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China

2023-10-12T19:46:03Z

Tedd: RV. This was the subject of discussion on the talk page several months ago, and a consensus was reached (hence the note about reading past discussions before making an edit). Better to join the discussions.

{{Short description|Country in East Asia}}
{{Redirect|People's Republic of China|the Republic of China|Taiwan}}
{{Redirect|PRC|other uses|PRC (disambiguation)|and|China (disambiguation)}}

{{Very long|date=June 2023}}
{{Use American English|date=December 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = People's Republic of China
| common_name = China
| native_name = {{native name|zh-Hans-CN|中华人民共和国|italic=no}}
| image_flag = Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg
| image_coat = National Emblem of the People's Republic of China (2).svg
| other_symbol =
| other_symbol_type =
| symbol_type = [[National Emblem of the People's Republic of China|National Emblem]]
| motto = 
| national_anthem = {{lang|zh-Hans-CN|义勇军进行曲}} {{transliteration|zh|Yìyǒngjūn Jìnxíngqǔ}} "[[March of the Volunteers]]"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:March of the Volunteers instrumental.ogg]]}}
| image_map = CHN orthographic.svg
| map_width = 250px
| map_caption = Territory controlled by the People's Republic of China is shown in dark green; [[Territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China|territory claimed but not controlled]] is shown in light green.
| capital = [[Beijing]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|39|55|N|116|23|E|type:city(21,000,000_region:CN-BJ)}}
| largest_settlement = [[Shanghai]]
| largest_settlement_type = city {{nobold|by [[List of cities in China by population|urban population]]}}
| official_languages = [[Standard Chinese]]{{efn|Chinese and [[English language|English]] are the official languages in [[Hong Kong]] only. Chinese and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] are the official languages in [[Macau]] only.}}
| languages_type = [[Official script]]
| languages = [[Simplified Chinese characters|Simplified Chinese]]{{efn|{{Bulleted list|In [[Hong Kong]], [[Traditional Chinese characters]] and the [[English alphabet]] are used.|In [[Macau]], [[Traditional Chinese characters]] and [[Portuguese orthography]] are used.|In [[Inner Mongolia]], the [[Mongolian script]] is used alongside simplified Chinese.|In [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]], the [[Tibetan script]] is used alongside simplified Chinese.|In [[Xinjiang]], the [[Uyghur Arabic alphabet]] is used alongside simplified Chinese.|In [[Guangxi]] and [[Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture|Wenshan Prefecture]], the [[Latin alphabet]] is used alongside simplified Chinese.|In [[Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture|Yanbian Prefecture]], [[Chosŏn'gŭl]] ([[Hangul]]) is used alongside simplified Chinese.}}}}
| religion = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;|74.5% [[Irreligion in China|no religion]] / [[Chinese folk religion|folk]]|18.3% [[Chinese Buddhism|Buddhism]]
|5.2% [[Christianity in China|Christianity]]|1.6% [[Islam in China|Islam]]|0.4% [[Religion in China|others]]}}
| religion_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/china#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2016|title=Chinese Religion {{pipe}} GRF|website=globalreligiousfutures.org|access-date=2023-08-19 |archive-date=2019-05-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521230415/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/china#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| recognized_regional_languages = {{hlist|[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]|[[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]|[[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]]|[[Standard Zhuang|Zhuang]]|[[Languages of China|others]]}}
| religion_year = 2020
| ethnic_groups = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;|91.1% [[Han Chinese]]|8.9% [[List of ethnic groups in China|others]]}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2020
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817185.html|title=Main Data of the Seventh National Population Census|website=Stats.gov.cn|access-date=25 July 2021}}</ref>
| demonym = Chinese
| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] [[One-party state|one-party]] [[Socialist state|socialist]] [[republic]]
| leader_title1 = [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP General Secretary]]{{efn|The ''de facto'' [[Orders of precedence in China|top position]] in the People's Republic of China}} [[President of the People's Republic of China|President]]{{efn|The PRC's head of state; a largely ceremonial position}} [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|CMC Chairman]]{{efn|[[Supreme Military Command of the People's Republic of China|Supreme Commander]] of the Armed Forces}}
| leader_name1 = [[Xi Jinping]]
| leader_title2 = [[Vice President of the People's Republic of China|Vice President]]
| leader_name2 = [[Han Zheng]]
| leader_title3 = [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]]
| leader_name3 = [[Li Qiang]]
| leader_title4 = [[Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress|Congress Chairman]]
| leader_name4 = [[Zhao Leji]]
| leader_title5 = [[Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference|CPPCC Chairman]]{{efn|Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference}}
| leader_name5 = [[Wang Huning]]
| leader_title6 = 1st [[Secretariat of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP Secretariat's Member]]
| legislature = [[National People's Congress]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of China|Formation]]
| established_event1 = [[Xia dynasty|First pre-imperial dynasty]]
| established_date1 = {{c.|2070 BCE}}
| established_event2 = [[Qin dynasty|First imperial dynasty]]
| established_date2 = 221 BCE
| established_event3 = [[1911 Revolution|Establishment of the Republic of China]]
| established_date3 = 1 January 1912
| established_event4 = [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|Proclamation of the People's Republic]]
| established_date4 = 1 October 1949
| established_event5 = [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|First constitution]]
| established_date5 = 20 September 1954
| established_event6 = [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|Current constitution]]
| established_date6 = 4 December 1982
| established_event7 = [[Macau|Most recent polity]] [[Transfer of sovereignty over Macau|admitted]]
| established_date7 = 20 December 1999
| area_km2 = 9,596,961
| area_footnote = {{efn|The area given is the official United Nations figure for [[Mainland China|the mainland]] and excludes [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]] and [[Taiwan]].<ref name="UN Stat">{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2007/Table03.pdf|title=Demographic Yearbook—Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density|publisher=UN Statistics|year=2007|access-date=31 July 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224063215/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2007/Table03.pdf|archive-date=24 December 2010}}</ref> It also excludes the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] ({{cvt|5180|km2}}), [[Aksai Chin]] ({{cvt|38000|km2}}) and other territories in dispute with India. The total area of China is listed as {{cvt|9572900|km2}} by the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111803/China|title=China|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 November 2012}}</ref> For further information, see [[Territorial changes of the People's Republic of China]].}}{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}
| area_rank = 3rd / 4th
| area_sq_mi = 3,705,407 
| percent_water = 2.8{{efn|This figure was calculated using data from the CIA World Factbook.<ref name="CIA" />}}
| population_estimate = {{decreaseNeutral}} 1,411,750,000<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-17 |title=China's first population fall since 1961 creates 'bleaker' outlook for country |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jan/17/chinas-population-falls-for-first-time-in-more-than-60-years |access-date=2023-01-21 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2023
| population_estimate_rank = 2nd
| population_census_year = 2020
| population_census_rank = 2nd
| population_density_km2 = 145<ref>{{cite web|title=Population density (people per km2 of land area)|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.DNST|publisher=IMF|access-date=16 May 2015}}</ref>
| population_density_sq_mi = 373 
| population_density_rank = 83rd
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $32.897 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.CN">{{Cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=924,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (China) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |date=10 October 2023 |access-date=10 October 2023}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank = 1st
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $23,308<ref name="IMFWEO.CN" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 73rd
| GDP_nominal = {{decrease}} $17.700 trillion{{Efn|GDP figures exclude [[Taiwan]], and the [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]] of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]].}}<ref name="IMFWEO.CN" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2023
| GDP_nominal_rank = 2nd
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{decrease}} $12,541<ref name="IMFWEO.CN" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 71st
| Gini = 38.2 
| Gini_year = 2019
| Gini_change = decrease 
| Gini_ref = <ref name="GINI">{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=CN&most_recent_year_desc=true|title=Gini index – China|publisher=World Bank|access-date=24 May 2022}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.768 
| HDI_year = 2021 
| HDI_change = increase 
| HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 79th
| currency = [[Renminbi]] (元/¥){{efn|{{Bulleted list|[[Hong Kong dollar]] used in Hong Kong and Macau.|[[Macanese pataca]] used in Macau only.}}}}
| currency_code = CNY
| time_zone = [[Time in China|CST]]
| utc_offset = [[UTC+08:00|+8]]
| utc_offset_DST =
| DST_note = ''[[Daylight saving time|DST]] is not observed.''
| time_zone_DST =
| date_format = {{vunblist|yyyy-mm-dd|''or'' yyyy{{lang|zh|年}}m{{lang|zh|月}}d{{lang|zh|日}}|([[Common Era|CE]]; [[Chinese calendar]])}}
| drives_on = right ([[Mainland China|mainland]]) left ([[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]])
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in China|+86]] (mainland) [[Telephone numbers in Hong Kong|+852]] (Hong Kong) [[Telephone numbers in Macau|+853]] (Macau)
| cctld = {{hlist|[[.cn]]|[[.中国]]|[[.中國]] (mainland)}}{{hlist|[[.hk]]|[[.香港]] (Hong Kong)}}{{hlist|[[.mo]]|[[.澳门]]|[[.澳門]] (Macau)}}
}}

'''China''' ({{zh|s=中国|p=Zhōngguó}}), officially the '''People's Republic of China''' ('''PRC'''),{{efn|{{zh|s=中华人民共和国|p=Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó}}}} is a country in [[East Asia]]. It is the world's [[List of countries by population (United Nations)|second-most populous country]] with [[Population of China|a population]] exceeding 1.4 billion. China spans the equivalent of five [[time zones]] and [[Borders of China|borders]] fourteen countries by land,{{Efn|China's border with Pakistan is disputed by India, which claims the entire [[Kashmir]] region as its territory.}} tied with [[Russia]] as having the [[List of countries and territories by number of land borders|most of any country]] in the world. With an area of nearly {{Convert|9.6|e6sqkm|sqmi|sp=us}}, it is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|third largest country]] by total land area.{{efn|The total area ranking relative to the [[United States]] depends on the measurement of the total areas of both countries. See [[List of countries and dependencies by area]] for more information.

The following two primary sources (non-mirrored) represent the range (min./max.) of estimates of China's and the United States' total areas.

Both sources (1) ''exclude'' [[Taiwan]] from the area of China; (2) ''exclude'' China's coastal and territorial waters.

However, the CIA World Factbook ''includes'' the United States coastal and territorial waters, while Encyclopædia Britannica ''excludes'' the United States coastal and territorial waters.

{{ordered list
|1= The ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' lists China as world's third-largest country (after [[Russia]] and [[Canada]]) with a total area of 9,572,900 km2,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/China|title=China|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=4 December 2017}}</ref> and the United States as fourth-largest at 9,525,067 km2.<ref name="United States" />
|2= The [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]] lists China as the fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada and the United States) with a total area of 9,596,960 km2,<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=China|access-date=3 July 2016}}</ref> and the United States as the third-largest at 9,833,517 km2.<ref>{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=United States|access-date=3 July 2016}} }}</ref>}}

Notably, the Encyclopædia Britannica specifies the United States' area (excluding coastal and territorial waters) as 9,525,067 km2, which is less than either source's figure given for China's area.<ref name="United States" /> Therefore, while it can be determined that China has a larger area excluding coastal and territorial waters, it is unclear which country has a larger area including coastal and territorial waters.
----

The [[United Nations Statistics Division]]'s figure for the United States is {{cvt|9,833,517|km2}} and China is {{cvt|9,596,961|km2}}. These closely match the CIA World Factbook figures and similarly ''include'' coastal and territorial waters for the United States, but ''exclude'' coastal and territorial waters for China.

----

Further explanation of disputed ranking: The dispute about which is the world's third-largest country arose from the inclusion of coastal and territorial waters for the United States. This discrepancy was deduced from comparing the CIA World Factbook and its previous iterations against the information for United States in ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', particularly its footnote section.<ref name="United States">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States|title=United States|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=4 December 2017}}</ref> In sum, according to older versions of the CIA World Factbook (from 1982 to 1996), the U.S. was listed as the world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and China) with a total area of {{cvt|9,372,610|km2}}. However, in the 1997 edition, the U.S. added coastal waters to its total area (increasing it to {{cvt|9629091|km2}}). And then again in 2007, U.S. added territorial water to its total area (increasing it to {{cvt|9833517|km2}}). During this time, China's total area remained unchanged. In other words, ''no'' coastal or territorial water area was added to China's total area figure. The United States has a coastal water area of {{cvt|109362|km2}}, and a territorial water area of {{cvt|195213|km2}}, for a total of {{cvt|304575|km2}} of additional water space. This is larger than entire countries like [[Italy]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. Adding this figure to the U.S. will boost it over China in ranking since China's coastal and territorial water figures are currently unknown (no official publication) and thus cannot be added into China's total area figure.}} The country is divided into 22 [[provinces of China|provinces]],{{efn|The PRC claims the territories controlled by the [[Republic of China|ROC]] ([[Free area of the Republic of China|Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu]]), which it does not control, as its disputed 23rd province, [[Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China|Taiwan Province]]. See {{section link||Administrative divisions}} for more details.|name=}} five [[autonomous regions of China|autonomous regions]], four [[direct-administered municipalities of China|municipalities]], and two semi-autonomous [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]]. The national capital is [[Beijing]], and the [[List of cities in China by population|most populous]] city and largest [[financial center]] is [[Shanghai]].

The region that is now China has been inhabited since the [[Paleolithic era]]. The earliest [[Dynasties in Chinese history|Chinese dynastic states]], such as the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]], emerged in the basin of the [[Yellow River]] before the late second millennium BCE. The eighth to third centuries BCE saw a breakdown in Zhou authority and significant conflict, as well as the emergence of [[Chinese classics|Classical Chinese literature]] and [[Chinese philosophy|philosophy]]. In 221 BCE, China was unified under [[Emperor of China|an emperor]], ushering in more than two millennia in which China was governed by one or more imperial dynasties, such as the [[Han dynasty|Han]], [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]]. Some of China's most notable achievements, such as the invention of [[gunpowder]] and [[History of paper#Paper in China|paper]], the establishment of the [[Silk Road]], and the building of the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]], occurred during this period. The [[Chinese culture]], including languages, traditions, architecture, philosophy and more, has [[Sinosphere|heavily influenced East Asia]] during this imperial period.

In 1912, the Chinese monarchy [[1911 Revolution|was overthrown]] and the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] established. The Republic saw consistent conflict for most of the mid-20th century, including [[Chinese Civil War|a civil war]] between the [[Kuomintang]] government and the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP), which began in 1927, as well as the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] that began in 1937 and continued until 1945, therefore becoming involved in [[World War II]]. The latter led to a temporary stop in the civil war and numerous Japanese atrocities such as the [[Nanjing Massacre]], which continue to influence [[China-Japan relations]]. In 1949, the CCP established control over China as [[Kuomintang's retreat to Taiwan|the Kuomintang fled]] to [[Taiwan]]. Early communist rule saw two major projects: the [[Great Leap Forward]], which resulted in a sharp economic decline and [[Great Chinese Famine|massive famine]]; and the [[Cultural Revolution]], a movement to purge all non-communist elements of Chinese society that led to mass violence and persecution. Beginning in 1978, the Chinese government began [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms]] that moved the country away from [[Planned economy|planned economics]], but political reforms were cut short by the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests]], which ended in a massacre. Despite the event, the economic reform continued to strengthen the nation's economy in the following decades while raising China's standard of living significantly.

China is a [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[One-party state|one-party]] [[socialist state|socialist]] [[republic]] led by the CCP. It is one of the five [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent members]] of the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] and a founding member of several multilateral and regional organizations such as the [[Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank]], the [[Silk Road Fund]], the [[New Development Bank]], and the [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership|RCEP]]. It is also a member of the [[BRICS]], the [[G20]], [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], and the [[East Asia Summit]]. China [[International rankings of China|ranks poorly]] in measures of [[Democracy in China|democracy]], [[Corruption in China|transparency]], and [[Human rights in China|human rights]], including for [[Freedom of the press in China|press freedom]], [[Freedom of religion in China|religious freedom]], and [[Racism in China|ethnic equality]]. Making up around one-fifth of the [[world economy]], China is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|largest economy by GDP]] at [[purchasing power parity]], the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|second-largest economy by nominal GDP]], and the [[List of countries by total wealth#Total wealth by country|second-wealthiest country]]. The country is one of the [[List of countries by real GDP growth rate|fastest-growing]] major economies and is the world's [[List of countries by manufacturing output|largest manufacturer]] and [[List of countries by exports|exporter]], as well as the [[List of countries by imports|second-largest importer]]. China is a [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear-weapon state]] with the world's [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|largest standing army by military personnel]] and the [[List of countries by military expenditures|second-largest defense budget]].

{{TOC limit|4}}
{{anchor|Etymology|Name}}

== Etymology ==

{{Main|Names of China}}
[[File:CEM-09-Asiae-Nova-Descriptio-China-2510.jpg|thumb|''China'' (today's [[Guangdong]]), ''Mangi'' (inland of ''[[Shandong|Xanton]]''), and ''Cataio'' (inland of ''China'' and ''[[Zhejiang|Chequan]]'', and including the capital ''[[Khanbaliq|Cambalu]]'', ''[[Shangdu|Xandu]]'', and a [[Marco Polo Bridge|marble bridge]]) are all shown as separate regions on this 1570 map by [[Abraham Ortelius]].]]

The word "China" has been used in English since the 16th century; however, it was not a word used by the Chinese themselves during this period. Its origin has been traced through [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]], and [[Persian people|Persian]] back to the [[Sanskrit]] word ''Cīna'', used in [[ancient India]].<ref name=OED>{{cite web|url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/31735?|title= China|work= Oxford English Dictionary }}{{ISBN|0-19-957315-8}}</ref> "China" appears in [[Richard Eden (translator)|Richard Eden]]'s 1555 translation{{efn|"...{{nbsp}}Next into this, is found the great China, whose king is thought to be the greatest prince in the world, and is named Santoa Raia".<ref>[[Richard Eden (translator)|Eden, Richard]] (1555), ''Decades of the New World'', [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo/a20032.0001.001/511?page=root;size=125;vid=4616;view=text p. 230].</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Western Views of China and the Far East, Volume 1|publisher=Asian Research Service|year=1984|page=34|first=Henry Allen|last=Myers}}</ref>}} of the 1516 journal of the [[Portuguese empire|Portuguese]] [[Portuguese exploration|explorer]] [[Duarte Barbosa]].{{efn|"...{{nbsp}}The Very Great Kingdom of China".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edzW9fuOF-cC&pg=PA211|page=211|title=The Book of Duarte Barbosa |volume=II |last=Barbosa|first=Duarte|editor-last=Dames |editor-first=Mansel Longworth|location=London|year=1918 |isbn=978-81-206-0451-3 |publisher=Asian Educational Services}}</ref> ({{lang-pt|...{{nbsp}}O Grande Reino da China{{nbsp}}...}}).<ref>{{citation|first=Duarte|last=Barbosa|title=Livro em que dá Relação do que Viu e Ouviu no Oriente|editor=Augusto Reis Machado|location=Lisbon|year=1946|url=http://purl.pt/435|url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20081022202824/http://purl.pt/435|archive-date= 22 October 2008}}. {{in lang|pt}}</ref>}}<ref name="OED" /> Barbosa's usage was derived from [[Persian language|Persian]] ''Chīn'' ({{lang|fa|{{linktext|چین}}}}), which was in turn derived from Sanskrit ''[[Chinas|Cīna]]'' ({{lang|sa|{{linktext|चीन}}}}).<ref name="AmHer">"[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/China?qsrc=2888 China]". ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'' (2000). Boston and New York: Houghton-Mifflin.</ref> ''Cīna'' was first used in early [[Hindu]] scripture, including the ''[[Mahābhārata]]'' (5th century BCE) and the ''[[Manusmṛti|Laws of Manu]]'' (2nd century BCE).<ref name="wade">Wade, Geoff. "[http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp188_yelang_china.pdf The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China']". ''[[Sino-Platonic Papers]]'', No. 188, May 2009, p. 20.</ref> In 1655, [[Martino Martini]] suggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of the [[Qin dynasty]] (221–206 BCE).<ref name="Martini">Martino, Martin, ''Novus Atlas Sinensis'', Vienna 1655, Preface, p. 2.</ref><ref name="wade" /> Although usage in Indian sources precedes this dynasty, this derivation is still given in various sources.<ref name="Bodde-1978">{{cite book|last=Bodde |first= Derk|editor=Denis Twitchett|editor2= Michael Loewe|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC&pg=PA20|title = The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220|page = 20|isbn = 978-0-521-24327-8|year=1978 |publisher= Cambridge University Press}}</ref> The origin of the Sanskrit word is a matter of debate, according to the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.<ref name="OED" />

Alternative suggestions include the names for [[Yelang]] and the [[Chu (state)|Jing]] or Chu state.<ref name="wade" /><ref name="Yule-1866">{{cite book|last=Yule |first= Henry|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqgAb41ifIC&pg=PA3|title = Cathay and the Way Thither|pages= 3–7|isbn = 978-81-206-1966-1|year = 1866 |publisher= Asian Educational Services}}</ref>
The official name of the modern state is the "People's Republic of China" ({{zh|s={{linktext|中华人民共和国}}|p={{linktext|Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó}}|c=|t={{linktext|中華人民共和國}}
}}). The shorter form is "China" ''{{linktext|Zhōngguó}}'' ({{zh|s={{linktext|中国}}|p=|c=|t={{linktext|中國}}

|labels=no}}) from ''{{transliteration|zh|zhōng}}'' ("central") and ''{{transliteration|zh|guó}}'' ("state"),{{efn|Although this is the present meaning of ''{{transliteration|zh|guó}}'', in [[Old Chinese]] (when its pronunciation was something like {{nowrap|/*qʷˤək/}})<ref name=bs>[[Reconstructions of Old Chinese|Baxter–Sagart]].</ref> it meant the walled city of the Chinese and the areas they could control from them.<ref name=wilx />}} a term which developed under the [[Western Zhou]] dynasty in reference to its [[demesne|royal demesne]].{{efn|Its earliest extant use is on the [[ritual bronze]] vessel [[He zun]], where it apparently refers to only the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]]'s immediate demesne conquered by the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhi |first=Chen |date=9 November 2004 |title=From Exclusive Xia to Inclusive Zhu-Xia: The Conceptualisation of Chinese Identity in Early China |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]] |language=en |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=185–205 |doi=10.1017/S135618630400389X |s2cid=162643600 |issn=1356-1863}}</ref>}}{{efn|Its meaning "Zhou's royal demesne" is attested from the 6th-century BC [[Classic of History]], which states "[[Tian (god)|Huangtian]] bestowed the lands and the peoples of the central state to the ancestors" ({{lang|zh|皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王}}).<ref>{{lang|zh|[[:s:zh:尚書|《尚書》]], [[:s:zh:尚書/梓材|梓材]].}} {{in lang|zh}}</ref>}} It was then applied to the area around [[Luoyi]] (present-day Luoyang) during the [[Eastern Zhou]] and then to China's [[Central Plain (China)|Central Plain]] before being used in official documents as an synonym for the state under the [[Qing dynasty|Qing]].<ref name="wilx">{{citation|last=Wilkinson|first=Endymion|title=Chinese History: A Manual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&pg=PA132|year=2000|location=Cambridge|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|series=Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph No. 52|page=132|isbn=978-0-674-00249-4}}</ref> It was sometimes also used as a cultural concept to distinguish the [[Huaxia]] people from [[Hua-Yi distinction|perceived "barbarians"]].<ref name="wilx" /> The name ''Zhongguo'' is also translated as {{nowrap|"Middle Kingdom"}} in English.<ref name="Tang-2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4n8u0HG-iYEC&pg=PA52|title=Greater China in an Era of Globalization|last1=Tang|first1=Xiaoyang|last2=Guo|first2=Sujian|last3=Guo|first3=Baogang|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2010|isbn=978-0-7391-3534-1|location=Lanham, MD|pages=52–53}}</ref> China (PRC) is sometimes referred to as [[Mainland China|the Mainland]] when distinguishing the [[Republic of China|ROC]] from the PRC.<ref>{{cite news|title=Two "Chinese" flags in Chinatown 美國唐人街兩面「中國」國旗之爭|publisher=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/world-49585512}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Chou Hsi-wei on Conflict Zone|publisher=Deutsche Welle|url=https://www.dw.com/en/chou-hsi-wei-on-conflict-zone/av-49624866|quote=So-called 'China', we call it 'Mainland', we are 'Taiwan'. Together we are 'China'.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China-Taiwan Relations|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/china-taiwan-relations|publisher=Council on Foreign Relations}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=What's behind the China-Taiwan divide?|publisher=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34729538}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of China}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of Chinese history}}

=== Prehistory ===
[[File:National Museum of China 2014.02.01 14-43-38.jpg|thumb|10,000-year-old pottery, [[Xianren Cave]] culture (18000–7000 BCE)]]

China is regarded as one of the world's oldest civilizations.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Q.V. Nguyen |last2=Peter Core |date=September 2000 |title=Pickled and Dried Asian Vegetables |url=https://www.agrifutures.com.au/wp-content/uploads/publications/00-045.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009012921/https://www.agrifutures.com.au/wp-content/uploads/publications/00-045.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |website=[[AgriFutures Australia]] |page=100|author2-link=Peter Core }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kurlansky |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Kurlansky |date=2002-02-24 |title='Salt' |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/24/books/chapters/salt.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410174445/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/24/books/chapters/salt.html |archive-date=2021-04-10 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> [[Archaeological excavation|Archaeological evidence]] suggests that early [[Hominidae|hominids]] inhabited the country 2.25 million years ago.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.archaeology.org/0001/newsbriefs/china.html|title=Early Homo erectus Tools in China|last1=Ciochon|first1=Russell|last2=Larick|first2=Roy|date=1 January 2000|work=[[Archaeology (magazine)|Archaeology]]|access-date=30 November 2012}}</ref> The hominid fossils of [[Peking Man]], a ''[[Homo erectus]]'' who [[Control of fire by early humans|used fire]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/ext/field/beijing/whc/pkm-site.htm |title=The Peking Man World Heritage Site at Zhoukoudian|publisher=UNESCO|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623160018/http://www.unesco.org/ext/field/beijing/whc/pkm-site.htm|archive-date=23 June 2016|access-date=6 March 2013}}</ref> were discovered in a cave at [[Zhoukoudian]] near [[Beijing]]; they have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000 [[Before Present|years ago]].<ref name="autogenerated198">{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature07741 |date=March 2009|last1=Shen |first1= G.|last2=Gao |first2= X.|last3=Gao |first3= B.|last4=Granger |first4= De|title=Age of Zhoukoudian Homo erectus determined with (26)Al/(10)Be burial dating|volume=458|issue=7235|pages=198–200|issn=0028-0836 |pmid=19279636|journal=Nature|bibcode=2009Natur.458..198S|s2cid=19264385|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d502c36487e27d90c7962fc60d28c48ab16c8f0e}}</ref> The fossilized teeth of ''Homo sapiens'' (dated to 125,000–80,000 years ago) have been discovered in [[Fuyan Cave]] in [[Dao County]], [[Hunan]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-34531861 |title=Fossil teeth place humans in Asia '20,000 years early'|last=Rincon|first=Paul|date=14 October 2015|work=BBC News|access-date=14 October 2015}}</ref> Chinese [[proto-writing]] existed in [[Jiahu]] around 6600 BCE,<ref name="earliest writing">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2956925.stm|title='Earliest writing' found in China|last=Rincon|first=Paul |date=17 April 2003|work=BBC News|access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref> at [[Damaidi]] around 6000 BCE,<ref>[[Qiu Xigui]] (2000) ''Chinese Writing'' English translation of {{lang|zh-Hant|文字學概論}} by Gilbert L. Mattos and [[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. {{ISBN|978-1-55729-071-7}}</ref> [[Dadiwan culture|Dadiwan]] from 5800 to 5400 BCE, and [[Banpo]] dating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that the [[Jiahu symbols]] (7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system.<ref name="earliest writing" />

=== Early dynastic rule ===
{{Further|Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors|Xia dynasty|Shang dynasty|Zhou dynasty|Spring and Autumn period|Warring States period}}
[[File:甲骨文发现地 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Yinxu]], the ruins of the capital of the late [[Shang dynasty]] (14th century BCE)]]

According to Chinese tradition, the [[list of Chinese dynasties|first dynasty]] was the [[Xia dynasty|Xia]], which emerged around 2100 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tanner|first=Harold M.|title=China: A History|year=2009|publisher=Hackett Publishing|pages=35–36|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA35|isbn=978-0-87220-915-2}}</ref> The Xia dynasty marked the beginning of China's political system based on hereditary monarchies, or [[Dynasties in Chinese history|dynasties]], which lasted for a millennium.<ref>[[Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project]] by People's Republic of China</ref> The Xia dynasty was considered [[Chinese mythology|mythical]] by historians until scientific excavations found early [[Bronze Age]] sites at [[Erlitou culture|Erlitou]], Henan in 1959.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm|title=Bronze Age China|publisher=National Gallery of Art|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725062916/http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm |archive-date=25 July 2013|access-date=11 July 2013}}</ref> It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia dynasty or of another culture from the same period.<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization |year=2007|publisher=City University of HK Press|page=25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z-fAxn_9f8wC&pg=PA25|isbn=978-962-937-140-1}}</ref> The succeeding [[Shang dynasty]] is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pletcher|first=Kenneth|title=The History of China|year=2011|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A1nwvKNPMWkC&pg=PA35|isbn=978-1-61530-181-2}}</ref> The Shang ruled the plain of the [[Yellow River]] in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fowler|first1=Jeaneane D. |first2=Merv|last2=Fowler|title=Chinese Religions: Beliefs and Practices|year=2008|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpJNfIAZltoC&pg=PA17|isbn=978-1-84519-172-6}}</ref> Their [[oracle bone script]] (from {{c.|lk=no|1500}} BCE)<ref>William G. Boltz, Early Chinese Writing, World Archaeology, Vol. 17, No. 3, Early Writing Systems (February 1986) pp. 420–436 (436)</ref><ref>David N. Keightley, "Art, Ancestors, and the Origins of Writing in China", ''Representations'' No. 56, Special Issue: The New Erudition. (Autumn 1996), pp.68–95 [68]</ref> represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&pg=PA904|page=904 |first=Pam|last=Hollister|title=Zhengzhou|encyclopedia=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania|editor1-first=Paul E.|editor1-last=Schellinger|editor2-first=Robert M.|editor2-last=Salkin|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers |year=1996|isbn=978-1-884964-04-6}}</ref> and is a direct ancestor of modern [[Chinese characters]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzfRFmlN2ZAC&pg=PA4|title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics|last=Allan |first=Keith|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-958584-7|page=4}}</ref>

The Shang was conquered by the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]], who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE, though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Some principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou, no longer fully obeyed the Zhou king, and continually waged war with each other during the 300-year [[Spring and Autumn period]]. By the time of the [[Warring States period]] of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven major powerful states left.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Warring States|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Warring-States|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=15 September 2023}}</ref>

=== Imperial China ===
[[File:Badaling China Great-Wall-of-China-01.jpg|thumb|China's first emperor, [[Qin Shi Huang]], is famed for having united the [[Warring States]]' walls to form the [[Great Wall of China]]. Most of the present structure, however, dates to the [[Ming dynasty]].]]

The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the [[Qin (state)|state of Qin]] conquered the other six kingdoms, reunited China and established the dominant order of [[autocracy]]. [[King Zheng of Qin]] proclaimed himself the [[First Emperor]] of the [[Qin dynasty]]. He enacted Qin's [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|legalist]] reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of [[Han characters|Chinese character]]s, [[Chinese units|measurements]], road widths (i.e., the cart axles' length), and [[history of Chinese currency|currency]]. His dynasty also [[Qin's campaign against the Yue tribes|conquered the Yue tribes]] in [[Guangxi]], [[Guangdong]], and [[Northern Vietnam]].<ref>Sima Qian, Translated by Burton Watson. ''Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty I'', pp. 11–12. {{ISBN|0-231-08165-0}}.</ref> The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death, as his harsh authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion.<ref name="Bodde1986">Bodde, Derk. (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in", in ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220''. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-24327-0}}.</ref><ref name="Lewis2007">{{cite book|title=The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han|first=Mark Edward|last=Lewis|publisher=Belknap Press|location=London|year=2007|isbn=978-0-674-02477-9|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofimperia00broo}}</ref>

Following a [[Chu–Han Contention|widespread civil war]] during which the imperial library at [[Xianyang]] [[List of destroyed libraries#Human action|was burned]],{{efn|Owing to Qin Shi Huang's earlier policy involving the "[[burning of books and burying of scholars]]", the destruction of the confiscated copies at Xianyang was an event similar to the [[destruction of the Library of Alexandria|destructions]] of the [[Library of Alexandria]] in the west. Even those texts that did survive had to be painstakingly reconstructed from memory, luck, or forgery.<ref>{{citation|last=Cotterell|first=Arthur|title=The Imperial Capitals of China|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bZI764AEfcsC&pg=PA35 35–36]|publisher=Pimlico|year=2011 }}</ref> The [[Old Texts]] of the [[Five Classics]] were said to have been found hidden in a wall at the Kong residence in [[Qufu]]. [[Mei Ze]]'s "rediscovered" edition of the [[Book of Documents]] was [[Yan Ruoqu|only shown to be a forgery in the Qing dynasty]].}} the [[Han dynasty]] emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and CE 220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the modern [[Han Chinese]].<ref name="Bodde1986" /><ref name="Lewis2007" /> The Han [[History of the Han dynasty|expanded the empire's territory considerably]], with military campaigns reaching [[Han–Xiongnu War|Central Asia, Mongolia]], [[Gojoseon–Han War|South Korea]], and [[Han campaigns against Dian|Yunnan]], and the [[Southward expansion of the Han dynasty|recovery of Guangdong and northern Vietnam]] from [[Nanyue]]. Han involvement in Central Asia and [[Sogdia]] helped establish the land route of the [[Silk Road]], replacing the earlier path over the [[Himalayas]] to India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052|title=Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. ''China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st century''|publisher=World Bank Publications via Eric.ed.gov|access-date=22 October 2012}}</ref> Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of Legalism in favor of [[Confucianism]], Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Candice|last1=Goucher|first2= Linda|last2=Walton|title=World History: Journeys from Past to Present – Volume 1: From Human Origins to 1500 CE|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=108|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdwpAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108|isbn=978-1-135-08822-4}}</ref>
[[File:Han Expansion.png|thumb|Map showing the [[Southward expansion of the Han dynasty|expansion]] of [[Han dynasty]] in the 2nd century BC]]
After the [[end of the Han dynasty]], a period of strife known as [[Three Kingdoms]] followed,<ref>Whiting, Marvin C. (2002). ''Imperial Chinese Military History''. iUniverse. p. 214</ref> whose central figures were later immortalized in [[Romance of the Three Kingdoms|one]] of the [[Four Classics]] of [[Chinese literature]]. At its end, [[Cao Wei|Wei]] was swiftly overthrown by the [[Jin dynasty (265–420)|Jin dynasty]]. The Jin fell to [[War of the Eight Princes|civil war]] upon the ascension of a [[Emperor Hui of Jin|developmentally disabled emperor]]; the [[Five Barbarians]] then [[uprising of the Five Barbarians|invaded]] and ruled northern China as the [[Sixteen Kingdoms|Sixteen States]]. The [[Xianbei]] unified them as the [[Northern Wei]], whose [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaowen]] reversed his predecessors' apartheid policies and [[Northern dynasties|enforced a drastic sinification on his subjects]], largely integrating them into Chinese culture. In the south, the general [[Emperor Wu of Liu Song|Liu Yu]] secured the abdication of the Jin in favor of the [[Liu Song]]. The various successors of these states became known as the [[Northern and Southern dynasties]], with the two areas finally reunited by the [[Sui dynasty|Sui]] in 581. The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture, economy and [[imperial examination]] system, constructed the [[Grand Canal of China|Grand Canal]], and patronized [[Buddhism in China|Buddhism]]. However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and a [[Goguryeo–Sui War|failed war]] in [[Goguryeo|northern Korea]] provoked widespread unrest.<ref>Ki-Baik Lee (1984). ''A new history of Korea.'' Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-674-61576-2}}. p.47.</ref><ref>David Andrew Graff (2002). ''Medieval Chinese warfare, 300–900.'' Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-23955-9}}. p.13.</ref>

Under the succeeding [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song dynasty|Song dynasties]], Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age.<ref>Adshead, S. A. M. (2004). ''T'ang China: The Rise of the East in World History''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 54</ref> The Tang dynasty retained control of the [[Western Regions]] and the Silk Road,<ref>{{citation |last=Nishijima |first=Sadao |editor1-last=Twitchett |editor1-first=Denis |editor2-last=Loewe |editor2-first=Michael |chapter=The Economic and Social History of Former Han |title=Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |year=1986 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |pages=545–607}}</ref> which brought traders to as far as [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Horn of Africa]],<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiachronolo00john |title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|last=Bowman|first=John S.|publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2000|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/columbiachronolo00john/page/104 104–105]|url-access=registration}}</ref> and made the capital [[Chang'an]] a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by the [[An Lushan Rebellion]] in the 8th century.<ref>{{cite book|publisher=City University of HK Press|year=2007|title=China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization|isbn=978-962-937-140-1|page=71}}</ref> In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period|separatist situation]] in 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and [[Khitan Liao]]. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese [[polity]] to establish a permanent standing navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade.<ref>Paludan, Ann (1998). ''Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors''. London: Thames & Hudson. {{ISBN|0-500-05090-2}}. p. 136.</ref>
[[File:Tang Protectorates.png|thumb|The Tang dynasty at its greatest extent and Tang's [[Administrative divisions of the Tang dynasty#Protectorates|protectorates]]]]

Between the 10th and 11th century CE, the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw a [[Neo-Confucianism|revival of Confucianism]], in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang,<ref>{{cite book|title=Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods|year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sjzPPg8eK7sC&pg=PA3|isbn=978-0-313-26449-8}}</ref> and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as [[landscape art]] and [[porcelain]] were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity.<ref>{{cite web|title=Northern Song dynasty (960–1127)|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nsong/hd_nsong.htm|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=27 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/Thesis_Y1795153.aspx|script-title=zh:从汝窑、修内司窑和郊坛窑的技术传承看宋代瓷业的发展|website=wanfangdata.com.cn|date=15 February 2011|access-date=15 August 2015}}</ref> However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]]. In 1127, [[Emperor Huizong of Song]] and the capital [[Bianjing]] were captured during the [[Jin–Song Wars]]. The remnants of the Song retreated to [[Northern and southern China|southern China]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276|year=1962|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinchina00gern/page/22 22]|url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinchina00gern/page/22|isbn=978-0-8047-0720-6}}</ref>

The [[Mongol conquest of China]] began in 1205 with the [[Mongol conquest of Western Xia|gradual conquest]] of [[Western Xia]] by [[Genghis Khan]],<ref>{{citation|last=May|first=Timothy|title=The Mongol Conquests in World History|year=2012|publisher=[[Reaktion Books]]|location=London|isbn=978-1-86189-971-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRIt9sZaTREC|page=1211}}</ref> who also [[Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty|invaded Jin territories]].<ref>{{citation|last=Weatherford|first=Jack|title=Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World|publisher=[[Random House]]/[[Three Rivers Press]]|place=New York|year=2004|isbn=978-0-609-80964-8 |chapter=2: Tale of Three Rivers |title-link=Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World|page=95}}</ref> In 1271, the [[Mongols|Mongol]] [[Khagan|leader]] [[Kublai Khan]] established the [[Yuan dynasty]], which [[Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty|conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty]] in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.<ref>Ping-ti Ho. "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in ''Études Song'', Series 1, No 1, (1970). pp. 33–53.</ref> A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang [[Red Turban Rebellions|led a rebellion]] that overthrew the Yuan in 1368 and founded the [[Ming dynasty]] as the [[Hongwu Emperor]]. Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that admiral [[Zheng He]] led the [[Ming treasure voyages]] throughout the [[Indian Ocean]], reaching as far as [[East Africa]].<ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/25/kenya-china|title=Chinese archaeologists' African quest for sunken ship of Ming admiral|last=Rice|first=Xan|date=25 July 2010|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref>
[[File:Qing Empire circa 1820 EN.svg|thumb|The [[Qing conquest of the Ming]] and expansion of the empire]]

In the early years of the Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved from [[Nanjing]] to Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such as [[Wang Yangming]] further critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of [[individualism]] and equality of [[four occupations]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Wang Yangming (1472–1529)|url = https://www.iep.utm.edu/wangyang/|encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date=9 December 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109100108/http://www.iep.utm.edu/wangyang/|archive-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> The [[scholar-official]] stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense against [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)]] and [[Later Jin (1616–1636)|Later Jin]] incursions led to an exhausted treasury.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.docin.com/p-378667223.html|script-title=zh:论明末士人阶层与资本主义萌芽的关系|website=docin.com|date=8 April 2012|access-date=2 September 2015 }}</ref> In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of [[Late Ming peasant rebellions|peasant rebel]] forces led by [[Li Zicheng]]. The [[Chongzhen Emperor]] committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu [[Qing dynasty]], then allied with Ming dynasty general [[Wu Sangui]], overthrew Li's short-lived [[Shun dynasty]] and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Qing dynasty {{!}} Definition, History, Map, Time Period, Emperors, Achievements, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Qing-dynasty |access-date=2022-11-10 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. The [[Transition from Ming to Qing|Ming-Qing transition]] (1618–1683) cost 25 million lives in total, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurate another flowering of the arts.<ref>John M. Roberts (1997) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3QZXvUhGwhAC A Short History of the World]'' Oxford University Press p. 272 {{ISBN|0-19-511504-X}}</ref> After the [[Southern Ming]] ended, the further conquest of the [[Dzungar Khanate]] added Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 10, Part 1 |author=John K. Fairbank |page=37}}{{full citation needed|date=June 2023}}</ref> Meanwhile, China's population growth resumed and shortly began to accelerate. It is commonly agreed that pre-modern China's population experienced two growth spurts, one during the [[Northern Song]] period (960-1127), and other during the Qing period (around 1700–1830).<ref>{{cite book | first = Kent | last = Deng | title = China's Population Expansion and Its Causes during the Qing Period, 1644–1911 | year = 2015 | pages = 1 |url=https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/64492/1/WP219.pdf |access-date=August 28, 2023 }}</ref> By the [[High Qing era]] China was possibly the most commercialized country in the world, and imperial China experienced a second commercial revolution in the [[Economic history of China before 1912|economic history of China]] by the end of the 18th century.<ref>{{citation |last = Rowe |first = William |title = China's Last Empire - The Great Qing | year = 2010 | publisher = Harvard University Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KN7Awmzx2PAC | page=123 | access-date=August 28, 2023| isbn = 9780674054554}}</ref> On the other hand, the centralized autocracy was strengthened in part to suppress [[anti-Qing sentiment]] with the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining commerce, like the ''[[Haijin]]'' during the early Qing period and ideological control as represented by the [[literary inquisition]], causing some social and technological stagnation.<ref>{{cite book|script-title=zh:中国通史·明清史|year=2010|publisher=九州出版社|pages=104–112|isbn=978-7-5108-0062-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|script-title=zh:中华通史·第十卷|year=1996|publisher=花城出版社|page=71|isbn=978-7-5360-2320-8}}</ref>

=== Fall of the Qing dynasty ===
{{Further|Century of humiliation|Opium Wars|First Sino-Japanese War|Boxer Rebellion}}
[[File:EightNationsCrime02.jpg|thumb|The [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] invaded China to defeat the anti-foreign [[Boxer Rebellion|Boxers]] and their Qing backers. The image shows a celebration ceremony inside the Chinese imperial palace, the [[Forbidden City]] after the signing of the [[Boxer Protocol]] in 1901.]]
In the mid-19th century, the Qing dynasty experienced Western imperialism in the [[Opium Wars]] with Britain and [[France]]. China was forced to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow [[extraterritoriality]] for foreign nationals, and cede [[Hong Kong]] to the British<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Embree |first1=Ainslie |url=https://archive.org/details/asiainwesternwor00ains |title=Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching |last2=Gluck |first2=Carol |publisher=[[M.E. Sharpe]] |year=1997 |isbn=1-56324-265-6 |page=597 |author-link=Ainslie Embree |author-link2=Carol Gluck |url-access=limited}}</ref> under the 1842 [[Treaty of Nanking]], the first of the [[Unequal Treaties]]. The [[First Sino-Japanese War]] (1894–1895) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the [[Korean Peninsula]], as well as the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki|cession of Taiwan]] to [[Empire of Japan|Japan]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/546176/Sino-Japanese-War |access-date=16 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920171344/https://www.britannica.com/event/First-Sino-Japanese-War-1894-1895 |archive-date=20 September 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Qing dynasty also began experiencing [[Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions|internal unrest]] in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the [[White Lotus Rebellion]], the failed [[Taiping Rebellion]] that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the [[Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)]] in the northwest. The initial success of the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]] of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s.<ref name="Lee2004">{{cite book|author=李恩涵|title=近代中國外交史事新研| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cA8OBkr-JmMC&pg=PA78| year=2004|publisher=臺灣商務印書館| isbn=978-957-05-1891-7| page=78}}</ref>

In the 19th century, the great [[Chinese emigration|Chinese diaspora]] began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the [[Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879]], in which between 9 and 13 million people died.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/3/U8480E/U8480E05.htm |title=Dimensions of need – People and populations at risk |year=1995 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)|access-date=3 July 2013}}</ref> The [[Guangxu Emperor]] drafted a [[Hundred Days' Reform|reform plan]] in 1898 to establish a modern [[constitutional monarchy]], but these plans were thwarted by the [[Empress Dowager Cixi]]. The ill-fated anti-foreign [[Boxer Rebellion]] of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms known as the [[late Qing reforms]], the [[Xinhai Revolution]] of 1911–1912 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]].<ref name="xb1">Li, Xiaobing. [2007] (2007). ''A History of the Modern Chinese Army''. University Press of Kentucky. {{ISBN|0-8131-2438-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8131-2438-4}}. pp. 13, 26–27.</ref> [[Puyi]], the last Emperor of China, abdicated in 1912.<ref>{{cite web|date=4 June 2013|title=The abdication decree of Emperor Puyi (1912)|website=Chinese Revolution |language=en-US |url=https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/abdication-emperor-puyi-1912/ |access-date=22 May 2021}}</ref>

=== Establishment of the Republic and World War II ===
{{Main|Republic of China (1912–1949)}}{{Further|1911 Revolution|Second Sino-Japanese War|Chinese Civil War|Chinese Communist Revolution}}
[[File:孙中山肖像.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sun Yat-sen]], key figure of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]'s establishment]]
On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and [[Sun Yat-sen]] of the [[Kuomintang]] (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president.<ref>Eileen Tamura (1997) ''China: Understanding Its Past.'' Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press {{ISBN|0-8248-1923-3}} p.146</ref> On 12 February 1912, [[regent]] [[Empress Dowager Longyu]] sealed the [[Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor|imperial abdication decree]] on behalf of 4 year old [[Puyi]], the last emperor of China, ending 5,000 years of [[Monarchy of China|monarchy in China]].<ref>{{cite web|date=4 June 2013|title=The abdication decree of Emperor Puyi (1912)|url=https://alphahistory.com/chineserevolution/abdication-emperor-puyi-1912/|access-date=29 May 2021|website=Chinese Revolution|language=en-US}}</ref> In March 1912, the presidency was given to [[Yuan Shikai]], a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself [[Empire of China (1915–1916)|Emperor of China]]. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own [[Beiyang Army]], he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916.<ref>[[Stephen G. Haw|Stephen Haw]] (2006) Beijing: A Concise History. Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|0-415-39906-8}} p.143</ref>

After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.<ref>Bruce Elleman (2001) ''Modern Chinese Warfare'' Routledge {{ISBN|0-415-21474-2}} p.149</ref><ref>Graham Hutchings (2003) ''Modern China: A Guide to a Century of Change'' Harvard University Press {{ISBN|0-674-01240-2}} p.459</ref> In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang under [[Chiang Kai-shek]], the then Principal of the [[Republic of China Military Academy]], was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings, known collectively as the [[Northern Expedition]].<ref>Peter Zarrow (2005) ''China in War and Revolution, 1895–1949'' Routledge {{ISBN|0-415-36447-7}} p.230</ref><ref>M. Leutner (2002) ''The Chinese Revolution in the 1920s: Between Triumph and Disaster'' Routledge {{ISBN|0-7007-1690-4}} p.129</ref> The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to [[Nanjing]] and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's [[San-min Doctrine|San-min]] program for transforming China into a modern democratic state.<ref>Hung-Mao Tien (1972) ''Government and Politics in Kuomintang China, 1927–1937 (Volume 53)'' Stanford University Press {{ISBN|0-8047-0812-6}} pp. 60–72</ref><ref>[[Suisheng Zhao]] (2000) ''China and Democracy: Reconsidering the Prospects for a Democratic China'' Routledge {{ISBN|0-415-92694-7}} p.43</ref> The [[List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era|political division]] in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the [[Chinese Communists|communist]]-led [[People's Liberation Army]] (PLA), against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the [[Chinese Civil War]]. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the PLA retreated in the [[Long March]], until Japanese aggression and the 1936 [[Xi'an Incident]] forced Chiang to confront [[Imperial Japan]].<ref>David Ernest Apter, Tony Saich (1994) ''Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic'' Harvard University Press {{ISBN|0-674-76780-2}} p.198</ref>

[[File:1945 Mao and Chiang.jpg|thumb|[[Chiang Kai-shek]] and [[Mao Zedong]] toasting together in 1945 following the [[End of World War II in Asia|end of World War II]]]]

The [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–1945), a [[Theater (warfare)|theater]] of [[World War II]], forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists. Japanese forces committed numerous [[Japanese war crimes|war atrocities]] against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/nuclear_01.shtml "Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan"]. BBC — History. Retrieved 14 July 2013.</ref> An estimated 40,000 to 300,000 Chinese [[Nanking Massacre|were massacred]] in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.<ref>[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-8.html "Judgement: International Military Tribunal for the Far East"]. ''Chapter VIII: Conventional War Crimes (Atrocities).'' November 1948. Retrieved 4 February 2013.</ref> During the war, China, along with the UK, the United States, and the [[Soviet Union]], were referred to as "trusteeship of the powerful"<ref name=Justus>{{cite book|last1=Doenecke|first1=Justus D.|last2=Stoler|first2=Mark A.|title=Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62|year=2005|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-8476-9416-7}}</ref> and were recognized as the Allied "[[Four Policemen|Big Four]]" in the [[Declaration by United Nations]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Yearbook of the United Nations 1946–1947|date=1947|publisher=United Nations|location=Lake Success, NY|oclc=243471225|page=3|chapter-url=http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&page=38 |access-date=25 April 2015|chapter=The Moscow Declaration on general security}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/sections/history-united-nations-charter/1942-declaration-united-nations/|title=Declaration by United Nations|publisher=United Nations|access-date=20 June 2015}}</ref> Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four major [[Allies of World War II]], and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.<ref>Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley ''FDR and the Creation of the U.N.'' (Yale University Press, 1997)</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=John Lewis |last=Gaddis |title=The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947 |year=1972|publisher=Columbia University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd |url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-231-12239-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd/page/24 24]–25}}</ref> After the [[surrender of Japan]] in 1945, Taiwan, including the [[Pescadores]], was [[Retrocession Day|handed over to Chinese control]]. However, the validity of this handover is controversial, in that whether Taiwan's sovereignty was legally transferred and whether China is a legitimate recipient, due to complex issues that arose from the handling of Japan's surrender. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the [[Constitution of the Republic of China|ROC constitution]] were never implemented in mainland China.<ref>{{cite book |title=Constitutional Reform and the Future of the Republic of China|chapter=The Constitutional Conundrum and the Need for Reform|year=1991|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|page=3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xCxMn-2msr8C&pg=PA3 |first=Hung-mao|last=Tien|editor-first=Harvey|editor-last=Feldman |isbn=978-0-87332-880-7}}</ref>

=== Civil War and the People's Republic ===
{{Main|History of the People's Republic of China}}
{{Further|Chinese Soviet Republic|Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan|Taiwan, China|Cultural Revolution}}
Before the existence of the People's Republic, the CCP had declared [[Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)|several areas of the country]] as the [[Chinese Soviet Republic]] (Jiangxi Soviet), a predecessor state to the PRC, in November 1931 in [[Ruijin]], [[Jiangxi]]. The Jiangxi Soviet was [[Encirclement campaigns|wiped out]] by the KMT armies in 1934 and was relocated to [[Yan'an]] in [[Shaanxi]] where the [[Long March]] concluded in 1935.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Waller |first1=Derek J. |title=The Kiangsi Soviet Republic: Mao and the National Congresses of 1931 and 1934 |date=1973 |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |url=https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/ieas/IEAS_10_0001.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://digitalassets.lib.berkeley.edu/ieas/IEAS_10_0001.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=April 2022}} It would be the base of the communists before major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949. Afterwards, the CCP took control of most of mainland China, and the [[Kuomintang's retreat to Taiwan|Kuomintang retreating offshore to Taiwan]], reducing its territory to only Taiwan, [[Hainan]], and their surrounding islands.
[[File:Mao Proclaiming New China.JPG|thumb|[[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|The founding ceremony of the People's Republic of China]] was held at 3:00 pm on October 1, 1949. The picture above shows [[Mao Zedong]]'s announcement of the founding of the People's Republic of China in [[Tiananmen Square]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=李丹青 |title=What's behind the founding ceremony of the PRC? |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201909/30/WS5d9d4f5aa310cf3e3556f681.html |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=www.chinadaily.com.cn}}</ref>]]
On 1 October 1949, [[Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP Chairman]] [[Mao Zedong]] formally [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China]] at the new nation's founding ceremony and inaugural military parade in [[Tiananmen Square]], Beijing.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Ben Westcott|author2=Lily Lee|date=30 September 2019|title=They were born at the start of Communist China. 70 years later, their country is unrecognizable |publisher=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/29/asia/china-beijing-mao-october-1-70-intl-hnk/index.html}}</ref> In 1950, the People's Liberation Army [[Battle of Hainan Island|captured Hainan]] from the ROC<ref>{{cite news |date=9 May 1950|title=Red Capture of Hainan Island |newspaper=[[The Tuscaloosa News]] |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19500509&id=FUw_AAAAIBAJ&pg=3627,3301880 |access-date=20 July 2013}}</ref> and [[Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China|annexed Tibet]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Tibetans |url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/ir/cews/database/Tibet/tibet.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016102314/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/ir/cews/database/Tibet/tibet.pdf|archive-date=16 October 2013|access-date=20 July 2013|publisher=[[University of Southern California]]}}</ref> However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wage [[Kuomintang Islamic insurgency|an insurgency in western China]] throughout the 1950s.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZNCghCIbyVAC&q=C.I.A%20%20Ma%20bufang&pg=PA169|title=The Sino-American alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War strategy in Asia|author=John W. Garver|year=1997 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-0025-7|page=169 |access-date=20 July 2013}}</ref>

The government consolidated its popularity among the peasants through the [[Land Reform Movement (China)|Land Reform Movement]], which included the execution of between 1 and 2 million landlords.<ref>Busky, Donald F. (2002) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Q6b0j1VINWgC Communism in History and Theory]'' [[Greenwood Publishing Group]]. p.11</ref> China developed an independent industrial system and [[China and weapons of mass destruction|its own nuclear weapons]].<ref>{{cite web|title=A Country Study: China|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/87600493/|website=loc.gov|access-date=3 October 2017}}</ref> The Chinese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974.<ref>{{cite book|author=Madelyn Holmes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJK-GRriJAoC |title=Students and teachers of the new China: thirteen interviews|publisher=McFarland|access-date=7 November 2011 |year=2008|page=185|isbn=978-0-7864-3288-2}}</ref> However, the [[Great Leap Forward]], an idealistic massive [[Industrialisation|industrialization]] project, resulted in [[Great Chinese Famine|an estimated 15 to 55 million deaths]] between 1959 and 1961, mostly from starvation.<ref name="nyt">{{cite news |last=Mirsky |first=Jonathan |date=9 December 2012 |title=Unnatural Disaster|newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/books/review/tombstone-the-great-chinese-famine-1958-1962-by-yang-jisheng.html?nl=books&emc=edit_bk_20121207|access-date=7 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Holmes |first=Leslie |title=Communism: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-955154-5 |page=32 |quote=Most estimates of the number of Chinese dead are in the range of 15 to 30 million.}}</ref> In 1964, China's first atomic bomb exploded successfully.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1964: China's first atomic bomb explodes |website=www.china.org.cn |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/congress/228244.htm |access-date=2023-02-18}}</ref> In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the [[Cultural Revolution]], sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval that lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|replaced the Republic of China]] in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.<ref>{{cite book |author=Michael Y.M. Kao |chapter=Taiwan's and Beijing's Campaigns for Unification |editor1=Harvey Feldman |author2=Michael Y. M. Kao |year=1988 |title=Taiwan in a Time of Transition |place=New York |publisher=Paragon House |page=188}}</ref> This UN action also created the problem of the [[political status of Taiwan]] and the [[Two Chinas]] issue.

=== Reforms and contemporary history ===
{{Further|Chinese economic reform}}

[[File:Události na náměstí Tian an men, Čína 1989, foto Jiří Tondl.jpg|thumb|The [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests]] was ended by a military-led massacre which brought condemnations and sanctions against the Chinese government from various foreign countries.]]

After Mao's death, the [[Gang of Four]] was quickly arrested by [[Hua Guofeng]] and held responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. [[Deng Xiaoping]] took power in 1978, and instituted large-scale [[Boluan Fanzheng|political]] and [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms]], together with the "[[Eight Elders]]", CCP members who held huge influence during this time. The CCP loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives, and the [[People's commune|communes]] were gradually disbanded in favor of working contracted to households. The Cultural Revolution was also rebuked, with millions of its victims being rehabilitated.<ref name="Hamrin-1995">{{Cite book |last1=Hamrin |first1=Carol Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MySp8yumuJ4C&q=boluan+fanzheng&pg=PA32 |title=Decision-making in Deng's China: Perspectives from Insiders |last2=Zhao |first2=Suisheng |date=1995-01-15 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=978-0-7656-3694-2 |language=en}}</ref> [[Collective farming|Agricultural collectivization]] was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of [[special economic zone]]s (SEZs). Inefficient [[State-owned enterprises of China|state-owned enterprises]] (SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}} This marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open-market environment.<ref name="Ref_e">{{cite book |last1=Hart-Landsberg |first1=Martin |last2=Burkett |first2=Paul |date=March 2005 |title=China and Socialism: Market Reforms and Class Struggle |publisher=Monthly Review Press |isbn=9781583671238}}
* {{cite journal |title=Review |journal=[[Monthly Review]] |url=http://www.monthlyreview.org/chinaandsocialism.htm |access-date=30 October 2008}}</ref> China adopted its current [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|constitution]] on 4 December 1982.

In 1989, the country saw large pro-democracy protests, eventually leading to the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre|Tiananmen Square massacre]] by the leadership, bringing condemnations and sanctions against the Chinese government from various foreign countries, though the effect on external relations was short-lived.<ref>{{cite web|last=Harding|first=Harry |date=December 1990|title=The Impact of Tiananmen on China's Foreign Policy |url=http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=73 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404193656/http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=73 |archive-date=4 April 2014|access-date=28 November 2013|publisher=[[National Bureau of Asian Research]]}}</ref> [[Jiang Zemin]], Party secretary of Shanghai at the time, was selected to replace [[Zhao Ziyang]] as the CCP general secretary; Zhao was put under house arrest for his sympathies to the protests. Jiang later additionally took the presidency and [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|Central Military Commission chairmanship]] posts, effectively becoming China's top leader. [[Li Peng]], who was instrumental in the crackdown, remained premier until 1998, after which [[Zhu Rongji]] became the premier. Under their administration, China continued economic reforms,<ref>{{cite book |last=Vogel |first=Ezra |title=Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China |date=2011 |publisher=Belknap Press |isbn=978-0-674-72586-7 |page=682 |author-link=Ezra Vogel}}</ref> further closing many SOEs and massively trimming down "[[iron rice bowl]]"; occupations with guaranteed job security.<ref name="APs-2022">{{cite news |date=30 November 2022 |title=Jiang Zemin, who guided China's economic rise, dies |language=en |work=[[Associated Press]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/china-beijing-hong-kong-obituaries-jiang-zemin-4ee4c5dcaf567e02efa3c5c7186af30a |access-date=30 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=13 September 1997 |title=China Gets Down to Business at Party Congress |language=en-US |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-sep-13-mn-31787-story.html |url-status=live |access-date=12 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018190108/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-sep-13-mn-31787-story.html |archive-date=18 October 2022}}</ref> During Jiang's rule, China's economy grew sevenfold,<ref name="APs-2022" /> and its performance pulled an estimated{{By whom|date=October 2021}} 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.<ref>{{Cite news|url= http://en.people.cn/english/200003/01/eng20000301X115.html |title=China's Average Economic Growth in 90s Ranked 1st in World|date=1 March 2000|newspaper=People's Daily|access-date=10 July 2013}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=October 2021}} [[British Hong Kong]] and [[Portuguese Macau]] returned to China in [[Handover of Hong Kong|1997]] and [[Transfer of sovereignty over Macau|1999]], respectively, as the Hong Kong and [[Macau]] [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]] under the principle of [[one country, two systems]]. The country joined the [[World Trade Organization]] in 2001.<ref name="APs-2022" />

Between 2002 and 2003, [[Hu Jintao]] and [[Wen Jiabao]] succeeded Jiang and Zhu as paramount leader and premier respectively; Jiang attempted to remain CMC chairman for longer before giving up the post entirely between 2004 and 2005.<ref name="APs-2022" /> Under Hu and Wen, China maintained its high rate of economic growth, overtaking the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Japan to become the world's second-largest economy.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Orlik |first=Tom |date=16 November 2012 |title=Charting China's Economy: A Decade Under Hu Jintao |language=en-US |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2012/11/16/charting-chinas-economy-10-years-under-hu-jintao/ |access-date=16 May 2023 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref> However, the growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2007/08/26/world/asia/20070826_CHINA_GRAPHIC.html|title=China's Environmental Crisis|last1=Carter|first1=Shan|date=26 August 2007|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=16 May 2012|last2=Cox|first2=Amanda|last3=Burgess|first3=Joe|last4=Aigner|first4=Erin}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4913622.stm|title=China worried over pace of growth|last=Griffiths|first=Daniel|date=16 April 2004|work=BBC News|access-date=16 April 2006}}</ref> and caused major social displacement.<ref name="Ref_k">[https://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=3166 ''China: Migrants, Students, Taiwan''] [[UC Davis]] Migration News January 2006</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/27/AR2006012701588.html|title=In Face of Rural Unrest, China Rolls Out Reforms|last=Cody|first=Edward|date=28 January 2006|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=18 January 2020|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Hu and Wen also took a relatively more conservative approach towards economic reform, expanding support for SOEs.<ref name="Marquis-2022a">{{Cite book |last1=Marquis |first1=Christopher |url= |title=Mao and markets the communist roots of Chinese enterprise |last2=Qiao |first2=Kunyuan |date=2022 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-26883-6 |location=New Haven |oclc=1348572572 |author-link=Christopher Marquis}}</ref>{{Rp|page=217}}Additionally under Hu, China hosted the [[2008 Summer Olympics|Beijing Olympics]] in 2008.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McDonell |first=Stephen |date=22 October 2022 |title=Hu Jintao: The mysterious exit of China's former leader from party congress |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-63358627 |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref>
[[File:One-belt-one-road.svg|thumb|[[Belt and Road Initiative]] and related projects]]
[[Xi Jinping]] and [[Li Keqiang]] succeeded Hu and Wen as paramount leader and premier respectively between 2012 and 2013; Li Keqiang was later succeeded by [[Li Qiang]] in 2023. Shortly after his ascension to power, Xi launched a vast [[Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping|anti-corruption crackdown]],<ref>{{cite news |date=20 March 2018 |title=China's anti-corruption campaign expands with new agency |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher= |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-43453769 |url-status=live |access-date=13 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924060145/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-43453769 |archive-date=24 September 2019}}</ref> that prosecuted more than 2 million officials by 2022.<ref name="Marquis-2022b">{{Cite book |last1=Marquis |first1=Christopher |title=Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise |last2=Qiao |first2=Kunyuan |date=2022-11-15 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-26883-6 |pages= |doi=10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k |jstor=j.ctv3006z6k |author-link=Christopher Marquis |s2cid=253067190}}</ref>{{Rp|page=171}} Leading many new [[Leading Small Group|Central Leading Groups]] to bypass traditional bureaucracy, Xi consolidated power further than his predecessors.<ref name="PhillipsGuardian2">{{Cite news |last=Phillips |first=Tom |date=24 October 2017 |title=Xi Jinping becomes most powerful leader since Mao with China's change to constitution |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/24/xi-jinping-mao-thought-on-socialism-china-constitution |url-status=live |access-date=24 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024053607/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/24/xi-jinping-mao-thought-on-socialism-china-constitution |archive-date=24 October 2017 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name="keck2">{{cite news |last1=Keck |first1=Zachary |date=7 January 2014 |title=Is Li Keqiang Being Marginalized? |work=[[The Diplomat]] |url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/is-li-keqiang-being-marginalized/ |url-status=live |access-date=7 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029152046/https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/is-li-keqiang-being-marginalized/ |archive-date=29 October 2018}}</ref> Xi has also pursued changes to China's economy, supporting SOEs<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Wang |first1=Orange |last2=Leng |first2=Sidney |date=28 September 2018 |title=Chinese President Xi Jinping's show of support for state-owned firms 'no surprise', analysts say |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/2166261/chinese-president-xi-jinpings-show-support-state-owned-firms |access-date=31 January 2020}}</ref> and making eradicating extreme poverty through "[[Targeted Poverty Alleviation|targeted poverty alleviation]]" a key goal.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 February 2021 |title=Xi Puts His Personal Stamp on China's Fight Against Poverty |language=en |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-25/china-s-xi-puts-personal-stamp-on-nation-s-fight-against-poverty |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> In 2013, Xi launched the [[Belt and Road Initiative]], a global infrastructure investment project.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tan |first=Huileng |date=31 October 2017 |title=China wrote Belt and Road Initiative into the party constitution. That makes it riskier than ever |work=[[CNBC]] |publisher= |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/10/31/china-wrote-belt-and-road-initiative-into-the-party-constitution.html |access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref> Xi has also taken a more assertive stance on foreign and security issues.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barrass |first1=Gordon |last2=Inkster |first2=Nigel |date=2 January 2018 |title=Xi Jinping: The Strategist Behind the Dream |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2018.1427363 |journal=Survival |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=41–68 |doi=10.1080/00396338.2018.1427363 |issn=0039-6338 |s2cid=158856300}}</ref> Since 2017, the Chinese government has been engaged in a [[Uyghur genocide|harsh crackdown]] in Xinjiang, with an estimated one million people, mostly [[Uyghurs]], but including other ethnic and religious minorities, in internment camps.<ref name="Graham-Harrison-2019" /> The National People's Congress in 2018 amended the constitution to remove the two-term limit on holding the Presidency, allowing for a third and further terms.<ref name="BaturoElgie2019">{{cite book |author1=Alexander Baturo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncSbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA263 |title=The Politics of Presidential Term Limits |author2=Robert Elgie |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-19-883740-4 |page=263}}</ref> In 2020, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) passed a [[Hong Kong national security law|national security law]] that authorize the [[Government of Hong Kong|Hong Kong government]] wide-ranging tools to crack down on dissent.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-06-28 |title=Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying? |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-52765838 |access-date=2022-08-12}}</ref> From December 2019 to December 2022, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] led the government to enforce [[zero-COVID|strict public health measures]] intended to completely eradicate the virus, a goal that was eventually abandoned after [[2022 COVID-19 protests in China|protests against the policy in 2022]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Che |first1=Chang |last2=Chien |first2=Amy Chang |last3=Stevenson |first3=Alexandra |date=2022-12-07 |title=What Has Changed About China's 'Zero Covid' Policy |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/07/world/asia/china-zero-covid-changes.html |access-date=2022-12-08 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-12-07 |title=China abandons key parts of zero-Covid strategy after protests |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-63855508 |access-date=2023-06-30}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of China}}
[[File:East Asia topographic map.png|thumb|China topographic map with East Asian countries]]
China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the [[Gobi Desert|Gobi]] and [[Taklamakan Desert]]s in the arid north to the [[subtropical]] forests in the wetter south. The [[Himalaya]], [[Karakoram]], [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]] and [[Tian Shan]] mountain ranges separate China from much of [[South Asia|South]] and [[Central Asia]]. The [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the [[Tibetan Plateau]] to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the [[Pacific Ocean]] is {{cvt|14500|km}} long and is bounded by the [[Bohai Sea|Bohai]], [[Yellow Sea|Yellow]], [[East China Sea|East China]] and [[South China Sea|South China]] seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the [[Eurasian Steppe]] which has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the [[Steppe Route]] – the ancestor of the terrestrial [[Silk Roads: the Routes Network of Chang'an-Tianshan Corridor|Silk Road]](s).{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}

The territory of China lies between [[latitude]]s [[18th parallel north|18°]] and [[54th parallel north|54° N]], and [[longitude]]s [[73rd meridian east|73°]] and [[135th meridian east|135° E]]. The [[geographical center]] of China is marked by the Center of the Country Monument at {{coord|35|50|40.9|N|103|27|7.5|E|region:CN-62_type:landmark|name=Geographical center of China}}. China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast territory. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated [[alluvium|alluvial plains]], while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad [[grassland]]s predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the [[river delta|deltas]] of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include the [[Xi River|Xi]], [[Mekong]], [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]] and [[Amur River|Amur]]. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High [[plateau]]s feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point, [[Mount Everest]] (8,848 m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8608913.stm|title=Nepal and China agree on Mount Everest's height|date=8 April 2010|work=BBC News|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of [[Ayding Lake]] (−154 m) in the [[Turpan Depression]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/deva/naturescience/lowest-places-on-earth.htm|title=Lowest Places on Earth|date=28 February 2015|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=2 December 2013}}</ref>

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of China}}
{{Further|Great Green Wall (China)}}

[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map CHN present.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen-Geiger climate classification]] map for mainland China<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Beck|first1=Hylke E.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=Niklaus E.|last3=McVicar|first3=Tim R.|last4=Vergopolan|first4=Noemi|last5=Berg|first5=Alexis|author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood|last6=Wood|first6=Eric F.|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution|journal=Scientific Data|date=30 October 2018|volume=5|page=180214|doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988|pmc=6207062|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}</ref>]]
China's climate is mainly dominated by [[dry season]]s and wet [[monsoons]], which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist.<ref>{{cite book|title=Regional Climate Studies of China|year=2008|publisher=Springer|page=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SEO_RyNDJ0gC&pg=PA1|isbn=978-3-540-79242-0|bibcode=2008rcsc.book.....F}}</ref>

A major environmental issue in China is the continued [[desertification|expansion of its deserts]], particularly the Gobi Desert.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/terrywaghorn/2011/03/07/fighting-desertification/|title=Fighting Desertification|last=Waghorn|first=Terry|date=7 March 2011|newspaper=Forbes|access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4915690.stm|title=Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm|date=17 April 2006|work=BBC News|access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref> Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of [[sandstorms]], prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in [[Asian dust|dust storms]] plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Japan and Korea. China's environmental watchdog, [[Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China|SEPA]], stated in 2007 that China is losing {{cvt|4000|km2}} per year to desertification.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-gathering-sandstorm-encroaching-desert-missing-water-399653.html|title=The gathering sandstorm: Encroaching desert, missing water|last=Coonan|first=Clifford|date=9 November 2007|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=23 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424052106/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-gathering-sandstorm-encroaching-desert-missing-water-399653.html|archive-date=24 April 2008}}</ref> Water quality, [[erosion]], and [[Pollution in China|pollution control]] have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting [[glaciers]] in the Himalayas could potentially lead to [[water shortage]]s for hundreds of millions of people.<ref name="msnbc">{{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27894721|title=Himalaya glaciers melting much faster|last=Reilly|first=Michael|date=24 November 2008 |publisher=NBC News|access-date=21 September 2011}}</ref> According to academics, in order to limit [[climate change in China]] to {{cvt|1.5|C-change}} electricity generation from [[coal in China]] without [[Carbon capture and storage|carbon capture]] must be phased out by 2045.<ref>{{cite report|date=December 2020|title=China's New Growth Pathway: From the 14th Five-Year Plan to Carbon Neutrality|url=https://www.efchina.org/Attachments/Report/report-lceg-20201210/Full-Report_Synthesis-Report-2020-on-Chinas-Carbon-Neutrality_EN.pdf|page=24|publisher=Energy Foundation China|access-date=16 December 2020|archive-date=16 April 2021|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416100821/https://www.efchina.org/Attachments/Report/report-lceg-20201210/Full-Report_Synthesis-Report-2020-on-Chinas-Carbon-Neutrality_EN.pdf}}</ref> With current policies, the GHG emissions of China will probably peak in 2025, and by 2030 they will return to 2022 levels. However, such pathway still leads to 3 degree temperature rise.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lui |first1=Swithin |title=Guest post: Why China is set to significantly overachieve its 2030 climate goals |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-why-china-is-set-to-significantly-overachieve-its-2030-climate-goals/ |website=Carbon Brief |date=19 May 2022 |access-date=24 May 2022 |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523114439/https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-why-china-is-set-to-significantly-overachieve-its-2030-climate-goals/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Official government statistics about Chinese agricultural productivity are considered unreliable, due to exaggeration of production at subsidiary government levels.<ref>Chow, Gregory (2006) Are Chinese Official Statistics Reliable? CESifo Economic Studies 52. 396–414. 10.1093/cesifo/ifl003.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Liu G, Wang X, Baiocchi G, Casazza M, Meng F, Cai Y, Hao Y, Wu F, Yang Z |date=October 2020 |title=On the accuracy of official Chinese crop production data: Evidence from biophysical indexes of net primary production |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=117|issue=41|pages=25434–25444 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1919850117|pmc=7568317|pmid=32978301 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11725434L |doi-access=free}}</ref> Much of China has a climate very suitable for agriculture and the country has been the world's largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many other crops.<ref>{{cite web|title=Countries by commodity|website=[[FAOSTAT]] |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#rankings/countries_by_commodity|access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref>

=== Biodiversity ===
{{Main|Wildlife of China}}
[[File:Giant Panda Eating.jpg|thumb|A [[giant panda]], China's most famous [[List of endangered and protected species of China|endangered]] and [[endemic]] species, at the [[Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding|Chengdu Panda Base]] in [[Sichuan]]]]

China is one of 17 [[megadiverse countries]],<ref name="Ref_2009a">{{cite web |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html|title=Biodiversity Theme Report|last=Williams|first=Jann|date=10 December 2009|website=Environment.gov.au|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811045957/http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html|archive-date=11 August 2011|access-date=27 April 2010}}</ref> lying in two of the world's major [[biogeographic realm]]s: the [[Palearctic realm|Palearctic]] and the [[Indomalayan realm|Indomalayan]]. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after [[Brazil]] and [[Colombia]].<ref>[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03highest_biodiversity.htm Countries with the Highest Biological Diversity] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326060253/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03highest_biodiversity.htm|date=26 March 2013 }}. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> The country signed the [[Rio de Janeiro]] [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbd.int/countries/?country=cn|title=Country Profiles – China|website=[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] |access-date=9 December 2012}}</ref> It later produced a [[Biodiversity action plan|National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan]], with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/cn/cn-nbsap-v2-zh.pdf |title=translation: China Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan. Years 2011–2030|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/cn/cn-nbsap-v2-zh.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|language=en|website=[[Convention on Biological Diversity]]|access-date=9 December 2012}}</ref>

China is home to at least 551 species of [[List of mammals of China|mammals]] (the third-highest such number in the world),<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/mammals/analysis/geographic-patterns IUCN Initiatives – Mammals – Analysis of Data – Geographic Patterns 2012] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512150801/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/mammals/analysis/geographic-patterns|date=12 May 2013 }}. IUCN. Retrieved 24 April 2013. Data does not include species in Taiwan.</ref> 1,221 species of birds (eighth),<ref>[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03birds.htm Countries with the most bird species] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216152146/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03birds.htm|date=16 February 2013 }}. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> 424 species of reptiles (seventh)<ref>[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03reptiles.htm Countries with the most reptile species]. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> and 333 species of amphibians (seventh).<ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/amphibians/analysis/geographic-patterns#diversity IUCN Initiatives – Amphibians – Analysis of Data – Geographic Patterns 2012] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512145131/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/amphibians/analysis/geographic-patterns|date=12 May 2013 }}. IUCN. Retrieved 24 April 2013. Data does not include species in Taiwan.</ref> Wildlife in China shares habitat with, and bears acute pressure from, the world's largest population of humans. At least 840 [[List of endangered and protected species of China|animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction]] in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for [[traditional Chinese medicine]].<ref>[http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/infographic-top-20-countries-with-most-endangered-species Top 20 countries with most endangered species IUCN Red List] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424182826/http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/infographic-top-20-countries-with-most-endangered-species|date=24 April 2013 }}. 5 March 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and {{As of|2005|lc=y}}, the country has over 2,349 [[Protected areas of China|nature reserves]], covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/Brief/193257.htm|title=Nature Reserves|website=[[China Internet Information Center]] |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115063105/http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/Brief/193257.htm |archive-date=15 November 2010|access-date=2 December 2013}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2021}} Most wild animals have been eliminated from the core agricultural regions of east and central China, but they have fared better in the mountainous south and west.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turvey|first1=Samuel|year=2013|title=Holocene survival of Late Pleistocene megafauna in China: a critical review of the evidence|journal=[[Quaternary Science Reviews]]|volume=76|pages=156–166|bibcode=2013QSRv...76..156T |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.06.030}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lander|first1=Brian|last2=Brunson|first2=Katherine|year=2018 |title=Wild Mammals of Ancient North China|journal=The Journal of Chinese History|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=2|issue=2|pages=291–312|doi=10.1017/jch.2017.45|s2cid=90662935}}</ref> The [[Baiji]] was confirmed extinct on 12 December 2006.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Turvey|first1=Samuel|title=Witness to Extinction: How we failed to save the Yangtze River dolphin |date=2008|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford}}</ref>

China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,<ref>[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03plants.htm Countries with the most vascular plant species] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112001508/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03plants.htm|date=12 January 2014 }}. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold [[coniferous]] forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as [[moose]] and [[Asian black bear]], along with over 120 bird species.<ref name="rough guide" /> The [[understory]] of moist [[conifer]] forests may contain thickets of [[bamboo]]. In higher [[Montane ecosystems|montane]] stands of [[juniper]] and [[taxus|yew]], the bamboo is replaced by [[rhododendron]]s. [[Subtropical]] forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support a high density of plant species including numerous rare endemics. Tropical and seasonal [[rainforest]]s, though confined to [[Yunnan]] and [[Hainan]], contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.<ref name="rough guide">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dA_QbQiZkB4C&pg=PA1213|title=China|publisher=[[Rough Guides]]|year=2003|isbn=978-1-84353-019-0|edition=3|page=1213}}</ref> China has over 10,000 recorded species of [[fungi]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Conservation Biology: Voices from the Tropics|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|page=208|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OeqjKhDml6wC&pg=PA208|isbn=978-1-118-67981-4}}</ref> and of them, nearly 6,000 are [[higher fungi]].

