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Chandel Empire of Jejakabhukti

2023-07-21T00:33:01Z

Sukhdev Singh Judev:

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Chandelas of Jejakabhukti
|common_name = Chandel Empire
|era = [[Medieval India]]
|government_type = Monarchy
| leader1 = [[Nannuka|Chandravarman]] (First sovereign ruler)
| year_leader1 = 832-845 CE
| year_leader2 = 1165-1203 CE
| leader2 = [[Paramardideva]] (Last emperor)
| leader3 = [[Kirtti-Varman II]] (Last ruler)
| year_leader3 = 1487-1545 CE
| title_leader = [[Emperor]] ([[Emperor|Kalanjaradhipati]])
| event1 = Rise of Empire
| date_event1 = 1028 CE
| event2 = Empire at its peak
| date_event2 = 1203 CE
|event3 = Fall of Empire
|year_start = 832 CE
|year_end = 1545 CE
|p1 = Kalachuris of Tripuri
|flag_p1 = Map_of_the_Later_Kalacuris.png
| s1 = Ghurid dynasty
|flag_s1 = Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas,_p.147.png
| s2 = Mamluk dynasty (Delhi){{!}}Mamluk dynasty
|flag_s2 = Mamluk_dynasty_1206_-_1290_ad.GIF
| s3 = Suri Empire
|image_map = [[File:Map of Candellas around 1200 CE.jpg]]
|image_map_caption = [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti|Chandel Empire]] during 1203 AD{{sfn|Singh|1984|p=69}}{{sfn|Gvāliyara darśana - Volume 1 - |1980| sfn}}
|map_width = 300px
|capital = {{ubl|[[Khajuraho]]|[[Kalanjara]]|[[Mahoba]]}}
|common_languages = [[Sanskrit]]
|religion = {{ubl|[[Hinduism]]|[[Jainism]]}}
|today = [[India]]
| image_coat = Chandelas of Jejakabhukti. Sallakshana Varman. Circa 1120-1135 CE.jpg
| coa_size = 280px
| symbol_type = Coinage of [[Sallakshanavarman|Sallakshana-Varman]] (1120–1135 CE), Chandelas of Jejakabhukti
}}
[[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti]] ([[Hindi]]: ''''जेजाकभुक्ति के चन्देल'''' ) colloquially known as the '''Chandel of Mahoba''', was the famous Indian dynasty that independently ruled in [[Central India]] from the 8th to 15th century.{{sfn| Early Rulers of Khajur (Second Revised Edition)|p=78}} The Chandel dynasty of Mahoba was founded by [[Chandel (Rajput clan)|Chedi-Chandel]] king [[Nannuka|Chandra-Varman]].{{sfn| Edwin Thomas Atkinson|1971|p=504}} They were the most prominent ruling family of the [[Chandel (Rajput clan)|Chandel]] Rajput clan. The territory ruled by them known as Jujhoti or [[Jejakabhukti]].{{sfn| Early Rulers of Khajur (Second Revised Edition)}} The dynasty was fully declined on 27 May 1545 after the death of [[Kirtti-Varman II]] against Suri Empire.{{sfn|Hindustānī - Volume 36|1975|p=54}}{{sfn|Mug̲h̲ala darabāra, kavi-saṅgītajña: san Ī| 1531-1707 -|Śāligrāma Gupta|1999|p=210}}

== Origin ==
The origin of the Chandelas is obscured by mythical legends. The epigraphic records of the dynasty, as well as contemporary texts such as ''Balabhadra-vilasa'' and ''Prabodha-chandrodaya'', suggest that the Chandelas belonged to the legendary [[Lunar dynasty]] (''Chandravansha'').{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=3}} A 954 CE [[Khajuraho]] inscription states that the dynasty's first king [[Nannuka]] was a descendant of sage Chandratreya, who was a son of [[Atri]]. A 1002 CE Khajuraho inscription gives a slightly different account, in which Chandratreya is mentioned as a son of Indu (the Moon) and a grandson of Atri.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=4}} The 1195 CE Baghari inscription and the 1260 CE Ajaygadh inscription contain similar accounts.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=5}} The ''Balabhadra-vilasa'' also names [[Atri]] among the ancestors of the Chandelas. Another Khajuraho inscription describes the Chandela king [[Dhanga]] as a member of the [[Vrishni]] clan of the [[Yadavas]] (who also claimed to be part of the Lunar dynasty).{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=3}}

[[File:Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638391942).jpg |thumb|left|upright|Loving couple, [[Khajuraho]].]]
The ''Mahoba-Khanda'' legend of the dynasty's origin goes like this: Hemaraja, a priest of the [[Gahadavala|Gaharwar]] king of [[Varanasi|Benares]], had a beautiful daughter named Hemavati. Once, while Hemavati was bathing in a pond, the moon god [[Chandra]] saw her and made love to her. Hemavati was worried about the dishonour of being an unwed mother, but Chandra assured her that their son would become a great king. This child was the dynasty's progenitor Chandravarma. Chandra presented him with a [[philosopher's stone]] and taught him politics.<ref name="Asopa1976">{{cite book |author=Jai Narayan Asopa |title=Origin of the Rajputs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_KznQEACAAJ |year=1976 |publisher=Bharatiya Publishing House |page=208}}</ref>{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=3}} The dynasty's own records do not mention Hemavati, Hemaraja or Indrajit. Such legends appear to be later bardic inventions. In general, the ''Mahoba-Khanda'' is a historically unreliable text.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=4}} ''Prithviraj Raso'' is also considered an historically unreliable text.<ref>{{cite book | editor=K Ayyappap Panikkar | title=Medieval Indian literature: an anthology (Volume 1) | author = Vijayendra Snatak | chapter = Medieval Hindi Literature | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=PA142 | access-date=28 September 2011 |year=1997 | publisher=Sahitya Akademi | isbn=978-81-260-0365-5 | page=142}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Serving empire, serving nation: James Tod and the Rajputs of Rajasthan |first=Jason |last=Freitag |publisher=BRILL |year=2009 |isbn=978-90-04-17594-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ib93BhAu43gC |pages=3–5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=R. V. Somani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcIBAAAAMAAJ |title=History of Mewar, from Earliest Times to 1751 A.D. |publisher=Mateshwari |year=1976 |oclc=2929852 |page= 30}}</ref>

[[File:Celestial dancer (Devata) mid-11th century, Chandela period, Madhya Pradesh.jpg|thumb|Celestial dancer (Devata) mid-11th century, Chandela period, Madhya Pradesh. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]].]]
British indologist [[Vincent Arthur Smith|V. A. Smith]] theorized that the Chandelas were of either [[Bhar]] or [[Gondi people|Gond]] origin. Some other scholars including [[R. C. Majumdar]] also supported this theory.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=6}} The Chandelas worshipped Maniya, a tribal goddess, whose temples are located at Mahoba and Maniyagadh.<ref name="Ali_2008">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iXVNBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 |title=World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India |volume=1 |author=Ali Javid and Tabassum Javeed |publisher=Algora |year=2008 |isbn=9780875864822 |page=44 }}</ref> Besides, they have been associated with places that are also associated with Bhars and Gonds. Also, [[Rani Durgavati]], whose family claimed Chandela descent married a Gond chief of [[Mandla|Garha-Mandla]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=7}} Historian R. K. Dikshit does not find these arguments convincing: he argues that Maniya was not a tribal deity.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=8}} Also, the dynasty's association with Gond territory is not necessarily indicative of a common descent: the dynasty's progenitor may have been posted as a governor in these territories.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=7}} Finally, Durgavati's marriage to a Gond chief can be dismissed as a one-off case.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=8}}

