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Balayapalle mandal

2026-05-03T14:32:35Z

Shubhamsaini9: added basic pg w/ infobox

{{Short description|Mandal in Tirupati district, Andhra Pradesh, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Balayapalle mandal
| settlement_type = [[Mandal]]
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{IND}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts in Andhra Pradesh|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Tirupati district|Tirupati]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of revenue divisions in Andhra Pradesh|Revenue division]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Srikalahasti revenue division|Srikalahasti]]
| subdivision_type4 = Headquarters
| subdivision_name4 = [[Balayapalle]]
| mapframe = yes
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset = +05:30
}}

'''Balayapalle mandal''' is one of the 36 [[mandal]]s in [[Tirupati district]] in the [[India]]n state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. It is a part of [[Srikalahasti revenue division]].

==History==
The mandal used to be a part of [[Gudur revenue division]] and was made part of [[Srikalahasti revenue division]] on 31 December 2025.<ref name="districts-20251231">{{Cite news |title=Andhra News:కొత్త జిల్లాలు పోలవరం, మార్కాపురం |date=2025-12-30 |url=https://www.eenadu.net/telugu-news/andhra-pradesh/ap-cabinet--approves-formation-of-two-new-districts/1799/125240498 |access-date=2026-02-16 |work=Eenadu|lang=te}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{coord missing|Andhra Pradesh}}

[[Category:Mandals in Tirupati district]]

{{Tirupati district}}

{{AndhraPradesh-geo-stub}}

Saindhava

2026-04-27T16:19:10Z

Shubhamsaini9: created info.

{{Short description|Medieval Indian dynasty of western Saurashtra}}
{{for|the character from the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]''|Jayadratha}}
{{distinguish|Sindhu Kingdom}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2017}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name =
| conventional_long_name = Saindhavas of Ghumli
| common_name = Jayadratha dynasty
| government_type = Monarchy
| year_start = c. 735 CE
| year_end = c. 920 CE
| p1 = Maitraka
| s1 = Chudasama dynasty
| s2 = Jethwa dynasty
| capital = Bhutamabilika (now [[Ghumli]], [[Gujarat]], India)
| leader1 =
| common_languages = [[Sanskrit]], [[Prakrit]]
| religion = [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]]
| today = [[India]]
| image_map = {{South Asia in 800 CE|center|{{center|Location of the Saindavas and main neighbouring polities in South Asia, circa 800 CE.<ref name="JES">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (e) |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |access-date=20 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162023/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}|{{Annotation|65|133|[[File:Long Rectangle (plain).png|37px]]}}}}
| image_coat = I56 Saindhavas drachme 1 (8097356527).jpg
| coa_size = 300px
| symbol_type = Drachma of the Saindhava or [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]] dynasties dating from about 800–950. The front represents a bust, turned right of [[Indo-Sasanians|Indo-Sassanian]] style with points, and the back contains a stylized fire.
}}
The '''Saindhavas''', also known as '''Jayadrathas''', was a [[medieval India]]n dynasty that ruled western [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] (now in [[Gujarat]], India) from c. 735 CE to c. 920 CE, probably in alliance with [[Maitraka]]s in its early years. Their capital was at Bhutamabilika (now [[Ghumli]]). The known historical events during their rule are the attacks of Arabs repulsed by [[Agguka I]].

==Sources of information==
The earliest reference of Saindhava was found in Navsari copperplate of [[Chalukya]] governor of [[Lata (region)|Lata region]] (modern-day South Gujarat) [[Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin]] dated 738-39 CE which enlisted the dynasties defeated by Arabs and finally repelled by him. The eighth verse in Gwalior ''[[prashasti]]'' of Bhojadeva describes the Saindhava ruler defeated by Pratihara king [[Nagabhata II|Nagabhatta]].<ref name=":1" />
The nine copper plate grants issued by Saindhavas help to establish their genealogy as well as provides useful information about the dynasty. Six grants inscribed in 12 copper plates were discovered while digging on roadside in Ghumli in 1936. One more copper plate issued by Jaika was recovered from [[Morbi]]. A clay seal referring to Pushyena was recovered from [[Valabhi]] (Vala).{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=137}}<ref name=":1"/> Another copperplate grant is found from Ambalas (near [[Junagadh]]).{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=137}} One more from Dhinki issued by Jaikadeva (purportedly from 738 CE) was found as a forgery later.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=137}}<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/epigraphia-indica/epigraphia-indica-vol-26|title=Epigraphia Indica|last=Altekar|first=A. S.|publisher=University of Culcutta|year=1929|editor-last=Bhandarkar|editor-first=D. R.|editor-link=D. R. Bhandarkar|volume=XXVI|location=Culcutta|pages=185–226|chapter=Six Saindhava Copper-Plate Grants from Ghumli|author-link=Anant Sadashiv Altekar}}</ref>

==Origin and rule==
Saindhavas were originated from [[Sindh]] (now in [[Pakistan]]) who moved southward and established themselves in ''Apara-Surashtra'' (western Saurashtra comprising modern [[Jamnagar district|Jamnagar]], [[Devbhoomi Dwarka district|Devbhoomi Dwarka]], [[Rajkot district|Rajkot]], [[Morbi district|Morbi]] and [[Porbandar district]]s in [[Gujarat]], India).{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=137}}<ref name="MacLean1989">{{cite book|author=Derryl N. MacLean|title=Religion and Society in Arab Sind|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xxAVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA20|year=1989|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-08551-3|page=20}}</ref> The Ghumli grant issued by Jaika II describes their family as ''Jayadratha-vamsa''. Other plates describes themselves as ''Saindhava''s as they originated from Sindh.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=137}}<ref name=":1" />

Their capital was at Bhutambilika or Bhumlika (now [[Ghumli]]) in Barda hills.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Nanavati|first1=J. M.|last2=Dhaky|first2=M. A.|author-link2=Madhusudan Dhaky|date=1969-01-01|title=The Maitraka and the Saindhava Temples of Gujarat|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.321094|journal=Artibus Asiae. Supplementum|volume=26|pages=3–83|doi=10.2307/1522666|jstor=1522666}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Their emblem was fish, the sign of [[Varuna]] and suitable for their naval supremacy.<ref name="MacLean1989"/><ref name=":1" />{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=143}}

The early kings ruled probably in an allegiance with the [[Maitraka]]s of [[Vallabhi]]. They ruled [[Halar]] and [[Sorath prant|Sorath]] regions constituting western part of Saurashta peninsula.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=137}}<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

==History==
Pushyadeva is the earliest known king mentioned in the grants found from Ghumli. A clay seal referring to Pushyena, son of Ahivarma was recovered from [[Vallabhi]] (Vala). It was believed that this Pushyena and Pushyadeva were one person but a copperplate found from Ambalas mentions Ahivarma as a son of Pushyena. So Pushyadeva might be a son of another Ahivarma.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|pp=137–138}}

It seems that Ahivarma I was probably ruling in Sindh and his son Pushyena had to move Saurashtra due to invasion by Arabs Arabs fighting for the [[Umayyad campaigns in India|Umayyad Caliphate]] (711 CE). His clay seal was found in Valabhi (Vala) which implies that he was probably a Mahasenapati (Chief Commander) under [[Maitraka]]s. He might have gained power later. Pushyena was succeeded by his son Ahivarma II whose title was Maharaja. He had given a grant to Bhikkhuni-Vihara from Kuberanagara (probably near [[Kodinar]] or Kubada village near [[Amreli]]). The date of grant is not clear but may belong to Valabhi Era 404 (723 CE).{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=138}}

Pushyadeva, son of Ahivarma II, is mentioned in the last grant found from Ghumli and he probably ruled from c. 735 to 750, based on dates of his descendants. His capital was at Ghumli and was a contemporary of Maitraka ruler Shiladitya VI. He is mentioned as Jayadratha-vamsha-shekhara.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=138}} He was succeeded by his son Krishnaraja I who reigned c. 750 CE to 770 CE. He had five titles including Mahasamanta.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=139}}

{{Location map+
|India Gujarat
|float = right
|width = 280
|caption = [[Find spot]]s of inscriptions issued during the Saindhava rule.<ref name=":1"/> The dynasty mainly ruled western parts of Saurashtra region of Gujarat (modern [[Jamnagar district|Jamnagar]], [[Devbhoomi Dwarka district|Devbhoomi Dwarka]], [[Rajkot district|Rajkot]], [[Morbi district|Morbi]] and [[Porbandar district]]s).
|nodiv = 1
|mini = 1
|places =
{{location map~ |India Gujarat |lat=21.885|N |long=69.763|E |label= Ghumli |position=top |marksize=4}}
{{location map~ |India Gujarat |lat=22.82|N |long=70.83|E |label= Morbi |position=top |marksize=4}}
{{location map~ |India Gujarat |lat=21.8878|N |long=71.8795|E |label= Valabhi or Vala |position=bottom |marksize=4}}
}}
Agguka I, son of Krishnaraja I, succeeded him and reigned c. 770 CE to 790 CE. He is praised heavily in two early grants found from Ghumli. During his rule, the Arabs tried to establish themselves in the Saurashtra.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=139}} In 759 CE, Hasham was appointed as the governor of Sindh who sent an Arab naval fleet under Amarubin Jamal to attack to the coast of Barda region. It was defeated by the Saindhava naval fleet, which was then leading naval power of western India. Twenty years later, another Arab naval fleet was sent, which initially succeeded in capturing a town near Barda. The campaign was withdrawn following an outbreak of an epidemic, according to Arab historians. They also state that the Caliph decided to never enter India from there again. But Agguka I's inscriptions state that he had severely defeated the Arabs in 776 CE and they had to withdraw.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name="Sen1999">{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA343|date=1 January 1999|publisher=New Age International|isbn=978-81-224-1198-0|pages=343–344}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= Kumar|first= Amit|year= 2012|title= Maritime History of India: An Overview|journal= Maritime Affairs:Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India|publisher= Taylor & Francis|volume= 8|issue= 1|pages= 93–115|doi= 10.1080/09733159.2012.690562|s2cid= 108648910|quote= "In 776 AD, Arabs tried to invade Sind again but were defeated by the Saindhava naval fleet. A Saindhava inscription provides information about these naval actions."}}</ref><ref name=SV>{{cite thesis |last=Vyas |first=Surendra |date=31 December 2001 |title=A study of ancient towns of Gujarat |type=PhD |chapter=10. Bhutaamblika |publisher= Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, [[Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda]]|hdl=10603/72127 |pages=123–127}}</ref> He took the title ''Apara Samudradhipati (apara-samudr-ddhipati)'', "Master of the Sea".<ref name="Sridharan2000">{{cite book|author=K. Sridharan|title=Sea: Our Saviour|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9PiwJF7V4EQC&pg=PA13|date=1 January 2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-81-224-1245-1|page=13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Majumdar |first1=Ramesh Chandra |title=Ancient India |date=1964 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |pages=302 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bnZDAAAAYAAJ&q=western+seas |access-date=7 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref> During his reign, Valabhi probably fell due to Arab invasion (788 CE).{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=139}}

Agguka's son and successor Ranaka I probably reigned from c. 790 CE to 810 CE. He is mentioned in Ghumli grant which states that he had donated a village in Pachchhatri [[vishaya]] (district). It also mentions his wife Kshemeshwari. He had two sons, Krishnaraja II and Jaika I.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=139}}

Ranaka I was succeeded by his son Krishnaraja II (reigned c. 810 CE to 825 CE). He was succeeded by his infant son Agguka II. The Ghumli grant dated [[Gupta Era]] 513 (832 CE) is issued by his uncle Jaika I, step-brother of Krishnaraja II, so it seems that Agguka II ruled probably for very short period and he was disposed by his uncle few years before 832 CE, probably c. 830 CE.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=140}} This grant mentions the donation of a Dhak (now Dhank) village in Pachchatri Vishaya to a Brahmin from Someshwara (now [[Somnath]]). Another undated grant mentions the donation of a village to a Brahmin of Bhillamala (now [[Bhinmal]]) in the same district. He reigned c. 825 CE to 845 CE. His sons were Agguka III and Chamudaraja.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|pp=140–141}}

Jaika I was succeeded by Agguka III who reigned c. 845 CE to 870 CE. None of grants is found but he is praised in grant by his son and successor Ranaka II. He reigned c. 870 CE to 880 CE. His grant dated Gupta Era 555 (874-875 CE) mentions the donation of villages in Swarnamanjari district to some temples and a monastery. It also mentions his son Jaika but he did not succeed him probably because he died early or his granduncle Chamundaraja usurped the throne. He probably reigned from c. 880 CE to 885 CE.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|pp=141–142}}

Chamundaraja was succeeded by his son Agguka IV who reigned c. 885 CE to 900 CE. He had donated a village to a Brahmin in Swarnamanjari district in Gupta Era 567 (886-887 CE). He was succeeded by Jaika II (reigned c. 900 CE to 920 CE) who was the last known ruler. His two grants are recovered from Ghumli and [[Morbi]]. Morbi grant mentions the donation of a village to two Brahmins. Ghulmi grant has a long genealogy from Pushyadeva to Jaika II but does not mention branches of Krishnaraja II and Agguka III.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|pp=142–143}} Jaika II had granted a village to Nanna Mathika, a monastery, in Swarnamanjari district in Gupta Era 596 (915 CE). It was built by Nanna, a trader from Bhillamala and was located near Purushottam monastery in Bhutambilika division.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=143}}

The copper plate inscription of Ranaka Bashkaladeva dated 987 CE found from Ghulmi indicates that he was probably a vassal of [[Chaulukya]]s of Patan and ruled "Jyeshthukadesha", a region around Ghumli. But the inscription does not refer to Saindhavas or their descendants. It is assumed that between 920 CE and 987 CE, the rule of the Saindhavas ended.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=143}}

Ghumli was the capital under the [[Jethwa dynasty]] who later ruled the region. There might be some relation between Jayadratha-Saindhava dynasty and the Jethwa dynasty which had [[Hanuman]] as its emblem instead of fish.{{sfn | Shastri |1974|p=143}}

==Architecture==
{{see also|Maitraka#Architecture}}
Their notable constructions are Hindu monastery (''mathika'') at Ghumli and temples dedicated to [[Surya]], [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]] (Goddess) at Suvarnamanjari. The inscriptions referring to temples are scarce. The temples constructed in this period follows the contemporary and earlier traditions of Maitrakas.<ref name=":0" />

==List of rulers==
{{History of Gujarat}}
* Ahivarma I
* Pushyena
* Ahivarma II
* Pushyadeva (r. c. 735 – c. 750)
* Krishnaraja I (r. c. 750 – c. 770)
* [[Agguka I]] (r. c. 770 – c. 790)
* Ranaka I (r. c. 790 – c. 810)
* Krishnaraja II (r. c. 810 – c. 825)
* Agguka II (minor ruler, lost throne c. 830)
* Jaika I (r. c. 825 -c. 845)
* Agguka III (r. c. 845 – c. 870)
* Ranaka II (r. c. 870 – c. 880)
* Chamundaraja (r. c. 880 – c. 885)
* Agguka IV (c. 885 – c. 900)
* Jaika II (r. c. 900 – c. 920)

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.325015/page/n1|title=ગુજરાતનો રાજકીય અને સાંસ્કૃતિક ઇતિહાસ: મૈત્રક કાલ અને અનુ-મૈત્રક કાલ|last=Shastri|first=Hariprasad Gangashankar|author-link=Hariprasad Shastri|publisher=Bholabhai Jeshingbhai Institute of Learning and Research|year=1974|editor-last=Parikh|editor-first=Rasiklal Chhotalal|editor-link=Rasiklal Parikh|series=Research Series – Book No. 68|volume=III|location=[[Ahmedabad]]|pages=137–144, 165–166, 453|trans-title=Political and Cultural History of Gujarat: Maitraka Era and Post-Maitraka Era|editor-last2=Shastri|editor-first2=Hariprasad Gangashankar|language=gu}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:History of Gujarat]]
[[Category:Rajput clans of Gujarat]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 8th century]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 10th century]]
[[Category:Dynasties of India]]

Baldev Singh Khiala

2026-04-27T01:11:10Z

Shubhamsaini9: added first bio from scratch.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Baldev Singh Khiala
| birth_date = {{Birth date |1935|4|11|}}
| birth_place = [[Raipur, Mansa]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2008|6|14|1935|04|11}} [[Fortis Healthcare]] [[Mohali, Punjab]]
| image = Baldev Singh Khiala.jpg
| caption = Election Campaign, 1997
| office = [[Punjab Legislative Assembly|Member of the Punjab Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency = [[Mansa, Punjab Assembly constituency|Joga Assembly constituency]]
| term = 1977-1992
| predecessor =
| successor = Surjan Singh
| office2 = [[Punjab Legislative Assembly|Member of the Punjab Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency2 = [[Mansa, Punjab Assembly constituency|Joga Assembly constituency]]
| term2 = 1997-2002
| predecessor2 = Surjan Singh
| successor2 = Jagdeep Singh Nakai
| office3 =
| term3 =
| party = [[Shiromani Akali Dal]]
| other_party =
| children = 3 sons & 1 daughter
| father = Dalel Singh
| mother =
| profession = Politician
| spouse = Gurdial Kaur
}}
'''Baldev Singh Khiala''' (11 April 1935 – 14 June 2008) was an Indian politician. He won 1977 [[Punjab Legislative Assembly]] elections from the [[Mansa, Punjab Assembly constituency|Joga constituency]], and he won again in 1980, 1985 and 1997.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Punjab Vidhan Sabha Compendium Members (1937-2017) |url=https://punjabassembly.nic.in/images/docs/Vidhan%20Sabha%20Compendium.pdf}}</ref>

== Personal and political life ==

Baldev Singh Khiala was born on April 11, 1935, in the village of Raipur, located in the Mansa district of Punjab. He was the son of Dalel Singh and was deeply rooted in his native village. Khiala began his political journey by winning Panchayati elections and holding the role for 17 years.

His dedication and commitment to public service earned him the honorable title of "Jathedar" from the [[Shiromani Akali Dal]] (SAD), a significant political party in Punjab. This recognition marked the beginning of his prominent political career within the SAD.

He was first elected as a Member of the [[Punjab Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] (MLA) from the Joga constituency in 1977. He won his first election with 28,025 votes, securing 55.04% of the vote share. In the 1980 elections, he won with 24,792 votes (44.49% vote share), followed by a victory in 1985 with 29,996 votes (48.83% vote share). His final successful election was in 1997, where he garnered 30,928 votes, achieving a 34.04% vote share.

[[File:Healthcare Centre Khiala.jpg|thumb|Healthcare Centre Inauguration, Khiala]]

Baldev Singh Khiala focused on enhancing healthcare services by setting up dispensaries as well as hospitals and established focus points for medical care throughout his constituency. His efforts extended to education, where he played a crucial role in upgrading many primary schools to middle schools and middle schools to high schools.

Khiala was also instrumental in the construction of a double road that connected 29 villages, significantly improving infrastructure and accessibility in the region. He succeeded in providing better irrigation facilities to farmers, which helped boost agricultural productivity.

In the late 2000s, Baldev Singh Khiala made a significant decision to part ways with the Shiromani Akali Dal.

Baldev Singh Khiala died on June 14, 2008.[[File:Baldev Singh Khiala 2.jpg|thumb|Baldev Singh]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khiala, Baldev Singh}}
[[Category:1935 births]]
[[Category:2008 deaths]]
[[Category:Punjabi Sikhs]]
[[Category:Punjab, India MLAs 1977–1980]]
[[Category:Punjab, India MLAs 1980–1985]]
[[Category:Punjab, India MLAs 1997–2002]]
[[Category:Punjab, India MLAs 1985–1990]]

Ashwini K.P.

2026-04-26T00:01:59Z

Shubhamsaini9: added new pg w/ infobox.

{{Short description|Indian political scientist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ashwini K. P.
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth year and age|1986}}
| birth_place = [[Chikkaballapur]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| other_names =
| known_for = [[United Nations special rapporteur]]
| education =
| employer =
| occupation = lecturer
| term = six years
| predecessor =
| successor =
| party =
| boards =
| religion =
| spouse =
}}
'''Ashwini K P''' (born 1986) is an Indian political scientist and university lecturer who became the [[United Nations special rapporteur]] on racism in 2022.

==Life==
Ashwini was born in [[Chikkaballapur]] near the [[city of Kolar]]. She is from the low marginalised Hindu caste known as the [[dalit]]s and her parents were V Prasannakumar and Jayamma.<ref name=decc>{{Cite web |last=DHNS |title=Kolar woman appointed UNHRC special rapporteur |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/karnataka/kolar-woman-appointed-unhrc-special-rapporteur-1154800.html |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

Her higher education started studying history, Economics and Political Science at Bangalore's [[Mount Carmel College, Bangalore|Mount Carmel College]]. She graduated and went on to obtain a master's degree from [[St. Joseph's College, Bangalore|St. Joseph's College]] in Political Science. She then took her doctorate in New Delhi in South Asian Studies at [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ms. Ashwini K.P.: Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-racism/ms-ashwini-kp#:~:text=Ashwini%20K.P.%20is%20the%20sixth,Rapporteur%20on%201%20November%202022. |access-date=14 June 2024 |website=OHCHR}}</ref>

She was one of three candidates who were considered for the role of the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]]'s [[United Nations special rapporteur|Special Rapporteur]] at a meeting in October 2022 in Geneva. The Human Rights Council decided to appoint her as the first Indian to the role - which lasts for six years from 1 November. She is in charge of any investigations she may make into a wide range of xenophobic discrimination. She has a mandate to look into racial intolerance wherever she decides in the world.<ref name=decc/> These [[United Nations special rapporteur|Special Rapporteur]] experts are appointed by the United Nations and they are unpaid. In 2023 there were 60 of these experts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About special procedures |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures-human-rights-council |access-date=10 June 2024 |website=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights}}</ref>

As part of a two-week tour of the United States she met a number of leaders and marginalised groups.<ref name=fortnight>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-14 |title=US suffering 'selective amnesia' on issues of racism and xenophobia: Human rights expert {{!}} {{!}} UN News |url=https://news.un.org/en/audio/2023/11/1143577 |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=news.un.org |language=en}}</ref> She attended the [[World Jewish Congress]] where she was presented with evidence of an increase in [[antisemitism]].<ref name=wjc>{{Cite web |last=Congress |first=World Jewish |title=World Jewish Congress |url=https://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/news/wjc-welcomes-un-special-rapporteur-to-new-york-headquarters-for-crucial-dialogue-addressing-antisemitism |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=World Jewish Congress |language=EN}}</ref> The WJC's lead has seen a rise in holocaust denial on social media. In one report it was said that 50% of holocaust posts on Telegram were denying or distorting the holocaust.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yfat Barak-Cheney - Brandeis Center |url=https://brandeiscenter.com/tag/yfat-barak-cheney/ |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=brandeiscenter.com}}</ref> Ashwini said that she would include this subject in her report in 2025.<ref name=wjc/> At the end of the American tour she accused some people of "selective amnesia" by not realising that racial discrimination was still a problem.<ref name=fortnight/>

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{United Nations Special Rapporteurs}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:P., Ashwini K.}}
[[Category:1986 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Chikkaballapur]]
[[Category:Indian lecturers]]
[[Category:Mount Carmel College, Bangalore alumni]]
[[Category:United Nations Special Rapporteurs on racism]]
[[Category:Dalit activists]]
[[Category:Jawaharlal Nehru University alumni]]

Manav Utthan Sewa Samiti

2026-04-25T20:37:02Z

Shubhamsaini9: Added data

{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox organization
| image = MANAV DHARAM LOGO.jpg
| image_alt = 
| caption =
| map = 
| map_size = 
| map_alt =
| map2_size =
| map2_alt =
| predecessor =
| merged_into = 
| successor =
| extinction =  
| type = [[Socio-Spiritual]]
| status = Non-Profit Organisation
| focus = Humanitairan and Socio-Sprititual Activities 
| professional_title = 
| headquarters = 2/12, East Punjabi Bagh, Delhi -110026, India
| coordinates = 
| services = Social Activities and Spiritual Awkening
| language =  
| leader_title = Led by
| leader_name = [[Satpal Maharaj|Shri Satpal Ji Maharaj]]
| leader_title2 =
| leader_name2 =
| leader_name3 =
| leader_title3 =
| leader_title4 =
| leader_name4 =
| board_of_directors =
| key_people = [[Satpal Maharaj|Shri Satpal Ji Maharaj]]
| main_organ = Manav Sewa Dal (M.S.D.) 
| parent_organization = 
| subsidiaries =
| affiliations =
| budget =
| num_volunteers = 
| remarks =
| former_name = 
| footnotes =
| name =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| named_after =
| image_size =
| map_caption =
| map2 = 
| map2_caption =
| abbreviation =
| established = 1975  
| founder = [[Satpal Maharaj|Shri Satpal Maharaj]]

|
| founding_location = 2/12, East Punjabi Bagh, Delhi - 11026, India
| merger = 
| location = Delhi, India
| region_served = Worldwide 
| membership = 
| num_members_year = 
| secretary_general = 
| secessions =
| budget_year =
| num_staff = 
| num_staff_year = 
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| website = [http://www.manavdharam.org/ Manav Dharam's Official Website]
}}
'''Manav Utthan Sewa Samiti (M.U.S.S.)''' is an all-India registered voluntary non-profit social welfare and charitable organization established under [[Indian Societies Registration Act]] of 1860 under the leadership & inspiration of [[Satpal Maharaj|Shri Satpal Ji Maharaj]]. Its primary function is to organize spiritual gatherings all over India and Nepal, at which representatives of other religious and social organizations, as well as political leaders, are also invited to speak.

In addition, through its network of more than 3000 [[Ashrams]] and centers and its volunteer division (Manav Sewa Dal), it attempts to serve society at both the spiritual and everyday levels in a variety of ways.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.manavdharam.org/Manav-Utthan-Sewa-Samiti.aspx|title=Introduction to Manav Utthan Sewa Samiti}}</ref>

== Sadbhawana Sammelan ==
[[File:Shri Satpal Maharaj With Hon'ble Guests at Sadbhawna Sammelan.jpg|Shri Satpal Maharaj With Hon'ble Guests at Sadbhawna Sammelan|center|500px]]
[[Sadbhawana Sammelan]], is a spiritual gathering which is held every year under the leadership of [[Satpal Maharaj|Shri Satpal Ji Maharaj]] and organized by Manav Utthan Sewa Samiti.

India is crowned by the world’s highest peaks which seem to be saying, ‘Make yourselves lofty like us! Knock down the walls of hatred and nurture noble thoughts in your minds!’ says spiritual master Satpal Maharaj cabinet minister and Ex-Chairman of Parliamentary standing committee on defence. Throughout history, famous explorers and travellers journeyed to India from China, Japan, Tibet, Indonesia and Europe, because India has always been known as the land of spirituality. India’s saints and sages developed a universal spiritual path which can guide the entire human race. India has always exalted the ideal of non-violence. [[Mahatma Gandhi]] said, "Real education is the evolution of the spirit", but nowadays we are making zero spiritual progress. Our spiritual heritage teaches us to help one another, to love our fellow man. Whatever you share with others comes back to you multiplied.

While stressing on the spiritual vision for mankind he said Even though India is the land where Divine Masters lived and taught, nowadays the poison of untouchability, prejudice is eating away at society like a cancer. Despite all the laws and legal structures which have been created, man still hates man. Why? Doesn’t he realise the God also dwells in the lowly and the downtrodden? We feel like this because we have lost our spiritual vision. He said We have forgotten the Knowledge which turned a prince Siddhartha into a Buddha. We have lost contact with the experience which changed people into saints and sages. We pay homage to the divine experience that Siddhartha had, due to which he is worshipped around the world. If we have the same experience, our lives will also be transformed. Society and the times can only be changes when we ourselves change. When we change, society will also change and our children will inherit a Golden Age."<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.internationalnewsandviews.com/make-yourselves-lofty-like-us-knock-down-the-walls-of-hatred-and-nurture-noble-thoughts-in-your-minds-satpal-maharaj/#sthash.zNQZRIIa.dpbs|title='Make yourselves lofty like us! Knock down the walls of hatred and nurture noble thoughts in your minds: Satpal Maharaj|website=International News and Views Corporation|access-date=2016-03-10}}</ref>

== Social initiatives ==

MUSS is a very 'grassroots' organization. All spiritual and social welfare activities of each district centre around the local ashram. Mahatmas (both male and female) live in these ashrams. They conduct weekly public satsang, usually on Sunday afternoons, in the ashram and also hold programs in private homes and other local venues. These programs aim to promote peace, harmony and goodwill among the diverse sections of Indian society.

Besides its primary objective of spreading spiritual Knowledge, the Society has the following ongoing programs:
* It mobilises medical and relief teams to provide immediate assistance in times of natural disasters such as the [[earthquake]]s in [[Garhwal division|Garhwal]] and [[Gujarat]], the plague in Surat and the cyclones in Gujarat and Orissa
* It provides free and clean drinking water facilities in many towns and villages.
* It runs schools and colleges charging only nominal tuition fees.
* Mahatmas (instructors) from M.U.S.S. hold satsang meetings in prisons. These meetings have helped many inmates rethink their lives and goals and this facilitates their rehabilitation and reintegration into society.
* Dharmshalas (pilgrim accommodation) have been opened at various places of pilgrimage such as Badrinath and Kalimath in the Himalayas. One such dharmshala is situated near the public hospital in Srikot, Garhwal, where relatives of patients can stay free of charge.
* It maintains clinics at many of its ashrams. These offer a variety of treatments. The Delhi Ashram in Punjabi Bagh has a large and well-stocked homeopathic clinic. A small hospital at [[Satlok Ashram]], Muradnagar, offers both homeopathic and Western medical treatment. From time to time, either in conjunction with satsang programs, festivals or at times of natural disasters, medical teams provide free treatment to local people.
* Shri Hans Ayurved Bhavan, at Prem Nagar Ashram Hardwar, manufactures the full range of ayurvedic medicines. In conjunction with the Indian Government, it operated a three-year comprehensive "Village Project" to reacquaint villagers with their traditional low-cost, freely available, safe and environmentally sound methods of healing. Its team of qualified physicians also operates a research centre and a farm to preserve and cultivate medicinal plants.
* ''Eye camps'' are held from time to time across the country to offer free eye checking and treatment to the poor.
* M.U.S.S. promotes various services such as blood donation camps. It runs cleanliness drives in hospitals and streets as well as anti-drugs and anti-alcohol campaigns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.manavdharam.org/SocialInitiatives.aspx|title=Social Initiatives by MUSS {{!}} Anti Drug Campaign {{!}} Blood Donation {{!}} Free Medical Check-Up Camp|website=www.manavdharam.org|access-date=2016-03-16}}</ref>

=== Blood donation camps ===
'''Manav Utthan Sewa Samiti''' organizes blood donation camps across the various ashrams in India every year. Many participants take part in it with full zeal and vigor. Such camps help in replenish the blood of all blood groups in the blood camps, as many people die due its unavailability. Such a camp was recently held at an Ashram in [[Punjabi Bagh]], [[Delhi]], where 250 Units of blood were collected in association with [[Lions Club International|Lions Club]] and [[Guru Teg Bahadur Hospital]]. In the recent held camp, Satpal Maharaj (under whose guidance the camp held) said, blood donation is the true service of humanity (translated from a [[Hindi]] version).<ref>{{ cite journal| url=http://epaper.livehindustan.com/epaperimages/28032016/28d_ng1r08_del_ngrncr2.pdf| title=Rakta daan Manavta Ki Sacchi Sewa| access-date=28 March 2016| publisher=[[Hindustan (newspaper)|Hindustan]]}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

=== Other activities ===

==== Facilitation programs ====
''' Manav Utthan Sewa Samiti''' organizes many facilitation programs for eradication of the social evils and upliftment of the weaker sections of the society, in one such program organized at [[Haryana]], the [[Chief Minister of Haryana|Chief Minister]], said the spiritual leaders like [[Ramdev|Shri Ramdev]] and [[Satpal Maharaj|Shri Satpal Maharaj]] and some [[Industrialist]] have agreed to adopt villages of the state under [[Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/cm-urges-spiritual-gurus-to-adopt-haryana-villages/story-MT8k58WSQ6br1DUSk7ZsNL.html| title=Rakta daan Manavta Ki Sacchi Sewa | access-date=28 March 2016| newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

[[Category:1975 establishments in Delhi]]
[[Category:Charities based in India]]
[[Category:Contemporary Sant Mat]]

Usha Sharma (civil servant)

2026-04-24T21:05:04Z

Shubhamsaini9: created new bio.

{{Short description|Former Chief Secretary of Rajasthan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Usha Sharma
| office = [[Chief secretary (India)|Chief Secretary]] [[Government of Rajasthan]].
| term_start = 31 Jan 2022
| term_end = 31 December 2023
| successor = [[Sudhansh Pant]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=PTI |date=2024-01-01 |title=Sudhansh Pant appointed new chief secretary of Rajasthan |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/sudhansh-pant-appointed-new-chief-secretary-of-rajasthan/article67694567.ece |access-date=2024-01-06 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
| governor = [[Kalraj Mishra]]
| predecessor = Niranjan Kumar Arya (IAS)
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1963|06|26}}
| birth_place = Uttar Pradesh, India
| education = B.Sc. (Hons.) in Chemistry
| occupation = [[Indian Administrative Service|Retired IAS Officer]]
| office2 = [[Director General]] of [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
| term_start2 = 2017
| term_end2 = 2020
| predecessor2 = Rakesh Tewari
| successor2 = V.Vidyawati
}}
'''Usha Sharma''' (born 26 June 1963) is a retired [[Indian Administrative Service]] (IAS) officer who is former [[Chief secretary (India)|Chief Secretary]] [[Government of Rajasthan]].She is the second woman to hold this post, after Smt. Kushal Singh.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Rajasthan State Portal - Chief Secretary |url=https://rajasthan.gov.in/ChiefSecretary.aspx |website=rajasthan.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Former Chief Secretaries |url=https://rajasthan.gov.in/FormerChiefSecretaries.aspx |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=rajasthan.gov.in}}</ref><ref name="The Times of India">{{Cite news |date=2022-02-01 |title=Usha Sharma is new Rajasthan chief secretary, becomes 2nd woman to hold post |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/usha-sharma-is-new-rajasthan-chief-secretary-becomes-2nd-woman-to-hold-post/articleshow/89259910.cms |access-date=2023-05-06 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> Sharma is [[C. P. Joshi|CP Joshi’s]]( former Speaker, Rajasthan Legislative Assembly) sister-in-law.<ref name="The Times of India"/>

==Early life and education==
Usha Sharma was born on June 26, 1963, in Uttar Pradesh, India. She holds a B.Sc. (Hons.) degree in Chemistry.<ref name=":0" />

== Career ==
'''Indian Administrative Service'''

Sharma joined the Rajasthan cadre of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) in 1985.<ref name="Correspondent">{{Cite news |date=2022-01-31 |title=Usha Sharma is Rajasthan Chief Secretary |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/usha-sharma-is-rajasthan-chief-secretary/article38355796.ece |access-date=2023-05-06 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

'''Director General of Archaeological Survey of India'''

In 2017, Sharma was appointed as the Director General of the [[Archaeological Survey of India|Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)]], an order issued by the Department of Personnel and Training (DoPT) on 22 July 2017. During her tenure, the ASI acquired a new headquarters building named Dharohar Bhawan, inaugurated by Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] in 2018. Sharma also oversaw the restoration of the Natamandap of Jagannath Temple in Odisha and the conservation of the Jagamohan of Sun Temple in Konark.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Usha Sharma is ASI director-general as Center does an official rejig |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/nation/2017/07/22/major-reshuffle-in-central-departments-35-oficers-new-posts.html |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=OnManorama}}</ref>

'''Chief Secretary of Rajasthan'''

Sharma served as the Director General of the ASI until 2020 when the state government appointed her as the Chief Secretary of Rajasthan and served there till 31 December 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-01-01 |title=Sudhansh Pant appointed CS as Usha Sharma retires |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/sudhansh-pant-appointed-cs-as-usha-sharma-retires/articleshow/106430166.cms |access-date=2024-03-29 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{succession box|title=Director General of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]]|before=[[Rakesh Tewari]]|after=V Vidyawati|years=2017-2020}}
{{s-end}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sharma, Usha}}
[[Category:20th-century Indian historians]]
[[Category:Directors general of the Archaeological Survey of India]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1963 births]]
[[Category:Indian Administrative Service officers]]

Murder and rape of Sarla Bhat

2026-04-22T01:42:43Z

Shubhamsaini9: Added a info

{{Short description|1990 murder in Jammu and Kashmir, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = Murder and rape of Sarla Bhat
| image =
| image_size =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|34|08|15.46|N|74|48|00.64|E|display=inline,title}}
| location = [[Srinagar]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], India
| target = Sarla Bhat
| date = {{start date|df=yes|1990|04|15}}–{{end date|df=yes|1990|04|19}}
| type = [[Kidnapping|Abduction]], [[sexual assault]] (rape), [[torture]] and [[murder]]
| victim = Sarla Bhat
| perpetrators = Militants of [[JKLF]]
| weapons =
| motive = Targeted militant violence against [[Kashmiri Hindus]]
| inquiry =
| coroner =
| accused =
| verdict =
| convictions =
| charges =
}}
In April 1990, Sarla Bhat, a [[Kashmiri Hindu]] woman was murdered after being tortured and reportedly raped by Muslim militants of the [[JKLF]] during the [[insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir]]. Originally from [[Anantnag]], Bhat was 27 years old and serving as a staff nurse at [[SKIMS]] in [[Srinagar]] at the time of her death. She was abducted on 15 April from her hostel in Srinagar, allegedly raped, tortured, killed, and her body mutilated by her captors, who accused her of being a "''mukhbir''" ({{literally|informer}}). Her dead body was found on 19 April and handed over the next day to her family in Anantnag, who were unable to provide an appropriate [[Antyesti|cremation]] due to threats by militants and a [[grenade]] attack on the family’s home. Her death caused panic in her mostly Hindu ancestral ''mohalla'' ({{literally|neighbourhood}}) in Anantnag—which had been nearly emptied due to threats received during the then-ongoing [[exodus of Kashmiri Hindus]]—compelling all the remaining Hindu inhabitants there to flee. A police complaint was filed in 1990 but did not result in a full investigation. In 2025, the special investigation agency of [[Jammu and Kashmir police]] reopened the investigation.

==Background==
Sarla Bhat was the eldest child of Shambhu Nath Bhat and was born sometime in 1963. Her father worked as a school teacher, and they lived in the Qazi Bagh ''mohalla'' of [[Anantnag]], a neighbourhood whose residents were mostly [[Kashmiri Hindus]], primarily [[Kashmiri Pandits|Pandits]].<ref name=Print>{{cite web|last=Kissu |first=Sagarika |url=https://theprint.in/ground-reports/a-handwritten-note-2-signatures-only-dead-ends-in-kashmir-sarla-bhat-murder-is-no-easy-case/2722566/ |title=A handwritten note, 2 signatures, only dead ends in Kashmir—Sarla Bhat murder is no easy case |date=17 August 2025 |work=[[The Print]]}}</ref>{{sfn|Zutshi|2016}} She had graduated with a degree in English literature from a government college in Anantnag and later pursued a [[Bachelor of Science|BSc]] in Nursing.<ref name=Print/> According to a cousin, Bhat had refused to get married and instead decided to work to support her family.<ref name=IE>{{cite web |last=Sharma |first=Arun |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/in-days-that-followed-kashmiri-pandit-nurse-sarla-bhats-killing-blast-outside-family-home-a-confrontation-at-crematorium-10187799/ |title=A cousin remembers family’s ordeal after militants killed Kashmiri Pandit nurse Sarla Bhat in 1990 |date=14 August 2025 |work=[[Indian Express]]}}</ref> In 1990, she was working as a staff nurse at the [[Sher-i-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences]] (SKIMS) in [[Soura, Srinagar]]. Many members of her family, including her uncle, had fled the Kashmir Valley during the [[exodus of Kashmiri Hindus]] that year due to threats and violence of the [[Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir|insurgency in the region]].<ref name=Print/>

==Abduction and murder==
On 15 April 1990, Bhat was abducted from her hostel in Srinagar.{{sfn|Banerjee|2017|page=15}} Several reports mention that Bhat was raped and tortured in captivity.<ref name=HRW>{{cite report |title=Rape in Kashmir: A Crime of War |year=1993 |publisher= Asia Watch (A Division of [[Human Rights Watch]]) and [[Physicians for Human Rights]]}}</ref>{{sfn|Manchanda|2001|page=62}}{{sfn|Khan|2010|pages=107–108}} Her mutilated dead body was found on the morning of 19 April on the side of a road in Mallabagh, Soura of downtown Srinagar, with a hand-written note attached to it. In the note, militants of [[Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front]] (JKLF) had taken responsibility for killing her, and accused her of informing the police about the presence of militants at the hospital.<ref name=Print/>{{efn|The police has denied the accusation of Bhat being an informant, and said that the murder followed the prevalent pattern of "targeted killings of Kashmiri Pandits during the 1990s."<ref name=Print/>}} The acronym JKLF had been engraved upon her body.{{sfn|Khan|2010|pages=107–108}}

==Aftermath==
On the night of 20 April, the body was handed over to Bhat’s family in Anantnag. A neighbour who had been present at Bhat’s house and helped with her funeral noted in a memoir that the body:{{blockquote|… was bullet-ridden and covered with blood. There were torture marks all over the body. It became clear to us that she had been violated and sexually assaulted before being killed.}} Only three Hindu families had remained in their formerly Hindu-majority neighbourhood.{{sfn|Zutshi|2016}} According to the memoir, though Muslim neighbours had been gathering to offer condolences, they were soon warned by militants against doing so.{{sfn|Zutshi|2016}} In the absence of Hindu neighbours and of help from Muslim ones, the family experienced difficulties in arranging for appropriate [[Antyesti|cremation of the body]]. Some individuals also attempted to prevent [[Indian rituals after death|funerary rituals]] related to Bhat’s cremation, and a [[Grenade|hand grenade]] was hurled at the family’s home.{{sfn|Zutshi|2016}}<ref name=IE/>{{efn|According to a 2016 memoir written by a neighbour, who had heard about the grenade from another individual, the grenade did not explode.{{sfn|Zutshi|2016}} However, a cousin of Bhat who was present at the house at the time of the attack recounted in a 2025 interview to ''[[Indian Express]]'' that the grenade had caused an explosion.<ref name=IE/>}} Her death and the events that followed spread panic in the area, with both Hindus and Muslims expressing apprehensions and rumours of more targeted killings and rapes.{{sfn|Manchanda|2001|page=62}}{{sfn|Banerjee|2017|page=16}} Several Hindu families in the region, including all remaining ones in the Qazi Bagh neighbourhood, fled the Kashmir Valley as a result.{{sfn|Zutshi|2016}}<ref name=Print/>

==Investigation==
After the murder, a [[First information report|police complaint]] was filed for murder, criminal conspiracy and terrorism under the [[Indian penal code]] and [[Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act|TADA]]. But an investigation did not materialise.<ref name=Print/> A [[postmortem examination]] reportedly concluded that Bhat had been raped prior to killing.<ref name=HRW/>{{sfn|Manchanda|2001|page=62}}{{efn|As reported after the incident and in several later reports, including those by [[Human Rights Watch]].<ref name=HRW/> In a 2016 memoir about the aftermath of her death and cremation, a neighbour noted that upon seeing her body, "it became clear … that she had been violated and sexually assaulted before being killed."{{sfn|Zutshi|2016}} In a 2025 story for ''[[ThePrint]]'', however, her family claimed that the post-mortem had "ruled out rape."<ref name=Print/>}} According to journalist Ahmed Ali Fayyaz, Bhat’s murder was not seen as "high-profile."<ref name=Print/> In 2025, the murder case was transferred to the special investigation agency (SIA) of [[Jammu and Kashmir police]].<ref name=Hindu>{{cite web |last=Ashiq |first=Peerzada |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jammu-and-kashmir/murder-of-kashmiri-pandit-woman-in-1990-sia-carries-out-raids-in-central-kashmir/article69922764.ece/ |title=36 years on, police raid 8 locations in Kashmiri Pandit nurse’s killing case in Srinagar |date=12 August 2025 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> The police statement did not mention rape.<ref name=Hindu/> The SIA denied the accusation of Bhat passing information to the police and said that her murder followed the prevalent pattern of "targeted killings of Kashmiri Pandits during the 1990s."<ref name=Print/> In August 2025, eight locations in Srinagar were raided by the SIA in relation to the murder, including the houses of former JKLF militant [[Yasin Malik]] and others.<ref name=Hindu/>{{efn|According to journalist Ahmed Ali Fayyaz, Bhat's killing had coincided with the hospitalisation of Malik at SKIMS. According to a 'senior police official', Bhat's murder was related to the arrest of a JKLF affiliated employee at SKIMS, and Bhat was framed as an informant because she was Kashmiri Pandit.<ref name=Print/>}}{{efn|Others whose houses were raided include former JKLF member Javeed Mir, Peer Noor ul Haq Shah, Reyaz Kabir Sheikh, Bashir Ahmad Gojri, Feroz Ahmad Khan, Kaiser Ahmad Tiploo, and Ghulam Mohammad Taploo.<ref name=Hindu/>}}

==References==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{citation |last=Banerjee |first=Argha |year=2017 |chapter='Refugee in My Own Country': Trauma and Memory in the Writings of Kashmiri Pandits in Exile |editor-last=Majoul |editor-first=Bootheina |title= On Trauma and Traumatic Memory |publisher=[[Cambridge Scholars Publishing]] |pages=9–28}}
*{{citation |last=Khan |first=Nyla Ali |author-link=Nyla Ali Khan |year=2010 |title=Islam, Women, and Violence in Kashmir: Between India and Pakistan |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]}}
*{{citation |last=Manchanda |first=Rita |year=2001 |chapter=Guns and Burqa: Women in the Kashmir Conflict |editor-last=Manchanda |editor-first=Rita |title=Women, War and Peace in South Asia: Beyond Victimhood to Agency |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |pages=42–101}}
*{{citation |last=Zutshi |first=Indu Bushan |year=2016 |chapter=She was killed because she was an informant; no harm will come to you |editor-last1=Gigoo |editor-first1=Siddhartha |editor-link1=Siddhartha Gigoo |editor-last2=Sharma |editor-first2=Varad |title=A Long Dream of Home: The Persecution, Exile and Exodus of Kashmiri Pandits |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]}}

{{Rape in India}}

[[Category:Rape in India]]
[[Category:1990s in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:1990 crimes in Asia]]
[[Category:Female murder victims]]
[[Category:1990 murders in India]]
[[Category:Rape in the 1990s]]
[[Category:Incidents of violence against girls]]
[[Category:Anti-Hindu violence in Kashmir]]
[[Category:Femicide in India]]
[[Category:Srinagar district]]
[[Category:Human rights abuses in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Murder in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir]]

Malabar gliding frog

2026-04-20T10:06:57Z

Shubhamsaini9:

{{Short description|Species of amphibian}}
{{for|the frog endemic to the Anaimalai Hills|False Malabar gliding frog}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Malabar gliding frog
| image = Rhacophorus malabaricus wayanad.jpg
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| genus = Rhacophorus
| species = malabaricus
| authority = [[Thomas C. Jerdon|Jerdon]], 1870
| range_map = Rhacophorus malabaricus map-fr.svg
}}
[[File:Malabar gliding froglet - amboli-Shan-20220628-DSC 2771.jpg|thumb|Froglet of Malabar gliding frog. This is the stage between a tadpole and an adult frog. Note the tail.]]
[[File:Tadpole of malabar gliding frog.jpg|thumb|Tadpole of Malabar gliding frog]]

The '''Malabar gliding frog''' or''' Malabar flying frog''' ('''''Rhacophorus malabaricus''''') is a [[Rhacophoridae|rhacophorid tree frog]] [[species]] found in the [[Western Ghats]] of [[India]].

It is the State amphibian of [[Kerala]].

==Pictures==
[[File:Rhacophorus malabaricus Malabar gliding frog calling.jpg|left|thumb|Calling male.]]
[[File:Rhacophorus malabaricus(Female).jpg|thumb|An Adult female Rhacophorus malabaricus resting on the building of a temple in the [[Bisle]] Ghats.]]
The term "gliding" frog refers to its ability to break its fall by stretching the webbing between its toes when making leaps down from the treetops. It can make gliding jumps of 9–12 m, a maximum of about 115 times its length.

==Description==
[[File:Rhacophorous malabaricus.jpg|thumb|left|Close-up of snout]]
This frog has a body length of about 10 cm (4 in), making it one of the largest moss frogs. Males are smaller than females. Its back skin is finely granulated and the color is vivid green without markings, distinguishing it from the otherwise quite similar ''[[Rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus|R. pseudomalabaricus]]'', which has a black-marbled back and was long included in the present species.<ref name="Ref_">E.g. by Boulenger (1890)</ref> In preserved specimens, the back turns purplish blue. The belly is more coarsely granulated – particularly under the thighs – and pale yellow. There are skin fringes between and along the long limbs, and a triangular skin extension at the heel. The webbing between fingers and toes is large and orange-red.<ref name="Ref_a">Boulenger (1890), Bordoloi ''et al.'' (2007)</ref>

The [[vomer]]ine teeth are arranged in two straight or slightly oblique series touching the inner front edge of the [[choana]]e. The snout is rounded but not very wide, about as long as the diameter of the [[Orbit (anatomy)|orbit]], the [[canthus rostralis]] is bluntly-angled, and the loral region is concave. The nostrils are located nearer to the end of the snout than to the eyes. The interorbital space is broader than the upper eyelid. The tympanum measures about 60–70% of the diameter of the eye.<ref name=Boulenger>Boulenger (1890)</ref>

The disks of fingers and toes are large, about the size of the tympanum; the subarticular tubercles are well-developed, also. The [[tibia|tibio]]-[[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsal]] articulation reaches at least to the eye, at most top the nostril.<ref name=Boulenger/>

== Distribution ==
The Malabar gliding frog is found in the Western Ghats of India and has been described in the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Kerala, where it is the state amphibian. It has been recorded at altitudes ranging from 43m to 1894m above sea level. It is found in various habitats such as primary forests, secondary forests, plantations, and urban habitats. It can be found on leaves of trees near stream or river banks. During the breeding season, they move to trees hanging above water bodies into which their tadpoles drop. <ref name=":0" />

==Reproduction==
Reproduction in this species typically occurs during the monsoon months of June-September. Males of this species sit by the banks of streams and emit calls to attract females. Females will often approach the focal male, the individual who will mate, and signal him to initiate amplexus. The males whip up the foam in which the females deposit the eggs. Peripheral males have been observed helping build the nests for the female and focal male pairs. After spawning, males will typically leave the female and the clutch and the female will cover the clutch in leaf litter. Nests are typically 78-112mm in length and 68-79mm in width. Number of eggs per clutch varied from 89-206 (N = 5) and individual eggs measured between 2.0-3.2 mm (2.8 ± 0.5 mm, N = 89, single egg clutch). The eggs are unpigmented and off-white in color. The tadpoles drop into the water after hatching.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Biju |first1=S. D. |last2=Kamei |first2=Rachunliu G. |last3=Mahony |first3=Stephen |last4=Thomas |first4=Ashish |last5=Garg |first5=Sonali |last6=Sircar |first6=Gargi |last7=Suyesh |first7=Robin |title=Taxonomic review of the tree frog genus Rhacophorus from the Western Ghats, India (Anura: Rhacophoridae), with description of ontogenetic colour changes and reproductive behaviour |journal=Zootaxa |date=4 April 2013 |volume=3636 |issue=2 |pages=257–289 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.3636.2.3|pmid=26042293 }}</ref>
{|
| [[File:Rhacophorus amplexus.jpg|thumb|Malabar gliding frogs in [[amplexus]]: Note much smaller male on top.]]
| [[File:Malabar Flying Frog.JPG|thumb|A foam nest built by a gliding frog.]]
|}

==See also==
*[[Flying frog]]
*[[Javelin frog]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{Cite journal | author = Biju, S.D. | author2 = Dutta, S. | author3 = Vasudevan, K. | author4 = Srinivasulu, C. | author5 = Vijayakumar, S.P. | name-list-style=amp | title = ''Rhacophorus malabaricus'' | journal = [[The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] | volume = 2004 | page = e.T59001A11864773 | publisher = [[IUCN]] | date = 2004 | url = http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/59001/0 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T59001A11864773.en | access-date = 9 January 2018| doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bordoloi |first1=Sabitry |last2=Bortamuli |first2=Tutul |last3=Ohler |first3=Annemarie |title=Systematics of the genus Rhacophorus (Amphibia, Anura): identity of red-webbed forms and description of a new species from Assam |journal=Zootaxa |date=3 December 2007 |volume=1653 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.1653.1.1}}
* {{cite book |last1=Boulenger |first1=George Albert |author-link=George Albert Boulenger |title=The Fauna of British India - Reptilia and Batrachia. |date=1890 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |location=London |page=473 |oclc=182916343 |language=English |chapter=Rhacophorus malabaricus}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kadadevaru |first1=Girish G. |last2=Dundappa Kanamadi |first2=Ravishankar |title=Courtship and nesting behaviour of the malabar gliding frog, Rhacophorus Malabaricus |journal=Current Science |date=2000 |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=377–380|s2cid=89301397}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Rhacophorus malabaricus}}
* http://coorg.mampam.com/malabaricus.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714024621/http://coorg.mampam.com/malabaricus.html |date=14 July 2011 }}
* http://www.new-ecopsychology.org/en/amphibia/index-ar.htm#Miraculous_Legs

{{Taxonbar|from=Q2715883}}

[[Category:Rhacophorus]]
[[Category:Frogs of India]]
[[Category:Endemic fauna of the Western Ghats]]
[[Category:Endemic amphibians of India]]
[[Category:Amphibians described in 1870]]

Vizianagaram Assembly constituency

2026-04-14T03:38:39Z

Shubhamsaini9: created a stub.

{{Short description|Constituency of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Vizianagaram
| map_image = Legislative Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh (18-Vizianagaram highlighted).png
| map_caption = Location of Vizianagaram Assembly constituency within Andhra Pradesh
| mla = [[Pusapati Aditi Vijayalakshmi]]
| party = {{Party index link|Telugu Desam Party}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| state = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
| district = [[Vizianagaram district|Vizianagaram]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Vizianagaram Lok Sabha constituency|Vizianagaram]]
| reservation = None
| electors = 231,554
| established = 1951
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 18
}}

'''Vizianagaram Assembly constituency''' is a constituency in [[Vizianagaram district]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]] that elects representatives to the [[Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ceoandhra.nic.in/ceoap_new/ceo/documents/Electors_Summary%20_25.03.2019.pdf|title=Electors Summary|date=25 May 2019|website=Chief Electoral Officer, Andhra Pradesh|format=PDF|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref> It is one of the seven assembly segments of [[Vizianagaram Lok Sabha constituency]].<ref name="constituencies">{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008|date=17 December 2018|website=The Election Commission of India|pages=17, 30|format=PDF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003220916/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf|archive-date=3 October 2018|url-status=dead|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref>

[[Pusapati Aditi Vijayalakshmi]] is the current [[Member of Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] of the constituency, having won the [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] from [[Telugu Desam Party]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Assembly Election 2024 |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/AcResultGenJune2024/ConstituencywiseS0118.htm |website=Election Commission of India |access-date=4 June 2024}}</ref> As of 2019, there are a total of 231,554 electors in the constituency.<ref name="electors">{{cite web|url=http://ceoandhra.nic.in/ceoap_new/ceo/documents/Electors_Summary%20_25.03.2019.pdf|title=Electors Summary|date=25 May 2019|website=Chief Electoral Officer, Andhra Pradesh|format=PDF|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref>{{update after|2024|7}} The constituency was established in 1951, as per the ''Delimitation Orders (1951)''.

