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Chandru Selvaraj

2023-10-03T01:04:41Z

Sridhar: Created page with '{{subst:AfC submission/draftnew}} Chandru Selvaraj(born 31st July 1992) is an Indian cinematographer. He has worked predominantly in films in Indian Languages such as Malayalam and Tamil. Recognized for his strong sense of detail, Chandru Selvaraj began his career in the Malayalam film industry with the film, “Ahar’ which earned him the “Kerala State Film Awards|Kerala Stat...'

{{Short description|Indian Cinematographer}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{infobox person
| name = Chandru Selvaraj
| image =
| birth_place = [[Ooty]], Tamil Nadu, India
| occupation = [[Cinematographer]]
| years_active = 2020–present
| notable_works = Kayattam, [[Vazhakku]]
| awards = [[Kerala State Film Award for Best Cinematography]] (2020, 2022)
}}

'''Chandru Selvaraj''' is an [[Indian cinematographers|Indian cinematographer]] who works in the [[Malayalam]] film industry.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2021-10-19 |title=മഞ്ജു മാം എങ്ങനെ സ്വീകരിക്കും എന്ന ആശങ്ക ഉണ്ടായിരുന്നു; പുരസ്കാര ജേതാവ് ചന്ദ്രു സെൽവരാജ് പറയുന്നു |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/features/kayattam-movie-cinematographer-chandru-selvaraj-interview-state-award-winner-manju-warrier-1.6100363 |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=Mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref> He has received two [[Kerala State Film Awards|Kerala State Film Award]], one for ''Kayattam'' (2020)<ref>{{Cite web |title=ഐ ഫോൺ ഉപയോഗിച്ച് ചന്ദ്രു പടം പിടിച്ചു, ലിജു നിറം ചാലിച്ചു; 'കയറ്റ'ത്തിന് ലഭിച്ച അവാ‍ർഡുകൾക്ക് പിന്നിൽ |url=https://malayalam.samayam.com/malayalam-cinema/movie-news/manju-warrier-starrer-kayattam-bags-kerala-state-film-award-for-best-cinematography-chandru-selvaraj-shoot-the-movie-in-iphone-10x/articleshow/87079322.cms |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=Samayam Malayalam |language=ml}}</ref> and another for ''[[Vazhakku]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=T. N. M. |date=2023-07-21 |title=Mammootty, Vincy win Kerala Best Actor awards for Nanpakal, Rekha |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/mammootty-vincy-win-kerala-best-actor-awards-nanpakal-rekha-180038 |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=The News Minute |language=en}}</ref>

== Early Life ==
Chandru was born in [[Ooty]], [[Tamil Nadu]]. His father's job required frequent transfers, which eventually led his family to settle in [[Chennai]]. Initially, Chandru pursued a career in engineering because of the suggestions from his family. However, he made the bold decision to take up filmmaking despite initial objections from his family.<ref name=":2" />

== Career ==
He started his career by assisting cinematographer [[Tirru]]. He has assisted on seven films in a span of four years, during which he was introduced to [[Sanal Kumar Sasidharan]] by one of [[Karthik Subbaraj]]'s associate while they were working on [[Petta (film)|''Petta'']] (2019).<ref name=":0" />

In 2021, Chandru won the [[Kerala State Film Awards|Kerala State Film Award]] for Best Cinematography in ''Kayattam (2020),'' which was his debut film in the [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam film industry]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Haran |first=Praveen V |title=ഹിമാലയത്തിൽ പനിച്ചു കിടന്നു; ഒടുവിൽ അവാർഡ് നേട്ടത്തിലേക്ക് ചന്ദ്രുവിന്റെ 'കയറ്റം' |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/interview/2021/10/20/chat-with-state-award-winner-chandru-selvaraj-cinematographer.html |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118190946/https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/interview/2021/10/20/chat-with-state-award-winner-chandru-selvaraj-cinematographer.html |archive-date=18 November 2021 |access-date=2022-06-02 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref> The film was entirely shot on an [[iPhone XS Max]] in the [[Himalayas]].''<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nagarajan |first1=Saraswathy |date=31 August 2021 |title='Kayattam' wins Sanal Kumar Sasidharan the first 'Disruptor in Cinema' award at Melbourne |newspaper=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/kayattam-wins-sanal-kumar-sasidharan-the-first-disruptor-in-cinema-award-at-melbourne/article36199290.ece}}</ref>''

In 2022, He worked on [[Stephy Zaviour]]'s directorial debut, [[Madhura Manohara Moham|''Madhura Manohara Moham'']] starring [[Sharaf U Dheen|Sharafudheen]] and [[Rajisha Vijayan]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/stephy-zaviour-to-make-her-directorial-debut-with-sharafudheen-rajisha-vijayan-starrer/c2f9297be2432 |title=Stephy Zaviour to make her directorial debut with Sharafudheen, Rajisha Vijayan-starrer |date=17 September 2022}}</ref> His collaboration with director [[Sanal Kumar Sasidharan]] on 'Kayattam' was a significant turning point in his career as he got to work with him again on 2022.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |date=2 May 2022 |title=Her: Urvashi, Parvathy, Aishwarya Rajesh, Ramya Nambessan join multi-starrer |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2022/may/02/her-urvashi-parvathy-aishwarya-rajesh-ramya-nambessan-join-multi-starrer-31228.html |website=[[Cinema Express]]}}</ref>

== Filmography ==

=== As cinematographer ===
{{Pending films key}}
:*''All films in [[Malayalam|Malayalam]] unless otherwise noted''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|'''Year'''
|'''Film'''
|'''Notes'''
|-
|2020
|''Kayattam''
|[[51st Kerala State Film Awards|51st Kerala State Film Award]] for Best Cinematography<ref>{{Cite web |title=ഐ ഫോണിൽ ഷൂട്ട് ചെയ്തു; മികച്ച ക്യാമറമാനായി; തിളങ്ങി 'കയറ്റം' |url=https://www.manoramanews.com/news/kerala/2021/10/16/chandru-selvaraj-kayattam-movie-camera-state-award.html |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=Manoramanews |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2022
|''[[Mahaveeryar]]''
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mahaveeryar Movie Review: Nivin Pauly, Asif Ali's experimental film misfires |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/mahaveeryar-movie-review-nivin-pauly-asif-ali-s-experimental-film-misfires-1978248-2022-07-21 |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Unusual storytelling style of 'Mahaveeryar' makes an impression |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/review/unusual-storytelling-style-of-mahaveeryar-makes-an-impression-1.7717921 |access-date=2022-10-09 |website=English.Mathrubhumi |date=22 July 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2023
|[[Madhura Manohara Moham|''Madhura Manohara Moham'']]
|<ref>{{Cite news |last=Anand |first=Shilpa Nair |date=2023-05-13 |title=Award-winning Malayalam costume designer Stephy Zaviour turns director with the movie 'Madhura Manohara Moham' |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/costume-designer-of-malayalam-films-stephy-zaviour-turns-director-with-madhura-manohara-moham/article66834376.ece |access-date=2023-10-02 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
|-
|2023
|{{Pending film|HER}}
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-26 |title=Her first-look poster out: Parvathy, Aishwarya Rajesh, Oorvasi, Remya Nambessan headline Lijin Jose's film |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/malayalam/her-first-look-poster-parvathy-aishwarya-rajesh-oorvasi-remya-nambessan-lijin-jose-film-8291376/ |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|{{TBA}}
|{{Pending film|[[Vazhakku]]}}
|Selected for IFFSA-SEOUL 2022<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 July 2022 |title=Tovino Thomas' Vazhakku Officially Selected for IFFSA-SEOUL 2022 |pages=1 |work=LatestLY |url=https://www.latestly.com/socially/entertainment/south/tovino-thomas-vazhakku-officially-selected-for-iffsa-seoul-2022-3953615.html |access-date=October 9, 2022}}</ref>
[[53rd Kerala State Film Awards|53rd Kerala State Film Award]] for Best Cinematography<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Antony |first=Seena |title=മികച്ച ക്യാമറ, തുടർച്ചയായി സംസ്ഥാന അവാർഡ്: ചന്ദ്രു സെൽവരാജ് അഭിമുഖം |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/interview/2023/07/26/exclusive-chat-with-state-award-winner-chandru-selvaraj-cinematographer.html |access-date=2023-10-02 |website=ManoramaOnline |language=ml}}</ref>
|}

== Awards ==
[[51st Kerala State Film Awards|51st Kerala State Film Award]] for Best Cinematography - ''Kayattam'' (2020)<ref>{{cite news |date=16 October 2021 |title=Winners of 2021 Kerala State Film Awards declared, find full list here |newspaper=The New Indian Express |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2021/oct/16/winners-of-2021-kerala-state-film-awards-declared-find-full-list-here-2372201.html}}</ref>

[[53rd Kerala State Film Awards|53rd Kerala State Film Award]] for Best Cinematography - [[Vazhakku]]<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{imdbname|8907351}}
* {{Twitter|DOP_Chandru}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Selvaraj, Chandru}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Malayalam film cinematographers]]
[[Category:Cinematographers from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian photographers]]
[[Category:Indian Tamil people]]

Special forces

2023-09-18T01:50:45Z

Sridhar: Special forces

{{Short description|Military units trained to conduct special operations}}
{{Other uses|Special forces (disambiguation)|Elite Force (disambiguation){{!}}Elite Force}}
{{Redirect|Special Operations Forces||Special Operations Forces (Russia)|and|Special Operations Forces (Ukraine)|and|Special Operations Force (Singapore)}}
{{Redirect|Crack-troops|the military formation|Shock troops}}

[[File:A joint special forces team moves together out of an Air Force CV-22 Osprey aircraft, Feb. 26, 2018.jpg|thumb|300px|An American special forces team moves together out of an [[U.S. Air Force]] [[CV-22 Osprey]] aircraft on February 26, 2018]]

'''Special forces''' or '''special operations forces''' ('''SOF''') are [[military]] units trained to conduct [[special operations]].<ref name="NATO doctrine">{{cite journal|title=Allied Joint Doctrine for Special Operations|author=North Atlantic Treaty Organization|journal=NATO Standard Allied Joint Publication|date=13 December 2013|volume=AJP-3.5|issue=Edition A, Version 1|pages=1|publisher=NATO Standardization Agency|location=Brussels}}</ref><ref>Richard Bowyer, Dictionary of Military Terms, Bloomsbury Reference (2005–08), {{ISBN|190497015X}} / {{ISBN|9781904970156}}.</ref><ref name="US doctrine">{{cite journal|author=Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS)|title=Special Operations|journal=Joint Publication|date=16 July 2014|volume=3-05|page=GL-11|url=http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp3_05.pdf|access-date=18 September 2016|publisher=Department of Defense|location=Washington, DC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201152006/http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp3_05.pdf|archive-date=1 December 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[NATO]] has defined special operations as "military activities conducted by specially designated, organized, selected, trained and equipped forces using unconventional techniques and modes of employment".<ref name="NATO doctrine" /><ref name="NATO Glossary">{{cite web|title=NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions (English and French)|author=North Atlantic Treaty Organization|date=2013|volume=AAP-06|issue=Edition 2013|page=2-S-8|url=https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/Other_Pubs/aap6.pdf|publisher=NATO Standardization Agency|location=Brussels|access-date=22 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528215932/https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/Other_Pubs/aap6.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2022}}</ref>

Special forces emerged in the early 20th century, with a significant growth in the field during [[World War II]], when "every major army involved in the fighting" created formations devoted to special operations behind enemy lines.{{sfn|Thomas|1983|p=690}} Depending on the country, special forces may perform functions including [[Airborne forces|airborne operations]], [[counter-insurgency]], [[counter-terrorism]], [[foreign internal defense]], [[Covert operations|covert ops]], [[Direct action (military)|direct action]], [[Hostage crises|hostage rescue]], [[high-value targets]]/[[Manhunt (military)|manhunt]], [[intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance|intelligence operations]], [[Mobility (military)|mobility operations]], and [[unconventional warfare]].<ref name="adrp spec operations">{{cite web |author1=Headquarters, Department of the Army |title=ADRP 3-05 SPECIAL OPERATIONS |url=https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/ARN18909_ADP%203-05%20C1%20FINAL%20WEB(2).pdf |website=Army Publishing Directorate |access-date=22 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412133555/https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/ARN18909_ADP%203-05%20C1%20FINAL%20WEB(2).pdf |archive-date=12 April 2022 |date=July 2019}}</ref>

In Russian-speaking countries, special forces of any country are typically called {{lang|ru-Latn|[[spetsnaz]]}}, an acronym for "special purpose". In the United States, the term ''special forces'' often refers specifically to the [[United States Army Special Forces|U.S. Army Special Forces]], while the term ''special operations forces'' is used more broadly for these types of units.
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Capabilities==
Special forces capabilities include the following:
* [[Special reconnaissance]] and surveillance in hostile environments
* [[Foreign internal defense]]: Training and development of other states' military and security forces
* Offensive action
* Support to [[counter-insurgency]] through population engagement and support
* [[Counter-terrorism]] operations
* [[Sabotage]] and demolition
* Hostage rescue

Other capabilities can include [[bodyguard|close personal protection]]; waterborne operations involving [[Frogman|combat diving/combat swimming]], [[Naval boarding|maritime boarding]] and amphibious missions; as well as [[Air force infantry and special forces units#Special operations forces|support of air force operations]].