==History==

=== Early rulers ===

The Chandelas were originally vassals of the [[Gurjara-Pratiharas]].<ref>Radhey Shyam Chaurasia, History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.</ref> [[Nannuka]] (r. c. 831-845 CE), the founder of the dynasty, was the ruler of a small kingdom centered around [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Sailendra Sen |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdW6lAEACAAJ |year=2013 |publisher=Primus |isbn=978-93-80607-34-4 |page=22}}</ref>

[[File:Map of the Candellas.png|thumb|Chandel dynasty before 1028]]
According to the Chandela inscriptions, Nannuka's successor [[Vakpati (Chandela dynasty)|Vakpati]] defeated several enemies.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=27-28}} Vakpati's sons [[Jayashakti]] (Jeja) and [[Vijayashakti]] (Vija) consolidated the Chandela power.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=30}} According to a [[Mahoba]] inscription, the Chandela territory was named "Jejakabhukti" after the Jayashakti.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=28}} Vijayashakti's successor [[Rahila]] is credited with several military victories in eulogistic inscriptions.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=30-31}} Rahila's son [[Harsha (Chandela dynasty)|Harsha]] played an important role in restoring the rule of the Pratihara king [[Mahipala I|Mahipala]], possibly after a [[Rashtrakuta]] invasion or after Mahiapala's conflict with his step-brother [[Bhoja II (Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty)|Bhoja II]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=32-35}}

=== Rise as a sovereign power ===
[[File:Kirtivarman Chandela visits the temple of Khajurahu.jpg|thumb|A 20th century artist's imagination of Kirtivarman Chandela visiting a [[Khajuraho]] temple]]
Harsha's son [[Yashovarman (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman]] (r. c. 925-950 CE) continued to acknowledge the Pratihara suzerainty, but became practically independent.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=36-37}} He conquered the important fortress of [[Kalanjara]].{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=24}} A 953-954 CE [[Khajuraho]] inscription credits him with several other military successes, including against [[Gauḍa (region)|Gaudas]] (identified with the [[Pala Empire|Palas]]), the [[Khasas]], the [[Chedi Kingdom|Chedis]] (the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri]]), the [[Dakshina Kosala|Kosalas]] (possibly the [[Somavaṃśī dynasty|Somavamshis]]), the [[Mithila (ancient)|Mithila]] (possibly a small tributary ruler), [[Malwa|Malavas]] (identified with the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramaras]]), the [[Kuru Kingdom|Kurus]], the [[Kasmira Kingdom|Kashmiris]] and the [[Gurjara]]s.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=42-51}} These claims appear to be exaggerated, as similar claims of extensive conquests in northern India are also found in the records of the other contemporary kings such as the Kalachuri king Yuva-Raja and the Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=42}} Yashovarman's reign marked the beginning of the famous Chandela-era art and architecture. He commissioned the [[Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho|Lakshmana Temple]] at Khajuraho.{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=24}}

Unlike the earlier Chandela inscriptions, the records of Yashovarman's successor [[Dhanga]] (r. c. 950-999 CE) do not mention any Pratihara overlord. This indicates that Dhanga formally established the Chandela sovereignty.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=57}} A Khajuraho inscription claims that the rulers of [[Dakshina Kosala|Kosala]], Kratha (part of [[Vidarbha]] region), [[Kuntala country|Kuntala]], and [[Sinhala Kingdom|Simhala]] listened humbly to the commands of Dhanga's officers. It also claims that the wives of the kings of [[Andhra Kingdom|Andhra]], [[Anga]], [[Kanchi Kingdom|Kanchi]] and [[Rarh region|Raḍha]] resided in his prisons as a result of his success in wars. These appear to be eulogistic exaggerations by a court poet, but suggest that Dhanga did undertake extensive military campaigns.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=56}}{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=61-65}} Like his predecessor, Dhanga also commissioned a magnificent temple at Khajuraho, which is identified as the [[Vishvanatha Temple, Khajuraho|Vishvanatha Temple]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=69}}

Dhanga's successor [[Ganda (Chandela dynasty)|Ganda]] appears to have retained the territory he inherited.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=72}} His son [[Vidyadhara (Chandela king)|Vidyadhara]] killed the [[Gurjara-Pratihara|Pratihara]] king of [[Kannauj]] (possibly Rajyapala) for fleeing his capital instead of fighting the [[Ghaznavid]] invader [[Mahmud of Ghazni]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=72-73}}{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=72}} Mahmud later invaded Vidyadhara's kingdom; according to the Muslim invaders, this conflict ended with Vidyadhara paying tribute to Mahmud.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=81-82}} Vidyadhara is noted for having commissioned the [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]].{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=26}}

The Chandela art and architecture reached its zenith during this period. The [[Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho|Lakshmana Temple]] (c. 930–950 CE), the [[Vishvanatha Temple, Khajuraho|Vishvanatha Temple]] (c. 999-1002 CE) and the [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]] (c. 1030 CE) were constructed during the reigns of Yashovarman, Dhanga and Vidyadhara respectively. These [[Nagara architecture|Nagara-style]] temples are representative of the most fully developed style at Khajuraho.<ref name="James_1994">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC&pg=PA234 |title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent |author=James C. Harle |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1994 |page=234 |isbn=0300062176 }}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Nagara-style temples of Khajuraho">
India-5679 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg | [[Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho|Lakshmana Temple]]
File:Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638423582).jpg|[[Parshvanatha temple, Khajuraho|Parshvanatha Temple]]
Vishwanath N-MP-23.jpg | [[Vishvanatha Temple, Khajuraho|Vishvanatha Temple]]
A view of Kandariya Mahadev Temple Khajuraho India.jpg | [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]]
</gallery>

=== Decline ===
[[File:Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho.jpg|thumb|[[Surasundari]] and [[vyala]], [[Khajuraho]].]]
[[File:Le Temple Kandariya Mahadeva (Khajurâho) (8503001895).jpg|thumb|[[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple|Kandariya Mahadeva temple]] carvings.]]
By the end of Vidyadhara's reign, the [[Ghaznavid]] invasions had weakened the Chandela kingdom. Taking advantage of this, the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]] king [[Gangeyadeva|Gangeya-deva]] conquered eastern parts of the kingdom.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=89-90}} Chandela inscriptions suggest that Vidyadhara's successor [[Vijayapala]] (r. c. 1035-1050 CE) defeated Gangeya in a battle.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=88}} However, the Chandela power started declining during the Vijayapala's reign.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=101}} The [[Kachchhapaghata dynasty|Kachchhapaghatas]] of [[Gwalior]] probably gave up their allegiance to the Chandelas during this period.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=90}}

Vijayapala's elder son [[Devavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Devavavarman]] was subjugated by Gangeya's son [[Lakshmikarna|Lakshmi-Karna]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=91}} His younger brother [[Kirttivarman (Chandela dynasty)|Kirttivarman]] resurrected the Chandela power by defeating Lakshmi-Karna.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=94}} Kirtivarman's son [[Sallakshanavarman]] achieved military successes against the Paramaras and the Kalachuris, possibly by raiding their territories. A [[Mau, Uttar Pradesh|Mau]] inscription suggests that he also conducted successful campaigns in the Antarvedi region (the Ganga-Yamuna [[doab]]).{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=120-121}} His son [[Jayavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Jayavarman]] was of religious temperament and abdicated the throne after being tired of governance.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=126}}

Jayavarman appears to have died heirless, as he was succeeded by his uncle [[Prithvivarman]], the younger son of Kirttivarman.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=110-111}} The Chandela inscriptions do not ascribe any military achievements to him; it appears that he was focused on maintaining the existing Chandela territories without adopting an aggressive expansionist policy.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=111}}