== Mandals ==
[[Vizianagaram mandal]] is the only [[Tehsil|mandal]] that forms a part of the constituency.<ref name="constituencies" />

<mapframe text="Vizianagaram Assembly Constituency" width=300 height=300 align=center >{ "type": "ExternalData", "service": "geoshape", "ids": "Q11016344"}</mapframe>

{{srn}}
{|class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers static-row-header-hash"
!Mandal
|-
|[[Vizianagaram mandal|Vizianagaram]]
|-
|}

==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Member
! colspan="2" | Political party
|-
| [[1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| rowspan=2|[[Pusapati Vijayarama Gajapati Raju]]
| {{Full party name with color|Socialist Party (India)}}
|-
| [[1955 Andhra State Legislative Assembly election|1955]]
| {{Full party name with color|Praja Socialist Party}}
|-
| 1957^
| rowspan=2| [[Bhattam Srirama Murthy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Socialist Party (India)}}
|-
| [[1962 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1967 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
| Vobbilisetty Rama Rao
| {{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Jana Sangh}}
|-
| [[1972 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1972]]
| Appannadora Appasani
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
| [[1978 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1978]]
| rowspan=6 |[[Pusapati Ashok Gajapathi Raju]]
| {{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
| [[1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1983]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party|rowspan=5}}
|-
| [[1985 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
|-
| [[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
|-
| [[1994 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1994]]
|-
| [[1999 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1999]]
|-
| [[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2004]]
| [[Kolagatla Veerabhadra Swamy]]
| {{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)}}
|-
| [[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2009]]
| [[Pusapati Ashok Gajapathi Raju]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2014]]
| [[Meesala Geetha ]]
|-
| [[2019 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2019]]
| Kolagatla Veerabhadra Swamy
| {{Full party name with color|YSR Congress Party}}
|-
| [[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2024]]
| [[Pusapati Aditi Vijayalakshmi]]
| {{Full party name with color|Telugu Desam Party}}
|}

^by-election

== Election results ==
===1952===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1952 Madras Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram<ref>{{cite web | url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf | title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 : To the Legislative Assembly of Madras | publisher=Election Commission of India | access-date=2014-10-14 |archive-date=27 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127201450/https://eci.gov.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/STATISTICALREPORTS_51_MADRAS.pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Pusapati Vijayarama Gajapati Raju]] |party=Socialist Party (India)
|votes=52,548 |percentage=39.20% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Gudivada Appalaswamy |party=Independent politician |votes=16,120 |percentage=12.03% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Chinna Suryanarayana |party=Indian National Congress |votes=9,117 |percentage=6.80% |change=6.80% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Sakati Guruwala |party=Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party |votes=6,085 |percentage=4.54% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,377 |percentage=1.77% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=1,34,041 |percentage=91.71% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 1,46,158 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Socialist Party (India) |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1955 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1955 Andhra State Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Praja Socialist Party|candidate=[[Pusapati Vijayarama Gajapati Raju]]|votes=27,404|percentage=86.21|change={{increase}}47.01}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Bhaganagarapu Rao|votes=3,284|percentage=10.33|change={{increase}}3.53}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Communist Party of India|candidate=J.V. Lakshmi|votes=1,101|percentage=3.46|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=24,120|percentage=75.88|change={{increase}}74.11}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=31,789|percentage=53.45|change={{decrease}}38.26}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Praja Socialist Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===1957 by-election===
{{Election box begin|title=1957 Madras Legislative Assembly by-election: Vizianagaram<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/ByeElection/Bye-ele-results%2052-95.xls |title=Bye-election results 1952-95|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111183847/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/ByeElection/Bye-ele-results%2052-95.xls|archive-date=11 January 2012|format=XLS|website=www.eci.gov.in}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate unopposed with party link |candidate=B. Sriramamurty |party=Socialist Party (India) |votes= |percentage= |change= }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Socialist Party (India) |loser= Praja Socialist Party |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1962 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1962 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Bhattam Srirama Murthy]]|votes=35,214|percentage=88.46|change={{increase}}78.13}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh|candidate=Vobbillisetty Rama Rao|votes=4,591|percentage=11.53|change=}}

{{Election box majority||votes=30,623|percentage=76.93|change={{increase}}1.05}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=39,805|percentage=|change=}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Praja Socialist Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1967 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1967 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Jana Sangh
|candidate = Vobbilisetty Rao
|votes = 31,283
|percentage = 66.03
|change = {{increase}}54.50
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Bhattam Srirama Murthy]]
|votes = 12,924
|percentage = 27.28
|change = {{decrease}}61.18
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = R. V. Ramarao
|votes = 2,471
|percentage = 5.22
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = M. V. Seshachari
|votes = 699
|percentage = 1.48
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 18,359
|percentage = 38.75
|change = {{decrease}}38.18
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 47,377
|percentage = 71.34
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Bharatiya Jana Sangh
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1972 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1972 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Appannadora Appasani|votes=34,319|percentage=78.47|change={{increase}}51.19}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Bharatiya Jana Sangh|candidate=Prakasarao Anavilla|votes=9,417|percentage=21.53|change={{decrease}}44.50}}

{{Election box majority||votes=24,902|percentage=56.94|change={{increase}}18.19}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=43,736|percentage=56.05|change={{decrease}}15.29}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Bharatiya Jana Sangh
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1978 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1978 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Janata Party
|candidate = [[Ashok Gajapathi Raju]]
|votes = 39,914
|percentage = 59.7
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Appanadora Appasani
|votes = 13,829
|percentage = 20.7
|change = {{decrease}}57.77
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress (I)
|candidate = Modili Satyam
|votes = 11,760
|percentage = 17.6
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Patchipilli Dasu
|votes = 1,393
|percentage = 2.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 26,085
|percentage = 38.0
|change = {{decrease}}18.94
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 68,600
|percentage = 77.3
|change = {{increase}}21.25
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Janata Party
|loser = Indian National Congress
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1983 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1983 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Ashok Gajapathi Raju]]
|votes = 53,018
|percentage = 77.9
|change = {{increase}}18.2
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Prasadula Rama Krishna
|votes = 12,626
|percentage = 18.6
|change = {{decrease}}2.1
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Kalavathi Boddu
|votes = 1,327
|percentage = 2.0
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Palli Rao
|votes = 538
|percentage = 0.8
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Velugula Narasinga
|votes = 337
|percentage = 0.5
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Pusapati Raju
|votes = 179
|percentage = 0.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 40,392
|percentage = 58.3
|change = {{increase}}20.3
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 69,323
|percentage = 66.6
|change = {{decrease}}10.7
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1985 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1985 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=[[Ashok Gajapathi Raju]]|votes=49,963|percentage=80.1|change={{increase}}2.4}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Modili Srinivasa Rao|votes=11,994|percentage=19.2|change={{increase}}0.6}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Independent|candidate=Gorli Raju|votes=424|percentage=0.7|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=37,969|percentage=59.7|change={{increase}}1.4}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=63,550|percentage=57.1|change={{decrease}}9.5}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1989 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1989 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=[[Ashok Gajapathi Raju]]|votes=50,224|percentage=55.4|change={{decrease}}24.7}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Kolagatla Veerabhadraswamy|votes=40,477|percentage=44.6|change={{increase}}25.4}}

{{Election box majority||votes=9,747|percentage=10.4|change={{decrease}}49.3}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=93,922|percentage=69.6|change={{decrease}}12.5}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1994 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1994 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Ashok Gajapathi Raju]]
|votes = 60,893
|percentage = 58.9
|change = {{increase}}3.5
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Kolagatla Veerabhadraswamy
|votes = 39,682
|percentage = 38.6
|change = {{decrease}}6
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Bobbadi Pydiraju
|votes = 1,252
|percentage = 1.2
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Dodda Padmajayanthi
|votes = 339
|percentage = 0.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Bhupati Apparao
|votes = 320
|percentage = 0.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Alla Nookaraju
|votes = 287
|percentage = 0.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Bandaru Satyanarayana
|votes = 125
|percentage = 0.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Pathange Tulasiram
|votes = 117
|percentage = 0.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Ellapu Venkatarao
|votes = 108
|percentage = 0.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = Suryanarayana Chintapalli
|votes = 72
|percentage = 0.1
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 105,160
|percentage = 70.2
|change = +0.6
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 1999 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[1999 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = [[Ashok Gajapathi Raju]]
|votes = 59,692
|percentage = 53.8
|change = {{decrease}}5.1
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Kolagatla Veerabhadra Swamy]]
|votes = 50,261
|percentage = 43.5
|change = {{increase}}4.9
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Anna Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = Allu Naidu
|votes = 376
|percentage = 0.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Republican Party of India
|candidate = Arjuna Konala
|votes = 331
|percentage = 0.3
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Yerramsetty Ramana
|votes = 215
|percentage = 0.2
|change = {{decrease}}1
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 9,431
|percentage = 8.3
|change = {{decrease}}11.7
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 113,393
|percentage = 67.4
|change = {{decrease}}2.8
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2004 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2004 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Independent (politician)|candidate=[[Veera Bhadra Swamy Kolagatla]]|votes=47,444|percentage=40.60|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=[[Ashok Gajapathi Raju Pusapati]]|votes=46,318|percentage=39.64|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=Gurana Sadhu Rao|votes=19,861|percentage=17.00|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=1,126|percentage=0.96|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=116,857|percentage=64.64|change=-1.23}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Independent (politician)
|loser = Telugu Desam Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2009 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=[[Ashok Gajapathi Raju Pusapati]]|votes=52,890|percentage=38.18|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Indian National Congress|candidate=[[Veera Bhadra Swamy Kolagatla]]|votes=49,608|percentage=35.81|change=-}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Praja Rajyam Party|candidate=Geetha Meesala|votes=28,341|percentage=20.46|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=3,282|percentage=2.37|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=138,543|percentage=64.74|change=+0.10}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser = Independent (politician)
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2014 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=[[Meesala Geetha | Geetha Meesala ]]|votes=77,320|percentage=49.82|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=YSR Congress Party|candidate=[[Veera Bhadra Swamy Kolagatla]]|votes=61,916|percentage=39.89|change=}}

{{Election box majority||votes=15,404|percentage=9.93|change=}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=155,206|percentage=71.87|change=+7.13}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2019 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}

{{Election box winning candidate with party link||party=YSR Congress Party|candidate=[[Veera Bhadra Swamy Kolagatla]]|votes=78,849|percentage=47.96|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Telugu Desam Party|candidate=Aditi Vijayalakshmi Gajapathi Raju|votes=72,432|percentage=44.05|change=}}
{{Election box candidate with party link||party=Janasena Party|candidate=Palavalasa Yasasvi|votes=7190|percentage=4.37|change=}}
{{Election box majority||votes=6,400|percentage=4|change=-58.45}}
{{Election box turnout||votes=1,62,623|percentage=70.09|change=-2.54}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = YSR Congress Party
|loser = Telugu Desam Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2024 ===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Vizianagaram}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Telugu Desam Party
|candidate = Aditi Vijayalakshmi Gajapathi Raju
|votes = 1,21,241
|percentage = 64.21
|change = +40.26
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = YSR Congress Party
|candidate = [[Kolagatla Veerabhadra Swamy]]
|votes = 60,632
|percentage = 32.11
|change = -23.10
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent
|candidate = [[Meesala Geetha | Geetha Meesala ]]
|votes = 2,054
|percentage = 1.09
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Satish Kumar Sunkari
|votes = 1,527
|percentage = 0.81
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = NOTA
|candidate = None Of The Above
|votes = 1,365
|percentage = 0.72
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 60,609
|percentage = 32.10
|change = +847.02
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 1,88,807
|percentage = 81.05
|change = +13.89
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Telugu Desam Party
|loser = YSR Congress Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

== See also ==
* [[List of constituencies of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Coord|18.11|83.39|display=title}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh}}
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Vizianagaram district]]
[[Category:Politics of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1951]]
[[Category:1951 establishments in Madras State]]
[[Category:Vizianagaram]]

Trika

2026-04-05T18:41:40Z

Shubhamsaini9: created new info

{{Short description|Subschool of Kaula-Shaivism}}
{{Saivism|expanded=Schools}}
{{Hindu philosophy}}
'''Trika''' was a school of [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] which flourished in Kashmir between ca. 900 and 1300 CE, and is often used synonymously for the wole of [[Kashmir Shaivism]],{{sfn|Dyczkowski|1989|p=17}} an exegetical tradition which developed in [[Kashmir Valley|Kashmir]] after 850 CE, as an [[Sanskritization|adaptation]] to upper-class Hindu norms of 'wild' tantric [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] traditions.{{sfn|Lawrence}}{{sfn|Wallis|2013}} The Kashmir Trika-tradition developed the "Philosophy of Recognition" ('''''pratyabhijñā'''''), a [[Nondualism|nondual]] form of Tantric Shaivism.{{sfn|Dyczkowski|1989|p=17}}

Defining features of the Trika tradition are the use of several triades in its philosophy, including the three goddesses [[Parashakti|Parā]], Parāparā, and Aparā; and its [[Idealism|idealistic]] and [[Monism|monistic]] teaching of ''pratyabhijna'' ("direct knowledge of one's self," "recognition"{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=117}}) philosophical system, propounded by [[Utpaladeva]] (c. 925–975 CE) and [[Abhinavagupta]] (c. 975–1025 CE).{{sfn|Lawrence}}{{sfn|Wallis|2013}} The name of the system is derived from its most famous work, ''Īśvara-pratyabhijñā-kārikā'' by [[Utpaladeva]].{{sfn|Kapoor|2004a|p=254}} The central thesis of this philosophy is that we are ''[[Shiva|Śiva]]'', and that we have to "re-cognise" this.{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=45}} Thus, the slave (''paśu'': the human condition) shakes off the fetters (''[[pāśa]]'') and becomes the master (''pati'': the divine condition).{{sfn|Kapoor|2004a|p=254}}

The main exegetical works of the Trika-tradition are those of [[Abhinavagupta]], such as the ''[[Tantraloka]]'', ''Mālinīślokavārttika'', and ''Tantrasāra''.{{sfn|Sanderson|2014}} Another important text of this tradition is the ''[[Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra|Vijñāna-bhairava-tantra]],'' which focuses on outlining numerous yogic practices.{{sfn|Muller-Ortega|1989|p=42-43}} Trika Shaivism later spread beyond Kashmir, particularly flourishing in the states of [[Odisha]] and [[Maharashtra]].{{sfn|Wallis|2013}}{{sfn|Olson|2007|p=237}}

==Nomenclature==
''Kashmir Shaivism'' is an umbrella-term for several [[Nondualism|non-dual]] [[Shaivism|Shaiva-]][[Shaktism|Shakta]] [[Tantra|tantric]] religious traditions that flourished in [[Kashmir]] after 850 CE,{{sfn|Lawrence}}{{sfn|Wallis|2013}} as an [[Sanskritization|adaptation]] to upper-class Hindu norms of 'wild' tantric [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] traditions,{{sfn|Lawrence}}{{sfn|Wallis|2013}} and include the ''spanda'' ('Divine vibration') teachings, and the "Philosophy of Recognition" (''pratyabhijñā'') of the Trika-school.{{sfn|Dyczkowski|1989|p=17}} ''Kashmir Shaivism'' is often used synonymously for the ''Trika''-school and it's "Philosophy of Recognition" (''pratyabhijñā'').{{sfn|Dyczkowski|1989|p=17}}

The name ''pratyabhijñā'' is derived from ''Īśvara-pratyabhijñā-kārikā'', written by [[Utpaladeva]].{{sfn|Kapoor|2004a|p=254}} Etymologically, ''pratyabhijñā'' is formed from ''prati-'' ("re-") + ''abhi-'' ("closely") + *''jñā'' ("to know"), so the meaning is "direct knowledge of one's self," "recognition."{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=117}}{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=45}}

==History==
[[File:Development of Shaivism (expanded).png|thumb|right|The development of various schools of Shaivism from proto-Shiva and early worship of Rudra.]]

Trika, named after the use of several triades (''trika'') in its philosophy, was a subdivision of the Kaula-tradition,{{sfn|Sanderson|1988|p=680}} probably originated outside Kashmir before 8oo CE,{{sfn|Sanderson|2005e|p=8046}} but the ''pratyabhijñā'' developed in Kashmir.

===Growth and flowering (900–1200 CE)===
Kashmir Shaivism in the 10th century CE was dominated by the nondual Trika and Krama, and the dualistic [[Shaiva Siddhantha]].{{sfn|Sanderson|2005a|p=8047}} Out of the confrontation between these two systems grew a body of nondual exegetical works which are commonly known as "Kashmir Shaivism".{{efn-la|name="Wallis_2013_exegetical"|{{harvtxt|Wallis|2013}}: "... the second phase, the exegetical writings of the Śaiva Tantrik masters from Kashmīr. It is this body of literature that has been called “Kashmīr Shaivism” since the early 20th century and taught in the West under that name but entirely disassociated from the full context of Śaiva Tantra and its scriptures}}

While Trika draws from numerous [[Tantras (Hinduism)#Classes of Hindu Tantra|Shaiva]] texts, such as the [[Agama (Hinduism)#Shaiva Agamas|Shaiva Agamas]] and the [[Tantras (Hinduism)#Classes of Hindu Tantra|Shaiva and Shakta Tantras]], its major scriptural authorities are the ''Mālinīvijayottara Tantra'', the ''Siddhayogeśvarīmata'' and the ''Anāmaka-tantra.''{{sfn|Dyczkowski|1989|p=12}} The main theologians of Trika Shaivism are those of the [[Pratyabhijna|Pratyabhijñā]] (Recognition) school of Shaiva non-dual philosophy.

[[Somananda|Somānanda]] (875-925) wrote the ''Śivadr̥ṣṭi'',{{sfn|Torella|2021|p=1-3}} "the first work of full-fledged scholastic philosophy" of the Trika school.{{sfn|Lawrence}} [[Utpaladeva]] (c. 900–950 CE) and [[Abhinavagupta]] (c. 950–1016, a student of one of Utpaladeva's disciples) developed the Pratyabhijñā-system into its mature form.{{sfn|Torella|2021|p=1-3}} Utpaladeva's ''Īśvarapratyabhijñā-kārikā (Verses on the Recognition of the Lord)'' is one of the main works of this tradition, but was overshadowed by the work of Abhinavagupta. Thus, according to Torella, "Abhinavagupta's ''Īśvarapratyabhijñā-Vimarśinī'' and the ''Īśvarapratyabhijñā-Vivr̥ti-Vimarśinī'' (a commentary on Utpaladeva’s Vivr̥ti on his own ''Īśvarapratyabhijñā-Kārikā'' and Vr̥tti) are generally considered the standard works of the Pratyabhijñā."{{sfn|Torella|2021|p=1-3}} Torella notes however, that "most of Abhinavagupta’s ideas are just the development of what Utpaladeva had already expounded."{{sfn|Torella|2021|p=4}}

Abhinavagupta was initiated in the [[sampradaya]]s (lineages) of the Trika, Pratyabhijñā, the Kaula Krama, and Shaiva Siddhantha, and also self-studied that spanda-system.{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=292-306}} Abhinavagupta wrote numerous other works on Shaiva tantra. His ''[[Tantrāloka]]'', ''Mālinīślokavārttika'', and ''[[Tantrasāra]]'' are mainly based on the ''Mālinīvijayottara Tantra'', although they also drew heavily on the [[Kali]]-based Krama tradition of the [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kulamārga]].{{sfn|Sanderson|2014}} Abhinavagupta's ''Tantrāloka'' is probably his most important work.{{sfn|Lawrence}} According to Christopher Wallis, "the ''Tantrāloka'' is a monumental explication of Tantrik practice and philosophy in over 5,800 verses. It is encyclopedic in its scope though not organized like an encyclopedia, for instead of just enumerating theories and practices, it brings them all into a coherent framework in which everything has its place and everything makes sense in relation to the whole."{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=292-306}}{{sfn|Mason}}

One of Abhinavagupta's students, [[Kṣemarāja|Kshemaraja]], is also an important figure who authored the short ''[[Pratyabhijnahridayam|Pratyabhijñāhṛdayam]]'' (''The Essence of Self-Recognition'').{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=164-167}}{{sfn|Flood|2006|p=66}}

[[Jayaratha]] (1150–1200 CE) wrote a commentary on the ''[[Tantrāloka]]''.{{sfn|Sanderson|2014}}

=== Decline (1200 CE – 20th century)===
After 1200 CE, the institutional basis and support for the Shaiva and Buddhist Tantric tradition mostly disappeared with [[Kashmir|Islamic conquests of the region]] leading to the slow decline and contraction of the tradition, though especially the Kaula-influenced lineages continued to be passed down and practiced by wandering ascetics well into the 18th century, due to their non-institutionalized structure.{{sfn|Sanderson|2009|p=1}}{{sfn|Wallis|2013|pp=308–319}}

==Texts==
According to [[Mark S. G. Dyczkowski]], Kashmiri Trika Shaivism looks to three scriptures "as its primary authorities", the [[Trika|''Mālinīvijayottara Tantra'']], the ''Siddhayogeśvarīmata and the Anāmaka-tantra.''{{sfn|Dyczkowski|1989|p=12}}

As a monistic [[Tantra|tantric]] system, [[Trika]] Shaivism, as it is also known, draws teachings from [[shrutis]], such as the monistic ''[[Vijnana Bhairava Tantra|Bhairava Tantras]]'', [[Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta]], and also a unique version of the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|{{IAST|Bhagavad Gītā}}]]'' which has a commentary by [[Abhinavagupta]], known as the ''[[Gitartha Samgraha]]''. Teachings are also drawn from the ''[[Tantraloka|Tantrāloka]]'' of Abhinavagupta, prominent among a vast body of ''[[smritis]]'' employed by Kashmir Shaivism.

''[[Pratyabhijna|Pratyabhijñā]] Śāstra'' are those writings which have mainly a [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] content. Due to their extremely high spiritual and intellectual level, this part of the written tradition of Shaivism is the least accessible for the uninitiated. Nevertheless, this corpus of writings refers to the simplest and most direct modality of spiritual realization. ''Pratyabhijñā'' means "recognition" and refers to the spontaneous recognition of the divine nature hidden in each human being ([[Atman (Hinduism)|atman]]). The most important works in this category are: ''{{IAST|Īśvara Pratyabhijñā}}'', the fundamental work of [[Utpaladeva]], and ''{{IAST|Pratyabhijñā Vimarśinī}}'', a commentary to ''{{IAST|Īśvara Pratyabhijñā}}''. ''{{IAST|Īśvara Pratyabhijñā}}'' means in fact the direct recognition of the Lord (''Īśvara'') as identical to one's Heart. Before ''Utpaladeva'', his master [[Somānanda]] wrote ''{{IAST|Śiva Dṛṣṭi}}'' (''The Vision of Siva''), a [[:wikt:devotional|devotional]] [[poem]] written on multiple levels of meaning.{{sfn|Moti Lal Pandit|2007|p=XI}}

==Trika- and Pratyabhijna-philosophy==
[[file:Maker unknown, India - Bhadrakali within the Rising Sun - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|A painting of goddess [[Kali]] from [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], c. 1660-70, from a [[Tantra|Tantric]] [[Devi]] series attributed to [[Kripal of Nurpur]] (active c. 1660 - c. 1690). [[Philadelphia Museum of Art]]]]

===Influences===
Trika Pratyabhijna Shaivism was a [[Nonduality|nondual]] [[Idealism|idealistic]] and [[Monism|monistic]] [[theism]],{{sfn|Lawrence}}{{sfn|Dyczkowski|1989|p=17}} influenced by the works of the Saiva monist [[Vasugupta]] (c. 800–850 CE), and numerous [[Shaivism|Śaiva]] scriptures such as the [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamas]], the [[Shaivism|Śaiva]]-[[Shaktism|Śakta]] [[Tantras (Hinduism)|Tantras]] and [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] scriptures. The Trika philosophical system of ''Pratyabhijñā'' is presented in the works of [[Somananda|Somānanda]] (c. 900–950 CE), [[Utpaladeva]] (c. 925–975 CE), [[Abhinavagupta]] (c. 975–1025 CE) and his disciple [[Kṣemarāja]] (c. 1000–1050).{{sfn|Lawrence}}

According to Christopher Wallis, the philosophy of Trika Shaivism also adopted much of the ontological apparatus of [[Samkhya|Sāṅkhya]] school, such as its system of 25 ''tattvas,'' expanding and reinterpreting it for its own system of 36 tattvas.<ref>Wallis, Christopher D. ''The Philosophy of the Śaiva Religion in Context,'' Field Statement for Dr. Robert Goldman</ref> Another important source for Trika is the monistic theism of [[Tirumular]]'s [[Shaiva Siddhanta]]. The Saivas also were influenced by the work of Buddhist [[Yogachara|Vijñānavāda]] and [[Buddhist logico-epistemology|Pramanavada]] philosophers, especially [[Dharmakirti]], who was also taken as a primary non-Saiva opponent and whose doctrines were sometimes absorbed into the ''Pratyabhijñā'' system.<ref>Torella, Raffaele. 1992. "The Pratyabhijñā and the Logical-Epistemological School of Buddhism" in ''Ritual and Speculation in Early Tantrism: Studies in Honor of Andre Padoux.'' Albany: SUNY Press.</ref>

===Triads (trika)===
[[File:Madhubani Mahavidyas.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sri Yantra]] diagram with the Ten [[Mahavidyas]]. The triangles represent [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]], the snake represents [[#Anuttara.2C the Supreme|Spanda]] and [[Kundalini]].]]

An important element of Trika Shaivism's theology is the use of several triads (symbolized by the trident) in its description of Absolute and phenomenal reality, hence the name ''trika''. There are several triads described in Trika-works of thinkers like Abhinavagupta including,
* Three realities: Śiva, the Supreme Transcendent), Śakti, the creative force, immanent in creation, the link between the macrocosm and the microcosm, and {{IAST|Aṇu}}, the limited atom or individual, a complete image of the ultimate, the microcosm of the macrocosm.{{sfn|Moti Lal Pandit|2007|p=13}} In Kashmiri Shaivism, the Goddess Shakti is incorporated in Shiva, the ''shaktiman'' ("possessor") of the creative force of Shakti. The human identity with Shiva is realized through Shakti, "by assuming his mythic agency in emanating and controlling the universe through Shakti."{{sfn|Lawrence}}
*Three powers: ''Icchā'' (will), ''Jñāna'' (knowledge), and ''Kriyā'' (action). Any action of any being, including God, is subject to these three fundamental energies. Iccha or Will is in the beginning of any action or process. Jnana by which the action is clearly expressed first in mind, before it is put into action. Then comes Kriyā, the energy of the action.
* Three entities: ''pati'' ([[Śiva]]), ''pāśa'' (bondage), ''paśu'' ([[soul]])
* [[Shakti]] Triad or Three Goddesses: [[Parashakti|Parā]] (transcendence), Parāparā (transcendence and immanence) and Aparā śakti (immanence)
* Three aspects of knowledge: ''Pramatri'' (the subject), ''Pramana'' (the modalities of knowledge) and ''Prameya'' - the known object
* Three states of consciousness: ''jāgrat'' (waking), ''svapna'' (dreaming) and ''suṣupti'' (dreamless sleep)
* Three-fold spiritual path: ''Śāmbhavopāya'', ''Śāktopāya'' and ''{{IAST|Āṇavopāya}}''
* The transcendental triad: ''prakāśa'' (luminosity), ''[[vimarśa]]'' (dynamics),''sāmarasya'' (homogeneous bliss)
* The three impurities: āṇavamala, māyā, karma

===Pratyabhijna - One consciousness Being unfolds as the multiplicity of the world===
Central to Kashmir Trika Shaivism is ''pratyabhijñā'', "recognition." Etymologically, ''pratyabhijñā'' is formed from ''prati-'' ("re-") + ''abhi-'' ("closely") + *''jñā'' ("to know"), so the meaning is "direct knowledge of one's self," "recognition."{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=117}}

The central thesis of this philosophy is that everything is a manifestation or unfolding of absolute consciousness, termed ''[[Shiva|Śiva]]'', and it is possible to "re-cognise" this fundamental reality and be freed from limitations, identified with Śiva and immersed in bliss.<ref>The Yoga of Kashmir Shaivism – S.Shankarananda, p. 45</ref> Thus, the slave (''paśu'': the human condition) shakes off the fetters (''[[pāśa]]'') and becomes the master (''pati'': the divine condition).{{sfn|Kapoor|p=254}}

Pratyabhijna teaches that though the identity of all souls is one with [[God]] ([[Ishvara|Isvara]]) or Shiva (which is the single reality, Being and absolute consciousness), they have forgotten this due to [[Maya (religion)|Maya]] or ignorance. However, through knowledge one can recognize one's authentic divine nature and become a liberated being.{{sfn|Dyczkowski|1989|p=17-18}}

The basic theology of Trika's Recognition school, as summarised by Utpaladeva in ''Īśvarapratyabhijñā-Kārikā'' (Verses on the Recognition of the Lord), is as follows:
{{blockquote|There is only one Great Divinity, and it is the very inner Self of all creatures. It embodies itself as all things, full of unbroken awareness of three kinds: “I”, “this”, and “I am this.”{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=283-292}}}}

The school's theology is expressed by [[Kshemaraja]] in his ''Pratyabhijñā-hṛdayam'' (''The Heart of Recognition'') as follows:
{{blockquote|Awareness, free and independent, is the cause of the performance of everything. She unfolds the universe through Her own will and on Her own canvas. It becomes diverse by its division into mutually adapting subjects and objects. The individual conscious being, as a condensation of universal Awareness, embodies the entire universe in a microcosmic form.{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=283-292}}}}

The modern scholar-practitioner of Shaiva Tantra, Christopher Wallis outlines the metaphysics and theology of non-dual Shaiva Tantra thus:
{{blockquote|All that exists, throughout all time and beyond, is one infinite divine Consciousness, free and blissful, which projects within the field of its awareness a vast multiplicity of apparently differentiated subjects and objects [...] When those finite subjects then identify with the limited and circumscribed cognitions and circumstances [...] they experience what they call “suffering.” To rectify this, some feel an inner urge to take up the path of spiritual gnosis and yogic practice [...] triggering a recognition that one’s real identity is that of the highest Divinity [...] it becomes the nonconceptual ground of every moment of experience [expanding] into perfect wholeness.<ref>Wallis, Christopher (2013). ''Tantra Illuminated'', chapter I, 1. The Philosophy of Nondual Śaiva Tantra.</ref>}}

This single supreme reality is also sometimes referred to as ''[[Aham (Kashmir Shaivism)|Aham]]'' (the heart). It is considered to be a non-dual interior space of Śiva, support for the entire manifestation,<ref>{{IAST|Parā-trīśikā Vivaraṇa}}, [[Jaideva Singh]], page 194</ref> supreme mantra<ref>''{{IAST|Parā-trīśikā Vivaraṇa}}'', Jaideva Singh, page 180</ref> and identical to Śakti.<ref>{{IAST|Parā-trīśikā Vivaraṇa}}, Jaideva Singh, page 127</ref>

=== Theory of manifestation ===
The Pratyabhijñā theory of manifestation is ''[[Abhasavada|Ābhāsa]]''<ref>The Trika Saivism of Kashmir – M.L. Pandit, p. 189</ref> (''ā-'' – slight, ''bhāsa'' – manifestation) – i.e. appearance in a limited way, or "slight manifestation of Śiva".{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=18}}{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=37}} The supreme consciousness (''samvit'') is like a mirror and the universe is like a reflection appearing in it.<ref>Sakti the Power in Tantra – P.R. Tigunait, p. 65</ref> The mirror analogy is often used to explain ''ābhāsa'' because a mirror, like consciousness, can contain an infinity of different images without being itself affected.

Pratyabhijñā affirms that the universe appears as an ''ābhāsa'' in the mirror of supreme consciousness, ''samvit'', but unlike a physical mirror which needs an external object to form a reflection, the image in the mirror of ''samvit'' is projected by ''samvit'' itself – this activity is called ''[[svātantrya]]'', power of will. In other words, the universe appears inside samvit because [[Shiva|Śiva]] so desires.

[[Advaita Vedanta]] proposes a somewhat similar theory of universe as an illusion superimposed on consciousness. The difference in Pratyabhijñā is that the cause of manifestation is not an eternal separate principle of ignorance ([[Avidya (Hinduism)|''avidyā'']]), but the will of ''Śiva'', and the creation itself is ontologically real, not just an illusion.<ref>The Trika Saivism of Kashmir – M.L. Pandit, p. 190</ref> It is made of ''ābhāsas'', which are nothing but the ideation of ''Śiva'' appearing as empirical objects.{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=19}}

Thus, all things are ''ābhāsa'': earth, water, fire, etc. All their qualities are ''ābhāsa''.<ref>Doctrine of Divine Recognition – K.C. Pandey, p. 159</ref> Complex ''ābhāsas'' are composed of simpler ''ābhāsas'', culminating with the whole world.<ref>The Himalayan mysticism – R. Nataraj, p. 186</ref><ref>The Trika Saivism of Kashmir – M.L. Pandit, p. 188</ref>

Paradoxically, even though ''ābhāsas'' have the nature of consciousness, they also exist externally on account of being manifested through the occultation power (''[[Maya (illusion)|maya]]'') by Śiva.<ref>Doctrine of Divine Recognition – K.C. Pandey, p. 115</ref> An advanced meditator is capable of seeing the world as ''ābhāsa'', a flash of consciousness (''[[Cit (consciousness)|cit]]'') and bliss (''[[Satcitananda|ānanda]]''), identical with his own self (''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]'') and non-differentiated (''abheda''). In other words, the light of consciousness shines from within the object of perception, as an intuition, a super-human direct kind of vision.<ref>The Isvarapratyabhijnakarika of Utpaladeva – R. Torella, p. 136</ref>

If the universe is contemplated from the point of view of manifestation, it appears as ''ābhāsa'', but when contemplated from the point of view of the Ultimate Reality, it appears as ''[[svātantrya]]''. ''Svātantrya'' is the complementary concept of ''ābhāsa'' accounting for the initial impulse of manifestation. The theory of ''svātantrya'' affirms that ''Śiva'', the fundamental Reality, appears as distinct subjects and objects, but this does not conceal his real nature.{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=17}} Thus, the free will of ''Śiva'', which is absolute unity, is to manifest, to create multiplicity.{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=37}} This impulse to create is ''Śiva's'' playful nature ([[Lila (Hinduism)|''lilā'']]).

===''Tattvas'' - the elements of reality ===
{{Main|Tattva (Shaivism)}}

The ''ābhāsa'' concept focuses on the essential nature of manifestation. In order to analyze in detail the nature of the existents the Pratyabhijñā system appropriated the 25 ''tattva'' ontology of [[Samkhya]] and improved on it by expanding the upper tattvas. Instead of Spirit ([[Purusha]]) and Nature ([[Prakriti]]), Kashmir Shaivism has five ''pure tattvas'' representing the Ultimate Reality and then six more representing the occultation process (''māyā'') which translates the non-dual pure Reality to time and space limited world and its subjects.

===Impurity===
The ''māla'' (meaning "dirt" or "impurity") <ref>Saivism – G.V. Tagare, p. 14</ref> theory states that the infinite self, ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]]'', is reduced and limited by three forces produced by ''Śiva''. ''Śiva'', by exercising his free will – ''svātāntrya'', takes contraction upon himself and manifests as countless atoms of consciousness (''cidaṇu'' – consciousness quantas).<ref>The Philosophy of Sadana – D.B. Sen Sharma, p. 107</ref> ''Cidaṇu'' are enwrapped by material vestment.<ref name="Sadana p. 108">The Philosophy of Sadana – D.B. Sen Sharma, p. 108</ref>

The three ''malas'' are ''āṇava māla'' – the limitation of smallness, ''māyīya māla'' - the limitation of illusion and ''kārma māla'' – limitation of doership.<ref>Meditation Revolution – D.R. Brooks, p. 433</ref> ''Kārma māla'' exists in the physical body, ''māyīya māla'' in the [[subtle body]], and ''āṇava māla'' in the [[causal body]].<ref>Meditation Revolution – D.R. Brooks, p. 439</ref> ''Āṇava māla'' affects the spirit and contracts the will, ''māyīya māla'' affects the mind and creates duality, ''kārma māla'' affects the body and creates good and bad actions. They correspond to individuality, mind and body.{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=128}}

Of the three limitations, only the first one, ''āṇava māla'', which is the basis of the other two, is impossible to surpass through effort alone, without the help of divine grace (''[[shaktipat|śaktipāt]]'').<ref>Meditation Revolution – D.R. Brooks, p. 437</ref> ''Āṇava māla'' is manifested as residual impressions existing in the causal body (subconscious mind).<ref>The Philosophy of Sadana – D.B. Sen Sharma, p. 127</ref> It is the combined effect of the five limitations (''kañcuka'') taken together,{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=131}} the gateway from limited towards the unlimited, from the pure-impure (''bheda-abheda'') world of the ego towards the pure reality of the first five tattvas, culminating with Śiva and Śakti.

''Māyīya māla'' manifests as the mind.{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=131}} In Pratyabhijñā, the mind is seen as the root of illusion.<ref>Shiva Sutras – Swami Lakshmanjoo, p. 18</ref> The concept of mind here is different from [[Buddhism]]. In Buddhism, mind collates the aspect of awareness. Here, it is only related to the activity of thought forms, emotions, ego and the five senses. Thus, all cognitions being limited perceptions of the absolute, are illusions, on account of containing a sense of duality.

''Kārma māla'' manifests the physical body. Its essence is limitation of the power of action and the illusion of individual agency, the effect of which is the accumulation of [[karma]] in the causal body.{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=131}}

The maturity of malas of a person is related to the level of grace (''śaktipāt'') he is able to receive.<ref name="Sadana p. 108"/> With dedicated practice, ''kārma māla'' and ''māyiya māla'' can be surpassed, but then the practitioner must put his fate in the hands of ''Śiva'', as ''Śiva'' alone can bestow the grace of lifting ''āṇava māla'' and helping him recognize (''pratyabhijñā'') his essential nature.

===''Jivatman''===
The soul ([[jiva|''jivātman'']]) is the projection of Śiva in manifestation. When taking on the five limitations (''[[The 36 tattvas#.E1.B9.A2at ka.C3.B1cukas|kañcuka]]'') the infinite [[Ātman (Hinduism)|spirit]] appears as integrated in space and time, with limited powers of action and knowledge and a sense of incompleteness.

These five constrictions are the result of the action of an impurity called ''āṇava māla''. Its function is to make the unlimited appear as limited and severed from the whole. This does not mean that ''jīvātman'' is limited, it just appears so on account of ignorance.{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=32}} ''Jīvātman'' is not created or born, but rather has the same status as Śiva, performing on a small scale the same actions that Śiva performs on a universal scale – creation, maintenance, dissolution, occultation and grace.{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=18}} However, his powers are circumscribed by ''mālas''.<ref name="Saivism Some Glimpses p. 12">Saivism Some Glimpses – G. V. Tagare, p. 12</ref>

In order to open ''jīvātman'' towards external objects it is placed within the subtle body, also known as the mental apparatus or ''puryaṣṭaka'' – the eight gated fortress of the soul. The eight gates are the five elements – earth, water, fire, air, aether plus the sensorial mental (''[[The 36 tattvas#manas - the lower mind|manas]]''), ego (''[[The 36 tattvas#aha.E1.B9.83k.C4.81ra - the empirical ego|ahamkāra]]'') and intellect (''[[The 36 tattvas#buddhi - the intellect|buddhi]]'').<ref>Saivism – G.V. Tagare, p. 13</ref>

''Jīvātman'' is further limited by two more impurities, in addition to the first one, ''āṇava māla'' – the limitation of atomicity. Through the next impurity, ''māyīya māla'', things appear as dual / differentiated.{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=32}} The limited subject, ''jīvātman'', is immersed in a world full of external objects, in a fundamental duality between self and non-self.

Furthermore, through the third impurity – ''kārma māla'' – the subject has the illusion that he is the ''doer'', though, limited in power. ''Atman'', by contrast, when acts, is identified with ''Śiva'' and acts as a part of ''Śiva''.{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=32}}

That is why the limited soul is described as enslaved (''paśu'') while ''Śiva'' is the master (''pati''). By purification of the three impurities the limited soul too can recognize (''Pratyabhijñā'') his real nature, becoming ''pati'' himself.<ref name="Saivism Some Glimpses p. 12"/>

===''Moksha''===
In Pratyabhijñā, the concept of liberation (''[[Moksha|mokṣa]]'') is the recognition (''pratyabhijñā'') of the original, innate awareness of self in which all this universe appears as Śiva-consciousness. That liberated being also attains what is called ''cid-ānanda'' (consciousness-bliss). In its highest form, this bliss is known as ''jagad-ānanda,'' literally meaning the bliss (''ānanda)'' of the whole world (''jagat)''.{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=27}}

In ''jagad-ānanda'' the universe appears as the Self (''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]'').<ref>Siva Sutras – Jaideva Singh, p. 244</ref> In a practical way the definition says that, when there is no need to sit in meditation for [[samadhi|''samādhi'']], that is ''jagad-ānanda'',{{sfn|Baumer|1997|p=253}} because then nothing except the supreme consciousness (''samvit'') is perceived. The mind rests in the unlimited consciousness{{sfn|Kapoor|2004b|p=354}} the inside becomes outside and vice versa, and there is a sense of oneness and total immersion.<ref>Possession, Immersion, and the Intoxicated Madnesses of Devotion in Hindu Traditions – Marcy Goldstein, p. 234</ref> No matter what the liberated being is doing (eating, walking, even sleeping), he experiences bliss of the deepest level.<ref>Miracle of Witness Consciousness – Prabhu, p. 124</ref>

==Trika-practice==

=== Prerequisites ===
[[File:Bodhinatha-samaya-diksha.JPG|thumb|right|Tantric initiation (''dīkṣa'') is necessary for undertaking the tantric practices of Trika Saivism.]]

Since Trika is a [[Tantra|Tantric]] tradition, a necessary prerequisite for Trika yogic practice is tantric initiation or [[Diksha|dīkṣa]]. The ''Mālinīvijayottara Tantra,'' a major source for the tradition, states: "Without initiation there is no qualification for Saiva yoga."{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=244}}

Although domesticated into a householder tradition, Kashmir Shaivism recommended a ''secret'' performance of Kaula practices in keeping with its tantric heritage. This was to be done in seclusion from public eyes, therefore allowing one to maintain the appearance of a typical householder.{{sfn|Flood|2006|p=14}}

The ''Mālinīvijayottara Tantra'' outlines several major preconditions conferring the authority to practice [[Yoga]]:
{{blockquote|The Yogin who has mastered posture [and] the mind, controlled the vital energy, subdued the senses, conquered sleep, overcome anger and agitation and who is free from deceit, should practise Yoga in a quiet, pleasant cave or earthen hut free from all obstructions.{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=248}}}}

=== Four ''upayas'' ===
To attain ''moksha'', ''sādhana'' or spiritual practice is necessary. Trika texts describes four major methods (''upāya''-s) to reach total immersion (samāveśa) into the divine:{{sfn|Mishra|1999|p=339-350}}{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=346-350}}{{sfn|Flood|2003|p=221-223}}
# ''anupāya'', the "non-means" or the pathless path.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=221–223}} Wallis explains this as a very rare case in which "a [[Shaktipat|śaktipāta]] awakening so intense that one single teaching from a true guru is enough to stabilize that awakening permanently."{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=346-350}}{{efn|See also [[udden awakening]]}}
# ''śāmbhavopāya'', related to [[Samskara (Indian philosophy)|desire or will]], "the sudden upsurge of emotion and instinct that shatters [[Prapanca|thought construction]]", which is ''[[nirvikalpa]]'', without thought-construction.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=221–223}} According to Wallis, this method is a way of grace which works with the pure will (icchā-śakti) of consciousness. It is a non-conceptual (nirvikalpa) method, which may work with everyday experiences, bija mantras or certain simple techniques to access the divine, such as gazing at the sky, becoming absorbed in a powerful emotion or the practice of "catching hold of the first moment of perception."{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=350-357}} Wallis defines it as an "immediate intuitive apprehension of the total flow of reality as it is, free of thought-constructs, dawning within awareness already whole and complete (pūrṇa), even if momentary."{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=350-357}}
# ''śāktopāya'', related to cognition (''jnana''), "focusing on a pure thought construction (''suddhavikalpa'') that corresponds to a true state of affairs, such as [[Nirvanashatkam|"I am Siva"]].{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=221–223}} Wallis writes that this method "focuses on shedding mental constructs that are not in alignment with reality (aśuddha-vikalpas) and the cultivation of wisdom, that is, modes of understanding that are in alignment with reality (śuddha-vikalpas)."{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=357-383}} This method mainly works with the power of knowing (jñāna-śakti) and emphasizes the use of the power of cognition to purify and refine our mental constructs (vikalpas) and the energy of our thoughts and emotions so as to bring them into full alignment with the truth.{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=357-383}}
# ''āṇavopāya'', individual means, related to ''kriya'', action, the development of pure thoughts by means of mantra, meditation on body-parts and the breath, meditation on external objects,{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=221–223}} centers of the subtle body ([[chakra]]s) and the imagination and focuses on the power of action (kriyā-śakti).{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=383-409}} This method includes most of the usual methods of classical yoga: meditation ([[Dhyāna in Hinduism|dhyāna]]), [[Pranayama|prāṇāyāma]], visualization, mantras, meditation with seed syllables (varṇa-uccāra), activation of the subtle centers, yogic postures (karaṇa), and meditative ritual performance (pūjā).{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=383-409}} In the Tantrasāra, Abhinavagupta defines this method as "that which is applied in the spheres of imagination, prāṇa, the body, and external things. There is absolutely no difference among these methods in that the practice of any of them may yield the supreme fruit."{{sfn|Wallis|2013|p=383-409}}

===Development of the Centre (''madhya'')===
{{See also|Prapanca|Svayam prakāśa|Svasaṃvedana|Vimarśa|Turning the light around|Maintaining the one}}

====''Vikalpa-kṣaya'' – dissolution of thought-constructs====
''[[Pratyabhijnahridayam|Pratyabhijñāhrdayam]]'' verse 18 gives four means to develop "the Centre" (''madhya'',{{sfn|Singh|1963|p=81}} which is ''samvit'', ''cit'', ''hridaya''{{sfn|Singh|1963|p=81, 83}}{{efn|name="samvid"|reference=See also wisdomlib.org, [https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/samvid samvid]; and Sanjukta Gupta, ''The Cosmic Play of Power: Goddess, Tantra and Women'', [https://books.google.nl/books?id=STk4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56&dq=samvit&hl=nl&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiu1bSb99WTAxUL5gIHHZcoDrMQ6AF6BAgOEAM p.56]: "''Samvit'' is both pure consciousness and the reflective consciousness."}}). In ''vikalpa-kṣaya'' one concentrates on "the heart" (''[[Aham (Kashmir Shaivism)|hridayam]]''), dissolving any thought-constructs (''[[vikalpa]]'') and thus entering a state of ''nirvikalpa'', "holding the Self as the real experient in the focus of consciousness, entering the ''turiya'' or ''turiyatita'' condition.{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=29}}

''Vikalpa kshaya'' is the "dissolution of all thoughts"{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=305}} or removal of the sense of difference.{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=34}} According to Shankaranada, "The point is to keep the mind still, to focus on awareness itself, not the thoughts".{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=173}}

According to Dyczkowski, ''vikalpa kshaya'' is ''sukhopaya'' (''anupaya''), a direct means which does not require breath control or the recitation of mantras, but "involves absorption in the reflective awareness of the subject", requiring "awareness of cognition as the connecting link between [...] subject and object".{{sfn|Dyczkowski|1992|p=207}}{{efn|{{harvtxt|Dyczkowski|1992|p=207}} "to attend to the indeterminate cognition (samvedana), which both reveals and is the source of determinate perceptions, and so decreases the latter in order to increase the former. This method, Ksemaraja says, is the best because it is the most natural, internal and direct. It does not require the practice of breath control or the recitation of Mantra, but forms a part of the blissful, direct means (sukhopaya) related to Kaula practice. Basically, it involves absorption in the reflective awareness of the subject by the gradual intensification of the means of knowledge (pramana) through attention to the relationship between subject and object. It requires, in other words, awareness of cognition as the connecting link between them, in the unity of a direct concept-free awareness."}}

According to Taimni, ''vikalpa-kṣaya'' corresponds to ''citta-vṛtti-nirodha'',{{sfn|Taimni|1974|p=79}} the cessation of mental fluctuations as stated in the [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|''Yoga Sutras'' of Patanjali]]. According to Tagare, there is also similarity with [[Vipasana]].{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=124}} According to Shankarananda, it is a ''shambhavopaya'', akin to the [[Zen]] and [[Dzogchen]] traditions.{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=174}}

====Additional practices====
Additional practices, which do not specifically belong to ''pratyabhijñā'', are ''śakti-saṅkoca'', ''śakti-vikāsa'', ''vaha-ccheda'', and ''adyanta-koti-nibalana''.

''Śakti-saṅkoca'' is a ''śaktopāya'' technique,{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=30}} According to Singh, it is withdrawing attention from sensory perception to the Self.{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=29-30}} According to Shankarananda, ''śakti-saṅkoca'' is retraction of ''sakti'', awareness,{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=305}} akin to [[pratyahara|''pratyāhara'']] and ''[[Noble Eightfold Path#Right effort|indriya-samvara]]'', "guarding the sense-doors". Kshejamara compares it to tortoise bringing its limbs back into the shell.{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=305}}{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=102}} Kshejamara also quotes a mantra from the ''Kathopanishad'', stating that by reverting the sight inside, one sees atman (''pratyagatman'') and becomes immortal.{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=102}}

''Śakti-vikāsa'' is also a is a ''śaktopāya'' technique.{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=30}}, "holding the consciousness steadily within, while the senses are allowed to perceive their objects".{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=29-30}}

''Vaha-ccheda'', an ''āṇavopāya''-technique,{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=30}} is "cessation of ''[[prana|prāṇa]]'' and ''[[Prana#Pr.C4.81.E1.B9.87as|aprāna]]'' by repeating inwardly the letters 'ka', 'ha' etc. without the vowels, and tracing the ''mantras'' back to their source where they are unuttered,{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=29-30}}{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=179}} resting the ascending and descending {{Transliteration|sa|[[vayu]]s}} in the heart.{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=103}}} Such a technique belongs to the ''āṇavopāya'' {{sfn|Singh|1982|p=30}} (the lowest of the three categories of techniques in Kashmir Shaivism).

''Adyanta-koti-nibalana'' is "focus[ing] on the space between two breaths".{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=179}} According to Singh, it "is the practice of fixing the mind at the time of the arising of ''prana'' and it's coming to an end between the ''adi'' i.e. the first or heart and the ''anta'' i.e. the distance of twelve fingers from the heart",{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=30}} that is, the locus of attention should be in the regions of the heart (''anāhata'') and above the crown (''dvādaśānta'').{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=306}} It can be combined with the mental recitation of the two syllables of the [[Soham (Sanskrit)|ajapa mantra]] ''so-'ham'' ("That"-"I am") or ''ham-sa'' ("I am"-"That"), one syllable when berathin in, the other when breathing out.{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=179}}

Kșema adds concentration on an intense artistic emotion as an additional technique.{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=104}} Likewise, the ''[[Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra]]'' gives a large number of methods to attain'' nirvikalpa''.

====''Vyutthana''====
According to Tagara, explaining sutra 19, permanence of ''samadhi'', ''vyutthana'', is attained when awareness of ''Cit'' becomes the stable background of all phenomena, "conside[ring] himself as identical with ''Cit''.{{sfn|Tagare|2002|p=105}} According to Shankarananda, comparing ''vikalpa-kṣaya'' with the ''Spanda Karika'', the highest state is reached when there is no mental agitation, that is, when there is "no negative thrust to the process [of producing mental images]".{{sfn|Shankarananda|2016|p=174}}

=== Six ''laksyas'' ===
[[File:8th century Standing Shiva Mahadeva, Kashmir, India, Clevelandart 1989.369.jpg|thumb|right|Schist statue of Shiva Mahadeva, Northern India, [[Kashmir]], 8th century. [[Cleveland Museum of Art]].]]

The Mālinīvijayottara Tantra, a Trika text which "attempts to integrate a whole plethora of competing yogic systems",{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=XI}} outlines six "varieties of the goal" or "targets" (laksyas) of yogic practices to attain liberation, namely:{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=256-261}}
* Contemplation of void (''vyoman''), which bestows all Perfections and liberation.
* Contemplation of body (''vigraha''), which bestows the coercion of deities like Visnu or Rudra
* Contemplation of drop (''[[Bindu (symbol)|bindu]]''), which bestows sovereignty over Yogins
* Contemplation of phoneme (''varna''), which bestows the Perfection of [[mantra]]
* Contemplation of world (''bhuvana''), which bestows regency of a world
* Contemplation of resonance (''dhvani''), which leads to isolation and liberation.

Each of the goals is given specific practices. In the ''Mālinīvijayottara Tantra,'' perfecting the Void is said to be reached by moving the mind and vital energy (through the use of mantric resonance) through two groups of three voids located along the [[Susumna|central channel]] (which are also correlated with a system of six [[Chakra|cakras]]), reaching to the region above the head. Different scriptures outline different lists of voids and their location in the body.{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=266}} The practice of resonance deals with various sounds, and how the yogin is to focus on a specific sound and its resonance within the central channel.{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=279}}

Regarding mantra, different Saiva tantras and texts teach different [[mantra]]s and bija (seed) mantras. These mantras are generally intoned (''uccara'') at different positions in the body along the central channel (such as at the heart, throat, forehead, etc). The ''Diksottara tantra'' for example, teaches the intonation of the ''<nowiki/>'[[Soham (Sanskrit)#Hamsa|haṃsá]]''' mantra, beginning in the heart region.{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=284-285}} Some texts teach "a lineal ascent through the heart, the throat, the palate, and the forehead, culminating with the transcendence of sonic experience as the 'Limit of Resonance' [''nadanta''] in the cranium is pierced." Other texts have the mantric energy follow the breath through the nose outside the body.{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=286-287}}

=== Four types of Saiva yoga ===
According to Vasudeva Somadeva, the ''Mālinīvijayottara Tantra'' distinguishes four different types of Saiva yoga. According to Somadev Vasudeva, these are:{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=368-369}}
* ''tattvajaya'', "the conquest of the reality-levels (''tattvajaya'')", adapted from the [[Shaiva Siddhanta|Siddhanta]] tantras but "transformed into a radically new type of yoga based on the fifteen levels of the apperceptive process";
* ''ṣaḍaṅgayoga'', "the yoga of six ancillaries", "which is taken over [from the Siddhanta tantras] with only minor variations";
* "Kaula yoga with its system of four immersions (pindastha, padastha, rupastha and rupatita)";
* "the three types of possession (avesa) taught in the Trika (anava, sakta and sambhava) which are innovatively presented as three meta-categories under which all yogic exercises can be subsumed."

==== The conquest of the tattvas ====
In Trika texts as well as those of other Saiva schools, it is common to formulate the process of yogic conquest of the realities (tattvas) as a series of Dhāraṇās. Dhāraṇās ("introspections") are "complex sequences of meditative practices" which focus on a series of contemplations on a "hierarchy of apperceptive states designed to bring him ever closer to the level of the highest perceiver, Shiva". This hierarchy of meditations and visualizations is based on the Shaiva schema of the [[Tattva (Shaivism)|36 tattvas]].{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=293-294}} According to Somadev Vasudeva, the procedure can be described thus:
<blockquote>The Yogin starts by disengaging the mind from external stimuli and then fixes it upon a tattva [such as earth, water, etc] with ever deepening absorption. He attains an internalised vision of the reality, and compares it with his authoritative, scriptural knowledge of the highest level. By means of tarka [reasoning], an ontological value judgement, he discerns that it is different from Siva and thus transcends it. The Yogin’s ascension inevitably brings him to the reality which is Siva at the zenith of all paths.{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=298}}</blockquote>

One example of the meditation on the tattva of [[buddhi]] (intellect) from the ''Mālinīvijayottara Tantra'' is as follows:
<blockquote>Contemplating in the heart a lotus with colour of the rising sun, with eight petals containing the [eight bhavas] of dharma etc., and a pericarp, [the Yogin’s] intellect becomes steady within a month. Within six he becomes a knower of the Sruti (scripture). Within three years he himself becomes an author of scriptures. Contemplating his own [physical] form there (in the heart), he perceives the principle of intellect.{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=353}}</blockquote>

==== ''Șaḍaṅgayoga'' - the yoga of six ancillaries ====
Trika yoga generally uses a system of six "limbs" or ancillaries (''aṅgas'') which are seen as subsidiary to the principle conquest of the tattvas. This system was adopted from the [[Shaiva Siddhanta|Saiva Siddhanta]] as well as in [[Pancharatra|Pāñcarātra]] scriptures such as the ''Jayakhyasamhita''. According to Somadeva Vasudeva, in Trika, ''ṣaḍaṅgayoga'' "is to be understood as a collection of helpful or even indispensable yogic techniques which enable the prospective Yogin to achieve the required “coalescence” or “identification” (''tanmayata'', lit. the “consisting-of-that-ness”) with the object of contemplation."<ref name=":9">{{harvnb|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|pp=367–370}}</ref>

These six subsidiaries as outlined in the ''Mālinīvijayottara Tantra'' are:{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=367-375}}
* [[Pranayama|Prānāyāma]], control of the "breath" or "vital energy" ([[prana]]), includes various forms of inhalation, exhalation, [[kumbhaka]]h, as well as proper posture ([[asana]]), defined as either lotus or some other seated posture. The practice of ''udgatha'' (eruption) is also taught, which is a "process whereby the retained air is propelled or launched upwards from the navel-region so that it strikes the head."{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=403}}
* [[Dhāraṇā|Dhāranā]] (fixations or concentrations). Four are taught: Fire, Water, Sovereign (defined as bindu and nada) and Nectar (fixating upon a lunar disc above the cranium which drops divine nectar into the central channel, filling the body).{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=417}}
* Tarka (judgment or reasoning), defined as "the ascertainment of what is to be cultivated and what is to be rejected."
* [[Dhyana in Hinduism|Dhyāna]] (meditation), defined as "attentive contemplation on Siva" or "a focused stream of awareness directed towards the judged and thus accepted reality".
* [[Samadhi|Samādhi]], a deep absorption that arises from prolonged (the text states 48 minutes) and "firmly established" meditation, in which the yogin "becomes as though non-existent. He reaches a state where he becomes as though dead, from which even intense sounds and other such [sense data] cannot rouse him."{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=433-434}}
* [[Pratyahara|Pratyāhāra]], withdrawal of the mind from the senses

In the ''Mālinīvijayottara Tantra'' (chapter 17)'','' these are seen as six progressive steps leading to complete identification with the object of meditation.<ref name=":9" /> It is important to note that different Saiva tantras outline different forms of the six ancillaries, and "there is no consensus as to their order, their definition or even their subdivisions" among the different tantras.{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=376}}

==== ''Utkrānti'' - transference of consciousness ====
The practice of ''[[Phowa|utkrānti]]'', "transference of consciousness at the moment of death," is also taught in nondual Saiva Tantras like the ''Mālinīvijayottara Tantra,'' which uses the vital energy rising through the central channel to end one's life and proceed to union with Siva.{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=437}} The text says that this abandonment of the body can be done at the end of one's life, after one has mastered all that one has set out to achieve.{{sfn|Vasudeva Somadeva|2004|p=442}}

==Influence==
The Trika Shaiva tradition was widely influential on other Indian religious traditions, particularly the [[Hatha yoga|Haṭha-yoga]] traditions, such as the [[Nath|Nāth]] school of [[Gorakhnath|Gorakṣa]] and the [[Dashanami Sampradaya|Dasanāmī]] Sannyāsins, which draw much of their yogic practice and ideas of the subtle body from Trika scriptures.{{sfn|Wallis|2013|pp=308–319}}

Trika Shaivism also strongly influenced [[Shaktism|Shakta]] traditions. [[Shri Vidya|Śrīvidyā]], which likely originated in Kashmir, relied heavily on Trika philosophy in its seminal explanatory texts like the Yoginīhṛdaya and received commentaries by Trika masters like Jayaratha, and became an influential tradition on mainstream Hinduism, flourishing with institutional support in [[South India]].{{sfn|Brooks|1992|pp=38–43}}{{sfn|Padoux|Jeanty|2013|pp=4–10}} Another tantric tradition influenced by Trika was the post-classical Kalikula (family of ''Kali'') form of Shaktism which is influential in northeastern Indian regions, such as in Bengal, Orissa, and Nepāl.{{sfn|Wallis|2013|pp=308–319}}

==Relation of ''pratyabhijñā'' to other Indian traditions==

===Kashmir Shaivism schools===
In the context of Kashmiri Shaivism, Pratyabhijñā is sometimes classified as ''śāmbhavopāya''<ref>Introduction to Kasmir Shaivism, p. 53</ref> (the path of Shambhu, i.e., Śiva), and at other times as ''aṇupāya'' (the non-path).<ref>Introduction to Kasmir Shaivism, p. 89</ref> Śambhavopaya and Anupaya are classes of practices related to consciousness directly; by contrast, the lower two classes of practice are Śaktopaya—the path of Śakti, which relates to the mind—and Anavopaya—the path of the limited being, which relates to the physical body. Thus, Pratyabhijñā is considered to be the shortest, most direct path to liberation, an evolution{{Discuss|date=September 2020}} based on consciousness alone.