=== Environment ===
{{Main|Environment of China|Environmental issues in China}}
{{See also|Renewable energy in China|Water resources of China|Energy policy of China|Climate change in China}}
[[File:ThreeGorgesDam-China2009.jpg|thumb|The [[Three Gorges Dam]] is the largest hydroelectric dam in the world.]]
[[File:Wind power plants in Xinjiang, China.jpg|thumb|[[Wind farm]] in [[Xinjiang]]. By 2022, China's renewable energy capacity is the largest in the world, more than [[European Union]] and North America combined.<ref>{{cite web |title=Renewable capacity statistics 2023 |url=https://www.irena.org/Publications/2023/Mar/Renewable-capacity-statistics-2023 |website=International Renewable Energy Agency |access-date=13 August 2023 |date=March 2023}}</ref>]]

In the early 2000s, China has suffered from [[environmental issues in China|environmental deterioration and pollution]] due to its rapid pace of industrialization.<ref name="Ma2002">{{Cite book|last1=Ma |first1= Xiaoying|last2=Ortalano |first2= Leonard|title=Environmental Regulation in China|year=2000|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQTbZRWgC74C&pg=PA1|page=1|isbn=978-0-8476-9399-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21545868|title=China acknowledges 'cancer villages'|date=22 February 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=23 February 2013}}</ref> Regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, though they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favor of rapid economic development.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-20114306|title=Riot police and protesters clash over China chemical plant|last=Soekov|first=Kimberley|date=28 October 2012|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> China is the country with the second highest death toll because of air pollution, after [[Environmental issues in India|India]], with approximately 1 million deaths caused by exposure to ambient air pollution.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://chinapower.csis.org/air-quality/|title=Is air quality in China a social problem?|date=15 February 2016 |website=ChinaPower Project|access-date=26 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/phe/publications/air-pollution-global-assessment/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160928165031/http://www.who.int/phe/publications/air-pollution-global-assessment/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 September 2016|title=Ambient air pollution: A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease|website=[[World Health Organization]]|access-date=28 April 2018}}</ref> Although China ranks as the highest [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions|CO2 emitting]] country in the world,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iea-emissions-idUSBRE95908S20130610|title=Global carbon emissions hit record high in 2012 |last=Chestney|first=Nina|date=10 June 2013|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=3 November 2013|archive-date=19 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131119111939/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/10/us-iea-emissions-idUSBRE95908S20130610 |url-status=live}}</ref> it only emits 8 tons of [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita|CO2 per capita]], significantly lower than developed countries such as the [[United States]] (16.1), Australia (16.8) and South Korea (13.6).<ref name="UCS-2020">{{cite web|date=August 2020|title=Each Country's Share of CO2 Emissions {{!}} Union of Concerned Scientists|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/each-countrys-share-co2-emissions|access-date=30 October 2020|website=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]]}}</ref> [[Greenhouse gas emissions by China]] are the [[List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions|world's largest]].<ref name="UCS-2020" />

In recent years, China has clamped down on pollution. In March 2014, CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping "declared war" on pollution during the opening of the [[National People's Congress]].<ref name="largefines">{{cite news|title=China's polluters to face large fines under law change|author=Jennifer Duggan|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/chinas-choice/2014/apr/25/china-environment-law-fines-for-pollution|access-date=27 April 2014|date=25 April 2014|work=The Guardian}}</ref> In 2020, Xi announced that China aims to peak emissions before 2030 and go carbon-neutral by 2060 in accordance with the [[Paris Agreement]],<ref name="CAT-2020">{{cite web |date=23 September 2020 |title=China going carbon neutral before 2060 would lower warming projections by around 0.2 to 0.3 degrees C |url=https://climateactiontracker.org/press/china-carbon-neutral-before-2060-would-lower-warming-projections-by-around-2-to-3-tenths-of-a-degree/ |access-date=27 September 2020 |website=[[Climate Action Tracker]]}}</ref> which, according to [[Climate Action Tracker]], if accomplished it would lower the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2 – 0.3 degrees – "the biggest single reduction ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker".<ref name="CAT-2020" /> In September 2021 Xi Jinping announced that China will not build "coal-fired power projects abroad". The decision can be "pivotal" in reducing emissions. The Belt and Road Initiative did not include financing such projects already in the first half of 2021.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brant |first1=Robin |title=China pledges to stop building new coal energy plants abroad |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-58647481 |access-date=29 September 2021 |publisher=BBC |date=22 September 2021}}</ref>

The country also had significant [[water pollution]] problems; only 84.8% of China's national surface water was graded between Grade I-III by the [[Ministry of Ecology and Environment]] in 2021, which indicates that they're suitable for human consumption.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 June 2022 |title=2021 State of Ecology & Environment Report Review |url=https://www.chinawaterrisk.org/resources/analysis-reviews/2021-state-of-ecology-environment-report-review/ |access-date=19 May 2023 |website=[[China Water Risk]]}}</ref> China had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 7.14/10, ranking it 53rd globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G }}</ref> In 2020, a sweeping law was passed by the Chinese government to protect the ecology of the Yangtze River. The new laws include strengthening ecological protection rules for hydropower projects along the river, banning chemical plants within 1 kilometer of the river, relocating polluting industries, severely restricting sand mining as well as a complete fishing ban on all the natural waterways of the river, including all its major tributaries and lakes.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-environment-yangtze-idUSKBN29407F|title = China seeks better protection of Yangtze river with landmark law|work = Reuters|date = 30 December 2020}}</ref>

China is also the world's leading investor in [[renewable energy]] and [[Renewable energy commercialization|its commercialization]], with [[US$|$]]546 billion invested in 2022;<ref name="Schonhardt-2023">{{Cite news |last=Schonhardt |first=Sara |date=30 January 2023 |title=China Invests $546 Billion in Clean Energy, Far Surpassing the U.S. |work=[[Scientific American]] |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/china-invests-546-billion-in-clean-energy-far-surpassing-the-u-s/#:~:text=The%20country%20spent%20%24546%20billion,billion%20in%20clean%20energy%20investments. |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref> it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects.<ref>{{cite news |last=Meng |first=Meng |date=5 January 2017 |title=China to plow $361 billion into renewable fuel by 2020 |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-energy-renewables/china-to-plow-361-billion-into-renewable-fuel-by-2020-idUSKBN14P06P |access-date=28 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="Schonhardt-2023" /> In 2022, 61.2% of China's electricity came from [[Coal in China|coal]] (largest producer in the world), 14.9% from [[Hydroelectric power in Himachal Pradesh|hydroelectric power]] (largest), 9.3% from [[Wind power in China|wind]] (largest), 4.7% from [[Solar power|solar energy]] (largest), 4.7% from [[Nuclear power in China|nuclear energy]] (second-largest), 3.1% from [[Natural gas in China|natural gas]] (fifth-largest), and 1.9% from [[bioenergy]] (largest); in total, 30.8% of China's energy came from renewable energy sources.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wiatros-Motyka |first=Malgorzata |date=12 April 2023 |title=Global Electricity Review 2023 |url=https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/global-electricity-review-2023/ |access-date=19 May 2023 |website=[[Ember (non-profit organisation)|Ember]]}}</ref> Despite its emphasis on renewables, China remains deeply connected to global oil markets and next to India, has been the largest importer of Russian [[Petroleum|crude oil]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perkins |first=Robert |date=2022-10-07 |title=Russian seaborne crude exports slide to 12-month low as EU ban, price caps loom |url=https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/oil/072022-russian-seaborne-crude-exports-retreat-from-three-year-highs-shipping-data |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014053951/https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market-insights/latest-news/oil/072022-russian-seaborne-crude-exports-retreat-from-three-year-highs-shipping-data |archive-date=2022-10-14 |website=[[S&P Global]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=International Energy Agency |author-link=International Energy Agency |date=24 February 2022 |title=Oil Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian-supplies-to-global-energy-markets/oil-market-and-russian-supply-2 |access-date=27 April 2022 |publisher=IEA |location=Paris}}</ref>

=== Political geography ===
{{Main|Borders of China|Coastline of China|Territorial changes of the People's Republic of China}}
[[File:China administrative.svg|200px|thumb|Map showing the territorial claims of the PRC]]
The People's Republic of China is the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|second-largest]] country in the world by land area after [[Russia]].{{efn|China is larger than Canada and the United States in terms of land area.}}{{efn|According to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', the total area of the United States, at {{convert|9522055|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}, is slightly smaller than that of China. Meanwhile, the ''CIA World Factbook'' states that China's total area was greater than that of the United States until the coastal waters of the [[Great Lakes]] was added to the United States' total area in 1996. From 1989 through 1996, the total area of US was listed as {{convert|9372610|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} (land area plus inland water only). The listed total area changed to {{convert|9629091|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 1997 (with the Great Lakes areas and the coastal waters added), to {{convert|9631418|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 2004, to {{convert|9631420|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 2006, and to {{convert|9826630|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 2007 (territorial waters added).}} China's total area is generally stated as being approximately {{convert|9600000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=Jin Shuang|last2=Liu|first2=Quan Riu|title=The Present Situation and Prospects of Plant Taxonomy in China|journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]]|volume=47|number=1|date=February 1998|pages=67–74|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|doi=10.2307/1224020|jstor=1224020}}</ref> Specific area figures range from {{convert|9572900|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} according to the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States|title=United States|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=25 March 2008}}</ref> to {{convert|9596961|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} according to the ''[[Yearbook of the United Nations|UN Demographic Yearbook]]'',<ref name="UN Stat" /> and the ''[[CIA World Factbook]]''.<ref name="CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=China|access-date=23 November 2013}}</ref>

China has the [[List of land border lengths|longest combined land border in the world]], measuring {{convert|22117|km|mi|abbr=on|sp=us}} and its [[Coastline of China|coastline]] covers approximately {{convert|14500|km|mi|abbr=on|sp=us}} from the mouth of the [[Yalu River]] (Amnok River) to the [[Gulf of Tonkin]].<ref name="CIA" /> China [[Borders of China|borders 14 nations]] and covers the bulk of East Asia, bordering [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], and [[Myanmar]] in Southeast Asia; [[India]], [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]]{{efn|China's border with Pakistan and part of its border with India falls in the disputed region of [[Kashmir]]. The area under Pakistani administration is claimed by India, while the area under Indian administration is claimed by Pakistan.}} and [[Afghanistan]] in South Asia; [[Tajikistan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]] and [[Kazakhstan]] in Central Asia; and Russia, [[Mongolia]], and [[North Korea]] in [[Inner Asia]] and [[Northeast Asia]]. It is narrowly separated from [[Bangladesh]] and [[Thailand]] to the southwest and south, and has several maritime neighbors such as [[Japan]], [[Philippines]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Indonesia]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wei|first=Yuwa|title=China and ITS Neighbors |volume=22|number=1|date=2014|pages=105–136|publisher=[[Willamette University College of Law]]|journal=Willamette Journal of International Law and Dispute Resolution|jstor=26210500}}</ref>

{{clear}}

== Politics ==
{{Main|Politics of China}}{{See also|List of current Chinese provincial leaders}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Great Hall Of The People At Night.JPG
| caption1 = The [[Great Hall of the People]] where the [[National People's Congress]] convenes
| image2 = Xinhuamen Gate of Zhongnanhai across Changan Street.JPG
| caption2 = The [[Zhongnanhai]], headquarters of the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|Chinese government]] and [[Chinese Communist Party]]
}}
The People's Republic of China is a [[one-party state]] governed by the [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] Chinese Communist Party (CCP). This makes China one of the world's last countries governed by a communist party. The Chinese constitution states that the PRC "is a socialist state governed by a [[people's democratic dictatorship]] that is led by the working class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants," and that the state institutions "shall practice the principle of [[democratic centralism]]."<ref name="Constitution">{{cite web |date=20 November 2019 |title=Constitution of the People's Republic of China |url=http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/constitution2019/201911/1f65146fb6104dd3a2793875d19b5b29.shtml |access-date=20 March 2021 |website=[[National People's Congress]]}}</ref> The main body of the constitution also declares that "the defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Communist Party of China."<ref name="2018-amendments-translated">{{cite web |last=Wei |first=Changhao |date=11 March 2018 |title=Annotated Translation: 2018 Amendment to the P.R.C. Constitution (Version 2.0) |url=https://npcobserver.com/2018/03/11/translation-2018-amendment-to-the-p-r-c-constitution/ |access-date=22 August 2019 |website=NPC Observer}}</ref>

The PRC officially terms itself as a [[Democracy in China|democracy]], using terms such as "socialist consultative democracy",<ref>{{cite web |last=Jia |first=Qinglin |date=1 January 2013 |title=The Development of Socialist Consultative Democracy in China |url=http://english.qstheory.cn/magazine/201301/201302/t20130218_211654.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309221709/http://english.qstheory.cn/magazine/201301/201302/t20130218_211654.htm |archive-date=9 March 2017 |access-date=13 May 2018 |website=[[Qiushi]]}}</ref> and "[[whole-process people's democracy]]".<ref name="Decoding China-2021" /> However, the country is commonly described as an authoritarian one-party state and a [[dictatorship]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ringen |first=Stein |title=The Perfect Dictatorship: China in the 21st Century |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-9-888-20893-7 |page=3 |author-link=Stein Ringen}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/21/world/asia/china-surveillance-investigation.html|title=Four Takeaways From a Times Investigation Into China's Expanding Surveillance State|work=[[The New York Times]]|last1=Qian|first1=Isabelle|last2=Xiao|first2=Muyi|last3=Mozur|first3=Paul|last4=Cardia|first4=Alexander|date=21 June 2022|access-date=23 July 2022}}</ref> with among the heaviest restrictions worldwide in many areas, most notably against [[Freedom of the press in China|freedom of the press]], [[freedom of assembly]], [[reproductive rights]], [[Non-governmental organization|free formation of social organizations]], [[Freedom of religion in China|freedom of religion]] and [[Internet censorship in China|free access to the Internet]].<ref name="freedomhouse">{{cite news |year=2023 |title=Freedom in the World 2023: China |website=[[Freedom House]] |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-world/2023 |access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref> China has consistently been ranked amongst the lowest as an "authoritarian regime" by the [[Economist Intelligence Unit]]'s [[The Economist Democracy Index|Democracy Index]], ranking at 156th out of 167 countries in 2022.<ref name="Economist-2023">{{Cite news |date=1 February 2023 |title=The world's most, and least, democratic countries in 2022 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2023/02/01/the-worlds-most-and-least-democratic-countries-in-2022 |access-date=2023-02-02 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref>

=== Chinese Communist Party ===
{{Main|Chinese Communist Party}}
[[File:18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China.jpg|thumb|The [[Chinese Communist Party]] is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China.]]
According to the [[Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP constitution]], its highest body of the CCP is the [[National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party|National Congress]] held every five years.<ref name="Ruwitch-2022">{{Cite news |last=Ruwitch |first=John |date=2022-10-13 |title=China's major party congress is set to grant Xi Jinping a 3rd term. And that's not all |language=en |work=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/10/13/1124553497/china-communist-party-congress-xi-jinping |access-date=2022-10-15}}</ref> The National Congress elects the [[Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|Central Committee]], who then elects the party's [[Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party|Politburo]], [[Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party|Politburo Standing Committee]] and the [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|general secretary]] ([[Leader of the Chinese Communist Party|party leader]]), the top leadership of the country.<ref name="Ruwitch-2022" /> The general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the informal [[paramount leader]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hernández |first=Javier C. |date=25 October 2017 |title=China's 'Chairman of Everything': Behind Xi Jinping's Many Titles |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/25/world/asia/china-xi-jinping-titles-chairman.html |url-access=limited |access-date=14 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025074641/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/25/world/asia/china-xi-jinping-titles-chairman.html |archive-date=25 October 2017 |issn=0362-4331 |quote=Mr. Xi's most important title is general secretary, the most powerful position in the Communist Party. In China's one party system, this ranking gives him virtually unchecked authority over the government.}}</ref> The current general secretary is [[Xi Jinping]], who took office on 15 November 2012.<ref name="PhillipsGuardian2"/> At the local level, the [[Chinese Communist Party Committee Secretary|secretary of the CCP committee]] of a subdivision outranks the local government level; CCP committee secretary of a provincial division outranks the governor while the CCP committee secretary of a city outranks the mayor.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lawrence |first1=Susan V. |last2=Lee |first2=Mari Y. |date=24 November 2021 |title=China's Political System in Charts: A Snapshot Before the 20th Party Congress |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46977 |access-date=20 December 2022 |website=[[Congressional Research Service]]}}</ref> The CCP is officially [[ideology of the Chinese Communist Party|guided]] by "[[socialism with Chinese characteristics]]", which is [[Chinese Marxist philosophy|Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013-01/05/c_132082389.htm|title=Xi reiterates adherence to socialism with Chinese characteristics|date=5 January 2013|agency=[[Xinhua News Agency]]|access-date=14 January 2020|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201174945/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013-01/05/c_132082389.htm|archive-date=1 February 2016}}</ref>

=== Government ===
{{Main|Government of China}}
{{See also|List of national leaders of the People's Republic of China}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| caption_align = center
| image1 = 习近平 Xi Jinping 20221023 02.jpg
| caption1 = [[Xi Jinping]] [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP General Secretary]]
and [[President of the People's Republic of China|President]]
| width1 = 120
| image2 = 李强 Li Qiang 20221023.jpg
| caption2 = [[Li Qiang]] [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]]
| width2 = 120
| image3 = 赵乐际 Zhao Leji 20221023.jpg
| caption3 = [[Zhao Leji]] [[Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress|Congress Chairman]]
| width3 = 122
| total_width =
| image4 = 王沪宁 Wang Huning 20221023.jpg
| width4 = 122
| caption4 = [[Wang Huning]] [[Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference|CPPCC Chairman]]
}}

The government in China is under the sole control of the CCP, with the CCP constitution outlining the party as the "highest force for political leadership".<ref name=":12">{{Cite news |last=Ma |first=Josephine |date=17 May 2021 |title=Party-state relations under China's Communist Party: separation of powers, control over government and reforms |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3133672/why-chinas-communist-party-inseparable-state |access-date=23 June 2023}}</ref> The CCP controls appointments in government bodies, with most senior government officials being CCP members.<ref name=":12" />

The [[National People's Congress]] (NPC), the nearly 3,000 member legislature, is constitutionally the "highest state organ of power",<ref name="Constitution" /> though it has been also described as a "[[rubber stamp (politics)|rubber stamp]]" body.<ref name="BBC News-2009">{{cite news |title=How China is Ruled: National People's Congress |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/china_politics/government/html/7.stm |access-date=14 July 2009}}</ref> The NPC meets annually, while the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress|NPC Standing Committee]], around 150 member body elected from NPC delegates, meets every couple of months.<ref name="BBC News-2009" /> Elections are indirect and not pluralistic, with nominations at all levels being controlled by the CCP.<ref name="Decoding China-2021">{{Cite web |date=4 February 2021 |title=Democracy |url=https://decodingchina.eu/democracy/ |access-date=2022-08-22 |website=Decoding China |publisher=[[Heidelberg University]] |language=en-US}}</ref> The NPC is dominated by the CCP, with another [[List of political parties in China|eight minor parties]] having nominal representation under the condition of upholding CCP leadership.<ref name="HRW-2021">{{Cite web |title=China: Nipped In The Bud – Background |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2000/china/china009-01.htm |access-date=2021-03-18 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref>

The [[President of the People's Republic of China|president]] is the ceremonial [[head of state]], elected by the NPC. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the general secretary of the CCP and the [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|chairman of the Central Military Commission]], making him China's [[paramount leader]]. The [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|premier]] is the [[head of government]], with [[Li Qiang]] being the incumbent premier. The premier is officially nominated by the president and then elected by the NPC, and has generally been either the second or third-ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The premier presides over the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]], China's cabinet, composed of four vice premiers, [[State councillor|state councilors]], and the heads of ministries and commissions.<ref name="Constitution" /> The [[Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference]] (CPPCC) is a political advisory body that is critical in China's "[[United Front (China)|united front]]" system, which aims to gather non-CCP voices to support the CCP. Similar to the people's congresses, CPPCC's exist at various division, with the National Committee of the CPPCC being chaired by [[Wang Huning]], fourth-ranking member of the PSC.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Tiezzi |first=Shannon |date=4 March 2021 |title=What Is the CPPCC Anyway? |work=[[The Diplomat]] |url=https://thediplomat.com/2021/03/what-is-the-cppcc-anyway/ |access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref>

The governance of China is characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Jin |first=Keyu |title=The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism |date=2023 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-1-9848-7828-1 |location=New York |author-link=Keyu Jin}}</ref>{{Rp|page=7}} The central government sets the strategic direction while local officials carry it out.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=7}} Policy instruments or processes are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy process that involves experimentation and feedback.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heilmann |first=Sebastian |url= |title=Red Swan: How Unorthodox Policy-Making Facilitated China's Rise |date=2018 |publisher=[[The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press]] |isbn=978-962-996-827-4 |author-link=Sebastian Heilmann}}</ref>{{Rp|page=14}} Generally, high level central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to the direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs.<ref name=":44">{{Cite book |last=Brussee |first=Vincent |title=Social Credit: The Warring States of China's Emerging Data Empire |publisher=[[Palgrave MacMillan]] |year=2023 |isbn=9789819921881 |location=Singapore}}</ref>{{Rp|page=71}} The typical approach is that high level central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels.<ref name=":44" />{{Rp|page=71}}

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of China|Districts of Hong Kong|Municipalities and parishes of Macau}}
The PRC is constitutionally a [[unitary state]] officially divided into 23 [[Provinces of China|provinces]],{{efn|China claims the [[List of states with limited recognition|''de facto'' state]] of [[Taiwan]], which it does not control, as its disputed 23rd province, i.e. [[Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China|Taiwan Province]]. See {{section link||Administrative divisions}} for more details.|name=TaiwanClaim}} five [[Autonomous regions of China|autonomous regions]] (each with a designated minority group), and four [[Direct-administered municipalities of China|directly administered municipalities]]—collectively referred to as "mainland China"—as well as the [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]] (SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 August 2014 |title=Administrative Division |url=http://english.www.gov.cn/archive/china_abc/2014/08/27/content_281474983873401.htm |access-date=2022-12-19 |website=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref> The PRC considers [[Taiwan]] to be [[Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China|its 23rd province]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-11-06 |title=What's behind China-Taiwan tensions? |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34729538 |access-date=2022-11-10}}</ref> although it is governed by the Republic of China (ROC), which claims to be the legitimate representative of China and its territory, though it has downplayed this claim since its democratization.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chang |first=Bi-yu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgaUBwAAQBAJ&q=9781317658122&pg=PA58 |title=Place, Identity, and National Imagination in Post-war Taiwan |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-65812-2 |location=Oxon, UK, and New York City |pages=35–40, 46–60}}</ref> Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions of mainland China can be grouped into six regions: [[North China]], [[Northeast China]], [[East China]], [[South Central China]], [[Southwest China]], and [[Northwest China]].<ref name="Brown2013">{{cite book|author=Kerry Brown|title=Contemporary China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BywdBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103215248/https://books.google.com/books?id=BywdBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 November 2020|year=2013|publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education – University of Sydney|isbn=978-1-137-28159-3|page=7}}</ref>

{{PRC provinces big imagemap alt}}
{{PRC provinces small imagemap/province list}}
{{Clear}}

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of China}}
[[File:Diplomatic relations of the People's Republic of China.svg|upright=1.4|thumb|Diplomatic relations of China]]
The PRC has [[List of diplomatic missions in China|diplomatic relations]] with 179 United Nation members states and maintains [[List of diplomatic missions of China|embassies in 174]]. Since 2019, China has the largest diplomatic network in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank|url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_rank.html|access-date=13 October 2020|website=[[Lowy Institute]]}}</ref><ref name="BBC News-2019">{{Cite news |date=27 November 2019 |title=China now has more diplomatic posts than any other country |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-50569237 |access-date=21 October 2020}}</ref> In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China (ROC) as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref name="Ref_r">Chang, Eddy (22 August 2004). [http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2004/08/22/2003199768 ''Perseverance will pay off at the UN''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070806100002/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2004/08/22/2003199768|date=6 August 2007}}, ''[[The Taipei Times]]''.</ref> It is a member of intergovernmental organizations including the [[G20]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=About G20 |url=https://www.g20.org/en/about-g20/ |access-date=4 July 2023 |website=[[G20]]}}</ref> [[East Asia Summit]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=EAS Participating Countries |url=https://eastasiasummit.asean.org/eas-participating-country |access-date=4 July 2023 |website=[[East Asia Summit]]}}</ref> and [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2021 |title=About APEC |url=https://www.apec.org/about-us/about-apec |access-date=4 July 2023 |website=[[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]]}}</ref> China was also a former member and leader of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and still considers itself an advocate for [[developing countries]].<ref name="Ref_2009">{{Cite news|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/6847341.html|title=China says communication with other developing countries at Copenhagen summit transparent|date=21 December 2009|work=[[People's Daily]]|access-date=31 January 2019}}</ref> Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the [[BRICS]] group of emerging major economies and hosted the group's [[3rd BRICS summit|third official summit]] at [[Sanya]], [[Hainan]] in April 2011.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13076229|title=Bric summit ends in China with plea for more influence|date=14 April 2011|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=24 October 2011}}</ref>

The PRC officially maintains the [[One China|one-China principle]], which holds the view that there is only one sovereign state in the name of China, represented by the PRC, and that Taiwan is part of that China.<ref name="Drun-2017">{{Cite web |last=Drun |first=Jessica |date=28 December 2017 |title=One China, Multiple Interpretations |url=https://www.ccpwatch.org/single-post/2017/12/29/one-china-multiple-interpretations |access-date=11 January 2023 |website=Center for Advanced China Research}}</ref> The unique status of Taiwan has led to countries recognizing the PRC to maintain unique "one-China policies" that differ from each other; some countries explicitly recognize the PRC's claim over Taiwan, while others, including the US and Japan, only ''acknowledge'' the claim.<ref name="Drun-2017" /> Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.mysinchew.com/node/33834|title=Taiwan's Ma to stopover in US: report|date=12 January 2010|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909170723/http://www.mysinchew.com/node/33834|archive-date=9 September 2015}}</ref> especially in the matter of armament sales.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/china-says-us-arms-sales-to-taiwan-could-threaten-wider-relations-pl2j2pdn667|title=China says US arms sales to Taiwan could threaten wider relations|last=Macartney|first=Jane|date=1 February 2010|work=[[The Times]]|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> Most countries have switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the latter replaced the former in the United Nations in 1971 as the sole representative of China.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hale |first=Erin |date=25 October 2021 |title=Taiwan taps on United Nations' door, 50 years after departure |work=[[Al Jazeera]] |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/10/25/chinas-un-seat-50-years-on |access-date=11 January 2023}}</ref>

Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier [[Zhou Enlai]]'s [[Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence]], and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.<ref name="Keith">{{Cite book|last=Keith|first=Ronald C.|title=China from the inside out – fitting the People's republic into the world|publisher=PlutoPress|pages=135–136}}</ref> This policy may have led China to support or maintain close ties with states that are [[rogue state|regarded as dangerous]] or repressive by Western nations, such as [[China–Myanmar relations|Myanmar]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kurlantzick |first=Joshua |date=4 April 2022 |title=China's Support for Myanmar Further Shows the World Dividing Into Autocracy versus Democracy |url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/chinas-support-myanmar-further-shows-world-dividing-autocracy-versus-democracy |access-date=24 March 2023 |website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]}}</ref> [[China–North Korea relations|North Korea]] and [[China–Iran relations|Iran]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Martel |first=William C. |date=29 June 2012 |title=An Authoritarian Axis Rising? |newspaper=[[The Diplomat]] |url=https://thediplomat.com/2012/06/an-authoritarian-axis-rising/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216045110/https://thediplomat.com/2012/06/an-authoritarian-axis-rising/ |archive-date=16 December 2013}}</ref> China has a [[China–Russia relations|close political, economic and military relationship]] with Russia,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Davidson |first=Helen |date=16 March 2022 |title=How close are China and Russia and where does Beijing stand on Ukraine? |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/16/how-close-are-china-and-russia-and-where-does-beijing-stand-on-ukraine |access-date=11 January 2023}}</ref> and the two states often vote in unison in the [[United Nations Security Council]].<ref>{{cite news |date=5 June 2012 |title=Energy to dominate Russia President Putin's China visit |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-18327632 |access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited|title=Friction at the U.N. as Russia and China Veto Another Resolution on Syria Sanctions|last=Gladstone|first=Rick|date=19 July 2012|work=The New York Times|access-date=15 November 2012|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21911842|title=Xi Jinping: Russia-China ties 'guarantee world peace'|date=23 March 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=23 March 2013}}</ref>

==== Trade relations ====
[[File:Russia and China sign major gas deal.jpeg|thumb|On 21 May 2014, China and [[Russia]] signed a $400 billion [[Natural gas in Russia|gas deal]]. Currently, Russia is supplying [[List of countries by natural gas exports|natural gas]] to China.]]
China became the world's largest trading nation in 2013 as measured by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's largest commodity importer. comprising roughly 45% of maritime's [[Shipping markets|dry-bulk market]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Monaghan |first=Angela |date=10 January 2014 |title=China surpasses US as world's largest trading nation |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2014/jan/10/china-surpasses-us-world-largest-trading-nation |access-date=4 December 2019 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Paris|first=Costas|date=27 April 2021|title=China's Imports of Commodities Drive a Boom in Dry-Bulk Shipping|language=en-US|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/chinas-imports-of-commodities-drive-a-boom-in-dry-bulk-shipping-11619541574|access-date=29 April 2021|issn=0099-9660}}</ref>
By 2016, China was the largest trading partner of 124 other countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/four-maps-showing-chinas-rising-dominance-trade/|title=Four Maps Showing China's Rising Dominance in Trade|last=Desjardins|first=Jeff |date=27 April 2016|website=Visual Capitalist|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> China is the largest trading partner for the [[ASEAN]] nations, with a total trade value of $669.2 billion in 2021 accounting for 20% of ASEAN's total trade.<ref>{{cite web |date=December 2022 |title=ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2022 |url=https://www.aseanstats.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/ASYB_2022_423.pdf |access-date=16 May 2023 |work=ASEAN}}</ref> ASEAN is also China's largest trading partner.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/ASEAN-becomes-China-s-top-trade-partner-as-supply-chain-evolves|title=ASEAN becomes China's top trade partner as supply chain evolves|last=Harada|first=Issaku|date=15 July 2020|work=Nikkei Asia|access-date=18 March 2021}}</ref> In 2020, China became the largest trading partner of the [[European Union]] for goods, with the total value of goods trade reaching nearly $700 billion.<ref name=qz_EU_trade>{{cite news|url=https://qz.com/1973067/china-dethroned-the-us-as-europes-top-trade-partner-in-2020/|title=China dethroned the US as Europe's top trade partner in 2020|last=Timsit|first=Annabelle|date=15 February 2021|work=Quartz|access-date=18 March 2021}}</ref> China, along with ASEAN, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand, is a member of the [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership]], the world's largest free-trade area covering 30% of the world's population and economic output.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/11/16/rcep-a-new-trade-agreement-that-will-shape-global-economics-and-politics/|title=RCEP: A new trade agreement that will shape global economics and politics|date=16 November 2020|work=Brookings|access-date=18 March 2021}}</ref> China became a member of the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) in 2001. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues.<ref name="Ref_s">Dillon, Dana; and Tkacik, John, Jr.; [https://web.archive.org/web/20060210135228/http://www.policyreview.org/134/dillon.html ''China's Quest for Asia'']. ''Policy Review''. December 2005 and January 2006. Issue No. 134. Retrieved 22 April 2006.</ref> The EAS, which includes [[ASEAN Plus Three]], India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-asia-summit-east-qa/qa-what-is-the-east-asia-summit-all-about-idUSTRE59N0I020091024|title=Q+A – What is the East Asia Summit all about?|last=Ruwitch|first=John|date=23 October 2009|work=Reuters|access-date=18 March 2021}}</ref>

China has had a long and complex trade relationship with the United States. In 2000, the [[United States Congress]] approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Matt |date=10 October 2000 |title=Clinton signs China trade bill |work=[[CNN]] |url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/10/10/clinton.pntr/ |url-status=live |access-date=16 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505165947/http://transcripts.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/10/10/clinton.pntr/ |archive-date=5 May 2009}}</ref> China has a significant [[trade surplus]] with the United States, one of its most important export markets.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Martin |first1=Eric |last2=Monteiro |first2=Ana |date=7 February 2023 |title=US-China Goods Trade Hits Record Even as Political Split Widens |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-02-07/us-china-trade-climbs-to-record-in-2022-despite-efforts-to-split |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> Economists have argued that the [[renminbi]] is undervalued, due to [[currency intervention]] from the Chinese government, giving China an unfair trade advantage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2021/06/04/investing/china-yuan-financial-risks-intl-hnk/index.html|title=China's stronger currency means difficult choices for Beijing|last=He|first=Laura|date=4 June 2021|access-date=27 July 2022|work=[[CNN Business]]|publisher=CNN}}</ref> The US and other foreign governments have also alleged that China does not respect [[intellectual property]] (IP) rights and [[Allegations of intellectual property theft by China|steals IP through espionage operations]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 February 2020 |title=China theft of technology is biggest law enforcement threat to US, FBI says |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/06/china-technology-theft-fbi-biggest-threat |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref> with the [[United States Department of Justice|US Department of Justice]] saying that 80% of all the prosecutions related to economic espionage it brings were about conduct to benefit the Chinese state.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zhou |first=Cissy |date=13 July 2020 |title=China sharpens economic espionage penalties in 'tit-for-tat provision' against US accusations of trade secret theft |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3092939/china-sharpens-economic-espionage-penalties-tit-tat-provision |access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref>

Since the turn of the century, China has followed a policy of [[Sino-African relations|engaging with African nations]] for trade and bilateral co-operation;<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html|title=A rising China counters US clout in Africa|last=McLaughlin|first=Abraham|date=30 March 2005|work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|access-date=18 January 2020|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816123236/http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html|archive-date=16 August 2007 |issn=0882-7729}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/8436/|title=China's Rising Role in Africa|last=Lyman |first=Princeton|date=21 July 2005|website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715183929/http://www.cfr.org/publication/8436/|archive-date=15 July 2007|access-date=26 June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/china-and-africa-stronger-economic-ties-mean-more-migration|title=China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration|last=Politzer|first=Malia|date=6 August 2008|website=[[Migration Policy Institute]]|access-date=26 January 2013}}</ref> in 2022, Sino-African trade totalled $282 billion, having grown more than 20 times over two decades.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nyabiage |first=Jevans |date=19 January 2023 |title=China-Africa trade hits record US$282 billion with boost from Beijing and soaring commodity prices |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3207403/china-africa-trade-hits-record-us282-billion-boost-beijing-and-soaring-commodity-prices |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> According to Madison Condon "China finances more infrastructure projects in Africa than the World Bank and provides billions of dollars in low-interest loans to the continent's emerging economies."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Condon|first=Madison|date=1 January 2012|title=China in Africa: What the Policy of Nonintervention Adds to the Western Development Dilemma|url=https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/990|journal=PRAXIS: The Fletcher Journal of Human Security|volume=27|page=5}}</ref> China maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union, and became its largest trading partner for goods, with the total value of goods trade reaching nearly $700 billion.<ref name=qz_EU_trade /> China has furthermore strengthened its trade ties with major South American economies,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://time.com/5936037/us-china-latin-america-influence|title=The U.S. and China Are Battling for Influence in Latin America, and the Pandemic Has Raised the Stakes|date=4 February 2021|magazine=Time|access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref> and is the largest trading partner of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Garrison |first=Cassandra |date=14 December 2020 |title=In Latin America, a Biden White House faces a rising China |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-latam-usa-china-insight/in-latin-america-a-biden-white-house-faces-a-rising-china-idUSKBN28O18R |access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref>

In 2013, China initiated the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a large global infrastructure building initiative with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dollar |first=David |date=October 2020 |title=Seven years into China's Belt and Road |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/10/01/seven-years-into-chinas-belt-and-road/ |access-date=1 December 2020 |website=Brookings}}</ref> BRI could be one of the largest development plans in modern history.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cai |first=Peter |title=Understanding China's Belt and Road Initiative |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/understanding-belt-and-road-initiative |access-date=30 November 2020 |website=[[Lowy Institute]]}}</ref> It has expanded significantly over the last six years and, {{As of|2020|April|lc=y}}, includes 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus here is particularly on building efficient transport routes. The focus is particularly on the [[21st Century Maritime Silk Road|maritime Silk Road]] with its connections to East Africa and Europe and there are Chinese investments or related declarations of intent at numerous ports such as [[Gwadar]], [[Kuantan]], [[Hambantota]], [[Piraeus]] and [[Trieste]]. However many of these loans made under the Belt and Road program are unsustainable and China has faced a number of calls for [[debt relief]] from debtor nations.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kynge |first1=James |author-link=James Kynge |last2=Sun |first2=Yu |date=30 April 2020 |title=China faces wave of calls for debt relief on 'Belt and Road' projects |work=[[Financial Times]] |url=https://www.ft.com/content/5a3192be-27c6-4fe7-87e7-78d4158bd39b |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/5a3192be-27c6-4fe7-87e7-78d4158bd39b |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |access-date=28 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Harry G. Broadman |title=Afrika's Silk Road |date=2007}} {{cite book |author1=Wolf D. Hartmann |author2=Wolfgang Maennig |author3=Run Wang |title=Chinas neue Seidenstraße |place=Frankfurt am Main |year=2017 |page=59}} {{cite book |author=Marcus Hernig |title=Die Renaissance der Seidenstraße |year=2018 |page=112}} {{cite journal |author=Harry de Wilt |title=Is One Belt, One Road a China crisis for North Sea main ports? |journal=World Cargo News |volume=17 |date=December 2019}} {{cite journal |author=Guido Santevecchi |title=Di Maio e la Via della Seta: «Faremo i conti nel 2020», siglato accordo su Trieste |journal=Corriere della Sera |volume=5 |date=November 2019}}{{full citation needed|date=June 2023|reason=Made many guesses adding templates.}}</ref>

==== Territorial disputes ====
{{Main|Territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China}}
{{See also|List of wars involving the People's Republic of China|Cross-Strait relations}}

[[File:China administrative.png|thumb|Map depicting territorial disputes between the PRC and neighboring states. For a larger map, see [[Template:PRC provinces big imagemap|here]].]]
Ever since its establishment, the PRC has claimed [[Free area of the Republic of China|the territories]] governed by the [[Republic of China]] (ROC), a separate political entity today commonly known as Taiwan, as a part of its territory. It regards the [[Geography of Taiwan|island of Taiwan]] as its [[Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China|Taiwan Province]], [[Kinmen]] and [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]] as a part of [[Fujian|Fujian Province]] and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of [[Hainan|Hainan Province]] and [[Guangdong|Guangdong Province]]. These claims are controversial because of the complicated [[Cross-Strait relations]], with the PRC treating the [[One China|one-China principle]] as one of its most important diplomatic principles in dealing with other countries.<ref name="Drun-2017" />

China has resolved its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighboring countries, having pursued substantial compromises in most of them.<ref>{{cite web|title=Groundless to view China as expansionist, says Beijing after PM Modi's Ladakh visit|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/groundless-to-view-china-as-expansionist-says-beijing-after-pm-modi-s-ladakh-visit-1696727-2020-07-03|access-date=13 August 2020|website=[[India Today]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fravel|first=M. Taylor|date=1 October 2005|title=Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes|journal=[[International Security (journal)|International Security]]|volume=30|issue=2|pages=46–83|doi=10.1162/016228805775124534|issn=0162-2889|s2cid=56347789}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Fravel|first=M. Taylor|title=Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China's Territorial Disputes|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-691-13609-7}}</ref> China currently has a disputed land border with [[Sino-Indian border dispute|India]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 December 2022 |title=India-China dispute: The border row explained in 400 words |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-53062484 |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> and [[Bhutan–China border|Bhutan]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 April 2023 |title=Bhutan wants a border deal with China: Will India accept? |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-65396384 |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> China is additionally involved in maritime disputes with multiple countries over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as [[Socotra Rock]], the [[Senkaku Islands dispute|Senkaku Islands]] and the entirety of [[South China Sea Islands]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-18045383|title=China denies preparing war over South China Sea shoal|date=12 May 2012|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-11341139|title=How uninhabited islands soured China-Japan ties|date=27 November 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref> along with the [[East China Sea EEZ disputes|EEZ disputes over East China Sea]].

=== Sociopolitical issues and human rights ===
{{See also|Human rights in China|Hukou|Social welfare in China|Elections in China|Censorship in China|Uyghur genocide}}
[[File:港人燭光遊行至中聯辦悼念劉曉波 12.jpg|thumb|March in memory of Chinese [[2010 Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Peace Prize]] laureate [[Liu Xiaobo]] who died of organ failure while in government custody in 2017]]
The situation of [[human rights in China]] has attracted significant criticism from a number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies, and non-governmental organizations, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights, and [[Capital punishment in China|excessive use of the death penalty]].<ref name="freedomhouse" /><ref name="Amnesty-2023">{{cite web |title=China |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china/ |access-date=15 May 2023 |publisher=[[Amnesty International]]}}</ref> Since its inception, [[Freedom House]] has ranked China as "not free" in its ''[[Freedom in the World]]'' survey,<ref name="freedomhouse" /> while [[Amnesty International]] has documented significant human rights abuses.<ref name="Amnesty-2023" /> The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of the press]], the [[right to a fair trial]], [[freedom of religion]], [[universal suffrage]], and [[property|property rights]]. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.<ref name="books.google">{{cite book|last=Sorman|first=Guy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRaLevXMZf4C&pg=PA46|title=Empire of Lies: The Truth About China in the Twenty-First Century|publisher=[[Encounter Books]]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-59403-284-4|pages=46, 152}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=World Report 2022: China |chapter=China: Events of 2021 |chapter-url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/china-and-tibet |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]]|date=2 December 2021 }}</ref> China has limited protections regarding [[LGBT rights in China|LGBT rights]].<ref>{{cite web |title=For China's LGBTQ community, safe spaces are becoming harder to find |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/china-beijing-lgbt-center-rcna85528 |website=NBC News |access-date=8 August 2023}}</ref>

Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling CCP are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information are amongst the harshest in the world and routinely used to prevent collective action.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=King |first1= Gary|last2=Pan |first2= Jennifer|last3=Roberts |first3= Margaret E.|url=http://gking.harvard.edu/files/gking/files/censored.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://gking.harvard.edu/files/gking/files/censored.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression |journal=American Political Science Review|date=May 2013|doi=10.1017/S0003055413000014|access-date=6 March 2015|quote=Our central theoretical finding is that, contrary to much research and commentary, the purpose of the censorship program is not to suppress criticism of the state or the Communist Party.|volume=107|issue=2|pages=326–343|s2cid= 53577293}}</ref> China also has the most comprehensive and sophisticated Internet censorship regime in the world, with numerous websites being blocked.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Freedom on the Net: 2022 |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-net/2022 |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=[[Freedom House]]}}</ref> The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre]].<ref>Christian Göbel and Lynette H. Ong, [https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Asia/1012ecran_gobelong.pdf "Social unrest in China." ''Long Briefing, Europe China Research and Academic Network (ECRAN)'' (2012) p 18]. [[Chatham House]]</ref> China additionally uses a massive espionage network of cameras, facial recognition software, sensors, and surveillance of personal technology as a means of social control of persons living in the country.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Qian |first1=Isabelle |last2=Xiao |first2=Muyi |last3=Mozur |first3=Paul |last4=Cardia |first4=Alexander |date=2022-06-21 |title=Four Takeaways From a Times Investigation Into China's Expanding Surveillance State |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/21/world/asia/china-surveillance-investigation.html |access-date=2022-08-14 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

[[File:Xinjiang Internment Map, US-Aus Gov Assessment.jpg|thumb|In [[Xinjiang]], China has been accused of committing [[Uyghur genocide|genocide against Uyghurs]] and detaining more than one million [[Uyghurs]] and other ethnic minorities in camps.<ref name="BBC News-2021">{{Cite news |date=8 February 2021 |title=Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215 |access-date=8 February 2021}}</ref>]]
China is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in [[Human rights in Tibet|Tibet]] and [[Uyghur genocide|Xinjiang]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anna Morcom|date=June 2018|title=The Political Potency of Tibetan Identity in Pop Music and Dunglen|url=https://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2348&context=himalaya|journal=Himalaya|publication-place=[[Royal Holloway, University of London]]|volume=38}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=7 November 2011 |title=Dalai Lama hits out over burnings |work=[[BBC]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15617026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Diamond|first=Rayhan Asat, Yonah|title=The World's Most Technologically Sophisticated Genocide Is Happening in Xinjiang|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/15/uighur-genocide-xinjiang-china-surveillance-sterilization/|website=[[Foreign Policy]]|date=15 July 2020 }}</ref> where significant amounts of ethnic minorities reside, including violent police crackdowns and [[religious suppression]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23081653|title=China 'moves two million Tibetans'|last=Hatton|first=Celia|date=27 June 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=27 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23112177|title=Fresh unrest hits China's Xinjiang|date=29 June 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=29 June 2013}}</ref> In Xinjiang, repression has significantly escalated since 2016, after which at least one million [[Uyghurs]] and other ethnic and religion minorities have been detained in [[Xinjiang internment camps|internment camps]] aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs.<ref name="Graham-Harrison-2019">{{Cite news |last1=Graham-Harrison |first1=Emma |last2=Garside |first2=Juliette |date=24 November 2019 |title='Allow no escapes': leak exposes reality of China's vast prison camp network |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/24/china-cables-leak-no-escapes-reality-china-uighur-prison-camp |access-date=18 January 2020 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> According to witnesses, actions including political indoctrination, torture, [[Physical abuse|physical]] and [[Psychological abuse|psychological]] abuse, [[Compulsory sterilization|forced sterilization]], [[sexual abuse]], and [[Forced labour|forced labor]] are common in these facilities.<ref name="Khatchadourian-2021">{{Cite magazine |last=Khatchadourian |first=Raffi |date=5 April 2021 |title=Surviving the Crackdown in Xinjiang |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/04/12/surviving-the-crackdown-in-xinjiang |access-date=19 March 2023}}</ref> According to a 2020 report, China's treatment of Uyghurs meets the UN definition of genocide,<ref>{{cite news|date=4 July 2020|title=China Suppression Of Uighur Minorities Meets U.N. Definition Of Genocide, Report Says|publisher=[[NPR]]|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/07/04/887239225/china-suppression-of-uighur-minorities-meets-u-n-definition-of-genocide-report-s|access-date=28 September 2020}}</ref> while a separate [[UN Human Rights Office report on Xinjiang|UN Human Rights Office report]] said they could potentially meet the definitions for [[crimes against humanity]].<ref name="Cumming-Bruce-2022">{{Cite news |last1=Cumming-Bruce |first1=Nick |last2=Ramzy |first2=Austin |date=31 August 2022 |title=U.N. Says China May Have Committed 'Crimes Against Humanity' in Xinjiang |language=en-US |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/31/world/asia/un-china-xinjiang-uyghurs.html |url-status=live |access-date=2022-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901014137/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/31/world/asia/un-china-xinjiang-uyghurs.html |archive-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Hong Kong anti-extradition bill protest (48108594957).jpg|thumb|[[2019–20 Hong Kong protests]]]]
Global studies from [[Pew Research Center]] in 2014 and 2017 ranked the Chinese government's restrictions on religion as among the highest in the world, despite low to moderate rankings for religious-related social hostilities in the country.<ref>{{cite web|date=23 June 2016|title=Middle East-North Africa was region with highest restrictions and hostilities in 2014|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2016/06/23/middle-east-north-africa-was-region-with-highest-restrictions-and-hostilities-in-2014/|access-date=30 October 2020|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=15 July 2019|title=Middle East still home to highest levels of restrictions on religion|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2019/07/15/middle-east-still-home-to-highest-levels-of-restrictions-on-religion-although-levels-have-declined-since-2016/|access-date=30 October 2020|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref> The [[Global Slavery Index]] estimated that in 2016 more than 3.8 million people were living in "conditions of modern [[Slavery in China|slavery]]", or 0.25% of the population, including victims of human trafficking, forced labor, forced marriage, child labor, and state-imposed forced labor. The state-imposed [[re-education through labor]] (''laojiao'') system was formally abolished in 2013, but it is not clear to which extent its various practices have stopped.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/china/|title=China|year=2016|website=[[Global Slavery Index]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160706152456/https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/china/|archive-date=6 July 2016|access-date=13 March 2018}}</ref> The Chinese penal system also includes the much larger [[Laogai|reform through labor]] (''laogai'') system, which includes labor prison factories, detention centers, and re-education camps; the [[Laogai Research Foundation]] has estimated in June 2008 that there were nearly 1,422 of these facilities, though it cautioned that this number was likely an underestimate.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008 |title=Laogai Handbook: 2007–2008 |url=https://laogairesearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/33-Laogai-Handbook-2007-08.pdf |website=[[Laogai Research Foundation]]}}</ref>

=== Public views of government ===
Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 May 2002 |title=China sounds alarm over fast growing gap between rich and poor |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-52919430.html |url-status=dead |access-date=1 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140610060248/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-52919430.html |archive-date=10 June 2014}}</ref> Nonetheless, international surveys show a high level of the Chinese public's satisfaction with their government.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=137}} These views are generally attributed to the material comforts and security available to large segments of the Chinese populace as well as the government's attentiveness and responsiveness.<ref name=":0" /> {{Rp|page=136}}According to the [[World Values Survey]] (2017-2020), 95% of Chinese respondents have significant confidence in their government.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=13}} Confidence decreased to 91% in the survey's 2022 edition.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=13}} A Harvard University survey published in July 2020 found that citizen satisfaction with the government had increased since 2003, also rating China's government as more effective and capable than ever before in the survey's history.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zhao |first=Suisheng |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1331741429 |title=The dragon roars back : transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy |date=2023 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-1-5036-3088-8 |location=Stanford, California |pages=163 |oclc=1331741429}}</ref>

== Military ==
{{Main|People's Liberation Army|Paramilitary forces of China}}
[[File:J-20 at Airshow China 2016.jpg|thumb|[[Chengdu J-20]] [[Fifth-generation jet fighter|5th generation]] stealth fighter]]
The [[People's Liberation Army]] (PLA) is considered one of the world's most powerful militaries and has rapidly modernized in the recent decades.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maizland |first=Lindsay |date=5 February 2020 |title=China's Modernizing Military |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-modernizing-military |access-date=2022-08-14 |website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |language=en}}</ref> It consists of the [[People's Liberation Army Ground Force|Ground Force]] (PLAGF), the [[People's Liberation Army Navy|Navy]] (PLAN), the [[People's Liberation Army Air Force|Air Force]] (PLAAF), the [[People's Liberation Army Rocket Force|Rocket Force]] (PLARF) and the [[People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force|Strategic Support Force]] (PLASSF). Its nearly 2.2 million active duty personnel is the [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|largest in the world]]. The PLA holds the world's [[China and weapons of mass destruction|third-largest stockpile of nuclear weapons]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Which Countries Have the Most Nuclear Weapons?|date=30 September 2021|url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/which-countries-have-the-most-nuclear-weapons/|publisher=Visual Capitalist|access-date=27 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=July 19, 2018 |title=Chinese Nuclear Program |work=Atomic Heritage Foundation |url=https://www.atomicheritage.org/history/chinese-nuclear-program}}</ref> and the world's second-largest navy by tonnage.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lendon |first=Brad |date=6 March 2021 |title=Analysis: China has built the world's largest navy. Now what's Beijing going to do with it? |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/05/china/china-world-biggest-navy-intl-hnk-ml-dst/index.html |access-date=2022-08-14 |website=CNN}}</ref> China's official military budget for 2022 totalled US$230 billion (1.45 trillion Yuan), the [[List of countries by military expenditures|second-largest in the world]], though [[SIPRI]] estimates that its real expenditure that year was US$292 billion.<ref name="SIPRI-2020">{{cite web |date=April 2023 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |access-date=29 April 2023 |publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]}}</ref> According to SIPRI, its military spending from 2012 to 2021 averaged US$215 billion per year or 1.7 per cent of GDP, behind only the United States at US$734 billion per year or 3.6 per cent of GDP.<ref>{{cite web |title=SIPRI Military Expenditure Database |url=https://milex.sipri.org/sipri |publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute}}</ref> The PLA is commanded by the [[Central Military Commission (China)|Central Military Commission]] (CMC) of the party and the state; though officially two separate organizations, the two CMCs have identical membership except during leadership transition periods and effectively function as one organization. The [[Chairman of the Central Military Commission (China)|chairman of the CMC]] is the [[Supreme Military Command of the People's Republic of China|commander-in-chief]] of the PLA, with the officeholder also generally being the CCP general secretary, making them the paramount leader of China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What China's New Central Military Commission Tells Us About Xi's Military Strategy |url=https://asiasociety.org/policy-institute/what-chinas-new-central-military-commission-tells-us-about-xis-military-strategy |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=Asia Society |language=en}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of China}}
{{For|Economic history of China|Economic history of China before 1912|Economic history of China (1912–1949)|Economic history of China (1949–present)}}

China has the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|second-largest economy]] in terms of nominal GDP,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kollewe |first=Justin McCurry Julia |date=14 February 2011 |title=China overtakes Japan as world's second-largest economy |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2011/feb/14/china-second-largest-economy |access-date=8 July 2019 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> and the world's [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|largest]] in terms of [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD?locations=CN-US&start=2000&year_high_desc=true|title=GDP PPP (World Bank)|year=2018|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=18 February 2019}}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, China accounts for around 18% of global economy by nominal GDP.<ref name="IMF-2023">{{cite web |author= |date=April 2023 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[International Monetary Fund]] |publisher=}}</ref> China is one of the world's [[List of countries by real GDP growth rate|fastest-growing]] major economies,<ref>{{cite web|title=Overview|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview|access-date=13 September 2020|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> with its economic growth having been almost consistently above 6 percent since the introduction of [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms in 1978]].<ref>{{cite web |title=GDP growth (annual %) – China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2016&locations=CN&start=1961&year_high_desc=true |access-date=25 May 2018 |publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> According to the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $17.96 trillion by 2022.<ref>{{cite web |title=GDP (current US$) – China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=CN |access-date=7 July 2023 |publisher=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> Of the world's [[Fortune Global 500|500 largest companies]], 142 are headquartered in China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global 500 |url=https://fortune.com/ranking/global500/ |access-date=3 August 2023 |website=[[Fortune Global 500]] |language=en}}</ref>

China was one of the world's [[List of regions by past GDP (PPP)|foremost economic powers]] throughout the arc of [[Economy of East Asia#China|East Asian]] and [[Economic history of China before 1912|global history]]. The country had one of the [[Economic history of China before 1912|largest economies in the world]] for most of the [[Pax Sinica|past two millennia]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a-JGGp2suQUC&q=angus+maddison|title=Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-164758-1|page=379|author-link=Angus Maddison}}</ref> during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052|title=China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century. WBI Development Studies. World Bank Publications.|last1=Dahlman|first1=Carl J|last2=Aubert |first2=Jean-Eric|publisher=Institute of Education Sciences|access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/Maddison98.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/Maddison98.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Angus Maddison. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Development Centre Studies. |page=29 |access-date=15 September 2017}}</ref> Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail, mining, steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has three out of the ten largest stock exchanges in the world<ref>{{cite web|date=19 February 2019|title=Top 10 Largest Stock Exchanges in the World By Market Capitalization|url=https://www.valuewalk.com/2019/02/top-10-largest-stock-exchanges/|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20190515114023/https://www.valuewalk.com/2019/02/top-10-largest-stock-exchanges/|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 May 2019|access-date=28 November 2019|website=ValueWalk}}</ref>—[[Shanghai Stock Exchange|Shanghai]], [[Hong Kong Stock Exchange|Hong Kong]] and [[Shenzhen Stock Exchange|Shenzhen]]—that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, {{As of|2020|October|lc=y}}.<ref>{{Cite news|date=13 October 2020|title=China's Stock Market Tops $10 Trillion First Time Since 2015|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-10-13/china-s-stock-market-tops-10-trillion-for-first-time-since-2015|access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref> China has four ([[Shanghai]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Beijing]], and [[Shenzhen]]) out of the world's top ten most competitive financial centers, which is more than any other country in the 2020 [[Global Financial Centres Index]].<ref name="GFCI2">{{cite web|date=September 2020|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 28 |url=https://www.longfinance.net/media/documents/GFCI_28_Full_Report_2020.09.25_v1.1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.longfinance.net/media/documents/GFCI_28_Full_Report_2020.09.25_v1.1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=26 September 2020|publisher=Long Finance}}</ref>

[[File:Graph of Major Developing Economies by Real GDP per capita at PPP 1990-2013.png|thumb|China and other major developing economies by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita at purchasing-power parity]], 1990–2013. The rapid economic growth of China (blue) is readily apparent.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Bank World Development Indicators|url=http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators|publisher=World Bank|access-date=8 December 2014}}</ref>]]

Modern-day China is often described as an example of [[state capitalism]] or [[party-state capitalism]].<ref name="Pearson-2021">{{Cite journal |last1=Pearson |first1=Margaret |last2=Rithmire |first2=Meg |last3=Tsai |first3=Kellee S. |date=2021-09-01 |title=Party-State Capitalism in China |journal=[[Current History]] |language=en |volume=120 |issue=827 |pages=207–213 |doi=10.1525/curh.2021.120.827.207 |issn=0011-3530 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pearson |first1=Margaret M. |last2=Rithmire |first2=Meg |last3=Tsai |first3=Kellee S. |date=2022-10-01 |title=China's Party-State Capitalism and International Backlash: From Interdependence to Insecurity |journal=[[International Security]] |language=en |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=135–176 |doi=10.1162/isec_a_00447 |issn=0162-2889 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1992, Jiang Zemin termed the country a [[socialist market economy]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boer |first=Roland |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1249470522 |title=Socialism with Chinese characteristics : a guide for foreigners |date=2021 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-16-1622-8 |location=Singapore |pages=123–128 |oclc=1249470522 |author-link=Roland Boer}}</ref> Others have described it as a form of [[Marxism–Leninism]] adapted to co-exist with global capitalism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poulin |first=Maxence |date=2021-10-02 |title=Comparative Analysis of the Economic Structure of the Socialist Market Economy of China and the New Economy Policy |url= |journal=International Critical Thought |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=519–534 |doi=10.1080/21598282.2021.2007502 |s2cid=244875301 |issn=2159-8282}}</ref> The state dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy production and [[heavy industry|heavy industries]], but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008.<ref name="Ref_abf">John Lee. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080726102845/http://www.cis.org.au/issue_analysis/IA95/ia95.html "Putting Democracy in China on Hold"]. The Center for Independent Studies. 26 July 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2013.</ref><ref name="Ref_2005a">{{cite web |date=22 August 2005 |title=China Is a Private-Sector Economy |url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_34/b3948478.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213222740/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_34/b3948478.htm |archive-date=13 February 2008 |access-date=27 April 2010 |work=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]]}}</ref><ref name="Ref_abg">{{cite web |title=Microsoft Word – China2bandes.doc |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/16/3/36174313.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010154017/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/16/3/36174313.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-10 |access-date=27 April 2010 |publisher=OECD}}</ref> According to official statistics, privately owned companies constitute more than 60% of China's GDP.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hancock |first=Tom |date=30 March 2022 |title=China Crackdowns Shrink Private Sector's Slice of Big Business |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-03-29/china-crackdowns-shrink-private-sector-s-slice-of-big-business?leadSource=uverify%20wall |access-date=13 April 2023}}</ref>

China has been the [[Manufacturing#List of countries by manufacturing output|world's largest manufacturing nation]] since 2010, after overtaking the US, which had been the largest for the previous hundred years.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.ft.com/content/002fd8f0-4d96-11e0-85e4-00144feab49a |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/002fd8f0-4d96-11e0-85e4-00144feab49a |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=China noses ahead as top goods producer|last=Marsh|first=Peter|date=13 March 2011|work=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42135.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42135.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=U.S. Manufacturing in International Perspective|last=Levinson|first=Marc|date=21 February 2018|website=Federation of American Scientists}}</ref> China has also been the second largest in high-tech manufacturing country since 2012, according to US [[National Science Foundation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2018/nsb20181/report/sections/industry-technology-and-the-global-marketplace/patterns-and-trends-of-knowledge--and-technology-intensive-industries#medium-high-technology-industries-in-china|title=Report – S&E Indicators 2018 {{!}} NSF – National Science Foundation|website=www.nsf.gov|access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref> China is the second largest retail market in the world, next to the United States.<ref>{{cite news |last=Shane |first=Daniel |date=23 January 2019 |title=China will overtake the US as the world's biggest retail market this year |work=[[CNN]] |publisher= |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/23/business/china-retail-sales-us/index.html |access-date=18 February 2019}}</ref> China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for over 37% of the global market share in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cameron |first=Isabel |date=9 August 2022 |title=China continues to lead global ecommerce market with over $2 trillion sales in 2022 |work=Charged |url=https://www.chargedretail.co.uk/2022/08/09/china-continues-to-lead-global-ecommerce-market-with-over-2-trillion-sales-in-2022/ |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref> China is the world's leader in electric vehicle consumption and production, manufacturing and buying half of all the plug-in electric cars (BEV and PHEV) in the world {{As of|2022|lc=y}}.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Baraniuk |first=Chris |date=11 October 2022 |title=China's electric car market is booming but can it last? |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-62825830 |access-date=13 April 2023}}</ref> China is also the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles as well as several key raw materials for batteries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/renewable/china-dominates-the-global-lithium-battery-market/|title=China Dominates the Global Lithium Battery Market|date=9 September 2020|website=Institute for Energy Research|access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref> Long heavily relying on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, China's adaptation of [[Renewable energy in China|renewable energy]] has increased significantly in recent years, with their share increasing from 26.3 percent in 2016 to 31.9 percent in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Maguire |first=Gavin |date=23 November 2022 |title=Column: China on track to hit new clean & dirty power records in 2022 |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/china-track-hit-new-clean-dirty-power-records-2022-maguire-2022-11-23/ |access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref>

=== Wealth ===
{{See also|Income inequality in China}}
[[File:Shanghai skyscrapers 5166285.jpg|thumb|[[Shanghai World Financial Center]], [[Jin Mao Tower]] and [[Shanghai Tower|Shanghai Tower, Lujiazui]]]]

China [[List of countries by total wealth|accounted for 17.9%]] of the world's total wealth in 2021, second highest in the world after the US.<ref name="databook20222">{{Cite book |last1=Shorrocks |first1=Anthony |url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2022.pdf |title=Global Wealth Databook 2022 |last2=Davies |first2=James |last3=Lluberas |first3=Rodrigo |publisher=[[Credit Suisse]] Research Institute |year=2022 |author-link=Anthony Shorrocks}}</ref> It ranks at 64th at [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|GDP (nominal) per capita]], making it an upper-middle income country.<ref>{{cite web |year=2018 |title=GDP PPP (World Bank) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?locations=CN-US&start=2000&year_high_desc=true |access-date=18 February 2019 |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> Though China used to make up much of the world's poor, it now makes up much of the world's middle-class.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Hernández |first1=Javier C. |last2=Bui |first2=Quoctrung |date=18 November 2018 |title=The American Dream Is Alive. In China. |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/11/18/world/asia/china-social-mobility.html |access-date=23 February 2019 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history<ref>{{cite news |date=13 October 2017 |title=China lifting 800 million people out of poverty is historic: World Bank |work=Business Standard India |agency=Press Trust of India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/international/china-lifting-800-million-people-out-of-poverty-is-historic-world-bank-117101300027_1.html |access-date=22 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= |url= |title=Four Decades of Poverty Reduction in China: Drivers, Insights for the World, and the Way Ahead |date=2022 |publisher=World Bank Publications |isbn=9781464818783 |location= |page=ix |quote=By any measure, the speed and scale of China's poverty reduction is historically unprecedented.}}</ref>—between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|page=23}} China reduced the extreme poverty rate—per international standard, it refers to an income of less than $1.90/day—from 88% in 1981 to 1.85% by 2013.<ref name="UN-2019">{{cite web |title=China's Approach to Reduce Poverty: Taking Targeted Measures to Lift People out of Poverty |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2018/05/31.pdf |access-date=21 February 2019 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref> The portion of people in China living below the international poverty line of $1.90 per day (2011 [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) fell to 0.3% in 2018 from 66.3% in 1990. Using the lower-middle income poverty line of $3.20 per day, the portion fell to 2.9% in 2018 from 90.0% in 1990. Using the upper-middle income poverty line of $5.50 per day, the portion fell to 17.0% from 98.3% in 1990.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 October 2020 |title=Is China Succeeding at Eradicating Poverty? |url=https://chinapower.csis.org/poverty/ |access-date=28 March 2021 |work=Center for Strategic and International Studies}}</ref>

From 1978 to 2018, the average standard of living multiplied by a factor of twenty-six.<ref name="Bergsten 2022">{{Cite book |last=Bergsten |first=C. Fred |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1255691875 |title=The United States vs. China : the quest for global economic leadership |date=2022 |isbn=978-1-5095-4735-7 |location=Cambridge |oclc=1255691875}}</ref> Wages in China have grown a lot in the last 40 years—real (inflation-adjusted) wages grew seven-fold from 1978 to 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rising Wages: Has China Lost Its Global Labor Advantage? |url=https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/5008/rising-wages-has-china-lost-its-global-labor-advantage |access-date=21 February 2019 |website=iza.org}}</ref> Per capita incomes have risen significantly – when the PRC was founded in 1949, per capita income in China was one-fifth of the world average; per capita incomes now equal the world average itself.<ref name="Bergsten 2022" /> China's development is highly uneven. Its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous compared to rural and interior regions.<ref>{{cite news |last=King |first=Stephen |date=2 February 2016 |title=China's path to tackling regional inequality |newspaper=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/9c6203d8-e1d9-3ca3-818a-e55b409ece94}}</ref> It has a high level of economic inequality,<ref>{{cite news |last=Duggan |first=Jennifer |date=12 January 2013 |title=Income inequality on the rise in China |publisher=[[Al Jazeera]] |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/12/2012122311167503363.html |url-status=dead |access-date=14 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722192442/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/12/2012122311167503363.html |archive-date=22 July 2013}}</ref> which has increased quickly after the economic reforms,<ref>{{cite news |last=Tobin |first=Damian |date=29 June 2011 |title=Inequality in China: Rural poverty persists as urban wealth balloons |newspaper=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-13945072 |access-date=14 January 2020}}</ref> though has decreased significantly in the 2010s.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 October 2021 |title=Just how Dickensian is China? |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2021/10/02/just-how-dickensian-is-china |access-date=15 May 2023 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> In 2019 China's [[Gini coefficient]] was 0.382, according to the [[World Bank]].<ref name="GINI" />

{{As of|2023|April}}, China was second in the world, after the US, in [[List of countries by number of billionaires|total number of billionaires]] and [[List of countries by number of millionaires|total number of millionaires]], with 495 Chinese billionaires<ref>{{cite web |title=Forbes World's Billionaires List: The Richest People in the World 2023 |url=https://www.forbes.com/billionaires/ |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=[[Forbes]] |language=English}}</ref> and 6.2 million millionaires.<ref name="databook20222" /> In 2019, China overtook the US as the home to the highest number of people who have a net personal wealth of at least $110,000, according to the global wealth report by [[Credit Suisse]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Khan|first=Yusuf|date=22 October 2019|title=China has overtaken the US to have the most wealthy people in the world {{!}} Markets Insider|url=http://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/china-has-overtaken-the-us-to-have-the-most-wealthy-people-in-the-world-1028618107|access-date=12 November 2019|website=[[Business Insider]]}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Dawkins|first=David|date=21 October 2019|title=China Overtakes U.S. In Global Household Wealth Rankings 'Despite' Trade Tensions – Report|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/daviddawkins/2019/10/21/china-overtakes-us-in-global-household-wealth-rankings-despite-trade-tensionsreport/|access-date=12 November 2019|website=Forbes}}</ref> According to the Hurun Global Rich List 2020, China is home to five of the world's top ten cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou in the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 10th spots, respectively) by the highest number of billionaires, which is more than any other country.<ref name="Hurun-2020">{{cite web|date=26 February 2020|title=Shimao Shenkong International Center·Hurun Global Rich List 2020|url=https://hurun.net/EN/Article/Details?num=775CEFAE8BF8|website=Hurun Report|access-date=6 February 2021|archive-date=21 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201221124815/https://www.hurun.net/EN/Article/Details?num=775CEFAE8BF8|url-status=dead}}</ref> China had 85 female billionaires {{As of|2021|January|lc=y}}, two-thirds of the global total, and minted 24 new female billionaires in 2020.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/people-culture/article/3127254/china-now-home-two-thirds-worlds-top-women-billionaires-four|title=China is now home to two-thirds of the world's top women billionaires, four times more than the US, Hurun research institute reveals|last=Chen|first=Qin|date=27 March 2021|work=South China Morning Post|access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref> China has had the world's largest middle-class population since 2015,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zheping |first=Huang |date=14 October 2015 |title=China's middle class has overtaken the US's to become the world's largest |work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]] |url=https://qz.com/523626/chinas-middle-class-has-overtaken-the-uss-to-become-the-worlds-largest/ |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> and the middle-class grew to a size of 400 million by 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rubin |first=Trudy |date=16 November 2018 |title=400 million strong and growing: China's massive middle class is its secret weapon |website=[[The Seattle Times]] |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/opinion/400-million-strong-and-growing-chinas-massive-middle-class-is-its-secret-weapon/ |access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref>

=== China in the global economy ===
<div class="floatright">
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|style="text-align:center; font-size:100%;"|Largest economies by nominal GDP in 2023<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=924,134,532,534,158,546,111,&s=NGDPD,&sy=2021&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|date=11 October 2022|website=International Momentary Fund|access-date=1 November 2022}}</ref>
|}
</div>

China is a member of the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] and is the world's largest trading power, with a total international trade value of US$6.3 trillion in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |last=He |first=Laura |date=13 January 2023 |title=China's exports plunge as global demand weakens, but trade with Russia hits record high |work=[[CNN]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/01/13/economy/china-exports-struggle-reopening-2022-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref> China is the world's [[List of countries by exports|largest exporter]] and [[List of countries by imports|second-largest importer]] of goods.<ref name="ChinaBiggestTrader">{{cite news |last=White |first=Garry |date=10 February 2013 |title=China trade now bigger than US |work=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/9860518/China-trade-now-bigger-than-US.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=15 February 2013 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/9860518/China-trade-now-bigger-than-US.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Foreign-exchange reserves of China|Its foreign exchange reserves]] reached US$3.128 trillion {{As of|2022|December|lc=y}},<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/china-economy-forex-reserves-idUSL4N23A2O2|title=UPDATE 1-China's May forex reserves rise unexpectedly to $3.1 trillion|date=10 June 2019|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=22 June 2019}}</ref> making its reserves by far the world's largest.<ref name="Ref_2009b">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=alZgI4B1lt3s|title=China's Foreign-Exchange Reserves Surge, Exceeding $2 Trillion|date=15 July 2009|publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]]|access-date=19 July 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613163056/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087|archive-date=13 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://smetimes.tradeindia.com/smetimes/news/global-business/2011/Jan/11/china-s-forex-reserves-reach-usd-2.85-trillion624606.html|title=China's forex reserves reach USD 2.85 trillion|website=Smetimes.tradeindia.com|access-date=1 November 2011}}</ref> In 2022, China was amongst the world's largest recipient of inward [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI), attracting $180 billion, though most of these were speculated to be from Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite news |date=19 January 2023 |title=China Foreign Investment Posts Record Slump as Covid Zero Ended |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-19/china-foreign-investment-posts-record-slump-as-covid-zero-ended |access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref> In 2021, China's foreign exchange remittances were $US53 billion making it the second largest recipient of remittances in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |author= |date=21 July 2022 |title=With $87 billion, India beats China as top remittance recipient in 2021 |work=[[India Today]] |location= |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/business/story/india-china-top-remittance-recipient-2021-un-report-1978008-2022-07-20 |access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref> China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $62.4 billion in 2012,<ref name="FDI">{{cite web |title=FDI in Figures |url=http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/FDI%20in%20figures.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/FDI%20in%20figures.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |access-date=28 November 2013 |publisher=OECD}}</ref> and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies.<ref>{{cite news|title=Being eaten by the dragon|url=http://www.economist.com/node/17460954|newspaper=The Economist|date=11 November 2010}}</ref> China is a major owner of [[US public debt]], holding trillions of dollars worth of U.S. [[Treasury bond]]s.<ref name="Ref_abe">[https://money.cnn.com/2009/07/29/news/economy/china_america_lender_respect.fortune/index.htm "Washington learns to treat China with care"]. CNNMoney.com. 29 July 2009.</ref><ref name="Hornby2009">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSTRE58M25U20090923|title=Factbox: US-China Interdependence Outweighs Trade Spat|work=Reuters|date=23 September 2009|access-date=25 September 2009|first=Lucy|last=Hornby}}</ref> China's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies,<ref name="CurrencyManipulator">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-campaign-romney-china-idUSBRE88N12M20120924|title=Obama should call China a currency manipulator: Romney aide|last=Palmer|first=Doug|date=24 September 2012|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=6 October 2012|archive-date=28 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120928004226/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/09/24/us-usa-campaign-romney-china-idUSBRE88N12M20120924|url-status=live}}</ref> and it has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of [[counterfeit]] goods.<ref>[http://www.asiabusinesscouncil.org/docs/IntellectualPropertyRights.pdf Intellectual Property Rights]. Asia Business Council. September 2005. Retrieved 13 January 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=MIT CIS: Publications: Foreign Policy Index|url=http://web.mit.edu/cis/fpi_china.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070214212158/http://web.mit.edu/CIS/fpi_china.html|archive-date=14 February 2007|access-date=15 May 2010|website=[[MIT Center for International Studies]]}}</ref> In 2020, [[Harvard University]]'s [[Economic Complexity Index]] ranked complexity of China's exports 17th in the world, up from 24th in 2010.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hancock |first=Tom |date=26 January 2023 |title=The US Hasn't Noticed That China-Made Cars Are Taking Over the World |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-26/how-china-is-quietly-dominating-the-global-car-market |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref>

Following the 2007–08 financial crisis, Chinese authorities sought to actively wean off of its dependence on the U.S. dollar as a result of perceived weaknesses of the international monetary system.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2013/9/cjv33n3-18.pdf|title = Does Internationalizing the RMB Make Sense for China?|last = Huang|first = Yukon|date =Fall 2013|journal = Cato Journal|access-date = 28 July 2014}}</ref> To achieve those ends, China took a series of actions to further the [[Internationalization of the renminbi|internationalization of the Renminbi]]. In 2008, China established the [[dim sum bond]] market and expanded the Cross-Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project, which helps establish pools of offshore RMB liquidity.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.hkma.gov.hk/eng/key-information/insight/20140218.shtml|title = Hong Kong as Offshore Renminbi Centre – Past and Prospects|date = 18 February 2014|access-date = 24 July 2014|publisher = HKMA|last = Chan|first = Norman T.L.}}</ref><ref>"RMB Settlement", Kasikorn Research Center, Bangkok, 8 February 2011</ref> This was followed with bilateral agreements to settle trades directly in renminbi with Russia,<ref>{{cite news|title=Sidestepping the U.S. Dollar, a Russian Exchange Will Swap Rubles and Renminbi|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/15/business/global/15iht-ruble15.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/15/business/global/15iht-ruble15.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited|work=The New York Times|access-date=10 October 2013|first=Andrew E.|last=Kramer|date=14 December 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Japan]],<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Japan/NF02Dh01.html|title=Japan, China bypass US in currency trade|last=Takahashi|first=Kosuke|date=2 June 2012|website=[[Asia Times]]|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321032934/https://www.atimes.com/atimes/Japan/NF02Dh01.html|archive-date=21 March 2013|access-date=16 October 2013}}</ref> [[Australia]],<ref>{{cite web|title=China and Australia Announce Direct Currency Trading |url=http://ministers.treasury.gov.au/DisplayDocs.aspx?doc=pressreleases/2013/044.htm&pageID=&min=wms&Year=&DocType=0|quote=Direct trading between the two currencies will commence on the China Foreign Exchange Trade System (CFETS) and the Australian foreign exchange market on 10 April 2013.|publisher=[[Department of the Treasury (Australia)]]|access-date=22 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151157/http://ministers.treasury.gov.au/DisplayDocs.aspx?doc=pressreleases%2F2013%2F044.htm&pageID=&min=wms&Year=&DocType=0|archive-date=10 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Singapore]],<ref name="massg">{{cite web|title=New Initiatives to Strengthen China-Singapore Financial Cooperation |url=http://www.mas.gov.sg/news-and-publications/media-releases/2013/new-initiatives-to-strengthen-china-singapore-financial-cooperation.aspx|publisher=[[Monetary Authority of Singapore]]|access-date=22 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909143221/http://www.mas.gov.sg/news-and-publications/media-releases/2013/new-initiatives-to-strengthen-china-singapore-financial-cooperation.aspx|archive-date=9 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> the [[United Kingdom]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Chancellor George Osborne cements London as renminbi hub|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/9579f608-356e-11e3-b539-00144feab7de.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/9579f608-356e-11e3-b539-00144feab7de.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|newspaper=[[Financial Times]]|quote= The two countries agreed to allow direct renminbi-sterling trading in Shanghai and offshore, making the pound the fourth currency to trade directly against the renminbi, while Chinese banks will be permitted to set up branches in London.}}</ref> and [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Bank of Canada announces signing of reciprocal 3-year Canadian dollar/renminbi bilateral swap arrangement |url=http://bankofcanada.ca/2014/11/bofc-announces-signing-reciprocal-bilateral-swap|quote=As part of the initiative announced today by the Government of Canada to promote increased trade and investment between Canada and China, as well as to support domestic financial stability should market conditions warrant, Governor Stephen S. Poloz and Governor Zhou Xiaochuan of the People's Bank of China have signed an agreement establishing a reciprocal 3-year, Canadian dollar (Can$)/renminbi (RMB) currency swap line.|publisher=[[Bank of Canada]]|access-date=11 November 2014}}</ref> As a result of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the eighth-most-traded currency in the world by 2018, an emerging international [[reserve currency]],<ref name="igtop10">{{cite news|title=The top 10 most traded currencies in the world|url=https://www.ig.com/au/trading-strategies/the-top-ten-most-traded-currencies-in-the-world-180904|work=IG|date=4 September 2018}}</ref> and a component of the IMF's [[special drawing rights]]; however, partly due to capital controls that make the renminbi fall short of being a fully convertible currency, it remains far behind the Euro, Dollar and Japanese Yen in international trade volumes.<ref>{{cite web|title=RMB now 8th most widely traded currency in the world|url=http://www.swift.com/about_swift/shownews?param_dcr=news.data%2Fen%2Fswift_com%2F2013%2FPR_RMB_september.xml|publisher=[[Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication]]|access-date=10 October 2013|archive-date=5 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105223715/http://www.swift.com/about_swift/shownews?param_dcr=news.data%2Fen%2Fswift_com%2F2013%2FPR_RMB_september.xml|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, Yuan is the world's fifth-most traded currency.<ref>{{cite news |date=31 October 2022 |title=Chinese yuan becomes world's fifth most traded currency |newspaper=[[The Straits Times]] |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/chinese-yuan-becomes-world-s-fifth-most-traded-currency-survey |access-date=4 December 2022}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="120" caption="Central business districts in China" perrow=6>
File:Skyline of Beijing CBD with B-5906 approaching (20211016171955).jpg|[[Beijing]]
File:Shanghai skyline 2018(cropped).jpg|[[Shanghai]]
File:Guangzhou skyline.jpg|[[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]]
File:Commercial area of futian to east2020.jpg|[[Shenzhen]], [[Guangdong]]
File:Vista del Puerto de Victoria desde Sky100, Hong Kong, 2013-08-09, DD 10.JPG|[[Hong Kong]]
File:Jiefangbei.jpg|[[Chongqing]]
File:东方之门1.jpg|[[Suzhou]], [[Jiangsu]]
File:Wuhan CBD Buildings.jpg|[[Wuhan]], [[Hubei]]
File:杭州钱江新城 4.jpg|[[Hangzhou]], [[Zhejiang]]
File:Hexi CBD, Nanjing.jpg|[[Nanjing]], [[Jiangsu]]
File:Ningbo South Business District 24-09-2018.jpg|[[Ningbo]], [[Zhejiang]]
File:青岛123.jpg|[[Qingdao]], [[Shandong]]
File:Furong Middle Road.jpg|[[Changsha]], [[Hunan]]
File:20220812 Central Business District of Zhengdong New Area.jpg|[[Zhengzhou]], [[Henan]]
File:Fuzhou Taixi CBD.jpg|[[Fuzhou]], [[Fujian]]
File:Skyline of CBD, Jinan, China.jpg|[[Jinan]], [[Shandong]]
File:Urumqi Skyline July 2019.jpg|[[Ürümqi]], [[Xinjiang]]
</gallery>

== Science and technology ==
{{Main|Science and technology in China|List of Chinese discoveries|List of Chinese inventions}}

=== Historical ===
{{Main|History of science and technology in China}}
[[File:Chinese Gunpowder Formula.JPG|thumb|Earliest known written formula for gunpowder, from the ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]'' of 1044 CE]]
China was a world leader in science and technology until the [[Ming dynasty]].<ref>Tom (1989), 99; Day & McNeil (1996), 122; Needham (1986e), 1–2, 40–41, 122–123, 228.</ref> Ancient and medieval [[List of Chinese discoveries|Chinese discoveries]] and [[List of Chinese inventions|inventions]], such as [[papermaking]], [[History of typography in East Asia|printing]], the [[compass]], and [[gunpowder]] (the [[Four Great Inventions]]), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use [[negative numbers#History|negative numbers]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003hyd9|title=In Our Time: Negative Numbers|date=9 March 2006|website=[[BBC News]]|access-date=19 June 2013}}</ref><ref>Struik, Dirk J. (1987). ''A Concise History of Mathematics''. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 32–33. "''In these matrices we find negative numbers, which appear here for the first time in history.''"</ref> By the 17th century, the Western World surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement.<ref>{{cite book|title=Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology|volume=179|year=1996|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|pages=137–138|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jaQH6_8Ju-MC&pg=PA137|isbn=978-0-7923-3463-7}}</ref> The causes of this early modern [[Great Divergence]] continue to be debated by scholars.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Frank|first=Andre|author-link=Andre Gunder Frank|title=Review of ''The Great Divergence''|journal=Journal of Asian Studies|volume=60|issue=1|year=2001|pages=180–182|doi=10.2307/2659525|url=http://www.rrojasdatabank.info/agfrank/pomeranz.html|jstor=2659525 }}</ref>

After [[Century of humiliation|repeated military defeats]] by the European colonial powers and Japan in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]]. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the [[Soviet Union]], in which scientific research was part of central planning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Yu|first=Q. Y.|title=The Implementation of China's Science and Technology Policy|year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IluWYKmTCN0C&pg=PA2|isbn=978-1-56720-332-5}}</ref> After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology were promoted as one of the [[Four Modernizations]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Vogel|first=Ezra F.|title=[[Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China]]|year=2011|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3IaR-FxlA6AC&pg=PA129 129]|isbn=978-0-674-05544-5}}</ref> and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.<ref>{{cite book|last=DeGlopper|first=Donald D.|chapter=Soviet Influence in the 1950s|chapter-url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html|publisher=Library of Congress|title=China: a country study|year=1987}}</ref>

=== Modern era ===
[[File:Tencent Seafront Tower in Dec2020.jpg|thumb|upright|Headquarters of [[Tencent]] in [[Shenzhen]], one of the largest technology and entertainment companies in the world<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kleinman |first=Zoe |date=2020-08-07 |title=What is Tencent? |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-53696743 |access-date=2022-12-19}}</ref>]]
Since the end of the [[Cultural Revolution]], China has made significant investments in scientific research<ref name="CWRD">{{cite web|url=http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2014/09/research-development-rd-share-basic-research-china-dwindles|title=R&D share for basic research in China dwindles|last=Jia|first=Hepeng|date=9 September 2014|website=[[Chemistry World]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219044130/http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2014/09/research-development-rd-share-basic-research-china-dwindles|archive-date=19 February 2015|access-date=21 January 2020}}</ref> and is quickly catching up with the US in R&D spending.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/surging-rd-spending-china-narrows-gap-united-states|title=Surging R&D spending in China narrows gap with United States|last=Normile|first=Dennis|date=10 October 2018|website=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|access-date=20 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China Has Surpassed the U.S. in R&D Spending, According to New National Academy of Arts and Sciences Report – ASME|url=https://www.asme.org/government-relations/capitol-update/china-has-surpassed-the-u-s-in-r-d-spending,-according-to-new-national-academy-of-arts-and-sciences-report|access-date=26 October 2020|website=asme.org}}</ref> China officially spent around 2.4% of its GDP on R&D in 2020, totaling to around $377.8 billion.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-03-01 |title=China's R&D Spending Rises 10% to Record $378 Billion in 2020 |language=en |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-03-01/china-s-r-d-spending-rises-10-to-record-378-billion-in-2020 |access-date=2022-12-18}}</ref> According to the [[World Intellectual Property Indicators]], China received more applications than the US did in 2018 and 2019 and ranked first globally in patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports in 2021.<ref name="Dutta-2021">{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4560 |title=Global Innovation Index 2021, 14th Edition |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |last3=Wunsch-Vincent |first3=Sacha |last4=León |first4=Lorena Rivera |last5=World Intellectual Property Organization |website=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |year=2021 |isbn=9789280532494 |series=[[Global Innovation Index]] |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.44315 |access-date=20 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=World Intellectual Property Indicators: Filings for Patents, Trademarks, Industrial Designs Reach Record Heights in 2018|url=https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2019/article_0012.html|access-date=10 May 2020|website=wipo.int}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China Becomes Top Filer of International Patents in 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2020/article_0005.html|access-date=26 October 2020|website=wipo.int}}</ref> It was ranked 11th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2022, a considerable improvement from its rank of 35th in 2013.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Global Innovation Index 2022 – Which are the most innovative countries |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=2022-09-29 |website=www.wipo.int |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |language=en|last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |last3=Wunsch-Vincent |first3=Sacha |last4=León |first4=Lorena Rivera |last5=World Intellectual Property Organization |year=2022 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |isbn=9789280534320 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=28 October 2013|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2 September 2021|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=dead}}</ref> Chinese [[supercomputer]]s have been ranked the [[TOP500|fastest in the world]] on a few occasions;<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-22936989|title=China retakes supercomputer crown|date=17 June 2013|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=18 June 2013}}</ref> however, these supercomputers rely on critical components —namely processors— designed in foreign countries imported from outside of China.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsay |first1=Brian |title=The Tianhe-2 Supercomputer: Less than Meets the Eye? |journal=Study of Innovation and Technology in China |date=1 July 2013 |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt1839q9q8/qt1839q9q8_noSplash_655683ee7607fac63ee7c103c25f45a8.pdf |publisher=UC Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation |language=en}}</ref> China has also struggled with developing several technologies domestically, such as the most advanced semiconductors and reliable jet engines.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zhu |first=Julie |date=2022-12-14 |title=Exclusive: China readying $143 billion package for its chip firms in face of U.S. curbs |language=en |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/china-plans-over-143-bln-push-boost-domestic-chips-compete-with-us-sources-2022-12-13/ |access-date=2022-12-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hackaday.com/2020/07/28/80-years-from-invention-china-is-struggling-with-jet-engines|title=80 Years From Invention, China Is Struggling With Jet Engines|last=Day|first=Lewin|publisher=HackADay Insider|date=28 July 2020 }}</ref>

China is developing [[Education in China|its education system]] with an emphasis on [[science, technology, engineering, and mathematics]] (STEM).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Colvin |first=Geoff |date=29 July 2010 |title=Desperately seeking math and science majors |work=[[CNN Business]] |publisher= |url=https://money.cnn.com/2010/07/29/news/international/china_engineering_grads.fortune/index.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=9 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017232727/https://money.cnn.com/2010/07/29/news/international/china_engineering_grads.fortune/index.htm |archive-date=17 October 2010}}</ref> It became the [[List of countries by number of scientific and technical journal articles|world's largest publisher]] of [[Academic publishing in China|scientific papers]] in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/amp/opinion/articles/2018-09-12/chinese-researchers-are-outperforming-americans-in-science|title=China is Overtaking the U.S. in Scientific Research|last=Orszag|first=Peter R.|date=12 September 2018|work=[[Bloomberg News]]|access-date=19 February 2019|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220183147/https://www.bloomberg.com/amp/opinion/articles/2018-09-12/chinese-researchers-are-outperforming-americans-in-science|archive-date=20 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tollefson |first=Jeff |date=18 January 2018 |title=China declared world's largest producer of scientific articles |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-00927-4 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=553 |issue=7689 |page=390 |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-00927-4|bibcode=2018Natur.553..390T }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Koshikawa |first=Noriaki |date=8 August 2020 |title=China passes US as world's top researcher, showing its R&D might |work=[[Nikkei Asia]] |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Science/China-passes-US-as-world-s-top-researcher-showing-its-R-D-might |access-date=8 June 2022}}</ref> Chinese-born academicians have won prestigious prizes in the sciences and in mathematics, although most of them had conducted their winning research in Western nations.{{efn|[[Tsung-Dao Lee]],<ref name="Nobel Physics 1957">{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1957/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1957|publisher=Nobel Media AB|access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref> [[Chen Ning Yang]],<ref name="Nobel Physics 1957" /> [[Daniel C. Tsui]],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1998|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1998/|access-date=6 December 2013}}</ref> [[Charles K. Kao]],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 2009|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2009/|access-date=6 December 2013}}</ref> [[Yuan T. Lee]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1986/lee-bio.html|title=Yuan T. Lee – Biographical|access-date=6 December 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109222305/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1986/lee-bio.html|archive-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> [[Tu Youyou]]<ref>{{cite web|title = Nobel Prize announcement|url = https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2015/press.pdf|publisher = [[Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet]]|access-date = 5 October 2015}}</ref> [[Shing-Tung Yau]]<ref>Albers, Donald J.; Alexanderson, G. L.; Reid, Constance. [https://www.mathunion.org/fileadmin/IMU/Prizes/Fields/1982/index.html#0x82496a1f_0x0005ea36 International Mathematical Congresses. An Illustrated History 1893–1986.] Rev. ed. including ICM 1986. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1986</ref>}}{{Synthesis inline|date=July 2020}}

==== Space program ====
{{Main|Chinese space program}}
[[File:Launch of Shenzhou 13.jpg|thumb|upright|Launch of [[Shenzhou 13]] by a [[Long March 2F]] rocket. China is one of the only three countries with independent [[human spaceflight]] capability.]]
The Chinese space program started in 1958 with some technology transfers from the Soviet Union. However, it did not launch the nation's first satellite until 1970 with the [[Dong Fang Hong I]], which made China the fifth country to do so independently.<ref>{{cite web|last=Long|first=Wei |url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/china-00u.html|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515110247/http%3A//www.spacedaily.com/news/china%2D00u.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 May 2016|title=China Celebrates 30th Anniversary of First Satellite Launch|publisher=Space daily|date=25 April 2000}}</ref>

In 2003, China became the third country in the world to independently send humans into space with [[Yang Liwei]]'s spaceflight aboard [[Shenzhou 5]]. As of 2023, [[List of Chinese astronauts|eighteen Chinese nationals]] have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China launched its first space station testbed, [[Tiangong-1]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Rocket launches Chinese space lab |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15112760|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|date=29 September 2011 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> In 2013, a Chinese robotic rover [[Yutu (rover)|Yutu]] successfully touched down on the lunar surface as part of the [[Chang'e 3]] mission.<ref>{{cite news |title=China lands Jade Rabbit robot rover on Moon |last=Rincon |first=Paul|date=14 December 2013|work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-25356603 |access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref>

In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe—[[Chang'e 4]]—on the [[far side of the Moon]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Lyons|first=Kate |title=Chang'e 4 landing: China probe makes historic touchdown on far side of the moon|work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jan/03/china-probe-change-4-land-far-side-moon-basin-crater|access-date=3 January 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190103043232/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jan/03/china-probe-change-4-land-far-side-moon-basin-crater|archive-date=3 January 2019}}</ref> In 2020, [[Chang'e 5]] successfully returned Moon samples to the Earth, making China the third country to do so independently after the United States and the Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite news |date=17 December 2020|title=Moon rock samples brought to Earth for first time in 44 years|work=The Christian Science Monitor |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Science/Spacebound/2020/1217/Moon-rock-samples-brought-to-Earth-for-first-time-in-44-years |access-date=23 February 2021|issn=0882-7729}}</ref> In 2021, China became the third country to land a spacecraft on Mars and the second one to deploy a [[Zhurong (rover)|rover (Zhurong)]] on Mars, after the United States.<ref>{{cite web|date=15 May 2021|title=China succeeds on country's first Mars landing attempt with Tianwen-1|website=NASASpaceFlight.com |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/05/china-first-mars-landing-attempt-tianwen-1/ |access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> China completed its own modular [[space station]], the [[Tiangong space station|''Tiangong'']], in [[low Earth orbit]] on 3 November 2022.<ref>{{cite tweet |author=China 'N Asia Spaceflight |user=CNSpaceflight |number=1587984835808665600 |title=Official completion time of #Mengtian relocation is 01:32UTC |date=3 November 2022 |access-date=3 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=China Is Now a Major Space Power |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/china-is-now-a-major-space-power-tiangong-space-station/|access-date=4 November 2022|last1=Skibba |first1=Ramin }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Celestial second fiddle no more, China completes its space station |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/11/05/china-space-station-tiangong/|access-date=2022-11-24}}</ref> On 29 November 2022, China performed its first in-orbit crew handover aboard the ''Tiangong''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chinese astronauts meet in space for historic crew handover|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2022/11/29/chinese-astronauts-meet-in-space-for-historic-crew-handover/ |publisher=Spaceflight Now|access-date=16 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Woo |first1=Ryan |last2=Liangping |first2=Gao |date=30 November 2022 |title=Chinese astronauts board space station in historic mission |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/china-launches-crewed-spacecraft-chinese-space-station-state-television-2022-11-29/#:~:text=Shenzhou%2D15%20was%20the%20last,was%20launched%20in%20April%202021. |access-date=16 December 2022}}</ref>

In May 2023, China announces plan to [[Moon landing|land humans on Moon]] by 2030.<ref>{{cite news |title=China Announces Plan to Land Astronauts on Moon by 2030|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/29/world/asia/china-space-moon-2030.html|work=The New York Times|date= 29 May 2023|last1= Wang|first1= Vivian}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==
After a decades-long infrastructural boom,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gbm.hsbc.com/insights/global-research/china-infrastructure-builds-foundation-for-growth|title=China's infrastructure builds foundation for growth|last=Qu|first=Hongbin|website=HSBC|access-date=1 December 2020}}</ref> China has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects: China has the [[High-speed rail by country|world's largest bullet train network]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=13 January 2017 |title=China has built the world's largest bullet-train network |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/china/2017/01/13/china-has-built-the-worlds-largest-bullet-train-network |access-date=13 September 2020 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> the [[List of supertall skyscrapers|most supertall skyscrapers]] in the world,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/countries|title=Countries or Jurisdictions Ranked by Number of 150m+ Completed Buildings|website=The Skyscraper Center|access-date=30 November 2020}}</ref> the world's largest power plant (the [[Three Gorges Dam]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/three-gorges-dam-worlds-largest-hydroelectric-plant?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects|title=Three Gorges Dam: The World's Largest Hydroelectric Plant|website=United States Geological Survey|access-date=1 December 2020}}</ref> and a [[BeiDou|global satellite navigation system]] with the largest number of satellites in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Gao |first1=Ryan Woo |date=12 June 2020 |title=China set to complete Beidou network rivalling GPS in global navigation |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-space-exploration-china-satellite-idUSKBN23J0I9 |access-date=1 December 2020}}</ref>

=== Telecommunications ===
{{Main|Telecommunications in China}}
[[File:P1994-2011.gif|thumb|upright=1.35|Internet penetration rates in China in the context of [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]], 1995–2012]]
China is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has the [[List of countries by number of mobile phones in use|largest number of active cellphones]] of any country in the world, with over 1.69 billion subscribers, {{As of|2023|February|lc=y}}.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} It also has the world's largest number of [[List of countries by number of Internet users|internet]] and [[List of sovereign states by number of broadband Internet subscriptions|broadband users]], with over 1.05 billion Internet users {{As of|2021||df=US|lc=y|since=y}}<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 December 2021 |title=The 48th Statistical Report on China's Internet Development |url=https://www.cnnic.com.cn/IDR/ReportDownloads/202212/P020221209344717199824.pdf |publisher=[[CNNIC]]}}</ref>—equivalent to around 73.7% of its population—and almost all of them being mobile as well. By 2018, China had more than 1 billion 4G users, accounting for 40% of world's total.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mobileworldlive.com/featured-content/home-banner/china-breaks-1b-4g-subscriber-mark/|title=China breaks 1B 4G subscriber mark|date=22 January 2018|website=Mobile World Live|access-date=23 February 2019}}</ref> China is making rapid advances in [[5G]]—by late 2018, China had started large-scale and commercial 5G trials.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/612617/china-is-racing-ahead-in-5g-heres-what-it-means/|title=China is racing ahead in 5G. Here's what that means.|last=Woyke|first=Elizabeth|website=MIT Technology Review|access-date=21 February 2019}}</ref> {{As of|2022|March}}, China had over 500 million [[5G]] users and 1.45 million base stations installed.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2022 |title=China aims to accelerate 5G base stations deployment this year: Report |url=https://www.rcrwireless.com/20220311/5g/china-aims-accelerate-5g-base-stations-deployment-this-year-report |access-date=25 March 2022 |publisher=RCR Wireless}}</ref>

[[China Mobile]], [[China Unicom]] and [[China Telecom]], are the three large providers of mobile and internet in China. China Telecom alone served more than 145 million broadband subscribers and 300 million mobile users; China Unicom had about 300 million subscribers; and China Mobile, the largest of them all, had 925 million users, {{As of|2018|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mobileworldlive.com/blog/blog-china-operator-h1-2018-scorecard/|title=Blog: China operator H1 2018 scorecard|date=21 August 2018|website=Mobile World Live|access-date=23 February 2019}}</ref> Combined, the three operators had over 3.4 million 4G base-stations in China.<ref name="TechNode-2018">{{cite web|date=8 November 2018|title=China ranked in top 5 for 4G penetration · TechNode|url=https://technode.com/2018/11/08/china-ranked-in-top-5-for-4g-penetration/|access-date=23 February 2019|website=TechNode}}</ref> Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notably [[Huawei]] and [[ZTE]], have been accused of spying for the Chinese military.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-10-07/huawei-zte-provide-opening-for-china-spying-report-says.html|title=Huawei, ZTE Provide Opening for China Spying, Report Says|last=Engleman|first=Eric|date=8 October 2012|work=[[Bloomberg News]]|access-date=26 October 2012}}</ref>

China has developed its own [[satellite navigation]] system, dubbed [[BeiDou]], which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012<ref name="CustomersDec2012">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-20852150|title=China's Beidou GPS-substitute opens to public in Asia|date=27 December 2012|work=[[BBC News]]|access-date=27 December 2012}}</ref> as well as global services by the end of 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 November 2018 |title=China Is Building a $9 Billion Rival to the American-Run GPS |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-11-25/china-s-big-dipper-satellites-challenge-the-dominance-of-gps |access-date=21 February 2019}}</ref> Upon the completion of the 35th Beidou satellite, which was launched into orbit on 23 June 2020, Beidou followed [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] and [[GLONASS]] as the third completed global navigation satellite in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Elmer |first=Keegan |date=3 August 2020 |title=China promises state support to keep BeiDou satellite system at cutting edge |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3095794/china-promises-state-support-keep-beidou-satellite-system |access-date=22 August 2020}}</ref>

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in China}}
{{multiple image|direction=vertical
|image1=Duge Bridge.jpg
|caption1=The [[Duge Bridge]] is the [[List of highest bridges|highest bridge in the world]].
|image2=CR400BF-Z-0312@BJI (20231009152047).jpg
|caption2=A [[Fuxing (train)|Fuxing]] high-speed train running near the [[Beijing central business district|Beijing CBD]].
|image3=Beijing New Airport.jpg
|caption3=The [[Beijing Daxing International Airport]] features the world's largest single-building airport terminal.
}}
Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of [[China National Highways|national highways]] and [[Expressways of China|expressways]]. In 2018, [[Expressways of China|China's highways]] had reached a total length of {{convert|161000|km|mi|abbr=on|sp=us}}, making it the [[List of countries by road network size|longest highway system in the world]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 May 2021 |title=多项指标位居世界第一我国从"交通大国"迈向"交通强国" |trans-title=Many Indicators Rank [China] First in the World, China has Gone from a "Transportation Power" to a "Transportation Powerhouse" |work=[[Xinhua News Agency]] |url=https://www.xinhuanet.com/2021-05/31/c_1127510817.htm |access-date=16 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624195259/http://www.xinhuanet.com/2021-05/31/c_1127510817.htm |archive-date=24 June 2021}}</ref> China has the world's largest market for automobiles,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2010-01-08 |title=China overtakes US as world's biggest car market |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/jan/08/china-us-car-sales-overtakes |access-date=2023-06-07 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Ho |first=Patricia Jiayi |date=2010-01-12 |title=China Overtakes U.S. to Become Largest Auto Market |language=en-US |work=Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703652104574651833126548364 |access-date=2023-06-07 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref> having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and [[List of countries by motor vehicle production|production]]. The country has also become a large exporter of automobiles, being the world's second-largest exporter of cars in 2022 after Japan.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ren |first=Daniel |date=15 January 2023 |title=China closes gap with Japan after 2022 car exports surpass Germany with 54.4 per cent surge to 3.11 million vehicles |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/business/china-business/article/3206875/chinas-car-exports-surpass-germanys-after-544-cent-surge-311-million-2022-narrowing-japans-lead |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> In early 2023, China has overtaken Japan, becoming the world's largest exporter of cars.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harley |first=Michael |title=China Overtakes Japan As The World's Biggest Exporter Of Passenger Cars |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelharley/2023/05/22/china-overtakes-japan-as-the-worlds-biggest-exporter-of-passenger-cars/ |access-date=2023-06-07 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-05-19 |title=China overtakes Japan as world's top car exporter |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-65643064 |access-date=2023-06-07}}</ref> A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents,<ref>{{cite web|title=Road Traffic Accidents Increase Dramatically Worldwide|publisher=Population Reference Bureau |url=http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2006/RoadTrafficAccidentsIncreaseDramaticallyWorldwide.aspx|access-date=16 November 2013 |archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151203/http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2006/RoadTrafficAccidentsIncreaseDramaticallyWorldwide.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> though the number of fatalities in traffic accidents fell by 20% from 2007 to 2017.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – {{As of|2012|lc=y}}, there are approximately 470 million bicycles in China.<ref name="470MBikes" /> [[Rail transport in China|China's railways]], which are operated by the state-owned [[China Railway|China State Railway Group Company]], are among [[List of countries by rail usage|the busiest in the world]], handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006.<ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/english/travel/214698.htm "Chinese Railways Carry Record Passengers, Freight" Xinhua] 21 June 2007</ref>{{Better source needed|date=January 2021}} {{As of|2021}}, the country had {{convert|150000|km|mi|0|abbr=on|sp=us}} of railways, the [[List of countries by rail transport network size|second longest network in the world]].<ref name="Chinab">{{cite news |date=5 January 2022 |title=2021年全国铁路营业里程突破15万公里高铁超4万公里 |language=Chinese |trans-title=The national railway operating mileage has exceeded 150,000 kilometers in 2021 |work=China News |url=http://finance.people.com.cn/n1/2022/0105/c1004-32324386.html |url-status=live |access-date=5 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414061508/http://finance.people.com.cn/n1/2022/0105/c1004-32324386.html |archive-date=14 April 2022}}</ref> The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the [[Chinese New Year]] holiday, when the [[Chunyun|world's largest annual human migration]] takes place.<ref name="overcrowding">{{cite news|date=22 January 2009|title=China's trains desperately overcrowded for Lunar New Year|newspaper=The Seattle Times|url=http://seattletimes.com/html/travel/2008659473_webchinatrains22.html}}</ref>

China's [[High-speed rail in China|high-speed rail (HSR) system]] started construction in the early 2000s. By the end of 2022, [[High-speed rail in China|high speed rail in China]] had reached {{convert|42000|km|mi|0|abbr=off|sp=us}} of dedicated lines alone, making it the [[List of high-speed railway lines|longest HSR network in the world]].<ref name="IRJ2022">{{cite web |last=Preston |first=Robert |date=3 January 2023 |title=China opens 4100km of new railway |url=https://www.railjournal.com/infrastructure/china-opens-4100km-of-new-railway/ |website=International Railway Journal}}</ref> Services on the [[Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway|Beijing–Shanghai]], [[Beijing–Tianjin intercity railway|Beijing–Tianjin]], and [[Chengdu–Chongqing intercity railway|Chengdu–Chongqing]] lines reach up to {{convert|350|km/h|0|abbr=on|sp=us}}, making them the fastest conventional high speed railway services in the world. With an annual ridership of over 2.29 billion passengers in 2019, it is the world's busiest.<ref>{{cite web|last=陈子琰|title=China's railways report 3.57b passenger trips in 2019|url=http://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202001/03/WS5e0eada7a310cf3e355824c4.html|access-date=10 March 2021|website=China Daily}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=October 2021}} The network includes the [[Beijing–Guangzhou high-speed railway]], the single longest HSR line in the world, and the [[Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway]], which has [[List of longest bridges|three of longest railroad bridges in the world]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-20842836|title=China opens world's longest high-speed rail route|publisher=BBC|date=26 December 2012|access-date=26 December 2012}}</ref> The [[Shanghai maglev train]], which reaches {{convert|431|km/h|0|abbr=on|sp=us}}, is the fastest commercial train service in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jones |first=Ben |date=7 December 2022 |title=Flying without wings: The world's fastest trains |work=[[CNN Travel]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/worlds-fastest-trains-cmd/index.html |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref>

Since 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has accelerated.<ref>{{cite news |last=Areddy |first=James T. |date=10 November 2013 |title=China's Building Push Goes Underground |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702303482504579177830819719254 |access-date=16 November 2013}}</ref> {{As of|2021|January}}, 44 Chinese cities have [[Urban rail transit in China|urban mass transit systems]] in operation<ref>{{cite web |title=China builds more urban rail transit lines in 2020—China Economic Net |url=http://en.ce.cn/main/latest/202101/10/t20210110_36207420.shtml |access-date=10 March 2021 |website=[[Economic Daily]]}}</ref> and 39 more have metro systems approved.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-transport-investment-idUSKCN0Y70I1|title=China to let more cities build metro systems – Economic Information Daily|last=Goh|first=Brenda|date=16 May 2016|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=24 October 2016}}</ref> {{As of|2020}}, China boasts the five longest [[List of metro systems|metro systems in the world]] with the networks in [[Shanghai Metro|Shanghai]], [[Beijing Subway|Beijing]], [[Guangzhou Metro|Guangzhou]], [[Chengdu Metro|Chengdu]] and [[Shenzhen Metro|Shenzhen]] being the largest.

