* A.Z.V. Togan, ''The composition of the history of the Mongols by Rashid al-din'', [[Central Asiatic Journal]], 1962, pp 60 – 72.
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite journal |last1=Hillenbrand |first1=Carole |last2=Hillenbrand |first2=Robert |title=Ancient Iranian Kings in the World History of Rashid Al-Din |journal=Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies |date=2018 |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=34–46 |doi=10.1080/05786967.2018.1426190|hdl=10023/18244 |s2cid=194015132 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kamola |first1=Stefan |title=A Sensational and Unique Novelty: The Reception of Rashid al-Din's World History |journal=Iran |date=2 January 2020 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=50–61 |doi=10.1080/05786967.2018.1544836|s2cid=192843887 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mirahmadi |first1=Sara |title=Legitimising the Khan: Rashid al-Din's Ideological Project from a Literary Aspect |journal=Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies |date=2021 |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=221–234 |doi=10.1080/05786967.2021.1889929|doi-access=free }}

== External links ==
* '''Online text''': {{cite book |last1 = Elliot |first1 = H. M. (Henry Miers), Sir |first2 = John |last2 = Dowson |title = [[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians]]. The Muhammadan Period (Vol 3.) |chapter = 10. Jámi'u-t Tawáríkh, of Rashid-al-Din |chapter-url = https://archive.org/stream/cu31924073036737#page/n15/mode/2up |location = London |publisher = Trübner & Co. |year=1871 }}
* Hillenbrand, Robert, [http://www.britac.ac.uk/sites/default/files/BAR17-11-Hillenbrand.pdf "Propaganda in the Mongol ‘World History’"], 2010 Aspects of Art Lecture, [[British Academy]]
* Paul Lunde and Rosalind Mazzawi, [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198101/a.history.of.the.world.htm A History of the World], ''Saudi Aramco World'', January 1981, describing the copy now in the Khalili collection
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/khan8/hd_khan8.htm Folios from the Jami' al-tavarikh], Timeline of Art History, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
* [http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/gallery/shahnameh/vgallery/section2.html?p=25&g=,13,14,15,16,18,23,24,25,26,27,28,29 Edinburgh pages in an exhibition at Cambridge]
* [http://images.is.ed.ac.uk/luna/servlet/s/kwl89a Online scan of the Edinburgh manuscript]
* [https://www.khalilicollections.org/collections/islamic-art/khalili-collection-islamic-art-the-jami-al-tawarikh-of-rashid-al-din-mss727/ Khalili Collection: The Jami‘ al-Tawarikh of Rashid al-Din]
* [https://archive.org/details/seleznyov-devatasutra Devatasutra in the Arabic Compendium of Chronicles of Rashid al-Din]
* [http://warfare.tk/Persia/14/Jami_al-Tawarikh-1305-14.htm Illustrations in the 1305-14 Jami‛ al-Tawarikh by Rashid al-Din. Edinburgh Or 20 & Khalili 727.]
{{Mongol Empire chronicles}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jami' Al-Tawarikh}}
[[Category:14th-century history books]]
[[Category:Ilkhanate]]
[[Category:Persian literature]]
[[Category:Islamic illuminated manuscripts]]
[[Category:Illuminated histories]]
[[Category:Persian art]]
[[Category:History books about India]]
[[Category:Historiography of India]]
[[Category:Universal history books]]

Presidency of A. P. J. Abdul Kalam

2023-07-19T09:50:22Z

TheWikiExpert: Shared a valuable resource.

{{Infobox administration|image=A. P. J. Abdul Kalam.jpg|name=Presidency of A.P.J. Abdul Kalam|term_start={{dts|format=dmy|2002|07|25}}|term_end={{dts|format=dmy|2007|07|25}}|president=[[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]]|president_link=President of India|party=Independent|election=[[2002 Indian presidential election]]|seat=[[Rashtrapati Bhawan]]|predecessor=[[Presidency of K. R. Narayanan|K. R. Narayanan]]|successor=[[Presidency of Pratibha Patil|Pratibha Patil]]|seal=Emblem of India.svg|seal_caption=Emblem of India}}
{{Short description|Indian presidential administration from 2002 to 2007}}

'''Presidency of A. P. J. Abdul Kalam''' was started from 25 July 2002 when Abdul Kalam took oath as the eleventh [[President of India]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam: Former President of India |url=http://abdulkalam.nic.in/ |access-date=2023-06-02 |website=abdulkalam.nic.in}}</ref>

== Domestic affairs ==

=== Gujarat tour ===
In 2002, soon after assuming office, the President announced his decision to visit the state of [[Gujarat]], which had been struck by an [[2001 Gujarat earthquake|earthquake]] as well as deadly [[2002 Gujarat riots|riots]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kalam to visit Gujarat on August 12 |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/kalam-to-visit-gujarat-on-august-12/articleshow/18599661.cms |access-date=2023-06-03 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> In his book ''Turning Points'', Kalam wrote that he undertook the visit despite Prime Minister [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]]'s objections.