==History==

===Early period===
[[File:Hokusai-sketches---hokusai-manga-vol6-crop.jpg|thumb|upright|Japanese drawing of the archetypical [[ninja]], from a series of sketches (''[[Hokusai manga]]'') by [[Hokusai]].]]
Special forces have played an important role throughout the history of warfare, whenever the aim was to achieve disruption by "hit and run" and [[sabotage]], rather than more traditional conventional combat. Other significant roles lay in [[reconnaissance]], providing essential intelligence from near or among the enemy and increasingly in combating irregular forces, their infrastructure and activities.

Chinese strategist [[Jiang Ziya]], in his ''[[Six Secret Teachings]]'', described recruiting talented and motivated men into specialized elite units with functions such as commanding heights and making rapid long-distance advances.<ref>{{cite book | last=Sawyer | first=Ralph D. | title=The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China | year=1993 | publisher=Westview Press, Inc | location=Boulder | isbn=0-8133-1228-0 | pages=39, 98–9}}</ref> [[Hamilcar Barca]] in Sicily (249 BC) had specialized troops trained to launch several offensives per day.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} In the late Roman or early Byzantine period, Roman fleets used small, fast, camouflaged ships crewed by selected men for scouting and commando missions. In the [[Middle Ages]], special forces trained to conduct special operations were employed in several occasions.<ref>[[Yuval Noah Harari]], Special Operations in the Age of Chivalry, 1100-1550 https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt81v7j</ref> An example of this were the special forces of [[Gerald the Fearless]], a Portuguese warrior and folk hero of the [[Reconquista]].<ref>PRAÇA DO GIRALDO, EvoraPortugalTourism.com https://www.evoraportugaltourism.com/guide/praca-de-giraldo.html</ref><ref>Clemente Ramos, 653 n14: ''El perro caminaba en noches lluviosas y muy oscuras, de fuerte viento y nieve, hacia las ciudades y había preparado sus instrumentos de escalas de madera muy largas, que sobrepasen el muro de la ciudad, aplicaba aquellas escaleras al costado de la torre y subía por ellas el primero, hasta la torre y cogía al centinela y le decía: "Grita como es tu costumbre," para que no le sintiese la gente. Cuando se había completado la subida de su grupo a lo más alto del muro de la ciudad, gritaban en su lengua con un alarido execrable, y entraban en la ciudad y combatían al que encontraban y le robaban y cogían a todos los que había en ella cautivos y prisioneros a todos los que estaban allí.''</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6e79DQAAQBAJ&dq=gerald+the+fearless&pg=PA91 | title=Study and Teaching Guide: The History of the Renaissance World: A curriculum guide to accompany the History of the Renaissance World | isbn=9781945841019 | last1=Kaziewicz | first1=Julia | date=22 November 2016 }}</ref><ref>Porto Editora – Geraldo Geraldes, o Sem Pavor na Infopédia [em linha]. Porto: Porto Editora. [consult. 2022-04-22 22:05:13]. Disponível em https://www.infopedia.pt/$geraldo-geraldes-o-sem-pavor</ref> Muslim forces also had naval special operations units, including one that used camouflaged ships to gather intelligence and launch raids and another of soldiers who could pass for Crusaders who would use ruses to board enemy ships and then capture and destroy them.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/pdfs/christides.pdf | title=Military Intelligence in Arabo-Byzantine Naval Warfare | publisher=Institute for Byzantine Studies, Athens | first=Vassilios | last=Christides | pages=276–80 | access-date=2011-08-02 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725230646/http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/pdfs/christides.pdf | archive-date=2011-07-25 }}</ref> In [[Japan]], [[ninja]]s were used for [[reconnaissance]], [[espionage]] and as [[Assassination|assassins]], [[bodyguards]] or fortress guards, or otherwise fought alongside conventional soldiers.<ref>{{cite book | last = Turnbull | first = Stephen | author-link = Stephen Turnbull (historian) | title = Ninja AD 1460–1650 | year = 2003 | publisher = Osprey Publishing | isbn = 978-1-84176-525-9 | pages= 44–7, 50}}</ref> During the [[Napoleonic wars]], rifle and [[sapper]] units were formed that held specialised roles in reconnaissance and skirmishing and were not committed to the formal battle lines.

===First specialized units===
The [[British Indian Army]] deployed two special forces during their border wars: the [[Corps of Guides (India)|Corps of Guides]] formed in 1846 and the [[5 Gorkha Rifles (Frontier Force)|Gurkha Scouts]] (a force that was formed in the 1890s and was first used as a detached unit during the 1897–1898 [[Tirah Campaign]]).<ref>"The Corps of Guides – the original Indian Army special forces." ..."The Scouts were not subordinate to any brigade or division but were ''army'' troops – deployed at the discretion of the field force commander." {{harv| Bellamy|2011|page=115}}</ref>

[[File:Burnham in africa close up.jpg|left|thumb|250px|British Army scouts in South Africa (1893): [[Frederick Russell Burnham]] (middle); Hon. [[Maurice Gifford]] (right)]]
During the [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902) the British Army felt the need for more specialised units. Scouting units such as the [[Lovat Scouts]], a Scottish Highland regiment made up of exceptional [[woodsmen]] outfitted in [[ghillie suit]]s and well practised in the arts of [[marksmanship]], [[field craft]], and [[military tactics]] filled this role. This unit was formed in 1900 by [[Simon Fraser, 14th Lord Lovat|Lord Lovat]] and early on reported to an American, Major [[Frederick Russell Burnham]], the Chief of Scouts under [[Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts|Lord Roberts]]. After the war, Lovat's Scouts went on to formally become the British Army's first sniper unit.<ref name="sniper">{{cite book | author=John Plaster | title=[[The Ultimate Sniper]]: An Advanced Training Manual For Military and Police Snipers | publisher =Paladin Press| year=2006 | page= 5| isbn=0-87364-704-1}}</ref> Additionally, the [[Bushveldt Carbineers]], formed in 1901, can be seen as an early [[unconventional warfare]] unit.

The ''[[Luna Sharpshooters]]'', also known as the "''Marksmen of Death''" ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Tiradores de la Muerte''), was an elite unit formed on 1899 by [[General]] [[Antonio Luna]] to serve under the [[Philippine Revolutionary Army]]. They became famous for fighting fiercer than the regular Filipino army soldiers. Most of the members of this unit came from the old [[Spanish Army]] filipino members which fought during the [[Philippine Revolution]].<ref name="V.R. Jose">{{cite book|last=Jose|first=Vivencio|title=The Rise and Fall of Antonio Luna|year=1972|publisher=Solar Pub. Corporation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjFQPgAACAAJ|pages=220–221|isbn=9789711707002}}</ref>

[[File:Antonio luna small.jpg|thumb|General [[Antonio Luna]] of the [[Philippine Revolutionary Army]], the founder of ''Tiradores dela Muerte'']]

The sharpshooters became famous for their fierce fighting and proved their worth by being the usual spearheading unit in every major battle in the [[Philippine–American War]]. In the [[Battle of Paye]] on December 19, 1899, Bonifacio Mariano, a sharpshooter under the command of General [[Licerio Gerónimo]], killed General [[Henry Ware Lawton]] of the [[United States Army]], making the latter the highest ranking casualty during the course of the war.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ocampo|first=Ambeth|title=Looking Back 4: Chulalongkorn's Elephants|year=2011|publisher=Anvil Publishing, Inc.|isbn=978-971-27-2600-2|pages=66–70}}</ref>

===World War I===
[[File:Italian Arditi.jpg|thumb|300px|Members of the Italian ''[[Arditi]]'' corps, 1918, wielding daggers.]]
The German [[Stormtroopers (Imperial Germany)|Stormtroopers]] and the Italian [[Arditi]] were the first modern shock troops. They were both elite assault units trained to a much higher level than that of average troops and tasked to carry out daring attacks and bold raids against enemy defenses. Unlike Stormtroopers, Arditi were not units within infantry divisions, but were considered a separate combat arm.<ref name="Arditi">{{cite book | last= Morisi |first=Paolo | title=Hell in the Trenches: Austro-Hungarian Stormtroopers and Italian Arditi in the Great War |publisher=Helion and Company| year=2018 | page= 240| isbn=978-1912174980}}</ref>

===World War II===
====British====
[[File:Commandos In training.jpg|thumb|alt=Man climbing over assault course wooden obstacle|The [[British Commandos]] were the prototype for the modern special forces. Volunteers had to undergo an arduous training course.]]

=====Commandos=====
{{main|Commandos (United Kingdom)}}
Modern special forces emerged during the [[Second World War]]. In 1940, the [[British Commandos]] were formed following [[Winston Churchill]]'s call for "specially trained troops of the hunter class, who can develop a reign of terror down the enemy coast."<ref>Haskew, p. 47</ref> A [[staff officer]], [[Lieutenant Colonel]] [[Dudley Clarke]], had already submitted such a proposal to [[General]] Sir [[John Dill]], the [[Chief of the Imperial General Staff]]. Dill, aware of Churchill's intentions, approved Clarke's proposal<ref name="haskew">{{cite book|last=Haskew|first=Michael E|title=Encyclopaedia of Elite Forces in the Second World War|publisher=Pen and Sword|location=Barnsley|year=2007|isbn=978-1-84415-577-4|pages=47–8}}</ref> and on 23 June 1940, the first Commando raid took place.<ref name="haskew"/>

By the autumn of 1940 more than 2,000 men had volunteered and in November 1940 these new units were organised into a [[Special Service Brigade]] consisting of four battalions under the command of [[Brigadier]] J. C. Haydon.<ref>{{cite book|first=H. F.|last=Joslen|title=Orders of Battle, Second World War, 1939–1945|publisher=Naval & Military Press|location=London|isbn=1-84342-474-6|year=1990|page=454}}</ref> The Special Service Brigade was quickly expanded to 12 units which became known as Commandos.<ref name="haskew"/> Each Commando had a lieutenant colonel as the [[commanding officer]] and numbered around 450 men (divided into 75 man [[troop]]s that were further divided into 15 man [[Section (military unit)|sections]]).

In December 1940 a Middle East Commando depot was formed with the responsibility of training and supplying reinforcements for the Commando units in that theatre.<ref name="Moreman">{{cite book|last=Moreman|first=Timothy Robert|title=British Commandos 1940–46|publisher=Osprey Publishing|location=London|year=2006|isbn=1-84176-986-X|pages=37–49}}</ref> In February 1942 the Commando training depot at [[Achnacarry]] in the [[Scottish Highlands]] was established by Brigadier Charles Haydon. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Vaughan, the Commando depot was responsible for training complete units and individual replacements.<ref name="Moreman" /> The training regime was for the time innovative and physically demanding, and far in advance of normal British Army training.<ref name="Moreman" /> The depot staff were all hand picked, with the ability to outperform any of the volunteers.