There were [[List of airports in China|approximately 241 airports in 2021]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 February 2021 |title=China adds 43 civil transport airports in 5 years |url=http://english.www.gov.cn/news/photos/202102/18/content_WS602de0adc6d0719374af8fdd.html |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref>

China has over 2,000 [[List of ports in China|river and seaports]], about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping.<ref>{{Cite web |title=China's Global Network of Shipping Ports Reveal Beijing's Strategy |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/6224958.html |access-date=2022-09-15 |website=VOA |date=13 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref> In 2021, the Ports of [[Port of Shanghai|Shanghai]], [[Port of Ningbo-Zhoushan|Ningbo-Zhoushan]], [[Port of Shenzhen|Shenzhen]], [[Port of Guangzhou|Guangzhou]], [[Qingdao Port|Qingdao]], [[Port of Tianjin|Tianjin]] and [[Port of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] ranked in the top 10 in the world in [[List of busiest container ports|container traffic and cargo tonnage]].<ref name="lloydslist2022">{{Cite web |title=One Hundred Container Ports 2022 |url=https://lloydslist.maritimeintelligence.informa.com/one-hundred-container-ports-2022 |access-date=2023-01-10 |work=Lloyd's List}}</ref>

=== Water supply and sanitation ===
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in China}}

Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well as [[Water resources of China|water scarcity, contamination, and pollution]].<ref name="Water Scarcity in China">{{cite news|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/7d6f69ea-bc73-11e2-b344-00144feab7de.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/7d6f69ea-bc73-11e2-b344-00144feab7de.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=China: High and dry: Water shortages put a brake on economic growth|last=Hook |first= Leslie|date=14 May 2013|newspaper=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=15 May 2013}}</ref> According to data presented by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation]] of [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) and [[UNICEF]] in 2015, about 36% of the rural population in China still did not have access to [[improved sanitation]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf|title = Website of the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation|access-date = 14 February 2016|publisher = JMP (WHO and UNICEF)|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304112745/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf|archive-date = 4 March 2016|df = dmy-all}}</ref> The ongoing [[South–North Water Transfer Project]] intends to abate water shortage in the north.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Freeman |first=Carla |title=Quenching the Dragon's Thirst: The South-North Water Transfer Project—Old Plumbing for New China? |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/publication/Quenching%20the%20Dragon%25E2%2580%2599s%20Thirst.pdf |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]]}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of China}}
[[File:China Population Density, 2000 (6171905307).jpg|thumb|Population density map of the People's Republic of China (2000). The eastern coastal provinces are much more densely populated than the western interior.]]
The [[2020 Chinese census|national census of 2020]] recorded the [[population]] of the People's Republic of China as approximately 1,411,778,724. According to the 2020 census, about 17.95% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 63.35% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 18.7% were over 60 years old.<ref name="2020_census2">{{cite web |date=11 May 2021 |title=Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 2) |url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817187.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511104840/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817187.html |archive-date=11 May 2021 |access-date=11 May 2021 |url-status=live |website=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]] |language=en}}</ref> Between 2010 and 2020, the average population growth rate was 0.53%.<ref name="2020_census2"/>

Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a "1.5"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015 (ethnic minorities were also exempt from one child limits). The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.<ref>{{cite news |date=28 December 2013 |title=China formalizes easing of one-child policy |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/12/28/china-one-child-policy/4230785/ |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a [[two-child policy]].<ref name="Birtles-2021">{{Cite news |last=Birtles |first=Bill |author-link=Bill Birtles |date=31 May 2021 |title=China introduces three-child policy to alleviate problem of ageing population |work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]] |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-05-31/china-introduces-three-child-policy/100179832 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> A [[three-child policy]] was announced on 31 May 2021, due to [[Aging of China|population aging]],<ref name="Birtles-2021" /> and in July 2021, all family size limits as well as penalties for exceeding them were removed.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Cheng |first=Evelyn |date=21 July 2021 |title=China scraps fines, will let families have as many children as they'd like |work=[[CNBC]] |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/21/china-scraps-fines-for-families-violating-childbirth-limits.html |access-date=29 April 2022}}</ref> According to data from the 2020 census, China's total fertility rate is 1.3, but some experts believe that after adjusting for the transient effects of the relaxation of restrictions, the country's actual total fertility rate is as low as 1.1.<ref>{{cite web|date=16 September 2021|last1=Toshiya|first1=Tsugami|title=Why Society Will be the Real Loser from China's Low Birth Rate|work=Nippon.com|url= https://www.nippon.com/en/in-depth/d00740/|accessdate=11 April 2022}}</ref> In 2023, [[National Bureau of Statistics of China|National Bureau of Statistics]] estimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ng |first1=Kelly |date=17 January 2023 |title=China's population falls for first time since 1961 |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-64300190 |access-date=17 January 2023}}</ref>

According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth<ref name="Wang Judge">{{cite journal |last1=Feng |first1=Wang |last2=Yong |first2=Cai |last3=Gu |first3=Baochang |year=2012 |title=Population, Policy, and Politics: How Will History Judge China's One-Child Policy? |url=http://dragonreport.com/Dragon_Report/Challenges_files/Wang_pp115-129.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Population and Development Review]] |volume=38 |pages=115–129 |doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00555.x |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606203524/http://dragonreport.com/Dragon_Report/Challenges_files/Wang_pp115-129.pdf |archive-date=6 June 2019|access-date=16 May 2018}}</ref> or the size of the total population.<ref name="Whyte">{{cite journal |last1=Whyte |first1=Martin K.|last2=Wang|first2=Feng|last3=Cai|first3=Yong|year=2015|title=Challenging Myths about China's One-Child Policy |url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/martinwhyte/files/challenging_myths_published_version.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/martinwhyte/files/challenging_myths_published_version.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=[[The China Journal]]|volume=74|pages=144–159 |doi=10.1086/681664 |pmc=6701844|pmid=31431804}}</ref> However, these scholars have been challenged. Their own counterfactual model of fertility decline without such restrictions implies that China averted more than 500 million births between 1970 and 2015, a number which may reach one billion by 2060 given all the lost descendants of births averted during the era of fertility restrictions, with one-child restrictions accounting for the great bulk of that reduction.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Goodkind |first1=Daniel|year=2017|title=The Astonishing Population Averted by China's Birth Restrictions: Estimates, Nightmares, and Reprogrammed Ambitions|journal=[[Demography (journal)|Demography]] |volume=54|issue=4|pages=1375–1400 |doi=10.1007/s13524-017-0595-x|pmid=28762036 |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7dcb4537e267aa61f75f87bc82062644d9965652 |s2cid=13656899}}</ref> The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the [[human sex ratio|sex ratio]] at birth.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/1480778/Shortage-of-girls-forces-China-to-criminalise-selective-abortion.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/1480778/Shortage-of-girls-forces-China-to-criminalise-selective-abortion.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Shortage of girls forces China to criminalize selective abortion|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=9 January 2005|access-date=22 October 2012|location=London|first=Simon|last=Parry}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="Ref_2007a">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6254763.stm |title=Chinese facing shortage of wives|date=12 January 2007|work=BBC News |access-date=23 March 2009}}</ref> According to the 2020 census, the sex ratio at birth was 105.07 boys for every 100 girls,<ref name="NBS China-2021">{{Cite web |date=11 May 2021 |title=Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 4) |url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817189.html |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]]}}</ref> which is beyond the normal range of around 105 boys for every 100 girls.<ref>{{cite web|title=The odds that you will give birth to a boy or girl depend on where in the world you live|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/09/24/the-odds-that-you-will-give-birth-to-a-boy-or-girl-depend-on-where-in-the-world-you-live/|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=24 September 2013}}</ref> The 2020 census found that males accounted for 51.24 percent of the total population.<ref name="NBS China-2021" /> However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.82 percent of the total population.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 October 2011 |title=Chinese mainland gender ratios most balanced since 1950s: census data |work=[[Xinhua News Agency]] |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-04/28/c_13850191.htm |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911115321/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-04/28/c_13850191.htm |archive-date=11 September 2011}}</ref>

=== Ethnic groups ===
{{Main|List of ethnic groups in China|Ethnic minorities in China|Ethnic groups in Chinese history}}
[[File:China ethnolinguistic 1967.jpg|thumb|Ethnolinguistic map of China in 1967]]
China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who altogether comprise the ''[[Zhonghua minzu]]''. The largest of these nationalities are the [[Han Chinese]], who constitute more than 91% of the total
population.<ref name="2020_census2"/> The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group<ref>{{cite news |last=Lilly |first=Amanda |date=7 July 2009 |title=A Guide to China's Ethnic Groups |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://articles.washingtonpost.com/2009-07-07/world/36836997_1_muslim-uighurs-chinese-government-xinjiang-province |url-status=dead |access-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209112957/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2009-07-07/world/36836997_1_muslim-uighurs-chinese-government-xinjiang-province |archive-date=9 December 2013}}</ref> – outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division except [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]] and [[Xinjiang]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/chinasgeographyg0000unse|title=China's Geography: Globalization and the Dynamics of Political, Economic, and Social Change|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield Publishers]]|year=2011|isbn=978-0-7425-6784-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/chinasgeographyg0000unse/page/102 102]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Ethnic minorities account for less than 10% of the population of China, according to the 2020 census.<ref name="2020_census2" /> Compared with the 2010 population census, the Han population increased by 60,378,693 persons, or 4.93%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 11,675,179 persons, or 10.26%.<ref name="2020_census2" /> The 2020 census recorded a total of 845,697 foreign nationals living in mainland China.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 May 2021 |title=Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 8) |url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202105/t20210510_1817193.html |access-date=22 April 2023 |website=[[National Bureau of Statistics of China]]}}</ref>

=== Languages ===
{{Main|Languages of China|List of endangered languages in China}}
[[File:Lihaozhai High School - P1360829.JPG|thumb|Lihaozhai High School in [[Jianshui]], [[Yunnan]]. The sign is in [[Hani language|Hani]] (Latin alphabet), [[Nisu language|Nisu]] ([[Yi script]]), and Chinese.]]There are as many as 292 [[living language]]s in China.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=CN Languages of China] – from Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International.</ref> The languages most commonly spoken belong to the [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic branch]] of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan language]] family, which contains [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (spoken by 80% of the population),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Over 80 percent of Chinese population speak Mandarin - People's Daily Online |url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=en.people.cn}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Language Planning and Policy in Asia: Japan, Nepal, Taiwan and Chinese characters|url=https://archive.org/details/languageplanning00kapl_687|url-access=limited|last1=Kaplan |first1= Robert B.|first2=Richard B. |last2=Baldauf |publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=2008|isbn=978-1-84769-095-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/languageplanning00kapl_687/page/n48 42]}}</ref> and [[Varieties of Chinese|other varieties]] of [[Chinese language]]: [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] (including [[Cantonese]] and [[Taishanese]]), [[Wu Chinese|Wu]] (including [[Shanghainese]] and [[Suzhou dialect|Suzhounese]]), [[Min Chinese|Min]] (including [[Fuzhou dialect|Fuzhounese]], [[Hokkien]] and [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]]), [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]], [[Gan Chinese|Gan]] and [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]. Languages of the [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman branch]], including [[Lhasa Tibetan|Tibetan]], [[Qiang language|Qiang]], [[Naxi language|Naxi]] and [[Nuosu language|Yi]], are spoken across the [[Tibetan Plateau|Tibetan]] and [[Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau]]. Other ethnic minority languages in [[southwestern China]] include [[Zhuang languages|Zhuang]], [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Kam language|Dong]] and [[Sui language|Sui]] of the [[Kra–Dai languages|Tai-Kadai family]], [[Hmongic language|Miao]] and [[Mienic languages|Yao]] of the [[Hmong–Mien languages|Hmong–Mien family]], and [[Wa language|Wa]] of the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic family]]. Across [[Northeast China|northeastern]] and [[northwestern China]], local ethnic groups speak [[Altaic languages]] including [[Manchu language|Manchu]], [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] and several [[Turkic languages]]: [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]], [[Salar language|Salar]] and [[Western Yugur language|Western Yugur]]. [[Korean language|Korean]] is spoken natively along the border with [[North Korea]]. [[Sarikoli language|Sarikoli]], the language of [[Chinese Tajiks|Tajiks in western Xinjiang]], is an [[Indo-European language]]. [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples]], including a small population on the mainland, speak [[Austronesian languages]].<ref name="language">[https://web.archive.org/web/20130725061022/http://english.gov.cn/2005-08/16/content_23691.htm "Languages"]. 2005. Gov.cn. Retrieved 31 May 2015.</ref>

[[Standard Chinese|Standard Mandarin]], a variety of Mandarin based on the [[Beijing dialect]], is the official national language of China and is used as a [[lingua franca]] in the country between people of different linguistic backgrounds.<ref name="langlaw">{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm|title=Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37)|publisher=Chinese Government|date=31 October 2000|access-date=21 June 2013|quote=For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.|archive-date=24 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724204951/http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Rough Guide Phrasebook: Mandarin Chinese|year=2011|publisher=Rough Guides|page=19|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jlM3TMYg8HQC&pg=PA19|isbn=978-1-4053-8884-9}}</ref> Mongolian, Uyghur, Tibetan, Zhuang and various other languages are also regionally recognized throughout the country.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.chinatoday.com/general/a.htm#LANGU|title=General Information of the People's Republic of China (PRC): Languages|publisher=chinatoday.com|access-date=17 April 2008}}</ref>

=== Urbanization ===
{{See also|List of cities in China|List of cities in China by population|Megalopolises in China}}
[[File:China Top 10 Biggest Cities.png|thumb|Map of the ten [[List of cities in China by population|largest cities]] in China (2010)]]
China has [[Urbanization|urbanized]] significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 64% in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Urban population (% of total) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=CN |access-date=28 May 2018 |website=[[World Bank]] |publisher=}}</ref><ref name="Economist-2014">{{Cite news |date=16 April 2014 |title=Where China's future will happen |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2014/04/16/where-chinas-future-will-happen |access-date=18 February 2023 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=He |first=Huifeng |date=28 February 2022 |title=China's urbanisation push could be at a 'bottleneck', with slowest migration growth rate in quarter-century |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3168678/chinas-urbanisation-push-could-be-bottleneck-slowest |access-date=13 April 2023}}</ref> It is estimated that China's [[Urbanization in China|urban population]] will reach one billion by 2030, potentially equivalent to one-eighth of the world population.<ref name="Economist-2014" />

China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,<ref>{{cite news |last=FlorCruz |first=Jaime A. |date=20 January 2012 |title=China's urban explosion: A 21st century challenge |work=[[CNN]] |publisher= |url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/20/world/asia/china-florcruz-urban-growth/index.html |access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> including the 17 [[Megacity|megacities]] {{As of|2021|lc=y}}<ref>{{cite news|author=Maggie Hiufu Wong|title=Megacities and more: A guide to China's most impressive urban centers|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/china-top-megacities/index.html|access-date=26 October 2020|publisher=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=张洁|title=Chongqing, Chengdu top new first-tier cities by population|url=http://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202106/15/WS60c84b56a31024ad0bac6db4.html|access-date=3 November 2021|website=China Daily}}</ref> (cities with a population of over 10 million) of [[Chongqing]], [[Shanghai]], [[Beijing]], [[Chengdu]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Shenzhen]], [[Tianjin]], [[Xi'an]], [[Suzhou]], [[Zhengzhou]], [[Wuhan]], [[Hangzhou]], [[Linyi]], [[Shijiazhuang]], [[Dongguan]], [[Qingdao]] and [[Changsha]].<ref>{{cite web |title=17 Chinese cities have a population of over 10 million in 2021 |url=https://www.ecns.cn/news/cns-wire/2022-05-26/detail-ihaytawr8118445.shtml |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=www.ecns.cn}}</ref> Among them, the total permanent population of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing and Chengdu is above 20 million.<ref>{{cite web |last=孙迟 |title=China's inland rides waves of innovation, new opportunities |url=https://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202205/27/WS62902a26a310fd2b29e5f516.html |access-date=31 May 2022 |website=global.chinadaily.com.cn |quote=Chengdu and Chongqing are now two of the only four cities (the other two are Beijing and Shanghai) in China with populations of more than 20 million.}}</ref> Shanghai is China's [[List of cities in China by population|most populous urban area]]<ref name=Demographia2013>{{cite book|author1=Demographia|title=Demographia World Urban Areas|date=March 2013|edition=9th|url=http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501024602/http://demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|archive-date=1 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="oecd">{{cite book|url=http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/urban-rural-and-regional-development/oecd-urban-policy-reviews-china-2015_9789264230040-en#page39|doi=10.1787/9789264230040-en|title=OECD Urban Policy Reviews: China 2015|publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]|page=37|date=18 April 2015|isbn=9789264230033}}</ref> while Chongqing is its [[List of largest cities|largest city proper]], the only city in China with the largest permanent population of over 30 million.<ref name="renamed_from_2015_on_20160214005959">{{cite web
|url = http://cq.cqnews.net/html/2016-01/28/content_36292655.htm
|script-title = zh:2015年重庆常住人口3016.55万人继续保持增长态势
|publisher = Chongqing News
|language = zh
|date = 28 January 2016
|access-date = 13 February 2016
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160129083111/http://cq.cqnews.net/html/2016-01/28/content_36292655.htm
|archive-date = 29 January 2016
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref> By 2025, it is estimated that the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants.<ref name="McKinseyUrbanBillion">{{cite web |date=February 2009 |title=Preparing for China's urban billion |url=http://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/dotcom/Insights%20and%20pubs/MGI/Research/Urbanization/Preparing%20for%20Chinas%20urban%20billion/MGI_Preparing_for_Chinas_Urban_Billion_full_report.ashx |access-date=18 February 2015 |publisher=McKinsey Global Institute |pages=6, 52}}</ref> The figures in the table below are from the 2017 census,<ref name="census">{{cite web|title=Tabulation of the China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2017|url=http://cdi.cnki.net/Titles/SingleNJ?NJCode=N2019060082|publisher=China Statistics Press|access-date=29 October 2020|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031183956/http://cdi.cnki.net/Titles/SingleNJ?NJCode=N2019060082|url-status=dead}}</ref> and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large "[[floating population]]s" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;<ref name="Ref_abce">Francesco Sisci. "China's floating population a headache for census". ''The Straits Times''. 22 September 2000.</ref> the figures below include only long-term residents.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

{{Most populous cities in the People's Republic of China|class=info}}

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in China|Higher education in China|List of universities in China}}
[[File:13 Peking University.jpg|alt=|thumb|Beijing's [[Peking University]], one of the [[Rankings of universities in China|top-ranked universities in China]]<ref>{{cite web|date=18 September 2020|title=Peking University|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/peking-university|access-date=9 December 2020|website=Times Higher Education (THE)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Overall Ranking, Best Chinese Universities Rankings – 2019|url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/Chinese_Universities_Rankings/Overall-Ranking-2019.html|access-date=9 December 2020|website=shanghairanking.com|archive-date=30 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330045254/http://www.shanghairanking.com/Chinese_Universities_Rankings/Overall-Ranking-2019.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
Since 1986, compulsory education in China comprises [[primary school|primary]] and [[middle school|junior secondary school]], which together last for nine years.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 July 2009 |title=Compulsory Education Law of the People's Republic of China |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/laws_policies/201506/t20150626_191391.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319045258/https://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/laws_policies/201506/t20150626_191391.html |archive-date=19 March 2022 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref> In 2021, about 91.4 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school.<ref name="Ministry of Edu China-2022">{{Cite web |date=24 September 2022 |title=Statistical report on China's educational achievements in 2021 |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/reports/202209/t20220924_664436.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204020612/http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/reports/202209/t20220924_664436.html |archive-date=4 February 2023 |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref> The [[Gaokao]], China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. {{As of|2020}}, 58.42 percent of secondary school graduates were enrolled in higher education.<ref>{{Cite web |title=School enrollment, tertiary (% gross) – China {{!}} 2010–2020 |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR?end=2020&locations=CN&start=2010 |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and [[tertiary education|tertiary]] level.<ref name="Ministry of Edu China-2022" /> More than 10 million Chinese students graduated from vocational colleges nationwide every year.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 March 2021 |title=Zheng Yali: vocational education entering a new development stage |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/features/2021TwoSessions/Voices/VocationalEducation/202103/t20210323_522096.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128011150/http://en.moe.gov.cn/features/2021TwoSessions/Voices/VocationalEducation/202103/t20210323_522096.html |archive-date=28 January 2023 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref>

China has the largest education system in the world, with about 282 million students and 17.32 million full-time teachers in over 530,000 schools.<ref name="UNICEF-2021">{{cite web|date=August 2021|title=China Case Study: Situation Analysis of the Effect of and Response to COVID-19 in Asia|url=https://www.unicef.org/eap/media/9321/file/Sit%20An%20-%20China%20Case%20Study.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.unicef.org/eap/media/9321/file/Sit%20An%20-%20China%20Case%20Study.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=3 November 2021|website=UNICEF|page=21|language=en}}</ref> Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$817 billion in 2020.<ref>{{cite news |date=16 January 2013 |title=In Education, China Takes the Lead |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/01/16/business/In-Education-China-Takes-the-Lead.html |access-date=17 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=7 May 2021 |title=MOE releases 2020 Statistical Bulletin on Educational Spending |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202105/t20210512_531041.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321225632/http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202105/t20210512_531041.html |archive-date=21 March 2023 |access-date=3 November 2021 |website=[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref> However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in [[Guizhou]], one of the [[List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP per capita|poorest provinces in China]], only totalled ¥3,204.<ref>{{cite news |last=Roberts |first=Dexter |date=4 April 2013 |title=Chinese Education: The Truth Behind the Boasts |newspaper=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-04-04/chinese-education-the-truth-behind-the-boasts |url-status= |access-date=17 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406202405/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-04-04/chinese-education-the-truth-behind-the-boasts |archive-date=6 April 2013}}</ref> Free compulsory education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15. In 2021, the graduation enrollment ratio at compulsory education level reached 95.4 percent, and around 91.4% of Chinese have received secondary education.<ref name="Ministry of Edu China-2022" />

China's literacy rate has grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Galtung|first1=Marte Kjær|last2= Stenslie|first2=Stig|date=2014|title=49 Myths about China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqqDBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA189|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|page=189|isbn=978-1-4422-3622-6}}</ref> to 97% of the population over age 15 in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) - China |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?end=2020&locations=CN&most_recent_value_desc=true&start=1982 |access-date=2022-10-04 |website=[[World Bank]]}}</ref> In the same year, Beijing, Shanghai, [[Jiangsu]], and [[Zhejiang]], amongst the most affluent regions in China, were ranked the highest in the world in the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] ranking for all three categories of Mathematics, Science and Reading.<ref>{{cite web|date=3 December 2019|title=PISA 2018 Results |url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203141933/https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results.htm|archive-date=3 December 2019|access-date=3 December 2019|website=OECD}}</ref>

{{As of|2021}}, China has over 3,000 universities, with over 44.3 million students enrolled in mainland China and 240 million Chinese citizens have received high education, making China the largest higher education system in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2022 |title=MOE press conference presents reform progress in China's higher education |url=http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202205/t20220527_631451.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326224908/http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202205/t20220527_631451.html |archive-date=26 March 2023 |access-date=16 October 2022 |website=[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Zou |first=Shuo |date=3 December 2020 |title=China's higher education system is world's largest, officials say |work=[[China Daily]] |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202012/03/WS5fc86ab2a31024ad0ba9999e.html |access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref> {{As of|2021}}, China had the world's second-highest [[Rankings of universities in China|number of top universities]] (the highest in Asia & Oceania region).<ref>{{cite web |date=26 October 2021 |title=U.S. News Unveils 2022 Best Global Universities Rankings |url=https://www.usnews.com/info/blogs/press-room/articles/2021-10-26/us-news-announces-2022-best-global-universities-rankings |access-date=27 April 2022 |work=U.S. News & World Report}}</ref> Currently, China trails only the United States in terms of representation on lists of top 200 universities according to the [[Academic Ranking of World Universities]] (ARWU).<ref>{{cite web |title=Statistics of Academic Ranking of World Universities – 2022 |url=https://www.shanghairanking.com/rankings/arwu/2022 |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[Academic Ranking of World Universities]]}}</ref> China is home to the two of the highest ranking universities ([[Tsinghua University]] and [[Peking University]]) in [[Asia]] and [[Emerging market|emerging economies]] according to the [[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]].<ref>{{cite web |date= 4 October 2022|title=World University Rankings 2023 |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2023/world-ranking |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]]}}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, two universities in mainland China rank in the world's top 15, with Peking University (12th) and Tsinghua University (14th) and three other universities ranking in the world's top 50, namely [[Fudan University|Fudan]], [[Zhejiang University|Zhejiang]], and [[Shanghai Jiao Tong University|Shanghai Jiao Tong]] according to the [[QS World University Rankings]].<ref>{{cite web |title=QS World University Rankings 2023: Top Global Universities |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2023 |access-date=9 June 2022 |website=Top Universities |language=en}}</ref> These universities are members of the [[C9 League]], an alliance of elite [[List of universities in China|Chinese universities]] offering comprehensive and leading education.<ref>{{cite web |date=17 February 2011 |title=Eastern stars: Universities of China's C9 League excel in select fields |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/eastern-stars-universities-of-chinas-c9-league-excel-in-select-fields/415193.article |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=[[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]]}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in China}}
{{See also|Medicine in China|Pharmaceutical industry in China|COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China}}
[[File:China, Trends in the Human Development Index 1970-2010.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Chart showing the rise of China's [[Human Development Index]] from 1970 to 2010]]
The [[National Health and Family Planning Commission]], together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the Chinese population.<ref>{{cite web |title=What we do |url=http://en.nhfpc.gov.cn/2014-05/07/content_17491484.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140928220552/http://en.nhfpc.gov.cn/2014-05/07/content_17491484.htm |archive-date=28 September 2014 |access-date=6 September 2015 |website=[[National Health and Family Planning Commission]] |publisher=}}</ref> An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party started the [[Patriotic Health Campaign]], which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as [[cholera]], [[typhoid]] and [[scarlet fever]], which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-12-14 |title=Peking University of Health Sciences {{!}} |url=https://liemgthailand.com/en/peking-university-of-health-sciences/ |access-date=2023-06-09 |language=en-US}}</ref>

After [[Deng Xiaoping]] began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a 3-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aXFagkr3Dr6s|title=China's $124 Billion Health-Care Plan Aims to Boost Consumption|last1=Lawrence|first1=Dune|date=22 January 2009|newspaper=[[Bloomberg News]]|access-date=16 January 2020|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029211403/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aXFagkr3Dr6s|archive-date=29 October 2013|last2=Liu|first2=John}}</ref> By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage.<ref>{{cite news |last=Liu |first=Yuanli |date=1 November 2011 |title=China's Health Care Reform: Far From Sufficient |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/11/01/is-china-facing-a-health-care-crisis/chinas-health-care-reform-far-from-sufficient |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> By 2022, China had established itself as a key producer and exporter of [[Medication|pharmaceuticals]], with the country alone producing around 40 percent of [[Active ingredient|active pharmaceutical ingredients]] in 2017.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 April 2022 |title=The great medicines migration |work=[[Nikkei Asia]] |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/static/vdata/infographics/chinavaccine-3/ |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref>

{{As of|2020||df=US}}, the life expectancy at birth in China is 78 years,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=CN|title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – China|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=28 October 2013}}</ref> and the [[infant mortality]] rate is 5 per thousand (in 2021).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?locations=CN|title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – China|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=28 October 2013}}</ref> Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.{{efn|The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in 1949 to 75 years in 2008,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90776/90882/6776688.html|title=Life expectancy increases by 44 years from 1949 in China's economic powerhouse Guangdong|work=People's Daily|date=4 October 2009}}</ref> and infant mortality decreased from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001.<ref name="Ref_abcu">[http://www.china.org.cn/english/19012.htm "China's Infant Mortality Rate Down"]. 11 September 2001. China.org.cn. Retrieved 3 May 2006.</ref>}} Rates of [[Stunted growth|stunting]], a condition caused by [[malnutrition]], have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1 = Stone|first1 = R.|title = Despite Gains, Malnutrition Among China's Rural Poor Sparks Concern|doi = 10.1126/science.336.6080.402|journal = Science|volume = 336|issue = 6080|page = 402|year = 2012|pmid = 22539691|bibcode = 2012Sci...336..402S }}</ref> Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by [[Air pollution in China|widespread air pollution]],<ref name="FT-china-pollution">{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f40e248-28c7-11dc-af78-000b5df10621.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f40e248-28c7-11dc-af78-000b5df10621.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription|title=750,000 a year killed by Chinese pollution|last=McGregor|first=Richard|date=2 July 2007|work=[[Financial Times]]|access-date=22 July 2007}}</ref> hundreds of millions of [[tobacco smoking|cigarette smokers]],<ref>{{Cite news|last=Tatlow|first=Didi Kirsten|date=10 June 2010|title=China's Tobacco Industry Wields Huge Power|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/11/world/asia/11iht-letter.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/11/world/asia/11iht-letter.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited|access-date=16 January 2020|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and an increase in [[obesity]] among urban youths.<ref name="Ref_abcy">[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/china.50/dispatches/09.23.health/ "Serving the people?"]. 1999. Bruce Kennedy. CNN. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref><ref name="Ref_abcz">[http://english.people.com.cn/english/200008/04/eng20000804_47271.html "Obesity Sickening China's Young Hearts"]. 4 August 2000. ''People's Daily''. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref> China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]], although this has since been largely contained.<ref name="Ref_abcda">[https://web.archive.org/web/20040824014230/http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_05_18a/en/index.html "China's latest SARS outbreak has been contained, but biosafety concerns remain"]. 18 May 2004. [[World Health Organization]]. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref> In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/02/world/asia/air-pollution-linked-to-1-2-million-deaths-in-china.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/02/world/asia/air-pollution-linked-to-1-2-million-deaths-in-china.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited|title=Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature Deaths in China|last=Wong|first=Edward|date=1 April 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=14 January 2020|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] was first identified in [[Wuhan]] in December 2019.<ref name="auto12">{{Cite journal|date=20 February 2020|title=The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) – China, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222141550/http://www.ne.jp/asahi/kishimoto/clinic/cash/COVID-19.pdf|journal=China CDC Weekly |volume=2|pages=1–10|url=http://www.ne.jp/asahi/kishimoto/clinic/cash/COVID-19.pdf|archive-date=22 February 2020|via=Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Emergency Response Epidemiology Team|date=17 February 2020|title=The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) in China|journal=China CDC Weekly|script-journal=zh:中华流行病学杂志|volume=41|issue=2|pages=145–151 |doi=10.3760/cma.j.issn.0254-6450.2020.02.003|pmid=32064853 |s2cid=211133882|language=zh}}</ref> Further studies are being carried out around the world on a possible origin for the virus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mallapaty|first=Smriti |date=2 December 2020 |title=Meet the scientists investigating the origins of the COVID pandemic|journal=Nature |volume=588|issue=7837|page=208 |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-03402-1|pmid=33262500 |bibcode=2020Natur.588..208M|s2cid=227253792}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mallapaty|first=Smriti|date=11 November 2020|title=Where did COVID come from? WHO investigation begins but faces challenges|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-03165-9|journal=Nature|volume=587|issue=7834|pages=341–342 |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-03165-9|pmid=33177687|bibcode=2020Natur.587..341M|s2cid=226311682}}</ref> Beijing says it has been sharing Covid data in "a timely, open and transparent manner in accordance with the law".<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-01-12 |title=China Covid: How many cases and deaths are there? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/59882774 |access-date=2023-02-19}}</ref> According to U.S. officials, the Chinese government has been concealing the extent of the outbreak before it became an international pandemic.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-01/china-concealed-extent-of-virus-outbreak-u-s-intelligence-says |title=China Concealed Extent of Virus Outbreak, U.S. Intelligence Says |last1=Wadhams|first1=Nick |last2=Jacobs|first2=Jennifer|date=1 April 2020 |publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|access-date=17 April 2020}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in China}}
[[File:Distribution of religions in China.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Geographic distribution of religions in China: <ref name=map1>{{cite map|map=Religions en Chine|map-url=http://img.webme.com/pic/g/geographie-ville-en-guerre/religions-chine.jpg |last=Dumortier|first=Brigitte|title=Atlas des religions. Croyances, pratiques et territoires|year=2002|series=Atlas/Monde |publisher=Autrement|location=Paris, France|language=fr|isbn=2746702649|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135523/http://img.webme.com/pic/g/geographie-ville-en-guerre/religions-chine.jpg|archive-date=27 April 2017}} p. 34.</ref><ref name=map2>{{cite map|map=Religions in China|map-url=http://cybergeo.revues.org/docannexe/image/23808/img-3.jpg|title=Narody Vostochnoi Asii|trans-title=Ethnic Groups of East Asia|year=1965|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135600/http://cybergeo.revues.org/docannexe/image/23808/img-3.jpg|archive-date=27 April 2017}} ''Zhongguo Minsu Dili'' [Folklore Geography of China], 1999; ''Zhongguo Dili'' [Geography of China], 2002.</ref><ref name=map3>{{cite map|map=Religions in China|map-url=http://refbook.img.cnki.net/CRFDPIC/r200608092/r200608092.006.76507a.jpg|editor-last=Gao 高|editor-first=Wende 文德|script-title=zh:中国少数民族史大辞典|trans-title=Chinese Dictionary of Minorities' History|year=1995|publisher=Jilin Education Press (吉林教育出版社)|location=Changchun|language=zh|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135641/http://refbook.img.cnki.net/CRFDPIC/r200608092/r200608092.006.76507a.jpg|archive-date=27 April 2017}}</ref><ref name=map4>{{cite map|map=Religions in China|map-url=http://refbook.img.cnki.net/CRFDPIC/r200606014/r200606014.0652.288333.jpg|editor-last1=Yin 殷|editor-first1=Haishan 海山|editor-last2=Li 李|editor-first2=Yaozong 耀宗|editor-last3=Guo 郭|editor-first3=Jie 洁|script-title=zh:中国少数民族艺术词典|trans-title=Chinese Minorities' Arts Dictionary|year=1991|publisher=National Publishing House (民族出版社)|location=Beijing|language=zh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135713/http://refbook.img.cnki.net/CRFDPIC/r200606014/r200606014.0652.288333.jpg |archive-date=27 April 2017}}</ref> {{colorbull|#C00000}} [[Chinese folk religion]] (including [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], and groups of [[Chinese Buddhism]]) {{colorbull|#FFFF00}} [[Buddhism]] ''tout court'' {{colorbull|#008000}} [[Islam in China|Islam]] {{colorbull|#FF00FF}} [[Religion in China#Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions|Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions]] {{colorbull|#00CCFF}} [[Mongolian folk religion]] {{colorbull|#00FF00}} [[Northeast China folk religion]] influenced by Tungus and [[Manchu shamanism]]; widespread [[Shanrendao]]]]
The government of the People's Republic of China and the Chinese Communist Party both officially espouse [[State atheism in China|state atheism]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dillon|first1=Michael|title=Religious Minorities and China|date=2001|publisher=Minority Rights Group International }}</ref> and have conducted [[Antireligious campaigns in China|antireligious campaigns]] to this end.<ref name="BuangChew2014">{{cite book|last1=Buang|first1=Sa'eda|title=Muslim Education in the 21st Century: Asian Perspectives|last2=Chew|first2=Phyllis Ghim-Lian|date=9 May 2014|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-317-81500-6|page=75|quote=Subsequently, a new China was found on the basis of Communist ideology, i.e. atheism. Within the framework of this ideology, religion was treated as a 'contorted' world-view and people believed that religion would necessarily disappear at the end, along with the development of human society. A series of anti-religious campaigns was implemented by the Chinese Communist Party from the early 1950s to the late 1970s. As a result, in nearly 30 years between the beginning of the 1950s and the end of the 1970s, mosques (as well as churches and Chinese temples) were shut down and Imams involved in forced 're-education'.}}</ref> Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the CCP's [[United Front Work Department]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Joske |first=Alex |author-link=Alex Joske |date=May 9, 2019 |title=Reorganizing the United Front Work Department: New Structures for a New Era of Diaspora and Religious Affairs Work |url=https://jamestown.org/program/reorganizing-the-united-front-work-department-new-structures-for-a-new-era-of-diaspora-and-religious-affairs-work/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721191900/https://jamestown.org/program/reorganizing-the-united-front-work-department-new-structures-for-a-new-era-of-diaspora-and-religious-affairs-work/ |archive-date=July 21, 2019 |access-date=2019-07-27 |website=[[Jamestown Foundation]] |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Freedom of religion]] is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.<ref name="XinBan2012">[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/602b650e-dc69-11e1-a304-00144feab49a.html "China bans religious activities in Xinjiang"]. ''[[Financial Times]]''. 2 August 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2012.</ref><ref>''Constitution of the People's Republic of China''. Chapter 2, Article 36.</ref>

Over the millennia, Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The "[[three teachings]]", including [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Buddhism]] ([[Chinese Buddhism]]), historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture,<ref name="Yao2011">{{cite book|last1=Yao|first1=Xinzhong|author-link1=Yao Xinzhong|year=2010|title=Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach|publisher=A&C Black|location=London|isbn=978-1-84706-475-2}} pp. 9–11.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=James|title=Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies|year=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-626-8}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=S4vg8BQrqA4C&pg=PA57 p. 57].</ref> enriching a [[Chinese theology|theological and spiritual framework]] which harks back to the early [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou dynasty]]. Chinese popular or folk religion, which is framed by the three teachings and other traditions,<ref>Tam Wai Lun, "Local Religion in Contemporary China", in {{cite book|last=Xie|first=Zhibin|year=2006|title=Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|isbn=978-0-7546-5648-7}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=peah4XTpqnkC&pg=PA73 p. 73].</ref> consists in allegiance to the ''[[shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]'' ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|神}}}}), a character that signifies the "[[Chinese gods and immortals|energies of generation]]", who can be [[deity|deities]] of the environment or [[progenitor|ancestral principles]] of human groups, concepts of civility, [[culture hero]]es, many of whom feature in [[Chinese mythology]] and history.<ref>{{citation|last=Teiser|first=Stephen F. |chapter=The Spirits of Chinese Religion|chapter-url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/main/spirits_of_chinese_religion.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/main/spirits_of_chinese_religion.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Religions of China in Practice|editor=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1996}}. Extracts in ''[http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/bgov/cosmos.htm The Chinese Cosmos: Basic Concepts]''.</ref> Among the most popular [[cult (religious practice)|cults]] are those of [[Mazu]] (goddess of the seas),<ref name="Laliberte2011">{{cite journal|last=Laliberté|first=André|title=Religion and the State in China: The Limits of Institutionalization|journal=Journal of Current Chinese Affairs|volume=40|issue=2|pages=3–15 |year=2011|url=http://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/giga/jcca/article/view/415/413|doi=10.1177/186810261104000201|s2cid=30608910}} {{ISSN|1868-4874}} (online), {{ISSN|1868-1026}} (print). p. 7: "...{{nbsp}}while provincial leaders in Fujian nod to Taoism with their sponsorship of the Mazu Pilgrimage in Southern China, the leaders of Shanxi have gone further with their promotion of worship of the Yellow Emperor ({{zh|labels=no|t=黃帝|p=Huáng Dì}})".</ref> [[Yellow Emperor|Huangdi]] (one of the two [[Yan Huang Zisun|divine patriarchs]] of the Chinese race),<ref name="Laliberte2011" /><ref>{{citation|last=Sautman|first=Barry|author-link=Barry Sautman|chapter=Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People's Republic of China|pages=75–95 |title=The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives|editor1-last=Dikötter |editor1-first=Frank|location=Honolulu|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1997|isbn=978-962-209-443-7}} pp. 80–81.</ref> [[Guandi]] (god of war and business), [[Caishen]] (god of prosperity and richness), [[Pangu]] and many others. China is home to many of the [[list of statues by height|world's tallest religious statues]], including the tallest of all, the [[Spring Temple Buddha]] in [[Henan]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/monitoring/media_reports/1315785.stm |title=China enters biggest Buddhist statue race |publisher=BBC News |date=6 May 2001}}</ref>

Clear data on religious affiliation in China is difficult to gather due to varying definitions of "religion" and the unorganized, diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between [[three teachings]] religions and local folk religious practice.<ref name="Yao2011" /> A 2015 poll conducted by [[WIN/GIA|Gallup International]] found that 61% of Chinese people self-identified as "convinced atheist",<ref name="GallupInternational">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/files/2015/04/WIN.GALLUP-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUSITY-INDEX.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/files/2015/04/WIN.GALLUP-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUSITY-INDEX.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Gallup International Religiosity Index |date=April 2015|newspaper=The Washington Post|publisher=WIN-Gallup International|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> though Chinese religions or some of their strands are definable as [[nontheism|non-theistic]] and [[humanistic]] religions, since they do not believe that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being.<ref>{{cite conference|first=Joseph A.|last=Adler|title=The Heritage of Non-Theistic Belief in China|conference=(Conference paper) Toward a Reasonable World: The Heritage of Western Humanism, Skepticism, and Freethought|location=San Diego, CA|year=2011 |url=http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Non-theistic.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Non-theistic.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to a 2014 study, approximately 74% are either non-religious or practice Chinese folk belief, 16% are Buddhists, 2% are Christians, 1% are Muslims, and 8% adhere to other religions including Taoists and [[Chinese salvationist religions|folk salvationism]].<ref name="CFPS2014">[[China Family Panel Studies]] 2014 survey.http://www.isss.edu.cn/cfps/EN/enNews/CFPSNews/2016news/2016-12-30/307.html release #2] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20170225211353/http://www.isss.edu.cn/cfps/EN/enNews/CFPSNews/2016news/2016-12-30/307.html archived]). The tables also contain the results of CFPS 2012 and Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) results for 2006, 2008 and 2010.</ref> In addition to Han people's local religious practices, there are also various [[ethnic minorities in China|ethnic minority groups in China]] who maintain their [[religion in China#Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions|traditional autochthone religions]]. The various folk religions today comprise 2–3% of the population, while Confucianism as a religious self-identification is common within the intellectual class. Significant faiths specifically connected to certain ethnic groups include [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and the [[Islam in China|Islamic religion]] of the [[Hui people|Hui]], [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]], [[Kazakhs in China|Kazakh]], [[Kyrgyz in China|Kyrgyz]] and other peoples in Northwest China.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}} The 2010 population census reported the total number of Muslims in the country as 23.14 million.

A 2021 poll from [[Ipsos]] and the Policy Institute at [[King's College London]] found that 35% of Chinese people said there was tension between different religious groups, which was the second lowest percentage of the 28 countries surveyed.<ref>{{Cite news|date=25 June 2021|title=Tension between rich and poor is seen as a key source of division around the world|work=[[Ipsos]]|url=https://www.ipsos.com/en-ca/news-polls/culture-war-around-the-world|access-date=13 February 2022|archive-date=27 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227174707/https://www.ipsos.com/en-ca/news-polls/culture-war-around-the-world|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=[[John Ibbitson]]|date=1 July 2021|title=Canadians less caught up in 'culture wars' than most countries, survey shows|language=en-CA|work=[[The Globe and Mail]]|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/politics/article-canadians-less-caught-up-in-culture-wars-than-most-countries-survey/}}</ref>

== Culture and society==
{{Main|Chinese culture|Culture of the People's Republic of China}}
{{wide image|File:Temple of Heaven, Beijing, China - 010 edit.jpg|1000px|The [[Temple of Heaven]], a center of [[Chinese theology|heaven worship]] and an UNESCO [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage site]], symbolizes the Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Temple of Heaven: an Imperial Sacrificial Altar in Beijing |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/881/ |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>}}
[[File:Yellow Register Archives of the Ming Dynasty, Nanjing (flickr 1559896574).jpg|thumb|A [[Moon gate]] in a Chinese garden]]
Since [[Ancient China|ancient times]], Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Chinese culture, in turn, has heavily influenced [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bader |first=Jeffrey A. |date=6 September 2005 |title=China's Role in East Asia: Now and the Future |url=https://www.brookings.edu/on-the-record/chinas-role-in-east-asia-now-and-the-future/ |access-date=16 May 2023 |website=Brookings Institution}}</ref> For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious [[imperial examination]]s, which have their origins in the Han dynasty.<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Understanding Its Past|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|year=1997|page=29}}</ref> The [[Chinese literature|literary emphasis]] of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that [[Chinese calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[Classical Chinese poetry|poetry]] and [[Chinese painting|painting]] were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective.<ref name="ChinaFuture">{{cite news|last=Jacques|first=Martin|date=19 October 2012|title = A Point of View: What kind of superpower could China be?|work=[[BBC News]]|url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-19995218|access-date=21 October 2012 }}</ref> Examinations and a [[meritocracy|culture of merit]] remain greatly valued in China today.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Historical and Contemporary Exam-driven Education Fever in China|journal=KEDI Journal of Educational Policy|year=2005|volume=2|issue=1|pages=17–33|url= http://suen.educ.psu.edu/~hsuen/pubs/KEDI%20Yu.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150301123007/http://suen.educ.psu.edu/~hsuen/pubs/KEDI%20Yu.pdf|archive-date=1 March 2015 }}</ref>
[[File:Fenghuang old town.JPG|thumb|[[Fenghuang County]], an ancient town that harbors many architectural remains of Ming and Qing styles<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Fenghuang Ancient City |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5337/ |access-date=2023-02-19 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>]]
The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order but were influenced by the [[May Fourth Movement]] and reformist ideals.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, [[sexism]], and the Confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the CCP's rule under Mao Zedong damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed, having been denounced as "regressive and harmful" or "vestiges of [[feudalism]]".{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art, literature, and performing arts like [[Peking opera]], were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://qz.com/62717/why-china-is-letting-django-unchained-slip-through-its-censorship-regime/|title=Why China is letting 'Django Unchained' slip through its censorship regime|last=Kuo|first=Lily|date=13 March 2013|work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|access-date=12 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514072402/http://qz.com/62717/why-china-is-letting-django-unchained-slip-through-its-censorship-regime/|archive-date=14 May 2013}}</ref>

Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of [[Chinese nationalism]] and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,<ref name="Ref_abcdef">{{cite web|url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+cn0133)|title="China: Traditional arts". Library of Congress – Country Studies|date=July 1987|website=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050226150229/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+cn0133%29|archive-date=26 February 2005|access-date=1 November 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Ref_abcdeg">{{cite encyclopedia|url = https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-258942/China|title=China: Cultural life: The arts|access-date=1 November 2011|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref> and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.<ref name="Ref_abcdeh">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+cn0138)|title=China: Folk and Variety Arts |date=July 1987 |website=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041114173430/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+cn0138%29 |archive-date=14 November 2004|access-date=1 November 2011}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in China|3 = List of World Heritage Sites in China}}

China received 65.7 million inbound international visitors in 2019,<ref name="WTO Tourism Highlights 2019 Edition">{{Cite journal |date=18 December 2020 |title=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer and Statistical Annex, December 2020 {{!}} World Tourism Organization |journal=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer (English Version) |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=1–36 |doi=10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.7 |s2cid=241989515 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and in 2018 was the [[World Tourism rankings|fourth-most-visited country]] in the world.<ref name="WTO Tourism Highlights 2019 Edition" /> It also experiences an enormous volume of [[domestic tourism]]; Chinese tourists made an estimated 6 billion travels within the country in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Liang |first=Xinlu |date=19 August 2021 |title=How has China's travel industry been hurt by the coronavirus pandemic, and when will tourism recover? |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3145468/how-has-chinas-travel-industry-been-hurt-coronavirus-pandemic |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref> China hosts the world's [[World Heritage Sites by country#Countries with major concentrations of World Heritage Sites|second-largest number]] of [[World Heritage Site]]s ([[List of World Heritage Sites in China|56]]) after Italy, and is one of the [[World Tourism rankings|most popular tourist destinations]] in the world ([[World Tourism rankings#Asia-Pacific|first in the Asia-Pacific]]).

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Chinese literature}}
[[File:Pekin przedstawienie tradycjnego teatru chinskiego 7.JPG|thumb|The stories in ''[[Journey to the West]]'' are common themes in [[Peking opera]].]]

Chinese literature is based on the literature of the Zhou dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://cai.jstvu.edu.cn/cai/daxueyuwen/2/two/xxck.htm|script-title=zh:中国文学史概述|website=jstvu.edu.cn|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722034509/http://cai.jstvu.edu.cn/cai/daxueyuwen/2/two/xxck.htm|archive-date=22 July 2015|url-status=dead }}</ref> Concepts covered within the [[Chinese classic texts]] present a wide range of [[Hundred Schools of Thought|thoughts]] and subjects including [[Chinese calendar|calendar]], [[List of Chinese military texts|military]], [[Chinese astrology|astrology]], [[Chinese herbology|herbology]], [[Chinese geography|geography]] and many others.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanonru-u.html|title = The Canonical Books of Confucianism – Canon of the Literati|date = 14 November 2013|access-date = 14 January 2014|archive-date = 2 February 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140202210607/http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanonru-u.html|url-status = dead}}</ref> Some of the most important early texts include the ''[[I Ching]]'' and the ''[[Classic of History|Shujing]]'' within the [[Four Books and Five Classics]] which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state-sponsored curriculum in dynastic era. Inherited from the ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'', [[classical Chinese poetry]] developed to its [[floruit]] during the Tang dynasty. [[Li Bai]] and [[Du Fu]] opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively. [[Chinese historiography]] began with the ''[[Shiji]]'', the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the [[Twenty-Four Histories]], which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with [[Chinese mythology]] and [[Chinese folklore|folklore]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Guo|first=Dan|url=http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-MQXS199704006.htm|script-title=zh:史传文学与中国古代小说|journal=明清小说研究|issue=April 1997|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-date=22 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722013727/http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-MQXS199704006.htm|url-status=dead}}{{better source needed|date=November 2019}}</ref> Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and [[gods and demons fiction]]s as represented by the [[Four Great Classical Novels]] which include ''[[Water Margin]]'', ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'', ''[[Journey to the West]]'' and ''[[Dream of the Red Chamber]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://iclass.nbtvu.net.cn/kecheng/072157/3title4200499122140/z3.htm|script-title=zh:第一章中国古典小说的发展和明清小说的繁荣|website=nbtvu.net.cn|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151015200539/http://iclass.nbtvu.net.cn/kecheng/072157/3title4200499122140/z3.htm|archive-date=15 October 2015|url-status=dead }}</ref> Along with the [[wuxia]] fictions of [[Jin Yong]] and [[Liang Yusheng]],<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.baotounews.com.cn/epaper/btrb/html/2014-03/12/content_286579.htm|script-title=zh:金庸作品从流行穿越至经典|website=Baotou News|date=12 March 2014|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150722071612/http://www.baotounews.com.cn/epaper/btrb/html/2014-03/12/content_286579.htm|archive-date=22 July 2015|url-status=dead }}</ref> it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the [[East Asian cultural sphere|Chinese sphere of influence]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/Periodical_dbsdxb-zxsh201006025.aspx|script-title=zh:四大名著在日、韩的传播与跨文化重构|journal=Journal of Northeast Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)|issue=June 2010|access-date=18 July 2015 }}</ref>

In the wake of the [[New Culture Movement]] after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era with [[written vernacular Chinese]] for ordinary citizens. [[Hu Shih]] and [[Lu Xun]] were pioneers in modern literature.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-HZSW200004009.htm|script-title=zh:新文化运动中的胡适与鲁迅|publisher=CCP Hangzhou Party School Paper (中共杭州市委党校学报)|language=zh-CN|date=April 2000|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-date=22 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722013427/http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-HZSW200004009.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Various literary genres, such as [[misty poetry]], [[scar literature]], [[young adult fiction]] and the [[xungen movement|xungen literature]], which is influenced by [[magic realism]],<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.literature.org.cn/article.aspx?id=25449|script-title=zh:魔幻现实主义文学与"寻根"小说"|website=literature.org.cn|language=zh-CN|date=February 2006|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-date=23 July 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150723065447/http://www.literature.org.cn/article.aspx?id=25449|url-status=dead }}</ref> emerged following the Cultural Revolution. [[Mo Yan]], a xungen literature author, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://e.hznews.com/paper/djsb/20121012/A0607/1/|script-title=zh:"莫言：寻根文学作家"|publisher=Dongjiang Times (东江时报)|language=zh-CN|date=12 October 2012|access-date=18 July 2015|archive-date=22 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722034627/http://e.hznews.com/paper/djsb/20121012/A0607/1/|url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Chinese cuisine}}
[[File:Cuisines of China.png|thumb|Map showing major regional cuisines of China]]
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the "Eight Major Cuisines", including [[Sichuan cuisine|Sichuan]], [[Cantonese cuisine|Cantonese]], [[Jiangsu cuisine|Jiangsu]], [[Shandong cuisine|Shandong]], [[Fujian cuisine|Fujian]], [[Hunan cuisine|Hunan]], [[Anhui cuisine|Anhui]], and [[Zhejiang cuisine|Zhejiang]] cuisines.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eight Major Cuisines|url=http://www.chinesecio.com/cms/en/culture/eight-major-cuisines-ba-da-cai-xi|website=chinese.cn|date=2 June 2011|access-date=17 July 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912222348/http://www.chinesecio.com/cms/en/culture/eight-major-cuisines-ba-da-cai-xi|archive-date=12 September 2015}}</ref> Chinese cuisine is also known for its width of [[Chinese cooking techniques|cooking methods]] and ingredients,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/photo/2013-09/23/c_125426786.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926145102/http://news.xinhuanet.com/photo/2013-09/23/c_125426786.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 September 2013|date=23 September 2013|agency=[[Xinhua News Agency]]|script-title=zh:中国美食成外国网友"噩梦" 鸡爪内脏鱼头不敢吃|access-date=17 July 2015}}</ref> as well as [[Chinese food therapy|food therapy]] that is emphasized by traditional Chinese medicine.<ref>{{cite web|script-title=zh:中医强调"药疗不如食疗" 食疗有三大优势|url=http://www.antpedia.com/news/36/n-135136.html|website=antpedia.com|date=1 April 2011|access-date=17 July 2015}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=July 2020}} Generally, China's staple food is rice in the south, wheat-based breads and noodles in the north. The diet of the common people in pre-modern times was largely grain and simple vegetables, with meat reserved for special occasions. The bean products, such as [[tofu]] and [[soy milk]], remain as a popular source of protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2013/06/19/chinas-hunger-for-pork-will-impact-the-u-s-meat-industry/|title=China's Hunger For Pork Will Impact The U.S. Meat Industry|date=19 June 2013|newspaper=Forbes|access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> While pork dominates the meat market, there is also the vegetarian [[Buddhist cuisine]] and the pork-free [[Chinese Islamic cuisine]]. Southern cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables; it differs in many respects from the wheat-based diets across dry northern China. Numerous offshoots of Chinese food, such as [[Cuisine of Hong Kong#Eastern Styles|Hong Kong cuisine]] and [[American Chinese food]], have emerged in the nations that play host to the [[Chinese diaspora]].{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Chinese architecture|3 = List of World Heritage Sites in China}}

Many architectural masters and masterpieces emerged in [[History of China|ancient China]], creating many palaces, tombs, temples, gardens, houses, etc. The architecture of China is as old as Chinese civilization.<ref name="Itō-2017"/> The first communities that can be identified culturally as Chinese were settled chiefly in the basin of the Yellow River.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Liang |first1=Sicheng |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71216529 |title=Qing shi ying zao ze li |last2=梁思成 |date=2006 |publisher=Qing hua da xue chu ban she |isbn=7-302-10200-7 |edition=Di 1 ban |location=Beijing |oclc=71216529}}</ref> [[Chinese architecture]] is the embodiment of an [[architectural style]] that has developed over millennia in China and has remained a vestigial source of perennial influence on the development of East Asian architecture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodrich |first=L. Carrington |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/957659861 |title=A short history of the Chinese people |date=2007 |isbn=978-1-4067-6976-0 |edition=Third |location=[Place of publication not identified] |oclc=957659861}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=McCannon |first=John |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47755818 |title=Barron's how to prepare for the AP world history examination |date=2002 |isbn=0-7641-1816-1 |location=Hauppauge, N.Y. |oclc=47755818}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Religious pluralism, state and society in Asia |date=2013 |author=Chiara Formichi |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-57542-8 |oclc=1053736418}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Historiography |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |author1=Robin W. Winks |author2=Alaine M. Low |isbn=978-0-19-154241-1 |location=New York |oclc=780534735}}</ref> Since its emergence during the early ancient era, the structural principles of its architecture have remained largely unchanged. The main changes involved diverse decorative details. Starting with the [[Tang dynasty#Engineering|Tang dynasty]],<ref>{{Cite journal |date=December 1940 |title=Volume Information |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3046712 |journal=The Art Bulletin |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=286–289 |doi=10.2307/3046712 |jstor=3046712 |issn=0004-3079}}</ref> Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of neighboring East Asian countries such as [[Japanese architecture|Japan]], [[Korean architecture|Korea]], and [[Mongolian architecture|Mongolia]].<ref name="Cartwright-2023">{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |title=Ancient Chinese Architecture |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Chinese_Architecture/ |access-date=2023-02-19 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref> and minor influences on the architecture of Southeast and South Asia including the countries of [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]], [[Sri Lanka]], Thailand, Laos, [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnamese architecture|Vietnam]] and the Philippines.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bandaranayake |first=Senake |title=Sinhalese monastic architecture: the viháras of Anurádhapura |date=1974 |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-03992-9 |location=Leiden |oclc=3052790}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1=Nithi Sathāpitānon |title=Architecture of Thailand: a guide to traditional and contemporary forms |date=2012 |publisher=Didier Millet |author2=Brian Mertens |isbn=978-981-4260-86-2 |location=Singapore |oclc=795182528}}</ref>

Chinese architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of enclosed open spaces, [[feng shui]] (e.g. directional [[Hierarchy|hierarchies]]),<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tuobin |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1336350713 |title=Bu lu ke lin = Brooklyn |last2=托宾 Toibin |first2=Colm |date=2021 |publisher=Shang hai yi wen chu ban she you xian gong si |others=Bo,Li, 柏栎 |isbn=978-7-5327-8659-6 |edition=Di 1 ban |location=Shanghai |oclc=1336350713}}</ref> a horizontal emphasis, and an allusion to various cosmological, [[myth]]ological or in general symbolic elements. Chinese architecture traditionally classifies structures according to type, ranging from ''[[pagodas]]'' to [[Chinese palace|palaces]].<ref name="Itō-2017">{{Cite book |last1=Itō |first1=Chūta |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1080553211 |title=Zhongguo jian zhu shi |last2=伊藤忠太 |date=2017 |others=Yizhuang Liao, 廖伊庄 |isbn=978-7-5146-1318-6 |edition=Di 1 ban |location=Beijing Shi |oclc=1080553211}}</ref><ref name="Cartwright-2023"/>

Chinese architecture varies widely based on status or affiliation, such as whether the structures were constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other variations in Chinese architecture are shown in vernacular styles associated with different [[Geography|geographic]] regions and different ethnic heritages, such as the [[Stilt house]]s in the south, the [[Yaodong|Yaodong buildings]] in the northwest, the [[Yurt|yurt buildings]] of nomadic people, and the [[Siheyuan|Siheyuan buildings]] in the north.<ref>{{Cite book |last=徐怡涛. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/862669376 |title=Zhong guo jian zhu |date=2010 |publisher=Gao deng jiao yu chu ban she |others=Xu yi tao, 徐怡涛. |isbn=978-7-04-027421-9 |location=Bei jing |oclc=862669376}}</ref>

=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of China|C-pop|Chinese opera}}

Chinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to modern music. Chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times. [[Traditional Chinese musical instruments]] were traditionally grouped into eight categories known as ''bayin'' (八音). Traditional Chinese opera is a form of musical theatre in China originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beijing opera and [[Cantonese opera]].<ref>{{cite web|title = A Brief History of Chinese Opera|url = https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-chinese-opera-195127|access-date=14 September 2020|website=ThoughtCo}}</ref> Chinese pop (C-Pop) includes [[mandopop]] and [[cantopop]]. [[Chinese rap]], [[Chinese hip hop]] and [[Hong Kong hip hop]] have become popular in contemporary times.<ref>{{cite web|title = Why Chinese rappers don't fight the power|url = https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20191106-why-chinese-rappers-dont-fight-the-power|access-date=23 November 2021|publisher=BBC}}</ref>

=== Cinema ===
{{Main|Cinema of China}}

Cinema was first introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, ''[[Dingjun Mountain (film)|Dingjun Mountain]],'' was released in 1905.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hays|first=Jeffrey|title = Early history of chinese film {{!}} Facts and Details|url = http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat7/sub42/item1630.html|access-date=14 September 2020|website=factsanddetails.com}}</ref> China has the largest number of movie screens in the world since 2016,<ref name="hr">{{cite web|last=Brzeski|first=Patrick|date=20 December 2016|title=China Says It Has Passed U.S. as Country With Most Movie Screens|url = https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/china-says-has-passed-us-as-country-movie-screens-957849|access-date=21 December 2016|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]}}</ref> China became the largest cinema market in the world in 2020.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tartaglione|first=Nancy|date=15 November 2016|title=China Will Overtake U.S. In Number Of Movie Screens This Week: Analyst|url=https://deadline.com/2016/11/china-cinema-screens-overtake-us-box-office-2019-1201852359/|access-date=15 November 2016|work=[[Deadline Hollywood]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=PricewaterhouseCoopers|title=Strong revenue growth continues in China's cinema market|url=https://www.pwccn.com/en/press-room/press-releases/pr-170619.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303120239/https://www.pwccn.com/en/press-room/press-releases/pr-170619.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 March 2020|access-date=14 September 2020|website=PwC}}</ref> The top 3 [[List of highest-grossing films in China|highest-grossing films in China]] {{as of|2023|lc=y}} were ''[[The Battle at Lake Changjin]]'' (2021), ''[[Wolf Warrior 2]]'' (2017), and ''[[Hi, Mom (2021 film)|Hi, Mom]]'' (2021).<ref name="Alltimedomestic">{{cite web |title=内地总票房排名 |script-title= |trans-title=All-Time Domestic Box Office Rankings |url=http://www.endata.com.cn/BoxOffice/BO/History/Movie/Alltimedomestic.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216170558/http://www.endata.com.cn/BoxOffice/BO/History/Movie/Alltimedomestic.html |archive-date=16 February 2020 |access-date=2 March 2020 |work=China Box Office |publisher= |language=zh}}</ref>

=== Fashion ===
{{Main|Chinese clothing|Hanfu}}

[[Hanfu]] is the historical clothing of the Han people in China. The [[Cheongsam|qipao]] or cheongsam is a popular Chinese female dress.<ref>{{cite web|title=Qipao {{!}} dress|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/qipao|access-date=14 September 2020|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The [[hanfu movement]] has been popular in contemporary times and seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Current and Former EXO Members Are Some of China's Most Expensive Singers|url = https://www.jaynestars.com/news/current-and-former-exo-members-are-some-of-chinas-most-expensive-singers/|access-date=14 September 2020|website=JayneStars.com}}</ref>

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in China|China at the Olympics|China at the Paralympics}}

China has one of the [[Sport in China|oldest sporting cultures]] in the world. There is evidence that [[archery]] (''shèjiàn'') was practiced during the [[Western Zhou dynasty]]. Swordplay (''jiànshù'') and ''[[cuju]]'', a sport loosely related to [[association football]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Soccer|year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=2|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9j1wbp2t1usC&pg=PA2|isbn=978-0-8108-7188-5 }}</ref> date back to China's early dynasties as well.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.theworldofchinese.com/2013/08/sport-in-ancient-china/|title = Sport in Ancient China|publisher = JUE LIU (刘珏) (The World of Chinese)|date = 31 August 2013|access-date = 28 June 2014|archive-date = 10 October 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152027/http://www.theworldofchinese.com/2013/08/sport-in-ancient-china/|url-status = dead}}</ref>

[[File:FloorGoban.JPG|thumb|[[Go (game)|Go]] is an abstract strategy board game for two players, in which the aim is to surround more territory than the opponent and was invented in China more than 2,500 years ago.]]

[[Physical fitness]] is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as ''[[qigong]]'' and [[tai chi]] widely practiced,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thornton|first1=E. W.|last2=Sykes|first2=K. S.|last3=Tang|first3=W. K.|year=2004|title=Health benefits of Tai Chi exercise: Improved balance and blood pressure in middle-aged women|journal=[[Health Promotion International]]|volume=19|issue=1|pages=33–38|doi=10.1093/heapro/dah105|pmid=14976170}}</ref> and commercial [[gym]]s and private fitness clubs are gaining popularity across the country.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://chinasportsbiz.com/2011/07/01/huge-potential-of-fitness-market-in-china/|title=China health club market – Huge potential & challenges|website=China Sports Business|date=1 July 2011|access-date=31 July 2012 }}</ref> Basketball is currently the most popular spectator sport in China.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wenzhou.gov.cn/art/2014/8/7/art_9113_318011.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151109001344/http://www.wenzhou.gov.cn/art/2014/8/7/art_9113_318011.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 November 2015|script-title=zh:2014年6岁至69岁人群体育健身活动和体质状况抽测结果发布|website=Wenzhou People's Government|date=7 August 2014|access-date=23 November 2015}}</ref> The [[Chinese Basketball Association]] and the American [[National Basketball Association]] also have a huge national following amongst the Chinese populace, with native-born and NBA-bound Chinese players and well-known national household names such as [[Yao Ming]] and [[Yi Jianlian]] being held in high esteem among Chinese basketball fans.<ref name="Beech2003">{{cite magazine|url = http://www.time.com/time/asia/2003/heroes/yao_ming.html|title=Yao Ming|access-date=30 March 2007|last=Beech|first=Hannah|magazine=Time|date=28 April 2003|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110705191234/http://www.time.com/time/asia/2003/heroes/yao_ming.html|archive-date=5 July 2011 }}</ref> China's professional football league, now known as [[Chinese Super League]], was established in 1994, it is the largest football market in East Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://sports.sohu.com/20130714/n381558488.shtml|script-title=zh:足球不给劲观众却不少中超球市世界第9亚洲第1|website=[[Sohu]] Sports|date=14 July 2013|access-date=17 July 2015}}</ref> Other popular sports in the country include [[Chinese martial arts|martial arts]], [[table tennis]], [[badminton]], [[swimming (sport)|swimming]] and [[snooker]]. [[Board game]]s such as [[Go (board game)|go]] (known as ''wéiqí'' in Chinese), [[xiangqi]], [[mahjong]], and more recently [[chess]], are also played at a professional level.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120512103553/http://thestar.com.my/lifestyle/story.asp?file=%2F2011%2F9%2F2%2Flifeliving%2F9398979&sec=lifeliving "Chinese players dominate at Malaysia open chess championship"]. ''Toronto Star''. 2 September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.</ref> In addition, China is home to a huge number of [[cycling|cyclists]], with an estimated 470 million bicycles {{As of|2012|lc=y}}.<ref name="470MBikes">{{cite news |date=17 August 2012 |title=Bike-Maker Giant Says Fitness Lifestyle Boosting China Sales |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |agency= |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-08-16/bicycle-maker-giant-says-fitness-lifestyle-boosting-china-sales.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> Many more traditional sports, such as [[dragon boat]] racing, [[Mongolian wrestling|Mongolian-style wrestling]] and [[horse racing]] are also popular.<ref name="Ref_abcden">Qinfa, Ye. [http://chineseculture.about.com/library/weekly/aa032301a.htm "Sports History of China"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303183246/http://chineseculture.about.com/library/weekly/aa032301a.htm |date=3 March 2009 }}. [[About.Com]]. Retrieved 21 April 2006.</ref>

China has [[China at the Olympics|participated in the Olympic Games]] since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC [[China at the 1952 Summer Olympics|since 1952]]. China hosted the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] in Beijing, where its athletes received 48 gold medals – [[2008 Summer Olympics medal table|the highest number of gold medals]] of any participating nation that year.<ref name="Ref_abcdeo">{{cite news|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/7583735.stm|title=China targets more golds in 2012|work=BBC Sport|date=27 August 2008|access-date= 27 November 2011 }}</ref> China also won the most medals of any nation at the [[2012 Summer Paralympics]], with 231 overall, including 95 gold medals.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/medals/medal-count/|title=Medal Count|website=London2012.com|access-date=9 September 2012 |url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120830230101/http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/medals/medal-count/ |archive-date=30 August 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/story/2012/09/9/china-dominates-medals-us-falls-short-at-paralympics/57719222/1|title=China dominates medals; U.S. falls short at Paralympics|newspaper=[[USA Today]]|date=9 September 2012|access-date=19 June 2013}}</ref> In 2011, Shenzhen in Guangdong, China hosted the [[2011 Summer Universiade]]. China hosted the [[2013 East Asian Games]] in Tianjin and the [[2014 Summer Youth Olympics]] in Nanjing; the first country to host both regular and Youth Olympics. Beijing and its nearby city [[Zhangjiakou]] of [[Hebei province]] collaboratively hosted the [[2022 Winter Olympics]], making Beijing the first dual olympic city in the world by holding both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics.<ref>{{cite web|title=Beijing: The world's first dual Olympic city |url=https://olympics.com/en/news/100-days-to-go-beijing-worlds-first-dual-olympic-city|publisher=olympics.com|access-date=6 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.olympic.org/beijing-2022|title = Beijing 2022 Winter Games Olympics – results & video highlights|date= 23 February 2018|publisher=International Olympic Committee|access-date= 23 February 2018}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Outline of China]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist|1}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{Main list|Bibliography of Chinese history}}
{{refbegin|40em}}
* Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China's WTO Membership: EU and US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". ''Legal Issues of Economic Integration''. Kluwer Law International. Volume 33, Number 3. pp. 263–304. [https://ssrn.com/abstract=916768 Abstract].
* Heilig, Gerhard K. (2006/2007). ''[http://www.china-profile.com/bib/bib_start.htm China Bibliography – Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105234238/http://www.china-profile.com/bib/bib_start.htm|date=5 November 2015 }}.'' China-Profile.com.
* [[Martin Jacques|Jacques, Martin]] (2009).''[[When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order]]''. Penguin Books. Rev. ed. (28 August 2012). {{ISBN|978-1-59420-185-1}}
* Jaffe, Amy Myers, "Green Giant: Renewable Energy and Chinese Power", ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'', vol. 97, no. 2 (March / April 2018), pp. 83–93.
* [[Ian Denis Johnson|Johnson, Ian]], "What Holds China Together?", ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September 2019), pp. 14, 16, 18. "The [[Manchus]]{{nbsp}}... had [in 1644] conquered the last ethnic Chinese empire, the [[Ming empire|Ming]] [and established Imperial China's last dynasty, the [[Qing]]]{{nbsp}}... The Manchus expanded the empire's borders northward to include all of [[Mongolia]], and westward to [[Tibet]] and [[Xinjiang]]." [p. 16.] "China's rulers have no faith that anything but force can keep this sprawling country intact." [p. 18.]
* {{cite book|last=Lagerwey|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAOOzQi0dCkC|year=2010|title=China: A Religious State|publisher=University of Hong Kong Press|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-988-8028-04-7 }}
* {{cite book|last=Meng|first=Fanhua|title=Phenomenon of Chinese Culture at the Turn of the 21st century|year=2011|publisher=Silkroad Press|location=Singapore|isbn=978-981-4332-35-4}}
* {{cite book|author = Sang Ye|title = China Candid: The People on the People's Republic|year=2006|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0-520-24514-3 }}
* {{cite book|last=Selden|first=Mark|title=The People's Republic of China: Documentary History of Revolutionary Change|year=1979|publisher=Monthly Review Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-85345-532-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/peoplesrepublico0000unse }}
* {{cite book|last = Shambaugh|first = David L.|year = 2008|title = China's Communist Party: Atrophy and Adaptation|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aMpj-MboMR4C|publisher = University of California Press|location = Washington, DC; Berkeley, CA|isbn = 978-0-520-25492-3 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==

{{Library resources box}}

=== Government ===
* [http://english.gov.cn/ The Central People's Government of People's Republic of China] {{in lang|en}}

=== General information ===
* [http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/china/home.html China at a Glance] from ''[[People's Daily]]''
* {{Britannica|111803}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-13017877 Country profile – China] at [[BBC News]]
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/ China]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120609183901/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/china.htm China, People's Republic of] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{Curlie|Regional/Asia/China}}

=== Maps ===
* [https://maps.google.com/maps?q=China&ll=30.600094,103.710938&spn=64.10009,177.1875&om=1 Google Maps—China]
* {{Wikiatlas|the People's Republic of China}}
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Paleobiota of the Cañadón Asfalto Formation

2023-10-09T14:10:13Z

Tedd: Split the paleobiota list out of the Cañadon Asfalto Formation article to facilitate cleanup

{{short description|none}}
The [[Cañadón Asfalto Formation]] is a [[geological formation]] which dates to the [[Toarcian]] age of the [[Early Jurassic]] period of [[Argentina]]. The rocks of the formation preserve a diverse biota, including [[Plant|plants]], [[Dinosaur|dinosaurs]], [[Invertebrate|invertebrates]], [[Mammal|mammals]] and [[Pterosaur|pterosaurs]], among others. The formation is divided into two members: the lower Las Chacritas Member, and the overlying Puesto Almada member, though the latter has also been assigned to the overlying [[Cañadón Calcáreo Formation]] by some authors. The members are typically composed of fluvial-lacustrine deposits consisting of sandstones and shales, with a limestone carbonate evaporitic sequence also being present in the lower of the two.

