Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

User:Suryabeej

2021-07-03T15:57:15Z

Suryabeej:

[[File:Spinning Ashoka Chakra.gif|right|200px]]
{{User page}}{{User Proud Indian}}

== Getting started ==
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Configuration_settings Configuration settings list]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:FAQ MediaWiki FAQ]
* [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/mediawiki-announce MediaWiki release mailing list]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Localisation#Translation_resources Localise MediaWiki for your language]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Combating_spam Learn how to combat spam on your wiki]

Dhrumil Soni

2021-06-27T09:22:20Z

Suryabeej: Created page with " {{Infobox person | name = Dhrumil Soni | image = | image_size = | caption = | birth_name =  | birth_da..."

{{Infobox person
| name = Dhrumil Soni
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1999|12|09}}
| birth_place = Vadodara, India
| nationality = Indian
| occupation = Entrepreneur
| years_active = 2010-present
| website = http://www.dhrumilsoni.in/
}}
'''Dhrumil Soni''' is a Guajrat based serial entrepreneur, social media expert and Film Producer.<ref>https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/music/dhrumil-soni-makes-his-debut-as-a-producer-with-the-song-joradi-jagdamba/articleshow/78447171.cms</ref> He made an online brand presence and designed campaigns for small-scale brands, multinationals, influencers, politicians, businessmen, and celebrities.<ref>https://www.newsx.com/business/digital-entrepreneurship-tips-by-dhrumil-soni.html</ref> He is known for being the youngest entrepreneur in [[India]].<ref>https://www.patrika.com/business-news/dhrumil-soni-young-entrepreneur-show-skills-in-politics-and-cinema-6865287/</ref>
==Early life==
Dhrumil was born and brought up in [[Gujarat]]<ref>https://www.amarujala.com/delhi/dhrumil-soni-influences-youth-for-proper-use-of-digital-media-in-this-period</ref> Dhrumil is active in the Gujarati film industry<ref>https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/lifestyle/dhrumil-soni-is-making-name-in-gujrati-film-industry/632823</ref>
== Further reading==
* {{cite web | last=Rathod | first=Vaishali | title=Did you Know Dhrumil Soni aced as an entrepreneur before stepping in as Producer? | website=The Times of India | date=2020-06-08 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/music/did-you-know-dhrumil-soni-aced-as-an-entrepreneur-before-stepping-in-as-producer/articleshow/78700631.cms | access-date=2021-06-21}}
* {{cite web | title='मेहनती गुजराती कलाकारों को प्रमोट करने में जुटे डिजिटल मार्केटिंग के एक्सपर्ट ध्रुमिल | website=News, Breaking News, Latest News, News Headlines, Live News, Today News CNN-News18 | date=2020-05-04 | url=https://hindi.news18.com/news/entertainment/bollywood-digital-marketing-expert-dhrumil-soni-is-on-a-hunt-to-find-the-best-talents-from-the-gujarati-cinema-984880.html | ref={{sfnref | News, Breaking News, Latest News, News Headlines, Live News, Today News CNN-News18 | 2020}} | access-date=2021-06-21}}
* {{cite web | title=ध्रुमिल सोनी का गाना जोराली जगदंबा इस बार गरबा में मचाने जा रहा है धूम | website=tv9hindi.com | date=2019-08-25 | url=https://www.tv9hindi.com/entertainment/dhrumil-soni-makes-his-debut-as-a-producer-with-the-song-joradi-jagdamba-315391.html | ref={{sfnref | tv9hindi.com | 2019}} | access-date=2021-06-21}}
* {{cite web | last=Desk | first=Midday | title=Table Tennis Player Naina Jaiswal Gets Her FB Page Recovered | website=mid-day.com | date=2021-06-18 | url=https://www.mid-day.com/sports/other-sports/article/Table-Tennis-Player-Naina-Jaiswal-Thanks-Digital-Expert-Dhrumil-Soni-For-Getting-Her-Facebook-Page-Recovered-22651239| language=en | access-date=2021-06-21}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|nm11053938}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1999 births]]
[[Category:Entrepreneurs]]

Vedas

2021-06-26T08:52:39Z

Suryabeej: Created page with " {{Infobox religious text | religion = Hinduism | image = 280px | alt = Four Vedas | language = Vedic Sanskrit | caption =..."

{{Infobox religious text
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| image = [[File:Four vedas.jpg|Four vedas|280px]]
| alt = Four Vedas
| language = [[Vedic Sanskrit]]
| caption = Four Vedas
| period = [[Circa|c.]] 1500–1200 BCE ([[Rig Veda]]),<ref name="Flood 2003 69" />{{refn|group=note|name="dating"}} c. 1200–900 BCE ([[Yajur Veda]], [[Sama Veda]], [[Atharva Veda]])<ref name="Flood 2003 69"/>{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=37}}
| verses = 20,379 mantras<ref>{{cite web |title=Construction of the Vedas |website=VedicGranth.Org |url=https://sites.google.com/a/vedicgranth.org/www/what_are_vedic_granth/the-four-veda/interpretation-and-more/construction-of-the-vedas?mobile=true}}</ref>
}}
{{Hindu scriptures}}
[[FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''[[Atharvaveda]]''.]]

The '''Vedas''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|v|eɪ|d|ə|z|,_|ˈ|v|iː|-}};<ref>[http://www.dictionary.com/browse/veda "Veda"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> [[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|वेदः}} ''{{IAST|vedaḥ}}'', "[[knowledge]]") are a large body of [[religious texts]] originating in [[ancient India]]. Composed in [[Vedic Sanskrit]], the texts constitute the oldest layer of [[Sanskrit literature]] and the oldest [[Hindu texts|scriptures]] of [[Hinduism]].<ref>see e.g. {{Harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|p=3}}; {{Harvnb|Witzel|2003|p=68}}; {{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|pp=29–39}}.</ref><ref>''Sanskrit literature'' (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09</ref><ref>Sanujit Ghose (2011). "[http://www.worldhistory.org/article/230/ Religious Developments in Ancient India]" in ''World History Encyclopedia''.</ref>

There are four Vedas: the [[Rigveda]], the [[Yajurveda]], the [[Samaveda]] and the [[Atharvaveda]].<ref name=gflood/><ref>Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. ''A history of Indian literature'': I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977</ref> Each Veda has four subdivisions – the [[Samhita]]s ([[mantra]]s and [[benediction]]s), the [[Aranyakas]] (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the [[Brahmanas]] (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the [[Upanishads]] (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).<ref name=gflood>Gavin Flood (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-43878-0}}, pp. 35–39</ref><ref name="A Bhattacharya 2006 pp. 8–14">A Bhattacharya (2006), ''Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology'', {{ISBN|978-0-595-38455-6}}, pp. 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-533261-2}}, p. 285</ref><ref name="Jan Gonda 1975">Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01603-2}}</ref> Some scholars add a fifth category – the [[Upasana]]s (worship).{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006|pp=8–14}}{{sfn|Holdrege|1995|pp=351–357}} The texts of the Upanishads discuss ideas akin to the heterodox ''sramana''-traditions.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=82}}

Vedas are ''{{IAST|[[śruti]]}}'' ("what is heard"),{{sfn|Apte|1965|p=887}} distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called ''{{IAST|[[smṛti]]}}'' ("what is remembered"). Hindus consider the Vedas to be ''[[apauruṣeya]]'', which means "not of a man, superhuman"{{sfn|Apte|1965|loc="apauruSeya"}} and "impersonal, authorless,"{{sfn|Sharma|2011|pp=196–197}}{{sfn|Westerhoff|2009|p=290}}{{sfn|Todd|2013|p=128}} revelations of sacred sounds and texts heard by ancient [[sage (philosophy)|sages]] after intense meditation.{{sfn|Pollock|2011|pp=41–58}}{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|pp=13–14}}

The Vedas have been orally transmitted since the 2nd millennium BCE with the help of elaborate [[Vedic chant|mnemonic techniques]].{{sfn|Wood|2007}}{{sfn|Hexam|2011|p=chapter 8}}{{sfn|Dwyer|2013}} The mantras, the oldest part of the Vedas, are recited in the modern age for their phonology rather than the semantics, and are considered to be "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}} By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}}

The various [[Indian philosophy|Indian philosophies]] and [[Hindu denominations]] have taken differing positions on the Vedas; schools of Indian philosophy which acknowledge the primal authority of the Vedas are classified as "orthodox" ([[Āstika and nāstika|āstika]]).{{refn|group=note|name="Freschi_2012"}} Other [[śramaṇa]] traditions, such as [[Lokayata]], [[Carvaka]], [[Ajivika]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], which did not regard the Vedas as authorities, are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" ([[Āstika and nāstika|nāstika]]) schools.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=82}}<ref name="EB_astika">[http://www.britannica.com/topic/astika "astika"] and [http://www.britannica.com/topic/nastika "nastika"]. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]'', 20 April 2016.</ref>

==Etymology and usage==
The [[Sanskrit]] word ''{{IAST|véda}}'' "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root ''vid-'' "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root ''{{PIE|*u̯eid-}}'', meaning "see" or "know."{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1899|loc=[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1048.html p. 1015]}}{{sfn|Apte|1965|p=856}}

The noun is from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''{{PIE|*u̯eidos}}'', cognate to [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|(ϝ)εἶδος}} "aspect", "form" . This is not to be confused with the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense ''{{IAST|véda}}'', cognate to Greek {{lang|grc|(ϝ)οἶδα}} ''(w)oida'' "I know". Root cognates are Greek [[idea|ἰδέα]], [[English language|English]] ''[[wit]]'', etc., [[Latin]] ''videō'' "I see", German ''wissen'' "to know" etc.<ref>see e.g. Pokorny's 1959 ''[[Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch]]'' s.v. ''{{PIE|u̯(e)id-}}''²; Rix' ''[[Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben]]'', ''{{PIE|u̯ei̯d-}}''.</ref>

The Sanskrit term ''{{IAST|veda}}'' as a common noun means "knowledge".{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1899|loc=[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1048.html p. 1015]}} The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the ''[[Rigveda]]'', means "obtaining or finding wealth, property",{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1899|loc=[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1050.html p. 1017 (2nd Column)]}} while in some others it means "a bunch of grass together" as in a broom or for [[Homa (ritual)|ritual fire]].{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1899|loc=[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1000/mw__1050.html p. 1017 (3rd Column)]}}

Vedas are called ''Maṛai'' or ''Vaymoli'' in parts of South India. Marai literally means "hidden, a secret, mystery". But the Tamil [[Naan Marai]] mentioned in [[Tolkāppiyam|Tholkappiam]] isn't Sanskrit Vedas.<ref>Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|978-0-87249-965-2}}, p. 194</ref><ref name="John Carman 1989 pp. 259–261">John Carman (1989), The Tamil Veda: Pillan's Interpretation of the Tiruvaymoli, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0-226-09305-5}}, pp. 259–261</ref> In some parts of [[South India]] (e.g. the [[Iyengar]] communities), the word ''veda'' is used in the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] writings of the [[Alvars|Alvar]] saints. Such writings include the [[Divya Prabandham]] (aka [[Tiruvaymoli]]).<ref name="Vasudha Narayanan 1994 pp. 43, 117">Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|978-0-87249-965-2}}, pp. 43, 117–119</ref>

==Vedic texts==
[[File:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Rigveda'' manuscript in [[Devanagari]]]]

===Vedic Sanskrit corpus===
The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings:
# Texts composed in [[Vedic Sanskrit]] during the [[Vedic period]] ([[Iron Age India]])
# Any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas"<ref>according to [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON]], [http://hinduism.iskcon.com/tradition/1105.htm Hindu Sacred Texts], "Hindus themselves often use the term to describe anything connected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e.g. Vedic culture)."</ref>

The corpus of [[Vedic Sanskrit]] texts includes:
* The [[Samhitas]] (Sanskrit ''{{IAST|saṃhitā}}'', "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("[[mantra]]s"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the [[Rigveda|Rig-Veda]], [[Yajurveda|Yajur-Veda]], [[Samaveda|Sama-Veda]] and [[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]], most of which are available in several [[recension]]s (''{{IAST|śākhā}}''). In some contexts, the term ''Veda'' is used to refer only to these Samhitas, the collection of mantras. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, which were composed between circa 1500-1200 BCE (Rig Veda book 2-9),{{refn|group=note|name="dating"}} and 1200-900 BCE for the other ''Samhitas''. The Samhitas contain invocations to deities like [[Indra]] and [[Agni]], "to secure their benediction for success in battles or for welfare of the cln."{{sfn|Prasad|2020|p=150}} The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in [[Maurice Bloomfield|Bloomfield]]'s ''Vedic Concordance'' (1907) consists of some 89,000 [[pada (Hindu mythology)|padas]] ([[Foot (prosody)|metrical feet]]), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.<ref>37,575 are Rigvedic. Of the remaining, 34,857 appear in the other three Samhitas, and 16,405 are known only from Brahmanas, Upanishads or Sutras</ref>
* The [[Brahmana]]s are prose texts that comment and explain the solemn rituals as well as expound on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions.{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|pp=67–69}}<ref name="ebri"/> The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]), were complete by about 700 BCE.<ref name=mw>[[Michael Witzel]], "Tracing the Vedic dialects" in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.</ref><ref name=bcp>Biswas et al (1989), Cosmic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-34354-1}}, pp. 42–43</ref> The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.
* The [[Aranyaka]]s, "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of ceremonies, from ritualistic to symbolic meta-ritualistic points of view.<ref name="jago"/> It is frequently read in secondary literature.
* Older [[Mukhya Upanishads]] ([[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|{{IAST|Bṛhadāraṇyaka}}]], [[Chandogya Upanishad|Chandogya]], [[Katha Upanishad|{{IAST|Kaṭha}}]], [[Kena Upanishad|Kena]], [[Aitareya Upanishad|Aitareya]], and others),<ref name="Michaels 2004 51">{{Harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=51}}.</ref><ref name="Flood 2003 69">{{Harvnb|Witzel|2003|p=69}}.</ref> composed between 800 BCE and the end of the Vedic period.<ref name="Mahony1998p271">{{cite book|author=William K. Mahony|title=The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC |year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3579-3 |page=271}}</ref> The [[Upanishads]] are largely philosophical works, some in dialogue form. They are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.<ref name=wendydoniger/><ref>Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-1080-6}}, p. 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self."; Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-1-59257-846-7}}, pp. 208–210</ref> Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads are still influential in Hinduism.<ref name=wendydoniger>Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0-226-61847-0}}, pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref><ref>[[Patrick Olivelle]] (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-535242-9}}, p. 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".</ref>
* The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" are less clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as the later [[Upanishads]] and the [[Sūtra|Sutra literature]], such as [[Shrauta Sutras]] and [[Kalpa (Vedanga)#Gryhasutras|Gryha Sutras]], which are smriti texts. Together, the Vedas and these Sutras form part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.<ref name="Flood 2003 69"/>{{refn|group=note|For a table of all Vedic texts see {{Harvnb|Witzel|2003|pp=100–101}}.}}{{refn|group=note|The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is incorporated in ''[[A Vedic Word Concordance]]'' (''{{IAST|Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa}}'') prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935–1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts. Volume I: Samhitas, Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas, Volume III: Upanishads, Volume IV: Vedangas; A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973–1976.}}

While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceased with the end of the Vedic period, additional Upanishads were composed after the end of the Vedic period.{{sfn|Witzel|2003|pp=100–101}} The [[Brahmana]]s, [[Aranyaka]]s, and [[Upanishads]], among other things, interpret and discuss the [[Samhitas]] in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute ([[Brahman]]), and the soul or the self ([[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]]), introducing [[Vedanta]] philosophy, one of the major trends of later [[Hinduism]]. In other parts, they show evolution of ideas, such as from actual sacrifice to symbolic sacrifice, and of spirituality in the Upanishads. This has inspired later Hindu scholars such as [[Adi Shankara]] to classify each Veda into ''karma-kanda'' (कर्म खण्ड, action/sacrificial ritual-related sections, the ''Samhitas'' and ''Brahmanas''); and ''jnana-kanda'' (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related sections, mainly the Upanishads').{{sfn|Bartley|2001|p=490}}{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=30}}{{sfn|Nakamura|1983|p=409}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006|p=9}}{{sfn|Knapp|2005|pp=10–11}}{{refn|group=note|name="Roer"|Edward Roer (Translator), {{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|Shankara's Introduction}} to ''Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad'' at pp. 1–5: "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) purva-kanda, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the jnana kanda, the part which contains knowledge, also named uttara-kanda or posterior part, and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal soul."}}

===Śruti and smriti ===
Vedas are ''{{IAST|[[śruti]]}}'' "what is heard"),{{sfn|Apte|1965|p=887}} distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called ''{{IAST|[[smṛti]]}}'' ("what is remembered"). This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by [[Max Müller]] and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel Michaels explains:
{{quote|These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only ''one'' collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanişads [...] are sometimes not to be distinguished from {{IAST|Āraṇyakas}} [...]; {{IAST|Brāhmaṇas}} contain older strata of language attributed to the {{IAST|Saṃhitās}}; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature."<ref name="Michaels 2004 51"/>}}

===Authorship===
Hindus consider the Vedas to be ''[[apauruṣeya]]'', which means "not of a man, superhuman"{{sfn|Apte|1965|loc="apauruSeya"}} and "impersonal, authorless."{{sfn|Sharma|2011|pp=196–197}}{{sfn|Westerhoff|2009|p=290}}{{sfn|Todd|2013|p=128}} The Vedas, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient [[sage (philosophy)|sages]] after intense meditation, and texts that have been more carefully preserved since ancient times.{{sfn|Pollock|2011|pp=41–58}}{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|pp=13–14}} In the Hindu Epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'', the creation of Vedas is credited to [[Brahma]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=8XO3Im3OMi8C&pg=PA86&dq=brahma+created+vedas&hl=en&sa=X&ei=W_MZUt71GMXJrAecvoCoCg&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata] Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 85–86</ref> The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skillfully created by ''[[Rishi]]s'' (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a carpenter builds a chariot.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002|pp=13–14}}{{refn|group=note|"As a skilled craftsman makes a car, a singer I, Mighty One! this hymn for thee have fashioned. If thou, O Agni, God, accept it gladly, may we obtain thereby the heavenly Waters". – ''Rigveda 5.2.11'', Translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith<ref>{{cite web|title=The Rig Veda/Mandala 5/Hymn 2|url= https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_5/Hymn_2}}</ref>}}

The oldest part of the Rig Veda ''Samhita'' was orally composed in north-western India ([[Punjab, India|Punjab]]) between {{circa}} 1500 and 1200 BC,{{refn|group=note|name="dating"}} while book 10 of the Rig Veda, and the other Samhitas were composed between 1200-900 BCE more eastward, between the Yamuna and the Ganges, the heartland of [[Aryavarta]] and the [[Kuru Kingdom]] (c. 1200 – c. 900 BCE).{{sfn|Witzel|1995|p=4}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=37}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=49}}{{sfn|Witzel|2008|p=68}}{{sfn|Frazier|2011|p=344}} The "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the [[shakha|redaction]] of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000–500 BCE.

According to tradition, ''[[Vyasa]]'' is the compiler of the Vedas, who arranged the four kinds of ''mantras'' into four ''Samhitas'' (Collections).{{sfn|Holdrege|2012|pp=249, 250}}{{sfn|Dalal|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UCEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 16]}}

==Chronology, transmission and interpretation==
{{See also|Vedic period}}

===Chronology===
The Vedas are among the [[Ancient literature|oldest sacred texts]].{{sfn|Dutt|2006|p=36}}{{sfn|Gomes|2012|p=54}} The bulk of the Rigveda Samhita was composed in the northwestern region (Punjab) of the [[Indian subcontinent]], most likely between {{circa}} 1500 and 1200 BC,{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=37}}{{sfn|Witzel|1995|p=4}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}} although a wider approximation of {{circa}} 1700–1100 BC has also been given.{{sfn|Oberlies|1998|p=158}}{{sfn|Kumar|2014|p=179}}{{refn|group=note|name="dating"}} The other three Samhitas are considered to date from the time of the [[Kuru Kingdom]], approximately {{circa}} 1200–900 BCE.<ref name="Flood 2003 69" /> The "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the [[shakha|redaction]] of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000–500 BCE, resulting in a [[Vedic period]], spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the [[Bronze Age India|Late Bronze Age]] and the [[Iron Age India|Iron Age]].{{refn|group=note|[[Gavin Flood]] sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=37}}}}
The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various [[shakha]]s all over Northern India which annotated the mantra [[samhitas]] with [[Brahmana]] discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] and [[Pāṇini|Panini]] and the rise of the [[Mahajanapadas]] (archaeologically, [[Northern Black Polished Ware]]). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 to c. 500–400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern [[Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni|Mitanni material]] of the 14th century BCE, the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE ([[Patañjali]]) as a [[Terminus post quem|terminus ante quem]] for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early [[Iron Age India|Iron Age]]) as [[terminus post quem]] for the Atharvaveda.{{sfn|Witzel|2003|p=68}}

===Transmission===
The Vedas were orally transmitted since their composition in the [[Vedic period]] for several millennia.<ref name="Witzel2003"/>{{sfn|Wood|2007}}{{sfn|Holdrege|1995|p=344}} The authoritative transmission{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=345}} of the Vedas is by an [[oral tradition]] in a ''[[sampradaya]]'' from father to son or from teacher (''guru'') to student (''shishya''),{{sfn|Holdrege|1995|p=344}}{{sfn|Broo|2016|p=92}}{{sfn|Hexam|2011|p=chapter 8}}{{sfn|Pruthi|2004|p=286}}{{sfn|Wood|2007}} believed to be initiated by the Vedic ''[[rishis]]'' who heard the [[Nāda yoga|primordial sounds]].{{sfn|Holdrege|2012|p=165}} Only this tradition, embodied by a living teacher, can teach the correct pronunciation of the sounds and explain hidden meanings, in a way the "dead and entombed manuscript" cannot do.{{sfn|Broo|2016|p=92}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Broo|2016|p=92}} quotes Harold G. Coward and K. Kunjunni Raja.}} As Leela Prasad states, "According to [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]], the "correct tradition" (''sampradaya'') has as much authority as the written Shastra," explaining that the tradition "bears the authority to clarify and provide direction in the application of knowledge."{{sfn|Prasad|2007||p=125}}

The emphasis in this transmission{{refn|group=note|Of the complete Veda, by ''pāțha-śālā'' (priestly schools), as distinguished from the transmission in the ''pūjā'', the daily services.{{sfn|Wilke|Moebus|2011|pp=344–345}}}} is on the "proper articulation and pronunciation of the Vedic sounds," as prescribed in the [[Shiksha]],{{sfn|Wilke|Moebus|2011|p=345}} the [[Vedanga]] (Vedic study) of sound as uttered in a Vedic recitation,{{sfn|Banerji|1989|pp=323–324}}{{sfn|Wilke|Moebus|2011|pp=477–495}} mastering the texts "literally forward and backward in fully acoustic fashion."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=345}} Houben and Rath note that the Vedic textual tradition cannot simply be characterized as oral, "since it also depends significantly on a memory culture."{{sfn|Rath|2012|p=22}} The Vedas were preserved with precision with the help of elaborate [[Vedic chant|mnemonic techniques]],{{sfn|Wood|2007}}{{sfn|Hexam|2011|p=chapter 8}}{{sfn|Dwyer|2013}} such as memorizing the texts in eleven different modes of recitation (''[[patha]]s''),{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=345}} using the alphabet as a [[Art of memory|mnemotechnical device]],{{sfn|Griffiths|1999|p=122}}{{sfn|Rath|2012|p=19}}{{refn|group=note|Several authors refer to the Chinese Buddhist Monk I-Tsing, who visited India in the 7th century to retrieve Buddhist texts and gave examples of mnemonic techniques used in India:{{sfn|Griffiths|1999|p=122}} "In India there are two traditional ways in which one can attain great intellectual power. Firstly by repeatedly committing to memory the intellect is developed; secondly the alphabet fixes (to) one's ideas. By this way, after a practice of ten days or a month, a student feels his thoughts rise like a fountain, and can commit to memory whatever he has heard once."{{sfn|Rath|2012|p=19}}{{sfn|Griffiths|1999|p=122}}}} "matching physical movements (such as nodding the head){{disputed inline|talk=Talk:Vedas#nodding head a vedic practice?|date=May 2020}} with particular sounds and chanting in a group"{{sfn|Doniger|2010|p=106}} and visualizing sounds by using ''[[mudra]]s'' (hand signs).{{Sfn|Wilke|Moebus|2011|p=479}} This provided an additional visual confirmation, and also an alternate means to check the reading integrity by the audience, in addition to the audible means.{{sfn|Wilke|Moebus|2011|p=479}} Houben and Rath note that a strong "memory culture" existed in ancient India when texts were transmitted orally, before the advent of writing in the early first millennium CE.{{sfn|Rath|2012|p=19}} According to [[Frits Staal|Staal]], criticising the [[Jack Goody|Goody]]-Watt hypothesis "according to which literacy is more reliable than orality,"{{sfn|Schiffman|2012|p=171}} this tradition of oral transmission "is closely related to Indian forms of science," and "by far the more remarkable" than the relatively recent tradition of written transmission.{{refn|group=note|name="Staal_discoveries"|Staal: [this tradition of oral transmission is] "by far the more remarkable [than the relatively recent tradition of written transmission], not merely because it is characteristically Indian and unlike anything we find elsewhere, but also because it has led to scientific discoveries that are of enduring interest and from which the contemporary West still has much to learn." {{harvtxt|Schiffman|2012|p=171}}, quoting {{harvtxt|Staal|1986|p=27}} Staal argued that the ancient Indian grammarians, especially [[Pāṇini]], had completely mastered methods of linguistic theory not rediscovered again until the 1950s and the applications of modern mathematical logic to linguistics by [[Noam Chomsky]]. (Chomsky himself has said that the first [[generative grammar]] in the modern sense was Panini's grammar).<ref name=front>[http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1825/18250150.htm An event in Kolkata] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510134321/http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1825/18250150.htm |date=May 10, 2012 }}, [[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]</ref> These early Indian methods allowed the construction of discrete, potentially infinite generative systems. Remarkably, these early linguistic systems were codified orally, though writing was then used to develop them in some way. The formal basis for Panini's methods involved the use of "auxiliary" markers, rediscovered in the 1930s by the logician [[Emil Post]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kadvany, John|title=Positional Value and Linguistic Recursion|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy|year=2007|pages=487–520|volume=35|issue=5–6|doi=10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5|citeseerx=10.1.1.565.2083|s2cid=52885600}}</ref>}}

While according to Mookerji [[Nirukta|understanding the meaning]] (''vedarthajnana''{{sfn|Galewicz|2004|p=328}} or ''[[artha]]-[[Buddhi|bodha]]''{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=35}}{{refn|group=note|name="artha"}}) of the words of the Vedas was part of the [[Vedanga|Vedic learning]],{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=35}} Holdrege and other Indologists{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=346}} have noted that in the transmission of the ''Samhitas'' the emphasis is on the phonology of the sounds (''[[śabda]]'') and not on the meaning (''[[artha]]'') of the mantras.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=346}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}}{{sfn|Broo|2016|p=92}} Already at the end of the Vedic period their original meaning had become obscure for "ordinary people,"{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}}{{refn|group=note|name="Kautas"|{{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}}: "Kautas, a teacher mentioned in the ''[[Nirukta]]'' by ''[[Yāska]]'' (ca. 500 BCE), a work devoted to an etymology of Vedic words that were no longer understood by ordinary people, held that the word of the Veda was no longer perceived as meaningful "normal" speech but as a fixed sequence of sounds, whose meaning was obscure beyond recovery." The tenth through twelfth volumes of the first Prapathaka of the [[Chandogya Upanishad]] (800-600 BCE) describe a legend about priests and it criticizes how they go about reciting verses and singing hymns without any idea what they mean or the divine principle they signify.<ref name=pauldeussen112>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1468-4}}, pages 80-84</ref>}} and ''[[nirukta]]s'', etymological compendia, were developed to preserve and clarify the original meaning of many Sanskrit words.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}}{{sfn|Jackson|2016|p="Sayana, Vidyaranya’s brother"}} According to Staal, as referenced by Holdrege, though the mantras may have a discursive meaning, when the mantras are recited in the Vedic rituals "they are disengaged from their original context and are employed in ways that have little or nothing to do with their meaning."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=346}}{{refn|group=note|According to Holdrege, ''srotriyas'' (a group of male Brahmin reciters who are masters of ''sruti''{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=345}}) "frequently do not understand what they recite" when reciting the ''Samhitas'', merely preserving the sound of the text.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=346}}}} The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred,"{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|pp=346–347}} and "do not constitute [[Speech act|linguistic utterances]]."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}} Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become [[Magic (supernatural)|magical]] sounds, "means to an end."{{refn|group=note|Klostermaier: "''Brahman'', derived from the root ''bŗh'' <nowiki>=</nowiki> to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified [[Speech act|speech-act]]" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=55}} quotes {{harvnb|Deshpande|1990|p=4}}.}} Holdrege notes that there are scarce commentaries on the meaning of the mantras, in contrast to the number of commentaries on the Brahmanas and Upanishads, but states that the lack of emphasis on the "discursive meaning does not necessarily imply that they are meaningless."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|pp=346,347}} In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered as "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}} By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the ''mantras'' will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=347}}{{refn|group=note|name="Coward2008_mimamsa"|{{harvnb|Coward|2008|p=114}}: "For the [[Mimamsa]] the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them."}} Frazier further notes that "later Vedic texts sought deeper understanding of the reasons the rituals worked," which indicates that the Brahmin communities considered study to be a "process of understanding."{{sfn|Frazier|2011|p=34}}

A literary tradition is traceable in post-Vedic times, after the rise of [[Buddhism]] in the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya period]],{{refn|group=note|The early Buddhist texts are also generally believed to be of oral tradition, with the first Pali Canon written many centuries after the death of the Buddha.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Donald S. Lopez Jr. |year=1995|title= Authority and Orality in the Mahāyāna|journal= Numen|volume= 42 |number= 1 |pages= 21–47 |jstor= 3270278|doi=10.1163/1568527952598800 |hdl=2027.42/43799 |url= https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43799/1/11076_1995_Article_1568527952598800.pdf|hdl-access= free }}</ref>}} perhaps earliest in the [[Kanvas|Kanva]] recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral tradition of transmission remained active.<ref name="Witzel2003">{{Harvnb|Witzel|2003|p=69}}; For oral composition and oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down, see: {{Harvnb|Avari|2007|p=76}}.</ref> [[Jack Goody]] has argued for an earlier literary tradition, concluding that the Vedas bear hallmarks of a literate culture along with oral transmission,{{sfn|Wilke|Moebus|2011|p=192}}{{sfn|Goody|1987}} but Goody's views have been strongly criticised by Falk, Lopez Jr,. and Staal, though they have also found some support.{{sfn|Lopez Jr.|2016|pp=35–36}}{{sfn|Olson|Cole|2013|p=15}}

The Vedas were written down only after 500 BCE,<ref name=":0">{{Harvnb|Avari|2007|pp=69–70, 76}}</ref><ref name="Witzel2003"/>{{sfn|Wood|2007}} but only the orally transmitted texts are regarded as authoritative, given the emphasis on the exact pronunciation of the sounds.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=345}} Witzel suggests that attempts to write down the Vedic texts towards the end of 1st millennium BCE were unsuccessful, resulting in ''smriti'' rules explicitly forbidding the writing down of the Vedas.<ref name="Witzel2003"/> Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.<ref>{{Citation | last = Brodd | first = Jeffrey | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | year = 2003 | location = Winona, MN | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5 }}</ref> The [[Sampurnanand Sanskrit University]] has a Rigveda manuscript from the 14th century;<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jamison|first1=Stephanie W.|last2=Brereton|first2=Joel P.|title=The Rigveda – The Earliest Religious Poetry of India, Volume 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 |year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-972078-1|page=18}}</ref> however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in [[Nepal]] that are dated from the 11th century onwards.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cultural Heritage of Nepal|url=http://www.uni-hamburg.de/ngmcp/about_ngmpp_e.html|website=Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project|publisher=[[University of Hamburg]]|access-date=4 November 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140918022828/http://www.uni-hamburg.de/ngmcp/about_ngmpp_e.html|archive-date=18 September 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Vedic learning===
{{Main|Svādhyāya}}

The Vedas, Vedic rituals and its ancillary sciences called the [[Vedangas]], were part of the curriculum at ancient universities such as at [[Taxila]], [[Nalanda]] and [[Vikramashila]].{{sfn|Buswell|Lopez, Jr.|2013}}{{sfn|Frazier|2011|page=[https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz/page/n48 34]}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Walton|first1=Linda|title="Educational institutions" in The Cambridge World History Vol. 5 |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-19074-9|page=122}}</ref><ref>Sukumar Dutt (1988) [1962]. ''Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture.'' George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London. {{ISBN|81-208-0498-8}}. pp. 332–333</ref> According to Deshpande, "the tradition of the [[Sanskrit grammarians]] also contributed significantly to the preservation and interpretation of Vedic texts."{{sfn|Deshpande|1990|p=33}} [[Yāska]] (4th c. BCE{{sfn|Misra|2000|p=49}}) wrote the ''[[Nirukta]]'', which reflects the concerns about the loss of meaning of the mantras,{{refn|group=note|name="Kautas"}} while [[Pāṇini]]s (4th c. BCE) ''[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]'' is the most important surviving text of the Vyākaraṇa traditions. [[Mimamsa]] scholar [[Sayana]]s (14th c. CE) major ''Vedartha Prakasha''{{refn|group=note|Literally, "the meaning of the Vedas made manifest."}} is a rare{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=354}} commentary on the Vedas, which is also referred to by contemporary scholars.{{sfn|Jackson|2016|loc=ch.3}}