Even though it shares the same practices relating to the ascension of [[Kundalini energy|''kundalini'']] in the middle channel (''[[Nadi (yoga)#Ida.2C Pingala and Sushumna|sushumna nadi]]''), Pratyabhijñā claims ''instantaneous'' progression, while the Krama school maintains there is ''gradual'' progression.{{sfn|Kapoor|2004b|p=362}}

With regard to the Spanda school, Pratyabhijñā is more philosophical, putting the accent on instantaneous realisation (recognition) of the Ultimate, while the Spanda school is more practical (as per its fundamental text, ''Spandakārikā''), and puts its accent on ''the vibrating energy'' aspect of consciousness.<ref>The Trika Saivism of Kashmir – M.L. Pandit, p. 25</ref>

===Buddhism===
The most important difference between Pratyabhijñā and [[Buddhism]] is related to the ontological ultimate: while Buddhism rejects the concepts of soul (''[[Ātman (Buddhism)|atman]]'') and god ([[Ishvara|''īśvara'']]), the Kashmiri Shaivites put them at the top of their world model.<ref name="His Works p. 28"/>

In his philosophical treatise ''Īśvara-pratyabhijñā-kārikā'', Utpaladeva also rejects the ''vasana'' theory (the dream model of the world) of the Sautrāntika school of Buddhist philosophy; he suggests another model for idealism: Śiva, who is pure consciousness, manifests all objects ''internally'', by virtue of his free will, ''svātantrya'', and the objects appear as real and ''external'' to limited beings. He appeals to the analogy of the famed materialisation of objects by advanced [[yogi]]ns, purely by using their psychic powers.<ref>The Dreamer and the Yogin, On the relationship between Buddhist and Saiva idealisms – Isabelle Ratie, p.</ref>

===Advaita Vedanta===
With regard to the problem of how the world comes by, [[Utpaladeva]] rejects the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita Vedānta]] theory of eternal and independent ignorance (''avidyā''),<ref name="His Works p. 28">Abhinavagupta and His Works – V. Raghavan, p. 28</ref> which affirms that ''[[brahman]]'' (the absolute consciousness) is being affected by ''avidyā'' (eternal ignorance) by superimposition, with a resulting enslavement of the inactive, subject consciousness to worldly life. In Kashmir Shaivism, ''avidyā'' (ignorance) and its cosmic aspect, ''[[Maya (illusion)|māyā]]'' (illusion), are nothing but Śakti, the power of Śiva; as Śakti, they are real for limited beings, but are simple manifestations of consciousness for Śiva.{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=25}}

In Advaita Vedānta, with regard to the limited being (''jīva''), all activity belongs to the intellect (''buddhi''); in Kashmir Shaivism, activity is also ascribed to ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]]'', who is ''not'' inert, but in possession of the five-fold actions of creation, maintenance, dissolution, occultation, and grace. A liberated ''jīva'', in Advaita Vedānta, is freed from the universe—but here, in Kashmir Shaivism, the universe appears as the real I-consciousness, a mass of consciousness and bliss.{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=25}}

In Advaita Vedanta, consciousness (''cit'') is only light (''prakāśa''), but in Pratyabhijñā it is also activity, doer-ship.{{sfn|Singh|1982|p=24}}

==Notes==
{{Noteslist|2}}

==References==
{{reflist|25em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}

* {{cite book | last =Baumer | first =B. | year =1997 | title =Mysticism In Shaivism And Christianity | publisher =D.K. Printworld | url =https://archive.org/details/MysticismInShaivismAndChristianityDKPrinterWorld}}
* {{Cite book | last =Brooks | first =Douglas Renfrew | date =1992 |title=Auspicious wisdom: the texts and traditions of Srīvidyā Sākta Tantrism in South India |publisher=State Univ. of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1146-9 |series=SUNY series in tantric studies |location=Albany, NY}}

* {{cite book | last =Dyczkowski | first =Mark S. G. | year =1989 | title =The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publ. | url =https://archive.org/details/mark-s.-g.-dyczkowski-the-doctrine-of-vibration-an-analysis-of-the-doctrines-and}}
* {{cite book | last =Dyczkowski | first =M.S.G. | year =1992 | title =The Stanzas on Vibration | publisher =SUNY | url =https://archive.org/details/MarkDyczkowskiTheStanzasOnVibration/page/n5/mode/1up}}

* {{cite book | last =Flood | first =Gavin | year =1996 | title =An Introduction to Hinduism | publisher =Harvard University Press}}
* {{cite book | last =Flood | first =Gavin | year =2003 | chapter =The Śaiva Traditions | editor-last =Flood | editor-first =Gavin |title =The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism | publisher =Wiley-Blackwell | location=Malden, MA | isbn =978-1405132510}}
* {{cite book | last =Flood | first =Gavin | year =2006 | author-link =Gavin Flood | title =The Tantric Body}}



* {{cite book| last =Kapoor | first =S. | title =The Philosophy of Saivism | volume =1}}
* {{cite book| last =Kapoor | first =S. | year =2004a | title =The Philosophy of Saivism Vol.1 | volume =1 | publisher =Cosmo Publications}}
* {{cite book| last =Kapoor | first =S. | year =2004b | title =The Philosophy of Saivism Vol.2 | volume =2 | publisher =Cosmo Publications}}

* {{cite web | last =Lawrence | first =David Peter | title =Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy | website =[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]| url =https://iep.utm.edu/kashmiri/#H3 }}

* {{Cite web | last =Mason |first=Christine Marie |title=Episode #146 Near Enemies of the Truth: The Spiritual Bypassing Platitudes with Gold at the Center | url =https://rosewoman.com/blogs/rosewoman-podcast/episode-146-near-enemies-of-the-truth-the-spiritual-bypassing-platitudes-with-gold-at-the-center |access-date=10 August 2025 |website=The Rose Woman Podcast}}
* {{cite book | last =Mishra | first =Kamalakar | year =1999 | title =Kashmir Shaivism. The Central Philosophy of Tantrism | publisher =Sri Satguru Publications | url =https://archive.org/details/kashmirshaivismthecentralphilosophyoftantrismkamalakarmishramrml_202003_795_t/page/n3/mode/1up}}
* {{cite book | last =Moti Lal Pandit | year =2007 | title =An Introduction to the Philosophy of Trika Shaivism | publisher =Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers | url =https://archive.org/details/trika-saivism-moti-lal-pandit/page/n5/mode/1up}}
* {{cite book | last =Muller-Ortega | first =Paul E. | year =1989 | title =The Triadic Heart of Siva: Kaula Tantricism of Abhinavagupta in the Non-dual Shaivism of Kashmir | publisher =SUNY Press}}

* {{cite book | last =Olson | first =Carl | year =2007 | title =The Many Colors of Hinduism | publisher =Rutgers University Press | isbn =978-0-8135-4068-9 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=RVWKClYq4TUC&dq=Pratyabhij%C3%B1a+%2B+trika&pg=PA237}}

* {{Cite book | editor-last =Padoux | editor-first =André | editor-last2 =Jeanty | editor-first2 =Roger-Orphé | date =2013 | title =The heart of the yoginī: the Yoginīhṛdaya, a Sanskrit tantric treatise | location =New York | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0-19-998233-2}}



* {{cite book | last =Sanderson |first =Alexis | year =1988 | chapter =Saivism and the Tantric Tradition | editor-last1 =Clarke | editor-first1 =Peter | title =The World's Religions | publisher =Routledge}}
* {{Citation | last =Sanderson | first =Alexis | year =2005a | chapter =Saivism:Saivism in Kasmir | editor-last =Jones | editor-first =Lindsay | title =MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol.12: Rnying Ma Pa School - Soul | publisher =MacMillan}}
* {{Citation | last =Sanderson | first =Alexis | year =2005e | chapter =Saivism: Krama Saivism | editor-last =Jones | editor-first =Lindsay | title =MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol.12: Rnying Ma Pa School - Soul | publisher =MacMillan}}
* {{cite web | last =Sanderson | first = Alexis | year =2009 | title =The Hinduism of Kashmir | url =http://www.alexissanderson.com/uploads/6/2/7/6/6276908/hinduismofkashmirarticle.pdf | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20151002175006/http://www.alexissanderson.com/uploads/6/2/7/6/6276908/hinduismofkashmirarticle.pdf | archive-date =2015-10-02}}
* {{cite journal | last =Sanderson | first =Alexis | year =2014 | title =The Śaiva Literature | journal =Journal of Indological Studies (Kyoto), Nos. 24 & 25 (2012–2013), 2014, pp. 52-53 | url =http://www.alexissanderson.com/uploads/6/2/7/6/6276908/sanderson_2014_the_saiva_literature_jist_kyoto_(1).pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104838/http://www.alexissanderson.com/uploads/6/2/7/6/6276908/sanderson_2014_the_saiva_literature_jist_kyoto_(1).pdf | archive-date =4 March 2016}}
* {{cite book | last =Shankarananda | year =2016 | title =The Yoga of Kashmir Shaivism: Consciousness is Everything | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass | url =https://archive.org/details/yogaofkashmirsha0000shan}}
* {{cite book| last =Singh | first =Jaideva | year =1982 | title =Pratyabhijñāhrdayam | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass | isbn =8120803221 | url =https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.40271}}

* {{cite book | last =Tagare | first =G.V. | year =2002 | title =The Pratyabhijna Philosophy | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass | url =https://archive.org/details/ThePratyabhijnaPhilosophyG.V.Tagare}}
* {{cite book | last =Taimni | first =I.K. | year =1974 | title =The Secret of Self Realization | publisher =The Theosophical Publishing House | url =https://archive.org/details/TheSecretOfSelfRealizationI.K.Taimini/page/n1/mode/1up}}
* {{cite book | last =Torella | first = | year =2021 | chapter =Nondualistic Saivism of Kashmir | editor-last1 =Goetz | editor-first1 =Stewart | editor-last2 =Taliaferro | editor-first2 =Charles | title =The Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Religion, 4 Volume Set | publisher =Wiley}}

* {{cite book | last =Vasudeva Somadeva | year =2004 | title =The Yoga of the Mālinīvijayottara Tantra. Critical edition, translation & notes | publisher =Institut Francais de Pondichery, Ecole Francaise d’Extreme-Orient | url =https://archive.org/details/TheYogaOfTheMaliniVijayottaraTantraSomadevaVausdeva_201605/mode/1up}}

* {{cite book | last =Wallis | first =Christopher | year =2013 | title =Tantra Illuminated, Part II, A History of Śaiva Tantra | publisher =Mattamayura Press | url =https://archive.org/details/tantrailluminate0000wall/page/n2/mode/1up}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* Christopher Wallis (2017). ''The Recognition Sutras.'' Mattamayura Press. {{ISBN|978-0-9897613-8-3}}.
* {{cite book|author=J.C. Chatterji|title=Kashmir Shaivaism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ErhIBHJEkwC|access-date=26 August 2013|year=1914|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-9880-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Ksemaraja |editor=Jaideva Singh |title=The Doctrine of Recognition: A Translation of the Pratyabhijnahrdayam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BATzsk9A8EkC|year=1990|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0975-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Swami Shankarananda|title=The Yoga of Kashmir Shaivism 'Consciousness is Everything|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ho3qLQE4IisC&q=Kashmir+Shaivaism|year= 2006|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2699-1}}
* Tejomayananda, Swami. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WJFPmgEACAAJ Introduction to Kashmir Shaivism]''. Gurudev Siddha Peeth, 1979.

{{Shaivism}}

[[Category:Hindu denominations]]
[[Category:Kashmir Shaivism]]
[[Category:Theistic Indian philosophy]]
[[Category:Advaita Shaivism]]

Jawaid Iqbal (professor)

2026-03-29T22:06:26Z

Shubhamsaini9: starting some data first draft

{{Short description|Indian academic}}
{{COI|date=January 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Jawaid Iqbal
| honorific_suffix =
| image = File:HVC Pic.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Jawaid Iqbal
| order = Vice Chancellor, Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah University
| term_start1 = 12 November 2024
| predecessor1 = [[Akbar Masood]]
| office2 = Dean, Faculty of International Studies, Aligarh Muslim University
| term_start2 = 7 July 2021
| term_end2 = 6 July 2023
| alma_mater = [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]], [[Utkal University]]
| profession = Professor (Teaching, Research, and Administration)
}}

'''Jawaid Iqbal''' is an Indian academic who is the [[Vice-Chancellor]] of [[Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah University]] [[Rajouri]] [[J&K]] since November 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2024-11-12 |title=Prof Jawaid Iqbal takes over as VC of BGSB University |url=https://www.greaterkashmir.com/jammu/prof-jawaid-iqbal-takes-over-as-vc-of-bgsb-university/ |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=Greater Kashmir |language=en-US}}</ref> He was formerly Acting Vice-Chancellor of [[Aligarh Muslim University]] (AMU), Dean of the Faculty of International Studies, and Chair of departments of West Asian and North African Studies, South African and Brazilian Studies, and Foreign Languages at AMU.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2024-10-15 |title=AMU Faculty Prof Jawaid Iqbal Appointed BGSBU VC |url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/amu-faculty-prof-jawaid-iqbal-appointed-bgsbu-vc/ |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=Daily Excelsior |language=en-US}}</ref> He has been part of the AMU Court, Executive Council, and Academic Council, as well as various Boards of Studies and Advisory Committees.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gnsonline.in/prof-jawaid-iqbal-is-new-vice-chancellor-of-bgsb-university-rajouri/|title=Prof Jawaid Iqbal is new Vice-Chancellor of BGSB University Rajouri - GNS ONLINE NEWS PORTAL|date=16 October 2024}}</ref>

Iqbal holds a Ph.D. and M.Phil. in International Studies from Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Salamevatan |title=PROFESSOR JAVAID IQBAL |url=http://www.salamevatan.org/2024/11/profesor-javaid-iqbal.html |access-date=2025-01-25}}</ref> He has mentored doctoral and post-doctoral scholars, focusing on International Relations, Conflict Resolution, and Peace Studies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Govt Appoints New Vice Chancellors For BGSBU Rajouri And CU Jammu |url=https://www.news18.com/education-career/govt-appoints-new-vice-chancellors-for-bgsbu-rajouri-and-cu-jammu-9088192.html |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links==
* [https://www.amu.ac.in/faculty/west-asian-studies-and-north-african-studies/jawaid-iqbal Profile] at [[Aligarh Muslim University|AMU]] website
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Iqbal, Jawaid}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Heads of universities and colleges in India]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Aligarh Muslim University]]
[[Category:Indian international relations scholars]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

{{India-academic-bio-stub}}

Mazgaon Fort

2026-03-22T21:00:00Z

Shubhamsaini9: Added new post

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{infobox building
| name = Mazagaon Fort
| image =
| caption =
| former_names =
| pushpin_map = Mumbai
| coordinates = {{coord|18.965633|72.842703|display=inline}}
| altitude = {{convert|32|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| building_type = Fort
| architectural_style =
| structural_system =
| cost =
| location = [[Mazagaon]], [[Mumbai]]
| address =
| client = British
| owner =
| current_tenants =
| landlord =
| construction_start_date =
| completion_date = 1680
| inauguration_date =
| demolished_date = 8 June 1690
| destruction_date = 8 June 1690
| height =
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}}

The '''Mazagaon Fort''' was a British fort in [[Mazagaon]], [[Mumbai|Bombay (present-day Mumbai)]], in the [[India]]n state of [[Maharashtra]], built around 1680. The fort was razed by the [[Muslim]] [[Koli people|Koli]] general, [[Yakut Khan]] in June 1690.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6fVBAQAAMAAJ&q=Gohagad+koli|title=A History of the Maratha People|last1=Kincaid|first1=Charles Augustus|last2=Pārasanīsa|first2=Dattātraya Baḷavanta|date=1922|publisher=H. Milford, Oxford University Press|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924070623776|page=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924070623776/page/n456 443]|quote=Yakub Khan koli.|title=Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency: Kolába and Janjira|last=Campbell|first=Sir James MacNabb|date=1883|publisher=Government Central Press|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UU1uAAAAMAAJ&q=Koli|title=Bajirao I: an outstanding cavalry general|last1=Palsokar|first1=R. D.|last2=Reddy|first2=T. Rabi|date=1995|publisher=Reliance Pub. House|isbn=9788185972947|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3CPc22nMqIC&dq=Yakut+Khan+koli&pg=PA174|title=The African Dispersal in the Deccan: From Medieval to Modern Times|last=Ali|first=Shanti Sadiq|date=1996|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=9788125004851|language=en}}</ref> The fort was located at the present-day Joseph Baptista Gardens, atop Bhandarwada Hill outside the [[Dockyard Road]] railway station.<ref name="iexpress">{{cite news|url=http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=47106 |title=Mazgaon fort was blown to pieces – 313 years ago |last=Nandgaonkar |first=Satish |date=2003-03-22 |work=[[Indian Express]] |publisher=[[Express Group]] |access-date=2008-09-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030412025617/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=47106 |archive-date=2003-04-12 }}</ref>

==History==
{{main|History of Mumbai}}
Up to the eighteenth century, Bombay consisted of several small islands. In 1661, seven of these islands were ceded by the Portuguese to the British as part of the dowry of [[Catherine of Braganza]] when she married [[Charles II of England]]. The harbour proved eminently apposite, and the British planned to shift their base from [[Surat]]. The [[Siddi]]s, who were of African descent and noted for their navies, had allied themselves with the [[Mughal dynasty|Mughals]]. The British, through the [[East India Company]], and the Mughals were constantly waging war on each other. As allies of the Mughals, the Siddis also viewed the British as enemies.<ref name="iexpress" />

Faced with relentless attacks by the Siddis in 1672, The British constructed several fortifications in the area, and in 1680 the Sewri fort was complete. It stood on the island of Mazagaon, on a hill overlooking the eastern seaboard.

In 1689, the Siddi general, Yakut Khan, with an army of 20,000 men, invaded Bombay. The fleet first captured the [[Sewri Fort]], then the Mazagon Fort, before sacking the town of [[Mahim]]. In April 1689, the Siddis laid siege to the [[Dongri Fort|British fortification]] to the south. The British governor [[Sir John Child, 1st Baronet|Sir John Child]] appealed to the Mughal [[Aurangzeb]] to reign in Sakat for a price. In February 1690, the Mughal emperor agreed, on the conditions that rupees 1.5 lakhs (150,000) (over one billion USD at 2008 conversion rates) be paid, and Child be sacked.<ref name="iexpress" /> Child's untimely death in 1690, however, resulted in his escaping the ignominy of being sacked.

Enraged at barter, Sakat withdrew his forces on 8 June 1690, after razing the Mazagaon Fort.<ref name="iexpress" />

In 1884, the British developed Bhandarwada Hill as a major water [[reservoir]]. It supplies water to South and Central Mumbai. A popular recreation ground, the ground is named after [[Joseph Baptista]], a freedom fighter and close aide of the Indian freedom movement activist, [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]].

==See also==
[[File:Bombay map 18c.jpg|thumb|Old map of the region (post 1805)]]
* [[Mazagaon]]
* [[Mazagaon Gardens]]
* [[Sewri Fort]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of forts in Maharashtra]]

{{Forts around Mumbai}}
{{Forts in India}}

[[Category:Archaeological sites in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:History of Mumbai]]
[[Category:1680 establishments in the British Empire]]
[[Category:Demolished buildings and structures in India]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures demolished in the 1690s]]

Ministry of Heavy Industries

2026-03-22T11:35:59Z

Shubhamsaini9:

{{Short description|Government ministry of India}}
{{more citations needed|date=September 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Ministry of Heavy Industries
| type = Ministry
| seal = Government of India logo.svg
| seal_width = 100px
| seal_caption = Branch of Government of India
| logo = Ministry of Heavy Industries India.svg
| logo_size = 250px
| logo_caption = Ministry of Heavy Industries
| formed = 7 July 2021<ref name="PTI / Updated: Jul 7, 2021, 14:57 IST">{{cite web|author=PTI / Updated: Jul 7, 2021, 14:57 IST |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/finance-ministry-gets-bigger-department-of-public-enterprises-now-part-of-it/articleshow/84199390.cms |title=Finance ministry gets bigger: Department of Public Enterprises now part of it - Times of India |publisher=M.timesofindia.com |date=2021-07-07 |access-date=2021-09-08}}</ref>
| jurisdiction = [[Government of India]]
| employees =
| budget = {{INRConvert|6171|c}} (2023-24 est) <ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.business-standard.com/amp/budget/article/ministry-of-heavy-industries-budget-doubled-93-towards-electric-mobility-123020301222_1.html|title= Ministry of Heavy Industries budget doubled ,93% towards electric mobility}}</ref>
| chief1_name = [[H. D. Kumaraswamy]]
| chief1_position = Minister of Heavy Industries
| chief2_name = [[Bhupathi Raju Srinivasa Varma]]
| chief2_position = Minister of State for Heavy Industries
| chief3_name =
| chief3_position =
| chief4_name =
| chief4_position =
| chief5_name =
| chief5_position =
| chief6_name =
| chief6_position =
| chief7_name =
| chief7_position =
| chief8_name =
| chief8_position =
| chief9_name =
| chief9_position =
| parent_department =
| website = {{URL|https://heavyindustries.gov.in/}}
}}
The '''Ministry of Heavy Industries''' {{efn|{{lang|hi|भारी उद्योग मन्त्रालय}} {{Translation|Bhārī Udyōga Mantrālaya}}}} is an executive agency of the [[Government of India]]. The Ministry entails for promoting the engineering industry viz. machine tools, heavy electrical, industrial machinery, and auto industry and administration of 40 operating Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) and 4 autonomous organizations.<ref name=auto1>{{cite web|url=https://heavyindustries.gov.in/particulars-department-heavy-industry-organization-functions-and-duties|title=Particulars of Department of Heavy Industry organization, functions and duties|website=heavyindustries.gov.in|publisher=Ministry of Heavy Industries|access-date=18 February 2024}}</ref>

As of June 2024, the Honourable Minister is [[H. D. Kumaraswamy]] and the Honourable Minister of State is [[Bhupathi Raju Srinivasa Varma]].

==History==
The Ministry of Heavy Industries was previously called Ministry of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprise. On 13 June 1956 the Ministry has been renamed as Ministry of Heavy Industries as the Department of Public Enterprises (DPE) was shifted to the [[Ministry of Finance (India)|Ministry of Finance]].<ref name="PTI / Updated: Jul 7, 2021, 14:57 IST"/>

== Structure ==

=== Divisions/Sections/Desks ===
*Finance & Administration
**Finance
**B&A (Budget & Accounts)
**Cash
**Administration
**General Administration
**Vigilance
**Hindi
**SC/ST Cell
**RTI Cell (Right to Information)
**O&M, Training (Organisation & Methods)

*Automotive Industry (AEI) Division
**PLI Auto (Production Linked Incentive for Automobile and Auto Components)
**SMEC Scheme (Specialized Manufacturing Ecosystem Control)
**Social Media Cell
**Coordination (OOMF, PDC/FDI)
**FAME-II (Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles - Phase II)
**Sub-sections: e-3W, EVPCS, e-2W, e-4W, e-Bus
**PM E-Drive (e-3W, EVPCS, e-2W, e-Bus, e-Truck, e-Ambulance)
**EMPS (Electric Mobility Promotion Scheme)
**E-Mobility Policy matters
**Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP)
**Automotive Mission Plan
**GVC Scheme (Global Value Chain)

*Heavy Electricals & Machine Tools (HE&MT)
**HE&MT (Heavy Electricals & Machine Tools)
**Skill Development
**All technical work / matters of HE&MT

*Heavy Engineering Industries (HEI) & CPSEs
**HEI (Heavy Engineering Industries)
**BHEL (Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited)
**RIC, NIL
**R&C, BBJ, AYCL
**SIL, TCIL, BPCL
**HEC (Heavy Engineering Corporation)
**NBCIL
**REIL, B&R
**HMT (Int), HMT Ltd, HMT (MT), HMT Watches, HMT Chinar watches, HMT Bearing
**HSL, SSL
**NEPA, HPC, HNL
**BLC, TAFCO
**HCL, TSPL
**EPIL, NIDC, IL, FCRI
**BOGL, MAMC, HPF
**CCIL, TSL, BYNL

*Policy, Coordination & Special Cells
**Corporate Cell
**IC Cell (International Cooperation)
**Project Development Cell (PDC)
**IT Cell (Information Technology)
**GST Facilitation Cell
**Economic Wing
**Technical Wing
**PG Cell (Public Grievances)
**Parliament / Parliament Questions of AEI
**Media Publicity Cell
**Central Monitoring of VIP references (e-Parinam Portal)
**Coordination of Closure / Disinvestment of Units

===Autonomous Bodies===
There are four autonomous bodies under the [[ownership]] of ''Ministry of Heavy Industries''.<ref name=auto1/>

* Fluid Control Research Institute (FCRI)
* [[Automotive Research Association of India]] (ARAI)
* National Automotive Board (NAB)
* Central Manufacturing Technology Institute (CMTI)

===Central Public Sector Undertakings===
There are 40 CPSUs under the [[ownership]] of ''Ministry of Heavy Industries'', of which 16 are operational.<ref name=auto1/>

* [[Andrew Yule and Company]] (AYCL)
* [[Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited]] (BHEL)
* Braithwaite, Burn & Jessop Construction Ltd.
* Bridge & Roof Company (India) Ltd.
* [[Cement Corporation of India]] (CCI)
* Engineering Projects (India) Ltd.(EPI)
* [[Heavy Engineering Corporation|Heavy Engineering Corporation Ltd. (HEC)]]
* HMT Ltd.(Holding Company with Tractor Division)
* HMT (Bearings ) Limited (a subsidiary of HMT)
* HMT Machine Tools (a subsidiary of HMT)
* Hindustan Salts Ltd. (HSL)
* Sambhar Salts Ltd. (SSL) (Subsidiary of HSL)
* Instrumentation Ltd. Kota (IL)
* Nepa Limited (NEPA)
* Rajasthan Electronics and Instruments Ltd.(subsidiary of ILK)
* Richardson & Cruddass (1972) Ltd.(R & C)

===Industrial Sectors Regulation===
The Industrial sectors regulated by the ''Ministry of Heavy Industries'' are:<ref name=auto1/>

* Heavy Engineering Equipment and Machine Tools Industry
* Heavy Electrical Engineering Industry
* Automotive Sector, including Tractors and Earth Moving Equipment

====20 Sub-sectors====
20 Sub-sectors under the 3 broad sectors are as under:
* Boilers
* Cement Machinery
* Dairy Machinery
* Electrical Furnace
* Diesel Engines
* Material Handling Equipment
* Metallurgical Machinery including Steel Plant Equipment
* Earthmoving and Mining Machinery
* Machine Tool
* Oil Field Equipment
* Printing Machinery
* Pulp and Paper Machinery
* Rubber Machinery
* Switchgear and Control Gear
* Plastic Processing Machinery
* Sugar Machinery
* Turbines & Generator Set
* Transformers
* Textile Machinery
* Food Processing Machinery

==Cabinet Ministers==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" | {{Abbr|No.|Number}}
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| Portrait
! rowspan="2" style="width:18em" |Minister {{small|(Birth-Death) Constituency}}
! colspan="3" |Term of office
! rowspan="2" style="width:8em" |Political party
! rowspan="2" style="width:6em" | Ministry
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| Prime Minister
|-
! style="width:8em"| From
! style="width:8em"| To
! style="width:6em"| Period
|-
! colspan="11"| Minister of Heavy Industries
|-
! 1
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| [[File:Manubhai Shah Lok Sabha portrait.gif|70px]]
| '''[[Manubhai Shah]]''' {{small|(1915{{ndash}}2000) MP for [[Jamnagar Lok Sabha constituency|Jamnagar]]}} (MoS)
| 13 June 1956
| 30 August 1956
| '''{{ayd|13 June 1956|30 Aug 1956}}'''
| rowspan="3"| [[Indian National Congress]]
| rowspan="3"| [[Second Nehru ministry|Nehru II]]
| rowspan="3" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| rowspan="3"| '''[[Jawaharlal Nehru]]'''
|-
! 2
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| [[File:Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Govind Ballabh Pant]]''' {{small|(1887{{ndash}}1961) Rajya Sabha MP for [[Uttar Pradesh]]}}
| 30 August 1956
| 14 November 1956
| '''{{ayd|30 Aug 1956|14 Nov 1956}}'''
|-
! 3
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| [[File:Morarji Desai visits the USA (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Morarji Desai]]''' {{small|(1896–1995) ''Unelected''}}
| 14 November 1956
| 16 April 1957
| '''{{ayd|14 Nov 1956|16 Apr 1957}}'''
|-
! colspan="11"| Minister of Steel and Heavy Industries
|-
! 4
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| [[File:Chidambaram Subramaniam Lok Sabha photo.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Chidambaram Subramaniam]]''' {{small|(1910{{ndash}}2000) MP for [[Pollachi Lok Sabha constituency|Pollachi]]}}
| 10 April 1962
| 21 November 1963
| '''{{ayd|1962|4|10|1963|11|21}}'''
| [[Indian National Congress]]
| [[Fourth Nehru ministry|Nehru IV]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| '''[[Jawaharlal Nehru]]'''
|-
! colspan="11"| Minister of Steel, Mines and Heavy Industries
|-
! rowspan="2"| (4)
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| rowspan="2"| [[File:Chidambaram Subramaniam Lok Sabha photo.jpg|70px]]
| rowspan="2"| '''[[Chidambaram Subramaniam]]''' {{small|(1910{{ndash}}2000) MP for [[Pollachi Lok Sabha constituency|Pollachi]]}}
| 21 November 1963
| 27 May 1964
| rowspan="2"| '''{{ayd|1963|11|21|1964|6|9}}'''
| rowspan="2"| [[Indian National Congress]]
| [[Fourth Nehru ministry|Nehru IV]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| '''[[Jawaharlal Nehru]]'''
|-
| 27 May 1964
| 9 June 1964
| [[First Nanda ministry|Nanda I]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| style="width:9em"| '''[[Gulzarilal Nanda]]'''
|-
! colspan="11"| Minister of Steel and Heavy Engineering
|-
! 5
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| [[File:C M Poonacha.gif|70px]]
| '''[[C. M. Poonacha]]''' {{small|(1910{{ndash}}1990) MP for [[Mangalore Lok Sabha constituency|Mangalore]]}}
| 14 February 1969
| 15 November 1969
| '''{{ayd|1969|2|14|1969|11|15}}'''
| rowspan="4"| [[Indian National Congress (R)]]
| rowspan="3"| [[Second Indira Gandhi ministry|Indira II]]
| rowspan="4" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| rowspan="4"| '''[[Indira Gandhi]]'''
|-
! 6
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| [[File:Swaran_Singh_Lok_Sabha_photo.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Swaran Singh]]''' {{small|(1907{{ndash}}1994) MP for [[Jalandhar Lok Sabha constituency|Jullundur]]}}
| 15 November 1969
| 27 June 1970
| '''{{ayd|1969|11|15|1970|6|27}}'''
|-
! 7
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| [[File:Bali Ram Bhagat portrait.gif|70px]]
| '''[[Bali Ram Bhagat]]''' {{small|(1922{{ndash}}2011) MP for [[Arrah Lok Sabha constituency|Arrah]]}}
| 27 June 1970
| 15 March 1971
| '''{{ayd|1970|6|27|1971|3|15}}'''
|-
! 8
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| [[File:S. Mohan Kumaramangalam Lok Sabha photo.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Mohan Kumaramangalam]]''' {{small|(1916{{ndash}}1973) MP for [[Puducherry Lok Sabha constituency|Pondicherry]]}}
| 18 March 1971
| 2 May 1971
| '''{{ayd|1971|3|18|1971|5|2}}'''
| [[Third Indira Gandhi ministry|Indira III]]
|-
! colspan="11"| Minister of Heavy Industry
|-
! 9
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| [[File:T. A. Pai photo.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[T. A. Pai]]''' {{small|(1922{{ndash}}1981) Rajya Sabha MP for [[Karnataka]]}}
| 5 February 1973
| 10 October 1974
| '''{{ayd|5 Feb 1973|10 Oct 1974}}'''
| [[Indian National Congress (R)]]
| [[Third Indira Gandhi ministry|Indira III]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| '''[[Indira Gandhi]]'''
|-
! colspan="11"| {{nobold|''Ministry disestablished during this interval''}}{{efn|The ministry's competences were transferred to the [[Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)|Ministry of Industry]].}}
|-
! colspan="11"| Minister of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises
|-
! 10
| bgcolor="{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"|
| [[File:Manohar Joshi cropped.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Manohar Joshi]]''' {{small|(1937{{ndash}}2024) MP for [[Mumbai North Central Lok Sabha constituency|Mumbai North Central]]}}
| 13 October 1999
| 9 May 2002
| '''{{ayd|13 Oct 1999|9 May 2002}}'''
| rowspan="4"| [[Shiv Sena]]
| rowspan="4"| [[Third Vajpayee ministry|Vajpayee III]]
| rowspan="4" bgcolor="{{party color|BJP}}"|
| rowspan="4"| '''[[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]]'''
|-
! 11
| bgcolor="{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"|
| [[File:Suresh Prabhu (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Suresh Prabhu]]''' {{small|(born 1953) MP for [[Rajapur Lok Sabha constituency|Rajapur]]}}
| 9 May 2002
| 1 July 2002
| '''{{ayd|9 May 2002|1 Jul 2002}}'''
|-
! 12
| bgcolor="{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"|
| [[File:Balasaheb Vikhe Patil accepting Padma Bhushan (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Balasaheb Vikhe Patil]]''' {{small|(1932{{ndash}}2016) MP for [[Kopargaon Lok Sabha constituency|Kopargaon]]}}
| 1 July 2002
| 24 May 2003
| '''{{ayd|1 Jul 2002|24 May 2003}}'''
|-
! 13
| bgcolor="{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"|
| [[File:Subodh_Mohite.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Mohite Subodh Baburao]]''' {{small|(born 1961) MP for [[Ramtek Lok Sabha constituency|Ramtek]]}}
| 24 May 2003
| 22 May 2004
| '''{{ayd|24 May 2003|22 May 2004}}'''
|-
! 14
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| [[File:Santosh Mohan Dev addressing the press conference in New Delhi on November 20, 2008 (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Santosh Mohan Dev]]''' {{small|(1934{{ndash}}2017) MP for [[Silchar Lok Sabha constituency|Silchar]]}} (MoS, I/C until 29 January 2006)
| 23 May 2004
| 22 May 2009
| '''{{ayd|23 May 2004|22 May 2009}}'''
| rowspan="2"| [[Indian National Congress]]
| [[First Manmohan Singh ministry|Manmohan I]]
| rowspan="3" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| rowspan="3"| '''[[Manmohan Singh]]'''
|-
! 15
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| [[File:Vilasrao Deshmukh at Innovation Partnerships Event May 8, 2012.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Vilasrao Deshmukh]]''' {{small|(1945{{ndash}}2012) Rajya Sabha MP for [[Maharashtra]]}}
| 28 May 2009
| 19 January 2011
| '''{{ayd|2009|5|28|2011|1|19}}'''
| rowspan="2"| [[Second Manmohan Singh ministry|Manmohan II]]
|-
! 16
| bgcolor="{{party color|Nationalist Congress Party (post–2023)}}"|
| [[File:Praful Patel assuming charge as Minister of Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises in January 2011 (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Praful Patel]]''' {{small|(born 1957) Rajya Sabha MP for [[Maharashtra]]}}
| 19 January 2011
| 26 May 2014
| '''{{ayd|19 Jan 2011|26 May 2014}}'''
| [[Nationalist Congress Party]]
|-
! 17
| bgcolor="{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"|
| [[File:Anant Geete in April 2017.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Anant Geete]]''' {{small|(born 1951) MP for [[Raigad Lok Sabha constituency|Raigad]]}}
| 27 May 2014
| 30 May 2019
| '''{{ayd|27 May 2014|30 May 2019}}'''
| rowspan="2"| [[Shiv Sena]]
| [[First Modi ministry|Modi I]]
| rowspan="3" bgcolor="{{party color|BJP}}"|
| rowspan="3"| '''[[Narendra Modi]]'''
|-
! 18
| bgcolor="{{party color|Shiv Sena}}"|
| [[File:Arvind Sawant (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Arvind Sawant]]''' {{small|(born 1951) MP for [[Mumbai South Lok Sabha constituency|Mumbai South]]}}
| 31 May 2019
| 11 November 2019
| '''{{ayd|31 May 2019|11 Nov 2019}}'''
| rowspan="2"| [[Second Modi ministry|Modi II]]
|-
! 19
| bgcolor="{{party color|BJP}}"|
| [[File:Prakash Javadekar MIB (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Prakash Javadekar]]''' {{small|(born 1951) Rajya Sabha MP for [[Maharashtra]]}}
| 11 November 2019
| 7 July 2021
| '''{{ayd|11 Nov 2019|7 Jul 2021}}'''
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
! colspan="11"| Minister of Heavy Industries
|-
! 20
| bgcolor="{{party color|BJP}}"|
| [[File:Mahendra Nath Pandey (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Mahendra Nath Pandey]]''' {{small|(born 1957) MP for [[Chandauli Lok Sabha constituency|Chandauli]]}}
| 7 July 2021
| 9 June 2024
| '''{{ayd|7 Jul 2021|9 June 2024}}'''
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| [[Second Modi ministry|Modi II]]
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|BJP}}"|
| rowspan="2"| '''[[Narendra Modi]]'''
|-
! 21
| bgcolor="{{party color|Janata Dal (Secular)}}"|
| [[File:HDK Minister of Steel.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[H. D. Kumaraswamy]]''' {{small|(born 1957) MP for [[Mandya Lok Sabha constituency|Mandya]]}}
| 10 June 2024
| Incumbent
| '''{{ayd|10 June 2024|}}'''
| [[Janata Dal (Secular)]]
| [[Third Modi ministry|Modi III]]
|-
|}

==Ministers of State==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" | {{Abbr|No.|Number}}
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| Portrait
! rowspan="2" style="width:18em" |Minister {{small|(Birth-Death) Constituency}}
! colspan="3" |Term of office
! rowspan="2" style="width:8em" |Political party
! rowspan="2" style="width:6em" | Ministry
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| Prime Minister
|-
! style="width:8em"| From
! style="width:8em"| To
! style="width:6em"| Period
|-
! colspan="11"| Minister of State for Heavy Industries
|-
! 1
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| [[File:Manubhai Shah Lok Sabha portrait.gif|70px]]
| '''[[Manubhai Shah]]''' {{small|(1915{{ndash}}2000) MP for [[Jamnagar Lok Sabha constituency|Jamnagar]]}}
| 30 August 1956
| 16 April 1957
| '''{{ayd|30 Aug 1956|16 Apr 1957}}'''
| [[Indian National Congress]]
| [[Second Nehru ministry|Nehru II]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| style="width:9em"| '''[[Jawaharlal Nehru]]'''
|-
! colspan="11"| Minister of State for Steel and Heavy Engineering
|-
! 2
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| [[File:Shri K.C Pant (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[K. C. Pant]]''' {{small|(1931{{ndash}}2012) MP for [[Nainital Lok Sabha constituency|Nainital]]}}
| 14 February 1969
| 27 June 1970
| '''{{ayd|1969|2|14|1970|6|2}}'''
| [[Indian National Congress (R)]]
| [[Second Indira Gandhi ministry|Indira II]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| '''[[Indira Gandhi]]'''
|-
! colspan="11"| Minister of State for Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises
|-
! 3
| bgcolor="{{party color|BJP}}"|
| [[File:Vallabhbhai Kathiria (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Vallabhbhai Kathiria]]''' {{small|(born 1954) MP for [[Rajkot Lok Sabha constituency|Rajkot]]}}
| 13 October 1999
| 29 January 2003
| '''{{ayd|13 Oct 1999|29 Jan 2003}}'''
| rowspan="3"| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| rowspan="3"| [[Third Vajpayee ministry|Vajpayee III]]
| rowspan="3" bgcolor="{{party color|BJP}}"|
| rowspan="3"| '''[[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]]'''
|-
! colspan="7"|
|-
! 4
| bgcolor="{{party color|BJP}}"|
| [[File:Santosh Kumar Gangwar (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Santosh Kumar Gangwar]]''' {{small|(born 1948) MP for [[Bareilly Lok Sabha constituency|Bareilly]]}}
| 8 September 2003
| 22 May 2004
| '''{{ayd|8 Sep 2003|22 May 2004}}'''
|-
! colspan="11"|
|-
! 5
| style="background:{{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}"|
| [[File:Kanti Singh in 2008 (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Kanti Singh]]''' {{small|(born 1957) MP for [[Arrah Lok Sabha constituency|Arrah]]}} (Heavy Industries)
| 29 January 2006
| 6 April 2008
| '''{{ayd|29 Jan 2006|6 Apr 2008}}'''
| rowspan="2"| [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]]
| rowspan="2"| [[First Manmohan Singh ministry|Manmohan I]]
| rowspan="5" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| rowspan="5"| '''[[Manmohan Singh]]'''
|-
! 6
| style="background:{{party color|Rashtriya Janata Dal}}"|
|
| '''[[Raghunath Jha]]''' {{small|(1939{{ndash}}2018) MP for [[Bettiah Lok Sabha constituency|Bettiah]]}}
| 6 April 2008
| 22 May 2009
| '''{{ayd|6 Apr 2008|22 May 2009}}'''
|-
! 7
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| [[File:Pratik Prakashbapu Patil (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Pratik Prakashbapu Patil]]''' {{small|(born 1973) MP for [[Sangli Lok Sabha constituency|Sangli]]}}
| 28 May 2009
| 14 June 2009
| '''{{ayd|28 May 2009|14 Jun 2009}}'''
| rowspan="3"| [[Indian National Congress]]
| rowspan="3"| [[Second Manmohan Singh ministry|Manmohan II]]
|-
! 8
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| [[File:Arun Yadav assuming office as Minister of State for Agriculture.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Arun Subhashchandra Yadav]]''' {{small|(born 1974) MP for [[Khandwa Lok Sabha constituency|Khandwa]]}}
| 14 June 2009
| 19 January 2011
| '''{{ayd|14 Jun 2009|19 Jan 2011}}'''
|-
! 9
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| [[File:Shri A. Sai Prathap assumes charge as the Minister of State for Steel, in New Delhi on June 03, 2009 (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Sai Prathap Annayyagari]]''' {{small|(born 1944) MP for [[Rajampet Lok Sabha constituency|Rajampet]]}}
| 19 January 2011
| 12 July 2011
| '''{{ayd|19 Jan 2011|12 Jul 2011}}'''
|-
! colspan="11"|
|-
! 10
| bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| [[File:Pon Radhakrishnan.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Pon Radhakrishnan]]''' {{small|(born 1952) MP for [[Kanniyakumari Lok Sabha constituency|Kanniyakumari]]}}
| 26 May 2014
| 9 November 2014
| '''{{ayd|26 May 2014|9 Nov 2014}}'''
| rowspan="4"| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| rowspan="3"| [[First Modi ministry|Modi I]]
| rowspan="4" bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| rowspan="4"| '''[[Narendra Modi]]'''
|-
! 11
| bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| [[File:G. M. Siddeshwara (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[G. M. Siddeshwara]]''' {{small|(born 1952) MP for [[Davanagere Lok Sabha constituency|Davanagere]]}}
| 9 November 2014
| 12 July 2016
| '''{{ayd|9 Nov 2014|12 Jul 2016}}'''
|-
! 12
| bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| [[File:Babul Supriyo 2018.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Babul Supriyo]]''' {{small|(born 1970) MP for [[Asansol Lok Sabha constituency|Asansol]]}}
| 12 July 2016
| 30 May 2019
| '''{{ayd|12 Jul 2016|30 May 2019}}'''
|-
! 13
| bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
| [[File:Arjun Ram Meghwal 2017 (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Arjun Ram Meghwal]]''' {{small|(born 1953) MP for [[Bikaner Lok Sabha constituency|Bikaner]]}}
| 31 May 2019
| 7 July 2021
| '''{{ayd|31 May 2019|7 Jul 2021}}'''
| [[Second Modi ministry|Modi II]]
|-
! colspan="11"| Minister of State for Heavy Industries
|-
! 14
| bgcolor="{{party color|BJP}}"|
| [[File:Krishan Pal at the National Workshop on Autism Tools (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Krishan Pal Gurjar]]''' {{small|(born 1957) MP for [[Faridabad Lok Sabha constituency|Faridabad]]}}
| 7 July 2021
| 9 June 2024
| '''{{ayd|7 Jul 2021|9 Jun 2024}}'''
| rowspan="2"| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| [[Second Modi ministry|Modi II]]
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|BJP}}"|
| rowspan="2"| '''[[Narendra Modi]]'''
|-
! 15
| bgcolor="{{party color|BJP}}"|
| [[File:BhSrinivasaVarma.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Bhupathi Raju Srinivasa Varma]]''' {{small|(born 1967) MP for [[Narasapuram Lok Sabha constituency|Narasapuram]]}}
| 10 June 2024
| Incumbent
| '''{{ayd|10 Jun 2024}}'''
| [[Third Modi ministry|Modi III]]
|-
|}

==Deputy Ministers==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" | {{Abbr|No.|Number}}
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| Portrait
! rowspan="2" style="width:18em" |Minister {{small|(Birth-Death) Constituency}}
! colspan="3" |Term of office
! rowspan="2" style="width:8em" |Political party
! rowspan="2" style="width:6em" | Ministry
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| Prime Minister
|-
! style="width:8em"| From
! style="width:8em"| To
! style="width:6em"| Period
|-
! colspan="11"| Deputy Minister of Steel and Heavy Industries
|-
! 1
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| [[File:Prakash Chandra Sethi Lok Sabha photo.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Prakash Chandra Sethi]]''' {{small|(1919{{ndash}}1996) MP for [[Indore Lok Sabha constituency|Indore]]}}
| 8 June 1962
| 21 November 1963
| '''{{ayd|1962|6|8|1963|11|21}}'''
| [[Indian National Congress]]
| [[Fourth Nehru ministry|Nehru IV]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| style="width:9em"| '''[[Jawaharlal Nehru]]'''
|-
! colspan="11"| Deputy Minister of Steel, Mines and Heavy Engineering
|-
! rowspan="2"| (1)
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| rowspan="2"| [[File:Prakash Chandra Sethi Lok Sabha photo.jpg|70px]]
| rowspan="2"| '''[[Prakash Chandra Sethi]]''' {{small|(1919{{ndash}}1996) MP for [[Indore Lok Sabha constituency|Indore]]}}
| 21 November 1963
| 27 May 1964
| rowspan="2"| '''{{ayd|1963|11|21|1964|6|9}}'''
| rowspan="2"| [[Indian National Congress]]
| [[Fourth Nehru ministry|Nehru IV]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| '''[[Jawaharlal Nehru]]'''
|-
| 27 May 1964
| 9 June 1964
| [[First Nanda ministry|Nanda I]]
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
| '''[[Gulzarilal Nanda]]'''
|-
! colspan="11"| Deputy Minister of Steel and Heavy Engineering
|-
! rowspan="2"| 2
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| rowspan="2"| [[File:Mohammad Shafi Qureshi, Governor of Madhya Pradesh (cropped).jpg|70px]]
| rowspan="2"| '''[[Mohammad Shafi Qureshi]]''' {{small|(1928{{ndash}}2016) MP for [[Anantnag Lok Sabha constituency|Anantnag]]}}
| 14 February 1969
| 18 March 1971
| rowspan="2"| '''{{ayd|1969|2|14|1971|5|2}}'''
| rowspan="2"| [[Indian National Congress (R)]]
| [[Second Indira Gandhi ministry|Indira II]]
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| rowspan="2"| '''[[Indira Gandhi]]'''
|-
| 18 March 1971
| 2 May 1971
| [[Third Indira Gandhi ministry|Indira III]]
|-
! colspan="11"| Deputy Minister of Heavy Industry
|-
! 3
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| [[File:Siddheshwar Prasad Lok Sabha photo.jpg|70px]]
| '''[[Siddheshwar Prasad]]''' {{small|(1929{{ndash}}2023) MP for [[Nalanda Lok Sabha constituency|Nalanda]]}}
| 5 February 1973
| 9 November 1973
| '''{{ayd|5 Feb 1973|9 Nov 1973}}'''
| rowspan="2"| [[Indian National Congress (R)]]
| rowspan="2"| [[Third Indira Gandhi ministry|Indira III]]
| rowspan="2" bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
| rowspan="2"| '''[[Indira Gandhi]]'''
|-
! 4
| bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (R)}}"|
|
| '''[[Chaudhary Dalbir Singh]]''' {{small|(1926{{ndash}}1987) MP for [[Sirsa Lok Sabha constituency|Sirsa]]}}
| 9 November 1973
| 10 October 1974
| '''{{ayd|9 Nov 1973|10 Oct 1974}}'''
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==External links==
*[https://heavyindustries.gov.in/ Ministry website]

{{Union ministries of India}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Government ministries of India|Heavy Industries]]
[[Category:Industry ministries|India]]
[[Category:Industry in India]]
[[Category:Heavy industry]]

Raseel Gujral Ansal

2026-03-15T04:04:55Z

Shubhamsaini9: started new post basic info - done

{{Short description|Indian Interior designer}}
{{unreliable sources|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Raseel Gujral Ansal
| image = Raseel Gujral Ansal.jpg
| alt = 
| caption =
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = 
| birth_place =
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| other_names =
| occupation = Designer, Spatial Design
| years_active =
| spouse = Navin Ansal (m.1998)
| known_for =
| notable_works =
| parents =
| mother = Kiran Gujral
| father = [[Satish Gujral]]
| relatives = [[Inder Kumar Gujral]] (Uncle)
}}
'''Raseel Gujral Ansal''' (born January 6, 1965) is an Indian Interior designer renowned for her expertise in Spatial Designer, interiors, and product design.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kumar |first1=Surya Praphulla |title=Raseel Gujral Ansal's singular take on design |url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/luxury/raseel-gujral-ansals-singular-take-on-design/article29352933.ece |website=The Hindu |language=en-IN |date=6 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How To Invest In Your First Statement Decor Piece |url=https://in.hellomagazine.com/lifestyle/20220319300291/how-to-invest-in-statement-decor-piece-by-raseel-gujral/ |website=HELLO! India |language=en |date=19 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Singh |first1=Ayesha |title=The Great Wall of Modern Myth |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/lifestyle/fashion/2024/Feb/10/the-great-wall-of-modern-myth |website=The New Indian Express |language=en |date=10 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=For this Delhi-based designer, home is where the art is |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/lifestyle/people/story/raseel-gujral-ansal-designer-delhi-Spatial Design-home-creative-profession-lifest-1053259-2017-09-27 |website=India Today |language=en |date=27 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Raseel Gujral Ansal's Tips on How To Make Your Space Look Expensive On a Budget {{!}} Grazia India |url=https://www.grazia.co.in/lifestyle/raseel-gujral-ansals-tips-on-how-to-make-your-space-look-expensive-on-a-budget-1134.html |website=Grazia.co.in |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Raseel Gujral Ansal was born on January 6, 1965, in Delhi, India, into a family renowned for its contributions to art and politics. Her father, [[Satish Gujral]] ([[Padma Vibhushan]]), was a celebrated painter, sculptor, and muralist, while her mother, Kiran Gujral, was recognized for her work in ceramics. Additionally, she is the niece of [[Inder Kumar Gujral]], a former [[Prime Minister of India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Raseel Gujral Ansal: A Legacy of Design Evolution |url=https://www.brutimes.com/news/lifestyle/raseel-gujral-ansal-a-legacy-of-design-evolution |website=Bru Times News |language=en}}</ref>

From a young age, Raseel was deeply immersed in the world of art. She actively participated in her parents' art exhibitions, absorbing their work ethic and artistic influences. She received her early education at Modern School in Delhi, and later at [[Welham Girls' School]] in Dehradun, where she continued to nurture her passion for the arts. At the age of 20, Raseel joined the architectural practice run by her father and brother as an interior architect.<ref>{{cite web |title=Casa Paradox |url=https://www.forbesindia.com/video/the-bold-club/casa-paradox/159/1 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>

==Career==
Raseel Gujral Ansal began her career in interior Spatial Design, but her creative spirit soon led her to explore furniture and product design.<ref>{{cite web |title=India’s Best Dressed List 2012 {{!}} Verve Magazine |url=https://www.vervemagazine.in/people/indias-best-dressed-list-2012 |website=Vervemagazine |date=20 October 2012}}</ref> In the early 1990s, she established her own Spatial Design and design studio, "Raseel Gujral Ansal Design" (RGA Design). Building on this success, she ventured into the retail sector.<ref>{{cite web |title=Raseel Gujral Ansal - One of Indias leading lifestyle designer {{!}} Work portfolio in product design, Spatial Design, and interior decoration |url=https://surfacesreporter.com/articles/123323/raseel-gujral-ansal-one-of-indias-leading-lifestyle-designer-work-portfolio-in-product-design-Spatial Design-and-interior-decoration |website=Surfacesreporter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Partners in prime |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/culture/partners-in-prime/cid/1536911 |website=Telegraph}}</ref>

In 1994, Raseel co-founded Casa Paradox with her husband, Navin Ansal. Casa Paradox is renowned for its innovative and luxurious designs that transform living spaces.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pop Culture {{!}} Verve Magazine |url=https://www.vervemagazine.in/events/casa-paradox |website=Vervemagazine |date=29 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=For this Delhi-based designer, home is where the art is |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/lifestyle/people/story/raseel-gujral-ansal-designer-delhi-architecture-home-creative-profession-lifest-1053259-2017-09-27 |website=India Today |language=en |date=27 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pop Up |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/pop-up/ |website=The Indian Express |language=en |date=23 March 2015}}</ref>

In 2013, Raseel launched Casa Pop, a prêt diffusion line of Casa Paradox, which broadened the scope of her design work to include product categories such as clothing and fashion accessories.<ref>{{cite web |title=All Things Bright: Raseel Gujral Ansal launches Casa Pop |url=https://www.idiva.com/travel-living/home-decor/all-things-bright-raseel-gujral-ansal-launches-casa-pop/33486 |website=iDiva |language=en-IN |date=18 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ghatak |first1=Lopamudra |title=New Casa Pop store at Delhi's Select Citywalk is a feast for the eyes |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/new-casa-pop-store-at-delhis-select-citywalk-is-a-feast-for-the-eyes/articleshow/54919616.cms |website=The Economic Times |date=18 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Where Wallpapers Turn Into Affordable Artworks |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/lifestyle/people/where-wallpapers-turn-into-affordable-artworks-article-107406291 |website=Times Now |language=en |date=4 February 2024}}</ref>

Through these ventures, Raseel has introduced multiple stores and collaborated on shop-in-shop arrangements, offering a wide range of products including furniture, furnishings, décor, fashion, and fashion accessories.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wilson |first1=Henry |title=Raseel Gujral Ansal's residential project is at once quirky and elegant |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts/raseel-gujral-ansals-residential-project-is-at-once-quirky-and-elegant-1.95543 |website=The National |language=en |date=18 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Raseel Gujral Ansal's bold new furnishing collection takes you around the world |url=https://www.architecturaldigest.in/story/raseel-gujral-ansals-bold-new-furnishing-collection-takes-you-around-the-world/ |website=Architectural Digest India |language=en-IN |date=14 April 2022}}</ref>

==Awards==
Raseel's work has been prominently featured in major publications, and she has been honored with numerous awards for her significant contributions to the design industry.