==Invertebrates==
{{Paleobiota-key-compact}}
===Demospongiae===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="7" align="center" |'''[[Palaeospongillidae]] reported from the Cañadon Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
''[[Palaeospongilla]]''<ref name=FaunaChacri>{{cite journal |last1=Cabaleri |first1=N. G. |last2=Benavente |first2=C. A. |title=Sedimentology and paleoenvironments of the Las Chacritas carbonate paleolake, Cañadón Asfalto Formation (Jurassic), Patagonia, Argentina |journal=Sedimentary Geology |date=2013 |volume=284 |issue=4 |pages=91–105 |doi=10.1016/j.sedgeo.2012.11.008 |bibcode=2013SedG..284...91C |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0037073812003247|access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref>
|
*''Palaeospongilla chubutensis''
|
*Estancia Fossati locality
|
*Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Specimens
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Palaeospongillidae]] (Spongillida Sponges). Represents the main lacustrine bottom inhabitant of the Chacritas Paleolake
|
[[File:Spongilla lacustris.jpg|thumb|center|155px|Example of the living genus ''[[Spongilla]]''. The genus ''[[Palaeospongilla]]'' was likely similar]]
|-
|}

===Crustacea===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="7" align="center" |'''[[Crustacea]] reported from the Cañadon Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
''[[Carapacestheria]]''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gallego |first1=O.F. |last2=Cabaleri |first2=N.G. |title=Conchóstracos de la Formación Cañadón Asfalto (Jurásico Medio – Superior): análisis preliminar de su distribución estratigráfica |journal=Ameghiniana: II Simposio Argentino del Jurásico (Buenos Aires) |date=2005 |volume=42 |issue=2 |page=51}}</ref><ref name=ConchoA>{{cite journal |last1=Tasch |first1=P. |last2=Volkheimer |first2=W. |title=Jurassic conchostracans from Patagonia |journal=The University of Kansas Paleontological Contributions |date=1970 |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=24–48 |url=https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/3693?show=full |access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref><ref name=Carapace>{{cite journal |last1=Monferran |first1=M. D. |last2=Gallego |first2=O. F. |last3=Cabaleri |first3=N. G. |title=Revision of Two Spinicaudatan Species from the Cañadón Asfalto Formation (Jurassic), Patagonia Argentina |journal=Zoological Studies |date=2020 |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=112–123 |doi=10.6620/ZS.2020.59-37 |pmid=33262859 |pmc=7689052 }}</ref>
|
*''Carapacestheria taschi''
|
*Cañadón Asfalto
*Cañadón Lahuincó
*Cerro Bayo
|
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|
Isolated Valves
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Eosestheriidae]] (Spinicaudatan). Originally identified as ''Cyzicus (Euestheria) taschi''. This genus is found in identical alkaline lacustrine settings in the also Toarcian [[Mawson Formation]] of Antarctica
|
|-
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
''[[Congestheriella]]''<ref name=Carapace/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gallego|first1=O.F. |last2=Shen |first2=Y.B. |last3=Cabaleri |first3=N.G. |last4=Hernández |first4=M. |title=The genus Congestheriella Kobayashi, 1954 ("Conchostraca", Diplostraca, Afrograptioidea): redescription and new combination to Isaura olsoni Bock from Venezuela and a new species from Argentina (Upper Jurassic) |journal=Alavesia |date=2010 |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=11–24 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285785869 |access-date=2022-07-29}}</ref>
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*''Congestheriella rauhuti''
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Sierra de la Manea
*Estancia El Torito
*Cañadón Los Chivos
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Isolated Valves
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Afrograptidae]] (Spinicaudatan). Given the stratigraphic uncertainty, it may come from the Cañadón Calcáreo Formation.
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
|-
|
''[[Darwinula]]''<ref name=Micro/>
|
*''Darwinula magna''
*''Darwinula spp.''
|
*Cañadón Asfalto
*Cañadón Lahuincó
*Cerro Bayo
*Cañadón Asfalto
*Quebrada Subsidiaria
*Estancia el Torito
|
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|
Isolated Valves
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Darwinulidae]] (Ostracod).
|
|-
|
''[[Euestheria]]''<ref name=FOSSALMA/><ref name=ConchoA/><ref name=Carapace/>
|
*''Euestheria volkheimeri''
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Cerro Bayo
*Alice Creek
*Quebrada Subsidiaria
|
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|
Isolated Valves
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Euestheriidae]] (Spinicaudatan).
|
|-
|
''[[Lioestheria]]''<ref name=FOSSALMA/><ref name=ConchoA/><ref name=Carapace/>
|
*''Cyzicus (Lioestheria) sp. B''
*''Cyzicus (Lioestheria) sp. C''
|
*Cañadón Las Chacritas
*Colan Conhué
*Alice Creek
|
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|
Isolated Valves
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Fushunograptidae]] (Spinicaudatan).
|
[[File:California Clam Shrimp (Cyzicus californicus).jpg|155px|thumb|center|Extant example of the Genus]]
|-
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
''[[Mandelstamia]]''<ref name=FOSSALMA/><ref name=Micro/>
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*''Mandelstamia? spp.''
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Estancia El Torito
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Isolated Valves
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Limnocytheridae]] (Ostracodan). Given the stratigraphic uncertainty, it may come from the Cañadón Calcáreo Formation
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
|-
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
''[[Metacypris]]''<ref name=FOSSALMA/><ref name=Micro/>
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*''Metacypris sp.''
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Estancia El Torito
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Isolated Valves
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Loxoconchidae]] (Ostracodan). Given the stratigraphic uncertainty, it may come from the Cañadón Calcáreo Formation.
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
|-
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
''[[Penthesilenula]]''<ref name=FOSSALMA/><ref name=Micro>{{cite journal |last1=Musacchio |first1=E.A. |title=Estratigrafía y micropalentología del Jurásico y el Cretácico en la comarca del Valle Medio del Río Chubut, Argentina |journal=Actas 6º Congreso Argentino de Paleontología y Bioestratigrafía |date=1995 |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=179–187}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ballent |first1=S.C. |last2=Díaz |first2=A.R. |title=Contribution to the taxonomy, distribution and paleoecology of the early representatives of Penthesilenula Rossetti & Martens, 1998 (Crustacea, Ostracoda, Darwinulidae) from Argentina, with the description of a new species |journal=Hydrobiologia |date=2011 |volume=688 |issue=10 |pages=125–138 |doi=10.1007/s10750-011-0658-8 |s2cid=254547791 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10750-011-0658-8 |access-date=2022-07-29}}</ref>
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*''Penthesilenula sarytirmenensis''
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Estancia El Torito
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Isolated Valves
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Darwinulidae]] (Ostracodan). Given the stratigraphic uncertainty, it may come from the Cañadón Calcáreo Formation.
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
|-
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
''[[Pseudestherites]]''<ref name=FOSSALMA/>
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*''Pseudestherites sp.''
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Estancia El Torito
*Cañadón Los Chivos
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Isolated Valves
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Antronestheriidae]] (Spinicaudatan). Given the stratigraphic uncertainty, it may come from the Cañadón Calcáreo Formation.
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
|-
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
''[[Theryosinoecum]]''<ref name=FOSSALMA/><ref name=Micro/>
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*''Theryosinoecum barrancalensis minor''
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Estancia El Torito
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Isolated Valves
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Cytheroidea]] (Ostracodan). Given the stratigraphic uncertainty, it may come from the Cañadón Calcáreo Formation.
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
|-
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
''[[Timiriasevia]]''<ref name=FOSSALMA/><ref name=Micro/>
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*''Timiriasevia sp.''
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Estancia El Torito
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Isolated Valves
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Limnocytheridae]] (Ostracodan). Given the stratigraphic uncertainty, it may come from the Cañadón Calcáreo Formation.
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
|-
|
''[[Wolfestheria]]''<ref name=Carapace/>
|
*''Wolfestheria patagoniensis''
*''Wolfestheria smekali''
|
*Cañadón Asfalto
*Cañadón Lahuincó
*Estancia La Sin Rumbo
|
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|
Isolated Valves
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Fushunograptidae]] (Spinicaudatan).
|
|-
|}

===Mollusca===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="7" align="center" |'''[[Mollusca]] reported from the Cañadon Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
''[[Corbicula]]''<ref name=Moll/>
|
*''Corbicula spp.''
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Cerro Bayo
*Estancia El Torito
|
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|
Isolated Shells
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Corbiculidae]] (Bivalve).
|
[[File:Grobgerippte Körbchenmuschel Corbicula fluminea.jpg|155px|thumb|center|Extant example of the Genus]]
|-
|
''[[Cyanocyclas]]''<ref name=Moll/>
|
*''Cyanocyclas spp.''
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Cerro Bayo
*Estancia El Torito
|
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|
Conchas Aisladas
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Corbiculidae]] (Bivalvo).
|
|-
|
''[[Diplodon]]''<ref name=FOSSALMA/><ref name=Moll>{{cite journal |last1=Martínez |first1=S. |last2=Gallego |first2=O.F |last3=Cabaleri |first3=N. |title=Nueva fauna de moluscos de la Formación Cañadón Asfalto (Jurásico Medio a Superior) Chubut, Argentina |journal=Ameghiniana |date=2007 |volume=44 |issue=4 |page=96 |url=https://www.conicet.gov.ar/new_scp/detalle.php?keywords=&id=29994&congresos=yes&detalles=yes&congr_id=242977 |access-date=2022-07-29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Monferran |first1=Mateo Daniel |last2=Cabaleri |first2=Nora |last3=Armella |first3=Claudia |last4=Martínez |first4=Sergio |last5=Gallego |first5=Oscar |last6=Zacarías |first6=Iracema |last7=Calathaki |first7=Hugo Barrios |date=2023-01-31 |title=Freshwater bivalves and their environmental conditions in a Jurassic lacustrine system (Cañadón Asfalto Formation) from Patagonia, Argentina |url=http://www.andeangeology.cl/index.php/revista1/article/view/V50n2-3461 |journal=Andean Geology |language=en |volume=50 |issue=2 |page=248 |doi=10.5027/andgeoV50n2-3461 |issn=0718-7106|doi-access=free }}</ref>
|
*''Diplodon spix''
*''Diplodon cf.matildensis''
*''Diplodon cf.spix''
*''Diplodon spp.''
|
*Cañadón Asfalto
*Cañadón Lahuincó
*Cañadón Miyanao
*Cerro Cóndor
*Cerro Bayo
*Alice Creek
*Quebrada Subsidiaria
*Estancia El Torito
|
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|
Isolated Shells
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Unionidae]] (Bivalve). The most abundant Bivalve genus on the Formation. Represents also some of the smallest-sized specimens recorded in the Mesozoic
|
[[File:Diplodon Chilensis .jpg|155px|thumb|center|Extant example of the Genus]]
|-
|
[[Nayadidae]]<ref name=MAINBIO/>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cañadón Asfalto
*Cañadón Lahuincó
|
*Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Shells
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Unionidae]] (Bivalve).
|
|-
|
''[[Potamolithus]]''<ref name=MAINBIO/>
|
*''Potamolithus? spp.''
|
*Cañadón Asfalto
*Cañadón Lahuincó
|
*Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Shells
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Tateidae]] (Snail).
|
[[File:Potamolithus rushii shell 4.png|155px|thumb|center|Extant example of the Genus]]
|-
|
[[Sphaeridae]]<ref name=FaciesAr>{{cite journal |last1=Cabaleri |first1=N. |last2=Volkheimer |first2=W. |last3=Armella |first3=C. |last4=Gallego |first4=O. |last5=Silva Nieto |first5=D. |last6=Páez |first6=M. |last7=Koukharsky |first7=M. |title=Estratigrafía, análisis de facies y paleoambientes de la Formación Cañadón Asfalto en el depocentro jurásico Cerro Cóndor, provincia del Chubut. |journal=Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina |date=2010 |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=349–367 |url=http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0004-48222010000200006 |access-date=2022-09-05}}</ref>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cañadón Asfalto
|
*Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Shells
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Sphaeriida]] (Bivalve).
|
|-
|
''[[Viviparus]]''<ref name=Moll/>
|
*''Viviparus spp.''
|
*Cañadón Asfalto
*Cañadón Lahuincó
*Cañadón Asfalto
*Quebrada Subsidiaria
*Estancia El Torito
|
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|
Isolated Shells
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Viviparidae]] (Snail).
|
[[File:Viviparus contectus 3.JPG|155px|thumb|center|Extant example of the Genus]]
|-
|}

===Insecta===
Insect eggs of unknown affinity were reported from several layers of the Estancia Fossati locality.<ref name=FaunaChacri/>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="7" align="center" |'''[[Insects]] reported from the Cañadon Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
[[Chironomidae]]<ref name=NeoO/>
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Indeterminate
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Gan Gan
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Head capsules
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Indeterminate Bittacidae (Migdes) remains, associated with lacustrine facies. Given the stratigraphic uncertainty, it may come from the Cañadón Calcáreo Formation
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
[[File:Non-biting Midge on Moss (27848071204).jpg|thumb|center|155px|Extant member of the Family]]
|-
|
[[Coleoptera]]<ref name=Insects/>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Estancia Fossati
*Estancia El Torito
*Estancia La Sin Rumbo
|
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|
Elytra and body remains
|
Indeterminate Beetle remains, associated with lacustrine facies
|
[[File:Beetle (Coleoptera) - Kitchener, Ontario.jpg|thumb|center|155px|Extant example of the Group]]
|-
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
''[[Conchindusia]]''<ref name=FOSSALMA/><ref name=Insects/><ref name=FossilAlm/>
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
''Conchindusia isp.''
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
*Cerro Cóndor
*Estancia Fossati
*Estancia El Torito
*Estancia La Sin Rumbo
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
Imprints or compressed moulds of larval cases
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
Indeterminate Trichoptera (Caddisflies) Ichnofossils, associated with lacustrine facies
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
|-
|
[[Heteroptera]]<ref name=Insects/>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Estancia Fossati
*Estancia El Torito
*Estancia La Sin Rumbo
|
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|
Fragmentary wings
|
Indeterminate Heteroptera remains, associated with lacustrine facies
|
[[File:Apiomeris spissipes.jpg|thumb|center|155px|Extant example of the Group]]
|-
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
[[Neorthophlebidae]]<ref name=NeoO>{{cite journal |last1=Petrulevicius|first1=F.|title=A new species of Bittacidae sensu lato (Mecoptera) from the Callovian-Oxfordian: new Jurassic locality of insect body fossils from Patagonia, Argentina |journal=Proceedings of the 4th International Congress of Paleoentomology, International Palaeoentomological Society, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Diputación Forai de Álava, Spain |date=2007 |volume=275 |issue=4 |page=23 |url=https://www.conicet.gov.ar/new_scp/detalle.php?keywords=&id=20273&congresos=yes&detalles=yes&congr_id=2939676 |access-date=2022-07-29}}</ref>
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Indeterminate
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Gan Gan
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
*Puesto Almada member
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Wings and parts of body
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
Indeterminate Bittacidae (Scorpionfly) remains, associated with lacustrine facies. Given the stratigraphic uncertainty, it may come from the Cañadón Calcáreo Formation
|style="background:#f3e9f3;" |
|-
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
''[[Ostracindusia]]''<ref name=FOSSALMA/><ref name=Insects/><ref name=FossilAlm/>
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
''Ostracindusia isp.''
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
*Cerro Cóndor
*Estancia Fossati
*Estancia El Torito
*Estancia La Sin Rumbo
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
Imprints or compressed moulds of larval cases
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
Indeterminate Trichoptera (Caddisflies) Ichnofossils, associated with lacustrine facies
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
|-
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
''[[Terrindusia]]''<ref name=FOSSALMA/><ref name=Insects/><ref name=FossilAlm/>
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
''Terrindusia isp.''
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
*Cerro Cóndor
*Estancia Fossati
*Estancia El Torito
*Estancia La Sin Rumbo
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
Imprints or compressed moulds of larval cases
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
Indeterminate Trichoptera (Caddisflies) Ichnofossils, associated with lacustrine facies
|style="background:#FEF6E4;" |
|-
|
[[Trichoptera]]<ref name=FOSSALMA/><ref name=Insects>{{cite journal |last1=Andrade-Morraye |first1=M. |last2=Genise |first2=J. |title=An association of fossil larval tubes and head capsules of Chironomidae (Diptera) from the Jurassic (Callovian–Oxfordian) Cañadón Asfalto Formation, Patagonia, Argentina |journal=Proceedings of the Fossils X3, International Paleoentomological Society, Pretoria |date=2005 |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=5}}</ref><ref name=FossilAlm>{{cite journal |last1=Gallego|first1=O. F. |last2=Cabaleri |first2=N. G. |last3=Armella |first3=C. |last4=Volkheimer |first4=W. |last5=Ballent |first5=S. C. |last6=Martínez |first6=S. |last7=Páez |first7=M. A. |title=Paleontology, sedimentology and paleoenvironment of a new fossiliferous locality of the Jurassic Cañadón Asfalto Formation, Chubut Province, Argentina |journal=Journal of South American Earth Sciences |date=2011 |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=54–68 |doi=10.1016/j.jsames.2010.11.001 |bibcode=2011JSAES..31...54G |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0895981110000830 |access-date=2022-07-29}}</ref>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Estancia Fossati
*Estancia El Torito
*Estancia La Sin Rumbo
|
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|
Wings and larval cases
|
Indeterminate Trichoptera (Caddisflies) remains, associated with lacustrine facies
|
[[File:Koecherfliege 6.JPG|thumb|center|155px|Extant example of the Group]]
|-
|}

==Vertebrates==
===Fish===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="7" align="center" |'''[[Actinopteri]] reported from the Cañadon Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
[[Archaeomaenidae]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=López-Arbarello |first1=A. |last2=Rauhut |first2=O. W. |last3=Moser |first3=K. |title=Jurassic fishes of Gondwana |journal=Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina |date=2008 |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=586–612 |url=http://www.scielo.org.ar/img/revistas/raga/v63n4/html/v63n4a10.htm#fig14 |access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Cañadón Asfalto
*Cañadón Miyanao
*Estancia Fossati
*Localidad de Canela<ref name=Canela/>
*Cañadón Asfalto
*Quebrada Subsidiaria
|
*Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated large median fin & Isolated Scales
|
A Freshwater (Lacustrine) member of [[Archaeomaenidae]] (Teleostei). Maybe related with the genus ''[[Oreochima]]'', coming from layers coeval, coregional and of identical deposition of the [[Mawson Formation]] of Antarctica
|
[[File:Archaeomaene tenuis.jpg|thumb|center|155px|Example of member of the family [[Archaeomaenidae]], ''[[Archaeomaene]]'']]
|-
|}

===Amphibians===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="7" align="center" |'''[[Amphibian]]s reported from the Cañadon Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
''[[Notobatrachus]]''<ref name="escapaetal2008">{{cite journal|last1=Escapa|first1=I.H.|last2=Sterli|first2=J.|last3=Pol|first3=D.|last4=Nicoli|first4=L.|year=2008|title=Jurassic Tetrapods and Flora of Cañadon Asfalto Formation in Cerro Cóndor Area, Chubut Province|url=http://mef.org.ar/~muspal/images/stories/investigacion/iescapa_docs/escapa_et_al_2008b.pdf|journal=Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina|volume=63|issue=4|pages=613–624|access-date=2014-09-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924044911/http://mef.org.ar/~muspal/images/stories/investigacion/iescapa_docs/escapa_et_al_2008b.pdf|archive-date=2014-09-24|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=fossilAmp>{{cite journal |last1=Barcelos |first1=L. A. |last2=dos Santos |first2=R. O. |title=The Lissamphibian Fossil Record of South America |journal=Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments |date=2022 |volume=176 |issue=4 |pages=341–405 |doi=10.1007/s12549-022-00536-0 |s2cid=250077749 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12549-022-00536-0 |access-date=1 August 2022}}</ref>
|
*''Notobatrachus degiustoi''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Báez |first1=A. M. |last2=Nicoli |first2=L. |title=A new species of Notobatrachus (Amphibia, Salientia) from the Middle Jurassic of northwestern Patagonia |journal=Journal of Paleontology |date=2008 |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=372–376 |doi=10.1666/06-117.1 |bibcode=2008JPal...82..372B |s2cid=130032431 |url=https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/handle/11336/135748 |access-date=1 August 2022}}</ref>
*''Notobatrachus reigi''
*''Cf.Notobatrachus sp.''<ref name=Canela>{{cite journal |last1=Turazzini |first1=G. F. |last2=Appella-Guiscafre |first2=L. S. |last3=Lires |first3=A. I. |last4=Garberoglio |first4=F. |last5=Canessa Leandro |first5=A. |last6=Gómez |first6=R. O. |last7=Rougier |first7=G. W. |title=Promising future: a new mammal-bearing microvertebrate locality from the Cañadón Asfalto formation (Jurassic; Chubut, Argentina) |journal=Ameghiniana: Congreso; XI Congreso de la Asociación Paleontológica Argentina |date=2017 |volume=XI |issue=1 |pages=54–52 |url=https://www.conicet.gov.ar/new_scp/detalle.php?keywords=&id=42024&congresos=yes&detalles=yes&congr_id=8078538 |access-date=1 August 2022}}</ref>
|
*Cañadon Bagual
*Zitarrosa
*Cerro Cóndor
*Canela
*Queso Rallado
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
*Many articulated, mostly complete skeletons
*Most of a partially articulated skeleton and skull
|
An early frog of the family [[Notobatrachidae]]. ''Notobatrachus degiustoi'' can be distinguished from ''N. reigsi'' by features of the skull. The presence of this anuran inseveral locations suggest local proliferation linked with lacustrine bodies
|
[[File:Notobatrachus NT.jpg|200px]]
|-
|}

===Turtles===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!colspan="7" align="center" |'''[[Turtle]]s reported from the Cañadon Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
''[[Condorchelys]]''<ref name="escapaetal2008"/><ref name=Condor>{{cite journal |last1=Sterli |first1=J. |last2=De La Fuente |first2=M. S. |last3=Rougier |first3=G. W. |title=New remains of Condorchelys antiqua (Testudinata) from the Early-Middle Jurassic of Patagonia: anatomy, phylogeny, and paedomorphosis in the early evolution of turtles |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |date=2018 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=(1)-(17) |doi=10.1080/02724634.2018.1480112 |bibcode=2018JVPal..38....1S |s2cid=109556104 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02724634.2018.1480112 |access-date=1 August 2022}}</ref><ref name=Condorc>{{cite journal |last1=Sterli |first1=J. |last2=Vlachos |first2=E. |last3=Puerta |first3=P. |last4=Oriozabala |first4=C. |last5=Krause |first5=M. |title=Contribution to the diversity of the fossil record of turtles (Testudinidata) from Chubut province (Argentina) and its significance in understanding the evolution of turtles in southern South America |journal=Publicación Electrónica de la Asociación Paleontológica Argentina |date=2021 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=118–160 |url=https://www.peapaleontologica.org.ar/index.php/peapa/article/view/338 |access-date=31 March 2022}}</ref>
|
*''Condorchelys antiqua''
*''Condorchelys cf.antiqua''
*''Condorchelys spp.''
|
*Queso Rallado
*Cañadon Bagual
*Chucrut
*Canela facies
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
*Holotype: Most of a skull, carapace, and plastron.
*MPEF-PV 3163, left humerus
*MPEF-PV 3164, costal plate
|
A stem turtle ([[Mesochelydia]]n) outside both extant groups, closely related with ''[[Kayentachelys]] aprix'' of North America and ''[[Indochelys]] spatulata'' of India. Likely occupied aquatic or semiaquatic niches.<ref name=Condor/>
|
|-
|
[[Testudinata]]<ref name=Condorc/>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Canela facies
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
*plastrons
|
Indeterminate Turtle remains
|
|-
|}

=== Lepidosaurs ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="7" align="center" |[[Lepidosauria|Lepidosaurs]] '''reported from the Cañadon Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|''[[Sphenocondor]]''<ref name="AGR12">{{Cite journal|last1=Apesteguía|first1=S. N.|last2=Gómez|first2=R. L. O.|last3=Rougier|first3=G. W.|year=2012|title=A basal sphenodontian (Lepidosauria) from the Jurassic of Patagonia: New insights on the phylogeny and biogeography of Gondwanan rhynchocephalians|journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=166|issue=2|pages=342|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2012.00837.x|doi-access=free}}</ref>
|
''Sphenocondor gracilis''
|
Queso Rallado
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Dentary
|
A [[Sphenodontia]]n [[Rhynchocephalia]]n, closely related with ''[[Godavarisaurus]]'' from the almost coeval Jurassic [[Kota Formation]] of India, maybe part of an endemic Gondwanan clade.<ref name="AGR12"/>
|
|}

=== Crocodylomorpha ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="7" align="center" |'''Crocodyliformes reported from the Cañadón Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
[[Crocodylomorpha]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sterli |first1=J. |last2=Pol |first2=D. |last3=Rougier |first3=G. |last4=Rauhut |first4=O. |last5=Baez |first5=A. |last6=Carballido |first6=J. |last7=Nicoli |first7=L. |title=Nuevos aportes a la diversidad taxonómica de vertebrados de la Formación Cañadón Asfalto (Jurásico Medio) de la provincia del Chubut, Argentina |journal=IV Simposio del Jurásico y sus Límites, Bahía Blanca, Argentina |date=2010 |volume=4 |issue=1 |page=22 |url=https://www.conicet.gov.ar/new_scp/detalle.php?keywords=&id=20345&congresos=yes&detalles=yes&congr_id=999472 |access-date=2 August 2022}}</ref>
|
Indterminate
|
Queso Rallado
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Several isolated remains
|
Indeterminate crocodylomorph remains that represent among the most complete vertebrates linked with lacustrine facies.
|
|}

===Pterosaurs===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="7" align="center" |'''[[Pterosaurs]] reported from the Cañadón Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
''[[Allkaruen]]''<ref name="codorniu2016">{{cite journal | first1 = L. | last1 = Codorniú | first2 = A.P. | last2 = Carabajal | first3 = D. | last3 = Pol | first4 = D. | last4 = Unwin | first5 = O.W.M | last5 = Rauhut | title = A Jurassic pterosaur from Patagonia and the origin of the pterodactyloid neurocranium | journal = PeerJ | date = 2016 | doi = 10.7717/peerj.2311 | volume = 4 | pages = e2311 | pmid=27635315 | pmc=5012331 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
|
''Allkaruen koi''
|
Canadón Carrizal
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
A braincase, as well as a mandible and cervical vertebrae.
|
A Pterosaur either related with [[Breviquartossa]] or maybe even a sister group of monofenestratan ([[Wukongopteridae]] + [[Pterodactyloidea]]) pterosaurs
|
[[File:Allkaruen.png|frameless]]
|-
|
[[Scaphognathinae]]?<ref name=rauhut2005/><ref name=Pteroa>{{cite journal |last1=Unwin |first1=D. M. |last2=Rauhut |first2=O. W. M. |last3=Haluza |first3=A. |title=The first "rhamphorhynchoid" from South America and the early history of pterosaurs |journal=Geobiologie |date=2004 |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=235–237 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233386525 |access-date=17 April 2023}}</ref>
|
Indeterminate
|
Las Chacritas
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Uncatalogued specimens, several mandibles, braincase, shoulder girdle, two humeri, several wing-finger phalanges
|
Indeterminate remains of a pterosaur, possibly a [[Rhamphorhynchoidea]]. It seems to represent a ''rhamphorhynchoid'' pterosaur with a wingspan of about 1.5–2 meters. The morphology is very similar to that of the lower jaw of the [[Scaphognathinae]].<ref name=Pteroa/>
|
|-
|}

===Theropods===
During a campaign conducted in early 2021, remains of a large theropod dinosaur were found near the town of Las Chacritas. In 2020 a new fossil locality was found, named Cañadón de las Huellas due to the large number of sauropod, and probably theropod, footprints on one of the canyon walls. In the same locality in 2021, articulated remains where recovered and represent at least one sauropod and one large theropod.<ref name=EUSA>{{cite journal |last1=Gomez |first1=K. L. |title=Diversidad, evolución y diversificación temprana de los Eusaurópodos basales durante el Jurásico Temprano-Medio en Patagonia |journal=Tesis de Postgrado |date=2023 |pages=1–645 |url=http://rdi.uncoma.edu.ar/handle/uncomaid/17143 |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref>
At least 4 Theropod morphotypes, including one with Ceratosaur and other with Piatnitzkysauridae affinities, are known from the Cañadón Bagual.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ezcurra |first1=M. D. |last2=Pol |first2=D. |title=Theropod remains from a new bone–bed of the Cañadón Asfalto Formation (Middle Jurassic), Chubut Province, Argentina |journal=XXIV Jornadas Argentinas de Paleontología de Vertebrados, San Rafael, Mendoza, Argentina |date=2009 |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=31 |url=https://www.conicet.gov.ar/new_scp/detalle.php?keywords=&id=48036&congresos=yes&detalles=yes&congr_id=2461462 |access-date=28 May 2023}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="7" align="center" |'''[[Theropoda]] reported from the Cañadón Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
''[[Asfaltovenator]]''<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Oliver W. M. Rauhut |author2=Diego Pol |year=2019 |title=Probable basal allosauroid from the early Middle Jurassic Cañadón Asfalto Formation of Argentina highlights phylogenetic uncertainty in tetanuran theropod dinosaurs |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=Article number 18826 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-53672-7 |pmid=31827108 |doi-access=free |pmc=6906444|bibcode=2019NatSR...918826R }}</ref>
|
''Asfaltovenator vialidadi''
|
Cerro Condor
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Nearly compete skull and largely complete front half of the skeleton forward of the hips, distal pubis and fermur and proximal fibula and tibia, partial foot
|
A probable early member of [[Allosauroidea]]
|
[[File:Asfaltovenator head portrait.jpg|frameless]]
|-
|
[[Averostra]]<ref name=TheropodDiv>{{cite journal |last1=Castiblanco Ramírez |first1=P. M. |title=Estudio de la diversidad taxonómica de dinosaurios terópodos de la formación cañadón asfalto, en la provincia del Chubut, Argentina, a partir de un análisis morfométrico de sus dientes |journal=Tesis Propuesta Como Cumplimiento de los Requisitos Para el Pregrado de Geociencias, Universidad de los Andes |date=2016 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–41 |url=https://repositorio.uniandes.edu.co/bitstream/handle/1992/24359/u728601.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=1 August 2022}}</ref>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Puesto el Quemado
*Cerro Bayo
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated teeth: MPEF BA 182/08, BA 40/08, BA 09/80, BA 88/08, BA 252G+165/08 A, BA 252G+165/08 B, BA 252G+165/08 C
|
Theropod dinosaur teeth that wear resemblance with those assigned to the families [[Ceratosauridae]], [[Megalosauridae]] and [[Abelisauridae]]
|
|-
|
[[Ceratosauridae]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pradelli|first1=L. A.|last2=Pol|first2=D.|last3=Ezcurra|first3=M. D.|title=Restos de Theropoda (Averostra: Ceratosauria) aumentan la diversidad taxonómica del grupo en la Formación Cañadón Asfalto (Jurásico Temprano), provincia del Chubut, Argentina|journal=XXXV Jornadas Argentinasde Paleontología de Vertebrados|date=2022|volume=XXXV|issue=1|page=54|url=https://www.peapaleontologica.org.ar/index.php/peapa/article/view/439/755|access-date=6 March 2023}}</ref>
|
Indeterminate
|
Cerro Cóndor
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
A dentary with teeth in situ, MPEF-PV 6775
|
It resembles the dentary of ''[[Ceratosaurus]]''
|
|-
|
''[[Condorraptor]]''<ref name=rauhut2005>{{cite journal|last=Rauhut|first=O.W.M.|year=2005|title=Osteology and relationships of a new theropod dinosaur from the Middle Jurassic of Patagonia|journal=Palaeontology|volume=48|issue=1|pages=87–110|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4983.2004.00436.x|bibcode=2005Palgy..48...87R |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=novas2009>{{cite book |last=Novas |first=Fernando |date=2009 |title=The Age of Dinosaurs in South America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dXYi6j7QQ-YC |publisher=Indiana University Press |page=118 |isbn=978-0253352897 }}</ref>
|
''Condorraptor currumili''
|
Las Chacritas
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Partial articulated skeleton
|
A relative of ''Piatnitzkysaurus'' from the same formation, and a possible junior synonym of it as well.
|
[[File:Condorraptor.jpg|200px]]
|-
|
[[Dromaeosauridae]]<ref name=TheropodDiv/>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Puesto el Quemado
*Cerro Bayo
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Teeth: MEPF BA 61/08, BA 103/08, BA 32/08 A, BA 32/08 B, BA 104/08, BA 226B/08, PV 3498, BA 29/08, BA51/08, BA 270/08 a, BA 270/08 b, BA 270/08 c
|
Theropod dinosaur teeth that wear resemblance with those assigned to the family [[Dromaeosauridae]]. Alternatively, they could belong to basal members of [[Coelurosauria]]
|
|-
|
''[[Eoabelisaurus]]''<ref name="pol&rahut2012">{{cite journal | author = Diego Pol & Oliver W. M. Rauhut | year = 2012 | title = A Middle Jurassic abelisaurid from Patagonia and the early diversification of theropod dinosaurs | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 279 | issue = 1804 | pages = 3170–5 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2012.0660 | pmid=22628475 | pmc=3385738}}</ref>
|
''Eoabelisaurus mefi''
|
Jugo Luco
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
A nearly complete articulated skeleton
|
A Neoceratosaur, that was suggested to be a basal member of [[Abelisauria]], but also a member of [[Ceratosauridae]]
|
[[File:Eoabelisaurus life restoration.jpg|200px]]
|-
|
[[Megalosauridae]]<ref name=TheropodDiv/>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Puesto el Quemado
*Cerro Bayo
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Teeth: MPEF PV 1175, BA 66/08, PV 1356, PV 1357
|
Theropod dinosaur teeth that wear resemblance with those assigned to the family [[Megalosauridae]].
|
|-
|
[[Neotheropoda]]<ref name=TheropodDiv/>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Puesto el Quemado
*Cerro Bayo
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Teeth: MPEF BA 68/08, BA 92/08, PV 3499, BA 68/08, BA 183/08
|
Theropod dinosaur teeth that wear resemblance with those assigned to basal neotheropods, such as members of [[Coelophysoidea]].
|
|-
|
[[Piatnitzkysauridae]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rauhut |first1=O. W. |title=A fragmentary theropod skull from the Middle Jurassic of Patagonia |journal=Ameghiniana |date=2007 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=479–483 |url=http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?pid=S0002-70142007000200019&script=sci_arttext&tlng=es |access-date=11 July 2023}}</ref><ref name=TheropodDiv/>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Puesto el Quemado
*Cerro Bayo
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Teeth & Cranial remains: MPEF 1717 CC 205, PV 3440A A, PV 3440A B, PV 3440A C, PV 3440A D, PV 3440A E, PV 3440A F, PV 3440A G
|
Theropod dinosaur teeth that have resemblance with those assigned to members of [[Piatnitzkysauridae]].
|
|-
|
''[[Piatnitzkysaurus]]''<ref name=novas2009/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rauhut |first1=O. W. |title=Braincase structure of the Middle Jurassic theropod dinosaur Piatnitzkysaurus |journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences |date=2004 |volume=41 |issue=9 |pages=1109–1122 |doi=10.1139/e04-053 |bibcode=2004CaJES..41.1109R |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235907348 |access-date=1 August 2022}}</ref>
|
''Piatnitzkysaurus floresi''
|
Cerro Cóndor South
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Two "fragmentary skulls with associated postcranium."<ref name="table-4-1-72">"Table 4.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 72.</ref>
|
Possible senior synonym of ''[[Condorraptor]]'' from the same formation.
|
[[File:Piatnitzkysaurus floresi by Paleocolour.jpg|200px]]
|-
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
[[Spinosauridae]]<ref name=TheropodDiv/>
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
Indeterminate
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
*Cerro Cóndor
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
Isolated Teeth : MEPF PV 1350
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
Theropod dinosaur teeth resembling those assigned to members of [[Spinosauridae]]. Alternatively, they could belong to members of Ceratosauria
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
|-
|
[[Tetanurae]]<ref name=TheropodDiv/>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cerro Cóndor
*Puesto el Quemado
*Cerro Bayo
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Teeth : MEPF BA 84/08, BA 49/08 A, BA 49/08 B, BA 64/08, BA 65/08, BA 266/07
|
Theropod dinosaur teeth that wear resemblance with those assigned to members of [[Megalosauridae]] and [[Dromaeosauridae]]
|
|-
|
[[Theropoda]]<ref name=TheropodDiv/>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Cerro Cóndor
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Teeth : MPEF PV 1640
|
"Outlier" tooth that doesn't fit in any previously know morphotype, maybe due to preservation
|
|-
| style="background:#FEF6E4;"|
''[[Theropodipedia]]''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leonardi |first1=G. |title=Annotated Atlas of South America Tetrapod Footprints (Devonian to Holocene) with an Appendix on Mexico and Central America |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |date=1994 |volume=16 |issue=3 |publisher=República Federativa do Brasil, Ministério de Minas e Energia, Secretaria de Minas e Metalurgia, Companhia de Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais |location=Brasília |pages=599 |doi=10.1080/02724634.1996.10011348 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02724634.1996.10011348 |access-date=10 August 2022}}</ref>
| style="background:#FEF6E4;"|
''Theropodipedia'' ichnog. indeterminate
| style="background:#FEF6E4;"|
*Cerro Cóndor
| style="background:#FEF6E4;"|
Las Chacritas Member
| style="background:#FEF6E4;"|
Footprints
| style="background:#FEF6E4;"|
Possible [[Theropoda|theropod]] footprints, unassigned to any concrete ichnogenus
| style="background:#FEF6E4;"|
|-
|}

===Sauropodomorphs===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="7" align="center" |'''[[Sauropodiformes]] reported from the Cañadón Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
''[[Bagualia]]''<ref name="Bagualia2">{{cite journal |author1=D. Pol |author2=J. Ramezani |author3=K. Gomez |author4=J. L. Carballido |author5=A. Paulina Carabajal |author6=O. W. M. Rauhut |author7=I. H. Escapa |author8=N. R. Cúneo |year=2020 |title=Extinction of herbivorous dinosaurs linked to Early Jurassic global warming event |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=287 |issue=1939 |pages=Article ID 20202310 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2020.2310 |pmc=7739499 |pmid=33203331 |s2cid=226982302 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
|
''Bagualia alba''
|
Cañadon Bagual
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
The partial skeletons of three individuals
|
An early member of [[Eusauropoda]], related with the African genus ''[[Spinophorosaurus]]''
|
|-
|
[[Diplodocidae]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holwerda |first1=F. M. |last2=Pol |first2=D. |last3=Rauhut |first3=O. W. |title=Using dental enamel wrinkling to define sauropod tooth morphotypes from the Cañadón Asfalto Formation, Patagonia, Argentina |journal=PLOS ONE |date=2015 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=e0118100 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0118100 |pmid=25692466 |pmc=4333578 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1018100H |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=SauropodsCa>{{cite journal |last1=Holwerda |first1=F. M. |title=Revision of basal sauropods from the Middle Jurassic of Patagonia and the early evolution of sauropods |journal=(Doctoral dissertation, lmu) Ludwig- Maximilians-Universität München |date=2019 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–250 |url=https://edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/25483/1/Holwerda_Femke.pdf |access-date=1 August 2022}}</ref>
|
Indeterminate
|
Cerro Condor Sur
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
MACN-CH 934: axial neural arches and spines, an ilium, a pubis, ?two or ?three ischia, and two maxillae
|
This specimen shows strong [[Diplodocidae]] affinities, yet it has been considered either a derived non-neosauropodan eusauropod (having resemblance with ''[[Lapparentosaurus]]'' in some characters) or even a basal neosauropod ( also resembling with ''[[Haplocanthosaurus]]'')
|
|-
|
[[Eusauropoda]]<ref name=SauropodsCa/>
|
Indeterminate
|
Cerro Condor Sur
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
MACN-CH 230: three dorsal vertebrae
|
Likely a eusauropod, possibly a cetiosaurid. Smaller than other sauropod taxa found in the formation.
|
|-
|
''[[Patagosaurus]]''<ref name="rahut2003">{{cite journal|last=Rahut|first=O.W.M.|year=2003|title=A Dentary of ''Patagosaurus'' (Sauropoda) from the Middle Jurassic of Patagonia|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235907157|journal=Ameghiniana|volume=40|issue=3|pages=425–432|issn=0002-7014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Holwerda |first1=F. M. |last2=Rauhut |first2=O. W. |last3=Pol |first3=D. |title=Osteological revision of the holotype of the Middle Jurassic sauropod dinosaur Patagosaurus fariasi Bonaparte, 1979 (Sauropoda: Cetiosauridae) |journal=Geodiversitas |date=2021 |volume=43 |issue=16 |pages=575–643 |doi=10.5252/geodiversitas2021v43a16 |s2cid=237537773 |url=https://bioone.org/journals/geodiversitas/volume-43/issue-16/geodiversitas2021v43a16/----Custom-HTML----Osteological/10.5252/geodiversitas2021v43a16.short |access-date=1 August 2022}}</ref>
|
''Patagosaurus fariasi''
|
Cerro Condor
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Many specimens, including a partial skull.
|
A non-neosauropodan eusauropodan member of [[Cetiosauridae]]. This genus represents the most abundant sauropod in the formation
|
[[File:Patagosaurus.jpg|200px]]
|-
|
[[Sauropodiformes]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Becerra |first1=M. G. |last2=Carballido |first2=J. L. |last3=Pol |first3=D. |title=Primer registro de un Sauropoda no-Eusauropoda del Toarciano bajo-medio de Cañadón Asfalto[First report of a non-Eusauropoda Sauropoda from the lower-middle Toarcian of Cañadón Asfalto] |journal=XXX Jornadas Argentinas de Paleontología de Vertebrados. Resúmenes. Ameghiniana |date=2016 |volume=53 |issue=6 |page=8 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308879954 |access-date=31 March 2022}}</ref>
|
Indeterminate
|
Queso Rallado, near Cerro Cóndor
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Teeth: MPEF-PV 10860
|
An indeterminate [[Sauropodiformes|Sauropodiform]] or a very basal sauropod or even dental material of ''[[Volkheimeria]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Becerra|first1=M. G. |last2=Gomez |first2=K. L. |last3=Pol |first3=D. |title=A sauropodomorph tooth increases the diversity of dental morphotypes in the Cañadón Asfalto Formation (Early–Middle Jurassic) of Patagonia |journal=Comptes Rendus Palevol |date=2017 |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=832–840 |doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2017.08.005 |bibcode=2017CRPal..16..832B |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631068317301082 |access-date=2 August 2022}}</ref>
|
|-
|
[[Sauropoda]]<ref name=SauropodsCa/>
|
Indeterminate
|
Cerro Condor Sur
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
MACN-CH 219, 223(+221), 231
|
Too fragmentary to be ascribed to any taxon, for now classified as Sauropoda indet.
|
|-
|
[[Titanosauriformes]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carballido |first1=J. L. |last2=Holwerda |first2=F. M. |last3=Pol |first3=D. |last4=Rauhut |first4=O. W. |title=An Early Jurassic sauropod tooth from Patagonia (Cañadón Asfalto Formation): implications for sauropod diversity |journal=Publicación Electrónica de la Asociación Paleontológica Argentina |date=2017 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=50–57 |url=https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/handle/11336/74496 |access-date=31 March 2022}}</ref>
|
Indeterminate
|
Queso Rallado, near Cerro Cóndor
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Teeth: MPEF-PV 10606
|
An indeterminate [[Titanosauriformes|Titanosauriform]]. It can be alternatively a basal Eusauropod. Possible relationships with ''[[Atlasaurus]]''
|
|-
|
''[[Volkheimeria]]''<ref name="SauropodsCa" />
|
''Volkheimeria chubutensis''
|
Cerro Cóndor South
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
"Partial skeleton consisting of presacral and sacral vertebrae, pelvis, [and] hindlimb."
|
Either a gravisaur or a sister taxon of the Indian genus ''[[Barapasaurus]]''
|
|-
|}

===Ornithischians===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! colspan="7" align="center" |'''[[Ornithischia]]ns reported from the Cañadón Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
[[Cerapoda]]<ref name="Ornithis"/>
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
Indeterminate
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
Queso Rallado
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
Isolated ungual phalanx and Isolated Teeth: MPEF-PV 3818, MPEF-PV 3824, MEPF-PV 3820, MEPF-PV 3825, MEPF-PV 10861, MPEF-PV 10823, MPEF-PV 3821 & MPEF-PV 10864
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
An indeterminate [[Cerapoda]]n with resemblances with ''[[Hypsilophodon]]''. Some of the referred remains have been reclassified as ''Manidens'' material
|style="background:#E6E6E6;"|
|-
|
[[Heterodontosauridae]]<ref name="Ornithis"/>
|
Indeterminate
|
Queso Rallado
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Metapodials, caudal vertebrae and isolated phalanges: MPEF-PV 3826
|
[[heterodontosauridae|heterodontosaurid]] that cannot be compared with ''Manidens'' due to the lack of overlapping fossils.
|
|-
|
''[[Manidens]]''<ref name="poletal2011">{{cite journal |last=Pol |first=D. |author2=Rauhut, O.W.M. |author3= Becerra, M. |year=2011 |title=A Middle Jurassic heterodontosaurid dinosaur from Patagonia and the evolution of heterodontosaurids |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=98 |issue=5 |pages=369–379 |doi=10.1007/s00114-011-0780-5 |pmid=21452054|bibcode=2011NW.....98..369P |s2cid=22636871 }}</ref><ref name="Ornithis">{{cite journal |last1=Becerra |first1=M. G. |title=Dinosaurios ornitisquios de la Formación Cañadón Asfalto (Jurásico temprano a medio), Chubut, Argentina: anatomía y relaciones filogenéticas |journal=(Doctoral Dissertation, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales). |date=2016 |pages=1–649 |url=https://bibliotecadigital.exactas.uba.ar/download/tesis/tesis_n5967_Becerra.pdf |access-date=15 October 2021}}</ref>
|
''Manidens condorensis''
|
*Queso Rallado
*Sitio Frenguelli
*Sitio Canela
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Partial articulated specimen, skull & associated elements as well referred isolated teeth: MPEF-PV 3809, MPEF-PV 3211, MPEF-PV 3808, MPEF-PV 10867, MPEF-PV 1719, MPEF-PV 1786, MPEF-PV 1718, MPEF-PV 3810, MPEF-PV 3811, MPEF-PV 3812, MPEF-PV 3813, MPEF-PV 3814, MPEF-PV 3815, MPEF-PV 3816, MPEF-PV 10866
|
A primitive and small [[heterodontosauridae|heterodontosaurid]].
|
[[File:Manidens.jpg|200px]]
|-
|
[[Ornithischia]]<ref name="Ornithis"/>
|
Indeterminate
|
*Queso Rallado
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated teeth: MPEF-PV 3817, MPEFPV 3819, MPEF-PV 3822.
|
Not referable to any taxa beyond Ornithischia Indet.
|
|-
|}

===Mammals===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!colspan="7" align="center" |'''[[Mammal]]s reported from the Cañadón Asfalto Formation'''
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Material
! Notes
! Images
|-
|
[[Allotheria]]<ref name=Condordo/>
|
Indeterminate
|
Queso Rallado
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
Isolated Teeth
|
An [[Allotheria]]n whose affinities hasn't been tested
|
|-
|
''[[Argentoconodon]]''<ref name=Argentoc>{{cite journal | last1 = Gaetano | first1 = L.C. | last2 = Rougier | first2 = G.W. | year = 2011 | title = New materials of Argentoconodon fariasorum (Mammaliaformes, Triconodontidae) from the Jurassic of Argentina and its bearing on triconodont phylogeny | journal = Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology | volume = 31 | issue = 4| pages = 829–843 | doi = 10.1080/02724634.2011.589877 | bibcode = 2011JVPal..31..829G | s2cid = 85069761|url=https://bibliotecadigital.exactas.uba.ar/greenstone3/exa/collection/paper/document/paper_02724634_v31_n4_p829_Gaetano |access-date=1 August 2022| hdl = 11336/68497 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
|
''Argentoconodon fariasorum''
|
Queso Rallado
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
MPEF-PV2362, fragmentary left maxilla, MPEF-PV2363 partial skeleton, MPEFPV2364 isolated complete right upper last molariform
|
A [[volaticotheria]]n ([[Alticonodontinae]]), closely related with the Asian genus ''[[Volaticotherium]]'', having similar postcraneal appearance, indicating possible gliding capabilities, yet better material is needed to prove it.<ref name=Argentoc/>
|
|-
|
''[[Asfaltomylos]]''<ref name="escapaetal2008"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=T. |last2=Rauhut |first2=O. W. |title=Mandible and dentition of Asfaltomylos patagonicus (Australosphenida, Mammalia) and the evolution of tribosphenic teeth |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |date=2005 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=414–425 |doi=10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0414:MADOAP]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=86312639 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235907341 |access-date=1 August 2022}}</ref>
|
''Asfaltomylos patagonicus''
|
Queso Rallado
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
MPEF PV 1671, complete lower maxilla
|
An [[Australosphenida]]n, related to ''[[Henosferus]]'' in [[Henosferidae]].
|
|-
|
''[[Condorodon]]''<ref name=Condordo>{{cite journal |last1=Gaetano |first1=L. C.|last2=Rougier |first2=G. W. |title=First amphilestid from South America: a molariform from the Jurassic Cañadón Asfalto Formation, Patagonia, Argentina |journal=Journal of Mammalian Evolution |date=2012 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=235–248 |doi=10.1007/s10914-012-9194-1 |s2cid=254698557 |url=https://idp.springer.com/authorize/casa?redirect_uri=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10914-012-9194-1&casa_token=jKpGiiJJLSQAAAAA:v_vA6-IAZHxZXyfJuOiKHQ2n6bamJbPXdRGh-MnYu3HH60qH-7L4UuDnmxgkJzrk8wQUkwgIhadvoM_Cj8w |access-date=1 August 2022|hdl=11336/68489 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
|
''Condorodon spanios''
|
Queso Rallado
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
MPEF-PV 2365, isolated complete lower left molariform
|
An "[[amphilestid]]" triconodont, related with the late jurassic African ''[[Tendagurodon]]''.<ref name=Condordo/>
|
|-
|
''[[Henosferus]]''<ref name="escapaetal2008"/><ref name=Henus>{{cite journal |last1=Rougier |first1=G. W. |last2=Martinelli |first2=A. G. |last3=Forasiepi |first3=A. M. |last4=Novacek |first4=M. J. |title=New Jurassic mammals from Patagonia, Argentina: a reappraisal of australosphenidan morphology and interrelationships. |journal=American Museum Novitates |date=2007 |issue=3 |pages=1–54 |citeseerx=10.1.1.693.6352 |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.693.6352&rep=rep1&type=pdf |access-date=1 August 2022}}</ref>
|
*''Henosferus molus''
*''Henosferus sp.''
|
*Queso Rallado
*Canela<ref name=Canela/>
|
Las Chacritas Member
|
MPEF 2353 right lower jaw, MPEF 2354 Left lower jaw, MPEF 2357 Left lower jaw, referred MPEF 2355 isolated upper premolar
|
An [[Australosphenida]]n, related to ''Asfaltomylos'' in Henosferidae, being twice as large as this last one.<ref name=Henus/>
|
|-
|}

==Fungi==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Stratigraphic position
! Member
! Material
! Ecogroup
! Palaeoclimate requirements
! Notes
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Annella (Fungus)|Annella]]''<ref name=Fungus>{{cite journal |last1=Olivera |first1=D. E. |last2=Quattrocchio |first2=M. E. |last3=Zavattieri |first3=A. M. |title=The fungal spore Annella capitata Srivastava from the Jurassic (Late Toarcian–Late Bajocian) Cañadón Asfalto Formation of Patagonia, Argentina |journal=Palynology |date=2015 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=258–269 |doi=10.1080/01916122.2014.955616 |bibcode=2015Paly...39..258O |hdl=11336/6627 |s2cid=130822113 |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/37614130/Olivera_et_al.__2014_Palynology_Annella.pdf |access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Annella capitata''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Central Patagonia
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Hypae and Miospores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Unknown: either Aquatic (Freshwater) or Parasitic
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Unknown, suggested highly seasonality
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
A Fungus of uncertain relationships. This species is recovered in both coal seams and proximal prodelta sediments, making the assignation of a biome complex.<ref name=Fungus/>
|-
|}

==Plants==
According to a [[palynological]] study the dominant pollen was produced by the conifer families Cheirolepidiaceae (''Classopollis'') and Araucariaceae (mainly ''Araucariacites'' and ''Callialasporites''), suggesting that warm-temperate and relatively humid conditions under highly seasonal climate prevailed during the depositional times of the unit. The abundance of ''Botryococcus'' supports the presence of a shallow lake with probably saline conditions.<ref name=PalynA>{{cite journal |last1=Olivera |first1=D. E. |last2=Zavattieri |first2=A. M. |last3=Quattrocchio |first3=M. E. |title=The palynology of the Cañadón Asfalto formation (Jurassic), Cerro Cóndor depocentre, Cañadón Asfalto Basin, Patagonia, Argentina: palaeoecology and palaeoclimate based on ecogroup analysis |journal=Palynology |date=2015 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=362–386 |doi=10.1080/01916122.2014.988382 |bibcode=2015Paly...39..362O |hdl=11336/47675 |s2cid=129591727 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01916122.2014.988382 |access-date=4 September 2023}}</ref> Locally, the Cañadón Asfalto represents a more poor record of the floras seen in the undeliying [[Lonco Tapial Formation]], with its closest floras found on the Antarctic Peninsula [[Sweeney Formation]] at [[Potter Peak]], sharing ''Brachyphyllum'' spp. and ''Elatocladus confertus''.<ref name="Penin2">{{cite journal |last1=Hunter |first1=M. A. |last2=Riley |first2=T. R. |last3=Cantrill |first3=D. J. |last4=Flowerdew |first4=M. J. |last5=Millar |first5=I. L. |date=2006 |title=A new stratigraphy for the Latady Basin, Antarctic Peninsula: Part 1, Ellsworth land volcanic group |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/48AAB48BE2DAAB2D7B0D052D0FDED7A9/S0016756806002597a.pdf/new_stratigraphy_for_the_latady_basin_antarctic_peninsula_part_1_ellsworth_land_volcanic_group.pdf |journal=Geological Magazine |volume=143 |issue=6 |pages=777–796 |bibcode=2006GeoM..143..777H |doi=10.1017/S0016756806002597 |s2cid=130465133 |access-date=5 September 2022}}</ref>

===Phytoplankton===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Member
! Material
! Ecogroup
! Palaeoclimate requirements
! Notes
! Images
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Botryococcus]]''<ref name=PalynA/><ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=FOSSALMA>{{cite journal|last1=Cabaleria|first1=Nora G.|last2=Benavente|first2=Cecilia A.|last3=Monferranc|first3=Mateo D.|last4=Narváez|first4=Paula L.|last5=Volkheimer|first5=Wolfgang|last6=Gallego|first6=Oscar F.|last7=Do Campoa|first7=Margarita D.|year=2011|title=Sedimentology and palaeontology of the Upper Jurassic Puesto Almada Member (Cañadón Asfalto Formation, Fossati sub-basin), Patagonia Argentina: Palaeoenvironmental and climatic significance |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0037073813001644|journal=Sedimentary Geology|volume=296|issue=1|pages=103–121|doi=10.1016/j.sedgeo.2013.08.011 |hdl=11336/2418|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Botryococcus sp. cf. B. braunii''
*''Botryococcus spp''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
*Cerro Bandera
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Algae
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Aquatic (Freshwater); Alkaline indicator
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Highly seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
A Freshwater algae of the family [[Botryococcaceae]]. This genus is the main indicator, due to its abundance, of the presence of a shallow lake with probably saline conditions, reaching in some samples about 96 to 70%.<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Botryococcus braunii.jpg|thumb|none|155px|Extant specimen]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Leiosphaeridia]]''<ref name=PalynA/><ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Leiosphaeridia sp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Zygospores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Aquatic (Freshwater)
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Temperate to warm; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Algae or Algae Acritarch of the family [[Prasinophyceae]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Ovoidites]]''<ref name=PalynA/><ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Ovoidites spp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Zygospores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Aquatic (Freshwater)
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Temperate to warm; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Algae of the family [[Zygnemataceae]]
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Spirogyra water surface and water inside.jpg|thumb|none|200px|Extant ''[[Spirogyra]]''; ''[[Ovoidites]]'' may be derived from a similar genus]]
|-
|}

===Bryophyta===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Member
! Material
! Ecogroup
! Palaeoclimate requirements
! Notes
! Images
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Antulsporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Antulsporites saevus''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;"|
Affinities with the family [[Sphagnaceae]] in the [[Sphagnopsida]]. "Peat moss" spores, related to genera such as ''[[Sphagnum]]'' that can store large amounts of water.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:SphagnumFallax.jpg|thumb|none|155px|Extant ''[[Sphagnum]]'' specimens; ''[[Stereisporites]]'', ''[[Sculptisporis]]'' and ''[[Rogalskaisporites]]'' probably come from similar genera]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Neoraistrickia]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Neoraistrickia cf. suratensis''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland and Lowland
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;"|
Affinities with the family [[Selaginellaceae]] and [[Lycopodiaceae]] in the [[Lycopsida]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Nevesisporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/><ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Nevesisporites vallatus''
*''Nevesisporites cf. undatus''
*''Nevesisporites cf. radiatus''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with [[Bryophyte|Bryophyta]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Retitriletes]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Retitriletes austroclavatidites''
*''Retitriletes semimuris''
*''Retitriletes sp. 1''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland and Lowland
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with [[Bryophyte|Bryophyta]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Stereisporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Stereisporites sp. cf. S. psilatus''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the family [[Sphagnaceae]] in the [[Sphagnopsida]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|}

===Equisetales===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Member
! Material
! Ecogroup
! Palaeoclimate requirements
! Notes
! Images
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Equisetites]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=MAINBIO>{{cite journal |last1=Frenguelli|first1=J.|title=Los estratos con "Estheria" en el Chubut (Patagonia)|journal=Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina|date=1949 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=11–24 |url=https://revista.geologica.org.ar/raga/article/view/95 |access-date=27 December 2021}}</ref><ref name=MAIFLOR>{{cite journal |last1=Escapa|first1=I.H.|title=La tafoflora de la Formación Cañadón Asfalto, Jurasico Medio superior de Chubut. Taxonomía, bioestratigrafia y paleofitogeografia|journal=PhD Thesis. Universidad del Comahue, Bariloche|date=2009}}</ref><ref name=RevFlora>{{cite journal |last1=Escapa |first1=Ignacio H. |last2=Elgorriaga |first2=Andres |last3=Nunes |first3=Giovanni Cristián |last4=Cunéo |first4=Rubèn |last5=Scasso |first5=Roberto A |title=Megafloras del Jurásico en la Cuenca de Cañadón Asfalto: Biomas en transformación |journal=In book: Relatorio XXI Congreso Geológico Argentino - Geología y Recursos Naturales de la Provincia del ChubutPublisher: Asociación Geológica Argentina |date=2021 |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=887–890 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/356645494 |access-date=8 September 2022}}</ref>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Equisetites approximatus''
*''Equisetites spp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Asfalto
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Paso de Indios
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Stems
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the group [[Equisetales]]. Usually linked with riversides
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Equisetites arenaceus 54645.jpg|thumb|none|155px|''[[Equisetites]]'' specimen]]
|-
|}

===Pteridophyta===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Member
! Material
! Ecogroup
! Palaeoclimate requirements
! Notes
! Images
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Baculatisporites]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011">{{cite journal|last1=Volkheimer|first1=W.|last2=Quattrocchio|first2=M.|last3=Cabaleri|first3=N.|last4=García|first4=V.|year=2011|title=Palynology and paleoenvironment of the Jurassic lacustrine Cañadón Asfalto Formation at Cañadón Lahuincó locality, Chubut Province, Central Patagonia, Argentina|url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2741009|journal=Revista Española de Micropaleontología|volume=40|issue=1–2|pages=77–96|issn=0556-655X}}</ref>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Baculatisporites comaumensis''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the family [[Osmundaceae]] in the [[Polypodiopsida]]. Near fluvial current ferns, related to the modern ''Osmunda regalis''.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Cinnamon Fern (Osmundastrum cinnamomeum) - Cape St. Mary's Ecological Reserve, Newfoundland 2019-08-10.jpg|thumb|none|155px|Extant ''[[Osmunda]]'' specimens; ''[[Baculatisporites]]'' probably come from similar genera or maybe a species from the genus]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Biretisporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Biretisporites sp. A''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the [[Marattiaceae]] in the [[Polypodiopsida]]. Fern spores from low herbaceous flora.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Marattia sp (2944472770).jpg|thumb|none|155px|Extant ''[[Marattia]]'' specimens; ''[[Marattisporites]]'' probably comes from similar genera]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Cadargasporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Cadargasporites sp. cf. C. reticulatus''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Uncertain affinity Fern Spores
Filicopsida incertae sedis
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Cladophlebis]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=MAIFLOR/><ref name=RevFlora/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Cladophlebis grahami''
*''Cladophlebis oblonga''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Asfalto
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Paso de Indios
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Isolated Pinnae
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the family [[Osmundaceae]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Cladophlebis nebbensis - National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo - DSC07005.JPG|155px]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Clavatisporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Clavatisporites spp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF; |
Filicopsida incertae sedis
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Deltoidospora]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Deltoidospora australis''
*''Deltoidospora minor''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" rowspan="2"|
Affinities with the families [[Cyatheaceae]]/[[Dicksoniaceae]] [[Dipteridaceae]]/[[Matoniaceae]] in the [[Polypodiopsida]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" rowspan="2"|
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Dictyophyllidites]]''<ref name=PalynA/><ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Dictyophyllidites harrisii''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Gleichenites]]''<ref name=RevFlora/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Gleichenites cf.taquetrensis''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Paso de Indios
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Isolated Pinnae
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the family [[Gleicheniales]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Ischyosporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Ischyosporites marburgensis''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" rowspan="2" |
Affinities with the family [[Lygodiaceae]] and [[Schizaeaceae]] in the [[Polypodiopsida]]. Climbing or herbaceous fern spores.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" rowspan="2" |
[[File:Small-leaved-Climbing-Fern (2928313776).gif|thumb|center|155px|Extant ''[[Lygodium]]''; ''[[Lygodioisporites]]'' probably comes from similar genera or maybe a species from the genus]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Klukisporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Klukisporites lacunus''
*''Klukisporites variegatus''
*''Klukisporites sp. cf. K. scaberis''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Obtusisporis]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Obtusisporis modestus''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF; |
Filicopsida incertae sedis
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Rugulatisporites]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Rugulatisporites sp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;|
Affinities with the family [[Osmundaceae]] in the [[Polypodiopsida]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Sphenopteris]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=MAIFLOR/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Sphenopteris patagonica''
*''Sphenopteris hallei''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Asfalto
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Isolated Pinnae
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the group [[Sphenopteridae]], whose affinity for mesozoic specimens is uncertain, yet has been suggested to be fronds of [[Dicksoniaceae]] affinity
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Sphenopteris schumannii.jpg|155px]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Todisporites]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Todisporites minor''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet. Can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;|
Affinities with the family [[Osmundaceae]] in the [[Polypodiopsida]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Trilobosporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Trilobosporites sp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the families [[Cyatheaceae]]/[[Dicksoniaceae]] [[Dipteridaceae]]/[[Matoniaceae]] in the [[Polypodiopsida]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Verrucosisporites]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Verrucosisporites varians''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Spores
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;|
Affinities with the family [[Osmundaceae]] in the [[Polypodiopsida]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|}

===Peltaspermales===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Member
! Material
! Ecogroup
! Palaeoclimate requirements
! Notes
! Images
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Alisporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/><ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=FOSSALMA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Alisporites similis''
*''Alisporites lowoodensis''
*''Alisporites spp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
*Cerro Bandera
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the families [[Peltaspermaceae]], [[Corystospermaceae]] or [[Umkomasiaceae]] in the [[Peltaspermales]]. Pollen of uncertain provenance that can be derived from any of the members of the Peltaspermales.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Antevsia]]''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elgorriaga |first1=A. |last2=Escapa |first2=I. |last3=Cuneo |first3=R. |title=Peltaspermales from the Jurassic of Canadón Asfalto Basin. In Chubut Province, Argentina |journal=Boletın de la Asociacion Latinoamericana de Paleobotanica y Palinologıa: XIV International Palynological Congress–X International Organisation of Palaeobotany Conference |date=2016 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=203–204 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313425533 |access-date=22 July 2023}}</ref>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''Antevsia sp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Pomelo locality
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen-bearing organs
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the group [[Peltaspermaceae]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Archangelskya]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=MAIFLOR/><ref name=RevFlora/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''Archangelskya furcata''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Asfalto
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Isolated Pinnae
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the group [[Pteridospermata]]
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Lepidopteris]]''<ref name=Pomelo2>{{cite journal |last1=Sender |first1=L.M. |last2=Escapa |first2=I.H. |last3=Elgorriaga |first3=A. |last4=Cúneo |first4=R. |last5=Scasso |first5=R.A. |title=Diversidad macroflorísticadel yacimiento 'Pomelo' (Toarciano-Aaleniano) en el área de Cerro Cóndor (Chubut, Argentina) |journal=VI Simposio Argentino del Jurásico |date=2016 |volume=6 |issue=37}}</ref><ref name=Pomelo>{{cite journal |last1=Elgorriaga|first1=A.|last2=Escapa|first2=I.|last3=Cúneo|first3=N. R.|title=Relictual Lepidopteris (Peltaspermales) from the Early Jurassic Cañadón Asfalto Formation, Patagonia, Argentina|journal=International Journal of Plant Sciences|date=2019 |volume=180 |issue=6 |pages=578–596 |doi=10.1086/703461 |s2cid=195435840 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333623398 |access-date=27 December 2021}}</ref>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''Lepidopteris scassoi''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Pomelo locality
*A12 locality
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Isolated Pinnae
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the group [[Peltaspermaceae]]. This species represents the youngest record of the genus, by more than 20 Myr.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Lepidopteris life restoration.jpg|155px]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Peltaspermum]]''<ref name=RevFlora/><ref name=Pomelo2/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''Peltaspermum sp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Pomelo locality
*A12 locality
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Ovuliferous Cones
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the group [[Peltaspermaceae]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Peltaspermum monodiscum.jpg|155px]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Vitreisporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Vitreisporites pallidus''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
From the family [[Caytoniaceae]] in the [[Caytoniales]]. Caytoniaceae are a complex group of Mesozoic fossil floras that may be related to both Peltaspermales and Ginkgoaceae.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|}

===Cycadeoidopsida===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Member
! Material
! Ecogroup
! Palaeoclimate requirements
! Notes
! Images
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Zamites]]''<ref name=RevFlora/><ref name=Pomelo2/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Zamites sp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Pomelo locality
*A12 locality
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Leaflets
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with [[Bennettitales]] inside [[Cycadeoidopsida]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Zamites feneonis 153 maf Orbagnoux - Ain.jpg|155px]]
|-
|}

===Czekanowskiales===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Member
! Material
! Ecogroup
! Palaeoclimate requirements
! Notes
! Images
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Phoenicopsis]]''<ref name=MAINBIO/><ref name=RevFlora/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Phoenicopsis sp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Asfalto
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen Organs
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the group [[Leptostrobales]] ([[Czekanowskiales]]). Gingko-like taxa
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|}

===Gnetopsida===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Member
! Material
! Ecogroup
! Palaeoclimate requirements
! Notes
! Images
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Ephedripites]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=FOSSALMA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Ephedripites spp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cerro Bandera
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
A Pollen Grain, affinities with [[Ephedraceae]] inside [[Gnetopsida]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Pollença - Ma-10 - Mirador de Mal Pas - Ephedra fragilis 02 ies.jpg|thumb|center|155px|Extant ''[[Ephedra (plant)|Ephedra]]'', typical example of [[Ephedraceae]]. ''[[Equisetosporites]]'' probably come from a similar or a related Plant]]
|-
|}

===Coniferophyta===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Genus
! Species
! Location
! Member
! Material
! Ecogroup
! Palaeoclimate requirements
! Notes
! Images
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Araucariacites]]''<ref name=PalynA/><ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=FOSSALMA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Araucariacites australis''
*''Araucariacites fissus''
*''Araucariacites pergranulatus''
*''Araucariacites sp. cf. A. pergranulatus''
*''Araucariacites sp. A''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
*Cerro Bandera
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
?Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the family [[Araucariaceae]] in the [[Pinales]]. Conifer pollen from medium to large arboreal plants.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Araucaritites]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=MAIFLOR/><ref name=RevFlora/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Araucaritites chuchensis''
*''Araucaritites spp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Asfalto
*Pomelo locality
*A12 locality
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Estancia La Vistosa
*Paso de Indios
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Ovuliferous scales
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
?Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the family Araucariaceae.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Athrotaxites]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=MAIFLOR/><ref name=RevFlora/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Athrotaxites ungeri''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Asfalto
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Branched shoots
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
?Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the family [[Taxodiaceae]]
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Austrohamia]]''<ref name=RevFlora/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Contreras|first1=D.L.|last2=Escapa|first2=I.|last3=Cúneo|first3=N. R.|last4=Iribarren|first4=R. C.|title=Reconstructing the early evolution of the cupressaceae: A whole-plant description of a new austrohamia species from the cañadón asfalto formation (early Jurassic), Argentina|journal=International Journal of Plant Sciences|date=2019 |volume=180 |issue=8|pages=834–868|doi=10.1086/704831 |s2cid=202862782 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335628079|access-date=27 December 2021}}</ref>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Austrohamia asfaltensis''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Branched shoots & Ovuliferous cones
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
?Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the family [[Cunninghamioideae]]. Along with the also Argentinian species ''A. minuta'', this specimens represent the oldest fossil taxa that can be confidently assigned to Cupressaceae sensu lato
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Brachyoxylon]]''<ref name=RevFlora/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bodnar|first1=J.|last2=Escapa|first2=I.|last3=Cúneo|first3=N. R.|last4=Gnaedinger|first4=S.|title=First Record of Conifer Wood from the Cañadón Asfalto Formation (Early-Middle Jurassic), Chubut Province, Argentina|journal=Ameghiniana|date=2013 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=227–239 |doi=10.5710/AMGH.26.04.2013.620 |hdl=11336/3391 |s2cid=130814427 |url=https://ameghiniana.org.ar/index.php/ameghiniana/article/download/620/1837|access-date=27 December 2021|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''Brachyoxylon currumilii''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Pomelo locality
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Fossil Wood
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
?Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the family Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Brachyphyllum]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=MAIFLOR/><ref name=RevFlora/><ref name=Pomelo2/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Brachyphyllum cf. lotenaense''
*''Brachyphyllum spp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Asfalto
*Pomelo locality
*A12 locality
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Paso de Indios
*Canela locality
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Branched shoots & Ovuliferous cones
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
?Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the family Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Callialasporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/><ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=FOSSALMA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Callialasporites dampieri''
*''Callialasporites microvelatus''
*''Callialasporites turbatus''
*''Callialasporites minus''
*''Callialasporites sp. 1''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
*Cerro Bandera
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
?Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the family [[Araucariaceae]] in the [[Pinales]]. Conifer pollen from medium to large arboreal plants.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Cerebropollenites]]''<ref name=PalynA/><ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=FOSSALMA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Cerebropollenites macroverrucosus''
*''Cerebropollenites carlylensis''
*''Cerebropollenites mesozoicus''
*''Cerebropollenites sp. 1''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
*Cerro Bandera
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
?Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with both [[Sciadopityaceae]] and [[Miroviaceae]] in the [[Pinopsida]]. This pollen's resemblance to extant ''[[Sciadopitys]]'' suggest that Miroviaceae may be an extinct lineage of Sciadopityaceae-like plants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hofmann |first1=Christa-Ch. |last2=Odgerel |first2=Nyamsambuu |last3=Seyfullah |first3=Leyla J. |title=The occurrence of pollen of Sciadopityaceae Luerss. through time |journal=Fossil Imprint |date=2021 |volume=77 |issue=2 |pages=271–281 |doi=10.37520/fi.2021.019 |s2cid=245555379 |url=https://www.biotaxa.org/AMNPSBHN/article/view/73112 |access-date=27 December 2021}}</ref>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Sciadopitys verticillata cones.jpg|thumb|none|155px|Extant ''[[Sciadopitys]]''. ''[[Cerebropollenites]]'' likely come from a related plant]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Classopollis]]''<ref name=PalynA/><ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=FOSSALMA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Classopollis classoides''
*''Classopollis intrareticulatus''
*''Classopollis simplex''
*''Classopollis itunensis''
*''Classopollis torosus''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
*Cerro Bandera
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Coastal lake
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the [[Hirmeriellaceae]] in the [[Pinopsida]]. ''Classopollis'' is the most abundant component of the assemblage, with ranges from 73 to 81.6% to 89.6%-89.7% in some samples.<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Elatoclaudus]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=MAIFLOR/><ref name=RevFlora/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Elatocladus confertus''
*''Elatoclaudus jabalpurensis''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Asfalto
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Branched shoots
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland and Lowland
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the family Cupressaceae
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Exesipollenites]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Exesipollenites sp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Coastal lake
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the [[Hirmeriellaceae]] in the [[Pinopsida]]. ''Classopollis'' is the most abundant component of the assemblage, with ranges from 73 to 81.6% to 89.6%-89.7% in some samples.<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Indusiisporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Indusiisporites parvisaccatus''
*''Indusiisporites sp. 1''
*''Indusiisporites sp. 2''
*''Indusiisporites sp. 3''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadón Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Temperate, relatively dry
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the family [[Podocarpaceae]]. Pollen from diverse types of Podocarpaceous conifers, that include morphotypes similar to the low arbustive ''[[Microcachrys]]'' and the medium arbustive ''[[Lepidothamnus]]'', likely linked with Upland settings
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Inaperturopollenites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Inaperturopollenites indicus''
*''Inaperturopollenites giganteus''
*''Inaperturopollenites microgranulatus''
*''Inaperturopollenites cf. reidi''
*''Inaperturopollenites sp. 1''
*''Inaperturopollenites sp. 2''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
?Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the family [[Araucariaceae]] in the [[Pinales]]. Conifer pollen from medium to large arboreal plants.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Microcachryidites]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=FOSSALMA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Microcachryidites castellanosii''
*''Microcachryidites antarcticus''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadón Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
*Cerro Bandera
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
*Puesto Almada Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Temperate, relatively dry
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the family [[Podocarpaceae]]. Pollen from Podocarpaceous conifers similar to the low arbustive ''[[Microcachrys]]''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Microcachrys tetragona 112011800.jpg|thumb|center|155px|Extant ''[[Microcachrys]]'' Cone, example of the [[Podocarpaceae]]. ''[[Microcachryidites]]'' is similar to the pollen found on this genus]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Pagiophyllum]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/><ref name=MAIFLOR/><ref name=RevFlora/><ref name=Pomelo2/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Pagiophyllum divaricatum''
*''Pagiophyllum fiestmantelli''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Asfalto
*Pomelo locality
*A12 locality
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Paso de Indios
*Canela locality
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Branched shoots
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Coastal lake
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Plants of the family Araucariaceae or Cheirolepidiaceae
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Pelourdea]]''<ref name=MAINBIO/><ref name=RevFlora/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Pelourdea sp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Asfalto
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen Organs
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Lowland and Coastal lake
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate, can withstand long periods of drought; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Incertae sedis inside Coniferales, suggested as a member of its own family, the "[[Pelourdeaceae]]". A hygrophytic riparian conifer with herbaceous or shrubby habit. Some specimens are difficult to identify.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Perinopollenites]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Perinopollenites elatoides''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadón Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland and Lowland
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Warm to temperate; seasonal climate
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the family [[Cupressaceae]] in the [[Pinopsida]]. Pollen that resembles that of extant genera such as the genus ''[[Actinostrobus]]'' and ''[[Austrocedrus]]'', probably derived from Upland environments.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
[[File:Austrocedrus chilensis.jpg|thumb|none|155px|Extant ''[[Austrocedrus]]''. ''[[Exesipollenites]]'' and ''[[Perinopollenites]]'' maybe come from a related plant]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Phrixipollenites]]''<ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''Phrixipollenites sp.''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadón Lahuincó
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Temperate, relatively dry
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the family [[Podocarpaceae]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Pinuspollenites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Pinuspollenites globosaccus''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadon Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland, Lowland and Riverside
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
?Warm to temperate, relatively wet
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Affinities with the family [[Pinaceae]] in the [[Pinopsida]]. Conifer pollen from medium to large arboreal plants.
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Podocarpidites]]''<ref name=PalynA/><ref name="volkheimeretal2011"/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Podocarpidites verrucosus''
*''Podocarpidites astrictus''
*''Podocarpidites ellipticus''
*''Podocarpidites multesimus''
*''Podosporites variabilis''
*''Podocarpidites sp. cf. P. radiatus''
*''Podocarpidites sp. cf. P. verrucosus''
*''Podosporites sp. 1''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadón Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Temperate, relatively dry
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" rowspan="2" |
Affinities with the family [[Podocarpaceae]].
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" rowspan="2" |
[[File:Podocarpus macrophyllus (seed s2).jpg|thumb|center|155px|Extant ''[[Podocarpus]]'' Cone, example of the [[Podocarpaceae]]. ''[[Podocarpidites]]'' is similar to the pollen found on this genus]]
|-
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
''[[Podosporites]]''<ref name=PalynA/>
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*''Podosporites variabilis''
*''Podosporites sp. 1''
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Cañadón Lahuincó
*Cañadón Caracoles
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
*Las Chacritas Member
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Pollen
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Upland
|style="background:#D1FFCF;" |
Temperate, relatively dry
|-
|}

==See also==

* [[Cañadón Asfalto Formation]]
* [[Cañadón Calcáreo Formation]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Cañadón Asfalto Formation]]
[[Category:Geologic formations of Argentina]]
[[Category:Cañadón Asfalto Basin]]
[[Category:Jurassic paleontological sites]]
[[Category:Mesozoic paleontological sites of South America]]
[[Category:Fossiliferous stratigraphic units of South America]]
[[Category:Paleontology in Argentina]]
[[Category:Dinosaur-related lists]]

Star Sports (Indian TV network)

2023-10-08T11:27:11Z

Tedd: fix

{{short description|Indian television sports channel}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}
{{Infobox television channel
| name = Star Sports
| logo = Star Sports Network.png
| logo_size = 200px
| launch_date = {{Start date and age|28 October 1996}}
| network = [[Disney Star]]
| owner = [[The Walt Disney Company India]]
| type = [[Sports]]
| picture_format = [[1080i]] [[HDTV]] (downscaled to [[letterboxed]] [[576i]] for the [[SDTV]] feed)
| country = [[India]]
| area = [[Indian subcontinent]]
| language = [[Hindi]] [[Bengali language|Bengali]] [[English language|English]] [[Kannada]] [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| sister_channels = [[Disney Star#Owned channels|Disney Star Channels]]
| headquarters = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| website = {{URL|https://hotstar.com}}
[https://disneystar.com/tv-guide?Genre=Sports TV Schedule]
| online_serv_1 = [[Disney+ Hotstar]]
| online_chan_1 = [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Thailand]] and [[Vietnam]]
| online_serv_2 = [[Hotstar]]
| online_chan_2 = [[Canada]], [[United Kingdom]] and [[Singapore]]
}}

'''Star Sports''' is a group of [[South Asian]] [[pay television]] [[List of sports television channels|sports channels]] owned by [[Disney Star]], a subsidiary of [[The Walt Disney Company India]].

The networks were initially formed in 1991 as a joint venture between [[Disney Networks Group Asia Pacific|Star TV]] and [[Tele-Communications Inc.]] (TCI) known as '''Prime Sports''', taking their name from TCI's [[Prime Sports|U.S. regional sports networks of the same name]]. In 1996, Star agreed to merge its sports networks in Asia with those of its rival [[ESPN International|ESPN]], forming [[ESPN Star Sports]]. In June 2012, [[News Corporation]] acquired ESPN's stake in the joint venture; its corporate successor [[21st Century Fox]] was, in turn, acquired by ESPN's majority-owner [[The Walt Disney Company]] in 2019.

Star Sports is a major broadcaster of [[cricket in India]], holding the pay television rights to domestic national team matches, the [[Indian Premier League]], and [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC) tournaments. Streaming rights to many Star Sports properties are held in India by sister streaming service [[Disney+ Hotstar]].

== History ==
[[Hong Kong]]-based [[Disney Networks Group Asia Pacific|Star TV]] launched Prime Sports (later renamed Star Sports) in partnership with American company [[Tele-Communications Inc.|TCI]], which owned [[Prime Sports|Prime-branded regional sports channels]]. The channel was broadcast across Asia, including India, as with the footprint of [[AsiaSat 7]]. Star TV has since regionalized the channel with several versions. Later, ESPN joined the region as a competitor to Star Sports.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Fabrikant |first1=Geraldine |date=4 March 1996 |title=Broadcasters Bet on Sports As First Step In New Markets |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/business/broadcasters-bet-on-sports-as-first-step-in-new-markets.html |url-status=live |access-date=10 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427161343/https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/business/broadcasters-bet-on-sports-as-first-step-in-new-markets.html |archive-date=27 April 2019}}</ref>

In October 1996, Star Sports announced an agreement to merge its operations with those of [[ESPN International]] in the region, forming a Singapore-based joint venture known as [[Fox Sports (Asian TV network)|ESPN Star Sports]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sullivan |first1=Maureen |title=Asian TV team christens venture ESPN Star Sports |url=https://variety.com/1997/scene/vpage/asian-tv-team-christens-venture-espn-star-sports-1117433553/ |access-date=11 January 2019 |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |date=January 15, 1997 |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111232707/https://variety.com/1997/scene/vpage/asian-tv-team-christens-venture-espn-star-sports-1117433553/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=October 9, 1996 |title=Rival sport channels ESPN, Star TV team up together |work=[[Advertising Age]] |url=https://adage.com/article/news/rival-sport-channels-espn-star-tv-team/11852/ |url-status=live |access-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111190333/https://adage.com/article/news/rival-sport-channels-espn-star-tv-team/11852/ |archive-date=11 January 2019}}</ref>

In June 2012, it was announced that Star TV, by then owned by [[News Corporation]], would acquire ESPN's share in ESPN Star Sports.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Szalai |first1=Georg |title=News Corp. to Buy Out ESPN's Stake in Asian TV Venture |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/news-corp-buy-espn-asia-stake-334177 |access-date=8 January 2019 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=6 June 2012 |archive-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108200807/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/news-corp-buy-espn-asia-stake-334177 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Steel |first1=Emily |title=News Corp to take over ESPN Star Sports |url=https://www.ft.com/content/2d4428ce-affa-11e1-ad0b-00144feabdc0 |access-date=8 January 2019 |work=[[Financial Times]] |date=June 7, 2012 |archive-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108200820/https://www.ft.com/content/2d4428ce-affa-11e1-ad0b-00144feabdc0 |url-status=live }}</ref> The sale was completed in January 2013.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Engineer |first1=Tariq |title=As ESPN turns to Fox, expect more local Indian sports programming |url=https://www.firstpost.com/sports/as-espn-turns-to-fox-expect-more-local-indian-sports-programming-608585.html |access-date=8 January 2019 |work=Firstpost |date=31 January 2013 |archive-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108202856/https://www.firstpost.com/sports/as-espn-turns-to-fox-expect-more-local-indian-sports-programming-608585.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=January 28, 2013 |title=ESPN STAR Sports to be under STAR in India |work=[[Business Standard]] |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/espn-star-sports-to-be-under-star-in-india-113012800056_1.html |access-date=8 January 2019 |archive-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108201238/https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/espn-star-sports-to-be-under-star-in-india-113012800056_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On 11 March 2013, Star Sports 2, a Hindi-language sports channel, was launched as a sister channel to Star Sports, Star Cricket and ESPN.<ref>{{cite news |title=ESPN Star Sports launches new channel |url=https://www.livemint.com/Consumer/7IEVw8wGZQb6BtCS0U8bvK/ESPN-Star-Sports-launches-new-channel.html |access-date=10 January 2019 |agency=[[Press Trust of India]] |date=7 March 2013 |via=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |archive-date=10 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110183652/https://www.livemint.com/Consumer/7IEVw8wGZQb6BtCS0U8bvK/ESPN-Star-Sports-launches-new-channel.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 6 November 2013, Star Sports introduced a new brand identity and re-aligned its channels in India;<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 November 2013 |title=STAR India rebrands; sheds 'ESPN' branding |url=http://www.afaqs.com/news/story/39137_STAR-India-rebrands-sheds-ESPN-branding |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314042411/http://www.afaqs.com/news/story/39137_STAR-India-rebrands-sheds-ESPN-branding |archive-date=14 March 2018 |access-date=13 March 2018 |website=www.afaqs.com |language=en}}</ref> Star Sports became Star Sports 1; Star Cricket became Star Sports 3, a Hindi language channel; ESPN became Star Sports 4, a Tamil language channel, and Star Cricket HD and ESPN HD became Star Sports HD1 and HD2 respectively.<ref>{{cite news |title=Star Sports: A new logo, packaging & brand identity |url=http://www.indiantelevision.com/mam/media-and-advertising/ad-campaigns/star-sports-a-new-logo-packaging-brand-identity |access-date=10 January 2019 |work=Indian Television |date=8 November 2013 |archive-date=10 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110184426/http://www.indiantelevision.com/mam/media-and-advertising/ad-campaigns/star-sports-a-new-logo-packaging-brand-identity |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Star junks ESPN brand, launches Star Sports with 6 channels and website |url=http://www.mxmindia.com/2013/11/star-junks-espn-brand-launches-star-sports-with-6-channels-and-website/ |access-date=10 January 2019 |work=MxM |date=6 November 2013 |archive-date=12 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312160738/https://www.mxmindia.com/2013/11/star-junks-espn-brand-launches-star-sports-with-6-channels-and-website/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In Hong Kong, Taiwan and Southeast Asia, the ESPN Star Sports channels were relaunched by [[Disney Networks Group Asia Pacific|Fox International Channels Asia Pacific]] as [[Fox Sports (Asian TV network)|Fox Sports]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Terrado |first1=Reuben |title=ESPN fades off in Asia as Fox takes over |url=https://www.spin.ph/multisport/espn-fades-off-in-asia-as-fox-sports-takes-over |access-date=8 January 2019 |work=Spin.ph |date=9 January 2013 |archive-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108200822/https://www.spin.ph/multisport/espn-fades-off-in-asia-as-fox-sports-takes-over |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Chan |first1=U-Gene |title=ESPN network to be renamed FOX Sports in Singapore, Asia |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/sport/espn-network-to-be-renamed-fox-sports-in-singapore-asia |access-date=8 January 2019 |work=[[The Straits Times]] |date=24 January 2013 |archive-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108200636/https://www.straitstimes.com/sport/espn-network-to-be-renamed-fox-sports-in-singapore-asia |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |last1=Christensen |first1=Nic |title=Fox to reorganises its sports channels |url=https://www.mumbrella.asia/2014/07/fox-reorganises-sports-channels |access-date=8 January 2019 |work=[[Mumbrella|Mumbrella Asia]] |date=July 4, 2014 |archive-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108200942/https://www.mumbrella.asia/2014/07/fox-reorganises-sports-channels |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Valisno |first1=Jeffrey O. |title=Fox completes rebranding of sports channels |url=http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section=Arts&Leisure&title=fox-completes-rebranding-of-sports-channels&id=93364 |access-date=8 January 2019 |work=[[BusinessWorld]] |date=August 26, 2014 |archive-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108201242/http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section=Arts&Leisure&title=fox-completes-rebranding-of-sports-channels&id=93364 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ESPN International later established a partnership with [[Sony Sports Network|Multi-Screen Media]] in October 2015, which rebranded Sony Kix as [[Sony ESPN]] in January 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SONY ESPN, SONY ESPN HD to launch on Jan 17th |url=https://www.exchange4media.com/media-tv-news/sony-espnsony-espn-hd-to-launch-on-jan-17th-62958.html |access-date=2022-10-31 |website=Exchange4media |language=en |archive-date=31 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031002111/https://www.exchange4media.com/media-tv-news/sony-espnsony-espn-hd-to-launch-on-jan-17th-62958.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Star India planned to replace the troubled [[Channel V India]] with Star Sports 1 Kannada on 16 November 2017, but the delay in regulatory approval meant the plan was postponed. Later, Star India replaced Channel V into the current iteration of Star Sports 3 on 15 September 2018,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bansal |first1=Shuchi |title=Star India tuning out of Channel V |url=https://www.livemint.com/Opinion/IbmvKfRcewrLcKYCEEla1O/Star-India-tuning-out-of-Channel-V.html |access-date=10 January 2019 |work=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |date=16 November 2017 |archive-date=3 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403110411/https://www.livemint.com/Opinion/IbmvKfRcewrLcKYCEEla1O/Star-India-tuning-out-of-Channel-V.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Bhagia |first1=Raushni |title=Star India to replace Channel V with Star Sports 3 |url=http://bestmediainfo.com/2018/08/star-india-to-replace-channel-v-with-star-sports-3/ |access-date=10 January 2019 |work=Best Media Info |date=23 August 2018 |archive-date=25 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180825043535/http://bestmediainfo.com/2018/08/star-india-to-replace-channel-v-with-star-sports-3/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Star to launch Star Sports 3, continue sports investments: Gautam Thakar |url=http://www.indiantelevision.com/television/tv-channels/sports/star-to-re-launch-star-sports-3-continue-sports-investments-gautam-thakar-180824 |access-date=10 January 2019 |work=Indian Television |date=24 August 2018 |archive-date=10 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110235207/http://www.indiantelevision.com/television/tv-channels/sports/star-to-re-launch-star-sports-3-continue-sports-investments-gautam-thakar-180824 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Star India to launch multi-lingual channel Star Sports 3 on 15 Sep |url=https://www.televisionpost.com/star-india-to-launch-multi-lingual-channel-star-sports-3-on-15-sep/ |access-date=10 January 2019 |work=Television Post |date=August 24, 2018 |archive-date=10 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110234958/https://www.televisionpost.com/star-india-to-launch-multi-lingual-channel-star-sports-3-on-15-sep/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and launched Star Sports 1 Telugu and Star Sports 1 Kannada as new channels on 7 and 29 December 2018, respectively.<ref>{{cite news |title=Star Sports 1 Kannada to launch on 29 Dec |url=https://www.televisionpost.com/star-sports-1-kannada-to-launch-on-29-dec/ |access-date=10 January 2019 |work=Television Post |date=December 21, 2018 |archive-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111054839/https://www.televisionpost.com/star-sports-1-kannada-to-launch-on-29-dec/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sharma |first1=Harsh |title=Star Sports Kannada all set for December 29 launch |url=https://www.insidesport.co/star-sports-kannada-all-set-for-december-29-launch/ |access-date=10 January 2019 |work=InsideSport |date=21 December 2018 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805212645/https://www.insidesport.co/star-sports-kannada-all-set-for-december-29-launch/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the meantime, Kannada commentary of Star Sports' coverage of the [[Indian Premier League]] was broadcast on [[Star Suvarna]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sharma |first1=Rajender |title=Star Sports Kannada licence awaits clearance; IPL live on Survana |url=https://www.insidesport.co/star-sports-kannada-licence-awaits-clearance-ipl-live-survana-316032018/ |access-date=10 January 2019 |work=InsideSport |date=16 March 2018 |archive-date=3 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003080058/https://www.insidesport.co/star-sports-kannada-licence-awaits-clearance-ipl-live-survana-316032018/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[21st Century Fox]] was acquired by Disney on 19 March 2019, giving it ownership of Star Sports.<ref name="Szalai">{{Cite web |last1=Szalai |first1=Georg |last2=Bond |first2=Paul |date=March 20, 2019 |title=Disney Closes $71.3 Billion Fox Deal, Creating Global Content Powerhouse |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/disney-closes-fox-deal-creating-global-content-powerhouse-1174498 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320064742/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/disney-closes-fox-deal-creating-global-content-powerhouse-1174498 |archive-date=March 20, 2019 |access-date=March 20, 2019 |website=The Hollywood Reporter}}</ref>

Ahead of the [[2023 Indian Premier League]]—whose streaming rights would now be owned by [[JioCinema]]—Star Sports announced that it would launch feeds of Star Sports 1 Tamil and Telugu in HD on 15 March 2023. Concurrently, the Bangla and Marathi feeds were discontinued.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Das |first=Gourab |date=2023-03-03 |title=Star Sports isn't going to let Reliance take a 'free hit' in the galactic IPL viewership battle |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/media/star-sports-isnt-going-to-let-reliance-take-a-free-hit-in-the-galactic-ipl-viewership-battle/articleshow/98383524.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-03-13 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhadra |first=Soham |title=Disney Star unfreezes new channel launches, sets 15 March 2023 as launch date |url=https://dreamdth.com/disney-star-unfreezes-new-channel-launches-sets-15-march-2023-as-launch-date/ |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=dreamdth.com |date=3 March 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref> In June 2023, in response to JioCinema's decision to stream every IPL 2023 match for free, Star Sports and Disney+ Hotstar announced that the [[2023 Asia Cup]] and [[2023 Cricket World Cup|2023 Men's Cricket World Cup]] would stream for free on mobile devices.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Livemint |date=2023-06-09 |title=Disney+ Hotstar allows free streaming of ICC World Cup 2023, Asia Cup |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/disney-hotstar-allows-free-streaming-of-icc-cricket-world-cup-2023-asia-cup-to-mobile-users-jio-cinema-11686291274143.html |access-date=2023-06-13 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref>

==Channels==
{|class="wikitable"
!style="width:350pt;background:Gold;"|Channel
!style="width:180pt;background:Gold;"|Language
!style="width:180pt;background:Gold;"|SD/HD Availability
!style="width:400pt;background:Gold;"|Notes
|-
| Star Sports 1
| rowspan="5" | [[English language|English]]
| rowspan="2" | SD+HD
|
|-
| Star Sports 2
|
|-
| Star Sports 3
|SD
|HD version launching soon
|-
| Star Sports Select 1
| rowspan="3" |SD+HD
|
|-
| Star Sports Select 2
|
|-
| Star Sports 1 Hindi
| [[Hindi]] , [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] , [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| formerly Star Cricket
|-
| Star Sports First
|[[Hindi]] , [[English language|English]]
| rowspan="2" |SD
|
|-
| Star Sports 1 Kannada
| [[Kannada]]
| HD version launching soon
|-
| Star Sports 1 Telugu
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| rowspan="2" | SD+HD
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| Star Sports 1 Tamil
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|}

===Former channels===
{|class="wikitable"
! style="width:350pt;background:Gold;" |Channel
!style="width:180pt;background:Gold;"|Language
!style="width:180pt;background:Gold;"|SD/HD Availability
!style="width:400pt;background:Gold;"|Notes
|-
| Star Cricket
| [[Hindi]], [[English language|English]]
| rowspan="3" | SD+HD
| Replaced by ''Star Sports 3''
|-
| [[ESPN International|ESPN]]
| rowspan="2" | [[English language|English]]
| Replaced by ''Star Sports 4''
|-
| Star Sports 4
| Replaced by ''Star Sports 1 Tamil''
|-
| Star Sports 1 Bangla
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| rowspan="2" | SD
| rowspan="2" | Discontinued on 14 March 2023
|-
| Star Sports 1 Marathi
| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|}

==Programming==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Events
!Host
!Channels
!Streaming
|-
|[[Premier Badminton League]] (2013–2024)
|{{flag|India}}
|Star Sports Select 1 & 2 HD (In English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[CSA T20 Challenge]]
|{{flag|South Africa}}
|Star Sports Select 2 HD (In English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[Lanka Premier League]] (2023)<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-07-05 |title=Star Sports acquires LPL 2023 TV rights for Indian subcontinent and MENA |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/star-sports-acquires-lpl-2023-tv-rights-for-indian-subcontinent-and-mena/articleshow/101514742.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-07-29 |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>
|{{flag|Sri Lanka}}
|Star Sports 1 HD (In English)
|Only TV rights
|-
|Andhra Premier League
|{{flag|India}}
|Star Sports 1 Telugu HD
|Only TV rights
|-
|Maharaja T20 Trophy
|{{flag|India}}
|Star Sports 2 HD (In English)<hr />Star Sports 1 Kannada HD
|Only TV rights
|-
|[[Saurashtra Premier League]]
|{{flag|India}}
|Star Sports 1 & 2 HD (English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[Tamil Nadu Premier League]]
|{{flag|India}}
|Star Sports 3 (In English)<hr>Star Sports 1 Tamil HD
|Only TV rights
|-
|[[International Cricket Council|ICC Events]]
|Decided by [[International Cricket Council]]
|Star Sports 1 & 2 HD (In English)<hr>Star Sports 1 Hindi HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Kannada HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Tamil HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Telugu HD<hr>Star Sports Select 2 HD (In English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[Asia Cup]]<hr />
[[Women's Asia Cup|Women's Twenty20 Asia Cup]]<hr />
[[ACC Under-19 Cup|ACC Under-19 Asia Cup]]
|Decided by [[Asian Cricket Council]]
|Star Sports 1 HD (In English)<hr>Star Sports 1 Hindi HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Kannada HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Tamil HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Telugu HD
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[Cricket in South Africa]] (2021–2024)
|Decided by [[Cricket South Africa|CSA]]
|Star Sports 1 HD (In English)<hr>Star Sports 1 Hindi HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Kannada HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Tamil HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Telugu HD<hr>Star Sports Select 1 & 2 HD (In English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[Cricket in Australia]] (2023–2030)
|Decided by [[Cricket Australia|CA]]
|Star Sports 1 HD (In English)<hr>Star Sports 1 Hindi HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Kannada HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Tamil HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Telugu HD<hr>Star Sports Select 1 & 2 HD (In English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[Indian Premier League]] (2018–2027)
|{{flag|India}}
|Star Sports 1 & 2 HD (In English)<hr>Star Sports Select 1 HD (In English)<hr>Star Sports 1 Hindi HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Kannada
<hr> Star Sports 3 English <hr>Star Sports 1 Tamil HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Telugu HD<hr>Star Gold HD (In Hindi) <hr>Star Utsav Movies (In Hindi)<hr>Vijay Super (Tamil)<hr>Star Maa Gold (Telugu)<hr>Star Suvarna Plus(Kannada)
<hr>Asianet Plus (Malayalam ) Sunday match
|[[JioCinema|JioCinema (India Only)]]
|-
|[[Big Bash League]] (2023–2030)
|{{flag|Australia}}
|Star Sports 2 HD (In English)<hr>Star Sports Select 1 & 2 HD (In English<hr>Star Sports 1 Hindi HD (Only weekends)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[Caribbean Premier League]] (2023)
|{{flag|West Indies}}
|Star Sports 2 HD (In English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[Legends League Cricket]] (2022<ref>{{Cite news |title=Star Sports India announced as the Official Broadcast Partner for Legends League Cricket |work=Legends League Cricket |url=https://twitter.com/llct20/status/1568505830370324482 |access-date=10 September 2022 |archive-date=13 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213134351/https://twitter.com/llct20/status/1568505830370324482 |url-status=live }}</ref>)
|{{flag|India}}
|Star Sports 1 HD (In English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[Premier League]]
|{{flag|England}}
|Star Sports 3 (In Bengali, Malayalam, English) <hr />Star Sports Select 1 & 2 HD (In English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[2023 AFC Asian Cup]]
|{{flag|Qatar}}
|Star Sports 3 (In Bengali, Malayalam, Hindi, Kannada, Tamil, and Telugu) <hr />Star Sports Select 1 & 2 HD (In English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[International Hockey Federation]]
|Decided by [[International Hockey Federation|IHF]]
|Star Sports 1 HD (In English)<hr>Star Sports 1 Hindi HD<hr>Star Sports Select 1 & 2 HD (In English)<hr>Star Sports First (In English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[Formula E|Formula E World Championship]]
|Decided by [[Formula E]]
|Star Sports Select 1 & 2 HD
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[Pro Kabaddi League]]
|{{flag|India}}
|Star Sports 1 & 2 HD (In English)<hr>Star Sports 1 Hindi HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Kannada HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Tamil HD<hr>Star Sports 1 Telugu HD
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[ONE Championship]]
|{{flag|Thailand}}<hr />{{flag|Singapore}}
|Star Sports Select 1 & 2 HD (In English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|-
|[[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]]
|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
|Star Sports Select 1 & 2 HD (In English)
|[[Disney+ Hotstar|Disney+ Hotstar (India Only)]]
|}