=== Return of bill ===
In 2006, Kalam became the first President to return a bill, when he returned the Parliament (Prevention of Disqualification) Amendment Bill, 2006 bill to parliament for reconsideration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A rare return |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/article30209953.ece |access-date=2023-06-03 |website=frontline.thehindu.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Prez Kalam returns Office of Profit bill |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/prez-kalam-returns-office-of-profit-bill/articleshow/1598309.cms |access-date=2023-06-03 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

=== Mercy petitions ===
Kalam opposed [[capital punishment in India|capital punishment]], and sent back nearly 50 cases of capital punishment for reconsideration, listing out reasons why clemency should be considered in each case.<ref>{{Cite web |title=APJ Abdul Kalam: The man who opposed death penalty |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/apj-abdul-kalam-the-man-who-opposed-death-penalty/story-iCaYogpIATQpaZH0TpRYgO.html |access-date=2023-06-03 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

He commuted one death sentence, and rejected only one mercy petition (that of [[Dhananjoy Chatterjee]], who was executed in 2004).<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Kalam rejects murderer's plea |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/kalam-rejects-murderer-s-plea-104080501008_1.html |access-date=2023-06-03 |website=www.business-standard.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Foreign affairs ==

=== List of state visits ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Country
!Date
!Note
!Ref
|-
| rowspan="3" |2003
|United Arab Emirates
|
|
|<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |title=Kalam leaves on first foreign tour |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kalam-leaves-on-first-foreign-tour/articleshow/240096.cms |access-date=2023-06-03 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|Sudan
|
|
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|Bulgaria
|
|
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
| rowspan="2" |2005
|Switzerland
|
|
|
|-
|Iceland
|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |2006
|Philippines
|February
|
|
|-
|South Korea
|
|
|
|-
|Myanmar
|
|
|<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |title=Kalam returns home after two-nation tour |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kalam-returns-home-after-two-nation-tour/articleshow/1448649.cms |access-date=2023-06-03 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|Mauritius
|
|
|<ref name=":2" />
|-
| rowspan="2" |2007
|France
|
|
|<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=Kalam to address European Parliament |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kalam-to-address-european-parliament/articleshow/1949259.cms |access-date=2023-06-03 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|Greece
|
|
|<ref name=":1" />
|}

=== State visits ===

==== Switzerland ====
[[File:The_President_Dr._A.P._J._Abdul_Kalam_and_the_President_of_Switzerland_Mr._Samuel_Schmid_meeting_the_Swiss_nationals_gathered_alongside_the_sidewalks_of_city_of_Berne_to_greet_them,_at_Berne_in_Switzerland_on_May_27,_2005.jpg|thumb|The President Dr. A.P. J. Abdul Kalam and the President of Switzerland Samuel Schmid meeting the Swiss nationals gathered alongside the sidewalks of city of Berne to greet them, at Berne in Switzerland on May 27, 2005]]
<ref>{{Cite web |last=swissinfo.ch |title=Kalam, not Modi, was the real rock star |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/society/first-death-anniversary_kalam-not-modi-was-the-real-rock-star/42332086 |access-date=2023-06-18 |website=SWI swissinfo.ch |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Presidencies]]
[[Category:A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]]
[[Category:2002 establishments in India]]
[[Category:2007 disestablishments in India]]

Gubbi (film)

2023-07-18T01:18:49Z

TheWikiExpert:

{{Infobox film
| name = Gubbi
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name = 
| director = Vijay
| writer = Vijay
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = Anaji Nagaraj
| starring = {{plainlist|
*Ajith
*[[Reema Worah]]
}}
| narrator =
| cinematography = M R Seenu
| editing = Srinivasa Babu
| music = [[Arjun Janya]]
| studio = 
| distributor = 
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2010|9|24}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Gubbi''''' is a 2010 Indian Kannada-language romantic drama film directed by Vijay and starring Ajith and [[Reema Worah]].