[[File:Landing on Queen Red Beach, Sword Area.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Men wading ashore from a landing craft|[[British Commandos]] wearing the green beret and carrying the Bergen rucksack during the [[Normandy landings]]]]
Training and assessment started immediately on arrival, with the volunteers having to complete an {{convert|8|mi|adj=on}} march with all their equipment from the [[Spean Bridge]] railway station to the commando depot.<ref name="Moreman" /> Exercises were conducted using live ammunition and explosives to make training as realistic as possible. Physical fitness was a prerequisite, with cross country runs and [[boxing]] matches to improve fitness. Speed and endurance marches were conducted up and down the nearby mountain ranges and over [[assault course]]s that included a [[zip-line]] over [[Loch Arkaig]], all while carrying arms and full equipment. Training continued by day and night with river crossings, mountain climbing, [[World War II combatives|weapons training, unarmed combat]], map reading, and small boat operations on the syllabus.

Reaching a wartime strength of over 30 individual units and four assault [[brigade]]s, the Commandos served in all theatres of war from the [[Arctic Circle]] to [[European theatre of World War II|Europe]] and from the [[Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II|Mediterranean and Middle East]] to [[South-East Asian theatre of World War II|South-East Asia]]. Their operations ranged from small groups of men landing from the sea or by parachute to a brigade of assault troops spearheading the Allied invasions of Europe and Asia. The first modern special forces units were established by men who had served with the Commandos, including the [[Parachute Regiment (United Kingdom)|Parachute Regiment]], [[Special Air Service]], and [[Special Boat Service]]. The [[No. 10 (Inter-Allied) Commando]] organised by British of volunteers from occupied Europe led to French [[Commandos Marine]], Dutch [[Korps Commandotroepen]], Belgian [[Paracommando Brigade (Belgium)|Paracommando Brigade]]. The [[United States Army Rangers]] and [[Marine Raiders|United States Marine Raiders]] were all influenced to some degree by the British Commandos.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=17 April 2010|title=Les fusiliers marins et les commandos|publisher=[[Ministère de la Défense]]|url=http://www.defense.gouv.fr/marine/decouverte/forces/fusiliers_et_commandos/les_fusiliers_marins_et_les_commandos_marine}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=17 April 2010|publisher=[[Korps Commandotroepen]]|title=The history of the Commando Foundation|url=http://www.korpscommandotroepen.nl/index.php?l=en&p=42|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101031231706/http://korpscommandotroepen.nl/index.php?l=en&p=42|archive-date=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=17 April 2010|title=Centre d'Entraînement de Commandos|publisher=Ministère de la Défense,la Composante Terre|url=http://www.mil.be/armycomp/units/index.asp?LAN=fr&FILE=&ID=540&MENU=625&PAGE=1|archive-date=7 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307124159/http://www.mil.be/armycomp/units/index.asp?LAN=fr&FILE=&ID=540&MENU=625&PAGE=1|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=====Special Air Service (SAS)=====
The first modern special forces unit was the [[Special Air Service]] (SAS), formed in July 1941 from an unorthodox idea and plan by [[Lieutenant]] [[David Stirling]].<ref>[[London Gazette]] [http://www.gazettes-online.co.uk/ViewPDF.aspx?pdf=34420&geotype=London&gpn=4740 Issue 34420 published 23 July 1937, p. 10 of 80]</ref> In June 1940 he volunteered for the [[No. 8 (Guards) Commando]] (later named "[[Layforce]]"). After Layforce was disbanded, Stirling remained convinced that due to the mechanized nature of war a small team of highly trained soldiers with the advantage of surprise could exact greater damage to the enemy's ability to fight than an entire platoon. His idea was for small teams of parachute trained soldiers to operate behind enemy lines to gain intelligence, destroy enemy aircraft, and attack their supply and reinforcement routes. Following a meeting with the C-in-C Middle East, [[General]] [[Claude Auchinleck]], his plan was endorsed by the Army High Command.

[[File:Special Air Service in North Africa E 21337.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British [[Special Air Service|SAS]] in North Africa (1943), in jeeps with mounted heavy machine guns]]
The force initially consisted of five officers and 60 [[Enlisted rank|other ranks]].<ref>{{cite book|title=SAS: Great Britain's elite Special Air Service|first=Leroy|last= Thompson|publisher=Zenith Imprint|year=1994|isbn=0-87938-940-0|page=48}}</ref> Following extensive training at [[Kibrit Air Base|Kabrit camp]], by the [[River Nile]], L Detachment, SAS Brigade, undertook its first operations in the [[Western Desert (North Africa)|Western Desert]]. Stirling's vision was eventually vindicated after a series of successful operations. In 1942, the SAS attacked Bouerat. Transported by the [[Long Range Desert Group]] (which carried out deep penetration, covert reconnaissance patrols, intelligence missions and attacks behind the enemy lines from 1940), they caused severe damage to the harbour, petrol tanks and storage facilities.<ref name=sm9>{{cite book|title=The Special Air Service|last1=Shortt|first1=James|last2=McBride|first2=Angus|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=1981|isbn=0-85045-396-8|page=9}}</ref> This was followed up in March by a raid on [[Benghazi]] harbour with limited success but they did damage to 15 aircraft at [[Al-Berka]].<ref name=sm9/> The [[June 1942 Crete airfield raids]] at [[Heraklion Airport|Heraklion]], [[Kasteli]], [[Tympaki Airport|Tympaki]] and [[Maleme Airport|Maleme]] significant damage was caused, and raids at Fuka and [[Mersa Matruh]] airfields destroyed 30 aircraft.<ref>{{cite book|last=Molinari|first=Andrea|title=Desert Raiders: Axis and Allied Special Forces 1940–43|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2007|isbn=978-1-84603-006-2|page=75}}</ref>

=====Chindits=====
In the [[Burma Campaign]], the [[Chindits]], whose long-range penetration groups were trained to operate from bases deep behind [[Japan]]ese lines, contained commandos ([[King's Regiment (Liverpool)]], 142 Commando Company) and [[Gurkhas]]. Their jungle expertise, which would play an important part in many British special forces operations post-war, was learned at a great cost in lives in the jungles of [[Burma]] fighting the Japanese.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

===== The Company of Chosen Immortals =====
Immediately after the [[Battle of Greece|German occupation of Greece]] in April–May 1941, the [[Greek government in exile|Greek government]] fled to [[Egypt]] and started to form military units in exile. [[Hellenic Air Force|Air Force]] Lt. Colonel G. Alexandris suggested the creation of an Army unit along the lines of the British SAS. In August 1942 the Company of Chosen Immortals ({{lang-el|Λόχος Επιλέκτων Αθανάτων}}) was formed under Cavalry Major Antonios Stefanakis in Palestine, with 200 men. In 1942, the unit was renamed [[Sacred Band (World War II)|Sacred Band]]. In close cooperation with the commander of the British [[Special Air Service|SAS]] Regiment, Lt. Colonel [[David Stirling]], the company moved to the SAS base at Qabrit in Egypt to begin its training in its new role. Operating under British direction, the special forces unit fought alongside the SAS in the Western Desert and the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

====Poland====
During the start of [[World War II]] “September campaign,” the Polish Government did not sign the capitulation, but moved to Paris and then to London.<ref name="Grom">{{cite web | url=https://sofrep.com/specialoperations/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-polish-special-unit-grom/ | title=Everything you need to know about the Polish Special Unit GROM }}</ref> In an attempt to achieve its aims the government in exile gave orders to the Polish resistance and formed a special military unit in Britain with the soldiers called [[Cichociemni]] (“silent and unseen”) paratroopers to be deployed into Poland.<ref name="Grom" /> The Cichociemni were trained similar to the British Special Forces, with the curricula differing according to each soldier's specialization.<ref name="Grom" /> Their task, on deployment to Poland, was to sustain the structures of the Polish state, training the members of the Resistance in fighting the German occupant.<ref name="Grom" /> This included taking part in the [[Warsaw Uprising]].

====Australian====
Following advice from the British, Australia began raising special forces.<ref>Horner 1989, p. 21.</ref> The first units to be formed were [[Australian commandos|independent companies]], which began training at [[Wilson's Promontory]] in Victoria in early 1941 under the tutelage of British instructors. With an establishment of 17 officers and 256 men, the independent companies were trained as "stay behind" forces, a role that they were later employed in against the Japanese in the [[South West Pacific Area]] during 1942–43, most notably fighting a guerrilla campaign in [[Battle of Timor|Timor]], as well as actions in [[New Guinea campaign|New Guinea]].<ref>Horner 1989, pp. 22–6.</ref> In all, a total of eight independent companies were raised before they were re-organised in mid-1943 into commando squadrons and placed under the command of the divisional cavalry regiments that were re-designated as cavalry commando regiments. As a part of this structure, a total of 11 commando squadrons were raised.

They continued to act independently and were often assigned at brigade level during the later stages of the war, taking part in the fighting in New Guinea, [[Bougainville campaign|Bougainville]] and [[Borneo Campaign (1945)|Borneo]], where they were employed largely in long-range reconnaissance and flank protection roles.<ref>Horner 1989, p. 26.</ref> In addition to these units, the Australians also raised the [[Z Special Unit]] and [[M Special Unit]]. M Special Unit was largely employed in an intelligence-gathering role, while Z Special Force undertook direct action missions. One of its most notable actions came as part of [[Operation Jaywick]], in which several Japanese ships were sunk in [[Singapore]] Harbour in 1943. A second raid on Singapore in 1944, known as [[Operation Rimau]], was unsuccessful.<ref>Horner 1989, pp. 26–7.</ref>

====United States====
[[File:Rangers-pointe-du-hoc.jpg|thumb|[[United States Army Rangers]] at [[D-Day]], [[Pointe du Hoc]]]]

===== Office of Strategic Services =====
The United States formed the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) during [[World War II]] under the [[Medal of Honor]] recipient [[William J. Donovan]]. This organization was the predecessor of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) and was responsible for both intelligence and special forces missions. The CIA's elite [[Special Activities Division]] is the direct descendant of the OSS.<ref>The Office of Strategic Services: America's First Intelligence Agency, Michael Warner, CIA History Staff, Center for the Study of Intelligence, United States Central Intelligence Agency (2000)</ref>

=====Marine Raiders=====
On February 16, 1942, the [[U.S. Marine Corps]] activated a battalion of Marines with the specific purpose of securing beach heads, and other special operations. The battalion became the first special operations force of the U.S. The battalion became known as [[Marine Raiders]] due to Admiral [[Chester Nimitz]]'s request for "raiders" in the Pacific front of the war.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

=====United States Army Rangers=====
In mid-1942, Major-General Lucian Truscott of the U.S. Army, a liaison officer with the British General Staff submitted a proposal to General George Marshall that an American unit be set up "along the lines of the British Commandos",{{citation needed|date=October 2022}} resulting in the formation of the [[United States Army Rangers]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

=====1st Special Service Force=====
The United States and [[Canada]] formed the [[1st Special Service Force]] as a sabotage [[ski warfare|ski brigade]] for operations in Norway. Later known as the "Devil's Brigade" (and called "The Black Devils" by mystified German soldiers), the First Special Service Force was dispatched to the occupied Aleutian Islands, Italy and Southern France.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

=====Merrill's Marauders=====
[[Merrill's Marauders]] were modeled on the Chindits and took part in similar operations in Burma. In late November 1943, the [[Alamo Scouts]] (Sixth Army Special Reconnaissance Unit) were formed to conduct reconnaissance and raider work in the Southwest Pacific Theater under the personal command of then Lt. General [[Walter Krueger]], Commanding General, Sixth U.S. Army. Krueger envisioned that the Alamo Scouts, consisting of small teams of highly trained volunteers, would operate deep behind enemy lines to provide intelligence-gathering and tactical reconnaissance in advance of Sixth U.S. Army landing operations.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

=====Special Forces Tab=====
In 1983, nearly 40 years after the end of World War II, the US Army created the [[Special Forces Tab]]. It was later decided that personnel with at least 120 days' wartime service prior to 1955 in certain units, including the Devil's Brigade, the Alamo Scouts and the OSS Operational Groups, would receive the Tab for their services in World War II, placing them all in the lineage of today's U.S. and Canadian (via Devil's Brigade) Special Forces.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

====Axis powers====
{{unreferenced section|date=September 2021}}
The [[Axis powers]] did not adopt the use of special forces on the same scale as the British.