== See also ==
* [[Fox Sports (Asian TV network)]]
* [[Star Sports (East Asian TV channel)]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website}}

{{Star Sports}}
{{Disney Star}}
{{Sports Television in India}}

[[Category:Star Sports]]
[[Category:Prime Sports]]
[[Category:Disney Star]]
[[Category:Cable television in India]]
[[Category:Sports television networks in India]]
[[Category:English-language television stations in India]]
[[Category:Television channels and stations established in 1996]]
[[Category:Indian Premier League on television]]

List of India Twenty20 International cricket records

2023-10-07T03:20:48Z

Tedd: /* Tied matches */ dab link

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2013}}
A '''Twenty20 International''' ('''T20I''') is a form of [[cricket]], played between two of the international members of the [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC), in which each team faces a maximum of twenty [[Over (cricket)|overs]]. The matches have top-class status and are the highest T20 standard. The game is played under the rules of [[Twenty20]] cricket.<ref>{{cite web |title=Classification of Official Cricket |publisher=International Cricket Council |url=http://l.yimg.com/t/icccricket/pdfs/classification-of-official-cricket-july-2008.pdf |access-date=12 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929114225/http://l.yimg.com/t/icccricket/pdfs/classification-of-official-cricket-july-2008.pdf |archive-date=29 September 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecb.co.uk/news/england/england-archive/icc-world-twenty20-2009/history/ |title=History of Twenty20 cricket |publisher=[[England and Wales Cricket Board]] |access-date=3 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203150110/http://www.ecb.co.uk/news/england/england-archive/icc-world-twenty20-2009/history/ |archive-date=3 February 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The first Twenty20 International match between two men's sides was played on 17 February 2005, involving [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]] and [[New Zealand national cricket team|New Zealand]]. ''[[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack]]'' reported that "neither side took the game especially seriously",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/288833.html |title=New Zealand v Australia |last=Ramsay |first=Andrew |year=2006 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=30 January 2015}}</ref> and it was noted by ''[[ESPNcricinfo]]'' that but for a large score for [[Ricky Ponting]], "the concept would have shuddered".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/144657.html |title=Saved by Private Ricky |last=English |first=Peter |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |date=18 February 2005 |access-date=30 January 2015}}</ref> However, Ponting himself said "if it does become an international game then I'm sure the novelty won't be there all the time".<ref name="RP-quote">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/149574.html |title=South Africa's Superman |access-date=17 February 2017 |work=ESPN Cricinfo|date=17 May 2006 }}</ref>
This is a list of [[India national cricket team|India Cricket team]]'s [[Twenty20 International]] records. It is based on the [[List of Twenty20 International records]], but concentrates solely on records dealing with the Indian cricket team. India played its first Twenty20 game against South Africa in December 2006, and these records date from that game.
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Key==
The top five records are listed for each category, except for the [[#Head to head record|team wins, losses, draws and ties]], [[#All-round Records|all round records]] and the [[#Partnership records|partnership records]]. Tied records for fifth place are also included. Explanations of the general symbols and cricketing terms used in the list are given below. Specific details are provided in each category where appropriate. All records include matches played for [[India national cricket team|India]] only, and are correct {{as of|2023|10|lc=yes}}.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+ Key
|-
! scope=col | Symbol
! scope=col | Meaning
|-
! scope=row | {{dagger}}
| Player or umpire is currently active in T20I cricket
|-
! scope=row | {{double-dagger}}
| Even took place during a [[ICC Men's T20 World Cup]]
|-
! scope=row | *
| Player remained [[not out]] or partnership remained unbroken
|-
! scope=row style=background:#cee0f2; | ♠
| [[List of Twenty20 International records|Twenty20 International cricket record]]
|-
! scope=row | Date
| Starting date of the match
|-
! scope=row | Innings
| Number of [[innings]] played
|-
! scope=row | Matches
| Number of matches played
|-
! scope=row | Opposition
| The team India was playing against
|-
! scope=row | Period
| The time period when the player was active in ODI cricket
|-
! scope=row | Player
| The player involved in the record
|-
! scope=row | Venue
| [[List of Twenty20 International cricket grounds|Twenty20 International cricket ground]] where the match was played
|}

==Team records==

=== Overall record ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|- style="background:#9cf;"
! scope="col" |Matches
! scope="col" |Won
! scope="col" |Lost
! scope="col" |Tied
! scope="col" |NR
! scope="col" |Win %
|-
| 209 || 134 || 66 || 4 || 7 || 65.07
|-
| colspan="7" |'' Last Updated: 6 October 2023''<ref name="T20I results summary">{{cite web |title=Records / T20I matches / Team records / Results summary |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283307.html |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Head to head record ===
{{As of|2023|10}}, India has played 209 T20I matches [[result (cricket)|resulting]] in 134 victories, 66 defeats, 4 ties and 7 no results for an overall winning percentage of 65.07<ref name="T20I results summary"/>

{{India T20I cricket records by opponent}}

=== First bilateral T20I series wins ===

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! Opponent !! Year of first Home win !! Year of first Away win
|-
| {{cr|Australia}} || [[Australian cricket team in India in 2007-08|2007]] || [[Indian cricket team in Australia in 2015-16|2016]]
|-
| {{cr|Bangladesh}} || [[Bangladeshi cricket team in India in 2019-20|2019]] || YTP
|-
| {{cr|England}} || [[English cricket team in India in 2016-17|2017]] || [[Indian cricket team in England in 2018|2018]]
|-
| {{cr|Ireland}} || YTP || [[Indian cricket team in Ireland in 2018|2018]]
|-
| {{cr|New Zealand}} || [[New Zealand cricket team in India in 2017-18|2017]] || [[Indian cricket team in New Zealand in 2019-20|2020]]
|-
| {{cr|Pakistan}} || YTP || YTP
|-
| {{cr|South Africa}} || [[South African cricket team in India in 2022-23|2022]] || [[Indian cricket team in South Africa in 2006-07|2006]]
|-
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2015-16|2016]] || [[Indian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 2008-09|2008]]
|-
| {{cr|West Indies}} || [[West Indian cricket team in India in 2018-19|2018]] || [[Indian cricket team in the West Indies in 2011|2011]]
|-
| {{cr|Zimbabwe}} || YTP || [[Indian cricket team in Zimbabwe in 2010|2010]]
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=3 | Last Updated: 2 October 2020<ref>{{cite web |title=Records / India / T20I matches / Series summary |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=start;size=200;team=6;template=results;tournament_type=2;type=team;view=series |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== First T20I match wins ===

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Opponent !! colspan="2" | Home !! colspan="2" | Away / Neutral
|-
! Venue !!style="text-align:center"|Year !!style="text-align:center"|Venue !!style="text-align:center"|Year
|-
| {{cr|AFG|2013}} || YTP || YTP || [[Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium]], [[Gros Islet]], Saint Lucia || [[2010 ICC World Twenty20|2010]]
|-
| {{cr|AUS}} || [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || [[Australian cricket team in India in 2007–08|2007]] || [[Kingsmead cricket ground, Durban|Sahara Stadium, Kingsmead]], [[Durban]], South Africa || [[2007 ICC World Twenty20|2007]]
|-
| {{cr|BAN}} || [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || [[2016 ICC World Twenty20|2016]] || [[Trent Bridge]], [[Nottingham]], England || [[2009 ICC World Twenty20|2009]]
|-
| {{cr|ENG}} || [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || [[English cricket team in India in 2012–13|2012]] || [[Kingsmead cricket ground, Durban|Sahara Stadium, Kingsmead]], [[Durban]], South Africa || [[2007 ICC World Twenty20|2007]]
|-
| {{cr|HKG}} || YTP || YTP || [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || [[2022 Asia Cup|2022]]
|-
| {{cr|IRE}} || YTP || YTP || [[Trent Bridge]], [[Nottingham]], England || [[2009 ICC World Twenty20|2009]]
|-
| {{cr|NAM}} || YTP || YTP || [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || [[2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2021]]
|-
| {{cr|NED}} || YTP || YTP || [[Sydney Cricket Ground]], [[Sydney]], Australia || [[2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2022]]
|-
| {{cr|NEP}} || YTP || YTP || [[Zhejiang University of Technology Cricket Field]], [[Hangzhou]], China || [[2022 Asian Games|2023]]
|-
| {{cr|NZ}} || [[Arun Jaitley Stadium]], [[New Delhi]], India || [[New Zealand cricket team in India in 2017–18|2017]] || [[Eden Park]], [[Auckland]], New Zealand || [[Indian cricket team in New Zealand in 2018–19|2019]]
|-
| {{cr|PAK}} || [[Sardar Patel Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India || [[Pakistani cricket team in India in 2012–13|2012]] || [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || [[2007 ICC World Twenty20|2007]]
|-
| {{cr|SCO}} || YTP || YTP || [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], UAE || [[2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2021]]
|-
| {{cr|RSA}} || rowspan=2|[[Punjab Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Mohali]], India || [[South African cricket team in India in 2019–20|2019]] || [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || [[Indian cricket team in South Africa in 2006-07|2006]]
|-
| {{cr|SRI}} || [[Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2009–10|2009]] || [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || [[Indian cricket team in Sri Lanka in 2008–09|2009]]
|-
| {{cr|UAE}} || YTP || YTP || [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh || [[2016 Asia Cup|2016]]
|-
| {{cr|WIN}} || [[Eden Gardens]], [[Kolkata]], India || [[West Indian cricket team in India in 2018–19|2018]] || [[Queen's Park Oval]], [[Port of Spain]], Trinidad and Tobago || [[Indian cricket team in West Indies in 2011|2011]]
|-
| {{cr|ZIM}} || YTP || YTP || [[Harare Sports Club]], [[Harare]], Zimbabwe || [[Indian cricket team in Zimbabwe in 2010|2010]]
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 3 October 2023<ref>{{cite web |title=Records / India / T20I matches / T20I Records |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=start;result=1;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=team;view=results |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

=== Winning every match in a series ===
In a bilateral series winning all matches is referred to as [[whitewash (sport)|whitewash]]. Only series with more than 1 match are considered
India have recorded 11 such series victories.<ref name="whitewash">{{cite web | url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/335433.html|title= Records - T20i - Team Records - Whitewashes |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col |Opposition
! scope=col style="text-align:center"|Matches
! scope=col |Host
! scope=col style="text-align:center"|Season
|-
| {{cr|ZIM}} || 2 || {{cr|ZIM}} || 2010
|-
| {{cr|AUS}} || 3 || {{cr|AUS}} || 2015/16
|-
| {{cr|SRI}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2017/18
|-
| {{cr|IRE}} || 2 || {{cr|IRE}} || 2018
|-
| {{cr|WIN}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2018/19
|-
|{{cr|WIN}}
|3
|{{Flagicon|USA}} [[United States|USA]] / {{Flagicon|GUY}} [[Guyana]]
|2019
|-
| {{cr|SRI}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2019/20
|-
| {{cr|NZ}} || 5 || {{cr|NZ}} || 2019/20
|-
| {{cr|NZ}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2021/22
|-
| {{cr|WIN}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2021/22
|-
| {{cr|SRI}} || 3 || {{cr|IND}} || 2021/22
|-
| {{cr|IRE}} || 2 || {{cr|IRE}} || 2022
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="4" | Last updated: 28 June 2022<ref name="whitewash" />
|}

=== Losing every match in a series ===
India have also suffered such whitewash 3 times.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col |Opposition
! scope=col style="text-align:center"|Matches
! scope=col |Host
! scope=col style="text-align:center"|Season
|-
| {{cr|NZ}} || 2 || {{cr|NZ}} || 2008/09
|-
| {{cr|NZ}} || 2 || {{cr|IND}} || 2012
|-
|{{cr|AUS}} || 2 || {{cr|IND}} || 2018/19
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last updated: 8 August 2022<ref name="whitewash" />
|}

===Team scoring records===

====Most runs in an innings====
The highest score for India is 260/5 scored against Sri Lanka during the [[Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2017-18|Sri Lanka's tour of India in December 2017]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283218.html |title=Records - T20Is - Team Records Highest Innings |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Score
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|260/5}}
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|22}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|244/4}}
| rowspan=2|{{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Central Broward Regional Park]], [[Lauderhill]], USA || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|August|27}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|240/3}}
|| [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|December|11}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|237/3}}
|{{cr|South Africa}}
|[[Dr. Bhupen Hazarika Cricket Stadium, Barsapara|Dr. Bhupen Hazarika Cricket Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India
|{{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|2}}
|-
| align="center" |5
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | 234/4
|{{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Narendra Modi Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|February|01}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 1 February 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest innings totals |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest_innings_totals.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

====Fewest runs in an innings====
The lowest innings total scored was by [[Turkey national cricket team|Turkey]] against [[Czech Republic national cricket team|Czech Republic]] when they were dismissed for 21 during the [[2019 Continental Cup (cricket)|2019 Continental Cup]].<ref name="CZ278">{{cite web |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1197846.html |title=6th Match (D/N), Ilfov County, Aug 30 2019, Continental Cup |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref> The lowest score in T20I history for India is 74 scored against Australia in the [[Indian cricket team in Australia in 2007-08|2007-08 tour of Australia]].<ref name="T20I Records – Lowest Totals">{{cite web |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283172.html |title=Records - T20Is - Team Records - Lowest Totals |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Score
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|74/10}}
| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2008|February|1}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|79/10}}
| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|15}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|81/8}}
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|July|29}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|92/10}}
| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[Barabati Stadium]], [[Cuttack]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2015|October|5}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|101/10}}
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|9}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 5 November 2021<ref name="India T20I Records – Lowest Totals">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Lowest innings totals |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest_innings_totals.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

====Most runs conceded an innings====
The first match of the [[Indian cricket team in the West Indies in 2016|India's tour of West Indies in 2016]] against [[West Indies national cricket team|West Indies]] saw India concede their highest innings total of 245/6.<ref name="IND244">{{cite web |title=1st T20I, Lauderhill, Aug 27 2016, India tour of West Indies and United States of America| url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1041615.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Score
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|245/6}}
| {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Central Broward Regional Park]], [[Lauderhill]], USA || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|August|27}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|227/3}}
| rowspan=2 |{{cr|South Africa}}|| [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|4}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2 |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|221/3}}
| [[Assam Cricket Association Stadium, Guwahati|Assam Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|2}}
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|221/5}}
| {{cr|Ireland}}|| [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground|The Village]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|June|28}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2|5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|219/4}}
| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|March|30}}
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|219/6}}
| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Westpac Stadium]], [[Wellington]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|6}}
|-
| align=center |6
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|215/5}}
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|December|9}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 13 February 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest innings totals conceded |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest_innings_totals.html?class=3;id=6;type=opposition |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=28 October 2022}}</ref>
|}

====Fewest runs conceded in an innings====
The lowest score conceded by India for a full inning is 70 when they dismissed Ireland during the [[Indian cricket team in Ireland in 2018|India's tour of Ireland in 2018]] at [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground]], [[Dublin]], Ireland.<ref name="T20I Records – Lowest Totals"/>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Score
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|66/10}}
| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Narendra Modi Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|February|1}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|70/10}}
| {{cr|Ireland}}|| [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|June|29}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|80/10}}
| {{cr|England}}|| [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|September|23}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|81/9}}
| {{cr|United Arab Emirates}}|| [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|3}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|82/10}}
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Dr. Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy ACA-VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|14}}

|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 1 February 2023<ref name="India T20I Records – Lowest Totals Conceded">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Lowest Full innings totals |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest_innings_totals.html?class=3;id=6;type=opposition |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

====Most runs aggregate in a match====
The highest match aggregate scored in T20Is came in the match between [[India national cricket team|India]] and [[West Indies national cricket team|West Indies]] in the first T20I of the [[Indian cricket team in the West Indies in 2016|August 2016 series]] at [[Central Broward Regional Park]], [[Lauderhill]] when India scored 244/4 in response to West Indies score of 245/6 to lose the match by 1 run.<ref name="IND244"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283154.html |title=Records - T20Is - Team Records Highest Match Aggregates |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Aggregate
! scope=col | Scores
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|489/10}}
| {{cr|West Indies}} (245/6) v {{cr|India}} (244/4)|| [[Central Broward Regional Park]], [[Lauderhill]], USA || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|August|27}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|458/6}}
| {{cr|India}} (237/3) v {{cr|South Africa}} (221/3)|| [[Dr. Bhupen Hazarika Cricket Stadium, Barsapara|Dr. Bhupen Hazarika Cricket Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|2}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|446/12}}
| {{cr|India}} (225/7) v {{cr|Ireland}} (221/5)|| [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground|The Village]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|June|28}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|432/15}}
| {{cr|India}} (260/5) v {{cr|Sri Lanka}} (172)|| [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|22}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|420/10}}
| {{cr|New Zealand}} (212/4) v {{cr|India}} (208/6)|| [[Seddon Park]], [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|10}}
|-
| align=center |6
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|6|418/10}}
| {{cr|India}} (218/4) v {{cr|England}} (200/6)|| [[Kingsmead cricket ground, Durban|Sahara Stadium, Kingsmead]], [[Durban]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|19}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 28 October 2022<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest match aggregates |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest_match_aggregates.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=28 October 2022}}</ref>
|}

====Fewest runs aggregate in a match====
The lowest match aggregate in T20Is is 57 when [[Turkey national cricket team|Turkey]] were dismissed for 28 by [[Luxembourg national cricket team|Luxembourg]] in the second T20I of the [[2019 Continental Cup (cricket)|2019 Continental Cup in Romania in August 2019]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/19487/scorecard/1197843/luxembourg-vs-turkey-2nd-match-continental-cup-2019 |title= 2nd Match, Ilfov County, Aug 29 2019, Continental Cup|access-date=9 August 2020|work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> The lowest match aggregate in T20I history for India is 128 scored during the third T20I of [[New Zealand cricket team in India in 2017-18|New Zealand's tour of India in November 2017]].<ref name="T20I Records – Lowest Aggregates">{{cite web |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283146.html |title=Records - T20Is - Team Records - Lowest Match Aggregates |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Aggregate
! scope=col | Scores
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|128/11}}
| {{cr|India}} (67/5) v {{cr|New Zealand}} (61/6)|| [[Greenfield International Stadium]], [[Thiruvananthapuram]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|November|7}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|149/11}}
| {{cr|India}} (74) v {{cr|Australia}} (75/1)|| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2008|February|1}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2|3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|163/10}}
| {{cr|United Arab Emirates}} (81/9) v {{cr|India}} (82/1)|| [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|3}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|163/11}}
| {{cr|India}} (81/8) v {{cr|Sri Lanka}} (82/3)|| [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|July|29}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|166/11}}
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}} (82/1) v {{cr|India}} (84/1)|| [[Dr. Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy ACA-VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|14}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 29 July 2021<ref name="India T20I Records – Lowest Match Aggregate">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Lowest match aggregates |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest_match_aggregates.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

===Result records===
A T20I match is [[result (cricket)|won]] when one side has scored more [[run (cricket)|runs]] than the runs scored by the opposing side during their [[innings]]. If both sides have completed both their allocated innings and the side that fielded last has the higher aggregate of runs, it is known as a win by runs. This indicates the number of runs that they had scored more than the opposing side. If the side batting last wins the match, it is known as a win by [[Wicket#Dismissing a batsman|wickets]], indicating the number of wickets that were still to fall.<ref name="result">{{cite web |title=Law 16 – The Result |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the-result |publisher=[[Marylebone Cricket Club]] |access-date=29 December 2018 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229231840/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the-result|archive-date=29 December 2018}}</ref>

====Greatest win margins (by runs)====
The greatest winning margin by runs in T20Is was the Czech Republic's victory over Turkey by 257 runs in the sixth match of the [[2019 Continental Cup (cricket)|2019 Continental Cup]].<ref name="CZ278"/> The largest victory recorded by India was during the [[Indian cricket team in Ireland in 2018|India's tour of Ireland in 2018]] by 143 runs.<ref name="T20I Records – Largest margin of victory (by runs)">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Largest margin of victory (by runs) |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283283.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 168 Runs
| {{cr|NZL}}|| [[Narendra Modi Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|February|01}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 143 Runs
| {{cr|Ireland}}|| [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|June|29}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 101 Runs
| {{cr|Afghanistan}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], United Arab Emirates || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|September|8}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 93 Runs
| rowspan=2|{{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Barabati Stadium]], [[Cuttack]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|20}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 91 Runs
| [[Saurashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Rajkot]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|January|7}}
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 1 February 2023<ref name="Largest victories">{{cite web |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/largest_margins.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |title=India Records - T20I - Largest Victories |access-date=9 August 2020 |work= ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref>
|}

====Greatest win margins (by balls remaining)====
The greatest winning margin by balls remaining in T20Is was Austria's victory over Turkey by 104 balls remaining in the ninth match of the [[2019 Continental Cup (cricket)|2019 Continental Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/19487/scorecard/1198900/austria-vs-turkey-9th-match-continental-cup-2019 |title=9th Match (D/N), Ilfov County, Aug 31, 2019, Continental Cup |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref> The largest victory recorded by India is during the [[2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup]] against Scotland when they won by 8 wickets with 81 balls remaining.<ref name="T20I Records – Largest margin of victory (by balls remaining)">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Largest margin of victory (by balls remaining) |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283270.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=5 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Balls remaining
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 81
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 8 wickets|| {{cr|Scotland}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|November|5}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 59
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 9 wickets|| {{cr|United Arab Emirates}}|| [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|3}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 41
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 10 wickets|| {{cr|Zimbabwe}}|| [[Harare Sports Club]], [[Harare]], Zimbabwe|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|June|20}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 37
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 9 wickets|| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Dr. Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy ACA-VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|14}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 31
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 7 wickets|| {{cr|Afghanistan|2013}}|| [[Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium]], [[Gros Islet]], Saint Lucia|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2010|May|1}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 5 November 2021<ref name="Largest victories" />
|}

====Greatest win margins (by wickets)====
A total of 22 matches have ended with chasing team winning by 10 wickets with New Zealand winning by such margins a record three times.<ref name="T20I Records – Largest margin of victory (by wickets)">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Largest margin of victory (by wickets) |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283252.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref> India have won a T20I match by this margin on one occasions.<ref name="Largest victories"/>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 10 wickets
| {{cr|Zimbabwe}}|| [[Harare Sports Club]], [[Harare]], Zimbabwe || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|June|20}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=4| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=4| 9 wickets
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Dr. Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy ACA-VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|14}}
|-
| {{cr|United Arab Emirates}}|| [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|3}}
|-
| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[JSCA International Stadium Complex]], [[Ranchi]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|October|7}}
|-
| {{cr|Namibia}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|November|8}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last updated: 8 November 2021<ref name="Largest victories"/>
|}

====Highest successful run chases====
Australia holds the record for the highest successful run chase which they achieved when they scored 245/5 in response to New Zealand's 243/6.<ref>{{cite web |title=Highest Successful Chase |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_fielding_first=2;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=team_score;result=1;template=results;type=team;view=innings |work=Cricinfo |access-date= 9 August 2020}}</ref> The highest successful chase for India is 211/4 against Sri Lanka in the second T20I of the [[Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2009-10|Sri Lanka's tour of India in 2009]].<ref name="India T20I Records – Highest successful run chases"/>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Score
! scope=col | Target
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|209/4}}
| align=center | 208 || {{cr|West Indies}} || [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]], [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|December|6}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|211/4}}
| align=center | 207 || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Punjab Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Mohali]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|December|12}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|204/4}}
| align=center | 204 || {{cr|New Zealand}} || [[Eden Park]], [[Auckland]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2020|January|24}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|202/4}}
| align=center | 202 || {{cr|Australia}} || [[Saurashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Rajkot]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2013|October|10}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|201/3}}
| align=center | 199 || {{cr|England}} || [[Bristol County Ground]], [[Bristol]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|July|8}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref name="India T20I Records – Highest successful run chases">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest successful run chases |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_fielding_first=2;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=team_score;result=1;size=10;team=6;template=results;type=team;view=innings |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

====Narrowest win margins (by runs)====
The narrowest run margin victory is by 1 run which has been achieved in 15 T20I's with India winning such games twice.<ref>{{cite web |title= Reocrds - T20Is - Smallest victory (by runs)| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283262.html |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref><ref name="Smallest victories" />

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 1 Run
| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|October|2}} {{double-dagger}}
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| {{cr|Bangladesh}}|| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|23}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 2 Runs
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|January|3}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 3 Runs
| {{cr|Zimbabwe}}|| [[Harare Sports Club]], [[Harare]], Zimbabwe || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|June|20}}
|-
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 4 Runs
| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Bay Oval]], [[Tauranga]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2020|February|2}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|Ireland}}|| [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground|The Village]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|June|28}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 4 January 2023<ref name="Smallest victories">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Smallest victories |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest_margins.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=28 October 2022}}</ref>
|}

====Narrowest win margins (by balls remaining)====
The narrowest winning margin by balls remaining in T20Is is by winning of the last ball which has been achieved 26 times. India has achieve victory of the last ball on four occasions.<ref name="Winning on the last ball of the match">{{cite news |title=Winning on the last ball of the match |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283930.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Balls remaining
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center rowspan=4| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=4| 0
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 7 wickets|| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[Sydney Cricket Ground]], [[Sydney]], Australia|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|January|31}}
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4 wickets|| {{cr|Bangladesh}}|| [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|March|18}}
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4 wickets|| {{cr|Pakistan}}|| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|23}}
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=3 | 6 wickets|| {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[M. A. Chidambaram Stadium]], [[Chennai]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|November|11}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2 | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2 | 1
|| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2006|December|1}}
|-
|| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[BRSABV Ekana Cricket Stadium]], [[Lucknow]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|January|29}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 29 January 2023<ref name="Smallest victories" />
|}

====Narrowest win margins (by wickets)====
The narrowest margin of victory by wickets is 1 wicket which has settled four such T20Is. The narrowest victory by wickets for India is three wickets.<ref name="T20I Records – Smallest margin of victory (by wickets)">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Smallest margin of victory (by wickets) |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283252.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 3 wickets
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| rowspan=2|[[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|February|10}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=3| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=3| 4 wickets
| {{cr|Bangladesh}} || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|March|18}}
|-
| {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Central Broward Regional Park]], [[Lauderhill]], USA || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|August|3}}
|-
| {{cr|Pakistan}}|| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|23}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=5| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=5| 5 wickets
| {{cr|England}}|| [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|December|20}}
|-
| {{cr|Pakistan}}|| rowspan=2|[[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|27}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|Sri Lanka}}| || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|1}}
|-
|| [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|24}}
|-
| {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Eden Gardens]], [[Kolkata]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|November|4}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 23 October 2023<ref name="Smallest victories"/>
|}

====Greatest loss margins (by runs)====
India's biggest defeat by runs was against New Zealand in the [[Indian cricket team in New Zealand in 2018-19|2019 January]] at [[Westpac Stadium]], [[Wellington]], New Zealand.<ref name="Largest defeats" />

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 80 runs
| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Westpac Stadium]], [[Wellington]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|6}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 49 runs
| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[Kensington Oval]], [[Bridgetown]], Barbados || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2010|May|7}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|4}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 47 runs
| rowspan=2|{{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|15}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 40 runs
|| [[Saurashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Rajkot]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|November|4}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 31 runs
| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[Sydney Cricket Ground]], [[Sydney]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|February|1}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref name="Largest defeats">{{cite web |title=Records - India - Largest defeats |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/largest_margins.html?class=3;id=6;type=opposition |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

====Greatest loss margins (by balls remaining)====
The largest defeat suffered by India was against [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]] during the [[Indian cricket team in Australia in 2007-08|India's tour of Australia in 2007-08]] at the MCG when they lost by 9 wickets with 52 balls remaining.<ref name="T20I Records – Largest margin of victory (by balls remaining)"/>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Balls remaining
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 52
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 9 wickets|| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2008|February|1}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 33
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 7 wickets|| {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|July|29}}
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 8 wickets|| {{cr|New Zealand}} || [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|October|31}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 31
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 9 wickets|| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|September|28}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 27
| scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 8 wickets|| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[Dr. Bhupen Hazarika Cricket Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|October|10}}
|-
| {{cr|England}} || [[Narendra Modi Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|March|12}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 31 October 2021<ref name="Largest defeats" />
|}

====Greatest loss margins (by wickets)====
India have lost a T20I match by a margin of 10 wickets twice. The first instance was against Pakistan in the 2021 T20I World Cup while the second time was against England in the 2022 T20I World Cup.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margins
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Most recent venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 10 wickets
||{{cr|Pakistan}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|October|24}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
||{{cr|England}}|| [[Adelaide Oval]], [[Adelaide]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|November|10}}{{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=4| 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=4| 9 wickets
| rowspan=2|{{cr|Australia}}|| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2008|February|1}}
|-
|| [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|September|28}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Sabina Park]], [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]], Jamaica || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|July|9}}
|-
| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|September|22}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 20 April 2023<ref name="Largest defeats"/>
|}

====Narrowest loss margins (by runs)====
The narrowest loss of India in terms of runs is by 1 runs suffered twice.<ref name="Smallest defeats" />

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 1 run
| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[M. A. Chidambaram Stadium]], [[Chennai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|September|11}}
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Central Broward Regional Park]], [[Lauderhill]], USA || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|August|27}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 2 runs
| {{cr|Zimbabwe}}|| [[Harare Sports Club]], [[Harare]], Zimbabwe || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|June|18}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=2| 3 runs
| rowspan=2|{{cr|England}}|| [[Lord's]], [[London]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|June|14}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
|| [[Edgbaston Cricket Ground]], [[Birmingham]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2014|September|7}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref name="Smallest defeats">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Smallest defeats |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/smallest_margins.html?class=3;id=6;type=opposition |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=1 September 2019}}</ref>
|}

====Narrowest loss margins (by balls remaining)====
India has suffered loss off the last ball four times.<ref name="Winning on the last ball of the match"/>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Balls remaining
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center rowspan=4| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=4| 0
| scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2 | 5 wickets|| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Westpac Stadium]], [[Wellington]], New Zealand|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|February|27}}
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
|| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium]], [[Gros Islet]], Saint Lucia|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2010|May|11}} {{double-dagger}}
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 6 wickets|| {{cr|England}}|| [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|December|22}}
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 3 wickets|| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[Dr. Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy ACA-VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|24}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=6| 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=6| 2
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 5 wickets|| {{cr|Pakistan}}|| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|December|25}}
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 7 wickets|| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[Himachal Pradesh Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Dharamshala]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2015|October|2}}
|-
| {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|31}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 5 wickets|| {{cr|England}}|| [[Sophia Gardens (cricket ground)|Sophia Gardens]], [[Cardiff]], Wales|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|July|6}}
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 7 wickets|| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|27}}
|-
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|July|28}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 28 July 2021<ref name="Smallest defeats" />
|}

====Narrowest loss margins (by wickets)====
India has suffered defeat by 3 wickets once.<ref name="Smallest defeats"/>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Margin
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 3 wickets
| {{cr|Australia}}|| [[Dr. Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy ACA-VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|24}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 4 wickets
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|July|28}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=6| 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center rowspan=6| 5 wickets
| {{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Westpac Stadium]], [[Wellington]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|February|27}}
|-
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium]], [[Gros Islet]], Saint Lucia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2010|May|11}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|Pakistan}}|| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|December|25}}
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|9}}
|-
|| [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|March|6}}
|-
| {{cr|England}}|| [[Sophia Gardens (cricket ground)|Sophia Gardens]], [[Cardiff]], Wales || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|July|6}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref name="Smallest defeats"/>
|}

====Tied matches====
A [[Result (cricket)#Tie|tie]] can occur when the scores of both teams are equal at the conclusion of play, provided that the side batting last has completed their innings.<ref name="result"/>
There have been 19 [[List of tied Twenty20 Internationals|ties]] in T20Is history with India involved in four such games.<ref name="T20I results summary"/>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| scope=row | {{cr|Pakistan}} || [[Kingsmead cricket ground, Durban|Sahara Stadium, Kingsmead]], [[Durban]], South Africa
! scope=row | {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|14}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| scope=row rowspan=3| {{cr|New Zealand}} || [[Seddon Park]], [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]], New Zealand
! scope=row | {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2020|January|29}}
|-
|| [[Westpac Stadium]], [[Wellington]], New Zealand
! scope=row | {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2020|January|31}}
|-
|| [[McLean Park]], [[Napier, New Zealand|Napier]], New Zealand
! scope=row | {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|November|22}}
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=3 | Last updated: 3 October 2023<ref name="Smallest defeats"/>
|}

== Individual records ==

=== Batting records ===

==== Most career runs ====
A [[run (cricket)|run]] is the basic means of [[scoring (cricket)|scoring]] in cricket. A run is scored when the batsman hits the [[cricket ball|ball]] with his [[cricket bat|bat]] and with his partner runs the length of {{convert|22|yards|metres}} of the [[cricket pitch|pitch]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Law 18 – Scoring runs |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/scoring-runs |publisher=Marylebone Cricket Club |access-date=29 December 2018 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229232041/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/scoring-runs|archive-date=29 December 2018}}</ref> [[Virat Kohli]] from India has scored the most runs in T20Is, with 4,008, trailed by [[Rohit Sharma]] with 3,853.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most career runs |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/282827.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Average
! scope=col | 100
! scope=col | 50
! scope=col | Period
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4,008
| [[Virat Kohli]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 115 || align=center | 107 || align=center | 52.73 || align=center | 1 || align=center | 37 || 2010–2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 3,853
| [[Rohit Sharma]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 148 || align=center | 140 || align=center | 31.32 || align=center | 4 || align=center | 29 || 2007–2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 2,265
| [[KL Rahul]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 72 || align=center | 68 || align=center | 37.75 || align=center | 2 || align=center | 22 || 2016–2022
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 1,780
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 52 || align=center | 49 || align=center | 45.64 || align=center | 3 || align=center | 14 || 2021–2023
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 1,759
| [[Shikhar Dhawan]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 68 || align=center | 66 || align=center | 27.92 || align=center | 0 || align=center | 11 || 2011–2021
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=9 | Last Updated: 13 August 2023<ref name="India T20I Records – Most career runs">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most career runs |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=23 October 2022}}</ref>
|}

====Fastest runs getter====

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! scope="col" style="text-align:center;"|Runs
! scope="col" style="text-align:center;"|Batsman
! scope="col" style="text-align:center;"|Match
! scope="col" style="text-align:center;"|Innings
! scope="col" style="text-align:center;"|Record Date
! scope="col" |Reference
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 1,000
| rowspan=4|[[Virat Kohli]]
|29
|27
|2 October 2015
|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/925247.html |title=Records {{!}} Twenty20 Internationals {{!}} Batting records {{!}} Fastest to 1000 runs {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=25 October 2022}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 2,000
|60
|56
|3 July 2018
|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/1213211.html |title=Records {{!}} Twenty20 Internationals {{!}} Batting records {{!}} Fastest to 2000 runs {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=25 October 2022}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 3,000
|87
|81
|14 March 2021
|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/1335852.html |title=Records {{!}} Twenty20 Internationals {{!}} Batting records {{!}} Fastest to 3000 runs {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=25 October 2022}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4,000
|115
|107
|10 November 2022
|
|}

==== Most runs in each batting position ====
{| class="wikitable sortable" style=text-align:center;
|-
! scope="col" |Batting position
! scope="col" |Batsman
! scope="col" |Innings
! scope="col" |Runs
! scope="col" |Average
! scope="col" |Career Span
! scope="col" |Ref
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Opener
| [[Rohit Sharma]]{{dagger}} || 113 || 3,372 || 31.81 || 2009-2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=2;batting_positionmin1=1;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Opener {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 3
| [[Virat Kohli]]{{dagger}} || 78 || 3,047 || 55.40 || 2011-2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=3;batting_positionmin1=3;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 3{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 4
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || 28 || 1,102 || 52.47 || 2021-2023
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=4;batting_positionmin1=4;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 4{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 5
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || 36 || 805 || 30.96 || 2016-2023
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=5;batting_positionmin1=5;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 5{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 6
| [[MS Dhoni]] || 32 || 624 || 34.66 || 2007-2019
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=6;batting_positionmin1=6;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 6{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 7
|[[Axar Patel]]{{dagger}} || 20 || 263 || 26.30 || 2015-2023
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=7;batting_positionmin1=7;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 7{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 8
| rowspan=2|[[Ravichandran Ashwin]]{{dagger}} || 13 || 110 || 22.00 || 2011-2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=8;batting_positionmin1=8;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 8{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 9
| 4 || 57 || 28.5 || 2012-2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=9;batting_positionmin1=9;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 9{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2|Number 10
| [[Umesh Yadav]]{{dagger}} || 1 || 20 || 20 || 2012-2022
| rowspan=2|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=10;batting_positionmin1=10;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 10{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
| [[S. Sreesanth]] || 3 || 20 || 20 || 2007-2008
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 11
| [[Ishant Sharma]] || 2 || 8 || - || 2008-2013
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=11;batting_positionmin1=11;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 11{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 14 August 2023
|}

====Most runs against each team====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope="col" |Opposition
! scope="col" |Runs
! scope="col" |Batsman
! scope="col" |Matches
! scope="col" |Innings
! scope="col" |Career Span
! scope="col" |Ref
|-
| {{cr|AFG|2013}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 172 || rowspan=2|{{sortname|Virat|Kohli}}{{dagger}} || align=center| 3 || align=center| 2 || 2012–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=40;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against Afghanistan {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|AUS}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 794 || align=center| 22 || align=center| 21 || 2012-2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=2;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against Australia {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|BAN}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 454 || {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}}{{dagger}} || align=center| 12 || align=center| 12 || 2009–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=25;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against Bangladesh {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|ENG}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 639 || {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}}{{dagger}} || align=center| 20 || align=center| 20 || 2011–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=1;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against England {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|HK}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 68 || {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}}{{dagger}} || align=center|1 || align=center|1 || 2022–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=19;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against Hong Kong {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|IRE}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 151 || {{sortname|Deepak|Hooda}}{{dagger}} || align=center|2 || align=center|2 || 2022–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=29;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against Ireland {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|NAM}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 56 || {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}}{{dagger}} || align=center| 1 || align=center| 1 || 2022–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=28;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against Namibia {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|NEP}} || style=text-align:center; | 100 || {{sortname|Yashasvi|Jaiswal}}{{dagger}} || align=center|1 || align=center|1 || 2023–2023 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=16;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against Nepal {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2023-10-03}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|NED}} || style=text-align:center; | 62 || {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}}{{dagger}} || align=center|1 || align=center|1 || 2022–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=15;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against Netherlands {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|NZ}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 511 || {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}}{{dagger}} || align=center| 17 || align=center| 17 || 2009–2021 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=5;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against New Zealand {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|PAK}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 488 || {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}}{{dagger}} || align=center| 10 || align=center| 10 || 2012–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=7;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against Pakistan {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|SCO}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 50 || {{sortname|KL|Rahul}}{{dagger}} || align=center| 1 || align=center| 1 || 2021–2021 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=30;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against Scotland {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|SA}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 420 || rowspan=4|{{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}}{{dagger}} || align=center| 17 || align=center| 16 || 2007–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=3;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against South Africa {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|SL}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 411 || align=center| 19 || align=center| 17 || 2009–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=8;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against Sri Lanka {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|UAE}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 39 || align=center| 1 || align=center| 1 || 2016–2016 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=27;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against United Arab Emirates {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|WIN}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 693 || align=center| 22 || align=center| 22 || 2009–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=4;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against West Indies {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|ZIM}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 100 || {{sortname|KL|Rahul}}{{dagger}} || align=center| 4 || align=center| 4 || 2016–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=9;orderby=runs;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Against Zimbabwe {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=7 | Last updated: 3 October 2023
|}

==== Highest individual score ====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 126*
| [[Shubman Gill]] || {{cr|NZL}}|| [[Narendra Modi Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|February|01}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 122*
| [[Virat Kohli]] || {{cr|AFG}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|September|08}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 118
| [[Rohit Sharma]] || {{cr|SRI}} || [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|22}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 117
| rowspan=2| [[Suryakumar Yadav]] || {{cr|ENG}} || [[Trent Bridge]], [[Nottingham]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|July|10}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 112*
| {{cr|SRI}} || [[Saurashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Rajkot]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|January|7}}
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 8 January 2023<ref name="India T20I Records – Highest individual score">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest individual score |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

==== Most individual score in each batting position ====
{| class="wikitable sortable" style=text-align:center;
|-
! scope="col" |Batting position
! scope="col" |Batsman
! scope="col" |Score
! scope="col" |Opposition
! scope="col" |Ground
! scope="col" |Date
! scope="col" |Ref
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Opener
| [[Shubman Gill]] || 126* || {{cr|NZL}} || [[Narendra Modi Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India || 1 February 2023
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=2;batting_positionmin1=1;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Opener {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 3
| rowspan=2|[[Suryakumar Yadav]] || 111* || {{cr|NZ}} || [[Bay Oval]], [[Mount Maunganui]], New Zealand || 20 November 2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=3;batting_positionmin1=3;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 3{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 4
| 117 || {{cr|ENG}} || [[Trent Bridge]], [[Nottingham]], England || 10 July 2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=4;batting_positionmin1=4;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 4{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 5
| [[Manish Pandey]] || 79* || rowspan=2|{{cr|SA}} || [[SuperSport Park]], [[Centurion]], South Africa || 21 February 2018
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=5;batting_positionmin1=5;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 5{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 6
| [[Dinesh Karthik]] || 55 || [[Saurashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Rajkot]], India || 17 June 2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=6;batting_positionmin1=6;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 6{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 7
| [[Axar Patel]] || 65 || {{cr|SL}} || [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || 5 January 2023
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=7;batting_positionmin1=7;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 7{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| Number 8
| [[Krunal Pandya]] || 26* || {{cr|NZ}} || [[Seddon Park]], [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]], New Zealand || 10 February 2019
| rowspan=2|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=8;batting_positionmin1=8;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 8{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
| [[Shivam Mavi]] || 26 || rowspan=2|{{cr|SL}} || [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || 5 January 2023
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 9
| [[Irfan Pathan]] || 33* || [[R.Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || 10 February 2009
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=9;batting_positionmin1=9;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 9{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 10
| [[Umesh Yadav]] || 20* || {{cr|SA}} || [[Holkar Cricket Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || 4 October 2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=10;batting_positionmin1=10;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 10{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | Number 11
| [[Ishant Sharma]] || 5* || {{cr|SL}} || [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]], India || 9 December 2009
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=11;batting_positionmin1=11;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batted_score;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Runs {{!}} Number 11{{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 5 January 2023
|}

==== Highest score against each opponent ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Opposition !! Player !! Score !! Date
|-
|| {{cr|AFG|2013}} || rowspan=2|[[Virat Kohli]]|| 122* || 8 September 2022
|-
|| {{cr|AUS}} || 90* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|January|26}}
|-
|| {{cr|BAN}} || [[Rohit Sharma]] || 89 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|March|14}}
|-
|| {{cr|ENG}} || rowspan=2|[[Suryakumar Yadav]] || 117 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|July|10}}
|-
|| {{cr|HKG}} || 68* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|August|31}}
|-
|| {{cr|IRE}} || [[Deepak Hooda]] || 104 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|June|28}}
|-
| {{cr|NAM}} || [[Rohit Sharma]] || 56 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|November|8}}
|-
| {{cr|NEP}} || [[Yashasvi Jaiswal]] || 100 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|October|3}}
|-
| {{cr|NED}} || [[Virat Kohli]] || 62* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|27}}
|-
| {{cr|NZL}} || [[Shubman Gill]] || 126* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|February|01}}
|-
|| {{cr|PAK}} || [[Virat Kohli]] || 82* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|23}}
|-
|| {{cr|SCO}} || [[K. L. Rahul]] || 50 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|November|5}}
|-
|| {{cr|RSA}} || rowspan=4|[[Rohit Sharma]] || 106 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2015|October|2}}
|-
|| {{cr|SRI}} || 118 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|22}}
|-
|| {{cr|UAE}} || 39 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|3}}
|-
|| {{cr|WIN}} || 111* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|November|6}}
|-
|| {{cr|ZIM}} || [[Suresh Raina]] || 72* || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2010|June|13}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 3 October 2023<ref name="India T20I Records – Highest individual score"/>
|}

==== Highest career average ====
A batsman's [[batting average (cricket)|batting average]] is the total number of runs they have scored divided by the number of times they have been dismissed.<ref>{{cite book|first=M. A.|last=Pervez |title=A Dictionary of Cricket |publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2001|page=7|isbn=978-81-7370-184-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwYsHe-F-IUC&pg=PA7}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Average
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Not out
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 52.73
| [[Virat Kohli]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 107 || align=center | 31 || align=center | 4,008 || 2010-2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 46.52
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 46 || align=center | 10 || align=center | 1,675 || 2021-2023
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 44.31
| [[Manish Pandey]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 33 || align=center | 17 || align=center | 709 || 2015-2020
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 37.75
| [[KL Rahul]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 68 || align=center | 8 || align=center | 2,209 || 2016-2022
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 37.60
| [[MS Dhoni]] || align=center | 85 || align=center | 42 || align=center | 1,617 || 2006-2019
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Qualification: 20 innings. Last Updated:1 February 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest career average |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/highest_career_batting_average.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

==== Highest Average in each batting position ====
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! scope="col" |Batting position
! scope="col" |Batsman
! scope="col" |Innings
! scope="col" |Runs
! scope="col" |Average
! scope="col" |Career Span
! scope="col" |Ref
|-
! scope="row" | Opener
| [[KL Rahul]]{{dagger}} || 54 || 1,826 || 36.52 || 2016-2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=2;batting_positionmin1=1;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Highest Average {{!}} Opener {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 3
| [[Virat Kohli]]{{dagger}} || 78 || 3,047 || 55.40 || 2011-2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=3;batting_positionmin1=3;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Highest Average {{!}} Number 3 {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 4
| [[MS Dhoni]] || 12 || 255 || 51.00 || 2006-2018
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=4;batting_positionmin1=4;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Highest Average {{!}} Number 4 {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 5
| [[Manish Pandey]]{{dagger}} || 15 || 357 || 51.00 || 2016-2020
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=5;batting_positionmin1=5;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Highest Average {{!}} Number 5 {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 6
| [[Suresh Raina]] || 10 || 216 || 36.00 || 2006-2018
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=6;batting_positionmin1=6;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Highest Average {{!}} Number 6 {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 7
| [[MS Dhoni]] || 10 || 132 || 44.00 || 2011-2018
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=7;batting_positionmin1=7;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Highest Average {{!}} Number 7 {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 8
| [[Ravichandran Ashwin]]{{dagger}} || 13 || 110 || 22.00 || 2011-2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=8;batting_positionmin1=8;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Highest Average {{!}} Number 8 {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 9
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]{{dagger}} || 11 || 28 || 5.60 || 2012-2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=9;batting_positionmin1=9;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Highest Average {{!}} Number 9 {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 10
| [[S. Sreesanth]] || 3 || 20 || 20.00 || 2007-2008
|<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=10;batting_positionmin1=10;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Highest Average {{!}} Number 10 {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Number 11
| [[Mohammed Siraj]]{{dagger}} || 1 || 5 || 5.00 || 2017-2022
| <ref>{{Cite news |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?batting_positionmax1=11;batting_positionmin1=11;batting_positionval1=batting_position;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=batting_average;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=batting |title=Statistics {{!}} Highest Average {{!}} Number 11 {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|-class="sortbottom"
| colspan="8" style="text-align:left;" |''Qualification: Minimum 10 innings batted at position.'' Last updated: 10 November 2022
|}

==== Most half-centuries ====
A half-century is a score of between 50 and 99 runs. Statistically, once a batsman's score reaches 100, it is no longer considered a half-century but a century.

[[Virat Kohli]] of India has scored the most half-centuries in T20Is with 37. He is followed by India's [[Rohit Sharma]] on 29, Pakistan's [[Babar Azam]] on 30 and Australia's [[David Warner (cricketer)|David Warner]] on 24.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most half-centuries |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283018.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=23 October 2022}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Half centuries
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Period
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 37
| [[Virat Kohli]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 107 || align=center | 4,008 || 2010-2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 29
| [[Rohit Sharma]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 140 || align=center | 3,853 || 2007-2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 22
| [[KL Rahul]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 68 || align=center | 2,265 || 2016-2022
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 13
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 43 || align=center | 1,578 || 2021-2023
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 11
| [[Shikhar Dhawan]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 66 || align=center | 1,759 || 2011-2021
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 7 January 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most half-centuries |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_fifties_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

==== Most centuries ====
A [[century (cricket)|century]] is a score of 100 or more runs in a single innings.

Rohit Sharma has scored the most centuries in T20Is with 4.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most centuries |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=innings;runsmin1=100;runsval1=runs;template=results;type=batting |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Centuries
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Period
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4
| [[Rohit Sharma]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 140 || align=center | 3,853 || 2007–2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 3
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 50 || align=center | 1,841 || 2021–2023
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center | 2
| [[KL Rahul]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 68 || align=center | 2,265 || 2016–2022
|-
| align=center rowspan=5 | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=5 | 1
| [[Yashasvi Jaiswal]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 6 || align=center | 232 || 2023–2023
|-
| [[Shubman Gill]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 11 || align=center | 304 || 2023–2023
|-
| [[Deepak Hooda]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 17 || align=center | 368 || 2022–2023
|-
| [[Suresh Raina]] || align=center | 66 || align=center | 1,605 || 2006–2018
|-
| [[Virat Kohli]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 107 || align=center | 4,008 || 2010–2022
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 3 October 2023<ref name="India T20I Records – Most centuries">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most centuries |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_hundreds_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

==== Most Sixes ====

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Sixes
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 182
| [[Rohit Sharma]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 140 || align=center | 3,853 || 2007-2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 117
| [[Virat Kohli]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 107 || align=center | 4,008 || 2010-2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 101
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 49 || align=center | 1,780 || 2021-2023
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 99
| [[KL Rahul]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 68 || align=center | 2,265 || 2016-2022
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 74
| [[Yuvraj Singh]] || align=center | 51 || align=center | 1,177 || 2007-2017
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 13 August 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most sixes |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=sixes;team=6;template=results;type=batting |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

==== Most Fours ====

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Fours
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 356
| [[Virat Kohli]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 107 || align=center | 4,008 || 2010-2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 348
| [[Rohit Sharma]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 140 || align=center | 3,853 || 2007-2022
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 191
| [[Shikhar Dhawan]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 66 || align=center | 1,759 || 2011-2021
|-
| [[KL Rahul]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 68 || align=center | 2,265 || 2016-2022
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 150
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 46 || align=center | 1,675 || 2021-2023
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 2 February 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most fours |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=fours;team=6;template=results;type=batting |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

==== Highest strike rates ====
Ramesh Satheesan of Romania holds the record for highest strike rate, with minimum 250 balls faced qualification, with 188.35.<ref name="Highest Strike Rate">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Highest Strike Rate |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/282920.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref> [[Suryakumar Yadav]] is the Indian with the highest strike rate.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Strike rate
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Balls Faced
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 172.70
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 1,841 || align=center | 1,066 || 2021-2023
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 147.20
| [[Deepak Hooda]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 368 || align=center | 250 || 2022-2023
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 145.38
| {{sortname|Virender|Sehwag}} || align=center | 394 || align=center | 271 || 2006-2013
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 144.11
| {{sortname|Dinesh|Karthik}} || align=center | 686 || align=center | 476 || 2006-2022
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 139.83
| {{sortname|Hardik|Pandya}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 1,348 || align=center |964 || 2016-2023
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Qualification= 250 balls faced. Last Updated: 14 August 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest strike rate |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/highest_career_strike_rate.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

==== Highest strike rates in an inning ====
[[Dwayne Smith]] of West Indies strike rate of 414.28 during his 29 off 7 balls against [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]] during [[2007 ICC World Twenty20]] is the world record for highest strike rate in an innings. [[Yuvraj Singh]] during his innings of 58 of 18 balls which included [[Boundary (cricket)#Six sixes in an over|six sixes]] in an over off [[Stuart Broad]] and is the fastest fifty ever in a [[Twenty20]] game<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/305877.html |title=Twenty20 matches-Fastest fifties |publisher=[[Cricinfo]] |access-date=20 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/284095.html |title=One-Day Internationals-Fastest fifties |publisher=Cricinfo |access-date=20 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/284096.html |title=Test matches-Fastest fifties |publisher=Cricinfo |access-date=20 December 2010}}</ref> and Dinesh Karthik with his innings of 29* off 8 balls against Bangladesh in the final of the [[2018 Nidahas Trophy]] holds the top position for an India player in this list.<ref name="Highest Strike Rate in an inning">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Highest Strike Rate in an Inning |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/284190.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Strike rate
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Balls Faced
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 362.50
| {{sortname|Yuvraj|Singh}} || align=center | 58 || align=center | 16 || {{cr|England}} || [[Kingsmead cricket ground, Durban|Sahara Stadium, Kingsmead]], [[Durban]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|19}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{sortname|Dinesh|Karthik}} || align=center | 29* || align=center | 8 || {{cr|Bangladesh}} || [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|March|18}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 355.56
| {{sortname|Hardik|Pandya}} || align=center | 32* || align=center rowspan=2| 9 || {{cr|Ireland}} || [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|June|29}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 288.89
| {{sortname|Shikhar|Dhawan}} || align=center | 26 || {{cr|Australia}} || [[Sydney Cricket Ground]], [[Sydney]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|January|31}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 274.42
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || align=center | 118 || align=center | 43 || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|22}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=8 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest strike rate in an Inning |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/highest_strike_rate_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

==== Most runs in a calendar year ====
Mohammad Rizwan of Pakistan holds the record for most runs in a calendar year with 1,356 runs scored in 2021. [[Suryakumar Yadav]] holds the Indian record for most runs scored in a calendar year with 1,164 runs scored in 2022.<ref name="Most runs in a year">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most runs in a year |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/284247.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Year
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 1,164
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]] || align=center | 31 || align=center| 31 || rowspan=2|{{sort|2022|2022}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 781
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || align=center | 20 || align=center| 20
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 689
| {{sortname|Shikhar|Dhawan}} || align=center | 18 || align=center| 17 || {{sort|2018|2018}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 656
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || align=center | 29 || align=center | 29 ||{{sort|2022|2022}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 641
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || align=center | 15 || align=center| 13|| {{sort|2016|2016}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 20 November 2022<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most runs in a year |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;size=5;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=year |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

==== Most runs in a series ====
The [[2014 ICC World Twenty20]] in Bangladesh saw [[Virat Kohli]] set the record for the most runs scored in a single series scoring 319 runs. He is followed by [[Tillakaratne Dilshan]] with 317 runs scored in the [[2009 ICC World Twenty20]].<ref name="Most runs in a series">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most runs in a series |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=runs;template=results;type=batting;view=series |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Series
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 319
| rowspan=4|[[Virat Kohli]] || align=center rowspan=2| 6|| align=center rowspan=2| 6|| {{sort|2014|[[2014 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 296
| {{sort|2022|[[2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup]]}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 276
| align=center rowspan=3| 5|| align=center rowspan=3| 5|| {{sort|2022|[[2022 Asia Cup]]}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 273
| {{sort|2016|[[2016 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 239
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]
| {{sort|2022|[[2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup]]}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 10 November 2022<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most runs in a series |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_series.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

==== Most ducks ====
A [[duck (cricket)|duck]] refers to a batsman being dismissed without scoring a run.<ref name="glossary">{{cite news |first=Martin|last=Williamson |title=A glossary of cricket terms |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/239756.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
[[Tillakaratne Dilshan]] of Sri Lanka, Pakistan's [[Umar Akmal]] and Ireland's [[Kevin O'Brien (cricketer)|Kevin O'Brien]] has scored the equal highest number of ducks in T20Is with 10 such knocks. Rohit Sharma with 7 ducks has the highest number of such knocks for India.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most ducks |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/284058.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Ducks
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 10
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 148 || align=center | 140 || 2007-2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 5
| {{sortname|K. L.|Rahul}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 72 || align=center | 68 || 2017-2022
|-
| align=center rowspan=3| 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=3| 4
| {{sortname|Washington|Sundar}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 32 || align=center | 12 || 2017-2022
|-
| [[Shreyas Iyer]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 49 || align=center | 45 || 2017-2022
|-
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 115 || align=center | 107 || 2010-2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 22 November 2022<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most ducks |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_ducks_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

==Bowling records==

=== Most career wickets ===
A [[bowling (cricket)|bowler]] takes the [[wicket#dismissing a batsman|wicket]] of a batsman when the form of dismissal is [[bowled]], [[caught]], [[leg before wicket]], [[stumped]] or [[hit wicket]]. If the batsman is dismissed by [[run out]], [[obstructing the field]], [[handled the ball|handling the ball]], [[hit the ball twice|hitting the ball twice]] or [[timed out]] the bowler does not receive credit.

[[Shakib Al Hasan]], of [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]], is the highest wicket-taker in T20Is. [[Jasprit Bumrah]] is the highest ranked Indian bowler on the all-time.<ref name="Most career wickets">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most career wickets |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283194.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Average
! scope=col | SR
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | '''96'''
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 79 || align=center | 78 || align=center | 24.56 || align=center | 18.12 || 2016-2023
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | '''90'''
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 87 || align=center | 86 || align=center | 23.10 || align=center | 19.90 || 2012-2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | '''73'''
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 91 || align=center | 80 || align=center | 26.27 || align=center | 19.38 || 2009-2023
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | '''72'''
| {{sortname|Ravichandran|Ashwin}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 65 || align=center | 65 || align=center | 23.22 || align=center | 20.16 || 2010-2022
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | '''70'''
| {{sortname|Jasprit|Bumrah}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 60 || align=center | 59 || align=center | 20.22 || align=center | 18.32 || 2016-2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=8 | Last Updated: 13 August 2023<ref name="India T20I Records – Most career wickets">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most career wickets |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/most_wickets_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

====Most wickets against each team====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope="col" |Opposition
! scope="col" |Wickets
! scope="col" |Bowler
! scope="col" |Matches
! scope="col" |Innings
! scope="col" |Span
! scope="col" |Ref
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|AFG|2013}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 5 || [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 1 || align=center| 1 || 2022–2022 || rowspan=2|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=40;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against Afghanistan {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ravichandran Ashwin]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 3 || align=center| 3 || 2012–2022
|-
| {{cr|AUS}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 16 || [[Jasprit Bumrah]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 13 || align=center| 13 || 2016–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=2;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against Australia {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|BAN}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 9 || rowspan=2|[[Yuzvendra Chahal]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 6 || align=center| 6 || 2018–2019 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=25;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against Bangladesh {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|ENG}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 16 || align=center| 11 || align=center| 11 || 2017–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=1;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against England {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=4|{{cr|HK}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=4| 1 || [[Ravindra Jadeja]]{{dagger}} || align=center rowspan=4|1 || align=center rowspan=4|1 || rowspan=4|2022–2022 || rowspan=4|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=19;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against Hong Kong {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]{{dagger}}
|-
| [[Arshdeep Singh (cricketer)|Arshdeep Singh]]{{dagger}}
|-
| [[Avesh Khan]]{{dagger}}
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|IRE}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 7 || [[Kuldeep Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center|2 || align=center|2 || 2018–2018 || rowspan=2|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=29;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against Ireland {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| [[Yuzvendra Chahal]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 3 || align=center| 3 || 2018–2022
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|NAM}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 3 || [[Ravindra Jadeja]]{{dagger}} || align=center rowspan=2| 1 || align=center rowspan=2| 1 || rowspan=2|2022–2022 || rowspan=2|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=28;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wicket {{!}} Against Namibia {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ravichandran Ashwin]]{{dagger}}
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|NEP}} || style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 3 || [[Ravi Bishnoi]]{{dagger}} || align=center rowspan=2|1 || align=center rowspan=2|1 || rowspan=2|2023–2023 || rowspan=2|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=15;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against Nepal {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2023-10-03}}</ref>
|-
| [[Avesh Khan]]{{dagger}}
|-
| rowspan=4|{{cr|NED}} || style=text-align:center; rowspan=4| 2 || [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]{{dagger}} || align=center rowspan=4|1 || align=center rowspan=4|1 || rowspan=4|2022–2022 || rowspan=4|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=15;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against Netherlands {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| [[Axar Patel]]{{dagger}}
|-
| [[Ravichandran Ashwin]]{{dagger}}
|-
| [[Arshdeep Singh (cricketer)|Arshdeep Singh]]{{dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|NZ}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 12 || [[Jasprit Bumrah]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 10 || align=center| 10 || 20016–2021 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=5;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against New Zealand {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|PAK}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 11 || [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 6 || align=center| 5 || 2016–2022 || rowspan=2|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=7;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against Pakistan {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 7 || align=center| 7 || 2012–2022
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|SCO}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 3 || [[Mohammad Shami]]{{dagger}} || align=center rowspan=2| 1 || align=center rowspan=2| 1 || rowspan=2|2021–2021 || rowspan=2|<ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=30;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against Scotland {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| [[Ravindra Jadeja]]{{dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|SA}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 14 || [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 12 || align=center| 11 || 2014–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=3;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against South Africa {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|SL}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 23 || [[Yuzvendra Chahal]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 13 || align=center| 13 || 2017–2023 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=8;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against Sri Lanka {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|UAE}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 2 || [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 1 || align=center| 1 || 2016–2016 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=27;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against United Arab Emirates {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|WIN}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 17 || [[Kuldeep Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 9 || align=center| 9 || 2017–2023 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=4;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against West Indies {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| {{cr|ZIM}} || scope=row style=text-align:center; | 7 || [[Axar Patel]]{{dagger}} || align=center| 6 || align=center| 6 || 2015–2022 || <ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;opposition=9;orderby=wickets;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |title=Statistics {{!}} Most Wickets {{!}} Against Zimbabwe {{!}} ESPNcricinfo |work=Cricinfo |access-date=2022-10-25}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=7 | Last updated: 3 October 2023
|}

=== Best figures in an innings ===
[[Bowling analysis|Bowling figures]] refers to the number of the wickets a bowler has taken and the number of runs conceded.<ref>{{cite web |title=Definition: bowling analysis |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bowling%20analysis |work=[[Merriam-Webster]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=3 December 2017 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904012227/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bowling%20analysis|archive-date=4 September 2017}}</ref>
India's [[Deepak Chahar]] holds the world record for best figures in an innings when he took 6/7 against Bangladesh in [[Bangladeshi cricket team in India in 2019-20|November 2019]] at [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium|Nagpur]].<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Best bowling figures in an innings |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283204.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Figures
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|6/7}} ♠
| {{sortname|Deepak|Chahar}} || {{cr|Bangladesh}}|| [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|November|10}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|6/25}}
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}} || {{cr|England}}|| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|February|1}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|5/4}}
| rowspan=2|{{sortname|Bhuvneshwar|Kumar}} || {{cr|Afghanistan}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|September|08}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| {{sort|4|5/24}}
| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|February|18}}
|-
| {{sortname|Kuldeep|Yadav}} || {{cr|England}}|| [[Old Trafford Cricket Ground]], [[Manchester]], England|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|July|3}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 9 September 2022<ref name="Best Bowling Figures">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best bowling figures in an innings |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/best_figures_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}
'''Most Maidens Overs'''

=== Best figures in an innings – progression of record ===

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Figures
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
! 2/10
| {{sortname|Ajit|Agarkar}}|| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2006|December|1}}
|-
! 3/37
| {{sortname|Irfan|Pathan}}|| {{cr|England}}|| rowspan=2|[[Kingsmead cricket ground, Durban|Sahara Stadium, Kingsmead]], [[Durban]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|19}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
! 4/13
| {{sortname|R. P.|Singh}}|| {{cr|South Africa}}|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|20}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
! 4/8
| {{sortname|Ravichandran|Ashwin}}|| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Dr. Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy ACA-VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|14}}
|-
! 6/25
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}}|| {{cr|England}}|| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|February|1}}
|-
! 6/7 ♠
| {{sortname|Deepak|Chahar}}|| {{cr|Bangladesh}}|| [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|November|10}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref name="Best Bowling Figures"/>
|}

=== Best Bowling Figure against each opponent ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Opposition !! Player !! Figures !! Date
|-
| {{cr|Afghanistan|2013}} || [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] || 5/4 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|September|8}}
|-
| {{cr|Australia}} || [[Ravichandran Ashwin]] ||4/11 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2014|March|30}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|Bangladesh}} || [[Deepak Chahar]] ||6/7 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|November|10}}
|-
| {{cr|England}} || [[Yuzvendra Chahal]] ||6/25 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|February|1}}
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|Hong Kong}} || [[Ravindra Jadeja]] || rowspan=2|1/15 || rowspan=2|{{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|August|31}}
|-
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]
|-
| {{cr|Ireland}} || [[Zaheer Khan]] ||4/19 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|June|10}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|Namibia}} || [[Ravindra Jadeja]] ||3/16 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|November|8}}
|-
| {{cr|Nepal}} || [[Ravi Bishnoi]] || 3/24 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|October|3}}
|-
| {{cr|Netherlands}} || [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] || 2/9 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|27}}
|-
| {{cr|New Zealand}} || [[Deepak Hooda]] || 4/10 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|November|20}}
|-
| {{cr|Pakistan}} || [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] || 4/26 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|August|28}}
|-
| rowspan=2|{{cr|Scotland}} || [[Ravindra Jadeja]] || rowspan=2|3/15 || rowspan=2|{{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|November|5}}
|-
| [[Mohammad Shami]]
|-
| {{cr|South Africa}} || [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] ||5/24 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|February|18}}
|-
| {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Ravichandran Ashwin]] ||4/8 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|14}}
|-
| {{cr|United Arab Emirates}} || [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] ||2/8 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|3}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{cr|West Indies}} || [[Ravi Bishnoi]] ||4/16 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|August|7}}
|-
| {{cr|Zimbabwe}} || [[Barinder Singh Sran]] ||4/10 || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|June|20}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | ''Last updated: 3 October 2023.<ref name="Best Bowling Figures" />
|}

=== Best career average ===
A bowler's [[bowling average]] is the total number of runs they have conceded divided by the number of wickets they have taken.
[[Afghanistan national cricket team|Afghanistan]]'s [[Rashid Khan (cricketer)|Rashid Khan]] holds the record for the best career average in T20Is with 12.62. [[Ajantha Mendis]], Sri Lankan [[cricket]]er, is second behind Rashid with an overall career average of 14.42 runs per wicket. Bumrah with an average of 14.57 is the highest ranked Indian bowler.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Best career average |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283258.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Average
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Balls
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 14.57
| [[Kuldeep Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 52|| align=center | 758 || align=center | 687 || 2017–2023
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 19.07
| [[Arshdeep Singh (cricketer)|Arshdeep Singh]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 52 || align=center | 992 || align=center | 695 || 2022–2023
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 20.00
| {{sortname|Jasprit|Bumrah}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 72 || align=center | 1,440 || align=center | 1,307 || 2016–2023
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 22.29
| {{sortname|Ashish|Nehra}} || align=center | 34 || align=center | 758 || align=center | 588 || 2009–2017
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 23.10
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 90 || align=center | 2,079 || align=center | 1,791 || 2012–2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Qualification: 500 balls. Last Updated: 5 October 2023<ref name="India T20I Records – Best career average">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best career average |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=bowling_average;qualmin1=500;qualval1=balls;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Best career economy rate ===
A bowler's [[economy rate (cricket)|economy rate]] is the total number of runs they have conceded divided by the number of [[over (cricket)|overs]] they have bowled.<ref name="glossary"/>
New Zealand's [[Daniel Vettori]], holds the T20I record for the best career economy rate with 5.70. [[Harbhajan Singh]], with a rate of 6.20 runs per over conceded over his 28-match T20I career, is the highest Indian on the list.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Best career economy rate |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283267.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Economy rate
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Balls
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 6.20
| {{sortname|Harbhajan|Singh}} || align=center | 25 || align=center | 633 || align=center | 612 || 2006–2016
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 6.62
| {{sortname|Jasprit|Bumrah}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 70 || align=center | 1,416 || align=center | 1,283 || 2016–2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 6.69
| [[Kuldeep Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 52 || align=center | 740 || align=center | 663 || 2017–2023
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 6.90
| {{sortname|Ravichandran|Ashwin}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 72 || align=center | 1,672 || align=center | 1,452 || 2010–2022
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 6.96
| {{sortname|Bhuvneshwar|Kumar}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 90 || align=center | 2,079 || align=center | 1,791 || 2012–2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Qualification: 500 balls. Last Updated: 13 August 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best career economy rate |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=economy_rate;qualmin1=500;qualval1=balls;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

=== Best career strike rate ===
A bowler's [[strike rate]] is the total number of [[delivery (cricket)|balls]] they have bowled divided by the number of wickets they have taken.<ref name="glossary"/>
The top bowler with the best T20I career strike rate is Rashid Khan of Afghanistan with strike rate of 12.3 balls per wicket. [[Ashish Nehra]] is the Indian bowler with the lowest strike rate.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Best career strike rate |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283886.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Strike rate
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Balls
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 13.2
| [[Kuldeep Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 52 || align=center | 758 || align=center | 687 || 2017–2023
|-
| [[Arshdeep Singh (cricketer)|Arshdeep Singh]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 49 || align=center | 920 || align=center | 647 || 2022–2023
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 15.3
| [[Shardul Thakur]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 33 || align=center | 772 || align=center | 506 || 2018–2022
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 17.2
| {{sortname|Ashish|Nehra}} || align=center | 34 || align=center | 758 || align=center | 588 || 2009–2017
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 17.3
| [[Harshal Patel]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 29 || align=center | 770 || align=center | 503 || 2021–2023
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Qualification: 500 balls. Last Updated: 19 August 2022<ref name="India T20I Records – Best career strike rate">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best career strike rate |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=bowling_strike_rate;qualmin1=500;qualval1=balls;team=6;template=results;type=bowling |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Most four-wickets (& over) hauls in an innings ===
Pakistan's [[Umar Gul]] has taken the most four-wickets (or over) among all the bowlers. [[Yuzvendra Chahal]] has taken three such hauls, the most for an Indian bowler.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most Four-Wicket Hauls in a Career |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283816.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Four-wicket hauls
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Balls
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 5
| {{sortname|Bhuvneshwar|Kumar}}{{dagger}} || align=center rowspan=2| 87 || align=center | 1,791 || align=center | 90 || 2012-2022
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 3
| {{sortname|Hardik|Pandya}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 1,343 || align=center | 69 || 2016-2023
|-
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 75 || align=center | 1,656 || align=center | 91 || 2016-2023
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 2
| {{sortname|Kuldeep|Yadav}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 28 || align=center | 591 || align=center | 46 || 2017-2023
|-
| {{sortname|Ravichandran|Ashwin}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 65 || align=center | 1,452 || align=center | 72 || 2010-2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 2 February 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most four-wicket hauls in an innings (and over) |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/most_4wi_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Best economy rates in an inning ===
The best economy rate in an inning, when a minimum of 12 balls are delivered by the bowler, is Sri Lankan player [[Nuwan Kulasekara]] economy of 0.00 during his spell of 0 runs for 1 wicket in 2 overs against Netherlands at [[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]] in the [[2014 ICC World Twenty20]]. [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] holds the Indian record during his spell in [[2014 ICC World Twenty20]] against West Indies at [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Best economy rates in an innings |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?ballsmin1=12;ballsval1=balls;class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=economy_rate;size=200;template=results;type=bowling;view=innings |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Economy
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Overs
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2 | {{sort|1|1.00}}
| rowspan=2|{{sortname|Bhuvneshwar|Kumar}} || align=center | 4 || align=center | 4 || align=center | 5 || {{cr|Afghanistan|2013}} || [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|September|8}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 3 || align=center | 3 || align=center | 0 || rowspan=2|{{cr|West Indies}} || [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2014|March|23}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|1.33}}
| {{sortname|Deepak|Chahar}} || align=center | 4 || align=center | 3 || [[Providence Stadium]], [[Providence, Guyana|Providence]], Guyana || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|August|6}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=3| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=3| {{sort|3|2.00}}
| {{sortname|Ravichandran|Ashwin}} || align=center rowspan=2| 4 || align=center rowspan=2| 8 || align=center | 4 || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Dr. Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy ACA-VDCA Cricket Stadium]], [[Visakhapatnam]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|February|14}}
|-
| {{sortname|Bhuvneshwar|Kumar}} || align=center | 2 || {{cr|United Arab Emirates}} || [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|March|3}}
|-
| {{sortname|Siddarth|Kaul}} || align=center | 2 || align=center | 4 || align=center | 1 || {{cr|Ireland}} || [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|June|29}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=9 | Qualification: 12 balls bowled. Last Updated: 9 September 2022<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best economy rates in an innings |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/best_economy_rate_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Best strike rates in an inning ===
The best strike rate in an inning, when a minimum of 4 wickets are taken by the player, is by [[Steve Tikolo]] of Kenya during his spell of 4/2 in 1.2 overs against Scotland during the [[2013 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier]] at [[ICC Academy]], [[Dubai]], UAE. Chahar during his record breaking spell also recorded the best strike rate for an Indian bowler.<ref>{{cite news |title=Best strike rates in an inning |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283886.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Strike rate
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Balls
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|3.3}}
| {{sortname|Deepak|Chahar}} || align=center rowspan=2| 6 || align=center | 7 || align=center | 20 || {{cr|Bangladesh}} || [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|November|10}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| {{sort|2|4.0}}
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}} || align=center | 25 || align=center | 24 || {{cr|England}} || [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|February|1}}
|-
| [[Ravi Bishnoi]] || align=center rowspan=3| 4 || align=center | 16 || align=center | 16 || {{cr|West Indies}} || [[Lauderhill]], [[Florida]], West Indies || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|August|7}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| {{sort|3|4.5}}
| {{sortname|Zaheer|Khan}} || align=center rowspan=2| 19 || align=center rowspan=2| 18 || {{cr|Ireland}} || [[Trent Bridge]], [[Nottingham]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|June|10}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{sortname|Ashok|Dinda}} || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Pallekele International Cricket Stadium]], [[Kandy]], Sri Lanka || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|August|7}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=9 | Last Updated: 9 September 2022<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Best strike rates in an innings |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/best_strike_rate_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Worst figures in an innings ===
The worst figures in a T20I came in the [[Sri Lankan cricket team in Australia in 2019-20|Sri Lanka's tour of Australia]] when [[Kasun Rajitha]] of Sri Lanka had figures of 0/75 off his four overs at [[Adelaide Oval]], [[Adelaide]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/India-vs-sri-lanka-kasun-rajitha-concedes-most-runs-in-t20i-history-against-India/story-wRF2AqBQSBSbqL0NOollkO.html |work=Hindustan Times |title=India vs Sri Lanka:Kasun Rajitha concedes most runs in T20I history against India|date=27 October 2019 |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Worst bowling figures in an innings |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=conceded;qualmax1=0;qualmin1=0;qualval1=wickets;size=200;template=results;type=bowling;view=innings |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref> The worst figures by an Indian is 0/64 that came off the bowling of Chahal in the [[Indian cricket team in South Africa in 2017-18|2018 tour of South Africa]] at [[Centurion Park]], [[Centurion, Gauteng|Centurion]], South Africa.<ref name="Indian Worst Figures" />

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Figures
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Overs
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|0/64}}
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}} || align=center rowspan=6| 4|| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[Centurion Park]], [[Centurion, Gauteng|Centurion]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|February|21}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|0/57}}
| {{sortname|Joginder|Sharma}}|| {{cr|England}}|| [[Kingsmead cricket ground, Durban|Sahara Stadium, Kingsmead]], [[Durban]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|19}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|0/55}}
| rowspan=2|{{sortname|Krunal|Pandya}} || {{cr|Australia}}|| [[The Gabba]], [[Brisbane]], Australia|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|November|21}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|0/54}}
| rowspan=2|{{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Seddon Park]], [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]], New Zealand|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|10}}
|-
| align=center: rowspan=2 | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| {{sort|5|0/53}}
| {{sortname|Mohammed|Shami}} || [[Eden Park]], [[Auckland]], New Zealand|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2020|January|24}}
|-
| {{sortname|Shivam|Mavi}} || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|January|5}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 5 January 2023<ref name="Indian Worst Figures">{{cite web |title=Indian Worst Figures|url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=conceded;qualmax1=0;qualmin1=0;qualval1=wickets;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=bowling;view=innings |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most runs conceded in a match ===
Kasun Rajitha also holds the dubious distinction of most runs conceded in a T20I during the aforementioned match. Chahal in the above-mentioned spell holds the most runs conceded distinction for India.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most runs conceded in a match |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283749.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Figures
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Overs
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|0/64}}
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}} || align=center rowspan=5| 4|| rowspan=2|{{cr|South Africa}}|| [[Centurion Park]], [[Centurion, Gauteng|Centurion]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|February|21}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|2/62}}
| [[Arshdeep Singh (cricketer)|Arshdeep Singh]] || [[Barsapara Cricket Stadium]], [[Guwahati]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|2}}
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|0/57}}
| {{sortname|Joginder|Sharma}}|| {{cr|England}}|| [[Kingsmead cricket ground, Durban|Sahara Stadium, Kingsmead]], [[Durban]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|19}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2 | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2 | {{sort|4|1/56}}
| {{sortname|Deepak|Chahar}} || {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]], [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|December|6}}
|-
| [[Umran Malik]] || {{cr|England}} || [[Trent Bridge]], [[Nottingham]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|July|10}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last updated: 5 October 2022<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most runs conceded in a match |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/most_runs_conceded_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most wickets in a calendar year ===
Nepals's [[Sandeep Lamichhane|Sandeep]] holds the record for most wickets taken in a year when he took 38 wickets in 2022 in 18 T20Is. Bumrah took 28 wickets in 2016, the most for an Indian bowler.<ref name="Most wickets in a year">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most wickets in a calendar year |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283961.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Year
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 37
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]] || align=center | 32 || align=center | 31 || rowspan=2|{{sort|2022|2022}}
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 33
| [[Arshdeep Singh (cricketer)|Arshdeep Singh]] || align=center rowspan=2 | 21 || align=center rowspan=2 | 21
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 28
| {{sortname|Jasprit|Bumrah}} || {{sort|2016|2016}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 23
| {{sortname|Yuzvendra|Chahal}} || align=center | 11|| align=center | 11 || {{sort|2017|2017}}
|-
| {{sortname|Ravichandran|Ashwin}}|| align=center | 17 || align=center | 17 || {{sort|2016|2016}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 6 November 2022<ref name="India T20I Records – Most wickets in a calendar year">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most wickets in a calendar year |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=wickets;size=5;team=6;template=results;type=bowling;view=year |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most wickets in a series ===
[[2019 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier]] at UAE saw records set for the most wickets taken by a bowler in a T20I series when Oman's [[pace bowling|pacer]] [[Bilal Khan (cricketer)|Bilal Khan]] tool 18 wickets during the series. [[RP Singh]] in India's victorious [[2007 ICC World Twenty20]]<ref name="india win">{{cite news|first = Paresh|last = Soni|title = ICC World Twenty20|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/7009035.stm|publisher = [[BBC]]|date = 24 September 2007|access-date = 2007-09-24|quote = India beat Pakistan in the World Twenty20 final by five runs to clinch their first major trophy since 1983.}}</ref> took 12 wickets, the most for an Indian bowler in a series.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most wickets in a series |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=wickets;template=results;type=bowling;view=series |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Wickets
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Series
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 12
| {{sortname|R. P. |Singh}}|| align=center | 7|| {{sort|2007|[[2007 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 11
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]|| align=center | 5|| {{sort|2022|[[2022 Asia Cup]]}}
|-
| {{sortname|Ravichandran|Ashwin}}|| align=center rowspan=2| 6|| rowspan=2|{{sort|2014|[[2014 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=4| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=4| 10
| [[Amit Mishra]]
|-
| {{sortname|Irfan|Pathan}}|| align=center | 7|| {{sort|2007|[[2007 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
| {{sortname|Arshdeep|Singh}}|| align=center | 6 || {{sort|2022|[[2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup]]}}
|-
| {{sortname|Ashish|Nehra}}|| align=center | 5|| {{sort|2010|[[2010 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=5 | Last Updated: 9 September 2022<ref name="India T20I Records – Most wickets in a series">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most wickets in a series |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/most_wickets_series.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Hat-trick ===
In [[cricket]], a '''hat-trick''' occurs when a bowler [[Dismissal (cricket)|takes three wickets]] with consecutive [[Delivery (cricket)|deliveries]]. The deliveries may be interrupted by an [[over (cricket)|over]] bowled by another bowler from the other end of the [[Cricket pitch|pitch]] or the other team's [[innings]], but must be three consecutive deliveries by the individual bowler in the same match. Only [[wickets#Dismissing a batsman|wickets]] attributed to the bowler count towards a hat-trick; run outs do not count.
In [[Twenty20 International|T20Is]] history there have been just [[List of Twenty20 International cricket hat-tricks|13 hat-tricks]], the first achieved by [[Brett Lee]] for [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]] against [[Bangladesh cricket team|Bangladesh]] in [[2007 ICC World Twenty20]].<ref name="Hatricks" />

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" border="1"
|-
!S. No
! Bowler
! Against
! class="unsortable" | Wickets
! Venue
! Date
! Ref.
|-
| 1
! scope="row" style="text-align:center;" | [[Deepak Chahar]]
| {{cr|BAN}}
|
* [[Shafiul Islam]] ([[caught|c]] [[K. L. Rahul]])
* [[Mustafizur Rahman]] ([[caught|c]] [[Shreyas Iyer]])
* [[Aminul Islam Biplob|Aminul Islam]] ([[Bowled|b]])
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Vidarbha Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Nagpur]]
| 10 November 2019
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/19312/scorecard/1187015/india-vs-bangladesh-3rd-t20i-bangladesh-in-india-2019-20 |title=3rd T20I (N), Bangladesh tour of India at Nagpur, Nov 10 2019 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=10 November 2019}}</ref>
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=8 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref name="Hatricks">{{cite news |title=Hatricks |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283738.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

==Wicket-keeping records==
The [[wicket-keeper]] is a specialist [[fielding (cricket)|fielder]] who stands behind the [[stump (cricket)|stumps]] being guarded by the batsman on [[strike (cricket)|strike]] and is the only member of the fielding side allowed to wear gloves and leg pads.<ref>{{cite web |title=Law 27 – The wicket-keeper |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the-wicket-keeper |publisher=Marylebone Cricket Club |access-date=29 December 2018 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181229232954/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the-wicket-keeper|archive-date=29 December 2018}}</ref>

=== Most career dismissals ===
A wicket-keeper can be credited with the dismissal of a batsman in two ways, [[caught]] or [[stumped]]. A fair catch is taken when the [[cricket ball|ball]] is caught fully within the field of play without it bouncing after the ball has touched the striker's [[cricket bat|bat]] or glove holding the bat,<ref name="Law 33">{{cite web |title=Law 33 – Caught |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/caught |publisher=Marylebone Cricket Club |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref><ref name="Law 5">{{cite web |title=Law 5 – The Bat |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/the-bat |publisher=Marylebone Cricket Club |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref> Laws 5.6.2.2 and 5.6.2.3 state that the hand or the glove holding the bat shall be regarded as the ball striking or touching the bat while a stumping occurs when the wicket-keeper puts down the wicket while the batsman is out of his [[crease (cricket)|ground]] and not attempting a run.<ref>{{cite web |title=Law 39 – Stumped |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/stumped |publisher=Marylebone Cricket Club |access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref>
[[MS Dhoni]] heads the all-time list of taking most dismissals in T20Is as a designated wicket-keeper.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most wicket-keeper dismissals |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283793.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Dismissals
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Catches
! scope=col | Stumpings
! scope=col | Dis/Inn
! scope=col | Period
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 91 ♠
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}}|| align=center | 98 || align=center | 97 || align=center | 57 || align=center | 34 || align=center | 0.938 || 2006–2019
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 34
| {{sortname|Rishabh|Pant}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 66 || align=center | 52 || align=center | 25 || align=center | 9 || align=center | 0.653 || 2018–2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 27
| {{sortname|Dinesh|Karthik}} || align=center | 59 || align=center | 19 || align=center | 19 || align=center | 8 || align=center | 1.562 || 2006–2022
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 11
| [[Ishan Kishan]]{{dagger}}|| align=center | 29 || align=center | 13 || align=center | 8 || align=center | 3 || align=center | 0.846 || 2021–2023
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 6
| [[Sanju Samson]]{{dagger}}|| align=center | 21 || align=center | 6 || align=center | 3 || align=center | 3 || align=center | 1.000 || 2015–2023
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=9 | Last updated: 13 August 2023<ref name="wicket-keeper">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most wicket-keeper career dismissals |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/keeping/most_dismissals_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Most career catches ===
Dhoni heads the all-time list for most catches taken by designated wicket keeper.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most wicket-keeper catches |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283364.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Catches
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Period
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 57 ♠
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}}|| align=center | 98|| align=center | 97|| 2006-2019
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 25
| {{sortname|Rishabh|Pant}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 66 || align=center | 52 || 2017-2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 19
| {{sortname|Dinesh|Karthik}}|| align=center | 59 || align=center | 19 || 2006-2022
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 5
| {{sortname|Ishan|Kishan}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 22|| align=center | 6|| 2021-2023
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4
| {{sortname|K. L.|Rahul}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 72|| align=center | 8|| 2020-2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 4 January 2023<ref name="Indian T20I Records - Wicket Keeper Catches">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most wicket-keeper career catches |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/keeping/most_catches_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Most career stumpings ===
Dhoni also holds the record for most stumpings by a wicket-keeper.<ref name="T20I Records – Most wicket-keeper career stumpings">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most wicket-keeper career stumpings |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283338.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Stumpings
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Period
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 34 ♠
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}}|| align=center | 98|| align=center | 97|| 2006–2019
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 9
| {{sortname|Rishabh|Pant}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 66 || align=center | 52 || 2017–2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 8
| {{sortname|Dinesh|Karthik}} || align=center | 59 || align=center | 19 || 2006–2022
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 3
| {{sortname|Sanju|Samson}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 21 || align=center | 6|| 2015–2023
|-
| {{sortname|Ishan|Kishan}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 29 || align=center | 13 || 2021–2023
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated:13 August 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most wicket-keeper career stumpings |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/keeping/most_stumpings_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Most dismissals in an innings ===
Four wicket-keepers on four occasions have taken five dismissals in a single innings in a T20I with MS Dhoni being the only Indian.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most dismissals in an innings by a wicket-keeper |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283377.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

The feat of taking 4 dismissals in an innings has been achieved by 19 wicket-keepers on 26 occasions with Dhoni being the only Indian wicket-keeper.<ref>{{cite news |title=Wicket-keepers who have taken five dismisslas in an innings in an T20I |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;keeper=1;orderby=player;qualmax1=4;qualmin1=4;qualval1=fielded_dismissals;template=results;type=fielding;view=innings |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Dismissals
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 5 ♠
| rowspan=4|{{sortname|MS|Dhoni}}|| {{cr|England}}|| [[Bristol County Ground]], [[Bristol]], England|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|July|8}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=3| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=3| 4
|| {{cr|Afghanistan|2013}}|| [[Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium]], [[Gros Islet]], Saint Lucia|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2010|May|1}}
|-
|| {{cr|Pakistan}}|| [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|September|30}}
|-
|| {{cr|Sri Lanka}}|| [[Barabati Stadium]], [[Cuttack]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|20}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 3
|colspan=4|''On nine occasions an Indian wicket-keeper has affected three dismissals in an inning.''
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most dismissals in an innings by a wicket-keeper |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/keeping/most_dismissals_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most dismissals in a series ===
Netherlands wicket-keeper [[Scott Edwards (cricketer)|Scott Edwards]] holds the T20Is record for the most dismissals taken by a wicket-keeper in a series. He made 13 dismissals during the [[2019 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier]]. Indian record is held by Dhoni when he made 8 dismissals during the [[2016 ICC World Twenty20]].<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most dismissals in a series by a wicket-keeper |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;keeper=1;orderby=dismissals;template=results;type=fielding;view=series |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Dismissals
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Series
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 8
| rowspan=7|{{sortname|MS|Dhoni}}|| align=center rowspan=3| 5|| align=center rowspan=3| 5|| {{sort|2016|[[2016 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=3| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=3| 7
|| {{sort|2010|[[2010 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
|| {{sort|2016|[[2016 Asia Cup]]}}
|-
| align=center | 3|| align=center | 3|| {{sort|2018|[[Indian cricket team in England in 2018|India in England in 2018]]}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=3| 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=3| 6
| align=center | 5|| align=center | 5|| {{sort|2012|[[2012 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
| align=center | 6|| align=center | 6|| {{sort|2014|[[2014 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
| align=center | 3|| align=center | 3|| {{sort|2017|[[Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2017-18|Sri Lanka in India in 2017-18]]}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most dismissals in a series by a wicket-keeper |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/keeping/most_dismissals_series.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