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
*Ajith as Gautham
*[[Reema Worah]] as Ramya
*Giri as Naidu
*[[Rangayana Raghu]] as Gowda
*Bobby
*Vishwa
*Deepak
*Kailash
*[[Achyuth Kumar]]
*Petrol Prasanna
* Mico Nagaraj
*[[Veena Sundar]]
* [[Rachana Maurya]] in the item number "Neerinalli"
}}

==Music==

{{Infobox album
| name = Gubbi
| type = Soundtrack
| artist = [[Arjun Janya]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 2010
| recorded = 2010
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 24:25
| language = Kannada
| label = Ashwini Recording Company
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
| misc =
}}
The song "Neerinalli" is a remix of the song of the same name from ''[[Bedi Bandavalu]]'' (1968) by [[R. Sudarsanam]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://milliblog.com/2010/07/07/gubbi-music-review-kannada-ap-arjun/|title=Gubbi (Music review), Kannada – Arjun Janya|work=miliblog}}</ref>
{{Track listing
| all_lyrics =
| all_music = [[Arjun Janya]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/gubbi/5JyVbAqvCYU_|title=Gubbi|date=2010|work=[[JioSaavn]]}}</ref>
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 24:25
| title1 = Confusion
| extra1 = Sumanth, Arjun Janya
| length1 = 5:00
| title2 = Ee Paapi
| extra2 = [[Haricharan (singer)|Haricharan]]
| length2 = 5:46
| title3 = Ee Pari Tavaka
| extra3 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]]
| length3 = 5:00
| title4 = Gulabi Theme
| extra4 = Arjun Janya
| length4 = 1:52
| title5 = Modala Todala
| extra5 = Karthik
| length5 = 3:09
| title6 = Neerinalli
| extra6 = [[Anuradha Bhat]]
| length6 = 3:38
}}

== Reception ==
A critic from ''[[The New Indian Express]]'' wrote that "''Gubbi'' is a perfect blend of a love story and underworld activities. Vijay, who makes debut as a director, has handled the megaphone well for this film that showcases the other side of Bangalore".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2010/sep/25/an-entertaining-love-story-189900.html|title=An entertaining love story|work=[[The New Indian Express]]}}</ref> A critic from ''[[The Times of India]]'' wrote that "Vijay's directorial debut has touched a high note with his selection of a romantic story with interesting action sequences. Armed with a good script, the director has tried to ensure that the story moves at a quick pace laced with good music by Arjun to cheer up dull scenes".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/kannada/movie-reviews/gubbi/movie-review/6634890.cms|title=GUBBI MOVIE REVIEW|work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]]'' wrote that "Gubbi will be a treat to watch for youngsters and an enjoyable fare for the family audience".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiaforums.com/article/gubbi-a-complete-entertainer_20793|title='Gubbi' - a complete entertainer|via=India Forums|work=[[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]]}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Oneindia|Filmibeat]]'' wrote that "Debutant director Vijay, who has worked under director Prem, has released his debut venture Gubbi. He has done really well in his first attempt and has proved that he is a good director-cum-script writer. He has included all commercial elements and made it complete entertainer".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/kannada/reviews/2010/gubbi-movie-review-041010.html|title=Gubbi – Movie Review|first=Shekhar H.|last=Hooli|work=[[Oneindia|Filmibeat]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|13690864}}

Koviloor

2023-07-11T16:05:24Z

TheWikiExpert: Constructed a new page format.