=====German=====
The German army's [[Brandenburger Regiment]] was founded as a special forces unit used by the [[Abwehr]] for infiltration and long distance reconnaissance in [[Fall Weiss (1939)|Fall Weiss]] of 1939 and the [[Fall Gelb]] and [[Operation Barbarossa|Barbarossa]] campaigns of 1940 and 1941.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-680-8283A-30A, Budapest, Otto Skorzeny, Adrian v. Fölkersam.jpg|thumb|[[Otto Skorzeny]] (left) and the former ''[[Brandenburger Regiment|Brandenburger]]'' [[Adrian von Fölkersam]] (middle), 1944]]
Later during the war the [[502nd SS Jäger Battalion]], commanded by [[Otto Skorzeny]], sowed disorder behind the Allied lines by mis-directing convoys away from the front lines. A handful of his men were captured by the Americans and spread a rumor that Skorzeny was leading a raid on [[Paris]] to kill or capture General [[Dwight Eisenhower]]. Although this was untrue, Eisenhower was confined to his headquarters for several days and Skorzeny was labelled "the most dangerous man in Europe".{{Cite quote|date=September 2022}}

=====Italian=====
In [[Italy]], the [[Decima Flottiglia MAS]] was responsible for the sinking and damage of considerable British tonnage in the [[Mediterranean]]. Also there were other Italian special forces like A.D.R.A. (''Arditi Distruttori Regia Aeronautica''). This regiment was used in raids on Allied airbases and railways in North Africa in 1943. In one mission they destroyed 25 [[B-17 Flying Fortress]] bombers.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

=====Japanese=====
The [[Imperial Japanese Army]] first deployed army paratroops in combat during the [[Battle of Palembang]], on [[Sumatra]] in the [[Netherlands East Indies]], on 14 February 1942. The operation was well-planned, with 425 men of the 1st Parachute Raiding Regiment seizing [[Palembang]] airfield, while the paratroopers of the 2nd Parachute Raiding Regiment seized the town and its important oil refinery. Paratroops were subsequently deployed in the [[Burma campaign]]. The 1st Glider Tank Troop was formed in 1943, with four [[Type 95 Ha-Go]] light tanks. The paratroop brigades were organized into the ''Teishin Shudan'' as the first division-level raiding unit, at the main Japanese airborne base, Karasehara Airfield, [[Kyūshū]], Japan.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

However, as with similar airborne units created by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] and other [[Axis powers]], the Japanese paratroops suffered from a disproportionately high casualty rate, and the loss of men who required such extensive and expensive training limited their operations to only the most critical ones. Two regiments of ''Teishin Shudan'' were formed into the 1st Raiding Group, commanded by Major General [[Rikichi Tsukada]] under the control of the [[Southern Expeditionary Army Group]], during the [[Philippines campaign (1944–45)|Philippines campaign]]. Although structured as a division, its capabilities were much lower, as its six [[regiment]]s had manpower equivalent to a standard infantry [[battalion]], and it lacked any form of [[artillery]], and had to rely on other units for logistical support. Its men were no longer parachute-trained, but relied on aircraft for transport.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

Some 750 men from the [[2nd Raiding Brigade]], of this group were assigned to attack American air bases on [[Luzon]] and [[Leyte]] on the night of 6 December 1944. They were flown in [[Mitsubishi Ki-57|Ki-57 transports]], but most of the aircraft were shot down. Some 300 commandos managed to land in the [[Burauen]] area on Leyte. The force destroyed some planes and inflicted numerous casualties, before they were annihilated.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

=====Finnish=====
During World War II, the Finnish Army and Border Guard organized [[Sissi (Finnish light infantry)|sissi]] forces into a [[long-range reconnaissance patrol]] (''kaukopartio'') units. These were open only to volunteers and operated far behind enemy lines in small teams. They conducted both intelligence-gathering missions and raids on e.g. enemy supply depots or other strategic targets. They were generally highly effective. For example, during the [[Battle of Ilomantsi]], Soviet supply lines were harassed to the point that the Soviet artillery was unable to exploit its massive numerical advantage over Finnish artillery. Their operations were also classified as secret because of the political sensitivity of such operations. Only authorized military historians could publish on their operations; individual soldiers were required to take the secrets to the grave. A famous LRRP commander was [[Lauri Törni]], who later joined the U.S. Army to train U.S. personnel in special operations.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}}

=== Bangladesh Liberation War (1971) ===
In June 1971, during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]], the [[World Bank]] sent a mission to observe the situation in [[East Pakistan]]. The media cell of Pakistan's government was circulating the news that the situation in East Pakistan was stable and normal. [[Khaled Mosharraf]], a sector commander of Mukti Bahini, planned to deploy a special commando team. The task assigned to the team was to carry out commando operations and to terrorize [[Dhaka]]. The major objective of this team was to prove that the situation was not actually normal. Moreover, Pakistan, at that time, was expecting economic aid from World Bank, which was assumed{{by whom|date=September 2020}} to be spent to buy arms. The plan was to make World Bank Mission understand the true situation of East Pakistan and to stop sanctioning the aid.<ref name="Mosharraf">{{cite book |last= Mosharraf |first= Khaled |date= 2013 |script-title= bn:মুক্তিযুদ্ধে ২ নম্বর সেক্টর এবং কে ফোর্স |language= bn |publisher= Prathamā prakāśana |pages= 55–56 |isbn= 978-984-90253-2-0}}</ref> Khaled, along with [[Abu Taher Mohammad Haider|A. T. M. Haider]], another sector commander, formed the [[Crack Platoon]]. Initially, the number of commandos in the platoon was 17, trained in [[Melaghar Camp]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Islam |first= Zahirul |date= 2013 |script-title= bn:মুক্তিযুদ্ধে মেজর হায়দার ও তার বিয়োগান্ত বিদায় |language= bn |publisher= Prathamā prakāśana |page= 77 |isbn= 978-984-90253-1-3}}</ref> From Melaghar, commandos of Crack Platoon headed for Dhaka on 4 June 1971 and launched a guerrilla operation on 5 June.<ref name="Mosharraf" /> Later, the number of commandos increased, the platoon split and deployed in different areas surrounding Dhaka city.<ref>{{cite book |last= Islam |first= Zahirul |date= 2013 |script-title= bn:মুক্তিযুদ্ধে মেজর হায়দার ও তার বিয়োগান্ত বিদায় |language= bn |publisher= Prathamā prakāśana |page= 78 |isbn= 978-984-90253-1-3}}</ref> The basic objectives of the Crack Platoon were to demonstrate the strength of Mukti Bahini, terrorising Pakistan Army and their collaborators. Another major objective was proving to the international community that the situation in East Pakistan was not normal. That commando team also aimed at inspiring the people of Dhaka, who were frequently victims of killing and torture. The Crack Platoon successfully fulfilled these objectives. The World Bank mission, in its report, clearly described the hazardous situation prevailing in East Pakistan and urged ending the military regime in East Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news |last= Gavshon |first= Arthur L.|author-link= Arthur Gavshon |date= 14 July 1971 |title= Experts Cite Remedial Measures for East Pakistan |url= https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OiIiAAAAIBAJ&pg=2259%2C1813795 |newspaper= The Day |access-date= 31 May 2013 | quote = In a secret report, the 10-man [World Bank] mission discreetly but unmistakably urges the military ruler of that South Asian land to remove – as a first step – some of his West Pakistani troops who stand accused of terrorizing the population. [...] Other suggested moves [...]: – Appointment of a civilian administrator for the eastern province.}}</ref> The Crack Platoon carried out several successful and important operations. The power supply in Dhaka was devastated<ref>{{cite news |title= 3 Power Plants Bombed By East Pakistan Rebels |newspaper= Morning Record |date= 22 July 1971}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title= Pakistan Rebels Bomb Plant |newspaper= The Daily News |date= 22 October 1971}}</ref> which caused severe problems for the Pakistan Army and the military administration in Dhaka.

===Modern special forces===
{{See also|List of military special forces units}}
[[File:ODA525.jpg|thumb|ODA 525 team picture taken shortly before infiltration in [[Iraq]], February 1991]]
Admiral [[William H. McRaven]], formerly the ninth commanding officer of the [[United States Special Operations Command|U.S. Special Operations Command]] (2011–2014), described two approaches to special forces operations in the 2012 posture statement to the [[United States Senate Committee on Armed Services|U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services]]: "the direct approach is characterized by technologically enabled small-unit precision lethality, focused [[military intelligence|intelligence]], and inter-agency cooperation integrated on a digitally-networked battlefield", whereas the "indirect approach includes empowering host nation forces, providing appropriate assistance to humanitarian agencies, and engaging key populations."<ref>{{cite web|access-date=3 August 2015|title=POSTURE STATEMENT OF ADMIRAL WILLIAM H. McRAVEN, USN COMMANDER, UNITED STATES SPECIAL OPERATIONS COMMAND BEFORE THE 112th CONGRESS SENATE ARMED SERVICES COMMITTEE MARCH 6, 2012|publisher=[[United States Special Operations Command]]|url=http://www.socom.mil/Documents/2012_SOCOM_POSTURE_STATEMENT.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924103332/http://www.socom.mil/Documents/2012_SOCOM_POSTURE_STATEMENT.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Elements of national power must be deployed in concert without over-reliance on a single capability, such as special forces, that leaves the entire force unprepared and hollow across the spectrum of military operations.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=3 August 2015|title=Special Operations for the 21st Century: Starting Over|publisher=[[Association of the United States Army]]|url=http://www.ausa.org/publications/armymagazine/archive/2014/Documents/12December14/Carafano_December2014.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923180327/http://www.ausa.org/publications/armymagazine/archive/2014/Documents/12December14/Carafano_December2014.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2015|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Throughout the latter half of the 20th century and into the 21st century, special forces have come to higher prominence, as governments have found objectives can sometimes be better achieved by a small team of anonymous specialists than a larger and much more politically controversial conventional deployment. In both [[Kosovo]] and [[Afghanistan]], special forces were used to co-ordinate activities between local [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] fighters and [[air power]].[[File:Irish Army Ranger Wing Ford Special Recon Vehicle in Chad (4109830420).jpg|left|thumb|Irish [[Army Ranger Wing]] operators during patrol in [[Chad]], 2008]] Typically, [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] fighters would engage enemy soldiers and tanks causing them to move, where they could be seen and attacked from the air.

[[File:580164 2nd Commando Regiment Afghanistan 2012 walking to US Army Chinook.jpg|thumb|right|[[2nd Commando Regiment|Australian special forces]] walking with [[Afghan National Army]] to a waiting [[U.S. Army]] [[Chinook helicopter]] in 2012]]

Special forces have been used in both wartime and peacetime military operations such as the [[Laotian Civil War]], [[Bangladesh Liberation War|Bangladesh Liberation War-1971]], [[Vietnam War]], [[Portuguese Colonial War]], [[South African Border War]], [[Falklands War]], [[The Troubles]] in Northern Ireland, the [[Jaffna University Helidrop]], the [[Gulf War|first]] and [[2003 invasion of Iraq|second]] Gulf Wars, Afghanistan, [[Croatian War of Independence|Croatia]], [[Kosovo War|Kosovo]], [[Bosnian War|Bosnia]], the [[first Chechen War|first]] and [[second Chechen War]]s, the [[Iranian Embassy siege]] (London), the [[Air France Flight 8969]] ([[Marseille]]), [[Operation Defensive Shield]], [[Operation Khukri]], the [[Moscow theater hostage crisis]], [[Operation Orchard]], the [[Japanese embassy hostage crisis|Japanese Embassy hostage crisis]] ([[Lima]]), in [[Sri Lanka]] against the [[LTTE]], the [[Death of Osama Bin Laden|raid on Osama Bin Laden's compound]] in Pakistan, the [[2016 Indian Line of Control strike]] the [[2015 Indian counter-insurgency operation in Myanmar]] and the [[Death of Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi|Barisha Raid]] in [[Syria]] of 2019.

The [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] involved special forces from several coalition nations, who played a major role in removing the [[Taliban]] from power in 2001–2002. Special forces have continued to play a role in combating the Taliban in subsequent operations.

As gender restrictions are being removed in parts of the world, females are applying for special forces units selections and in 2014 the Norwegian Special Operation Forces established an all female unit ''[[Jegertroppen]]'' ({{lang-en|Hunter Troop}}).