==Fielding records==

=== Most career catches ===
[[Caught]] is one of the nine methods a batsman can be [[dismissal (cricket)|dismissed]] in cricket.{{efn|In 2017, ''The Laws of Cricket'' were amended, reducing the methods of dismissals from ten to nine, with [[handled the ball]] now covered as part of [[obstructing the field]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The new cricket rule changes coming into effect from September 28 |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/20822607/the-new-cricket-rule-changes-coming-effect-september-28 |work=ESPNcricinfo|date=26 September 2017 |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>}} The majority of catches are caught in the [[slip (cricket)|slips]], located behind the batsman, next to the wicket-keeper, on the [[off side]] of the field. Most slip fielders are [[Batting order (cricket)|top order]] batsmen.<ref>{{cite book|first1=S.|last1=Giridhar|first2=V. J.|last2= Raghunath|year=2014 |title=Mid-Wicket Tales: From Trumper to Tendulkar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IPwjBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]]|page=2|isbn=978-81-321-1738-4 |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|first=Mike|last=Selvey|author-link=Mike Selvey |title=The greatest slip catcher |url=http://www.thecricketmonthly.com/story/863595/the-greatest-slip-catcher|magazine=The Cricket Monthly |publisher=ESPNcricinfo|date=May 2015 |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

South Africa's [[David Miller (South African cricketer)|David Miller]] holds the record for the most catches in T20Is by a non-wicket-keeper with 69, followed by New Zealand's [[Martin Guptill]] on 64 and [[Shoaib Malik]] of Pakistan with 50. Rohit Sharma is the leading catcher for India.<ref name="Most career catches by a non-wicket-keeper">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most career catches by a non-wicket-keeper |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283650.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Catches
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Ct/Inn
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 58
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 148 || align=center | 148 || align=center | 0.391 || 2007-2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 50
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 115 || align=center | 114 || align=center | 0.438 || 2010-2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 44
| {{sortname|Hardik|Pandya}}{{dagger}}|| align=center | 87 || align=center | 86 || align=center | 0.511 || 2016-2023
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 42
| {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}}|| align=center | 78 || align=center | 78 || align=center | 0.538 || 2006-2018
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 34
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}}|| align=center | 48 || align=center | 48 || align=center | 0.708 || 2021-2023
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 2 February 2023<ref name="India T20I records - Most career catches by a non-wicket-keeper">{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most career catches by a non-wicket-keeper |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/fielding/most_catches_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}
{{notelist}}

=== Most catches in an innings ===
The feat of taking 4 catches in an innings has been achieved by 14 fielders on 14 occasions with [[Ajinkya Rahane]] being the only Indian to have achieved this.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most dismissals in an innings by a non-wicket-keeper |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283641.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref> No Indian fielder has achieved this feat. The most is three catches on nine occasions.<ref>{{cite news |title=Fielders who have taken three catches in an innings in an T20I |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;keeper=0;orderby=caught;qualmax1=3;qualmin1=3;qualval1=caught;size=200;team=6;template=results;type=fielding;view=innings |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Dismissals
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 4 ♠
| {{sortname|Ajinkya|Rahane}}|| {{cr|England}}|| [[Edgbaston Cricket Ground]], [[Birmingham]], England|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2014|September|7}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=13| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=13| 3
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} {{dagger}}|| rowspan=2|{{cr|South Africa}}|| [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|March|30}}
|-
| {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}}|| [[Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]], Sri Lanka|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|October|2}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{sortname|Ajinkya|Rahane}}|| {{cr|England}}|| [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2012|December|20}}
|-
| {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}}|| {{cr|Pakistan}}|| [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Thana|Mirpur]], Bangladesh|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2014|March|21}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} {{dagger}}|| {{cr|England}}|| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|February|1}}
|-
| {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}}|| {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|February|18}}
|-
|rowspan=2|{{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} {{dagger}}|| {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Bharat Ratna Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee Ekana Cricket Stadium]], [[Lucknow]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|November|6}}
|-
| {{cr|Namibia}}|| [[Dubai International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dubai]], UAE || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2021|November|8}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
| {{sortname|Ruturaj|Gaikwad}} {{dagger}} || {{cr|South Africa}}|| [[Saurashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Rajkot]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|June|17}}
|-
| {{sortname|Deepak|Hooda}} {{dagger}} || {{cr|West Indies}}|| [[Central Broward Park]], [[Lauderhill]], USA || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|August|6}}
|-
| {{sortname|Arshdeep|Singh}} {{dagger}} || rowspan=2|{{cr|New Zealand}}|| [[Bay Oval]], [[Mount Maunganui]], New Zealand|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|November|20}}
|-
| {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}} {{dagger}} || [[Narendra Modi Stadium]], [[Ahmedabad]], India|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|February|1}}
|-
| {{sortname|R Sai|Kishore}} {{dagger}}|| {{cr|Nepal}} || [[Zhejiang University of Technology Cricket Field]], [[Hangzhou]], China|| {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|October|3}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 5 October 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most dismissals in an innings by a non-wicket-keeper |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/fielding/most_catches_innings.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Most catches in a series ===
The [[2019 ICC Men's T20 World Cup Qualifier]], which saw Netherlands retain their title,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/8040/report/1199549/netherlands-vs-papua-new-guinea-final-icc-mens-t20-world-cup-qualifier-2019-20 |title=Roelof van der Merwe and Brandon Glover help Netherlands defend title |work=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref> saw the record set for the most catches taken by a non-wicket-keeper in a T20I series. [[Jersey national cricket team|Jersey's]] [[Ben Stevens (cricketer)|Ben Stevens]] and [[Namibia national cricket team|Namibia's]] [[JJ Smit]] took 10 catches in the series. Suresh Raina in [[2012 ICC World Twenty20]] and [[Hardik Pandya]] in [[Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2017-18|Sri Lanka in India in 2017-18]] with 6 catches are the leading Indian fielder on this list.<ref name="T20I Records – Most catches in a series by a non-wicket-keeper">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most catches in a series by a non-wicket-keeper |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;keeper=0;orderby=caught;template=results;type=fielding;view=series |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Catches
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Innings
! scope=col | Series
|-
| align=center rowspan=3| 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=3| 6
| {{sortname|Hardik|Pandya}} || align=center | 3|| align=center | 3|| {{sort|2017|[[Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2017-18|Sri Lanka in India in 2017-18]]}}
|-
| {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}}|| align=center | 5|| align=center | 5|| {{sort|2012|[[2012 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]] || align=center | 6|| align=center | 6|| {{sort|2022|[[2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup]]}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=5| 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=5| 5
| [[Deepak Hooda]] || align=center rowspan=3| 3|| align=center rowspan=3| 3|| {{sort|2022|[[2022 Asia Cup]]}}
|-
| rowspan=2| {{sortname|Suryakumar|Yadav}} || {{sort|2021|[[English cricket team in India in 2020-21|England in India in 2021]]}}
|-
| {{sort|2023|[[New Zealand cricket team in India in 2022-23|New Zealand in India in 2023]]}}
|-
| {{sortname|Tilak|Varma}} || align=center | 5 || align=center | 5 || {{sort|2023|[[Indian cricket team in the West Indies and the United States in 2023|India in the West Indies and the United States in 2023]]}}
|-
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || align=center | 6|| align=center | 6|| {{sort|2014|[[2014 ICC World Twenty20]]}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 1 September 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most catches in a series by a non-wicket-keeper |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/fielding/most_catches_series.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=21 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

==Other records==
=== Most career matches ===
India's [[Rohit Sharma]] holds the record for the most T20I matches played with 136, followed [[Shoaib Malik]] of Pakistan with 123 games and [[Mohammad Hafeez]] with 119 games.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most career matches |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283684.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=17 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | Wkts
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 148
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 3,853 || align=center | 1 || 2007–2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 115
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}}{{dagger}} || align=center | 4,008 || align=center | 4 || 2010–2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 98
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}} || align=center | 1,617 || align=center | - || 2006–2019
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 91
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 1,334 || align=center | 73 ||2016–2023
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 87
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 67 || align=center | 90 || 2012–2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=6 | Last Updated: 13 August 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most career matches |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/individual/most_matches_career.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>
|}

=== Most consecutive career matches ===
Afghanistan's [[Mohammad Shahzad]] and [[Asghar Afghan]] hold the record for the most consecutive T20I matches played with 58. Suresh Raina holds the Indian record.<ref name="Most consecutive career matches">{{cite news |title=Most Consecutive T20I matches| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283482.html |work=ESPNCricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 43
| {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}} ||2009-2014
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 39
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}} ||2015-2018
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 32
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} ||2017-2019
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 28
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} ||2010-2014
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 25
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}} ||2006-2010
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=4 | Last updated: 3 June 2018<ref name="Most consecutive career matches"/>
|}

=== Most matches as captain ===
[[MS Dhoni]], who led the Indian cricket team from 2007 to 2016, holds the record for the most matches played as captain in T20Is with 72.<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most matches as captain |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283428.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Player
! Won
! Lost
! Tied
! NR
! Win %
! Period
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 72 ♠
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}} || 41 ♠ || 28 ♠ || 1 || 2 || 60.00 || 2007–2016
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 51
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}}{{dagger}} || 39 || 12 || 0 || 0 || 76.47 || 2017–2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 50
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || 30 || 16 || 2 || 2 || 66.67 || 2017–2021
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 16
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || 10 || 5 || 1 || 0 || 62.50 || 2022–2023
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 5
| [[Rishabh Pant]]{{dagger}} || 2 || 2 || 0 || 1 || 50.00 || 2022–2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=9 | Last Updated: 14 August 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most matches as captain |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/individual/most_matches_as_captain.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Most matches won as a captain ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! Won
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! Lost
! Tied
! NR
! Win %
! Period
|-bgcolor=#cee0f2
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 41 ♠
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}} || 72 ♠ || 28 ♠ || 1 || 2 || 59.29 || 2007–2016
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 39
| {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}}{{dagger}} || 51 || 12 || 0 || 0 || 76.47 || 2017–2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 30
| {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || 50 || 16 || 2 || 2 || 64.58 || 2017–2021
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; |10
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || 16 || 5 || 1 ||rowspan=2|0 || 62.50 || 2022–2023
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 3
| {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}} || 3 || 0 || 0 || 100.00 || 2010–2011
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=9 | Last Updated: 14 August 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most matches won as a captain |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/individual/most_matches_as_captain.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

==== Most man of the match awards ====

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | M.O.M
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 15
| [[Virat Kohli]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 115 || 2010-2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 12
| [[Rohit Sharma]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 148 || 2007-2022
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 11
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 48 || 2021-2023
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 7
| [[Yuvraj Singh]] || align=center | 58 || 2007-2017
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 5
| [[Yuzvendra Chahal]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 74 || 2016-2023
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 2 February 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most M.O.M awards |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=awards_match;team=6;template=results;type=allround;view=awards |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

==== Most man of the series awards====

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | M.O.S
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 6
| [[Virat Kohli]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 115 || 2010-2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 3
| [[Suryakumar Yadav]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 45 || 2021-2023
|-
| align=center rowspan=5| 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=5| 2
| [[Axar Patel]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 40 || 2015-2023
|-
| [[Yuzvendra Chahal]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 74 || 2016-2023
|-
| [[Bhuvneshwar Kumar]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 87 || 2012-2022
|-
| [[Hardik Pandya]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 87 || 2016-2023
|-
| [[Rohit Sharma]]{{dagger}} || align=center | 148 || 2007-2022
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 2 February 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Most M.O.S awards |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;filter=advanced;orderby=awards_series;team=6;template=results;type=allround;view=awards |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

=== Youngest players on Debut ===
The youngest player to play in a T20I match is Marian Gherasim at the age of 14 years and 16 days. Making his debut for [[Romania national cricket team|Romania]] against the [[Bulgaria national cricket team|Bulgaria]] on 16 October 2020 in the [[2020 T20I Balkan Cup|first T20I of the 2020 Balkan Cup]]<ref name="T20I">{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1235829.html |title=1st T20I, Ilfov County, Oct 16 2020, Balkan Cup |access-date=18 March 2021|work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> thus becoming the [[List of Twenty20 International records#Youngest players|youngest to play in a men's T20I match]].<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.thecricketer.com/topics/international/icc_prohibit_under_15s_international_cricket.html |title= ICC prohibit under 15s from playing international cricket |access-date=18 March 2021|work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.womenscriczone.com/wonder-women-ten-t20i-records-women-own/ |title=Wonder Women – Ten T20I records women own |work=Women's CricZone |access-date=21 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="T20I matches Youngest Debutant">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Youngest players |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283466.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=18 March 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Age
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|18 years and 80 days}}
| {{sortname|Washington|Sundar}} || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Wankhede Stadium]], [[Mumbai]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|24}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|19 years and 120 days}}
| {{sortname|Rishabh|Pant}} || {{cr|England}} || [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|February|1}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|19 years and 152 days}}
| {{sortname|Ishant|Sharma}} || {{cr|Australia}} || [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2008|February|1}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|20 years and 2 days}}
| {{sortname|Rahul|Chahar}} || {{cr|West Indies}} || [[Providence Stadium]], [[Providence, Guyana|Providence]], Guyana || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|August|6}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|20 years and 4 days}}
| {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}} || {{cr|South Africa}} || [[Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2006|December|1}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 9 August 2020<ref name="T20I matches Youngest Debutant" /><ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;debut_or_last=1;filter=advanced;orderby=age;orderbyad=reverse;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings | title= India - T20I Records - Youngest Debutant | access-date=13 March 2021| work= ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref>
|}

=== Oldest Players on Debut ===
The Turkish batsmen Osman Göker is the oldest player to make their debut a T20I match. Playing in the [[2019 Continental Cup (cricket)|2019 Continental Cup]] against Romania at [[Moara Vlasiei Cricket Ground]], [[Moara Vlăsiei]] he was aged 59 years and 181 days.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/577850-oldest-international-cricket-player-on-debut |title=Oldest international cricket player on debut |work= Guinness World Records |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref><ref name="Oldest players on debut">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Oldest debutants |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283460.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Age
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|38 years and 232 days}}
| {{sortname|Rahul|Dravid}} || {{cr|England}} || [[Old Trafford Cricket Ground]], [[Manchester]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2011|August|31}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|33 years and 221 days}}
| {{sortname|Sachin|Tendulkar}} || {{cr|South Africa}} || [[Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2006|December|1}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|31 years and 309 days}}
| [[Rahul Tripathi]] || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|January|5}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|31 years and 177 days}}
| {{sortname|Sreenath|Aravind}} || {{cr|South Africa}} || [[Himachal Pradesh Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Dharamshala]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2015|October|2}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|31 years and 44 days}}
| {{sortname|Stuart|Binny}} || {{cr|Zimbabwe}} || [[Harare Sports Club]], [[Harare]], Zimbabwe || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2015|July|17}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 5 January 2023<ref name="Oldest players on debut" /><ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;debut_or_last=1;filter=advanced;orderby=age;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings | title= India - T20I Records - Oldest Debutant | access-date=13 March 2021| work= ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref>
|}

=== Oldest Players ===
The Turkish batsmen Osman Göker is the oldest player to appear in a T20I match during the same above mentioned match.<ref name="Oldest players">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Oldest debutants |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283455.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Age
! scope=col | Player
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center |1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|1|38 years and 232 days}}
| {{sortname|Rahul|Dravid}} || {{cr|England}} || [[Old Trafford Cricket Ground]], [[Manchester]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2011|August|31}}
|-
| align=center |2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|2|38 years and 186 days}}
| {{sortname|Ashish|Nehra}} || {{cr|New Zealand}} || [[Arun Jaitley Stadium]], [[Delhi]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|November|1}}
|-
| align=center |3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|3|37 years and 235 days}}
| {{sortname|MS|Dhoni}} || {{cr|Australia}} || [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|27}}
|-
| align=center |4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|4|37 years and 154 days}}
| [[Dinesh Karthik]] || {{cr|Bangladesh}} || rowspan=2|[[Adelaide Oval]], [[Adelaide]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|November|2}}
|-
| align=center |5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | {{sort|5|36 years and 54 days}}
| [[Ravichandran Ashwin]] || {{cr|England}} || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|November|10}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 11 November 2022<ref name="Oldest players" /><ref>{{cite web| url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;debut_or_last=2;filter=advanced;orderby=age;team=6;template=results;type=batting;view=innings | title= India T20I Records - Oldest Players | work= ESPN Cricinfo| access-date= 13 March 2021}}</ref>
|}

==Partnership records==
In cricket, two batsmen are always present at the [[Crease (cricket)|crease]] batting together in a partnership. This partnership will continue until one of them is [[Dismissal (cricket)|dismissed]], [[Substitute (cricket)#Retired hurt (or not out)|retires]] or the innings comes to a close.

===Highest partnerships by wicket===
A wicket partnership describes the number of runs scored before each wicket falls. The first wicket partnership is between the opening batsmen and continues until the first wicket falls. The second wicket partnership then commences between the [[not out]] batsman and the number three batsman. This partnership continues until the second wicket falls. The third wicket partnership then commences between the not out batsman and the new batsman. This continues down to the tenth wicket partnership. When the tenth wicket has fallen, there is no batsman left to partner so the innings is closed.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Wicket
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | First batsman
! scope=col | Second batsman
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
! align=center rowspan=2| {{sort|01|1st Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 165 || {{sortname|K. L.|Rahul}} || {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|22}}
|-
| {{sortname|Yashasvi|Jaiswal}} || {{sortname|Shubman|Gill}} || {{cr|West Indies}} || [[Central Broward Park]], [[Lauderhill]], USA || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|August|12}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|02|2nd Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 176 || [[Sanju Samson]] || [[Deepak Hooda]] || {{cr|Ireland}} || [[Malahide]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|June|28}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|03|3rd Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 134 || [[Virat Kohli]] || {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}} || {{cr|Australia}} || [[Adelaide Oval]], [[Adelaide]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2016|January|26}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|04|4th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 119 || [[Suryakumar Yadav]] || [[Shreyas Iyer]] || {{cr|England}} || [[Trent Bridge]], [[Nottingham]], England || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|July|10}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|05|5th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 113 || {{sortname|Virat|Kohli}} || {{sortname|Hardik|Pandya}} || {{cr|Pakistan}} || [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]], [[Melbourne]], Australia || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|23}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|06|6th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 91 || [[Suryakumar Yadav]] || [[Axar Patel]] || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Maharashtra Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Pune]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|January|5}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|07|7th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 63* || {{sortname|Dinesh|Karthik}} || {{sortname|Krunal|Pandya}} ||rowspan=2|{{cr|New Zealand}} || [[Seddon Park]], [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2019|February|10}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|08|8th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 61 || {{sortname|Suresh|Raina}} || {{sortname|Harbhajan|Singh}} || [[Lancaster Park]], [[Christchurch]], New Zealand || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2009|February|25}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|09|9th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 48 || {{sortname|Deepak|Chahar}} || {{sortname|Umesh|Yadav}} || {{cr|South Africa}} || [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|October|4}}
|-
! align=center | {{sort|010|10th Wicket}}
| scope=row style=text-align:center; | 17* || {{sortname|S.|Sreesanth}} || {{sortname|R.P.|Singh}} || {{cr|New Zealand}} || [[New Wanderers Stadium]], [[Johannesburg]], South Africa || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2007|September|16}} {{double-dagger}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 5 January 2023<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/India/engine/records/fow/highest_partnerships_by_wicket.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |title=India/Records/T20I matches/Highest partnerships by wicket |work=ESPNCricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

===Highest partnerships by runs===
The highest T20I partnership by runs for any wicket is held by the Afghan pairing of [[Hazratullah Zazai]] and [[Usman Ghani]] who put together an opening wicket partnership of 236 runs during the [[Irish cricket team against Afghanistan in India in 2018-19|Ireland v Afghanistan series in India in 2019]]<ref>{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Highest partnerships by runs |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283622.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Wicket
! scope=col | Runs
! scope=col | First batsman
! scope=col | Second batsman
! scope=col | Opposition
! scope=col | Venue
! scope=col | Date
|-
| align=center | 1
| align=center | {{sort|04|2nd Wicket}}
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 176
|| [[Sanju Samson]] || [[Deepak Hooda]] || {{cr|Ireland}} || [[Malahide]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2022|June|28}}
|-
| align=center rowspan=2| 2
| align=center rowspan=4| {{sort|01|1st Wicket}}
! scope=row style=text-align:center; rowspan=2| 165
| {{sortname|K. L.|Rahul}} || {{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}} || {{cr|Sri Lanka}} || [[Holkar Stadium]], [[Indore]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|December|22}}
|-
| {{sortname|Yashasvi|Jaiswal}} || {{sortname|Shubman|Gill}} || {{cr|West Indies}} || [[Central Broward Park]], [[Lauderhill]], USA || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2023|August|12}}
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 160
|rowspan=2|{{sortname|Shikhar|Dhawan}} || rowspan=2|{{sortname|Rohit|Sharma}}|| {{cr|Ireland}} || [[Malahide Cricket Club Ground]], [[Dublin]], Ireland || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2018|June|27}}
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 158
|| {{cr|New Zealand}} || [[Arun Jaitley Stadium]], [[Delhi]], India || {{dts|nowrap=off|format=dmy|2017|November|1}}
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=7 | Last Updated: 13 August 2023<ref>{{cite news |title=India T20I Records – Highest partnerships by runs |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/fow/highest_partnerships_for_any_wicket.html?class=3;id=6;type=team |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=9 August 2020}}</ref>
|}

===Highest overall partnership runs by a pair===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:centre;"
|-
! scope="col"| Rank
! scope="col"| Runs
! scope="col"| Innings
! scope="col"| Players
! scope="col"| Highest
! scope="col"| Average
! scope="col"| 100/50
! scope="col"| T20I career span
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope="row" | 1,897
| 42 || [[KL Rahul]] & [[Rohit Sharma]] {{dagger}} || 165 || 46.26 || 5/10 || 2016–2022
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope="row" | 1,743
| 52 || [[Shikhar Dhawan]] & [[Rohit Sharma]] {{dagger}} || 160 || 33.51 || 4/7 || 2013–2019
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope="row" | 1,217
| 33 || [[Virat Kohli]] & [[Rohit Sharma]] {{dagger}} || 138 || 36.87 || 3/5 || 2010–2022
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope="row" | 1,015
| 27 || [[Virat Kohli]] & [[KL Rahul]] {{dagger}} || 119 || 39.03 || 2/6 || 2017–2022
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope="row" | 730
| 23 || [[MS Dhoni]] & [[Yuvraj Singh]] || 102* || 38.42 || 1/5 || 2007–2017
|-class="sortbottom"
| scope="row" colspan=9 | ''An asterisk (*) signifies an unbroken partnership (i.e. neither of the batsmen was dismissed before either the end of the allotted overs or the required score being reached).'' Last updated: 11 November 2022<ref>{{cite web|url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=3;team=6;template=results;type=fow|title=Records–Twenty20 Internationals–Partnership records–Highest overall partnership runs by a pair–ESPN Cricinfo|publisher=ESPN| work=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=7 October 2022}}</ref>
|}

==Umpiring records==
===Most matches umpired===
An [[umpire (cricket)|umpire]] in cricket is a person who officiates the match according to the ''[[Laws of Cricket]]''. Two umpires adjudicate the match on the field, whilst a [[third umpire]] has access to video replays, and a [[fourth umpire]] looks after the match balls and other duties. The records below are only for on-field umpires.

[[Aleem Dar]] of Pakistan holds the record for the most T20I matches umpired with 58. The most experienced Indian umpire is [[Anil Chaudhary (umpire)|Anil Chaudhary]] with 32 matches officiated so far.<ref name="umpires">{{cite news |title=T20I Records – Most matches umpired |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283392.html |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope=col | Rank
! scope=col | Matches
! scope=col | Umpire
! scope=col | Period
|-
| align=center | 1
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 32
| {{sortname|Anil|Chaudhary|dab=umpire}}|| 2013-2021
|-
| align=center | 2
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 26
| {{sortname|Sundaram|Ravi}}|| 2011-2019
|-
| align=center | 3
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 24
| {{sortname|Nitin|Menon}}|| 2017-2021
|-
| align=center | 4
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 20
| {{sortname|Chettithody|Shamshuddin}}|| 2012-2020
|-
| align=center | 5
! scope=row style=text-align:center; | 18
| {{sortname|C. K.|Nandan}}|| 2015-2019
|-
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan=4 | Last Updated: 19 November 2021<ref name="umpires"/>
|}

==See also==

*[[List of Twenty20 International cricket records]]
*[[List of Twenty20 International cricket hat-tricks]]
*[[List of Test cricket records]]
*[[List of One Day International cricket records]]
*[[List of India Test cricket records]]
*[[List of India One Day International cricket records]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Cricket records}}
{{Cricket in India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:India Twenty20 International cricket records}}
[[Category:Twenty20 International cricket records and statistics]]
[[Category:Lists of Indian cricket records and statistics]]

Kamal Maula Mosque

2023-09-07T22:39:09Z

Tedd: Just finished drafting a fresh page.

{{Short description|Mosque in Dhar, India}}
[[File:0102721 Bhojshala and Kamal Maula mosque site, Dhar Madhya Pradesh 248.jpg|thumb|200px|The dome of the Kamal Maula Masjid]]
The '''Kamal Maula Mosque''' ([[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]: ''Kamal Maula Masjid'') is a mosque in the city of [[Dhar]] in the [[India]]n state of [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref name="Eaton2019">{{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196655-7 |language=en}}</ref> It contains the tomb of Kamāl al-Dīn, a Sufi saint of the [[Chishti Order]].<ref name="Sharma2016">{{cite web |last1=Sharma |first1=Ruchika |title='Madhya Pradesh’s Ayodhya': How the British manufactured the myth of Bhojshala |url=https://scroll.in/article/803376/madhya-pradeshs-ayodhya-how-the-british-manufactured-the-myth-of-bhojshala |publisher=[[Scroll.in|Scroll]] |access-date=6 September 2023 |language=English }}</ref><ref name="Chatterjee2020">{{cite book |last1=Chatterjee |first1=Nandini |title=Land and Law in Mughal India: A Family of Landlords across Three Indian Empires |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-48603-3 |page=45 |language=en}}</ref>

The Kamal Maula Mosquea, along with the [[Bhojshala|Bhoj Shala]], is a protected site of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] (ASI).<ref name="Chatterjee2020"/>

== History ==
The Kamal Maula Mosque was erected by [[Alauddin Khalji]] in the early 14th century.<ref name="Eaton2019"/> The Kamal Maula Mosque drew influence from the [[Qutb Minar complex|Qutb Mosque]] in [[Delhi]] and in 1405, the Tughluq Indian emperor [[Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq]] erected the [[Dhar iron pillar]] in the centre of the nearby [[Lat Mosque]] to reflect this inspiration.<ref name="Eaton2019"/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Islam-stub}}
[[Category:Dhar]]
[[Category:Mosques in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:14th-century mosques]]

Mangaldeep

2023-07-20T10:09:04Z

Tedd: Article designed.

{{Infobox film
| name = Mangaldeep
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[Haranath Chakraborty]]
| producer = Bhabesh Kundu
| writer = [[Anjan Choudhury]]
| screenplay =
| based_on =
| starring = Tapas Paul Ranjit Mallick Kali Banerjee Satabdi Roy Sandhya Roy Haradhan Bandopadhyay Anup Kumar
| music = [[Bappi Lahiri]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| studio =
| distributor =
| released = 1989
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Bengali
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''Mangaldeep''' is a 1989 Indian [[Bengali language|Bengali-language]] musical drama film written by [[Anjan Choudhury]] directed by [[Haranath Chakraborty]] and produced by Bhabesh Kundu. The film music composition by [[Bappi Lahiri]]. The film starring [[Tapas Paul]], [[Satabdi Roy]], [[Ranjit Mallick]], [[Sandhya Roy]] and [[Anup Kumar (actor)|Anup Kumar]] playing in lead roles. The film was released on year 1989.<ref>{{Cite web |last=FilmiClub |title=Mangaldeep (1989) Complete Cast & Crew |url=https://www.filmiclub.com/movie/mangaldeep-1989-bengali-movie/cast-crew |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=FilmiClub |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mangal Deep |url=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/mangal-deep/cast/2030129241/ |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=TVGuide.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tapas Pal no more: Memorable performances by the Bengali actor |url=https://m.timesofindia.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/tapas-pal-no-more-memorable-performances-by-the-bengali-actor/photostory/74185354.cms |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Tapas Pal dies at 61: Bengali actors Arindam Sil and Ranjit Mallick mourn his loss |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/tapas-pal-dies-at-61-bengali-actors-arindam-sil-and-ranjit-mallick-mourn-his-loss-1647490-2020-02-18 |access-date=2023-07-18 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Cast ==
*[[Tapas Paul]]
*[[Satabdi Roy]]
*[[Ranjit Mallick]]
*[[Sandhya Roy]]
*[[Anup Kumar (actor)|Anup Kumar]]
*Bhabesh Kundu
*[[Kali Banerjee]]
*[[Soumitra Bannerjee|Soumitra Banerjee]]
*[[Haradhan Bandopadhyay]]
*[[Nimu Bhowmik|Nimu Bhowmick]]
*Prashanta Chatterjee
*[[Salil Dutta]]
*Khudiram Bhattacharya
*Arjun Bhattacharya
*Debnath Chatterjee
*Aloka Ganguly
*
*
*[[Soham Chakraborty]]

==Music==
{{track listing
| headline = Track listing
| total_length =
| extra_column = Singer
| title1 = Aami Deep Tumi Mangal
| length1 =
| lyrics1 = Bhabesh Kundu
| extra1 = Bappi Lahiri, Rema Lahiri
| music1 = [[Bappi Lahiri]]

| title2 = E Jibon Peyechhi Je
| length2 =
| lyrics2 = Bhabesh Kundu
| extra2 = Bappi Lahiri
| music2 = Bappi Lahiri

| title3 = Khushir Joyare Aaj
| length3 =
| lyrics3 = Bhabesh Kundu
| extra3 = [[Mohammed Aziz]]
| music3 = Bappi Lahiri

| title4 = Tumi Je Aamar Aami Je Tomar
| length4 =
| lyrics4 = Bhabesh Kundu
| extra4 = [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Amit Kumar]]
| music4 = Bappi Lahiri

| title5 = Ramayaner Ramchandra
| length5 =
| lyrics5 = Bhabesh Kundu
| extra5 = Bappi Lahiri
| music5 = Bappi Lahiri

| title6 = Tomra Aamay Dao Na Bole
| length6 =
| lyrics6 = Bhabesh Kundu
| extra6 = [[Pankaj Udhas]]
| music6 = Bappi Lahiri

| title7 = Sesh Gaan Noy Aaj
| length7 =
| lyrics7 = Bhabesh Kundu
| extra7 = [[Mohammed Aziz]]
| music7 = Bappi Lahiri
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{IMDb title|id=tt7371694}}

[[Category:1989 films]]
[[Category:1980s Bengali-language films]]
[[Category:Indian drama films]]
{{film-stub}}
{{Uncategorized stub}}

History of Odisha

2023-03-30T02:29:02Z

Tedd: Just completed a comprehensive guide.

{{Short description|History of the Indian state of Odisha}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{State of Odisha}}
{{History of South Asia}}

The '''history of Odisha''' begins in the [[Lower Paleolithic]] era, as [[Acheulian]] tools dating to the period have been discovered in various places in the region.<ref name="arch">{{cite book|author=Amalananda Ghosh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wba-EZhZcfgC&dq=Acheulian+orissa&pg=PA25|title=An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology|publisher=BRILL|year=1990|isbn=978-9004092648|page=24|access-date=29 October 2012}}</ref> The early history of Odisha can be traced back to writings found in ancient texts like the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''Maha Govinda Sutta'' and some ''[[Puranas]]''. The region was also known to other kingdoms in region of [[East Indies]] due to [[Maritime history of Odisha|maritime trade]] relations.

In 1568 CE, considered a pivotal point in the region's history, the region was conquered by the armies of the [[Sultanate of Bengal]] led by the [[iconoclasm|iconoclast]] general [[Kalapahad]]. The region lost its political identity and the following rulers of the region were more often tributary lords than actual kings. By 1593, Odisha had passed completely to the [[Mughal Empire]] and became part of the [[Bengal Subah]]. After 1751, the [[Marathas]] gained control of the region. During the Maratha administration, literature and poetry flourished. In 1803, the region was passed onto the [[British Empire]], where they divided the region into parts of other provinces. In 1936, the province of Odisha was formed on the basis of populations of [[Odia language|Odia]]-speaking people.

==Historical names of Odisha==
The region which comprises the modern-day Odisha was not known by the same name throughout history. It and parts of it were referred by different names in different era.
* ''Kalinga'': According to some scriptures ([[Mahabharata]] and some [[Puranas]]), a king Bali, the [[Vairocana]], the son of Sutapa, had no sons. So, he requested the sage, Dirghatamas, to bless him with sons. The sage is said to have begotten five sons through his wife, the queen Sudesna.<ref name=vayu>{{cite book|title=Cultural History from the Vāyu Purāna|year=1946|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub.|page=46|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jmnm-smZm6oC&dq=bali+sudesna&pg=PA46|author=Devendrakumar Rajaram Patil|isbn=9788120820852}}</ref> The princes were named [[Anga#Origin of Name|Anga]], [[Vanga Kingdom#References in Mahabharata|Vanga]], Kalinga, [[Suhma Kingdom#References in Mahabharata|Sumha]] and [[Pundra Kingdom#References in Mahabharata|Pundra]].<ref name=7500BC>{{cite book|title=History of Ancient India: From 7300 BC to 4250 BC|year=2006|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b7gOBW8oDFgC&dq=Dirghatamas+Kalinga+Vanga&pg=PA293|author=J. P. Mitta|access-date=28 October 2012|isbn=9788126906154}}</ref><ref name=warin>{{cite book|title=War in Ancient India|year=1999|publisher=Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd|page=53|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlWHFXbU2rsC&dq=Bali+Kalinga+Vanga+mahabharata&pg=PA53|author=V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar|isbn=9788170208945}}</ref> The princes later founded kingdoms named after themselves. The prince Vanga founded [[Vanga Kingdom]], in the current day region of [[Bangladesh]] and part of [[West Bengal]]. The prince Kalinga founded the kingdom of [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]], in the current day region of coastal Odisha, including the [[Northern Circars]].<ref name=enHindu>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World, Volume 1|year=1992|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9pmo51lRnYC&dq=Bali+Kalinga+Vanga&pg=PA18|author=Gaṅgā Rām Garg|access-date=28 October 2012|isbn=9788170223740}}</ref> [[Ptolemy]], [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Claudius Aelianus]] have also mentioned one Calinga in their texts.<ref name=modern>{{cite book|year=1828|publisher=James Duncan|pages=140, 158|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-7NE6b7uzoC&dq=The%20modern%20traveller%3A%20a%20popular%20description%2C%20geographical%2C%20historical%2C%20and%20topographical%20of%20the%20various%20countries%20of%20the%20calinga&pg=PA140|title=The modern traveller: a popular description, geographical, historical, and topographical of the various countries of the globe, Volume 1 |author=Josiah Conder|access-date=29 October 2012}}</ref>
* According to political scientist Sudama Misra, the Kalinga [[janapada]] originally comprised the area covered by the [[Puri district|Puri]] and [[Ganjam district|Ganjam]] districts. Reference-Sudama Misra (1973). ''Janapada state in ancient India''. Bhāratīya Vidyā Prakāśana. p. 78
* ''Utkala'': Utkala was a part of Kalinga in some parts of Mahabharata. [[Karna]] is mentioned to have conquered kingdom of [[Utkala Kingdom|Utkala]] among others.<ref name=Karna>{{cite book|title=Mahabharata Book Seven (Volume 1): Drona, Volume 1; Volume 7|year=2007|publisher=NYU Press|page=58|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RIRZz_coCSgC&dq=karna+utkala&pg=PA59|access-date=28 October 2012|isbn=9780814767238}}</ref> But, according to other texts like [[Raghuvaṃśa|Raghuvasma]] and [[Brahma Purana]], they were separate kingdoms.<ref name=enc>{{cite book|title=The Indian Encyclopaedia, Volume 1|year=2002|publisher=Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd|page=7311|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Bt6WTrErH0C&dq=utkala+mahabharata&pg=PA7311|editor=Subodh Kapoor|access-date=28 October 2012|isbn=9788177552577}}</ref> There are several views regarding the etymology of the name. Utkala may have meant northern (''uttara'') part of Kalinga or ''ut-Kalinga''.<ref name=enc/> ''Utkala desha'' (country or land) may have meant the land of "finest art" (''utkarsha kala'').<ref name=jaga>{{cite book|title=Annals and Antiquities of the Temple of Jagannātha|year=2007|publisher=Sarup & Sons|page=20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKUkLzqNv64C&dq=kala+utkala&pg=PA20|author=Narayan Miśra|access-date=28 October 2012|isbn=9788176257473}}</ref> There are also other arguments regarding the origin of the name.The "Five Indias" referred to by Hiuen-tsang did not include territories south of the Vindhyas as Harsavardhana (Sakalottarapathanatha) could not extend his empire beyond it. It appears that the territorial division of north-eastern India into "Paneha Gaudas" was the''Five Indias" of Harsa's empire. These divisions were Sarasvata, Kanyakubja, Utkala, Mithila and Gauda. Utkala was one of the "Pancha Gaudas" or "Five Indias of Hiuen-tsang (Reference-S.Beal, Life of Hiuen Tsang).
* ''Mahakantara'': This name has been found in so.me [[Guptas|Gupta]]-era inscriptions. It literally means "great forest"<ref name="Agrawal 1989 p. 107">{{cite book | last=Agrawal | first=A. | title=Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass | year=1989 | isbn=978-81-208-0592-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PA107 | access-date=2020-03-14 | page=107}}</ref> and it is usually identified with the modern-day [[Kalahandi]] and [[Jeypore]] region.<ref name=gupta>{{cite book|title=Vakataka – Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D.|year=1986|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|page=146|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OswUZtL1_CUC&dq=Kantara+orissa&pg=PA146|author=R. C. Majumdar, A. S. Altekar|isbn=9788120800267|access-date=10 December 2021|archive-date=24 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324102100/https://books.google.com/books?id=OswUZtL1_CUC&dq=Kantara+orissa&pg=PA146|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Sahu 1997 p.62-63,146 ">{{cite book | last=Sahu | first=J.K. | title=Historical Geography of Orissa | publisher=Decent Books | year=1997 | isbn=978-81-86921-00-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NjhuAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2020-03-14 | pages=62–63,146}}</ref> The Mahabharata also mentions a Kantara, which may have or may not have referred to the same region.<ref name=madhaya>{{cite book|title=Historical Geography of Madhya Pradesh from Early Records|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub.|pages=139, 278|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=njYpsvmr2dsC&dq=Kantara+mahabharata&pg=PA278|author=Pranab Kumar Bhattacharyya|access-date=29 October 2012|isbn=9788120833944|year=1977}}</ref>
* ''Udra'': Udra (also ''Urda-desha'') may have originally referred to an ethnic group or tribe called Udra. But later may have referred to the kingdom of Udra, around the coastal region of Odisha.<ref name=geo>{{cite book|title=Studies in the Geography of Ancient And Medieval India|year=1990|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|pages=167, 175|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AqKw1Mn8WcwC&dq=udra+orissa&pg=PA175|author=D.C. Sircar|access-date=29 October 2012|isbn=9788120806900}}</ref>
* ''Orda'': Odra (also ''Orda-desha'') similar to Udra, may have meant a tribe of people called Odra, but later came to refer to the land of Odras.<ref name=geo/>
* ''Oddiyana'': [[Oddiyana]], mentioned in some Buddhist texts, according to some scholars may have referred to Odisha.<ref name="Mishra Mahānti Bishi 1996 p. 44-45">{{cite book | last1=Mishra | first1=R. | last2=Mahānti | first2=U. | last3=Bishi | first3=D. | title=Culture and Collections: Humanistic Amalgam of Tantra, Vaishnavism, Saivism, and Folkcults | publisher=Punthi-Pustak | year=1996 | isbn=978-81-85094-99-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVXkAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2020-03-14 | pages=44–45}}</ref>
* ''Kamala Mandala'': Literally "lotus region", a c. 13th-century inscription found in [[Narla]] in [[Kalahandi]] refers to the region by this name.<ref name=envi>{{cite book|year=2008|publisher=Macmillan|page=134|title=Environment, Development and Society in Contemporary India:An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xt9KHerkrkAC&dq=kamala+mandala&pg=PA134|editor=Prasad|access-date=29 October 2012|isbn=9780230635302}}</ref>
* ''South Kosala'': [[South Kosala]] (also ''Dakshina Kosala'') may refer to the modern-day [[Chhattisgarh]] and some part of Western Odisha.<ref name="Sahu 1997 p.57 ">{{cite book | last=Sahu | first=J.K. | title=Historical Geography of Orissa | publisher=Decent Books | year=1997 | isbn=978-81-86921-00-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NjhuAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2020-03-14 | page=57}}</ref> It should not be confused with [[Kosala]], which is in current day [[Uttar Pradesh]]. According to [[Ramayana]], one of [[Rama]]'s sons [[Lava (Ramayana)|Lava]] ruled ''Uttara Kosala'' and his other son [[Kusha (Ramayana)|Kusha]] ruled over this region.<ref name=madhaya/>
* ''Kongoda'': A copper plate found in [[Ganjam district]] refers to region as Kongoda (also spelled Kangoda).<ref name=inorissa>{{cite book|title=Inscriptions of Orissa: Circa 5th-8th centuries A.D, Volume 1|year=1998|publisher=f Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|page=31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XUiYu3XByNgC&dq=Kongoda&pg=PA31|author=Snigdha Tripathy|access-date=29 October 2012|isbn=9788120810778|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407110542/https://books.google.com/books?id=XUiYu3XByNgC&dq=Kongoda&pg=PA31|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''Trikalinga'': This name has been found inscribed on some copper plates found in [[Sonepur, Orissa|Sonepur]]. Tri-Kalinga may have literally meant "three Kalingas" and may have referred to the three states of Kalinga, South Kosala and Kangoda.<ref name=sarabh>{{cite book|title=Inscriptions of the Śarabhapurīyas, Pāṇḍuvaṁśins, and Somavaṁśins: Introduction|year=1995|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|pages=169, 179|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Idd9i5nP160C&dq=trikalinga+kalinga+kosala&pg=PA179|author=Ajay Mitra Shastri|access-date=29 October 2012|isbn=9788120806351}}</ref>
* ''Chedi'': [[Chedi Kingdom|Chedi]] (also known as ''Chedirashtra'') referred to the kingdom of [[Kharavela]]. It was named after his dynasty, Chedi<ref name="Orissa (India) Senapati Sahu 1971 p.53 ">{{cite book | author=Orissa (India) | last2=Senapati | first2=N. | last3=Sahu | first3=N.K. | title=Orissa District Gazetteers: Dhenkanal | publisher=Superintendent, Orissa Government Press | series=Gazetteer of India | year=1971 | url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3130 | language=fi | access-date=2020-03-14 | page=[https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3130/page/n64 53]}}</ref> (also ''Cheti'' dynasty and [[Mahameghavahana dynasty]]).<ref name=geo/>
* ''Tosali'': [[Tosali]] (also spelled ''Toshali'') referred to a city and the region around it was called ''Tosala'', possibly a subdivision of Kalinga in [[Ashoka]]-era. The capital of Tosala has been placed in modern-day [[Dhauli]].<ref name=geo/> In later era (c. 600 CE), North Tosali (''Uttara Tosali'') and South Tosali (''Daskhina Tosali'') have been mentioned, which were possibly kingdoms north and south of the [[Mahanadi]] river.<ref name="Sahu 1997 p.117 ">{{cite book | last=Sahu | first=J.K. | title=Historical Geography of Orissa | publisher=Decent Books | year=1997 | isbn=978-81-86921-00-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NjhuAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2020-03-14 | page=117}}</ref>
* ''Uranshin'': The name has been used by some 10th century Arab geographers.<ref name="Chattopadhyaya2009">{{cite book|author=Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya|title=A Social History of Early India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0tX4wzIUY3QC&pg=PA151|access-date=3 February 2015|year=2009|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1958-9|page=151}}</ref>
* ''Jajnagar'': The name used for Odisha in the [[Tabaqat-i-Nasiri]] (c. 1260), [[Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi]] (c. 1357), and other texts of the period.<ref name="Sircar">{{cite book|author=Dineschandra Sircar|title=Studies in the religious life of ancient and medieval India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mh1y1eMgGBMC&pg=PA70|access-date=3 February 2015|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-2790-5|page=70|year=1971}}</ref><ref name="Ireland1834">{{cite book|author=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_J_gAAAAAYAAJ|access-date=3 February 2015|year=1834|publisher=Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_J_gAAAAAYAAJ/page/n120 106]}}</ref>
* ''Odivissa'': A name used in some Buddhist texts, including in those by [[Taranatha]].<ref name="Donaldson2001">{{cite book|author=Thomas E. Donaldson|title=Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa: Text|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbxE8zOuRbUC&pg=PA11|year=2001|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-406-6|pages=11–}}</ref>

==Prehistory==
140 million years ago (mya), the peninsular India, including Odisha, was a part of the supercontinent.Gondwana is a region of India, named after the Gondi people who live there (though they can also be found in other parts of India). The name of the ancient continent of Gondwanaland was derived from Gondwana, because some of the earliest rock formations of this continent were first investigated in part of the region, in modern Odisha.<ref>McEldowney, Philip F. (1980) [http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/Ideas/CP/intro.html ''Colonial Administration and Social Developments in middle India: The Central Provinces, 1861-1921''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070305230224/http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/Ideas/CP/intro.html }}. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Virginia.</ref><ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Gondwana}}</ref> Some of the rocks, like the Mayurbhanj granite pluton, have been dated to 3.09 billion years ago (Ga). The coal-fields in Mahanadi and Ib river basins are known to be one of the richest sites for fossils in the subcontinent.

In the districts of Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh and Sambalpur, Acheulian tools dating to Lower Paleolithic times have been discovered. The Gudahandi hills in Kalahandi district have rock carvings and paintings dating to Upper Paleolithic. From Kuchai, near Baripada, various Neolithic tools like hoes, chisels, pounders, mace heads, grinding stones and also pieces of pottery. Prehistoric paintings and inscriptions have also been found in Garjan Dongar in Sundergarh district, and Ushakothi in Sambalpur district and Vimkramkhol in Jharsuguda district. There has been an uncertainty about the inscriptions at Ushakothi and Vimkramkhol regarding whether they are in a proto-Brahmi script. Yogimath near Khariar has cave paintings from the Neolithic.

==Ancient Odisha==
===Ancient texts===
According to political scientist Sudama Misra, the Kalinga [[janapada]] originally comprised the area covered by the [[Puri district|Puri]] and [[Ganjam district|Ganjam]] districts.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sudāmā Miśra|title=Janapada state in ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dua1AAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=Bhāratīya Vidyā Prakāśana}}</ref>

According to some scriptures ([[Mahabharata]] and some [[Puranas]]), a king Bali, the [[Vairocana]] and the son of Sutapa, had no sons. So, he requested the sage, Dirghatamas, to bless him with sons. The sage is said to have begotten five sons through his wife, the queen Sudesna.<ref name="vayu" /> The princes were named [[Anga#Origin of Name|Anga]], [[Vanga Kingdom#References in Mahabharata|Vanga]], [[Kalinga (Mahabharata)|Kalinga]], [[Suhma Kingdom#References in Mahabharata|Sumha]] and [[Pundra Kingdom#References in Mahabharata|Pundra]].<ref name="7500BC" /><ref name="warin" /> The princes later founded kingdoms named after themselves. The prince Vanga founded [[Vanga Kingdom|Vanga kingdom]], in the current day region of [[Bangladesh]] and part of [[West Bengal]]. The prince Kalinga founded the kingdom of [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]], in the current day region of coastal Odisha, including the North Sircars.<ref name="enHindu" />
[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|thumb|Kalinga in eastern coast]]
The Mahabharata also mentions Kalinga several more times. Srutayudha, the king of Kalinga, son of [[Varuna]] and river Parnasa, had joined the [[Kaurava]] camp in the [[Kurukshetra War]]. He had been given a divine [[Gada (mace)|mace]] by his father on request of his mother, which protected him as long he wielded it. But, Varuna had warned his son, that using it on a non-combatant will cause the death of the wielder himself. In the frenzy of battle, harried by [[Arjuna]]'s arrows, he made the mistake of launching it at Krishna, Arjuna's charioteer, who was unarmed. The mace bounced off Krishna and killed Srutayudha.<ref name=sonofvaruna>{{cite book|title=An Introduction to Epic Philosophy: Epic Period, History, Literature, Pantheon, Philosophy, Traditions, and Mythology, Volume 3|year=2004|publisher=Genesis Publishing|page=784|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwHj-Z-dMcsC&dq=Srutayudha&pg=PA784|editor=Subodh Kapoor|access-date=10 November 2012|quote=Finally Srutayudha, a valiant hero, was son Varuna and of the river Parnasa.|isbn=9788177558814}}</ref> The archer who killed [[Krishna]], Jara Savara, and [[Ekalavya]] are said to have belonged to the [[Sabar people]] of Odisha.<ref name=DanceBow>{{cite web|title=Dance bow (1965.3.5)|url=http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/weapons/index.php/tour-by-region/asia/asia/arms-and-armour-asia-141/index.html|publisher=[[Pitt Rivers Museum]]|access-date=2 February 2015|archive-date=2 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202160400/http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/weapons/index.php/tour-by-region/asia/asia/arms-and-armour-asia-141/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Pati2008">{{cite book|author=Rabindra Nath Pati|title=Family Planning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_5seKkk3GkIC&pg=PA97|access-date=2 February 2015|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-313-0352-8|page=97}}</ref>

In the Buddhist text, Mahagovinda Suttanta, Kalinga and its ruler, Sattabhu, have been mentioned.<ref name=hem>{{cite book|last=Raychaudhuri|first=Hemchandra|title=Political History of Ancient India|year=2006|publisher=Genesis Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1KObc_qaXYC&dq=Mahagovinda+Suttanta+kalinga&pg=PA75|access-date=25 October 2012|page=75|isbn=9788130702919}}</ref>

In the 6th century ''sutrakara'' (chronicler), Baudhayana, mentions Kalinga as not yet being influenced by Vedic traditions.<ref name="Gajrani 2004 p. 153">{{cite book | last=Gajrani | first=S. | title=History, Religion and Culture of India | publisher=Isha Books | series=History, Religion and Culture of India | issue=v. 4 | year=2004 | isbn=978-81-8205-063-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ksgz4Fvt57QC&pg=PA153 | access-date=2020-03-19 | page=153 | archive-date=24 July 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724173647/http://books.google.com/books?id=Ksgz4Fvt57QC&pg=PA153 | url-status=live }}</ref> He also warns his people from visiting Kalinga (among other kingdoms), saying one who visits it must perform penance.<ref name="Chatterjee1998">{{cite book|author=Suhas Chatterjee|title=Indian Civilization And Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KItocaxbibUC&pg=PA68|access-date=11 February 2013|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-7533-083-2|page=68}}</ref>

===Pre-Mauryan===
[[Mahapadma Nanda]] the ruler of [[Magadha]] is presumed to have conquered Kalinga during his reign around c. 350 BCE. The [[Kharavela#Hathigumpha Inscription|Hathigumpha]] inscriptions mentions the suzerainty of the [[Nandas]] in the Kalinga region.<ref name=Reddy>{{cite book|title=Indian History|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|pages=A–149, C–39|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X4j7Nf_MU24C&dq=Mahapadma%20nanda%20kalinga&pg=SL1-PA149|author=K. Krishna Reddy|access-date=12 November 2012|isbn=9780071329231}}</ref> The inscriptions also mention irrigation projects undertaken by the Nanda kings in the state during their reign.<ref name=hathi>{{cite journal|title=Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga |journal=Epigraphia Indica |year=1933 |url=http://www.sdstate.edu/projectsouthasia/upload/HathigumphaInscription.pdf |volume=XX |pages=86–89 |access-date=12 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303232906/http://www.sdstate.edu/projectsouthasia/upload/HathigumphaInscription.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Kalinga battlefield daya river dhauli hills.jpg
| caption1 = Daya River plains, near Dhauli, the supposed site of the Kalinga War
| image2 = Chandragupta Maurya Empire.png
| caption2 = Kalinga and Maurya Empire before the invasion of Ashoka
| width1 = 220
| width2 = 220
}}

In [[Asurgarh]], beads and punched coins belonging to an unknown king dating to the pre-Mauryan period have been discovered.<ref name="asurgarh">{{cite journal|title=Asurgarh – An Early Urban Centre of Orissa|volume=3|issue=XLVII|url=http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Journal/journalvol3/pdf/49-54.pdf|journal=Orissa Historical Research Journal|access-date=12 November 2012|author=Prabhas Kumar Singh}}</ref>

===Mauryan occupation===
{{Further|Ashoka|Kalinga War}}[[Ashoka]] of the [[Mauryan]] dynasty conquered Kalinga in the bloody [[Kalinga War]] in 261 BCE<ref name=ashoka>{{cite book|title=A History of India|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|page=66|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C&dq=ashoka+261+BC+history&pg=PA66|author=Hermann Kulke|author2=Dietmar Rothermund|access-date=12 November 2012|isbn=9780415329194}}</ref> which was the 8th year{{citation needed}} of his reign. According to his own [[edicts]], the war about 1,000,000 people were killed, 1,500,000 were captured and several more were affected.<ref name=ashoka/> The resulting bloodshed and suffering of the war deeply affected Ashoka. He turned into a pacifist and converted to Buddhism.{{citation needed}}. However, Ashoka’s eulogists like Charles Allen agree that his conversion to Buddhism predated the Kalinga war. Moreover, he seems to have had links with Buddhists for a decade before his conversion. The evidence suggests that his conversion to Buddhism was more to do with the politics of succession than with any regret he felt for sufferings of war.

The Kalingans had used personnel from the ''Atavika'' region, which was in the west of Kalinga, during the war.<ref name=asurgarh/> According to his edicts, Ashoka conquered the coastal region of Kalinga but didn't try to conquer the ''Atavika'' region.<ref name="Chakravarty Badam 2005 p.110 ">{{cite book | last1=Chakravarty | first1=K.K. | last2=Badam | first2=G.L. | title=River Valley Cultures of India | publisher=Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya | year=2005 | isbn=978-81-7305-300-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3R-AAAAMAAJ | access-date=2020-03-19 | page=110 | archive-date=27 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427102532/https://books.google.com/books?id=x3R-AAAAMAAJ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Patnaik 2003 p.31 ">{{cite book | last=Patnaik | first=A.P. | title=The early voyagers of the east: the rise of maritime trade of the Kalingas in ancient India | publisher=Pratibha Prakashan | series=The Early Voyagers of the East: The Rise of Maritime Trade of the Kalingas in Ancient India | issue=v. 1 | year=2003 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wqlIAAAAYAAJ | access-date=2020-03-19 | page=31| isbn=9788177020694 }}</ref> The Mauryans governed the Kalinga region as a province. They used Tosali as the regional capital and judiciary center. A ''kumara'' (viceroy) ruled from [[Tosali]], modern-day [[Dhauli]]. ''Samapa'', modern-day [[Jaugada]], was another administrative centre.<ref name=ashoka/> Ashoka erected two [[List of Edicts of Ashoka|edicts]] in the region, at [[Jaugada]] and [[Dhauli]].

===Kharavela===
{{Main|Kharavela}}
In the 1st century BCE, Mahameghavana established the [[Mahameghavahana dynasty]] in Kalinga. [[Kharavela]] was the third ruler of the dynasty. He reigned in the second half of the 1st century BCE. Most of the information about Kharavela comes from the [[Hathigumpha inscription]] in [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves|Udayagiri]] near [[Bhubaneswar]]. The inscription also calls the dynasty as Chedi (also spelled Cheti)<ref name=hathi/> The inscription records his life from his boyhood to his 13th [[regnal year]].

[[File:Hatigumfa.jpg|thumb|220x220px|Hathigumpha inscription of King Khāravela at Udayagiri Hills]]
* ''Reigning year 1–5'' : Kharavela took up the administration after the premature death of his father as a [[yuvaraj]] (heir apparent). He ascended to the throne as a proper King when he came of age at 24, around c. 170 BCE, but the date is contentious by several decades.<ref name="southdynasty"/> In the first year of his coronation, he repaired the gates and ramparts of his capital ''Kalinganagari'' which had been damaged by storm. In the second year, he invaded the territory of the [[Satavahana]] king [[Satakarni|Satakarni I]] and marching up to the ''Kanha-bemna'' river (possibly [[Krishna River]]) stormed the city of [[Musikas]]. In the 3rd year of his reign, he organized various performances of dance and music and delighted the people of the capital. In the fourth year, he again invaded the Satavahana kingdom and extended his political supremacy over the region. In the fifth year he is known to have renovated the [[Aqueduct (water supply)|aqueduct]] that was originally excavated three hundred years back by the Nandas.<ref name=hathi/>
* ''Reigning year 6–10'' : In the sixth year, he remitted taxes and gave benevolences both in urban and rural areas of his kingdom. The account of his seventh year is not known. But that year his chief queen, Queen of ''Vajiraghara'' ("The Queen of the Diamond Palace") gave birth to a child. In his eighth regnal year he led a military expedition against ''Rajagaha'' ([[Rajagriha]]). By that time the [[Yavana]] ([[Indo-Greeks]]) who were in possession of [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] were advancing towards [[Pataliputra]]. But getting the news of the triumph of Kharavela at Rajagriha the Yavana king had to retreat to Mathura. Kharavela pursued the Yavana ruler, ''Dimita'' (possibly [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]])<ref name="southdynasty">{{cite book|author=S. Chattopadhyaya|title=Some Early Dynasties of South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78I5lDHU2jQC&pg=PA48|access-date=2 December 2012|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-2941-1|page=48}}</ref> and purged them out of [[Mathura]], which was an important seat of Jain religion and culture. In commemoration of this achievement, he built a victory palace in Kalinga at a cost of thirty-eight hundred thousand ''penas'' during the ninth year of his reign. In the tenth regnal year, he again invaded northern India the account of which is not clearly known.<ref name=hathi/>
* ''Reigning year 11–13'' : In the eleventh year of his reign, Kharavela defeated the [[Dramira]] country which had been in existence for hundred and thirteen years before his time. In the twelfth year, he invaded northern India for the third time and advanced as far as [[Uttarapatha]]. On his return, he terrorized [[Magadha]]. Bahasatimita (a [[Shunga Empire|Shunga]] king), the king of Magadha surrendered and Kharavela brought back the statue of ''Kalinga Jina''. Kalinga Jina was the statue of [[Rishabhanatha]], which had been taken away from Kalinga by Mahapadmananda three hundred years back and its restoration was considered to be a great achievement of Kharavela. In his thirteenth reigning year, Kharavela excavated a number of cave-dwellings in the Kumari hills for the Jain monks and bestowed endowments for them. [[Jainism]] greatly flourished in Kalinga under the patronage of Kharavela. He was also extending liberal patronage towards other religious communities and earned great reputation as the worshipper of all faiths and the repairers of all temples. He also built the caves at [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves|Udayagiri and Khandagiri]] for Jain monks.<ref name=hathi/>

The record stops at his 13th regnal year. It is presumed that he was succeeded by his son, [[Kudepasiri]].<ref name="Orissa (India) Senapati Sahu 1966 p.80 ">{{cite book | author=Orissa (India) | last2=Senapati | first2=N. | last3=Sahu | first3=N.K. | title=Orissa District Gazetteers: Puri | publisher=Superintendent, Orissa Government Press | series=Gazetteer of India | year=1966 | url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3044 | language=nl | access-date=2020-03-19 | page=[https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.3044/page/n91 80]}}</ref><ref name="Mohanty 2002 p.50 ">{{cite book | last=Mohanty | first=P.K. | title=State formation in ancient Orissa | publisher=Punthi Pustak | year=2002 | isbn=978-81-86791-34-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PS5uAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2020-03-19 | page=50}}</ref> The Mahameghavahana dynasty (or a successor ''Sada'' dynasty) probably continued to rule over Kalinga and [[Mahisha]]ka as evident from the inscriptions and coins [[Guntupalli Group of Buddhist Monuments|discovered at Guntupalli]] and [[Velpuru]], Andhra Pradesh, which mention a series of rulers with the suffix ''Sada''.<ref name=jaina>{{cite book|title=Studies in Jaina Art and Iconography and Allied Subjects|year=1995|publisher=Abhinav Publications|page=31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fETebHcHKogC&dq=Mahishaka++Guntupalli+inscription&pg=PA31|author=R. T. Vyas|author2=Umakant Premanand Shah|access-date=12 November 2012|isbn=9788170173168}}</ref>

===Kushanas, Satavahanas and Murundas===
{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em; background:#F8F8FF; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:95%;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#DCDCDC; text-align:center;"|<big><big>Odisha Timeline</big></big>
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#DCDCDC; text-align:center;"|500 BCE – 1300 CE
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|c. 350 BCE
|style="font-size: 80%;"|[[Mahapadma Nanda]] conquers Kalinga
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|261 BCE
|style="font-size: 80%;"|[[Ashoka]] conquers Kalinga in the [[Kalinga War]]
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|c. 170 BCE
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Coronation of [[Kharavela]]

|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|c. 639 CE
|style="font-size: 80%;"|[[Hiuen-Tsang]] visits [[Oddiyana]]
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|c. 885 CE
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Janmejaya I establishes the [[Somavaṃśī dynasty|Somavamsi]] dynasty
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|c. 1135 CE
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Anantavarman Chodaganga shifts his capital to Kataka
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|c. 1245 CE
|style="font-size: 80%;"| Narasimhadeva I builds the [[Konark temple]]
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|c. 1278 CE
|style="font-size: 80%;"| Queen Chadrika builds the [[Ananta Vasudeva Temple]]
|}

[[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] of [[Satavahana dynasty]] possibly held some sway over some parts Kalinga.<ref name="Tripathy 1986 p.29 ">{{cite book | last=Tripathy | first=S. | title=Early and Medieval Coins and Currency System of Orissa, Circa 300 B.C. to 1568 A.D. | publisher=Punthi Pustak | series=Orissa studies project | year=1986 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_wiGAAAAIAAJ | access-date=2020-03-19 | page=29}}</ref>

The [[Kushan Empire]] may have reached Kalinga or parts of it during the first three centuries<ref name="Katariya 2007 p. 1-PA143">{{cite book | last=Katariya | first=A. | title=Ancient History of Central Asia: Yuezhi origin Royal Peoples: Kushana, Huna, Gurjar and Khazar Kingdoms | publisher=Adesh Katariya | series=Ancient History | year=2007 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ihFUDAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA143 | access-date=2020-03-19 | page=1-PA143}}</ref> of the common era as evident from coins found at several places in notably in [[Jaugada]], [[Sisupalgarh]] and Gurubai in Manikapatana ([[Puri]]) among others. More imitation coins are found than real ones. So, the local rulers possibly circulated them in the post-Kushana period. There is coin of one Maharaja Rajadhiraja Dharmadamadhara which has been found in Sisupalgarh. There is a Kushana motif on one side and a human head on the other.<ref name="econ">{{cite book|author=Nihar Ranjan Patnaik|title=Economic History of Orissa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AA9W9_4Z9gC&pg=PA28|access-date=13 November 2012|year=1997|publisher=Indus Publishing|isbn=978-81-7387-075-0|pages=28–}}</ref>

During the 3rd century, a tribe called Murundas, ruled from [[Pataliputra]]. They have been speculated to have arrived from Central Asia. They used to issue coins similar to Kushana coins.<ref name="bbsr">{{cite book|author=Ravi Kalia|title=Bhubaneswar: From a Temple Town to a Capital City|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2YSPiKbmHkC&pg=PA17|access-date=1 December 2012|year=1994|publisher=SIU Press|isbn=978-0-8093-1876-6|pages=17, 125}}</ref>

But other than these mostly [[numismatic]] evidences, this period of history is mostly in the dark.

===Guptas, Matharas and Sharabhapuriyas ===
In c. 313 BCE, a princess of Kalinga, Hemamala, is recorded to have fled the kingdom with a [[Relic of the tooth of the Buddha|tooth of Buddha]], a sacred relic, hidden in her hair and presented it to king [[Sirimeghavanna of Anuradhapura|Sirimeghavanna]] of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name="SeneviratnaPolk1992">{{cite book|author1=Anuradha Seneviratna|author2=Benjamin Polk|title=Buddhist Monastic Architecture in Sri Lanka: The Woodland Shrines|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdKhuDerQsgC&pg=PA49|access-date=3 February 2015|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-281-9|page=49}}</ref> According to the legend, [[Khema]] took a tooth from the pyre of Buddha and later gave in to a king, Brahmadutta. He built a temple at a city called [[Dantapura]]. After several generations, during the reign the Guhasiva, the prince of [[Ujjain]] came to Dantapura to worhship the relic. He married the daughter of Guhasiva, Hemamala, and was later called Dantakumara (Prince Tooth). When a king attacked Kalinga, Dantakumara and Hemamala fled with the relic to protect it.<ref name="Rachlin2000">{{cite book|author=Harvey Rachlin|title=Jumbo's Hide, Elvis's Ride, and the Tooth of Buddha: More Marvelous Tales of Historical Artifacts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sawOqp33f-MC&pg=PA1201|access-date=3 February 2015|publisher=Garrett County Press|isbn=978-1-939430-09-0|page=1201}}</ref><ref name="Mukherjee1981">{{cite book|author=Prabhat Mukherjee|title=The History of Medieval Vaishnavism in Orissa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7LFzfbhmJcMC&pg=PA16|access-date=3 February 2015|year=1981|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0229-8|page=16}}</ref>

[[Samudragupta]] (reign c. 335 – c. 375 CE) is presumed to have conquered the region, as in his [[Allahabad Stone Pillar Inscription of Samudra Gupta|Allahabad inscription]], it has been mentioned that, he had conquered Mahêndra of Kôsala, Vyâghraraja of Mahâkantâra, Mantarâja of Kêrala, Mahêndra of Pishtapura, Svâmidatta of Kottûra on the hill, Damana of Êrandapalla, Vishnugôpa of Kâñchi, Nîlarâija of Avamukta, Hastivarman of Vengî, Ugrasêna of Palakka, Kubêra of Dêvarâshtra, Dhanamjaya of Kusthalapura, and others. Pishtapura (modern-day [[Pithapuram]]) is presumed to be the then capital of Kalinga. Mahakantara is presumed to be parts of western Odisha and Central India. Kottura is traced to modern day [[Ganjam district]].<ref>{{cite book|author=V. P. Ramachandra Dikshitar|title=The Gupta Polity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KP_DTtd6kJEC&pg=PA4|access-date=14 November 2012|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1024-2|pages=4–}}</ref>

In post-Samudragupta period, a new dynasty called [[Mathara dynasty|Matharas]] arose in south Kalinga, they ruled from Pishtapura but also issued copper grants from [[Simhapura]].<ref name="ancientIndia">{{cite book|author=A. K. Warder R.C. Majumdar|title=Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNxiN5tzKOgC&pg=PA389|access-date=18 November 2012|year=1977|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0436-4|page=389}}</ref> Their kingdom was probably spread from Mahanadi to Godavari.<ref name="histKalinga">{{cite book|author=Majumdar R. C.|title=Outline of the History of Kaliṅga|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LNCcpkqesJ0C&pg=PA7|access-date=18 November 2012|year=1996|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1194-8|page=7}}</ref>

Another dynasty of rulers arose in western Odisha during post-Gupta period, they are called [[Sharabhapuriya dynasty]]. Not much is known about this dynasty. Everything known about them, comes from the inscriptions on copper plates and coins. They may or may not have also been known as the Amararyakula dynasty.<ref name=sara>{{cite book|title=Inscriptions of the Sarabhapuriyas Panduvamsins and Somavamsins|year=1995|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|pages=96, 108, 112|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7cyQ8BxzR4kC&q=Inscriptions+of+the+Sarabhapuriyas+Panduvamsins+and+Somavamsins|author=Ajay Mitra Shastri|isbn=9788120806375|access-date=10 December 2021|archive-date=11 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411084714/https://books.google.com/books?id=7cyQ8BxzR4kC&q=Inscriptions+of+the+Sarabhapuriyas+Panduvamsins+and+Somavamsins|url-status=live}}</ref> This dynasty is supposed to have started by one Sarabha, who may have been a feudal chief under the Guptas. They ruled over the modern-day region of [[Raipur]], [[Bilaspur district, Chhattisgarh|Bilaspur]] and [[Kalahandi]].<ref name=sara/> Their rule lasted from c. 499 to about 700 CE.

===Shailodbhava dynasty===
{{Main|Shailodbhava dynasty}}

The Shailodbhava dynasty ruled parts of modern Odisha during the 6th-8th centuries. Their core territory was known as Kongoda-mandala, and included parts of the present-day [[Ganjam district|Ganjam]], [[Khordha district|Khordha]] and [[Puri district|Puri]] districts. Their capital was located at Kongoda, which is identified with modern [[Banapur]]. The Shailodbhava kingdom was known as Kongoda-mandala. After conquering present-day Odisha, the Gauda king Shashanka created the Kongoda-mandala province, and appointed Sailodbhava ruler Madhavaraja II as his feudatory in the region.<ref name="Sailodbhava" >{{cite book |author=Snigdha Tripathy |title=Inscriptions of Orissa |volume=I - Circa 5th-8th centuries A.D |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XUiYu3XByNgC&pg=PR3 |year=1997 |publisher=[[Indian Council of Historical Research]] and [[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-1077-8 }}</ref>

Madhavaraja II soon gained independence, as noted from the [[Khordha]] inscription which describes him as ''Sakala-Kalingadhipati'', the lord of the entire [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]]), although there is little evidence to prove that he actually conquered the whole of Kalinga given his contemporary [[Eastern Ganga dynasty|Ganga]] king Indravarman also claimed to have conquered the whole of Kalinga. His inscriptions state that he performed the [[ashvamedha]] and other sacrifices, presumably to assert his independence. He was succeeded by his son Dharmaraja who was a strong ruler, and reigned for at least 30 years. In the Nimina inscription, he assumed the royal titles ''Paramabhattaraka'', ''Maharajadhiraja'', and ''Parameshvara''. Later the Shailodbhavas fell into obscurity and their territory appears to have become part of the Shvetaka Gangas, who were vassals of the [[Bhauma-Kara dynasty|Bhauma-Kara]]s. By the 8th century feudatory of the Kongoda-mandala, which was now a province of the Bhauma-Kara kingdom.<ref name="Sailodbhava" />

===Bhauma-Kara dynasty===
{{Main|Bhauma-Kara dynasty}}
[[File:Baitala Temple, Bhubaneswr. Odisha.jpg|thumb|Vaitala-Deula temple]]

The Bhauma-Kara dynasty, ruled in parts of Odisha in eastern India between 8th and 10th centuries and their kingdom was known as called Toshala. By the last quarter of the 8th century, the Bhauma-Karas had gained control of the former [[Shailodbhava dynasty|Shailodbhava]] territory. The early rulers of the dynasties followed [[Buddhism]], and its later rulers followed [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]]. The earlier Bhauma-Kara kings appear to have ruled the northern [[Toshali]] area, while the [[Shailodbhava]]s, who ruled the southern Kongoda region. The dynasty puled most of the coastal Odisha by the time of king [[Sivakara Deva I|Shivakara I]] (c. 756/786). According to the Ganjam inscription of the Shvetaka Gangas, Shivakara I conquered Kongoda and the northern [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]].<ref name="bhauma" >{{cite book |author=Thomas E. Donaldson |title=Iconography of the Buddhist Sculpture of Orissa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DbxE8zOuRbUC&pg=PA51 |year=2001 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=978-81-7017-406-6 }}</ref>

Shantikara I, the younger son of Shubhakara I, married [[Tribhuvana Mahadevi I]], a daughter of the [[Western Ganga dynasty|Western Ganga]] king Rajamalla. The Dhenkanal inscription of Tribhuvana-Mahadevi I (c. 846) mentions the tumultuous shape of the Bhauma-Kara kingdom before her father Rajmalla put an end to the Rashtrakuta-Pala domination. She reunified the kingdom and with her successors the Bhauma-Kara period saw the beginning of the unification of historically distinct regions such as Odra, Toshala, Kongoda and Utkala.<ref name="bhauma" /><ref name="soma"/>

===Somavamshi dynasty===
{{Main|Somavamshi dynasty}}
[[File:Mukteswar Temple 01.jpg|thumb|Mukteswar Temple]]
[[File:Beauty of LingrajTemple.jpg|thumb|Lingaraj Temple]]

The Somavamshi dynasty, also known as Keshari dynasty ruled parts of present-day Odisha in eastern India between the 9th and the 12th centuries. Their capitals included Yayatinagara (now modern [[Binika]]) and Abhinava-Yayatinagara (now modern [[Jajpur]]). The early Somavamshi kings ruled in the region of the eastern part of Dakshina Kosala, which now forms much of western Odisha. The Chaudwar inscription of the earliest known Somavamshi king Janamejaya describes him as ''Kosalendra'' (i.e. lord of Kosala).<ref name="shastri1" >{{cite book |author=Ajay Mitra Shastri |author-link=Ajay Mitra Shastri |title=Inscriptions of the Śarabhapurīyas, Pāṇḍuvaṁśins, and Somavaṁśins: Part I |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Idd9i5nP160C&pg=PA47 |year=1995 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0635-1 |ref={{harvid|A. M. Shastri I|1995}} }}</ref> During his long reign of 34 years, Janmejaya issued a number of copper-plate grants at various places across western and coastal Odisha. This suggests that Janmejaya consolidated the Somavamshi rule in western Odisha and by his 31st regnal year, he issued three grants from Kataka, which has been identified as Chaudwar near modern Cuttack. This suggests that his influence extended to eastern Odisha by the end of his reign.<ref name="soma" >{{cite book |author=Walter Smith |title=The Mukteśvara Temple in Bhubaneswar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y0MQmNx8g2gC&pg=PA21 |year=1994 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0793-8 }}</ref>

Yayati I (c. 922-955), the son of Janmejaya I, made a large number of grants in the Dakshina Kosala which are recorded on the inscriptions issued at Yayatinagara. The capital was later moved to the Guheshvarapataka (modern [[Jajpur]]) after the conquest of the Bhauma-Kara kingdom, following which it was renamed to Abhinava-Yayatinagara (''the new city of Yayati''). Yayati I is credited with building of a new temple at Puri, and installing the image of Purushottama (Jagannatha) there. His reign marks the beginning of the Somavamshi style of temple architecture, which features new forms of ornamentation and iconography in Odisha.<ref name="soma" /> An important epoch that marked the reign of Yayati I was the initiation of the ''Utkaliya era'' which seems to correspond to the reign of the legendary early Somavamshis (Kesaris) as per the chronicle [[Madala Panji]], thus implying the start of the era for the [[Odia calendar]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kailash Chandra Dash |title=A traditional account on Yayati Keshari: Its formation and historical authenticity |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=71 |issue=2010–2011 |year=2010 |pages=165–178 |jstor=44147485 }}</ref>

===Eastern Ganga dynasty===
{{Main|Eastern Ganga dynasty}}

[[File:Temple-Jagannath.jpg|200px|thumbnail|left|The Jagannath temple was built by rulers of the Eastern Ganga dynasty.]]
[[File:Konark Sun Temple Front view.jpg|220x220px|thumbnail| Narasimhadeva I is known to have built the Konark temple.]]

Indravarman I is assumed to be the earliest known king of the [[Eastern Ganga dynasty]]. His Jirjingi grant mentions no predecessors and was issued in his 39th<ref name="Sircar1996">{{cite book|author=D. C. Sircar|title=Indian Epigraphy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXMB3649biQC&pg=PA290|access-date=18 November 2012|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1166-9|page=290}}</ref> regnal year, c. 537 CE. He had his capital at [[Dantapura]]. Another plate found also mentions him defeating a [[Vishnukundina]] king called Indra Bhattaraka.<ref name="indology">{{cite book|author=Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi|title=Literary And Historical Studies in Indology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X0JUwf2BXVAC&pg=PA138|access-date=29 November 2012|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0417-3|page=138}}</ref> Many rulers of this dynasty went by the title ''Trikalingadhipati'',<ref name="Kumari1990">{{cite book|author=M. Krishna Kumari|title=Social And Cultural Life in Medieval Andhra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B5SaAGpGNbAC&pg=PA17|access-date=30 November 2012|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7141-102-3|pages=17–}}</ref> literally the "lord of the three Kalingas". The capital was later shifted to Kalinganagara, later during the reign of Devendravarman I (c. 652–682?).

During this period, c. 639 CE, [[Xuanzang]] visited this region, he notes that Buddhism was widely practiced in this region. He mentions the existence of the monastery called [[Puphagiri]]. The sites were lost until recently. New excavations have found several Buddhist monuments dating to this period.<ref name="Wriggins2004">{{cite book|author=Sally Hovey Wriggins|title=The Silk Road Journey with Xuanzang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fz2rB4lK1DMC&pg=PA141|access-date=3 February 2015|year=2004|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-8133-6599-2|page=141}}</ref><ref name="Allen2012">{{cite book|author=Charles Allen|author-link = Charles Allen (writer)|title=Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4vHjbUtf_4C&pg=PT158|access-date=3 February 2015|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=978-1-4087-0388-5|page=158}}</ref><ref name="Fogelin2006">{{cite book|author=Lars Fogelin|title=Archaeology of Early Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3WAnAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA31|access-date=3 February 2015|publisher=AltaMira Press|isbn=978-0-7591-1444-9|page=31}}</ref> Odisha was conquered by [[Rajendra Chola I]] of the [[Chola dynasty]] in the early 11th century.<ref>A Brief History of India by Alain Daniélou p.177</ref><ref>The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India by Balaji Sadasivan p.133</ref><ref>Social and Cultural Life in Medieval Andhra by M. Krishna Kumari: p.18</ref><ref>Ancient India by [[R. C. Majumdar|Ramesh Chandra Majumdar]] p.390</ref><ref>''Ancient Indian History and Civilization'' by Sailendra Nath Sen p.482</ref>

The capital was again shifted to [[Kataka (city)|Kataka]] by [[Anantavarman Chodaganga]] in 1135.<ref name="eastIndia">{{cite book|author=Rabindra Nath Chakraborty|title=National Integration in Historical Perspective: A Cultural Regeneration in Eastern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PItbvfAvVggC&pg=PA17|access-date=30 November 2012|year=1985|publisher=Mittal Publications|pages=17–|id=GGKEY:CNFHULBK119}}</ref> He is said to have started building the [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Puri Jagannath]] temple.<ref name=PuriArch>{{cite web|title=Jagannath Temple Architecture|url=http://jagannath.nic.in/architecture.asp|publisher=Shree Jagannath Temple Administration, Puri|access-date=29 November 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120171916/http://jagannath.nic.in/architecture.asp|archive-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> The temple was later completed by his successor [[Anangabhima Deva III]]. [[Narasingha Deva I]] is known to have built the [[Konark temple]].

In 1187, [[Nissanka Malla]] who ascended to the throne in Sri Lanka claimed to have descended from Kalinga. He may have born in 1157 in the capital of Kalinga, [[Sinhapura]] (modern day [[Srikakulam]], now in [[Andhra Pradesh]]).<ref name="Codrington1994">{{cite book|author=H. W. Codrington|title=Short History of Ceylon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tqpdlaPiOyEC&pg=PA65|access-date=3 February 2015|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0946-4|page=65}}</ref> In 1215, an invader from Kalinga, called [[Kalinga Magha]] landed in Sri Lanka and had an oppressive reign of 21 years.<ref name="Mendis1996">{{cite book|author=G.C. Mendis|title=The Early History of Ceylon and Its Relations with India and Other Foreign Countries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PVrUcdi4ZikC&pg=PA58|access-date=3 February 2015|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0209-0|page=58}}</ref>

By the early 12th century, Kalinga had been conquered by [[Kulothunga Chola I]] and his general [[Karunakara Tondaiman]]. The literary work called [[Kalingattuparani|Kalingathu Parani]], is written in praise of the invasion.<ref>A History of Indian Literature, 500-1399: From Courtly to the Popular by Sisir Kumar Das p.209</ref>

According to the text [[Tabaqat-i Nasiri]], the ruler of Jajnagar (Kalinga) began to harass the [[Bengal|Lukhnauti]] (Bengal) ruler in 1243. [[Tughral Tughan Khan]] the governor of Bengal advanced against Jajnagar in March 1244. They armies encountered after a month at the frontier fort of Katashin and the Kalingan army retreated after taking losses. Later, when the army of Khan was having lunch, the Kalingan army flanked them and attacked. The defeated army of Khan then retreated.<ref name="Ireland1834"/>

== Medieval Odisha ==
===Gajapati Empire===
{{Main|Gajapati Empire}}

The [[Gajapati Empire]] was established by [[Kapilendra Deva]] in 1435,<ref name="econ2">{{cite book|author=Nihar Ranjan Patnaik|title=Economic History of Orissa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AA9W9_4Z9gC&pg=PA71|access-date=1 December 2012|year=1997|publisher=Indus Publishing|isbn=978-81-7387-075-0|pages=71–}}</ref> after the fall of the last Eastern Ganga king, Bhanudeva IV. The dynasty is also known as a [[Suryavansha|Suryavamsi]] dynasty. In about 1450, Kapilendra Deva installed his eldest son, Hamira, as the governor of Rajamundry and Kondavidu.<ref name="Kulke">{{cite book|author1=Hermann Kulke|author2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C&pg=PA189|access-date=2 December 2012|year=2004|publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|isbn=978-0-415-32919-4|page=189}}</ref><ref name=prataparudra/> Kapilendra Deva managed spread his kingdom from Ganga in the north to as far as [[Bidar]] in the south by 1457.<ref name="gazetteer"/>

During Kapilendra Deva's reign, [[Sarala Das]], the [[Odia language|Odia]] poet, wrote the Odia Mahabharata and his other works.<ref name="jaga2">{{cite book|author=O. M. Starza|title=The Jagannatha Temple at Puri: Its Architecture, Art, and Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v4bV3beb0n8C&pg=PA146|access-date=2 December 2012|year=1993|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-09673-8|pages=146–}}</ref>

When Kapilendra Deva died in 1467, a civil war occurred to capture the throne, among his sons. In the end, [[Purushottama Deva]] succeeded in securing the throne in 1484 by defeating Hamvira.<ref name=prataparudra/> But, during this period significant southern parts of the empire were lost to [[Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya|Saluva Narasimha]], the ruler of [[Vijayanagara]]. By the time of his death, he had managed to recover most these territories by capturing Saluva Narasimha.

He was succeeded by his son, [[Prataparudra Deva]], in 1497. Immediately, he had to face the armies of [[Alauddin Husain Shah]] of Bengal. During his reign, Alauddin Husain Shah attacked again in 1508, this time the Muslim army marched up to Puri. In 1512 [[Krishna Deva Raya]] of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] invaded Kalinga and defeated the forces of the Gajapati Empire.<ref>Medieval Orissa: A Socio-economic Study by Shishir Kumar Panda p.12</ref>

Govinda Vidyadhara was a minister under, Gajapati king, Prataparudra Deva.<ref name="prataparudra">{{cite book|author=Dipti Ray|title=Prataparudradeva, the Last Great Suryavamsi King of Orissa: (A.D. 1497 to A.D. 1540)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=to_U9I6Ol9wC&pg=PA18|access-date=2 December 2012|publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=978-81-7211-195-3|pages=18–}}</ref> But, he rebelled against him and succeeded in ascending the throne in 1541, after murdering the two sons of Prataparudra Deva.<ref name="gazetteer">{{cite book|author=L.S.S. O'malley|title=Bengal District Gazetteer : Puri|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pwD0-YV2LCYC&pg=PA30|access-date=2 December 2012|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7268-138-8|pages=30–}}</ref>

===Bhoi dynasty===
{{Main|Bhoi dynasty}}

The [[Bhoi dynasty]]<ref name=palm/> was founded by Govinda Vidyadhara who came to throne in a bloody coup, in 1541.<ref name=gazetteer/> The dynasty was short-lived and during this period the kingdom came under conflict with neighbouring kingdoms and reeled with civil wars. First, Raghubhanja Chhotray who was the nephew of Govinda Vidyadhara, became a rebel. Govinda was succeeded by his son, Chakrapratap, who was an unpopular ruler. After he died in 1557, a minister called Mukunda Deva rebelled. He killed the last two Bhoi kings and squashed the rebellion of Raghubhanja Chhotray. After that, he declared himself the Gajapati of Odisha.<ref name=gazetteer/>

===Mukunda Deva===
Mukunda Deva (also known as Mukunda Harichandana)<ref name="palm">{{cite book|author=Durga Prasad Patnaik|title=Plam-Leaf Etchings of Orissa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90_qAeMT1bwC|access-date=2 December 2012|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-248-2}}</ref> came to throne, in 1559, in a bloody coup. According to the ''[[Madala Panji]]'' (temple records), he was a [[Chalukya]].<ref name=palm/> During this period, Odisha was going through many internal conflicts. Mukunda stuck an alliance with [[Akbar]], that he made him a foe of [[Sulaiman Khan Karrani]], the ruler of Bengal. Sulaiman sent his son, [[Bayazid Khan Karrani]] and his infamous general, [[Kalapahad]], to conquer Odisha, in 1567.

Mukunda met the forces in the north but had to withdraw to stop a rebellion after signing a treaty with the Sultan's son.<ref name=palm/> Mukunda was killed in a battle with the rebel forces led by Ramachandra Bhanja. Ramachandra Bhanja was a feudal lord under Mukunda, who had rebelled. He himself got caught up in the conflict and was murdered by Bayazid.<ref name="OrissaGK">{{cite book|title=Orissa General Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMCbjkhA_ncC&pg=PA27|access-date=2 December 2012|publisher=Bright Publications|isbn=978-81-7199-574-5|pages=27–}}</ref> Akbar was preparing for the invasion of [[Chittor]], so he was unable to respond. Kalapahad ran across the kingdom in a plundering spree and destroyed several temples.<ref name=palm/> By end of 1568, Odisha was under the control of Sulaiman Khan Karrani.

During this period, Ramachandra Deva I, who was the son of a general and had been imprisoned by Mukunda, escaped from prison and fled to [[Vizagapatam]].<ref name="jaga2"/>

====1568====
1568 is considered an important date in the history of Odisha, as Mukunda Deva is considered the last independent ruler of Odisha. After 1568, the region saw a steady decline. Odisha was not to be an independent kingdom again.<ref name=palm/> Later in 1920, Odia [[playwright]], Ashwini Kumar Ghose wrote a play called ''Kala Pahada'' based on the exploits of Kalapahad and the tragic death of Mukunda Deva. The play is considered one of the greatest [[Tragedy|tragedies]] in Odia literature.<ref name="play">{{cite book|author=Amaresh Datta|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: devraj to jyoti|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&pg=PA1092|access-date=2 December 2012|year=1988|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-1194-0|page=1092}}</ref>

=== Karrani rule ===
In 1568, Odisha came under the control of Sultan [[Sulaiman Khan Karrani]] of the [[Karrani dynasty]], who was the ruler of [[Sultanate of Bengal]]. The Sultan assigned [[Ismail Khan Lodhi]] of [[Prithimpassa Family|Prithimpassa]] as the governor of Orissa.

In the [[Battle of Tukaroi]], which took place in modern-day [[Balasore]], [[Daud Khan Karrani]] was defeated and retreated deep into Odisha. The battle led to the Treaty of Katak in which Daud ceded the whole of [[Bengal]] and [[Bihar]], retaining only Odisha. The treaty eventually failed after the death of [[Munim Khan]] (governor of Bengal and Bihar) who died at the age of 80. Daud took the opportunity and invaded Bengal. This led to the Battle of Rajmahal in 1576, where Daud was defeated and executed.<ref name="nationalintegration">{{cite book|author=Rabindra Nath Chakraborty|title=National Integration in Historical Perspective: A Cultural Regeneration in Eastern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PItbvfAvVggC&pg=PA22|access-date=10 February 2013|year=1985|publisher=Mittal Publications|page=22|id=GGKEY:CNFHULBK119}}</ref><ref name=maho>{{cite book|title=The History of India: The Hindú and Mahometan Periods (Public Domain)|year=1866|publisher=Murray|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VgOAAAAQAAJ|author=Mountstuart Elphinstone, Edward Byles Cowell}}</ref>

== Modern era ==
{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em; background:#F8F8FF; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:95%;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#DCDCDC; text-align:center;"|<big><big>Odisha Timeline</big></big>
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#DCDCDC; text-align:center;"|1400 CE - 1800 CE
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|1434 CE
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Coronation of [[Kapilendra Deva]]
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|c. 1467 CE
|style="font-size: 80%;"|[[Sarala Das]] writes the [[Odia language|Odia]] Mahabharata
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|1560 CE
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Mukunda Deva seizes the throne
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|1568 CE
|style="font-size: 80%;"|[[Kalapahad]] invades Odisha
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"| 3 March 1575
|style="font-size: 80%;"|[[Battle of Tukaroi]] takes place in [[Balasore]]
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"| 1623
|style="font-size: 80%;"|[[Shah Jahan]] visits Odisha
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"| 1741
|style="font-size: 80%;"|De facto Maratha control over Odisha following [[Maratha invasions of Bengal]]
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"| 1751
|style="font-size: 80%;"|[[Alivardi Khan]] cedes de jure control over Odisha to [[Marathas]]
|}

=== Mughal rule ===
In 1590, Qutlu Khan Lohani, an officer of Daud the Sultan of Bengal,<ref name="IslamImpact">{{cite book|author=Mohammed Yamin|title=Impact of Islam on Orissan Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AN5KebBJxzcC&pg=PA34|access-date=10 February 2013|publisher=Readworthy|isbn=978-81-89973-96-4|pages=34–40}}</ref> declared himself independent and assumed the title of "Qutlu Shah". [[Man Singh I|Raja Man Singh]] who was the Mughal governor of Bihar, started an expedition against him. Before facing Man Singh, Qutlu Shah died. Qutlu Khan's son Nasir Khan, after little resistance, accepted Mughal sovereignty and paid homage to Man Singh on 15 August 1590. Nasir Khan was then appointed Governor of Odisha and signed a treaty which ceded the region of and around [[Puri]]. Nasir Khan remained faithful to the Mughal empire for two years but after that he violated the conditions of his treaty by laying siege to the [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath Temple]] of Puri. Man Singh attacked Nasir Khan and decisively defeated him on 18 April 1592 in a battle near the present day [[Midnapore]] town.<ref name="The Cambridge History of India">{{cite book|title=The Cambridge History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoI8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA660|access-date=10 February 2013|publisher=CUP Archive|page=660|id=GGKEY:96PECZLGTT6|year=1958}}</ref> By 1593, Odisha had passed completely to the Mughal empire and was a part of Bengal Subah.