=== Revival ===

By the time Prithvivarman's son [[Madanavarman]] (r. c. 1128–1165 CE) ascended the throne, the neighbouring [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]] and [[Paramara]] kingdoms had been weakened by enemy invasions. Taking advantage of this situation, Madanavarman defeated the Kalachuri king [[Gayakarna|Gaya-Karna]], and possibly annexed the northern part of the [[Baghelkhand]] region.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=132}} However, the Chandelas lost this territory to Gaya-Karna's successor [[Narasimha (Kalachuri dynasty)|Narasimha]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=135}} Madanavarman also captured the territory on the western periphery of the Paramara kingdom, around [[Bhilsa]] (Vidisha). This probably happened during the reign of the Paramara king [[Yashovarman (Paramara dynasty)|Yashovarman]] or his son [[Jayavarman I (Paramara dynasty)|Jayavarman]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=130-132}}{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=112-113}} Once again, the Chandelas could not retain the newly annexed territory for long, and the region was recaptured by Yashovarman's son Lakshmivarman.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=135}}

[[Jayasimha Siddharaja]], the [[Chaulukya]] king of Gujarat, also invaded the Paramara territory, which was located between the Chandela and the Chaulukya kingdoms. This brought him in conflict with Madanavarman. The result of this conflict appears to have been inconclusive, as records of both the kingdoms claim victory.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=133}} A [[Kalanjara]] inscription suggests that Madanavarman defeated Jayasimha. On the other hand, the various chronicles of Gujarat claim that Jayasimha either defeated Madanavarman or extracted a tribute from him.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=133-134}} Madanavarman maintained friendly relations with his northern neighbours, the [[Gahadavala]]s.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=132-133}}

Madanavarman's son [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman II]] either did not rule, or ruled for a very short time. Madanavarman's grandson [[Paramardi|Paramardi-deva]] was the last powerful Chandela king.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=130}}

===Final decline ===
[[File:Map of Candellas around 1200 CE.jpg|thumb|Later Chandel Empire during 1203 AD]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=37, 147|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=074}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |date=25 July 2019 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196655-7 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP31 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Paramardi-Deva]] (reigned c. 1165-1203 CE) ascended the Chandela throne at a young age.

According to the medieval ballads, Prithviraj was returning to [[Delhi]] after marrying the daughter of Padamsen. During this journey, he was attacked by Turkic forces ([[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]]). The Chauhan army managed to repulse the attacks, but suffered serious casualties in the process. They lost their way, and arrived in the Chandela capital [[Mahoba]]. The Chauhan force, which had a number of wounded soldiers among them, unknowingly set up a camp in the Chandela royal garden. They killed the keeper of the garden for objecting to their presence. When Paramardi learned about this, he sent some soldiers to counter the Chauhan force. The Chandelas suffered heavy losses in the ensuing conflict. Paramardi then decided to send another force led by his general [[Udal of Mahoba|Udal]] against Prithviraj. Udal advised against this proposal, arguing that it would not be appropriate to attack wounded soldiers or to antagonize a powerful king like Prithviraj. However, Paramardi was under the influence of his brother-in-law Mahil Parihar (Pratihara), who secretly harboured ill-will against the Chandelas. Mahil instigated Paramardi to go ahead with the attack plan. The Chandela force led by Udal then launched a second attack against the Chauhan army, but was defeated. The situation subsided when Prithviraj left for Delhi.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=121}}

Unable to bear Mahil Parihar's political scheming, Udal and his brother [[Alha]] left the Chandela court. They took shelter with [[Jaichand]], the [[Gahadavala]] ruler of [[Kannauj]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=121}} Mahil then sent a secret message to Prithviraj Chauhan, informing him that the best generals of Paramardi had left Mahoba. Instigated by him, Prithviraj set out from Delhi in 1182 CE and marched to the Chandela empire via [[Gwalior]] and [[Bateshwar, Uttar Pradesh|Bateshwar]]. First, he besieged Sirsagarh, which was held by Malkhan, a cousin of Alha and Udal. Prithviraj tried to win over Malkhan, but Malkhan remained loyal to Paramardi and fought against the invaders. After Malkhan killed eight generals of the invading army, Prithviraj himself took charge of the battle. The Chandelas ultimately lost the battle, and Malkhan was killed , Paramardideva's son Bramhjit married daughter of Prithviraja's bela chauhan {{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=122}}
{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}}. Main battle between Chandelas Chahamanas War who fought in 1182 [[Paramardideva]] His son Brahmajit, along with Nephew Alha and Udal, led the [[Chandelas]] army against [[Chahamanas]]. In the battle Brahmajit, Udal and the two sons of [[Jaichand]] were killed but [[Paramardideva]] defeated [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] .{{sfn|Mohinder Singh Randhawa
|Indian Council of Agricultural Research|1980 | pp= 472}}{{sfn|M.S. Randhawa| Indian Sculpture: The Scene, Themes, and Legends |1985 | pp= 532}}{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=123}}. But to avoid the humiliation of their king, the Chauhans claimed in Madanpur that they were defeated and Parmardideva committed suicide.

This is corroborated by his stone inscriptions at [[Madanpur, Lalitpur, India|Madanpur]]{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=123}} However, the occupation of Mahoba or Kalanjara by Chauhans is not supported by historical evidence.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}} He is known to have issued several inscriptions after this event: the Kalanjara rock inscription, the 1184 CE Mahoba stone inscription, the 1187 CE [[Ajaygarh]] stone inscription, the 1195 CE Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara stone inscription.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} These records give imperial titles for Paramardi, indicating that he remained a sovereign Emperor.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}} The Muslim chronicles also provide evidence that Paramardideva ruled the empire until the beginning of the next century, when the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Chandela empire.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}}. He is known to have issued several inscriptions after this event: the Kalanjara rock inscription, the 1184 CE Mahoba stone inscription, the 1187 CE [[Ajaygarh]] stone inscription, the 1195 CE Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara stone inscription.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} These records give imperial titles for Paramardi, indicating that he remained a sovereign ruler.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}} The Muslim chronicles also provide evidence that Paramardi ruled until the beginning of the next century, when the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Chandela kingdom.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}}

The 1195 CE Bateshvar inscription states that other feudatory kings bowed before him, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara inscription describes him as the lord of [[Dasharna]] country. These evidences suggest that Paramardi managed to recover the Chandela power after Prithviraj Chauhan returned to Delhi.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}}

The Chandela power did not fully recover from their defeat against the Delhi forces. Paramardi was succeeded by [[Trailokyavarman]], [[Viravarman]] and [[Bhojavarman]]. The next ruler [[Hammiravarman]] (r. c. 1288-1311 CE) did not use the imperial title [[Maharajadhiraja]], which indicates that the Chandela king had a lower status by his time. The Chandela power continued to decline because of the rising Muslim influence, as well as the rise of other local dynasties, such as the [[Bundela]]s, the Baghelas and the [[Khangar (community)|Khangars]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=179}}

Hammiravarman was succeeded by Viravarman II, whose titles do not indicate a high political status.{{sfn|Peter Jackson|2003|p=199}}{{sfn|Om Prakash Misra|2003|p=11}} [[Chandelas of Kalanjara (minor Chandela branch)|One minor branch of the family continued ruling Kalanjara]]: its ruler was killed by [[Sher Shah Suri]]'s army in 1545 CE.In 1542, Durgavati was married to [[Dalpat Shah]], the adopted son of the king [[Sangram Shah]] of the [[Garha Kingdom]]. According to Abul Fazl, Dalpat Shah was the son of a [[Kachwaha|Kachhwaha]] Rajput adopted by Raja of Gadha mandla.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dikshit|first=R. K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9j9ZJGJOV0C&pg=PA130|title=The Candellas of Jejākabhukti|date=1976|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-046-4|pages=8|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Abul Fazl|first=Henry Beveridge|title=Akbarnama Vol-2|year=1907|pages=326}}</ref> The [[Chandel (Rajput clan)|Chandel]] of [[mahoba]] and [[Garha Kingdom|Garha Kingdom dynasty]] (Garha Mandla) dynasties were allied because of this marriage.<ref name="women of India">{{cite book |author1=Archana Garodia Gupta |title=The Women Who Ruled India- Leaders. Warriors. Icons. |date=20 April 2019 |publisher=Hachette India |isbn=9789351951537 |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Women_Who_Ruled_India/4XuLDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dalpat+Shah&pg=PT67&printsec=frontcover |language=English |format=Ebook}}</ref> {{sfn|Romila Thapar|2013|p=572}}
<ref name="women of India"/> Some other ruling families also claimed Chandela descent (see [[Chandel (Rajput clan)|Chandel]]).