Yaska and Sayana, reflecting an ancient understanding, state that the Veda can be interpreted in three ways, giving "the truth about [[Rigvedic deities|gods]], ''[[Dharma#History|dharma]]'' and [[parabrahman]]."{{sfn|Coward|Raja|Potter|1990|p=106}}{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=34}}{{refn|group=note|Sayana repeats Yaska; see [[Nirukta#Ancient|interpretation of the Vedas]].}} The ''pūrva-kāņda'' (or ''karma-kanda''), the part of the Veda dealing with ritual, gives knowledge of ''dharma'', "which brings us satisfaction." The ''uttara-kanda'' (or ''[[Upanishads|jnana-kanda]]''),{{refn|group=note|The ''Upanishads''.{{sfn|Nakamura|1983|p=409}}}} the part of the Veda dealing with the knowledge of the absolute, gives knowledge of ''Parabrahma'', "which fulfills all of our desires."{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=30}} According to Holdrege, for the exponents of ''karma-kandha'' the Veda is to be "inscribed in the minds and hearts of men" by memorization and recitation, while for the exponents of the ''jnana-kanda'' and meditation the Vedas express a transcendental reality which can be approached with mystical means.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|pp=355, 356–357}}

Holdrege notes that in Vedic learning "priority has been given to recitation over interpretation" of the Samhitas.{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=354}} Galewicz states that Sayana, a [[Mimamsa]] scholar,{{sfn|Galewicz|2004|p=40}}{{sfn|Galewicz|2011|p=338}}{{sfn|Collins|2009|loc="237 Sayana"}} "thinks of the Veda as something to be trained and mastered to be put into practical ritual use," noticing that "it is not the meaning of the mantras that is most essential [...] but rather the perfect mastering of their sound form."{{sfn|Galewicz|2004|p=41}} According to Galewicz, Sayana saw the purpose (''artha'') of the Veda as the "''[[artha]]'' of carrying out sacrifice," giving precedence to the ''Yajurveda''.{{sfn|Galewicz|2004|p=40}} For Sayana, whether the mantras had meaning depended on the context of their practical usage.{{sfn|Galewicz|2004|p=41}} This conception of the Veda, as a repertoire to be mastered and performed, takes precedence over the internal meaning or "autonomous message of the hymns."{{sfn|Galewicz|2004|pp=41–42}} Most [[Śrauta#Contemporary practices|Śrauta rituals]] are not performed in the modern era, and those that are, are rare.{{sfn|Michaels|2016|pp=237–238}}

[[Radha Kumud Mukherjee|Mookerji]] notes that the Rigveda, and Sayana's commentary, contain passages criticizing as fruitless mere recitation of the ''Ŗik'' (words) without understanding their inner meaning or essence, the knowledge of ''dharma'' and ''Parabrahman''.{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|pp=29–31}} Mookerji concludes that in the Rigvedic education of the mantras "the contemplation and comprehension of [[Nirukta|their meaning]] was considered as more important and vital to education than their mere mechanical repetition and correct pronunciation."{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|pp=29, 34}} Mookerji refers to Sayana as stating that "the mastery of texts, ''akshara-praptī'', is followed by ''[[artha]]-[[Buddhi|bodha]]'', perception of their meaning."{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=35}}{{refn|group=note|name="artha"|''Artha'' may also mean "goal, purpose or essence," depending on the context.<ref>See:
 {{*}} [http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=artha&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 Sanskrit English Dictionary] University of Kloen, Germany (2009)
 {{*}} Karl Potter (1998), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, {{ISBN|81-208-0310-8}}, Motilal Banarsidass, pp 610 (note 17)</ref>}} Mookerji explains that the Vedic knowledge was first perceived by the ''rishis'' and ''munis''. Only the perfect language of the Vedas, as in contrast to ordinary speech, can reveal these truths, which were preserved by committing them to memory.{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|pp=34–35}} According to Mookerji, while these truths are imparted to the student by the memorized texts,{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|pp=35–36}} "the realization of [[rta|Truth]]" and the knowledge of ''[[paramatman]]'' as revealed to the ''rishis'' is the real aim of Vedic learning, and not the mere recitation of texts.{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=36}} The supreme knowledge of the Absolute, ''[[para Brahman]]-[[Jnana yoga|jnana]]'', the knowledge of ''[[rta]]'' and ''[[satya]]'', can be obtained by taking vows of silence and obedience{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=196}} sense-restraint, ''[[Dhyana in Hinduism|dhyana]]'', the practice of ''[[Tapas (Indian religions)|tapas]]'' (austerities),{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=34}} and discussing the [[Vedanta]].{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=196}}{{refn|group=note|Mookerji also refers to the Uśanā smriti (81-2), which "states that mastery of mere text of Veda is to be followed up by its meaning" by discussing the Vedanta.{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=196}} where-after they were able to engage in doscourses on the Vedas.{{sfn|Mookerji|2011|p=29}}{{sfn|Frazier|2011|p=34}}}}

==Vedic schools or recensions==
{{Main article|Shakha}}
The four Vedas were transmitted in various [[Shakha|{{IAST|śākhā}}]]s (branches, schools).<ref name="Flood 1996 39">{{Harvnb|Flood|1996|p=39}}.</ref><ref name=witzelthreefour/> Each school likely represented an ancient community of a particular area, or kingdom.<ref name=witzelthreefour/> Each school followed its own canon. Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas.<ref name="Flood 1996 39"/> Thus, states Witzel as well as Renou, in the 2nd millennium BCE, there was likely no canon of one broadly accepted Vedic texts, no Vedic “Scripture”, but only a canon of various texts accepted by each school. Some of these texts have survived, most lost or yet to be found. Rigveda that survives in modern times, for example, is in only one extremely well preserved school of Śåkalya, from a region called [[Videha]], in modern north [[Bihar]], south of [[Nepal]].<ref name=jamisonwitzelvedic>Jamison and Witzel (1992), [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/vedica.pdf Vedic Hinduism], Harvard University, p. 6</ref> The Vedic canon in its entirety consists of texts from all the various Vedic schools taken together.<ref name=witzelthreefour/>

Each of the four Vedas were shared by the numerous schools, but revised, interpolated and adapted locally, in and after the Vedic period, giving rise to various recensions of the text. Some texts were revised into the modern era, raising significant debate on parts of the text which are believed to have been corrupted at a later date.<ref>J. Muir (1872), {{Google books|HRYAAAAAYAAJ|Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, their religion and institutions, Vol. 1}}, 2nd Edition, p. 12</ref><ref>Albert Friedrich Weber, {{Google books|Bi8JAAAAQAAJ|Indische Studien, herausg. von}}, Vol. 10, pp. 1–9 with footnotes (in German); For a translation, {{Google books|HRYAAAAAYAAJ|Original Sanskrit Texts}}, p. 14</ref> The Vedas each have an Index or [[Anukramaṇī|Anukramani]], the principal work of this kind being the general Index or ''{{IAST|Sarvānukramaṇī}}''.<ref>For an example, see [http://hdl.library.upenn.edu/1017/d/medren/3178027 Sarvānukramaṇī Vivaraṇa] Univ of Pennsylvania rare texts collection</ref><ref>R̥gveda-sarvānukramaṇī Śaunakakr̥tāʼnuvākānukramaṇī ca, Maharṣi-Kātyayāna-viracitā, {{oclc|11549595}}</ref>

Prodigious energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.<ref name=":1">{{Harvnb|Staal|1986}}</ref> For example, memorization of the sacred ''Vedas'' included up to eleven [[Vedic chant|forms of recitation]] of the same text. The texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included the ''{{IAST|jaṭā-pāṭha}}'' (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated in the original order.<ref name=filliozat-p139>{{Harvnb|Filliozat|2004|p=139}}</ref> That these methods have been effective, is attested to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the ''[[Rigveda]]'', as [[Redaction|redacted]] into a single text during the ''Brahmana'' period, without any variant readings within that school.<ref name=filliozat-p139/>

The Vedas were orally transmitted by memorization for many generations and was written down for the first time around 1200 BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dawson|first=Patricia A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=notmDwAAQBAJ&q=vedas+first+written&pg=PA79|title=Asia Through the Ages: Early History to European Colonialism|date=2015-07-15|publisher=Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC|isbn=978-1-5026-0684-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=Brian Arthur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_MsvDAAAQBAJ&q=vedas+first+written&pg=PA30|title=Four Testaments: Tao Te Ching, Analects, Dhammapada, Bhagavad Gita: Sacred Scriptures of Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Hinduism|date=2016-07-08|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-6578-3}}</ref> However, all printed editions of the Vedas that survive in the modern times are likely the version existing in about the 16th century AD.<ref>{{Harvnb|Witzel|2003|p=69}}, "... almost all printed editions depend on the late manuscripts that are hardly older than 500 years"</ref>

==Four Vedas==
{{Vedas and Shakhas}}
The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (''{{IAST|turīya}}'') viz.,<ref>{{Harvnb|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|p=3}}; {{Harvnb|Witzel|2003|p=68}}</ref>
# [[Rigveda]] (RV)
# [[Yajurveda]] (YV, with the main division [[Taittiriya Shakha|TS]] vs. [[Shakha|VS]])
# [[Samaveda]] (SV)
# [[Atharvaveda]] (AV)

Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called "''{{IAST|trayī vidyā}}''"; that is, "the triple science" of reciting hymns (Rigveda), performing sacrifices (Yajurveda), and chanting songs (Samaveda).<ref>Witzel, M., "[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu]" in {{Harvnb|Witzel|1997|pp=257–348}}</ref>{{sfn|MacDonell|2004|pp=29–39}} The Rig Veda most likely was composed between {{circa}} 1500 and 1200.{{refn|group=note|name="dating"}} Witzel notes that it is the Vedic period itself, where incipient lists divide the Vedic texts into three (trayī) or four branches: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.<ref name=witzelthreefour/>

Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the [[Samhita]]s (mantras and benedictions), the [[Aranyakas]] (text on rituals, ceremonies such as newborn baby's rites of passage, coming of age, marriages, retirement and cremation, sacrifices and symbolic sacrifices), the [[Brahmanas]] (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the [[Upanishads]] (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).<ref name="gflood"/><ref name="A Bhattacharya 2006 pp. 8–14"/><ref name="Jan Gonda 1975"/> The [[Upasana]]s (short ritual worship-related sections) are considered by some scholars{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006|pp=8–14}}{{sfn|Holdrege|1995|pp=351–357}} as the fifth part. [[Michael Witzel|Witzel]] notes that the rituals, rites and ceremonies described in these ancient texts reconstruct to a large degree the Indo-European marriage rituals observed in a region spanning the Indian subcontinent, Persia and the European area, and some greater details are found in the Vedic era texts such as the Grhya Sūtras.<ref>Jamison and Witzel (1992), [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/vedica.pdf Vedic Hinduism], Harvard University, p. 21</ref>

Only one version of the Rigveda is known to have survived into the modern era.<ref name=jamisonwitzelvedic/> Several different versions of the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda are known, and many different versions of the Yajur Veda have been found in different parts of South Asia.<ref>Witzel, M., "[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu]" in {{Harvnb|Witzel|1997|p=286}}</ref>

The texts of the Upanishads discuss ideas akin to the heterodox ''sramana''-traditions.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=82}}

===Rigveda===
{{Main article|Rigveda}}
{{Quote box |width=26em | bgcolor=#FFE0BB |align=right |salign = right
|quote=[[Nasadiya Sukta]] (Hymn of non-Eternity):

Who really knows? 
Who can here proclaim it? 
Whence, whence this creation sprang? 
Gods came later, after the creation of this universe.

Who then knows whence it has arisen? 
Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute; 
Only He who is its overseer in highest heaven knows, 
He only knows, or perhaps He does not know.
|source =—[[Rig Veda]] 10.129.6–7<ref name=nasadiyasukta>
Original Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२९ Rigveda 10.129] Wikisource;
 {{*}}Translation 1: {{cite book|author=Max Müller|title=A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature|date=1859|publisher=Williams and Norgate, London|url=https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/564/mode/2up|pages=559–565|author-link=Max Müller}}
 {{*}}Translation 2: {{cite book|author=Kenneth Kramer|title=World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions|date=1986|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-2781-8|page=21}}
 {{*}}Translation 3: {{cite book|author=David Christian|title=Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History|url=https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515|url-access=limited|date=2011|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-95067-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mapstimeintroduc00chri_515/page/n45 17]–18}}</ref>}}
The [[Rigveda|Rigveda Samhita]] is the oldest extant [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]] text.<ref>see e.g. {{Harvnb|Avari|2007|p=77}}.</ref> It is a collection of 1,028 [[Vedic Sanskrit]] [[hymn]]s and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: ''mandalas'').<ref>For 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses and division into ten mandalas, see: {{Harvnb|Avari|2007|p=77}}.</ref> The hymns are dedicated to [[Rigvedic deities]].<ref>For characterization of content and mentions of deities including Agni, Indra, Varuna, Soma, Surya, etc. see: {{Harvnb|Avari|2007|p=77}}.</ref>

The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries between {{circa}} 1500 and 1200 BC,{{refn|group=note|name="dating"}} (the early [[Vedic period]]) in the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] ([[Sapta Sindhu]]) region of the northwest [[Indian subcontinent]]. According to Michael Witzel, the initial codification of the ''Rigveda'' took place at the end of the Rigvedic period at ca. 1200 BCE, in the early [[Kuru (India)|Kuru]] kingdom.{{sfn|Witzel|1997|p=261}}

The Rigveda is structured based on clear principles. The Veda begins with a small book addressed to Agni, Indra, [[Soma (deity)|Soma]] and other gods, all arranged according to decreasing total number of hymns in each deity collection; for each deity series, the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones, but the number of hymns per book increases. Finally, the meter too is systematically arranged from jagati and tristubh to anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses.<ref name=witzelthreefour>Witzel, M., "[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu]", Harvard University, in {{Harvnb|Witzel|1997|pp=261–264}}</ref>

The rituals became increasingly complex over time, and the king's association with them strengthened both the position of the Brahmans and the kings.{{sfn|Prasad|2020|pp=150–151}} The [[Rajasuya]] rituals, performed with the coronation of a king, "set in motion [...] cyclical regenerations of the universe."{{sfn|Prasad|2020|p=151}} In terms of substance, the nature of hymns shift from praise of deities in early books to [[Nasadiya Sukta]] with questions such as, "what is the origin of the universe?, do even gods know the answer?",<ref name=nasadiyasukta/> the virtue of [[Dāna]] (charity) in society,<ref>Original text translated in English: [[s:The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 117|The Rig Veda]], Mandala 10, Hymn 117, Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); C Chatterjee (1995), [http://jhv.sagepub.com/content/1/1/3.short Values in the Indian Ethos: An Overview], Journal of Human Values, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 3–12</ref> and other metaphysical issues in its hymns.{{refn|group=note|For example, ''Hymn 1.164.34'', "What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", "What is the center of the universe?", "What is the semen of the cosmic horse?", "What is the ultimate source of human speech?" ''Hymn 1.164.34'', "Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the earth?", "How could the unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?" ''Hymn 1.164.5'', "Where does the sun hide in the night?", "Where do gods live?" ''Hymn 1.164.6'', "What, where is the unborn support for the born universe?"; ''Hymn 1.164.20'' (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upanishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul): "Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks on."; Sources: (a) Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, {{ISBN|978-0-595-26925-9}}, pp. 64–69; [[Jan Gonda]], A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Upanishads, Volume 1, Part 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01603-2}}, pp. 134–135; [[s:The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 164|Rigveda Book 1, Hymn 164]] Wikisource}}

There are similarities between the mythology, rituals and linguistics in Rigveda and those found in ancient central Asia, Iranian and Hindukush (Afghanistan) regions.<ref>Michael Witzel, [http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~rnoyer/courses/51/Witzel2002.pdf The Rigvedic religious system and its central Asian and Hindukush antecedents], in The Vedas – Texts, Language and Ritual, Editors: Griffiths and Houben (2004), Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-90-6980-149-0}}, pp. 581–627</ref>

===Samaveda===
{{Main article|Samaveda}}
The [[Samaveda|Samaveda Samhita]]<ref>From {{IAST|sāman}}, the term for a melody applied to a metrical hymn or a song of praise, {{Harvnb|Apte|1965|p=981}}.</ref> consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the Rigveda.<ref name="Michaels 2004 51"/><ref name=witzelsamaveda>Witzel, M., "[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu]" in {{Harvnb|Witzel|1997|pp=269–270}}</ref> While its earliest parts are believed to date from as early as the Rigvedic period, the existing compilation dates from the post-Rigvedic Mantra period of [[Vedic Sanskrit]], between c. 1200 and 1000 BCE or "slightly later," roughly contemporary with the [[Atharvaveda]] and the [[Yajurveda]].<ref name=witzelsamaveda/>

The Samaveda samhita has two major parts. The first part includes four melody collections (gāna, गान) and the second part three verse “books” (ārcika, आर्चिक).<ref name=witzelsamaveda/> A melody in the song books corresponds to a verse in the ''arcika'' books. Just as in the Rigveda, the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with hymns to Agni and Indra but shift to the abstract. Their meters shift also in a descending order. The songs in the later sections of the Samaveda have the least deviation from the hymns derived from the Rigveda.<ref name=witzelsamaveda/>

In the Samaveda, some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated.<ref>M Bloomfield, {{Google books|DigYAAAAYAAJ|Rig-veda Repetitions|page=402}}, pp. 402–464</ref> Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.<ref>For 1875 total verses, see the numbering given in Ralph T. H. Griffith. Griffith's introduction mentions the recension history for his text. Repetitions may be found by consulting the cross-index in Griffith pp. 491–499.</ref> Two major recensions have survived, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose was liturgical, and they were the repertoire of the [[udgatr|''{{IAST|udgātṛ}}'']] or "singer" priests.{{sfn|Wilke|Moebus|2011|p=381}}

===Yajurveda===
{{Main article|Yajurveda}}
The [[Yajurveda|Yajurveda Samhita]] consists of prose mantras.{{sfn|Witzel|2003|pp=76–77}} It is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before the [[yajna]] fire.{{sfn|Witzel|2003|pp=76–77}} The core text of the Yajurveda falls within the classical Mantra period of [[Vedic Sanskrit]] at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE - younger than the [[Rigveda]], and roughly contemporary with the [[Atharvaveda]], the Rigvedic [[Khilani]], and the [[Samaveda|{{IAST|Sāmaveda}}]].<ref>[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools], Michael Witzel, Harvard University</ref> Witzel dates the Yajurveda [[Music of India#History|hymns]] to the early Indian [[Iron Age India|Iron Age]], after c. 1200 and before 800 BCE.<ref>[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ewitzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf Autochthonous Aryans?] Michael Witzel, Harvard University</ref> corresponding to the early [[Kuru Kingdom]].<ref>[http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf Early Sanskritization] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220153727/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |date=20 February 2012 }}, Michael Witzel, Harvard University</ref>

[[File:Taittiriya Samhita Vedas, Devanagari script, Sanskrit pliv.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A page from the ''Taittiriya Samhita'', a layer of text within the ''Yajurveda'']]
The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda [[samhita]] includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in [[Rigveda]].<ref>Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, {{ISBN|978-0-595-26925-9}}, pp. 273–274</ref> Unlike the Samaveda which is almost entirely based on Rigveda mantras and structured as songs, the Yajurveda samhitas are in prose and linguistically, they are different from earlier Vedic texts.<ref>Witzel, M., "[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu]" in {{Harvnb|Witzel|1997|pp=270–271}}</ref> The Yajur Veda has been the primary source of information about sacrifices during Vedic times and associated rituals.<ref>Witzel, M., "[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu]" in {{Harvnb|Witzel|1997|pp=272–274}}</ref>

There are two major groups of texts in this Veda: the "Black" (''Krishna'') and the "White" (''Shukla''). The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" (well arranged) Yajurveda.<ref name=pauldeussen217>[[Paul Deussen]], Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1468-4}}, pp. 217–219</ref> The White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]), the Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda, texts from four major schools have survived (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya), while of the White Yajurveda, two (Kanva and Madhyandina).{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=52 Table 3}}<ref name=prabhakar>CL Prabhakar (1972), The Recensions of the Sukla Yajurveda, Archív Orientální, Volume 40, Issue 1, pp. 347–353</ref> The youngest layer of Yajurveda text is not related to rituals nor sacrifice, it includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref name="The Philosophy of the Upanishads">[[Paul Deussen]], [https://archive.org/stream/philosophyofupan00deus#page/22/mode/2up The Philosophy of the Upanishads], Motilal Banarsidass (2011 Edition), {{ISBN|978-81-208-1620-6}}, p. 23</ref><ref name="Patrick Olivelle 1998 pp. 1–17">Patrick Olivelle (1998), Upaniṣhads, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-282292-6}}, pp. 1–17</ref>

===Atharvaveda===
{{Main article|Atharvaveda}}
The [[Atharvaveda|Artharvaveda Samhita]] is the text 'belonging to the [[Atharvan]] and [[Angiras (sage)|Angirasa]] poets. It has about 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=56}} Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=56}} Two different versions of the text – the {{IAST|Paippalāda}} and the {{IAST|Śaunakīya}} – have survived into the modern times.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=56}}<ref name=fritsstaal136>Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0-14-309986-4}}, pp. 136–137</ref> The Atharvaveda was not considered as a Veda in the Vedic era, and was accepted as a Veda in late 1st millennium BCE.<ref>[[Frits Staal]] (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0-14-309986-4}}, p. 135</ref><ref>Alex Wayman (1997), Untying the Knots in Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1321-2}}, pp. 52–53</ref> It was compiled last,<ref name=zaehnerlastav>"The latest of the four Vedas, the Atharva-Veda, is, as we have seen, largely composed of magical texts and charms, but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads, – hymns to Skambha, the 'Support', who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe, to Prāna, the 'Breath of Life', to Vāc, the 'Word', and so on." {{Harvnb|Zaehner|1966|p=vii}}.</ref> probably around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda,{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=37}} or earlier.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=56}}

The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas",<ref name=lauriepatton38>Laurie Patton (2004), Veda and Upanishad, in ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-21527-7}}, p. 38</ref> an epithet declared to be incorrect by other scholars.<ref name=jangonda277>[[Jan Gonda]] (1975), Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas, Vol 1, Fasc. 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01603-2}}, pp. 277–280, Quote: "It would be incorrect to describe the Atharvaveda Samhita as a collection of magical formulas".</ref> The [[Samhita]] layer of the text likely represents a developing 2nd millennium BCE tradition of magico-religious rites to address superstitious anxiety, spells to remove maladies believed to be caused by demons, and herbs- and nature-derived potions as medicine.<ref>Kenneth Zysk (2012), Understanding Mantras (Editor: Harvey Alper), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0746-4}}, pp. 123–129</ref><ref>On magic spells and charms, such as those to gain better health: [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe42/av064.htm Atharva Veda 2.32 Bhaishagykni, Charm to secure perfect health] Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; see also chapters 3.11, 3.31, 4.10, 5.30, 19.26; On finding a good husband: [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe42/av102.htm Atharva Veda 4.2.36 Strijaratani] Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; Atharvaveda dedicates over 30 chapters to love relationships, sexuality and for conceiving a child, see e.g. chapters 1.14, 2.30, 3.25, 6.60, 6.78, 6.82, 6.130–6.132; On peaceful social and family relationships: [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe42/av153.htm Atharva Veda 6.3.30] Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press;</ref> The text, states Kenneth Zysk, is one of oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in religious medicine and reveals the "earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-European antiquity".<ref>Kenneth Zysk (1993), Religious Medicine: The History and Evolution of Indian Medicine, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1-56000-076-1}}, pp. x–xii</ref> Many books of the Atharvaveda Samhita are dedicated to rituals without magic, such as to philosophical speculations and to [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|theosophy]].<ref name=jangonda277/>

The Atharva veda has been a primary source for information about Vedic culture, the customs and beliefs, the aspirations and frustrations of everyday Vedic life, as well as those associated with kings and governance. The text also includes hymns dealing with the two major rituals of passage – [[marriage]] and [[cremation]]. The Atharva Veda also dedicates significant portion of the text asking the meaning of a ritual.<ref>Witzel, M., "[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu]" in {{Harvnb|Witzel|1997|pp=275–276}}</ref>

===Embedded Vedic texts===
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| width = 275
| footer = Manuscripts of the Vedas are in the Sanskrit language, but in many regional scripts in addition to the [[Devanagari]]. Top: [[Grantha script]] (Tamil Nadu), Below: [[Malayalam script]] (Kerala).
| image1 = Vedas palm leaf manuscript, Tamil Grantha Script, Sanskrit, Tamil Nadu.jpg
| image2 = 16th century Vedas palm leaf manuscript, Malayalam Script, Sanskrit, Kerala.jpg
}}

====Brahmanas====
{{Further|Brahmanas}}
The Brahmanas are commentaries, explanation of proper methods and meaning of Vedic Samhita rituals in the four Vedas.{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|pp=67–69}} They also incorporate myths, legends and in some cases philosophy.{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|pp=67–69}}<ref name=ebri>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana Brahmana] Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref> Each regional Vedic ''[[shakha]]'' (school) has its own operating manual-like Brahmana text, most of which have been lost.<ref name=winter>Moriz Winternitz (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0264-3}}, pp. 175–176</ref> A total of 19 Brahmana texts have survived into modern times: two associated with the [[Rigveda]], six with the [[Yajurveda]], ten with the [[Samaveda]] and one with the [[Atharvaveda]]. The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]), were complete by about 700 BCE.<ref name=mw/><ref name=bcp/> According to [[Jan Gonda]], the final codification of the Brahmanas took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).{{sfn|Klostermaier|1994|p=67}}

The substance of the Brahmana text varies with each Veda. For example, the first chapter of the Chandogya Brahmana, one of the oldest Brahmanas, includes eight ritual ''suktas'' (hymns) for the ceremony of marriage and rituals at the birth of a child.<ref name=maxmullercb/><ref name=pauldeussencb>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1468-4}}, p. 63</ref> The first hymn is a recitation that accompanies offering a [[Yajna]] oblation to ''Agni'' (fire) on the occasion of a marriage, and the hymn prays for prosperity of the couple getting married.<ref name=maxmullercb>Max Müller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, p. lxxxvii with footnote 2</ref><ref>{{Google books|sqqgAAAAMAAJ|The Development of the Female Mind in India|page=27}}, The Calcutta Review, Volume 60, p. 27</ref> The second hymn wishes for their long life, kind relatives, and a numerous progeny.<ref name=maxmullercb/> The third hymn is a mutual marriage pledge, between the bride and groom, by which the two bind themselves to each other. The sixth through last hymns of the first chapter in Chandogya Brahmana are ritual celebrations on the birth of a child and wishes for health, wealth, and prosperity with a profusion of cows and [[artha]].<ref name=maxmullercb/> However, these verses are incomplete expositions, and their complete context emerges only with the Samhita layer of text.<ref>Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01603-2}}, pp. 319–322, 368–383 with footnotes</ref>

====Aranyakas and Upanishads====
{{Further|Vedanta|Upanishads|Aranyakas}}
The Aranyakas layer of the Vedas include rituals, discussion of symbolic meta-rituals, as well as philosophical speculations.{{sfn|Holdrege|1995|pp=351–357}}<ref name=jago>[[Jan Gonda]] (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-01603-2}}, pp. 424–426</ref>

''Aranyakas'', however, neither are homogeneous in content nor in structure.<ref name=jago/> They are a medley of instructions and ideas, and some include chapters of Upanishads within them. Two theories have been proposed on the origin of the word ''Aranyakas''. One theory holds that these texts were meant to be studied in a forest, while the other holds that the name came from these being the manuals of allegorical interpretation of sacrifices, for those in [[Vanaprastha]] (retired, forest-dwelling) stage of their life, according to the historic age-based [[Ashrama (stage)|Ashrama]] system of human life.<ref>AB Keith (2007), The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0644-3}}, pp. 489–490</ref>

The Upanishads reflect the last composed layer of texts in the Vedas. They are commonly referred to as ''[[Vedānta]]'', variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Vedas" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".<ref>Max Müller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up The Upanishads], Part 1, Oxford University Press, p. lxxxvi footnote 1</ref>
The central concern of the Upanishads are the connections "between parts of the human organism and cosmic realities."{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=liii}} The Upanishads intend to create a hierarchy of connected and dependent realities, evoking a sense of unity of "the separate elements of the world and of human experience [compressing] them into a single form."{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=lv}} The concepts of [[Brahman]], the Ultimate Reality from which everything arises, and [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]], the essence of the individual, are central ideas in the [[Upanishad]]s,{{sfn|Mahadevan|1952|p=59}}<ref name=ptraju>PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-88706-139-4}}, pp. 35–36</ref> and knowing the correspondence between Ātman and Brahman as "the fundamental principle which shapes the world" permits the creation of an integrative vision of the whole.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=lv}}<ref name=ptraju/> The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions,<ref name=wendydoniger/><ref>Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-1080-6}}, p. 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self."; Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-1-59257-846-7}}, pp. 208–210</ref> and of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have influenced the diverse traditions of Hinduism.<ref name="wendydoniger"/><ref>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-535242-9}}, p. 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".</ref>

''Aranyakas'' are sometimes identified as ''karma-kanda'' (ritualistic section), while the Upanishads are identified as ''jnana-kanda'' (spirituality section).{{sfn|Holdrege|1996|p=30}}{{sfn|Nakamura|1983|p=409}}{{sfn|Bhattacharya|2006|p=9}}{{refn|group=note|name="Roer"}} In an alternate classification, the early part of Vedas are called [[Samhita]]s and the commentary are called the [[Brahmana]]s which together are identified as the ceremonial ''karma-kanda'', while ''Aranyakas'' and ''Upanishads'' are referred to as the ''jnana-kanda''.{{sfn|Knapp|2005|pp=10–11}}

==Post-Vedic literature==

===Vedanga===
{{Main article|Vedanga}}
The Vedangas developed towards the end of the vedic period, around or after the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. These auxiliary fields of Vedic studies emerged because the language of the Vedas, composed centuries earlier, became too archaic to the people of that time.{{Sfn|Olivelle|1999|p=xxiii}} The Vedangas were sciences that focused on helping understand and interpret the Vedas that had been composed many centuries earlier.{{Sfn|Olivelle|1999|p=xxiii}}

The six subjects of Vedanga are phonetics ([[Shiksha|{{IAST|Śikṣā}}]]), poetic meter ([[Sanskrit prosody|{{IAST|Chandas}}]]), grammar ([[Vyakarana|{{IAST|Vyākaraṇa}}]]), etymology and linguistics ([[Nirukta]]), rituals and rites of passage ([[Kalpa (Vedanga)|{{IAST|Kalpa}}]]), time keeping and astronomy ([[Jyotisha|{{IAST|Jyotiṣa}}]]).<ref name=jameslochtefeldvedanga>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vedanga" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, pp. 744–745</ref>{{Sfn|Wilke|Moebus|2011|pp=391–394 with footnotes, 416–419}}{{Sfn|Coward|Raja|Potter|1990|pp=105–110}}

Vedangas developed as ancillary studies for the Vedas, but its insights into meters, structure of sound and language, grammar, linguistic analysis and other subjects influenced post-Vedic studies, arts, culture and various schools of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_yf0a3OFlq3sC |year=1911|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_yf0a3OFlq3sC/page/n179 161]}}</ref>{{Sfn|Wilke|Moebus|2011|pp=472–532}}{{Sfn|Coward|Raja|Potter|1990|p=18}} The Kalpa Vedanga studies, for example, gave rise to the Dharma-sutras, which later expanded into Dharma-shastras.{{Sfn|Olivelle|1999|p=xxiii}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Rajendra Prasad |title=A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1gtxVmUr1ygC |year=2009|publisher=Concept |isbn=978-81-8069-595-7 |page=147 }}</ref>

===Parisista===
{{Main article|Parisista}}
''{{IAST|Pariśiṣṭa}}'' "supplement, appendix" is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the [[Samhita]]s, [[Brahmana]]s, [[Aranyaka]]s and [[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Sutras]]. Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas. However, only the literature associated with the [[Atharvaveda]] is extensive.
* The ''{{IAST|Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa}}'' is a very late text associated with the [[Rigveda]] canon.
* The ''{{IAST|Gobhila Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa}}'' is a short metrical text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respectively.
* The ''{{IAST|Kātiya Pariśiṣṭas}}'', ascribed to [[Katyayana|{{IAST|Kātyāyana}}]], consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (the [[Shakha|{{IAST|Caraṇavyūha}}]]) and the ''{{IAST|Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa}}''.
* The ''{{IAST|Kṛṣṇa}} [[Yajurveda]] has 3 parisistas The ''{{IAST|Āpastamba Hautra Pariśiṣṭa}}'', which is also found as the second ''praśna'' of the ''{{IAST|Satyasāḍha Śrauta Sūtra}}', the ''{{IAST|Vārāha Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa}}''
* For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas.<ref>BR Modak, The Ancillary Literature of the Atharva-Veda, New Delhi, Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, 1993, {{ISBN|81-215-0607-7}}</ref>