====Under Akbar====
Raja Ramachandra Deva, the king of [[Khurda]], had accepted Akbar's suzerainty.<ref name="IslamImpact"/> Akbar mostly followed a policy of non-interference in the local chieftains' matters. After Akbar, his son, [[Jahangir]] came to power, who followed a different policy. Under him, Odisha was made into a separate Subah and a governor, titled ''[[Subahdar]]'', ruled in the name of the Mughal emperor.

====Under Jahangir====
Quasim Khan was appointed the governor of Odisha in 1606. During this period, the king of Khurda, Purusottam Deva was attacked by Mughal armies led by Kesho Das. He was defeated, and had to offer his sister and daughter along with dowry to buy peace.<ref name="IslamImpact"/>

In 1611, Kalyan Mal, son of [[Todar Mal]] came to be the governor of Odisha. Kalyan Mal also attacked and defeated Purusottam Deva, who had to send his daughter to the Mughal harem.<ref name="IslamImpact"/> In 1617, Kalyan was recalled to the court.

In 1617, [[Mukarram Khan]] became the governor of Odisha. He also tried to attack Purusottam Deva. But, Purusottam Deva fled from Khurda. In 1621, Ahmad Beg was made the governor of Odisha. Purusottam Deva died in exile in 1622 and was succeeded by his son Narasimha Deva. According to the [[Madala Panji]] (temple chronicles), prince [[Shah Jahan]] had visited Odisha in 1623, which was just after his rebellion.<ref name="madalapanji">{{cite book|author=Narayan Miśra|title=Annals and Antiquities of the Temple of Jagannātha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKUkLzqNv64C&pg=PA156|access-date=10 February 2013|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-7625-747-3|page=156}}</ref> Ahmad Beg remained governor until 1628.

====Under Shah Jahan====
In 1628, [[Shah Jahan]] became the Mughal emperor and Muhammad Baqar Khan was appointed the governor of Odisha. He extended his influence well into the kingdom of Golconda. In 1632, he was recalled. [[Shah Shuja (Mughal prince)|Shah Shuja]] was appointed by Shah Jahan as the Subahdar of Bengal from 1639 until 1660. From 1645 onwards, a deputy of Shuja called Zaman Teharani was the governor of Odisha.<ref name="IslamImpact"/> Orissa was the first [[subah]] (imperial top-level province) added to Akbar's fifteen by [[Shah Jahan]]. It had [[Cuttack]] as seat and bordered Bihar, Bengal and Golconda subahs, as well as the remaining independent and tributary chiefs. In 1647, Narasimha Deva was beheaded by a Mughal general called Fateh Khan.<ref name="madalapanji"/>

====Under Aurangzeb====
In 1658, Shah Jahan took ill and [[Dara Shikoh]] took on as the royal regent. This led to a war of succession in which [[Aurangzeb]] emerged victorious in 1659. He imprisoned his own father, who later died in 1666. During this period of instability in the Mughal empire, several chieftains in Odisha had declared independence. Khan-i-Duran was appointed the governor under Aurangzeb and his reign was from 1660 to 1667. During this period, he crushed several rebel chieftains and subdued Mukunda Deva I, the then king of Khurda.<ref name="IslamImpact"/>

====Under Murshid Quli Khan====
In 1707, Aurangzeb died and the control of Mughals over Odisha began to weaken. [[Murshid Quli Khan]] was made governor of Odisha in 1714. In 1717, he was also made the [[Nawab of Bengal]]. He swore fealty to the Mughal emperor but he was an independent ruler for all purposes. He took several measures to increase revenues and create several new [[Jagir]]s. In 1727, on his death, his son-in-law, [[Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan|Shuja-ud-Din]] became the Nawab of Bengal. Before that he was a deputy of Murshid in Odisha. During his time, several tracts of land were lost to neighbouring kingdoms.<ref name="IslamImpact"/>

====Under Shuja-ud-Din====
In 1727, Taqi Khan, the son of Shuja-ud-Din, was made the governor. He got engaged in a war with Ramachandra Deva II. Ramachandra Deva II was imprisoned and was converted to Islam.<ref name="madalapanji"/><ref name="kingship">{{cite book|author=John R. McLane|title=Land and Local Kingship in Eighteenth-Century Bengal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YH6ijJnUPmcC&pg=PA174|access-date=10 February 2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52654-8|page=174}}</ref> Ramachandra Deva II once visited Puri to see [[Ratha-Yatra (Puri)|car festival]]. Taqi Khan was displeased by this advanced on Khurda and Ramachandra Deva II fled. Bhagirathi Kumar, son of Ramachandra Deva II, was declared king by Taqi Khan. Taqi Khan died in 1734. During his reign, several Islamic monuments were built in Odisha.<ref name="IslamImpact"/>

His successor, [[Lutfullah Tabrizi|Murshid Quli Khan II]] (alias. Rustam Jung), a Naib Nazim (deputy governor) of Shuja-ud-Din and also his son-in-law, allowed worship in Puri and he is said to have given his daughter to Ramachandra Deva II in marriage. He installed Padmanava Deva as king of Khurda in 1736 but replaced him by Birakesari Deva, son of Ramachandra Deva II in 1739. Shuja-ud-Din died in 1739 and was replaced by his son, [[Sarfaraz Khan]]. Sarfaraz Khan was defeated and killed in the [[Battle of Giria]] by [[Alivardi Khan]]. Rustam Jung marched against Alivardi Khan but he was defeated. Alivardi Khan was not a popular ruler.<ref name="IslamImpact"/>

The [[Marathas]] started raiding Alivardi Khan's territory starting in 1742, aided by Rustam Jung and his allies.<ref name="2rivers">{{cite book|author=Nitish K Sengupta|title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA158|access-date=10 February 2013|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341678-4|page=158}}</ref> These raids used quick hit-and-run tactics and were called [[bargi]]s. Alivardi Khan unable to check the raids ceded Odisha to [[Raghoji I Bhonsle]] in 1751.

During this period, the idols of [[Jagannath]] and other deities were removed from the temple several times, and hidden to save them from [[iconoclasm]].<ref name="IslamImpact"/><ref name="madalapanji"/>

=== Maratha rule ===
By 1751, the Marathas controlled the administration of Orissa. The river [[Subarnarekha River|Subarnarekha]] served as the border between Bengal and Maratha-controlled Odisha.<ref name="britishadmin">{{cite book|author=Bandita Devi|title=Some Aspects Of British Administration In Orissa (1912–1936)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lBQQHizn788C&pg=PA14|access-date=10 February 2013|publisher=Academic Foundation|isbn=978-81-7188-072-0|page=14}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Ancient |url=http://www.orissa.gov.in/history1.htm |access-date=2022-05-26 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061112195307/http://www.orissa.gov.in/history1.htm |archive-date=12 November 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Marathas improved Orissa's profile as a pilgrimage site, especially to the [[Jagannath Temple, Puri|Jagannath Temple]] where maintenance and repairs were strongly encouraged. They paid extra attention to uphold religious sites. The Marathas instituted the pilgrim tax for their income at Puri, which was exempt for paupers.<ref name="madalapanji" /> The Marathas expanded on road construction, erection of houses and even experimented with a postal service. However, external trade declined in Maratha-held Orissa. With the rise of British power in the Bengal region and their chokehold on maritime trade in the [[Bay of Bengal]]; exports of grains and commodities declined sharply for locals.<ref name=":0" />

Literature and poetry blossomed in Odisha under the rule of the Marathas. This was due to patronization of the local chiefs and other Maratha rulers. [[Kāvya|Kavya]] and Padya literature, of both prose and poetry made significant headways during this period.<ref name=":0" />

The strategic position of Orissa for trade was understood by Britain, as it was situated between British-held [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] and [[Madras Presidency|Madras]]. In 1803, the British conquered the region during the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]], when most of the Maratha forces were engaged elsewhere.<ref name="britishadmin" /><ref name=":0" />

===European trade and influences===
{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em; background:#F8F8FF; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:95%;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#DCDCDC; text-align:center;"|<big><big>Odisha Timeline</big></big>
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#DCDCDC; text-align:center;"|1800 CE - 1947 CE
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|14 October 1803
|style="font-size: 80%;"|[[Barabati fort|Fort of Barabati]] falls to the British
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|1817
|style="font-size: 80%;"|The Paika Rebellion
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|1866
|style="font-size: 80%;"|The [[Odisha famine of 1866|Great Famine]] of 1886 (''Na Anka Durvikhya'')
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|1 April 1936
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Orissa became a separate province
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|15 August 1947
|style="font-size: 80%;"|India becomes independent
|}

====Early Portuguese and British trade====
The [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] were the first Europeans to build factories in Odisha. They had a settlement in Pipili in Puri district. The British had established a settlement in Hariharpur (modern-day [[Jagatsinghpur]]), with the permission of the Mughal administrator, as early as 1633 to trade cotton goods. But it could not be maintain long because of the harsh climate, and Portuguese and [[Aracan]]ese [[pirates]].<ref name="econ2"/> In 1765, [[Lord Clive]] acquired the ''[[diwani]]'' of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha from titular Mughal emperor, [[Shah Alam II]]. But, only the [[Midnapore]] district was meant by Odisha, as rest of it had passed on to the Marathas.{{citation needed}} Lord Clive had tried to negotiate the acquisition of Odisha from the Marathas. His successor, [[Warren Hastings]], had also tried negotiating with the Marathas.

====Princely States of Odisha and British administration====
[[File:Barabati fort at cuttack.jpg|thumb|Ruins of Barabati fort in Cuttack.]]
[[File:Two lovers, folio from a Ragamala album.jpg|thumb|''Two lovers'', folio from a ''[[Ragamala paintings|Ragamala]]'' album. Pigment on cloth, in the technique closely resembling that used in Odishan [[pattachitra]]s. Circa 1850]]
A Colonel Harcourt of the [[Presidency armies]] sailed from [[Northern Circars]] on 3 August 1803 and landed on 25 August.<ref name="StirlingOrissa">{{cite book|author1=Andrew Stirling|author2=James Peggs|title=Orissa: Its Geography, Statistics, History, Religion and Antiquities|url=https://archive.org/details/orissaitsgeogra00pegggoog|access-date=10 February 2013|year=1846|publisher=author|pages=[https://archive.org/details/orissaitsgeogra00pegggoog/page/n224 195]–}}</ref> He marched from [[Ganjam district|Ganjam]] with 5000 men on 8 September, to flush the Marathas out of the region.<ref name="CraikMacFarlane1844">{{cite book|author1=George Lillie Craik|author2-link=Charles MacFarlane|author2=Charles MacFarlane|title=The Pictorial History of England During the Reign of George the Third: 1802-1820|url=https://archive.org/details/pictorialhistor01cogoog|access-date=10 February 2013|year=1844|publisher=C. Knight|pages=[https://archive.org/details/pictorialhistor01cogoog/page/n98 85]–|author1-link=George Lillie Craik}}</ref> On 18 September, Harcourt took control of Puri.<ref name="madalapanji"/> On 21 September, a second force had landed at Balasore and after taking control of the region, it sent reinforcements to Cuttack to help with the siege of the fort. On 14 October, the fort of [[Barabati fort|Barbati]] was stormed and captured.<ref name="CraikMacFarlane1844"/>

On 17 December 1803, [[Raghoji II Bhonsle]] of [[Nagpur]] signed the Treaty of Deogaon (also Deogarh) in Odisha with the British [[East India Company]] after the [[Battle of Laswari]] and gave up the [[Cuttack district|province of Cuttack]] (which included the coastal Mughalbandi plain, [[Garhjat Hills|Garhjat]] the princely states of Western Odisha, Balasore port, and parts of [[Midnapore]] district of West Bengal).<ref name=Reddy/> The region was subsequently administered by the British as a division until 1912 of the [[Bengal Presidency]] with its administrative seat in [[Cuttack]], the princely states remaining under [[indirect rule]].{{citation needed}}

Jayakrushna Rajaguru Mohapatra, (better known to the Indian public as [[Jayi Rajaguru]]) the royal preceptor to Mukunda Dev II (who at the time was still a minor) mobilised an army of Paika warriors and led a revolt against the East India Company in 1804, which was the first uprising against British rule in Orissa. However, the Presidency armies, with the assistance of local chiefs, were ultimately able to suppress the rebellion, and both Jayi Rajaguru and the Raja were captured. On 6 December 1806, Jayi Rajaguru was executed in [[Midnapore]].<ref name="Paṭṭanāẏaka1979">{{cite book|author=Praphulla Kumāra Paṭṭanāẏaka|title=A Forgotten Chapter of Orissan History: With Special Reference to the Rajas of Khurda and Puri, 1568–1828|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CzA-AAAAIAAJ|year=1979|publisher=Punthi Pustak}}</ref>

In 1817, the British had to suppress the Paika rebellion. The Paika were a landed militia who were exempted from taxes in lieu of their services. They were dissatisfied with the new British land laws and were led by Bakshi Jagabandhu,<ref name="bbsr" /> a commander of the king of Khurda.<ref name="Mahmud1994">{{cite book|author=Sayed Jafar Mahmud|title=Pillars of Modern India 1757-1947|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8XPyBqxwX8C&pg=PA10|access-date=10 February 2013|year=1994|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7024-586-5|page=10}}</ref>

[[Surendra Sai]] from Sambalpur region had started a rebellion against the British in 1827. During the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], the princes of Odisha did not join the wars.{{citation needed}}

In 1866, Odisha was struck with a [[Odisha famine of 1866|great famine]], called ''Na Anka Durvikhya''<ref name="Mishra1991">{{cite book|author=H. K. Mishra|title=Faminies & Poverty in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=467VlNK6YfUC&pg=PA103|access-date=10 February 2013|year=1991|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7024-374-8|page=103}}</ref> (literally ''the nine number famine'') locally.<ref name="Davis2002">{{cite book|author=Mike Davis|title=Late Victorian Holocausts: El Nino Famines and the Making of the Third World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2LjYUY3LHkoC&pg=PT35|access-date=10 February 2013|publisher=Verso Books|isbn=978-1-78168-061-2|page=35}}</ref> The death toll has been estimated to be about one million spread across different regions.<ref name="Marshall2001">{{cite book|author=P. J. Marshall|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2EXN8JTwAEC&pg=PA132|access-date=10 February 2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00254-7|page=132}}</ref> During the famine, Babu Bichitrananda Das and Gouri Shankar Roy decided to publish a magazine in Odia. The first issue of ''Utakala Deepika'' appeared on 4 August 1866 from the newly Cuttack Printing Press. It dealt with issue of famine.<ref name="Das2006">{{cite book|author=Ratan Das|title=Poverty And Hunger: Causes And Consequences|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6TcP7mj6cMC&pg=PA124|access-date=10 February 2013|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-7625-731-2|page=124}}</ref> Though Christian missionaries had established a printing press in Cuttack in 1838, this was the first independent publication in Odia.<ref name="Sutton1850">{{cite book|author=Amos Sutton|title=Orissa and its evangelization; interspersed with suggestions respecting the more efficient conduction of Indian Missions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SydLAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA319|access-date=10 February 2013|year=1850|publisher=Wilkins|page=319}}</ref>

In 1870, [[Madhusudan Das]] became the first person from Odisha to acquire a graduate degree. He had completed his Bachelor of Arts from [[Calcutta University]] and later went on to acquire a Master of Arts from the same university in 1873. He also acquired a law degree in 1878.<ref name="Sarma1996">{{cite book|author=Bina Kumari Sarma|title=Development of Modern Education in India: An Empirical Study of Orissa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J1SC33vLHZIC&pg=PA108|access-date=10 February 2013|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-85880-94-5|page=108}}</ref> He went on to become one of the foremost leaders from the state.

After Madhusudan Das returned from Calcutta to Cuttack in 1881, the Utkal Sabha was formed in 1882. It marked the beginning of political activities in Odisha.<ref name="Sarma1996"/> In 1888, a [[Durbar (court)|durbar]] was held in Cuttack during the visit of Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, where the Utkal Sabha led by Gouri Shankar Roy presented the issue of bringing Odia-speaking territories under one administration.<ref name="SamalNayak1996">{{cite book|author1=J. K. Samal|author2=Pradip Kumar Nayak|title=Makers of Modern Orissa: Contributions of Some Leading Personalities of Orissa in the 2nd Half of the 19th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ewpJNpCLJgC&pg=PA47|access-date=15 March 2014|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-322-9|page=47}}</ref>

In 1903, the Utkal Union Conference was founded.<ref name="Sarma1996"/> In 1912, Odisha and Bihar were separated from Bengal province to form a new single province.<ref name="Karna1981">{{cite book|author=Mahendra Narain Karna|title=Studies in Bihar's Economy and Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X-w7cazQezwC&pg=PA15|access-date=15 March 2014|year=1981|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|page=15|id=GGKEY:ZF0T0NLC8XZ}}</ref> In 1912, the Orissa Tenancy Act was introduced the Bihar-Orissa Legislative Assembly. The previous Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 was considered ill-suited for the conditions of the region. On 12 September 1913, the Orissa Tenancy Act was passed, securing better rights and treatment for [[ryot]]s in the region.<ref name="Samal1990">{{cite book|author=J. K. Samal|title=Economic History of Orissa, 1866-1912|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NO4xIxxt0kYC&pg=PA67|access-date=15 March 2014|year=1990|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-218-9|pages=67–}}</ref> In 1913, [[Sashi Bhusan Rath]] began publishing the first Odia daily newspaper, ''Asha'', from Berhampur. [[Gopabandhu Das]] was the editor and wrote its editorials until 1919. In 1915, Gopabandhu Das began publishing a magazine called ''Satyabadi'', to promote Odia literature and culture. On 4 October 1919, he started his own weekly newspaper, ''[[The Samaja|Samaja]]''.<ref name="padhy2011">{{cite book|author=K. S. Padhy|title=Indian Political Thought|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jEz5soh9P3oC&pg=PA279|access-date=15 March 2014|publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-203-4305-4|page=279}}</ref> In 1914, the revolutionary [[Bagha Jatin]] moved to a hideout in Kaptipada village in [[Mayurbhanj]]. On 9 September 1915, Bagha Jatin and his companions were discovered by the colonial authorities and it resulted in a 75 minutes gunfight. On 10 September 1915, Bagha Jatin died of bullet wounds at the Balasore hospital.<ref name="Agrawal 2008 p. 53-60">{{cite book | last=Agrawal | first=L.M.G. | title=Freedom fighters of India | publisher=Isha Books | year=2008 | isbn=978-81-8205-470-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FJu9Dkv_2zEC&pg=PA53 | access-date=2020-03-19 | pages=53–60 | archive-date=30 June 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630005610/http://books.google.com/books?id=FJu9Dkv_2zEC&pg=PA53 | url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1885, [[Indian National Congress]] was founded. In 1920, it adopted reorganization of provinces according to linguistic basis as one its agendas.<ref name="Schmidt1995">{{cite book|author=Karl J. Schmidt|title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History|url=https://archive.org/details/atlassurveyofsou0000schm|url-access=registration|access-date=10 February 2013|year=1995|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-3757-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/atlassurveyofsou0000schm/page/88 88]}}</ref> This inspired many leaders in Odisha to form an Odisha Congress Committee and demand a separate province for the Odia-speaking population.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sadhna Sharma|title=States Politics in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0HdDbdKa8UC&pg=PA249|access-date=10 February 2013|year=1995|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-619-4|pages=249–}}</ref> In 1923, the Bhubanananda Odisha School of Engineering was established in Cuttack. It was the first technical diploma institution in the region.<ref name="Reddy2005"/> In 1927, the districts of Cuttack and Balasore were hit by abnormal floods for the third successive year. About 28,756 families were affected by the floods according to the government report.<ref name="Devi1992">{{cite book|author=Bandita Devi|title=Some Aspects of British Administration in Orissa, 1912-1936|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lBQQHizn788C&pg=PA135|access-date=16 March 2014|publisher=Academic Foundation|isbn=978-81-7188-072-0|page=135}}</ref>

On 6 April 1930, a group of volunteers marched from Cuttack to Inchudi in Balasore. On 12 April, they defied the [[History of the British salt tax in India|British salt tax law]] by making salt.<ref name=salt_law>{{cite news|title=Satyagraha memory fades with time|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120912/jsp/odisha/story_15963791.jsp#.UyUvhtSSzC0|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140610120448/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120912/jsp/odisha/story_15963791.jsp#.UyUvhtSSzC0|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 June 2014|access-date=16 March 2014|newspaper=[[The Telegraph (India)]]}}</ref> On 1 April 1936, Odisha was granted the status of a separate province. [[Odisha Day]] (''Utkala Dibasa'') is celebrated locally every year on 1 April to mark the day. In 1936, Odisha has 6 districts: [[Cuttack]], [[Puri]], Balasore, [[Ganjam]], [[Koraput]], and [[Sambalpur]].<ref name="MearnsSinha1999"/> On 11 October 1938, Baji Rout, a ferry boy of 12 years, was shot dead by policemen in Dhenkanal district, when he refused to ferry them across the river.<ref name="Mishra1998">{{cite book|author=D. P Mishra|title=People's Revolt in Orissa: A Study of Talcher|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W8GXSR0SiF8C&pg=PA209|access-date=10 February 2013|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-7156-739-3|page=209}}</ref> In 1943, the [[Utkal University]] was founded.<ref name="Pawar1998">{{cite book|author=Sarbjit Singh Pawar|title=University Grants Commission (UGC) and Development of Libraries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dt0GguQNR4IC&pg=PA13|access-date=16 March 2014|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|isbn=978-81-7629-092-0|page=13}}</ref>

In March 1946, the foundation stone for the [[Hirakud Dam]] was laid by the Governor of Odisha, Sir Hawthrone Lewis.<ref name="Sarin2013">{{cite book|author=Sharad Sarin|title=Business Marketing: Concepts and Cases|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TBJ_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA428|access-date=16 March 2014|year=2013|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-1-259-02661-4|page=428}}</ref> Also in 1946, the Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI) was established in Cuttack to prevent occurrences like the [[Bengal famine of 1943]].<ref name="BurmaChakravorty2011">{{cite book|author1=D. P. Burma|author2=Maharani Chakravorty|title=From Physiology and Chemistry to Biochemistry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CaQ3-x3LXMC&pg=PA278|access-date=16 March 2014|year=2011|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-3220-5|page=278}}</ref> On 22 July 1947, [[Biju Patnaik]] rescued the [[Indonesia]]n Prime Minister [[Sutan Sjahrir]] and Vice President [[Mohammad Hatta]] from behind [[Indonesian National Revolution|Dutch lines]] and flew them to [[Singapore]] in a [[Douglas C-47 Skytrain]], disguised as crew members. They reached India on 24 July.<ref name=Biju_Java>{{cite journal|title=Biju Patnaik : An Illustrious Son of Orissa|journal=Orissa Review|url=http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/Feb-March2006/engpdf/biju_patnaik_an_illustrious.pdf|access-date=16 March 2014|author=Hemanta Kumar Nayak|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714144240/http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/Feb-March2006/engpdf/biju_patnaik_an_illustrious.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Datta-Ray2009">{{cite book|author=Sunanda K. Datta-Ray|title=Looking East to Look West: Lee Kuan Yew's Mission India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DFo1yl5AGokC&pg=PA74|access-date=16 March 2014|year=2009|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-4279-04-8|page=74}}</ref>

==As a part of the Republic of India==
{{cleanup rewrite}}
{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em; background:#F8F8FF; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:95%;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#DCDCDC; text-align:center;"|<big><big>Orissa Timeline</big></big>
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#DCDCDC; text-align:center;"|1947 CE – Present
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|1948
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Capital of Odisha shifted from [[Cuttack]] to [[Bhubaneswar]]
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|1952
|style="font-size: 80%;"|The first [[Kalinga Prize]] awarded
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|1953
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Completion of the [[Hirakud Dam]]
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|1956
|style="font-size: 80%;"|[[Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology|University College of Engineering]], was established in Burla
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|1957
|style="font-size: 80%;"|Odisha Sahitya Academy was established
|-
|style="font-size:80%; text-align:center;"|12 February 1961
|style="font-size: 80%;"|The building of [[Legislative Assembly of Odisha]] was inaugurated
|}

On 27 May 1947, [[Harekrushna Mahatab]] took oath to form a [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] ministry.{{citation needed}} In 1946, it was decided that [[Bhubaneswar]] would replace [[Cuttack]] as the political capital of the state of [[Odisha]]. A year after India gained its independence from Britain, the task of designing had been granted to the German architect [[Otto Königsberger]].<ref name="bbsr"/> Also in 1948, construction on the [[Hirakud Dam]] began.<ref name="Sarin2013"/> By 1949, the 24 [[princely states]] had been integrated and Odisha had 13 districts: [[Cuttack district|Cuttack]], [[Puri district|Puri]], Balasore, [[Ganjam district|Ganjam]], [[Koraput district|Koraput]], [[Sambalpur district|Sambalpur]], [[Dhenkanal district|Dhenkanal]], [[Sundergarh district|Sundergarh]], [[Keonjhar district|Keonjhar]], [[Balangir district|Balangirpatna]], [[Kandhamal district|Boudh-Kandhamal]], [[Mayurbhanj district|Mayurbhanj]] and [[Kalahandi district|Kalahandi]].<ref name="MearnsSinha1999">{{cite book|author1=Robin Mearns|author2=Saurabh Sinha|title=Social Exclusion and Land Administration in Odisha, India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9kNjYX2TOEC&pg=PA10|access-date=22 March 2014|year=1999|publisher=World Bank Publications|page=10|id=GGKEY:QYC1YX7WC8C}}</ref> On 12 May 1950, Mahatab resigned to join the [[Cabinet of India]].<ref name="Sethy2003">{{cite book|author=Rabindra Kumar Sethy|title=Political Crisis and President's Rule in an Indian State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-2kJusgGxiQC&pg=PA99|access-date=22 March 2014|year=2003|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-463-3|page=99}}</ref> [[Nabakrushna Choudhuri]] took over as the Chief Minister the same day.<ref name="Malhotra 2004 p. 706">{{cite book | last=Malhotra | first=G.C. | title=Cabinet Responsibility to Legislature: Motions of Confidence and No-confidence in Lok Sabha and State Legislatures | publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat | year=2004 | isbn=978-81-200-0400-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DFqbAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA706 | access-date=2020-03-14 | page=706}}</ref>{{citation needed}}

In 1951, Biju Pattnaik made a donation to the [[UNESCO]] to establish the [[Kalinga Prize]]. It has been awarded every year since 1952 to people who have contributed to the popularization of science.<ref name="Schmadel2012">{{cite book|author=Lutz D. Schmadel|title=Dictionary of Minor Planet Names|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aeAg1X7afOoC&pg=PA1118|access-date=16 March 2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-29718-2|page=1118}}</ref><ref name="Kalinga Prize">{{cite web|title=UNESCO Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/science-technology/sti-policy/global-focus/science-popularization/prizes/kalinga-prize/|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=16 March 2014|archive-date=18 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518042902/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/science-technology/sti-policy/global-focus/science-popularization/prizes/kalinga-prize/|url-status=live}}</ref> On 12 February 1952, [[Nabakrushna Choudhuri]] took oath as the Chief Minister after the 1951 Assembly polls.{{citation needed}} In 1953, the 66 meters high and 25.4 km long [[Hirakud Dam]] was completed.<ref name="Sarin2013"/> In 1953, the [[Rourkela Steel Plant]] was planned to be built in collaboration with a [[West German]] consortium.<ref name=rourkela>{{cite book|title=Industrial Wage Regulation in Orissa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2VV7dfn_ypcC&pg=PA112|access-date=16 March 2014|year=1993|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-474-9|page=112}}</ref> On 19 October 1956, Nabakrushna Choudhuri resigned and Mahatab became the Chief Minister.{{citation needed}} In 1956, the first technical degree institution in the region, University College of Engineering, was established in [[Burla, India|Burla]] (presently it is known as [[Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology]]).<ref name="Reddy2005">{{cite book|author=M.S. Reddy|title=Technical Manpower Planning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_uBURxzJqoC&pg=PA138|access-date=16 March 2014|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|isbn=978-81-8356-035-1|page=138}}</ref> In 1957, the Odisha Sahitya Academy was established to develop and promote [[Odia language]] and literature.<ref name=sahitya>{{cite web|title=Odisha Sahitya Academy: About Us|url=http://www.orissaculture.gov.in/osa.asp|publisher=Culture Department, Government of Orissa|access-date=16 March 2014|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034534/http://www.orissaculture.gov.in/osa.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 13 January 1957, Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] officially inaugurated the [[Hirakud Dam]].<ref name="G.k.ghosh2002">{{cite book|author=G.k.ghosh|title=Water of India (Quality & Quantity)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=enE9kdIKqCQC&pg=PA64|access-date=16 March 2014|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-294-3|page=64}}</ref> The 1957 Assembly polls were also won by the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] party and on 6 April 1957 Harekrushna Mahatab took oath as the Chief Minister.{{citation needed}} On 22 May 1959, a coalition of Congress and Gantantra Parishad formed the government. On 21 February 1961, the coalition collapsed. On 25 February, [[President's rule]] was imposed on the state.{{citation needed}}

[[File:ORISSA SECRETARIAT.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Legislative Assembly of Odisha]] building was inaugurated in 1961]]

On 12 February 1961, the new building of the [[Legislative Assembly of Odisha]] was inaugurated by [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]] then Vice-President of India.<ref name="Panda 1992 p.74 ">{{cite book | last=Panda | first=B.D. | title=Towards a special library system | publisher=Anmol Publications | year=1992 | isbn=978-81-7041-666-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4W6AAAAIAAJ | access-date=2020-03-19 | page=74}}</ref> On 15 August 1961, the [[Regional Engineering College, Rourkela]] was founded.<ref name="university">{{cite book|title=Handbook of Universities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rs-jsaPenxYC&pg=PA634|access-date=22 March 2014|year=2006|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-269-0608-6|page=634}}</ref> The mid-term polls were held in 1961 and Biju Pattnaik formed a ministry on 23 June 1961.{{citation needed}} On 3 January 1962, the [[foundation stone]] of the [[Paradip Port]] was laid by Prime Minister Nehru. On 18 April 1966, it was declared the 8th major port of India.<ref name=paradip>{{cite web|title=Paradip Port: About Us|url=http://www.paradipport.gov.in/about.php|publisher=[[Paradip Port]]|access-date=22 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322150223/http://www.paradipport.gov.in/about.php|archive-date=22 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Also in 1962, the [[Balimela Reservoir]] project was started.<ref name="Mahapatra2011">{{cite book|author=Bhagyalaxmi Mahapatra|title=Development of a Primitive Tribe: A Study of Didayis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hxccPsvvDkkC&pg=PA81|access-date=22 March 2014|year=2011|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-782-1|page=81}}</ref> In August 1963, the [[Kamaraj Plan]] was formulated and Biju Patnaik was among the Chief Ministers to resign.<ref name="Ghose1993">{{cite book|author=Sankar Ghose|title=Jawaharlal Nehru, a Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MUeyUhVGIDMC&pg=PA201|access-date=22 March 2014|year=1993|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-7023-369-5|page=201}}</ref> After him, [[Biren Mitra]] became the Chief Minister.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sadhna Sharma|title=States Politics in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0HdDbdKa8UC&pg=PA286|access-date=22 March 2014|year=1995|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-619-4|pages=286–}}</ref> In April 1964, a [[Hindustan Aeronautics Limited]] plant was set up in [[Sunabeda]] to manufacture [[Tumansky R-11|Tumansky R-11 F2 engines]] for [[MIG-21]] FLs.<ref name=HAL>{{cite web|title=HAL, Koraput: About Us|url=http://www.hal-india.com/EngineKoraput/aboutus.asp|publisher=[[Hindustan Aeronautics Limited]]|access-date=22 March 2014|archive-date=22 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322135707/http://www.hal-india.com/EngineKoraput/aboutus.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1966, Mahatab left [[Indian National Congress]] to form a new party called the [[Orissa Jana Congress|Jana Congress]].<ref name="KhrushchevKhrushchev2007">{{cite book|author1=Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev|author2=Sergeĭ Khrushchev|title=Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nR0f25dmbn0C&pg=PT952|access-date=22 March 2014|year=2007|publisher=Penn State Press|isbn=978-0-271-02935-1|page=952}}</ref> After the 1967 Assembly polls, [[Rajendra Narayan Singh Deo]] became the Chief Minister of a coalition government consisting of the [[Swatantra Party]] and the [[Orissa Jana Congress]].{{citation needed}}

In 1971 Assembly poll, the government was formed by a coalition of [[Utkal Congress]], [[Swatantra Party]] and [[All India Jharkhand Party]], with [[Bishwanath Das]] as the Chief Minister.<ref name="Chatterjee1992">{{cite book|author=Sibranjan Chatterjee|title=Governor's Role in the Indian Constitution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8UQpnoasCDYC&pg=PA117|access-date=22 March 2014|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-325-4|page=117}}</ref> On 14 June 1972, [[Nandini Satpathy]] became the Chief Minister of Odisha, heading a [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] ministry.<ref name="Grover1997">{{cite book|author=Verinder Grover|title=Indian Political System: Trends and Challenges|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M4yABACTXw4C&pg=PA462|access-date=16 March 2014|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|isbn=978-81-7100-883-4|page=462}}</ref> On 1 March 1973, Chief Minister Nandini Satpathy resigned. In February 1974, mid-term polls were held. On 6 March 1974, Nandini Satpathy formed her second ministry. On 19 December 1976, Nandini Satpathy resigned again.<ref name="nadini">{{cite book|title=Role of Regional Political Parties in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sauMPCyhaXcC&pg=PA95|access-date=16 March 2014|year=2007|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-8324-191-5|page=95}}</ref> She was replaced by [[Binayak Acharya]] who remained in office for 4 months.<ref name="Mirchandani2003">{{cite book|author=G.G. Mirchandani|title=320 Million Judges|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5xj0g8euumQC&pg=PA221|access-date=9 June 2014|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-061-7|page=221}}</ref> In 1977, [[Nilamani Routray]] became the Chief Minister after the Assembly poll, and [[Janata Party]] remained in power until 1980. The 1980 Assembly poll resulted in [[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]], of [[Indian National Congress]], as the Chief Minister.{{citation needed}}

In 1981, [[National Aluminium Company|NALCO]] was founded with the collaboration of the [[Pechiney]] company of [[France]]. It was headquartered in Bhubaneswar.{{citation needed}} On 30 October 1984, [[Indira Gandhi]] was in Bhubaneswar giving a speech. The next day she was assassinated.<ref name="Jay2010">{{cite book|author=Antony Jay|title=Lend Me Your Ears: Oxford Dictionary of Political Quotations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0yA-MQLwOtEC&pg=PA119|access-date=16 March 2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-957267-0|page=119}}</ref> In 1985, Janaki Ballabh Patnaik was re-elected as the Chief Minister.{{citation needed}} [[Sachidananda Routray]], Odia poet and novelist, received the [[Jnanpith Award]] for his contributions to modern Odia poetry.<ref name=Sachi>{{cite news|title=Sachidananda Routray passes away|url=http://hindu.com/thehindu/2004/08/22/stories/2004082201361100.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316135605/http://hindu.com/thehindu/2004/08/22/stories/2004082201361100.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 March 2014|access-date=16 March 2014|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> On 22 May 1989, the [[Agni-I]] was tested fired at [[Chandipur, Orissa|Chandipur]].<ref name="BhushanKatyal2002">{{cite book|author1=K. Bhushan|author2=G. Katyal|title=Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Warfare|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JelgwgVx-P0C&pg=PA191|access-date=16 March 2014|publisher=APH Publishing|isbn=978-81-7648-312-4|page=191}}</ref> On 6 December 1989, [[Janaki Ballabh Patnaik]] resigned as the Chief Minister and on 7 December [[Hemananda Biswal]] was sworn in.<ref name="AgrawalAggarwal1990">{{cite book|author1=S. P. Agrawal|author2=J. C. Aggarwal|title=Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha Elections, 1989-1990: Process and Result with Comparative Study of Manifestoes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qID3Eg62bmcC&pg=PA205|access-date=16 March 2014|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-7022-314-6|page=205}}</ref> On 16 December 1989, [[Rabi Ray]] becomes the [[Speaker of Lok Sabha]] and he held the position until 9 July 1991.<ref name="GHOSH2012">{{cite book|author=Peu Ghosh|title=Indian Government and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tjEdaFbEo0MC&pg=PA185|access-date=16 March 2014|publisher=PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=978-81-203-4649-9|page=185}}</ref>

[[File:Cyclone 05B.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[1999 Odisha cyclone]] making landfall]]
In 1990, [[Ranganath Misra]] became the 21st [[Chief Justice of India]].<ref name=ranganth>{{cite news|title=Former chief justice Ranganath Mishra passes away|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/former-chief-justice-ranganath-mishra-passes-away/article1-929779.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140316152717/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/former-chief-justice-ranganath-mishra-passes-away/article1-929779.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 March 2014|access-date=16 March 2014|newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref> In 1990, the Assembly polls were won by the [[Janata Dal]] and a government was formed under the leader of [[Biju Patnaik]].<ref name="Dash2006">{{cite book|author=Satya Prakash Dash|title=Naxal Movement and State Power: With Special Reference of Orissa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3eDaiaDwcNgC&pg=PA90|access-date=22 March 2014|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-7625-700-8|page=90}}</ref> In 1992, four new districts were created, [[Gajapati district|Gajapati]], [[Malkangiri district|Malkangiri]], [[Rayagada district|Rayagada]] and [[Nabarangpur district|Nabarangpur]]. In 1993, 10 more districts were created, [[Khurda]], [[Nayagarh]], [[Sonepur District|Sonepur]], [[Bargarh]], [[Kendrapara]], [[Jagatsinghpur]], [[Jajpur]], [[Nuapada]], [[Angul]] and [[Bhadrak]]. In 1994, three more were carved out, [[Jharsuguda]], [[Debagarh|Deogarh]] and [[Boudh district|Boudh]]. This brought the number of [[List of districts of Odisha|districts in Odisha]] to 30.<ref name="MearnsSinha1999"/> In 1993, Ranganath Misra became the first chairman of the [[National Human Rights Commission of India]].<ref name=ranganth/> The 1995 Assembly polls were won by the [[Indian National Congress]] and Janaki Ballabh Patnaik became the Chief Minister.<ref name="Dash2006"/> On 22 January 1999, [[Australia]]n missionary [[Graham Staines]] and his two sons were murdered. Staineswas an Australian Christian missionary who, along with his two sons Philip (aged 10) and Timothy (aged 6), was burnt to death by a gang while sleeping in his station wagon at Manoharpur village in Keonjhar district in Odisha, India on 23 January 1999. In 2003, a Bajrang Dal activist, Dara Singh, was convicted of leading the gang that murdered Graham Staines and his sons, and was sentenced to life in prison.<ref name=staines>{{cite news|title=Staines' killing: Murder of Australian missionary and his two sons in Odisha shocks India|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/staines-killing-murder-of-australian-missionary-and-his-two-sons-in-orissa-shocks-india/1/253086.html|access-date=9 June 2014|work=[[India Today]]|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714230732/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/staines-killing-murder-of-australian-missionary-and-his-two-sons-in-orissa-shocks-india/1/253086.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Soon afterwards, Janaki Ballabh Patnaik resigned and was replaced by [[Giridhar Gamang]].<ref name=changeover>{{cite news|title=A changeover in Orissa|url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl1605/16050360.htm|access-date=9 June 2014|work=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]}}</ref> In October 1999, a [[1999 Odisha cyclone|cyclone]] struck Odisha causing economic loss estimated at $2.5 billion (1999 [[USD]]) and about 10,000 deaths.<ref name="Chopra2005">{{cite book|author=Kanchan Ratna Chopra|title=Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Policy Responses: Findings of the Responses Working Group|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPLzt5uyNAcC&pg=PA345|publisher=Island Press|isbn=978-1-55963-270-6|pages=345–}}</ref><ref name="KumarSingh2005">{{cite book|author1=Dharmendra Kumar|author2=Rahul Singh|title=India Insurance Report|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sAcQVQMPDpUC&pg=PA173|year=2005|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-7764-762-4|pages=173–}}</ref> In December 1999, Gamang also resigned.<ref name=gamang>{{cite news|title=Giridhar Gamang decides to quit|url=http://m.rediff.com/news/1999/dec/04oris1.htm|access-date=9 June 2014|work=[[Rediff]]|archive-date=15 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715003550/http://m.rediff.com/news/1999/dec/04oris1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> He was replaced by [[Hemananda Biswal]] on 7 December.<ref name=veteran>{{cite news|title=Veteran takes over in Orissa|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/552613.stm|access-date=9 June 2014|work=[[BBC News]]|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190714/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/552613.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> In March 2000, [[Naveen Patnaik]] became the Chief Minister of a [[Biju Janata Dal|BJD]]-[[BJP]] alliance government.<ref>{{cite news|title=Governor invites Naveen to form govt|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000303/nation.htm#1|access-date=9 June 2014|work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]|archive-date=21 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130621052951/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000303/nation.htm#1|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 20 February 2014, the [[Odia language]] was given the status of a [[Classical languages of India|classical language of India]], making it the sixth language to have the status.<ref>{{cite news|title=Odia becomes sixth classical language|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1140221/jsp/frontpage/story_18004148.jsp|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171011125236/https://www.telegraphindia.com/1140221/jsp/frontpage/story_18004148.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 October 2017|access-date=22 March 2014|newspaper=[[The Telegraph (India)]]}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Historic sites in Odisha]]
* [[Maritime history of Odisha]]
* [[List of rulers of Odisha]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

* {{cite book |author=Tara Dutt |title=Nabarangpur District Gazetteer |url=https://cdn.s3waas.gov.in/s3605ff764c617d3cd28dbbdd72be8f9a2/uploads/2018/05/2018050468.pdf |year=2009 |publisher=Odisha State Government |isbn=978-81-86772-17-1 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.odisha.gov.in/portal/ViewDetails.asp?vchglinkid=GL012&vchplinkid=PL048 History of Odisha], Government of Odisha, Official Portal
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130314120313/http://www.orissamuseum.nic.in/ Orissa State Museum]
*[https://www.hindivision.in/2020/06/odisha-ka-itihas.html History of Odisha in Hindi] (History of Odisha in Hindi)
{{Odisha}}
{{History of India by State}}

[[Category:History of Odisha| ]]
[[Category:History of Bengal|*]]

Cold War in Asia

2023-01-11T11:48:47Z

Tedd:

{{Short description|none}} 
{{Use dmy dates}}
The '''Cold War in Asia''' was a major dimension of the worldwide [[Cold War]] that shaped diplomacy and warfare from the mid-1940s to 1991. The main countries involved were the United States, the Soviet Union, China, North Korea, South Korea, North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Cambodia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Taiwan (Republic of China). In the late 1950s, divisions between China and the Soviet Union deepened, culminating in the [[Sino-Soviet split]], and the two then vied for control of [[communist]] movements across the world, especially in [[Asia]].

{{History of the Cold War}}

==East Asia==
===Relations with United States===
====American images of China====
{{See also|Loss of China}}
[[Harold Isaacs]] published ''Scratches on our Minds: American Images of China and India'' in 1955. By reviewing the popular and scholarly literature on Asia that appeared in the United States and by interviewing many American experts, Isaacs identified six stages of American attitudes toward China.<ref>Harold Isaacs, ''Scratches on Our Minds: American Images of China and India'' (1955) p 71.</ref> They were "respect" (18th century), "contempt" (1840–1905), "benevolence" (1905 to 1937), "admiration" (1937–1944); "disenchantment" (1944–1949), and "hostility" (after 1949). In 1990, historian [[Jonathan Spence]] updated Isaac's model to include "reawakened curiosity" (1970–1974); "guileless fascination" (1974–1979), and "renewed skepticism" (1980s).<ref>Jonathan Spence ""Western Perceptions of China from the Late Sixteenth Century to the Present"" in {{cite book|editor=Paul S. Ropp|title=Heritage of China: Contemporary Perspectives on Chinese Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/heritageofchina00atio|url-access=registration|year=1990|publisher=University of California Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/heritageofchina00atio/page/10 10]|isbn=9780520064416}}</ref>

Political scientist Peter Rudolf in 2020 argued that Americans see China as a threat to the established order in its drive for regional hegemony in East Asia now, and a future aspirant for global supremacy. Beijing rejects these notions, but continues its assertive policies and its quest for allies.<ref>Peter Rudolf, "The Sino-American World Conflict" (2020) p. 5.</ref>

====Korean War 1950–1953====
{{Main|Korean War|Foreign policy of the Harry S. Truman administration}}
The [[Korean War]] began at the end of June 1950 when North Korea, a communist country, invaded South Korea, which was under U.S. protection.<ref>James I. Matray, and Donald W. Boose Jr, eds. ''The Ashgate research companion to the Korean War'' (2014) for historiography; [https://www.amazon.com/Ashgate-Research-Companion-Korean-War/dp/0367669382/ excerpt].</ref> Without consulting Congress, [[Presidency of Harry S. Truman|President Harry S Truman]] ordered General [[Douglas MacArthur]] to use all American forces to resist the invasion. Truman then received approval from the United Nations, which the Soviets were boycotting. UN forces managed to cling to a toehold in Korea, as the North Koreans outran their supply system. MacArthur's counterattack at Inchon destroyed the invasion army, and the UN forces captured most of North Korea on their way to the Yalu River, Korea's northern border with China. President Truman had decided—and the UN agreed—to reunify all of Korea. UN forces were poised to decisively defeat the North Korean invaders.<ref>James I. Matray, "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea." ''Journal of American History'' 66.2 (1979): 314-333. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1900879 online]</ref>

In October 1950, China intervened unexpectedly, driving the UN forces all the way back to South Korea. [[Mao Zedong]] felt threatened by the United Nations advance. Although technically far inferior, his army had much larger manpower resources and was just across Korea's northern border at the Yalu River. The fighting stabilized close to the original 38th parallel that had divided North and South. UN-US commanding general [[Douglas MacArthur]] wanted to continue the rollback strategy of unifying Korea but Truman changed and instead switched to a policy of containment that would allow North Korea to persist. Truman's dismissal of MacArthur in April 1951 sparked an intense debate on American Far Eastern Cold War policy. Truman took the blame for a high-cost stalemate with 37,000 Americans killed and over 100,000 wounded. Peace talks bogged down over the question of repatriating prisoners who did not want to return to Communism. [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|President Eisenhower]] broke the impasse by warning he might use nuclear weapons, and an armistice was reach that has remained in effect ever since, with large American forces still stationed in South Korea as a tripwire.<ref>Hao Yufan, and Zhai Zhihai, "China's decision to enter the Korean War: History revisited." ''The China Quarterly'' 121 (1990): 94-115.</ref>

===Split with USSR===
{{Main|Sino-Soviet relations|Sino-Soviet split}}
[[File:Nikita Khrushchev, Mao Zedong, Ho Chi Minh and Soong Ching-ling.jpg|thumb|[[Nikita Khrushchev]], [[Mao Zedong]], [[Ho Chi Minh]] and [[Soong Ching-ling]].|alt=|left|240x240px]]
Beijing was very pleased that the success of the [[Soviet Union]] in the [[Space Race|space race]] – the original [[List of spacecraft called Sputnik|Sputniks]] – demonstrated that the international communist movement had caught up in high technology with the Americans. Mao assumed that the Soviets now had a military advantage and should step up the Cold War; Khrushchev knew that the Americans were well ahead in military uses of space.<ref>O. Edmund Clubb, ''China and Russia: The Great Game'' (1971) pp. 419–423.</ref> The strains multiplied, quickly making a dead letter of the 1950 alliance, destroying the socialist camp unity, and affected the world balance of power. The split started with [[Nikita Khrushchev]] [[De-Stalinization]] program. It angered Mao, who admired Stalin.<ref>John W. Garver, ''China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic'' (2016) pp. 113-145.</ref> Moscow and Beijing became worldwide rivals, forced communist parties around the world to take sides; many of them split, so that the pro-Soviet communists were battling the pro-Chinese communists for local control of the left-wing forces in much of the world.<ref>Julia Lovell, ''Maoism: a Global History'' (2019) pp. 88-150.</ref>

Internally, the Sino-Soviet split encouraged Mao to plunge China into the [[Cultural Revolution]], to expunge traces of Russian ways of thinking. Mao argued that as far as all-out nuclear war was concerned, the human race would not be destroyed, and instead a brave new communist world would arise from the ashes of imperialism. This attitude troubled Moscow, which had a more realistic view of the utter disasters that would accompany a nuclear war. Three major issues suddenly became critical in dividing the two nations: Taiwan, India, and China's Great Leap Forward. Although Moscow supported Beijing's position that Taiwan entirely belong to China, it demanded that it be forewarned of any invasion or serious threat that would bring American intervention. Beijing refused, and the Chinese bombardment of the island of [[Kinmen|Quemoy]] in August 1958 escalated the tensions. Moscow was cultivating India, both as a major purchaser of Russian munitions, and a strategically critical ally. However China was escalating its threats to the northern fringes of India, especially from Tibet. It was building a militarily significant road system that would reach disputed areas along the border. The Russians clearly favored India, and Beijing reacted as a betrayal. By far the major ideological issue was the [[Great Leap Forward]], which represented a Chinese rejection of the Soviet form of economic development. Moscow was deeply resentful, especially since it had spent heavily to supply China with high-technology—including some nuclear skills. Moscow withdrew its vitally needed technicians and economic and military aid. Khrushchev was increasingly crude and intemperate ridiculing China and [[Mao Zedong]] to both communist and international audiences. Beijing responded through its official propaganda network of rejecting Moscow's claim to Lenin's heritage. Beijing insisted it was the true inheritor of the great Leninist tradition. At one major meeting of communist parties, Khrushchev personally attacked Mao as an ultra leftist — a left revisionist — and compared him to Stalin for dangerous egotism. The conflict was now out of control, and was increasingly fought out in 81 communist parties around the world. The final split came in July 1963, after 50,000 refugees escaped from [[Xinjiang]] in [[western China]] to Soviet territory to escape persecution. China ridiculed the Russian incompetence in the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] of 1962 as adventurism to start with and [[Capitulation (surrender)|capitulationism]] to wind up on the losing side. Moscow now was increasingly giving priority to friendly relationships and test ban treaties with the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]].<ref>Richard Evans, ''[[Deng Xiaoping and the making of modern China]]'' (1997) pp. 155-161.</ref><ref>William Taubman, ''Khrushchev: the man and his era'' (2003) pp. 389-395.</ref><ref>Donald S. Zagoria, ''The Sino-Soviet Conflict, 1956-1961'' (Princeton UP, 1962).</ref><ref>Gordon H. Chang, ''Friends and enemies: the United States, China, and the Soviet Union, 1948-1972'' (1990) [[iarchive:friendsenemiesth00chan|online]]</ref>

Increasingly, Beijing began to consider the Soviet Union, which it viewed as [[Social imperialism]], as the greatest threat it faced, more so than even the leading capitalist power, the United States. In turn, overtures were made between the PRC and the United States, such as in the [[Ping-pong diplomacy|Ping Pong Diplomacy]], [[Panda diplomacy|Panda Diplomacy]] and the [[Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China|1972 Nixon visit to China]].<ref>Margaret MacMillan, ''Nixon and Mao: The Week That Changed the World'' (2007).</ref>

===Crisis in 1965===
Despite Chinese ambitions, the growing opposition of the United States and of Russia became more formidable, especially in 1965 when the United States launched a massive escalation of its commitment to defending South Vietnam. Furthermore, Washington decided that China was its greatest enemy, more so than the USSR. In response to growing Chinese activity, the non-aligned powers of India and Yugoslavia moved a bit closer to the Soviet Union. Key regional leaders whom China was endorsing were overthrown or pushed back in 1965. [[Ben Bella]] was overthrown in Algeria, with a result that the Soviets gained influence in North Africa and the Middle East. [[Kwame Nkrumah]], the most prominent leader of sub-Saharan Africa, was deposed while on a trip to China in early 1966. The new rulers shifted Ghana to the West's side of the Cold War. Mao's efforts to regain prestige by holding a Bandung-like conference was unsuccessful. In October, 1965, came the most disastrous blow to China in the entire Cold war era. The Indonesian army broke with President [[Sukarno]] and systematically destroyed the Chinese-oriented PKI Communist party of Indonesia. The army and local Islamic groups killed hundreds of thousands of PKI supporters, and drove many Chinese out of Indonesia. Sukarno remained as a figurehead president but power went to General [[Suharto]], a committed enemy of communism.<ref>''CWIHP Bulletin'' Issue 6-7 1995-1996 p 239–240.</ref><ref>Garver, ''China's Quest'' (2016) pp 218–229.</ref>

==Southeast Asia==
===Burma/Myanmar===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Myanmar|China–Myanmar relations|History of Myanmar}}
Burma gained independence from Britain in tense fashion in 1948. It avoided any commitment in the Cold War, and was active in the nonaligned movement. There were numerous failed Communist uprisings. The army took control in 1962. The Soviet Union never played a prominent role, and Burma kept its distance from Britain and the United States.<ref>Matray, 1:63–64.</ref>

China shares a long controversial border, and relations were usually poor until the late 1980s.<ref>Raviprasad Narayanan, "China and Myanmar: Alternating between ‘Brothers’ and ‘Cousins’." ''China Report'' 46.3 (2010): 253-265 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Raviprasad-Narayanan/publication/258128881_China_and_Myanmar_Alternating_between_%27Brothers%27_and_%27Cousins%27/links/5570ea6208aee701d61cbb27/China-and-Myanmar-Alternating-between-Brothers-and-Cousins.pdf online].</ref> In the 1950s Burma lobbied for China's entry as a permanent member into the UN Security Council, but denounced [[Invasion of Tibet (1950–1951)|China's invasion of Tibet in 1950]].<ref>June Bingham, ''U Thant: the Search for Peace'' (1966) p. 9</ref> The last border dispute came in 1956, when the Chinese invaded parts of northern Burma, but were repulsed.<ref>Josef Silverstein, ''Burmese politics: the dilemma of national unity'' (1980), p. 209.</ref> In the 1960s students and other elements of [[Chinese people in Myanmar|Burma's large Chinese community]] expressed support for Maoism; anti-Chinese riots resulted.<ref>Donald M. Seekins, ''Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar)'' (2006), p. 141</ref> Close relations began in the late 1980s as China began supplying the military junta with the majority of its arms in exchange for increased access to Burmese markets and intelligence opportunities. China refused to join other nations that condemned Myanmar's policy toward minorities, especially the attacks on the [[Rohingya genocide|Rohingya Muslims that began in the 1970s]].<ref>Niklas Swanström, ''Sino-Myanmar relations: Security and beyond'' (Institute for Security and Development Policy, 2012) [https://www.isdp.eu/content/uploads/publications/2012_swanstrom_sino-myanmar-relations.pdf online]</ref>

===Vietnam===
====Eisenhower and Vietnam====
{{Further|History of Vietnam since 1945}}
After the end of World War II, the communist [[Viet Minh]] launched an insurrection against the French colony the [[State of Vietnam]]. Seeking to bolster a NATO ally and prevent the fall of Vietnam to Communism, the Truman and Eisenhower administrations financed military operations in Vietnam by its NATO ally.<ref>George Herring, ''America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975'' (6th ed. 2019) [https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28vietnam%29%20AND%20creator%3A%28george%20herring%29 excerpt]</ref> In 1954, the French army was trapped near the Chinese border at the [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu]]. Eisenhower rejected American military intervention and the French army surrendered. A new left-wing French government met the communists at the [[Geneva Conference (1954)|Geneva Conference]]. Moscow forced the Viet Minh to accept partition: the country was divided into a communist North Vietnam (under the leadership of [[Ho Chi Minh]]) and a capitalist South Vietnam, under the leadership of [[Ngo Dinh Diem]] and his Catholic coalition.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Internet Archive Search: title:(vietnam) AND creator:(george herring) |url=https://archive.org/search.php?query=title:(vietnam)%20AND%20creator:(george%20herring) |access-date=2022-03-31 |website=archive.org |language=en}}</ref>

On April 5, 1954, Eisenhower argued the domino principle, which became a staple of American strategy. He said the loss of Indochina would set off toppling dominoes, putting at risk Thailand, Malaya, Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan, and the Philippines.<ref>David Anderson, ''The Columbia Guide to the Vietnam War'' (2002) p. 28.</ref> To prevent that the United States and seven other countries created the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] (SEATO), comprising Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It was a defensive alliance to prevent the spread of Communism in [[Southeast Asia]]. South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia were not members; none of the members faced a serious Communist threat. Historian David L. Anderson states:<blockquote>Prepared neither to retreat nor fight, the Eisenhower administration turned to nation building. With profuse American military and economic aid, Diem managed to bring a degree of order to the South, reorganize the Army, and initiate some governmental programs. Washington chose to label Diem a “miracle man"....[By 1960 Eisenhower] believed that Diem was successfully governing his nation and thereby waging the frontline fight against communist expansion at little relative cost to the United States.<ref>David L. Anderson, ''Trapped by success: The Eisenhower administration and Vietnam, 1953-61'' (Columbia UP, 1993) p. 203, 204.</ref></blockquote>

====Kennedy and Vietnam====
{{main|Foreign policy of the John F. Kennedy administration}}
Senator John F. Kennedy in 1956, publicly advocated for greater U.S. involvement in Vietnam.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://iowaculture.gov/history/education/educator-resources/primary-source-sets/cold-war-vietnam/americas-stake-vietnam|title="America's Stake in Vietnam" Speech by U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy, June 1, 1956|publisher=State Historical Society of Iowa|access-date=November 22, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jfklibrary.org/asset-viewer/archives/JFKPOF/135/JFKPOF-135-015|title="America's Stake In Vietnam" Speech, 1 June 1956|publisher=JFK Library|access-date=November 22, 2019}}</ref> Eisenhower advised him in 1960 that the communist threat in Southeast Asia required priority, especially [[Laos]].<ref>Fred I. Greenstein, and Richard H. Immerman. "What did Eisenhower tell Kennedy about Indochina? The politics of misperception." ''Journal of American History ''79.2 (1992): 568-587.</ref> However Kennedy put more emphasis on South Vietnam, which he had visited as a reporter in 1951. In May, he dispatched Lyndon Johnson to tell Diem that Washington would help him build a fighting force that could resist the communists.{{sfn|Karnow|1991|pp=230, 268}} Before that army could fight American combat troops would have to do the fighting.

As the [[Viet Cong]] became active Kennedy increased the number of military advisers and [[U.S. Special Forces|special forces]] from under 1000 1960 to 16,000 by late 1963. They trained and advised the South Vietnamese forces but did not fight the enemy. In March 1965, President Lyndon Johnson, committed the first combat troops to Vietnam and greatly escalated U.S. involvement. U.S. forces reached 184,000 in 1965 and peaked at 536,000 in 1968, not counting the U.S. Air Force which was based outside Vietnam.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.americanwarlibrary.com/vietnam/vwatl.htm | title=Vietnam War Allied Troop Levels 1960–73 | publisher=The American War Library | access-date=August 2, 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160802134052/http://www.americanwarlibrary.com/vietnam/vwatl.htm | archive-date=August 2, 2016}}</ref>

The British had suggestions based on their success in defeating the communist insurrection in Malaya. The result was the [[Strategic Hamlet Program]] starting in 1962. It involved some forced relocation, village internment, and segregation of rural South Vietnamese into new communities where the peasantry would be isolated from communist insurgents. It was hoped that these new communities would provide security for the peasants and strengthen the tie between them and the central government. The program ended in 1964.{{sfn|Tucker|2011|p=1070}}{{sfn|Reeves|1993|p=283}}

[[File:President meets with Secretary of Defense. President Kennedy, Secretary McNamara. White House, Cabinet Room - NARA - 194244.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Kennedy meets with Secretary of Defense, [[Robert McNamara]], 1962]]

In 1963, the U.S. became frustrated when Diem and his brother [[Ngo Dinh Nhu]] used the newly trained forces to crush Buddhist demonstrations. Kennedy sent Defense Secretary Robert McNamara and General [[Maxwell D. Taylor]] on the [[McNamara Taylor mission]] to figure out what was happening. Diem ignored the protests and was overthrown by the military. The U.S. did not order the coup but approved its actions after it happened, while regretting that Diem was killed in the process. The coup solved the Diem problem and the new government was at first well received in Washington.{{sfn|Reeves|1993|p=617}} Historians disagree on whether the Vietnam War would have escalated if Kennedy had survived the assassination attempt in November and been reelected in 1964.<ref>{{cite journal | first = Joseph J. | last = Ellis | title = Making Vietnam History | journal = Reviews in American History | volume = 28 | issue = 4 | year = 2000 | pages = 625–629 | doi = 10.1353/rah.2000.0068 | s2cid = 144881388 }}</ref>

The new President Lyndon Johnson reversed Kennedy's decision to withdraw 1,000 troops, and reaffirmed the policy of assistance to the South Vietnamese government.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.jfklancer.com/NSAM273.html | work = JFK Lancer | last = Bundy | first = McGeorge | title = National Security Action Memorandum Number 273 |date = November 26, 1963 | access-date =February 19, 2012 }}</ref>

====Johnson and Vietnam====
{{main|Foreign policy of the Lyndon Johnson administration}}
Between November 1963 and July 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson, after consulting widely, escalated into large-scale American combat on the ground, plus a major air war. Kennedy had given priority in foreign policy to the Soviet Union, Cuba, Berlin, and Latin America. Vietnam was never high on his agenda, nor was China or any part of Asia. In striking contrast the Vietnam War sucked all the attention of the Johnson Administration, even diverting the president away from his special interest in domestic policy. He hated the war because it was diverting funding for his beloved Great Society, and the more attention it received the more money it would take away from domestic goals.<ref>Francis M. Bator, "No good choices: LBJ and the Vietnam/Great Society connection." ''Diplomatic History'' 32.3 (2008): 309-340. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-7709.2008.00691_1.x online]</ref> Johnson vividly remembered how Harry Truman's political career had been ended by the Korean War, and feared that if they abandoned the long-standing commitment to the containment of communist expansion, the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] would be badly hurt. At the same time, the administration downplayed the escalating War, diverting away the attention of the American people. As senior officials realized matters were getting worse and worse, public relations made it seem the United States was in full control of this not very important episode. There were no parades for returning veterans. Washington made no calls for victory. Johnson undermined the military by refusing to call up the Army Reserves or the state-based National Guard, because this would draw too much attention to the war. Instead he relied more and more heavily on the draft, which because of educational and occupational exemptions was reaching more and more to poor whites and blacks, who increasingly resented the war they had to fight. American people were indeed paying scant attention until the Viet Cong launched their massive [[Tet Offensive]] in early 1968. Militarily the Communists were badly defeated, but suddenly all Americans were shocked into the awareness that they were deeply engaged in a major war. The anti-war movement, up to the end of March no effort on college campuses suddenly took center stage, especially after protesting students were shot down on two college campuses. leading Democrats including Hubert Humphrey and Robert Kennedy protested the war and challenge Johnson for renomination in the 1968 election. Johnson's popularity was collapsing and he pulled out of the race.<ref>Walter LaFeber, ''The deadly bet: LBJ, Vietnam, and the 1968 election'' (2005).</ref><ref>Fredrik Logevall, "Lyndon Johnson and Vietnam" ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 34#1 (2004), pp. 100–112 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27552566 online]</ref>

====Nixon, Ford, and Vietnam====
{{Main|Foreign policy of the Richard Nixon administration}}
Nixon more than most presidents integrated his foreign policy and domestic policy with the goal of building of a majority voter coalition.<ref>Richard A. Melanson, ''American foreign policy since the Vietnam War: the search for consensus from Nixon to Clinton'' (Routledge, 2015) pp 346–348.</ref> At a time of deep angry divisions especially at the elite level over the war in Vietnam, as well as race relations and generational misunderstandings on sex and gender, his main goal in foreign policy was taking advantage of the profound split between Moscow and Beijing, forcing both sides to curry American favor. He needed both sides to abandon North Vietnam, which both of them did. This opened the way for Nixon's new strategy of [[Vietnamization]]. The idea was to create and strengthen a South Vietnam army that could defend its own territory and bring peace with honor as American forces pulled out of Vietnam.

In 1968, Nixon carefully avoided entanglement in Vietnam (Humphrey ridiculed his silence by saying that Nixon was keeping "secret" his plans.) The US was in Vietnam because of its commitment to an obsolete policy of global containment of communism. Nixon's solution in Vietnam was "Vietnamization"—to turn the war over to Saigon, withdrawing all U.S. ground forces by 1971. Ignoring critics who said he was prolonging the war, he set his timetable by the rate at which he could obtain tacit approval from Moscow, Beijing, and Saigon itself. Eventually his policy worked: Saigon did take over the war; there and elsewhere containment was replaced by the "Nixon Doctrine" that countries have to defend themselves. Meanwhile, the antiwar forces on the home front were self-destructing, spinning headlong into violence, drugs, and a radicalism (typified by the Weathermen) that provoked a strong backlash in Nixon's favor. When he saw Mao in Beijing in February 1972, the guerrilla war was virtually over, with the Viet Cong defeated. Hanoi, however, disregarded the advice of its allies and launched its conventional forces in the Easter, 1972, invasion of the South. Saigon fought back, and with strong American air support, routed the communists. Peace was at hand, as Kissinger said, but first Saigon had to be reassured of guaranteed future American support. This assurance came in the [[Operation Linebacker II]] air campaign in December 1972, when for the first time in the war Hanoi and its port were attacked. Reeling from the blows, Hanoi signed peace accords in Paris in January 1973, and released all American prisoners. Nixon, having achieved what he pronounced to be "peace with honor," immediately withdrew all US air and naval combat forces and ended the draft; he continued heavy shipments of modern new weapons into South Vietnam despite mounting demands from Congress that all aid be stopped.<ref>William P. Bundy, ''A tangled web: the making of foreign policy in the Nixon presidency'' (Macmillan, 1998) pp 351–399.</ref>

Both Moscow and Beijing sharply reduced their military, economic, and diplomatic support for North Vietnam. Hanoi, rapidly losing its outside support, and facing increase American bombing campaigns, finally came to terms. Nixon could announce he had achieved peace. China had suffered for years from Mao's erratic foreign policy which left it without strong supporters. Now it was eager to come to a deal with Nixon. Using Pakistan as an intermediary Henry Kissinger secretly flew to China to negotiate terms. In one of the most dramatic diplomatic episodes in the twentieth century Nixon himself flew to China to seal the deal with Mao Zedong.<ref>Margaret MacMillan, ''Nixon and Mao: The week that changed the world'' (Random House, 2008).</ref> Moscow as astonished as everyone else by the turnaround, agreed to Nixon's terms regarding extensive previous reducing the risk of nuclear warfare.<ref>Jeffrey P. Kimball, ''Nixon's Vietnam War'' (UP of Kansas, 1998).</ref>

As a result of the elaborate maneuvering by Nixon and his top advisor [[Henry Kissinger]], the situation in Vietnam in 1973 saw the withdrawal of all American forces, the buildup of the South Vietnamese Army, and the weakening of the North Vietnamese by the loss of their two critical backers China and the Soviet Union. Nixon promised Saigon heavy support in terms of money and munitions. However Nixon's prestige at home collapsed during the Watergate scandal of 1974, and Congress cut off support to South Vietnam. Republican [[Presidency of Gerald Ford|Gerald Ford]], the appointed vice president, replaced Nixon in August 1974, but he was in very weak position in foreign policy terms, has the Republican conservative opposition led by California's Ronald Reagan denounced the next Nixonian policy of détente with Beijing and Moscow.<ref>Binoy Kampmark, "Détente’s Disintegration, Neoconservatism, and the Ford Presidency" in Scott Kaufman ed., ''A Companion to Gerald R. Ford and Jimmy Carter'' (2015): 130+.</ref><ref>Mark W. Hanson, "The Decline of Detente During the Presidency of Gerald R. Ford" (Air Force Institute of Technology, 2003) [https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA418970.pdf online].</ref> Saigon felt abandoned and lost self-confidence. It was quickly overrun by an invasion from North Vietnam in the spring of 1975. Vietnam, victorious, fought a punishing short [[Sino-Vietnamese War|war with China in 1979]].<ref>Odd Arne Westad, and Sophie Quinn-Judge, eds. ''The third Indochina war: conflict between China, Vietnam and Cambodia, 1972-79'' (Routledge, 2006).</ref>

===Cambodia: Khmer Republic (1970–1975) and Khmer Rouge (1975–1978)===
{{Main|History of Cambodia}}
During the Vietnam War, Vietnamese and Cambodian communists had formed an alliance to fight U.S.-backed governments in their respective countries. Despite their cooperation with the Vietnamese, the Khmer Rouge leadership feared that the Vietnamese communists were planning to form an Indochinese federation, which would be dominated by Vietnam. In May 1975, the newly formed Democratic Kampuchea began attacking Vietnam, beginning with an attack on the Vietnamese island of Phú Quốc. By the end of 1978, Vietnamese leaders decided to remove the Khmer Rouge-dominated government of Democratic Kampuchea, perceiving it as being pro-Chinese and hostile towards Vietnam.<ref>Westad Odd Arne, and Sophie Quinn-Judge, eds. ''The Third Indochina War: Conflict between Communist China, Vietnam and Cambodia, 1972-79'' (Routledge, 2006). pp 1-11.</ref><ref>Steven J. Hood, "Beijing's Cambodia Gamble and the Prospects for Peace in Indochina: The Khmer Rouge or Sihanouk?." ''Asian Survey'' 30.10 (1990): 977-991.</ref>

===Malaya===
{{Further|History of Malaysia|Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation}}

====Malayan Emergency (1948–1960)====
{{Main|Malayan Emergency}}
The ''Malayan Emergency'' (1948{{ndash}}1960) was a guerrilla war fought in the [[Federation of Malaya]] (now [[Malaysia]]) between communist pro-independence fighters of the [[Malayan Races Liberation Army|Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA)]], the [[Malayan Communist Party|Malayan Communist Party's (MCP)]] armed wing, and the armed forces of Great Britain and the British Commonwealth. The communists sought independence and a socialist economy. The British fought to defeat the expansion of communism and protect British economic and geopolitical interests.<ref>Phillip Deery, "Malaya, 1948: Britain's Asian Cold War?." ''Journal of Cold War Studies'' 9#1 (2007): 29-54.</ref> The fighting spanned both the colonial period and the creation of an independent Malaya in 1957. According to Michael Sullivan, The British commander General [[Gerald Templer]] (1898–1979) argued that traditional combat would not win. He redirected the British effort from winning battles to winning popular support by providing relief, social change, and economic stability. Militarily he concentrated on small-unit anti-guerrilla operations. The British finally won by cutting off supply and retreat avenues for the guerrillas.<ref>Michael D. Sullivan, "Leadership in Counterinsurgency: A Tale of Two Leaders" ''Military Review'' (Sep/Oct 2007) 897#5 pp 119-123.</ref>

====Communist insurgency (1968–1989)====
{{Further|Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)}}
The communist insurgency was a guerrilla war waged between the [[Malayan Communist Party]] (MCP) and Malaysian federal security forces. Following the end of the Malayan Emergency in 1960, the predominantly [[Malaysian Chinese|ethnic Chinese]] [[Malayan National Liberation Army]], armed wing of the MCP, had retreated to the Malaysian-Thailand border where it had regrouped and retrained for future offensives against the Malaysian government. Major fighting broke out in June 1968. The conflict also coincided with renewed domestic tensions between ethnic [[Malay people|Malays]] and Chinese in Peninsular Malaysia and regional military tensions due to the [[Vietnam War]].<ref>Nazar bin Talib, "Malaysia's Experience in War Against Communist Insurgency and Its Relevance to the Present Situation in Iraq" (Marine Corps Command and Staff College Quantico Va, 2005) pp.16–17 [https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA505882.pdf online]</ref>

While the Malayan Communist Party received some limited support from China, this support ended when the two governments [[Foreign relations of Malaysia#East Asia|established diplomatic relations in June 1974]].<ref>Chin Peng, ''Alias Chin Peng - My Side of History'' (2003) p.450</ref> In 1970, the MCP experienced a schism which led to the emergence of two breakaway factions: the Communist Party of Malaya–[[Marxist-Leninist]] (CPM–ML) and the Revolutionary Faction (CPM–RF).<ref>Chin Peng, pp.467–68</ref> Despite efforts by the MCP to appeal to much larger population of ethnic Malays, the organisation was dominated by Chinese Malaysians throughout the war.

The insurgency came to an end on 2 December 1989 when the MCP signed a [[Peace Agreement of Hat Yai 1989|peace accord]] with the government. This coincided with the [[Revolutions of 1989]] and the collapse of several prominent communist regimes worldwide.<ref>Nazar bin Talib, 21–22</ref> Besides the fighting on the Malay Peninsula, another [[Sarawak Communist Insurgency|long-running communist insurgency]] was suppressed in the Malaysian state of [[Sarawak]] in the island of Borneo.<ref>Vernon L. Porritt, ''The Rise and Fall of Communism in Sarawak, 1940-1990'' (Monash Asia Institute, 2004).</ref>

===Indonesia===
{{Further|Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation|History of Indonesia}}
Mao forged an alliance with [[Sukarno]]'s government in Indonesia in the early 1960s. His strategy was to win over Third World countries in the face of competition with the [[Soviet Union]]. In Southeast Asia, Mao had the advantage of strong ethnic ties to the 2-million-member Chinese element in Java. He was driven by an ideological commitment to the Maoist version grass roots efforts to further the communist movement.<ref>Taomo Zhou, "Ambivalent alliance: Chinese policy towards Indonesia, 1960–1965." The China Quarterly 221 (2015): 208-228. [https://blogs.ntu.edu.sg/taomozhou/files/2019/06/Ambivalent-Alliance.pdf online]</ref> Meanwhile, the Soviet Union kept up with its Chinese rival by provided large supplies of warplanes, small warships, and advanced military hardware.

Sukarno was enabled to threaten the emerging state of Malaysia in what is known as the {{lang|id|"[[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation|Konfrontasi]]"}} He swore to destroy Malaysia because it included territory that Indonesia also claimed. He launched multiple small scale operations such as stopping trade with Singapore, sending guerrillas into Malaysian territory in Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak), and sending in light commando raids across the Malacca Straits. The 1957 Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement committed Britain, Australia, and New Zealand to the defence of Malaya. In response to Sukarno, Britain, along with Australia and New Zealand, sent in naval and air forces as well as infantry.<ref>John Subritzky, Confronting Sukarno: British, American, Australian and New Zealand Diplomacy in the Malaysian-Indonesian Confrontation, 1961-5 (2000)</ref>

Under the leadership of [[D. N. Aidit]], the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (the PKI) became the third largest in the world after those in [[China]] and the Soviet Union. It was the largest party in Indonesia and pushed Sukarno further and further to the left, despite growing opposition from Muslim conservatives and the army. On September 30. 1965, a [[30 September Movement|military coup attempt]] killed six senior anti-communist generals. However, in a quick response General Suharto led a major anti-communist coup that overthrew Sukarno and [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|massacred hundreds of thousands of PKI supporters, including Aidit and the top leadership]], while another 200,000 Chinese fled Indonesia. Washington did not directly participate.<ref>H.W. Brands, "The limits of Manipulation: How the United States didn't topple Sukarno." ''Journal of American History'' 76.3 (1989): 785–808. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2936421 online]</ref>

The new Indonesian government made peace with Malaysia, although it continued anti-imperialistic rhetoric against the British. Despite its military successes, Britain found itself overextended; furthermore by committing itself to defending Malaysia instead of South Vietnam it alienated Washington.<ref>Zhou, 2015.</ref><ref>Subritzky, 2000.</ref>

===Thailand===
In 1954, Thailand joined the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] (SEATO) to become an active ally of the United States in the Cold War.<ref>David K. Wyatt, ''Thailand: A Short History'' (Yale University Press, 1984). pp 493, 523.</ref> In 1962 came the Rusk-Thanat Agreement in which the U.S. promised to defend Thailand and fund its military.<ref>Khien Theeravit, "Thailand: An Overview of Politics and Foreign Relations." ''Southeast Asian Affairs'' (1979): 299-311. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27908383 online]</ref> Thailand became the main launching point for 80 percent of American bombing campaigns during the Vietnam War. In 1966–1968, the 25,000 Americans stationed in Thailand launched an average of 1500 sorties a week. In addition, 11,000 Thai soldiers served in South Vietnam, and 22,000 fought in Laos.<ref>Tucker, ''The Encyclopedia of the Cold War'' 4:1282.</ref><ref>Arne Kislenko, "The Vietnam War, Thailand, and the United States" in Richard Jensen et al. eds. ''Trans-Pacific Relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the Twentieth Century''(Praeger, 2003) pp 217–245.</ref>

==South Asia==
===India===
Until the early 1970s, India was neutral in the Cold War, and was a key leader in the worldwide [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. However, in 1971, [[Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation|it began a loose alliance]] with the Soviet Union, as Pakistan was allied to the United States and China.<ref>David M. Malone et al. eds. ''Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy'' (2015) pp 509–512.</ref> India became [[List of states with nuclear weapons|a nuclear-weapon state]], with its first [[Smiling Buddha|nuclear test]] in 1974. India had territorial disputes with China which in 1962 escalated into the [[Sino-Indian War]]. It had major disputes and with [[Pakistan]] which resulted in wars in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|1947]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971]] and [[Kargil War|1999]].

From the late 1920s on, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], who had a long-standing interest in world affairs among independence leaders, formulated the Congress Party stance on international issues. As Prime Minister and Minister of External Affairs 1947–1964, Nehru controlled India's approach to the world.<ref>Andrew B. Kennedy, "Nehru’s foreign policy." in ''The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy'' (2015): 92–103.</ref> India's international influence varied over the years. It gained prestige and moral authority in the 1950s because of its moralistic leadership of the nonaligned movement. However Cold War politics became intertwined with interstate relations. It was too close to Moscow to be nonaligned.

====Seizure of Portuguese colony of Goa====
{{Main|India–Portugal relations#Goa dispute: 1950–61}}
For years India demanded that Portugal turn over its old colony of [[Goa]] on the west coast. Portugal tried and failed to get serious diplomatic support from NATO and the U.S. To protect his pacifistic reputation Nehru attacked Portugal's poor record of colonial mismanagement and its status as the last imperial power. Therefore, he rallied the nonaligned nations at Bandung in 1955 to denounce colonialism.<ref>Moritz Pöllath, "‘Far away from the Atlantic...': Goa, West New Guinea and NATO's out-of-area policy at Bandung 1955." ''Journal of Transatlantic Studies'' 11.4 (2013): 387-402.</ref>

Finally in December 1961, Nehru sent in 45,000 troops against 3500 defenders [[annexation of Goa|and annexed Goa]] with few casualties. After the event the UN debated the issue in early 1962. The U.S. delegate, [[Adlai Stevenson II|Adlai Stevenson]], strongly criticised India's use of force, stressing that such resort to violent means was against the charter of the UN. He stated that condoning such acts of armed forces would encourage other nations to resort to similar solutions to their own disputes, and would lead to the death of the United Nations. In response, the Soviet delegate, [[Valerian Zorin]], argued that the Goan question was wholly within India's domestic jurisdiction and could not be considered by the Security Council. He also drew attention to Portugal's disregard for UN resolutions calling for the granting of independence to colonial countries and peoples. In the end the Soviet veto prevented any UN action, but only a few countries besides the Soviet bloc and the Arab states supported India.<ref>"International Reactions to Indian Attack on Goa. - Soviet Veto of Western Cease-fire Resolution in security Council", ''Keesing's Record of World Events'' Volume 8, March, 1962 p. 18659 [https://web.stanford.edu/group/tomzgroup/pmwiki/uploads/1074-1962-03-KS-b-RCW.pdf online]</ref>

====India and USSR====
{{see also|Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation}}
Stalin wanted the Indian independence movement to emphasize on class conflict, but instead it stressed on bourgeois nationalism along with British-style socialism. After the death of Stalin in 1953, the new leaders in Moscow decided to work with bourgeoisie nationalists like Nehru in order to minimize American influence.<ref>Robert H. Donaldson, ''Soviet policy toward India: ideology and strategy'' (1974) p. 124; [https://archive.org/details/sovietpolicytowa0000dona/page/124/mode/2up online]</ref> India and the Soviet Union (USSR) built a strong strategic, military, economic and diplomatic relationship. After 1960 both were hostile to China and its ally Pakistan. It was the most successful of the Soviet attempts to foster closer relations with Third World countries.<ref>Vojtech Mastny, "The Soviet Union's Partnership with India." ''Journal of Cold War Studies'' 12.3 (2010): 50-90. [https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1162/JCWS_a_00006 Online]</ref> Nehru had complete control of foreign policy; he went the Soviet Union in June 1955, and Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] made a return visit in the fall of 1955. Khrushchev announced that the Soviet Union supported Indian sovereignty over [[Kashmir]] against Pakistan's claims, and also over Portuguese claims to Goa.

Khrushchev's closeness with India was one more ingredient in Beijing's complaints about Moscow. The Soviet Union declared its neutrality during the 1959 border dispute and the [[Sino-Indian war]] of October 1962. By 1960 India had received more Soviet military assistance than China had, to Mao's anger. In 1962 Moscow agreed to transfer technology to co-produce the [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21]] jet fighter in India, which had earlier been denied to China.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Donaldson|first=Robert H|title=India: The Soviet Stake in Stability|journal=Asian Survey|year=1972|volume=12|issue=6|pages=475–492|doi=10.2307/2643045|jstor=2643045}}</ref>

In 1965–1966, Soviet Premier [[Alexei Kosygin]] served successfully as peace broker between India and Pakistan to end the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|Indian-Pakistani border war of 1965]].<ref>Choudhury, 1975, pp. 49–53.</ref>

In 1971, [[East Pakistan]] - supported by India - [[Bangladesh Liberation War|rebelled]] against [[West Pakistan]]. India secured the support of the Soviet Union, including protection against Chinese intervention, in August 1971 with the [[Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation]] before openly entering the conflict in December 1971. In the ensuing [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]], India defeated Pakistan and East Pakistan became independent as [[Bangladesh]].

Relations between the Soviet Union and India did not suffer much during the right-wing [[Janata Party]]'s coalition government in 1977–1979, although India did move to establish better economic and military relations with Western countries. To counter these efforts by India to diversify its relations, the Soviet Union proffered additional weaponry and economic assistance. Mrs Gandhi returned to power in early 1980 and resumed close relations. She was conspicuous in the Third World for not criticizing the Soviet invasion underway in Afghanistan.<ref>Partha S. Ghosh, and Rajaram Panda; "Domestic Support for Mrs. Gandhi's Afghan Policy: The Soviet Factor in Indian Politics." ''Asian Survey'' 23.3 (1983): 261-279 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2644273 online].</ref>

When Indira Gandhi was assassinated in 1984, her son [[Rajiv Gandhi]] replaced her and continued the close relationship with Moscow. Indicating the high priority of relations with the Soviet Union in Indian foreign policy, the new Indian Prime Minister, [[Rajiv Gandhi]], visited the Soviet Union on his first state visit abroad in May 1985 and signed two long-term economic agreements with the Soviet Union. He avoided public criticism of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. When [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became the leader in Moscow his first visit to a Third World state was to New Delhi in late 1986. Gorbachev unsuccessfully urged Rajiv Gandhi to help the Soviet Union set up an Asian collective security system. Gorbachev's advocacy of this proposal, which had also been made by [[Leonid Brezhnev]], was an indication of continuing Soviet interest in using close relations with India as a means of containing China. With the improvement of Sino-Soviet relations in the late 1980s, containing China had less of a priority, but close relations with India remained important as an example of Gorbachev's new Third World policy.<ref>Malone et al eds. ''The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy'' (2015) pp 121–122, 156.</ref>

===Pakistan===
{{Main|Pakistan–United States relations}}
Since its [[Independence of Pakistan|independence in 1947]], Pakistan's foreign policy has encompassed difficult relations with the neighbouring [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) who maintained a close military and ideological interaction with the neighbouring countries such as [[Communist Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] and India.<ref name="US country studies">{{cite web|last=United States Government|title=History of Foreign policy of Pakistan|url=http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/82.htm|work=United States Government|publisher=US country studies|access-date=19 November 2012}}</ref> During most of 1947–1991, the USSR support was given to [[India–Russia relations|India]], over which it has fought three wars on [[Kashmir conflict]].<ref name="US country studies"/>

Pakistan first aligned itself with the [[Western Bloc]] during the 1950s a few years after gaining independence in 1947. Pakistan took part in the [[Korean War]] and [[Suez Crisis]] on the side of the [[Western Bloc]]. Pakistan joined [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization|SEATO]] and [[Baghdad Pact|CENTO]] in 1954 and 1955 respectively. During the 1960s Pakistan was closely aligned to the United States; receiving economic and military assistance. Pakistan was important for the US because of its strategic location close to the Soviet Union and bordering China.

In the early 1970s, [[Pakistan]] was engaged in a [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|war with India]] during which the Soviets supported the latter. With limited and less assistance and military and diplomatic aid during the war Pakistan's relation with the U.S. was hindered for the next decade. The ongoing war with India resulted in the succession of [[East Pakistan]] and [[Pakistan]] lost the privilege of being a member of [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization|SEATO]]. With the [[sphere of influence|growing Soviet influence]] in the region, Pakistan cemented close security relations with [[People's Republic of China|China]] during most of the Cold War. While Pakistan had "on-off relations" with the United States, Pakistan assisted President Nixon's famous [[Nixon's visit to China|1972 visit to China]] .<ref>Margaret MacMillan, ''Nixon and Mao: The Week That Changed the World'' (2007) p. 221.</ref>

Relations with the United States cycled through varying levels of friendliness, but Pakistan consistently found themselves on the United States side of issues faced during the Cold War.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sunawar|first1=Lubwa|last2=Cuotto|first2=Tatiana|year=2015|title=U.S. Pakistan Relations During the Cold War|url=http://scholarworks.arcadia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=agsjournal|journal=The Journal of International Relations, Peace Studies, and Development|volume=1|via=arcadia}}</ref> Pakistan served as a geostrategic position for United States military bases during the Cold War since it bordered the Soviet Union and China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scholarworks.arcadia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=agsjournal|title=US-Pakistan Relations during Cold War|accessdate=10 June 2023}}</ref>

===Sri Lanka===
{{Further|Foreign relations of Sri Lanka|History of Sri Lanka (1948–present)}}
Ceylon at first was closely tied to Great Britain, which awarded independence in 1947 in a friendly manner. The Royal Navy maintained a major naval base; trade with Britain dominated the economy. Under Prime Minister [[S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike]] (1956–1959) Ceylon moved away from the West and closed the British base.<ref>Ian Barrow, "Finding the Nation in Assassination: The Death of S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike and the Assertion of a Sinhalese Sri Lankan Identity." ''The Historian'' 76.4 (2014): 784-802.</ref> It became prominent in the non-aligned movement under prime minister [[Sirimavo Bandaranaike]]. (1960–1965). The rise of [[Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism]] led to a name change to Sri Lanka, a loss of influence by the British oriented elite, and repression the Tamil minority. Civil war erupted, lasting to 2009.<ref>Sumit Ganguly, "Ending the Sri Lankan civil war." ''Dædalus'' 147.1 (2018): 78-89. [https://direct.mit.edu/daed/article-pdf/147/1/78/1831032/daed_a_00475.pdf online]</ref> India offered to mediate and sent 45,000 troops to neutralize the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE), the Tamil army.<ref>Patrick Peebles, ''The History of Sri Lanka'' (Greenwood, 2005), pp. 118, 157–177.</ref> After 1970 China provided economic and military aid, and purchased rubber. China's goal was to limit the growth of Indian and Soviet power in South Asia.<ref>J. F. Copper, "China and Sri-Lanka: Old Friendship Renewed." ''Asia Quarterly'' 2 (1975): 101-110.</ref><ref>V. Suryanarayan, "Sri Lanka's policy towards China: Legacy of the past and prospects for the future." ''China Report'' 30.2 (1994): 203-214.</ref>

==Middle East==
{{Further|United States foreign policy in the Middle East|Soviet Union and the Arab–Israeli conflict}}
[[Lawrence Freedman]], ''A choice of enemies: America confronts the Middle East'' (Hachette, 2010) provides detailed coverage of Washington's complex relations with the critical region of Jews and Arabs, Sunnis and Shias, and massive oil supplies.