==See also==

{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[List of military special forces units]]
* [[Commando]]
* [[Airborne forces]]
* [[Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol]]
* [[Frogman]]
* [[List of military diving units]]
* [[Special operations]]
* [[Police Tactical Unit]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book|last=Bellamy |first=Chris |year=2011 |title=The Gurkhas: Special Force |publisher=Hachette |location=UK |isbn=9781848545151|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNumN3xIQRYC&pg=PT115 115]}}
* Breuer, William B. (2001). ''Daring missions of World War II''. John Wiley and Sons. {{ISBN|978-0-471-40419-4}}.
* Clemente Ramos, Julián. 1994. "La Extremadura musulmana (1142–1248): Organización defensiva y sociedad". ''Anuario de estudios medievales'', 24:647–701. [https://www.academia.edu/12042601/_La_Extremadura_musulmana_1142_1248_Organizaci%C3%B3n_defensiva_y_sociedad_24_1994_647_701 Web].
* Haskew, Michael E (2007). ''Encyclopaedia of Elite Forces in the Second World War''. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. {{ISBN|978-1-84415-577-4}}.
* {{cite book|last=Horner|first=David|title=SAS: Phantoms of the Jungle: A History of the Australian Special Air Service|year=1989|edition=1st|publisher=Allen & Unwin|location=St Leonards|isbn=1-86373-007-9}}
* Molinari, Andrea (2007). ''Desert Raiders: Axis and Allied Special Forces 1940–43''. Osprey Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-84603-006-2}}.
* {{cite book|last=Otway| first=Lieutenant-Colonel T.B.H. |title=The Second World War 1939–1945 Army – Airborne Forces| publisher=Imperial War Museum| year= 1990| isbn=0-901627-57-7}}
* {{cite journal|last=Thomas|first=David|title=The Importance of Commando Operations in Modern Warfare 1939–82|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|date=October 1983|volume=18|issue=4|pages=689–717|jstor=260308}}

{{Military branches}}

[[Category:Special forces| ]]
[[Category:Combat occupations]]
[[Category:Counterterrorism]]
[[Category:Types of military forces]]
[[Category:Warfare by type]]

Giorgi Kobiashvili

2023-09-16T14:36:16Z

Sridhar: Just finished drafting a fresh page.

{{Infobox person
| name = George Kobiashvili გიორგი კობიაშვილი
| image = George Kobiashvili.jpg
| alt = 250px
| caption = George Kobiashvili
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1989|07|09}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = [[Georgian]]
| other_names =
| occupation = Entrepreneur
| years_active =
| known_for = CIO and President of Vanguard Hedge Fund
| notable_works =
}}
'''Giorgi (George) Kobiashvili''' ({{lang-ka|გიორგი კობიაშვილი}}; born [[July 9]], [[1989]]) is a Georgian entrepreneur who operates in India. He is the CIO and president of Vanguard Hedge Fund. He has a personal blog on [[The Times of India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=George Kobiashvili's blog on The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/author/george-kobiashvili/ |website=timesofindia.indiatimes.com |publisher=The Times of India}}</ref>

==Biography==
===Early life===
George Kobiashvili was born on July 9, 1989, in Tbilisi, now the capital of Georgia. After graduating from #58 Public School, he was accepted into the best business school in Georgia, Caucasus Business School, with a government grant for a scholarship because of his high-grade results. Then he switched to the International Black Sea University. His involvement in business started when he was 15 years old when he started designing, printing, and distributing New Year's invitation cards to different small shops around the city.<ref>{{cite news |title=George Kobiashvili's Journey Inspires Young Entrepreneurs Worldwide |url=https://www.latestly.com/business/george-kobiashvilis-journey-inspires-young-entrepreneurs-worldwide-5155110.html/amp |access-date=26 May 2023 |agency=LatestLY}}</ref>

While on his second course at university when George was 18 years old, he established an advertising company, Modern Advertising Studio, printing T-shirts, caps, and even branded watches for universities, which he then extended to other clients. A year later, at 19, he first started trading stocks. George started his investments with US$3500.

===Current activities===
In [[2016]], Kobiashvili switched to hedge funds. Before, it was just a small fund used to trade with his own funds. Day by day, the fund started getting investments from 3rd parties, and for [[2019]], the fund became focused on rising capital.<ref>[https://www.latestly.com/business/mr-george-kobiashvilis-take-on-top-hedge-funds-40-billion-usd-profit-in-2022-4790032.html LatestLY]</ref>

In [[2021]], Vanguard Hedge Fund opened satellite branches in [[New York City]] and [[Amsterdam]], the capital of the [[Netherlands]]. The expansion to [[Mumbai]] is part of their global growth plan.

For [[2023]], he is managing US$1.7 billion with offices in several countries. George Kobiashvili's Vanguard Hedge Fund expands to India and plans to invest US$640 crore in Indian companies in FY 2023–2024, according to Business-Standart.<ref>[https://www.business-standard.com/content/press-releases-ani/george-kobiashvili-s-vanguard-hedge-fund-expands-to-india-plans-to-invests-usd-640-crores-in-indian-companies-in-fy-2023-2024-123050800890_1.html Business-Standart]</ref> According to the same agency, Kobiashvili's firm focuses on long-term investment plans in stocks of international corporations that operate on five continents all over the world and currently manages global portfolios worth more than Rs. 14,000 crore. In India, Vanguard Hedge Fund aims to invest 640 crores to help Indian companies raise over 16,000 crores in funds from investors based in the [[European Union]] and [[United States]]. He stated: {{Blockquote|"The Indian market has incredible potential and is also not very saturated at this point in time. There is a massive scope for foreign financial institutions to help Indian companies and start-ups raise capital from global investors. That is why we think this is a great time for Vanguard Hedge Fund to expand to India. Our office is set up in the heart of BKC, and we are excited to work with diverse firms to help them secure funds that will fuel their growth!"}}

==External links==
* [https://www.latestly.com/business/george-kobiashvilis-journey-inspires-young-entrepreneurs-worldwide-5155110.html/amp George Kobiashvili's Journey inspires young enterpreneurs worldwide]
* {{Instagram|George.kob}}
* {{Linkedin|george-kobiashvili-341712164}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kobiashvili, Giorgi}}
[[Category:Businesspeople from Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Indian businesspeople]]
[[Category:1989 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Rajbir Kaur

2023-09-09T06:11:06Z

Sridhar: Article established.

'''Rajbir Kaur Rai''' (born 3 June 1965) is an [[Indian people|Indian]] field hockey player and former Indian women's team captain. She lives in Jallandhar. In her days, she was popular as the 'Golden Girl' of Indian hockey.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Punjab: Arjuna awardee and former hockey captain Rajbir Kaur joins AAP |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/assembly-elections-2017/punjab-assembly-election-2017/story/punjab-arjuna-awardee-and-former-hockey-captain-rajbir-kaur-joins-aap-12116-2016-06-02 |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Olympian Gurmail Singh & Golden Girl Rajbir Kaur share their experiences with budding hockey players |url=https://yespunjab.com/olympian-gurmail-singh-golden-girl-rajbir-kaur-share-their-experiences-with-budding-hockey-players/ |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=Yes Punjab - Latest News from Punjab, India & World |language=en-US}}</ref> She received Arjuna Award in 1984.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arjuna Award |url=https://www.hockeyindia.org/hall-of-fame/arjuna-award |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=Hockey India |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
She was born in Jallandhar. She did her schooling in the Government Senior Secondary Nehru Garden, Jalandhar and completed her degree at Lyallpur Khala Collge for Women, Jalandhar.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Surjit Hockey : Alumni |url=https://www.surjithockey.com/alumni/members_detail.html?id=276 |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=www.surjithockey.com}}</ref> She is married to Olympian Gurmail Singh.

== Hockey career ==
Rajbir Kaur, is the only Indian woman hockey player who played four Asian Games,<ref name=":0" /> She also took part in three Asia Cups and many other tournaments for India from 1981 to 1993.<ref name=":1" />

== Politics ==
In June 2016, Rajbir Kaur joined Aam Aadmi Party in Chandigarh.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arjuna awardee and former hockey captain Rajbir Kaur joins AAP in Punjab |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/arjuna-awardee-and-former-hockey-captain-rajbir-kaur-joins-aap-in-punjab/story-ydtZume1n70UQljI1pvUcK.html |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> In 2020, she supported the agitating farmers in Haryana.<ref>{{Cite web |last=PTI |title=Farmers' protest: Wrestler Kartar Singh, hockey player Rajbir Kaur and several former sportspersons to return awards |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/sports/farmers-protest-wrestler-kartar-singh-hockey-player-rajbir-kaur-and-several-former-sportspersons-to-return-awards-922058.html |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kaur, Rajbir}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Indian field hockey players]]
[[Category:Field hockey players from Punjab]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]
<references />
== External links ==
[https://www.hockeyindia.org/hall-of-fame/arjuna-award Arjuna Award]

Pamela Rai

2023-08-24T22:45:21Z

Sridhar:

{{short description|Canadian swimmer}}
{{Infobox swimmer
| name = Pamela Rai
| image = Pamela Leila Rai.jpg
| image_size = 220px
| alt =
| caption =
| fullname = Pamela Leila Rai
| nicknames = "Pam"
| national_team = Canada
| strokes = [[Freestyle swimming|Freestyle]]
| club = Hyack Swim Club
| collegeteam = [[Victoria Vikes|University of Victoria]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1966|3|29|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[New Westminster, British Columbia]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| height = {{convert|1.72|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
| weight = {{convert|57|kg|lb|abbr=on}}
| medaltemplates =
{{MedalSport | Women's swimming }}
{{MedalCountry | Canada }}
{{MedalCompetition | [[Swimming at the Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] }}
{{MedalBronze | [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics|1984 Los Angeles]] | [[Swimming at the 1984 Summer Olympics – Women's 4 × 100 metre medley relay|4×100 m medley]] }}
{{MedalCompetition | [[Pan American Games]] }}
{{MedalSilver | [[1983 Pan American Games|1983 Caracas]] | [[Swimming at the 1983 Pan American Games|4×100 m freestyle]] }}
{{MedalCompetition | [[Commonwealth Games]] }}
{{MedalGold | [[Aquatics at the 1986 Commonwealth Games|1986 Edinburgh]] | 4×100 m freestyle }}
}}

'''Pamela Leila Rai''' (born March 29, 1966, in New Westminster, BC, Canada) is a former [[Freestyle swimming|freestyle]] and [[Butterfly swimming|butterfly]] swimmer who represented Canada from 1980 to 1987. Rai competed at the [[1984 Summer Olympics]] in Los Angeles, California where she won an Olympic bronze medal in the 4 × 100-metre medley relay, with teammates [[Anne Ottenbrite]], [[Reema Abdo]] and [[Michelle MacPherson]]. Rai successfully represented Canada at many international meets throughout her career. Other notable accomplishments include University of Victoria Athlete of the Year 1986, City of Victoria Athlete of the Year 1985, 1983 Hapoel Games silver, 1983 Pan American Games silver, and 1986 Commonwealth Games gold medals. From 1984 to 1987 Rai swam for the University of Victoria, where she dominated Canadian university women's swimming. Rai is currently a high school math and social justice teacher and a certified yoga instructor trained in India of the [[Sivananda]] lineage. She is an honored inductee to the [[BC Sports Hall of Fame]], the Swim BC Hall of Fame, the [[University of Victoria]] Legacy Hall of Fame and the Delta Sports Hall of Fame. Rai is the first woman in the world of Indian ancestry, and the first Indo-Canadian to win an Olympic medal.

In 1964, Rai's father, [[Harinder Jit Singh Rai]] was the first Indo-Canadian to qualify for an Olympic Games (field hockey). His stellar skills led him to score the only goal at the qualifying match enabling Canada's field hockey team entry to the Olympic games for the first time. Just prior to the 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo, Japan, he was removed from the team by officials who favoured an all-white contingent. Rai dedicated her 1984 Olympic success to her father who died from leukemia 3 months prior to her competing in the games.