===Upaveda===
The term '''upaveda''' ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works.{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1899|p=[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0200/mw__0240.html 207]}}{{sfn|Apte|1965|p=293}} Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources.
The [[Shaunaka|Charanavyuha]] mentions four Upavedas:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803114818711|title=Upaveda |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|access-date=7 December 2014}}</ref>
* [[Archery]] ([[Indian martial arts|Dhanurveda]]), associated with the Yajurveda
* Architecture ([[Sthapatyaveda]]), associated with the RigVeda.
* Music and [[Indian classical dance|sacred dance]] ({{IAST|[[Gandharvaveda|Gāndharvaveda]]}}), associated with the Samaveda
* Medicine ([[Ayurveda|{{IAST|Āyurveda}}]]), associated with the Atharvaveda.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Narayanaswamy |first1=V. |title=Origin and Development of Ayurveda: A Brief History |journal=Ancient Science of Life |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |date=1981|pmc=3336651 |pmid=22556454 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Frawley|first1=David|last2=Ranade|first2=Subhash|title=Ayurveda, Nature's Medicine|date=2001|publisher=Lotus Press|page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aTIVnugZofsC|access-date=6 January 2015|isbn=978-0-914955-95-5}}</ref>

==="Fifth" and other Vedas===
Some post-Vedic texts, including the [[Mahabharata]], the [[Natya Shastra|Natyasastra]]<ref>Paul Kuritz (1988), The Making of Theatre History, Prentice Hall, {{ISBN|978-0-13-547861-5}}, p. 68</ref> and certain [[Puranas]], refer to themselves as the "[[fifth Veda]]".{{sfn|Sullivan|1994|p=385}} The earliest reference to such a "fifth Veda" is found in the [[Chandogya Upanishad]] in hymn 7.1.2.<ref>Sanskrit original: [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_४ Chandogya Upanishad], Wikisource; {{*}}English translation: [https://archive.org/stream/Shankara.Bhashya-Chandogya.Upanishad-Ganganath.Jha.1942.English#page/n383/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 7.1.2], G Jha (Translator), Oriental Book Agency, p. 368</ref>

{{Quote|
Let drama and dance (Nātya, नाट्य) be the fifth vedic scripture. Combined with an epic story, tending to virtue, wealth, joy and spiritual freedom, it must contain the significance of every scripture, and forward every art. Thus, from all the Vedas, [[Brahma]] framed the Nātya Veda. From the Rig Veda he drew forth the words, from the Sama Veda the melody, from the Yajur Veda gesture, and from the Atharva Veda the sentiment.
|First chapter of ''Nātyaśāstra''|Abhinaya Darpana <ref>{{Cite web|title=Natyashastra|publisher = Sanskrit Documents| url=http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_pdf/natya01.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Mirror of Gesture|author=Coormaraswamy and Duggirala|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1917|pages=2–4|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924012568535#page/n5/mode/2up}}</ref>}}

"[[Divya Prabandha]]", for example Tiruvaymoli, is a term for canonical [[Tamil language|Tamil]] texts considered as Vernacular Veda by some South Indian Hindus.<ref name="John Carman 1989 pp. 259–261"/><ref name="Vasudha Narayanan 1994 pp. 43, 117"/>

Other texts such as the [[Bhagavad Gita]] or the [[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta Sutras]] are considered ''shruti'' or "Vedic" by some [[Hindu denominations]] but not universally within Hinduism. The [[Bhakti movement]], and [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] in particular extended the term ''veda'' to include the [[Sanskrit Epics]] and Vaishnavite devotional texts such as the [[Pañcaratra|Pancaratra]].<ref>{{Citation
| first = Satsvarupa
| last = Goswami
| author-link = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami
| title =Readings in Vedic Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself
| publisher =Assoc Publishing Group
| year = 1976
| page = 240
| isbn = 978-0-912776-88-0
| location = S.l.}}</ref>

===Puranas===
{{main article|Puranas}}
The ''Puranas'' is a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian literature about a wide range of topics particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore.<ref name=oliverleaman437>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-17281-3}}, pp. 437–439</ref> Several of these texts are named after major [[Hindu]] deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.<ref name=ludorocher>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02522-5}}, pp. 1–5, 12–21</ref><ref name="Nair 2008 266">{{cite book|last=Nair|first=Shantha N.|title=Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom: The Universal Hindu Vision and Its Edifice|year=2008|publisher=Hindology Books|isbn=978-81-223-1020-7|page=266|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekehXVP3W8wC&pg=PA266}}</ref> There are 18 ''Maha Puranas'' (Great Puranas) and 18 ''Upa Puranas'' (Minor Puranas), with over 400,000 verses.<ref name=oliverleaman437/>

The Puranas have been influential in the [[Hindu]] culture.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-447-02522-5}}, pp. 12–13, 134–156, 203–210</ref><ref name=gregbailey442>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-17281-3}}, pp. 442–443</ref> They are considered ''Vaidika'' (congruent with Vedic literature).<ref>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-20778-3}}, p. xxxix</ref> The [[Bhagavata Purana]] has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of [[nondualism|non-dualistic]] tenor.<ref name=richardthompson>{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Richard L.|title=The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TZmDSr-1msC&pg=PA10|year=2007|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-81-208-1919-1|page=10}}</ref><ref>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-0-520-20778-3}}, p. xli</ref> The Puranic literature wove with the [[Bhakti movement]] in India, and both [[Dvaita]] and [[Advaita]] scholars have commented on the underlying Vedanta themes in the ''Maha Puranas''.<ref>BN Krishnamurti Sharma (2008), A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1575-9}}, pp. 128–131</ref>

==Authority of the Vedas==
The various [[Hindu denominations]] and [[Indian philosophy|Indian philosophies]] have taken differing positions on the authority of the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which acknowledge the authority of the Vedas are classified as "orthodox" ([[Āstika and nāstika|āstika]]).{{refn|group=note|Elisa Freschi (2012): "The Vedas are not [[Deontological ethics|deontic]] authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as a deontological [[epistemology|epistemic]] authority by a Hindu orthodox school."{{sfn|Freschi|2012|p=62}} This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.}} Other [[śramaṇa]] traditions, such as [[Lokayata]], [[Carvaka]], [[Ajivika]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], which did not regard the Vedas as authorities, are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" ([[Āstika and nāstika|nāstika]]) schools.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=82}}<ref name="EB_astika"/>

Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu,"{{sfn|Lipner|2012|p=16}}{{refn|group=note|Lipner quotes Brockington (1981), ''The sacred tread'', p.5.}} and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."<ref>Axel Michaels (2004), Hinduism: ''Past and Present'', Princeton University Press, p.18; see also Julius Lipner (2012), ''Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', Routledge, p.77; and Brian K. Smith (2008), ''Hinduism'', p.101, in Jacob Neusner (ed.), Sacred Texts and Authority, Wipf and Stock Publishers.</ref> Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.{{sfn|Lipner|2012|pp=15–17}}

Hindu reform movement such as [[Arya Samaj]] and [[Brahmo Samaj]] accepted the authority of Vedas,<ref>{{cite book|title=Travellers in Faith: Studies of the Tablīghī Jamāʻat as a Transnational Islamic Movement for Faith Renewal|author=Muhammad Khalid Masud|page=50|publisher=BRILL|year=2000|isbn=978-90-04-11622-1}}</ref> while the authority of the Vedas has been rejected by [[Neo-Vedanta|Hindu modernists]] like [[Debendranath Tagore]] and [[Keshub Chandra Sen]];{{sfn|Rambachan|1994|p=272}} and also by social reformers like [[B. R. Ambedkar]].{{sfn|Nagappa|2011|p=283 ("It is said that the Varna system [...] Sanatan Hindu")}}

==Western Indology==
{{further|Sanskrit studies}}
The study of Sanskrit in the West began in the 17th century. In the early 19th century, [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] drew attention to Vedic texts, specifically the Upanishads.
The importance of Vedic Sanskrit for [[Indo-European studies]] was also recognized in the early 19th century.
English translations of the Samhitas were published in the later 19th century, in the ''[[Sacred Books of the East]]'' series edited by [[Max Müller|Müller]] between 1879 and 1910.<ref>Müller, Friedrich Max (author) & Stone, Jon R. (author, editor) (2002). ''The essential Max Müller: on language, mythology, and religion''. Illustrated edition. Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|978-0-312-29309-3}}. Source: [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q96EsUCVlLsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Max+M%C3%BCller&ei=SRjkS6LcI4TulQSj6InGCQ&cd=3#v=onepage&q&f=false] (accessed: Friday May 7, 2010), p. 44</ref>
[[Ralph T. H. Griffith]] also presented English translations of the four Samhitas, published 1889 to 1899.

Rigveda manuscripts were selected for inscription in [[UNESCO]]'s [[Memory of the World Programme|Memory of the World]] [[Memory of the World Register – Asia and the Pacific|Register]] in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hinduism.about.com/od/scripturesepics/a/rigveda.htm|title=Rig Veda in UNESCO Memory of the World Register}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Hindu philosophy]]
* [[Historical Vedic religion]]
* [[Pyramid Texts]]
* [[Shakha]]
* [[Vedic chant]]
* [[Brahminism]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|refs=
{{refn|group=note|name="dating"|It is certain that the hymns of the Rig Veda post-date [[Proto-Indo-Iranian|Indo-Iranian]] separation of ca. 2000 BC and probably that of the relevant Mitanni documents of {{circa}} 1400 BC. The oldest available text is estimated to be from 1200 BC. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium:
* [[Max Müller]]: "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."{{sfn|Müller|1892}}
* The [[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|EIEC]] (s.v. [[Indo-Iranian languages]], p. 306) gives 1500–1000 BC.
* Flood and Witzel both mention {{circa}} 1500–1200 BC.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=37}}{{sfn|Witzel|1995|p=4}}
* Anthony mentions {{circa}} 1500–1300 BC.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}}
* Thomas Oberlies (''Die Religion des Rgveda'', 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BC.{{sfn|Oberlies|1998|p=158}} {{harvnb|Oberlies|1998|p=155}} gives an estimate of 1100 BC for the youngest hymns in book 10.{{sfn|Oberlies|1998|p=155}}
* {{harvnb|Witzel|1995|p=4}} mentions {{circa}} 1500–1200 BC. According to {{harvnb|Witzel|1997|p=263}}, the whole Rig Vedic period may have lasted from c. 1900 BCE to c. 1200 BCE: "the bulk of the RV represents only 5 or 6 generations of kings (and of the contemporary poets)24 of the Pūru and Bharata tribes. It contains little else before and after this “snapshot” view of contemporary Rgvedic history, as reported by these contemporary “tape recordings.” On the other hand, the whole Rgvedic period may have lasted even up to 700 years, from the infiltration of the Indo-Aryans into the subcontinent, c. 1900 B.C. (at the utmost, the time of collapse of the Indus civilization), up to c. 1200 B.C., the time of the introduction of iron which is first mentioned in the clearly post-vedic hymns of the Atharvaveda."}}

{{refn|group=note|name="Freschi_2012"|Elisa Freschi (2012): "The Vedas are not [[Deontological ethics|deontic]] authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as a deontological [[epistemology|epistemic]] authority by a Hindu orthodox school."{{harvnb|Freschi|2012|p=62}} This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions.}}
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}

* {{Citation | last =Anthony | first =David W. | year =2007 | title =The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World | publisher =Princeton University Press}}
* {{citation |last=Apte |first=Vaman Shivaram |title=The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary |year=1965 | edition=4th revised & enlarged |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |location=Delhi |isbn=978-81-208-0567-5}} [http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~tjun/sktdic/ Search]
* {{citation |last=Avari |first=Burjor |title=India: The Ancient Past|year=2007 |publisher=Routledge|location=London |isbn= 978-0-415-35616-9}}

* {{Citation|last =Banerji | first =Sures Chandra |year=1989|title=A Companion to Sanskrit Literature|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0063-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsdUsC}}
* {{Citation | last =Bartley | first =Christ |year=2001 | chapter =Shankara | editor-last =Leaman | editor-first =Oliver | title =Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy | publisher =Routledge |isbn=978-0-4151-7281-3}}
* {{Citation | last =Bhattacharya | first =Ashim | year =2006 | title =Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology | isbn =978-0-595-38455-6}}
* {{Citation | last =Broo | first =Mans | year =2016 | chapter =Rites of Burial and Immersion: Hindu Ritual practices on Disposing of Sacred Texts in Vrindavan | editor-last =Myrvold | editor-first =Kristina | title =The Death of Sacred Texts: Ritual Disposal and Renovation of Texts in World Religions | publisher =Routledge}}
* {{Citation | editor-last1 =Buswell | editor-first1 = Robert E. | editor-last2 =Lopez, Jr. | editor-first2 =Donald S. | year =2013 | chapter =Nālandā | title =The Princeton dictionary of Buddhism | location =Princeton | publisher =Princeton University Press | isbn =978-1-4008-4805-8 }}

* {{Citation | last =Collins | first =Randall | year =2009 | title =The Sociology of Philosophies | publisher =Harvard University Press}}
* {{cite book| editor-last1=Coward | editor-first1=Harold G. | editor-last2=Raja | editor-first2=K. Kunjunni | editor-last3=Potter | editor-first3=Karl | year=1990| title=Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 5: The Philosophy of the Grammarians | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=978-81-208-0426-5| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC}}
* {{cite book | last =Coward | first =Harold | year =2008 | title =The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought | isbn =978-0-7914-7336-8 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C | author-link=Harold Coward}}

* {{Citation | last =Dalal | first =Roshen | year =2014 | title =The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts | publisher=Penguin UK | isbn =978-81-8475-763-7 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=UCEoAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Citation | last =Deshpande | first =Madhav M. | year =1990 | title =Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds | journal =The Adyar Library Bulleting | url =https://www.scribd.com/document/378011865/Madhav-Deshpande-Changing-Conceptions-of-the-Veda-From-Speech-Acts-to-Magical-Sounds}}
* {{Citation | last =Doniger |first =Wendy | year =2010 | title =The Hindus: An Alternative History | publisher =Oxford University Press}}
* {{Citation|last =Dutt | first =Sagarika | year =2006 |title=India in a Globalized World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I4zaCQAAQBAJ |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-1-84779-607-3}}
* {{Citation|last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|year=2013|title=What Do Hindus Believe?|publisher=Granta Books|isbn=978-1-84708-940-3}}

* {{Citation | last1=Filliozat | first1=Pierre-Sylvain | year=2004 | chapter=Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature | editor1-last=Chemla | editor1-first=Karine |editor1-link = Karine Chemla | editor2-last=Cohen | editor2-first=Robert S. | editor3-last=Renn | editor3-first=Jürgen |display-editors = 3 | editor4-last=Gavroglu | editor4-first=Kostas | title=History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science) | pages=137–157 | location=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands | doi=10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7 | isbn=978-1-4020-2320-0 }}
* {{citation | last =Flood | first =Gavin | year =1996 | title =An Introduction to Hinduism | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn =978-0-521-43878-0 | author-link =Gavin Flood | url =https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo | url-access =registration}}
* {{citation | editor-last =Flood | editor-first =Gavin | title =The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |year=2003 |publisher=Blackwell|location =Malden, Massachusetts | isbn=978-1-4051-3251-0 }}
* {{Citation | editor-last =Flood | editor-first =Gavin | title =The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |year=2008 | publisher =John Wiley & Sons |location=New York | isbn =978-0-4709-9868-7}}
* {{Citation | editor-last =Frazier | editor-first =Jessica | year =2011 | title =The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies | location =London | publisher =Continuum | isbn =978-0-8264-9966-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz |url-access=limited}}
* {{Citation | last =Freschi | first =Elisa | year =2012 | title =Duty, Language and Exegesis in Prabhakara Mimamsa | publisher =Brill | isbn =978-90-04-22260-1}}

* {{Citation | last =Galewicz | first =Cezary | year =2004 | chapter =Changing Canons: What did Sayana think he commented upon | editor-last1 =Balcerowicz | editor-first1 =Piotr | editor-last2 =Mejor | editor-first2 =Marek | title =Essays in Indian Philosophy, Religion and Literature | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers}}
* {{Citation | last =Galewicz | first =Cezary | year =2011 | chapter =Why Should the Flower of Dharma be Invisible? Sayana's Vision of the Unity of the Veda | editor-last =Squarcini | editor-first =Federico | title =Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia | publisher =Anthem Press}}
* {{Citation | last =Gomes | first =Gabriel J. |year=2012 | title =Discovering World Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NpnZgzMKiS8C |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-1-4697-1037-2}}
* {{Citation | last =Goody | year =1987 | title =The interface between the written and the oral | publisher =Cambridge University Press}}
* {{Citation | last= Griffiths | first =Paul J. | year =1999 | title =Religious Reading: The Place of Reading in the Practice of Religion | publisher =Oxford University Press}}

* {{Citation | last =Hexam | first =Irving | year =2011| title =Understanding World Religions: An Interdisciplinary Approach | publisher =Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press | isbn =978-0-310-31448-6}}
* {{Citation | last =Holdrege | first =Barbara A. | year =1995 | title =Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture | publisher= SUNY Press | isbn =978-0-7914-1640-2}}
* {{Citation | last =Holdrege | first =Barbara A. | year =1996 | title =Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture | publisher= SUNY Press | isbn =978-0-7914-1639-6}}
* {{Citation | last =Holdrege | first =Barbara A. | year =2012 | title =Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture | publisher =SUNY Press | isbn =978 1 4384 0695 4}}
* {{Citation | last =Holdrege | first =Barbara A. | year =2012b | chapter =Veda and Torah: The Word Embodied in scripture | editor-last =Goodman | editor-first =Hananya | title =Between Jerusalem and Benares : comparative studies in Judaism and Hinduism | publisher =SUNY Press | isbn =978-1-4384-0437-0}}

* {{Citation | last =Jackson | first =W.J | year =2016 | title =Vijayanagara Voices: Exploring South Indian History and Hindu Literature | publisher =Routledge}}
* {{Citation| last =Kumar | first =Jay | year=2014| chapter =Ayurveda and Early Indian Medicine | editor-last1 =Johnston | editor-first1 =Lucas F. | editor-last2 =Bauman | editor-first2 =Whitney |title=Science and Religion: One Planet, Many Possibilities|publisher=Routledge}}

* {{Citation | last =Klostermaier | first =Klaus | year =1994 | title =A Survey of Hinduism | edition =second | publisher =State University of New York Press | isbn =978-0-7914-2109-3}}
* {{Citation | last =Klostermaier | first =Klaus | year =2007 | title =A Survey of Hinduism | edition =third | publisher =State University of New York Press | isbn =978-0-7914-7082-4}}
* {{Citation | last =Knapp | first =Stephen | year =2005 | title =The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination | isbn =978-0-595-35075-9}}

* {{Citation | last =Lipner | first =Julius | year =2012 | title =Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices | publisher =Routledge | isbn =978-1-135-24060-8 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=oH1FIareczEC}}
* {{Citation | last =Lopez Jr. | first =Donald S. | year =2016 | title =Elaborations on Emptiness: Uses of the Heart Sūtra | publisher =Princeton University Press}}

* {{citation |last=MacDonell |first=Arthur Anthony |author-link=Arthur Anthony Macdonell |title=A History of Sanskrit Literature |year=1900 |publisher=D. Appleton and Co |location=New York |oclc=713426994 |title-link=s:A History of Sanskrit Literature }} ([http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009657393 full text online])
* {{cite book |last=MacDonell |first=Arthur Anthony |year=2004 |title=A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2000-5}}
* {{Citation|title=History of Philosophy, Eastern and Western|first=T.M.P|last=Mahadevan|editor1=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan|editor2=Ardeshir Ruttonji Wadia|editor3=Dhirendra Mohan Datta|year=1952|publisher=George Allen & Unwin |oclc=929704391}}
* {{Citation | last =Michaels | first =Axel | year=2004 | title =Hinduism: Past and Present | publisher =Princeton University Press | isbn =978-0-691-08953-9}}
* {{cite book | last =Michaels | first =Axel | year =2016| title =Homo Ritualis: Hindu Ritual and Its Significance for Ritual Theory | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0-19-026263-1| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=DSaxCgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Citation | last =Misra | first =Kamal K. | year =2000 | title =Textbook of Anthropological Linguistics | publisher =Concept Publishing Company}}
* {{Citation | editor-last=Monier-Williams | editor-first=Monier | editor-link=Monier Monier-Williams | title=Dictionary, English and Sanskrit |location=Springfield, VA |publisher= Nataraj Books |edition=reprint |url=http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWEScan/2013/web/index.php |oclc=1020546789 |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-881338-58-1 | orig-year=originally published in London by W.H. Allen and Co. in 1851}}
* {{MWSD}} 
* {{Citation | last =Mookerji | first =R. | year =2011 | orig-year =1947 | title =Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers | isbn =978-81-208-0423-4 | author-link =Radha Kumud Mukherjee}}
* {{cite book |last=Muir |first=John | author-link=John Muir (indologist)|title=Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the Religion and Institutions of India, their religion and institutions, Part 3 |year=1858 |publisher= Williams and Norgate |url=https://archive.org/details/originalsanskri04muirgoog }}
* {{Citation | last =Müller | first =Max | year =1891| title=Chips from a German Workshop | publisher =C. Scribner's sons | location =New York | url =https://archive.org/details/chipsfromagerma01bunsgoog | author-link =Max Müller}}
* {{Citation |last =Müller | first =Max | year =1892 | title =('Veda and Vedanta'), 7th lecture in ''India: What Can It Teach Us: A Course of Lectures Delivered Before the University of Cambridge'' | url= https://archive.org/details/indiawhatcanitte00mluoft | author-link= Max Müller }}

* {{Citation | last =Nagappa | first =Gowda K. | year =2011 | title =The Bhagavadgita in the Nationalist Discourse | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0-19-908847-8 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=4PQtDwAAQBAJ&q=authority+vedas+ambedkar&pg=PT283}}
* {{Citation | last =Nakamura | first =Hajime | year =1983 | title =A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, part 2 | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publ.}}

* {{Citation | last =Oberlies | first =Thomas | year =1998 | title =Die Religion des Rgveda: Kompositionsanalyse der Soma-Hymnen des R̥gveda | location =Wien | publisher =Institut für Indologie der Universität Wien}}
* {{Citation | last =Olivelle | first =Patrick |year =1998 | orig-year =1996 | title =Upanișads. A New Translation by Patrick Olivelle | publisher =Oxford's World Classics | isbn =978-0-19-954025-9}}
* {{cite book| last =Olivelle | first =Patrick |title=Dharmasutras: The Law Codes of Ancient India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gnVxqvPg9a0C|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-283882-7 }}
* {{Citation | last1 =Olson | first1 =David R. | last2 =Cole | first2 =Michael | year =2013 | title =Technology, Literacy, and the Evolution of Society: Implications of the Work of Jack Goody | publisher =Psychology Press}}

* {{Citation | last =Pollock | first =Sheldon | year =2011 | title =Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia | editor-last =Squarcini | editor-first =Federico | publisher =Anthem | isbn =978-0-85728-430-3}}
* {{Citation | last =Prasad | first =Leela | year =2007 | title =Poetics of conduct : oral narrative and moral being in a South Indian town | location =New York | publisher =Columbia University Press | isbn =978-0-231-13921-2}}
* {{ Citation | last =Prasad | first = R.U.S. | year =2020 | title =The Rig-Vedic and Post-Rig-Vedic Polity (1500 BCE-500 BCE) | publisher =Vernon Press}}
* {{Citation | last =Pruthi | first =R.K | year =2004 | title =Vedic Civilisation | publisher =Discovery Publishing | isbn =81-7141-875-9}}

* {{Citation | editor-last=Radhakrishnan | editor-first=Sarvepalli | editor-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan | editor2-last=Moore | editor2-first=Charles A. | title=A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy | year=1957 | edition=12th Princeton Paperback | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=978-0-691-01958-1 | url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh }}
* {{Citation | last =Rambachan | first =Anantanand | year =1994 | chapter =Redefining the authority of scripture: The rejection of Vedic infallibility by Brahmo Samaj | editor-last =Patton | editor-first =Laurie L. | title =Authority, Anxiety, and Canon: Essays in Vedic Interpretation | publisher =SUNY Press | isbn =978-0-7914-1938-0 | chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=aZjp0kIK5fsC&q=authority+vedas+rejection&pg=PA272 }}
* {{Citation | last =Rath | first =Saraju|year=2012|title=Aspects of Manuscript Culture in South India|publisher=Leiden: Brill|isbn=978-90-04-21900-7}}

* {{Citation | last =Scharfe | first =Hartmut | year =2002 | title =Handbook of Oriental Studies | publisher =Brill Academic | isbn =978-90-04-12556-8}}
* {{Citation | last =Schiffman | first =Harold | year =2012 | title =Linguistic Culture and Language Policy | publisher =Routledge}}
* {{Citation | last =Sharma | first =D. | year =2011 | title =Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader | publisher =Columbia University Press}}
* {{Citation | last =Singh | first =Upinder | year =2008 | title =A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century | publisher =Pearson Education India}}
* {{Citation | last1=Staal | first1=Frits | author-link=Frits Staal | year=1986 | title=The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science | publisher=Mededelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Academie voor Wetenschappen, North Holland Publishing Company }}
* {{citation |last1=Smith|first1=Brian K. |title=Canonical Authority and Social Classification: Veda and 'Varṇa' in Ancient Indian Texts |issue=2 |journal=History of Religions |volume=32 |date=1992 |pages=103–125|jstor=1062753 |doi=10.1086/463320 |s2cid=162276531 }}
* {{Citation |last=Sullivan |first= B. M.|date=Summer 1994 |title=The Religious Authority of the Mahabharata: Vyasa and Brahma in the Hindu Scriptural Tradition |journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Religion]] |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=377–401 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/LXII.2.377 }}

* {{Citation | last =Todd | first =Warren Lee | year =2013 | title =The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World | isbn =978-1-4094-6681-9}}

* {{Citation | last =Westerhoff | first =Jan | year =2009 | title =Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0-19-538496-3}}
* {{Citation | last1 =Wilke | first1 =Annette | last2 =Moebus | first2 =Oliver | year =2011| title =Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism | publisher =Walter de Gruyter |isbn =978-3-11-018159-3 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMe67IGPkC}}
* {{Citation|last=Witzel |first=Michael |year=1995 |title=Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state |journal=EJVS |volume=1 |issue=4 |url=http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220153727/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2012 }}
* {{citation | last =Witzel | first =Michael | year =1997| chapter =The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools: The Social and Political Milieu | editor-last =Witzel | editor-first =Michael | title =Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts: New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas | series =Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora; vol. 2| publisher =Harvard University Press | location =Cambridge | author-link =Michael Witzel| chapter-url =https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf}}
* {{Citation | last=Witzel | first=Michael |year=2001 | title=Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts | journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=1–115 | url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf}}
* {{harvc | last =Witzel | first =Michael | year =2003| c =Vedas and {{IAST|Upaniṣads}} | in =Flood }}
* {{harvc | last =Witzel | first =Michael | year =2008| c =Vedas and {{IAST|Upaniṣads}} | in =Flood }}
* {{Citation | last =Wood | first =Michael | year =2007 | title =The Story of India Hardcover | publisher =BBC Worldwide | isbn =978-0-563-53915-5}}

* {{citation |last=Zaehner |first=R. C. |author-link=Robert Charles Zaehner |title=Hindu Scriptures|year=1966 |publisher= J. M. Dent|series=Everyman's Library|location=London }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
;Overviews
* J. Gonda, ''Vedic Literature: {{IAST|Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas}}'', A History of Indian literature. Vol. 1, Veda and Upanishads, Wiesnaden: Harrassowitz (1975), {{ISBN|978-3-447-01603-2}}.
* J.A. Santucci, ''An Outline of Vedic Literature'', Scholars Press for the American Academy of Religion, (1976).
* S. Shrava, ''A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature – Brahmana and Aranyaka Works'', Pranava Prakashan (1977).

;Concordances
* M. Bloomfield, ''A Vedic Concordance'' (1907)
* Vishva Bandhu, Bhim Dev, S. Bhaskaran Nair (eds.), ''{{IAST|Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa}}: A Vedic Word-Concordance'', Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute, Hoshiarpur, 1963–1965, revised edition 1973–1976.

;Conference proceedings
* Griffiths, Arlo and Houben, Jan E.M. (eds.), ''The Vedas : texts, language & ritual: proceedings of the Third International Vedic Workshop, Leiden 2002'', Groningen Oriental Studies 20, Groningen : Forsten, (2004), {{ISBN|90-6980-149-3}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Vedas}}
{{Wiktionary|Veda|Vedic}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Prone to spam|date=July 2013}}
{{Z148}}

* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/592303 Sketch of the Historical Grammar of the Rig and Atharva Vedas], Edward Vernon Arnold, Journal of the American Oriental Society
* [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/Veda.in.Nepal.pdf On the History and the Present State of Vedic Tradition in Nepal], Michael Witzel
* [http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil.htm#Veda GRETIL etexts]
* [https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/n7/mode/2up A Vedic Concordance], Maurice Bloomfield, Harvard University (an alphabetic index to every line, every stanza of the Vedas published before 1906)
* [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/VedicConcordance/ReadmeEng.html An Enlarged Electronic Version of Bloomfield's A Vedic Concordance], Harvard University
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm#vedas The Vedas at sacred-texts.com]

{{Hindudharma}}
{{Poetry of different cultures and languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Vedas| ]]
[[Category:Hindu texts]]
[[Category:Sources of ancient Iranian religion]]
[[Category:Sanskrit texts]]

Dhrupad

2021-06-26T08:51:26Z

Suryabeej: Created page with "{{Short description|Ancient genre of classical Indian music}} {{About|a form of Indian classical music|the mythical character|Drupada}} '''Dhrupad''' (ध्रुपद) is a..."

{{Short description|Ancient genre of classical Indian music}}
{{About|a form of Indian classical music|the mythical character|Drupada}}
'''Dhrupad''' (ध्रुपद) is a genre in [[Hindustani classical music]] from the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It is the oldest style of major vocal styles associated with Hindustani classical music, [[Haveli Sangeet]] and also related to the South Indian [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] tradition.<ref>{{cite book|author=T.M. Krishna|title=A Southern Music: Exploring the Karnatik Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WqvRBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT151 |year=2013|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|isbn=978-93-5029-822-0|page=151}}</ref><ref name="FletcherPicken2004">{{cite book|author1=Peter Fletcher|author2=Laurence Picken|title=World Musics in Context: A Comprehensive Survey of the World's Major Musical Cultures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i2vDlcIyVjUC&pg=PA258 |year=2004| publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517507-3|page=258}}</ref> It is a term of Sanskrit origin, derived from ''dhruva'' (ध्रुव, immovable, permanent) and ''pada'' (पद, verse). The roots of Dhrupad are ancient. It is discussed in the Hindu Sanskrit text ''[[Natyashastra]]'' (~200 BCE – 200 CE),{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=81-82}}<ref name="Beck2012p241">{{cite book|author=Guy L. Beck|title=Sonic Liturgy: Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UzUMCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT241| year=2012|publisher =University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-61117-108-2|pages=241–242}}</ref> and other ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts, such as chapter 33 of Book 10 in the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' (~800–1000 CE), where the theories of music and devotional songs for Krishna are summarized.<ref name="Beck2012p241"/>
{{Hindu scriptures}}
The term denotes both the verse form of the poetry and the style in which it is sung.<ref>[http://spicmacay.com/articles/dhrupad Dhrupad] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418022922/http://spicmacay.com/articles/dhrupad |date=2010-04-18 }} [[SPIC MACAY]]</ref> It is spiritual, heroic, thoughtful, virtuous, embedding moral wisdom or solemn form of song-music combination.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=33-34}}{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80-81}} Thematic matter ranges from the religious and spiritual (mostly in praise of [[Hindu deities]]) to royal [[panegyric]]s, musicology and romance.

A Dhrupad has at least four stanzas, called [[Sthayi]] (or Asthayi), [[Antara (music)|Antara]], Sanchari and Abhoga. The Sthayi part is a melody that uses the middle octave's first [[Tetrachord#Indian-specific tetrachord system|tetrachord]] and the lower octave notes.{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80-81}} The Antara part uses the middle octave's second tetrachord and the higher octave notes.{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80-81}} The Samcari part is the development phase, which holistically builds using parts of Sthayi and Antara already played, and it uses melodic material built with all the three octave notes.{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80-81}} The Abhoga is the concluding section, that brings the listener back to the familiar starting point of Sthayi, albeit with rhythmic variations, with diminished notes like a gentle goodbye, that are ideally mathematical fractions such as {{transl|hi|dagun}} (half), {{transl|hi|tigun}} (third) or {{transl|hi|caugun}} (fourth).{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80-82}} Sometimes a fifth stanza called Bhoga is included. Though usually related to philosophical or [[Bhakti]] (emotional devotion to a god or goddess) themes, some Dhrupads were composed to praise kings.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=33-34}}{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80-82}}

The tradition is derived since 14th Century from the saints of [[Braj]] ([[Mathura]]) namely [[Swami Haridas]], [[Surdas]], [[Govind Swami]], [[Asht Sakha]] and followed by [[Tansen]] and [[Baiju Bawara]].

==History==
Dhrupad traces its origin to the ancient text of [[Samaveda]]. The [[Samaveda]] was chanted with the help of melody and rhythm called Samgana. Gradually this developed into other vocal style called ‘Chhanda’ and ‘Prabandha’ with introduction of verse and meter. The fusion of these two elements led to the emergence of Dhrupad. <ref>{{cite web |url= http://dhrupad.org/about/|title= About Dhrupad|author= Umakant Gundecha}}</ref>

Dhrupad probably derives from ''dhruvapada'' mentioned in ''Natyashastra'' to denote structured songs.<ref>{{harvcol|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=81–82}}</ref> It is one of the core forms of classical music found all over the Indian subcontinent. The word comes from ''Dhruva'' which means immovable and permanent. It is spiritual, heroic, thoughtful, virtuous, embedding moral wisdom or solemn form of song-music combination.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|pp=33-34}}{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80-81}} The ''Yugala Shataka'' of Shri Shribhatta in the ''[[Nimbarka Sampradaya]]'', written in 1294 CE, contains Dhrupad lyrics.