== Art and architecture ==

The Chandelas are well known for their art and architecture. They commissioned a number of temples, water bodies, palaces and forts at various places. The most famous example of their cultural achievements are the Hindu and Jain temples at [[Khajuraho]]. Three other important Chandela strongholds were Jayapura-Durga (modern [[Ajaigarh]]), Kalanjara (modern [[Kalinjar]]) and Mahotsava-Nagara (modern [[Mahoba]]).{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=17}}

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Chandela architecture">
Khajuraho Dulhadeo 2010.jpg | Dulhadeo temple, Khajuraho
0B Ajaigarh 4 sides temple.jpg | Ajaigarh temple
Yajna mandap in kulpahar.jpg | A [[yajna]] [[mandapa]] at [[Kulpahar]]
</gallery>

Other smaller Chandela sites include Chandpur, [[Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh|Deogarh]], Dudahi, [[Kakadeo]] and Madanpur.{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=17}}

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Chandela sculptures">
Brahma and his consort.jpg | Brahma and his consort, Khajuraho
Ajaygarh Alians ship.jpg | Stone carving, Ajaigarh
Ajaygarh Neel Swarshwati.jpg | Jain [[tirthankara]]s and [[Sarasvati]], Ajaigarh
Ajaygarh seven heavens of Jain.jpg | Jain heavens, Ajaigarh
Ajaygarh Shramanas Egyptian style rock cut.jpg | Jain [[shramana]]s, Ajaigarh
Ajaygarh treasure sign.jpg | Cattle with treasure sign, Ajaigarh
35. Khajuraho Visvanath apsara.jpg | [[Surasundari]] [[Apsara]], Khajuraho
Khajuraho 126.jpg | Dancing Ganesha, Khajuraho

Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638393390).jpg | [[Parshvanatha temple, Khajuraho|Parshvanatha temple]] carvings
Le Temple de Lakshmana (Khajurâho) (8498182643).jpg | [[Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho|Lakshmana temple]] carvings
</gallery>

== List of rulers ==

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"properties": { "marker-symbol": "monument", "title": "Dudhai (Dudāhī)" },
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"properties": { "marker-symbol": "monument", "title": "Gadha, Chhatarpur (Garrā)" },
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"properties": { "marker-symbol": "star", "title": "Mahoba" },
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Based on epigraphic records, the historians have come up with the following list of Chandela rulers of Jejākabhukti ([[IAST]] names in brackets):{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=25}}{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=25}}
* [[Nannuka]], c. 831-845 CE
* [[Vakpati (Chandela dynasty)|Vakpati]] (Vākpati), c. 845-865 CE
* [[Jayashakti]] (Jayaśakti) and [[Vijayashakti]] (Vijayaśakti), c. 865-885 CE
* [[Rahila]] (Rāhila), c. 885-905 CE
* [[Harsha (Chandela dynasty)|Shri Harsha]] (Śri Harśa), c. 905-925 CE
* [[Yashovarman (Chandela dynasty)|Yasho-Varman]] (Yaśovarman), c. 925-950 CE
* [[Dhanga|Dhanga-Deva]] (Dhaṅgadeva), c. 950-999 CE
* [[Ganda (Chandela dynasty)|Ganda-Deva]] (Gaṇḍadeva), c. 999-1002 CE
* [[Vidyadhara (Chandela king)|Vidyadhara]] (Vidyādhara), c. 1003-1035 CE
* [[Vijayapala|Vijaya-Pala]] (Vijayapāla), c. 1035-1050 CE
* [[Devavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Deva-Varman]], c. 1050-1060 CE
* [[Kirttivarman (Chandela dynasty)|Kirtti-Varman]] (Kīrtivarman), c. 1060-1100 CE
* [[Sallakshanavarman|Sallakshana-Varman]] (Sallakṣaṇavarman), c. 1100-1110 CE
* [[Jayavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Jaya-Varman]], c. 1110-1120 CE
* [[Prithvivarman|Prithvi-Varman]] (Pṛthvīvarman), c. 1120-1128 CE
* [[Madanavarman|Madana-Varman]], c. 1128-1165 CE
* [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yasho-Varman II]] (c. 1164-65 CE); did not rule or ruled for a very short time
* [[Paramardideva|Paramardi-Deva]], c. 1165-1203 CE
* [[Trailokyavarman|Trailokya-Varman]], c. 1203-1245 CE
* [[Viravarman|Vira-Varman]] (Vīravarman), c. 1245-1285 CE
* [[Bhojavarman|Bhoja-Varman]], c. 1285-1288 CE
* [[Hammiravarman|Hammira-Varman]] (Hammīravarman), c. 1288-1311 CE
* Vira-Varman II (an obscure ruler with low titles, attested by only one 1315 CE inscription){{sfn|Peter Jackson|2003|p=199}}

== References ==
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
{{reflist|2}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{ref begin}}
* {{cite book |author=Harihar Vitthal Trivedi |title=Inscriptions of the Paramāras (Part 2) |series=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Volume VII: Inscriptions of the Paramāras, Chandēllas, Kachchapaghātas, and two minor dynasties |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8B4LAQAAMAAJ |year=1991 |publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]] }}
* {{cite book |author=Om Prakash Misra |title=Archaeological Excavations in Central India: Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o0ISjDDWJwQC&pg=PA11 |year=2003 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-874-7 }}
* {{cite book |author=Peter Jackson |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA199 |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-54329-3 }}
* {{cite book |author=R. K. Dikshit |title=The Candellas of Jejākabhukti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9j9ZJGJOV0C&pg=PA130 |publisher=Abhinav |year=1976 |isbn=9788170170464 }}
* {{cite book |author=Romila Thapar |author-link=Romila Thapar |title=The Past Before Us |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aei9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA571 |year=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72651-2 }}
* {{cite book |author=Sisirkumar Mitra |title=The Early Rulers of Khajurāho |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA113 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1977 |isbn=9788120819979 }}
* {{cite book |author=Sushil Kumar Sullerey |title=Chandella Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rj8RusFpYHIC&pg=PA25 |year=2004 |publisher=Aakar Books |isbn=978-81-87879-32-9 }}
{{ref end}}

== External links ==
* {{commons category inline|Chandelas of Jejakabhukti}}

[[Category:Chandelas of Jejakabhukti| ]]
[[Category:Medieval India]]
[[Category:Hindu dynasties]]
[[Category:Bundelkhand]]
[[Category:History of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:History of Uttar Pradesh]]

Chandel Empire of Jejakabhukti

2023-07-21T00:32:20Z

Sukhdev Singh Judev:

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Chandelas of Jejakabhukti
|common_name = Chandel Empire
|era = [[Medieval India]]
|government_type = Monarchy
| leader1 = [[Nannuka|Chandravarman]] (First sovereign ruler)
| year_leader1 = 832-845 CE
| year_leader2 = 1165-1203 CE
| leader2 = [[Paramardideva]] (Last emperor)
| leader3 = [[Kirtti-Varman II]] (Last ruler)
| year_leader3 = 1487-1545 CE
| title_leader = [[Emperor]] ([[Emperor|Kalanjaradhipati]])
| event1 = Rise of Empire
| date_event1 = 1028 CE
| event2 = Empire at its peak
| date_event2 = 1203 CE
|event3 = Fall of Empire
|year_start = 832 CE
|year_end = 1545 CE
|p1 = Kalachuris of Tripuri
|flag_p1 = Map_of_the_Later_Kalacuris.png
| s1 = Ghurid dynasty
|flag_s1 = Ghurid_Empire_according_to_Schwartzberg_Atlas,_p.147.png
| s2 = Mamluk dynasty (Delhi){{!}}Mamluk dynasty
|flag_s2 = Mamluk_dynasty_1206_-_1290_ad.GIF
| s3 = Suri Empire
|image_map = [[File:Map of Candellas around 1200 CE.jpg]]
|image_map_caption = [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti|Chandel Empire]] during 1203 AD{{sfn|Singh|1984|p=69}}{{sfn|Gvāliyara darśana - Volume 1 - |1980| sfn}}
|map_width = 300px
|capital = {{ubl|[[Khajuraho]]|[[Kalanjara]]|[[Mahoba]]}}
|common_languages = [[Sanskrit]]
|religion = {{ubl|[[Hinduism]]|[[Jainism]]}}
|today = [[India]]
| image_coat = Chandelas of Jejakabhukti. Sallakshana Varman. Circa 1120-1135 CE.jpg
| coa_size = 280px
| symbol_type = Coinage of [[Sallakshanavarman|Sallakshana-Varman]] (1120–1135 CE), Chandelas of Jejakabhukti
}}
[[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti]] ([[Hindi]]: ''''जेजाकभुक्ति के चन्देल'''' ) colloquially known as the '''Chandel of Mahoba''', was the famous Indian dynasty that independently ruled in [[Central India]] from the 8th to 15th century.{{sfn| Early Rulers of Khajur (Second Revised Edition)|p=78}} The Chandel dynasty of Mahoba was founded by [[Chandel (Rajput clan)|Chedi-Chandel]] king [[Nannuka|Chandra-Varman]].{{sfn| Edwin Thomas Atkinson|1971|p=504}} They were the most prominent ruling family of the [[Chandel (Rajput clan)|Chandel]] Rajput clan. The territory ruled by them known as Jujhoti or [[Jejakabhukti]].{{sfn| Early Rulers of Khajur (Second Revised Edition)}} The dynasty was fully declined on 27 May 1545 after the death of [[Kirtti-Varman II]] against Suri Empire.{{sfn|Hindustānī - Volume 36|1975|p=54}}{{sfn|Mug̲h̲ala darabāra, kavi-saṅgītajña: san Ī| 1531-1707 -|Śāligrāma Gupta|1999|p=210}}

== Origin ==
The origin of the Chandelas is obscured by mythical legends. The epigraphic records of the dynasty, as well as contemporary texts such as ''Balabhadra-vilasa'' and ''Prabodha-chandrodaya'', suggest that the Chandelas belonged to the legendary [[Lunar dynasty]] (''Chandravansha'').{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=3}} A 954 CE [[Khajuraho]] inscription states that the dynasty's first king [[Nannuka]] was a descendant of sage Chandratreya, who was a son of [[Atri]]. A 1002 CE Khajuraho inscription gives a slightly different account, in which Chandratreya is mentioned as a son of Indu (the Moon) and a grandson of Atri.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=4}} The 1195 CE Baghari inscription and the 1260 CE Ajaygadh inscription contain similar accounts.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=5}} The ''Balabhadra-vilasa'' also names [[Atri]] among the ancestors of the Chandelas. Another Khajuraho inscription describes the Chandela king [[Dhanga]] as a member of the [[Vrishni]] clan of the [[Yadavas]] (who also claimed to be part of the Lunar dynasty).{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=3}}

[[File:Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638391942).jpg |thumb|left|upright|Loving couple, [[Khajuraho]].]]
The ''Mahoba-Khanda'' legend of the dynasty's origin goes like this: Hemaraja, a priest of the [[Gahadavala|Gaharwar]] king of [[Varanasi|Benares]], had a beautiful daughter named Hemavati. Once, while Hemavati was bathing in a pond, the moon god [[Chandra]] saw her and made love to her. Hemavati was worried about the dishonour of being an unwed mother, but Chandra assured her that their son would become a great king. This child was the dynasty's progenitor Chandravarma. Chandra presented him with a [[philosopher's stone]] and taught him politics.<ref name="Asopa1976">{{cite book |author=Jai Narayan Asopa |title=Origin of the Rajputs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_KznQEACAAJ |year=1976 |publisher=Bharatiya Publishing House |page=208}}</ref>{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=3}} The dynasty's own records do not mention Hemavati, Hemaraja or Indrajit. Such legends appear to be later bardic inventions. In general, the ''Mahoba-Khanda'' is a historically unreliable text.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=4}} ''Prithviraj Raso'' is also considered an historically unreliable text.<ref>{{cite book | editor=K Ayyappap Panikkar | title=Medieval Indian literature: an anthology (Volume 1) | author = Vijayendra Snatak | chapter = Medieval Hindi Literature | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJIMEC&pg=PA142 | access-date=28 September 2011 |year=1997 | publisher=Sahitya Akademi | isbn=978-81-260-0365-5 | page=142}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Serving empire, serving nation: James Tod and the Rajputs of Rajasthan |first=Jason |last=Freitag |publisher=BRILL |year=2009 |isbn=978-90-04-17594-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ib93BhAu43gC |pages=3–5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=R. V. Somani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcIBAAAAMAAJ |title=History of Mewar, from Earliest Times to 1751 A.D. |publisher=Mateshwari |year=1976 |oclc=2929852 |page= 30}}</ref>

[[File:Celestial dancer (Devata) mid-11th century, Chandela period, Madhya Pradesh.jpg|thumb|Celestial dancer (Devata) mid-11th century, Chandela period, Madhya Pradesh. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]].]]
British indologist [[Vincent Arthur Smith|V. A. Smith]] theorized that the Chandelas were of either [[Bhar]] or [[Gondi people|Gond]] origin. Some other scholars including [[R. C. Majumdar]] also supported this theory.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=6}} The Chandelas worshipped Maniya, a tribal goddess, whose temples are located at Mahoba and Maniyagadh.<ref name="Ali_2008">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iXVNBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 |title=World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India |volume=1 |author=Ali Javid and Tabassum Javeed |publisher=Algora |year=2008 |isbn=9780875864822 |page=44 }}</ref> Besides, they have been associated with places that are also associated with Bhars and Gonds. Also, [[Rani Durgavati]], whose family claimed Chandela descent married a Gond chief of [[Mandla|Garha-Mandla]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=7}} Historian R. K. Dikshit does not find these arguments convincing: he argues that Maniya was not a tribal deity.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=8}} Also, the dynasty's association with Gond territory is not necessarily indicative of a common descent: the dynasty's progenitor may have been posted as a governor in these territories.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=7}} Finally, Durgavati's marriage to a Gond chief can be dismissed as a one-off case.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=8}}