*2011 Elle Deco International Design Awards<ref>{{cite web |title=Hall of fame: 15 years of EDIDA |url=https://elledecor.in/article/hall-of-fame-15-years-of-edida/ |website=ELLE DECOR}}</ref>
*India's Best Dressed List 2012<ref>{{cite web |title=India’s Best Dressed List 2012 {{!}} Verve Magazine |url=https://www.vervemagazine.in/people/indias-best-dressed-list-2012 |website=Vervemagazine |date=20 October 2012}}</ref>
*2014 Architectural Digest Award for Most Influential Names in Indian Architecture and Design<ref>{{cite web |title=AD Perspective |url=https://nishamathewghosh.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/AD-50-1.pdf |website=Nishamathewghosh.com}}</ref>
*Luxury Lifestyle Awards 2015<ref>{{cite web |title=Architect and Interior Design Studio Archives |url=https://luxurylifestyleawards.com/winners/architect-and-interior-design-studio |website=Luxury Lifestyle Awards}}</ref>
*Woman Architects & Designers Federation (Wade Awards 2016)<ref>{{cite web |title=Wade Awards 2016 |url=http://wadeindia.weebly.com/blog/category/architecture-awards-india |website=wadeindia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Speakers-Architects, Interior Designers, & Artists {{!}} WADE Awards 2024 |url=https://www.wadeasia.com/speakers/ |website=Wade Asia}}</ref>
*2017: Elite Magazine - Influential Entrepreneurs<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sabharwal |first1=Punita |title=Creating the Artful Home With Raseel Gujral |url=https://www.entrepreneur.com/en-in/growth-strategies/creating-the-artful-home-with-raseel-gujral/286012 |website=Entrepreneur |language=en |date=3 December 2016}}</ref>
*2018: Hello! Magazine - Timeless Icon<ref>{{cite web |title=Hello Magazine Timeless Icon |url=https://twitter.com/HELLOmagIndia/status/961667546150776833 |website=Twitter |publisher=Hello Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How To Invest In Your First Statement Decor Piece |url=https://in.hellomagazine.com/lifestyle/20220319300291/how-to-invest-in-statement-decor-piece-by-raseel-gujral/ |website=HELLO! India |language=en |date=19 March 2022}}</ref>
*Asia Pacific Property Award 2019-2020<ref>{{cite web |title=Asia Pacific's Best 2019-2020 by International Property Media - Issuu |url=https://issuu.com/intprop/docs/2019-wb-ap |website=issuu.com |pages=164–165 |language=en |date=15 May 2019}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Raseel is married to Navin Ansal since 1998. They have three children.<ref>{{cite web |title=Raseel Gujral and Navin Ansal essay: Being someone's first love is great, but being someone's last love is beyond perfect! |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/brunch/raseel-gujral-and-navin-ansal-essay-being-someone-s-first-love-is-great-but-being-someone-s-last-love-is-beyond-perfect/story-qLmm1NYXyafrZ6KAOhnD0K.html |website=Hindustan Times |language=en |date=11 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Alves |first1=Glynda |title=Navin Ansal loves his pink and blue suits, says colours need to be carried with élan |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/navin-ansal-loves-his-pink-and-blue-suits-says-colours-need-to-be-carried-with-lan/articleshow/63007774.cms |website=The Economic Times |date=21 February 2018}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gujral, Raseel}}
[[Category:Indian interior designers]]
[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Indian academics]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Laṇḍā scripts

2026-03-14T23:29:33Z

Shubhamsaini9: typo fix

{{Short description|Writing systems of northwestern Indian Subcontinent}}
{{For|the proposed Western Punjabi linguistic group|Lahnda}}
{{Infobox writing system
|name = Laṇḍā scripts
|type = [[Alphabet]],{{sfn|Shackle|2007|p=594|ps=: "These scripts are alphabetical on the restricted Semitic model of Ugaritic cuneiform...."}} with some abugida descendents
|languages=
|fam1 = [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]]
|fam2 = [[Proto-Sinaitic alphabet]]
|fam3 = [[Phoenician alphabet]]
|fam4 = [[Aramaic alphabet]]
|fam5 = [[Brahmi script]]
|fam6 = [[Gupta script]]
|fam7 = [[Sharada script]]
|sisters = [[Takri script]]
|children = [[Gurmukhi]], [[Khojki script|Khojki]], [[Khudabadi script|Khudabadi]], [[Mahajani]], [[Multani script|Multani]], others
|iso15924 =
|sample = Landha Script.jpg
|imagesize= 400px
|caption = Landa script chart
|time = 10th-11th century CE
}}
{{Brahmic}}
{{Contains special characters|Indic}}
The '''Laṇḍā scripts''', from the term ''laṇḍā'' meaning "without a tail", is a [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] word used to refer to writing systems used in Punjab and adjoining areas.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/writingsystemsof00naka/page/50|title=Writing systems of the world: alphabets, syllabaries, pictograms|author=中西亮(Nakanishi, Akira)|date=1980-01-01|publisher=C.E. Tuttle Co.|isbn=0804812934|location=Rutland, Vt.; Tokyo, Japan|pages=[https://archive.org/details/writingsystemsof00naka/page/50 50-51]|language=en|url-access=registration}}</ref> In [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], it was known as 'Wāṇiko' or 'Baniyañ'.<ref name=pollock/>

==Development==
Laṇḍā is a script that evolved from the [[Sharada script]] during the 10th century. It was widely used in the northern and northwestern [[Indian subcontinent]], in the Indus River plain, and adjoining areas, comprising [[Punjab]], [[Sindh]], [[Kashmir]], and some parts of [[Balochistan]] and [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]. It was used to write languages including [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] in its various dialects and registers, languages of Haryana,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=India Census Commissioner |title=Census of India, 1901 |journal=Census of India |date=1902 |volume=17 |issue=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mSUUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA266 |publisher=Government Central Press |pages=266–267 |quote=Landa, literally the docked or tailless script.... is taught by ''padhas'', in a sort of nursery rhyme, of which the following is the Rohtak version.}}</ref> [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], and [[Pashto]].

The Laṇḍā scripts form a "typologically distinct group," and are closer in norms to its predecessor [[Brahmi|Brāhmī]] than they are to the Nāgarī scripts to the east, in their general avoidance of conjunct glyphs or marking of the [[Middle Indo-Aryan]] geminations distinctive of Panjābī. While possessing full sets of consonants, even separate letters for the common [[Lahnda|Lahndā]] consonant clusters ''tr'' and ''dr'', their indication of vowels is less regular; they possess three vowel letters to indicate initial /ə ɪ ʊ/, but no letters or signs in other positions, thus being "alphabetical on the restricted Semitic model of [[Ugaritic alphabet|Ugaritic cuneiform]]."<ref name="shackle"/>

===Functions===
Landa scripts were originally used as [[wikt:mercantile#English|mercantile]] shorthand for commercial purposes in the [[Punjab|Punjab region]] and [[Sindh]]; they often lacked the full set of vowel sounds, as well as often imperfect correspondence of consonants. This made them liable to misreadings, frequently recognized by the local population through local proverbs referring to its usefulness only to the original writer. Various technical improvements would make certain descendant scripts fully suitable for literary use, primarily motivated by interest in recording religious scripture, particularly in the cases of Gurmukhī in Punjab, and Khojkī in Sindh.<ref name=pollock>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC&pg=623|last1=Pollock|first1=Sheldon|title=Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia|last2=Raghunathan|first2=Arvind|publisher=University of California Press|year=2003|isbn=9780520228214|pages=623}}</ref>

==Variants==
The Laṇḍā scripts was first classified by [[George Abraham Grierson]].<ref name=asani>{{cite journal | last = Asani | first = Ali A. | title= The Khojkī Script: A Legacy of Ismaili Islam in the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent | journal= Journal of the American Oriental Society | year = 1987 | volume=107 | issue=3 | pages=440–441 | jstor = 603464 }}</ref> Pandey (2010) further classifies Laṇḍā scripts into "Panjābī" and "Sindhī" regional subclasses:<ref name="Pandey2010"/>

*Panjābī: Gurmukhī, Bahāwalpurī, Lamawasī (in [[Pindi Bhattian]] and [[Chunian]]),<ref name=specimens>{{cite book |last1=Leitner |first1=Gottlieb Wilhelm |author1-link=Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner |title=A Collection of Specimens of Commercial and Other Alphabets and Handwritings as Also of Multiplication Tables Current in Various Parts of the Panjab, Sind and the North West Provinces |date=1883 |publisher=Anjuman-i-Panjab Press |location=Lahore |pages=8–9 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_Collection_of_Specimens_of_Commercial/DnQIAAAAQAAJ}}</ref> Lundas (in [[Sialkot]] and [[Wazirabad]])<ref name=specimens/> Multānī (also known as Kiṛakkī and Sarāī), Parachi (in [[Bhera]] and [[Khushab]]),<ref name=specimens/> Thul, Sarika (both in [[Derajat]]), Uch (in Massan, [[Jhang]])<ref name=specimens/>
*Sindhī (named after the various regions, communities, or occupations with which they were associated): Aroṛā, Baniyā, Bhatiā, Haidarābādī, Karadī, Khudāwādī, Khwājā (Khojkī), Haṭāī, Haṭavāṇikā, Laraī, Lohāṇākī (Lohāṇā), Maimon, Rajaī, Sakkar, Shikārpurī, Sewhanī Bhabhira, Thatta (Thattai), Vaniyā, Wangaī, Wāṇiko

Grammarians of the 19th century variously identified as many as six Laṇḍā forms used in Punjab and as many as twelve in Sindh.<ref name="Pandey2010"/> Further typological differences used in this subclassification include:<ref name="Pandey2010"/>

*''character repertoire'': the Laṇḍā character sets of the Sindhī class possess characters for the [[implosive]] consonants of the language;
*''character shapes'': common letters can be identified by subclass depending on shape;
*''collation'': Panjābī Laṇḍā shares Gurmukhī's sorting order, starting with vowels, then fricatives ''sa'' and ''ha'', then the 5×5 set of occlusives, then sonorants, while Sindhī Laṇḍā follows Devanāgarī more closely; and
*''orthographic norms'': Panjābī Laṇḍā do not use dependent vowel diacritics, the approximate vowel letter is written after the consonant letter, e.g. the syllable /ki/ is written with the letter 'k' followed by the letter 'i'. After standardization, dependent vowel diacritics were introduced into Sindhī Laṇḍā.

Even within these subclasses, the scripts exhibit further differences.

===Fully attested===
{{Gallery
|title=[[Ephemera]] in Landa scripts
|width=120 |height=100
|align=right
|File:Punjabi postcard dispatched from Jagraon, Ludhiana written in a Landa script, December 1866.jpg|Punjabi postcard dispatched from [[Jagraon]], [[Ludhiana]] written in a Laṇḍā script, December 1866
|File:Postcard from Afghanistan written in a Landa script, ca.1871–72.jpg|Postcard from Afghanistan written in a Laṇḍā script, ca.1871–72
|File:Page written in a Landa script possibly containing the numeral "ik" at the top.jpg|Page written in a Laṇḍā script
}}
Currently, five Laṇḍā-descended scripts have enough information to be supported in Unicode.

#[[Gurmukhi|Gurmukhī]] is used for [[Punjabi language|Panjābī]] and sometimes for [[Sindhi_language|Sindhī]]. Originally used in Sikh scripture and writings, it is the only major Laṇḍā-descended script in modern day usage.<ref name="Pandey2010">Pandey, Anshuman. (2010). L2/10-011R [http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n3766.pdf ''A Roadmap for Scripts of the Landa Family''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315085943/http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n3766.pdf |date=2023-03-15 }}</ref> It has preserved the distinctive names of letters (''kakkā'', ''khakkhā'', etc.) and collation order of Laṇḍā (vowels→ fricatives→ occlusives→ sonorants).<ref name=shackle>{{cite book|last=Shackle|first=Christopher|author-link=Richard G. Salomon (professor of Asian studies)|year=2007|chapter=Writing Systems of the Indo-Aryan Languages| editor1-last= Cardona| editor1-first= George| editor2-last= Jain| editor2-first= Dhanesh|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-79711-9|pages=594–595}}</ref> In keeping with Laṇḍā's proximity to Brāhmī, it has retained a particularly close resemblance to Brāhmī among living scripts.<ref>{{cite book |last=Masica |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Masica |year=1993 |title=The Indo-Aryan Languages |place= Cambridge, U.K. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29944-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC&pg=145 |page=145 |quote= (It may be noted in passing, and should be apparent from the samples in Table 6.1, that the Nagari script is one that has gone furthest from Brahmi, at least among the "Northern" scripts. The other scripts, particularly Gurmukhi, often retain letters more similar to those of Brahmi.)}}</ref> Helping to foster a distinct Sikh culture and contributing to the consolidation of the Sikh religion, as well as first being a vehicle of Sikh religious literature, Gurmukhi became particularly important in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when the Sikhs established political hegemony over Punjab and Kashmir.<ref name=asani/>
#[[Khojki|Khojkī]], also known as ''caliha akhari'' or "the forty letters,"<ref name=boivin>{{cite book |last1=Boivin |first1=Michel |title=Devotion, Religious Authority, and Social Structures in Sindh: Khojas, Vanyos, and Faqirs |date=2024 |publisher=Brill | page = 33 |isbn=9789004695290 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Devotion_Religious_Authority_and_Social/utH7EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA33}}</ref> an [[wikt:ecclesiastical#English|ecclesiastical]] script of the [[Khoja|Isma'ili Khoja]] community, is considered to be a refined version of Lohāṇākī. Originally developed for Sindhi, it had also been used for Punjabi, Saraiki, and Gujarati as it spread, as well as for Arabic and Persian. Shifts in correspondences of letters most commonly included implosive letters for the tenuis consonants, and tenuis letters for aspirated stops. Such shifts was partly because as Khojkī spread to languages without Sindhī's implosives, the corresponding letters lost their original values, leading to shifts and ambiguity in usage.<ref name="Khojki2011">Pandey, Anshuman. (2011). L2/11-021 [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3978.pdf ''Final Proposal to Encode the Khojki Script'']</ref> It remained in general use by the community until the early 20th century, as the printing press facilitated its increasing replacement by the [[Gujarati script]] for Ismāʿīlī literature.<ref name=moir/> By the 1940s, its printing and instruction were confined to its native Sindh, where it survived until the early 1970s,<ref name=daftary/> continuing to be taught in community schools<ref name=moir>{{cite book |last1=Shackle |first1=Christopher |last2=Moir |first2=Zawahir |title=Ismaili Hymns from South Asia: An Introduction to the Ginans |date=2000 |publisher=Curzon |isbn=9780700711468 |pages=34–42 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Ismaili_Hymns_from_South_Asia/FR-Cbho0VUsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA34}}</ref> until it was superseded by Perso-Arabic.<ref name=daftary>{{cite book |last1=Daftary |first1=Farhad |title=Historical Dictionary of the Ismailis |date=2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810861640 |pages=96–97 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Historical_Dictionary_of_the_Ismailis/FdLeEkAUoGIC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA96}}</ref>
#Standard [[Khudabadi script|Khudābādī]], formerly used for [[Sindhi language|Sindhī]], was derived in the 1860s from Khudāwādī, the script associated with merchant communities of [[Hyderabad, Sindh]], the [[Lohana|Lohāṇā]] type of which Khojkī was "very close" to,<ref name=boivin/> being supplemented with characters from Shikārpurī. It is now obsolete.<ref name="Khudawadi2011">Pandey, Anshuman. (2011). L2/11-022 [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2011/11022-khudawadi.pdf ''Final Proposal to Encode the Khudawadi Script'']</ref> Through official government initiative and encouragement, it developed into a vehicle for literary expression.<ref name=asani/>
#[[Mahajani|Mahājanī]], a script previously used for [[Punjabi language|Panjābī]] and [[Marwari language|Mārwāṛī]], was taught to students from merchant and trading classes for business, and was similar to other accounting scripts like Sarrāfī ("of bankers"), Koṭhīvāl, and Baniauṭī ("of merchants"). Attested mostly from merchant documents, bills of exchange, and letters. It had five vowel letters, ''a, e, i, o, u,'' with the letter for ''i'' also used for ''ī, e, ai'' and the letter for ''u'' also used for ''ū, o, au''. It had neither a dedicated nasalization diacritic, instead using the letter for ''n'', nor script-specific numerals, instead using those of Devanāgarī or Gujarātī, though it does have fraction signs and unit marks, nor script-specific punctuation besides section marks and abbreviation. There are variants of certain letters, and generally did not space between words. It "may not be entirely obsolete."<ref name="Mahajani2011">Pandey, Anshuman. (2011). L2/11-274 [https://unicode.org/L2/L2011/11274-n4126-mahajani.pdf ''Proposal to Encode the Mahajani Script'']</ref>
#[[Multani script|Multānī]], former writing system of [[Saraiki language|Sarāikī]], is now obsolete. While classed by Pandey (2012) in the Punjabi subclass, it contains implosive characters and clusters similar to those of the Sindhi subclass, that other Punjabi Landa scripts lack. It had 4 vowel letters, ''a, i, u, e''; ''a'' was used for ''ā'' as well; ''i'' was also used for ''ī'' as well as commonly as a semivowel in place of the letter ''y''; ''u'' was used for ''ū'' and ''o'', and ''e'' for ''ai'' as well as ''o'' in some sources. Shifts in sound representation meant that some letters often represented more than one sound, most often with tenuis letters used for aspirated stops, and implosive letters for tenuis sounds, as well as variants of certain letters. Pandey (2012) proposes an "idealized" form for encoding, with more regular correspondences, as well as the usage of Gurmukhī numerals for Multānī, as their numerals are "nearly identical."<ref name="Multani2012">Pandey, Anshuman. (2012). L2/12-316 [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2012/12316-multani.pdf ''Proposal to Encode the Multani Script'']</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+Comparison of attested characters of Laṇḍā-descended scripts
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center" {{vertical header|←Class}} || Script↓ || colspan="33" | Common letters || colspan="4" | Implosives || ''Nuqtā'' || Gemination
|-
! [[IAST]]
|| ''sa'' || ''ha'' || ''ka'' || ''kha'' || ''ga'' || ''gha'' || ''ṅa'' || ''ca'' || ''cha'' || ''ja'' || ''jha'' || ''ña'' || ''ṭa'' || ''ṭha'' || ''ḍa'' || ''ḍha'' || ''ṇa'' || ''ta'' || ''tha'' || ''da'' || ''dha'' || ''na'' || ''pa'' || ''pha'' || ''ba'' || ''bha'' || ''ma'' || ''ya'' || ''ra'' || ''la'' || ''va'' || ''ṛa'' || ''śa'' || ''g̠a'' || ''j̄a'' || ''ḍ̠a'' || ''ḇa'' || ||
|-
! rowspan="3" style="text-align: center" {{vertical header|Panjābī}}|| [[Gurmukhi]]
|| ਸ || ਹ || ਕ || ਖ || ਗ || ਘ || ਙ || ਚ || ਛ || ਜ || ਝ || ਞ || ਟ || ਠ || ਡ || ਢ || ਣ || ਤ || ਥ || ਦ || ਧ || ਨ || ਪ || ਫ || ਬ || ਭ || ਮ || ਯ || ਰ || ਲ || ਵ || ੜ || ਸ਼ || || || || || ਼ || ੱ
|-
! [[Mahajani]]
|| 𑅰 || 𑅱 || 𑅕 || 𑅖 || 𑅗 || 𑅘 || || 𑅙 || 𑅚 || 𑅛 || 𑅜 || 𑅝 || 𑅞 || 𑅟 || 𑅠 || 𑅡 || 𑅢 || 𑅣 || 𑅤 || 𑅥 || 𑅦 || 𑅧 || 𑅨 || 𑅩 || 𑅪 || 𑅫 || 𑅬 || || 𑅭 || 𑅮 || 𑅯 || 𑅲 || || || || || || 𑅳 ||
|-
! [[Multani script|Multani]]
|| 𑊥 || 𑊦 || 𑊄 || 𑊅 || 𑊆 || 𑊈 || || 𑊊 || 𑊋 || colspan="2" | 𑊌 || 𑊏 || 𑊐 || 𑊑 || 𑊒 || 𑊔 || 𑊕 || 𑊖 || 𑊗 || 𑊘 || 𑊙 || 𑊚 || 𑊛 || 𑊜 || 𑊝 || 𑊟 || 𑊠 || 𑊡 || 𑊢 || 𑊣 || 𑊤 || 𑊧 || (𑊥) || (𑊆) || 𑊍 || 𑊓 || (𑊝) || ||
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center" {{vertical header|Sindhī}}|| [[Khojki]]
|| 𑈩 || 𑈪 || 𑈈 || 𑈉 || 𑈊 || 𑈌 || 𑈍 || 𑈎 || 𑈏 || colspan="2" | 𑈐 || 𑈓 || 𑈔 || 𑈕 || 𑈖 || 𑈗 || 𑈘 || 𑈙 || 𑈚 || 𑈛 || 𑈝 || 𑈞 || 𑈟 || 𑈠 || 𑈡 || 𑈣 || 𑈤 || 𑈥 || 𑈦 || 𑈧 || 𑈨 || || 𑈩𑈶 || 𑈋 || 𑈑 || 𑈜 || 𑈢 || 𑈶 || 𑈷
|-
! [[Khudabadi]]
|| 𑋝 || 𑋞 || 𑊺 || 𑊻 || 𑊼 || 𑊾 || 𑊿 || 𑋀 || 𑋁 || 𑋂 || 𑋄 || 𑋅 || 𑋆 || 𑋇 || 𑋈 || 𑋋 || 𑋌 || 𑋍 || 𑋎 || 𑋏 || 𑋐 || 𑋑 || 𑋒 || 𑋓 || 𑋔 || 𑋖 || 𑋗 || 𑋘 || 𑋙 || 𑋚 || 𑋛 || || 𑋜 || 𑊽 || 𑋃 || 𑋉 || 𑋕 || 𑋩 ||
|-
|}

Multānī used the character 𑊥 for both ''sa'' and ''śa'', and commonly used the characters 𑊆 ''ga'' and 𑊝 ''ba'' for their implosive counterparts as well.<ref name="Multani2012"/> Both Multānī and Khojkī commonly used one letter in any given writing for both ''ja'' and ''jha'', which are "anyway rather weakly contrasted phonemes,"<ref name=moir/>{{rp|36}} at least in the case of Khojkī. While both scripts each have two characters used interchangeably for both phonemes, they were conflated to the extent that the lesser-used letters of each, while attested, are not currently supported in Unicode. According to Pandey, "it is possible that a distinct letter for ''jha'' exists in a style of Multani. For this reason, space has been reserved for *''jha'' in the [Unicode] block."<ref name="Multani2012"/> In both cases, the unsupported letter shares a resemblance with Gurmukhī ਜ ''ja''.

While Laṇḍā did not have dependent vowel signs, several descendent scripts like Gurmukhī, Khojkī and Khudābādī have developed them. Earlier Khojkī represented diphthongs in a manner more similar to Laṇḍā.<ref name=moir/>{{rp|37}} Khojkī 𑈂 was typically used for both ''i'' and ''ī''.<ref name="Khojki2011"/>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+Comparison of vowels of Laṇḍā-descended scripts
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center" {{vertical header|←Class}} || Script↓ || colspan="10" | Independent Vowels || colspan="9" | Vowel Diacritics
|-
! [[IAST]]
|| ''a'' || ''ā'' || ''i'' || ''ī'' || ''u'' || ''ū'' || ''e'' || ''ai'' || ''o'' || ''au'' || ''ā'' || ''i'' || ''ī'' || ''u'' || ''ū'' || ''e'' || ''ai'' || ''o'' || ''au''
|-
! rowspan="3" style="text-align: center" {{vertical header|Panjābī}}|| [[Gurmukhi]]
|| ਅ || ਆ || ਇ || ਈ || ਉ || ਊ || ਏ || ਐ || ਓ || ਔ || ਾ || ਿ || ੀ || ੁ || ੂ || ੇ || ੈ || ੋ || ੌ
|-
! [[Mahajani]]
| colspan="2" | 𑅐 || colspan="2" | 𑅑 || colspan="2" | 𑅒 || 𑅓 || 𑅑 || 𑅔 || 𑅒 || colspan="10" |
|-
! [[Multani script|Multani]]
| colspan="2" | 𑊀 || colspan="2" | 𑊁 || colspan="2" | 𑊂 || colspan="2" | 𑊃 || 𑊂 || || colspan="10" |
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center" {{vertical header|Sindhī}}|| [[Khojki]]
|| 𑈀 || 𑈁 || (𑉀) || 𑈂 || colspan="2" | 𑈃 || 𑈄 || 𑈅 || 𑈆 || 𑈇 || 𑈬 || 𑈭 || 𑈮 || colspan="2" | 𑈯 || 𑈰 || 𑈱 || 𑈲 || 𑈳
|-
! [[Khudabadi]]
|| 𑊰 || 𑊱 || 𑊲 || 𑊳 || 𑊴 || 𑊵 || 𑊶 || 𑊷 || 𑊸 || 𑊹 || 𑋠 || 𑋡 || 𑋢 || 𑋣 || 𑋤 || 𑋥 || 𑋦 || 𑋧 || 𑋨
|-
|}

These scripts developed further adaptations as necessity arose. Gurmukhī has developed supplementary and subscript letters to accommodate loansounds and certain consonant clusters respectively. Mahājanī had the ligature 𑅶 ''śrī'' and various accounting signs. Multānī had the character 𑊨 ''ṛha'', and Khudābādī had the character 𑋓𑋩 ''fa''. Khojkī had the characters 𑈫 ''ḷa'' and 𑈿 ''qa'', as well as conjuncts for ''kṣa'', ''jña'', ''tra'', and ''dra'', often borrowing such orthography from easterly scripts.<ref name=moir/>{{rp|37}} It also made extensive use of its ''nuqtā'' to accommodate the emphatics, uvulars, and pharyngeals of Arabic. Letters of the unstandardized scripts often had glyphic variants; for instance, a variant of Multānī 𑊗 ''tha'' resembles its Gurmukhī counterpart ਥ.

=== Other attested, similar, and related scripts ===
[[File:Punjabi-language manuscript of the 'Ekadashi Mahatam' written in a Punjabi variant of Sharada script, ca.1200–1300.jpg|thumb|Punjabi-language manuscript of the 'Ekadashi Mahatam' written in a Punjabi variant of Sharada script, ca.1200–1300]]
Other Laṇḍā-linked scripts have been documented. The ones below do not have enough information to be supported in Unicode.

* Bhaṭṭākharī, also spelt ''bhaṭ(ṭ) ākhrī'' or ''bhaṭākshrī'', was used to write the ''[[Bhat Vahis|Bhat Vahi]]'' literature and was employed by historical [[Bhatra Sikhs|Bhatt]] writers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Punjab History Conference: Proceedings |publisher=Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University |year=1989 |volume=22 |page=86}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=McLeod |first=W. H. |title=The A to Z of Sikhism |date=July 16, 2009 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810863446 |pages=37 |url=https://archive.org/details/the-a-to-z-of-sikhism/page/37/mode/2up |quote=These they wrote in a script called Bhatakshri, which was a family code such as Lande and Mahajani.}}</ref> It was a "family code such as Laṇḍā and Mahājanī,"<ref name=":1"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Karnail |title=Fragments of Half a Century |publisher=Institute of Sikh Studies |year=2005 |isbn=9788185815251 |pages=96 |chapter=24: Bhatt Wahis}}</ref> and like Laṇḍā lacked vowel signs.<ref>{{cite book |title=Punjab History Conference, Thirty-seventh Session, March 18–20, 2005: Proceedings |publisher=Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University |year=2005 |isbn=978-81-7380-990-3 |editor=Sukhdial Singh |page=198 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Proceedings_Punjab_History_Conference/5jRuAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=bhattakhri&dq=bhattakhri&printsec=frontcover }}</ref>
* [[Langdi|Laṅgaṛī]], historically used by bookkeepers in the [[Haryana]] region, possibly a subtype of Mahājanī.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anshuman |first=Pandey |date=12 July 2011 |title=Proposal to Encode the Mahajani Script in ISO/IEC 10646 |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2011/11274-n4126-mahajani.pdf |access-date=14 May 2024 |website=www.unicode.org}}</ref>
* [[Mundi script|Mundī]], merchant script used by [[Marwari people|Marwari]] and [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]] businessmen and bookkeepers for recording accounts and correspondences.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last1=Kaushik |first1=Kshama V. |title=India Means Business: How the elephant earned its stripes |last2=Dutta |first2=Kaushik |date=Jan 23, 2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199088515 |chapter=Bahi-Khata and Parta System |quote=The language used for writing depends on the business; since most of the Indian business was in the hands of Marwaris and Gujaratis in the eighteenth, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, ''mundi'' was the language of choice for bookkeeping. The other accounting language was found among Punjabi businessmen which was called ''langdi'' Hindi.}}</ref> Its name derives from the Hindi term ''mundā'' denoting bare-headedness, referring to its lack of ''śirorekhā'', or top line characteristic of many abugidas of the area.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Garg |first=Vipin K. |title=Trade Practices and Traditions: Origin and Development in India |publisher=Allied |year=1984 |isbn=9780836414349 |pages=v, 107–109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc0vAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=mundi |quote=For many centuries past, the merchant class in India had been using a special script for recording accounts and for correspondence. This script acquired different names in different areas like Mundi, Mudiya, Modi, Mahajani, and Sarrafi.... The name Munda also signifies its relationship with the Hindi dialect of the area. In Hindi, the word 'Munda' is used to denote bare-headedness. Since the alphabet for writing Mundi did not have the bar on top of the alphabet...}}</ref>
* Landi-Mundi, historically used to record information [[Bahi genealogy registers|''bahi'' genealogical registers]], such as at [[Hindu genealogy registers at Haridwar|Haridwar]]<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |last=Chakrabarty |first=Sreeparna |date=6 April 2023 |title=Ancestry records of pilgrim centres to shed light on India's past |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/now-ancestry-records-to-be-used-in-the-telling-of-history/article66680686.ece |access-date=11 June 2025 |work=The Hindu}}</ref>
* Scripts classified as Laṇḍā in the nineteenth century have been attested further east, including Mudia in [[Awadh]], [[Garhwal District|Garhwal]], and towns in the [[North-Western Provinces]], and [[Bisati]] Laṇḍā by Muslim traders in the North-Western Provinces.<ref name=specimens/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Pandey, Anshuman. (2010). L2/10-271R [https://www.unicode.org/wg2/docs/n3871.pdf ''Proposal to Encode the Sindhi Script'']
*Pandey, Anshuman. (2010). L2/10-013R [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2010/10013r-landa.pdf ''Preliminary Proposal to Encode the Landa Script'']
*Pandey, Anshuman. (2009). L2/09-424 [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2009/09424-takri.pdf ''Proposal to Encode the Takri Script'']
*{{cite book |last1=Leitner |first1=Gottlieb Wilhelm |author1-link=Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner |title=History of indigenous education in the Punjab since annexation and in 1882 |date=1882 |publisher=Superintendent of Government Printing, India |location=Calcutta |pages=28–45 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.515365/page/n43/mode/2up |chapter=Vernacular indigenous education in the Panjab}}
*{{cite book |last1=Hutchinson |first1=C. W. |title=Specimen of Various Vernacular Characters Passing Through the Post Office in India |date=1877 |publisher=Surveyor General's Office |location=Calcutta |pages=28–29 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Specimen_of_Various_Vernacular_Character/NzjyY568NUYC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA28&printsec=frontcover}}

{{list of writing systems}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Landa}}
[[Category:Brahmic scripts]]
[[Category:Sarada scripts]]

Gayab

2026-03-09T02:22:04Z

Shubhamsaini9: refine section additionally and improved wording as per guidelines

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Gayab
| image = Gayab.jpg
| native_name =
| director = [[Prawaal Raman]]
| producer = [[Ram Gopal Varma]]
| writer =Prawaal Raman [[Kona Venkat]]
| story =Suresh Nair Prawaal Raman Kona Venkat
| screenplay =Prawaal Raman Kona Venkat
| starring = [[Tushar Kapoor]] [[Antara Mali]]
| music = '''Songs:''' [[Ajay–Atul]] '''Background Score:''' [[Amar Mohile]]
| cinematography =Piettro Zuercher
| editing =Amit Parmar Nipun Gupta
| studio =RGV Factory
| distributor =Prime Focus Ltd
| released = {{film date|df=y|2004|7|16}}
| runtime = 156 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
}}
'''''Gayab''''' ({{langx|en|Disappearance}})<ref name="B"/> is a 2004 Indian [[Bollywood|Hindi]]-language [[supernatural film|supernatural]] [[black comedy]] film directed by [[Prawaal Raman]] and produced by [[Ram Gopal Varma]]. It stars [[Tusshar Kapoor]] and [[Antara Mali]] as the lead protagonists. The film was declared below average at the box office. The simultaneously shot Tamil version, ''[[Jithan]]'', had a delayed release in 2005.

== Plot ==

Vishnu Prasad is an unappreciated nerd. His mother nags him, and his father ignores him. He is in love with his neighbour Mohini, but she already has a boyfriend, Sameer. Vishnu sees Mohini in a cafe with Sameer. As Sameer goes to get drinks, Mohini's eyes meet Vishnu's. A shy and nervous Vishnu accidentally winks at Mohini, which angers Sameer into hitting him. Vishnu bursts into tears. Sad and depressed from his life, he goes to a beach.

Angry at God for the life he has given him, Vishnu asks the statue to make him disappear from the world as no one likes him. When he reaches home, he discovers that God took his wish literally and turned him invisible. Excited and happy, Vishnu gets many opportunities to spy on Mohini and get her boyfriend in trouble. He realises that he cannot wear any other clothes than the ones he was wearing on the day he received the boon because those were the only clothes that turned invisible with him realizing that it will show his invisible body with his other clothes on, so he quickly finds his white shirt which is invisible and puts it on before he gets caught. When Vishnu sees his father is worried about him and also because of a nagging wife, he tells his father about his secret and calms him down. He plays the role of an invisible ghost to teach his mother a lesson. His mother gets scared thinking that the ghost is of her late father-in-law and faints. Vishnu thinks that he needs money to impress Mohini. So, he robs a bank and brings her all the cash, but Mohini is shocked and terrified. Vishnu decides to tell her everything. Mohini flies in a rage and tells Vishnu to leave her alone as she is in love with Sameer.

Alone and heartbroken, Vishnu gets drunk and wanders the streets. The media makes up incredible stories after the bank robbery done by an "invisible force," and they try to get more information. The police department takes action and tries to hunt down the "invisible man.". Sameer decides to leave town with Mohini before Vishnu comes back looking for them again, but they are unable to do so. So they go into hiding, and Vishnu demands that the police bring him Mohini, or else he will wreak havoc throughout the city.

He also threatens them by comically disturbing the streets and a portion of the city taxi by taxi (such as a restaurant, marathon race and politics). The police find Mohini and plead with her to help them find and kill Vishnu before he becomes an invisible murderer and a threat to the whole nation. Mohini agrees to help in their mission and goes to an abandoned building to meet Vishnu, as demanded by him. As Mohini diverts Vishnu's attention by involving him in a conversation, the cops surround the place to capture him. Vishnu tells Mohini that he has been wrong all along and that he has always loved her. He tells her that he has realised that loving her doesn't mean that he has control over her life. Mohini is struck by his words and realises that he is not a bad person.

She decides to save his life and tells him to run away as the cops are already in the building. Vishnu runs for his life and dives into a river as the cops shoot him. Minutes later, Vishnu's clothes (now visible and soaking wet) are the only things to surface. But his body is not found. Vishnu is presumed dead by the police and media. A few days later, Sameer and Mohini find Vishnu again on the side of the same river in which he supposedly drowned. Vishnu (now naked after escaping from the river) apologizes to them for whatever wrong he did and decides to lead a normal life. Vishnu is arrested and faces trial. Guilty of his acts, he spends a short time in jail and is later released. Many months later, Vishnu (now with his different clothes on) is recognised by the nation as a hero, and he has helped the police solve several cases while still leading an invisible but normal life.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0414040/plotsummary?ref_=tt_stry_pl|title=Gayab (2004)|work=IMDb}}</ref>

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Tusshar Kapoor]] as Vishnu Prasad<ref name="B">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/shropshire/films/bollywood/2004/07/gayab_preview.shtml|title=BBC - Shropshire - Bollywood - Gayab Preview|website=www.bbc.com}}</ref>
* [[Antara Mali]] as Mohini<ref name="TTN">{{Cite web|url=https://archives.newsday.co.tt/2004/08/15/tusshar-the-invisible-in-gayab/|title=Tusshar the invisible in 'Gayab'|date=15 August 2004|website=[[Trinidad and Tobago Newsday]]}}</ref>
* Raman Trikha as Sameer<ref name="TTN"/>
* [[Raghuveer Yadav]] as Balwantrai, Vishnu's father<ref name="TTN"/>
* [[Rasika Joshi]] as Shanti, Vishnu's mother<ref name="TTN"/>
* [[Govind Namdeo]] as DCP Rane
*Ikhlaq Khan as Sanjay Khanna
*Natasha Sinha as Gayatri
*Anil Mahtre as Inspector
*Hayat Asif as Doctor
*Rajendra Sethi as Home Minister
*[[Raj Arjun]] as Drunken Guy
}}

== Production ==
Suresh Nair of ''[[The Times of India]]'' further developed the "Stop" story of ''[[Darna Mana Hai]]'', which was also directed by [[Prawaal Raman]] and produced by [[Ram Gopal Varma]]. [[ Kona Venkat]] and Raman additionally worked as writers for the story, which became ''Gayab''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2004/jul/14gayab.htm|title='I never thought of comparing Gayab to Mr India'|website=www.rediff.com}}</ref> To create [[Tusshar Kapoor]]'s character of an invisible man, he wore a green bodysuit underneath his clothes. Through the use of a software, his body was removed but his clothes remained.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/bollywood-effects-a-special-coup/articleshow/814510.cms|title=Bollywood effects a special coup|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=14 August 2004|first=Shabana|last=Ansari}}</ref> While in production the film became a multilingual film with [[Ram Gopal Varma]] producing the Hindi and Telugu versions while [[Radhika Sarathkumar]] produced the Tamil version titled ''[[Jithan]]''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-life/going-places/article28657708.ece|title=Going places|newspaper=The Hindu |date=28 January 2004|url-access=subscription|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240812164554/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-life/going-places/article28657708.ece|archive-date=12 August 2024}}</ref> The Telugu version was dropped in favour of a simultaneous dubbed release titled ''Mayam''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/news250.html|title=Telugu cinema news - idlebrain.com|website=www.idlebrain.com}}</ref>

== Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Gayab
| type = soundtrack
| artist = [[Ajay–Atul]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = April 2004
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack]]
| length = 33:40
| label = [[Times Music]]
| producer =
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

{{tracklist
| headline = Track list<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ww.smashits.com/gayab/songs-4406.html |title=Latest Hindi Songs - Top Hit Hindi Music - Hindi movie mp3 songs - Saavn WAP music on mobile |work=smashits.com |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501210342/http://ww.smashits.com/gayab/songs-4406.html |archivedate=2013-05-01 }}</ref>
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 33:40
| title1 = Gayab Hoke
| extra1 = [[Kunal Ganjawala]]
| length1 = 5:14
| title2 = Tanha
| extra2 = [[Sonu Nigam]]
| length2 = 6:03
| title3 = Dilkash
| extra3 = [[Shweta Pandit]], Kunal Ganjawala
| length3 = 5:28
| title4 = Main Love Tumse
| extra4 = [[Vinod Rathod]]
| length4 = 4:21
| title5 = Superman
| extra5 = [[Sunidhi Chauhan]],
Kunal Ganjawala
| length5 = 3:55
| title6 = Rampage Notes
| extra6 = Instrumental
| length6 = 3:07
| title7 = Ek Hasina Thi
| note7 = remix
| extra7 = [[Zubeen Garg]], Dominique
| length7 = 5:32
| all_writing =
| title8 =
| length8 =
| title9 =
| length9 =
| title10 =
| length10 =
}}

==Reception==
The film was released to negative reviews.

Sukanya Verma of ''[[Rediff.com]]'' wrote, "All said and done, ''Gayab'' offers 15 reels of invisible entertainment".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2004/jul/16gayab.htm|title=Gayab: 15 reels of invisible entertainment!|work=rediff.com}}</ref> [[Taran Adarsh]] of ''[[Bollywood Hungama]]'' rated the film 1.5/5 and wrote that "On the whole, ''GAYAB'' is strong on hype, but weak in content. The USP of the film is the invisible factor in the story, but an amateur screenplay ruins the show".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movie/gayab/critic-review/gayab-movie-review/|title=Gayab Review 1.5/5 | Gayab Movie Review | Gayab 2004 Public Review | Film Review|first=Bollywood|last=Hungama|website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |date=16 July 2004}}</ref> [[Anupama Chopra]] of ''[[India Today]]'' wrote that "the script, performances and pacing don't match up. Like his first film, ''Darna Mana Hai'', ''Gayab'' is a high-concept film that runs out of steam".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/your-week/story/20040802-india-today-brings-review-movie-gayab-directed-parwal-raman-789748-2004-08-01|title=Film review: Gayab starring Tusshar Kapoor, Antara Mali and Raghubir Yadav|date=2 August 2004|website=India Today}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0414040}}

{{Ram Gopal Varma}}

[[Category:2004 films]]
[[Category:2004 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Films about invisibility]]
[[Category:Films scored by Ajay–Atul]]
[[Category:Films distributed by Yash Raj Films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Prawaal Raman]]
[[Category:Indian heist films]]
[[Category:Indian black comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian supernatural thriller films]]
[[Category:Indian multilingual films]]
[[Category:Films about harassment]]
[[Category:Fictional portrayals of the Maharashtra Police]]

Parahuna

2026-03-08T02:51:58Z

Shubhamsaini9: enhance references after review and fixed typos

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Parahuna
| image = Parahuna.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| native_name =
| director = Amrit Raj Chadha Mohit Banwait
| producer = Mohit Banwait Mani Dhaliwal
| writer = Sukhraj singh
| screenplay = Sukhraj Singh
| story = sukhraj singh
| based_on = 
| starring = [[Kulwinder Billa]] [[Wamiqa Gabbi]] [[Karamjit Anmol]] [[Nirmal Rishi]] [[Sardar Sohi]]
| narrator =
| music = Mr. Wow Music Nasha The Boss
| cinematography = Neetu Iqbal Singh
| editing = Bunty Nagi
| production_companies = Dara Film Productions Banwait Films Seven Color Motion Picture
| distributor = 
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2018|9|28|India}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Punjabi
| budget = 
| gross = 
}}

'''''Parahuna''''' ({{translation| Guest}}) is an Indian [[Punjabi language]] [[comedy film]] directed by Amrit Raj Chadha and Mohit Banwait. The film stars [[Kulwinder Billa]] and [[Wamiqa Gabbi]] in lead roles while [[Karamjit Anmol]], Harby Sangha, [[Sardar Sohi]], Hobby Dhaliwal, Malkit Rouni and many others are in the supporting roles. The film was released on 28 September 2018.<ref>{{Citation|title=Parahuna Movie: Showtimes, Review, Trailer, Posters, News & Videos {{!}} eTimes|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/punjabi/movie-details/parahuna/movieshow/63395315.cms|access-date=2018-09-28}}</ref>

''Parahuna 2'', a sequel directed by [[Ksshitij Chaudhary]] and starring [[Ranjit Bawa]] and [[Aditi Sharma (actress, born 1983)|Aditi Sharma]] was scheduled to release in 2022 but was delayed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Release Date Of Ranjit Bawa Starrer ‘Parahuna 2’ Postponed! |url=http://www.ghaintpunjab.com/GhaintPunjab/Article/38471/ranjit-bawa-parahuna-2-release-date |access-date=2023-09-28 |website=Ghaint Punjab}}</ref>

==Plot==

Janta is obsessed with the 1980s Punjabi film actress Preeti Sapru and he dreams of marrying a woman who looks just like his screen idol. A friend in the village tells Janta that his sister-in-law bears an uncanny resemblance to Preeti Sapru. Emboldened by this exciting news, Janta accompanies his friend to a wedding where he intends to woo the beautiful doppelganger. In his pursuit of a seemingly perfect woman, Janta helps others to solve their romantic woes.

==Cast==

* [[Kulwinder Billa]] as Janta
* [[Wamiqa Gabbi]] as Maano
* [[Karamjit Anmol]]
* Harby Sangha
* [[Sardar Sohi]]
* [[Hobby Dhaliwal]]
* Anita Meet
* Malkit Rouni
* [[Nirmal Rishi]]
* Rupinder Rupi
* Gurpreet Bhangu
* Parkash Gadu
* Raj Dhaliwal
* Akshita
* Navdeep Kaler
* Tarsem Paul
* Aman Sidhu

==Reception==
The film opened good as shows of the film remained top at different sites.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ptcpunjabi.co.in/parahuna-movie-review-film-gets-massive-opening-shows-are-going-housefull/|title=Parahuna Movie Review: Film Gets Massive Opening, Shows Are Going Housefull|date=2018-09-28|work=PTC Punjabi|access-date=2018-09-28}}</ref>

The film received fair reviews from critic reviewers. Jasmine Singh of ''[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]'' gave just 1 star to the film out of 5. The reviewer criticised the film, saying, "Anything in excess is not good. Even love overdose can be lethal! And overdose of tradition and culture on [[Punjabi cinema]] leads to a film, Parahuna, which is this week's Punjabi film release."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/mobi/news/movie-reviews/movie-review-parahuna/660188.html|title=MOVIE REVIEW: PARAHUNA Been there, seen that|date=2018-09-28|website=The Tribune}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|8774490}}

[[Category:Punjabi-language Indian films]]
[[Category:2018 Punjabi-language films]]
[[Category:Indian comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic comedy films]]

{{Punjabi-film-stub}}

Gumnaam

2026-03-06T20:05:56Z

Shubhamsaini9: quick add article after review and added references

{{short description|1965 Indian Bollywood thriller film}}
{{about||the Pakistani Urdu-language film|Gumnaam (1954 film)|the 2008 film|Gumnaam – The Mystery}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = {{Lang|hi-latn|Gumnaam}}
| image = Gumnaam 1965.jpg
| caption = Film poster
| director = [[Raja Nawathe]]
| producer = [[N. N. Sippy]]
| writer = Charandas Shokh [[Dhruva Chatterjee]]
| starring = [[Manoj Kumar]] [[Nanda (actress)|Nanda]] [[Mehmood (actor)|Mehmood]] [[Pran (actor)|Pran]] [[Helen (actress)|Helen]] [[Madan Puri]] [[Tarun Bose]] [[Dhumal (actor)|Dhumal]] [[Manmohan (actor)|Manmohan]]
| music = [[Shankar–Jaikishan]]
| based_on = ''[[And Then There Were None]]'' by [[Agatha Christie]]
| cinematography = [[K. H. Kapadia ]]
| editing = [[D. N. Pai]]
| studio = [[Prithvi Pictures]]
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1965|12|24}}
| runtime = 145 minutes
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross = {{estimation}} [[#Box office|{{INR}}2.6 crore ($5.46 million)]]
}}

'''''Gumnaam''''' ([[translation]]: ''Anonymous'') is a [[List of Hindi films of 1965|1965]] [[Cinema of India|Indian]] [[Hindi]]-language [[mystery film]] directed by [[Raja Nawathe]] and produced by [[N. N. Sippy]]. The film was released in [[India]] on 24 December 1965 and stars an [[ensemble cast]] of [[Manoj Kumar]], [[Nanda (actress)|Nanda]], [[Mehmood (actor)|Mehmood]], [[Pran (actor)|Pran]], [[Helen (actress)|Helen]], [[Madan Puri]], [[Tarun Bose]], [[Dhumal (actor)|Dhumal]] and [[Manmohan (actor)|Manmohan]]. The film is a loosely inspired adaptation of [[Agatha Christie]]'s 1939 [[Mystery fiction|mystery]] novel ''[[And Then There Were None]]'' and was remade in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as ''[[Naalai Unathu Naal]]'' (1984). In the film, eight people (six men and two women) find themselves stranded on a remote island after winning a contest. As soon as they settle down in an eerie mansion with a strange butler, the guests begin to get murdered one after the other.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.cinemaexpress.com/stories/trends/2017/nov/22/aboard-the-mystery-train-3207.amp|title = Aboard the mystery train | Cinemaexpress|date=22 November 2017| website=[[Cinema Express]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024081137/https://m.cinemaexpress.com/stories/trends/2017/nov/22/aboard-the-mystery-train-3207.amp |archive-date=24 October 2020|url-status=dead|quote=Before Manoj Kumar became the flagbearer of patriotic films like Upkaar, he starred in Agatha Christie's most appreciated book, And Then There Were None. Featuring Mehmood, Pran, Helen among others, it is a faithful adaptation of the novel in which eight people land up on an island and begin to die mysteriously. A few years back, the film was called to mainstream attention when the film's opening song, Jaan Pehechan Ko, was used in a 2011 Heineken commercial.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mubi.com/notebook/posts/noir-meets-nawathe-close-up-on-gumnaam|title=Noir Meets Nawathe: Close-Up on "Gumnaam"|date=16 July 2020|website=[[Mubi (streaming service)|MUBI]]|first=Bedatri D.|last=Choudhury|access-date=26 June 2023|archive-date=26 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626000657/https://mubi.com/notebook/posts/noir-meets-nawathe-close-up-on-gumnaam|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Plot==
On a dark night, wealthy Seth Sohanlal, stepping drunkenly out of a hotel, is run down by a speeding car and dies on the spot. A room overlooking the hotel is occupied by Khanna ([[Hiralal (actor)|Hiralal]]), Seth Sohanlal's murderer, who gives a bundle of [[banknote]]s to the unseen driver of the car arriving shortly after. Khanna then makes a series of [[telephone call]]s to unseen people: to a [[Physician|doctor]], whom he tells that a [[medical certificate]] needs to be created; to a mysterious young girl, whom he tells that the [[Will and testament|will]] needs to be sent to the "right place"; and to a [[lawyer]], whom he tells that the will will reach him the next morning and after that it is his job. Later, Khanna calls Seth Sohanlal's niece, Asha ([[Nanda (actress)|Nanda]]), and breaks the news of her uncle's death. As Asha screams in anguish, she hears some [[gunshot]]s at the other end of the line as an unseen intruder in a long [[coat]] and [[hat]] has entered Khanna's room and [[Shooting|shot]] him to death. A few days later, it is announced at a [[nightclub]] that the seven winners (five men and two girls) of a "lucky draw" have won a free [[fortnight]]-long trip to an unspecified destination abroad and will be going in a [[Air charter|chartered]] [[airplane]]. These fortunate people are [[Barrister]] Rakesh ([[Pran (actor)|Pran]]), Dharamdas ([[Dhumal (actor)|Dhumal]]), Kishan ([[Manmohan (actor)|Manmohan]]), Kitty Kelly ([[Helen (actress)|Helen]]), Dr. Acharya ([[Madan Puri]]), Madhusudan Sharma ([[Tarun Bose]]), and finally, Asha, who now seems more composed.

Soon, these seven winners are in their chartered airplane, off of their vacation abroad, when the [[pilot]] announces to them and the only [[flight attendant]] who is on board, Anand ([[Manoj Kumar]]), that the airplane is forced to make an [[emergency landing]] at an anonymous remote [[island]] due to some technical problems. However, as soon as Anand and the seven passengers alight from the airplane, the pilot shockingly dumps all their [[baggage]] out and the airplane [[Takeoff|takes off]] without them, leaving them all stranded on the island. At the same time, a mysterious girl begins singing an eerie song on the island without the girl ever being visible. The eight people follow the girl's [[Human voice|voice]] and finally come across at a vast and spooky [[mansion]], which seems to be unoccupied except for a comical [[lungi]]-clad [[butler]] ([[Mehmood (actor)|Mehmood]]), who is in charge of the mansion and has been shockingly expecting the arrival of the [[castaway]]s. The butler also knows each of these people by name and has been provided with a [[Letter (message)|letter]] listing all of these people except Anand. Moreover, everyone discovers that the butler has a [[diary]] which, besides containing an [[Account (bookkeeping)|account]] of daily [[expense]], also contains a message addressed to the entire group, accusing each of these people of having conspired to kill Seth Sohanlal and passing a death sentence on them. That night, Anand, who himself has mysteriously brought with him a [[gun]], discovers that Dr. Acharya has brought a [[bottle]] of [[poison]] and Dharamdas a fearsome-looking [[dagger]]. While Rakesh and Kitty fall in love and Anand begins [[flirting]] with Asha, the butler's suspicious actions indicate the presence of an unknown person in the mansion.

The next day passes uneventfully, but at night, Anand and Asha are shocked to find Kishan [[stabbed]] to death with a half-smoked [[cigar]] and a letter addressed to the group next to Kishan's [[Cadaver|dead body]]. The letter states that Kishan was the driver of the car that ran down Seth Sohanlal, and that is why he has now been killed. The group deduces that Dharamdas killed Kishan, but he pleads innocence and Anand and Asha also later find him [[Strangling|strangled]] to death. Rakesh accuses Dr. Acharya of actually having [[Poisoning|poisoned]] Dharamdas and it becomes clear that everyone was connected to Seth Sohanlal: Kitty was Seth Sohanlal's [[private secretary]] who sent his will to Rakesh on Khanna's instructions; while Rakesh wrote Seth Sohanlal's will on Khanna's orders, though neither was aware about the other. The next day, Anand notices Rakesh hiding an [[axe]] before Dr. Acharya appears informing that Sharma has been murdered with an axe. The murderer has left another letter addressed to the group next to Sharma's dead body, stating that Sharma has been killed because he was Khanna's co-conspirator in Seth Sohanlal's murder. Now only three men - Anand, Rakesh and Dr. Acharya - and two girls - Asha and Kitty - are left alive and terrified on the island along with the butler.

That night, Dr. Acharya catches the butler acting suspiciously and learns his secret before a scuffle ensues between them. In the presence of Asha and Kitty, a stabbed Dr. Acharya enters the [[dining room]], utters Anand's name and breathes his last. Anand and Rakesh accuse each other of Dr. Acharya's murder, while Asha begins questioning her faith in Anand. The next day, Kitty goes for a walk by herself and is strangled to death by a [[rope]]. Rakesh and Asha, searching for Kitty, are shocked to find her dead body and Anand's hat next to it. Rakesh witnesses Anand escaping from the [[crime scene]] and begins pursuing him, but loses his trail. In a fit of rage and grief, Rakesh returns to the mansion and attempts to [[rape]] Asha in the middle of the night. Asha escapes from Rakesh, but runs into him again as Rakesh collapses dead with two daggers in his [[Human back|back]]. All the [[Electric light|lights]] in the mansion go out, which indicates that the killer has arrived and that Asha is next. The killer approaches Asha and she falls unconscious in fear, before he carries her to a secret room and helps her regain consciousness. At this point, Asha is shocked to learn that the killer is none other than Sharma, who reveals that he is alive and that he had only employed the butler to make the necessary arrangements on the island. Posing as one of the castaways, he killed Kishan and Dharamdas and then convinced Dr. Acharya to falsely declare him dead, on the pretext that it would help him secretly track down the killer, and later killed Dr. Acharya as well along with Kitty and Rakesh.

Just then, Anand appears at the scene and reveals that he is actually an [[Covert operation|undercover]] [[police inspector]] on the mission to capture Sharma, an escaped [[convict]] whose real name is Madanlal. Madanlal confesses to Anand and Asha that both Khanna and Seth Sohanlal were his partners in [[smuggling]], but he was betrayed by them after being [[arrest]]ed by the police. Khanna and Seth Sohanlal also raped Madanlal's sister, which led her to commit suicide, and murdered Madanlal's brother as well after he informed Madanlal about their crime in [[prison]]. Khanna also had Seth Sohanlal killed to usurp the share of his money, but Madanlal escaped from prison and murdered Khanna. He then ensured that his targets "won" the lucky draw held at the nightclub and took the trip in order to murder Khanna's remaining five assistants too. Madanlal then ties up both Anand and Asha and plays a game of [[Russian Roulette]] with them. However, the butler secretly arrives and unties Anand, who attacks Madanlal as he is about to shoot Asha with the only [[bullet]]. In the ensuing scuffle, Madanlal escapes from the mansion and runs towards the [[Coast|shore]], but an airplane full of police (acting upon Anand's information) [[Landing|lands]] on the island and Madanlal is arrested for his crimes. At the same time, the "[[ghost]]" girl singing the [[Omen|ominous]] song turns out to be the butler's [[Mental disorder|mentally ill]] sister (Naina). The film ends with Anand, Asha, the butler and his sister leaving the ill-fated island on the airplane.