The earliest source that mentions a musical genre called ''Dhrupad'' is [[Ain-i-Akbari]] of [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abu Fazl]] (1593).<ref>{{harv|Sanyal|2004|p=45}}</ref> Later works attribute much of the material to musicians in the court of [[Man Singh Tomar]] (fl. 1486-1516) of Gwalior.<ref>{{harv|Sanyal|2004|pp=45–46}}</ref> In these accounts from the Mughal court Dhrupad is portrayed as a musical form which is relatively new; and according to Sanyal, most sources agree that Drupad owes its origin to the court of Man Singh Tomar.<ref>{{harv|Sanyal|2004|p=47}}</ref> [[Ravi Shankar]]<ref>Ravi Shankar, ''Raga Mala'', Welcome Rain Pub., 1999, p.319</ref> states that the form appeared in the fifteenth century as a development from the ''prabandha'', which it replaced. The 16th century Bhakti saint and poet-musician [[Swami Haridas]] (also in the ''Nimbarka Sampradaya''), was a well known dhrupad singer with songs dedicated to [[Krishna]]. It became the court music in the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] court with Swami Haridas' pupil [[Tansen]] famous, among other things, for his Dhrupad compositions.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bonnie C. Wade|title=Imaging Sound: An Ethnomusicological Study of Music, Art, and Culture in Mughal India|url=https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn00wade|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-86841-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/imagingsoundethn00wade/page/114 114]-117}}</ref> Noted Kathak and Odissi exponent Parwati Dutta is known for her innovative and research-based Kathak compositions on the Dhrupad tradition which is being performed by her since 1990s.<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HBa7UtmaqgQ</ref> She has deeply studied<ref>http://delhiculturecomment.blogspot.com/2016/04/padhant-as-puja-sarngadeva-samaroh.html</ref> the Dhrupad tradition, its history, philosophical symbolism, aesthetics, literary foundation and the exploration with taal and adapted the Alap-Jod-Jhala-Bandish dimensions in Kathak performances<ref>https://www.thestatesman.com/supplements/philosophy-of-music-128861.html</ref> in solo and choreographic works as well as teaching.<ref>http://kathak.space/workshop%5CSpACE-WorkShop-Web.pdf</ref>

Dhrupad is ancient, and another genre of music called Khyal evolved from it.{{Sfn|Te Nijenhuis|1974|pp=80-81}} Dhrupad is solemn music, uplifting and heroic, pure and spiritual. Khyal adds ornamental notes, shorter, moody and celebratory.{{Sfn|Caudhurī|2000|p=152}}

The ancient practice of dancing on Dhrupad has been reintroduced into recent times by Dr. [[Puru Dadheech]]. Dr Dadheech is India's [[Kathak]] dancer to bring'Dhrupad' on the formal Kathak stage and this composition in 28 matra.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190711061813/http://www.afternoondc.in/culture/sunil-performs-the-naayak-in-kathak/article_235028]</ref>

==Nature and practice==
{{more citations needed section|date=December 2016}}
Dhrupad as we know it today is performed by a solo singer or a small number of singers in unison to the beat of the ''[[pakhavaj]]'' or ''[[mridang]]'' rather than the [[tabla]]. The vocalist is usually accompanied by two [[tanpura]]s, the players sitting close behind, with the percussionist at the right of the vocalist. Traditionally the primary instrument used for dhrupad has been the [[Rudra Veena]], but the [[surbahar]] and the [[sursringar]] have also long been used for this music. Preferably, any instrument used for dhrupad should have a deep bass register and long sustain.

Like all [[Indian classical music]], dhrupad is [[Musical mode|modal]] and [[Monophony|monophonic]], with a single melodic line and no [[chord progression]]. Each [[raga]] has a [[modal frame]] - a wealth of micro-tonal ornamentations (''[[gamak]]'') are typical.

The text is preceded by a wholly improvised section, the ''[[alap]]''. The alap in dhrupad is sung using a set of [[syllable]]s, popularly thought to be derived from a [[mantra]], in a recurrent, set pattern: ''a re ne na, té te re ne na, ri re re ne na, te ne toom ne'' (this last group is used in the end of a long phrase). Dhrupad styles have long elaborate ''[[alap]]s'', their slow and deliberate melodic development gradually bringing an accelerating rhythmic pulse. In most styles of dhrupad singing it can easily last an hour, broadly subdivided into the ''alap'' proper (unmetered), the ''jor'' (with steady rhythm) and the ''jhala'' (accelerating strumming) or ''nomtom'', when syllables are sung at a very rapid pace. Then the composition is sung to the rhythmic accompaniment: the four lines, in serial order, are termed ''sthayi'', ''antara'', ''sanchari'' and ''aabhog''.

Compositions exist in the metres (''[[Tala (music)|tala]]'') {{transl|hi|tivra}} (7 beats), ''sul'' (10 beats) and ''chau'' (12 beats) - a composition set to the 10-beat ''jhap'' tala is called a [[sadra (music)|sadra]] while one set to the 14-beat ''dhamar'' is called a ''[[Dhamar (music)|dhamar]]''. The latter is seen as a lighter musical form, associated with the [[Holi]] spring festival.

Alongside concert performance the practice of singing dhrupad in temples continues, though only a small number of recordings have been made. It bears little resemblance to concert dhrupad: there is very little or no alap; percussion such as bells and finger cymbals, not used in the classical setting, are used here, and the drum used is a smaller, older variant called ''mrdang'', quite similar to the mridangam.

==Family and style==
{{more citations needed section|date=December 2016}}
There are said to be four broad stylistic variants (''vanis'' or ''banis'') of classical dhrupad – the Gauri (Gauhar), Khandar, Nauhar, and Dagar, tentatively linked to five singing styles ({{transl|hi|geetis}}) known from the 7th Century: Shuddha, Bhinna, Gauri, Vegswara, and Sadharani. There are a number of dhrupad ''[[Gharana]]s'': "houses", or family styles. The best-known gharana is the Dagar family <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhrupad.info/dagar_brothers.htm|title= The Dagar family |website=The Dagar Brothers and the Dagar family|access-date=23 April 2015}}</ref> who sing in the [[Dagar vani]] or Dagar Gharana. The Dagar style puts great emphasis on alap and for several generations their singers have performed in pairs (often pairs of brothers). The Dagars are Muslims but sing Hindu texts of Gods and Goddesses. Some of the best dhrupad singers outside the Dagar family, such as [[Uday Bhawalkar]], [[Ritwik Sanyal]], [[Nirmalya Dey]] and the [[Gundecha Brothers]], also belong to the Dagar vani, as does instrumentalist Pushparaj Koshti, who plays the surbahar. The [[Bishnupur gharana]] features [[Manilal Nag]], [[Mita Nag]], and [[Madhuvanti Pal]], among others.

From the state of [[Bihar]] come the Darbhanga gharana, Dumraon Gharana (Buxar) and the [[Bettiah]] gharana. The Mallicks of the Darbhanga gharana are linked to the Khandar vani and Gauharvani. [[Ram Chatur Mallick]] (1902 - 1990), Vidur Mallick (1936 - 2002), Abhay Narayan Mallick (b. 1937), Laxman Bhatt Tailang (b.1928) and [[Siyaram Tiwari (musician)|Siyaram Tiwari]] (1919 - 1998) were well known exponents of Darbhanga gharana in the last century. Dhrupad of the Darbhanga gharana has a strong representation in [[Vrindaban]] owing to late Pandit Vidur Mallik, who lived and taught in Vrindaban during the 1980s and 1990s. Great female Dhrupad artists include [[Asgari Bai]] (1918 - 2006), [[Alaka Lahiri]], Ashok Nandy (b.1946), Madhu Bhatt Tailang, the Pakistani singer Alisha Rasheed (b. 1978) and the Italian singer Amelia Cuni (b.1958).<ref>[[Selina Sharma|Thielemann, Selina]]; [https://www.bookdepository.com/Dharbanga-Tradition-Selina-Thielemann/9788186569016 ''The Darbhanga Tradition. Dhrupad in the school of Pandit Vidur Mallik''], Varanasi: Indica Books, 1997</ref>

Dumraon Gharana - Dhrupad traditions of Bihar Dumraon gharana is an ancient tradition of dhrupad music nearly 500 years old. This gharana flourished under the patronage of the kings of [[Dumraon Raj]] when it was founded. T'he Drupad style (vani''s)'' of this gharana is ''Gauhar'', ''Khandar'', and ''Nauharvani''. The founder of this gharana was Pt. Manikchand Dubey and Pt. Anup chand Dubey. Both artists were awarded by Mugal Emperor Shahjahan. The father of Bharat Ratna Ustad Bismillah Khan who also belonged to the Dumraon Gharana tradition. He usually played Shahnai in Dhrupad style. Famous living singers of Dumraon Gharana (Buxar) include Pt. Ramjee Mishra, a representative of Dumraon Gharana.

Many books have been written by this gharana, like Shree Krishn Ramayan, by Pt. Ghana rang Dubey, Surprakash, Bhairav, Prakash, Rashprakash, written by Jay Prakash Dubey and Prakash Kavi. Abishek Sangit Pallav by Dr. Arvind Kumar.

Much work has been done on this gharana and many items of this Dumraon Gharana is subject of research. Bhaiarav Prakash written by Jay Prakash Dubey Urf Bnachu Ji Dubey in 1875. Abhisekh Sangit Pallav, written by Dr. Arvind Kumar, and written in Varnika hindi syllabus for Bihar ki sangit Sadhna for class -9th.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dumraon Gharana Pt Ramjee Mishra {{!}}{{!}} Dhrupad Rag Bageshri|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pcd5ffOCKcQ|date=May 30, 2018|website=YouTube|access-date=2020-05-12}}</ref>

The Mishras practised Gaurhar, Dagur, Nauhar and Khandar styles. This gharana flourished under the patronage of the kings of [[Bettiah Raj]]. Pandit [[Falguni Mitra]] is an exponent of this [[Gharana]] in the present generation.

==Seminars==
[[ITC Sangeet Research Academy]]'s Scientific Research Department, in their effort to link tradition to scientific methodologies, has been organizing symposia and workshops from 1987. The objective of these workshops/symposia is to create awareness of research in various fields of music.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itcsra.org/Seminar-and-Workshops |title=ITC Sangeet Research Academy |access-date=2020-05-13}}</ref> In 2013 they have conducted Dhrupad Seminar in association with [[National Centre for the Performing Arts (India)]] (NCPA, Mumbai) where Dr. Puru Dadheech participated as speaker to discuss the origin and predecessors of Dhrupad.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itcsra.org/pdf/sra2013programme_1.pdf |title=January 19 & 20, 2013 – NCPA Mumbai |access-date=2020-05-13}}</ref> Prof. Richard Widdess (Head, Department of Music, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, UK) and Dr. Puru Dadheech, (Indore, India) discussed the origin of Dhrupad at length. Dr. Puru Dadheech established that Dhrupads are older than the times of Raja Mansingh Tomar.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sruti.com/index.php?route=archives/article_details&artId=29 |title=Winds of change |access-date=2020-05-13}}</ref>

==Dhrupadāngi Kathak==
The ancient form of Kathak was presented with Dhrupad, but with passage of time, newer forms like khyal, thumri, bhajan, kirtan, etc became more popular musical basis for Kathak. Parwati Dutta is credited for revisiting the Dhrupad genre and its esoteric philosophy and reinstating with the Kathak performance - both solo as well as new choreographic creations.<ref>https://narthaki.com/info/easterneye/ee111.html</ref> She regularly performs Dhrupadangi Kathak compositions<ref>https://www.ncpamumbai.com/event/iti-revisiting-the-eternal-spirit-of-kathak/</ref> created over the past 3 decades based on traditional 'bandishes'<ref>https://www.indiaculture.nic.in/sites/default/files/events/Invitation_Vist%C4%81r_Dance_Festival_27_28_April_22_04_2019.pdf</ref> and new creations on lyrics by medieval poets, sanskrit poets and on contemporary concepts and literature.<ref>http://ignca.gov.in/events/workshop-jati-laya-thala-thumri-and-drupad-in-kathak/</ref>

==Documentaries==
The filmmaker [[Mani Kaul]] while under tutelage of Ustad [[Zia Mohiuddin Dagar]] and Ustad [[Zia Fariduddin Dagar]] made one of the first documentaries on Dhrupad music in 1983 called “Dhrupad.” This [[Hindi]] language full-length documentary features both his [[guru]]s along with the young [[Bahauddin Dagar]] - the son of [[Zia Mohiuddin Dagar]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/veena-is-like-an-elephant-ustad-mohi-bahauddin-dagar/article25202737.ece |title= Veena is like an elephant: Ustad Mohi Bahauddin Dagar|date=12 October 2019|publisher= Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://indianexpress.com/article/express-sunday-eye/striking-a-higher-note-5378138/|title= Striking a Higher Note |date=16 August 2019|publisher= Indian Express}}</ref> The film produced by the [[Films Division of India]] was shot in locations associated with history of Dhrupad in – [[Fatehpur Sikri]] and Jaipur's [[Jantar Mantar]] articulating the theory and the practice of the musical form. Film 'Vaikhari'<ref>https://psbt.org/films/vaikhari/</ref> made by PSBT revolves around the artistic explorations <ref>https://scroll.in/reel/891546/in-the-documentary-vaikhari-a-poetic-exploration-of-musics-language-of-rhythms</ref> by Kathak and Odissi dancer Parwati Dutta weaving the idioms of Alap-Jod-Jhala and Bandish of Dhrupad.<ref>http://artdose.in/vaikhari/</ref>

==University Programmes in Dhrupad==
[http://www.mahagami.com MAHAGAMI GURUKUL] under the [http://www.mgmu.ac.in MGM University] has launched University Degree/[https://mgmu.ac.in/programs/diploma-programs/diploma-in-dhrupad-music/ Diploma]/[https://mgmu.ac.in/certificate-in-dhrupad-music/ Certificate] in Dhrupad Music - Vocal and Instrumental that caters to the academic quest of music aspirants and Dhrupad learners who wish to follow the Gurukul system and also secure a University certification.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|first=Vimalakānta Rôya|last=Caudhurī|title=The Dictionary of Hindustani Classical Music|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhind00roya |url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1708-1}}
* {{citation |last1=Sanyal|first1=Ritwik|author-link1=Ritwik Sanyal |last2=Widdess |first2=Richard|year=2004|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
|title=Dhrupad: Tradition and Performance in Indian Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9kKmx0yna4MC}}
*{{cite book|first=Emmie|last=Te Nijenhuis |author-link=Emmie te Nijenhuis |title=Indian Music: History and Structure |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ |year=1974|publisher= BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-03978-3 }}

{{Hindustani Classical Music page end}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Indian styles of music]]
[[Category:Hindustani music genres]]
[[Category:Hindustani music terminology]]

Thumri

2021-06-26T08:47:35Z

Suryabeej: Created page with "{{Music of India|state=collapsed}} {{Hindustani Classical Music infobox}} '''Thumri''' (Hindi: '''ठुमरी''') is a vocal Music g..."

{{Music of India|state=collapsed}}
{{Hindustani Classical Music infobox}}
'''Thumri''' ([[Hindi]]: '''ठुमरी''') is a vocal [[Music genre|genre]] or style of [[Music of India|Indian music]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/South-Asian-arts|title=South Asian arts – Musical forms and instruments|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=September 1, 2020|quote=The thumri is another North Indian vocal form and is based...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/international/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/thumri|title=Thumri {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|website=www.encyclopedia.com|access-date=September 1, 2020}}</ref> The term "thumri" is derived from the Hindi verb ''thumakna'' (''ठुमकना''), which means "to walk with dancing steps so as to make the ankle-bells tinkle." The form is thus, connected with dance, dramatic gestures, mild eroticism, evocative love poetry and folk songs especially from [[Uttar Pradesh]], though there are regional variations.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hindustani Music|last=Ranade|first=Ashok Da.|publisher=National Book Trust, India|year=1997|isbn=81-237-2199-4|location=India|pages=66}}</ref>

The text is romantic or devotional in nature, the lyrics are usually in [[Uttar Pradesh]] [[dialect]]s of [[Hindi]] called [[Awadhi]] and [[Brij Bhasha]]. Thumri is characterized by its sensuality, and by a greater flexibility with the ''[[raga]]''.

''Thumrī'' is also used as a generic name for some other, even lighter, forms such as [[Dadra]], [[Hori (music)|Hori]], [[Kajari]], [[Sawani|Saavan]], [[Jhoola music|Jhoola]], and [[Chaiti]], even though each of them have their own structure and content—either lyrical or musical or both—and so the exposition of these forms vary. Like Indian classical music itself, some of these forms have their origin in folk literature and music.

==Structure==
As in ''[[Khyal|khayal]]'', ''thumri'' has two parts, the ''sthayi'' and the ''antara.'' It favours ''tala-s'' such as ''Deepchandi'', ''Roopak'', ''Addha,'' and ''Punjabi.'' These ''tala-s'' are characterized by a special lilt, nearly absent in the ''tala-s'' used in ''khayal''. ''Thumri'' compositions are mostly in ''[[raga]]-s'' such as ''Kafi'', ''Khamaj'', ''Jogiya'', ''Bhairavi'', ''Pilu'' and ''Pahadi.'' A common feature of these and other such ''raga-s'' is the free movement they allow the artist, since they do not depend for their identity on rigidly formulated tonal sequences, irrespective of the compositions involved. In fact, one may say that they have a built-in provision for mixing ''raga-s'' or for moving out of the ''raga'' actually presented in order to add colour to the proceedings.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hindustani Music|last=Ranade|first=Ashok Da.|publisher=National Book Trust, India|year=1997|isbn=81-237-2199-4|location=India|pages=67}}</ref>

==Origins==
The exact origins of thumri are not very clear, given that there are no historical references to such a form until the 15th century. The first mention of Thumri goes back to the 19th century, with a link to the classical dance form [[Kathak]]. This was the ''bandish ki thumri'' or ''bol-baant'' and it evolved mostly in [[Lucknow]] in the court of nawab [[Wajid Ali Shah]]. At that time, it was a song sung by [[tawaif]]s or courtesans. According to historical records, a new version of thumri arose in the late 19th century, which was independent of dance, and much more slow-paced. This form was called ''bol-banav'' and it evolved in [[Varanasi]].

==Thumri and khayal==
Unlike the [[Khyal|khayal]], which pays meticulous attention to unfolding a raga, thumri restricts itself to expressing the countless hues of shringar by combining melody and words. The contours of a khayal are most definitely broader and fluid. Thus, a khayal singer is capable of encompassing and expressing a wide range of complex emotions. A thumri singer goes straight to the emotional core of a composition and evokes each yarn of amorous feeling, each strand of sensuous sentiment, with great discretion. Khayal aims at achieving poise and splendour; thumri is quicksilver in tone and ardently romantic in spirit. It needs a delicate heart, and a supple and soulful voice capable of expressing several shadings and colours of tones to bring out its beauty. To draw an analogy from the world of painting, khayal is closer, in form and spirit, to the unrestrained and energetic world of Renaissance masters like Michelangelo, Raphael and Titian – forcefully executed brush strokes are seen on a broad canvas; whereas thumri, with its affinity for finer points and shades of feeling, emotion and mood, is closer to the finely-detailed still-life paintings of the Dutch masters of the 17th century.

==Noted thumri artists==

===Purab ang===
Well-known artists of the 'purab ang' thumri' of the [[Benaras gharana]] or Banaras gayaki include [[Rasoolan Bai]] (1902–1974), [[Siddheshwari Devi]] (1908–1977), [[Girija Devi]] (1929–2017), [[Mahadev Prasad Mishra]] (1906–1995) and [[Chhannulal Mishra]] (b. 1936).

Some other singers of thumri are [[Gauhar Jan]] (1873–1930), [[Begum Akhtar]] (1914–1974), [[Shobha Gurtu]] (1925–2004), [[Noor Jehan]] (1926–2000) and [[Prabha Atre]] (b. 1932). The ''bol banao'' style has a slow tempo and is concluded by a ''laggi'', a faster phase where the [[tabla]] player has some freedom of improvisation.

Another stalwart in the genre of thumri was [[Naina Devi (singer)|Naina Devi]] (1917–1993), who was married to a royal family but later devoted her life to the singing of the song of Tawaifs. For a member of the royal family to take such a step in those days meant fighting countless social stigmas that had enough power to totally alienate someone from the society, but she had the support of her husband.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mazumdar|first=Subhra|url=http://www.timescrest.com/culture/naina-devi-and-the-nautch-girl-3599|title=Naina Devi and the nautch girl|access-date=25 September 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024090733/http://www.timescrest.com/culture/naina-devi-and-the-nautch-girl-3599|archive-date=24 October 2013}}</ref>

===Classical thumri===

Some [[khyal]] singers took an interest in thumrī and sang it their own way, as in the case of [[Abdul Karim Khan]], [[Faiyaz Khan]], [[Bade Ghulam Ali Khan]], [[Bhimsen Joshi]], [[Madhav Gudi]], [[Rajan and Sajan Mishra]], [[Barkat Ali Khan]], [[Jagdish Prasad]] and [[Prabha Atre]].

Today thumrī is sometimes sung at the end of [[khyal]] concerts as a concluding item.
Besides the tabla and the [[tanpura]], other typical instruments in thumri are [[sarangi]], [[harmonium]] and [[swarmandal]].

==Lyrics==

Thumrī singers pay considerable attention to the lyrics, though they may be difficult to follow in the ornamented enunciation. This is especially where the focus is on love, and many lyrics deal with separation or ''viraha''. Krishna's ''ras leela'' or love play with [[Radha]] and other gopis of [[Vrindavan]] appear frequently. As an example, here are the lyrics of a thumrī composed by the medieval poet [[Lalan (poet)|Lalan]], celebrating Krishna's flute – how its tunes are driving Radha mad. [[Braj]] or Vrindavan is where Krishna is indulging in this love play; Radha is the "girl of Braj".

{|style="border:1px; border: thin solid white; background-color:white; margin:10px;" cellpadding="6"
|-
|
:ab naa baajaao shyaam
:ba.nsuriyaa naa baajaao shyaam
:(e rii) vyaakul bhaayii brajabaalaa
:ba.nsuriyaa naa baajaao shyaam
:nit merii galii.n me.n aayo naa
:aayo to chhup ke rahiyo
:ba.nsii kii terii sunaaiyo naa
:ba.nsii jo sunaaiyo to suniye
:phir shyaam hame.n aapnaaiyo naa
:aapnaaiyo to suniye laalan
:phir chhoDo hame.n kahii.n jaaiyo naa
:ba.nsuriyaa naa baajaao shyaam
|  |
:Enough! Now stop
:playing on your flute, dark lover
:this Braja girl's heart is aflutter,
:I ask you, please stop playing
:don't come to my lane all the time
:and if you have to come,
:just don't play your flute
:I am warning you now:
:if you have to play that flute
:then you'll have to be mine
:you won't be able to go elsewhere
:so will you please stop playing now?
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* ''Dance in Thumri'', by Projesh Banerji. Published by Abhinav Publications, 1986. {{ISBN|81-7017-212-8}}.
* ''Thumri in Historical and Stylistic Perspectives'', by Peter Lamarche Manuel. Published by Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1989. {{ISBN|81-208-0673-5}}..
* ''Thumri, Tradition & Trends'', by Ramanlal Chhotalal Mehta, Published by Indian Musicological Society, 1990.
* ''Hindi Poetry in a Musical Genre: Thumri Lyrics'', by Lalita Du Perron. Published by Routledge, 2007. {{ISBN|0-415-39446-5}}.

==External links==
*[http://www.chandrakantha.com/articles/indian_music/thumri.html Article: Semi-classical song]

{{Hindustani Classical Music page end}}

[[Category:Thumri| ]]
[[Category:Indian classical music]]
[[Category:Hindustani music genres]]
[[Category:Hindustani music terminology]]

Circle of fifths

2021-06-26T08:44:58Z

Suryabeej: Created page with "{{Short description|Relationship among the 12 tones of the chromatic scale, their corresponding key signatures, and the associated major and minor keys;geometrical representat..."

{{Short description|Relationship among the 12 tones of the chromatic scale, their corresponding key signatures, and the associated major and minor keys;geometrical representation of relationships among the 12 pitch classes of the chromatic scale in pitch class space}}
[[Image:Circle of fifths deluxe 4.svg|thumb|right|400px|Circle of fifths showing major and minor keys]]
[[Image:Diletsky circle.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nikolay Diletsky]]'s circle of fifths in ''Idea grammatiki musikiyskoy'' (Moscow, 1679)]]

In [[music theory]], the '''circle of fifths''' is a way of organizing the 12 [[chromatic scale|chromatic]] [[Pitch (music)|pitches]] as a sequence of [[perfect fifth]]s. If C is chosen as a starting point, the sequence is: C, G, D, A, E, B (=C{{music|flat}}), F{{music|sharp}} (=G{{music|flat}}), C{{music|sharp}} (=D{{music|flat}}), A{{music|flat}}, E{{music|flat}}, B{{music|flat}}, F. Continuing the pattern from F returns the sequence to its starting point of C. This order places the most closely related [[key signature]]s adjacent to one another. It is usually illustrated in the form of a circle.

== Definition ==
The circle of fifths organizes pitches in a sequence of [[perfect fifth]]s, generally shown as a circle with the pitches (and their corresponding keys) in a clockwise progression. [[Musician]]s and [[composer]]s often use the circle of fifths to describe the musical relationships between pitches. Its design is helpful in [[Musical composition|composing]] and [[Harmony|harmonizing]] [[melodies]], building [[chord (music)|chords]], and modulating to different [[key (music)|keys]] within a composition.<ref>Michael Pilhofer and Holly Day (23 Feb 2009). [http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/the-circle-of-fifths-a-brief-history.html "The Circle of Fifths: A Brief History"], www.dummies.com.</ref>

Using the system of [[just intonation]], a perfect fifth consists of two pitches with a frequency ratio of 3:2, but generating a twelve perfect fifths in this way does not result in a return to the [[pitch class]] of the starting note. To adjust for this, instruments are generally tuned with the [[equal temperament]] system. Twelve equal-temperament fifths lead to a note exactly seven [[octave]]s above the initial tone—this results in a perfect fifth that is equivalent to seven equal-temperament [[semitone]]s.

The top of the circle shows the [[Key (music)|key]] of C Major, with no [[Sharp (music)|sharps]] or [[Flat (music)|flats]]. Proceeding clockwise, the pitches ascend by [[Perfect fifth|fifths]]. The key signatures associated with those pitches also change: the key of G has one sharp, the key of D has 2 sharps, and so on. Similarly, proceeding counterclockwise from the top of the circle, the notes change by descending fifths and the key signatures change accordingly: the key of F has one flat, the key of B{{music|flat}} has 2 flats, and so on. Some keys (at the bottom of the circle) can be notated [[Enharmonic|either in sharps or in flats]].

Starting at any pitch and ascending by a fifth generates all twelve tones before returning to the beginning pitch class (a pitch class consists of all of the notes indicated by a given letter regardless of octave—all "C"s, for example, belong to the same pitch class). Moving counterclockwise, the pitches descend by a fifth, but ascending by a [[perfect fourth]] will lead to the same note an octave higher (therefore in the same pitch class). Moving counter-clockwise from C could be thought of as descending by a fifth to F, or ascending by a fourth to F.

<gallery widths="250px" heights="50px" perrow="1">
Image:Circle of fifths ascending within octave.svg|{{audio|Circle of fifths ascending within octave.mid|Play circle of fifths clockwise within one octave}}
Image:Circle of fifths descending within octave.png|{{audio|Circle of fifths descending within octave.mid|Play circle of fifths counterclockwise within one octave}}
</gallery>

==Structure and use==

===Diatonic key signatures===
Each of the twelve pitches can serve as the tonic of a major or [[Relative key|minor]] key, and each of these keys will have a [[diatonic scale]] associated with it. The circle diagram shows the number of sharps or flats in each [[key signature]], with the major key indicated by a capital letter and the minor key indicated by a lower-case letter. Major and minor keys that have the same key signature are referred to as ''relative major'' and ''relative minor'' of one another.

===Modulation and chord progression===
[[Tonality|Tonal music]] often [[modulation (music)|modulates]] to a new tonal center whose key signature differs from the original by only one flat or sharp. These closely-related keys are a fifth apart from each other and are therefore adjacent in the circle of fifths. [[Chord progression]]s also often move between chords whose roots are related by perfect fifth, making the circle of fifths useful in illustrating the "harmonic distance" between chords.

The circle of fifths is used to organize and describe the [[diatonic function|harmonic function]] of [[chord (music)|chords]]. Chords can progress in a pattern of ascending perfect fourths (alternately viewed as descending perfect fifths) in "functional succession". This can be shown "...by the circle of fifths (in which, therefore, [[scale degree]] II is closer to the [[Dominant (music)|dominant]] than scale degree IV)".{{sfn|Nattiez|1990|p=225}} In this view the tonic is considered the end point of a [[chord progression]] derived from the circle of fifths.

[[File:Ii-V-I turnaround in C.png|thumb|right|[[ii–V–I progression]], in C {{audio|Ii-V-I turnaround in C.mid|Play subdominant, supertonic seventh, and supertonic chords}} illustrating the similarity between them.]]
According to [[Richard Franko Goldman]]'s ''Harmony in Western Music'', "the IV chord is, in the simplest mechanisms of diatonic relationships, at the greatest distance from I. In terms of the [descending] circle of fifths, it leads away from I, rather than toward it."<ref name="Goldman 68">{{harvnb|Goldman|1965|p=68}}.</ref> He states that the progression I–ii–V–I (an [[authentic cadence]]) would feel more final or [[resolution (music)|resolved]] than I–IV–I (a [[plagal cadence]]). Goldman<ref>{{harvnb|Goldman|1965|loc=chapter 3}}.</ref> concurs with Nattiez, who argues that "the chord on the fourth degree appears long before the chord on II, and the subsequent final I, in the progression I–IV–viio–iii–vi–ii–V–I", and is farther from the tonic there as well.<ref name="Nattiez 226">{{harvnb|Nattiez|1990|p=226}}.</ref> (In this and related articles, upper-case Roman numerals indicate major triads while lower-case Roman numerals indicate minor triads.)

===Circle closure in non-equal tuning systems===
Using the exact 3:2 ratio of frequencies to define a perfect fifth ([[just intonation]]) does not quite result in a return to the [[pitch class]] of the starting note after going around the circle of fifths. [[Equal temperament]] tuning produces fifths that return to a tone exactly seven [[octave]]s above the initial tone and makes the frequency ratio of each half step the same. An equal-tempered fifth has a frequency ratio of 27/12:1 (or about 1.498307077:1), approximately two cents narrower than a justly tuned fifth at a ratio of 3:2.

Ascending by justly tuned fifths fails to close the circle by an excess of approximately 23.46 [[Cent (music)|cents]], roughly a quarter of a [[semitone]], an interval known as the [[Pythagorean comma]]. In Pythagorean tuning, this problem is solved by markedly shortening the [[interval (music)|width]] of one of the twelve fifths, which makes it severely [[consonance and dissonance|dissonant]]. This anomalous fifth is called the [[wolf fifth]] - a humorous reference to a wolf howling an off-pitch note. The [[quarter-comma meantone]] tuning system uses eleven fifths slightly narrower than the equally tempered fifth, and requires a much wider and even more dissonant wolf fifth to close the circle. More complex tuning systems based on just intonation, such as [[5-limit tuning]], use at most eight justly tuned fifths and at least three non-just fifths (some slightly narrower, and some slightly wider than the just fifth) to close the circle. Other tuning systems use up to [[53 equal temperament|53 tones]] (the original 12 tones and 42 more between them) in order to close the circle of fifths.

==History==
[[Image:Heinichen musicalischer circul.png|thumb|[[Johann David Heinichen|Heinichen]]'s musical circle (German: ''Musicalischer Circul'') (1711)]]

Some sources imply that [[Pythagoras]] invented the circle of fifths in the sixth century B.C. but there is no proof of this.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Circle of Fifths: A Brief History |author=Anon.|url=https://www.dummies.com/art-center/music/the-circle-of-fifths-a-brief-history/ |publisher=Dummies.com}}{{Failed verification|date=May 2020|reason=Unreliable source claims Pythagoras said this, but fails to verify lack of proof of the claim}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.classicfm.com/discover-music/music-theory/what-is-the-circle-of-fifths/}}{{Failed verification|date=May 2020|reason=Unreliable source merely says that the circle of fifths "all started out (probably) with Pythagoras"}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Circle of Fifths |author=Anon.|url=https://www.violinschool.com/circle-of-fifths/ |date=2016}}{{Failed verification|date=May 2020|reason=No claim that Pythagoras described the circle of fifths, nor that there is no proof of the claim}}</ref> Pythagoras was primarily concerned with the theoretical science of harmonics and is credited with having devised a system of tuning based upon the interval of a fifth, but did not tune more than eight notes, and left no written records of his work.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fraser |first1=Peter A. |title=The Development of Musical Tuning Systems |date=2001 |pages=9, 13 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130701202500/http://www.midicode.com/tunings/Tuning10102004.pdf |access-date=24 May 2020}} (archive from 1 July 2013).</ref>

In the late 1670s Ukrainian composer and theorist [[Nikolay Diletsky]] wrote a treatise on composition entitled ''Grammatika'', "the first of its kind, aimed at teaching a Russian audience how to write Western-style polyphonic compositions." It taught how to write ''kontserty'', [[polyphonic]] [[a cappella]] works usually based on [[liturgical]] texts and created by putting together musical sections with contrasting rhythm, meter, melodic material and vocal groupings. Diletsky intended his treatise to be a guide to composition using rules of [[music theory]]. The first circle of fifths appears in the Grammatika and it was used for students as a composition tool.<ref name="Jensen">{{harvnb|Jensen|1992|pp=306–307}}.</ref>

==Use==
In musical pieces from the [[Baroque music]] era and the [[Classical era of music]] and in Western [[popular music]], [[traditional music]] and [[folk music]], when pieces or songs modulate to a new key, these modulations are often associated with the circle of fifths.