==See also==
* [[List of Olympic medalists in swimming (women)]]

==External links==
* {{COC profile|pamela-rai|Pamela Rai}} ([https://web.archive.org/web/20070310232028/http://www.olympic.ca/EN/athletes/query/details2.php?id=37209 archive])
* {{IOC profile|pamela-rai|Pamela Rai}}
* {{SR/Olympics profile|ra/pam-rai-1|Pam Rai}}

{{Footer Commonwealth Champions 4x100m Freestyle Women}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rai, Pamela}}
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Canadian female freestyle swimmers]]
[[Category:Canadian sportspeople of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Punjabi descent]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Canada]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games medallists in swimming]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 1984 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Olympic bronze medalists for Canada]]
[[Category:Olympic bronze medalists in swimming]]
[[Category:Olympic swimmers for Canada]]
[[Category:Pan American Games medalists in swimming]]
[[Category:Pan American Games silver medalists for Canada]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from New Westminster]]
[[Category:Swimmers at the 1983 Pan American Games]]
[[Category:Swimmers at the 1984 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Swimmers at the 1986 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:University of Victoria alumni]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 1983 Pan American Games]]
[[Category:20th-century Canadian women]]
[[Category:21st-century Canadian women]]
[[Category:Medallists at the 1986 Commonwealth Games]]

{{Canada-Olympic-medalist-stub}}
{{Canada-swimming-bio-stub}}

Bengal Basin

2023-07-19T19:58:14Z

Sridhar: Published an informative piece.

[[File:Bengal Basin.svg|thumb|right|Bengal Basin]]
The '''Bengal Basin'''<ref name="ndrdgh1">{{cite web |title=Bengal Basin |url=https://www.ndrdgh.gov.in/NDR/?page_id=797 |website=www.ndrdgh.gov.in |access-date=14 July 2023}}</ref> is a [[Sedimentary basin|sedimentary]] basin. The term Bengal basin is used to describe geological structure of [[Bengal region]]'s sedimentary basin.<ref name="wbdmd">{{cite web |title=Geology, Geomorphology and Seismotectonics of Bengal Basin with special emphasis on Kolkata and its adjoining region |url=http://wbdmd.gov.in/writereaddata/chapter-2A.pdf |website=wbdmd.gov.in |access-date=14 July 2023 }}</ref> It is spread across the [[States and union territories of India|Indian states]] of [[West Bengal]] and [[Bangladesh]].<ref>{{cite web |author1=DK Guha |author2=Haroun Er Rashid |title=Bengal Basin |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Bengal_Basin |website=en.banglapedia.org |access-date=15 July 2023}}</ref> The Bengal basin in the eastern part of the [[Indian subcontinent]] forms the [[Ganges Delta|world's largest fluvio-delta]] and shallow marine sedimentary basin. This shallow marine sedimentary basin coupled with the [[Bengal Fan]] beneath the [[Bay of Bengal]] to form the largest sedimentary dispersal system known in the modern world.<ref name="currentscience">{{cite web |author1=A. B. Roy |author2=Alokesh Chatterjee |title=Tectonic framework and evolutionary history of the Bengal Basin in the Indian subcontinent |url=https://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/109/02/0271.pdf |website=www.currentscience.ac.in |access-date=14 July 2023 }}</ref>

The Bengal basin was initiated during the breakup of [[Gondwana|Gondwanaland]] in the late [[Mesozoic|Mesozoic Era]]. The basin consists of a thick Early [[Cretaceous]]-[[Holocene]] sedimentary succession. Proximal deposition of a portion of orogenic sediments from the [[Eastern Himalayas|Eastern Himalaya]] and Indo-Burman ranges deposited in the Bengal Basin. The thickest sediments in the basin occur in the coastal area of the [[Bay of Bengal]], where sediments are about 20 km thick.<ref name="ndrdgh1"/>

It is bounded by faults on all its sides except the southern side. The basin is bounded by the West Margin Fault and the Malda–Kishanganj Fault in the west, the Surma Margin Fault in the east and the Yamuna Fault and the [[Dauki fault]] in the northeast.<ref name="currentscience"/>

==Origin==
There are different theories about the origin of the Bengal Basin. However, four theories are the most accepted. The theories are:<ref name="currentscience"/>

* The basin is the result of subduction of the [[Indian Plate|Indian plate]] beneath the [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]] and Burmese plates.
* The Bengal basin is essentially a residual ocean basin and developed on the eastern continental margin of India.
* The Bengal basin is a [[foreland basin]] with a succession of mainly deltaic sediments derived from the erosion of the [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] and Indo-Burmese ranges.
* The Bengal basin developed into isolated graben controlled basins in the basement during the breakup of the [[Gondwana]] land.

==Geologic==
The Bengal Basin has a thin, gently sloping alluvial cover in the western and northern parts, which thickens basin-ward. Considerable variation in stratigraphy, sedimentary tectonics and basin evolution is observed in different parts of the basin. The entire basin is divided into three smaller sub-basins for structural variation: Northern sub-basin, Western sub-basin and South-eastern sub-basin.<ref name="currentscience"/>

===Sub-basin===
====Northern sub-basin====
The northern sub-basin mainly consists of the northern part of the Bengal basin. It lies between the 'saddle' of the Garo-Rajmahal gap (submerged ridge) in the south and the Himalayan Front, which is part of the Indian states of [[West Bengal]] and [[Bangladesh]]. The shallowest part of the sub-basin is in the south, where Neogene sediments varies in thickness from 128 m to 1,160 m. The tectonically down-warped frontal belt of the Himalayas contains Neogene sediments. The southern edge of the submerged mountains along the Garo-Rajmahal is a fault zone, known as the east–west oriented [[Dauki fault]].<ref name="currentscience"/>

====Western sub-basin====
The westernmost part of the Bengal basin forms the western sub-basin. It is more than 100 km wide in [[Murshidabad district|Murshidabad]] district and relatively less wide in [[Midnapore district|Medinipur area]] in the south. The stratigraphic succession of the western sub-basin shows virtually complete lithostratigraphic succession from [[Early Cretaceous]] to Recent sediments. The western sub-basin portion belonging to West Bengal is characterized by gentle eastward slopes and numerous step faults with small displacements. The sediment thickness increases steadily from about 500 m near the western end to more than 6,500 m near [[Kolkata]].

The presence of larite and laritic soil is seen in this part. The subsurface consists of layers of sandstone, red shale, grit and gravel. The Dhananjaypur Formation at the base of the Rajmahal trap is identified as the early stage of subsidence on the eastern side of the west margin fault. This sub-basin has deposits of rock from the [[Rajmahal hills|Rajmahal]] and Jayanthi hills and alluvium from the [[Hooghly River|Bhagirathi]] River. The sediments from the Rajmahal hills were deposited through the Bolpur and Ghatal Formations. The Bolpur Formation consists of [[Mudstone|mudstone]], sandstone and trapwash and the Ghatal Formation consists of sandstone, [[Limestone|limestone]] and [[Shale|shale]]. Ranaghat and Malda Formation were formed by Bhagirathi river. Ranaghat Formation consists of [[Sandstone|sandstone]], [[Limestone|limestone]] and shale, and [[Sand]] and [[Mudstone|mudstones]] are present in the Malda Formation.<ref name="currentscience"/><ref name="wbdmd1">{{cite web |title=Paleoenvironment of Bengal Basin |url=http://www.wbdmd.gov.in/writereaddata/Chapter-2B.pdf |website=www.wbdmd.gov.in |access-date=14 July 2023}}</ref>

====Southeastern sub-basin====
The southeastern sub-basin is bounded on the west by the Eocene shelf-break and the easternmost edge of the CTFB. This sub-basin shows a huge sedimentary thickness of 10 km to 18 km. The southeastern sub-basin is filled with massive clastic sediments and the sediment thickness increases from northwest to southeast.<ref name="currentscience"/> The sub-basin is divided into 5 parts according to tectonic domains: Sylhet trough, Tangail-Tripura high (also known as Madhupur high), Faridpur trough, Barisal-Chandpur high and Hatia trough. The Hatia trough is the deepest trough in the Bengal Basin with the thickest clastic sediment deposits.<ref name="currentscience"/>

In various parts of the Sylhet Trough, large amounts of sediment were deposited between the [[Oligocene]] and [[Late Pleistocene]], forming Berail sediments layer 10 km to more than 17 km thick. A 1,500 m thick layer of [[Sandstone|sandstone]], [[Siltstone|siltstone]] and [[Mudstone|mudstone]] is observed in Barisal.

==Mineral resources==
The Bengal Basin has an abundance of natural gas. Natural gas is produced in Bangladesh. Also, large reserves of [[Petroleum|crude oil]] have been discovered in [[West Bengal]]. Crude oil is extracted from [[Ashoknagar Oil Field|Ashoknagar oil field]] in West Bengal.<ref>{{cite news |title=Dharmendra Pradhan dedicates West Bengal's first oil and gas reserve to nation |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/dharmendra-pradhan-dedicates-west-bengal-s-first-oil-and-gas-reserve-to-nation-11608459027930.html |access-date=14 July 2023 |agency=livemint |publisher=www.livemint.com }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Shri Dharmendra Pradhan dedicates the 8th producing Basin of India - Bengal Basin, to the nation |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1682161 |website=pib.gov.in |publisher=PIB Delhi |access-date=15 July 2023 |location=New Delhi }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Foreland basin]]

==References==
{{Reflist|3}}

{{West Bengal}}

[[Category:Bengal basin]]
[[Category:Foreland basins]]
[[Category:Western Bengal]]

Vash- Possessed by the Obsessed

2023-07-17T19:12:42Z

Sridhar: Pradeeprajput moved page Vash- Possessed by the Obsessed to Vash: Possessed by the Obsessed: use colon for subtitle

#REDIRECT [[Vash: Possessed by the Obsessed]]

{{Redirect category shell|
{{R from move}}
}}

Sena dynasty

2023-03-12T08:54:41Z

Sridhar: Published a captivating piece.

{{short description|Hindu dynasty of Bengal region, ruled 10th to 12th century}}
{{EngvarB}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox Former Country
| conventional_long_name = Sena Empire
| common_name = Sen Empire
| country =
| era = [[Middle Kingdoms of India]]
| status =
| event_start =
| year_start = 1070 CE
| date_start =
| event1 =
| date_event1 =
| event_end =
| year_end = 1230 CE
| date_end =
| p1 = Pala Empire
| flag_p1 = Map_of_the_Pala_Empire.png
| p2 = Varman Dynasty (Bengal)
| flag_p2 = Ancient_Political_Divisions.jpg
| p3 = Samatata
| s1 = Deva dynasty
| s2 = Khalji dynasty of Bengal
| flag_s2 = Map_of_the_Khaljis_of_Bengal.png
| image_flag =
| flag_type =
| image_coat = Sena_Empire_Coat_of_Arms.jpg
| coa_size = 280px
| symbol_type = Coat of Arms of Sena dynasty,from Laxmana Sena Copperplate(Left) digitalised (Right)
| image_map = Map of the Senas.png
| map_width = 270px
| image_map_caption = Map of the Sena Empire.<ref name="JS">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical Atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=Oxford University Press, Digital South Asia Library|author-link=Joseph E. Schwartzberg |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=185|page=147, Map "f"}}</ref>
| capital = [[Gauḍa (city)|Gauda]], [[Bikrampur]], [[Nabadwip]], [[Gauḍa (city)|Lakhnauti]], [[Chandrabhoga Gadhi]], [[Balirajgarh]], Vijaynagar
| common_languages = [[Sanskrit]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| government_type = Monarchy
| leader1 = [[Samanta Sena]]
| year_leader1 = 1070–1095 CE
| leader2 = [[Hemanta Sena]]
| year_leader2 = 1095–1096 CE
| leader3 = [[Vijaya Sena]]
| year_leader3 = 1096–1159 CE
| leader4 = [[Ballala Sena]]
| year_leader4 = 1159-1179 CE
| leader5 = [[Lakshmana Sena]]
| year_leader5 = 1179-1204 CE
| leader6 = [[Vishvarupa Sena]]
| year_leader6 = 1204-1225 CE
| leader7 = [[Keshava Sena]]
| year_leader7 = 1225–1230 CE
| leader8 = [[Surya Sena]]<ref name="Raj Kumar 340">{{cite book | author= Raj Kumar |title= Essays on Medieval India |year= 2003 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JB-B7Hk_35AC&q=samanta+sena&pg=PA340| page=340|isbn= 9788171416837 }}</ref>
| leader9 = Narayana Sena<ref name="Raj Kumar 340"/>
| leader10 = Laksmana Sena ।।<ref name="Raj Kumar 340"/>
| leader11 =
| year_leader11 =
| title_leader = [[Maharaja]] (King)
| legislature =
| today =
}}
{{Sena dynasty}}
The '''Sena dynasty''' was a [[List of Hindu empires and dynasties|Hindu dynasty]] during the [[Classical India|early medieval period]] on the [[Indian subcontinent]], that ruled from [[Bengal]] through the 11th and 12th centuries.<ref>For a map of their territory, see: {{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=147, map XIV.3 (f)|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=185}}</ref> The empire at its peak covered much of the north-eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. The rulers of the Sena Dynasty traced their origin to the south Indian region of [[Karnataka]].<ref>''The History of the Bengali Language'' by Bijay Chandra Mazumdar, p. 50.</ref>