==History==

=== Early rulers ===

The Chandelas were originally vassals of the [[Gurjara-Pratiharas]].<ref>Radhey Shyam Chaurasia, History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.</ref> [[Nannuka]] (r. c. 831-845 CE), the founder of the dynasty, was the ruler of a small kingdom centered around [[Khajuraho Group of Monuments|Khajuraho]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Sailendra Sen |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdW6lAEACAAJ |year=2013 |publisher=Primus |isbn=978-93-80607-34-4 |page=22}}</ref>

[[File:Map of the Candellas.png|thumb|Chandel dynasty before 1026]]
According to the Chandela inscriptions, Nannuka's successor [[Vakpati (Chandela dynasty)|Vakpati]] defeated several enemies.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=27-28}} Vakpati's sons [[Jayashakti]] (Jeja) and [[Vijayashakti]] (Vija) consolidated the Chandela power.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=30}} According to a [[Mahoba]] inscription, the Chandela territory was named "Jejakabhukti" after the Jayashakti.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=28}} Vijayashakti's successor [[Rahila]] is credited with several military victories in eulogistic inscriptions.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=30-31}} Rahila's son [[Harsha (Chandela dynasty)|Harsha]] played an important role in restoring the rule of the Pratihara king [[Mahipala I|Mahipala]], possibly after a [[Rashtrakuta]] invasion or after Mahiapala's conflict with his step-brother [[Bhoja II (Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty)|Bhoja II]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=32-35}}

=== Rise as a sovereign power ===
[[File:Kirtivarman Chandela visits the temple of Khajurahu.jpg|thumb|A 20th century artist's imagination of Kirtivarman Chandela visiting a [[Khajuraho]] temple]]
Harsha's son [[Yashovarman (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman]] (r. c. 925-950 CE) continued to acknowledge the Pratihara suzerainty, but became practically independent.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=36-37}} He conquered the important fortress of [[Kalanjara]].{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=24}} A 953-954 CE [[Khajuraho]] inscription credits him with several other military successes, including against [[Gauḍa (region)|Gaudas]] (identified with the [[Pala Empire|Palas]]), the [[Khasas]], the [[Chedi Kingdom|Chedis]] (the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri]]), the [[Dakshina Kosala|Kosalas]] (possibly the [[Somavaṃśī dynasty|Somavamshis]]), the [[Mithila (ancient)|Mithila]] (possibly a small tributary ruler), [[Malwa|Malavas]] (identified with the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramaras]]), the [[Kuru Kingdom|Kurus]], the [[Kasmira Kingdom|Kashmiris]] and the [[Gurjara]]s.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=42-51}} These claims appear to be exaggerated, as similar claims of extensive conquests in northern India are also found in the records of the other contemporary kings such as the Kalachuri king Yuva-Raja and the Rashtrakuta king [[Krishna III]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=42}} Yashovarman's reign marked the beginning of the famous Chandela-era art and architecture. He commissioned the [[Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho|Lakshmana Temple]] at Khajuraho.{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=24}}

Unlike the earlier Chandela inscriptions, the records of Yashovarman's successor [[Dhanga]] (r. c. 950-999 CE) do not mention any Pratihara overlord. This indicates that Dhanga formally established the Chandela sovereignty.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=57}} A Khajuraho inscription claims that the rulers of [[Dakshina Kosala|Kosala]], Kratha (part of [[Vidarbha]] region), [[Kuntala country|Kuntala]], and [[Sinhala Kingdom|Simhala]] listened humbly to the commands of Dhanga's officers. It also claims that the wives of the kings of [[Andhra Kingdom|Andhra]], [[Anga]], [[Kanchi Kingdom|Kanchi]] and [[Rarh region|Raḍha]] resided in his prisons as a result of his success in wars. These appear to be eulogistic exaggerations by a court poet, but suggest that Dhanga did undertake extensive military campaigns.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=56}}{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=61-65}} Like his predecessor, Dhanga also commissioned a magnificent temple at Khajuraho, which is identified as the [[Vishvanatha Temple, Khajuraho|Vishvanatha Temple]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=69}}

Dhanga's successor [[Ganda (Chandela dynasty)|Ganda]] appears to have retained the territory he inherited.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=72}} His son [[Vidyadhara (Chandela king)|Vidyadhara]] killed the [[Gurjara-Pratihara|Pratihara]] king of [[Kannauj]] (possibly Rajyapala) for fleeing his capital instead of fighting the [[Ghaznavid]] invader [[Mahmud of Ghazni]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=72-73}}{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=72}} Mahmud later invaded Vidyadhara's kingdom; according to the Muslim invaders, this conflict ended with Vidyadhara paying tribute to Mahmud.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=81-82}} Vidyadhara is noted for having commissioned the [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]].{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=26}}

The Chandela art and architecture reached its zenith during this period. The [[Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho|Lakshmana Temple]] (c. 930–950 CE), the [[Vishvanatha Temple, Khajuraho|Vishvanatha Temple]] (c. 999-1002 CE) and the [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]] (c. 1030 CE) were constructed during the reigns of Yashovarman, Dhanga and Vidyadhara respectively. These [[Nagara architecture|Nagara-style]] temples are representative of the most fully developed style at Khajuraho.<ref name="James_1994">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC&pg=PA234 |title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent |author=James C. Harle |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1994 |page=234 |isbn=0300062176 }}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Nagara-style temples of Khajuraho">
India-5679 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg | [[Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho|Lakshmana Temple]]
File:Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638423582).jpg|[[Parshvanatha temple, Khajuraho|Parshvanatha Temple]]
Vishwanath N-MP-23.jpg | [[Vishvanatha Temple, Khajuraho|Vishvanatha Temple]]
A view of Kandariya Mahadev Temple Khajuraho India.jpg | [[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]]
</gallery>

=== Decline ===
[[File:Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho.jpg|thumb|[[Surasundari]] and [[vyala]], [[Khajuraho]].]]
[[File:Le Temple Kandariya Mahadeva (Khajurâho) (8503001895).jpg|thumb|[[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple|Kandariya Mahadeva temple]] carvings.]]
By the end of Vidyadhara's reign, the [[Ghaznavid]] invasions had weakened the Chandela kingdom. Taking advantage of this, the [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]] king [[Gangeyadeva|Gangeya-deva]] conquered eastern parts of the kingdom.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=89-90}} Chandela inscriptions suggest that Vidyadhara's successor [[Vijayapala]] (r. c. 1035-1050 CE) defeated Gangeya in a battle.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=88}} However, the Chandela power started declining during the Vijayapala's reign.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=101}} The [[Kachchhapaghata dynasty|Kachchhapaghatas]] of [[Gwalior]] probably gave up their allegiance to the Chandelas during this period.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=90}}

Vijayapala's elder son [[Devavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Devavavarman]] was subjugated by Gangeya's son [[Lakshmikarna|Lakshmi-Karna]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=91}} His younger brother [[Kirttivarman (Chandela dynasty)|Kirttivarman]] resurrected the Chandela power by defeating Lakshmi-Karna.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=94}} Kirtivarman's son [[Sallakshanavarman]] achieved military successes against the Paramaras and the Kalachuris, possibly by raiding their territories. A [[Mau, Uttar Pradesh|Mau]] inscription suggests that he also conducted successful campaigns in the Antarvedi region (the Ganga-Yamuna [[doab]]).{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=120-121}} His son [[Jayavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Jayavarman]] was of religious temperament and abdicated the throne after being tired of governance.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=126}}

Jayavarman appears to have died heirless, as he was succeeded by his uncle [[Prithvivarman]], the younger son of Kirttivarman.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|pp=110-111}} The Chandela inscriptions do not ascribe any military achievements to him; it appears that he was focused on maintaining the existing Chandela territories without adopting an aggressive expansionist policy.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=111}}