In practice, compositions rarely make use of the entire circle of fifths. More commonly, composers make use of "the compositional idea of the 'cycle' of 5ths, when music moves consistently through a smaller or larger segment of the tonal structural resources which the circle abstractly represents."<ref>Whittall, A. (2002, p. 259) "Circle of Fifths", article in Latham, E. (ed.) The Oxford Companion to Music. Oxford University Press.</ref> The usual practice is to derive the circle of fifths progression from the seven tones of the diatonic scale, rather from the full range of twelve tones present in the chromatic scale. In this diatonic version of the circle, one of the fifths is not a true fifth: it is a tritone (or a diminished fifth), e.g. between F and B in the "natural" diatonic scale (i.e. without sharps or flats). Here is how the circle of fifths derives, through [[permutation]] from the diatonic major scale:[[File:Diatonic scale and the circle of fifths derived from it - major.wav|thumb|Diatonic scale and the circle of fifths derived from it – major]] [[File:Diatonic scale and the circle of fifths derived from it - major.png|thumb|center|500px|Diatonic scale and the circle of fifths derived from it – major]]

And from the (natural) minor scale:[[File:Diatonic scale and the circle of fifths derived from it - minor.wav|thumb|Diatonic scale and the circle of fifths derived from it – minor]] [[File:Diatonic scale and the circle of fifths derived from it - minor.png|thumb|center|500px|Diatonic scale and the circle of fifths derived from it – minor]]

The following is the basic sequence of chords that can be built over the major bass-line:[[File:Circle of fifths chord progression - major.wav|thumb|Circle of fifths chord progression – major]] [[File:Circle of fifths chord progression - major.png|thumb|center|500px|Circle of fifths chord progression – major]]

And over the minor:[[File:Circle of fifths chord progression - minor.wav|thumb|Circle of fifths chord progression – minor]] [[File:Circle of fifths chord progression - minor.png|thumb|center|500px|Circle of fifths chord progression – minor]]

Adding sevenths to the chords creates a greater sense of forward momentum to the harmony:[[File:Circle of fifths chord progression - minor with added sevenths.wav|thumb|Circle of fifths chord progression – minor with added sevenths]] [[File:Circle of fifths chord progression - minor with added sevenths.png|thumb|center|500px|Circle of fifths chord progression – minor with added sevenths]]

===Baroque era===
According to [[Richard Taruskin]], [[Arcangelo Corelli]] was the most influential composer to establish the pattern as a standard harmonic [[Trope (literature)|"trope"]]: "It was precisely in Corelli's time, the late seventeenth century, that the circle of fifths was being 'theorized' as the main propellor of harmonic motion, and it was Corelli more than any one composer who put that new idea into telling practice."<ref>Taruskin, R. (2010, p. 184) ''The Oxford History of Western Music: Music in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries''. Oxford University Press.</ref>

The circle of fifths progression occurs frequently in the music of [[J. S. Bach]]. In the following, from [[Jauchzet Gott in allen Landen, BWV 51|''Jauchzet Gott in allen Landen'', BWV 51]], even when the solo bass line implies rather than states the chords involved:[[File:Bach from Cantata 51 bass line.wav|thumb|Bach from Cantata 51 bass line]][[File:Bach from Cantata 51 bass line.png|thumb|center|500px|Bach from Cantata 51]] [[Handel]] uses a circle of fifths progression as the basis for the [[Passacaglia]] movement from his Harpsichord suite No. 6 in G minor.

[[File:Handel Passacaille from Suite in G minor bars 1-4.wav|thumb|Handel Passacaille from Suite in G minor bars 1–4]][[File:Handel Passacaille from Suite in G minor bars 1-4.png|thumb|center|500px|Handel Passacaille from Suite in G minor bars 1–4]]
[[Baroque music|Baroque]] composers learnt to enhance the "propulsive force" of the harmony engendered by the circle of fifths "by adding sevenths to most of the constituent chords." "These sevenths, being dissonances, create the need for resolution, thus turning each progression of the circle into a simultaneous reliever and re-stimulator of harmonic tension... Hence harnessed for expressive purposes."<ref>Taruskin, R. (2010, p. 188) ''The Oxford History of Western Music: Music in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries''. Oxford University Press.</ref> Striking passages that illustrate the use of sevenths occur in the aria "Pena tiranna" in [[Handel]]'s 1715 opera ''[[Amadigi di Gaula]]'' :[[File:Handel, aria "Pena tiranna" from Amadigi. Orchestral introduction. 01.wav|thumb|Handel, aria "Pena tiranna" from Amadigi. Orchestral introduction.]] [[File:Handel, aria "Pena tiranna" from Amadigi. Orchestral introduction.png|thumb|center|500px|Handel, aria "Pena tiranna" from Amadigi. Orchestral introduction]] – and in Bach's [[Weimar concerto transcriptions (Bach)|keyboard arrangement]] of [[Alessandro Marcello]]'s [[Oboe Concerto (Marcello)|Concerto for Oboe and Strings]]. [[File:Bach adagio BWV 974 (after Marcello).wav|thumb|Bach adagio BWV 974 (after Marcello)]][[File:Bach adagio BWV 975 (after Marcello).png|thumb|center|500px|Bach adagio BWV 974 (after Marcello)]]

===Nineteenth century===

During the nineteenth century, composers made use of the circle of fifths to enhance the expressive character of their music. [[Franz Schubert]]'s poignant Impromptu in E flat major, D899, contains such a passage:[[File:Schubert Impromptu in E flat 01.wav|thumb|Schubert Impromptu in E flat]] [[File:Schubert Impromptu in E flat 02.png|thumb|center|500px|Schubert Impromptu in E flat]] – as does the [[Intermezzo]] movement from [[Mendelssohn]]'s [[String Quartet No. 2 (Mendelssohn)|String Quartet No.2]]:[[File:Mendelssohn String Quartet 2, 3rd movement (Intermezzo).wav|thumb|Mendelssohn String Quartet 2, 3rd movement (Intermezzo)]][[File:Mendelssohn String Quartet 2, 3rd movement (Intermezzo).png|thumb|center|450px|Mendelssohn String Quartet 2, 3rd movement (Intermezzo)]]Robert Schumann's evocative "Child falling asleep" from his ''[[Kinderszenen]]'' springs a surprise at the end of the progression: the piece ends on an A minor chord, instead of the expected [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] E minor.[[File:Schumann, Kind im Einschlummern (Child falling asleep) 01.wav|thumb|Schumann, Kind im Einschlummern (Child falling asleep)]] [[File:Schumann, Kind im Einschlummern.png|thumb|center|500px|Schumann, Kind im Einschlummern]]In [[Wagner]]'s opera, [[Götterdämmerung]], a cycle of fifths progression occurs in the music which transitions from the end of the prologue into the first scene of Act 1, set in the imposing hall of the wealthy Gibichungs. "Status and reputation are written all over the motifs assigned to Gunther",<ref>Scruton, R. (2016, p. 121) The Ring of Truth: The Wisdom of Wagner's Ring of the Nibelung. London, Allen Lane.</ref> chief of the Gibichung clan:[[File:Wagner, Gotterdamerung, transition between the end of the Prologue and Act 1 scene 1.wav|thumb|Wagner, Götterdämmerung, transition between the end of the Prologue and Act 1 scene 1]] [[File:Wagner, Gotterdamerung, transition between the end of the Prologue and Act 1 scene 1.png|thumb|center|500px|Wagner, Götterdämmerung, transition between the end of the Prologue and Act 1 scene 1]] [[Ravel]]'s [[Pavane pour une infante défunte|"Pavane for a Dead Infanta"]], uses the cycle of fifths to evoke Baroque harmony to convey regret and nostalgia for a past era. The composer described the piece as "an evocation of a [[pavane]] that a little princess ([[infanta]]) might, in former times, have danced at the Spanish court.":<ref>Andres, Robert, "An introduction to the solo piano music of Debussy and Ravel", BBC Radio 3, accessed 17 November 2011</ref>[[File:Ravel Pavane live recording.wav|thumb|Ravel, Pavane pour une Infante Défunte]][[File:Ravel Pavane pour une infante defunte.png|thumb|center|700px|Ravel Pavane pour une Infante Défunte]]

===Jazz and popular music===

The enduring popularity of the circle of fifths as both a form-building device and as an expressive musical trope is evident in the number of "[[Standard (music)|standard]]" popular songs composed during the twentieth century. It is also favored as a vehicle for improvisation by jazz musicians.
* [[Bart Howard]], "[[Fly Me to the Moon]]"
{{quote|The song opens with a pattern of descending phrases – in essence, the hook of the song – presented with a soothing predictability, almost as if the future direction of the melody is dictated by the opening five notes. The harmonic progression, for its part, rarely departs from the circle of fifths.<ref>Gioa, T. (2012, p.115) The Jazz Standards; a Guide to the repertoire. Oxford University Press.</ref>}}
* [[Jerome Kern]], "[[All the Things You Are]]"<ref>Gioa, T. (2012, p.16) The Jazz Standards; a Guide to the repertoire. Oxford University Press.</ref>
* [[Ray Noble]], "[[Cherokee (Ray Noble song)|Cherokee]]." Many jazz musicians have found this particularly challenging as the [[middle eight]] progresses so rapidly through the circle, "creating a series of [[ii-V-I progression|II–V–I progressions]] that temporarily pass through several [[tonality|tonalities]]."<ref>Scott, Richard J. (2003, p. 123) ''Chord Progressions for Songwriters''. Bloomington Indiana, Writers Club Press.</ref>
* Kosmo, Prevert and Mercer, "[[Autumn Leaves (1945 song)|Autumn Leaves]]"<ref name="Kostka23846">{{cite book|last1=Kostka|first1=Stefan|first2=Dorothy|last2=Payne|first3=Byron|last3=Almén|title=Tonal harmony with an introduction to twentieth-century music|edition=7th|year=2013|location=New York|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0-07-131828-0|pages=46, 238}}</ref>
* [[The Beatles]], "[[You Never Give Me Your Money]]"<ref>"You Never Give Me Your Money" (1989, p1099-1100, bars 1-16) ''The Beatles Complete Scores''. Hal Leonard.</ref>
*[[Mike Oldfield]], "[[Incantations (album)|Incantations]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tubular.net/articles/1980_06/Mike-Oldfield-by-Tim-Oakes|title=Mike Oldfield|first=Tim|last=Oakes|date=June 1980|work=International Musician and Recording World|access-date=19 February 2021|via=Tubular.net}}</ref>
*[[Carlos Santana]], "[[Europa (Earth's Cry Heaven's Smile)]]"{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}
*[[Gloria Gaynor]], "[[I Will Survive]]"<ref>Fekaris, D. and Perren, F.J. (1978) I Will Survive. Polygram International Publishing.</ref>
*[[Pet Shop Boys]], "[[It's a Sin]]"<ref>Tennant, N. and Lowe, C. (1987, bars 1-8) "It's a Sin." Sony/ATV Music Publishing (UK) Ltd.</ref>
*[[Donna Summer]], "[[Love to Love You Baby (song)|Love to Love you, Baby]]"<ref>Moroder, G., Bellote, P. and Summer, D. (1975, bars 11-14) "Love to Love you, Baby" copyright 1976, Bulle Music Inc.</ref>

==Related concepts==

===Diatonic circle of fifths===
{{Main|Circle progression}}
The diatonic circle of fifths is the circle of fifths encompassing only members of the diatonic scale. Therefore, it contains a diminished fifth, in C major between B and F. See [[structure implies multiplicity]].
The [[circle progression]] is commonly a circle of fifths through the diatonic chords, including one [[Diminished triad|diminished chord]]. A circle progression in C major with chords I–IV–viio–iii–vi–ii–V–I is shown below.


===Chromatic circle===
{{Main|Chromatic circle}}
The circle of fifths is closely related to the [[chromatic circle]], which also arranges the twelve equal-tempered pitch classes in a circular ordering. A key difference between the two circles is that the [[chromatic circle]] can be understood as a continuous space where every point on the circle corresponds to a conceivable [[pitch class]], and every conceivable pitch class corresponds to a point on the circle. By contrast, the circle of fifths is fundamentally a ''discrete'' structure, and there is no obvious way to assign pitch classes to each of its points. In this sense, the two circles are mathematically quite different.

However, the twelve equal-tempered [[pitch class]]es can be represented by the [[cyclic group]] of order twelve, or equivalently, the [[modular arithmetic|residue classes]] modulo twelve, <math> \mathbb{Z}/12\mathbb{Z} </math>. The group <math> \mathbb{Z}_{12} </math> has four generators, which can be identified with the ascending and descending semitones and the ascending and descending perfect fifths. The semitonal generator gives rise to the [[chromatic circle]] while the perfect fifth gives rise to the circle of fifths.

===Relation with chromatic scale===
{{Main|Chromatic scale}}

[[Image:Pitch class space star.svg|thumb|right|The circle of fifths drawn within the chromatic circle as a [[star polygon|star]] [[dodecagram]].{{sfn|McCartin|1998|p=364}}]]
The circle of fifths, or fourths, may be mapped from the [[chromatic scale]] by [[multiplication]], and vice versa. To map between the circle of fifths and the chromatic scale (in [[integer notation]]) multiply by 7 ([[twelve-tone technique|M7]]), and for the circle of fourths multiply by 5 (P5).

Here is a demonstration of this procedure. Start off with an [[order theory|ordered]] 12-tuple ([[tone row]]) of integers
: (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11)
representing the notes of the chromatic scale: 0 = C, 2 = D, 4 = E, 5 = F, 7 = G, 9 = A, 11 = B, 1 = C{{music|sharp}}, 3 = D{{music|sharp}}, 6 = F{{music|sharp}}, 8 = G{{music|sharp}}, 10 = A{{music|sharp}}. Now multiply the entire 12-tuple by 7:
: (0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56, 63, 70, 77)
and then apply a [[modulo operation|modulo]] 12 reduction to each of the numbers (subtract 12 from each number as many times as necessary until the number becomes smaller than 12):
: (0, 7, 2, 9, 4, 11, 6, 1, 8, 3, 10, 5)
which is equivalent to
: (C, G, D, A, E, B, F{{music|sharp}}, C{{music|sharp}}, G{{music|sharp}}, D{{music|sharp}}, A{{music|sharp}}, F)
which is the circle of fifths.
Note that this is [[enharmonic]]ally equivalent to:
: (C, G, D, A, E, B, G{{music|flat}}, D{{music|flat}}, A{{music|flat}}, E{{music|flat}}, B{{music|flat}}, F).

===Enharmonic equivalents and theoretical keys===
{{main|Theoretical key}}
The key signatures found on the bottom of the circle of fifths diagram, such as D{{music|flat}} major, are often written one way in flats and in another way using sharps. These keys are easily interchanged using enharmonic equivalents. Enharmonic means that the notes sound the same, but are written differently. For example, the key signature of D{{Music|flat}} major, with five flats, contains the same sounding notes, enharmonically, as C{{music|sharp}} major (seven sharps).

After C{{music|sharp}} comes the key of G{{music|sharp}} (following the pattern of being a fifth higher, and, coincidentally, enharmonically equivalent to the key of A{{music|flat}}). The "eighth sharp" is placed on the F{{music|sharp}}, to make it F{{music|doublesharp}}. The key of D{{music|sharp}}, with nine sharps, has another sharp placed on the C{{music|sharp}}, making it C{{music|doublesharp}}. The same is true for key signatures with flats; The key of E (four sharps) is equivalent to the key of F{{music|flat}} (again, one fifth below the key of C{{music|flat}}, following the pattern of flat key signatures). The last flat is placed on the B{{music|flat}}, making it B{{music|doubleflat}}. Such keys with double accidentals in the key signatures are called [[theoretical key]]s: the appearance of their key signatures is extremely rare, but they are sometimes tonicised in the course of a work (particularly if the home key was already heavily sharped or flatted).


There does not appear to be a standard on how to notate theoretical key signatures:

*The default behaviour of [[LilyPond]] (pictured above) writes all single sharps (flats) in the circle-of-fifths order, before proceeding to the double sharps. This is the format used in [[John Foulds]]' ''A World Requiem'', Op. 60, which ends with the key signature of G{{music|#}} major (exactly as displayed above, [https://imslp.simssa.ca/files/imglnks/usimg/5/59/IMSLP527245-PMLP756657-JFoulds_A_World_Requiem,_Op.60_vocalscore.pdf pp. 153ff.]) The sharps in the key signature of G{{music|#}} major here proceed C{{music|#}}, G{{music|#}}, D{{music|#}}, A{{music|#}}, E{{music|#}}, B{{music|#}}, F{{music|x}}.
*The single sharps or flats at the beginning are sometimes repeated as a courtesy, e.g. [[Max Reger]]'s ''Supplement to the Theory of Modulation'', which contains D{{music|b}} minor key signatures on [https://archive.org/details/supplementtotheo00rege/page/42/mode/2up pp. 42–45]. These have a B{{music|b}} at the start and also a B{{music|bb}} at the end (with a double-flat symbol), going B{{music|b}}, E{{music|b}}, A{{music|b}}, D{{music|b}}, G{{music|b}}, C{{music|b}}, F{{music|b}}, B{{music|bb}}. The convention of LilyPond and Foulds would suppress the initial B{{music|b}}.
*Sometimes the double signs are written at the beginning of the key signature, followed by the single signs. For example, the F{{music|b}} key signature is notated as B{{music|bb}}, E{{music|b}}, A{{music|b}}, D{{music|b}}, G{{music|b}}, C{{music|b}}, F{{music|b}}. This convention is used by Victor Ewald, by the program [[Finale (software)]],<ref>https://www.hickeys.com/music/brass/brass_ensembles/brass_quintets/products/sku035994-ewald-victor-quintet-no-4-in-ab-op-8.php</ref> and by some theoretical works.

==See also==
* [[Approach chord]]
* [[Sonata form]]
* [[Well temperament]]
* [[Circle of fifths text table]]
* [[Pitch constellation]]
* [[Multiplicative group of integers modulo n]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book|last=Goldman|first=Richard Franko|year=1965|title=Harmony in Western Music|url=https://archive.org/details/harmonyinwestern00gold|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=W. W. Norton}}
* {{cite journal|last=Jensen|first=Claudia R.|date=1992|jstor=831450|title=A Theoretical Work of Late Seventeenth-Century Muscovy: Nikolai Diletskii's "Grammatika" and the Earliest Circle of Fifths|journal=Journal of the American Musicological Society|volume=45|issue=2 (Summer)|pages=305–331}}
* {{cite journal|last=McCartin|first=Brian J.|date=1998|title=Prelude to Musical Geometry|journal=The College Mathematics Journal|volume=29|issue=5 (November)|pages=354–370|url=http://www.maa.org/pubs/cmj_Nov98.html|jstor=2687250|access-date=2008-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517071420/http://www.maa.org/pubs/cmj_Nov98.html|archive-date=2008-05-17|url-status=dead}}
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Nattiez|1990}}|reference=[[Jean-Jacques Nattiez|Nattiez, Jean-Jacques]] (1990). ''Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music'', translated by Carolyn Abbate. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-02714-5}}. (Originally published in French, as ''Musicologie générale et sémiologie''. Paris: C. Bourgois, 1987. {{ISBN|2-267-00500-X}}).}}

==Further reading==
* D'Indy, Vincent (1903). ''Cours de composition musicale''. Paris: A. Durand et fils.
* Lester, Joel. [https://books.google.com/books?id=t2xAAIK7jd0C&pg=PA110&vq=heinichen&dq=intitle:modes+intitle:and+intitle:keys+inauthor:lester&lr=&as_brr=0&source=gbs_search_r&cad=1_1&sig=ACfU3U00ygBnXabE0oXQKUHQ2SazAHjFRw#PPA110,M1 ''Between Modes and Keys: German Theory, 1592–1802'']. 1990.
* Miller, Michael. [https://books.google.com/books?id=sTMbuSQdqPMC ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Music Theory, 2nd ed'']. [Indianapolis, IN]: Alpha, 2005. {{ISBN|1-59257-437-8}}.
* Purwins, Hendrik (2005)."[http://ccrma.stanford.edu/~purwins/purwinsPhD.pdf Profiles of Pitch Classes: Circularity of Relative Pitch and Key—Experiments, Models, Computational Music Analysis, and Perspectives]". Ph.D. Thesis. Berlin: [[Berlin Institute of Technology|Technische Universität Berlin]].
* Purwins, Hendrik, Benjamin Blankertz, and Klaus Obermayer (2007). "[http://www.ccarh.org/publications/cm/15/cm15-05-purwins.pdf Toroidal Models in Tonal Theory and Pitch-Class Analysis]". in: ''Computing in Musicology'' 15 ("Tonal Theory for the Digital Age"): 73–98.

==External links==
* [http://mdecks.com/graphs/mcircle.php Decoding the Circle of Vths]
* [https://www.fachords.com/tools/circle-of-fifths/ Interactive Circle Of Fifths with guitar fretboard]
* [http://guitardashboard.com/ An open-source interactive circle of fifths for guitarists]
* [https://newt.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/music/circle/ Circle of Fourths: an orchestral overture using the circle as a chord and a melodic element]

{{Key (music)}}
{{Pitch space}}
{{Tonality}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Circle Of Fifths}}
[[Category:Circle of fifths| ]]
[[Category:Harmony]]
[[Category:Musical keys]]
[[Category:Tonality]]

Carnatic music

2021-06-26T08:43:16Z

Suryabeej: Created page with " '''Carnatic music''', known as {{IAST|Karnāṭaka saṃgīta}} or {{IAST|Karnāṭaka saṅgītam}} in the South Indian languages, is a system of mu..."

'''Carnatic music''', known as {{IAST|Karnāṭaka saṃgīta}} or {{IAST|Karnāṭaka saṅgītam}} in the [[Dravidian languages|South Indian languages]], is a system of music commonly associated with [[South India]], including the modern Indian states of [[Karnataka]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]], [[Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu]], and [[Sri Lanka]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/769894/sri-lankan-tamil-diaspora-the-new-force-spreading-carnatic-music-and-dance-worldwide|title=Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora: The new force spreading Carnatic music and dance worldwide|last=Srinivasan|first=Anil|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US|access-date=2016-06-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Tamil_of_Sri_Lanka.aspx|title=Tamil of Sri Lanka Facts, information, pictures {{!}} Encyclopedia.com articles about Tamil of Sri Lanka|website=encyclopedia.com|access-date=2016-06-10}}</ref> It is one of two main subgenres of [[Indian classical music]] that evolved from ancient [[Sanatana dharma]] sciences and traditions, particularly the [[Samaveda]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ae.iitm.ac.in/~sriram/karpri.pdf|title=A Karnatic Music Primer|last=Sriram|first=Parthasarathy|language=en-US}}</ref> The other subgenre being [[Hindustani music]], which emerged as a distinct form because of Persian or Islamic influences from [[Northern India]]. The main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocal music; most compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in ''gāyaki'' (singing) style. The [[heptatonic scale]] of [[Western culture|Western]] [[musical notation]] is said to have its origins in Carnatic music, having been picked up by [[Pythagoras]] during his visit to [[India]] to learn mathematics, thus introducing it to the west. The [[circle of fifths]] and several other popular concepts in western classical music have their origins in the theory of Carnatic classical music.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

Although there are stylistic differences, the basic elements of {{IAST|''[[Shruti (music)|śruti]]''}} (the relative musical pitch), {{IAST|''[[swara]]''}} (the musical sound of a single note), {{IAST|''[[rāga]]''}} (the mode or melodic formulæ), and {{IAST|''[[tala (music)|tala]]''}} (the rhythmic cycles) form the foundation of improvisation and composition in both Carnatic and Hindustani music. Although improvisation plays an important role, Carnatic music is mainly sung through compositions, especially the [[kriti]] (or kirtanam) – a form developed between the 14th and 20th centuries by composers such as [[Purandara Dasa]] and the [[Trinity of Carnatic music]]. Carnatic music is also usually taught and learned through compositions. [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Kannada language|Kannada]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] predominates in the evolution of Carnatic Music<ref>{{Cite book|last=University|first=Vijaya Ramaswamy, Jawaharlal Nehru|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA88|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|date=2017-08-25|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1-5381-0686-0|pages=88|language=en}}</ref> as most compositions are in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil or [[Sanskrit]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fuller|first=C. J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r7KjBAAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA201|title=Tamil Brahmans: The Making of a Middle-Class Caste|last2=Narasimhan|first2=Haripriya|date=2014-11-11|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-15288-2|pages=201|language=en}}</ref>

Carnatic music is usually performed by a small ensemble of musicians, consisting of a principal performer (usually a vocalist), a melodic accompaniment (usually a [[violin]]), a rhythm accompaniment (usually a [[mridangam]]), and a [[Tanpura|tambura]], which acts as a [[drone (music)|drone]] throughout the performance. Other typical instruments used in performances may include the [[ghatam]], [[kanjira]], [[morsing]], [[venu]] flute, [[Saraswati veena|veena]], and [[chitraveena]]. The greatest concentration of Carnatic musicians is to be found in the city of [[Chennai]].<ref name="Britannica">Carnatic music. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 12 April 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online</ref> Various Carnatic music festivals are held throughout India and abroad, including the [[Madras Music Season]], which has been considered to be one of the world's largest cultural events.<ref>[https://indianfolklore.org/journals/index.php/Music/article/view/22/26 The Music Academy] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426090237/https://indianfolklore.org/journals/index.php/Music/article/view/22/26 |date=26 April 2012 }} Written by Malathi Rangaswamy, Secretary of Music Academy</ref><ref>[[#Nettl2005|Nettl (2005)]], p38</ref>

==Origins, sources and history==

[[File:Saraswati.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Saraswati]], the [[Devi|Hindu goddess]] of all knowledge, music, arts and science, with her instrument, the ''veena''.]]

Like all art forms in [[Indian culture]], Indian classical music is believed to be a divine art form which originated from the [[Deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]s and [[Devi]]s ([[Hindu]] Gods and Goddesses),<ref>[[#Moorthy2001|Moorthy (2001)]], p17</ref><ref name="origin"/> and is venerated as symbolic of {{IAST|''[[Nada yoga|nāda]] brāhman''}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/seta/2005/01/13/stories/2005011300111500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050331184754/http://www.hindu.com/seta/2005/01/13/stories/2005011300111500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2005-03-31|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=Sci Tech / Speaking Of Science : The music of we primates: Nada Brahmam}}</ref> Ancient treatises also describe the connection of the origin of the [[swara]]s, or notes, to the sounds of animals and birds and man's effort to simulate these sounds through a keen sense of observation and perception. The [[Sama Veda]], which is believed to have laid the foundation for Indian classical music, consists of hymns from the [[Rigveda]], set to musical tunes which would be sung using three to seven musical notes during Vedic [[yajna]]s.<ref name="origin"/> The [[Yajur-Veda]], which mainly consists of sacrificial formulae, mentions the ''veena'' as an accompaniment to vocal recitations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Veena in Yajurveda |url=http://trumpet.sdsu.edu/m151/Music_of_India1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031152317/http://trumpet.sdsu.edu/M151/Music_of_India1.html |archive-date=2006-10-31 }}</ref> References to Indian classical music are made in many ancient texts, including [[Indian epic poetry|epics]] like the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''. The ''[[Yajnavalkya Smriti]]'' mentions ''वीणावादन तत्त्वज्ञः श्रुतीजातिविशारदः ताळज्ञश्चाप्रयासेन मोक्षमार्गं नियच्छति'' ( ''vīṇāvādana tattvajñaḥ śrutijātiviśāradaḥ tālajñaścāprayāsena mokṣamārgaṃ niyacchati'', "The one who is well versed in ''[[veena]]'', one who has the knowledge of srutis and one who is adept in tala, attains liberation ([[moksha]]) without doubt").<ref>YjS 3.115. {{cite web|title=Yajnavalkya on Music|url=http://www.sanathanadharma.com/articles/sangeet.htm}}</ref> Carnatic music is based as it is today on musical concepts (including ''[[swara]]'', ''[[raga]]'', and ''[[Tala (music)|tala]]'') that were described in detail in several ancient works, particularly the [[Bharata Muni|Bharata]]'s ''[[Natya Shastra of Bharata|Natya Shastra]]'' and ''[[Silappadhikaram]]'' by [[Ilango Adigal]].<ref name="Singer1958">{{cite journal | last = Singer |first = M.|title = The Great Tradition in a Metropolitan Center: Madras| journal = The Journal of American Folklore| volume = 71 | issue = 281 | pages = 347–388 |year = 1958 | doi = 10.2307/538567 | jstor = 538567 | publisher = American Folklore Society}}</ref>

Owing to Persian and Islamic influences in [[North India]] from the 12th century onwards, Indian classical music began to diverge into two distinct styles — Hindustani music and Carnatic music.<ref name="Britannica"/> Commentaries and other works, such as [[Sharngadeva]]'s ''[[Sangita Ratnakara]]'', further elaborated on the musical concepts found in Indian classical music.<ref>[[#Moorthy2001|Moorthy (2001)]], p18</ref> By the 16th and 17th centuries, there was a clear demarcation between Carnatic and Hindustani music;<ref name="Subramaniam1999">{{cite journal | last = Subramaniam |first = L.
|title = The reinvention of a tradition: Nationalism, Carnatic music and the Madras Music Academy, 1900–1947 | journal = Indian Economic & Social History Review | volume = 36 | issue = 2 | pages = 131–163 |year = 1999 | doi = 10.1177/001946469903600201}}</ref> Carnatic music remained relatively unaffected by Persian and Arabic influences. It was at this time that Carnatic music flourished in [[Vijayanagara]], while the [[Vijayanagar Empire]] reached its greatest extent.<ref name="Ries1969">{{cite journal | last = Ries |first = R. E.|title = The Cultural Setting of South Indian Music | journal = Asian Music | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 22–31 |year = 1969 | doi = 10.2307/833909 | jstor = 833909 | publisher = University of Texas Press}}</ref> [[Purandara Dasa]], who is known as the "father (''Pitamaha'') of Carnatic music", formulated the system that is commonly used for the teaching of Carnatic music.<ref name="origin">{{cite web|url=http://www.carnatica.net/origin.htm|title= History of Music, Origins|work=The Carnatica Group|publisher=Carnatica.net|access-date=2007-07-03}}</ref><ref>Theory of Music, Vasanthamadhavi P.183</ref> [[Venkatamakhin]] invented and authored the formula for the [[melakarta]] system of raga classification in his Sanskrit work, the ''Chaturdandi Prakasika'' (1660 AD).<ref name="Subramaniam1999"/> Govindacharya is known for expanding the melakarta system into the [[sampoorna raga]] scheme – the system that is in common use today.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Carnatic music was mainly patronised by the local kings of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]], [[Kingdom of Travancore]], and the [[Thanjavur Maratha kingdom|Maratha rulers of Tanjore]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Royal tribute to Thanjavur rulers|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2017/dec/27/royal-tribute-to-thanjavur-rulers-1738354.html|newspaper=The New Indian Express}}</ref> Some of the royalty of the kingdoms of Mysore and Travancore were themselves noted composers and proficient in playing musical instruments, such as the veena, [[rudra veena]], [[violin]], [[ghatam]], [[flute]], [[mridangam]], nagaswara and swarabhat.<ref>[[#Pranesh2003|Pranesh (2003)]], p54-55, p92, p162-163, p225-226</ref> Some [[Musicians of the Kingdom of Mysore|famous court-musicians]] proficient in music were [[Veene Sheshanna]] (1852–1926)<ref>[[#Pranesh2003|Pranesh (2003)]], p108</ref> and Veene Subbanna (1861–1939),<ref>[[#Pranesh2003|Pranesh (2003)]], p128</ref> among others.

During the late 19th century, the city of [[Chennai]] (then known as [[Madras]]) emerged as the locus for Carnatic music.<ref name="Hughes2002">{{cite journal | last = Hughes |first = S. P.|title = The 'Music Boom' in Tamil South India: gramophone, radio and the making of mass culture | journal = Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 445–473 |year = 2002 | doi = 10.1080/0143968022000012129}}</ref> With the dissolution of the erstwhile [[princely states]] and the [[Indian independence movement]] reaching its conclusion in 1947, Carnatic music went through a radical shift in patronage into an art of the masses with ticketed performances organised by private institutions called [[sabhā]]s.

==Nature==
The main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocal music; most compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in a singing style (known as ''gāyaki'').<ref name="Breyer2004">{{cite journal | last = Breyer |first = Barbara|title = Composers and Tradition in Karnatik Music | journal = Asian Music |volume = 3 |pages = 42–51 |year = 1972 | doi = 10.2307/833958 | jstor = 833958 | issue = 2 | publisher = University of Texas Press}}</ref> Like [[Hindustani music]], Carnatic music rests on two main elements: {{IAST|''[[rāga]]''}}, the [[Musical mode|modes]] or melodic formulæ, and {{IAST|''[[tala (music)|tāḷa]]''}}, the rhythmic cycles.<ref name="Breyer2004"/>

Today, Carnatic music is presented by musicians in concerts or recordings, either vocally or through instruments. Carnatic music itself developed around musical works or compositions of phenomenal composers (see below).