{{Short description|Village in Kerala, India}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Koviloor
| settlement_type = Village
| image_skyline = KOVILOOR.jpg
| image_caption = Koviloor village
| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts in India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Idukki district|Idukki]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of subdistricts in India|Taluk]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Devikulam taluk|Devikulam]]
| government_type = [[Panchayat]]
| governing_body = Vattavada Panchayat
| elevation_m = 1700
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 685615
| area_code = 04865
| area_code_type = [[Subscriber trunk dialling|STD code]]
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in Kerala|KL-68]] (Devikulam Sub RTO)
| blank_name_sec1 = Nearest town
| blank_info_sec1 = Munnar
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = {{Plain list|
* [[Malayalam]]
* [[English language|English]]
}}
| demographics1_title2 = Regional
| demographics1_info2 = {{Plain list|
* Malayalam
* Tamil
}}
| blank_name_sec2 = Nearest airport
| blank_info_sec2 = [[Kochi International Airport|Cochin Airport]]
| pushpin_map = India Kerala #India
| coordinates = {{coord|10|11|00|N|77|15|25|E|region:IN-KL|display=inline}}
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kerala
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| image_map = {{Infobox mapframe|coord={{coord|10|11|00|N|77|15|25|E}}|zoom=11}}
}}
'''Koviloor''' ({{Lang-ml|കോവിലൂർ}}) is a village located in [[Vattavada]] [[Panchayati raj|panchayat]] of [[Devikulam taluk]] in [[Idukki district]] in the Indian state of [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vattavada Panchayath |url=https://www.vattavada.com/ |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=Vattavada Panchayath |language=en-US}}</ref> It is situated around {{Cvt|1700|m}} above sea level near the [[Tamil Nadu]] border. It is {{Cvt|43|km}} east of [[Munnar]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Koviloor, Vattavada Panchayat, Idukki District, Kerala, India |url=https://www.keralatourism.org/routes-locations/koviloor/id/7862 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=Kerala Tourism |language=en}}</ref> The village is known for growing a wide range of vegetables and fruits through [[Terrace (earthworks)|terrace]] farming.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=സഞ്ചാരികളുടെ ലിസ്റ്റിലില്ലാത്ത മൂന്നാറിലെ കോവിലൂർ |url=https://malayalam.samayam.com/travel/vattavad-koviloor-stunning-places-to-visit-in-munnar/articleshow/69269450.cms |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=Samayam Malayalam |language=ml}}</ref> The majority of the population speaks [[Tamil language|Tamil]], as the region borders Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Vattavada is hailed as agricultural haven of Kerala |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/travel/kerala/2019/09/06/vattavada-agricultural-haven-munnar-idukki-hillstation.html |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=www.onmanorama.com}}</ref>
== Etymology ==
The name ''Koviloor'' is a combination of two Tamil words: {{Lang|tn|[[Koil|Kovil]]}}, which means <nowiki>''temple''</nowiki> and {{Lang|tn|Oor}}, which means "village", thus it literally means the "village of temples".<ref>{{Cite web |title=കോവിലൂർ കണ്ടതിലേറെ കാഴ്ചകളുമായി കാത്തിരിക്കുന്ന ഗ്രാമം |url=https://malayalam.nativeplanet.com/travel-guide/koviloor-in-idukki-attractions-and-how-to-reach-003698.html |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=malayalam.nativeplanet.com |language=ml}}</ref>
== Economy ==
[[File:Kovilloor 4 by Joseph Lazer.jpg|thumb|270x270px|Terrace fileds near Koviloor]]
The economy of Koviloor is built on agriculture, with farmers constituting the majority of the population. There are many farmlands surrounding the village that use traditional agricultural practices to grow crops like [[carrot|carrots]], [[garlic]], [[Bean|beans]] and [[cabbage]].<ref name=":0" /> There are also several [[strawberry]] farms near the village. Vegetable cultivation is also widespread in neighboring villages like Vattavada, Pazhathottam, Chilanthiyar and [[Kottakamboor]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=ഈ പാത യാഥാർഥ്യമായാൽ; വട്ടവടയിൽ നിന്ന് കൊടൈക്കനാലിലേക്ക് 2 മണിക്കൂർ |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/travel/travel-kerala/2021/05/29/proposed-munnar-kodaikanal-road-will-increase-tourist-attractions-in-vattavada.html |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref>
== Transportation ==
[[File:Pambadum_Shola_NP,_Plantation_-_panoramio_(1).jpg|thumb|Road to Vattavada and Koviloor villages through [[Pampadum Shola National Park]]]]
Koviloor village has limited public transportation. There are some private and [[Kerala State Road Transport Corporation|KSRTC]] buses plying here from [[Ernakulam]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=സ്വകാര്യ ബസുകളുടെ പെർമിറ്റ് റദ്ദാക്കൽ; യാത്ര ഉത്തരമില്ലാ ചോദ്യം |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/district-news/idukki/2023/03/18/idukki-cancellation-of-permits-of-private-buses.html |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref> Farmers mainly rely on these bus services to transport their produce to town. Trip jeeps are also available to Munnar.<ref>{{Cite web |title=500 രൂപയ്ക്കൊരു മൂന്നാർ യാത്ര |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/travel/travel-kerala/2019/02/04/trip-to-munnar-koviloor.html |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=www.manoramaonline.com}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Villages in Idukki district]]
== External links ==