===Afghanistan===
====USSR====
{{Further|Afghanistan–Russia relations|Soviet–Afghan War}}
The Afghanistan War (1978–92) was a civil war in [[History of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] that pitted the Soviet Union and its Afghan allies against a coalition of anti-Communist groups called the [[mujahideen]], supported from the outside by the United States, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia. The war ended the détente period of the Cold War. It climaxed in a humiliating defeat for the Soviets, who pulled out in 1989, and for their clients who were overthrown in 1992.<ref>See M. Hassan Kakar, "Afghan-Soviet War" in Peter N. Stearns, ed. ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World '' (2008) DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780195176322.001.0001</ref>

The world was stunned in 1979 when the Soviets sent their army into Afghanistan, which had always been neutral and uninvolved. The UN General Assembly voted by 104 to 18 with 18 abstentions to "strongly deplore" the "recent armed intervention" and demanded the "total withdrawal of foreign troops.".<ref>Tom Ruys and Olivier Corten, eds., ''The use of force in international law: a case-based approach'' (Oxford UP, 2018) p 179.</ref> The [[Republic of Afghanistan (1973—1978)|old regime]] was replaced by the Marxist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA). The Afghanistan crisis began in April 1978 with a coup d'état by Afghan Communists called the [[Saur Revolution]].<ref>A. Z. Hilali, "The Soviet Penetration into Afghanistan and the Marxist Coup." ''Journal of Slavic Military Studies'' (2005) 18#4: 673-716.</ref> They tried to impose scientific socialism on a country that did not want to be modernized—indeed, which was heading in the opposite direction under the lure of Muslim fundamentalism of the sort that had topped the Shah in next-door Iran. Disobeying orders from Moscow, the coup leaders systematically executed the leadership of the large Parcham clan, thus guaranteeing a civil war among the country's many feuding ethnic groups, especially the rival . In addition, the communists in Afghanistan were themselves bitterly divided between the [[Khalq]] and [[Parcham]] factions. Moscow confronted a quandary. Afghanistan had been neutralized for sixty years, and had never been part of the Cold War system. Now it appeared that radical fundamentalist Muslims, supported by Pakistan and Iran, and probably by China and the United States, were about to seize power. The communist regime in Kabul had no popular support; its 100,000-man army had fallen apart and was worthless. Only the Soviet army could possibly quell the growing rebellion by Parcham, the fundamentalist "mujahideen", and allied tribes who opposed the anti-religious, feminist modernizers<ref name="online">Odd Arne Westad, "Afghanistan: Perspectives on the Soviet War." ''Bulletin of Peace Proposals'' 20#3 (1989): 281-93 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/44481480 online]</ref>

The Kremlin never realized the dangers involved and did not have even a basic understanding of the forces they confronted.<ref>Christian Ostermann, CWIHP Conference Report: New Evidence on the 1979-1989 War in Afghanistan.</ref> According to Leninist principles, Afghanistan was not ready for revolution in the first place. Furthermore, intervention would destroy détente with the United States and Western Europe. Factions within the Afghan People's Democratic Party (Communist) government that were hostile to Soviet interests gained ascendancy and raised the specter of an independently minded Communist state located on the southern border that might cause future trouble inside the Muslim parts of the USSR. At this point Moscow decided not to send troops but instead stepped up shipments of military equipment such as artillery, armored personnel carriers and 48,000 machine guns; they also sent 100,000 tons of wheat.<ref>David N. Gibbs, "Reassessing Soviet Motives for Invading Afghanistan: a Declassified History." ''Critical Asian Studies'' 2006 38(2): 239-263.</ref>

Moscow's first man in Kabul was prime minister [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]] (1913–1979), who was murdered and replaced by his deputy [[Hafizullah Amin]] (1929–1979) of the Khalq faction in September 1979. Although Amin called himself a loyal communist, and begged for more Soviet military intervention, Moscow thought Amin was planning to double-cross them and switch over to China and the U.S. They therefore double crossed him first. Moscow had Amin officially invite the Soviet Army to enter Afghanistan; it did so in December 1979, and it immediately executed Amin and installed a Soviet puppet [[Babrak Karmal]] (1929–1996), the leader of the more moderate Parcham faction of the PDPA. Pressure for intervention seems to have come primarily from the KGB (secret police), whose efforts to assassinate Amin had failed, and from the Red Army, which perhaps was worried about the danger of a mutiny on the part of its many Muslim soldiers.

====World reaction====
In July 1979, before the Soviet invasion, President Jimmy Carter for the first time authorized the CIA to start assisting the Mujahideen rebels with money and non-military supplies sent via Pakistan. As soon as the Soviets invaded in December, 1979, Carter, disgusted at the collapse of détente and alarmed at the rapid Soviet gains, terminated progress on arms limitations, slapped a grain embargo on Russia, withdrew from the 1980 Moscow Olympics, and (with near-unanimous support in Congress) sent the CIA in to arm, train and finance the Mujahideen rebels. The US had strong support from Britain, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia, all of whom feared the Soviet invasion was the first step in a grand move south toward the oil-rich Persian Gulf. Carter enlarged his position into the "Carter Doctrine," by which the US announced its intention to defend the Gulf. Historians now believe that analysis was faulty and that the Soviets were not planning a grand move, but were concerned with loss of prestige and the possibility of a hostile Muslim regime that might destabilize its largely Muslim southern republics.<ref name="Richard Ned Lebow 2019 pp. 95-127">Richard Ned Lebow, and Janice Gross Stein, "Afghanistan, Carter, and foreign policy change: The limits of cognitive models." in ''Diplomacy, Force, and Leadership'' (Routledge, 2019) pp. 95-127.</ref> The boycott of the Olympics humiliated the Soviets, who had hoped the games would validate their claim to moral equality in the world of nations; instead they were pariahs again.

=====American pressure=====
When the USSR invaded in 1979, US President Jimmy Carter ended détente, launched a diplomatic offensive and began sending arms to the opposition forces.<ref>Freedman, ''Choice of Enemies'' (2008) pp 84–105.</ref><ref name="Richard Ned Lebow 2019 pp. 95-127"/> When Reagan replaced Carter in 1981, he began a [[rollback]] strategy of supporting insurgencies in Nicaragua, Cambodia, Angola, and, above all, in Afghanistan. The goal, especially after 1984, was to bleed Moscow white—to create a Vietnam for them which would suck their military dry.<ref>Freedman, ''Choice of Enemies'' (2008) pp 109–121.</ref> In Moscow the deputy defense minister explained to the HansBurr9101 in 1986:<blockquote> We control Kabul and the provincial centers, but on occupied territory we cannot establish authority....We have lost the battle for the Afghan people.<ref>"CPSU CC Cryptohaent145 Transcript, 13 Nov 1986" in ''CWIHP Bulletin'' 8-9, p. 180 [https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/111599.pdf?v=54ab643ab00b2ed93985da1293ab4fba online]</ref></blockquote>

When [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] came to power in Moscow in 1985 he immediately realized the severe drain caused by trying to hold his empire together, especially as Washington was escalating military spending, threatening to build Star Wars, and the Soviet economy was faltering badly as revenues plunged from oil exports.<ref name="online"/> It took him several years to get enough SSS support, all the time the poor performance and prolonged presence of the Soviet military in Afghanistan created domestic financial and political problems. In 1986 he replaced Karmal with [[Mohammad Najibullah]] (1947-1996) the head of the secret police (KHAD) and leader of the Parcham faction. The situation worsened. Gorbachev realized Afghanistan was a losing cause. He had to focus on the internal Soviet crisis. He stopped offensive operations in 1987 and withdrew the last of his forces in February 1989.<ref>Gregory Feifer, ''The Great Gamble: The Soviet War in Afghanistan'' (HarperCollins, 2009) pp 218–254.</ref><ref>A. Z. Hilali, "Afghanistan: the Decline of Soviet Military Strategy and Political Status." ''Journal of Slavic Military Studies'' (1999) 12(1): 94-123.</ref>

====United States====
{{Further|Afghanistan–United States relations}}
Historians have started detailed coverage of the American interest in Afghanistan, from trying to frustrate the Soviets in the 1980s to trying and failing to defeat the Taliban, 2001–2021.<ref>See Fredrik Logevall, "How America Lost Its Way in Afghanistan" ''The New York Times'' Aug. 17, 2021</ref><ref>Carter Malkasian, “How the Good War Went Bad: America’s Slow-Motion Failure in Afghanistan.” ''Foreign Affairs'' (2020) 99 (2): 77–91. doi:http://www.foreignaffairs.com/archive.</ref><ref>Carter Malkasian, ''The American War in Afghanistan'' (2021).</ref>

[[File:President Eisenhower in Kabul.jpg|thumb|left|President Eisenhower's state visit to Afghanistan on December 9, 1959.]]

Eisenhower declined Afghanistan's request for defense cooperation but extended an economic assistance program focused on the development of Afghanistan's physical infrastructure—roads, dams, and power plants. Later, American aid shifted from infrastructure projects to technical assistance programs to help develop the skills needed to build a modern economy. Contacts between the United States and Afghanistan increased during the 1950s to counter the attraction of communism. After Eisenhower made a state visit to Afghanistan in December 1959 Washington grew confident that Afghanistan was safe from ever becoming a Soviet [[satellite state]]. From the 1950s to 1979, U.S. foreign assistance provided Afghanistan with more than $500 million in loans, grants, and surplus agricultural commodities to develop transportation facilities, increase agricultural production, expand the educational system, stimulate industry, and improve government administration.<ref name=USGov>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5380.htm#relations |title=U.S.-AFGHAN RELATIONS |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |access-date=2011-10-13}}</ref> In the 1960s Moscow was sensing that Washington was turning Afghanistan into a satellite state. In 1965, Afghanistan saw the establishment of a Communist party affiliated with Moscow, the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA). By the 1970s, numerous American teachers, engineers, doctors, scholars, diplomats, and explorers had traversed Afghanistan's rugged landscape where they lived and worked. The [[Peace Corps]] was active in Afghanistan between 1962 and 1979. Many other American programs were running in the country such as [[CARE (relief agency)|CARE]], [[American Scouting overseas]] ([[Afghanistan Scout Association]]), [[USAID]], and others.

====Left-wing government, Soviet invasion and civil war====
{{Further|CIA activities in Afghanistan|Operation Cyclone|Reagan Doctrine}}
After the April 1978 [[Saur Revolution]], relations between the two nations became spotty. While the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Democratic Republic]] regime remained officially nonaligned and opened diplomatic relations with the U.S. by June 1978, as time went on Afghanistan's increasing bond in the Soviet orbit was a cause of concern. Secretary of State [[Cyrus Vance]] said at the time "We need to take into account the mix of nationalism and communism in the new leadership and seek to avoid driving the regime into a closer embrace with the Soviet Union than it might wish."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB57/essay.html|title = Afghanistan: Lessons from the Last War}}</ref> The new American Ambassador [[Adolph Dubs|Adolph "Spike" Dubs]] told a visiting official in August 1978 that a more positive American approach can reduce Soviet influence, adding that while Afghanistan would still have a pro-Soviet tilt, "it would not be a Soviet satellite, military or otherwise." Dubs also felt that [[Hafizullah Amin]] "can't go as far as [[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]] or even [[Ceausescu]]".<ref name="nsarchive2.gwu.edu">{{cite web|url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/carterbrezhnev/docs_intervention_in_afghanistan_and_the_fall_of_detente/fall_of_detente_chron.pdf|title=Fall of detente chronology|website=gwu.edu|access-date=10 June 2023}}</ref>

In February 1979, Ambassador Dubs was murdered in Kabul after Afghan security forces burst in on his kidnappers, leading to a deterioration in relations. The U.S. then reduced bilateral assistance and terminated a small military training program. At the same time, the deteriorating internal situation in Afghanistan caused the U.S. to warn the Soviet Union not to intervene. Following Amin's rise as General Secretary, he publicly expressed his desire for friendly relations with the U.S.<ref name="nsarchive2.gwu.edu"/> As the rebellion spread and the security situation deteriorated, U.S. authorities decided on 23 July 1979, to evacuate the families of American nationals in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web |title=Intensification of Warfare between Government Forces and Moslem Rebels - Government Changes - Alleged Involvement of Foreign Powers |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/tomzgroup/pmwiki/uploads/3025-1979-10-12-KS-b-EYJ.pdf |website=Stanford University |access-date=10 June 2023}}</ref>

The [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] became a major concern for the United States, with President [[Jimmy Carter]] calling it a "clear threat to the peace".<ref name="nsarchive2.gwu.edu"/> Following the invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet withdrawal. In addition, generous American contributions to the refugee program in [[Pakistan]] played a major part in efforts to assist [[Afghan refugees]]. American efforts also included helping the population living inside Afghanistan. This cross-border [[humanitarian assistance]] program aimed at increasing Afghan self-sufficiency and helping resist Soviet attempts to drive civilians out of the rebel-dominated countryside. During the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|period of Soviet occupation of Afghanistan]], the U.S. provided about 3 billion [[US dollars]] in military and economic assistance to the [[Mujahideen]] groups stationed on the Pakistani side of the [[Durand Line]]. The U.S. Embassy in Kabul was closed in January 1989 for security reasons.

The United States welcomed the new Islamic administration that came to power in April 1992 after the fall of the former Soviet-backed government.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/29/world/rebels-leader-arrives-in-kabul-and-forms-an-islamic-republic.html |title = Rebels' Leader Arrives in Kabul and Forms an Islamic Republic|newspaper = The New York Times|date = April 29, 1992|last1 = Gargan|first1 = Edward A.}}</ref> After this, the Mujahideen groups that won, started a [[Afghan Civil War (1992-96)|civil war]] amongst themselves, but the United States's attention was away from Afghanistan at the time.

====Taliban comes to power====
{{Main|Taliban}}
The Taliban in 1996 won the [[Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)]]. As with almost every other country in the world, Washington refused to recognize the new "[[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]]", the official name of the radical Islamist government established by the Taliban.<ref>C. S. R. Murthy, "Taliban and the Afghanistan Problem, 1996-2001: Role of the UN." ''Himalayan and Central Asian'' Studies 6.1 (2002): 4-34. [http://www.himalayanresearch.org/pdf/2000-2002/vol06%20N1final.pdf#page=9 online]</ref> It continued supporting the [[Northern Alliance]] as the legitimate government. Washington did have informal contacts with the Taliban, but relations worsened after [[Osama bin Laden]]'s [[Fatawā of Osama bin Laden|fatawā declaring war on the United States]] and the [[1998 United States embassy bombings]]. After [[Operation Infinite Reach]], Mullah [[Mullah Omar|Mohammed Omar]] made a telephone call to the U.S. State Department demanding that President [[Bill Clinton]] resign. The United States refused to provide aid or recognition to the Taliban government unless it expelled bin Laden, which it refused to do under the ''[[pashtunwali]]'' code demanding that guests be offered sanctuary.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wright|first=Lawrence |title=The looming tower: Al-Qaeda and the road to 9/11|isbn=978-0-375-41486-2|location=New York |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |oclc=64592193}}</ref> After a 20-year war waged by the U.S. and NATO partners, the Taliban suddenly took control of the country in summer 2021, as the Afghan army, police and national government suddenly fled. Over 120,000 Afghan supporters of many different anti-Taliban programs were evacuated amidst chaos, and thousands were left behind to an uncertain fate.<ref>See "NATO and Afghanistan" 16 Sept. 2021 [https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_8189.htm online]</ref>

==See also==
* [[History of Asia]]
* [[Cold War]]
* [[Sino-Soviet relations]]
* [[Sino-Soviet split]]
* [[Russia and the Middle East]]
* [[India–Russia relations]]
* [[India and the Non-Aligned Movement]]

==Notes==
<references/>

===Works cited===
* {{cite book |last=Karnow |first=Stanley |author-link=Stanley Karnow |year=1991 |title=Vietnam, A History |publisher=ViolaLaneyng Press–Random House |isbn=978-0-670-74604-0 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/vietnamhistory00karn}}
* {{cite book |last=Reeves |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Reeves (American writer) |year=1993 |title=President Kennedy: Profile of Power |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0-671-64879-4|url=https://archive.org/details/presidentkennedy00reev_0}}
* {{cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer |title=The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History |publisher=ABC-CLIO |orig-year=1998 |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-85109-960-3 |location=Santa Barbara}}

==Further reading==
{{Further|Bibliography of the Cold War#Asia and Pacific}}

{{refbegin|30em}}
* Abraham, Itty. "From Bandung to NAM: Non-alignment and Indian foreign policy, 1947–65." ''Commonwealth & Comparative Politics'' 46.2 (2008): 195–219. [https://ap5.fas.nus.edu.sg/fass/seaai/interest/bandung-nam-itty.pdf online]
* Bajpai, Kanti, Selina Ho, and Manjari Chatterjee Miller, eds. ''Routledge Handbook of China–India Relations'' (Routledge, 2020). [https://www.amazon.com/Routledge-Handbook-China-India-Relations-Bajpai-ebook/dp/B0855JQYJJ/ excerpt]
* Bhagavan, Manu, ed. ''India and the Cold War'' (2019) [https://www.amazon.com/India-Cold-War-New-History/dp/1469651165/ excerpt]
* Brazinsky, Gregg. "The Birth of a Rivalry: Sino-American Relations During the Truman Administration" in Daniel S. Margolies, ed. ''A Companion to Harry S. Truman'' (2012) pp 484–497; emphasis on historiography.
* Brazinsky, Gregg A. ''Winning the Third World: Sino-American Rivalry during the Cold War'' (U of North Carolina Press, 2017); [https://networks.h-net.org/system/files/contributed-files/roundtable-xix-33.pdf four online reviews & author response] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180513011241/https://networks.h-net.org/system/files/contributed-files/roundtable-xix-33.pdf }}
* Brimmell, J. H. ''Communism in South East Asia : a political analysis.'' (Oxford UP, 1959) [https://archive.org/details/communisminsouth0000brim online]
* Brown, Archie. ''The rise and fall of communism'' (Random House, 2009). pp 179–193, 313–359. [https://archive.org/details/risefallofcommun00brow online]
* Brune, Lester, and Richard Dean Burns. '' Chronology of the Cold War: 1917–1992'' (2005), 720 pp [https://archive.org/details/chronologyofcold0000brun online]
* Choudhury, G.W. ''India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the Major Powers: Politics of a Divided Subcontinent'' (1975), relations with US, USSR and China.
* Fawcett, Louise, ed. ''International relations of the Middle East'' (3rd ed. Oxford UP, 2016) [https://www.academia.edu/download/53418113/42_6.pdf full text online]{{dead link|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Friedman, Jeremy. ''Shadow Cold War: The Sino-Soviet Competition for the Third World'' (2018) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1469645521/ excerpt]
* Fürst, Juliane, Silvio Pons and Mark Selden, eds. ''The Cambridge History of Communism (Volume 3): Endgames?.Late Communism in Global Perspective, 1968 to the Present'' (2017) [https://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-History-Communism-3-dp-1107135648/dp/1107135648/ excerpt]
* Garver, John W. ''China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic'' (Oxford UP, 2016) [https://www.amazon.com/Chinas-Quest-History-Relations-Republic/dp/0190261056 excerpt]
* Goscha, Christopher, and Christian Ostermann, eds. ''Connecting Histories: Decolonization and the Cold War in Southeast Asia (1945-1962)'' (Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2009)
* Hasegawa, Tsuyoshi, ed. ''The Cold War in East Asia, 1945–1991'' (Stanford UP, 2011) {{ISBN|978-0-8047-7331-7}} From the Cold War International History Project.[https://www.wilsoncenter.org/book/the-cold-war-east-asia-1945-1991?gclid=CjwKCAjw3_KIBhA2EiwAaAAlis95twYLNIuQenwC5kG9Xlfo2X_-A7D8UB0E4tXhgVVjFaLWVvhHwBoCrXMQAvD_BwE online outline]
* Hilger, Andreas. "The Soviet Union and India: the Khrushchev era and its aftermath until 1966." (2009) [http://www.php.isn.ethz.ch/lory1.ethz.ch/collections/coll_india/documents/IntroII_final_001.pdf online].
* Hilali, A. Z. "Cold war politics of superpowers in South Asia." ''The Dialogue'' 1.2 (2006): 68–108. [http://qurtuba.edu.pk/thedialogue/The%20Dialogue/1_2/4_Mr.%20Hilali.pdf online]
* Hiro, Dilip. ''Cold War In The Islamic World: Saudi Arabia, Iran And The Struggle For Supremacy.'' (2019) [https://www.amazon.com/Cold-War-Islamic-World-Supremacy/dp/0197537022/ excerpt]
* Judge, Edward H. and John W. Langdon. ''The Struggle against Imperialism: Anticolonialism and the Cold War'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018), pp 37–99. Brief overview by experts.
* Kennedy, Malcolm D. ''A Short History of Communism in Asia'' (1957) [https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.505543/page/n5/mode/2up online]
* King, Amy. ''China-Japan Relations after World War Two: Empire, Industry and War, 1949–1971'' (Cambridge UP, 2016).
* Lawrence, Mark Atwood. "Setting the Pattern: The Truman Administration and Southeast Asia" in Daniel S. Margolies, ed. ''A Companion to Harry S. Truman'' (2012) pp 532–552; emphasis on historiography
* Lesch, David W. and Mark L. Haas, eds. ''The Middle East and the United States: History, Politics, and Ideologies'' (6th ed, 2018) [https://www.amazon.com/Middle-East-United-States-Ideologies-dp-1138604666/dp/1138604666/ excerpt]
* Li, Xiaobing. ''The Cold War in East Asia'' (Routledge, 2018) [https://www.amazon.com/Cold-War-East-Asia/dp/113865180X/ excerpt]
* Li, Xiaobing, and Hongshan Li, eds. ''China and the United States: A New Cold War History'' (University Press of America, 1998) [https://www.amazon.com/China-United-States-Cold-History/dp/0761809775/ excerpt]
* {{cite book | last = Lundestad | first = Geir | title = East, West, North, South: Major Developments in International Politics since 1945 | year = 2005 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-1-4129-0748-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/eastwestnorthsou0000lund | author-link = Geir Lundestad }}
* Lüthi, Lorenz M. ''Cold Wars: Asia, the Middle East, Europe'' (Cambridge University Press, 2020) 774pp
* Lüthi, Lorenz M. ''The Sino Soviet Split: Cold War in the Communist World'' (2007).
* Malone, David M. et al. eds. ''Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy '' (2015)
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* Matray, James I. "Conflicts in Korea" in Daniel S. Margolies, ed. ''A Companion to Harry S. Truman'' (2012) pp 498–531; emphasis on historiography.
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* Naimark, Norman Silvio Pons and Sophie Quinn-Judge, eds. ''The Cambridge History of Communism (Volume 2): The Socialist Camp and World Power, 1941-1960s'' (2017) [https://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-History-Communism-2/dp/1107133548/ excerpt]
* Phuangkasem, Corrine. ''Thailand's Foreign Relations: 1964-80'' (Brookfield, 1984).
* Pons, Silvio, and Robert Service, eds. ''A Dictionary of 20th-Century Communism'' (2010).
* {{cite book | last = Porter | first = Bruce | author2 = Karsh, Efraim | title = The USSR in Third World Conflicts: Soviet Arms and Diplomacy in Local Wars | year = 1984 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-31064-2}}
* Priestland, David. ''The Red Flag: A History of Communism'' (Grove, 2009).
* Rajan, Nithya. "‘No Afghan Refugees in India’: Refugees and Cold War Politics in the 1980s." ''South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies'' 44.5 (2021): 851-867.
* Sattar, Abdul. ''Pakistan's Foreign Policy, 1947-2012: A Concise History'' (3rd ed. Oxford UP, 2013). [https://archive.org/details/PakistansForeignPolicy19472009_201803 online 2nd 2009 edition]
* Tucker, Spencer, et al. eds. ''The Encyclopedia of the Cold War: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (5 vol., 2007) 1969pp
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Vu |editor-first1=Tuong |editor-last2=Wongsurawat |editor-first2=Wasana |title=Dynamics of the Cold War in Asia: Ideology, Identity, and Culture |year=2009 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |url= |isbn=9780230101999 }}
* Westad, Odd Arne. ''Brothers in arms: the rise and fall of the Sino-Soviet alliance, 1945-1963'' (Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1998)
* Westad, Odd Arne. ''The global Cold War: Third World interventions and the making of our times'' (Cambridge UP, 2005).
* {{cite book | last = Westad | first = Odd Arne | authorlink= Odd Arne Westad | title = [[The Cold War: A World History]] | year = 2017 | publisher = Basic Books | isbn = 978-0-465-05493-0 }}
* Yahuda, Michael. ''The international politics of the Asia-Pacific : 1945-1995'' (1st ed. 1996) [https://archive.org/details/internationalpol0000yahu_g1i4 online].

===Wars===
* Arms, Thomas S. ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Cold War'' (1994) [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofco00arms online]
* Davis, Simon, and Joseph Smith. ''The A to Z of the Cold War'' (Scarecrow, 2005), encyclopedia focused on military aspects
* Haruki, Wada. ''The Korean War: An International History'' (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/Korean-War-International-History-Perspectives/dp/0810896303/ excerpt]
* House, Jonathan. ''A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962'' (2012), emphasis on small wars
* Kislenko, Arne. "The Vietnam War, Thailand, and the United States" in Richard Jensen et al. eds. ''Trans-Pacific Relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the Twentieth Century'' (Praeger, 2003) pp 217–245.
* Lawrence, Mark Atwood, and Fredrik Logevall, eds. ''The First Vietnam War: Colonial Conflict and Cold War Crisis'' (2007)
* Li, Xiaobing. ''China at War: An Encyclopedia'' (ABC-CLIO, 2012). [https://www.amazon.com/China-at-War-Encyclopedia-Xiaobing/dp/1598844156/ excerpt]
* McMahon, Robert J. ''Major problems in the history of the Vietnam War: documents and essays'' (2nd ed 1995) [https://archive.org/details/majorproblemsinh0000unse_u2e8 online]
* Miller, David. ''The Cold War: A Military History'' (Macmillan, 2015). [https://www.amazon.com/Cold-War-MILITARY-History/dp/0312241836/ excerpt]; NATO and Warsaw war plans; little action
* Olson, James Stuart, ed. ''The Vietnam War: Handbook of the literature and research'' (Greenwood, 1993) [https://www.amazon.com/Vietnam-War-Handbook-Literature-Research/dp/0313274223/ excerpt]; historiography
* Roberts, Priscilla. ''Behind the Bamboo Curtain: China, Vietnam, and the Cold War'' (2006)
* Smith, R.B. '' An International History of the Vietnam War'' (2 vol 1985)
* Zhai, Qiang. ''China and the Vietnam Wars, 1950-1975'' (2000)

{{refend}}

===Primary sources===
* Buhide, Russell, ed. ''The dynamics of world power: a documentary history of United States foreign policy, 1945-1973. V. 4: The Far East'' (Chelsea House, 1973), 859pp; also published as two-volume paperback. [https://archive.org/details/dynamicsofworldp0004unse vol 2 online]
* Judge, Edward H. and John W. Langdon, eds. ''The Cold War through Global Documents'' (3rd ed. 2018), includes primary sources.
* Lawrence, Mark Atwood, ed. ''The Vietnam War: An International History in Documents'' (2014)
*{{CC-notice|cc=bysa3|url=https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Richard%20Nixon|author(s)= Citizendium editors; article "Richard Nixon"}}.
*{{CC-notice|cc=bysa3|url=https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/History_of_U.S._foreign_policy|author(s)= Citizendium editors; article "History of U.S. foreign policy"}}.

==External links==
* [https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/collection/162/china-southeast-asia-relations "China-Southeast Asia Relations" from Wilson Center]
* [https://www.state.gov/bureaus-offices/under-secretary-for-political-affairs/bureau-of-east-asian-and-pacific-affairs/ US State Department Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs]
* [https://www.state.gov/bureaus-offices/under-secretary-for-political-affairs/bureau-of-near-eastern-affairs/ US State Department Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs]
* [https://www.state.gov/bureaus-offices/under-secretary-for-political-affairs/bureau-of-south-and-central-asian-affairs/ US State Department Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs]

{{Cold War}}

[[Category:Cold War| ]]
[[Category:20th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Wars involving the United States]]
[[Category:Wars involving China]]
[[Category:Soviet Union–United States relations]]
[[Category:China–United States relations]]
[[Category:Cold War by continent]]

Idolatry in Sikhism

2022-12-01T09:14:49Z

Tedd: New content.

{{Short description|View of idolatry in Sikhism}}
[[File:Detailed view of a fresco of Guru Nanak seated near a Hindu religious event involving idols from Gurdwara Baba Atal, Amritsar.jpg|thumb|Detailed view of the fresco of [[Guru Nanak]] seated and [[Bhai Bala]] standing near a Hindu religious event involving [[Murti|idols]] from [[Gurdwara Baba Atal]], Amritsar]]
{{Sikhism sidebar}}

[[Sikhism]] prohibits idolatry,<ref name=dgsingh>D.G. Singh (2002), Idolatry is impermissible in Sikhism, Sikh Review, Volume 50, Issue 5, pages 35-37</ref> in accordance with mainstream [[Khalsa]] norms and the teachings of the Sikh Gurus,<ref name=madan1>{{cite book|author=TN Madan|editor= Martin Marty and R Scott Appleby|title=Fundamentalisms Observed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qd5yzP5hdiEC |year=1994| publisher= University of Chicago Press|isbn= 978-0-226-50878-8|pages =604–610}} “Both institutions [SGPC and Akali Dal] were envisaged as instruments of the Sikh community for the furtherance of a purified way of religious and social life, without idolatrous priests and in repudiation of ritualism and caste distinctions. Such indeed had been the fundamental teaching of the Gurus.”</ref> a position that has been accepted as orthodox.<ref name="McLeod2009p97"/><ref name="Historical Dictionary of Sikhism">{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|author2=W. H. McLeod|title=Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|page=158}}</ref><ref name=ks542/>

Growing Sikh popular discontent with [[Gurdwara]] administration and practices during the 1800s,<ref name=harnik/><ref name=mandair78/><ref name=ks542/> revivalist movements in the mid-1800s who opposed idol worship like the [[Nirankari]]s<ref name=mandair78/> and the [[Namdhari]]s<ref name=agnihotra/> (who however have followed a living guru since its inception), and the encroachment of Brahmanical customs in the [[Golden Temple]] during that period,<ref name=ks542/><ref name=madan1/><ref name=madan3/> led to the establishment of the [[Singh Sabha Movement]] in 1873, in which the [[Tat Khalsa]] faction, dominant since the early 1880s, pushed to renew and standardize the practice of Sikhism. After a period of political advancement, the Khalsa faction re-established direct control over Gurdwara management<ref name="SinghFenech2014p28">{{cite book|author1=Pashaura Singh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I0NAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|author2=Louis E. Fenech|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-969930-8|pages=28–29, 73–76}}</ref> over the [[Udasi]] and Hindu<ref name=madan3>{{cite book|author=TN Madan|editor= Martin Marty and R Scott Appleby|title=Fundamentalisms Observed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qd5yzP5hdiEC |year=1994| publisher= University of Chicago Press|isbn= 978-0-226-50878-8|pages =604–610}} “The government had handled the Sikhs with caution, combining patronage with control. Pro-British groups and important individuals were the recipients of this patronage. In return, they were expected to help in keeping hostile elements under control. This was perhaps best exemplified by the fact that the government never allowed the management of the Golden Temple to go completely out of its hands. It thus stood behind the mahants, who were almost invariably unbaptized Sikhs (though claiming affiliation with the Udasi sect founded by one of the sons of the first guru) or plain Hindus. They kept alive idolatry and a great deal of Brahmanical ritual in the temples and were considered venal… The managers of the Golden Temple were particularly disliked, not only for their Hindu origin but also for their loyalty to the British.”</ref> ''mahants'', who institutionalized idol worship<ref name=ks542/> and would eventually identify with the [[Sanatan Sikh]]s, who identified with the Brahmanical social structure<ref name="mandair">{{cite book|last1=Mandair|first1=Arvind-Pal Singh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdhLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|title=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=9781441102317|edition=illustrated|location=London, England|page=83|access-date=1 May 2019}}</ref> and considered idol worship as not harmful.<ref name="McLeod2009p97"/> The ''mahants'' had gained control of Gurdwaras after heavy [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] persecution forced the Khalsa to relinquish control of the Gurdwaras and vacate the [[Punjab]] plains in the 1700s;<ref name="perplexed83">{{cite book|author=Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdhLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA85|title=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed|publisher=Bloomsburg Academic|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4411-0231-7|pages=83–85}}</ref><ref name=hari/> they were most prominent in the 1800s.<ref name=mandair/>

In 1905, after re-establishing institutional control, the Khalsa managed to have removed the idols installed during the preceding period, as well as ending ''mahant'' administration and the practice of other non-Sikh, Brahmanical rituals in the process,<ref name=harnik/><ref name=ks542/> considering them "Hindu accretions" and "Brahmanical stranglehold,"<ref name="Tambiah1997p154">{{cite book|author=Stanley J. Tambiah|title=Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-WEKZHVKZ-cC |year=1997|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-91819-1|pages=154–156}}</ref> amidst a major controversy within the Sikh community of that era.<ref name="McLeod2009p97">{{cite book|author=W. H. McLeod|title=The A to Z of Sikhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vgixwfeCyDAC&pg=PA97 |year=2009|publisher= Scarecrow |isbn=978-0-8108-6344-6|page=97}}</ref><ref name="Khushwant Singh 2006 160"/><ref name=oberoi322/> The prohibition, state Fenech and McLeod, has also served a means to assert Sikhism differs from Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|author2=W. H. McLeod|title= Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158|year= 2014|publisher= Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|page=158}}</ref>

==Sikh texts==

Idol worship is mentioned as a futile and worthless practice in the Sikh texts such as the ''[[Guru Granth Sahib]]'' and the ''[[Dasam Granth]]''. In the ''Guru Granth Sahib'', the teachings of Guru Nanak call the practice of worshipping stones as useless and ridiculous. These stones cannot answer any questions nor provide spiritual guidance as the ''guru'' can, states Nanak, and only the guidance of a ''guru'' can carry one across the "Ocean of Existence".<ref>{{cite book|author=W. H. McLeod|title=Gurū Nānak and the Sikh religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tnnXAAAAMAAJ|year=1968|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=209–210|isbn=978-0-19-826521-4}}</ref> For example, in the following hymn of [[Guru Granth Sahib]], [[Bhagat Namdev]] rejects idol worship.

{{Quotation|<poem>One stone is lovingly decorated, while another stone is walked upon. If one is a god, then the other must also be a god. Says Naam Dayv, I serve the Lord.</poem>|Bhagat Namdev|Guru Granth Sahib 525 <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&Param=525|title=Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib}}</ref>}}

Idolatry is criticized in the ''Dasam Granth'' traditionally attributed to the tenth Guru Gobind Singh. The ''Dasam Granth'' includes idolatry along with other practices such as smearing sandal paste, offering food, visiting graves and tombs, bowing and others as futile and unhelpful in knowing God.<ref>{{cite book|author=W. H. McLeod|title=Textual Sources for the Study of Sikhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj28AAAAIAAJ|year=1984|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-1063-7|page=58}}</ref>

According to the Indologist Harold Coward, the Sikh scriptures critique idolatry and Guru Nanak's words protest and condemn empty, magical worship of idols.<ref name="Khushwant Singh 2006 160">{{cite book|author=Khushwant Singh|title=The Illustrated History of the Sikhs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AytuAAAAMAAJ |year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-567747-8|page=160 |quote= "He condemned idol worship and making obeisance to 'holy' men; he disapproved of going to pilgrimages and performing Brahmanical ritual. The positive aspect of his teaching was that God was formless -- ''niraṅkār'' (hence the futility of worshipping idols or 'saints')..."}}</ref> But, states Coward, an icon treated as a symbol that does not confuse the physical with the spiritual, and with the "right motivation and understanding", the Sikh scripture does not exclude the reverence of the Guru Granth,<ref>{{cite book|author=Harold G. Coward|title=Scripture in the World Religions: A Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAXXAAAAMAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Oxford: Oneworld|isbn=978-1-85168-244-7|pages=130–132, 209–210}}</ref> which accompanies ritual devotional singing in Sikh Gurdwaras.<ref name=MyrvoldBrill/>

==Historical references to idolatry==

===Zafarnama and Dasam Granth ===

The [[Zafarnama (letter)|Zafarnama]], or letter of victory, was written in [[Persian language|Persian]] to Aurangzeb in 1705 by [[Guru Gobind Singh]] after the [[battle of Chamkaur]]. In the ''Zafarnama'', Guru Gobind Singh chastises the Mughal Emperor [[Aurangzeb]] for promising safe passage to his family but then reneging on that promise.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robin Rinehart|editor=Pashaura Singh and Louis E Fenech|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I0NAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-969930-8 |pages=136–143 }}</ref> The 95th couplet, in Persian, referring to his battles with the Mughal-allied hill rajas of the [[Sivalik Hills]], states:

{{center|"I, too, have fought against the hill-chieftains (''kūhīyān'', "hill-men") [who] venerate idols. As they are idol worshippers, so I am the idol-breaker."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fenech |first1=Louis E. |title=The Sikh Zafar-namah of Guru Gobind Singh: A Discursive Blade in the Heart of the Mughal Empire |date=January 11, 2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |isbn=978-0199931453 |page=81 |edition=1st |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aUUfAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |access-date=9 December 2019}}</ref>}}

The ''Dasam Granth'' where the ''Zafarnama'' is found, is a complex text; considered as the second scripture by some Sikhs, while others dispute its authority and the authorship of certain parts. It also includes the [[33 Savaiye]], or "33 quatrains," of which quatrains 19 through 21 specifically address the futility of idol worship.<ref>{{cite book| author1=Sukhbir Singh Kapoor|author2= Mohinder Kaur Kapoor |title=Dasam Granth: An Introductory Study |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8-h8ptzp0lUC&pg=PA90 |year=1993|publisher=Hemkunt Press |isbn= 9788170103257|page=90}}</ref> The ritual ''sastar puja'' (worship of weapons) in the Khalsa tradition for some scholars, states Singh, is akin to idol worship.<ref name="JacobsenAktor2014"/> In Sikh scholarship, the ritual is denied as the worship of God, rather it is defended as the worship of what the weapons iconographically represent to the Sikh: ''adi shakti'' (power of god). These verses are related to Khalsa's preparation for the war against the Mughals and "enabling the destruction of the enemy".<ref name="JacobsenAktor2014">{{cite book|author1=Knut A. Jacobsen|author2=Mikael Aktor|author3=Kristina Myrvold|title=Objects of Worship in South Asian Religions: Forms, Practices and Meanings|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=oqReBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 |year=2014|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-67595-2|pages=185–187}}</ref>

===Dabestan-e Mazaheb===

The [[Dabestan-e Mazaheb]] is a mid-17th-century text on religions in India.<ref name=gs1>Ganda Singh (1940), [https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh/page/n3 Nanak Panthis or The Sikhs and Sikhism of the 17th Century], Journal of Indian History, Volume 19, Number 2, pages 198–209, 217–218 with footnotes</ref> The text does not disclose the author, and it is unclear who authored it. Some credit it to Muhsin Fani – possibly a Persian [[Muslim]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Anil Chandra Banerjee|title=The Sikh gurus and the Sikh religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1qfXAAAAMAAJ|year=1983|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal|pages=59 with footnotes|isbn=9788121501491}}</ref> some to Maubad Ardastani – possibly a [[Zoroastrian]],<ref name="McLeod2009p48">{{cite book|author=W. H. McLeod|title=The A to Z of Sikhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vgixwfeCyDAC |year=2009|publisher= Scarecrow |isbn=978-0-8108-6344-6|page=48}}</ref> and some to either Mirza Zu'lfiqar Beg or Kaikhusrau Isfandyar.<ref name="ihabib"/> The text survives in two major manuscript versions with several notable recensions; all five manuscripts are currently held in [[Maulana Azad Library]] in [[Aligarh]].<ref name=ihabib/> Both major versions have five Ta'lims on non-Muslim religions and seven Ta'lims on Islamic sects. In the five devoted to the non-Muslim religions, one each is dedicated to the Parsi religion, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism and Christianity. The second Ta'lim is on Hinduism and other Indian sects;<ref name=ihabib/> one section presents Sikh beliefs and practices.<ref name=ihabib>{{cite journal|author = Irfan Habib| title= A Fragmentary Exploration of an Indian Text on Religions and Sects: Notes on the Earlier Version of the Dabistan-i-Mazahib| journal= Proceedings of the Indian History Congress| volume=61| pages= 474–491| year=2001| jstor= 44148125}}</ref>

The second ''ta'lim'' of ''Dabistan-i-Mazahib'' includes one of the oldest references to Nanak-panthis. This term is uncommon in the literature of Guru Nanak’s era, but it is attested in the writings of Miharban (d. 1640), a grandson of [[Guru Ram Das]] and one belonging to the [[Mina (Sikhism)|Minas]] – one of the five splinter groups instructed by Guru Gobind Singh for the initiated Khalsa to avoid.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Winand M. Callewaert|author2=Rupert Snell|title=According to Tradition: Hagiographical Writing in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GrMwdEqHLzEC&pg=PA23 |year=1994|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-03524-8|pages=23–24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Arvind-Pal S. Mandair|author2=Christopher Shackle|author3=Gurharpal Singh|title=Sikh Religion, Culture and Ethnicity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=79ZcAgAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-84634-2|pages=36–37}}</ref> Nanakpanthis as mentioned in the ''Dabistan-i-Mazahib'' are understood to be Sikhs of mid-17th-century who followed Guru Nanak.<ref name=malhotramir>{{cite book|author1=Anshu Malhotra|author2=Farina Mir|title=Punjab Reconsidered: History, Culture, and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_vQtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT244 |year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-908877-5|pages=244–246}}</ref>

Among the first details mentioned of the faith at the time is the author’s direct observation of the lack of belief in idols and idol-temples among the Sikhs of the time.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Dr. Ganda |title=Nanak Panthis or The Sikhs and Sikhism of the 17th Century (translated from Muhsin Fani's Dabistan-i-Mazahib) Edited with Notes|publisher=Sikh Digital Library |location=Khalsa College, Amritsar |pages=[https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh/page/n3 198] |edition=The Journal of Indian History 19(2); Aug 1940: pp 195–219. |url=https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh |access-date=1 May 2019}} “Nanak-panthis, who are known as Guru-Sikhs or disciples of the Gurus [Nanak and his successors] have no belief in idols and idol-temples.”</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shea, Troyer |first1=David, Anthony |title=The Dabistán or School of manners, (1843) Vol 2 |year=1843 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dabistnorschoo02shea/page/246 246] |url=https://archive.org/details/dabistnorschoo02shea |access-date=5 June 2019}} “The Nanac-Panthians,who are known as composing the nation of the Sikhs, have neither idols nor temples of idols.”</ref><ref name=grewal>{{cite book |last1=Grewal |first1=J. S. |last2=Habib |first2=Irfan |title=Sikh History from Persian Sources: Translations of Major Texts |publisher=Tulika |location=University of Michigan |isbn=9788185229171 |pages=61–69 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DlluAAAAMAAJ |access-date=15 November 2020 |author1-link=J. S. Grewal |author2-link=Irfan Habib}}</ref> It addition, it states that there is no veneration of mantras, idols, and ''avtars'' of the Hindus, nor is there regard of the Sanskrit language.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Dr. Ganda |title=Nanak Panthis or The Sikhs and Sikhism of the 17th Century (translated from Muhsin Fani's Dabistan-i-Mazahib) Edited with Notes|publisher=Sikh Digital Library |location=Khalsa College, Amritsar |pages=[https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh/page/n9 204]–205 |edition=The Journal of Indian History 19(2); Aug 1940: pp 195–219. |url=https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh |access-date=1 May 2019}} “In short, the disciples of Nanak condemn idol-worship. Their belief is that all their Gurus are Nanak, as has been said. They do not read the Mantras of the Hindus. They do not venerate their temples or idols, nor do they esteem their Avtars. They have no regard for the Sanskrit language which, according to the Hindus, is the speech of the angels.”</ref><ref name=grewal/> And further on, an anecdote popular among the followers of [[Guru Hargobind]], who had been the Guru around the time of the writing of the treatise, is relayed:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Dr. Ganda |title=Nanak Panthis or The Sikhs and Sikhism of the 17th Century (translated from Muhsin Fani's Dabistan-i-Mazahib) Edited with Notes|publisher=Sikh Digital Library |location=Khalsa College, Amritsar |pages=[https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh/page/n15 210]–211 |edition=The Journal of Indian History 19(2); Aug 1940: pp 195–219. |url=https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh |access-date=1 May 2019}}“In short, after the battle of Kartarpur he went to Phagwara. As his residence in places like Lahore was difficult, he hastened from there to Kiratpur, which is in the foothills of the Punjab. That land belonged to Raja Tara Chand who did not walk on the path of submission and service to Emperor Shah Jehan. The people of that place worship idols. On the summit of a mountain, they have raised an idol to the goddess named Naina Devi. The rajahs (petty rulers of the hill states) used to go to that place and performed the rites of pilgrimage. When the Guru came to that place, one of his Sikhs, Bhairo by name, went to the temple of the idol and broke the nose of the Devi (goddess). The rajahs having received the news complained to the Guru and named him [Bhairo]. The Guru sent for Bhairo. Bhairo denied. The attendants of the rajah said: “We recognize him.” He replied: “Oh rajahs, ask the goddess, if she name me, you (may) kill me.” The rajahs said: “Oh fool, how can the goddess speak?” Bhairo answered smilingly: “It is clear who the fool is. When she cannot prevent the breaking of her own head and cannot identify her own injurer, what good can you expect from her and (why) do you worship her as divine?” The rajahs remained tongue-tied. Now most of the people of that land are disciples of the Guru.”</ref>

{{blockquote|In short, after the [[battle of Kartarpur]] he went to [[Phagwara]]. From there, since it was difficult for him to stay in any place near Lahore, he proceeded to Karaitpūr ([[Kiratpur Sahib|Kiratpur]]) which is situated within the Punjab hills. That area belonged to ''Rāja'' Tārāchand, who did not pursue the path of allegiance and obedience to King [[Shahjahan]]. The people of that area worshipped images. On the top of the mountain an image of a goddess, known as Naina Devi has been set up. ''Rājas'' and others from the territories around, going to that place, followed the custom of making a pilgrimage [to it]. When the ''Gurū'' settled himself there, a Sikh of his, Bhairū by name, going to the temple, broke the nose of the goddess. The ''Rājas'' got the news of it and complained to the ''Gurū'', taking his [Bhairu's] name. The ''Gurū'' summoned Bhairū. Bhairū denied it. The ''Rājas''' servants said, "We recognise this [man]." He replied, "O ''Rājas'', ask the goddess. If she takes my name, you can kill me."The ''Rājas'' said, "Fool, how can the goddess speak?" Bhairū broke into laughter, saying, "One now knows who is the fool. When she cannot prohibit anyone from breaking her own head, and cannot identify the person who has attacked her, what good do you expect from her, and why do you worship her?" The Rajas were put to silence. Today most people from amongst the masses (''ri'āyā'') of that territory are the ''Gurū's'' followers.<ref name=grewal/>}}

The dietary laws of the Hindus, as well as their “austerities and worship” were also said to disregarded.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Dr. Ganda |title=Nanak Panthis or The Sikhs and Sikhism of the 17th Century (translated from Muhsin Fani's Dabistan-i-Mazahib) Edited with Notes|publisher=Sikh Digital Library |location=Khalsa College, Amritsar |pages=[https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh/page/n21 216]–217 |edition=The Journal of Indian History 19(2); Aug 1940: pp 195–219. |url=https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh |access-date=1 May 2019}} “Among the Sikhs there is nothing of the austerities and worship according to the religious laws of the Hindus. In eating and drinking they have no restrictions [like the Hindus].”</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shea, Troyer |first1=David, Anthony |title=The Dabistán or School of manners, (1843) Vol 2 |year=1843 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dabistnorschoo02shea/page/285 285]–286 |url=https://archive.org/details/dabistnorschoo02shea |access-date=5 June 2019}} “Among the Sikhs there is nothing of the religious rites of the Hindus; they know of no check in eating or drinking. When Pertābmal, a Jnāni, "wise," Hindu, saw that his son wished to adopt the faith of the Muselmans, he asked him: "Why dost thou wish to become a Muselman? If thou likest to eat every thing, become a Guru of the Sikhs and "eat whatever thou, desirest."”</ref><ref name=grewal/>

The ''Dabistan'' also states, "Nanak praised the religion of the Muselmans, as well as the avatars and divinities of the Hindus; but he knew that these objects of veneration were created and not creators, and he denied their real descent from heaven, and their union with mankind,"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shea, Troyer |first1=David, Anthony |title=The Dabistán or School of manners, (1843) Vol 2 |year=1843 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dabistnorschoo02shea/page/248 248]–249 |url=https://archive.org/details/dabistnorschoo02shea |access-date=19 December 2019}}</ref><ref>Ganda Singh (1940), [https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh/page/n3 Nanak Panthis or The Sikhs and Sikhism of the 17th Century], Journal of Indian History, Volume 19, Number 2, page 199</ref> described by the author as the doctrines of ''halool'' and ''ittehad''.

According to Irfan Habib, the ''Dabistan-i-Mazahib'' states Guru Nanak practiced rituals of both Hindu and Muslims, which is in "apparent contrast" to the contemporary orthodox Sikh belief that he rejected all rituals; Habib also states that “from his verses in the Guru Granth Sahib too it is obvious that he rejected not only tiraths (pilgrimages), but also all “distinctive rituals.””<ref name=ihabib/> Further, all three surviving recensions of the older version of the ''Dabistan-i-Mazahib'' state that all Sikhs that the author of ''Dabistan'' had met, except one, believed that Baba Nanak was God.<ref name=ihabib/> In the Dabistan, a Brahmin ''gyani'', or claimant to possession of divine knowledge, named Deva addressed the Guru as Parmeshwar; to account for this, Irfan Habib posits that by the time of Guru Arjan, a belief had taken root among Sikhs regarding Guru Nanak as having been a god, “for Deva to seize the chance of playing upon it.”<ref name=ihabib/> The translation of the Persian term نا شمرد ''na-shumard'' (translated as “does not regard”) according to what Habib terms as the two “Version B” printed copies of the treatise, which translations like that of Ganda Singh were based upon, as opposed to بی شمرد ''bi-shumard'' (translated by Habib as “regards”) in the three “Version A” manuscripts, also attest to this belief.<ref name=ihabib/> The ''Dabistan'' relays that during the time of Guru Arjan, “the Sikhs or disciples had become numerous and made exaggerations in their beliefs," though Guru Nanak “reckoned himself a slave [of God]” and described God as formless, “who is not a body and bodied and is not united with [material] body.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Dr. Ganda |title=Nanak Panthis or The Sikhs and Sikhism of the 17th Century (translated from Muhsin Fani's Dabistan-i-Mazahib) Edited with Notes|publisher=Sikh Digital Library |location=Khalsa College, Amritsar |pages=[https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh/page/n8 203] |edition=The Journal of Indian History 19(2); Aug 1940: pp 195–219. | url=https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh |access-date=14 December 2019}}</ref>

Malhotra and Mir point out that the author of the Dabistan-i-Mazahib considers Guru Nanak’s compositions to be written “in [[Seraiki language|Jataki]], ‘the language of the [[Jats]],’ who have no regard for the Sanskrit language.”<ref name=malhotramir/> The treatise also mentions that the Nanak-Panthis regarded ''Udasis'', or ascetic renouncers of the world, as well as another splinter group, as “not praiseworthy.”<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Dr. Ganda |title=Nanak Panthis or The Sikhs and Sikhism of the 17th Century (translated from Muhsin Fani's Dabistan-i-Mazahib) Edited with Notes|publisher=Sikh Digital Library |location=Khalsa College, Amritsar |pages=[https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh/page/n3 198] |edition=The Journal of Indian History 19(2); Aug 1940: pp 195–219. | url=https://archive.org/details/NanakPanthisOrTheSikhsAndSikhismOfThe17thCenturyDr.GandaSingh |access-date=14 December 2019}} “They have so decided that an ‘’Udasi,’’ that is a renouncer of the world, is not praiseworthy.”</ref> Banerjee describes the author as “liberal-minded and a friend of the Guru,”<ref name=banerjee>{{cite book|author=Anil Chandra Banerjee|title=Guru Nanak And His Times|url=https://archive.org/details/GuruNanakAndHisTimes|year=2000|publisher=Publication Bureau, Punjabi University|page=[https://archive.org/details/GuruNanakAndHisTimes/page/n112 108]}} "The earliest account of Guru Nanak's life written by a Muslim is to be found in the Dabistan-i-Mazahib. It is by no means a satisfactory account, but its author was liberal-minded and a friend of the sixth Guru, and he does not 'misrepresent' Guru Nanak's character from sectarian motives. The real problem is to assess the historical value of traditional accounts of the Guru's life which are infected by the 'enthusiastic admiration' of his 'adherents'. This 'general remark' applies 'with peculiar force' to the Janam-sakhis which constitute our most elaborate source of information on the subject." "The earliest Muslim account of Guru Nanak is found in the well known work, Dabistan-i-Mazahib, which is usually attributed to Mohsin Fani. The author belonged to the first half of the seventeenth century. He had close contact with the Sikhs; he claims personal acquaintance with the sixth and seventh Gurus. His account of Guru Nanak's life reflects the semi-legendary character which Sikh tradition had already begun to assign to the founder of the faith. His testimony can hardly be regarded as that of 'an independent witness', as some writers claim. Cunningham is not altogether wrong in characterising him as 'a garrulous and somewhat credulous Mahomedan'. On the whole, Dabistan is of greater use as a clue to the seventeenth-century image of Guru Nanak than as a biographical narrative."</ref> and as someone who “does not ‘misrepresent’ Guru Nanak’s character for sectarian motives,”<ref name=banerjee/> though the challenge exists to “assess the historical value of traditional accounts which are infected by the ‘enthusiastic admiration’ of his ‘adherents',” applying this remark to all Sikh [[hagiographical]] writings.<ref name=banerjee/> He goes on to say that “on the whole, Dabistan is of greater use as a clue to the seventeenth-century image of Guru Nanak than as a biographical narrative."<ref name=banerjee/>

==Sikh traditions==
According to Harnik Deol, during [[Sikh Empire|Sikh rule]], an elite milieu of descendants of Guru lineages, holy men (babas, bhais, sants) and [[exegete]]s, particularly ''[[pujari]]s'' – for whom scholar Harjot Oberoi coined the term "Sanatan Sikhs"<ref name=jsgrewal/> – provided ritual services and led functions for the burgeoning class of Sikh aristocrats and landed gentry, in return for generous endowments from this clientele.<ref name="harnik1" /> They included Sahajdhari Sikhs uninitiated into the Khalsa,<ref name="Mandair2013pp20">{{cite book|author=Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair|title=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdhLAQAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4411-0231-7|page=90}}</ref> with fundamental differences in the practices and doctrines with Khalsa Sikhs.<ref name="harnik1" /> This class gained control of Sikh shrines under the patronage of Sikh elites in the eighteenth century.<ref name="harnik1">{{cite book |last1=Deol |first1= Harnik |title=Religion and Nationalism in India: The Case of the Punjab |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon, United Kingdom |isbn=9781134635351 |pages=75–78 |edition=illustrated |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tkHi5j81VHEC}}</ref> They took to the worship of images and idols, not considering themselves bound by ''rahitnamas'', or Sikh codes of conduct.<ref name=harnik1/> The British colonial rulers, after annexing the Sikh empire in mid-19th-century, continue to patronize and gift land grants to these mahants, thereby increasing their strength.<ref name="ks542" /> Oberoi contends that the ''mahants'' and ''pujaris'' justified their position by asserting that while the role of guru, which served as sole intermediary between man and God, was for scripture alone in theory, in actual practice this was too abstract for the masses, who needed living functionaries to serve in that role.<ref name="harnik1"/>

Local congregations and reformers sought to purge this increasing entrenched Brahmanical priestly-mahant class. The Tat Khalsa accused the ''mahants'' of the Hinduization of Sikh customs and of increasingly prevalent idolatrous practices,<ref name="harnik1" /> as well as the housing of idols, pandits, astrologers, lumpen elements, and vices in which the mahants themselves partook in, while barring entry to even initiated low-caste Sikhs and ignoring the needs of the Sikh congregation. In 1905, they removed all idols from the Golden Temple,<ref name="ks543">{{cite book|author=Kashmir Singh|editor1=Pashaura Singh|editor2=Louis E. Fenech|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CzYeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT542|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-100412-4|pages=542–543}}</ref> in accordance with Sikh orthodoxy.<ref name="McLeod2009p97" /><ref name="oberoi322" />

According to a ''[[pujari]]'' based in the Golden Temple, the Raja of [[Chamba State]] had a metal casting of [[Guru Hargobind]] (1595–1644) given during the reign of Maharaja [[Ranjit Singh]] of the Sikh Empire in the 1800s, well after the period of the Sikh gurus. This would subsequently become one of the first large images to be placed as an idol in the temple. Later, a gilded image of the same guru, placed below the Akal Takht, and then a minor idol of Guru Nanak in the inner sanctum, would follow. Larger images would be housed in the neighboring [[Gurdwara Baba Atal]]. In the 1880s the temple management declined installing idols of all ten Sikh gurus at the temple's main entrance, as ''pujaris'' would come to situate themselves within the precincts of the temple with stone images, instructing pilgrims to worship before them.

{{sfn|Oberoi|1992|pp=103–104|ps=: "According to a highly reliable contemporary observer – a ''pujārī'' (priest) working in the Golden Temple – one of the first large images to be installed at the premier shrine of the Sikhs was a metal casting of Guru Hargobind (1595–1644), given by the Raja of Chamba during the reign of Ranjit Singh (1799-1839). This was followed by another gold image of the sixth master below the Akal Takht, and a minor idol of Guru Nanak within the inner sanctum of the main shrine. Large images were also housed at Baba Atal, a well-known shrine neighbouring the Golden Temple. In the 1880s the management of the Golden Temple mooted the idea of installing the idols of ten Sikh gurus at the main entrance to the Sikh shrine. Already within the precincts of the Golden Temple pujaris sat with stone images instructing pilgrims to worship before them. Similarly at the Akal Takht, the supreme seat of Sikh ecclesiastical authority, some pujaris publicly worshipped images.}}

===Khalsa Sikhs===
[[File:Overhead view of Takht Sri Hazoor Sahib Gurdwara complex.jpg|thumb|Overhead view of [[Hazur Sahib|Takht Sri Hazoor Sahib Gurdwara]] complex, ca.1870. What appears to be an [[Murti|idol]] can be spotted in the [[Garbhagriha|sanctum sanctorum]] of the complex]]
The orthodox Sikhism of the Khalsa forbids idol worship,<ref name=dgsingh/> in accordance with the teachings of the Gurus.<ref name=madan1/> This remained the case during the time of the Gurus, until increased Mughal persecution in the eighteenth century<ref name="perplexed83"/><ref name=hari/> forced the Khalsa to yield Gurdwara control to mahants, or custodians, who often belonged to [[Udasi]], [[Nirmala (sect)|Nirmala]], or other Brahmanical-influenced ascetic heterodox sects,<ref name="perplexed86"/> or were non-Sikh altogether.<ref name=harnik>{{cite book |last1=Deol |first1=Dr. Harnik |title=Religion and Nationalism in India: The Case of the Punjab |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon, United Kingdom |isbn=9781134635351 |pages=43–44 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tkHi5j81VHEC&q=sacrilege}}</ref> The Khalsa at this time engaged in guerilla campaigns against the [[Mughals]] and the hill-rajas of the [[Sivalik Hills]] allied to them,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Patwant Singh| title=The Sikhs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=27XYeylUzWwC&q=sikh+hill+rajas&pg=PT60| year=2007| publisher=Crown Publishing Group|isbn=9780307429339|page=270}}</ref> and later fought the [[Durrani Empire|Afghans]] and established themselves as local leaders, while mahant control of Gurdwaras continued into the nineteenth century. Such groups wrote [[exegeses]] while the Khalsa focused on political power at the time,<ref name="perplexed86">{{cite book|author=Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair|title=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vdhLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA85|year= 2013|publisher= Bloomsburg Academic|isbn=978-1-4411-0231-7|page=86}}</ref> as Sikh ''jathas'' solidified into the Sikh [[misl]]s of the [[Dal Khalsa (Sikh Army)|Dal Khalsa]], which would establish the [[Sikh Empire]].

The struggles of the Khalsa Sikhs elevated the Sikhs to new levels of political power never before experienced by the community, which had been persecuted for much of its existence and especially in preceding decades. The Khalsa, as they had raised arms against the state, had experienced heavy persecution by the Mughals, to the extent that for a period the Khalsa vacated the plains of Punjab, situating themselves in the refuges of the northern hilly areas adjoining Punjab, and in the desert areas to the south, from where they mounted further attacks.<ref name=hari>{{cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=Hari Ram |title=History of the Sikhs |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd |location=New Delhi, India |isbn=978-8121505406 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheSikhs-HrGupta1939/page/n65 69]-70 |url=https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfTheSikhs-HrGupta1939 |access-date=9 December 2019}} | II. Renovation of Sikh oppression. "As soon as Muin-ul-Mulk was free from these troubles and felt strong enough to cope with the Sikh problem, he renewed his policy of repression. It seems he was convinced, and perhaps rightly so, that the Sikhs would not rest contented with the allowance of the jagir granted to them and that they were only biding their time to recoup their strength for creating fresh troubles in the province, as they had done on more than one occasion previously. This energetic Governor did not believe in half measures. Accordingly, he set the Government machinery, both, military and civil, once again in motion and revived the old orders to the district and village officials for the arrest of the Sikhs. The people were forbidden under penalty of death to give shelter to the members of this community. These measures of the Government succeeded in driving the Sikhs from the neighbourhood of towns and villages to places of shelter along the banks of the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej. They could have gone to the distant and impenetrable retreats in hills and deserts, but they preferred these easy refuges in order to harass the Nawab and his Mughalia troops, though at the risk of their own lives. Moreover, they wanted to have a dip in the tank of nectar. The Nawab’s servants and troops searched for them in villages and when they got hold of any Sikh, slew him at once. If any other man was found living in the style of a Sikh, he was also arrested and his property confiscated."* Khushwat Rai. 79. 12. The Sikhs are driven out of the Punjab Plains. "The policy of driving the Sikhs from post to pillar was so vigorously enforced that they were compelled once more to seek shelter in their old resorts in the lower Himalayan spurs, the thick forests of Central and Eastern Punjab and the deserts of Malva and Bikaner. The Sikhs, who had many a time before seen harder days, did not mind these persecutions."
</ref> This created the opportunity for other less disruptive sects to gain control of Sikh institutions,<ref name="perplexed86"/> due to their lack of external identifying features compared to the initiated Khalsa. The struggle for self-defense and political autonomy produced the [[misls]] and eventually the [[Sikh Empire]], though in the midst of consolidating power in the face of Mughal and Afghan attacks, came at the expense of reestablishing direct control over Sikh institutions and the eroding of Sikh mores, a development that Khalsa would have to contend with when the Sikh Empire was lost to the British.<ref name=gandhi>{{cite book|author=Surjit Singh Gandhi|title=Perspectives on Sikh Gurdwaras Legislation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IPr-BX563M8C&pg=PA13 |year=1993|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-7156-371-5|page=12}} “The Sikhs, immediately after the annexation, found themselves completely lost and depraved. The rule of the Lahore Durbar with whom they had identified had come to an end and its place had been taken by the British which, being alien, could not be up to their aspirations. Their self-identity which had been assiduously built by the Sikh Gurus and preserved by the Sikhs at the cost of a lot of sacrifices, sufferings, and persecutions had been eroding since 1764, the year which the Misaldars became political rulers. The process of identity-erosion did not assume sharpness and poignancy because the Sikh sensibilities had been dazzled by political advantages which they reaped during the regime of Sikh Misaldars and of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. But after the annexation of the Punjab the fact of the erosion of their socio-religious cultural identity came to the surface. The relapsing of Sikhs into the Hindu fold was a rude shock to the Sikhs as a community and the dilemma was awesome. Not only this, the conversion of the Sikhs – mainly belonging to the upper class and lower strata – by Christianity was another indication of the fast-eroding identity of the Sikhs. The things looked so frightening that forbodings began to bandied about that the dissolution of the Sikhs was inevitable, or the Sikhs will die out.”</ref>

After the fall of the Sikh Empire, the [[Singh Sabha movement]] was begun in the 1870s to revitalize Sikh institutions that had deteriorated under the administration of the mahants, who had become increasingly corrupt and had introduced non-Sikh practices into the Gurdwaras.<ref name=harnik/> Khalsa Sikhs sought to establish a distinct Sikh identity and make some fundamentals of belief and behavior its basis.<ref name=madan2>{{cite book|author=TN Madan|editor= Martin Marty and R Scott Appleby|title=Fundamentalisms Observed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qd5yzP5hdiEC |year=1994| publisher= University of Chicago Press|isbn= 978-0-226-50878-8|pages =604–610}} “In the drive to establish an exclusive Sikh identity and make some fundamentals of belief and behavior its basis, the Singh Sabha and subsequently the Chief Khalsa Diwan had their eyes on the gurdwaras, particularly the Golden Temple, as very means of mobilizing the community.”</ref> The Singh Sabha movement eventually brought the Khalsa back to the fore of Gurdwara administration, which they achieved after expelling the mahants and their corrupt practices, which included idolatry,<ref name=harnik/> financial malfeasance, Brahmanical privilege, and the dissemination of unsavory literature.<ref name=ks542>{{cite book|author1=Pashaura Singh|author2=Louis E. Fenech|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CzYeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT542|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-100412-4|pages=542–543}}</ref><ref name=harnik/> The prohibition of idolatry in [[Sikhism]], in accordance with Sikh scripture,<ref name=madan1/> was formalized in the 20th century after the revitalization of Sikh institutions led by the reformist Tat Khalsa of the [[Singh Sabha Movement]] of the late 19th-century,<ref name="McLeod2009p97"/><ref name="Historical Dictionary of Sikhism"/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Pashaura Singh|author2=Louis E. Fenech|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CzYeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT542|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-100412-4|pages=542–543}}; {{cite book|author=Harjot Oberoi|title=The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity, and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1NKC9g2ayJEC |year=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-61592-9|pages=322–326}}; Quote: "First, [the Arya Samaj] stated that the idols had been in the [Harmander] Sahib from the time of its inception. Even under the Sikh misls and during the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh no one had demanded their removal. Therefore it was an established custom to house idols with the Harmander Sahib precincts. Second a vast majority of Sikhs staunchly believed in idol worship and it would have been contrary to their religious rights to take away images." (Note: see pages 322–326 for the context of late 19th-century and early 20th-century dispute between Tat Khalsa Sikhs and the Sikhs that opposed them, as well as notes on idolatry in Sikhism prior to early 20th-century).</ref> accepted as having the orthodox position by the Sikhs,<ref name="McLeod2009p97"/> in reaction to what was seen as Brahmanical<ref name=harnik/> Hindu interference<ref>{{cite book|author=Kenneth W. Jones|title=Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in 19th-century Punjab|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RpvXCtNzrz8C&pg=PA211|year=1976|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02920-0|pages=211–212}}, Quote: "Brahmin priests and their idols had been associated with the Golden Temple for at least a century and had over these years received the patronage of pious Hindus and Sikhs. In the 1890s these practices came under increasing attack by reformist Sikhs."</ref><ref name="Harjot Oberoi 1994 323–324">{{cite book|author=Harjot Oberoi|title=The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity, and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKl84EYFkTsC&pg=PA323|year=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-61593-6|pages=323–324}}</ref> in Sikh affairs, particularly of organizations like [[Arya Samaj]] and [[Brahmo Samaj]],<ref name=oberoi322>{{cite book|author=Harjot Oberoi|title=The Construction of Religious Boundaries: Culture, Identity, and Diversity in the Sikh Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1NKC9g2ayJEC |year=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-61592-9|pages=322–326}}, Quote: First, it was argued that it was up to Sikhs to decide what they did with their sacred shrines. Members of other religious communities had no logical, historical, or moral right to dictate to Sikhs how they should conduct their affairs. The Tat Khalsa was particularly incensed at what was generally seen as Hindu interference, and more particularly Arya Samaj meddling, in Sikh affairs. The motive for Samaj spokesmen who argued for the retention of idols within the same shrine was highly suspect, because on earlier occasions when their own members had ventured to trample or smash idols there had been no public outcry against these profaning activities. Second, there was no place for idol worship in the teachings of the Sikh gurus. Third , it was argued that when anti-Sikh forces raided the shrine in the past, only Sikh blood was shed in great abundance to preserve its sanctity. Also, Sikh resources and wealth went into the making of this magnificent temple."</ref><ref name="Jones1976p211"/> who were proselytizing in the area along with other religious factions like [[Christians|Christian]] [[missionaries]] and Muslim groups like the [[Ahmediyya]], following the fall of the [[Sikh Empire]]. In 1905, the Sikh manager of the [[Harmandar sahib|Harmander]] Sahib ordered the removal of idols and the end of Hindu practices in the temple in accordance with Sikh scripture, an order that was subsequently<ref name="Harjot Oberoi 1994 323–324"/> backed by the Tat Khalsa, upsetting the privileged, nationally hegemonic upper-caste Hindu orthodoxy.<ref name="Jones1976p211">{{cite book|author=Kenneth W. Jones|title=Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in 19th-century Punjab|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RpvXCtNzrz8C&pg=PA211|year=1976|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02920-0|pages=211–212}}, Quote: "The customary performance of Hindu rituals in the temple compound offended the reformers who saw this both as contrary to Sikh beliefs and as an intrusion of a decadent faith. The Manager of the Temple ordered that all Hindu idols should be excluded from the Temple precincts, thus ending the performance of Hindu rituals in that area. Hindus reacted with outrage at this attack on their traditional privileges."</ref><ref name="Harjot Oberoi 1994 323–324"/> The [[Akali movement]], fueled by incidents like the [[Nankana massacre]], brought control of the Gurdwaras from the mahants back to mainstream Sikhs;<ref name="SinghFenech2014p2930">{{cite book|author1=Pashaura Singh| author2=Louis E. Fenech|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I0NAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA28| year=2014|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19-969930-8|pages=29–30}}</ref> the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, or [[SGPC]], now manage Gurdwaras in accordance with mainstream Khalsa norms.

In the view of Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair, a professor of Sikh Studies, the [[Singh Sabha movement]] intellectuals in the late 19th and early 20th century, created exegetical works in their attempts to overcome idolatrous notions of God.<ref name="Mandair2009p232"/> This was the Singh Sabha's attempt to cleanse Sikhism of Hinduism, but Mandair alleges that they ended up admitting the “tiniest residue” of the practice and formulating new norms that did in a different way what they accused Hindus of doing in practice.<ref name="Mandair2009p232">{{cite book|author=Arvind-Pal S. Mandair|title=Religion and the Specter of the West: Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality, and the Politics of Translation |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFSrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA231 |year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-14724-8|pages=231–232}}</ref> According to Mandair, the Sikh scripture includes words such as "murat", "sarir" and "akal,” which, selectively read, can be viewed as teaching an abstract "formless" concept of God. However, states Mandair, other parts of the Sikh scripture include terms such as "murat" which relate to "form, shape" creating [[exegesis|exegetical]] difficulty.<ref name="Mandair2009p229"/> Mandair posits that Khalsa writers of the Singh Sabha movement reinterpreted and gave new contextual meanings to the words such as "murat" in order to show that there is no inconsistency and contradiction in their exegetical attempts around idolatry in Sikhism.<ref name="Mandair2009p229">{{cite book|author=Arvind-Pal S. Mandair|title=Religion and the Specter of the West: Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality, and the Politics of Translation |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFSrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA231 |year=2009|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-14724-8|pages=62–68, 229–232}}</ref> In response, historian and professor Gurdarshan Singh Dhillon calls Mandair’s own reading of the text “selective,” and as seeking "to make Guru Nanak’s monotheism redundant.” Dhillon sees Mandair's view as ignoring Guru Nanak’s own direct words regarding idolatry, and questions how qualities listed in the Mul Mantar could apply to an idol, “as the term “Akal Murat” takes its meaning not in isolation but from the total understanding of the Mul Mantar.”<ref name=dhillon/> and that the terms “timeless,” and “Eternal Reality” cannot be applied to a physical idol. Mandair’s purpose is described as an effort “to connect Guru Nanak’s Time and World and then to idolatry, “tear[ing] words and terms out of context and twists their meaning to suit his contrived thesis.”<ref name=dhillon/> Dhillon holds that Mandair’s inclination towards the McLeodian school of Sikh thought led to utilizing the Hegelian approach to produce ‘new knowledge formations’ to delegitimize Sikh interpretations of their own faith in order to serve “Hindu-centric and Christian-centric state models” by levelling regional identities in an attempt to overcome identity politics bolstered by the concepts of religion and regional political sovereignty.<ref name=dhillon>{{cite book |last1=Dhillon |first1=Dr. Gurdarshan Singh |title=Religion and the Specter of the West: Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality, and the Politics of Translation: A Review by Dr. Gurdarshan Singh Dhillon |year=2009 |publisher=Panjab University, Chandigarh |doi=10.7312/mand14724 |isbn=9780231519809 |s2cid=59473980 }} Note: Dhillon considers Mandair as seeing the British-Sikh interaction in illegitimate Hegelian terms, and delegitimizing the Sikh historical arc toward autonomy and political involvement as an aberration of the faith, referring to the Sikhs’ uprising against the Mughals, in Mandair’s words, “violence against the State,” and that “Sikhs must revert to its peaceful state. True Sikhism is without a desire for sovereignty, a Sikhism that has already renounced politics through interiorization.” Dhillon describes Mandair as having an antipathy towards the term “religion,” fearing that it leads to “fundamentalism and violence,” and that, in Mandair’s words, “India’s passage to modernity has been made difficult due to its entanglements of identity politics,” and in order to serve both the Indian state model and Western interests, regional identities must be leveled, a goal Dhillon holds that Mandair works in the service of in his writings.</ref>

===Nirankari Sikhs===

Among the earliest reform movements that strongly opposed idol worship practices in the Sikh community was the [[Nirankari]] sect started by Baba Dyal (1783–1855).<ref name="Dalal2010p268"/><ref name="SinghFenech2014p353"/> The Nirankaris condemned the growing idol worship, obeisance to living gurus and influence of Brahmanic ritual that had crept into the Sikh Panth.<ref name=mandair78>{{cite book |last1=Mandair |first1=Arvind-Pal Singh |title=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed |publisher=A&C Black |location=London, England |isbn=9781441102317 |page=78 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdhLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |access-date=1 May 2019}}</ref> Though not an initiated Khalsa, he urged Sikhs to return to their focus to a formless divine (''nirankar'') and described himself as a ''nirankari'',<ref name=mandair78/> He was opposed to all idol worship, including the then existing practice of keeping idols and pictures of the ten Sikh Gurus and praying before them.<ref name="Dalal2010p268"/> [[Maharaja Ranjit Singh]] of the [[Sikh Empire]] was said to have appreciated his teachings.<ref name="Dalal2010p268"/> He built a new Gurdwara in [[Rawalpindi]] (now in Pakistan), Dyal Das was opposed for his strict teachings by upper-caste Sikhs and had to shift his residence several times,<ref name=mandair78/> eventually moving his reform movement into its suburbs. After the partition of British India along religious boundaries, the Nirankaris along with the vast majority of Sikhs chose to move to predominantly Hindu-majority India rather than stay in predominantly Muslim-majority Pakistan. Nirankaris moved their headquarters from Dayalsar in Rawalpindi to [[Chandigarh]]. Nirankaris were a potent and active campaigners in the late 19th century and early 20th century for the removal of all idols and images from the Golden Temple and other Gurdwaras.<ref name="Dalal2010p268">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC&pg=PA268|year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-341517-6|pages=268–269}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Surjit Singh Gandhi|title=Perspectives on Sikh Gurdwaras Legislation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IPr-BX563M8C&pg=PA13 |year=1993|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-7156-371-5|pages=13–17}}</ref>

His work was continued by various successors into the 20th century and eventually gained a following of several thousands.<ref name=mandair78/> However, when they and an offshoot called the ''[[Sant Nirankari mission|Sant Nirankaris]]'' eventually reverted<ref name=mandair78/> to treating their leaders as living Gurus or gods<ref name="Copeman77">{{cite book|author=Jacob Copeman|title=Veins of Devotion: Blood Donation and Religious Experience in North India|url=https://archive.org/details/veinsofdevotionb0000cope |url-access=registration|year=2009|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-4449-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/veinsofdevotionb0000cope/page/77 77]–78}}</ref> they came into conflict with mainstream Sikhs, especially in the late 1970s.<ref name=mandair78/> Nirankaris have continued to campaign for the abolishment of idolatry like the orthodox Khalsa, but some offshoots continue to accept a living human guru beyond the ten gurus which has made them a heterodox sect of Sikhism.<ref name="SinghFenech2014p353">{{cite book|author1=Pashaura Singh|author2=Louis E. Fenech|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7YwNAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA353 |year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-100411-7|pages=353–354}}</ref><ref name="McLeod1984p122">{{cite book|author=W. H. McLeod|title=Textual Sources for the Study of Sikhism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj28AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA122 |year=1984|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-1063-7|pages=122–126}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|author2=W. H. McLeod|title= Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA158|year= 2014|publisher= Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|page=234}}</ref> According to Jacob Copeman, Nirankaris revere Guru Nanak, but they also worship a living saint (''satguru'') as god.<ref name="Copeman77"/>

===Namdhari Sikhs===
The Namdhari sect, also called Kuka, was founded as one of the Sikh revivalist movements during the late rule of Ranjit Singh, by Balak Singh in 1857. Its followers view Balak Singh as an incarnation of Guru Govind Singh.<ref name=agnihotra/> They did not believe in any religious ritual other than the repetition of God's name (or nam, for which reason members of the sect are called Namdharis),<ref name=britannicanamdhari>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Namdhari|title=Namdhari (Sikh sect)|author= ((Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica))|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|year= 2019}}</ref> including the worship of idols, graves, tombs, gods, or goddesses.<ref name=agnihotra>{{cite book|author=V.K. Agnihotra|title=Indian History with Objective Questions and Historical Maps, Twenty-Sixth Edition 2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=SL3-PA171 |year=2010|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=9788184245684|page=C-171}} "They were not to worship gods, goddesses, idols, graves, tombs, etc."</ref> The Namdharis had more of a social impact due to the fact that they emphasized Khalsa identity and the authority of the Guru Granth Sahib.<ref name=mandair79>{{cite book |last1=Mandair |first1=Arvind-Pal Singh |title=Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed |publisher=A&C Black |location=London, England |isbn=9781441102317 |page=79 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdhLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |access-date=1 May 2019}}</ref> They call their houses of worship as ''dharamsala'' rather than Gurdwara, where they revere a living guru unlike Khalsa, and as such are considered as heretical by the orthodox Khalsa Sikhs.<ref name="Parsons2012p221">{{cite book|author=Gerald Parsons|title=The Growth of Religious Diversity - Vol 1: Britain from 1945 Volume 1: Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwqT8T70ofAC&pg=PA221 |year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-08895-8|pages=221–222}}</ref>

The Namdharis do not subscribe to "[[Guru Maneyo Granth]]" against continued living guru lineages within the Sikh community. They believe it be an injunction in the 1925 SGPC Gurdwara Act to emphasize ''Guru Granth Sahib'' as the only extant Guru of the Sikhs, contradicting a supposed Namdhari belief that a "place of worship can only be a gurdwara when a living guru is seated" under the canopy of its sanctum,<ref name="Myrvold2011p298">{{cite book|author1=Knut A. Jacobsen|author2=Kristina Myrvold|title=Sikhs in Europe: Migration, Identities, and Representations |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1vqdZby8dDwC&pg=PA297 |year=2011 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-1-4094-2435-2|pages=297–299}}</ref> though they freely "attend the gurdwaras of other Sikhs," maintaining "family ties and friendships across sect boundaries."<ref name="Parsons2012p221">{{cite book|author=Gerald Parsons|title=The Growth of Religious Diversity - Vol 1: Britain from 1945 Volume 1: Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwqT8T70ofAC&pg=PA221 |year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-08895-8|pages=221–222}}</ref> In Namdhari places of worship, if the living Guru is not present, Namdhari Sikhs place a picture of him on a raised platform of the sanctum. The devotion is then directed towards the icon of the living Guru.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Pashaura Singh|author2=Louis E. Fenech|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7YwNAwAAQBAJ |year=2014| publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-100411-7|pages=354–356}}</ref>

=== Sanatan Sikhs ===
[[File:Temple inside Udasi Akhada -KTM -11-Tripureswar by ST (6).JPG|thumb|right|The Udasi Sikhs have been one of the sects of Sikhism that accept ''[[murti]]'' in temples, unlike the Khalsa Sikhs. Above: an Udasi shrine in [[Nepal]] with images.]]

The [[Sanatan Sikh]]s (lit. "Eternal Sikh,"<ref name="Fenech2000p51">{{cite book|author=Louis E. Fenech|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FI3XAAAAMAAJ|title=Martyrdom in the Sikh Tradition: Playing the "game of Love"|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-19-564947-5|page=51}}</ref> a term and formulation coined by [[Harjot Oberoi]]<ref name=jsgrewal>{{cite journal|last1=Grewal|first1=J. S.|title=W.H. McLeod and Sikh Studies|url=https://punjab.global.ucsb.edu/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb.edu.gisp.d7_sp/files/sitefiles/journals/volume17/JPS_17_nos_1-2_Grewal.pdf|journal=Journal of Punjab Studies|volume=17|issue=1–2|pages=125, 142|access-date=19 August 2020}}</ref>) were most prominent in the 1800s and identified with the Brahmanical social structure and caste system, and self-identified as Hindu.<ref name="mandair" /> Not subscribing to the idea of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]] being the guru of the Sikhs,{{sfn|Oberoi|1992|p=104}} but allowing the worship of images, living gurus, and even "charismatic descendants" of the Sikh gurus, who devotees would be expected to show the same allegiance as that of "a subject and his ruler."{{sfn|Oberoi|1992|p=104}}<ref>Oberoi 1992, p. 104: "Along with the worship of images it was considered legitimate to worship living gurus. For an average Sanatan Sikh there was hardly any difference between Sikh gurus and some of their charismatic descendants. In the words of a contemporary writer, it was expected of a Sikh to show the same allegiance to a descendant of the Sikh gurus as that by 'a subject to his ruler'. As gurus, these individuals offered their disciples ''gurmantras'' (a mystical formula given by a personal guru to his disciples) for their spiritual elevation."</ref>

Led by Khem Singh Bedi – a direct descendant of [[Guru Nanak]], Avtar Singh Vahiria and others were one of the major groups who competed to reform and define the Sikh identity in the late 19th century.<ref name="perplexed83"/> The custom of this faction, which had emerging from the duality between initiated Khalsa and uninitiated Sehajdhari identities, was only as old as the late eighteenth century,{{sfn|Oberoi|1992|p=104}} in the post-Empire society where Khalsa Sikhism was no longer the universal norm.{{sfn|Oberoi|1992|p=105}} The Sanatan Sikhs had gained social prominence following Khalsa persecution and loss of institutional control in the 1700s,<ref name="perplexed86" /> and guided the operations of Sikh gurdwaras in the pre-British 18th- and colonial-era 19th-century Punjab because of support from Sikh elites and later the colonial British empire.<ref name="perplexed83" /> They were also the significant molders and primary participants among the rural masses of Sikh population.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Oberoi|first=Harjot|year=1992|title=Popular Saints, Goddesses, and Village Sacred Sites: Rereading Sikh Experience in the Nineteenth Century|journal=History of Religions|publisher=University of Chicago Press|volume=31|issue=4|pages=363–384|doi=10.1086/463293|s2cid=161851997}}</ref><ref>Tony Ballantyne (2002), ''Looking Back, Looking Forward: The Historiography of Sikhism'', New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies, 4(1), pp. 5-29</ref>

In contrast to Nirankari, Namdhari, and Khalsa Sikhs, Sanatan Sikhs considered images and idols of the ten Sikh gurus, as well as others, to be an inclusive practice and acceptable means of devotional worship.<ref name="fenech273">{{cite book|author1=Louis E. Fenech|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xajcAwAAQBAJ|title=Historical Dictionary of Sikhism|author2=W. H. McLeod|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4422-3601-1|pages=151, 273}}</ref><ref name="SinghFenech2014p28" /> According to Tony Ballantyne, the Sanatan Sikhs were spiritually sympathetic to the worship of idols and images, rural traditions and to respecting Hindu scriptures.<ref name="Ballantyne2006p16">{{cite book|author=Tony Ballantyne|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cArhKfrY_IoC|title=Between Colonialism and Diaspora: Sikh Cultural Formations in an Imperial World|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2006|isbn=0-8223-8811-1|pages=15–16, 36}}</ref> Their views have been dismissed by the vast majority of Sikh scholars, and labeled and shunned as "Hindu saboteurs" and of being "conspiratorial".<ref name="Ballantyne2006p16" />

Scholars such as Eleanor Nesbitt state the Nanaksar Gurdwaras practice of offering food cooked by Sikh devotees to the ''Guru Granth Sahib'', as well as curtaining the scripture during this ritual, as a form of idolatry. Baba Ishar Singh of this international network of Sikh temples has defended this practice because he states that the Sikh scripture is more than paper and ink.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eleanor Nesbitt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I0NAwAAQBAJ|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-969930-8|editor1=Pashaura Singh|pages=362–365|editor2=Louis E. Fenech}}</ref>

==Bibliolatry==
[[File:Depiction of the Guru Granth from a Guru Granth Sahib manuscript on Kashmiri paper, Patiala.jpg|thumb|Depiction of the Guru Granth from a Guru Granth Sahib manuscript on Kashmiri paper, Patiala]]
[[File:Gurdwara Bhumman Shah fresco 03.jpg|thumb|Prakash of the Guru Granth Sahib, fresco from Gurdwara Bhumman Shah]]
The daily routine of the gurdwara includes the ''prakash'', which involves carrying the Sikh scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib, in a small procession of [[granthi]]s, or gurdwara religious officials, placing it on a stand, unwrapping it, and opening it to be read; and the ''sukhasan'', when the scripture is retired at the end of the day to a designated room, or ''sachkhand''.<ref name=myrvold144>{{cite book|author=Kristina Myrvold|editor=Knut A. Jacobsen|title=South Asian Religions on Display: Religious Processions in South Asia and in the Diaspora|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WT2odZ7_d7MC&pg=PA144 |year=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-07459-4|pages=144–145, context: 140–154 }}</ref>

English travellers to Sikh temples during the early 1900s saw the veneration of the Granth as coming close to defeating the purpose of Guru Nanak's reforms (away from external authority to living experience), and saw it as a warning to Christian Protestants to avoid lapsing into [[bibliolatry]], as Hindu temple idol worship served as a warning to Catholics.<ref name="Pratt1915">{{cite book|author=James Bissett Pratt|title=India and Its Faiths: A Traveler's Record|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0twoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA250 |year= 1975|publisher= Houghton Mifflin (Orig year: 1915)|pages=250–251|isbn=9780524026595}}</ref>

The [[Arya Samaj]], opponents of the Sikhs who themselves opposed idolatry, attempted to assert that many Sikhs accepted idols and their worship within Sikh temples, unlike Khalsa Sikhs who strongly opposed the practice.<ref name=oberoi322/> While conceding that Sikhs did not worship idols, Swami Dayanand, the founder of the Arya Samaj Hindu reform movement of the 1800s and critic of Sikhism, attempted to link veneration of the Guru Granth Sahib with idolatrous practices, based on his understanding of the Sikh faith.<ref name="HirstZavos2013">{{cite book| author1=Jacqueline Suthren Hirst|author2= John Zavos|title=Religious Traditions in Modern South Asia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bBOpAgAAQBAJ|year=2013| publisher=Routledge| isbn=978-1-136-62668-5|pages=61–62}}</ref> [[Dayanand Saraswati]] – the founder of the missionary [[Arya Samaj]] movement in the 1800s who interpreted Hinduism as originally a non-idolatrous monotheistic religion, considered Sikhism as one of the cults of Hinduism, even though this belief had no basis in reality. Like Hindus who he called as "degenerate, idolatrous", he criticized the Sikhs for worshipping the [[Guru Granth Sahib]] scripture as an idol like a ''mithya'' (false icon).<ref name="Jones1976p134"/> Just like foolish Hindus who visit, bow, sing and make offerings in Hindu temples to symbols of goddess, said Saraswati, foolish Sikhs visit, bow, sing and make gifts in Sikh gurdwaras to the symbolic Sikh scripture. He condemned both the Hindus and the Sikhs as idolators,<ref name="Jones1976p134">{{cite book|author=Kenneth W. Jones|title=Arya Dharm: Hindu Consciousness in 19th-century Punjab|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=RpvXCtNzrz8C |year=1976|publisher= University of California Press|isbn= 978-0-520-02920-0|pages= 134–137}}</ref> stating that while "it is true they do not practise idolatry," he saw the Sikhs of the time as worshipping the Guru Granth Sahib even more than idols.<ref name="HirstZavos2013"/>

According to Kristina Myrvold, every Sikh scripture copy is treated like a person and venerated with elaborate ceremonies.<ref name=MyrvoldBrill/> However, according to Kristina Myrvold, these rituals are a daily means of "merit bestowing ministrations".<ref name=MyrvoldBrill>{{cite book|author=Kristina Myrvold|title=Brill's Encyclopedia of Sikhism | chapter=Guru Granth: Ceremonial Treatment|publisher =Brill Academic|year= 2017|isbn= 978-90-04-29745-6| pages=141–145}}</ref> These daily ritual ministrations and paying of homage for the scripture by Sikhs, states Myrvold, is not unique to Sikhism. This form of homage to God is also present in Islam, where the [[Kaaba|kabba]] (Mecca) is believed to be the house of God and visited by millions of Muslims every year. It moulds "meanings, values and ideologies" and creates a framework for congregational worship, states Myrvold, that is found in all major faiths.

==See also==
*[[Deity]]
*[[Icon]]
*[[Murti]]
*[[Sects of Sikhism]]
*[[Sikhism and Hinduism]]
*[[Jainism and Sikhism|Sikhism and Jainism]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Sikhism|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Idolatry|Sihk]]
[[Category:Sikh philosophy]]
[[Category:Sikhism and other religions]]

Kachera

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Parliament House (India)

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Navraj Singh Goraya

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Ministry of Urban Development (India)

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