==Cast==
* [[Manoj Kumar]] as [[Inspector]] Anand
* [[Nanda (actress)|Nanda]] as Asha
* [[Pran (actor)|Pran]] as [[Barrister]] Rakesh
* [[Helen (actress)|Helen]] as Kitty Kelly
* [[Madan Puri]] as Dr. Acharya
* [[Mehmood (actor)|Mehmood]] as the [[butler]] Mahesh Rane
* [[Tarun Bose]] as Madhusudan Sharma (fake) / Madanlal
* [[Dhumal (actor)|Dhumal]] as Dharamdas
* [[Manmohan (actor)|Manmohan]] as Kishan

* [[Laxmi Chhaya]] and [[Herman Benjamin]] as the masked dancer and masked singer respectively in "Jaan Pehechan Ho" song
* [[Hiralal (actor)|Hiralal]] as Khanna (Seth Sohanlal's murderer)
* Naina as the butler's insane sister

==Soundtrack==
The music in this movie was composed by [[Shankar-Jaikishan]] and lyrics were written by [[Shailendra_(lyricist)|Shailendra]].
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singer(s)
|-
|"[[Jaan Pehechan Ho]]"
|[[Mohammed Rafi]]
|-
|"Gumnaam Hai Koi"
|[[Lata Mangeshkar]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tripathi|first=Abhishek|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8TX8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA109|title=Indian Film Music and The Aesthetics of Chords|date=2020-09-08|page=109|publisher=Zorba Books|isbn=978-93-90011-48-3|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|"Ek Ladki Hai Jisne Jeena Mushkil Kar Diya"
|Mohammed Rafi
|-
|"Jaane Chaman Shola Badan"
|Mohammed Rafi and [[Sharda Rajan Iyengar|Sharda]]
|-
|"Peeke Hum Tum Jo"
|[[Asha Bhosle]] and [[Usha Mangeshkar]]
|-
|"Gham Chhodke Manaao Rang"
|Lata Mangeshkar
|-
|"Aayega Kaun Yahaan"
|Sharda
|-
|"Hum Kaale Hain To"
|Mohammed Rafi
|}

==Reception==
===Box office===
It was the 8th [[List of highest-grossing Indian films|highest-grossing film in India]] in 1965, grossing [[Indian rupee|{{INR}}]]2.6 [[crore]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=171&catName=MTk2NQ |title=Archived copy |website=boxofficeindia.com |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004235207/http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=171&catName=MTk2NQ |archive-date=4 October 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> This was equivalent to [[US$|$]]5.46 million in 1965.{{#tag:ref|4.7619 [[Indian rupee]]s per [[US dollar]] in 1965<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fx.sauder.ubc.ca/etc/USDpages.pdf#page=3|format=PDF|page=3|title=PACIFIC Exchange Rate Service : Foreign Currency Units per 1 U.S. Dollar, 1950-2016|website=Fx.sauber.ubc.ca|access-date=30 January 2018|archive-date=12 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512095429/http://fx.sauder.ubc.ca/etc/USDpages.pdf#page=3|url-status=dead}}</ref>|group=n}}

== Awards and nominations ==

; [[13th Filmfare Awards]]<nowiki>:</nowiki>

'''Won'''

* [[Filmfare Award for Best Art Direction|Best Art Direction (Color)]] – S. S. Samel

'''Nominated'''

* [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] – [[Mehmood (actor)|Mehmood]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] – [[Helen (actress)|Helen]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=n}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0247394|Gumnaam}}

{{And Then There Were None}}

[[Category:1965 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1965 films]]
[[Category:Films based on And Then There Were None]]
[[Category:Films scored by Shankar–Jaikishan]]
[[Category:Indian aviation films]]
[[Category:Indian ghost films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Raja Nawathe]]
[[Category:Films set in country houses]]

Lagaam

2026-03-03T23:35:19Z

Shubhamsaini9: starting new post w/ infobox - done

{{about||the village in Nepal|Lagam}}
{{more citations needed|date=May 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Lagaaam
| image =

| caption =
| director = Desh Gautam
| producer =
| writer =
| narrator =
| starring =
| music = [[Kalyanji Anandji]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1976}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Lagaaam''''' is a 1976 [[Bollywood]] [[film]] directed by Desh Gautam.

==Cast==
*[[Yogeeta Bali]] as Kesar
*[[Bindu (actress)|Bindu]] as Rita
*[[Prem Chopra]] as Sanga
*[[C.S. Dubey]] as Raghu
*V. Gopal as Paploo
*[[Farida Jalal]] as Chanda
*[[Jankidas]] as Lala Jankidas
*[[Satyendra Kapoor]] as Gopal
*[[Vinod Khanna]] as Bheema
*[[Ram Mohan]] as Sheru
*[[Dina Pathak]] as Bheema's mother

==Songs==
#"Aaj Pawan Ki Chal Chura Ke" – [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
#"Jaise Moti Seep Se Bichhde" – [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
#"Aadhi Aadhi Raat Meri Payaliya Bhaje" – [[Mohammed Rafi]], [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
#"Aa Idhar Aa Zara Nazar To Mil" – [[Asha Bhosle]]

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|id=0431873|title=Lagaam}}

[[Category:1976 films]]
[[Category:1976 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1976 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Kalyanji Anandji]]

{{1970s-Hindi-film-stub}}

Narakasuran

2026-03-03T21:34:56Z

Shubhamsaini9: adjust page for consistency and added references for accuracy

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Narakasuran
| image =
| caption =
| director = K. R. Ramdas
| producer = Ajmal Hasan<ref name="syz">{{cite web|title=Narakasuran (Celluloid)|url=http://movies.syzygy.in/censor/narakasuran-celluloid|website=Movies & Lyrics|publisher=syzygy.in|accessdate=10 April 2016}}</ref>
| writer = K. R. Ramdas
| narrator =
| starring = [[Sudhakar Vasanth]] [[Indraja]] [[Riyaz Khan]] [[Devan (actor)|Devan]] [[Madhupal]] [[Kalabhavan Mani]] [[Jagadish]]
| music =
| cinematography =
| editing =
| studio = Gaayathri Films International
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|2006}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Malayalam
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Narakasuran''''' is a 2006 [[Malayalam language]] film directed by [[K. R. Ramdas]]. It stars [[Sudhakar Vasanth]], [[Riyaz Khan]], [[Kalabhavan Mani]], [[Jagathy Sreekumar]], [[Indraja]], [[Rajan P. Dev]], [[Devan (actor)|Devan]], [[Salim Kumar]], [[Jagadish]] and Priyanka Anoop.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/2013/mar/10/the-remake-raja-of-odia-cinema-457134.html | title=The remake Raja of Odia cinema | date=8 March 2013 }}</ref><ref>https://malayalam.filmibeat.com/news/040306narakasuran.html</ref>

==Cast==
*[[Sudhakar Vasanth]] as Vijay/Prabhakaran alias Prabhu
*[[Jagadeesh]] as Vasu
*[[Indrans]] as Bheeman
*[[Kalabhavan Mani]] as Dr. Pramod, Vijay's friend
*[[Riyaz Khan]] as SP Rajan, Vijay's friend
*[[Madhupal]] as Adv. Bhaskar, Vijay's friend and legal advisor
*[[Devan (actor)|Devan]] as Badri
*[[Mafia Sasi]] as Badri's henchman
*Priyanka Anoop as Dr. Amritha Pramod, Pramod's wife
*[[Salim Kumar]] as CBI Officer Govind
*[[Rajan P. Dev]] as CBI Officer Subhash Chandra
*[[Indraja]] as Neena Viswanath, Vijay's fiancée
*[[Jagathy Sreekumar]] as Bhojarajan, Neena's watchman/cook
*[[K. R. Vatsala]] as Vimala Bhojarajan, Neena's PA and Bhojarajan's wife

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2006 films]]
[[Category:2006 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:2006 Indian films]]

{{2000s-Malayalam-film-stub}}

Lora Neeyevide

2026-03-03T21:04:01Z

Shubhamsaini9: minor cleanup

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Lora Neeyevide
| image =
| caption =
| director = [[K Raghunath]]
| producer = M. Kunchacko
| writer = [[Muttathu Varkey]]
| screenplay = Muttathu Varkey
| starring = [[Prem Nazir]] [[Ushakumari]] [[K. P. Ummer]] [[KPAC Lalitha]] [[Adoor Pankajam]]
| music = [[M. S. Baburaj]]
| cinematography = R. C. Purushothaman
| editing = [[T. R. Sekhar]]
| studio = Excel Productions
| distributor = Excel Productions
| released = {{Film date|1971|05|07|df=y}}
| country = India
| language = [[Malayalam Language|Malayalam]]
}}

'''''Lora Neeyevide''''' ({{Translation|Lora Where are you?}}) is a 1971 [[Cinema of India|Indian]] [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] film, directed by T. R. Raghunath and produced by M. Kunchacko. The film stars [[Prem Nazir]], [[Ushakumari]], [[K. P. Ummer]], [[KPAC Lalitha]], Radhika and [[Adoor Pankajam]] in the lead roles. The film had musical score by [[M. S. Baburaj]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.malayalachalachithram.com/movie.php?i=398|title=Lora Nee Evide|accessdate=2014-10-15|publisher=malayalachalachithram.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://malayalasangeetham.info/m.php?5156|title=Lora Nee Evide|accessdate=2014-10-15|publisher=malayalasangeetham.info}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://spicyonion.com/title/lora-nee-evide-malayalam-movie/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511115343/http://spicyonion.com/title/lora-nee-evide-malayalam-movie/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=11 May 2015|title=Lora Nee Evide|accessdate=2014-10-15|publisher=spicyonion.com}}</ref>

==Cast==
{{colbegin}}
*[[Prem Nazir]] as Bernard
*[[Ushakumari]] as Lora
*[[K. P. Ummer]] as Somappan
*[[Kottayam Chellappan]] as Dr Kurian Thomas
*[[Alummoodan]] as Jeofry
*[[KPAC Lalitha]] as Meenu
*Radhika as Theresa Williams
*[[S. P. Pillai]] as Ponnappan
*[[Adoor Pankajam]] as Kuttyamma
*Bhargavan as Anto
*Vijaya Kumari as Rebecca
*K. S. Gopinath as Dr. Paul
*Jismol as Nazeema
*Joseph Chacko as Lazer
*Kottayam Narayanan
*Natarajan
*Rajamma
*S. J. Dev as Father D'Souza
{{colend}}

==Soundtrack==
The music was composed by [[M. S. Baburaj]] and the lyrics were written by [[Vayalar Ramavarma]].

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! No. !! Song !! Singers !! Length (m:ss)
|-
| 1 || "Braanthaalayam" || [[K. J. Yesudas]] ||
|-
| 2 || "Kaalam Oru Pravaaham" || K. J. Yesudas ||
|-
| 3 || "Karppoora Nakshathradeepam" || [[S. Janaki]] ||
|-
| 4 || "Kizhakke Malayile" || [[A. M. Rajah]], B. Vasantha ||
|-
| 5 || "Muttuvin Vaathil Thurakkum" [Bit] || Chorus ||
|-
| 6 || "Shilpame Premakalaashilpame" || K. J. Yesudas, B. Vasantha ||
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0258770|Lora Nee Evide}}

[[Category:1971 films]]
[[Category:1971 Malayalam-language films]]
[[Category:1971 Indian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by T. R. Raghunath]]

{{1970s-Malayalam-film-stub}}

Va Varalam Va

2026-03-03T02:30:42Z

Shubhamsaini9: created new post

{{No plot|date=December 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Va Varalam Va.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Suresh Babu R. [[L. G. Ravichandran|L. G. Ravichandhar]]
| producer = Suresh Babu R.
| starring = {{plainlist|
* Balaji Murugadoss
* Mahana Sanjeevi
* [[Redin Kingsley]]
}}
| cinematography = Karthik Raja
| editing = [[Raja Mohammad]]
| music = [[Deva (composer)|Deva]]
| studio = SGS Creative Media
| distributor = SGS Creative Media
| released = {{film date|2023|12|1|df=yes}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''Va Varalam Va''''' ({{Translation|Come, you can come, come}}) is a 2023 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[comedy drama]] film written and directed by Suresh Babu R. and [[L. G. Ravichandran|L. G. Ravichandhar]]. The film stars Balaji Murugadoss and Mahana Sanjeevi in the lead roles, with [[Redin Kingsley]] in a supporting role. The film was produced by Suresh Babu under the banner of SGS Creative Media, and had a theatrical release on 1 December 2023. The film's title is based on a song from ''[[Bairavaa]]'' (2017).

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* Balaji Murugadoss
* Mahana Sanjeevi
* [[Redin Kingsley]]
* [[Gayatri Rema]]
* [[Mime Gopi]]
* [[Singampuli]]
* [[Saravana Subbiah]]
* [[Deepa Shankar]]
* [[Vaiyapuri]]
* Ashmitha Singh
* [[Bonda Mani]]
* [[Crane Manohar]]
* [[Vasu Vikram]]
* Meesai Rajendranath
* [[Bayilwan Ranganathan]]
* [[Bhavya Trikha]] in the song Unnai Thane
}}

== Production ==
[[L. G. Ravichandran|L. G. Ravichandar]] pitched the film's story to a number of actors including [[Raghava Lawrence]] and [[Santhanam (actor)|Santhanam]] but no actor showed interest before producer Suresh Babu chose to make the film.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jcHLz3ptDRI |title=தயாரிப்பாளர் கிட்ட கதை சொல்லி முடிச்சா காப்பி குடுப்பாங்க - Director LG Ravichandar Open Talk |date=15 November 2023 |language=ta |publisher=Lee Cinema |access-date=2023-12-05 |via=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The film was announced to the media in October 2023, and promoted as the acting debut of Balaji Murugadoss, who had earlier competed in the Tamil reality television show ''Bigg Boss''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 October 2023 |title=Bigg Boss Ultimate title winner Balaji Murugadoss set to make his silver screen debut with popular director L.G Ravichandran |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/bigg-boss-ultimate-title-winner-balaji-murugadoss-set-to-make-his-silver-screen-debut-with-popular-director-l-g-ravichandran/articleshow/104122770.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231009062121/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/tamil/bigg-boss-ultimate-title-winner-balaji-murugadoss-set-to-make-his-silver-screen-debut-with-popular-director-l-g-ravichandran/articleshow/104122770.cms |archive-date=9 October 2023 |access-date=5 December 2023 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Previously, Balaji had signed on to appear for a number of projects including ''Tyson'', ''Siruthai Siva'' and ''Fire'', which later became stalled.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 October 2021 |title=Bigg Boss Tamil runner-up Balaji Murugadoss to make his debut as a hero |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/bigg-boss-tamil-runner-up-balaji-murugadoss-to-make-his-debut-as-a-hero/articleshow/87180486.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231011130051/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/bigg-boss-tamil-runner-up-balaji-murugadoss-to-make-his-debut-as-a-hero/articleshow/87180486.cms |archive-date=11 October 2023 |access-date=11 February 2024 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=26 May 2018 |title=Mr International' Balaji Murugadoss debuts in Tamil films |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/260518/mr-international-balaji-murugadoss-debuts-in-tamil-films.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231126155228/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/kollywood/260518/mr-international-balaji-murugadoss-debuts-in-tamil-films.html |archive-date=2023-11-26 |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=[[Deccan Chronicle]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The soundtrack album of ''Va Varalam Va'' was composed by [[Deva (composer)|Thenisai Thendral Deva]]. The lyrics were written by SBR, Kathal Mathi, and [[Deva (composer)|Deva]], while the songs were released under the banner of SGS Creative Media / SGS Musicz.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/@SGSMusicz SGS Musicz – Official YouTube Channel]</ref>
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; text-align:left;"
|+ ''Va Varalam Va'' – Soundtrack
! scope="col" style="width:3em;" | No.
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Lyrics
! scope="col" | Singers
|-
| 1 || "Unnai Thane" || SBR || Ajaey Sharvan, Gayathry Rajiv
|-
| 2 || "Sulthana" || Kathal Mathi || Lavanya Jayamohan, Ajay Krishnaa
|-
| 3 || "Jillu Jillu" || Deva, Gaana Edwin || Deva, Gaana Edwin
|-
| 4 || "Sollaporen" || Kathal Mathi || Jithinraj
|}
The album received attention for its nostalgic 1990s-style melodies and characteristic Deva compositions. "Unnai Thane" was appreciated for its melodious tone, while "Jillu Jillu" featured Deva himself on vocals, reviving his trademark ''[[Gaana]]'' style. The children's song "Sollaporen" was noted as a rare addition in contemporary Tamil cinema.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}}

== Reception ==
A critic from ''[[Times Now]]'' rated the film at 2.5 out of 5 and stated that "it had the potential to be a good watch".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-01 |title=Va Varalam Va Movie Review: Balaji Murugadoss' Comedy Thriller Is A Bumpy Ride |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/tamil/va-varalam-va-movie-review-balaji-murugadoss-comedy-thriller-is-a-bumpy-ride-review-105630811 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201062035/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/tamil/va-varalam-va-movie-review-balaji-murugadoss-comedy-thriller-is-a-bumpy-ride-review-105630811 |archive-date=2023-12-01 |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=[[Times Now]] |language=en}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Nakkheeran]]'' wrote that directors LG Ravichandar and SBR have given a spicy screenplay to be a complete entertainer for all parties without any smut.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-01 |title=கடத்தல் திட்டம் வெற்றியா? -'வா வரலாம் வா' விமர்சனம்! |url=https://www.nakkheeran.in/cinema/review/va-varalam-va-movie-review |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205061906/https://www.nakkheeran.in/cinema/review/va-varalam-va-movie-review |archive-date=2023-12-05 |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=[[Nakkheeran]] |language=ta}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}

[[Category:2023 Indian films]]
[[Category:2023 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2023 comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:2023 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by L. G. Ravichandran]]
[[Category:Films scored by Deva (composer)]]
[[Category:Indian comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Gundlapochampally

2026-02-26T06:34:57Z

Shubhamsaini9: Started A Pg!

{{DISPLAYTITLE:Gundlapochampally}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Gundlapochampally
| native_name_lang = Telugu
| other_name =
| nickname = Pochampally OR Pochampalli
| image_skyline = Gundlapochampalli railway station name board.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Hyderabad#India
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Telangana, India
| coordinates = {{coord|17.56706|N|78.47732|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{IND}}
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = [[Telangana|Telangana]]
| subdivision_type2 = District
| subdivision_name2 = [[Medchal–Malkajgiri district|Medchal–Malkajgiri]]
| subdivision_type3 = Mandal
| subdivision_name3 = Medchal
| subdivision_type4 = City
| subdivision_name4 = [[Hyderabad|Hyderabad]]
| government_type = Municipal Corporation
| governing_body = Cyberabad Municipal Corporation
| unit_pref = Metric
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN code]]
| postal_code = 500100
| registration_plate = TG-08
| website = {{URL|https://gundlapochampallymunicipality.telangana.gov.in/}}
}}

'''Gundlapochampally''' is a residential neighbourhood located on the northern side of [[Hyderabad]] in the [[Medchal–Malkajgiri district]] of [[Telangana]], [[India]]. It is part of the city of [[Hyderabad]] and lies within the [[Hyderabad Metropolitan Region]]. The area is strategically situated along [[National Highway 44 (India)|National Highway 44 (NH-44)]] and is in close proximity to the [[Outer Ring Road, Hyderabad|Nehru Outer Ring Road (ORR)]], providing excellent connectivity to major parts of the city and surrounding suburbs. Gundlapochampally now falls under the jurisdiction of the [[Cyberabad Municipal Corporation]] following the 2026 reorganisation of the [[Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation]].

== Geography ==
Gundlapochampally lies in Medchal Mandal of Medchal–Malkajgiri district and is located in the periphery of the Hyderabad metropolitan area. It is connected by regional roads to other parts of Hyderabad and neighbouring districts.

== History ==

=== Municipality formation ===
Gundlapochampally Municipality was constituted on 2 August 2018 by the Government of Telangana by merging neighbouring gram panchayats including [[Gundlapochampalli|Gundlapochampally]], [[Kandlakoya]], Baseregadi, Gnanapur, and Arkelaguda to form a single urban local body under the provisions of the Telangana Municipal Act.

=== 2025 - Merger with GHMC ===
In November 2025, the Government of Telangana approved the merger of 27 urban local bodies, including Gundlapochampally Municipality, into the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) to unify the administration of urban areas within and surrounding the Outer Ring Road (ORR). This decision was notified through Department, dated 3 December 2025, and took effect in December 2025.

After the merger, GHMC was reorganised to include 300 wards spread over expanded boundaries. Under the new structure, Gundlapochampally became part of the GHMC administrative framework, typically within the [[Quthbullapur]] Zone as Ward 299.

=== February 2026 - Split from GHMC ===
In a series of Government Orders issued on 11 February 2026, the Government of Telangana reorganised the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) into three separate municipal corporations — the reconstituted GHMC, the [[Cyberabad Municipal Corporation]] (CMC), and the Malkajgiri Municipal Corporation (MMC) — as part of an administrative decentralisation initiative.<ref>{{cite news |title=Telangana govt reorganises GHMC into three municipal corporations |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2026/Feb/11/telangana-govt-reorganises-ghmc-into-three-municipal-corporations |work=The New Indian Express |date=11 February 2026 |access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref> Under this reorganisation, the Quthbullapur Zone, including Gundlapochampally (Ward No. 299 under Medchal Circle), was placed under the jurisdiction of the Cyberabad Municipal Corporation.

== Administration ==
Gundlapochampally falls under the Medchal mandal of the Medchal–Malkajgiri district. It is designated as **Ward No. 299** under the Medchal Circle and is part of the **Quthbullapur Zone** for municipal administration purposes.

Previously, Gundlapochampally was under the jurisdiction of the [[Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation]] (GHMC). In a series of Government Orders issued on 11 February 2026, the Government of Telangana reorganised the GHMC into three separate municipal corporations — the reconstituted GHMC, the [[Cyberabad Municipal Corporation]] (CMC), and the Malkajgiri Municipal Corporation (MMC) — as part of an administrative decentralisation initiative.<ref>{{cite news |title=Telangana govt reorganises GHMC into three municipal corporations |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2026/Feb/11/telangana-govt-reorganises-ghmc-into-three-municipal-corporations |work=The New Indian Express |date=11 February 2026 |access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref> As part of this reorganisation, the Quthbullapur Zone, including Gundlapochampally (Ward No. 299 under Medchal Circle), was placed under the jurisdiction of the Cyberabad Municipal Corporation.

== Real Estate and Urban Development ==
Gundlapochampally has seen rapid residential and mixed‑use real estate growth since the late 2010s due to its strategic location near the Outer Ring Road of Hyderabad. A number of registered developers have undertaken RERA‑approved residential and villa projects in the area. Many of these developers are incorporated companies or LLPs registered with the Registrar of Companies, Telangana.

== Economy and Industry ==
Gundlapochampally has developed as part of the industrial and employment landscape in the Medchal–Malkajgiri district of Telangana, India, particularly in textiles, information technology and life sciences.

=== Apparel Export Park ===
Gundlapochampally is home to the Apparel Export Park, an industrial estate established under the Apparel Park for Export Scheme on approximately 173 acres of land, administered by the [[Telangana State Industrial Infrastructure Corporation|Telangana State Industrial Infrastructure Corporation (TSIIC)]]. The park hosts garment manufacturing and export-oriented units and provides employment opportunities for the local population, particularly in the textile sector.

=== Information Technology ===
Under the Government of Telangana’s Growth in Dispersion (GRID) policy, Gundlapochampally is included within the northern IT corridor of the Hyderabad metropolitan region. The area lies near the planned Gateway IT Park at Kandlakoya, a proposed 14-storey information technology business park intended to accommodate IT companies and create employment opportunities.

===Life Sciences and Genome Valley ===
Gundlapochampally is a residential and logistical satellite for [[Genome Valley]], one of India’s major life sciences and biotechnology clusters located in the Medchal–Malkajgiri district. Genome Valley hosts numerous pharmaceutical, biotechnology and research organisations.

== Landmarks and Nearby Attractions ==

=== Religious and Historical Sites ===

* Shri Lakshminarayana Swamy Temple – A historic Hindu temple located in Gundlapochampally, believed to date back several centuries.
* Ratnaalayam Sri Venkateswara Swamy Temple – A pilgrimage temple located along the Medchal Highway near Gundlapochampally.
* Baba Koteshwar Mahadev Temple – A Shiva temple located in the nearby Kowkoor area.

=== Parks and Natural Features ===

* Kandlakoya Oxygen Park – An urban forest and recreational green space featuring medicinal gardens and natural habitats.
* [[Fox Sagar Lake]] – A large lake in the northern suburbs of Hyderabad, contributing to local ecology.

== Infrastructure and Transport ==
Gundlapochampally is connected to major transport corridors:

* [[Outer Ring Road, Hyderabad|Nehru Outer Ring Road (ORR)]] – Provides regional access and connects the area to Rajiv Gandhi International Airport, Gachibowli and other parts of Hyderabad. Nearest ORR exits are Exit 5: Dundigal and Exit 6: Medchal.
* [[National Highway 44 (India)|National Highway 44 (NH44)]] – Connects the locality to Medchal and northern destinations.
* Gundlapochampally Railway Station (Station Code: GDPL)– Part of the Hyderabad MMTS suburban rail network, providing rail connections to Secunderabad and Hyderabad.
* Metro Rail – The upcoming Hyderabad Metro Phase II-B includes a proposed 23 km corridor from Paradise to Medchal, which will feature a station in Gundlapochampally. Announced in early 2025, this expansion aims to improve connectivity to northern suburbs like Suchitra, Kompally, and Kandlakoya, significantly boosting transit access in the area.

== Amenities ==

=== Retail and Jewellery ===
Kompally and the adjoining stretches of National Highway 44 host several commercial developments featuring retail stores and jewellery showrooms, contributing to the area’s role as a local shopping destination.

== Infrastructure ==
Before the merger, as a municipality, Gundlapochampally maintained local services including water tanks, urban parks, and municipal sanitation. The official municipal page lists civic amenities provided during its municipal period.

Gundlapochampally and its surrounding region are served by a few well-known educational institutions and hospitals.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Neighbourhoods of Hyderabad|state=collapsed}}
[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Hyderabad, India]]
<ref>{{cite web
|title=Gundlapochampally Municipality
|url=https://medchal-malkajgiri.telangana.gov.in/gundlapochampally-municipality/
|website=Medchal–Malkajgiri District Official Website
|publisher=Government of Telangana
}}</ref>

Harbans Singh

2026-02-26T00:13:27Z

Shubhamsaini9: quick added content for accuracy also and added references

{{Short description|Sikh educationist and scholar (1921–1998)}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
[[File:Photograph of professor Harbans Singh.jpg|thumb|Harbans Singh]]
'''Harbans Singh''' (6 March 1921 – 30 May 1998) was an educationist, administrator, scholar and the editor-in-chief of the ''Encyclopaedia of Sikhism''. He was respected for his contributions to Sikh scholarship and Punjabi literary studies and had a vital and pervasive influence in the field of religious studies, with special reference to [[Sikhism]].<ref name="Singh1992">{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Dharam|title=Souvenir Professor Harbans Singh|year=1992|publisher=Shromani Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee|location=Amritsar}}</ref>

== Biography ==
Harbans Singh was born on 6 March 1921 in the village of Kotha Guru in the [[Bathinda]] district of the [[Punjab, British India|Punjab]]. His mother, Roop Kaur, belonged to the Sodhi family and traced her ancestry to the [[Hari Singh Nalwa]] clan. She deeply influenced his religious sensibilities. He received his schooling at Khalsa Secondary School at [[Muktsar]]. Thereafter, much to the disappointment of his parents, he refused to attend Medical School, and joined the [[Khalsa College, Amritsar|Khalsa College]] in [[Amritsar]], where he became president of the Khalsa College Students Association, Editor of the Darbar, and president of the Khalsa College Hockey Club. He received both his undergraduate and graduate degrees from this premier Sikh institute. The college authorities were so familiar with his academic potential that they offered him his first academic position even before his exam results were out. Harbans Singh started his career as a lecturer of English at the Khalsa College in Amritsar in 1943.<ref name="Singh1992" /> His daughter, [[Nikky-Guninder Kaur Singh]], is Crawford Professor of Religious Studies at [[Colby College]] in Maine, USA.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nikky Singh |url=https://www.colby.edu/people/people-directory/nikky-singh/ |website=www.colby.edu/ |publisher=Colby College |access-date=19 December 2023}}</ref>

== Early career ==
In 1944 he joined the Brijindra College at [[Faridkot, Punjab|Faridkot]] as head of the department of English.<ref>{{cite news|last=Singh|first=Roopinder|title=Prof. Harbans Singh: A Gentleman Scholar|url=http://www.roopinder.com/prof-harbans-singh-a-gentleman-scholar/|accessdate=11 July 2013|newspaper=The Tribune|year=1994}}</ref> Soon thereafter the Maharaja of [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]] took him on lien from the Punjab State Education department. He wrote his first book on the history of the State of Faridkot depicting its rulers’ sponsorship and enshrinement of Sikh traditions. During that initial phase he also wrote a history of the Sikh rule under Maharaja [[Ranjit Singh]] – the first major book on the Maharaja and his times by a scholar other than the European travelers and political observers. In 1958 he rejoined his position with the Punjab State Education Department and became Principal of Government College, Muktsar. During his tenure he wrote his book on Aspects of Punjabi Literature.

== Creation of the Punjabi University ==
In 1960 he became the Member-Secretary of the [[Punjabi University]] Commission with Maharaja Yadvindra Singh of Patiala as the president. The commission was instrumental for creating the Punjabi University to advance Punjabi language, literature, and culture. The Hebrew University in Israel is the only other University founded on language. Though extremely busy with the administrative demands of the growing University, he kept up with his scholarship, writing important books, including ''Guru Gobind Singh'' (which was translated into 14 Indian languages)<ref>{{cite news|last=Talib|first=G. S.|title=book review of Harbans Singh's biography of Guru Gobind Singh|newspaper=The Spokesman|date=3 July 1967}}</ref> and ''The Heritage of the Sikhs'' (one of the most popular of his titles, which went to several editions with significant additions and revisions). In 1964 he was invited by the United States Government to study the administrative functioning and educational system of universities in the US. He compiled his impressions of this visit in the form of a book ''Higher Education in America'' (1966), which has been appreciated for its informative and educative value and its insights on continuing education – this last became the cornerstone of the Evening Studies program at the Punjabi University.

== Pioneer for the academic study of religion ==
Harbans Singh spent the 1968–69 academic year at the Center for World Religions at Harvard. It was here that he prepared a biography of Guru Nanak entitled ''Guru Nanak and Origins of the Sikh Faith'' (1969) to mark the five hundredth anniversary of the birth of the Guru.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Harbans|title=Guru Nanak and Origins of the Sikh Faith|url=https://archive.org/details/gurunanakorigins0000sing|url-access=registration|year=1969|publisher=Asia Publishing House|location=Bombay}}</ref> Upon his return to the Punjabi University, he played a vital role in the establishment of a full-fledged department of the academic study of religion. He became the founder chair of the first department of religious studies in India that offered courses at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. It reflected the best modalities of this kind of study in American and European universities. Called the [[Guru Gobind Singh]] Department of Religious Studies, it was established by the Punjabi University to commemorate the quincentenary of the Guru's birth.<ref name="Singh1992" />

For the celebrations Harbans Singh arranged an international seminar on Guru Nanak (September 1969). He then published the proceedings of the seminar in a volume entitled ''Perspectives on Guru Nanak'' (1975). In collaboration with Dr. L.M. Joshi he published ''An Introduction to Indian Religions'' (1973) to serve as a textbook for the first-year undergraduate students. In 1969 he also launched a biannual Journal of Religious Studies and became its founder-Editor.

During his tenure as Professor of Sikh Studies and Head of the Department of Religious Studies, he hosted many international conferences and brought distinguished scholars to the Punjabi University. He also travelled extensively, lecturing on different facets of Sikhism in Japan, Belgium, the Netherlands, England, Ireland, and the US. The series of lectures that he delivered at Berkeley at the invitation of its university in May 1984 were published in a book, ''The Berkeley Lectures on Sikhism.'' He was an active member of the [[Religions for Peace|World Conference on Religion and Peace]], and he also joined the International Consultation in Search of Non-Violent Alternatives in Derry, Northern Ireland.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Nikky-Guninder Kaur|title=Birth of the Khalsa: A Feminist Re-Memory of Sikh Identity|year=2005|publisher=SUNY|location=Albany|page=xii-xv}}</ref> All through he kept up with his scholarship in Sikh history and literature by writing books, contributing articles to journals and newspapers, translating Punjabi authors like Bhai Vir Singh, [[Amrita Pritam]], and Ajeet Cour into English, and editing collections of short-stories, essays, and conference papers.<ref>{{cite news|last=Singh|first=Nikky-Guninder Kaur|title=Remembering Professor Harbans Singh|newspaper=The Tribune|year=2008}}</ref> His book on [[Bhai Vir Singh]], which first appeared in "[[Makers of Indian Literature]]" series sponsored by the Sahitya Akademy, was republished posthumously in Punjabi by the Bhai Vir Singh Sadan in New Delhi. Harbans Singh wrote an autobiographical essay in Punjabi after losing his beloved wife Kailash Kaur.

== Finale ==
The culmination of his life was the momentous ''Encyclopaedia of Sikhism'', the first in the English language. This comprehensive work covers different aspects of Sikh history, literature, and philosophy.<ref name=eos/> The four-volume set was released by the Prime Minister of India on 5 March 1999 at New Delhi in a special function.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://punjabiuniversity.ac.in/pbiuniweb/pages/research/research1.html|title=Professor Harbans Singh Department|date=1999|publisher=Punjabi University, Patiala|accessdate=28 December 2016|archive-date=29 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229033408/http://punjabiuniversity.ac.in/pbiuniweb/pages/research/research1.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Though Harbans Singh suffered a paralytic stroke, he received an honorary degree of Doctor of Letters from [[Guru Nanak Dev University]], and continued working on his project until his death on 30 May 1998. He was also honored by the [[Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee|Shiromani Gurdwara Committee]] on 17 August 1992, at a function at his residence in Punjabi University where the SGPC president, Jathedar Gurcharan Singh Tohra, bestowed a siropa on him in the presence of Mr Parkash Singh Badal.<ref>{{cite news|last=Singh|first=Roopinder|title=Prof. Harbans Singh: A Gentleman Scholar|url=http://www.roopinder.com/prof-harbans-singh-a-gentleman-scholar/|accessdate=11 July 2013|newspaper=The Tribune}}</ref> During the Khalsa Tercentenary Celebrations in 1999, he was posthumously invested with the "Order of the Khalsa." The Punjabi University honored him by prefixing his name "Professor Harbans Singh" to the Department of the Encyclopedia of Sikhism to which he had totally dedicated himself during the last decades of his life. This full-fledged Department will continue to ensure that the Encyclopaedia of Sikhism is made available in Punjabi and is constantly revised and updated. An online version is published on the internet by Punjabi University.<ref name=eos>{{cite web |url=http://www.learnpunjabi.org/eos/index.aspx |title=Encyclopaedia of Sikhism |publisher=Punjabi University, Patiala |access-date=28 December 2016}}</ref> Essays in Honour of Professor Harbans Singh were published by Dr. Dharam Singh entitled Sikhism and Secularism.<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Dharam|title=Sikhism and Secularism: Essays in Honour of Professor Harbans Singh|year=1994|publisher=Harman Publishing|location=New Delhi}}</ref> Harbans Singh was a sage-like figure who worked away from the limelight, selflessly pursuing his literary and scholarly interests.

== Publications ==
* Maharaja Ranjit Singh
* Aspects of Punjabi Literature
* Heritage of the Sikhs
* Higher Education in America
* Guru Gobind Singh (translated into 14 Indian languages)
* Guru Nanak and Origins of the Sikh Faith
* Perspectives on Guru Nanak
* Punjab Past and Present: Essays in Honour of Dr. Ganda Singh (with N.G. Barrier)
* Approaches to the Study of Religion
* Bhai Vir Singh ([[Makers of Indian Literature]] Series) (also translated into Punjabi)
* An Introduction to Indian Religions (with Dr. L.M. Joshi)
* Guru Tegh Bahadur
* Mahindi and Other Short Stories
* Sada Virsa
* Four Volume Encyclopedia of Sikhism

==References==
{{Reflist|40em}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Harbans}}
[[Category:1998 deaths]]
[[Category:1921 births]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian educational theorists]]
[[Category:People from Bathinda]]

Satyanatha Tirtha

2026-02-23T08:27:09Z

Shubhamsaini9: created new stub.

{{short description|17th-century Indian philosopher}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox Hindu leader
| name = Satyanatha Tirtha
| honorific_prefix =
| honorific_suffix =
| religion = [[Hinduism]]
| birth_name = Narasimhacharya Avadhani
| birth_date = 1648
| birth_place = [[Miraj]] {{small|(present-day [[Sangli district]], [[Maharashtra]])}}
| death_date = 1674
| death_place = [[Veeracholapuram]] ({{small|present-day [[Viluppuram district]], [[Tamil Nadu]])}}
| resting_place = [[Veeracholapuram]]
| honors = ''Abhinava Vyasaraja'', ''Abhinava Chandrikacharya''
| order = [[Vedanta]] ([[Uttaradi Math]])
| guru = [[Satyanidhi Tirtha]]
| successor = [[Satyabhinava Tirtha]]
| disciples = [[Satyabhinava Tirtha]], Srinivasa Kavi,{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=194}} [[Chalari Narasimhacharya]]
| philosophy = [[Dvaita]],{{refn|1=''Dvaita'' (द्वैत) is a [[Sanskrit]] word for "duality" or "dualism".{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1872|p=507}} |group=note}} [[Vaishnavism]]
| literary_works = ''[[Abhinava Gada]]'', ''[[Abhinava Tandava]]'', ''[[Abhinava Chandrika]]''{{Sfn|Samuel|1997|p=368}}
| father = Krishnacharya Avadhani
| mother = Rukmini Bai
| image = Old Portrait of Brindavana (tomb) Sri Sri Satyanatha Tirtha of Uttaradi Math.jpg
| caption = Brindavana (tomb) of Satyanatha Tirtha at [[Veeracholapuram]]
}}
{{Vaishnavism}}
{{DvaitaInfobox}}

'''Satyanatha Tirtha''' (also known as '''Satyanatha Yati'''{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=445}}{{Sfn|Majumdar|1974|p=615}}) ([[Sanskrit]]:सत्यनाथा तीर्थ); [[IAST]]:Śrī Satyanātha Tīrtha) ({{circa}}1648 – {{circa}}1674{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=445}}), also called ''Abhinava Vyasaraja'', was a [[Hindu]] [[philosopher]], scholar, [[theologian]], [[logician]] and [[dialectician]] belonging to the Dvaita order of [[Vedanta]].{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=501}} He served as the twentieth [[pontiff]] of [[Uttaradi Math]] from 1660 to 1673.{{Sfn|Prabhupada|1975|p=1229}} He was a fiery and prolific writer and very ambitious of the glory of [[Dvaita Vedanta]]. He is considered to be one of the stalwarts in the history of the Dvaita school of thought, on account of his sound elucidations of the works of [[Madhvacharya]], [[Jayatirtha]] and [[Vyasatirtha]].{{Sfn|Majumdar|1974|p=615}}{{Sfn|Bhatnagar|1964|p=131}} Three of his [[polemically]] themed [[Doxography|doxographical]] works (''[[Abhinavamruta]]'', ''[[Abhinava Chandrika]]'' and ''[[Abhinava Tarkatandava]]'') are reminiscent of "Vyasatraya" (the three eyes of the man-lion of [[Madhva Siddhāntha]]).{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=346}} His [[refutation]] work ''[[Abhinava Gada]]'' is a devastating criticism of [[Appayya Dikshita|Appayya]]'s ''Madhvamathamukhamardhana''.{{efn|group=note|Some sources also spell the name as ''Madhvamatamukhamardana'' or ''Madhvamatamukhamardanam''.{{Sfn|Mesquita|2008|p=xxvii}}}}{{efn|group=note|B.N.K. Sharma noted a similarly named work ''Madhvamatamukhamardana'', attributed to Nimbarka. So not to be confused with that.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=97}}}}{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=446}}{{Sfn|Sarma|1956|p=xxxvi}} His independent treatise ''[[Abhinava Chandrika]]'' is considered a brilliant work relating to the ''[[Brahma Sūtras]]'', being a commentary on Jayatirtha's ''Tattvaprakashika''.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=225}}{{Sfn|Sarma|1956|p=xxxv}} His work ''[[Abhinava Tarka Tandava]]'' refuted the works of rival systems, especially those of [[Prabhākara]] of [[Mimamsa]], [[Ramanuja]]'s [[Visistadvaita]], and [[Gangesha Upadhyaya]], [[Raghunatha Siromani]] of the [[Nyaya]] school, on the same lines as Vyasatirtha's ''Tarka Tandava''.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=448}} [[Indologist]] [[B. N. Krishnamurti Sharma|B.N.K.Sharma]] wrote, "His energy and determination to crush out the rivalry of [[Monism]] is reflected even in the choice of the titles of some of his works, four of which go by the name "Paraśus" (the Axe)".{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=446}}

Born into a family of scholars, Satyanatha Tirtha studied the [[Āstika and nāstika#Āstika|six orthodox schools]] of [[Hinduism]] and subsequently, the philosophy of Dvaita under [[Satyanidhi Tirtha]] of Uttaradi Math, eventually succeeding him as the pontiff. B.N.K.Sharma wrote, "Satyanatha Tirtha made a bold pronouncement that women and [[Shudras]] are eligible for [[Aparoksha]]jnana exclusively through shravana of [[Tantra]]". Sharma also wrote, "Satyanatha holds the memory of Vyasatirtha in warm admiration and refers him reverentially as ''Vyāsatīrthasrimaccaranah''".{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=446}} He composed 12 works, consisting of commentaries on the works of Madhva, Jayatirtha and Vyasatirtha, and several independent treatises criticizing the tenets of contemporary schools, especially [[Advaita]], while simultaneously elaborating upon the Dvaita thought.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=446}} His dialectical skill and logical acumen is often compared with that of Vyasatirtha.

==Historical sources==
Information about Satyanatha Tirtha is derived from [[hagiographies]]: ''{{IAST|Satyanāthabhyudaya}}'' by {{Transliteration|sa|IAST|Chalāri Saṁkarṣaṇacārya|italic=no}} (a disciple of [[Satyabhinava Tirtha]]); ''Konkanabyudaya'' of Sagara Ramacharya and ''Sri Satyanatha Tirtharu'' (a biography in [[Kannada language|Kannada]]) by S.K. Badrinath.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=501}} [[Indologist]] [[B. N. Krishnamurti Sharma|B.N.K.Sharma]] wrote, "His victorious career formed the subject of a eulogy by Chalāri Saṁkarṣaṇacārya, in his ''Satyanatha Mahatmya Ratnakara''".{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=445}} ''Satyanatha Abhyudaya'' consists of eleven [[canto]]s and two [[manuscript]]s of this work are noticed by [[Germany|German]] [[Indologist]] [[Theodor Aufrecht]] which he quoted in his book ''Catalogus Catalogorum''.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=501}} B.N.K. Sharma opined the ''Satyanatha Abhyudaya'' is same as ''Satyanatha Mahatmya Ratnakara'' that was quoted in the ''Konkanabyudaya'' of Sagara Ramacharya. In ''Konkanabyudaya'' the author cited numerous [[Smritis]] and letters patent and bulls issued by [[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi rulers]] and [[pontiffs]] of some of the mutts at [[Udupi]] and of [[Satyabhinava Tirtha]], Satyanatha Tirtha and others.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=573}} The ''{{IAST|Alaṅkāramauktikamālā}}'' of {{IAST|Kṛṣṇa}} is another work which eulogises Satyanatha Tirtha.{{Sfn|Samuel|1997|p=208}}

==Biography==
[[File:Udupi - Scenes of Sri Krishna Temple12.jpg|thumb|[[Udupi Sri Krishna Matha]], a centre of [[Dvaita Vedanta|Madhva Siddhanta]]]]
B.N.K. Sharma says,{{efn|group=note|Abhinava Tarkatandava's ''Anumanakhandana'' was published by Kesavacarya in 1968. B.N.K. Sharma took the Bhumika section of this work about Satyanatha Tirtha's early life' as a reference.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=652}}}} Satyanatha Tirtha was originally named Narasimhacharya. He was born into a [[Deshastha Brahmin]] family of scholars in 1648 in [[Miraj]], now in the southern part of [[Maharashtra]]. His father's name was Krishnacharya Avadhani and his mother's name was Rukmini Bai.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=652}}{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=445}} Before becoming pontiff of the monastic institution [[Uttaradi Math]], he was known by three names after taking [[Sannyasa]]. He was first ordained Sannyasa as an ordinary [[Asceticism#Indian religions|ascetic]] with the name Vidyanatha Tirtha by Krishnadwaipayana Tirtha (the disciple of [[Vedavyasa Tirtha]]), for second time he was named Ranganatha Tirtha by Dandaparivritti of [[Vedanidhi Tirtha]] and finally for the third time by [[Satyanidhi Tirtha]], with the name Satyanatha Tirtha.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=652}} In 1660 he took the seat of Uttaradi Math as the peetadhipathi, taking the name Satyanatha Tirtha.

According to the account in Sagara Ramacharya's ''{{IAST|Koñkanasthabhyudaya}}'', Satyanatha Tirtha visited [[Benares]] at a time when [[Mughal emperor]] [[Aurangazeb]] was harassing the [[Hindus]] there. The same work says that he was a contemporary of [[Keladi Chennamma]] (queen of [[Nayakas of Keladi|Keladi]]) and Aurangazeb. According to Sharma, it was presumably during this time that he visited [[Gaya, India|Gaya]] and strengthened the hold of his [[Matha|mutt]] among the [[Gayapalas]], who had been converted to [[Sadh Vaishnavism|Madhvism]] by his predecessor [[Vidyadhisha Tirtha]].{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=445}} Satyanatha ordained sannyasa to Keshavacharya (the Purvashrama name of [[Satyabhinava Tirtha]]) in 1673. In the same year Satyabhinava Tirtha succeeded Satyanatha Tirtha as the pontiff of Uttaradi Math.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=501}}{{Sfn|Glasenapp|1992|p=240}} After Satyanatha Tirtha died in 1674, his mortal remains were enshrined in the mutt at [[Veeracholapuram]], a village in [[Tamil Nadu]].

==Works==
{{Quote box |width=33% |align=right |quoted=1 |quote = "Satyanatha Tirtha was a powerful and prolific writer and a noted controversialist in logic and theology."|salign=right |source=— Indologist [[B. N. Krishnamurti Sharma]] on Satyanatha Tirtha{{Sfn|Sharma|1986|p=xxiii}}}}
Satyanatha Tirtha authored twelve works, consisting of [[polemic]]al tracts, commentaries on the works of [[Madhva]], [[Jayatirtha]], independent works and a few hymns. The [[manuscript]]s are preserved in mutts at [[Veeracholapuram]], [[Bangalore]] and [[Tirukoilur]]. Satyanatha wanted to emulate the example and philosophical work that had been accomplished by Vyasaraja.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=446}} His work ''[[Abhinavamrita]]'' is a commentary on Jayatirtha's ''Pramana-Paddhati''. ''Pramana-Paddhati'' is an [[Epistemology|epistemological]] work that discusses [[pramana]]s from the point of view of Dvaita Vedanta. His work ''[[Abhinava Chandrika|Abhinavachandrika]]'' is composed on the same lines of
Vyasatirtha's ''Tatparya Chandrika'', which is a commentary on Jayatirtha's ''Tattvaprakasika'', which apart from elucidating the concepts of the source text, criticises the allegations against Madhva raised by [[Appaya Dikshita]] and other grammarians. His work ''[[Abhinava Tarkatandava|Abhinavatandava]]'' or ''[[Abhinava Tarkatandava|Abhinavatarkatandava]]'' is polemical tract written on same lines of Vyasatirtha's ''Tarka Tandava''.{{Sfn|Majumdar|1974|p=615}} Satyanatha Tirtha also wrote [[Gloss (annotation)|glosses]] on the three ''Khandanas'' of Madhva. His commentaries on Dasaprakaranas texts are called ''Parasu'', which is an indication of his intention to cut the opponents arguments to pieces. His works are referred as the ''Abhinava Granthas'' and ''Parashu Granthas''.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=446}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name
! Description
! References
|-
|''[[Abhinava Chandrika]]''
|Commentary on [[Jayatirtha]]'s ''Tattva Prakāśikā''.
|{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=446-7}}
|-
|''[[Abhinavamrutha]]''
|Gloss on ''Pramāṇa-Paddhatī'' of [[Jayatirtha]]
|{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=447}}
|-
|''[[Abhinava Tarka Tandava]]''
|Independent polemical tract targeted towards the [[Visistadvaita]], [[Mimamsa]] and [[Nyaya]] schools of Hindu philosophy
|{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=448}}
|-
|''[[Abhinava Gada]]''
|Refutation of the works of [[Appayya Dikshita]]
||{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=447}}
|-
|''Māyāvādakhaṇḍana Parasu''
|Gloss on ''Māyāvādakhaṇḍana'' of [[Madhva]]
|{{Sfn|Nakamura|1983|p=125}}
|-
|''Mithyatvanumana Khandana Parasu''
|Gloss on ''Mithyatva-anumana Khandana'' of [[Madhva]]
|{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=447}}
|-
|''Upaadhi Khandana Parashu''
|Gloss on ''Upaadhi Khandana'' of [[Madhva]]
|{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=447}}
|-
|''Nyaya Sudha Parashu''
|Commentary on ''Nyaya Sudha'' of [[Jayatirtha]]
|{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=446}}
|-
|''Vijayamala''
|Treatise on disconnected topics of general and special interests by taking certain passages from ''Brahma Sutra Bhasya'', ''Māyāvādakhaṇḍanaṭikā'', ''[[Mahabharata Tatparya Nirnaya]]'' and ''Nyayamrutha'' of [[Madhva]], [[Jayatirtha]] and [[Vyasatirtha]]
|{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=448}}
|-
|''Karmaprakashika''
|Gloss on ''Karmaṅirṅayaṭikā'' of [[Jayatirtha]]
|{{Sfn|Lutjeharms|2018|p=335}}
|-
|''Rupavatara Tippani''
|Commentary on ''Ṛgbhāṣya Ṭikā'' of [[Jayatirtha]]
|{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=652}}
|}

===''Abhinava Chandrika''===
''[[Abhinava Chandrika]]'' is a well-known commentary on Jayatirtha's ''Tattva Prakasika'', which in turn is a commentary on Madhva's ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'' (which is a ''[[bhashya]]'' or a commentary on [[Badarayana]]'s ''[[Brahma Sūtras]]''). It is his [[Masterpiece|magnum opus]] which runs to 12,500 stanzas. It is not in continuation of ''Tatparya Chandrika'' but an independent gloss, covering those portions (ch. I-II) commented upon by Vyasatirtha. Satyanatha refers in one of his introductory verses (no. 4) to [[Padmanabha Tirtha]]'s ''Sattarkadipavali''. 'In contrast to Vyasatirtha's ''Tatparya Chandrika'', Satyanatha Tirtha here sets forth the [[Purva paksha|Purvapaksha]] and [[Siddhanta]] views under each adhikarņa (or chapter), and offer criticisms on the former in accordance with the views of his teacher [[Satyanidhi Tirtha]].{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=447}} B.N.K Sharma wrote, "His dextrous way of explaining the example of "Ahikundala"{{efn|Example of "serpent and the coil". ''Ahikundala'' here means 'coil'.}} by constructing the term "vísesha" used by Jayatirtha in ''Tattvaprakasika'' in his twin senses of "visesa" and "bheda" is a masterstroke of resourcefulness".{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=446}}

===''Abhinava Gada''===
''[[Abhinava Gada]]'' ("The New Mace") is a polemical and expositional work in five chapters. It is a refutation work for the [[theological]] controversies provoked by [[Appayya Dikshita]] by his work ''Madhvamatamukhamardanam'' and runs to 4,750 stanzas. American [[historian]] [[Anthony Grafton]] and [[classicist]] [[Glenn W. Most]] says, ''[[Abhinava Gada|Abhinava-Gada]]'' is like a new [[Mace (bludgeon)|mace]] which broke the heads of non-dualists like [[Appayya Dikshita]].{{Sfn|Grafton|Most|2016|p=108}} B.N.K. Sharma wrote, "Abhinava Gada is a devastating criticism of Appaya's '' Madhvamatamukhamardhanam''. He takes a bold stand on several points regarding interpretation of original texts he is commenting and anticipates fresh objections against the originals and knocks them down. He is fond of what he calls ''interpolations'' and ''corruptions'' in the texts and suggests his own emendations and justifies them with gusto".{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=446}}

===''Abhinava Tandava''===
''[[Abhinava Tandava]]'' ("The New Dance of Logic") or ''Abhinava Tarkatandava'' is a polemical tract targeted towards the [[Nyaya]] school. It is a voluminous work and is considered a [[dialectical]] classic of Satyanatha Tirtha. It expounds the nature and constitution of the logical and epistemological categories of the [[Dvaita]] system and refutes those of rival systems, especially those of [[Nyaya]]-[[Vaisheshika]]s, on the same lines of the original ''Tarka Tandava'' of Vyasatirtha. The work runs to 11,367 stanzas.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=488}}

==Legacy==
[[File:Vishnupadh Temple.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vishnupad Mandir|Vishnupad Temple]] in [[Gaya, India|Gaya]], where [[Gayawal Pandas]] are priests]]
Satyanatha Tirtha is considered to be one of the foremost stalwarts of Dvaita thought. He is revered for his philosophical and dialectical thought, and his role in spreading the school of Dvaita across the subcontinent, especially in [[Bihar]]. B.N.K. Sharma wrote: "A memorable personality in many ways, a fierce, very ambitious and prolific writer".{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=445}} Satyanatha Tirtha has been eulogised by Chalāri Saṁkarṣaṇacārya in his biographical works ''Satyanatha Abhyudaya'' and ''Satyanatha Mahatmya Ratnakara''.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=501}} [[Indologist]] and professor Dr. R. Nagaraja Sarma considered Satyanatha Tirtha, along with [[Trivikrama Panditacharya]] and Keshavacharya, prominent scholars who wrote expository and controversial works unrivalled for their brilliance and systematic treatment.{{Sfn|Sarma|2008|p=457}} Historian [[Ramesh Chandra Majumdar]] wrote that Satyanatha Tirtha, [[Vadiraja Tirtha]] and [[Raghavendra Tirtha]] were the great scholars who enriched the literature of Dvaita considerably by their numerous contributions.{{Sfn|Majumdar|1974|p=615}}
Valerie Stoker considered Satyanatha Tirtha along with [[Vijayendra Tirtha]], [[Vadiraja Tirtha]], [[Raghavendra Tirtha]] and [[Narayanacharya]] as prominent Dvaita intellectuals, who responded to their rivals critiques throughout sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.{{Sfn|Stoker|2016|p=162}}

===Spread of Dvaita===
B.N.K. Sharma credited Satyanatha Tirtha with converting remaining [[Gayapalas]] and strengthening the hold of [[Dvaita Vedanta|Madhva Siddhanta]] among the [[Gayawal Brahmin|Gayawala Pandas]] of [[Gaya, India|Gaya]], who had been converted to Madhvism by his predecessor Vidyadhisha Tirtha.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=445}}

===Scholarly influence===
Satyanatha Tirtha was significantly influenced by [[Vyasatirtha]], [[Jayatirtha]], [[Padmanabha Tirtha]] and [[Madhva]], in that he borrowed from their style and method of enquiry.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=446}}{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=447}} He exerted considerable influence on his successors. [[Satyadhyana Tirtha]]'s ''Chandrikamandana'' derives some of its aspects from ''[[Abhinava Chandrika]]''.{{Sfn|Potter|1983|p=430}} Satyabhinava Tirtha's ''Durghata Bhavadipa'', an exhaustive commentary on the Madhva's ''Bhagvata Tatparya Nirnaya'', borrows some of its aspects from Satyanatha Tirtha's oeuvre.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=501}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite book|title=Studies in social history: modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ystAAAAIAAJ|last=Bhatnagar |first=O.P. |publisher=University of Allahabad|year=1964}}
*{{Citation|title=Canonical Texts and Scholarly Practices: A Global Comparative Approach|first1=Anthony|last1=Grafton|first2=Glenn W.|last2=Most|author-link1=Anthony Grafton|author-link2=Glenn W. Most|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-1107105980}}
*{{Cite book|title=Madhva's Philosophy of the Viṣṇu Faith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GITXAAAAMAAJ|first=Helmuth Von|last=Glasenapp|author-link=Helmuth von Glasenapp|publisher=Dvaita Vedanta Studies and Research Foundation|year=1992}}
*{{cite book|title=A Vaisnava Poet in Early Modern Bengal: Kavikarnapura's Splendour of Speech|first=Rembert|last=Lutjeharms|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0192561930}}
*{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Mughal empire|url=https://archive.org/details/mughulempire00bhar/mode/2up |first=Ramesh Chandra|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|last=Majumdar|year=1974}}
*{{Cite book|title=Madhva's quotes from the Purāṇas and the Mahābhārata: an analytical compilation of untraceable source-quotations in Madhva's works along with footnotes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JEsKAQAAMAAJ|first=Roque|last=Mesquita|publisher=Aditya Prakashan|year=2008|isbn=978-8177420821}}
*{{cite book |last1=Monier-Williams |first1=Monier |author-link=Monier Monier-Williams |title=A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages |date=1872 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (originally published by Oxford University Press) |location=Delhi |isbn=978-8120831056 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0500/mw__0540.html }}
*{{Cite book|title=A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=asNLliQHDNQC|first=Hajime|last=Nakamura|author-link=Hajime Nakamura|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1983|isbn=978-8120806511}}
*{{Cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of Indian philosophies, Volume 1 (1995 Reprint)|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofindianphilosophyvolume01bibiliographykarlpotterh._795_Y/page/n1/mode/2up |first=Karl H.|last=Potter|author-link=Karl Harrington Potter|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1983|isbn=978-8120803084}}
*{{Citation|title=Sri Caitanya-caritamrta, Madhya-lila: The Pastimes of Lord Caitanya Mahaprabhu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S9phBAAAQBAJ&q=Sri+Caitanya-caritamrta%2C+Madhya-lila%3A+The+Pastimes+of+Lord+Caitanya+Mahaprabhu |first=A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami|author-link=A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada|last=Prabhupada|publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust|year=1975|isbn= 978-9171496621}}
*{{cite book|title=Contribution of Karaṇāṭaka to Sanskrit|first=G. John|last=Samuel|publisher=Institute of Asian Studies|year=1997|lccn=99931373|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GPNjAAAAMAAJ&q=Krsna+Satyanatha }}
*{{cite book|title=Tattvaprakāśikā-vyākhya Bhavabodhah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LNcsDzMDePcC|first=R. Nagaraja|last=Sarma|publisher=Government Oriental Manuscripts Library|year=1956}} (in [[Sanskrit]] and English)
*{{cite book|title=Reign of Realism: English Exposition of Daśaprakaranas of Śrī Ānandatīrtha, Volume 2|year=2008|first=R. Nagaraja|last=Sarma|publisher=Dvaita Vedanta Studies and Research Foundation|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lghRAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{cite book|title = A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature, Vol 1. 3rd Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVtpFMPMulcC|first = B. N. Krishnamurti| last = Sharma|author-link=B. N. Krishnamurti Sharma|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (2008 Reprint) |isbn = 978-8120815759| year= 2000 }}
*{{cite book|title=The Brahma Sutras and Their Principal Commentaries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ltXtAAAAIAAJ|first=B. N. Krishnamurti|last=Sharma|publisher=Munshiram Manoharial Publishers Private Limited|year=1986|isbn = 9788121500340}}
*{{cite book |last= Stoker|first= Valerie|title= Polemics and Patronage in the City of Victory |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.doa.037/mode/2up |year=2016|publisher= University of California Press|isbn= 978-0-520-29183-6}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|title = A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol 4 |first = Surendranath| last = Dasgupta|author-link=Surendranath Dasgupta| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn = 978-8120804159 | year= 1922 |ref=none}}
*{{citation|title=Directory of Personal Names in the Indian History: From the Earliest to 1947: Based on the History and Culture of the Indian People by Dr. R.C. Majumdar and A.D. Pusalker Et Al|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cmNmAAAAMAAJ|first=Krishan Lal|last=Khera|publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers|year=2002|isbn=978-8121510592 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book|title=Māyāvādakhaṇḍanam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-0wIAAAAIAAJ|first=K. T.|last=Pandurangi|author-link=Krishnacharya Tamanacharya Pandurangi|publisher=Dvaita Vedāntā Dhyayana Saṃśodhana Pratiṣṭhānam|year=1996 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book|title=Brahmasūtrabhāṣyam, Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hUE1AAAAIAAJ|first=K. T.|last=Pandurangi|author-link=Krishnacharya Tamanacharya Pandurangi |publisher=Karnataka Historical Research Society|year=1981 |ref=none}}
*{{Cite book|title=R̥gveda-darśana: The first hymn to Agni|url=https://archive.org/details/rgveda-darsana-volume-thirteen-the-first-hymn-to-agni_202004/page/n5/mode/2up|first=S. K. Ramachandra|last=Rao|author-link=Saligrama Krishna Ramachandra Rao|publisher=Kalpatharu Research Academy|year=2004 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book|title=The Brahma Sutras and Their Principal Commentaries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ltXtAAAAIAAJ|first=B. N. Krishnamurti|last=Sharma|author-link=B. N. Krishnamurti Sharma|publisher=Munshiram Manoharial Publishers Private Limited|date=1 January 1986 |isbn = 9788121500340|ref=none}}
* {{cite book|title = Philosophy of Śrī Madhvācārya|first = B. N. Krishnamurti| last = Sharma|author-link=B. N. Krishnamurti Sharma|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (2014 Reprint) |isbn = 978-8120800687| year= 1962 | url=https://archive.org/stream/Philosophy.of.Sri.Madhvacarya/Philosophy.of.Sri.Madhvacharya#page/n0/mode/2up| ref=none}}
*{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/Sri_satyanatha_tirtharu_-_s.k.badarinath/mode/2up|title=Sri Satyanatha Tirtharu|publisher=Sukhela Prakashan|author=S. K. Badrinath |ref=none}} ({{small|in [[Kannada language|Kannada]]}})
*{{cite book|title=The Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute, Volumes 17-18|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I6BjAAAAMAAJ|publisher=Ganganatha Jha Research Institute, Honorary Secretary, Ganganatha Jha Research Institute|year=1961 |ref=none}}
*[https://archive.org/details/SatyabhinavaTirtha-SriSatyanathaGuruStuti/mode/2up Satyabhinava Tirtha's Sri Satyanatha Guru Stuti] (in [[Sanskrit]])
*[https://archive.org/details/abhinavatandaveshabdakhandsatyanathyati1234ghaalm6shlf2devanagarinyayashastra/mode/2up Abhinava Tandava] (in [[Devanagari]])

==External links==
{{Portal|Hinduism|India|Religion|Philosophy}}
*[https://www.uttaradimath.org/parampara/sri-satyanatha-tirtha Sri Satyanatha Tirtha] from https://www.uttaradimath.org/.