Maharashtra floods of 2005

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{{Short description|2005 natural disaster in the Indian state of Maharashtra}}
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{{Infobox flood
| image size =
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| duration = 26–27 July 2005
| total damages =
| total damages (USD) =
| total fatalities = 1094<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mdmu.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/Flood/statusreport.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2009-07-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724175506/http://mdmu.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/Flood/statusreport.pdf |archive-date=24 July 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
| areas affected = [[Maharashtra]] inclusive of [[Mumbai]]
}}

The '''2005 Maharashtra floods''' impacted many parts of the [[States and territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Maharashtra]] including large areas of the metropolis [[Mumbai]], a city located on the coast of the [[Arabian Sea]], on the Western coast of [[India]], in which approximately 1,094 people died. It occurred just one month after the [[2005 Gujarat Flood|June 2005 Gujarat floods]]. The term ''26 July'', is used to refer to the day when the city of Mumbai came to a standstill due to flooding.

Many people were stranded on the roads, lost their homes while many walked long distances back home from work that evening. The floods were caused by the eighth heaviest-ever recorded 24-hour rainfall figure of 944 mm (37.17 inches) which lashed the metropolis on 26 July 2005, and intermittently continued for the next day. 644mm (25.35 inches) was received within the 12-hour period between 8 am and 8 pm. Torrential rainfall continued for the next week. The highest 24-hour period in India was 1,168 mm (46.0 inches) in [[Aminidivi]] in the [[Union Territory]] of [[Lakshadweep]] on 6 May 2004 although some reports suggest that it was a new Indian record. The previous record high rainfall in a 24-hour period for Mumbai was 575 mm (22.6 inches) in 1974.

Other places severely affected were [[Raigad district|Raigad]], [[Chiplun]] and [[Khed, Ratnagiri|Khed]], Guhagar.

==Overview==
===Timeline===
On 26 July 2005, around 2:00 pm, the [[Mumbai Metropolitan Region]] was struck by a severe storm and subsequent deluge. The [[Indian Meteorological Department]] (IMD) station in Santacruz recorded {{convert|944|mm|in}}. This is the wettest day on record in Mumbai.<ref>[https://weather.com/en-IN/india/monsoon/news/2019-07-09-floods-rainfall-rains-flash-flooding-waterlogging-gutters-stagnant Six Floods That Devastated India], The Weather Channel, July 12, 2019</ref>

[[Mumbai Suburban Railway|Local train]] movement came to a halt by 2:30 p.m. due to the water-logging on the tracks. This caused traffic on roads to increase dramatically with water logging and submerging of certain low-lying pockets of the region, such as [[Dharavi]] and [[Bandra-Kurla Complex]].

Thousands of school children were stranded due to flooding and could not reach home for up to 24 hours. The following two days were declared as school and college holidays by the state government.
[[File:2005-Bombay-flood-map.png|thumb|220px|Areas in Mumbai badly affected by the flooding]]

===Threat to public health===
The rain water caused the [[sewage system]] to overflow and all water lines were contaminated. The Government ordered all [[housing society|housing societies]] to add [[chlorine]] to their water tanks.

==Financial effect==
The financial cost of floods was unprecedented and these floods caused a stoppage of entire commercial, trading, and industrial activity for days. Preliminary indications indicate that the floods caused a direct loss of about [[Indian Rupee|₹]]5.50 billion (€80 million or US$100 million). The financial impact of the floods were manifested in a variety of ways:

* The banking transactions across the counters were adversely affected and many branches and commercial establishments were unable to function from late evening of 26 July 2005. The state government declared 27 and 28 July as public holidays. [[Automated teller machine|ATM networks]] of several banks, which included the [[State Bank of India]], the nation's largest national bank; [[ICICI Bank]], [[HDFC Bank]], and several foreign banks like [[Citibank]] and [[HSBC]], stopped functioning from the afternoon of 26 July 2005 at all the centres of Mumbai. ATM transactions could not be carried out in several parts of India on 26 July or 27 July due to failure of the connectivity with their central systems located in Mumbai.
*The [[Bombay Stock Exchange|BSE]] and the [[National Stock Exchange of India|NSE]], the premier [[stock exchange]]s of India could function only partially. [[Electronic trading platform]]s of the brokerage houses across the country remained largely inoperative. In partial trading, the [[Sensex]], India's most tracked [[Stock market index|equity index]] closed at an all-time high of 7605.03 on 27 July 2005. The Exchanges, however, remained closed for the following day.