The dynasty's founder was Samanta Sena. After him came Hemanta Sena who usurped power and styled himself, king, in 1095 AD. His successor [[Vijaya Sena]] (ruled from 1096 AD to 1159 AD) helped lay the foundations of the dynasty, and had an unusually long reign of over 60 years. [[Ballala Sena]] conquered [[Gaur, West Bengal|Gaur]] from the Pala, became the ruler of the Bengal Delta, and made [[Nadia district|Nadia]] the capital as well. Ballala Sena married Ramadevi a princess of the [[Western Chalukya Empire]] which indicates that the Sena rulers maintained close social contact with south India.<ref>''Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib'' by Nitish K. Sengupta, p. 51.</ref> [[Lakshmana Sena]] succeeded Ballala Sena in 1179, ruled Bengal for approximately 20 years, and expanded the Sena Empire to [[Odisha]], Bihar and probably to [[Varanasi]]. In 1203–1204 AD, [[Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khalji|Bakhtiyar Khalji]], a general under the [[Ghurid Empire]], attacked and captured the capital City of Nadia. The detailed account of this invasion is given in Tabaqat-i-Nasiri.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MAJUMDAR |first=R. C. |title=THE HISTORY OF BENGAL, VOLUME -I |pages=223}}</ref>

==Origins==
[[Deopara Prashasti]] described the founder of Sena dynasty [[Samanta Sena|Samanthasena]], as a migrant [[Brahmakshatriya|Brahmaksatriya]] from [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra Nath|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|publisher=New Age International|isbn=978-81-224-1198-0|pages=287|language=en}}</ref> The epithet 'Brahma-Kshatriya' suggests that Senas were Brahmins by caste who took the profession of arms and became Kshatriyas.<ref>{{Cite book|last=MAJUMDAR|first=R. C.|url=http://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13287|title=HISTORY OF ANCIENT BENGAL|publisher=G. BHARADWAJ , CALCUTTA}}</ref> The Sena kings were also probably [[Baidya]]s, according to historian P.N. Chopra.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chopra|first=Pran Nath|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HAtuAAAAMAAJ|title=Religions and Communities of India|publisher=East-West Publications|year=1982|isbn=978-0-85692-081-3|page=78|quote=The Sena kings were probably Baidyas. The evidence of inscriptions shows that a dynasty of Baidya kings ruled over at least a part of Bengal from 1010 AD to 1200 AD. The most famous of these kings is Ballal Sena}}</ref>

The Senas entered into the service of Palas as ''sāmantas'' in Rāḍha, probably under Samantasena.<ref name="sen">{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra|title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History|publisher=Primus Books|year=2013|isbn=978-9-38060-734-4|pages=35–36}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Furui|first=Ryosuke|title=Land and Society In Early South Asia: Eastern India 400-1250 AD|year=2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-138-49843-3|pages=188|language=en|chapter=Towards Brahmanical Systematisation: c. 1100–1250 AD}}</ref> With the decline of the Pālas, their territory had expanded to include Vaṅga and a part of Varendra by the end of Vijayasena's reign.<ref name=":0" /> The Palas were ousted in totality, and their entire territory annexed sometime after 1665.<ref name=":0" />

==Inscription of Keshava Sena==
A copperplate was found in the Adilpur or Edilpur [[pargana]] of [[Faridpur District]] in 1838 A.D. and was acquired by the [[Asiatic Society of Bengal]], but now the copperplate is missing from the collection. An account of the copperplate was published in the ''[[Dacca Review]]'' and ''Epigraphic Indica''. The copperplate inscription is written in [[Sanskrit]] and in Ganda character, and dated 3rd [[Joishtho|jyaistha]] of 1136 ''samval'', or 1079 A.D. In the Asiatic Society's proceeding for January 1838, an account of the copperplate states that three villages were given to a [[Brahman]] in the third year of [[Keshava Sena]]. The grant was given with the landlord rights, which include the power of punishing the ''Chandrabhandas'' or [[Sundarban]]s, a tribe that lived in the forest.<ref name="BangChit">{{Citation
| last = Hunter
| first = William Wilson
| contribution = A statistical account of Bengal, Volume 1
| title = [[Google Books]]
| publisher = Murry and Gibbs
| place = Edinburgh
| year = 1875
| contribution-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9WEOAAAAQAAJ&q=adilpur+copperplate&pg=PA379| access-date = 3 October 2009}}</ref> The land was granted in the village of Leliya in the Kumaratalaka mandala, which is situated in shatata-padamavati-visaya. The copperplate of Keshava Sena records that the king Vallala Sena carried away, from the enemies, the goddesses of fortune on palanquins ([[Ashvamedha|Shivaka]]), which elephant tusk staff supported; and also states that Vallala Sena's son, Lakshmana Sena (1179–1205), erected pillars of victory and sacrificial posts at Varanasi, Allahabad, and Adon Coast of the South Sea. The copperplate also describes the villages with smooth fields growing excellent paddy, the dancing and music in ancient Bengal, and ladies adorned with blooming flowers. The Edilpur copperplate of Keshava Sena records that the king made a grant in favour of Nitipathaka Isvaradeva Sarman for the inside of the ''subha-varsha''.

==Society==
The Sena rulers consolidated the caste system in Bengal.{{sfn|Siddiq|2015|p=35}} Although Bengal borrowed from the caste system of [[Mithila (ancient)|Mithila]], caste was not so strong in Bengal as in Mithila.<ref>Momtazur Rahman Tarafdar, "Itihas O Aitihasik", Bangla Academy Dhaka, 1995</ref>

==Architecture==
The Sena dynasty is famous for building [[Hindu temple]]s and monasteries, which include the renowned [[Dhakeshwari Temple]] in what is now [[Dhaka]], Bangladesh.

In Kashmir, the dynasty also likely built a temple knows as Sankara Gaureshwara.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mitra |first=Rajendralala |title=On the Sena Rajas of Bengal |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/128113#page/195/mode/1up |journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |volume=34 part 1 |issue=3 |publisher=Asiatic Society of Bengal |pages=141–142}}</ref>[[File:Bengala, epoca pala-sena, vishnu vasudeva, xii sec.JPG|thumb|200px|left|A sculpture of the [[Hindu deity]] [[Vishnu]] from the Sena period.]]

==Coinage==
In the political history of Bengal, Sena dynasty was a mighty ruling dynasty in power. Various currency names have been regularly mentioned in the Sena writings, such as ''[[Purana]], Dharan, Dramma''. These terms were used to mean a silver coin weighing 32 ratis (56.6 grains) or a karshapan weighing scale. The term '''Kapardaka Purana''' is seen as a medium of exchange in the writings of the Sena kings and other contemporary kings. Karpadak means [[cow]]; And 'Purana' is definitely a kind of silver coin. The conjunction ‘kapardaka-purana’ refers to a medium of exchange whose quality is equal to that of a purana or silver coin (56.6 grains), but which is actually calculated by the proportional denominator. The table found in the traditional arithmetic of Bengal contained 1260 cowries instead of one [[silver coin]] (Purana or Dramma). That is, the ratio of Purana and Kapardaka is 1: 1280. Reliable evidence of the widespread use of cowrie in early medieval Bengal has been found in excavations at [[Paharpur, India|Paharpur]] and Kalgang (Bihar near [[Bhagalpur]]). Early medieval Bengal saw the scarcity of precious coins and the widespread circulation of cowries. Scholars have long sought to explain the virtual limitations of coins at this time
<ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Coins |title=Coins |website=Banglapedia}}</ref>

== Decline ==
{{South Asia in 1175}}
Downfall of Sena dynasty was destined under the rule of weak rulers of this dynasty. This dynasty started declining during the rule of Lakshmanasena who was the last significant Sena king. Sena kings continued to rule in eastern Bengal for some decades, but the main political power in Bengal passed to the Muslim [[Ghurid Empire]].

== Legacy ==
The Senas and their descendants merged into the [[Bengali Kayastha|Kayastha]] caste-group, heralding them as the neo-Kshatriyas of Bengal — hence, [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak|Abul Fazl]] would write that Bengal had always been ruled by Kayasthas.<ref name="AlHind">{{cite book|author=Andre Wink|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Volume 1|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|year=1991|isbn=978-90-04-09509-0|page=269|accessdate=3 September 2011}}</ref><ref name="RiseofIslam">{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Richard Maxwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC|title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760|publisher=University of California Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-52020-507-9|pages=102–103}}</ref> The actual caste-status of Senas —{{Nbsp}}notwithstanding the anachronism{{Nbsp}}— remain contested in popular memory: premodern Baidya genealogies claim the Senas as their own which are agreed upon by some Brahmin genealogies but rejected by Kayastha ones.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|last1=Majumdar|first1=R. C.|title=History Of Bengal|last2=Ganguly|first2=D. C.|last3=Hazra|first3=R. C.|publisher=The University of Dacca|year=1943|editor-last=Majumdar|editor-first=R. C.|pages=571, 589–591}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Chatterjee|first=Kumkum|title=Scribal elites in Sultanate and Mughal Bengal|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/001946461004700402|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review|language=en|volume=47|issue=4|pages=445–472|doi=10.1177/001946461004700402|issn=0019-4646|s2cid=143802267}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Chatterjee|first=Kumkum|title=Communities, Kings and Chronicles: The Kulagranthas of Bengal|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/025764300502100203|journal=Studies in History|language=en|volume=21|issue=2|pages=173–213|doi=10.1177/025764300502100203|issn=0257-6430|s2cid=144413665}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Sircar|first=Dineschandra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mh1y1eMgGBMC&pg=P216|title=Studies in the Religious Life of Ancient and Medieval India|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-2790-5|language=en|quote=It may be added that the Senas themselves came to be regarded as Vaidyas in the Vaidya Kula-pañjikās.}}</ref>

== Family tree ==

{{Chart top|width=100%|collapsed=yes|Sena dynasty}}

{{Tree chart/start|align=center|style=font-size:95%}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Hemanta Sena|Hemanta Sena]]''' (1) r. 1070-1096|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Vijaya Sena|Vijaya Sena]]''' (2) r. 1096-1160|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Ballāla Sena|Ballala Sena]]''' (3) r. 1160-1179|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Lakshmana Sena|Lakshmana Sena]]''' (4) r. 1179-1206|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700}}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}

{{Tree chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01 | |A02 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
A01='''[[Vishvarupa Sena|Vishvarupa Sena]]''' (5) r. 1206-1225|boxstyle_A01=border-color:#FFD700|
A02='''[[Keshava Sena|Keshava Sena]]''' (6) r. 1225-1230|boxstyle_A02=border-color:#FFD700}}

{{Tree chart/end}}

{{Chart bottom}}

==Literature==
[[File: WLA lacma Bangladesh Dinajpur District Dancing Ganesha.jpg|thumb|right|Art of the Senas, 11th century.]]
The Sena rulers were also great patrons of literature. During the Pala dynasty and the Sena dynasty, major growth in [[Bengali language|Bengali]] was witnessed. Some Bengali authors believe that [[Jayadeva]], the famous Sanskrit poet and author of [[Gita Govinda]], was one of the ''Pancharatnas'' (five gems) in the court of Lakshmana Sena.
[[Dhoyin]] – himself an eminent court poet of Sena dynasty – mentions nine gems (ratna) in the court of Lakshmana Sena, among whom were:
* Govardhana
* Sarana
* Jayadeva
* Umapati
* Dhoyi/[[Dhoyin]] Kaviraja<ref>{{cite book |editor=R. C. Majumdar |year=1943 |title=The History of Bengal, vol I (Hindu Period) |place=Lohanipur}}</ref>{{page needed}}

==See also==
* [[Dhakeshwari Mata Temple, Kumortuli]]
* [[History of Bengal]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[Edilpur Copperplate]]

==References==
[[File:Vishnu, Sena period, 11th century, Benares Hindu University Museum.jpg|thumb|[[Vishnu]], Sena period, 11th century, Benares Hindu University Museum.]]
{{Reflist|2}}
'''Sources'''
{{refbegin}}
* Early History of India 3rd and revised edition by Vincent A Smith
* {{citation|last=Siddiq|first=Mohammad Yusuf|title=Epigraphy and Islamic Culture:Inscriptions of the Early Muslim Rulers of Bengal (1205-1494)|year=2015|publisher=Routledge Contemporary South Asia Series}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{cite book |last=Chowdhury |first=AM |year=2012 |chapter=Sena Dynasty |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sena_Dynasty |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}

{{s-start}}
{{succession box
| title = Bengal dynasty
| years =
| before = [[Pala Empire|Pala dynasty]]
| after = [[Deva dynasty]] [[Khalji dynasty of Bengal|Khalji dynasty]]
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}

{{West Bengal}}

[[Category:Sena dynasty| ]]
[[Category:Dynasties of Bengal]]
[[Category:Hindu states]]
[[Category:Medieval India]]
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]
[[Category:Hindu dynasties]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 11th century]]

Loksatta (party)

2023-02-14T02:14:11Z

Sridhar: Wrote an inspiring article.