{{Madhva religious figures}}
{{Hindudharma}}
{{Indian Philosophy}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Madhva religious leaders]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophers and theologians]]
[[Category:Dvaita Vedanta]]
[[Category:Uttaradi Math]]
[[Category:Dvaitin philosophers]]
[[Category:Scholars from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Scholars from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:17th-century Indian philosophers]]
[[Category:Indian Hindu monks]]
[[Category:1640s births]]
[[Category:1670s deaths]]

Ramjet

2026-02-22T14:29:55Z

Shubhamsaini9:

{{Short description|Supersonic atmospheric jet engine}}
{{Hatnote group|
{{Other uses}}
{{distinguish|Ram air turbine}}
}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}
[[File:Ramjet operation.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|250px|Simple ramjet operation, with Mach numbers of flow shown]]
{{Seriesbox aircraft propulsion}}

A '''ramjet''' is a form of [[airbreathing jet engine]] that requires forward motion of the engine to provide air for combustion. Ramjets work most efficiently at [[supersonic speed]]s around {{convert|3|Mach|mph km/h|lk=in|-2}} and can operate up to {{convert|6|Mach|mph km/h|-2}}.

Ramjets can be particularly appropriate in uses requiring a compact mechanism for high speed, such as [[missile]]s. Weapons designers are investigating ramjet technology for use in [[artillery]] shells to increase range; a 120 mm ramjet-assisted mortar shell is thought to be able to travel {{convert|22|mi|km|abbr=on|order=flip}}.<ref name="ToV">{{cite book |last1=McNab |first1=Chris |last2=Keeter |first2=Hunter |title=Tools of Violence: Guns, Tanks and Dirty Bombs |chapter=Death from a Distance Artillery |location=[[Oxford, United Kingdom]] |publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]] |year=2008 |page=[https://archive.org/details/toolsofviolenceg0000mcna/page/145 145] |isbn=978-1846032257 |url=https://archive.org/details/toolsofviolenceg0000mcna |url-access=registration |access-date=12 February 2016}}</ref> They have been used, though not efficiently, as [[tip jet]]s on the ends of [[helicopter]] rotors.<ref name="TIME 1965-11-26">{{cite news |title=Here Comes the Flying Stovepipe |magazine=[[TIME]] |publisher=[[Time Inc.]] |date=26 November 1965 |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,834721,00.html |access-date=5 March 2024 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408064246/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,834721,00.html |archive-date=8 April 2008}}</ref>

{{TOC limit}}

==History==

===France===
[[File:Leduc 010 Ramjet Prototype (11729010226).jpg|thumb|left|Leduc 010]]

====Cyrano de Bergerac====
''L'Autre Monde: ou les États et Empires de la Lune ([[Comical History of the States and Empires of the Moon]])'' (1657) was the first of three satirical novels written by [[Cyrano de Bergerac]] that are considered amonged the first [[science fiction]] stories. [[Arthur C Clarke]] credited this book with conceiving the ramjet,<ref>{{cite web |title=Savien Cyrano de Bergerac |website=Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi) |first=Petri |last=Liukkonen |publisher=[[Kuusankoski]] Public Library |location=Finland |url=http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/bergerac.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214031903/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/bergerac.htm |archive-date=14 February 2015}}</ref> and as the first fictional example of rocket-powered space flight.{{fact|date=December 2025}}

====René Lorin====
The ramjet was designed in 1913 by French inventor [[René Lorin]], who was granted a patent (FR290356) for his device. He could not test his invention due to the unavailability of adequate equipment since there was no way at the time for an aircraft to go fast enough for a ramjet to function properly.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zucker |first=Robert D. |author2=Oscar Biblarz |title=Fundamentals of gas dynamics |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2002 |isbn=0-471-05967-6}}</ref> His patent showed a piston internal combustion engine with added 'trumpets' as exhaust nozzles, expressing the idea that the exhaust from internal combustion engines could be directed into nozzles to create jet propulsion.<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1941/1941%20-%202218.html 1941 ''Flight'' article] explaining ramjets and mentioning Lorin's work</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/aviation/usn.htm|title=US Naval Ordnance Test Facilities, Topsail -- Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms: A National Register of Historic Places Travel Itinerary|website=www.nps.gov | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071108233312/http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/aviation/usn.htm | archive-date=2007-11-08}}</ref><ref name=lorin>{{cite web |title=Lorin Ramjet |website=enginehistory.org |url=https://www.enginehistory.org/Rockets/LorinRamjet/LorinRamjet.shtml}}</ref>

====René Leduc====
The works of [[René Leduc]] were notable. Leduc's Model, the [[Leduc 0.10]] was one of the first ramjet-powered aircraft to fly, in 1949.

====Nord Aviation====
The [[Nord 1500 Griffon]] reached {{convert|2.19|Mach|m/s km/h|sigfig=3}} in 1958.

===Austria-Hungary===
====Albert Fonó====
In 1915, Hungarian inventor [[Albert Fonó]] devised a solution for increasing the range of [[artillery]], comprising a gun-launched projectile united with a ramjet propulsion unit, thus giving a long range from relatively low muzzle velocities, allowing heavy shells to be fired from relatively lightweight guns. Fonó submitted his invention to the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]], but the proposal was rejected.<ref name="Gyorgy">{{cite journal |last1=Gyorgy |first1=Nagy Istvan |title=Albert Fono: A Pioneer of Jet Propulsion |journal=[[International Astronautical Congress]] |publisher=[[International Astronautical Federation|IAF]]/[[International Academy of Astronautics|IAA]] |year=1977 |url=http://iaaweb.org/iaa/Studies/history.pdf}}</ref> After World War I, Fonó returned to the subject. In May 1928 he described an "air-jet engine" as suitable for high-altitude supersonic aircraft, in a German patent application. In an additional patent application, he adapted the engine for subsonic speed. The patent was granted in 1932 (German Patent No. 554,906, 1932-11-02).<ref>{{cite book |last=Dugger |first=Gordon L. |title=Ramjets |publisher=[[American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics]] |year=1969 |page=15}}</ref>

===Soviet Union===
[[File:MAKS2015part7-44.jpg|thumb|Kh-31 missile ramjet exhaust]]

In the Soviet Union, a theory of supersonic ramjet engines was presented in 1928 by [[Boris Stechkin]]. Yuri Pobedonostsev, chief of [[GIRD]]'s 3rd Brigade, carried out research. The first engine, the GIRD-04, was designed by I.A. Merkulov and tested in April 1933. To simulate supersonic flight, it was fed by air compressed to 200 [[bar (unit)|bar]], and was fueled with hydrogen. The GIRD-08 phosphorus-fueled ramjet was tested by firing it from an artillery cannon. These shells may have been the first jet-powered projectiles to break the [[speed of sound]].

In 1939, Merkulov did further ramjet tests using a [[two-stage rocket]], the R-3. He developed the first ramjet engine for use as an auxiliary motor of an aircraft, the DM-1. The world's first ramjet-powered airplane flight took place in December 1940, using two DM-2 engines on a modified [[Polikarpov I-15]]. Merkulov designed a ramjet fighter "Samolet D" in 1941, which was never completed. Two of his DM-4 engines were installed on the [[Yak-7]] PVRD fighter during World War II. In 1940, the Kostikov-302 experimental plane was designed, powered by a liquid fuel rocket for take-off and ramjet engines for flight. That project was cancelled in 1944.

In 1947, [[Mstislav Keldysh]] proposed a [[Keldysh bomber|long-range antipodal bomber]], similar to the [[Silbervogel|Sänger-Bredt bomber]], but powered by ramjet instead of rocket. In 1954, NPO Lavochkin and the Keldysh Institute began development of a Mach 3 ramjet-powered cruise missile, ''[[Burya]]''. This project competed with the [[R-7 Semyorka|R-7 ICBM]] developed by [[Sergei Korolev]], but was cancelled in 1957.

===Japan===
Several ramjets were designed, built, and ground-tested at the Kawasaki Aircraft Company's facility in Gifu during the Second World War. Company officials claimed, in December 1945, that these domestic initiatives were uninfluenced by parallel German developments. One post-war U.S. intelligence assessment described the Kawasaki ramjet's centrifugal fuel disperser as the company's "most outstanding accomplishment ... eliminat[ing] a large amount of the fuel injection system normally employed."<ref>Capt. J. H. Gilmore, ''Research at Kawasaki Aircraft Co., Gifu, Japan, including Ram-Jet Type Engines'', Allied Technical Intelligence Group, Report No.258, 10 December 1945, Reel No. A7341, U.S. Air Force Historical Research Agency.</ref> Because of excessive vibration, the engine was only intended for use in rocket, or catapult-launched pilotless aircraft. Preparations for flight testing ended with the Japanese surrender in August 1945.

===Germany===
In 1936, [[Hellmuth Walter]] constructed a test engine powered by [[natural gas]]. Theoretical work was carried out at [[BMW]], [[Junkers]], and [[Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Luftfahrt|DFL]]. In 1941, [[Eugen Sänger]] of DFL proposed a ramjet engine with a high combustion chamber temperature. He constructed large ramjet pipes with {{convert|500|mm|in}} and {{convert|1000|mm|in}} diameter and carried out combustion tests on lorries and on a special test rig on a [[Dornier Do 17]]Z at flight speeds of up to {{convert|200|m/s|km/h}}. Later, as petrol became scarce in Germany, tests were carried out with blocks of pressed coal dust as a fuel (see e.g. [[Lippisch P.13a]]), which were not successful due to slow combustion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hirschel |first=Ernst-Heinrich |author2=Horst Prem |author3=Gero Madelung |title=Aeronautical Research in Germany |publisher=Springer |year=2004 |pages=242–243 |isbn=3-540-40645-X}}</ref>

===United States===
[[File:Aqm-60a.jpg|thumb|An [[AQM-60 Kingfisher]], the first production ramjet to enter service with the US military]]

Stovepipe (flying/flaming/supersonic) was a popular name for the ramjet during the 1950s in [[trade magazine]]s such as ''[[Aviation Week & Space Technology]]''<ref>{{cite book |last=Aviation Week |title=Aviation Week 1950-02-06 |page=22 |date=1950-02-06 |language=english |url=http://archive.org/details/Aviation_Week_1950-02-06}}</ref> and other publications such as ''The Cornell Engineer.''<ref>{{cite journal |title=Propulsive Efficiency from an Energy Utilization Standpoint |journal=The Cornell Engineer |volume=16 |issue=6 |date=March 1951 |publisher=Cornell University |page=163 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_cornell-engineer_1951-03_16_6}}</ref> The simplicity implied by the name came from a comparison with the [[turbojet]] engine which employs relatively complex and expensive spinning turbomachinery.

The US Navy developed a series of air-to-air missiles under the name of "[[Gorgon (U.S. missile)|Gorgon]]" using different propulsion mechanisms, including ramjet propulsion on the Gorgon IV. The ramjet Gorgon IVs, made by [[Glenn L. Martin|Glenn Martin]], were tested in 1948 and 1949 at [[Naval Air Station Point Mugu]]. The ramjet was designed at the University of Southern California and manufactured by the [[Marquardt Corporation|Marquardt Aircraft Company]]. The engine was {{convert|7|ft|order=flip}} long and {{convert|20|in|order=flip}} in diameter and was positioned below the missile.

In the early 1950s the US developed a Mach 4+ ramjet under the [[Lockheed X-7]] program. This was developed into the [[Lockheed AQM-60 Kingfisher]]. Further development resulted in the [[Lockheed D-21]] spy drone.

In the late 1950s the US Navy introduced a system called the [[RIM-8 Talos]], which was a long range surface-to-air missile fired from ships. It successfully shot down enemy fighters during the [[Vietnam War]], and was the first ship-launched missile to destroy an enemy aircraft in combat. On 23 May 1968, a Talos fired from [[USS Long Beach (CGN-9)|USS ''Long Beach'']] shot down a Vietnamese [[Mikoyan|MiG]] at a range of about {{convert|65|mile|km|order=flip}}. It was also used as a surface-to-surface weapon and was modified to destroy land-based radars.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RIM-8 Talos |url=https://weaponsystems.net/system/1395-RIM-8+Talos |access-date=2024-04-20 |website=Weaponsystems.net |language=en}}</ref>

Using technology proven by the AQM-60, In the late 1950s and early 1960s the US produced a widespread defense system called the [[CIM-10 Bomarc]], which was equipped with hundreds of nuclear armed ramjet missiles with a range of several hundred miles. It was powered by the same engines as the AQM-60, but with improved materials to endure longer flight times. The system was withdrawn in the 1970s as the threat from bombers subsided.

====THOR-ER====
In April 2020, the U.S. Department of Defense and the Norwegian Ministry of Defense jointly announced their partnership to develop advanced technologies applicable to long range high-speed and hypersonic weapons. The ''Tactical High-speed Offensive Ramjet for Extended Range (THOR-ER)'' program completed a solid fuel ramjet (SFRJ) vehicle test in August 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.war.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3180755/tactical-high-speed-offensive-ramjet-for-extended-range-thor-er-team-completes/|title=Tactical High-speed Offensive Ramjet for Extended Range (THOR-ER) Team Completes Ramjet Ve|website=U.S. Department of Defense}}</ref>

====Dual-mode ramjet====
In 2023, [[General Electric]] demonstrated a ramjet with a rotating detonation combustion. It is a turbine-based [[Rocket-based combined cycle|combined-cycle]] engine that incorporates a gas turbine, rotating detonation engine, ramjet, and [[scramjet]] <ref>{{cite web |last=Wang |first=Brian |date=2023-12-14 |title=Breakthrough Hypersonic Dual-Mode Ramjet with Rotating Detonation Combustion {{!}} NextBigFuture.com |language=en-US |url=https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2023/12/breakthrough-hypersonic-dual-mode-ramjet-with-rotating-detonation-combustion.html |access-date=2023-12-16}}</ref> .
===United Kingdom===
[[File:Bloohound BL 64.jpg|thumb|Upper engine is a ramjet on the Bloodhound missile]]

In the late 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s, the UK developed several ramjet missiles.

The [[Blue Envoy]] project was supposed to equip the country with a long range ramjet powered air defense against bombers, but the system was cancelled. It was replaced by a shorter range ramjet missile system called the [[Bloodhound (missile)|Bloodhound]]. The system was designed as a second line of defense in case attackers were able to bypass the fleet of defending [[English Electric Lightning]] fighters.

In the 1960s the Royal Navy developed and deployed a ramjet powered surface to air missile for ships called the [[Sea Dart]]. It had a range of {{convert|40|-|80|mi|km|order=flip|round=5}} and a speed of Mach 3. It was used successfully in combat against multiple types of aircraft during the [[Falklands War]].

====Fritz Zwicky====
Eminent Swiss astrophysicist [[Fritz Zwicky]] was research director at [[Aerojet]] and holds many patents in jet propulsion. Patents {{Patent|US|5121670}} and {{Patent|US|4722261}} are for [[ram accelerator]]s. The U.S. Navy would not allow Zwicky to publicly discuss his invention, {{Patent|US|2461797}} is for the Underwater Jet, a ramjet that performs in a fluid medium. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine reported on Zwicky's work.<ref name="Missed Swiss">{{cite web |title=Missed Swiss |author= |date=11 July 1955 |publisher=Time Inc. |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,807355,00.html |access-date=27 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="Underwater Jet">{{cite web |title=Underwater Jet |author= |date=14 March 1949 |publisher=Time Inc. |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,794705,00.html |access-date=27 August 2017}}</ref>

==Design==
[[File:Ramjet P280b.jpg|thumb|upright=2.0|A typical ramjet]]

The first part of a ramjet is its diffuser (compressor) in which the forward motion of the ramjet is used to raise the pressure of its working fluid (air) as required for combustion. Air is compressed, heated by combustion and expanded in a [[thermodynamic cycle]] known as the [[Brayton cycle]], before being passed through a nozzle to accelerate it to supersonic speeds and generate forward [[thrust]].

Ramjets are much less complex than turbojets or [[turbofan]]s, requiring only an air intake, a combustor, and a [[nozzle]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.iiss.org/sv/online-analysis/military-balance/2020/03/iran-anti-ship-missiles-ramjet/ |title=Does Iran harbour high-speed anti-ship-missile ambitions? |website=The International Institute for Strategic Studies |date=13 March 2020 |first=Douglas |last=Barrie Unlike }}</ref> to be built. Additionally, ramjets have little to no moving parts - liquid-fuel ramjets have only a fuel pump, whilst solid-fuel ramjets lack even this.

By comparison, a [[turbojet]] uses a compressor driven by a [[turbine]], which generates its own compressed air (i.e. ram air in a ramjet) in order to generate thrust.

==Construction==

===Diffuser===
The diffuser converts the high velocity of the air approaching the intake into high (static) pressure required for combustion. High combustion pressures minimise entropy rise during heat addition,<ref>{{cite book |last=Builder |first=C. |title=1st Annual Meeting |date=1964-06-29 |publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics |page=2 |language=en |chapter=On the thermodynamic spectrum of airbreathing propulsion |doi=10.2514/6.1964-243 |chapter-url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1964-243}}</ref> thus minimising wasted thermal energy in the exhaust gases<ref>{{cite journal |title=Propulsive Efficiency from an Energy Utilization Standpoint |journal=Journal of Aircraft |volume=13 |issue=4 |date=April 1976 |publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics |via=Internet Archive |language=English |url=http://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-aircraft_1976-04_13_4}}</ref>

Subsonic and low-supersonic ramjets use a [[pitot tube|pitot]]-type opening for the inlet. This is followed by a widening internal passage (subsonic diffuser) to achieve a lower subsonic velocity that is required at the combustor. At low supersonic speeds a normal (planar) shock wave forms in front of the inlet.

For higher supersonic speeds the pressure loss through the shock wave becomes prohibitive and a protruding spike or cone is used to produce oblique shock waves in front of a final normal shock that occurs at the inlet entrance lip. The diffuser in this case consists of two parts: the supersonic diffuser, with shock waves external to the inlet, followed by the internal subsonic diffuser.

At higher speeds still, part of the supersonic diffusion has to take place internally, requiring external and internal oblique shock waves. The final normal shock has to occur in the vicinity of a minimum flow area known as the throat, which is followed by the subsonic diffuser.

===Combustor===
As with other jet engines, the combustor raises the air temperature by burning fuel. This takes place with a small pressure loss. The air velocity entering the combustor has to be low enough such that continuous combustion can take place in sheltered zones provided by [[flame holder]]s.

A ramjet combustor can safely operate at [[stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] fuel:air ratios. This implies a combustor exit [[stagnation temperature]] of the order of {{convert|2400|K}} for [[kerosene]]. Normally, the combustor must be capable of operating over a wide range of throttle settings, matching flight speeds and altitudes. Usually, a sheltered pilot region enables combustion to continue when the vehicle intake undergoes high [[flight dynamics|yaw/pitch]] during turns. Other flame stabilization techniques make use of flame holders, which vary in design from combustor cans to flat plates, to shelter the flame and improve fuel mixing. Over-fuelling the combustor can cause the final (normal) shock in the diffuser to be pushed forward beyond the intake lip, resulting in a substantial drop in airflow and thrust.

===Nozzles===
The [[propelling nozzle]] is a critical part of a ramjet design, since it accelerates exhaust flow to produce thrust.

Subsonic ramjets accelerate exhaust flow with a [[nozzle]]. Supersonic flight typically requires a [[De Laval nozzle|convergent–divergent nozzle]].

[[File:Bloodhound thor arp 750pix.jpg|thumb|[[Bristol Thor]] ramjet modified for display purposes. Two Thor engines were used on the Bristol [[Bloodhound (missile)|Bloodhound missile]]]]

===Performance and control===
Although ramjets have been run as slow as {{convert|45|m/s|km/h mph}},<ref name="primer">[http://www.alt-accel.com/ramjet2.htm Ramjet Primer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19960101/http://www.alt-accel.com/ramjet2.htm |date=1 January 1996 }}.</ref> below about {{convert|0.5|Mach|m/s km/h mph|sigfig=2}} they give little thrust and are highly inefficient due to their low pressure ratios.

Above this speed, given sufficient initial flight velocity, a ramjet is self-sustaining. Unless the vehicle [[drag (physics)|drag]] is extremely high, the engine/airframe combination tends to accelerate to higher and higher flight speeds, substantially increasing the air intake temperature. As this could damage the engine and/or airframe integrity, the fuel control system must reduce fuel flow to stabilize speed and, thereby, air intake temperature.

Due to the stoichiometric combustion temperature, efficiency is usually good at high speeds (around {{convert|2|-|3|Mach|m/s km/h mph|disp=comma|sigfig=2}}), whereas at low speeds the relatively low pressure means the ramjets are outperformed by [[turbojet]]s and [[rocket]]s.

==Control==
Ramjets can be classified according to the type of fuel, either liquid or solid; and the booster.<ref>"A Century of Ramjet Propulsion Technology Evolution", ''AIAA Journal of Propulsion and Power'', Vol. 20, No. 1, January – February 2004.</ref>

===Liquid fuel===
In a liquid fuel ramjet (LFRJ), hydrocarbon fuel (typically) is injected into the combustor ahead of a flameholder. The flameholder stabilises the flame with the compressed air from the intake(s). A means of pressurizing and supplying the fuel to the ramcombustor is required, which can be complicated and expensive. This propulsion system was first perfected by [[Yvonne Brill]] during her work at [[Marquardt Corporation]].<ref>{{cite web
| url = https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/yvonne-brill
| title = Yvonne Brill
| website = The Canadian Encyclopedia
| author = David Berry
| date = 4 March 2024
}}</ref>

[[Aérospatiale|Aérospatiale-Celerg]] designed an LFRJ where the fuel is forced into the injectors by an elastomer bladder that inflates progressively along the length of the fuel tank. Initially, the bladder forms a close-fitting sheath around the compressed air bottle from which it is inflated, which is mounted lengthwise in the tank.<ref>"Aérospatiale studies low-cost ramjet", Flight International, 13–19 December 1995.</ref> This offers a lower-cost approach than a regulated LFRJ requiring a pump system to supply the fuel.<ref>"Hughes homes in on missile pact", Flight International, 11–17 September 1996.</ref>

===Take-off===
A ramjet generates no static thrust and needs a booster to achieve a forward velocity high enough for efficient operation of the intake system. The first ramjet-powered missiles used external boosters, usually solid-propellant rockets, either in tandem, where the booster is mounted immediately aft of the ramjet, e.g. [[Sea Dart missile|Sea Dart]], or wraparound where multiple boosters are attached around the outside of the ramjet, e.g. [[2K11 Krug]]. The choice of booster arrangement is usually driven by the size of the launch platform. A tandem booster increases the length of the system, whereas wraparound boosters increase the diameter. Wraparound boosters typically generate higher drag than a tandem arrangement.

Integrated boosters provide a more efficient packaging option, since the booster propellant is cast inside the otherwise empty combustor. This approach has been used on solid-fuel ramjets (SFRJ), for example [[2K12 Kub]], liquid, for example [[Air-Sol Moyenne Portée|ASMP]], and ducted rocket, for example [[MBDA Meteor|Meteor]], designs. Integrated designs are complicated by the different nozzle requirements of the boost and ramjet flight phases. Due to the booster's higher thrust levels, a differently shaped nozzle is required for optimum thrust compared to that required for the lower thrust ramjet sustainer. This is usually achieved via a separate nozzle, which is ejected after booster burnout. However, designs such as Meteor feature nozzleless boosters. This offers the advantages of elimination of the hazard to launch aircraft from the boost debris, simplicity, reliability, and reduced mass and cost,<ref>Procinsky, I.M., McHale, C.A., "Nozzleless Boosters for Integral-Rocket-Ramjet Missile Systems, Paper 80-1277, AIAA/SAE/ASME 16th Joint Propulsion Conference, 30 June to 2 July 1980.</ref> although this must be traded against the reduction in performance of a dedicated booster nozzle.
{{check quotation}}
===Integral rocket ramjet/ducted rocket===
{{Main|Air-augmented rocket}}

A slight variation on the ramjet uses the supersonic exhaust from a rocket combustion process to compress and react with the incoming air in the main combustion chamber. This has the advantage of giving thrust even at zero speed.

In a solid fuel integrated rocket ramjet (SFIRR), the solid fuel is cast along the outer wall of the ramcombustor. In this case, fuel injection is through ablation of the propellant by the hot compressed air from the intake(s). An aft mixer may be used to improve [[combustion efficiency]]. SFIRRs are preferred over LFRJs for some applications because of the simplicity of the fuel supply, but only when the throttling requirements are minimal, i.e. when variations in altitude or speed are limited.

In a ducted rocket, a solid fuel gas generator produces a hot fuel-rich gas which is burnt in the ramcombustor with the compressed air supplied by the intake(s). The flow of gas improves the mixing of the fuel and air and increases total pressure recovery. In a throttleable ducted rocket, also known as a variable flow ducted rocket, a valve allows the gas generator exhaust to be throttled allowing thrust control. Unlike an LFRJ, solid propellant ramjets cannot [[flame out]]. The ducted rocket sits somewhere between the simplicity of the SFRJ and LFRJ's unlimited speed control.

==Flight speed==
Ramjets generally give little or no thrust below about half the [[speed of sound]], and they are inefficient ([[specific impulse]] of less than 600 seconds) until the airspeed exceeds {{convert|1000|km/h|m/s mph}} due to low compression ratios. It takes from 300 mph (485 km/h) at sea level onwards to work effectively.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aerospaceweb.org/question/propulsion/q0033.shtml|title=Aerospaceweb.org | Ask Us - Jet Engine Types|website=aerospaceweb.org}}</ref>

Even above the minimum speed, a wide [[flight envelope]] (range of flight conditions), such as low to high speeds and low to high altitudes, can force significant design compromises, and they tend to work best optimised for one designed speed and altitude (point designs). However, ramjets generally outperform gas turbine-based jet engine designs and work best at supersonic speeds (Mach 2–4).<ref>[http://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/SPRING/propulsion/notes/node85.html#SECTION06363300000000000000 11.6 Performance of Jet Engines].</ref> Although inefficient at slower speeds, they are more fuel-efficient than rockets over their entire useful working range up to at least {{convert|6|Mach|m/s km/h|sigfig=2}}.

The performance of conventional ramjets falls off above Mach 6 due to dissociation and pressure loss caused by shock as the incoming air is slowed to subsonic velocities for combustion. In addition, the combustion chamber's inlet temperature increases to very high values, approaching the dissociation limit at some limiting Mach number.

==Related engines==
===Air turboramjet===
{{Excerpt|Air turborocket|Air turboramjet|paragraphs=1}}

===Supersonic-combustion ramjets (Scramjets)===
{{Main|Scramjet}}
Ramjet diffusers slow the incoming air to a subsonic velocity before it enters the combustor. Scramjets are similar to ramjets, but the air flows through the combustor at supersonic speed. This increases the pressure recovered from the streaming air and improves net thrust. Thermal choking of the exhaust is avoided by having a relatively high supersonic air velocity at combustor entry. Fuel injection is often into a sheltered region below a step in the combustor wall. The [[Boeing X-43]] was a small experimental ramjet<ref>[http://www.boeing.com/history/chronology/chron17.html "Boeing: History – Chronology 2002–2004"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114144020/http://www.boeing.com/history/chronology/chron17.html |date=14 November 2011}}.</ref> that achieved {{convert|5|Mach|m/s km/h|sigfig=2}} for 200 seconds on the [[X-51A Waverider]].<ref>[https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/116538/x-51-waverider-makes-historic-hypersonic-flight/ "USAF vehicle breaks record for hypersonic flight"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410144856/http://www.wpafb.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123206524 |date=10 April 2016}}.</ref>

===Standing oblique detonation ramjets (Sodramjets)===
{{Excerpt|Shcramjet|paragraphs=1}}

===Precooled engines===
{{Main|Precooled jet engine}}
A variant of the ramjet is the 'combined cycle' engine, intended to overcome the ramjet's limitations. One example of this is the [[Reaction Engines SABRE|SABRE]] engine, which uses a precooler, behind which is the ramjet and turbine machinery.

The [[ATREX]] engine developed in Japan is an experimental implementation of this concept. It uses [[liquid hydrogen]] fuel in a single-fan arrangement. The liquid fuel is pumped through a [[heat exchanger]] in the air intake, simultaneously heating the fuel and cooling the incoming air. This cooling is critical to efficient operation. The hydrogen then continues through a second heat exchanger position after the combustion section, where the hot exhaust is used to further heat the hydrogen, turning it into a high pressure gas. This gas is then passed through the tips of the fan to provide driving power to the fan at subsonic speeds. After mixing with the air, it is burned in the combustion chamber.

The [[Reaction Engines Scimitar]] was proposed for the [[LAPCAT]] [[hypersonic]] airliner, and the [[Reaction Engines SABRE]] for the [[Reaction Engines Skylon]] spaceplane.

===Nuclear-powered ramjet===
====United States====
{{Main|Project Pluto}}
During the [[Cold War]], the United States designed and ground-tested a nuclear-powered ramjet called [[Project Pluto]]. This system, intended for use in a [[cruise missile]], used no combustion; a high-temperature, unshielded [[nuclear reactor]] heated the air. The ramjet was predicted to be able to fly at supersonic speeds for months. Because the reactor was unshielded, it was dangerous to anyone in or around the vehicle flight path (although its exhaust wasn't radioactive). The project was ultimately cancelled because [[ICBM]]s seemed to serve the purpose better.<ref>{{cite web |title=Project Pluto |url=https://msts.sites.nv.doe.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/DOENV_763.pdf |access-date=5 March 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303003018/http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/factsheets/DOENV_763.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2012}}</ref>

This type of engine could be used for the exploration of planetary atmospheres such as Jupiter's.<ref>IAC-03-Q.4.09 [https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.IAC-03-Q.4.09 Application of the MITEE Nuclear Ramjet for Ultra Long Range Flyer Missions in the Atmospheres of Jupiter and the Other Giant Planets] - [[International Astronautical Congress|IAC]] 2003 Bremen</ref>

====Russia====
{{Main|9M730 Burevestnik}}
On 1 March 2018 President Vladimir Putin announced a nuclear-powered ramjet cruise missile capable of extended long range flight. It was designated 9M730 "Burevestnik" (Petrel) and has the [[NATO reporting name]] SSC-X-9 "Skyfall".<ref>{{cite tweet |author=Ankit Panda |user=nktpnd |title=Update from a source: Russia's Burevestnik nuclear-powered cruise missile has a NATO designator — SSC-X-9 SKYFALL. (USIC also calls this missile the KY30.) |number=1064991343624237059 |date=2018-11-20 |access-date=2023-01-24}}</ref> On 9 August 2019, an explosion and release of radioactive material was recorded at the [[State Central Navy Testing Range]]. Recovery efforts were underway to raise a test article that had landed in the [[White Sea]] during testing in 2018 when the nuclear power source of the missile [[Nyonoksa radiation accident|detonated and killed 5 researchers]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Russian nuclear engineers buried after 'Skyfall nuclear' blast |website=aljazeera.com |language=en |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/8/13/russian-nuclear-engineers-buried-after-skyfall-nuclear-blast |access-date=2023-01-24}}</ref>

===Ionospheric ramjet===
The upper atmosphere above about {{convert|100|km}} contains [[monatomic]] oxygen produced by the sun through photochemistry. A concept was created by NASA for recombining this (thin) gas back to diatomic molecules at orbital speeds to power a ramjet.<ref>[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19930085302 Preliminary survey of propulsion using chemical energy stored in the upper atmosphere] by Lionel V. Baldwin and Perry L. Blackshear.</ref>

===Bussard ramjet===
{{Excerpt|Bussard ramjet|paragraphs=1}}

===Ramjet mode for an afterburning turbojet===
{{Main|Pratt & Whitney J58}}
An afterburning turbojet or bypass engine can be described as transitioning from turbo to ramjet mode if it can attain a flight speed at which the [[engine pressure ratio]] (epr) has fallen to one. The turbo afterburner then acts as a ramburner.<ref>[https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a311466.pdf Article title] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201160318/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a311466.pdf |date=1 December 2020 }} p. 18-1</ref> The intake ram pressure is present at entry to the afterburner but is no longer augmented with a pressure rise from the turbomachinery. Further increase in speed introduces a pressure loss due to the presence of the turbomachinery as the epr drops below one.

A notable example was the propulsion system for the [[Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird]] with an epr=0.9 at Mach 3.2.<ref name="enginehistory.org">{{cite conference |title=SR-71 Propulsion System P&W J58 Engine (JT11D-20) |first=Peter |last=Law |year=2013 |url=http://www.enginehistory.org/Convention/2013/SR-71Propul/SR-71Propul.shtml |access-date=2020-01-18}}</ref> The thrust required, airflow and exhaust temperature, to reach this speed came from a standard method for increasing airflow through a compressor running at low corrected speeds, compressor bleed, and being able to increase the afterburner temperature as a result of cooling the duct and nozzle using the air taken from the compressor rather than the usual, much hotter, turbine exhaust gas.<ref name="bleedpatent">{{cite patent |country=US |number=3344606 |title=Recover Bleed Air Turbojet |inventor=Robert B. Abernethy |pubdate=3 October 1967}}</ref>

==Aircraft using ramjets==
{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[AQM-60 Kingfisher]], X-7 derived target vehicles using Marquardt XRJ43-MA ramjet
* [[Focke-Wulf Super Lorin]]
* [[Focke-Wulf Ta 283]]
* [[Focke-Wulf Triebflügel]]
* [[Heinkel P.1080]]
* [[Hiller Hornet]] (a ramjet-powered helicopter)
* [[Leduc experimental aircraft]]
* [[Lockheed D-21]]
* [[Lockheed X-7]], 1950 test vehicles
* [[McDonnell XH-20 Little Henry]]
* [[NHI H-3 Kolibrie]] (helicopter)
* [[Nord 1500 Griffon]]
* [[Republic XF-103]], design, to use Wright J67 turbojet + RJ55-W-1 ramjet, never built<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.afmc.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/2059217/flashback-triplesonic-interceptors-the-f-103-f-108-yf-12a | title=FLASHBACK: Triplesonic Interceptors: The F-103, F-108 & YF-12A | work=Air Force Materiel Command | date=16 January 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last1=Mulder | first1=Benoit de | url=https://www.avialogs.com/engines-w/wright/item/7732-xrj55-w-1ramjetaircraftenginecharacteristicssummary-16july1956 | title=Avialogs: Aviation Library - XRJ55-W-1 Ramjet Aircraft Engine Characteristics Summary - 16 July 1956 }}</ref>
* [[Škoda-Kauba P14]]
{{Div col end}}

==Missiles using ramjets==
{{Div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[2K11 Krug]]
* [[2K12 Kub]]
* [[ASM-3]]
* [[Astra (missile)|Astra]]
* [[Bloodhound (missile)]]
* [[BrahMos]]
* [[CIM-10 Bomarc]]
* [[GQM-163 Coyote|Orbital Sciences GQM-163 Coyote]]
* [[Hsiung Feng III]]
* [[Kh-31]]
* [[Air-Sol Moyenne Portée|MBDA ASMP]]
* [[MBDA Meteor]]
* [[P-270 Moskit]]
* [[P-800 Oniks]]
* [[R-77|R-77PD]]
* [[R-77|R-77ME]]
* [[RIM-8 Talos|Bendix RIM-8 Talos]]
* [[Sea Dart]]
* [[Supersonic Low Altitude Missile]]
* [[SM-64 Navaho|North American SM-64 Navaho]]
* [[Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet]]
* [[YJ-12]]
{{Div col end}}

==See also==
* [[Index of aviation articles]]
* [[Aircraft engine]]
* [[Air turborocket]]
* [[Jet aircraft]]
* [[Jet engine performance]]
* [[Liquid air cycle engine]]
* [[Turbofan]]
* [[Turbojet]]
* [[b:Jet Propulsion]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* Hallion, Richard P. "The Soviet Stovepipes". ''[[Air Enthusiast]]'', No. 9, February–May 1979, pp. 55–60. {{ISSN|0143-5450}}.
* {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Ramjet Fuels |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Liquid Fuels |publisher=De Gruyter |last=Schmidt |first=Eckart W. |date=2022 |pages=4455–4474 |doi=10.1515/9783110750287-037 |isbn=978-3-11-075028-7}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ramjets}}
* [http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/9-12/features/F_Ramjet_9-12.html NASA ramjet information and model] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328230312/http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/9-12/features/F_Ramjet_9-12.html |date=28 March 2016 }}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=YyQDAAAAMBAJ&dq=1949+Popular+Science+%22Popular+Science%22+first+flat+top+ever+designed&pg=PA130 '' "Riding The Ramjet"''] January 1949, Popular Mechanics article that covers the USAF first experiment with ramjets on a P-80 fighter
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111114144020/http://www.boeing.com/history/chronology/chron17.html The Boeing Logbook: 2002–2004]
* [http://www.pulse-jets.com/ram-jet/ Design notes on a ramjet-powered helicopter]
* [https://www.onera.fr/sites/default/files/ressources_documentaires/cours-exposes-conf/ramjet-scramjet-and-pde-an-introduction.pdf Extensive overview on ramjets and scramjets by French ONERA]

{{Aircraft gas turbine engine components}}
{{Heat engines|state=uncollapsed}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ramjet engines| ]]
[[Category:1650s introductions]]
[[Category:French inventions]]
[[Category:Hungarian inventions]]
[[Category:Jet engines]]
[[Category:Cyrano de Bergerac]]

Pune Institute of Computer Technology

2026-02-22T01:54:39Z

Shubhamsaini9: minor rework article for clarity and corrected details per standard format

#REDIRECT [[List of educational institutions in Pune#Engineering and Technology]]

{{Rcat shell|
{{R to related topic}}
}}

M. V. Venkatram

2026-02-08T12:00:10Z

Shubhamsaini9: brief update citations based on references further and updated info to improve readability

{{Short description|Indian writer and translator}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = M. V. Venkatram
| image = MVVenkatram.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 18 May 1920
| birth_place = [[Kumbakonam]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2000|1|14|1920|5|18}}
| death_place =
| organization =
| known_for =
| occupation = Writer
}}

'''M. V. Venkatram''' (18 May 1920 – 14 January 2000), was a [[Tamil language|Tamil]], writer and translator from [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]].

==Biography==
Venkatram was born in [[Kumbakonam]] in a [[Saurashtra Brahmin]] family. He obtained a [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] degree in [[Economics]] and was involved in silk [[Zari]] business. He first started publishing in the literary magazine Manikodi in the 1930s, while he was still a college student. He was influenced by [[K. P. Rajagopalan|Ku. Pa. Rajagopalan]] and was part of a literary circle that included Karichan Kunju (R. Narayanaswami), [[Thi. Janakiraman]], Thiruloka Seetaram, Dhenuka, Thanjai Prakash, Na.Vichuvanathan, C.M.Muthu and Podhikaiverkpan. His works have been published in magazines like ''Kaalamohini'', ''Grama Ooozhiyan'' and ''Sivaji''. He also ran a literary magazine named ''Thenee'' briefly. He has written over two hundred short stories and novels. ''Nithyakanni'' ''Kathukal'' and ''Velivithee'' are his most noted works. He also wrote more than 60 short biographies for Palaniappa Brothers and translated over 10 books for the [[National Book Trust of India]]. In 1993, he was awarded the [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] for [[List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Tamil language|Tamil]] for novel ''Kathukal'' (lit. Ears).<ref name=sahitya>[http://www.sahitya-akademi.gov.in/old_version/awa10320.htm#tamil Tamil Sahitya Akademi Awards 1955-2007] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124032426/http://www.sahitya-akademi.gov.in/old_version/awa10320.htm |date=2010-01-24 }} [[Sahitya Akademi]] Official website.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Datta|first=Amaresh|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay-Zorgot|year=1994|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|pages=4546|isbn=9780836422832 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc5jAAAAMAAJ&q=kumbakonam}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=S. Ramakrishnan|author-link=S. Ramakrishnan|title= எம்.வி. வெங்கட்ராம் |url=http://www.vikatan.com/av/2005/apr/10042005/av0702.asp|work=[[Ananda Vikatan]]|accessdate=5 June 2010|language=Tamil|date= 10 April 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=M. V. Venkatram's biographies|url=http://www.viruba.com/atotalbooks.aspx?id=780|work=Viruba.com|accessdate=5 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Thi. Ka. Sivasankaran|title=M. V. Venkatram Obituary|url=http://www.ambalam.com/idhal/special/2000/february/Special20_02.html|work=Ambalam|accessdate=5 June 2010|language=Tamil|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104065951/http://www.ambalam.com/idhal/special/2000/february/special20_02.html|archivedate=4 November 2006}}</ref>

==Partial bibliography==
===Novels===
*''Nithyakanni''(1955)
*''Uyirin yathirai'' (1957)
*''Iruttu'' (1957)
*''Arumbu'' (1965)
*''Velvithee'' (1963)
*''Oru pen poradukiral'' (1975)
* ''Kathukal'' (1992)

===Short story collections===
*''Mallikai vasam'' (1964)
*''Sukam enge'' (1966)
*''Kuyili'' (1964)
*''Varavum selavum'' (1964)
* ''Vyasar padaitha penmanikal'' (1966)
* ''Mohini'' (1964)

===Translations===
*[[Rajani Palme Dutt]]'s ''India Today''

==Centenary==
In connection with his centenary (18 May 2020) among others, the following articles appeared, by way of tribute to him.
* The centenary celebrations of M.V.Venkatram <ref>[https://www.dinamani.com/weekly-supplements/dinamani-kondattam/2020/jan/26/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D-%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81---%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF-3341047.html இல.சொ.சத்தியமூர்த்தி, எம்.வி.வெங்கட்ராம் நூற்றாண்டு, தினமணி, 26 சனவரி 2020]</ref>
* M.V.Venkatram in his centenary <ref>[https://bookday.co.in/m-v-venkatram-suriyachandran/ சூரியசந்திரன், நூற்றாண்டு விழா காணும் எம்.வி.வெங்கட்ராம், புக்டே, பாரதி புத்தகாலயம், 2 மே 2020]</ref>
* The continuous rain known as M.V.V.<ref>[https://www.hindutamil.in/news/literature/554867-mvv.html ரவி சுப்பிரமணியன், எம்.வி.வி. என்னும் பெருமழை, இந்து தமிழ் திசை, 17 மே 2020]</ref>
* On the novel ''Kathukal'' of M.V.V.<ref>[https://www.hindutamil.in/news/literature/554869-kaadhugal-written-by-mvv.html ஷங்கர்ராமசுப்ரமணியன், மனிதனின் தனி நரகத்தைச் சொல்லும் ‘காதுகள்’, இந்து தமிழ் திசை, 17 மே 2020]</ref>
* Special commemoration volume by Adavi on M.V.Venkaram <ref>[https://www.adavimagazine.com/%e0%ae%8e%e0%ae%ae%e0%af%8d-%e0%ae%b5%e0%ae%bf-%e0%ae%b5%e0%af%86%e0%ae%99%e0%af%8d%e0%ae%95%e0%ae%9f%e0%af%8d%e0%ae%b0%e0%ae%be%e0%ae%ae%e0%af%8d-%e0%ae%9a%e0%ae%bf%e0%ae%b1%e0%ae%aa%e0%af%8d-2/ அடவி, எம்.வி.வெங்கட்ராம் சிறப்பிதழ், 19 மே 2020]{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Sahitya Akademi Award For Tamil}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Venkatram, M. V.}}
[[Category:1920 births]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian essayists]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Tamil]]
[[Category:Indian Tamil writers]]
[[Category:2000 deaths]]
[[Category:Writers from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Indian Tamil people]]
[[Category:Writers from Thanjavur district]]

Jai Ho (song)

2026-02-04T21:02:36Z

Shubhamsaini9: General improvements to article content

{{Short description|2008 song by A. R. Rahman}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox song
| name = Jai Ho
| cover =
| alt =
| type = song
| artist = [[A. R. Rahman]] featuring [[Sukhwinder Singh]], [[Tanvi Shah]], [[Mahalaxmi Iyer]] and [[Vijay Prakash]]
| album = [[Slumdog Millionaire: Music from the Motion Picture|{{ubl|Slumdog Millionaire:|Music from the Motion Picture}}]]
| released = 25 November 2008
| recorded = 13 November 2008
| studio = [[Panchathan Record Inn and AM Studios]] ([[Chennai, India]])
| genre = [[Indian pop]]
| length = {{Duration|m=5|s=19}}
| label = * [[Celador]]
* [[N.E.E.T. Recordings|N.E.E.T.]]
* [[Interscope Records|Interscope]]
| writer = A. R. Rahman (music) [[Gulzar]] (lyrics) Tanvi Shah (lyrics)
| producer = A. R. Rahman
}}

"'''Jai Ho'''" is a song composed by [[A.R. Rahman]] for the 2008 film ''[[Slumdog Millionaire]]'', featuring [[Dev Patel]] and [[Freida Pinto]]. When [[Danny Boyle]], the director of ''Slumdog Millionaire'', approached Rahman to compose its [[Slumdog Millionaire (soundtrack)|soundtrack]], he included the song. "Jai Ho" accompanies a choreographed dance sequence at the end credits of the film (choreographed by [[Longinus Fernandes]]). Indian singer [[Tanvi Shah]] wrote and provided vocals for an English section of the song. "Jai Ho" is a Hindi phrase which means "Victory ensues."

"Jai Ho" was, at the time of its release, "the toast of the town in almost every part of the world".<ref name="India-EU" /> Covers and remixes of the song and performances of the "Jai Ho" dance were posted on YouTube. "Jai Ho" received widespread acclaim from [[Music journalist|music critics]], who cited it as the best song on the ''Slumdog Millionaire'' soundtrack. The song won an [[Academy Award for Best Original Song]] and a [[Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media]]. It was also the official campaign song of the [[Indian National Congress]] during the [[2009 Indian general election|2009 election]]. It was the first Indian song to win the Academy Award for Best Original Song, followed by "[[Naatu Naatu]]" from ''[[RRR]]'' (2022).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brockington |first=Ariana |date=2023-03-13 |title=What does 'Naatu Naatu' mean? The 'RRR' song just made Oscars history |url=https://www.today.com/popculture/music/naatu-naatu-oscar-song-meaning-rr-rcna74294 |access-date=2024-04-02 |website=TODAY |language=en}}</ref>

American [[girl group]] [[the Pussycat Dolls]] recorded an English interpretation of "Jai Ho". Entitled "[[Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)]]", and credited to 'A. R. Rahman and the Pussycat Dolls featuring [[Nicole Scherzinger]]', the song appeared on the [[Doll Domination 2.0|re-release]] of the group's second studio album ''[[Doll Domination]]'' (2008).

== Background ==
In 2008, while working on several films, [[A. R. Rahman]] received an email from [[Danny Boyle]], the director of the film ''[[Slumdog Millionaire]]'', stating: "Hey I'm Danny Boyle, I like your work, and it would be great for us to have you on our film". Rahman was unsure how to answer, but after exchanging several more emails, they met in [[Mumbai]]. Rahman summarized their first meeting by saying "when I talked to him, I had some interest and I wanted to see the film. He had a first cut of the film already, and when I saw that I was really interested and wanted to do it. So I left another film to do this one. I made time for it".<ref>{{cite web |last=Cellini |first=Joe |url=https://www.apple.com/logicpro/in-action/arrahman |title=Logic Pro 9 – In Action – A.R. Rahman |publisher=[[Apple Inc]] |access-date=20 July 2012 |archive-date=9 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123510/https://www.apple.com/logic-pro/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

While composing the [[Slumdog Millionaire (soundtrack)|soundtrack]] to the ''Slumdog Millionaire'', Rahman aimed to mix [[History of the Republic of India|modern India]] with [[History of India|eighties]] soundtracks. Boyle, who "hated [[Feeling|sentiment]] and cello", told Rahman to "never put a cello in my film". Boyle also insisted on a "pulsey" score. Rahman stated that Boyle wanted "edgy, upfront" music that did not suppress sound. He noted that "There's not many [[cue mark|cues]] in the film. Usually a big film has 130 cues. This had just seventeen or eighteen: the end credits, beginning credits".<ref name="rahmannym" />

The soundtrack for ''Slumdog Millionaire'' took Rahman two months to plan and two weeks to complete. He recalled that: "Usually it takes six months with the musical films I'm doing in India". Rahman said the soundtrack "isn't about India or Indian culture. The story could happen anywhere: China, Brazil, anywhere. ''[[Who Wants to Be a Millionaire]]'' is on in every damn country".<ref name="rahmannym">{{cite news | url=http://nymag.com/daily/entertainment/2008/11/ar_rahman_on_slumdogs_sound.html | title=Composer A.R. Rahman on the Sounds of 'Slumdog Millionaire' and Being M.I.A.'s Idol | work=[[New York (magazine)|New York]] | publisher=New York Media, LLC | last=Hill | first=Logan | date=12 November 2008 | access-date=14 November 2008 | archive-date=4 December 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204093416/http://nymag.com/daily/entertainment/2008/11/ar_rahman_on_slumdogs_sound.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

== Writing and composition ==
[[File:Subhash Ghai 2007 - still 27030.jpg|right|thumb|upright|"Jai Ho" was originally composed for [[Subhash Ghai]]'s 2008 film ''[[Yuvvraaj]]'', but the director felt the song to be "too subtle and soft" for inclusion in the film.]]