=== Revival ===

By the time Prithvivarman's son [[Madanavarman]] (r. c. 1128–1165 CE) ascended the throne, the neighbouring [[Kalachuris of Tripuri|Kalachuri]] and [[Paramara]] kingdoms had been weakened by enemy invasions. Taking advantage of this situation, Madanavarman defeated the Kalachuri king [[Gayakarna|Gaya-Karna]], and possibly annexed the northern part of the [[Baghelkhand]] region.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=132}} However, the Chandelas lost this territory to Gaya-Karna's successor [[Narasimha (Kalachuri dynasty)|Narasimha]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=135}} Madanavarman also captured the territory on the western periphery of the Paramara kingdom, around [[Bhilsa]] (Vidisha). This probably happened during the reign of the Paramara king [[Yashovarman (Paramara dynasty)|Yashovarman]] or his son [[Jayavarman I (Paramara dynasty)|Jayavarman]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=130-132}}{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=112-113}} Once again, the Chandelas could not retain the newly annexed territory for long, and the region was recaptured by Yashovarman's son Lakshmivarman.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=135}}

[[Jayasimha Siddharaja]], the [[Chaulukya]] king of Gujarat, also invaded the Paramara territory, which was located between the Chandela and the Chaulukya kingdoms. This brought him in conflict with Madanavarman. The result of this conflict appears to have been inconclusive, as records of both the kingdoms claim victory.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=133}} A [[Kalanjara]] inscription suggests that Madanavarman defeated Jayasimha. On the other hand, the various chronicles of Gujarat claim that Jayasimha either defeated Madanavarman or extracted a tribute from him.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|pp=133-134}} Madanavarman maintained friendly relations with his northern neighbours, the [[Gahadavala]]s.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=132-133}}

Madanavarman's son [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yashovarman II]] either did not rule, or ruled for a very short time. Madanavarman's grandson [[Paramardi|Paramardi-deva]] was the last powerful Chandela king.{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=130}}

===Final decline ===
[[File:Map of Candellas around 1200 CE.jpg|thumb|Later Chandel Empire during 1203 AD]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=37, 147|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=074}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Eaton |first1=Richard M. |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765 |date=25 July 2019 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196655-7 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP31 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Paramardi-Deva]] (reigned c. 1165-1203 CE) ascended the Chandela throne at a young age.

According to the medieval ballads, Prithviraj was returning to [[Delhi]] after marrying the daughter of Padamsen. During this journey, he was attacked by Turkic forces ([[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]]). The Chauhan army managed to repulse the attacks, but suffered serious casualties in the process. They lost their way, and arrived in the Chandela capital [[Mahoba]]. The Chauhan force, which had a number of wounded soldiers among them, unknowingly set up a camp in the Chandela royal garden. They killed the keeper of the garden for objecting to their presence. When Paramardi learned about this, he sent some soldiers to counter the Chauhan force. The Chandelas suffered heavy losses in the ensuing conflict. Paramardi then decided to send another force led by his general [[Udal of Mahoba|Udal]] against Prithviraj. Udal advised against this proposal, arguing that it would not be appropriate to attack wounded soldiers or to antagonize a powerful king like Prithviraj. However, Paramardi was under the influence of his brother-in-law Mahil Parihar (Pratihara), who secretly harboured ill-will against the Chandelas. Mahil instigated Paramardi to go ahead with the attack plan. The Chandela force led by Udal then launched a second attack against the Chauhan army, but was defeated. The situation subsided when Prithviraj left for Delhi.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=121}}

Unable to bear Mahil Parihar's political scheming, Udal and his brother [[Alha]] left the Chandela court. They took shelter with [[Jaichand]], the [[Gahadavala]] ruler of [[Kannauj]].{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=121}} Mahil then sent a secret message to Prithviraj Chauhan, informing him that the best generals of Paramardi had left Mahoba. Instigated by him, Prithviraj set out from Delhi in 1182 CE and marched to the Chandela empire via [[Gwalior]] and [[Bateshwar, Uttar Pradesh|Bateshwar]]. First, he besieged Sirsagarh, which was held by Malkhan, a cousin of Alha and Udal. Prithviraj tried to win over Malkhan, but Malkhan remained loyal to Paramardi and fought against the invaders. After Malkhan killed eight generals of the invading army, Prithviraj himself took charge of the battle. The Chandelas ultimately lost the battle, and Malkhan was killed , Paramardideva's son Bramhjit married daughter of Prithviraja's bela chauhan {{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=122}}
{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}}. Main battle between Chandelas Chahamanas War who fought in 1182 [[Paramardideva]] His son Brahmajit, along with Nephew Alha and Udal, led the [[Chandelas]] army against [[Chahamanas]]. In the battle Brahmajit, Udal and the two sons of [[Jaichand]] were killed but [[Paramardideva]] defeated [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] .{{sfn|Mohinder Singh Randhawa
|Indian Council of Agricultural Research|1980 | pp= 472}}{{sfn|M.S. Randhawa| Indian Sculpture: The Scene, Themes, and Legends |1985 | pp= 532}}{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=123}}. But to avoid the humiliation of their king, the Chauhans claimed in Madanpur that they were defeated and Parmardideva committed suicide.

This is corroborated by his stone inscriptions at [[Madanpur, Lalitpur, India|Madanpur]]{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=123}} However, the occupation of Mahoba or Kalanjara by Chauhans is not supported by historical evidence.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}} He is known to have issued several inscriptions after this event: the Kalanjara rock inscription, the 1184 CE Mahoba stone inscription, the 1187 CE [[Ajaygarh]] stone inscription, the 1195 CE Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara stone inscription.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} These records give imperial titles for Paramardi, indicating that he remained a sovereign Emperor.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}} The Muslim chronicles also provide evidence that Paramardideva ruled the empire until the beginning of the next century, when the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Chandela empire.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}}. He is known to have issued several inscriptions after this event: the Kalanjara rock inscription, the 1184 CE Mahoba stone inscription, the 1187 CE [[Ajaygarh]] stone inscription, the 1195 CE Baghari (Bateshvar) stone inscription, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara stone inscription.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=124}} These records give imperial titles for Paramardi, indicating that he remained a sovereign ruler.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}} The Muslim chronicles also provide evidence that Paramardi ruled until the beginning of the next century, when the Delhi Sultanate invaded the Chandela kingdom.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=125}}

The 1195 CE Bateshvar inscription states that other feudatory kings bowed before him, and the 1201 CE Kalanjara inscription describes him as the lord of [[Dasharna]] country. These evidences suggest that Paramardi managed to recover the Chandela power after Prithviraj Chauhan returned to Delhi.{{sfn|Sisirkumar Mitra|1977|p=126}}

The Chandela power did not fully recover from their defeat against the Delhi forces. Paramardi was succeeded by [[Trailokyavarman]], [[Viravarman]] and [[Bhojavarman]]. The next ruler [[Hammiravarman]] (r. c. 1288-1311 CE) did not use the imperial title [[Maharajadhiraja]], which indicates that the Chandela king had a lower status by his time. The Chandela power continued to decline because of the rising Muslim influence, as well as the rise of other local dynasties, such as the [[Bundela]]s, the Baghelas and the [[Khangar (community)|Khangars]].{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=179}}