==Effect on Mumbai's links to the rest of the world==
*For the first time ever, Mumbai's airports ([[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport]] and [[Juhu Aerodrome]]) were shut for more than 30 hours due to heavy flooding of the runways, submerged [[Instrument Landing System]] equipment and extremely poor visibility. Over 700 flights were cancelled or delayed. The airports reopened on the morning of 28 July 2005.<ref>{{cite news|title=Mumbai airport becomes operational after two days |url=http://in.rediff.com/news/2005/jul/28airport.htm|work= Rediff.com |access-date=23 March 2012}}</ref> Within 24 hours of the airports becoming operational, there were 185 departures and 184 arrivals, including international flights. Again from early morning of 31 July, with increase in water logging of the runways and different parts of Mumbai, most of the flights were indefinitely cancelled.
* Rail links were disrupted, and reports on late evening of 30 July indicated cancellation of several long distance trains till 6 August 2005.
* The [[Mumbai-Pune Expressway]], which witnessed a number of landslides, was closed the first time ever in its history, for 24 hours.
* According to the [[Hindustan Times]], an unprecedented 5 million mobile and 2.3 million [[MTNL]] [[landline]] users were hit for over four hours.
* According to the .in registrar (personal communication), the .in DNS servers in Mumbai had to be reconfigured because the servers were not operational.

;Transport stats
*52 [[Mumbai Suburban Railway|local trains]] damaged
*37,000 [[Auto rickshaw|autorickshaws]] spoiled
*4,000 taxis damaged
*900 [[Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport|BEST]] buses damaged
*10,000 trucks and tempos grounded

==Factors aggravating the flood of 26th July 2005 in Mumbai==

===Antiquated drainage system===
The present storm-water drainage system in Mumbai was put in place in the early 20th century and is capable of carrying only 25.1237 millimetres of water per hour which was extremely inadequate on a day when 993 mm of rain fell in the city. The drainage system was also clogged at several places.

Only 3 'outfalls' (ways out to the sea) are equipped with floodgates whereas the remaining 102 open directly into the sea for more than 24 hours. As a result, there is no way to stop the seawater from rushing into the drainage system during [[high tide]].

In 1990, an ambitious plan was drawn to overhaul the city's storm water drainage system which had never been reviewed in over 50 years. A [[Brihanmumbai Storm Water Disposal System|project]] costing approximately 6 billion [[Indian rupee|rupees]] was proposed by UK based consultants hired by the [[Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation]] to study the matter. Implementation of the project would have ensured that rainwater did not flood the streets of Mumbai. The project was planned to have completed by 2002 and aimed to enhance the drainage system through larger diameter storm water drains and pipes, using pumps wherever necessary and removing encroachments. The project, if implemented would have doubled the storm water carrying capacity to 50 mm per hour.

The BMC committee had rejected the proposed project on the grounds that it was "too costly". These were few of the drawbacks due to which the city suffered so gravely.

=== Uncontrolled, unplanned development in Northern Suburbs ===
Development in certain parts of Mumbai is haphazard and buildings are constructed without proper planning. The drainage plans in northern suburbs is chalked out as and when required in a particular area and not from an overall point of view.

The Environment Ministry of the Government of India was informed in the early 1990s that sanctioning the [Bandra-Kurla complex] (a commercial complex in northern Mumbai) was leading to disaster. No environment clearance is mandatory for large urban construction projects in northern Mumbai. Officials in the environment ministry claimed that it was not practical to impose new guidelines with retrospective effect "as there are millions of buildings".

===Destruction of mangrove ecosystems===
[[File:Lake just trying to overflow.JPG|thumb|[[Powai Lake]], Mumbai on the verge of overflowing]]
[[Mangrove]] [[ecosystem]]s which exist along the [[Mithi River]] and Mahim Creek are being destroyed and replaced with construction. Hundreds of acres of swamps in Mahim creek have been reclaimed and put to use for construction by builders. These ecosystems serve as a buffer between land and sea. It is estimated that Mumbai has lost about 40% of its mangroves between 1995 and 2005, some to builders and some to encroachment ([[slums]]). Sewage and garbage dumps have also destroyed mangroves. The [[Bandra-Kurla complex]] in particular was created by replacing such swamps. The most acclaimed Mindspace CBD ([[Inorbit Mall]]) in Goregaon & Malad has been built by destroying a large patch of mangroves in Maharashtra.