Rahman composed "Jai Ho" in [[Logic Pro]], a [[digital audio workstation]] and [[MIDI]] [[music sequencer|sequencer]], using [[Sampler (musical instrument)|samplers]] to create the "trancey, arpeggiated" musical line.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.apple.com/logicpro/in-action/arrahman/index2.html |title=Apple — Logic Pro 9 — In Action – A.R. Rahman |publisher=Apple Inc. |access-date=20 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812192153/http://www.apple.com/logicpro/in-action/arrahman/index2.html |archive-date=12 August 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The lyrics to "Jai Ho" were written by [[Gulzar]] and are a combination of [[Hindi]], [[Urdu]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]. Lyrics in Spanish are also included in the song "to go along with his [Rahman] Latin American touch of music". According to the India-EU Film Initiative, this inclusion "really makes the song quite unique and international".<ref name="India-EU">{{cite web|archive-date=14 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414060457/http://www.iefilmi.com/content/oscar-winning-song-jai-ho-and-its-lyrics|url=http://www.iefilmi.com/content/oscar-winning-song-jai-ho-and-its-lyrics|title=Oscar winning song 'Jai Ho' and its lyrics|publisher=India-EU Film Initiative|date=23 February 2009|access-date=25 March 2009}}</ref> Of the three singers credited, [[Sukhwinder Singh]] is the principal vocalist.<ref name="Meet">{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/2009/feb/26singers-of-jai-ho.htm|title=Meet the singers of Jai Ho|work=[[Rediff.com]]|date=26 February 2009|access-date=5 March 2009|archive-date=30 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130010213/http://www.rediff.com/movies/2009/feb/26singers-of-jai-ho.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Vijay Prakash]] sang the portion with the words "Jai Ho", which takes a high pitch at numerous junctures of the song.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/award/filmfare-award/2009-2/ |title=Vijay – The man who too deserves credit for 'Jai Ho' |access-date=4 June 2009 |last=Tuteja |first=Joginder |date=25 February 2009 |work=Bollywood Hungama |archive-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213143808/http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/2009/02/25/12581/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Mahalakshmi Iyer]] sang the Hindi words between the "Jai Ho" chants and the portions of the verses not sung by Singh.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ultrabrown.com/posts/jai-ho-rahman |title=Jai ho Rahman |access-date=11 June 2009 |last=Vij |first=Manish |date=24 January 2009 |work=Ultrabrown |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206212418/http://ultrabrown.com/posts/jai-ho-rahman |archive-date=6 February 2010}}</ref> Tanvi Shah sang and wrote the song's Spanish words.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.expressbuzz.com/edition/story.aspx?title=The%20Jai%20Ho%20girl&artid=hMgZK8XuW8c=&type= |title=The Jai Ho girl |access-date=11 June 2009 |last=Tejonmayam |first=U |date=3 February 2009 |work=Express Buzz |publisher=The New Indian Express }}{{Dead link|date=October 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

According to Rahman, "Jai Ho" was meant to create "a vision of the whole world celebrating this victory".<ref>{{cite web|author=Joel Ryan|title=Indian composer identifies with 'Slumdog' hero: A.R. Rahman is happy to have an international audience for his music|publisher=[[Today.com]]|date=17 February 2009|url=https://www.today.com/popculture/indian-composer-identifies-slumdog-hero-wbna29245892|access-date=18 May 2009|archive-date=9 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123515/https://www.today.com/popculture/indian-composer-identifies-slumdog-hero-wbna29245892|url-status=live}}</ref> The song contains a mix of "multiple motifs from the traditional pieces on the soundtrack" with "the big drums and blasting horns of the present".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prefixmag.com/reviews/ar-rahman/slumdog-millionaire-music-from-the-motion-picture/24412 |title=Album Review: A.R. Rahman — Slumdog Millionaire (Music From The Mo | Prefix |publisher=Prefix Magazine |access-date=20 July 2012 |archive-date=9 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123438/https://www.prefixmag.com/reviews/slumdog-millionaire-music-from-the-motion-picture/24412/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It was originally composed and shortlisted for [[Subhash Ghai]]'s 2008 film ''[[Yuvvraaj]]''. Although Rahman was excited about the song, Ghai "wasn't too kicked about it". Ghai felt it was "too subtle and soft to be picturized on the character played by Zayed Khan". Rahman and Gulzar believed the song had "immense potential" and used it in ''Slumdog Millionaire''.<ref>{{cite web |author=Super Admin |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/bollywood/features/2009/song-jai-ho-280109.html |title=Slumdog's 'Jai Ho' was composed for Yuvvraaj |publisher=Oneindia |date=28 January 2009 |access-date=20 July 2012 |archive-date=9 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123439/https://www.filmibeat.com/bollywood/features/2009/song-jai-ho-280109.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the song's win at the Oscars, Rahman stated that: "He [Ghai] said the words had a positive feel. It was like a prayer. I honestly didn't think the song would win me an Oscar though. But like the film Slumdog suggests, everything has its own destiny".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/First-reaction-from-LA-Please-dont-go-overboard/articleshow/4180033.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026015313/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-02-24/india/28019066_1_movie-album-rahman-sound-barrier|url-status=live|archive-date=26 October 2012|title=Subhash Ghai is the one who asked me|date=24 February 2009|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=[[The Times Group]]|access-date=6 March 2009|first1=Meena|last1=Iyer}}</ref>

When asked if he considers "Jai Ho" as his best creation, Rahman stated: "Sometimes it's not about a best creation, but the best for a particular moment of the film. 'Jai Ho' was right for that particular moment, that particular mindset in ''Slumdog Millionaire''. I know there's lot of debate over this song winning the Oscars. But then, I didn't send the song to the Oscars, the makers did. I just composed the tune in three weeks and was done with it. However, I too feel 'Jai Ho' was apt for that particular moment in the film—the protagonist comes out of darkness and pain to light amid 'Jai Ho' hammering in the background."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.glamsham.com/bollywood/interview/interview-ar-rahman |title=Interview With AR Rahman |date=22 October 2009 |publisher=Glasham |access-date=20 July 2012 |archive-date=27 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127225945/https://glamsham.com/bollywood/interview/interview-ar-rahman |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Critical response ==
{{Listen|filename=Jai Ho.ogg|title="Jai Ho" (2008)|description=A thirty second sample of "Jai Ho".|format=[[Ogg]]|pos=left}}

"Jai Ho" received critical acclaim. Bhasker Gupta of [[AllMusic]] labelled the song a highlight of the soundtrack.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gupta |first=Bhasker |url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/slumdog-millionaire-mw0000805173 |title=Slumdog Millionaire – A.R. Rahman : Songs, Reviews, Credits, Awards |publisher=[[Allmusic]]. [[Rovi Corporation]] |date=23 December 2008 |access-date=17 June 2012 |archive-date=9 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123439/https://www.allmusic.com/album/slumdog-millionaire-mw0000805173 |url-status=live }}</ref> Tajpal Rathore of [[BBC Music]] gave the song a positive review, calling it a "quintessential Rahman track". He praised [[Sukhwinder Singh]], saying that he "does an amazing job".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/reviews/89jw/ |title=Music – Review of A. R. Rahman – Slumdog Millionaire |publisher=[[BBC Music]]. [[BBC]] |access-date=20 July 2012 |archive-date=9 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123441/https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/reviews/89jw/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Sean Daly of the St. Petersburg Times called the song and its choreography "brilliant". He described it as "two lovers consummating their long, winding courtship not with sex but a hand-waving, side-stepping, totally cathartic shimmy".<ref name="archive1" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.musicomh.com/albums/slumdog-millionaire_0109.htm |title=Various – Slumdog Millionaire OST | album reviews |publisher=[[musicOMH]] |access-date=20 July 2012 |archive-date=28 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100628203554/http://www.musicomh.com/albums/slumdog-millionaire_0109.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In a review of the ''Slumdog Millionaire'' soundtrack, Joginder Tutej of Bollywood Hungama deemed "Jai Ho" the "flagship number" of the film. Tutej complimented Sukhwinder Singh's vocals as being "energetic" and concluded that the singer "can comfortably add on another big chartbuster to his name". He also stated that the song, while "boasting of an amazing mix of melody and rhythm" remains "Indian at heart" and is "instantly catchy". He concluded that: "No wonder, it is the lone promotional song of the film and also sees a music video being dedicated to it. Gulzar saab celebrates the spirit of love and life with 'Jai Ho' and infuses enough power in it that justifies all the nominations it is receiving today".<ref>{{cite web |author=Super Admin |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/music/reviews/2009/slumdog-millionaire-music-review-130109.html |title=Slumdog Millionaire Music Review |publisher=Entertainment India |date=13 January 2009 |access-date=17 June 2012 |archive-date=9 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123441/https://www.filmibeat.com/music/reviews/2009/slumdog-millionaire-music-review-130109.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Recognition ==
According to the India-EU Film Initiative "Jai Ho" became "the toast of the town in almost every part of the world".<ref name="India-EU" /> They noted that: "Music experts are listening to the song again and again to appreciate the global texture of the song and at the same time they are admiring the beauty of the lyrics by India's foremost lyricist Gulzar who, like AR Rahman, has always experimented with his narrative".<ref name="India-EU" /> According to Sean Daly of the St. Petersburg Times: "YouTube now has vids of babies and girlfriends doing this Jai Ho dance. There are remixes and tributes, too".<ref name="archive1">{{cite news|url=http://www.tampabay.com/features/music/article977315.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225000348/http://www.tampabay.com/features/music/article977315.ece |archive-date=25 February 2009 |title=Review: Foreign yet accessible, 'Slumdog Millionaire' soundtrack soars | first=Sean | last=Daly |newspaper=Tampa Bay Times |date=22 February 2009 |access-date=14 April 2021}}</ref>

"Jai Ho" received an [[Academy Award]] for [[Academy Award for Best Original Song|Best Original Song]] at the [[81st Academy Awards]] on 22 February 2009.<ref name="Oscars2009">{{cite web |url=http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/legacy/ceremony/81st-winners.html |title=The 81st Academy Awards (2009) Nominees and Winners |access-date=20 July 2012 |publisher=[[Academy Awards]] |archive-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006101405/http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/legacy/ceremony/81st-winners.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/Movies/02/22/oscar.nominees.full.list/index.html|title=Complete list of Academy Award winners and nominees|date=23 February 2010|publisher=CNN. [[Time Warner]]|access-date=8 August 2010|archive-date=24 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224130935/http://www.cnn.com/2009/SHOWBIZ/Movies/02/22/oscar.nominees.full.list/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The song beat out ''[[WALL-E]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s "[[Down to Earth (Peter Gabriel song)|Down to Earth]]" by [[Peter Gabriel]] and "[[O... Saya]]", also of ''Slumdog Millionaire'', by A. R. Rahman and [[M.I.A. (artist)|M.I.A]].<ref>{{cite news|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|title=2009 Oscar scorecard|url=http://theenvelope.latimes.com/news/env-2009-oscar-scorecard-html,0,1431595.htmlstory#|date=22 January 2009|access-date=12 February 2009|archive-date=27 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527021149/http://theenvelope.latimes.com/news/env-2009-oscar-scorecard-html,0,1431595.htmlstory|url-status=live}}</ref> "Jai Ho" also received a [[Grammy Award]] for [[Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media|Best Song Written for a Motion Picture]] during the [[52nd Grammy Awards]] on 31 January 2010.<ref name="AFP">{{cite web|title=India's A.R. Rahman strikes Grammys gold|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|date=31 January 2010|url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hGgeRMlZ8ASQ9a-5v5AnbvmL0K9Q|access-date=1 February 2010|archive-date=4 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100204030253/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hGgeRMlZ8ASQ9a-5v5AnbvmL0K9Q|url-status=dead}}</ref> The song received a nomination from the [[Broadcast Film Critics Association]] for [[Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Song|Best Song]] during its [[14th Critics' Choice Awards|2008 award ceremony]] on 8 January 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2009/01/08/BFCA-names-Slumdog-best-picture/UPI-22471231475288/|title=BFCA names 'Slumdog' best picture|date=8 January 2009|publisher=United Press International, Inc.|access-date=21 August 2010|archive-date=9 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123513/https://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2009/01/08/BFCA-names-Slumdog-best-picture/22471231475288/?ur3=1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.azcentral.com/ent/movies/articles/2008/12/09/20081209criticschoice1209.html|title='Button,' Milk' top Critics Choice list|last=Kilday|first=Gregg|date=9 December 2008|work=The Arizona Republic|access-date=21 August 2010|location=Phoenix, AZ}}</ref> The [[Houston Film Critics Society]] nominated it for Best Original Song during its [[Houston Film Critics Society Awards 2008|2008 awards ceremony]] on 17 December 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.houstonfilmcritics.com/files/HFCS%202008%20Winners%20Press%20Release.pdf|title=HFCS 2008 Winners Press Release|publisher=The Houston Film Critics Society|access-date=21 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217021641/http://www.houstonfilmcritics.com/files/HFCS%202008%20Winners%20Press%20Release.pdf|archive-date=17 December 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.houstonfilmcritics.com/files/HFCS%202008%20Awards%20Ballot.pdf|title=HFCS 2008 Awards Ballot|publisher=The Houston Film Critics Society|access-date=21 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217021546/http://www.houstonfilmcritics.com/files/HFCS%202008%20Awards%20Ballot.pdf|archive-date=17 December 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was also nominated by the [[MTV Movie Awards]] for [[MTV Movie Award for Best Song From a Movie|Best Song From a Movie]] during its [[2009 MTV Movie Awards|2009 award ceremony]] on 31 May 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/ontv/movieawards/2009/|title=2009 MTV Movie Awards|publisher=MTV. MTV Networks|access-date=16 August 2010|archive-date=24 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100424210027/http://www.mtv.com/ontv/movieawards/2009/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Live performances ==
Rahman performed "Jai Ho" live during the [[81st Academy Awards]] on 22 February 2009, the night it won the award for [[Academy Award for Best Original Song|Best Original Song]]. The song served as the opening of the ceremony. Rahman modified the song to "set it in sync with the live orchestra and make it suitable for a stage presentation".<ref>{{cite web|author=PARAG MANIAR |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-01-25/news-interviews/28028310_1_gulzar-and-sukhwinder-sukhwinder-singh-nominations |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103084038/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-01-25/news-interviews/28028310_1_gulzar-and-sukhwinder-sukhwinder-singh-nominations |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 January 2013 |title=Live ho ! |date=25 January 2009 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=20 July 2012}}</ref> Singh was supposed to be part of the performance but encountered delays obtaining a work visa. Gulzar chose not to attend, joking he "didn't have a proper suit."<ref>{{cite news |title=No 'visa power' for Gulzar, Sukhwinder |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-no-visa-power-for-gulzar-sukhwinder-1233751 |access-date=12 January 2023 |work=DNA India |language=en |archive-date=12 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112184308/https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-no-visa-power-for-gulzar-sukhwinder-1233751 |url-status=live }}</ref>

"Jai Ho" was performed as part of a medley with "[[Jiyo Utho Badho Jeeto]]" during the [[2010 Commonwealth Games opening ceremony|2010 Delhi Commonwealth Games opening ceremony]] on 28 August 2010.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/A-R-Rahmans-grand-finale-with-Jeeyo-Utho/articleshow/6679650.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103182454/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-10-03/india/28245061_1_theme-song-peppy-sports-anthem-commonwealth-games|url-status=live|archive-date=3 November 2012|title=A R Rahman's grand finale with 'Jeeyo, Utho'|access-date=3 October 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=3 October 2010}}</ref><ref name="Sify">{{cite web|url=http://sify.com/news/rahman-brings-cwg-ceremony-to-electrifying-climax-news-national-kkdx4ccdbib.html|title=Rahman brings CWG ceremony to electrifying climax|website=[[Sify]]|access-date=3 October 2010| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006052925/http://sify.com/news/rahman-brings-cwg-ceremony-to-electrifying-climax-news-national-kkdx4ccdbib.html| archive-date=6 October 2010 | url-status=dead}}</ref> Rahman, who wore a white bandhgala jacket, black pants and white shoes, was accompanied by hundreds of dancers wearing traditional Indian costumes. Following the performance of "Jiyo Utho Badho Jeeto", fireworks went off and "Jai Ho" began. An editor from [[Sify]] wrote that, during the performance of "Jai Ho", "the chant at [[Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, Delhi|Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium]], many would swear, was magical".<ref name="Sify" />

== Usage in media ==
In March 2009, [[T-Series (company)|Super Cassettes Industries]] ([[T-Series (company)|T-Series]]), the music company which holds the song's copyright for India, received nearly $200,000 from the governing [[Indian National Congress]] party for its use in its national campaign in [[2009 Indian general election|2009 Indian General Elections]].<ref name="BBC election">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7926058.stm|title=Jai Ho 'cost Congress $200,000'|publisher=BBC News. BBC|date=5 March 2009|access-date=10 March 2009|archive-date=9 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123553/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7926058.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/ET-Cetera/Jai-Ho-turns-into-political-parody/articleshow/4226252.cms|title=Jai Ho turns into political parody|work=[[The Economic Times]]|publisher=[[Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd]]|date=5 March 2009|access-date=10 March 2009|archive-date=9 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123457/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/jai-ho-turns-into-political-parody/articleshow/4226252.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Harindra Singh, vice-chairman and managing director of the advertising firm Percept, told [[BBC]] that: "The tune of the song and the Jai Ho phrase have been used in the campaign. The lyrics have been written by a combination of people, they will be projecting what the Congress wishes to communicate". "Popular Bollywood numbers" are often "re-jigged" by political parties in India to "convey their message to voters", but this is the first time that a party has ever bought exclusive rights to use a song for political promotion.<ref name="BBC election" /> The version used in the campaign features altered lyrics sung by Sukhwinder Singh, who performed on the original song. A video was also shot for this version.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/news-interviews/The-politics-of-lyrics/articleshow/4233067.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811035046/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-03-06/news-interviews/28044879_1_jai-ho-song-music-video-lyrics|url-status=live|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=The politics of lyrics|date=6 March 2009|access-date=10 March 2009|first1=Kunal M|work=[[The Times of India]]|last1=Shah}}</ref> Rahman refused to comment on "Jai Ho" being used for the campaigns, but stated that the song "belongs to everyone".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/jai-ho-belongs-to-everyone-says-rahman/440199 |title='Jai Ho' belongs to everyone, says Rahman |work=[[The Indian Express]] |publisher=Indian Express Group |date=28 March 2009 |access-date=17 June 2012 |archive-date=9 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123546/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/entertainment-others/jai-ho-belongs-to-everyone-says-rahman/ |url-status=live }}</ref> "Jai Ho" was performed by Ravi K Tripathi, a [[Lucknow]]-based singer, at the closing ceremony of [[16th Asian Games]] on 27 November 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/sport/report_jai-ho-to-enthrall-at-asian-games-closing-ceremony_1466464|title=Jai Ho to enthral at Asian Games closing ceremony|access-date=20 July 2012|work=Daily News & Analysis|archive-date=9 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123539/https://www.dnaindia.com/sports/report-jai-ho-to-enthral-at-asian-games-closing-ceremony-1466464|url-status=live}}</ref>

== English adaptation ==
{{Main|Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)}}

[[File:Pussycat Dolls w trasie koncertowej z Britney Spears.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The Pussycat Dolls performing "Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)" as the opening act of [[Britney Spears]]' 2009 tour, [[The Circus Starring Britney Spears]]]]

American [[girl group]] [[The Pussycat Dolls]] recorded an English interpretation of "Jai Ho". Entitled "[[Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)]]", and credited to 'A. R. Rahman and the Pussycat Dolls featuring [[Nicole Scherzinger]]', the song appeared on the [[Doll Domination 2.0|re-release]] of the group's second studio album ''[[Doll Domination]]'' (2008). After watching ''Slumdog Millionaire'', record executives [[Ron Fair]] and [[Jimmy Iovine]] wanted to turn "Jai Ho" into a "[[pop music|pop]] record without deviating from the original melody".<ref name="times" />

After getting a [[green-light]] from Rahman, they asked Scherzinger, the lead singer of the Pussycat Dolls, to write an interpretation of the song. Scherzinger was hesitant at first, stating in an interview that: "[...] I was scared to death to touch it [and] afraid for people to hear it before I even wrote it".<ref name="mtvnews">{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1607620/20090324/the_pussycat_dolls.jhtml|title=Nicole Scherzinger Says She Originally Didn't Want To Cover 'Jai Ho'|last=Montgomery|first=James|date=24 March 2009|access-date=20 July 2012|publisher=[[MTV News]]. MTV Networks|archive-date=9 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123509/http://www.mtv.com/news/1607620/nicole-scherzinger-says-she-originally-didnt-want-to-cover-jai-ho/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Scherzinger put her "heart into writing the lyrics and put in themes from the film ''Slumdog Millionaire''. Love and destiny were elements from the movie that she put into the track". She stated that she "prayed every night to do this right".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.desihits.com/news/view/nicole-scherzinger-reveals-why-she-never-wanted-to-do-the-jai-ho-remix-20090320|title=Pussycat Dolls Nicole Scherzinger Didn't Want To Remix 'Jai Ho' – DH! Exclusive|last=Chatterjee|first=Anita|date=19 March 2009|access-date=20 July 2012|publisher=[[DesiHits]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723021928/http://www.desihits.com/news/view/nicole-scherzinger-reveals-why-she-never-wanted-to-do-the-jai-ho-remix-20090320|archive-date=23 July 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Fair and Iovine additionally hired [[Brick & Lace]], [[the Writing Camp]] and [[Ester Dean]] to write their own interpretation of the song.<ref name="hitquarters" />

[[E. Kidd Bogart]], a member of the Writing Camp, stated that: "They [Fair and Iovine] wanted to get a bunch of different versions to see who could nail a version for the Pussycat Dolls". Once all interpretations were complete, "they [Fair and Iovine] took parts of the Writing Camp version, parts of Ester Dean's version, and parts of another version, and they put them together, and then Nicole [Scherzinger] and Ron [Fair] filled in the blanks that they thought were missing". Bogart additionally stated that it was "a very unique and awkward way of writing a song".<ref name="hitquarters">{{cite news|url=http://www.hitquarters.com/index.php3?page=intrview/opar/intrview_Evan_Bogart_Interview.html|title=Interview With Evan 'Kidd' Bogart|first=Kimbel|last=Bouwman|date=8 February 2010|publisher=[[HitQuarters]]|access-date=20 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314061622/http://www.hitquarters.com/index.php3?page=intrview/opar/intrview_Evan_Bogart_Interview.html|archive-date=14 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Bogart, Dean, Fair, [[The Writing Camp|Erika Nuri]], [[The Writing Camp|David Quiñones]], Scherzinger, Candace Thorbourne, Nailah Thorbourne and Nyanda Thorbourne are credited for writing the track, while its production was handled by Fair and Scherzinger.<ref name="liner">{{cite AV media notes|others=[[Pussycat Dolls]] |title=[[Doll Domination]]|year=2009|type=Liner Notes |publisher=[[Interscope Records]]}}</ref> The song was recorded in London, while Scherzinger and Rahman corresponded via webcam.<ref name="times">{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/Now-Pussycats-do-a-Jai-Ho/articleshow/4179824.cms|title=Now, Pussycats do a Jai Ho|last=Kumaraswami|first=Lakshmi|date=23 January 2009|access-date=28 February 2009|archive-date=11 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811065417/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-02-24/us/27997908_1_song-pussycat-dolls-rahman|work=[[The Times of India]]|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Music journalism|Music critics]] responded generally favorably to "Jai Ho (You Are My Destiny)". ''[[Newsround]]'' praised the song by saying "[Nicole Scherzinger] sounds right at home – making the most of her soulful R&B voice and hitting all the (incredibly) high notes on this Eastern-themed piece of pop!"<ref name="cbbc">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/newsid_7980000/newsid_7989900/7989946.stm|title=AR Rahman feat. Pussycat Dolls – Jai Ho (Review)|publisher=[[CBBC Newsround|Newsround]]. BBC|date=4 June 2009|access-date=20 July 2012|archive-date=9 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123510/http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/newsid_7980000/newsid_7989900/7989946.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Nick Levine from [[Digital Spy]] wrote that, "The Hindi original, which soundtracks the Bollywood dance routine at the end of the movie, is far more urgent and atmospheric, but this remake works nicely enough as a slick, shamelessly opportunistic PCD single. Well, that hollered "JAI HO!" makes for a pretty sweet pop hook, you have to admit".<ref>{{cite web|last=Levine|first=Nick|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/music/singlesreviews/a109910/pussycat-dolls-when-i-grow-up.html|title=Music – Singles Review – A.R. Rahman & Pussycat Dolls: 'Jai Ho!'|publisher=[[Digital Spy]]. [[Hachette Filipacchi Médias|Hachette Filipacchi Médias UK Ltd]]|date=13 April 2009|access-date=20 July 2012|archive-date=9 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209123512/https://www.digitalspy.com/music/single-reviews/a109910/pussycat-dolls-when-i-grow-up-109910/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of Indian winners and nominees of the Golden Globe Awards]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}{{The Pussycat Dolls}}{{A. R. Rahman}}{{Navboxes
|title = Awards for "Jai Ho"
|titlestyle = background: lightblue
|list1 =
{{Academy Award Best Original Song}}
{{Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media}}
{{WSA for Best Original Song Written Directly for a Film}}
}}

{{authority control}}

{{Good article}}

[[Category:2008 songs]]
[[Category:Songs in Hindi]]
[[Category:Macaronic songs]]
[[Category:Slumdog Millionaire]]
[[Category:Songs with music by A. R. Rahman]]
[[Category:Best Original Song Academy Award–winning songs]]
[[Category:Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media]]
[[Category:Songs with lyrics by Gulzar]]

Chandayan

2026-02-03T11:18:04Z

Shubhamsaini9: Started Pg!

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Chandayan
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| subdivision_name = India
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| subdivision_name1 = Uttar Pradesh
| subdivision_type2 = District
| subdivision_name2 = Baghpat
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'''Chandayan''' is a village in [[Baghpat district]] in the state of [[Uttar Pradesh]] in India, around 100 kilometers from [[Delhi]].<ref>[http://bagpat.nic.in/villagelist.pdf "Local Government Directory - All Villages of Baghpat District, Uttar Pradesh State"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106202023/http://bagpat.nic.in/villagelist.pdf |date=6 November 2015 }}. ''District Baghpat Official Website''.</ref> In 2014 [[archeologist]]s discovered that the village could once be a site belonging to late [[Indus Valley civilization]] period.<ref>{{cite news|title=Crown found off Harappan site in UP|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Crown-found-off-Harappan-site-in-UP/articleshow/39840575.cms|work=The Times of India|date=8 August 2014}}</ref> If this proves to be true then it is a first instance that a late [[Harappan civilisation|Harappan habitation]] has been found in Uttar Pradesh.<ref name=first>{{cite news|title=Excavation reveals UP's Chandayan village holds key to later Harappan phase|url=https://www.firstpost.com/living/excavation-reveals-ups-chandayan-village-holds-key-to-later-harappan-phase-2041279.html|publisher=Firstpost|date=12 January 2015}}</ref>

==Excavation==
In 2014, [[Archaeological Survey of India]] began a detailed excavation of the site after local brick kiln workers stumbled upon human skeletal remains. So far numerous artefacts, some around 4000 years old, have been found.<ref name=first />

==Discoveries==
A human skeleton wearing a copper crown has been found. Copper crown is of thin copper strip decorated with precious Carnelian and a faience bead, typical of remains found at
other Harappan sites. According to archeologist, the crown indicates that skeleton was probably of important person like chieftain or village head. Terracotta pottery, crudely crafted & not of fine quality, has also been found near the skeleton.

A burial area is also exposed containing 21 pots of difference size & shape has also been found. Human bones & parts of skeletons were also found at the burial site. Presence of other burnt bones as well as that of cattle near burial area indicates the practice of animal sacrifice during funeral ceremony. Beads of various types were also found near burial site.<ref>{{cite news|title=Chandayan village in Uttar Pradesh could have possible Harappan link|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015-01-12/news/57983244_1_harappan-sinauli-burial-ground|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310203944/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015-01-12/news/57983244_1_harappan-sinauli-burial-ground|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 March 2015|publisher=The Economic Times |date=12 January 2015}}</ref>

Most of the potsherds found are sturdy red ware, with exception of one which is gray ware & few which are decorated. Three graffiti marks have been noticed on the potsherds. Preliminary observations indicate striking similarity with late Harappan period. Additionally storage jars, bowls and dish-on-stands has also been found.<ref>{{cite news|title=ASI digging Chandayan site to find possible Harappan link|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/asi-digging-chandayan-site-to-find-possible-harappan-link/article6644120.ece|work=The Hindu|date=29 November 2014}}</ref>

In one of the sites a floor with mud wall was found while at another site four successive layers of floors in house were found out.<ref name=first />

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Bagpat district]]

Muzaffarpur–Charlapalli Amrit Bharat Express

2026-01-24T15:37:10Z

Shubhamsaini9: Added a post

{{Short description|Amrit Bharat Express train route in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2025}}
{{italic title}}
{{Infobox rail service
| box_width =
| color = FF7220
| name = Muzaffarpur – Charlapalli ''Amrit Bharat Express''
| image = 15293 - 15294 Muzaffarpur Charlapalli Amrit Bharat Express.jpg
| image_width = 300
| caption = Train Board
| type = [[Amrit Bharat Express]], [[Express trains in India|Superfast]]
| status = Active
| locale = [[Bihar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]] & [[Telangana]]
| first = {{start date and age|2025|09|29|df=yes}} (Inaugural)
{{start date and age|2025|10|14|df=yes}} (Commercial)
| last =
| operator = [[East Central Railway zone|East Central Railways (ECR)]]
| start = {{stnlnk|Muzaffarpur Junction||Muzaffarpur Junction}} '''''(MFP)'''''
| end = [[Charlapalli railway station|Charlapalli]] '''''(CHZ)'''''
| stops = 23
| distance = {{convert|1889|km|0|abbr=on}}
| journeytime = 37h 10m
| frequency = Weekly
| line_used = *[[Muzaffarpur–Hajipur section]]
*[[Patna–Sonepur–Hajipur section|Patliputra–Ara line]]
*[[Prayagraj–Jabalpur section|Pt. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya–Prayagraj Chheoki–Jabalpur line]]
*[[Jabalpur–Bhusaval section|Jabalpur–Itarsi line]]
*[[Nagpur–Secunderabad line|Nagpur–Kazipet–Charlapalli line]]
| class = Sleeper class '''''(SL)'''''
General Unreserved '''''(GS)'''''
| seating = Yes
| sleeping = Yes
| autorack4596 =
| autorack = Upper
| catering = Pantry Car & On-board Catering
| observation = Saffron-Grey
| entertainment = {{Hlist|[[AC power plugs and sockets: British and related types#Indian IS 1293|Electric Outlets]]|Reading lights|Bottle Holder}}
| baggage =
| otherfacilities = {{Hlist|[[Closed-circuit television|CCTV cameras]]|[[Future of rail transport in India#Bio-toilets in all trains|Bio-Vacuum Toilets]]|[[Tap water|Foot-Operated Water Taps]]|[[Passenger information system]]}}
| stock = [[Amrit Bharat (trainset)|Modified LHB coach]]
| gauge = [[5 ft 6 in gauge railway|Indian gauge]] {{track gauge|1676mm|allk=on}} [[broad gauge]]
| el = {{25 kV 50 Hz AC}} Overhead line
| trainnumber = 15293 / 15294
| speed = {{cvt|51|km|0|abbr=on}} (Avg.)
| owners = [[Indian Railways]]
| maintenance = [[Muzaffarpur Junction|MFP CDO]]
| sharing = No
| map = {{Muzaffarpur–Charlapalli AB Express Route}}
| map_state = collapsed
}}
The 15293/15294 '''Muzaffarpur–Charlapalli ''Amrit Bharat Express''''' is [[India]]'s 15th Non-AC [[Express trains in India|Superfast]] [[Amrit Bharat Express]] train, which runs across the states of [[Bihar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]] & [[Telangana]] connecting [[Muzaffarpur Junction railway station|Muzaffarpur Junction]] in [[Muzaffarpur]] and [[Charlapalli railway station|Charlapalli]] in [[Hyderabad]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pandit |first=Akansha |date=29 September 2025 |title=Route, fare, features: All about the 3 new Amrit Bharat trains starting today |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |pages=2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last='D'Souza' |first=John |date=29 September 2025 |title=Amrit Bharat Express routes: Check timings, schedule, stoppages and other details of three new trains from Bihar starting today |work=[[The Times of India]] |pages=1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sharma |first=Tiku |date=29 September 2025 |title=Bihar to get 7 new trains, including three Amrit Bharat Express: Check full list |work=[[CNBC]] |pages=3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tiwari |first=Gopal |title=Amrit Bharat: मुज़फ्फरपुर से चरलापल्ली तक चलेगी अमृत भारत ट्रेन, रेल मंत्री 28 को दिखाएँगे हरी झंडी |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/muzaffarpur-muzaffarpur-charlapalli-amrit-bharat-train-to-start-soon-24061572.html |website=Jagran |publisher=Jagran Prakashan |date=2025-09-27 |access-date=2025-10-07}}</ref>

==Overview==
*The train was originally introduced in 2023 as a weekly special service with a mixed coach composition consisting of AC 2-tier, AC 3-tier, AC 3E (economy), sleeper class, and general unreserved coaches to cater to the festive rush. However, shortly after its introduction, the train gained popularity due to the lack of a direct train connection between Muzaffarpur (MFP) and Secunderabad, increasing demand for regular service.
*After operating for nearly two years as a ToD special train, it was included in the Railway Time Table (TAG) 2025. In October 2025, the Indian Railways announced that the service would be upgraded to the Amrit Bharat Express. Accordingly, on 26 October 2025, the special train numbered 05293/05294, which had mixed coach composition, was converted to Amrit Bharat Express coaches and assigned a new permanent train number: 155293/155294.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muzaffarpur to Charlapalli Amrit Bharat Express: Check train number, travel time, stoppages |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/muzaffarpur-to-charlapalli-amrit-bharat-express-check-train-number-travel-time-stoppages-10276475/ |website=The Indian Express |date=2025-10-06 |access-date=2025-10-07}}</ref>
*In TAG 2026 15293 Spped Up by 45 Minutes and 15294 Speed up By 60 Minutes

==Schedule==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; font-size:90%;"
|-
! colspan="2" style="background:#FB8C00; color:#000000; text-align:center;" |
15293 / 15294 Amrit Bharat Express Schedule
|-
| style="background:#E0E0E0;" | '''Train Type'''
| style="background:#E0E0E0;" | Amrit Bharat Express
|-
| style="background:#D6D6D6;" | '''Distance'''
| style="background:#D6D6D6;" | 1889 km
|-
| style="background:#E0E0E0;" | '''Average Speed'''
| style="background:#E0E0E0;" | ~52 km/h
|-
| style="background:#D6D6D6;" | '''Journey Time (MFP → CHZ)'''
| style="background:#D6D6D6;" | 36 hrs 25 min
|-
| style="background:#E0E0E0;" | '''Journey Time (CHZ → MFP)'''
| style="background:#E0E0E0;" | 35 hrs 55 min
|-
| style="background:#D6D6D6;" | '''Classes Available'''
| style="background:#D6D6D6;" | SL, PC
|-
| style="background:#E0E0E0;" | '''Unreserved Classes'''
| style="background:#E0E0E0;" | GEN, PWD
|-
| style="background:#D6D6D6;" | '''Operating Days'''
| style="background:#D6D6D6;" | MFP → CHZ: Tuesday; CHZ → MFP: Thursday
|-
| style="background:#E0E0E0;" | '''Operator'''
| style="background:#E0E0E0;" | [[East Central Railway zone|ECR - East Central Railway]]
|}

== Routes & halts ==
The halts for this 15293/15294 Muzaffarpur – Charlapalli Amrit Bharat Express are as follows:-
{{columns-list|# '''{{stnlnk|Muzaffarpur Junction}}'''
# {{stnlnk|Hajipur Junction}}
# {{stnlnk|Sonpur Junction}}
# {{stnlnk|Patliputra Junction}}
# {{stnlnk|Danapur}}
# {{stnlnk|Ara Junction}}
# {{stnlnk|Buxar}}
# {{stnlnk|Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction}}
# {{stnlnk|Prayagraj Chheoki Junction}}
# {{stnlnk|Satna Junction}}
# {{stnlnk|Katni Junction}}
# {{stnlnk|Jabalpur Junction}}
# {{stnlnk|Narsinghpur}}
# {{stnlnk|Pipariya}}
# {{stnlnk|Itarsi Junction}}
# {{stnlnk|Nagpur Junction}}
# {{stnlnk|Balharshah}}
# {{stnlnk|Sirpur Kaghaznagar}}
# {{stnlnk|Bellampalli}}
# {{stnlnk|Ramagundam}}
# {{stnlnk|Peddapalli Junction}}
# {{stnlnk|Kazipet Junction}}
# '''{{stnlnk|Charlapalli}}'''|colwidth=15em}}

==Coach composition==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;"
|+ style="font-weight:bold; background:#FB8C00; color:black; padding:6px;" | '''Coach Composition'''
|-
! style="background:#FB8C00; color:black;" | Category
! style="background:#FB8C00; color:black;" | Coaches
! style="background:#FB8C00; color:black;" | Total
|-
| style="background:#F5F5F5;" | SLRD (Divyangjan Coach)
| style="background:#F5F5F5;" | SLRD, SLRD
| style="background:#F5F5F5;" | 2
|-
| style="background:#EEEEEE;" | General Unreserved (GEN)
| style="background:#EEEEEE;" | GEN1, GEN2, GEN3, GEN4, GEN5, GEN6, GEN7
| style="background:#EEEEEE;" | 7
|-
| style="background:#F5F5F5;" | Sleeper Class (SL)
| style="background:#F5F5F5;" | S8, S7, S6, S5, S4, S3, S2, S1
| style="background:#F5F5F5;" | 8
|-
| style="background:#EEEEEE;" | Pantry Car (PC)
| style="background:#EEEEEE;" | PC
| style="background:#EEEEEE;" | 1
|-
| style="background:#F5F5F5;" | General Unreserved (GEN)
| style="background:#F5F5F5;" | GEN8, GEN9, GEN10, GEN11, GEN12
| style="background:#F5F5F5;" | 5
|-
| style="background:#EEEEEE;" | SLRD (Divyangjan Coach)
| style="background:#EEEEEE;" | SLRD
| style="background:#EEEEEE;" | 1
|-
! style="background:#FB8C00; color:black;" | Total Coaches
! style="background:#FB8C00; color:black;" |
! style="background:#FB8C00; color:black;" | 22
|}
*Primary Maintenance - Muzaffarpur Coaching Depot

== Rakes ==
It is the 15th [[Amrit Bharat Express|Amrit Bharat 2.0 Express]] train in which the locomotives were designed by [[Chittaranjan Locomotive Works]] (CLW) at [[Chittaranjan]], [[West Bengal]] and the coaches were designed and manufactured by the [[Integral Coach Factory]] at [[Perambur]], [[Chennai]] under the [[Make in India]] Initiative.

==See also==
*[[Amrit Bharat Express]]
*[[Vande Bharat Express]]
*[[Tejas Express]]
*[[Muzaffarpur Junction railway station]]
*[[Charlapalli railway station]]
*[[Sapt Kranti Express]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Amrit Bharat Express}}

[[Category:Amrit Bharat Express trains]]
[[Category:Named passenger trains of India]]
[[Category:Higher-speed rail]]
[[Category:Express trains in India]]
[[Category:Electric multiple units of India]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Bihar]]
[[Category:Transport in Bihar]]
[[Category:Transport in Muzaffarpur]]
[[Category:Transport in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Transport in Telangana]]

Individual terror

2026-01-08T06:53:46Z

Shubhamsaini9: adjusted citations as per guidelines

{{terrorism}}
In [[leftist]] terminology, '''individual terror''', a form of [[revolutionary terror]], is the murder of isolated individuals with the goal of promotion of a political movement, of provoking political changes, up to [[political revolution]].<ref name=ls>[[Lev Sedov]] "On the [[Moscow Trials]]," Ch. 10, [http://marx.org/history/etol/writers/sedov/works/red/ch10.htm "Marxism and Individual Terror"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312045057/http://marx.org/history/etol/writers/sedov/works/red/ch10.htm |date=2012-03-12 }}</ref><ref name=zi>[[Ze'ev Iviansky]], "Individual Terror: Concept and Typology," {{doi|10.1177/002200947701200102}} Journal of Contemporary History January 1977 vol. 12 no. 1 43-63</ref> As such, it differs from other forms of [[targeted killing]], in particular, the close type of individual murder, the ancient practice of [[political assassination]].<ref name=zi/>

==Individual terror vs. political assassination==
Many authors do not draw distinction between types of political assassinations and furthermore, and there is no full consensus on the issue.<ref name=nbe>Political assassinations by Jews: a rhetorical device for justice By Nachman Ben-Yehuda, {{ISBN|0-7914-1166-4}}, 1993, [https://books.google.com/books?id=P7XF6axF-m0C&pg=PA37]</ref>

[[Ze'ev Iviansky]] attempted to draw a distinction as follows. While revolutionary individual terror and traditional political assassination share the common goal, a major political change, they differ in various aspects: tactics, methods, role, view on the society, and significance of an individual act. Most of the differences stem from the immediate purpose of an individual act.

In traditional political assassination the target of the killing is a central political figure, such as the king or [[dictator]], whose removal would give way to political changes, and as such the choice of the target is of primary importance. The ultimate goal is to hit the regime represented by the target. Whereas in individual terror, the choice of the target, while important, is secondary to the primary goal, which is to bring the attention of the public to a political movement and to promote the political movement.

This key distinction explains differences in tactics. While traditional political assassination may well be clandestine, the efficiency of revolutionary individual terror in a greater extent depends on the publicity of the act.<ref name=zi/>

The target of a political assassination is usually a very specific individual, while the target of an act of terrorism is not.<ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Political Assassinations by Jews: A Rhetorical Device for Justice|author=Ben-Yehuda, N.|date=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=9780791411667|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P7XF6axF-m0C|page=37|access-date=2014-10-18}}</ref>

[[David C. Rapoport]] (1971) drew the difference as follows: "...the assassin destroys men who are corrupting the system, while the terrorist destroys a system which has already corrupted everyone it touches..."<ref name="google2">{{cite book|title=Political Assassinations by Jews: A Rhetorical Device for Justice|author=Ben-Yehuda, N.|date=1993|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=9780791411667|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P7XF6axF-m0C|page=37|access-date=2015-04-08}}</ref>

==History==
The roots of individual terror as revolutionary tactics lie in the second half of the 19th century in [[Europe]].<ref name=zi/> Part of its theoretical base was "[[propaganda by deed]]" put forth by the ideologists of [[anarchism]]. Different revolutionary parties had different attitude to individual terror, for political, tactical, moral, and other reasons.<ref name=ls/>

==See also==
*[[Extrajudicial killing]]
*[[Lone wolf terrorism]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*"The Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party before the First World War," by Manfred Hildermeier, {{ISBN|3-8258-4259-2}}, LIT Verlag Münster, 2000.
** Its Section 12.3.2: [https://books.google.com/books?id=xCAp1vedU70C&pg=PA323 "Individual terror: Anachronistic politics"] discusses the change of the attitude to individual terror within the Russian [[Social Revolutionary Party]]
*[[Walter Laqueur]], ''A History of Terrorism''
** Discusses individual terror in 19th century [[anarchism]], [[Marxism]] and other left-wing movements
*Ze'ev Iviansky, ''Individual Terror, Theory and Practice'', 1977

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Terrorism by method]]
[[Category:Terrorism tactics]]
[[Category:Revolutionary terror]]

2007 South Asian floods

2026-01-06T01:25:25Z

Shubhamsaini9: added basic stub w/ infobox.

{{Short description|Natural disaster impacting large numbers of people in various Asian countries}}
{{Hatnote|This article refers to the multiple concurrent floods in South Asia between 3 July and 15 August 2007 (Dartmouth Flood Observatory numbers DFO115, 121, 124, 129, 136, 143, 153, 155, 157 and 158). See other articles for other floods, e.g. the floods caused by [[Cyclone Yemyin]], the China floods, the [[2007 Sudan floods|Sudan floods]].}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{Infobox weather event
|image = 2007BDflood.png
|caption = Residents of Keraniganj walk on a bridge on the bank of the flooded Buriganga river.
}}{{Infobox weather event/History
|duration = 3 July 2007 – 15 August 2007
}}{{Infobox weather event/Effects
|damages = At least [[Rupees|Rs.]] 500 millions (USD 12 million)
|fatalities = 2,000+
|affected = India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan
}}{{Infobox weather event/Footer}}
The '''2007 South Asian floods''' were a series of floods in India, Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh. News Agencies, citing the Indian and Bangladeshi governments, place the death toll in excess of 2,000.<ref name="AFX">{{cite magazine |date=9 August 2007 |title=South Asia floods death toll passes 2,000; India releases disaster relief |url=https://www.forbes.com/markets/feeds/afx/2007/08/09/afx4003968.html |magazine=[[Forbes]] Limited |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007175218/http://www.forbes.com/markets/feeds/afx/2007/08/09/afx4003968.html |archive-date=7 October 2008 |accessdate=10 August 2007}}</ref> By 3 August, approximately 20 million had been affected<ref name="NPR">{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12481422&sc=YahooNews&ft=1&f=1004|title=Floods Leave Millions Homeless in India, Bangladesh|publisher=[[NPR]]|date=3 August 2007| accessdate= 3 August 2007 }} Last accessed 3 August 2007</ref> and by 10 August some 30 million people in India, Bangladesh and Nepal had been affected by flooding.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Floods show need for disaster risk reduction - UN |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L10924649.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=10 August 2007
|accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>

[[UNICEF]] said that the situation "is being described as the worst flooding in living memory".<ref name="UNICEF">{{cite news|url=http://www.unicef.org/media/media_40495.html |title=Millions of people across South Asia affected by monsoonal flooding |publisher=[[UNICEF]] |date=3 August 2007 |accessdate=8 August 2007  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814224433/http://www.unicef.org/media/media_40495.html |archive-date=14 August 2007 |url-status=live |df=dmy }} Last accessed 8 August 2007.</ref>

==Background==
[[File:South Asia subdivisions flood hit between July 3 and August 15 2007.png|thumb|right|South Asia subdivisions affected by flooding between 3 July and 15 August 2007 (marked in blue).]]
Rajpal Yadav of the [[Indian Meteorological Department]] reported that "we've been getting constant rainfall in these areas for nearly 20 days" due to abnormal [[monsoon]] patterns.<ref name="NPR" /> Flooding in Pakistan began during the landfall of [[Cyclone 03B (2007)|Cyclone 03B]] in June 2007. Pakistani states [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] and [[Sindh]] were particularly affected.<ref name="CNN">{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/asiapcf/08/03/soasia.floods/index.html |title=Millions flee 'worst ever' floods |publisher=CNN |date=3 August 2007 |accessdate=3 August 2007  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809003918/http://www2.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/asiapcf/08/03/soasia.floods/index.html |archive-date=9 August 2007 |url-status=live |df=dmy }} Last accessed 3 August 2007.</ref>
Melting snow from the [[Himalaya]]n [[glacier]]s increased the water levels of the [[Brahmaputra River]].<ref name="AFP">{{cite web|last=Hussain |first=Zarir |url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/LRON-75PBDV?OpenDocument |title=India floods leave children without food, water |publisher=[[Agence France-Presse]] |date=2 August 2007 |accessdate=4 August 2007  |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070825194930/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/LRON-75PBDV?OpenDocument |archive-date=25 August 2007 |url-status=live |df=dmy }} Last accessed 3 August 2007.</ref>
{{clr}}

==Areas affected in Bangladesh==
[[File:Bangladesh divisions flood hit between July 3 and August 15 2007.png|thumb|right|[[Divisions of Bangladesh]] affected by flooding between 3 July and 15 August 2007 (marked in blue).]]
[[File:Bangladesh districts flood hit between July 3 and August 15 2007.png|thumb|right|[[Districts of Bangladesh]] affected by flooding between 3 July and 15 August 2007 (marked in blue).]]
On 1 August, there was flooding on the [[Padma River|Padma]] and [[Brahmaputra]] rivers.<ref name="Reu">{{cite web|url=http://abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/08/01/1993547.htm?section=world|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080204220033/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/08/01/1993547.htm?section=world|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 February 2008|title=Bangladesh, India floods leave thousands stranded|publisher=Reuters|date=1 August 2007| accessdate= 3 August 2007 }} Last accessed 3 August 2007.</ref> By 3 August, the main highway connecting [[Dhaka]] to the rest of the country was impassable,<ref name="NPR" /> many districts were flood-affected<ref name="UNICEF" /> and 500,000 people had been marooned.<ref name="Reu" /> By 7 August an estimated 7.5 million people had fled their homes.<ref name="alertnet.org">{{cite news
|title=Caritas Responds to Monsoon Devastation in South Asia
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/carintern/386c8f97586f2b20b402e79c0af6f23c.htm |work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=7 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref> By 8 August more than 50,000 people had diarrhoea or other waterborne diseases<ref>{{cite news
|title=Hunger, disease stalk children hit by South Asia floods |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL187242.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=8 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070825230241/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL187242.htm| archive-date= 25 August 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref> and more than 400,000 people were in temporary shelters.<ref name="http">{{cite news
|title=Hunger, disease stalk children hit by South Asia floods |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL187242.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=8 August 2007
|accessdate=15 August 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070825230241/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL187242.htm| archive-date= 25 August 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref> By 11 August, flood deaths were still occurring in Bangladesh, the number of people with flood-related diseases was increasing<ref name="Reuters">{{cite news
|title=Flood victims clash with police in India, 30 hurt |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL219103.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=11 August 2007
|accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref> and about 100,000 people had caught dysentery or diarrhoea.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite news
|title=Bangladeshi hospital struggles to cope with flood victims |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL241115.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=10 August 2007
|accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref> By 13 August, the confirmed death toll in Bangladesh was 405.<ref>{{cite news
|title=B'desh cancels hospital leave to combat disease |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DHA288786.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=13 August 2007
|accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>

By 15 August, five million people were still displaced, the estimated death toll was nearly 500,<ref>{{cite news|title=Bangladesh flood death toll nears 500, thousands ill |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DHA30252.htm |work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]|date=15 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref> and all six of Bangladesh's [[Divisions of Bangladesh|divisions]] were affected.

===Dhaka===
Districts in Dhaka that were affected by flooding on 21 July include Dhaka, Munshiganj, Rajbari, Madaripur, Shariatpur, Manikganj, Netrakona, Jamalpur and Tangail.<ref name="DF0129">{{Cite web |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm |title=Dartmouth Flood Observatory 2007 Global Register of Major Flood Events, flood number DFO129 |access-date=19 August 2007 |archive-date=22 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922171905/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Khulna===
Districts in Khulna that were affected by flooding on 21 July include Magura and Narail.<ref name="DF0129" />

===Rajshahi===
Places in Rajshahi that were affected by flooding on 21 July include Sirajganj, Rangpur, Gaibandha, Bogra and Kurigram. Besides, Belkuchi, Enayatpur too.<ref name="DF0129" />

===Sylhet===
Districts in Sylhet that were affected by flooding on 21 July include Sylhet, Sunamganj and Sherpur.<ref name="DF0129" />
{{clr}}

==Areas affected in Bhutan==
[[File:Bhutan subdivisions flood hit between July 3 and August 15 2007.png|thumb|right|Bhutan subdivisions affected by flooding between 3 July and 15 August 2007 (marked in blue).]]
In Bhutan, the rain had led to landslides across the country, disrupting a number of major roads.<ref name="Reu" />

===Samdrup Jongkhar and Sarpang===
By 5 August water was still above the warning level in the foothills of Bhutan.<ref>[http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900sid/LSGZ-75WDAL?OpenDocument UNICEF Situation Report India floods - External 5 August 2007]</ref>
{{clr}}

==Areas affected in India==
[[File:India subdivisions flood hit between July 3 and August 15 2007.png|thumb|right|India states affected by flooding between 3 July and 15 August 2007 (marked in blue).]]

By the August 7th in India, an estimated 13.7 million people had fled their homes.<ref name="alertnet.org" />
According to the Indian government, the total cost of the [[monsoon]] was in excess of {{INRConvert|1.3|b}} since June 7th<ref name="AFX"/> The full extent of the damage and number of lives lost may never be known.<ref name="WB">{{cite news|url=http://www.dailyindia.com/newsc/india/west-bengal.php |title=''Daily India'' |date=29 July 2007 |accessdate=7 August 2007  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807003749/http://www.dailyindia.com/newsc/india/west-bengal.php |archive-date=7 August 2007 |url-status=live |df=dmy }}</ref> president [[Pratibha Patil]] has condoled the loss of lives due to the floods.<ref name="HT" />

===Arunachal Pradesh===
Places in [[Arunachal Pradesh]] that were affected by flooding on 12 July include Lakhimpur, Chamuah Gaon, Nowboicha and Bharaluwa Gaon.<ref name="DF0121">{{Cite web |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm |title=Dartmouth Flood Observatory 2007 Global Register of Major Flood Events, flood number DFO121 |access-date=19 August 2007 |archive-date=22 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922171905/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Assam===
In [[Assam]], approximately 100,000 sought shelter in 500 government-sponsored relief camps. Millions of dollars' worth of crops were also destroyed.<ref name="NPR" /> 500,000 residents in Assam were displaced, and nineteen have been killed. On 1 August 2007, a teenage boy from Assam was shot by a police officer after a flood as survivors attacked a group of aid workers.<ref name="AFP" />

===Bihar and Uttar Pradesh===
[[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]] were the hardest hit states due to their high population density. By 3 August, the estimated death toll was 41 people, and 48 schoolgirls were marooned in a school in the [[Darbhanga]] district.<ref name="Reu" /><ref name="HT">{{cite news |title=North India inundated |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india/north-india-inundated/story-i8B5M5mKe3vaoBTL7afKeL.html |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=3 August 2007 |accessdate= 3 August 2007}} Last accessed 3 August 2007.</ref> By 8 August, an estimated 10 million people in Bihar had been affected by flooding.<ref name="http" /> Army helicopters delivered food packets to Bihar residents and 180 relief camps were set up. By 10 August, aid workers in Bihar said the number of people with diarrhoea had jumped dramatically<ref>{{cite news
|title=Bangladeshi hospital struggles to cope with flood victims |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL241115.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=10 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref> and by 11 August, flood deaths were still occurring.<ref name="Reuters" />

===Gujarat===
On 8 August, [[Jamnagar]] reported 269 millimetres (10 inches) of rain<ref name="AFX" /> and fresh flooding was reported in Gujarat.<ref name="http" /> By the next day, nine people had been killed<ref name="AFX" /> and more than 400 villages were cut off.<ref>{{cite news|title=Flood rains hit new India regions |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/6938350.stm |work=BBC News |date=9 August 2007 |access-date=15 August 2007}}</ref> By 10 August, more than 22,000 people were displaced<ref>{{cite news|title=Sickness spreads in S Asia floods |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6939860.stm |publisher=BBC|date=10 August 2007 |access-date=15 August 2007}}</ref> and health workers were disinfecting the worst-hit areas.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

===Haryana===
[[Haryana]] was affected by flooding on 12 August.<ref name="DF0157">{{Cite web |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm |title=Dartmouth Flood Observatory 2007 Global Register of Major Flood Events, flood number DFO157 |access-date=19 August 2007 |archive-date=22 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922171905/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Himachal Pradesh===
On 14 August in [[Himachal Pradesh]], a cloudburst caused a landslide that buried an entire village, killing an estimated 60 people.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sixty feared dead in landslide in Indian Himalayas |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL18598.htm |work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]|date=15 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>

===Jammu and Kashmir===
Parts of [[Jammu and Kashmir (state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], the part of [[Kashmir]] administered by India, that were affected by flooding on 12 August include Jammu city, Udhampur, Nikki Tawi, and lower Satwari.<ref name="DF0157" />

===Jharkhand and West Bengal===
While relief efforts have been concentrated elsewhere in India, the plight of the traditional region of Bengal (the flood plains of the [[Ganges]]-[[Brahmaputra]]-[[Meghna]] river delta and its tributaries) has been less reported. The [[Damodar River|Damodar]] and [[Kangsabati]] rivers overflowed their banks in late June, but levels finally began to fall as of 6 August.<ref name="ReliefNet">{{cite news|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/MCON-75G8YN?OpenDocument |title=India: Situation report - Deep depression/flood, 09 Jul 2007 |publisher=Relief Web International |date=26 July 2007 |accessdate=7 August 2007  |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212010011/http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/MCON-75G8YN?OpenDocument |archive-date=12 December 2012 |url-status=live |df=dmy }}</ref> The [[Durgapur Barrage]] and [[Kangsabati]] Dam (near [[Bankura]]) may be partly responsible. In North Bengal, the floods have caused economic damage also estimated in the millions of U.S. dollars (at least [[Rupees|Rs.]] 500 million); and in [[Siliguri]], flash floods have wiped away at least 100 houses on a single night (28 July 2007). The state government of West Bengal has set up facilities to house 50,000 refugees. As the flood has affected parts of the East [[Midnapore]] ([[Purba Medinipur]]) district, [[Partition of Midnapore|long-standing political divisions and conflicts]] have flared in the wake of the floods.