Hammiravarman was succeeded by Viravarman II, whose titles do not indicate a high political status.{{sfn|Peter Jackson|2003|p=199}}{{sfn|Om Prakash Misra|2003|p=11}} [[Chandelas of Kalanjara (minor Chandela branch)|One minor branch of the family continued ruling Kalanjara]]: its ruler was killed by [[Sher Shah Suri]]'s army in 1545 CE.In 1542, Durgavati was married to [[Dalpat Shah]], the adopted son of the king [[Sangram Shah]] of the [[Garha Kingdom]]. According to Abul Fazl, Dalpat Shah was the son of a [[Kachwaha|Kachhwaha]] Rajput adopted by Raja of Gadha mandla.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dikshit|first=R. K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9j9ZJGJOV0C&pg=PA130|title=The Candellas of Jejākabhukti|date=1976|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-046-4|pages=8|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Abul Fazl|first=Henry Beveridge|title=Akbarnama Vol-2|year=1907|pages=326}}</ref> The [[Chandel (Rajput clan)|Chandel]] of [[mahoba]] and [[Garha Kingdom|Garha Kingdom dynasty]] (Garha Mandla) dynasties were allied because of this marriage.<ref name="women of India">{{cite book |author1=Archana Garodia Gupta |title=The Women Who Ruled India- Leaders. Warriors. Icons. |date=20 April 2019 |publisher=Hachette India |isbn=9789351951537 |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/The_Women_Who_Ruled_India/4XuLDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Dalpat+Shah&pg=PT67&printsec=frontcover |language=English |format=Ebook}}</ref> {{sfn|Romila Thapar|2013|p=572}}
<ref name="women of India"/> Some other ruling families also claimed Chandela descent (see [[Chandel (Rajput clan)|Chandel]]).

== Art and architecture ==

The Chandelas are well known for their art and architecture. They commissioned a number of temples, water bodies, palaces and forts at various places. The most famous example of their cultural achievements are the Hindu and Jain temples at [[Khajuraho]]. Three other important Chandela strongholds were Jayapura-Durga (modern [[Ajaigarh]]), Kalanjara (modern [[Kalinjar]]) and Mahotsava-Nagara (modern [[Mahoba]]).{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=17}}

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Chandela architecture">
Khajuraho Dulhadeo 2010.jpg | Dulhadeo temple, Khajuraho
0B Ajaigarh 4 sides temple.jpg | Ajaigarh temple
Yajna mandap in kulpahar.jpg | A [[yajna]] [[mandapa]] at [[Kulpahar]]
</gallery>

Other smaller Chandela sites include Chandpur, [[Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh|Deogarh]], Dudahi, [[Kakadeo]] and Madanpur.{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=17}}

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Chandela sculptures">
Brahma and his consort.jpg | Brahma and his consort, Khajuraho
Ajaygarh Alians ship.jpg | Stone carving, Ajaigarh
Ajaygarh Neel Swarshwati.jpg | Jain [[tirthankara]]s and [[Sarasvati]], Ajaigarh
Ajaygarh seven heavens of Jain.jpg | Jain heavens, Ajaigarh
Ajaygarh Shramanas Egyptian style rock cut.jpg | Jain [[shramana]]s, Ajaigarh
Ajaygarh treasure sign.jpg | Cattle with treasure sign, Ajaigarh
35. Khajuraho Visvanath apsara.jpg | [[Surasundari]] [[Apsara]], Khajuraho
Khajuraho 126.jpg | Dancing Ganesha, Khajuraho

Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638393390).jpg | [[Parshvanatha temple, Khajuraho|Parshvanatha temple]] carvings
Le Temple de Lakshmana (Khajurâho) (8498182643).jpg | [[Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho|Lakshmana temple]] carvings
</gallery>

== List of rulers ==

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Based on epigraphic records, the historians have come up with the following list of Chandela rulers of Jejākabhukti ([[IAST]] names in brackets):{{sfn|R. K. Dikshit|1976|p=25}}{{sfn|Sushil Kumar Sullerey|2004|p=25}}
* [[Nannuka]], c. 831-845 CE
* [[Vakpati (Chandela dynasty)|Vakpati]] (Vākpati), c. 845-865 CE
* [[Jayashakti]] (Jayaśakti) and [[Vijayashakti]] (Vijayaśakti), c. 865-885 CE
* [[Rahila]] (Rāhila), c. 885-905 CE
* [[Harsha (Chandela dynasty)|Shri Harsha]] (Śri Harśa), c. 905-925 CE
* [[Yashovarman (Chandela dynasty)|Yasho-Varman]] (Yaśovarman), c. 925-950 CE
* [[Dhanga|Dhanga-Deva]] (Dhaṅgadeva), c. 950-999 CE
* [[Ganda (Chandela dynasty)|Ganda-Deva]] (Gaṇḍadeva), c. 999-1002 CE
* [[Vidyadhara (Chandela king)|Vidyadhara]] (Vidyādhara), c. 1003-1035 CE
* [[Vijayapala|Vijaya-Pala]] (Vijayapāla), c. 1035-1050 CE
* [[Devavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Deva-Varman]], c. 1050-1060 CE
* [[Kirttivarman (Chandela dynasty)|Kirtti-Varman]] (Kīrtivarman), c. 1060-1100 CE
* [[Sallakshanavarman|Sallakshana-Varman]] (Sallakṣaṇavarman), c. 1100-1110 CE
* [[Jayavarman (Chandela dynasty)|Jaya-Varman]], c. 1110-1120 CE
* [[Prithvivarman|Prithvi-Varman]] (Pṛthvīvarman), c. 1120-1128 CE
* [[Madanavarman|Madana-Varman]], c. 1128-1165 CE
* [[Yashovarman II (Chandela dynasty)|Yasho-Varman II]] (c. 1164-65 CE); did not rule or ruled for a very short time
* [[Paramardideva|Paramardi-Deva]], c. 1165-1203 CE
* [[Trailokyavarman|Trailokya-Varman]], c. 1203-1245 CE
* [[Viravarman|Vira-Varman]] (Vīravarman), c. 1245-1285 CE
* [[Bhojavarman|Bhoja-Varman]], c. 1285-1288 CE
* [[Hammiravarman|Hammira-Varman]] (Hammīravarman), c. 1288-1311 CE
* Vira-Varman II (an obscure ruler with low titles, attested by only one 1315 CE inscription){{sfn|Peter Jackson|2003|p=199}}

== References ==
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
{{reflist|2}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{ref begin}}
* {{cite book |author=Harihar Vitthal Trivedi |title=Inscriptions of the Paramāras (Part 2) |series=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Volume VII: Inscriptions of the Paramāras, Chandēllas, Kachchapaghātas, and two minor dynasties |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8B4LAQAAMAAJ |year=1991 |publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]] }}
* {{cite book |author=Om Prakash Misra |title=Archaeological Excavations in Central India: Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o0ISjDDWJwQC&pg=PA11 |year=2003 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-874-7 }}
* {{cite book |author=Peter Jackson |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |title=The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lt2tqOpVRKgC&pg=PA199 |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-54329-3 }}
* {{cite book |author=R. K. Dikshit |title=The Candellas of Jejākabhukti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9j9ZJGJOV0C&pg=PA130 |publisher=Abhinav |year=1976 |isbn=9788170170464 }}
* {{cite book |author=Romila Thapar |author-link=Romila Thapar |title=The Past Before Us |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aei9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA571 |year=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72651-2 }}
* {{cite book |author=Sisirkumar Mitra |title=The Early Rulers of Khajurāho |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA113 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1977 |isbn=9788120819979 }}
* {{cite book |author=Sushil Kumar Sullerey |title=Chandella Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rj8RusFpYHIC&pg=PA25 |year=2004 |publisher=Aakar Books |isbn=978-81-87879-32-9 }}
{{ref end}}

== External links ==
* {{commons category inline|Chandelas of Jejakabhukti}}

[[Category:Chandelas of Jejakabhukti| ]]
[[Category:Medieval India]]
[[Category:Hindu dynasties]]
[[Category:Bundelkhand]]
[[Category:History of Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:History of Uttar Pradesh]]