== Academic research ==
The floods have been the subject of research by scientists and social scientists attempting to understand the causes, impacts, and short/long term consequences. Scholars have studied the floods in Mumbai from the perspectives of climate change, disaster management / mitigation, urban health, vulnerability and adaptation, hydrology, [[environmental degradation]] and encroachment etc. Kapil Gupta (2007) assesses urban flood resilience, while Andharia (2006) contrasts the "widespread acts of generosity and altruism" in Mumbai with the general social disorder that was seen in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans. Aromar Revi (2005) draws lessons from the floods for prioritising multi-hazard risk mitigation. Parthasarathy (2009) links social and environmental insecurities to show that the most marginalised groups were also the most affected by the floods.

== Role of climate change ==
Climate change has played an important role in causing large-scale floods across central India, especially the Mumbai floods of 2005. During 1901–2015, there has been a three-fold rise in widespread extreme rainfall events, over the entire central belt of India from Mumbai to Bhubaneshwar, leading to a steady rise in the number of flash floods.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Roxy|first1=M. K.|last2=Ghosh|first2=Subimal|last3=Pathak|first3=Amey|last4=Athulya|first4=R.|last5=Mujumdar|first5=Milind|last6=Murtugudde|first6=Raghu|last7=Terray|first7=Pascal|last8=Rajeevan|first8=M.|title=A threefold rise in widespread extreme rain events over central India|journal=Nature Communications|language=En|volume=8|issue=1|pages=708|doi=10.1038/s41467-017-00744-9|pmid=28974680|issn=2041-1723|bibcode=2017NatCo...8..708R|pmc=5626780}}</ref> The rising number of extreme rain events are attributed to an increase in the fluctuations of the monsoon westerly winds, due to increased warming in the Arabian Sea. This results in occasional surges of moisture transport from the Arabian Sea to the subcontinent, resulting in widespread heavy rains lasting for 2–3 days. The Mumbai 2005 floods also occurred due to moisture surge from the Arabian Sea, and the heavy rains were not confined to Mumbai but spread over a large region across central India.<ref name=":0" />

== In popular culture ==
*The disaster was featured in a [[National Geographic Channel|Nationa

==See also==
* [[Disaster Management Act, 2005]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4717999.stm BBC News]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4720343.stm BBC Updates]
*[http://mumbaihelp.blogspot.com/ Mumbai Help] A blog dedicated to disseminate information on emergency services, helplines, infolines, relief/rehab organisations and their activities etc.
*[http://cloudburstmumbai.blogspot.com/ Cloudburst Mumbai] A blog dedicated for news, links and personal stories related to this tragedy.
*Anjaria, Jonathan Shapiro "Urban Calamities: A View From Mumbai", Space and Culture, Vol. 9, No. 1, 80–82, 2006
*Gupta, Kapil, "Urban flood resilience planning and management and lessons for the future: a case study of Mumbai, India", Urban Water Journal, Volume 4, Issue 3, 2007
*Parthasarathy, D, "Social and environmental insecurities in Mumbai: towards a sociological perspective on vulnerability", South African Review of Sociology, Volume 40, Issue 1, 2009
*Revi, Aromar, "Lessons from the Deluge: Priorities for Multi-Hazard Risk Mitigation", Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 40, No. 36 (3–9 Sep 2005), pp. 3911–3916

==External links==
*[https://news.yahoo.com/photos/ss/events/wl/072705indiamonsoon;_ylt=AunbU_QJopb_RfeHZrLHtT39xg8F;_ylu=X3oDMTA3bGk2OHYzBHNlYwN0bXA- Photos of the disaster from Yahoo! News]
*[http://in.rediff.com/news/2005/aug/01rain4.htm Helpline Numbers] A list of Helpline Numbers
{{DEFAULTSORT:Maharashtra floods}}
{{Natural disasters in India}}

[[Category:2005 natural disasters]]
[[Category:2005 disasters in India]]
[[Category:Floods in India|2005]]
[[Category:History of Mumbai (1947–present)]]
[[Category:History of Maharashtra (1947–present)]]
[[Category:Disasters in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Natural disasters in Maharashtra|Floods]]