==Important elements==

===Śruti===
{{Main|Śruti (music)}}

''Śruti'' commonly refers to musical pitch.<ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite web|url=http://www.karnatik.com/glosss.shtml|title=Royal Carpet: Glossary of Carnatic Terms S|work=karnatik.com}}</ref> It is the approximate equivalent of a tonic (or less precisely a key) in Western music; it is the note from which all the others are derived. It is also used in the sense of graded pitches in an [[octave]]. While there are an infinite number of sounds falling within a scale (or raga) in Carnatic music, the number that can be distinguished by auditory perception is twenty-two (although over the years, several of them have converged). In this sense, while sruti is determined by auditory perception, it is also an expression in the listener's mind.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.soundofindia.com/showarticle.asp?in_article_id=952096767 |title=Sound of India |access-date=18 December 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211064155/http://www.soundofindia.com/showarticle.asp?in_article_id=952096767 |archive-date=11 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Swara===
{{Main|Swara}}

''Swara'' refers to a type of musical sound that is a single note, which defines a relative (higher or lower) position of a note, rather than a defined frequency.<ref name="autogenerated3" /> Swaras also refer to the [[solfege]] of Carnatic music, which consist of seven notes, "sa-ri-ga-ma-pa-da-ni" (compare with the Hindustani ''[[sargam (swara)|sargam]]:'' sa-''re''-ga-ma-pa-''dha''-ni or Western do-re-mi-fa-so-la-ti). These names are abbreviations of the longer names ''shadja'', ''rishabha'', ''gandhara'', ''madhyama'', ''panchama'', ''dhaivata'' and ''nishada''. Unlike other music systems, every member of the solfege (called a [[swara]]) has three variants. The exceptions are the drone notes, ''shadja'' and ''panchama'' (also known as the [[tonic (music)|tonic]] and the [[dominant (music)|dominant]]), which have only one form; and ''madhyama'' (the [[subdominant]]), which has two forms. A 7th century stone inscription in Kudumiyan Malai<ref>S. Santhanlingam, ''Kudumiyan Malai'', Tamil Nadu Government Archeology Department publication, 1981</ref> in [[Tamil Nadu]] shows vowel changes to solfege symbols with ra, ri, ru etc. to denote the higher quarter-tones. In one scale, or [[raga]], there is usually only one variant of each note present. The exceptions exist in "light" ragas, in which, for artistic effect, there may be two, one ascending (in the ''arohanam'') and another descending (in the ''[[avarohana]]m'').

===Raga system===
{{Main|Raga}}

A ''raga'' in Carnatic music prescribes a set of rules for building a [[melody]] – very similar to the Western concept of [[musical mode|mode]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.karnatik.com/glossm.shtml|title=Royal Carpet: Glossary of Carnatic Terms M|work=karnatik.com}}</ref> It specifies rules for movements up (''aarohanam'') and down (''avarohanam''), the [[musical scale|scale]] of which [[note (music)|notes]] should figure more and which notes should be used more sparingly, which notes may be sung with ''[[gamaka (music)|gamaka]]'' (ornamentation), which phrases should be used or avoided, and so on. In effect, it is a series of obligatory musical events which must be observed, either absolutely or with a particular frequency.<ref name="Nettl1974">{{cite journal | last = Nettl |first = Bruno |author-link=Bruno Nettl|title = Thoughts On Improvisation: A Comparative Approach| journal = [[Musical Quarterly]]|volume = LX |pages = 9–12 |year = 1974 | doi = 10.1093/mq/LX.1.1}}</ref>

In Carnatic music, the ''sampoorna ragas'' (those with all seven notes in their scales) are classified into a system called the ''[[melakarta]]'', which groups them according to the kinds of notes that they have. There are seventy-two ''melakarta ragas'', thirty six of whose madhyama ([[subdominant]]) is shuddha ([[perfect fourth]] from the tonic), the remaining thirty-six of whose madhyama (subdominant) is prati (an [[augmented fourth]] from the tonic). The ''ragas'' are grouped into sets of six, called ''[[chakra]]s'' ("wheels", though actually segments in the conventional representation) grouped according to the [[supertonic]] and [[mediant]] scale degrees. There is a system known as the ''[[katapayadi sankhya]]'' to determine the names of ''melakarta raga''s.

''Raga''s may be divided into two classes: ''janaka raga''s (i.e. melakarta or parent ragas) and ''[[janya]] raga''s (descendant ragas of a particular janaka raga). Janya ragas are themselves subclassified into various categories.

===Tala system===
{{Main|Tala (music)}}
''[[Tala (music)|Tala]]'' refers to a fixed time cycle or metre, set for a particular composition, which is built from groupings of beats.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} ''Tala''s have cycles of a defined number of beats and rarely change within a song. They have specific components, which in combinations can give rise to the variety to exist (over 108), allowing different compositions to have different rhythms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.karnatik.com/glosst.shtml|title=Royal Carpet: Glossary of Carnatic Terms T|work=karnatik.com}}</ref>

Carnatic music singers usually keep the beat by moving their hands up and down in specified patterns, and using their fingers simultaneously to keep time. ''Tala'' is formed with three basic parts (called ''anga''s) which are ''laghu'', ''dhrtam'', and ''anudhrtam'', though complex talas may have other parts like ''plutam'', ''guru'', and ''kaakapaadam''. There are seven basic ''tala'' groups which can be formed from the ''laghu'', ''dhrtam'', and ''anudhrtam'':

* Ata tala
* Dhruva tala
* Eka tala
* Jhampa tala
* Matya tala{{citation needed|date=September 2012}}
* Rupaka tala
* Triputa tala

A ''laghu'' has five variants (called ''jaathi''s) based on the counting pattern. Five ''jaathis'' times seven tala groups gives thirty-five basic ''tala''s, although use of other ''anga''s results in a total of 108 ''tala''s.

==Improvisation==
Improvisation in ''raga'' is the soul of [[Indian classical music]]<ref name="Mann1912">{{cite journal | last = MacCarthy |first = M.| title = Some Indian Conceptions of Music| journal = Proceedings of the Musical Association|volume = 38th Sess | pages = 41–65 |year = 1912 | doi=10.1093/jrma/38.1.41|url = https://zenodo.org/record/1431793}}</ref> – an essential aspect.<ref name="Kassebaum1987">{{cite journal | last = Kassebaum |first = G. R.| title = Improvisation in Alapana Performance: A Comparative View of Raga Shankarabharana
| journal = [[Yearbook for Traditional Music]] |volume = 19 |pages = 45–64 |year = 1987 | doi = 10.2307/767877 | jstor = 767877 | publisher = International Council for Traditional Music}}</ref> "''Manodharma Sangeetam''" or "''kalpana Sangeetam''" ("music of imagination") as it is known in Carnatic music, embraces several varieties of improvisation.<ref name="Kassebaum1987"/><ref>[[#Arnold2000|Kassebaum (2000)]], p17</ref>

The main traditional forms of improvisation in Carnatic music consist of the following:<ref name="Higgins1973">{{cite journal | last = Higgins |first = J. B.| title = untitled | journal = Asian Music |volume = 4 | issue = 2 |pages = 27–35 |year = 1973|doi = 10.2307/833829|jstor = 833829}}</ref><ref>[[#NettlRussells1998|Viswanathan & Cormack (1998)]], pp. 219–220.</ref>

* Alapana
* Niraval
* Pallavi
* Ragam
* Swarakalpana
* Tanam
* Tani Avartanam

===Raga Alapana===
{{Main|Alapana}}
An alapana, sometimes also called ragam,<ref name="Wolf1999">{{cite journal | last = Wolf |first = R.| title = untitled | journal = Asian Music |volume = 30 | issue = 1 |pages = 199–203 |year = 1999|doi = 10.2307/834271|jstor = 834271}}</ref> is the exposition of a [[raga]] or tone – a slow improvisation with no rhythm,<ref name="RoyalCarpetGlossary-R">{{cite web|url=http://www.karnatik.com/glossr.shtml|title=Royal Carpet: Glossary of Carnatic Terms R|work=karnatik.com}}</ref> where the raga acts as the basis of embellishment.<ref name="Nettl1974"/> In performing alapana, performers consider each raga as an object that has beginnings and endings and consists somehow of sequences of thought.<ref name="Nettl1974"/>

The performer will explore the [[ragam]] and touch on its various nuances,<ref name="Wolf1999"/> singing in the lower octaves first, then gradually moving up to higher octaves, while giving a hint of the song to be performed.<ref name="RoyalCarpetGlossary-R"/>

Theoretically, this ought to be the easiest type of improvisation, since the rules are so few, but in fact, it takes much skill to sing a pleasing, comprehensive (in the sense of giving a "feel for the ragam") and, most importantly, original raga alapana.

===Niraval===
{{Main|Niraval}}
Niraval, usually performed by the more advanced performers, consists of singing one or two lines of text of a song repeatedly, but with a series of melodic improvised elaborations.<ref name="Higgins1987">{{cite journal | last = Higgins |first = J. B.
|title = Performing Arts in India: Essays on Music, Dance, and Drama| journal = Asian Music |volume = 18 | issue = 2 |pages = 103–118 |year = 1987 | doi=10.2307/833942|jstor = 833942
}}</ref> Although niraval consists of extempore melodic variations, generally, the original patterns of duration are maintained;<ref>[[#Randel2003|Randel (2003)]], p562</ref> each word in the lines of text stay set within their original place (''idam'') in the [[Tala (music)|tala]] cycle.<ref name="Viswanathan 1998 p232">[[#NettlRussells1998|Viswanathan & Cormack (1998)]], p232</ref> The lines are then also played at different levels of speed which can include double speed, triple speed, quadruple speed and even [[sextuple]] speed.<ref name="Henry2002">{{cite journal | last = Henry |first = E. O.
|title = The Rationalization of Intensity in Indian Music| journal = Ethnomusicology |volume = 46 | issue = 1 |pages = 33–35 |year = 2002 | doi = 10.2307/852807 | jstor = 852807 | publisher = Society for Ethnomusicology}}</ref> The improvised elaborations are made with a view of outlining the raga, the tempo, and the theme of the composition.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}}

===Kalpanaswaram===
{{Main|Kalpanaswaram}}
Kalpanaswaram, also known as swarakalpana, consists of improvising melodic and rhythmic passages using ''[[swara]]s'' (solfa syllables).<ref>[[#NettlRussell1998|Viswanathan & Cormack (1998)]], p219</ref> Like niraval,<ref>[[#NettlRussell1998|Viswanathan & Cormack (1998)]], p232</ref> kalpanaswaras are sung to end on a particular swara in the [[raga]] of the melody and at a specific place (''idam'') in the [[Tala (music)|tala]] cycle.<ref>[[#NettlRussell1998|Viswanathan & Cormack (1998)]], p221</ref>

Kalpanaswaras have a somewhat predictable rhythmical structure;<ref>[[#SolisNettl2009|Solis & Nettl (2009)]], p188</ref> the swaras are sung to end on the ''samam'' (the first beat of the rhythmical cycle).<ref name="Henry2002"/> The swaras can also be sung at the same speed or double the speed of the melody that is being sung, though some artists sing triple-speed phrases too.<ref name="Henry2002"/>

Kalpanaswaram is the most elementary type of improvisation, usually taught before any other form of improvisation.

===Tanam===
Tanam is one of the most important forms of improvisation, and is integral to Ragam Tanam Pallavi.<ref name="Palackal1998">{{cite journal | last = Palackal |first = J. J.
|title = untitled| journal = Yearbook for Traditional Music|volume = 30 | pages = 207 |year = 1998 | doi=10.2307/768616|jstor = 768616
}}</ref> Originally developed for the veena, it consists of expanding the raga with syllables like ''tha, nam, thom, aa, nom, na,'' etc.

===Ragam Tanam Pallavi===
{{Main|Ragam Tanam Pallavi}}
Ragam, Tanam, and Pallavi are the principal long form in concerts,<ref name="Palackal1998"/> and is a composite form of improvisation. As the name suggests, it consists of raga alapana, tanam, and a [[pallavi]] line. Set to a slow-paced [[Tala (music)|tala]], the pallavi line is often composed by the performer. Through niraval, the performer manipulates the pallavi line in complex melodic and rhythmic ways.<ref name="Wolf1999"/> The niraval is followed by kalpanaswarams.

=== Tani Avartanam ===
Tani Avartanam refers to the extended solo that is played by the percussionists in a concert,<ref name="Kassebaum 2000">[[#Arnold2000|Kassebaum (2000)]], 158</ref> and is usually played after the main composition in a concert.<ref name="Viswanathan 1998 p232"/> The percussionist displays the full range of his skills and rhythmic imagination during the solo, which may take from two to twenty minutes.<ref name="Kassebaum 2000"/>

==Compositions==
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2014}}
In contrast to [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani music]] of the northern part of India, Carnatic music is taught and learned through compositions, which encode many intricate musical details, also providing scope for free improvisation. Nearly every rendition of a Carnatic music composition is different and unique as it embodies elements of the composer's vision, as well as the musician's interpretation.

A Carnatic composition really has two elements, one being the musical element, the other being what is conveyed in the composition. It is probably because of this fact that most Carnatic music compositions are composed for singing. In addition to the rich musical experience, each composition brings out the knowledge and personality of the composer, and hence the words are as important as the musical element itself. This poses a special challenge for the musicians because rendering this music does not involve just playing or singing the correct musical notes; the musicians are expected to understand what was conveyed by the composer in various languages, and sing musical phrases that act to create the effect that was intended by the composer in his/her composition.

There are many types/forms of compositions.

''[[Geetham]]s'' and ''[[swarajati]]s'' (which have their own peculiar composition structures) are principally meant to serve as basic learning exercises.

Compositions more commonly associated with [[Indian classical dance]] and [[bhakthi|Indian devotional music]] have also been increasingly used in the Carnatic music repertoire. The performance of the [[Sanskrit]] ''[[shloka|sloka]]'', [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ''[[viruttam]]'' and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] ''padyamu'' or ''sisapadya'' forms are particularly unique. Though these forms consist of lyric-based [[verse (popular music)|verses]], musicians improvise ''[[raga]]'' phrases in free rhythm, like an [[alapana]],<ref name="Higgins1987"/> so both the sound value, and the meaning of the text, guide the musician through elaborate melodic improvisations.<ref name="Higgins1985">{{cite journal | last = Higgins |first = J. B.
|title = India| journal = Ethnomusicology|volume = 29 | issue = 1 |pages = 162–166 |year = 1985 | doi = 10.2307/852348 | jstor = 852348 | publisher = Society for Ethnomusicology}}</ref> Forms such as the ''[[Divya Prabandha|divya prabandham]]'', ''[[thevaram]]'' and ''[[ugabhoga]]'' are often performed similarly, however, these forms can also have a set melody and rhythm like the ''devaranama'', ''javali'', ''padam'', ''[[thillana]]'' and ''[[thiruppugazh]]'' forms.

The most common and significant forms in Carnatic music are the ''[[varnam]]'' and the ''[[kriti]]'' (or ''kirtanam'').

===Varnam===
{{Main|Varnam}}

Varnams are short metric pieces which encapsulate the main features and requirements of a ''[[raga]]''.<ref>[[#Nettl2005|Nettl (2005)]], p189</ref> The features and rules of the raga (also known as the ''sanchaaraas'' of a raga) include how each note of the raga should be stressed, the scale of the raga, and so on.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=http://www.karnatik.com/glossv.shtml|title=Royal Carpet: Glossary of Carnatic Terms V|work=karnatik.com}}</ref> All varnams consist of lyrics,<ref name="Bradnock 1992 p631">[[#Bradnock1992|Bradnock (1992)]], p631</ref> as well as swara passages, including a ''[[pallavi]]'', an ''[[anupallavi]]'', ''muktayi swaras'', a ''[[charanam]]'', and ''[[chitta swara|chittaswaras]]''.<ref name="autogenerated2" />

Known for their complex structure, varnams are a fundamental form in Carnatic music.<ref name="Bradnock 1992 p631"/> Varnams are practised as vocal exercises in multiple speeds by performers of Carnatic music, to help develop voice culture, and maintain proper pitch and control of rhythm. In Carnatic music concerts, varnams are often performed by musicians as the opening item – acting as a warm up for the musicians,<ref>[[#Gupta2006|Gupta (2006)]], p68</ref> and as a means of grabbing the attention of the audience.<ref name="autogenerated2" />

===Kriti===
{{Main|Kriti}}
Carnatic songs (kritis) are varied in structure and style, but generally consist of three units:
# [[Pallavi]]. This is the equivalent of a [[refrain]] in Western music, with 1 or 2 lines.
# [[Anupallavi]]. This is the second verse, also as 2 lines.
# [[Charanam|Charana]]. The final (and longest) verse that wraps up the song. The Charanam usually borrows patterns from the Anupallavi. There can be multiple charanas.

This kind of song is called a ''keerthanam'' or a ''[[kriti]]''. There are other possible structures for a ''kriti'', which may in addition include swara passages named ''chittaswara''. A ''chittaswara'' consists only of notes, and has no words. Still others have a verse at the end of the ''charana'', called the ''madhyamakāla''. It is sung immediately after the ''charana'', but at double speed.

==Prominent composers==

{{See also | List of Carnatic composers|Musicians of the Kingdom of Mysore}}
There are many composers in Carnatic music. [[Purandara Dasa]] (1484–1564) is referred to as the ''Pitamaha'' (the father or grandfather) of Carnatic music as he formulated the basic lessons in teaching Carnatic music, and in honour of his significant contribution to Carnatic music. He structured graded exercises known as ''Swaravalis'' and ''Alankaras'', and at the same time, introduced the ''[[Raga]]'' [[Mayamalavagowla]] as the first scale to be learnt by beginners. He also composed ''Gitas'' (simple songs) for novice students.

The contemporaries [[Tyagaraja]] (1767– 1847), [[Muthuswami Dikshitar]], (1776–1835) and [[Syama Sastri]], (1762–1827) are regarded as the [[Trinity of Carnatic music]] because of the quality of [[Syama Sastri]]'s compositions, the varieties of compositions of [[Muthuswami Dikshitar]], and [[Tyagaraja]]'s prolific output in composing ''[[kriti]]s''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2006/03/31/stories/2006033100510300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060919223436/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2006/03/31/stories/2006033100510300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2006-09-19|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=The golden era}}</ref>

Prominent composers prior to the [[Trinity of Carnatic music]] include [[Sripadaraja]], [[Vyasatirtha]], [[Kanakadasa]], [[Vadiraja Tirtha]], [[Arunachala Kavi]], [[Annamacharya]], [[Narayana Teertha|Narayana Theertha]], [[Vijaya Dasa]], [[Jagannatha Dasa]], [[Gopala Dasa]], [[Bhadrachala Ramadas]], [[Sadasiva Brahmendra]] and [[Oottukkadu Venkata Kavi]]. Other composers are [[Swathi Thirunal]], [[Gopalakrishna Bharathi]], [[Neelakanta Sivan]], [[Patnam Subramania Iyer]], [[Mysore Vasudevachar]], [[Koteeswara Iyer]], [[Muthiah Bhagavathar]], [[Subramania Bharathiyar]], [[Kalyani Varadarajan]], [[M. Balamuralikrishna]] and [[Papanasam Sivan]]. The compositions of these composers are rendered frequently by artists of today.

Composers of Carnatic music were often inspired by religious devotion and were usually scholars proficient in one or more of the languages [[Kannada language|Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], or [[Telugu language|Telugu]]. They usually included a signature, called a ''[[Mudras in Indian Music|mudra]]'', in their compositions. For example, all songs by Tyagaraja (who composed in Telugu) have the word ''Tyagaraja'' in them, all songs by Muthuswami Dikshitar (who composed in Sanskrit) have the words ''Guruguha'' in them; songs by Syama Sastri (who composed in Telugu) have the words ''Syama Krishna'' in them; all songs by Purandaradasa (who composed in Kannada) have the words ''Purandara Vittala''; while Gopalakrishna Bharathi (who composed in Tamil) used the signature ''Gopalakrishnan'' in his compositions. Papanasam Sivan, who has been hailed as the ''Tamil Tyagaraja'' of Carnatic music,<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2002/01/04/stories/2002010401120600.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030627174438/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/fr/2002/01/04/stories/2002010401120600.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2003-06-27|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=Focus on veena's exalted status}}</ref> composed in Tamil and Sanskrit,<ref name="autogenerated1" /> and used the signature ''Ramadasan'' in his compositions.

==Learning==
Carnatic music is traditionally taught according to the system formulated by [[Purandara Dasa]]. This involves ''sarali swaras'' (graded exercises), ''alankaras'' (exercises based on the seven talas), ''[[geethams|geetams]]'' or simple songs, and [[Swarajatis]]. After the student has reached a certain standard, ''[[varnam]]s'' are taught and later, the student learns [[kriti]]s. It typically takes several years of learning before a student is adept enough to perform at a concert.

The learning texts and exercises are more or less uniform across all the South Indian states. The learning structure is arranged in increasing order of complexity. The lessons start with the learning of the ''sarali varisai'' ([[solfege]] set to a particular raga).

Carnatic music was traditionally taught in the [[gurukula]] system, where the student lived with and learnt the art from his [[guru]] (perceptor). From the late 20th century onwards, with changes in lifestyles and need for young music aspirants to simultaneously pursue a parallel academic career, this system has found few takers.

Musicians often take great pride in letting people know about their [[Guru]] [[Parampara]], or the hierarchy of disciples from some prominent ancient musician or composer, to which they belong. People whose disciple-hierarchies are often referred to are [[Tyagaraja]], [[Muthuswami Dikshitar]], [[Syama Sastri]], [[Swathi Thirunal]] and [[Papanasam Sivan]], among others.

In modern times, it is common for students to visit their gurus daily or weekly to learn music. Though new technology has made learning easier with the availability of quick-learn media such as learning exercises recorded on audio cassettes and CDs, these are discouraged by most gurus who emphasize that face-to-face learning is best for students.

===Notations===
Notation is not a new concept in Indian music. However, Carnatic music continued to be transmitted orally for centuries without being written down. The disadvantage with this system was that if one wanted to learn about a [[kriti]] composed, for example, by [[Purandara Dasa]], it involved the difficult task of finding a person from Purandara Dasa's lineage of students.

Written notation of Carnatic music was revived in the late 17th century and early 18th century, which coincided with rule of [[Shahaji II]] in [[Tanjore]]. Copies of Shahaji's musical manuscripts are still available at the [[Saraswati Mahal Library]] in [[Tanjore]] and they give us an idea of the music and its form. They contain snippets of [[solfege]] to be used when performing the mentioned ragas.

====Melody====
Unlike classical [[Classical music|Western music]], Carnatic music is notated almost exclusively in [[tonic sol-fa]] notation using either a Roman or Indic script to represent the solfa names. Past attempts to use the [[staff notation]] have mostly failed. Indian music makes use of hundreds of ragas, many more than the [[Musical mode|church modes]] in Western music. It becomes difficult to write Carnatic music using the staff notation without the use of too many [[accidental (music)|accidentals]]. Furthermore, the staff notation requires that the song be played in a certain [[key (music)|key]]. The notions of key and absolute pitch are deeply rooted in Western music, whereas the Carnatic notation does not specify the key and prefers to use [[scale degree]]s (relative pitch) to denote notes. The singer is free to choose the actual pitch of the [[tonic (music)|tonic]] note. In the more precise forms of Carnatic notation, there are symbols placed above the notes indicating how the notes should be played or sung; however, informally this practice is not followed.

To show the length of a note, several devices are used. If the duration of note is to be doubled, the letter is either capitalized (if using Roman script) or lengthened by a [[diacritic]] (in Indian languages). For a duration of three, the letter is capitalized (or diacriticized) and followed by a comma. For a length of four, the letter is capitalized (or diacriticized) and then followed by a semicolon. In this way any duration can be indicated using a series of semicolons and commas.

However, a simpler notation has evolved which does not use semicolons and capitalization, but rather indicates all extensions of notes using a corresponding number of commas. Thus, ''Sā'' quadrupled in length would be denoted as "S,,,".

====Rhythm====
The notation is divided into columns, depending on the structure of the [[Tala (music)|''tāḷaṃ'']]. The division between a ''laghu'' and a ''dhrutam'' is indicated by a।, called a ''ḍaṇḍā'', and so is the division between two ''dhrutams'' or a ''dhrutam'' and an ''anudhrutam''. The end of a cycle is marked by a॥, called a ''double ḍaṇḍā'', and looks like a [[caesura]].

==Performance==
{{Main|Performances of Carnatic music}}
Carnatic music is usually performed by a small ensemble of musicians, who sit on an elevated stage. This usually consists of, at least, a principal performer, a melodic accompaniment, a rhythm accompaniment, and a drone.<ref name="LArmand1983">{{cite journal | last = L'Armand |first = A. K.
|title = One Hundred Years of Music in Madras: A Case Study in Secondary Urbanization| journal = Ethnomusicology |volume = 27 |pages = 411–438 |year = 1983 | doi = 10.2307/850653 | author2 = L'armand, Adrian | issue = 3 | publisher = Society for Ethnomusicology|jstor = 850653
}}</ref>

Performances can be musical or musical-dramatic. Musical recitals are either vocal, or purely instrumental in nature, while musical-dramatic recitals refer to [[Harikatha]].<ref name="LArmand1983"/> But, irrespective of what type of recital it is, what is featured are compositions which form the core of this genre of music.

===Instrumentation===
{{See also|Indian musical instruments}}
The ''[[Tanpura|tambura]]'' is the traditional [[Drone (music)|drone]] instrument used in concerts. However, tamburas are increasingly being replaced by [[Sruti box|''śruti'' box]]es, and now more commonly, the [[Electronic tanpura|electronic ''tambura'']]. The drone itself is an integral part of performances and furnishes stability – the equivalent of [[harmony]] in Western music.<ref name="Rosenthal1931">{{cite journal | last = Rosenthal|first = E.|title = Tyagaraja: A Great South Indian Composer| journal = Musical Quarterly |volume = XVII |pages = 14–24 |year = 1931 | doi = 10.1093/mq/XVII.1.14}}</ref>

In a vocal recital, a concert team may have one or more vocalists as the principal performer(s). Instruments, such as the [[Saraswati veena]] and/or [[venu]] flute, can be occasionally found as an accompaniment, but usually, a vocalist is supported by a violin player (who sits on his/her left). The rhythm accompanist is usually a [[mridangam]] player (who sits on the other side, facing the violin player). However, other percussion instruments such as the [[ghatam]], [[kanjira]] and [[morsing]] frequently also accompany the main percussion instrument and play in an almost [[contrapuntal]] fashion along with the beats.

The objective of the accompanying instruments is far more than following the melody and keeping the beats. The accompaniments form an integral part of every composition presented, and they closely follow and augment the melodic phrases outlined by the lead singer. The vocalist and the violinist take turns while elaborating or while exhibiting creativity in sections like [[raga]], [[niraval]] and [[kalpanaswaram]].

Unlike [[Hindustani music]] concerts, where an accompanying [[tabla]] player can keep beats without following the musical phrases at times, in Carnatic music, the accompanists have to follow the intricacies of the composition since there are percussion elements such as eduppu in several compositions.

Some concerts feature a good bit of interaction with the lead musicians and accompanists exchanging notes, and accompanying musicians predicting the lead musician's musical phrases.

===Contemporary concert content===
A contemporary Carnatic music concert (called a ''kutcheri'') usually lasts about three hours, and comprises a number of varied compositions. Carnatic songs are composed in a particular ''[[raga]]'', which means that they do not deviate from the notes in the ''[[raga]]''. Each composition is set with specific notes and beats, but performers improvise extensively. Improvisation occurs in the melody of the composition as well as in using the notes to expound the beauty of the ''[[raga]]''.

Concerts usually begin with a ''[[varnam]]'' or an invocatory item which will act as the opening piece. The ''[[varnam]]'' is composed with an emphasis on ''[[swara]]s'' of the raga, but will also have lyrics, the ''saahityam''. It is lively and fast to get the audience's attention. An invocatory item may usually follow the ''varnam''.

After the ''[[varnam]]'' and/or invocatory item, the artist sings longer compositions called ''kirtanas'' (commonly referred to as ''[[kriti]]''s). Each [[kriti]] sticks to one specific ''raga'', although some are composed with more than one raga; these are known as ''ragamalika'' (a garland of ''ragas'').

After singing the opening ''[[kriti]]'', usually, the performer sings the ''[[kalpanaswaram]]'' of the ''[[raga]]'' to the beat. The performer must improvise a string of ''[[swara]]s'' in any octave according to the rules of the raga and return to beginning of the cycle of beats smoothly, joining the ''[[swara]]s'' with a phrase selected from the ''[[kriti]]''. The violin performs these alternately with the main performer. In very long strings of ''[[swara]]'', the performers must calculate their notes accurately to ensure that they stick to the ''[[raga]]'', have no awkward pauses or lapses in the beat of the song, and create a complex pattern of notes that a knowledgeable audience can follow.

Performers then begin the main compositions with a section called ''[[Alapana|raga alapana]]'' exploring the ''[[raga]]''. In this, they use the sounds ''aa, ri, na, ta'', etc. instead of ''[[swaras]]'' to slowly elaborate the notes and flow of the raga. This begins slowly and builds to a crescendo, and finally establishes a complicated exposition of the ''[[raga]]'' that shows the performer's skill. All of this is done without any rhythmic accompaniment, or beat. Then the melodic accompaniment (violin or veena), expounds the ''[[raga]]''. Experienced listeners can identify many ragas after they hear just a few notes. With the ''[[raga]]'' thus established, the song begins, usually with lyrics. In this, the accompaniment (usually violin, sometimes veena) performs along with the main performer and the percussion (such as a [[mridangam]]). In the next stage of the song, they may sing ''[[niraval]]'' or ''kalpanaswaram'' again.

In most concerts, the main item will at least have a section at the end of the item, for the percussion to perform solo (called the ''tani avartanam''). The percussion artists perform complex patterns of rhythm and display their skill. If multiple percussion instruments are employed, they engage in a rhythmic dialogue until the main performer picks up the melody once again. Some experienced artists may follow the main piece with a ''[[Ragam Thanam Pallavi|ragam thanam pallavi]]'' mid-concert, if they do not use it as the main item.

Following the main composition, the concert continues with shorter and lighter songs. Some of the types of songs performed towards the end of the concerts are ''[[tillana]]s'' and ''thukkadas'' – bits of popular ''kriti''s or compositions requested by the audience. Every concert that is the last of the day ends with a ''mangalam'', a thankful prayer and conclusion to the musical event.

===Audience===
The audience of a typical concert will have some understanding of Carnatic music. It is also typical to see the audience tapping out the ''tala'' in sync with the artist's performance. As and when the artist exhibits creativity, the audience acknowledge it by clapping their hands. With experienced artists, towards the middle of the concert, requests start flowing in. The artist usually sings the requests, and it helps in exhibiting the artist's broad knowledge of the several thousand [[kriti]]s that are in existence.

===Festivals===
{{Main|List of Carnatic music festivals|Madras Music Season}}

Various [[music festivals]] featuring Carnatic music performances are held in India, and throughout the world.

With the city of [[Chennai]] (then known as [[Madras]]) emerging as the locus for Carnatic music during the 19th century,<ref name="Hughes2002"/> its musicians founded the [[Tyagaraja Aradhana]] festival in 1846. The Aradhana festival is an annual death-anniversary celebration of the prolific Carnatic music composer, [[Tyagaraja]]. Held in the city of [[Thiruvayaru]], thousands of musicians attend the festival to perform his compositions. Since its inception, other festivals were started in a similar manner throughout India and abroad, such as the [[Chembai Sangeetholsavam]] in the Indian city of [[Guruvayur]], and the Aradhana in the US city of [[Cleveland]].

The city of Chennai also holds a six-week-long grand "[[Madras Music Season|Music Season]]", which has been described as the world's largest cultural event.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/02/03/stories/2005020301281000.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050207150555/http://www.hindu.com/2005/02/03/stories/2005020301281000.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2005-02-07|title=Musical Musings|access-date=2007-01-13|location=Chennai, India|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=2005-02-03}}</ref> The Music Season was started in 1927, to mark the opening of the [[Madras Music Academy]]. It used to be a traditional month-long Carnatic music festival, but since then it has also diversified into [[dance]] and [[drama]], as well as non-Carnatic art forms. Some concert organisers also feature their own Carnatic music festivals during the season. Thousands of performances are held by hundreds of musicians across various venues in the city.

The [[Karnataka Ganakala Parishat]] is an annual conference of Carnatic music, held in February every year, which has lectures and demonstrations in the morning, and performances in the afternoons and evenings.

==See also==

{{Portal|India|Music}}
* [[List of Carnatic composers]]
* [[List of Carnatic instrumentalists]]
* [[Trinity of Carnatic music]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Kassebaum, Gayatri Rajapur. ‘Karnatak raga’ (2000). In {{cite book|title=The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music|last=Arnold|first=Alison|publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=[[New York City|New York]] & [[London]]|ref=Arnold2000}}
* {{cite book|title=Romance of the Raga|last=Moorthy|first=Vijaya|year=2001|publisher=Abhinav Publications|location=[[New Delhi]]|ref=Moorthy2001}}
* Nettl, B. (2009). In {{cite book|title=Musical Improvisation: Art, Education, and Society|last=Solis|first=Gabriel|author2=Nettl, Bruno|year=2009|publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]|ref=SolisNettl2009}}
* {{cite book|title=Musical Composers during Wodeyar Dynasty (1638–1947 A.D.)|last=Pranesh|first=Meera Rajaram|year=2003|publisher=Vee Emm Publications|location=[[Bangalore]]|ref=Pranesh2003}}
* {{cite book|title=The Harvard Dictionary of Music|last=Randel|first=Don Michael|year=2003|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=United States|ref=Randel2003}}
* Viswanathan, T. & Cormack, Jody (1998). In {{cite book|title=In the Course of Performance: Studies in the World of Musical Improvisation|last=Nettl|first=Bruno|author-link=Bruno Nettl|author2=Russell, Melinda|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=[[Chicago]] & [[London]]|ref=NettlRussell1998|isbn=0-226-57411-3|date=15 December 1998|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/incourseofperfor0000unse}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |title=The Music and Musical Instruments of southern India and the Deccan |author=Charles Russel Day |others=William Gibb (lllus.) |publisher=Novello, Ewer & Co., London - |year=1891 |url=https://archive.org/stream/musicmusicalinst00dayc#page/n7/mode/2up }}
* {{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica | edition=15 | year=2005 | article=[Carnatic music]}}
* {{cite book | author= Panchapakesa Iyer, A. S.| title= Gānāmruta Varna Mālikā| publisher=Gānāmruta Prachuram | year=2003 }}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
* {{curlie|Arts/Music/Styles/C/Classical_Indian/Carnatic}}

{{Melakarta ragas}}
{{Janya}}
{{Violin family}}

{{Karnataka topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Carnatic music| ]]
[[Category:Indian styles of music]]
[[Category:South India]]
[[Category:Classical and art music traditions]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Carnatic violinists]]

Hindustani classical music

2021-06-26T08:42:20Z

Suryabeej: Created page with " '''Hindustani classical music''' is the classical music of northern regions of the Indian subcontinent. It may also be called '''North Indian c..."