#REDIRECT [[Lok Satta Party]]

List of extreme points of India

2023-01-24T09:08:24Z

Sridhar: Just finished crafting a new article.

{{Short description|None}}
{{GeoGroupTemplate}}
The '''extreme points of India''' include the coordinates that are further north, south, east or west than any other location in [[India]]; and the highest and the lowest altitudes in the country. The northernmost point claimed by India is in territory disputed between India and [[Pakistan]], but administered by the latter. With the exception of [[Kanyakumari]] ([[Cape Comorin]]), the southernmost location of mainland India, all other extreme locations are uninhabited.

The latitude and longitude are expressed in [[Geographic coordinate system#Degrees: a measurement of angle|decimal degree notation]], in which a positive latitude value refers to the northern hemisphere, and a negative value refers to the southern hemisphere. Similarly, a positive longitude value refers to the eastern hemisphere, and a negative value refers to the western hemisphere. The coordinates used in this article are sourced from [[Google Earth]], which makes use of the [[World Geodetic System|WGS84]] geodetic reference system. Additionally, a negative altitude value refers to land below sea level.

==Extreme points==
{{anchor | Extreme }}
[[Image:Extreme points of India en.svg|thumb|Extreme points of India marked on the map of India]]
The northernmost point claimed by India lies in the Pakistani-administered territory of [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], which India claims as a part of the union territory of [[Ladakh]]. The northernmost point administered by India lies in the union territory of [[Ladakh]], which is [[Kashmir dispute|claimed by Pakistan]] as a part of the autonomous territory of [[Azad Kashmir]]. This list provides the northernmost point as claimed by India; the northernmost disputed point that is administered by India; and the northernmost undisputed point in India. This case also applies to the highest elevated regions.

India's easternmost state is [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. Part of the state is [[Sino-Indian border dispute|claimed by China]] as part of [[Tibet Autonomous Region]], though administered by India, The easternmost of Indian-administered territory is located in this disputed region.<ref name="rediff">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/nov/16sld1.htm|title=Why China claims Arunachal Pradesh|publisher=Rediff.com|access-date=2008-09-11|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617232324/http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/nov/16sld1.htm|archive-date=2008-06-17}}</ref> Consequently, this list mentions both the disputed and undisputed easternmost points in India.

All astronomical calculations are performed with respect to a Central Station at longitude 82°30’ East, latitude 23°11’ North.

{| class="wikitable" width="100%"
! width="10%" | Heading
! width="26%" | Location
! width="18%" | Administrative entity
! width="18%" | Bordering entity
! width="20%" class="unsortable" | Coordinates<ref group="nb" name="wgs84">Coordinates obtained from [[Google Earth]]. Google Earth makes use of the [[World Geodetic System|WGS84]] geodetic reference system.</ref>
! width="5%" class="unsortable" | Ref(s)
|- class="vcard"
| North (disputed, administered)
| class="fn org" | East of [[Indira Col]] at [[Siachen Glacier]]
| [[Ladakh]]
| [[Xinjiang]], [[China]]
| {{Coord|35.674521|76.844485|region:IN-JK_type:landmark|name=Near Indira Col (Northernmost — disputed, administered)}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/maps/@35.6745069,76.8466693,15z/data=!5m1!1e4|title=Google Maps (Jammu and Kashmir)|work=Google|access-date=2014-05-11|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614092104/https://www.google.com/maps/@35.6745069,76.8466693,15z/data=!5m1!1e4|archive-date=2014-06-14}}</ref>
|- class="vcard"
| North (disputed, claimed)
| class="fn org" | East of [[Kilik Pass]] in the [[Karakoram|Karakoram Mountains]] on [[Xinjiang]]-[[Gilgit-Baltistan]] border
| [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], [[Pakistan]]
| [[Xinjiang]], [[China]]
| {{Coord|37.08586|74.70291|name=Xinjian-Gilgit-Baltistan border}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&ll=37.08586,74.70291&spn=0.00973,0.013819&z=16|title=Google Maps (Gilgit-Baltistan)|work=Google|access-date=2017-11-17}}</ref>
|-
| North (undisputed)
|class="vcard"| North of Kang La at the northern end of [[Miyar Valley]] in [[Lahaul and Spiti district]]
| [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| [[Ladakh]]
| {{Coord|33.25615|76.79877|region:IN-HP_type:landmark|name=Near Kangla (Northernmost — undisputed)}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&ll=33.25615,76.79877&spn=0.06575,0.11055&z=13|title=Google Maps (Himachal Pradesh)|work=Google|access-date=2008-09-11}}</ref>
|- class="vcard"
| South
| class="fn org" | [[Indira Point]] on the southernmost end of [[Great Nicobar Island]] of the [[Nicobar Islands]]
| [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
| [[Indian Ocean]]
| {{Coord|6.74678|93.84260|region:IN-AN_type:landmark|name=Indira Point (Southernmost)}}
|<ref name="manorama">{{Cite book| author=Thomas| title=Manorama Yearbook 2003| publisher=Malayala Manorama Co. Ltd | year=2003 | isbn=81-900461-8-7 |page=649}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&ll=6.746782,93.84264&spn=0.019519,0.027637&z=15|title=Google Maps (Kashmir)|work=Google|access-date=2008-09-11}}</ref>
|- class="vcard"
| South (mainland)
| class="fn org" | [[Cape Comorin]] near [[Kanyakumari]]
| [[Tamil Nadu]]
| [[Indian Ocean]]
| {{Coord|8.06890|77.55230|region:IN-TN_type:landmark|name=Cape Comorin (Southernmost — mainland}}
|<ref name="manorama" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&ll=8.06896,77.552319&spn=0.00973,0.013819&z=16|title=Google Maps (Tamil Nadu)|work=Google|access-date=2008-09-11}}</ref>
|- class="vcard"
| East (disputed, administered)
| class="fn org" | Southeast of [[Dong, Arunachal Pradesh|Dong]] (before [[Kibithu]] in [[Anjaw district]])
| [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
| [[Kachin State]], [[Myanmar]]
| {{Coord|28.01168|97.39564|region:IN-AR_type:landmark|name=near Kibithu (Easternmost — disputed, administered)}}
|<ref name="manorama" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&ll=28.017135,97.403669&spn=0.017352,0.027637&z=15|title=Google Maps (Arunachal Pradesh)|work=Google|access-date=2008-09-11}}</ref>
|- class="vcard"
| East (undisputed)
| class="fn org" | Chaukan Pass, east of [[Vijaynagar, Changlang|Vijaynagar]] in [[Changlang district]]
| [[Arunachal Pradesh]]
| [[Kachin State]], [[Myanmar]]
| {{Coord|27.13611|97.16575|region:IN-AR_type:landmark|name=Near Vijaynagar (Easternmost — undisputed)}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&ll=27.125834,97.167377&spn=0.017493,0.027637&z=15 |title=Google Maps (Arunachal Pradesh)|work=Google|access-date=2008-09-11}}</ref>
|- class="vcard"
| West
| class="fn org" | [[Sir Creek]] in [[Kutch district]]
| [[Gujarat]]
| [[Indus River Delta]], [[Sindh]], [[Pakistan]]
| {{Coord|23.6261|68.1941|region:IN-GJ_type:landmark|name=Ghuar Mota (Westernmost)}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&ll=23.7626098,68.194100&spn=0.017996,0.027637&z=15|title=Google Maps (Gujarat)|work=Google|access-date=2008-09-11}}</ref>
|}

== Altitudes ==

{| class = "wikitable sortable" width="100%"
! width="15%" class="unsortable" | Extremity
! width="10%" | Name
! width="13%" | Altitude
! width="25" class="unsortable" | Location
! width="17%" class="unsortable" | State
! width="15%" class="unsortable" | Coordinates
! width="5%" class="unsortable" | Ref(s)
|- class="vcard"
| Highest (undisputed)
| class="fn org" | [[Kangchenjunga]]
| {{convert|8586|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| [[Eastern Himalaya]] on the India-Nepal border
| [[Sikkim]]
| {{Coord|27.70250|88.14833|region:IN-SK_type:landmark|name=West Sikkim (Highest — undisputed)}}
|<ref name="manorama" />
|- class="vcard"
| Highest (disputed, claimed)
| class="fn org" | [[K2]]
| {{convert|8611|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| [[Karakoram]] on border between [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] (administered by Pakistan) and [[Xinjiang]] (administered by China)
| Gilgit-Baltistan, [[Pakistan]]
| {{Coord|35.88250|76.51333|region:IN-JK_type:landmark|name=Border between Kashmir and Xinjiang (Highest — disputed)}}
|<ref name="manorama" />
|- class="vcard"
| Highest (undisputed and entirely within India)
| class="fn org" | [[Nanda Devi]]
| {{convert|7816|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| [[Garhwal Himalaya]]
| [[Uttarakhand]]
| {{Coord|30.37667|79.97083|region:IN-UL_type:mountain|name=Uttarakhand (Highest completely within India)}}
|<ref name="manorama" />
|- class="vcard"h
| Lowest
| class="fn org" | [[Kuttanad]]
| {{convert|-2.2|m|ft|1|abbr=on}}
| [[Alappuzha district]]
| [[Kerala]]
| {{Coord|9.15360|76.47300|region:IN-KL_type:landmark|name=Kuttanad (Lowest)}}
|<ref name="hindu">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/mag/2003/07/13/stories/2003071300600200.htm|title=Thirst below sea level|last=Suchitra|first=M|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=2014-05-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922101804/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-sundaymagazine/thirst-below-sea-level/article28523147.ece |archive-date=2019-09-22}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
; India related
* [[Borders of India]]
* [[Geography of India]]
* [[Extreme points of Asia]]
* [[Exclusive economic zone of India]]
* [[List of disputed territories of India]]
* [[Outline of India]]

; Other related topics
* [[Extreme points of Indonesia]]
* [[Outline_of_Myanmar#Extreme|Extreme points of Myanmar]]
* [[Extreme points of Bangladesh]]
* [[Geography_of_Thailand#Extreme|Extreme points of Thailand]]

==Notes==
<references group="nb" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

 
{{India topics}}
{{Geography of India}}
{{Asia in topic|Extreme points of|collapsed=yes}}

{{featured list}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:List Of Extreme Points Of India}}
[[Category:Lists of places in India|Extreme points]]
[[Category:Extreme points by country|India]]
[[Category:Lists of landforms of India|Extreme points]]
[[Category:Geography of India]]