'''Hindustani classical music''' is the [[Indian classical music|classical music]] of northern regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It may also be called '''North Indian classical music''' or, in [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], '''''shastriya sangeet''''' ({{IAST|śāstriya saṅgīt}}). Its origins date from the 12th century [[Common Era|CE]], when it diverged from [[Carnatic music]], the classical tradition of southern regions of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Carnatic Music {{!}} ipassio wiki|url=https://wiki.ipassio.com/music-styles/indian-classical-music/carnatic-music|access-date=2021-03-17|website=wiki.ipassio.com}}</ref>

== History ==
Around the 12th century, Hindustani classical music diverged from what eventually came to be identified as [[Carnatic classical music]]. Hindustani music places more emphasis on improvisation and exploring all aspects of a raga, while Carnatic music is primarily composition-based. The central notion in both these systems is that of a melodic [[musical mode]] or ''[[raga]]'', sung to a rhythmic cycle or ''[[Tala (music)|tala]]''. It is melodic music, with no concept of harmony. These principles were refined in the musical treatises ''[[Natya Shastra]]'', by [[Bharata Muni|Bharata]] (2nd–3rd century CE), and ''[[Dattilam]]'' (probably 3rd–4th century CE).<ref>A Study of Dattilam: A Treatise on the Sacred Music of Ancient India, 1978, p 283, Mukunda Lāṭha, Dattila</ref>

In medieval times, the melodic systems were fused with ideas from Persian music, particularly through the influence of Sufi composers like [[Amir Khusro]], and later in the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] courts, noted composers such as [[Tansen]] flourished, along with religious groups like the [[Vaishnavite]]s.

After the 16th century, the singing styles diversified into different [[gharana]]s patronized in different princely courts. Around 1900, [[Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande]] consolidated the musical structures of Hindustani classical music, called [[raga]]s, into a few [[thaat]]s based on their notes. This is a very flawed system but is somewhat useful as a heuristic.

Distinguished musicians who are [[Hindu]] may be addressed as ''[[Pandit]]'' and those who are [[Muslim]] as ''[[Ustad]]''. An aspect of Hindustani music going back to [[Sufi]] times is the tradition of religious neutrality: Muslim ustads may sing compositions in praise of Hindu deities and vice versa.

== Characteristics ==
Indian classical music has seven basic notes with five interspersed half-notes, resulting in a 12-note scale. Unlike the 12-note scale in Western music, the base frequency of the scale is not fixed, and intertonal gaps ([[Interval (music)|temperament]]) may also vary. The performance is set to a melodic pattern called a ''raga'' characterized in part by specific ascent ([[arohana|aroha]]) and descent ([[avaroha]]) sequences, "king" ([[Vadi (Hindustani classical music)|vadi]]) and "queen" ([[samavadi]]) notes and characteristic phrases ([[pakad]]).{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}

Ragas may originate from any source, including religious hymns, folk tunes, and music from outside the Indian subcontinent{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}. For example, raga Khamaj and its variants have been classicized from folk music, while ragas such as Hijaz (also called Basant Mukhari) originated in Persian maqams.

== History ==
=== Sanskritic tradition ===
[[Ravana]] and [[Narada]] from Hindu mythology are accomplished musicians; [[Saraswati]] with her [[veena]] is the goddess of music. [[Gandharva]]s are presented as spirits who are musical masters, and the gandharva style looks to music primarily for pleasure, accompanied by the [[soma (drink)|soma]] rasa. In the ''[[Vishnudharmottara Purana]]'', the Naga king Ashvatara asks to know the [[swara]]s from Saraswati{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}.

While the term ''raga'' is articulated in the ''Natya Shastra'' (where its meaning is more literal, meaning "colour" or "mood"), it finds a clearer expression in what is called ''jati'' in the ''[[Dattilam]]'', a text composed shortly after or around the same time as ''Natya Shastra''. The Dattilam is focused on gandharva music and discusses scales ([[swara]]), defining a tonal framework called ''grama'' in terms of 22 micro-tonal intervals ([[sruti]]<ref>The term ''sruti'' literally means "that which is heard". One of its senses refers to the "received" texts of the vedas; here it means notes of a scale.</ref>) comprising one octave. It also discusses various arrangements of the notes (''murchhana''), the permutations and combinations of note-sequences (''tanas''), and ''alankara'' or elaboration. Dattilam categorizes melodic structure into 18 groups called ''jati'', which are the fundamental melodic structures similar to the [[raga]]. The names of the jatis reflect regional origins, for example ''andhri'' and ''oudichya''{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}.

Music also finds mention in a number of texts from the [[Gupta period]]; [[Kalidasa]] mentions several kinds of veena (Parivadini, [[Vipanchi veena|Vipanchi]]), as well as percussion instruments ([[mridang]]), the flute (''vamshi'') and conch (''shankha''). Music also finds mention in [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Jain]] texts from the earliest periods of the common era{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}.

[[Narada (disambiguation)|Narada]]'s ''[[Sangita Makarandha]]'' treatise, from about 1100 CE, is the earliest text where rules similar to those of current Hindustani classical music can be found. Narada actually names and classifies the system in its earlier form before the Persian influences introduced changes in the system. [[Jayadeva]]'s ''[[Gita Govinda]]'' from the 12th century was perhaps the earliest musical composition sung in the classical tradition called [[Ashtapadi]] music{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}.

In the 13th century, [[Sharangadeva]] composed the ''[[Sangita Ratnakara]]'', which has names such as the ''turushka todi'' ("Turkish [[Todi (thaat)|Todi]]"), revealing an influx of ideas from Islamic culture. This text is the last to be mentioned by both the Carnatic and the Hindustani traditions and is often thought to date the divergence between the two.

=== Hindustani music’s influence during the Delhi Sultanate ===
[[File:Barbed rubab (lute), 1660-1670 CE, Golkonda.png|thumb |[[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Golkonda]] 1660-1670. Musician plays a form of [[Rubab (instrument)|rubab]]. Related instruments include the medieval Iranian rubab, the rubab of Afghanistan, Pakistan and Northern India, the Indian [[sarod]], [[sursingar]] and [[:de:kamaica|kamaica]], the Nepali-Tibetan-Bhutanese [[tungana]], the [[Pamiri rubab]] and the Uyghur [[rawap]]. The family of instruments blended Persian and Indian cultures, and has been played by Hindus, Buddhists and Muslims.]]

The advent of Islamic rule under the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and later the [[Mughal Empire]] over northern India caused considerable cultural interchange. Increasingly, musicians received patronage in the courts of the new rulers, who in their turn, started taking an increasing interest in local musical forms. While the initial generations may have been rooted in cultural traditions outside India, they gradually adopted many aspects from the Hindu culture from their kingdoms. This helped spur the fusion of Hindu and Muslim ideas to bring forth new forms of musical synthesis like [[qawwali]] and [[khyal]].

The most influential musician of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] period was [[Amir Khusrau]] (1253–1325), a composer in [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Arabic]], as well as [[Braj Bhasha]]. He is credited with systematizing some aspects of Hindustani music, and also introducing several ragas such as [[Yaman Kalyan]], [[Zeelaf]] and [[Sarpada]]. He created six genres of music: [[khyal]], [[tarana]], Naqsh, Gul, Qaul, and Qalbana. A number of instruments (such as the [[sitar]]) were also introduced in his time.

Amir Khusrau is sometimes credited with the origins of the [[khyal]] form, but the record of his compositions do not appear to support this. The compositions by the court musician [[Sadarang]] in the court of [[Muhammad Shah]] bear a closer affinity to the modern khyal. They suggest that while khyal already existed in some form, Sadarang may have been the father of modern khyal.

Much of the musical forms innovated by these pioneers merged with the Hindu tradition, composed in the popular language of the people (as opposed to Sanskrit) in the work of composers like [[Kabir]] or [[Nanak]]. This can be seen as part of a larger [[Bhakti]] tradition, (strongly related to the [[Vaishnavite]] movement) which remained influential across several centuries; notable figures include [[Jayadeva]] (11th century), [[Vidyapati]] (fl. 1375 CE), [[Chandidas]] (14th–15th century), and [[Meerabai]] (1555–1603 CE).

As the Mughal Empire came into closer contact with Hindus, especially under Jalal ud-Din [[Akbar]], music and dance also flourished. In particular, the musician [[Tansen]] introduced a number of innovations, including ragas and particular compositions. Legend has it that upon his rendition of a night-time raga in the morning, the entire city fell under a hush and clouds gathered in the sky and that he could light fires by singing the raga "Deepak".

At the royal house of [[Gwalior]], [[Man Singh Tomar|Raja Mansingh Tomar]] (1486–1516 CE) also participated in the shift from Sanskrit to the local idiom ([[Hindi]]) as the language for classical songs. He himself penned several volumes of compositions on religious and secular themes and was also responsible for the major compilation, the ''Mankutuhal'' ("Book of Curiosity"), which outlined the major forms of music prevalent at the time. In particular, the musical form known as [[dhrupad]] saw considerable development in his court and remained a strong point of the [[Gwalior gharana]] for many centuries.

After the dissolution of the Mughal empire, the patronage of music continued in smaller princely kingdoms like [[Awadh]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], and [[Benares State|Banaras]], giving rise to the diversity of styles that is today known as [[gharana]]s. Many musician families obtained large grants of land which made them self-sufficient, at least for a few generations (e.g. the [[Sham Chaurasia]] gharana). Meanwhile, the [[Bhakti]] and [[Sufi]] traditions continued to develop and interact with the different gharanas and groups.

=== Modern era ===

Until the late 19th century, Hindustani classical music was imparted on a one-on-one basis through the guru-shishya ("mentor-protégé") tradition. This system had many benefits, but also several drawbacks; in many cases, the shishya had to spend most of his time serving his guru with a hope that the guru might teach him a "[[Cheez (music)|cheez]]" (piece or nuance) or two. In addition, the system forced the music to be limited to a small subsection of the Indian community. To a large extent, it was limited to the palaces and dance halls. It was shunned by the intellectuals, avoided by the educated middle class, and in general, looked down upon as a frivolous practice.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loksatta.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021072124/http://www.loksatta.com/lokprabha/20051021/katha.htm|title=Marathi News, Latest Marathi News, Marathi News Paper,Marathi News Paper in Mumbai|archive-date=21 October 2009|website=Loksatta}}</ref>

First, as the power of the [[maharajah]]s and [[nawab]]s declined in the early 20th century, so did their patronage. With the expulsion of [[Wajid Ali Shah]] to [[Calcutta]] after 1857, the Lucknavi musical tradition came to influence the music of the renaissance in [[Bengal]], giving rise to the tradition of ''Ragpradhan gan'' around the turn of the century. [[Chakradhar Singh|Raja Chakradhar Singh of Raigarh]] was the last of the modern era Maharajas to patronize Hindustani classical musicians, singers and dancers.<ref>The Journal of the Music Academy, Madras - Volume 62 -1991 - Page 157</ref><ref>India's Kathak Dance Past, Present, Future: - Page 28</ref>

Also, at the turn of the century, [[Vishnu Digambar Paluskar]] and [[Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande]] spread Hindustani classical music to the masses in general by organizing music conferences, starting schools, teaching music in classrooms, devising a standardized grading and testing system, and standardizing the notation system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loksatta.com/|archive-url=https://archive.is/20120904103754/http://www.loksatta.com/lokprabha/20060127/shodh.htm|title=Marathi News, Latest Marathi News, Marathi News Paper,Marathi News Paper in Mumbai|archive-date=4 September 2012|website=Loksatta}}</ref>

[[Vishnu Digambar Paluskar]] emerged as a talented musician and organizer despite having been blinded at age 12. His books on music, as well as the ''[[Gandharva Mahavidyalaya]]'' music school that he opened in [[Lahore]] in 1901, helped foster a movement away from the closed gharana system.

Paluskar's contemporary (and occasional rival) [[Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande]] recognized the many rifts that had appeared in the structure of Indian classical music. He undertook extensive research visits to a large number of gharanas, Hindustani as well as Carnatic, collecting and comparing compositions. Between 1909 and 1932, he produced the monumental four-volume work ''Hindustani Sangeeta Paddhati'',<ref>
{{cite book
|title = Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande
|author = Hindustani Sangeeta Paddhati (4 volumes, [[Marathi language|Marathi]])
|year = 1909–1932
|publisher = Sangeet Karyalaya (1990 reprint)
|isbn = 81-85057-35-4
|title-link = Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande
}} Originally in [[Marathi language|Marathi]], this book has been widely translated.</ref> which suggested a transcription for Indian music, and described the many traditions in this notation. Finally, it suggested a possible categorization of [[raga]]s based on their notes into a number of [[thaat]]s (modes), subsequent to the [[Melakarta]] system that reorganized Carnatic tradition in the 17th century. The ragas that exist today were categorized according to this scheme, although there are some inconsistencies and ambiguities in Bhatkande's system.

In modern times, the government-run [[All India Radio]], [[Bangladesh Betar]] and [[Radio Pakistan]] helped to bring the artists to public attention, countering the loss of the patronage system. The first star was [[Gauhar Jan]], whose career was born out of [[Fred Gaisberg]]'s first recordings of Indian music in 1902. With the advance of films and other public media, musicians started to make their living through public performances. A number of [[Gurukul]]s, such as that of [[Alauddin Khan]] at [[Maihar]], flourished. In more modern times, corporate support has also been forthcoming, as at the [[ITC Sangeet Research Academy]]. Meanwhile, Hindustani classical music has become popular across the world through the influence of artists such as [[Ravi Shankar]] and [[Ali Akbar Khan]].

== Principles of Hindustani music ==
The [[Gandharva Veda]] is a Sanskrit scripture describing the theory of music and its applications in not just musical form and systems but also in physics, medicine and magic.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Rāgas of Northern Indian music|last=Alain|first=Daniélou|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal|others=Daniélou, Alain.|year=2014|isbn=978-8121502252|edition=2014|location=New Delhi|oclc=39028809}}</ref> It is said that there are two types of sound: ''āhata'' (struck/audible) and ''anāhata'' (unstruck/inaudible).<ref name=":0" /> The inaudible sound is said to be the principle of all manifestation, the basis of all substance.<ref name=":0" />

There are three main octaves: low (''mandra),'' medium (''madhya)'' and high (''tāra'')''.''<ref name=":0" /> Each octave resonates with a certain part of the body, low octave in the heart, medium octave in the throat and high octave in the head.<ref name=":0" />

The rhythmic organization is based on rhythmic patterns called [[Tala (music)|tala]]. The melodic foundations are called ragas. One possible classification of ragas is into "melodic modes" or "parent scales", known as [[thaat]]s, under which most [[raga]]s can be classified based on the notes they use.

Thaats may consist of up to seven scale degrees, or [[swara]]. Hindustani musicians name these pitches using a system called [[Swara|Sargam]], the equivalent of the Western movable ''do'' [[solfege]]:
* Sa ([[ṣaḍja]] षड्ज) = Do
* Re ([[Rishabh]] ऋषभ) = Re
* Ga ([[Gāndhāra]] गान्धार) = Mi
* Ma ([[Madhyama (music)]] मध्यम) = Fa
* Pa (Pancham पञ्चम) = So
* Dha (Dhaivat धैवत) = La
* Ni (Nishād निषाद) = Ti
* Sa (ṣaḍja षड्ज) = Do

Both systems repeat at the octave. The difference between sargam and solfege is that re, ga, ma, dha, and ni can refer to either "Natural" (''shuddha'') or altered "Flat" (''komal'') or "Sharp" (''teevra'') versions of their respective scale degrees. As with movable do solfege, the notes are heard relative to an arbitrary tonic that varies from performance to performance, rather than to fixed frequencies, as on a xylophone. The fine intonational differences between different instances of the same swara are called [[sruti (music)|srutis]]. The three primary registers of Indian classical music are mandra (lower), madhya (middle) and taar (upper). Since the octave location is not fixed, it is also possible to use provenances in mid-register (such as mandra-madhya or madhya-taar) for certain ragas. A typical rendition of Hindustani raga involves two stages:

* Alap: a rhythmically free improvisation on the rules for the raga in order to give life to the raga and flesh out its characteristics. The alap is followed by a long slow-tempo improvisation in vocal music, or by the jod and jhala in instrumental music.
Tans are of several types like Shuddha, Koot, Mishra, Vakra, Sapaat, Saral, Chhoot, Halaq, Jabda, Murki
* ''[[Bandish]]'' or ''[[Bandish|Gat]]'': a fixed, melodic composition set in a specific raga, performed with rhythmic accompaniment by a [[tabla]] or pakhavaj. There are different ways of systematizing the parts of a composition. For example:
** [[Sthayi|Sthaayi]]: The initial, [[rondo]] phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition
** [[Antara (music)|Antara]]: The first body phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition
** [[Sanchaari]]: The third body phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition, seen more typically in [[Dhrupad|dhrupad bandishes]]
** [[Aabhog]]: The fourth and concluding body phrase or line of a fixed, melodic composition, seen more typically in [[Dhrupad|Dhrupad bandishes]]
* There are three variations of bandish, regarding tempo:
** ''[[Vilambit]] bandish'': A slow and steady melodic composition, usually in largo to adagio speeds
** ''[[Madhyalaya]] bandish'': A medium tempo melodic composition, usually set in andante to allegretto speeds
** ''[[Drut]] bandish'': A fast tempo melodic composition, usually set to allegretto speed or faster

Hindustani classical music is primarily vocal-centric, insofar as the musical forms were designed primarily for a vocal performance, and many instruments were designed and evaluated as to how well they emulate the human voice.

== Types of compositions ==
The major vocal forms or styles associated with Hindustani classical music are [[dhrupad]], [[khyal]], and [[tarana]]. Light classical forms include [[Dhamar (music)|dhamar]], [[trivat]], [[chaiti]], [[kajari]], [[Tappa (music)|tappa]], [[tap-khyal]], [[ashtapadis]], [[thumri]], [[dadra]], [[ghazal]] and [[bhajan]]; these do not adhere to the rigorous rules of classical music.{{clarify|date=June 2020}}

=== Dhrupad ===
{{Main|Dhrupad}}
Dhrupad is an old style of singing, traditionally performed by male singers. It is performed with a [[Tanpura|tambura]] and a [[Pakhavaj|pakhawaj]] as instrumental accompaniments. The lyrics, some of which were written in Sanskrit centuries ago, are presently often sung in [[brajbhasha]], a medieval form of North and East Indian languages that were spoken in Eastern India. The [[rudra veena]], an ancient string instrument, is used in instrumental music in dhrupad.

Dhrupad music is primarily devotional in theme and content. It contains recitals in praise of particular deities. Dhrupad compositions begin with a relatively long and acyclic alap, where the syllables of the following mantra is recited:

<blockquote>
"''Om Anant tam Taran Tarini Twam Hari Om Narayan, Anant Hari Om Narayan''".</blockquote>

The alap gradually unfolds into more rhythmic jod and jhala sections. These sections are followed by a rendition of bandish, with the pakhawaj as an accompaniment. The great Indian musician [[Tansen]] sang in the dhrupad style. A lighter form of dhrupad called [[Dhamar (music)|dhamar]], is sung primarily during the spring festival of [[Holi]].

Dhrupad was the main form of northern Indian classical music until two centuries ago when it gave way to the somewhat less austere khyal, a more free-form style of singing. Since losing its main patrons among the royalty in Indian princely states, dhrupad risked becoming extinct in the first half of the twentieth century. However, the efforts by a few proponents, especially from the [[Dagar (disambiguation)|Dagar]] family, have led to its revival.

Some of the best known vocalists who sing in the Dhrupad style are the members of the Dagar lineage, including the senior Dagar brothers, [[Nasir Moinuddin Dagar|Nasir Moinuddin]] and [[Nasir Aminuddin Dagar]]; the junior Dagar brothers, [[Nasir Zahiruddin Dagar|Nasir Zahiruddin]] and [[Nasir Faiyazuddin Dagar]]; and [[Wasifuddin Dagar|Wasifuddin]], [[Fariduddin Dagar|Fariduddin]], and [[Sayeeduddin Dagar]]. Other leading exponents include the [[Gundecha Brothers]] and [[Uday Bhawalkar]], who have received training from some of the Dagars. Leading vocalists outside the Dagar lineage include the Mallik family of Darbhanga tradition of musicians; some of the leading exponents of this tradition were Ram Chatur Mallick, [[Siyaram Tiwari (musician)|Siyaram Tiwari]], and Vidur Mallick. At present Prem Kumar Mallick, Prashant and Nishant Mallick are the Dhrupad vocalists of this tradition.

A section of dhrupad singers of Delhi Gharana from [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Shah Jahan]]'s court migrated to [[Bettiah]] under the patronage of the [[Bettiah Raj]], giving rise to the Bettiah Gharana.<ref name="The Times of India">{{cite news
| url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1239694564.cms
| title = Many Bihari artists ignored by SPIC MACAY
| work = [[The Times of India]]
| date = 13 October 2001
| access-date = 16 March 2009
}}</ref>

===Khyal===
{{Main|Khyal}}
[[Khyal]] is the modern Hindustani form of vocal music. Khyal, literally meaning "thought" or "imagination" in [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] and derived from the Persian/Arabic term, is a two- to eight-line lyric set to a melody. Khyal contains a greater variety of embellishments and ornamentations compared to [[dhrupad]]. [[Khyal]]'s features such as ''sargam'' and ''taan'' as well as movements to incorporate dhrupad-style ''alap'' have led to it becoming popular.

The importance of the khyal's content is for the singer to depict, through music in the set [[raga]], the emotional significance of the khyal. The singer improvises and finds inspiration within the [[raga]] to depict the khyal.

The origin of Khyal is controversial, although it is accepted that this style was based on dhrupad and influenced by other musical traditions. Many argue that [[Amir Khusrau]] created the style in the late 14th century. This form was popularized by Mughal Emperor [[Mohammad Shah]] through his court musicians; some well-known composers of this period were [[Sadarang]], [[Adarang]], and [[Manrang]].

=== Tarana ===
{{Main|Tarana}}
Another vocal form, taranas are medium- to fast-paced songs that are used to convey a mood of elation and are usually performed towards the end of a concert. They consist of a few lines of [[Farsi]] poetry with soft syllables or [[bol (music)|bols]] set to a tune. The singer uses these few lines as a basis for fast improvisation. The [[tillana]] of Carnatic music is based on the tarana, although the former is primarily associated with dance.

=== Tappa ===
{{Main|Tappa}}
Tappa is a form of Indian semi-classical vocal music whose specialty is its rolling pace based on fast, subtle, knotty construction. It originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and was developed as a form of classical music by [[Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori]] or Shori Mian, a court singer for [[Asaf-Ud-Dowlah]], the [[Nawab of Awadh]]. "Nidhubabur Tappa", or tappas sung by [[Nidhu Babu]] were very popular in 18th and 19th-century Bengal.

=== Thumri ===
{{Main|Thumri}}
Thumri is a semi-classical vocal form said to have begun in Uttar Pradesh with the court of [[Nawab]] [[Wajid Ali Shah]], (r. 1847–1856). There are three types of thumri: poorab ang, Lucknavi, and Punjabi thumri. The lyrics are typically in a proto-Hindi language called [[Brij Bhasha]] and are usually romantic.
[[file:Ustad_Abdul_Karim_Khan-_Jamuna_Ke_Teer_-_Thumri_in_Raag_Bhairvi.wav|left|thumb|[[Abdul Karim Khan]] performing a [[Thumri]] in Raag [[Bhairavi]].]]
Some recent performers of this genre are [[Abdul Karim Khan]], the brothers [[Barkat Ali Khan]] and [[Bade Ghulam Ali Khan]], [[Begum Akhtar]], [[Girija Devi]], [[Prabha Atre]], [[Siddheshwari Devi]], and [[Shobha Gurtu]].

=== Ghazal ===
{{Main|Ghazal}}
In the Indian sub-continent, [[Ghazal]] became the most common form of poetry in the Urdu language and was popularized by classical poets like [[Mir Taqi Mir]], [[Ghalib]], [[Daagh]], [[Zauq]] and [[Mirza Muhammad Rafi Sauda|Sauda]] amongst the North Indian literary elite. Vocal music set to this mode of poetry is popular with multiple variations across [[Central Asia]], the [[Middle East]], as well as other countries and regions of the world.

==Instruments==
Although Hindustani music clearly is focused on vocal performance, instrumental forms have existed since ancient times. In fact, in recent decades, especially outside South Asia, instrumental Hindustani music is more popular than vocal music, partly due to a somewhat different style and faster tempo, and partly because of a language barrier for the lyrics in vocal music.

A number of musical instruments are associated with Hindustani classical music. The [[veena]], a string instrument, was traditionally regarded as the most important, but few play it today and it has largely been superseded by its cousins the [[sitar]] and the [[sarod]], both of which owe their origin to Persian influences. Among bowed instruments, the [[sarangi]] and [[violin]] are popular. The [[bansuri]], [[shehnai]] and [[Pump organ|harmonium]] are important wind instruments. In the percussion ensemble, the [[tabla]] and the [[pakhavaj]] are the most popular. Rarely used plucked or struck string instruments include the [[surbahar]], [[surasingar|sursringar]], [[santoor]], and various versions of the [[slide guitar]]. Various other instruments have also been used in varying degrees.

==Festivals==
Among the earliest modern music festivals focusing on Hindustani classical music was the [[Harballabh Sangeet Sammelan]], founded in 1875 in [[Jallandhar]]. [[Dover Lane Music Conference]] notably debuted in 1952 in [[Kolkata]] and [[Sawai Gandharva Bhimsen Festival]] in 1953 in [[Pune]], while festivals such as the [[ITC SRA Sangeet Sammelan]] appeared in the early 1970s.

== See also ==
{{Portal|India|Music}}

*[[Arabic maqam]]
*[[Persian classical music]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*[http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/6ff69IEQkHAxkhssHQjd1L/50-years-of-Beatles-in-India-How-George-Harrison-brought-In.html Indian Classical Music and Western Pop]
* {{cite book|author=Moutal, Patrick|title=A Comparative Study of Selected Hindustāni Rāga-s| publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Ltd|place=New Delhi|year=1991|isbn=81-215-0526-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Moutal, Patrick|title=Hindustāni Rāga-s Index| publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt Ltd|place=New Delhi|year=1991}}
* {{cite book|author=Bagchee, Sandeep|title=Nad| publisher=BPI Publishers|year=1998|isbn=81-86982-07-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Bagchee, Sandeep|title=Shruti : A Listener's Guide to Hindustani Music| publisher=Rupa|year=2006|isbn=81-291-0903-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Orsini, F. and Butler Schofield K.|title=Tellings and Texts: Music, Literature and Performance in North India| publisher=Open Book Publishers|place=Cambridge|year=2015|isbn=9781783741021}}

{{Indian Music}}
{{Hindustani Classical Music page end}}
{{Rāgas as per Performance Time}}
{{Music topics}}
{{Portal bar|India|Music}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hindustani music| ]]
[[Category:Pakistani styles of music]]
[[Category:Indian styles of music]]

Mahadev Prasad Mishra

2021-06-26T08:40:35Z

Suryabeej: Created page with "{{Infobox person | name = Mahadev Prasad Mishra | image = | caption = | birth_name = | birth_date = | birth_place..."

{{Infobox person
| name = Mahadev Prasad Mishra
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Varanasi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]
| alma_mater =
| nationality = Indian
| other_names = Guruji
| occupation = {{hlist|singer|composer}}
| years_active =
| height =
| net_worth =
| spouse =
| children = [[Ganesh Prasad Mishra]]
| father = Dwarka Prasad Mishra
| mother =
| family =
| awards =
| honours =
| website =
| signature =
}}
'''Mahadev Prasad Mishra''' (1906 – 13 December 1995) was an Indian [[thumri]] singer from Benares ([[Varanasi]]).<ref name="growingintomusic">{{cite web|url=http://www.growingintomusic.co.uk/SangiRangi/other-gems/114-mahadev-prasad-mishra|title=Mahadev Prasad Mishra - Sarangi.net|website=growingintomusic.co.uk|accessdate=2019-10-25}}</ref>

==Early life==
Mishra was born in 1906 in a temple in Allahabad. He first started learning under Bhairon Mishra and continued then under the great Bare Ram Das of the [[Benares Gharana]].

==Career==
His father Dwarka Prasad Mishra also a renowned singer, lived in Kashi (the old name for Varanasi). He was an expert in many music styles form Benares such as thumri, tappa, khyal, dadra, kajri, chaiti, and birha. Along with [[Bade Ghulam Ali Khan]], [[Rasoolan Bai]], [[Begum Akhtar]], [[Girija Devi]] and [[Shobha Gurtu]] he was one of the greatest thumri singers of the 20th century. He was accompanied many times by Baccha Lal Mishra on [[sarangi]] and Ishwar Lal Mishra on [[tabla]].<ref name="varanasi">{{cite web|url=http://www.varanasi.org.in/pandit-mahadev-mishra|website=varanasi.org.in|title=Pandit Mahadev Mishra|accessdate=2019-10-25}}</ref>

==Disciples==
His well-known disciples included tabla player Ananda Gopal Bandhyopadhyay, [[shehnai]] player [[Anant Lal]], thumri singer Purnima Chaudhary and violin player [[N. Rajam]].

==Family==
He had two nephews Amar Nath Mishra and Pashupathinath Mishra which were both renowned singers of Benares. He had one son [[Ganesh Prasad Mishra]], who is also a renowned singer and a grand nephew the tabla player Kuber Nath Mishra.

==Death==
Mishra died on 13 December 1995 at the age of 88.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mishra, Mahadev Prasad}}
[[Category:1906 births]]
[[Category:1995 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Allahabad]]
[[Category:People from Varanasi]]
[[Category:Indian classical musicians]]

Aap Kaa Surroor

2021-06-26T07:53:10Z

Suryabeej: Undo revision 101910 by Suryabeej (talk)

{{For|the sequel of this film|Teraa Surroor}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2013}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Aap Kaa Surroor
| image = Aap Kaa Surroor poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Prashant Chadha
| producer = Vijay Taneja
| story = Vibha Singh
| starring = [[Himesh Reshammiya]] [[Hansika Motwani]] [[Mallika Sherawat]]
| narrator =
| music = [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| cinematography = Manoj Soni
| editing = Sudhir Mehan
| studio = [[Mehboob Studio]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2007|06|29}}
| runtime = 127 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Aap Kaa Surroor''''' ({{Translation|Your Joy}}) is a 2007 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[romantic thriller]] film directed by Prashant Chadha and starring singer [[Himesh Reshammiya]] in his debut as an actor, alongside [[Hansika Motwani]] and [[Malika Sherawat]]. Reshammiya has claimed the story is based on his own life and was named after his music album ''Aap Kaa Surroor''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fans will love Himesh's Aap Kaa Surroor |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/aks/20070503.htm |work=[[Rediff.com]]|access-date=14 March 2012|date=3 May 2007}}</ref> It was shot mostly in Germany<ref>{{cite web|title=Himesh starts shooting Aap Kaa Surroor in Germany |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebritymicro/news/type/view/id/2765/newsid/1179022|publisher=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=14 March 2012|date=15 February 2007}}</ref> and was released on 29 June 2007. Critics panned the film although it turned out to be a commercial success.<ref>{{cite web|title=Aap Kaa Surroor has the biggest opening of 2007 |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/jul/02aks.htm|work=[[Rediff.com]]|access-date=14 March 2012|date=4 July 2007}}</ref>

== Synopsis ==
The movie begins with a dead body of a TV journalist, Nadia Merchant, being found in a remote area, somewhere in [[Germany]]. Soon after, a famous Indian singer HR ([[Himesh Reshammiya]]) is arrested by the [[German police]] after a concert on the charge of murdering the journalist. HR is put behind bars and the incidents begin to unravel as the movie goes into a flashback. While on a concert in Germany, performing with his best friend Shravan ([[Shravan (actor)|Shravan]]), HR meets the event organizer Khurana ([[Darshan Jariwala]]) and his partner Ruby James ([[Mallika Sherawat]]). He also meets the event planner Riya ([[Hansika Motwani]]), and falls in love at first sight. After initial reservations, Riya's father Mr. Bakshi ([[Sachin Khedekar]]) approves of the match.

Things take a turn when HR is arrested. He asks Ruby, a lawyer, to bail him out. But it is revealed that Ruby is in love with HR, while HR loves Ria. He escapes from his prison cell after taking the murdered TV journalist's father Feroz Merchant ([[Raj Babbar]]) captive. He has to find the actual murderer in one day or else Riya will be married to someone else. To stop this from happening, he needs Riya's help. He approaches her for help, but Riya ignores him.

HR, Shravan, and Bani ([[VJ Bani|Gurbani Judge]]) approach Ruby (on HR's hunch that Ruby is innocent of the murders) for help. They browse through all the invoices and other documents in Khurana's office to find that severe losses on a previously finalized world tour deal gave Khurana the motive to frame HR. HR then proceeds to confront Khurana and, after a car chase, he catches up with Khurana, who then confesses to having murdered Nadia and framing HR to ruin his career. After his confession is instantly caught on camera, Khurana is arrested, and HR and Riya reunite.

== Cast ==
* [[Himesh Reshammiya]] as HR / Himself
* [[Hansika Motwani]] as Riya Bakshi
* [[Mallika Sherawat]] as Advocate Ruby James; Khurana's Business partner
* [[Darshan Jariwala]] as Khurana; Advocate Ruby James's Business partner
* [[Raj Babbar]] as Feroz Merchant; Nadia's father
* [[Shravan (actor)|Shravan]] as Shravan Kumar
* [[VJ Bani]] as Bani, Riya's friend
* [[Sachin Khedekar]] as Mr. Bakshi, Riya's father
* [[Anant Mahadevan]] as TV News Reporter for Channel ITV
* [[Ishitha Chauhan]] as Trishnu
* Lovepreet Aujla as Himesh's friend
* Marrissa Lawrence as Nadia F. Merchant
* Sanjay Sharma as Raju
* [[Pankaj Jha]] as Ghulam Sayyed auto rickshaw Driver
* [[Abhijeet Chavan]] as Chinman Rao auto rickshaw driver
* Lallan Dubey as Lallan Dubey auto rickshaw driver
* Souzan Alavi as Background Dancer
* Kathrin Susanne Rieger as Fan
* Esther Maria Pietsch as Flight Attendant
* Ryan Estrada as Himself (German police officer)
* Ron Matz as Sam (German police officer)
* Esther Maria Pietsch as stewardess (German police officer)
* Frank Brandstatter as man in the crowd; Indian journalist in the background who helps to translate Khurana's confession
* Vijay Taneja as Mr. Vijay Taneja / Himself (Special Appearance)
{{colend}}

== Box office and reception ==
According to [[Box Office India]], ''Aap Kaa Surroor'' grossed {{INRConvert|240|m}} and was given the final verdict of a Super Hit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=214|title=Box Office 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027185547/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=214 |work=Box Office India |archive-date=27 October 2011 |date=27 October 2011 }}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album|
| name = Aap Kaa Surroor
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 29 June 2007
| recorded = 2006
| venue =
| studio = [[Mehboob Studio]]
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 44:02
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| producer = [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| prev_title = ''[[Apne]]''
| prev_year = 2007
| next_title = ''Fear''
| next_year = 2007
}}
The music was composed by [[Himesh Reshammiya]]; the lyricist was [[Sameer (lyricist)|Sameer]]. According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, with around 13,00,000 units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's seventh highest-selling.<ref>{{cite web|title=Music Hits 2000–2009 (Figures in Units)|url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=286&catName=MjAwMC0yMDA5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100624132928/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=286&catName=MjAwMC0yMDA5|archive-date=24 June 2010|publisher=[[Box Office India]]}}</ref>

{{Tracklist
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Assalam Vaalekum
| extra1 = [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| length1 = 6:00

| title2 = Tera Mera Milna
| extra2 = Himesh Reshammiya, [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
| length2 = 5:50

| title3 = Jhoot Nahin Bolna
| extra3 = Himesh Reshammiya, Shreya Ghoshal
| length3 = 6:10

| title4 = Tanhaiyaan
| extra4 = Himesh Reshammiya, [[Sunidhi Chauhan]]
| length4 = 5:06

| title5 = Ya Ali
| extra5 = Himesh Reshammiya, Sunidhi Chauhan
| length5 = 4:32

| title6 = Tere Bina
| extra6 = Himesh Reshammiya, [[Devendra Singh]]
| length6 = 5:35

| title7 = Kya Jeena
| extra7 = Himesh Reshammiya
| length7 = 5:14

| title8 = Mehbooba O Mehbooba (A Tribute to Panchamda) ({{small|Originally composed by [[R.D. Burman]]}})
| extra8 = Himesh Reshammiya, [[Asha Bhosle]]
| length8 = 4:54

| title9 = Tanhaiyaan
| note9 = Unplugged
| extra9 = Himesh Reshammiya, Sunidhi Chauhan
| length9 = 2:10

| title10 = Tera Tera Tera Surroor
| extra10 = Himesh Reshammiya
| length10 = 4:05
}}

== Sequel ==
{{Main|Teraa Surroor}}
The sequel of the film titled ''[[Teraa Surroor]]'' was announced in December 2015. It stars Farah Karimae and Himesh Reshammiya in the lead cast and was released on 11 March 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title='Aap Kaa Surroor 2' features Himesh already |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/cast/13693/index.html|author=Taran Adarsh|author-link=Taran Adarsh|publisher=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|date=22 January 2011 |access-date=2011-01-25}}</ref>

== Awards ==
{|class="wikitable"
! Awards !! Category !! Nominee !! Result
|-
|[[Filmfare awards]] || [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut|Best Male Debut]] || rowspan=4| [[Himesh Reshammiya]] || {{nom}}
|-
| Bollywood Movies Awards || Best Male playback singer for ''Yeh Tera Mera Milna'' || {{nom}}
|-
| [[Koffee with Karan]] awards || Best Male Debut || {{won}}
|-
|[[Stardust Awards]] || Superstar of tomorrow (Male) || {{nom}}
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0995840|Aap Kaa Surroor}}

{{Himesh Reshammiya}}

[[Category:Indian films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Himesh Reshammiya]]
[[Category:2000s Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2007 films]]
[[Category:Films set in Germany]]
[[Category:Films shot in Germany]]
[[Category:Hindi-language thriller films]]

Aap Kaa Surroor

2021-06-26T07:52:41Z

Suryabeej:

{{For|the sequel of this film|Teraa Surroor}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2013}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Aap Kaa Surroor
| image = Aap Kaa Surroor poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Prashant Chadha
| producer = Vijay Taneja
| story = Vibha Singh
| starring = [[Himesh Reshammiya]] [[Hansika Motwani]] [[Mallika Sherawat]]
| narrator =
| music = [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| cinematography = Manoj Soni
| editing = Sudhir Mehan
| studio = [[Mehboob Studio]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2007|06|29}}
| runtime = 127 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Aap Kaa Surroor''''' ({{Translation|Your Joy}}) is a 2007 Indian [[Hindi]]-language [[romantic thriller]] film directed by Prashant Chadha and starring singer [[Himesh Reshammiya]] in his debut as an actor, alongside [[Hansika Motwani]] and [[Malika Sherawat]]. Reshammiya has claimed the story is based on his own life and was named after his music album ''Aap Kaa Surroor''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fans will love Himesh's Aap Kaa Surroor |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/review/aks/20070503.htm |work=[[Rediff.com]]|access-date=14 March 2012|date=3 May 2007}}</ref> It was shot mostly in Germany<ref>{{cite web|title=Himesh starts shooting Aap Kaa Surroor in Germany |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebritymicro/news/type/view/id/2765/newsid/1179022|publisher=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |access-date=14 March 2012|date=15 February 2007}}</ref> and was released on 29 June 2007. Critics panned the film although it turned out to be a commercial success.<ref>{{cite web|title=Aap Kaa Surroor has the biggest opening of 2007 |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/jul/02aks.htm|work=[[Rediff.com]]|access-date=14 March 2012|date=4 July 2007}}</ref>

== Synopsis ==
The movie begins with a dead body of a TV journalist, Nadia Merchant, being found in a remote area, somewhere in [[Germany]]. Soon after, a famous Indian singer HR ([[Himesh Reshammiya]]) is arrested by the [[German police]] after a concert on the charge of murdering the journalist. HR is put behind bars and the incidents begin to unravel as the movie goes into a flashback. While on a concert in Germany, performing with his best friend Shravan ([[Shravan (actor)|Shravan]]), HR meets the event organizer Khurana ([[Darshan Jariwala]]) and his partner Ruby James ([[Mallika Sherawat]]). He also meets the event planner Riya ([[Hansika Motwani]]), and falls in love at first sight. After initial reservations, Riya's father Mr. Bakshi ([[Sachin Khedekar]]) approves of the match.

Things take a turn when HR is arrested. He asks Ruby, a lawyer, to bail him out. But it is revealed that Ruby is in love with HR, while HR loves Ria. He escapes from his prison cell after taking the murdered TV journalist's father Feroz Merchant ([[Raj Babbar]]) captive. He has to find the actual murderer in one day or else Riya will be married to someone else. To stop this from happening, he needs Riya's help. He approaches her for help, but Riya ignores him.

HR, Shravan, and Bani ([[VJ Bani|Gurbani Judge]]) approach Ruby (on HR's hunch that Ruby is innocent of the murders) for help. They browse through all the invoices and other documents in Khurana's office to find that severe losses on a previously finalized world tour deal gave Khurana the motive to frame HR. HR then proceeds to confront Khurana and, after a car chase, he catches up with Khurana, who then confesses to having murdered Nadia and framing HR to ruin his career. After his confession is instantly caught on camera, Khurana is arrested, and HR and Riya reunite.

== Cast ==
* [[Himesh Reshammiya]] as HR / Himself
* [[Hansika Motwani]] as Riya Bakshi
* [[Mallika Sherawat]] as Advocate Ruby James; Khurana's Business partner
* [[Darshan Jariwala]] as Khurana; Advocate Ruby James's Business partner
* [[Raj Babbar]] as Feroz Merchant; Nadia's father
* [[Shravan (actor)|Shravan]] as Shravan Kumar
* [[VJ Bani]] as Bani, Riya's friend
* [[Sachin Khedekar]] as Mr. Bakshi, Riya's father
* [[Anant Mahadevan]] as TV News Reporter for Channel ITV
* [[Ishitha Chauhan]] as Trishnu
* Lovepreet Aujla as Himesh's friend
* Marrissa Lawrence as Nadia F. Merchant
* Sanjay Sharma as Raju
* [[Pankaj Jha]] as Ghulam Sayyed auto rickshaw Driver
* [[Abhijeet Chavan]] as Chinman Rao auto rickshaw driver
* Lallan Dubey as Lallan Dubey auto rickshaw driver
* Souzan Alavi as Background Dancer
* Kathrin Susanne Rieger as Fan
* Esther Maria Pietsch as Flight Attendant
* Ryan Estrada as Himself (German police officer)
* Ron Matz as Sam (German police officer)
* Esther Maria Pietsch as stewardess (German police officer)
* Frank Brandstatter as man in the crowd; Indian journalist in the background who helps to translate Khurana's confession
* Vijay Taneja as Mr. Vijay Taneja / Himself (Special Appearance)
{{colend}}

== Box office and reception ==
According to [[Box Office India]], ''Aap Kaa Surroor'' grossed {{INRConvert|240|m}} and was given the final verdict of a Super Hit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=214|title=Box Office 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027185547/http://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=214 |work=Box Office India |archive-date=27 October 2011 |date=27 October 2011 }}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
{{Infobox album|
| name = Aap Kaa Surroor
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 29 June 2007
| recorded = 2006
| venue =
| studio = [[Mehboob Studio]]
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 44:02
| label = [[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]
| producer = [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| prev_title = ''[[Apne]]''
| prev_year = 2007
| next_title = ''Fear''
| next_year = 2007
}}
The music was composed by [[Himesh Reshammiya]]; the lyricist was [[Sameer (lyricist)|Sameer]]. According to the Indian trade website Box Office India, with around 13,00,000 units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's seventh highest-selling.<ref>{{cite web|title=Music Hits 2000–2009 (Figures in Units)|url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=286&catName=MjAwMC0yMDA5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100624132928/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=286&catName=MjAwMC0yMDA5|archive-date=24 June 2010|publisher=[[Box Office India]]}}</ref>

{{Tracklist
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Assalam Vaalekum
| extra1 = [[Himesh Reshammiya]]
| length1 = 6:00

| title2 = Tera Mera Milna
| extra2 = Himesh Reshammiya, [[Shreya Ghoshal]]
| length2 = 5:50

| title3 = Jhoot Nahin Bolna
| extra3 = Himesh Reshammiya, Shreya Ghoshal
| length3 = 6:10

| title4 = Tanhaiyaan
| extra4 = Himesh Reshammiya, [[Sunidhi Chauhan]]
| length4 = 5:06

| title5 = Ya Ali
| extra5 = Himesh Reshammiya, Sunidhi Chauhan
| length5 = 4:32

| title6 = Tere Bina
| extra6 = Himesh Reshammiya, [[Devendra Singh]]
| length6 = 5:35

| title7 = Kya Jeena
| extra7 = Himesh Reshammiya
| length7 = 5:14

| title8 = Mehbooba O Mehbooba (A Tribute to Panchamda) ({{small|Originally composed by [[R.D. Burman]]}})
| extra8 = Himesh Reshammiya, [[Asha Bhosle]]
| length8 = 4:54

| title9 = Tanhaiyaan
| note9 = Unplugged
| extra9 = Himesh Reshammiya, Sunidhi Chauhan
| length9 = 2:10

| title10 = Tera Tera Tera Surroor
| extra10 = Himesh Reshammiya
| length10 = 4:05
}}

== Sequel ==
{{Main|Teraa Surroor}}
The sequel of the film titled ''[[Teraa Surroor]]'' was announced in December 2015. It stars Farah Karimae and Himesh Reshammiya in the lead cast and was released on 11 March 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title='Aap Kaa Surroor 2' features Himesh already |url=http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/cast/13693/index.html|author=Taran Adarsh|author-link=Taran Adarsh|publisher=[[Bollywood Hungama]]|date=22 January 2011 |access-date=2011-01-25}}</ref>

== Awards ==
{|class="wikitable"
! Awards !! Category !! Nominee !! Result
|-
|[[Filmfare awards]] || [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut|Best Male Debut]] || rowspan=4| [[Himesh Reshammiya]] || {{nom}}
|-
| Bollywood Movies Awards || Best Male playback singer for ''Yeh Tera Mera Milna'' || {{nom}}
|-
| [[Koffee with Karan]] awards || Best Male Debut || {{won}}
|-
|[[Stardust Awards]] || Superstar of tomorrow (Male) || {{nom}}
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|0995840|Aap Kaa Surroor}}

{{Himesh Reshammiya}}

[[Category:Indian films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Himesh Reshammiya]]
[[Category:2000s Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:2007 films]]
[[Category:Films set in Germany]]
[[Category:Films shot in Germany]]
[[Category:Hindi-language thriller films]]

Himesh Reshammiya

2021-06-26T07:51:04Z

Suryabeej: Created page with " '''Himesh Reshammiya''' is an Indian singer and Bollywood film composer. His first movie as an actor was in Aap Kaa Surroor which was released in 2007..."

'''Himesh Reshammiya''' is an [[India]]n [[singer]] and [[Bollywood]] [[film]] [[composer]]. His first movie as an actor was in [[Aap Kaa Surroor]] which was released in 2007. Himesh started his career as a [[music director]] in the film [[Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya]] in 1998.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmfare.com/features/himesh-reshammiya-on-salman-khan-his-survival-mantra-and-making-music-13176.html|title=Himesh Reshammiya on Salman Khan, his survival mantra and making music|website=filmfare.com}}</ref>

==Early life==
Before completely starting his career as a film composer, he was a [[television]] producer where he used to produce popular Daily Soaps, such as: ''Andaz'', ''Ahha'', ''Aman'', ''Aashiqui'', ''Amar Prem'' and ''Jaan'' for [[Zee TV]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/did-you-know/himesh-reshammiya-was-a-television-producer/articleshow/3534299.cms|title=Himesh Reshammiya was a Television producer - Times of India|website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/lifestyle/window-264611|title=Singer Himesh Reshammiya to release his new album Surroor 2021|first=Tribune News|last=Service|website=Tribuneindia News Service}}</ref>

==Filmography==
===As an Actor===
{| class="wikitable"
| style="background:#ffc;"| {{Dagger}}
| Denotes films that have not yet been released
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="background:#cfc; text-align:center;"|'''Year'''
! style="background:#cfc; text-align:center;"|'''Film(s)'''
! style="background:#cfc; text-align:center;"|'''Role'''
! style="background:#cfc; text-align:center;"|'''Notes'''
|-
| 2020 || ''[[Happy Hardy and Heer]]'' || Harpreet Singh Lamba aka Happy and Harshvardhan Bhatt aka Hardy ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/happy-hardy-and-heer-himesh-reshammiyas-musical-drama-postponed-to-now-release-on-31-january-2020-7746921.html|title=Happy Hardy and Heer: Himesh Reshammiya's musical drama postponed, to now release on 31 January, 2020-Entertainment News , Firstpost|date=December 6, 2019|website=Firstpost}}</ref>
|-
| 2016 || ''[[Teraa Surroor]]'' || Raghuu, a gangster and Tara's boyfriend ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/music/music-reviews/music-review-teraa-surroor/articleshow/51241355.cms|title=Music Review: Teraa Surroor - Times of India|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
|-
| 2014 || ''[[The Xposé]]'' || Ravi Kumar ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Himesh-Reshammiya-We-will-begin-Xpose-2-soon/articleshow/55334780.cms|title=Himesh Reshammiya: We will begin 'Xpose 2' soon - Times of India|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
|-
|| 2013 || ''[[A New Love Ishtory]]''|| Sikander Verma / Sukku Bhai || Released on television<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.catchnews.com/bollywood-news/tera-surroor-himesh-reshammiya-all-you-need-to-know-about-kajraare-and-a-new-love-ishtory-catchflashback-bollywood-news-1455348370.html|title=#CatchFlashBack: When Himesh Reshammiya was a sperm donor in A New Love Ishtory|website=CatchNews.com}}</ref>
|-
|| 2012 || ''[[Khiladi 786]]''|| Mansukh Desai ||<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indicine.com/movies/bollywood/khiladi-786-will-cross-100-crore-mark-himesh-reshammiya/|title=Khiladi 786 will cross 100 crore mark: Himesh Reshammiya|first=Indicine|last=Team}}</ref>
* ''Nominated'' – [[Stardust Award for Breakthrough Performance – Male]]
|-
|| 2011 || ''[[Damadamm!]]''|| Sameer "Sam" / Babu ||
|-
|| 2010|| ''[[Kajraare]]''|| Rajeev Behl / Rocky Desai ||
|-
| 2009|| ''[[Radio (2009 film)|Radio]]''|| RJ Vivan Shah ||
|-
|| 2008|| ''[[Karzzzz (film)|Karzzzz]]''|| Monty Oberoi; Reincarnation of Ravi Verma ||
|-
|| 2007 ||''[[Aap Kaa Surroor (film)|Aap Kaa Surroor]]'' || Himesh Reshammiya / "HR" ||
* ''Nominated'' – [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut]]
* ''Nominated'' – [[Stardust Award for Superstar of Tomorrow – Male]]
|}

===As Producer===

Reshammiya, along with his father Vipin Reshammiya, has produced and distributed movies under the banner HR Musik Limited.

{| class="wikitable sortable"

|-

! Year !! Film !! Notes
|-

| 2020 || ''[[Happy Hardy and Heer]]'' ||produced by [[HR Musik Limited]] and EYKA Films

|-
| 2016 || ''[[Teraa Surroor]]'' || Co-produced by HR Musik Limited and T-Series

|-
| 2014 || ''[[The Xposé]]'' || Also wrote story and screenplay

|-
| 2012 || ''[[Khiladi 786]]'' || Co-produced by [[Hari Om Entertainment]], [[Sunil Lulla]]

|-
| 2011 || ''[[Damadamm!]]'' || Also wrote story

|}

===As Story Writer===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Film !! Notes
|-
| 2011 || ''[[Damadamm!]]'' ||
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Khiladi 786]]'' || Also wrote lyrics
|-
| 2014 || ''[[The Xposé]]'' || Also wrote screenplay (with Jainesh Ejardar)
|-
| 2016 || ''[[Teraa Surroor]]'' ||
|-
| 2020 || ''[[Happy Hardy and Heer]]'' || Also wrote lyrics
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Indian singers]]
[[Category:Indian composers]]

Vivek Verma

2021-06-26T07:44:08Z

Suryabeej: Created page with "{{Infobox musical artist | honorific_prefix = | name = Vivek Verma<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/regional/punjabi/vi..."

{{Infobox musical artist
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Vivek Verma<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/videos/entertainment/regional/punjabi/vivek-verma-sings-butterfly-by-jass-manak-as-he-says-goodbye-to-2020/videoshow/80044765.cms|title=Vivek Verma sings 'Butterfly' by Jass Manak as he says goodbye to 2020 | Punjabi Movie News - Times of India|website=The Times of India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.milenio.com/cultura/vivek-verma-busca-colaboraciones-internaciones-musicos-tamaulipas|title=Vivek Verma, busca colaboraciones internaciones con músicos Tamaulipas|website=milenio.com}}</ref>
| honorific_suffix =
| image = Vivek Verma Candid.jpg
| image_upright =
| image_size =
| landscape = 
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| birth_name = 
| alias =
| birth_date = 
| birth_place = [[Kolkata]], India
| origin = [[Bengal]]
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| genre =
| occupation = Playback singer, composer, producer
| instrument =
| years_active = 2011–present
| label = [[Zee Music]], [[Saregama]], [[Sony Music India]]
| associated_acts = ''[[Arijit Singh]]'', ''[[Himesh Reshammiya]]'', ''[[Darshan Raval]]''
| website = 
| module =
| module2 =
| module3 =
}}

'''Vivek Verma''' is an Indian playback singer, and composer, producer.<ref name="Saxena 2021">{{cite web | last=Saxena | first=Deep | title=Vivek Verma: Indie music has broken B’wood barrier | website=Hindustan Times | date=2021-06-04 | url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/music/vivek-verma-indie-music-has-broken-b-wood-barrier-101622830218500.html | access-date=2021-06-21}}</ref> Introduced to [[Bollywood]] industry by [[Himesh Reshammiya]], Vivek played musical roles in several films such as ''[[Prem Ratan Dhan Payo]]'', ''[[Khiladi 786]]'', ''The Expose'', and ''[[All Is Well]]'' among others.

After working in recording studios, he made his debut into [[Independent music|indie music]] and released two albums titled ''Humsafar'' and ''Mai Aur Tu'' besides releasing single songs in collaboration with music labels like [[Zee Music]], [[Saregama]] and [[Sony Music India]].<ref name="Mary 2020">{{cite web | last=Mary | first=S B Vijaya | title=Indie artiste Vivek Verma is set to release his single ‘Aashiyana’, post lockdown | website=The Hindu | date=2020-05-21 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/indie-artiste-vivek-verma-is-set-to-release-his-single-aashiyana-post-lockdown/article31638965.ece | access-date=2021-06-21}}</ref>

== Career==
Initially associated with [[Indian classical music]], some of his compositions involves [[electronic music]]. Before making his debut in music industry, he started learning from [[Ganesh Prasad Mishra]] from [[Benares gharana]] and [[Anil Acharya]] and Sanjeev Mukherjee of [[Punjab gharana]]. He later went to [[Kolkata]] for music studies.<ref name="Mary 2020"/> ''[[The Diplomat]]'', an American magazine published a report in 2020, claiming "Bollywood discriminates against newcomer playback singers".

== Early life ==
He was born to a middle-class family, where both his parents served as a school teachers. He grew up in Kolkata, India and later in 2011, he moved to [[Mumbai]] where he met with an Indian singer, Himesh Reshammiya. He subsequently joined his team and played significant roles in various films such as ''[[Action Jackson]]'', ''[[All is Well]]'', ''[[Sanam Teri Kasam]]'', ''[[Teraa Surroor]]'', and other Hindi language films.<ref name="Means 2020">{{cite web | last=Means | first=Other | title=How Bollywood Discriminates Against Playback Singers | website=The Diplomat – The Diplomat is a current-affairs magazine for the Asia-Pacific, with news and analysis on politics, security, business, technology and life across the region. | date=2020-06-17 | url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/06/how-bollywood-discriminates-against-playback-singers/ | access-date=2021-06-21}}</ref>
==As a Musician==
* Vivek Played Guitar in the song ''Teri Meri Kahani''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vg9VPB5pUwU|title=Full Video: #TeriMeriKahani - Happy Hardy And Heer | Himesh Reshammiya & Ranu Mondal | Sonia Mann|via=www.youtube.com}}</ref> which as per [[Google Trends]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/google-trends-2019-ranu-mondays-teri-meri-kahani-to-coca-cola-tu-top-10-songs-of-the-year-2420801.html|title=Google Trends 2019: Ranu Mondal's Teri Meri Kahani to Coca Cola Tu, Top 10 Songs of the Year|date=12 December 2019|website=www.news18.com}}</ref> got to the top of the charts in [[India]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.patrika.com/patrika-plus/singer-vivek-verma-holds-a-special-place-in-indie-music-6903246/|title=इंडी म्यूजिक में विशेष स्थान रखते हैं सिंगर विवेक वर्मा|website=Patrika News}}</ref>
== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
! scope="col" rowspan="1" style="width:11em;"| Title
! scope="col" rowspan="1" style="width:22em;"| Album/Song
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Sanam Bewafa]]''
|
* Meri Jaan Chali<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/vivek-varma-mn0002495553|title=Vivek Varma | Songs|publisher=AllMusic}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|''[[Prem Ratan Dhan Payo]]''
|
* Album<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x39l6fd|title=Murli Ki Taanon Si Full Song (Audio) | Salman Khan, Sonam Kapoor - video Dailymotion|website=Dailymotion}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|''[[Aap Se Mausiiquii]]''
|
* Album
|-
! scope="row"|''[[Saansein]]''
|
* Tum Ho Mere<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rEVVGG41KfA|title=TUM HO MERE Unplugged Audio Song | Rajneesh Duggal, Sonarika Bhadoria,HitenTejwani&Neetha|via=YouTube}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|''[[Sanam Teri Kasam (2016 film)|Sanam Teri Kasam]]''
|
* Album<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/music/if-you-dont-get-a-job-create-a-job-advices-singer-vivek-verma-2604761.html|title='If You Don’t Get A Job, Create A Job', Advices Singer Vivek Verma|date=4 May 2020|website=news18.com}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"|''[[Teraa Surroor]]''
|
* Album<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.millenniumpost.in/entertainment/singer-vivek-verma-shares-glimpse-into-the-making-of-arijit-singhs-song-wafa-ne-bewafai-409051|title=Singer Vivek Verma shares glimpse into the making of Arijit Singh's song 'Wafa ne Bewafai'|date=18 May 2020|website=millenniumpost.in}}</ref>
|-
|}

=== Discography ===
{| class = "sortable wikitable"
!Year !! Film/Album !! Song/Album
|-
| - || ''Colors of Sufi''(Album) || Album <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/09/the-rise-of-indie-music-in-india/|title=The Rise of Indie Music in India|website=thediplomat.com}}</ref>
|-
| 2014 || [[The Xposé]] || Dard Dilo Ke
|-
| 2015 || [[All Is Well (2015 film)]] || Baaton Ko Teri
|-
| 2016 || [[Sanam Teri Kasam (2016 film)]] || Kheech Meri Photo <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/exclusive-there-are-three-songs-which-i-am-doing-for-dhwani-bhais-movie-vivek-verma/articleshow/76264627.cms|title=Exclusive! There are three songs which I am doing for Dhwani Bhai's movie: Vivek Verma - Times of India|website=The Times of India}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dhollywoodlife.com/three-songs-for-dhwani-gautams-movie-by-vivek-verma/|title=Three songs for Dhwani Gautam's movie by Vivek Verma - DhollywoodLife|date=9 June 2020}}</ref>
|}

=== Solo Songs ===
* ''Mai Aur Tu '' (2019) <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/music/250819/after-winning-over-bollywood-vivek-verma-is-heading-for-the-billboard.html|title=After winning over Bollywood, Vivek Verma is heading for the Billboard|date=August 25, 2019|website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref>
* ''Humsafar'' (2020) <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/entertainment/bollywood/siner-vivek-verma-making-headlines-all-thanks-to-his-mentor-himesh-reshammiya/613930|title=विवेक वर्मा का गाना 'हमसफर' बना YouTube हिट, हिमेश रेशमयिा का नाम किया रोशन|date=December 17, 2019|website=Zee News Hindi}}</ref>
* ''Aashiyaana'' (2020)
* ''Sohneya'' (2020)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/culture/music/2020/oct/22/vivek-vermas-latest-track-sohneya-has-powerful-lyrics-and-soothing-music-29055.amp|title=Vivek Verma's latest track, Sohneya, has powerful lyrics and soothing music|website=www.indulgexpress.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rollingstoneindia.com/rsdailymusic-heres-what-were-listening-to-today-57/|title=#RSDailyMusic: Here’s What We’re Listening to Today -|date=November 13, 2020}}</ref>

==Awards==
* [[Web Ratna Awards]] in 2009<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://digitalindiaawards.gov.in/webratna/index.html#tab4|title=Web Ratna Awards|website=digitalindiaawards.gov.in}}</ref>

== References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading==
* {{cite web | last=Rathod | first=Vaishali | title=Exclusive! There are three songs which I am doing for Dhwani Bhai's movie: Vivek Verma | website=The Times of India | date=2020-06-08 | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/gujarati/movies/news/exclusive-there-are-three-songs-which-i-am-doing-for-dhwani-bhais-movie-vivek-verma/articleshow/76264627.cms | access-date=2021-06-21}}
* {{cite web | title='If You Don’t Get A Job, Create A Job', Advices Singer Vivek Verma | website=News, Breaking News, Latest News, News Headlines, Live News, Today News CNN-News18 | date=2020-05-04 | url=https://www.news18.com/news/music/if-you-dont-get-a-job-create-a-job-advices-singer-vivek-verma-2604761.html | ref={{sfnref | News, Breaking News, Latest News, News Headlines, Live News, Today News CNN-News18 | 2020}} | access-date=2021-06-21}}
* {{cite web | title=After winning over Bollywood, Vivek Verma is heading for the Billboard | website=Deccan Chronicle | date=2019-08-25 | url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/music/250819/after-winning-over-bollywood-vivek-verma-is-heading-for-the-billboard.html | ref={{sfnref | Deccan Chronicle | 2019}} | access-date=2021-06-21}}
* {{cite web | last=Trivedi | first=Anurag | title=इंडी म्यूजिक में विशेष स्थान रखते हैं सिंगर विवेक वर्मा | website=Patrika News | date=2021-06-18 | url=https://www.patrika.com/patrika-plus/singer-vivek-verma-holds-a-special-place-in-indie-music-6903246/ | language=hi | access-date=2021-06-21}}

== External links==
*[https://www.allmusic.com/artist/vivek-varma-mn0002495553 Vivek Varma] at [[AllMusic]]
*{{IMDb title|id=8419269}}

User:Suryabeej

2021-06-26T07:28:22Z

Suryabeej:

{{User page}}{{User Proud Indian}}

== Getting started ==
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Configuration_settings Configuration settings list]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:FAQ MediaWiki FAQ]
* [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/mediawiki-announce MediaWiki release mailing list]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Localisation#Translation_resources Localise MediaWiki for your language]
* [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Combating_spam Learn how to combat spam on your wiki]

User:Suryabeej

2021-06-26T07:27:20Z

Suryabeej:

2021-06-20T16:38:26Z

Suryabeej: caps

{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2013}}
{{Infobox film
| name = 1888
| image =
| alt = One of the sample posters of the movie 1888
| caption = Promotional poster for ''1888''
| director = Sourabh Shukla
| story = Sourabh Shukla
Manju Raj
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[Neethu]]
* Manju Raj
* Prathap Kumar
* [[Vikram Kumar]]
* Adhvithi Shetty
}}
| music = Girish Hothur
| cinematography = M Pradeep
| editing = Puneeth M Degavi
| studio =
| distributor =
| released =
| runtime = 110 minutes
| country = India
| language = Kannada
| budget = {{INRConvert|30|l}}
}}
'''1888''' is a 2018 Indian [[Thriller Film]] shot using [[Guerrilla filmmaking]] technique. It's a micro-budget, independent [[Kannada]] film with [[Legal tender#Demonetization|Demonetization]] as the backdrop.<ref name="Bangalore mirror Neethu article">{{cite news|title=The actress with political ambitions - Bangalore Mirror -|url=http://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/entertainment/south-masala/the-actress-with-political-ambitions/articleshow/57193078.cms|accessdate=13 July 2017|work=Bangalore Mirror|date=17 February 2017}}</ref> About 50% of the film is shot inside a car. [[Neethu]] Shetty a well known Kannada actress plays an important character<ref>{{cite web|last1=User|first1=Super|title=Neethu Plays Heroine In 1888 - chitraloka.com {{!}} Kannada Movie News, Reviews {{!}} Image|url=http://www.chitraloka.com/news/14357-neethu-plays-heroine-in-1888.html|website=www.chitraloka.com|language=en}}</ref> along with Prathap Kumar, Manju Raj and Vikram Kumar. The movie is directed by debutante Sourabh Shukla. Pradeep is the Director of Photography and Girish Hothur is the Music Composer.
Considering the subject and Neethu's role in the movie, there are rumours that she could be essaying the role of Tamil Nadu's late CM, [[Jayalalithaa]].<ref name="Neethu Nettv4u">{{cite web|title=Neethu’s Next Is 1888! {{!}} Nettv4u.com|url=http://www.nettv4u.com/latest-kannada-celebrity-news/neethu-s-next-is-1888|website=nettv4u|accessdate=13 July 2017|language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

[[Category:2010s Kannada-language films]]
[[Category:Indian films]]

{{2010s-Kannada-film-stub}}