===Kerala===
[[Kerala]] was affected by flooding on 19 July.<ref name="DF0124">http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922171905/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm |date=22 September 2019 }} Flood Number 0124</ref>

===Maharashtra===
By 3 August most streets were flooded in [[Mumbai]] and parts of Maharashtra were waterlogged.<ref>{{cite news|title=Devastating floods hit South Asia |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6927389.stm |work=BBC News |date=3 August 2007 |access-date=15 August 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070808155557/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/6927389.stm| archive-date= 8 August 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref> On 7 August there was extensive flooding in the Gadchiroli district.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Time and money running out as floods continuedd to devastate south Asia |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/216723/b1a0c15d2f0d7b2b9633499f3c2faae6.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=7 August 2007
|accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>

===Meghalaya===
Places in [[Meghalaya]] that were affected by flooding on 12 July include the West Garo Hills district, the Tura and Rishipara areas.<ref name="DF0121" />

===National Capital Territory of Delhi===
New Delhi was also affected by the heavy rains.<ref name="CNN" />

===Orissa===
On 8 August, fresh flooding was reported in Orissa.<ref name="http" />

===Punjab===
[[Punjab, India|Punjab]] was affected by flooding on 12 August.<ref name="DF0157" />

===Tripura===
Places in [[Tripura]] that were affected by flooding on 12 July include Udaipur, Amarpur and Sonamura.<ref name="DF0129" />

===Uttarakhand===
[[Uttarakhand]], which was known as Uttaranchal until 2006, was affected by flooding on 12 August.<ref name="DF0157" />
{{clr}}

==Areas affected in Nepal==
[[File:Nepal regions flood hit between July 3 and August 15 2007.png|thumb|right|[[Regions of Nepal]] affected by flooding between 3 July and 15 August 2007 (marked in blue).]]
[[File:Nepal zones flood hit between July 3 and August 15 2007.png|thumb|right|[[Zones of Nepal]] affected by flooding between 3 July and 15 August 2007 (marked in blue).]]
In Nepal, eighty-four people were killed by the floods and resulting [[landslide]]s and 9,700 families were displaced. Twenty-eight of the country's seventy-five [[Districts of Nepal|districts]] were affected,<ref name="CNN" /> in eleven of Nepal's fourteen [[Zones of Nepal|zones]] and all five of Nepal's [[Regions of Nepal|regions]]. Nepali officials were concerned about the spread of [[waterborne diseases]].<ref name="Reu" /> By 7 August an estimated 333,500 people in Nepal were affected by flooding.<ref>{{cite news
|title=NEPAL: Flood victims complain of lack of aid, slow delivery
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/IRIN/ffa9d7f8f96cfcf421776ef27c9b2f1a.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=7 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>

===Central Region===

====Janakpur Zone====
Districts in the [[Janakpur Zone]] that were affected by flooding from 23 July include Dhanusha, Mahottari, Sindhuli, Sarlahi and Ramechhap.<ref name="DF0136">{{Cite web |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm |title=Dartmouth Flood Observatory 2007 Global Register of Major Flood Events, flood number DFO136 |access-date=19 August 2007 |archive-date=22 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922171905/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Narayani Zone====
Districts in the [[Narayani Zone]] that were affected by flooding from 23 July include Chitwan and Rautahat.<ref name="DF0136" />

===East Region===

====Koshi Zone====
Districts in the [[Koshi Zone]] that were affected by flooding from 23 July include Sunsari and Morang.<ref name="DF0136" />

====Province No. 1====
The Jhapa District in the [[Province No. 1]] was affected by flooding from 23 July.<ref name="DF0136" />

====Sagarmatha Zone====
Districts in the [[Sagarmatha Zone]] that were affected by flooding from 23 July include Udayapur, Okhaldhunga, Saptari, Solukhumbu and Siraha.<ref name="DF0136" />

===Far West Region===

====Mahakali Zone====
Districts in the [[Mahakali Zone]] that were affected by flooding from 23 July include Baitadi and Darchula.<ref name="DF0136" />

====Seti Zone====
Districts in the [[Seti Zone]] that were affected by flooding from 23 July include Kailali, Bajhang and Bajura.<ref name="DF0136" />

===Mid West Region===

====Bheri Zone====
Districts in the [[Bheri Zone]] that were affected by flooding from 23 July include Banke, Bardiya and Surkhet.<ref name="DF0136" />

====Rapti Zone====
The Dang district in the [[Rapti Zone]] was affected by flooding from 23 July.<ref name="DF0136" />

===West Region===

====Dhawalagiri Zone====
The Baglung District in the [[Dhawalagiri Zone]] was affected by flooding from 23 July.<ref name="DF0136" />

====Lumbini Zone====
Districts in the [[Lumbini Zone]] that were affected by flooding from 23 July include Nawalparasi and Gulmi.<ref name="DF0136" />
{{clr}}

==Areas affected in Pakistan==
[[File:Pakistan subdivisions flood hit between July 3 and August 15 2007.png|thumb|right|Pakistan subdivisions affected by flooding between 3 July and 15 August 2007 (marked in blue).]]By 11 August, 28 people had died in rain-related accidents in [[Sindh]].<ref name="Reuters" /> By 12 August, flood waters were sweeping through villages in southern Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news
|title=As South Asia Floods Recede, Urgent Aid Still Needed |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/redcrossusa/118694387461.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=12 August 2007
|accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref> The Kohistan district of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] was affected by flooding on 12 August.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm |title=Dartmouth Flood Observatory 2007 Global Register of Major Flood Events, flood number DFO158 |access-date=19 August 2007 |archive-date=22 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922171905/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Areas in coastal [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] were destroyed, including the village of [[Solband]], which was levelled.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6255920.stm|title=Anger and despair in Balochistan|date=29 June 2007|work=BBC News|access-date=2019-03-17}}</ref>{{clr}}

==See also==
[[Kangsabati Project]]

==International response==
By 15 August, non-governmental organisations, many with contributions from governments, that were contributing aid included
Malteser International,<ref>{{cite news
|title=Flood disaster in South Asia: Malteser International responds to flood in Pakistan |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/332065/118708033779.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=14 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Deutsche Welthungerhilfe,<ref>{{cite news
|title=Flood disaster in South Asia : Welthungerhilfe increases relief funds |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/dwhhde/118700537954.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=13 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Direct Relief International,<ref>{{cite news
|title=Direct Relief Supports South Asia Partners Dealing With Heavyer Flooding
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/219816/118678651898.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=10 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
World Concern,<ref>{{cite news|title=Bangladesh Disaster|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/worldconce/118678327069.htm |work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]|date=10 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Islamic Relief,<ref>{{cite news
|title=IR response to Bangladesh Floods
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/218894/118676166354.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=10 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Church World Service,<ref>{{cite news
|title=CWS appeal: India floods (Assam, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal)
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/284081/118675593544.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=10 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
International Save the Children Alliance,<ref>{{cite news
|title=Save the Children Assists Children and Families Imperiled by South Asian Floods
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/SaveChAlli/dcf4d140ba8ddf7ab7e8ef10637ee9fb.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=10 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Lutheran World Relief,<ref>{{cite news
|title=Lutheran World Relief Responding To Floods In India
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/220361/ec89003e7f4cc0a37d9ecc4083c871bd.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=9 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Medical Teams International,<ref>{{cite news
|title=Medical Teams International Responds to South Asia Floods
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/nmtiusa/118659015583.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=8 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Care International,<ref>{{cite news
|title=CARE launches £2.5 million appeal for South Asia floods
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/217440/118658579227.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=8 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Catholic Relief Services,<ref>{{cite news
|title=CRS Commits $5 Million to South Asia Monsoon Efforts
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/217466/118657210198.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=8 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070824074809/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/217466/118657210198.htm| archive-date= 24 August 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref>
British Red Cross Society,<ref>{{cite news
|title=News - Red Cross works in flood-stricken Asia
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/216872/08b9f07143e7c309a3c612ddc8e641be.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=8 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
World Vision,<ref>{{cite news
|title=South Asia floods - World Vision warns worse may yet be to come
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/217167/118655692986.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=8 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Diakonie Emergency Aid,<ref>{{cite news
|title=Diakonie Katastrophenhilfe stellt weitere 250.000 Euro bereit
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/diakonie/118655107823.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=8 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070912073206/http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/diakonie/118655107823.htm| archive-date= 12 September 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref>
David McAntony Gibson Foundation,<ref>{{cite news
|title=GlobalMedic responds to Bangladesh Floods
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/dmgfcan/118651007272.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=7 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Caritas Internationalis,<ref>{{cite news
|title=Caritas Responds to Monsoon Devastation in South Asia
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/carintern/386c8f97586f2b20b402e79c0af6f23c.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=7 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Action by Churches Together (ACT),<ref>{{cite news
|title=ACT Rapid Response Payment for Floods in West Bengal, India
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/222031/118647618914.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=7 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA),<ref>{{cite news
|title=Flood Survivors in Southeast Asia Receive Desperately Needed Aid from ADRA
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/219487/118643832073.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=6 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Hungry South Asia flood victims fight over food |url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DEL92879.htm |work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]|date=6 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Baptist World Aid (BWAid),<ref>{{cite news
|title=Asia Flood Appeal - August 2007
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/216858/118640832342.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=6 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
Mercy Corps,<ref>{{cite news
|title=Mercy Corps Responds To South Asia Flooding
|url=http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/fromthefield/289513/118617931281.htm
|work=[[Reuters|AlertNet]] |publisher=[[Reuters|Reuters Foundation]]
|date=3 August 2007 |accessdate=15 August 2007}}</ref>
and many others.

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm Dartmouth Flood Observatory 2007 Global Register of Major Flood Events] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922171905/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2007sum.htm |date=22 September 2019 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070919195054/http://www.redcross.org.uk/standard.asp?id=71819 British Red Cross-Asia Floods Appeal] Give to the Asia Floods Appeal

{{Natural disasters in India}}
{{Floods in Pakistan}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:2007 South Asian Floods}}
[[Category:Meteorological events in 2007|South Asian floods]]
[[Category:2007 floods in Asia|South Asian floods]]
[[Category:Health in Nepal]]
[[Category:Health in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:2007 in Bangladesh|South Asian floods]]
[[Category:2007 in Bhutan|South Asian floods]]
[[Category:2007 in Nepal|South Asian floods]]
[[Category:2007 in Pakistan|South Asian floods]]
[[Category:Floods in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Natural disasters in Bhutan]]
[[Category:Water in Bhutan]]
[[Category:Floods in India]]
[[Category:Floods in Nepal]]
[[Category:Floods in Pakistan]]
[[Category:2007 disasters in India]]

Middle kingdoms of India

2026-01-05T05:58:05Z

Shubhamsaini9: slightly enhanced lead per standard format and corrected details

{{short description|Political entities in the Indian subcontinent from 3rd century BCE - 13th century CE}}
{{Dynamic list}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Essay-like|date=June 2019}}
{{Full citations needed|date=November 2024}}
}}

{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
{{Human history}}

The '''Middle Kingdoms of India''' were the political entities that existed on the [[Indian subcontinent]] from 230 BCE to 1206 CE. The period began with the decline of the [[Maurya Empire]] and the corresponding rise of the [[Satavahana dynasty]], initiated by [[Simuka]] in the 1st century BCE. The “middle” period lasted for over 1,200 years and concluded in 1206 CE with the establishment of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and the gradual decline of the [[Later Cholas]], the last of whom, [[Rajendra Chola III]], died in 1279 CE.

This period encompasses two eras: ''Classical India'', from the [[Maurya Empire]] up until the end of the [[Gupta Empire]] in 500 CE, and ''early Medieval India'' from 500 CE onwards.<ref>{{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=D.|date=27 April 2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA105}}</ref> It also encompasses the era of classical [[Hinduism]], which is dated from 200 BCE to 1100 CE.<ref>{{citation|last=Michaels|first=Axel|year=2004|title=Hinduism. Past and present|place=Princeton, New Jersey|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=32|isbn=0691089523|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jID3TuoiOMQC&pg=PA32}}</ref> From 1 CE until 1000 CE, [[Economic history of India|India's economy]] is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth.<ref name="Maddisson World GDP">{{cite book|last1=Maddison |first1=Angus |title=The World Economy (GDP): Historical Statistics by Professor Angus Maddison|series=Development Centre Studies |date=2006 |url=http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf|publisher=World Economy|doi=10.1787/9789264022621-en |isbn=978-92-64-02261-4 |access-date=21 May 2013|archive-date=22 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722202625/http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|title=The World Economy – Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics|year=2006|publisher=OECD Publishing by [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]]|isbn=9789264022621|pages=656|url=http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?K=5L9ZBQKL5RLW&lang=EN&sort=sort_date%2Fd&stem=true&sf1=Title&st1=world+economy&sf3=SubjectCode&sp1=not&st4=E4+or+E5+or+P5&sf4=SubVersionCode&ds=world+economy%3B+All+Subjects%3B+&m=3&dc=26&plang=en|access-date=3 January 2017|archive-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015104311/http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?K=5L9ZBQKL5RLW&lang=EN&sort=sort_date/d&stem=true&sf1=Title&st1=world+economy&sf3=SubjectCode&sp1=not&st4=E4+or+E5+or+P5&sf4=SubVersionCode&ds=world+economy;+All+Subjects;+&m=3&dc=26&plang=en|url-status=live}}</ref> This period was followed by the late [[Medieval India|Medieval period]] in the 13th century.

==The Northwest==
{{ Annotated image
| image=South Asia non political, with rivers.jpg
| width=280 | image-width = 280 
| image-left=0 | image-top=0| float = right
| annotations =
{{Annotation|230|5|'''South Asia in 150 BCE'''|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|90|145|[[Satavahanas|SATAVAHANAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|150|130|[[Mahameghavahana dynasty|MAHAMEGHA- VAHANAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|75|40|[[Indo-Greeks|INDO- GREEKS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|15|10|[[Greco-Bactrians|GRECO- BACTRIANS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|110|60|[[Audumbaras|AUDUMBARAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|90|80|[[Yaudheya|YAUDHEYAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|135|80|[[Pauravas|PAURAVAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|100|70|[[Vrishni|VRISHNIS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|135|70|[[Kuninda Kingdom|KUNINDAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|90|[[Mitra dynasty (Mathura)|MITRAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|140|90|[[Arjunayanas|ARJUNAYANAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|80|105|[[Malavas|MALAVAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|140|105|[[Shungas|SHUNGAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|215|[[Pandyan dynasty|PANDYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|195|[[Chola dynasty|CHOLAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|200|120|[[Samatata|SAMATATAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
|caption={{center|South Asia circa 150 BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (d) |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162023/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
}}
[[File:NLI Decima Asiae Tabula.jpg|thumb|alt=[[Ptolemy]]'s 10th map of Asia, depicting India within the Ganges 15th century reproduction|Ptolemy's 10th map of Asia, depicting India within the Ganges, 15th century reproduction]]
During the 2nd century BCE, the [[Maurya Empire]] became a collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries. The whole northwest attracted a series of invaders between 200 BCE and 300 CE. The [[Puranas]] speak of many of these tribes as foreigners and impure barbarians ([[Mleccha]]s). First the [[Satavahana dynasty]] and then the [[Gupta Empire]], both successor states to the Maurya Empire, attempt to contain the expansions of the successive before eventually crumbling internally due to the pressure exerted by these wars.

The invading tribes were influenced by [[Buddhism]] which continued to flourish under the patronage of both invaders and the Satavahanas and Guptas and provides a cultural bridge between the two cultures. Over time, the invaders became "Indianized" as they influenced society and philosophy across the Gangetic plains and were conversely influenced by it. This period is marked by both intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion and [[syncretism]] as the new kingdoms straddle the [[Silk Road]].

===The Indo-Greeks===
{{Main|Indo-Greek Kingdom}}
[[File:DemetriusCoin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Silver coin of the founder of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]], [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]] (r. c. 205–171 BC).]]
The [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]] covered various parts of the Northwestern [[South Asia]] during the last two centuries BCE, and was ruled by more than 30 [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] kings, often in conflict with each other.

The kingdom was founded when [[Demetrius I of Bactria]] invaded the [[Hindu Kush]] early in the 2nd century BCE. The Greeks in India were eventually divided from the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] centered in Bactria (now the border between [[Afghanistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]]).

The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities. There were numerous cities, such as [[Taxila]],<ref>Mortimer Wheeler ''Flames over Persepolis'' (London, 1968). Pp. 112 ''ff.'' It is unclear whether the Hellenistic street plan found by John Marshall's excavations dates from the Indo-Greeks or from the Kushans, who would have encountered it in Bactria; Tarn (1951, pp. 137, 179) ascribes the initial move of Taxila to the hill of Sirkap to Demetrius I, but sees this as "not a Greek city but an Indian one"; not a ''polis'' or with a [[Hippodamian plan]].</ref> [[Pushkalavati]] and [[Sagala]] in Pakistan's [[Punjab region|Punjab]].<ref>"Menander had his capital in Sagala" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.83. McEvilley supports Tarn on both points, citing Woodcock: "Menander was a Bactrian Greek king of the Euthydemid dynasty. His capital (was) at Sagala (Sialkot) in the Punjab, "in the country of the Yonakas (Greeks)"." McEvilley, p.377. However, "Even if Sagala proves to be Sialkot, it does not seem to be Menander's capital for the Milindapanha states that Menander came down to Sagala to meet Nagasena, just as the Ganges flows to the sea."</ref> These cities would house a number of dynasties in their times, and based on [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]]'' and the nomenclature of later kings, a certain [[Theophilos (king)|Theophila]] in the south was also probably a satrapal or royal seat at some point.

[[Euthydemus I]] was, according to [[Polybius]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.34 |title=11.34 |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=20 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420074248/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.34 |url-status=live }}</ref> a [[Magnesia (regional unit)|Magnesian Greek]]. His son, Demetrius, founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek descent from his father at minimum. A marriage treaty was arranged for Demetrius with a daughter of [[Antiochus III the Great]], who had partial [[Persian people|Persian]] descent.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.34 |title=Polybius 11.34 |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=20 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420074248/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.34 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/623931 "Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and India".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329185312/https://www.jstor.org/stable/623931 |date=29 March 2019 }} W. W. Tarn. ''Journal of Hellenic Studies'', Vol. 22 (1902), pages 268–293</ref> For example, [[Artemidoros Aniketos]] (80 BCE) may have been of Indo-Scythian descent. Intermarriage also occurred, as exemplified by [[Alexander the Great]], who married [[Roxana]] of Bactria, or [[Seleucus I Nicator]], who married [[Apama]] of Sogdia.

During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined the Greek and Indian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended Greek, Hindu and Buddhist religious practices, as seen in the archaeological remains of their cities and in the indications of their support of Buddhism, pointing to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences.<ref>"A vast hoard of coins, with a mixture of Greek profiles and Indian symbols, along with interesting sculptures and some monumental remains from Taxila, Sirkap and Sirsukh, point to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences", ''India, the Ancient Past'', Burjor Avari, p.130</ref> The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, particularly through the influence of [[Greco-Buddhist art]]. The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 CE following the invasions of the Indo-Scythians, although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the Indo-Parthians and [[Kushan Empire]].<ref>"When the Greeks of Bactria and India lost their kingdom they were not all killed, nor did they return to Greece. They merged with the people of the area and worked for the new masters; contributing considerably to the culture and civilization in southern and central Asia." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p. 278.</ref>

===The Yavanas===
{{Main|Yona}}
The '''Yavana''' or '''Yona''' people, literally "[[Ionians|Ionian]]" and meaning "Western foreigner", were described as living beyond Gandhara. Yavanas, Sakas, [[the Pahlavas]] and [[Huna people|Hunas]] were sometimes described as ''mleccha''s, "foreigners". [[Kambojas]] and the inhabitants of [[Madra]], the [[Kekeya Kingdom]], the [[Indus River]] region and Gandhara were sometimes also classified as ''mleccha''s. This name was used to indicate their cultural differences with the culture of the [[Kuru kingdom]] and [[Panchala]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

===The Indo-Scythian Sakas===
{{Main|Indo-Scythians|Saka}}
The [[Indo-Scythians]] are a branch of the [[Saka]]s who migrated from southern [[Siberia]] into [[Bactria]], [[Sogdia]], [[Arachosia]], [[Gandhara]], [[Kashmir]], [[Punjab region|Punjab]], and into parts of Western and Central India, [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]] and [[Rajasthan]], from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century [[Common Era|CE]]. The first Saka king in India was [[Maues]] or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara and gradually extended supremacy over north-western India. Indo-Scythian rule in India ended with the last of the [[Western Satraps]], [[Rudrasimha III]], in 395 CE.

The invasion of India by Scythian tribes from [[Central Asia]], often referred to as the "Indo-Scythian invasion", played a significant part in the [[history of India]] as well as nearby countries. In fact, the Indo-Scythian war is just one chapter in the events triggered by the nomadic flight of Central Asians from conflict with Chinese [[tribe]]s which had lasting effects on [[Bactria]], [[Kabul]], [[Parthia]] and India as well as far off Rome in the west. The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up various [[monarchy|kingdoms]], included, besides the Sakas,<ref>Cunningham, (1888) p. 33.</ref> other allied [[tribe]]s, such as the [[Medes]],<ref name="Cunningham 1888, p. 33">Cunningham (1888), p. 33.</ref>{{better source needed|date=January 2016}} [[Scythians]],<ref name="Cunningham 1888, p. 33"/>{{sfn|Barstow|1928|pp= 63, 105–135, 145 155, 152}}{{better source needed|date=January 2016}} [[Massagetae]],{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} [[Getae]],<ref>Latif (1984), p. 56.</ref> [[Parama Kamboja kingdom|Parama Kambojas]], [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]],{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} [[Bahlikas]], [[Rishikas]] and [[Parada kingdom|Paradas]].

===The Indo-Parthians===
{{Main|Indo-Parthian Kingdom}}
The [[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]] was founded by [[Gondophares]] around 20 BCE. The kingdom lasted only briefly until its conquest by the Kushan Empire in the late 1st century CE and was a loose framework where many smaller dynasts maintained their independence.

===The Pahlavas===
{{Main|The Pahlavas}}
The '''Pahlavas''' are a people mentioned in ancient Indian texts like the ''[[Manusmṛti]]'', various [[Puranas]], the ''[[Ramayana]]'', the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', and the ''Brhatsamhita''. In some texts the Pahlavas are synonymous with the [[Pallava dynasty]] of [[South India]]. While the ''Vayu Purana'' distinguishes between ''Pahlava'' and ''Pahnava'', the ''Vamana Purana'' and ''Matsya Purana'' refer to both as ''Pallava''. The ''Brahmanda Purana'' and ''Markendeya Purana'' refer to both as ''Pahlava'' or ''Pallava''. The ''Bhishama Parava'' of the [[Mahabharata]] does not distinguish between the Pahlavas and Pallavas. The Pahlavas are said to be same as the Parasikas, a Saka group. According to P. Carnegy,{{sfn|Rapson|1908|pp=[https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins0000raps/page/n101/mode/2up xcviii–xcix]}}<ref name="see">See:
* ''Notes on the Races, Tribes, and Castes inhabiting the Province of Oudh, Lucknow, Oudh'' Government Press. 1868, p. 4;
* Singh, M. R. (1972). ''The Geographical Data in Early Puranas, a Critical Studies''. p. 135;
* [[Sacred Books of the East]], XXV, Intr. p. cxv,
* Rapson (1908) ''Coins of Ancient India'', [https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins0000raps/page/36/mode/2up p. 37], n.2.{{failed verification|date=November 2024}}</ref> the Pahlava are probably those people who spoke Paluvi or Pehlvi, the [[Parthian language]]. Buhler similarly suggests Pahlava is an Indic form of ''Parthava'' meaning "Parthian".<ref name="see"/>{{sfn|Rapson|1908|pp=[https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins0000raps/page/n101/mode/2up xcviii–xcix]}} In a 4th-century BCE, the ''Vartika'' of [[Kātyāyana]] mentions the ''Sakah-Parthavah'', demonstrating an awareness of these Saka-Parthians, probably by way of commerce.<ref>Agarwala (1954), p. 444.</ref>

===The Western Satraps===
{{Main|Western Satraps}}
{{ Annotated image
| image=South Asia non political, with rivers.jpg
| width=270
| image-width = 270 
| image-left=0 | image-top=0| float = right
| annotations =
{{Annotation|230|5|'''South Asia in 150 CE'''|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|95|145|[[Satavahana Empire|SATAVAHANAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|105|205|[[Pandyan dynasty|PANDYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|175|[[Chola dynasty|CHOLAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|90|60|[[Kushan Empire|KUSHAN EMPIRE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=9|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|65|100|[[Western Satraps|WESTERN SATRAPS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|48|65|[[Paratarajas|PARATA RAJAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|150|110|[[Mahameghavahana dynasty|MAHAMEGA- VAHANA]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|2|60|[[Indo-Parthians|INDO- PARTHIANS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
|caption=South Asia in the 2nd century CE.<ref name="JES">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (e) |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162023/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}
The [[Western Satraps]] (35–405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India ([[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] and [[Malwa]]: modern [[Gujarat]], southern [[Sindh]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]] states). Their state, or at least part of it, was called "[[Ariaca]]" according to the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]''. They were successors to the Indo-Scythians and were contemporaneous with the Kushan Empire, which ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent and were possibly their overlords, and the Satavahana dynasty of [[Andhra in Indian epic literature|Andhra]] who ruled in Central India. They are called "Western" in contrast to the "Northern" Indo-Scythian satraps who ruled in the area of [[Mathura]], such as [[Rajuvula]], and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara.{{efn|Kharapallana and Vanaspara are known from an inscription discovered in [[Sarnath]], and dated to the 3rd year of [[Kanishka]], in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushanas.{{sfn|Rapson|1908|p=[https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins0000raps/page/n105/mode/2up ciii]}} }} Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps", Ptolemy's ''Geography'' still called them "Indo-Scythians".<ref>Ptolemy, ''Geographia'', Ch. 7</ref> Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years.

===The Kushans===
{{Main|Kushan Empire}}
The Kushan Empire (c. 1st–3rd centuries) originally formed in [[Bactria]] on either side of the middle course of the [[Amu Darya]] in what is now northern Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan; during the 1st century CE, they expanded their territory to include the Punjab and much of the [[Ganges]] basin, conquering a number of kingdoms across the northern part of the Indian subcontinent in the process.<ref>Hill (2009), pp. 29, 31.</ref><ref>Hill (2004)</ref> The Kushans conquered the central section of the main Silk Road and, therefore, had control of the overland trade between India, and [[China]] to the east, and the [[Roman Empire]] and [[Sassanian Empire|Persia]] to the west.

[[Emperor Kanishka]] was a great patron of [[Buddhism]]; however, as Kushans expanded southward toward the [[Indian subcontinent]] the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new [[Hindu]] majority.<ref name="Frumkin1970">{{cite book|author=Grégoire Frumkin|title=Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum|url-access=registration|year=1970|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=[https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum/page/51 51]–|id=GGKEY:4NPLATFACBB}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Rafi U. Samad |title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA93 |year=2011 |publisher=Algora Publishing |isbn=978-0-87586-859-2 |pages=93–}}</ref>

===The Indo-Sasanians===
{{Main|Indo-Sasanians}}
The rise of new Persian power, the [[Sasanian Empire]], saw them exert their influence into the Indus region and conquer lands from the Kushan Empire, setting up the [[Indo-Sasanians]] around 240 CE. They were to maintain their influence in the region until they were overthrown by the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. Afterwards, they were displaced in 410 CE by the invasions of the [[Hephthalite Empire]].

===The Hephthalite Hunas===
{{Main|Huna people|Hephthalite Empire}}
[[File:HephthaliteCoin.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Billon (alloy)|Billon]] [[Ancient drachma|drachma]] of the [[Huna people|Huna]] King Napki Malka (Afghanistan or Gandhara, c. 475–576).]]The [[Hephthalite Empire]] was another Central Asian nomadic group to invade. They are also linked to the [[Yuezhi]] who had founded the Kushan Empire. From their capital in [[Bamyan]] (present-day Afghanistan) they extended their rule across the Indus and [[North India]], thereby causing the collapse of the Gupta Empire. They were eventually defeated by the Sasanian Empire allied with [[Turkic peoples]].

===The Rais===
{{Main|Rai dynasty}}
The [[Rai dynasty]] of [[Sindh]] were patrons of [[Buddhism]] even though they also established a huge temple of [[Shiva]] in [[Sukkur]] close to their capital, [[Aror]].

===The Gandharan kingdom===
{{Main|Gandhara|Gandhara kingdom}}
'''Gandhāra''' was an ancient region in the [[Kabulistan|Kabul]], [[Peshawar Valley|Peshawar]], [[Swat District|Swat]], and [[Taxila]] areas of what are now northwestern [[Pakistan]] and eastern [[Afghanistan]]. It was one of 16 [[Mahajanapada]] of [[ancient India]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kulke |first1=Professor of Asian History Hermann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C&pg=PA53 |title=A History of India |last2=Kulke |first2=Hermann |last3=Rothermund |first3=Dietmar |date=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-32919-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Warikoo |first=K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NsdvkRtAtusC&pg=PA73 |title=Bamiyan: Challenge to World Heritage |date=2004 |publisher=Third Eye |isbn=978-81-86505-66-3 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hansen |first=Mogens Herman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8qvY8pxVxcwC&pg=PA377 |title=A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation |date=2000 |publisher=Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab |isbn=978-87-7876-177-4 |language=en}}</ref>

===The Karkotas===
{{Main|Karkota Empire}}
{{Location map+
|South Asia
|float = right
|width = 280
|caption = South Asia circa 700 CE.<ref name="A Historical atlas of South Asia">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=146, map XIV.2 (f) |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=183 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224144259/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=183 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|nodiv = 1
|mini = 1
|relief=yes
|places =
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=41|N |long=65|E |label=[[Yabghus of Tokharistan|TOKHARA YABGHUS]]|position=bottom |label_size=80|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=33|N |long=65|E |label=[[Umayyad Caliphate|UMAYYAD CALIPHATE]]|position=bottom |label_size=80|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=37.5|N |long=70|E |label=<div talign=center>[[Turk Shahis|TURK SHAHIS]]</div>|position=bottom |label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=34.5|N |long=67.5|E |label=<div talign=center>[[Zunbils|ZUNBILS]]</div>|position=bottom |label_size=60|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=20|N |long=76|E |label=[[Chalukya dynasty|CHALUKYAS]]|position=bottom |label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=25|N |long=72|E |label=[[Maitraka dynasty|MAITRAKAS]]|position=bottom |label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=18|N |long=78|E |label=[[Pallava dynasty|GREATER PALLAVAS]]|position=bottom |label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=28|N |long=81|E |label=[[Varman dynasty of Kannauj|<div talign=center>VARMAN DYNASTY</div>]]|position=bottom |label_size=80|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=39.25|N |long=74|E |label=[[Patola Shahis|<div talign=center>'''PATOLA''' '''SHAHIS'''</div>]]|position=bottom |label_size=60|mark=File:1x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=34|N |long=81|E |label=[[Tibetan Empire|TIBETAN EMPIRE]] |position=right |label_size=80|mark=File:1x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=34.09|N |long=76|E |label='''[[Karkota Empire|KARKOTAS]]''' |position=bottom |label_size=60|mark=File:1x1.png|marksize=0}}
}}
The [[Karkota Empire]] was established around 625 CE. During the eighth century they consolidated their rule over Kashmir.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=571}} The most illustrious ruler of the dynasty was [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]]. According to Kalhana's ''[[Rajatarangini]]'', he defeated the Tibetans and [[Yashovarman]] of [[Kanyakubja]], and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha, [[Kamarupa]], [[Gauḍa (region)|Gauda]], and [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kaḷinga]]. Kalhana also states that he extended his influence of Malwa and [[Gujarat]] and defeated [[Arabs]] at [[Sindh]].{{r|1977 Majumdar|pp=260–263}}{{sfn|Wink|1991|pp=72–74}}{{Incomplete short citation|date=November 2024}} According to historians, Kalhana highly exaggerated the conquests of Lalitaditya.{{sfn|Chadurah|1991|p=45}}{{sfn|Hasan|1959|p=54}}

===The Kabul Shahis===
{{Main|Turk Shahi|Hindu Shahi}}
The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled portions of the [[Kabul]] valley and Gandhara from the decline of the [[Kushan Empire]] in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.<ref name="EB">Shahi Family. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 October 2006 [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9067075].</ref> The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 CE–670 CE, when the capitals were located in [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]] and Kabul, and later [[Hund, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Udabhandapura]], also known as Hund,<ref>Sehrai, Fidaullah (1979). Hund: ''The Forgotten City of Gandhara'', p. 2. Peshawar Museum Publications New Series, Peshawar.</ref> for its new capital. In ancient time, the title Shahi appears to be a quite popular royal title in Afghanistan and the northwestern areas of the Indian subcontinent. Variants were used much more priorly in the Near East,{{efn|Darius used titles like ''Kshayathiya'', ''Kshayathiya Kshayathiyanam'', etc.}} but as well later on by the Sakas, Kushans Hunas, Bactrians, by the rulers of Kapisa/Kabul and [[Gilgit]].{{sfn|Pandey|1973|pp=1, 45–46, 48, 80}}{{sfn|Mohan|1976|p=80}}<ref>Country, Culture and Political life in early and medieval India, 2004, p 34, Daud Ali.</ref> In Persian form, the title appears as ''Kshathiya, Kshathiya Kshathiyanam'', Shao of the Kushanas and the ''Ssaha'' of [[Mihirakula]] (Huna chief).<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|date=1954 |title=[title missing] |pages=112 ff}}{{author missing|date=November 2024}}{{title missing|date=November 2024}}</ref>{{sfn|Mohan|1976|p=80}} The Kushanas are stated to have adopted the title ''Shah-in-shahi'' (''Shaonano shao'') in imitation of Achaemenid practice.{{sfn|Keay|2001|p=203}} The Shahis are generally split up into two eras—the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE.

==The Gangetic Plains and Deccan==
Following the demise of the [[Mauryan Empire]], the [[Satavahana]]s rose as the successor state to check and contend with the influx of the [[Central Asian]] tribes from the Northwest. The Satavahanas straddling the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan plateau]] also provided a link for transmission of [[Buddhism]] and contact between the Northern [[Indo-Gangetic plain|Gangetic plains]] and the Southern regions even as the [[Upanishads]] were gaining ground. Eventually weakened both by contention with the northwestern invaders and internal strife they broke up and gave rise to several nations around Deccan and central India regions even as the [[Gupta Empire]] arose in the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] and ushered in a '''"Golden Age"''' and rebirth of empire as decentralized local administrative model and the spread of Indian culture until collapse under the [[Huna people|Huna]] invasions. After the fall of [[Gupta Empire]] the Gangetic region broke up into several states temporarily reunited under [[Harsha]] then giving rise to the [[Rajput]] dynasties. In the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], the [[Chalukya]]s arose forming a formidable nation marking the migration of the centers of cultural and military power long held in the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] to the new nations forming in the southern regions of India.

===The Satavahana Empire===
{{Main|Satavahana dynasty}}


The '''Sātavāhana dynasty''' began as feudatories to the [[Maurya Empire]] but declared independence with its decline. They were the first Indic rulers to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed and are known for their patronage of [[Buddhism]], resulting in Buddhist monuments from the [[Ellora Caves]] to [[Amaravathi village, Guntur district]]. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Gangetic plains to the southern tip of India.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

The Sātavāhanas had to compete with the [[Shunga Empire]] and then the [[Kanva dynasty]] of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] to establish their rule. Later they had to contend in protecting their domain from the incursions of [[Saka]]s, [[Yona]]s and [[the Pahlavas]]. In particular their struggles with the [[Western Satraps]] weakened them and the empire split into smaller states.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

===The Mahameghavahana dynasty===
{{main|Mahameghavahana dynasty}}

The Mahameghavahanas (c. 250s BCE – 400s CE) was an ancient ruling dynasty of [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kaḷinga]] after the decline of the Mauryan Empire. The third ruler of the dynasty, [[Kharavela|Khārabēḷa]], conquered much of [[India]] in a series of campaigns at the beginning of the common era.<ref>Agrawal, Sadananda (2000): Śrī Khāravela, Sri Digambar Jain Samaj, Cuttack, Odisha</ref> Kaḷingan military might was reinstated by Khārabēḷa: under Khārabēḷa's generalship, the Kaḷinga state had a formidable maritime reach with trade routes linking it to the then-Simhala (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Vietnam, Kamboja (Cambodia), Borneo, Bali, Samudra (Sumatra) and Jabadwipa (Java). Khārabēḷa led many successful campaigns against the states of Magadha, [[Anga]], the Satavahanas and the [[South India]]n regions ruled by the [[Pandyan dynasty]] (modern [[Andhra Pradesh]]) and expanded Kaḷinga as far as the [[Ganges]] and the [[Kaveri]].
[[File:Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves 2024 42.jpg|thumb|The rock-cut jaina viharas of Khandagiri caves , built under the patronage of Kharavela.]]
The Kharavelan state had a formidable maritime empire with trading routes linking it to [[Sri Lanka]], [[Burma]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], [[Borneo]], [[Bali]], [[Sumatra]] and [[Java]]. Colonists from Kaḷinga settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as the [[Maldives]] and [[Maritime Southeast Asia]]. Even today Indians are referred to as [[Keling]] in Malaysia because of this.<ref>[http://www.visvacomplex.com/Keling_English_Version.html Keling_English Version] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226054454/http://www.visvacomplex.com/Keling_English_Version.html |date=26 February 2013 }}. Visvacomplex.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.</ref>

Although religiously tolerant, Khārabēḷa patronised [[Jainism]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freeindia.org/biographies/kharavela/page6.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010503232502/http://www.freeindia.org/biographies/kharavela/page6.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2001-05-03 |access-date=2012-01-16 |title=Maharaja Kharavela }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freeindia.org/biographies/kharavela/page13.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010503230545/http://www.freeindia.org/biographies/kharavela/page13.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2001-05-03 |access-date=2012-01-16 |title=Maharaja Kharavela's Family }}</ref> and was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in the [[Indian subcontinent]] but his importance is neglected in many accounts of Indian history. The main source of information about Khārabeḷa is his famous seventeen line rock-cut [[Hathigumpha inscription|Hātigumphā inscription]] in the [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves]] near [[Bhubaneswar]], Odisha. According to the Hathigumpha inscription, he attacked [[Rajgir|Rajagriha]] in Magadha, thus inducing the Indo-Greek king [[Demetrius I of Bactria]] to retreat to [[Mathura]].<ref>Shashi Kant (2000): The Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela and the Bhabru Edict of Ashoka, D K Printworld Pvt. Ltd.</ref>

===The Bharshiva dynasty===
{{Main|Bharshiva Dynasty}}
Before the rise of the Guptas, [[Bharshiva Dynasty|Bharshiva Kings]] ruled most of the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]]. They perform ten [[Ashvamedha]] sacrifices on the banks of Ganga River. [[Samudragupta]] mention Naga rulers in his Allahabad pillar.<ref>A Panorama of Indian Culture: Professor A. Sreedhara Menon Felicitation Volume edited by K. K. Kusuman, Page no 153</ref>

===The Vakatakas===
{{Main|Vakataka}}
[[File:Ajanta (63).jpg|thumb|right|200px|The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of [[Ajanta Caves]], built under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers.]]
The '''Vakataka Empire''' was the contemporaries of the [[Gupta Empire]] and the successor state of the [[Satavahana]]s they formed the southern boundaries of the north and ruled over today's modern-day states of [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Maharashtra]] during the 3rd and 5th centuries. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of [[Ajanta Caves]] (a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]), built under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers. They were eventually overrun by the [[Chalukya]]s.

===The Guptas===
{{Main|Gupta Empire}}
[[File:Silver Coin of Kumaragupta I.jpg|thumb|Silver coin of the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] King [[Kumara Gupta I]] (414–455).]]
The '''Classical Age''' refers to the period when much of the [[Indian subcontinent]] was reunited under the [[Gupta Empire]] (ca. 320 CE–600 CE).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://historymedren.about.com/library/text/bltxtindia7.htm |title=India – Historical Setting – The Classical Age – Gupta and Harsha |access-date=1 January 2010 |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018171922/http://historymedren.about.com/library/text/bltxtindia7.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> This period is called the [[Golden Age of India]]<ref>[http://www.nupam.com/Sgupta1.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802092924/http://www.nupam.com/Sgupta1.html|date=2 August 2009}}</ref> and was marked by extensive achievements in [[Science and technology in ancient India|science, technology]], [[List of Indian inventions and discoveries|engineering]], [[Indian art|art]], [[Indian literature|literature]], [[Indian logic|logic]], [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]], [[Indian astronomy|astronomy]], [[Indian religion|religion]] and [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]] that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as [[Hindu culture]].<ref>[http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/ANCINDIA/GUPTA.HTM The Age of the Guptas and After] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204082030/http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/ANCINDIA/GUPTA.HTM |date=4 December 2008 }}</ref> The [[Decimal|decimal numeral system]], including the concept of [[0 (number)|zero]], was invented in India during this period.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} The peace and prosperity created under Guptas leadership enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/249590/Gupta-dynasty |title=Gupta dynasty (Indian dynasty) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=30 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330100325/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/249590/Gupta-dynasty |url-status=live }}</ref>

The high points of this cultural creativity is seen in Gupta architecture, sculpture and painting.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century |title=Encyclopedia – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=30 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330103811/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century |url-status=live }}</ref> The Gupta period produced scholars such as [[Kalidasa]], [[Aryabhata]], [[Varahamihira]], [[Vishnu Sharma]], and [[Vatsyayana]] who made advances in a variety of academic fields.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.historybits.com/gupta.htm |title=The Gupta Empire of India {{!}} Chandragupta I {{!}} Samudragupta |access-date=1 January 2010 |archive-date=11 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711171258/http://www.historybits.com/gupta.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Science and political administration advanced during the Gupta era.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}{{clarify|date=July 2013}} Trade ties made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in [[Burma]], [[Sri Lanka]], and both [[Maritime Southeast Asia|maritime]] and [[mainland Southeast Asia]].

The Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized [[Buddhism]], which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} The military exploits of the first three rulers - [[Chandragupta I]] (ca. 319–335), [[Samudragupta]] (ca. 335–376), and [[Chandragupta II]] (ca. 376–415) —brought much of India under their leadership.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html |title=Trade {{!}} The Story of India - Photo Gallery |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328013124/http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html |url-status=live }}</ref> They successfully resisted the north-western kingdoms until the arrival of the [[Huna people|Hunas]] who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at [[Bamyan City|Bamiyan]]. Nevertheless, much of the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}

===The Harsha Vardhana===
{{Main|Empire of Harsha}}
After the collapse of the [[Gupta Empire]], the gangetic plains fractured into numerous small nations. [[Harsha]] of [[Kannauj]] was able to briefly bind them together under his rulership as the [[Empire of Harsha]]. Only a defeat at the hands of the [[Chalukya]]s ([[Pulakeshin II]]) prevented him from expanding his reign south of the [[Narmada River]]. This unity did not last long beyond his reign and his empire fractured soon after his death in 647 AD.

===Later Guptas===
{{Main|Later Gupta dynasty}}
The Later Gupta dynasty, also known as the Later Guptas of Magadha, were the rulers of the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] region and partly of [[Malwa]] from the 6th and 8th centuries CE. The Later Guptas emerged after the disintegration of the [[Gupta Empire|Imperial Guptas]] as the rulers of Magadha and Malwa however, there is no evidence to connect the two dynasties and the Later Guptas may have adopted the -gupta suffix to link themselves the Imperial Guptas.<ref name=Ghosh2021>{{cite book |last1=Ghosh |first1=Suchandra |title=The Encyclopedia of Ancient History |chapter=Later Guptas |date=2022 |pages=1–2 |doi=10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00571 |isbn=978-1-119-39991-9 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00571|url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=246}}

===The Gurjaras===

Present day [[Rajasthan]] was Gurjara area for centuries with capital at [[Bhinmal|Bhilmal]] (Bhinmal or Srimal), situated nearly 50 miles to the north west of [[Mount Abu]].<ref name="Smith 1909">Smith, Vincent A. (January 1909). "The Gurjars of Rajputana and [[Kannauj]]". ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'' pp. 53–75</ref> The Pratihara of Bhinmal moved to Kannuaj on the [[Ganges]] at the beginning of the 9th century and transferred their capital to Kannuaj and founded an empire which at its peak was bounded on the east by [[Bihar]], on the west by the ''lost river'', [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|the Hakra]], and the [[Arabian Sea]], on the North By the [[Himalaya]] and [[Sutlej River|Sutlaj]], and on the South by the [[Yamuna River|Jumna]] and [[Narmada River|Narmada]].<ref name="Smith 1909"/> The region round [[Bharuch|Broach]], which was offshoot of this kingdom, was also ruled by the [[Gurjaras of Lata|Gurjaras of Nandipuri]] and [[Gurjaras of Lata]].{{r|1977 Majumdar|p=66}}

===The Vishnukundinas===
{{Main|Vishnukundina}}
The '''Vishnukundina Empire''' was an Indian dynasty that ruled over the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], [[Odisha]] and parts of [[South India]] during the 5th and 6th centuries carving land out from the [[Vakataka|Vakataka Empire]]. The Vishnukundin reign came to an end with the conquest of the eastern Deccan by the [[Chalukya]], [[Pulakeshin II]]. Pulakeshin appointed his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana]] as Viceroy to rule over the conquered lands. Eventually Vishnuvardhana declared his independence and started the [[Eastern Chalukya]] dynasty.

===The Maitrakas===
{{Main|Maitraka}}
The '''Maitraka Empire''' ruled [[Gujarat]] in western India from the c. 475 to 767 CE. The founder of the dynasty, ''Senapati'' (general) Bhatarka, was a military governor of [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] [[peninsula]] under [[Gupta Empire]], who had established himself as the independent ruler of Gujarat approximately in the last quarter of the 5th century. The first two Maitraka rulers Bhatarka and Dharasena I used only the title of ''Senapati'' (general). The third ruler Dronasimha declared himself as the ''Maharaja''.<ref name="HRC">Roychaudhuri, H. C. (1972). ''Political History of Ancient India'', University of Calcutta, Calcutta, pp. 553–554</ref> King Guhasena stopped using the term ''Paramabhattaraka Padanudhyata'' along his name like his predecessors, which denotes the cessation of displaying of the nominal allegiance to the Gupta overlords. He was succeeded by his son Dharasena II, who used the title of ''Mahadhiraja''. His son, the next ruler Siladitya I, Dharmaditya was described by [[Xuanzang|Hiuen Tsang]] as a "monarch of great administrative ability and of rare kindness and compassion". Siladitya I was succeeded by his younger brother Kharagraha I.<ref name="Mahajan">Mahajan V.D. (1960, reprint 2007). ''Ancient India'', S. Chand & Company, New Delhi, {{ISBN|81-219-0887-6}}, pp.594–596</ref> Virdi copperplate grant (616 CE) of Kharagraha I proves that his territories included [[Ujjain]].

===The Gurjara Pratiharas===
{{Main|Gurjara Pratihara}}
The '''Gurjara Pratihara Empire''' ([[Hindi]]: गुर्जर प्रतिहार)<ref>{{cite book
| title =A historical review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D.
| author =Panchānana Rāya
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHEBAAAAMAAJ&q=Gurjar+parihar
| publisher =I. M. H. Press
| year =1939
| page =125
}}</ref> formed an Indian dynasty that ruled much of [[Hindustan|Northern India]] from the 6th to the 11th centuries. At its peak of prosperity and power (c. 836–910 CE), it rivaled the [[Gupta Empire]] in the extent of its territory.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Gurjara-Pratihara+dynasty |title=Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty definition of Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty in the Free Online Encyclopedia |access-date=19 August 2009 |archive-date=2 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002203615/http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Gurjara-Pratihara+dynasty |url-status=live }}</ref>

Pointing out the importance of the Gurjara Pratihara empire in the history of India Dr. [[R. C. Majumdar]] has observed,
"the ''Gurjara Pratihara Empire'' which continued in full glory for nearly a century, was the last great empire in Northern India before the [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim conquest]]." This honour is accorded to the empire of [[Harsha]] by many historians of repute but without any real justification, for the Pratihara empire was probably larger, certainly not less in extent rivalled the [[Gupta Empire]] and brought political unity and its attendant blessings upon a large part of Northern India. But its chief credit lies in its successful resistance to the foreign invasions from the west, from the days of [[Junaid]]. This was frankly recognised by the Arab writers themselves.

Historians of India, since the days of [[Lord Elphinstone|Eliphinstone]], has wondered at slow progress of Muslim invaders in India compared to their rapid advance in other parts of the world. Arguments of doubtful validity have often been put forward to explain this unique phenomenon. Now there can be little doubt that it was the power of the Gurjara Pratihara army that effectively barred the progress of the Muslims beyond the confines of [[Sindh]], their first conquest for nearly three hundred years. In the light of later events this might be regarded as the "chief contribution of the Gurjara Pratiharas to the history of India".<ref>{{cite book|title=History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.|author=Radhey Shyam Chaurasia|page=207 to 208|isbn=978-81-269-0027-5|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|year=2002}}</ref>

===The Rajputs===
{{Main|Rajput}}
The '''[[Rajput]]''' were a Hindu clan who rose to power across a region stretching from the Gangetic plains to the Afghan mountains, and refer to the various dynasties of the many kingdoms in the region in the wake of the collapse of the [[Sassanid Empire]] and [[Gupta Empire]] and marks the transition of Buddhist ruling dynasties to Hindu ruling dynasties.

====Katoch Dynasty====
{{Main|Katoch}}
The '''[[Katoch]]''' were a Hindu Rajput clan of the [[Chandravanshi]] lineage; with recent research suggests that Katoch may be one of the oldest royal dynasties in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20091104/himplus.htm#8 |title=Dharam Prakash Gupta, "Seminar on Katoch dynasty trail". ''Himachal Plus.'' On line. |access-date=3 January 2017 |archive-date=2 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102122914/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20091104/himplus.htm#8 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====The Chauhans====
{{Main|Chauhan dynasty|Chahamanas of Shakambhari}}
[[File:Prithvi Raj Chauhan (Edited).jpg|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Prithvi Raj Chauhan]] at Ajmer]]
The '''Chauhan dynasty''' flourished from the 8th to 12th centuries CE. It was one of the three main Rajput dynasties of that era, the others being [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Pratiharas]] and [[Paramara dynasty|Paramaras]]. Chauhan dynasties established themselves in several places in [[North India]] and in the state of [[Gujarat]] in [[Western India]]. They were also prominent at Sirohi in the southwest of [[Rajputana]], and at Bundi and Kota in the east. Inscriptions also associate them with Sambhar, the salt lake area in the [[Kingdom of Amber|Amber]] (later Jaipur) district (the Sakhambari branch remained near lake Sambhar and married into the ruling [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Gurjara-Pratihara]], who then ruled an empire in [[Northern India]]). Chauhans adopted a political policy that saw them indulge largely in campaigns against the Chalukyas and the invading Muslim hordes. In the 11th century, they founded the city of Ajayameru ([[Ajmer]]) in the southern part of their kingdom, and in the 12th century, the Chauhans captured Dhilika (the ancient name of [[Delhi]]) from the Tomaras and annexed some of their territory along the [[Yamuna River]].

The '''Chauhan Kingdom''' became the leading state in Northern India under King [[Prithviraj III]] (1165–1192 CE), also known as '''Prithvi Raj Chauhan''' or Rai Pithora. [[Prithviraj III]] has become famous in folk tales and historical literature as the Chauhan king of [[Delhi]] who resisted and repelled the invasion by [[Mohammed of Ghor]] at the [[First Battle of Tarain]] in 1191. Armies from other Rajput kingdoms, including [[Mewar]], assisted him. The Chauhan kingdom collapsed after Prithviraj and his armies faced defeat<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&dq=muhammad+sam+prithvi+defeat&pg=PA26 Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206–1526) - I By Satish Chandra]</ref>{{r|Hoernle}} from Mohammed of Ghor in 1192 at the [[Second Battle of Tarain]].

====The Kachwaha====
{{Main|Kachwaha}}
The '''Kachwaha''' originated as tributaries of the preceding powers of the region. Some scholars point out that it was only following the downfall, in the 8th–10th century, of [[Kannauj]] (the regional seat-of-power, following the break-up of [[Harsha]]'s empire), that the Kacchapaghata state emerged as a principal power in the [[Chambal River|Chambal]] valley of present-day [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.archipelago.org/vol3-4/snead3.htm |title=Stella Snead – Guardian Lion |access-date=10 February 2011 |archive-date=27 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227093335/http://www.archipelago.org/vol3-4/snead3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

====The Paramaras====
{{Main|Paramara dynasty}}
The '''Paramara dynasty''' was a [[Rajput|Rajput dynasty]] in early [[Medieval India]] who ruled over [[Malwa]] region in central India.{{sfn|Thapar|1990|pp=169–171}} This dynasty was founded by Upendra in c. 800 CE. The most significant ruler of this dynasty was [[Bhoja]] who was a [[philosopher king]] and [[polymath]]. The seat of the Paramara kingdom was ''Dhara Nagari'' (the present day [[Dhar]] city in [[Madhya Pradesh]] state).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://agnivanshi.blogspot.com/2008/05/paramara-dynasty.html |title=Agnivansha: Paramara Dynasty |access-date=31 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811055122/http://agnivanshi.blogspot.com/2008/05/paramara-dynasty.html |archive-date=11 August 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

====Chalukyas====
{{Main|Chaulukya dynasty}}
[[File:Sun Temple Sabha Mandap.JPG|thumb|right|200px|upright=2|[[Modhera Sun Temple]] built by the Chaulukyas.]]
The '''Chaulukyas''' (also called Solankis) was another Rajput dynasty In [[Gujarat]], [[Anhilwara]] (modern [[Patan, Gujarat|Siddhpur Patan]]) served as their capital.{{sfn|Thapar|1990|p=170}} [[Gujarat]] was a major center of [[Indian Ocean]] trade, and Anhilwara was one of the largest cities in India, with population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. The Chaulukyas were patrons of the great seaside temple of [[Shiva]] at [[Somnath Patan]] in [[Kathiawar]]; Bhima Dev helped rebuild the temple after it was sacked by [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] in 1026. His son, [[Karna (Chaulukya dynasty)|Karna]], conquered the [[Bhil]] king Ashapall or Ashaval, and after his victory established a city named [[Ahmedabad|Karnavati]] on the banks of the [[Sabarmati River]], at the site of modern [[Ahmedabad]].

====Tomaras of Delhi====
{{Main|Tomara dynasty}}
'''Tomaras of Delhi''' was a [[Rajput|Rajput Clan]] during 9th to 12th century.{{sfn|Thapar|1990|pp=168–170}} The [[Tomaras of Delhi]] ruled parts of the present-day [[Delhi]] and [[Haryana]].{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=571}} Much of the information about this dynasty comes from bardic legends of little historical value, and therefore, the reconstruction of their history is difficult.{{sfn|Ganguly|1981|p=704}} According to the bardic tradition, the dynasty's founder Anangapal Tuar (that is Anangapala I Tomara) founded Delhi in 736 CE.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=339}} However, the authenticity of this claim is doubtful.{{sfn|Ganguly|1981|p=704}} The bardic legends also state that the last Tomara king (also named Anangapal) passed on the throne of Delhi to his maternal grandson [[Prithviraj Chauhan]]. This claim is also inaccurate: historical evidence shows that Prithviraj inherited Delhi from his father [[Someshvara (Chahamana dynasty)|Someshvara]].{{sfn|Ganguly|1981|p=704}} According to the [[Bijolia]] inscription of Someshvara, his brother [[Vigraharaja IV]] had captured Dhillika (Delhi) and Ashika (Hansi); he probably defeated a Tomara ruler.{{sfn|Ganguly|1984|p=117}}

====Gahadavala dynasty====
{{Main|Gahadavala dynasty}}
The Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day [[Indian states]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bihar]], during the 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at [[Varanasi]] in the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic plains]].{{sfn|Niyogi|1959|p=38}}

===Khayaravala dynasty===
{{Main|Khayaravala dynasty}}
The Khayaravala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day [[Indian states]] of [[Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand]], during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Khayaragarh in [[Shahabad district]]. [[Pratapdhavala]] and [[Shri Pratapa]] were king of the dynasty according to inscription of [[Rohtas Fort, India|Rohtas]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CenDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT41|title=Majestic Monuments of India: Ancient Indian Mega Structures|access-date=25 July 2020|last1=Prabhu|first1=T. L.|date=4 August 2019}}</ref>[[File:Rohtasgarh Fort Entrance.jpg|thumb|Rohtasgarh Fort]]

===The Pratihars===
Pratihars ruled from Mandore, near present-day Jodhpur, they held the title of Rana before being defeated by Guhilots of Chittore.

===The Palas===
{{Main|Pala Empire}}
[[File:IndianBuddha11.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] and [[Bodhisattva]]s, 11th century, [[Pala Empire]]]]
'''Pala Empire''' was a [[Buddhist]] dynasty that ruled from the north-eastern region of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. The name ''Pala'' ([[Bengali language|Modern]] {{langx|bn|পাল}} ''pal'') means ''protector'' and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The Palas were followers of the [[Mahayana]] and [[Vajrayana|Tantric]] schools of Buddhism. [[Gopala (Pala king)|Gopala]] was the first ruler from the dynasty. He came to power in 750 CE in [[Gaur, West Bengal|Gaur]] by a [[democratic election]]. This event is recognized as one of the first democratic elections in South Asia since the time of the [[Mahajanapadas|Mahā Janapadas]]. He reigned from 750 to 770 CE and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of [[Bengal]]. The [[Buddhist]] [[dynasty]] lasted for four centuries (750–1120 CE) and ushered in a period of stability and prosperity in [[Bengal]]. They created many temples and works of art as well as supported the Universities of [[Nalanda]] and [[Vikramashila]]. [[Somapura Mahavihara]] built by [[Dharmapala of Bengal|Dharmapala]] is the greatest [[Buddhist]] [[Vihara]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]].

The empire reached its peak under [[Dharmapala of Bengal|Dharmapala]] and [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]]. Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. This triggered once again the power struggle for the control of the subcontinent. [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]], successor of Dharmapala, expanded the empire to cover much of South Asia and beyond. His empire stretched from [[Assam]] and [[Utkala Kingdom|Utkala]] in the east, [[Kamboja Kingdom|Kamboja]] (modern-day [[Afghanistan]]) in the north-west and [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] in the south. According to Pala copperplate inscription Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the pride of the [[Huna people|Huna]], and humbled the lords of [[Gurjaradesa|Gurjaras]] (the [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Gurjara-Pratiharas]]) and the [[Dravidian people|Dravidas]].

The death of Devapala ended the period of ascendancy of the Pala Empire and several independent dynasties and kingdoms emerged during this time. However, [[Mahipala]] I rejuvenated the reign of the Palas. He recovered control over all of Bengal and expanded the empire. He survived the invasions of [[Rajendra Chola]] and the [[Chalukyas]]. After Mahipala I the Pala dynasty again saw its decline until [[Ramapala]], the last great ruler of the dynasty, managed to retrieve the position of the dynasty to some extent. He crushed the [[Varendra]] rebellion and extended his empire farther to [[Kamarupa]], Odisha and Northern India.

The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Palas were responsible for the introduction of [[Mahayana Buddhism]] in [[Tibet]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Myanmar]]. The Palas had extensive trade and influence in [[south-east Asia]]. This can be seen in the sculptures and architectural style of the [[Sailendra|Sailendra Empire]] (present-day [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]], [[Java]], [[Sumatra]]).

===Karnatas of Mithila===
{{Main|Karnats of Mithila}}
In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained capitals in [[Darbhanga]] and [[Simraungadh (medieval city)|Simraongadh]]. The dynasty was established by [[Nanyadeva]], a military commander of Karnataka-origin. Under this dynasty, the [[Maithili language|Maithili]] language started to develop with the first piece of Maithili literature, the [[Varna Ratnakara]] being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids into [[Nepal]]. They fell in 1324 following the invasion of [[Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sinha |first1=CPN |title=Origin of the Karnatas of Mithila - A Fresh Appraisal |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=1969 |volume=31 |pages=66–72 |jstor=44138330 }}</ref>

===The Candras===
{{Main|Candra Dynasty}}
The '''Candra Dynasty''' who ruled over eastern [[Greater Bengal|Bengal]] and were contemporaries of the Palas.

===The Eastern Gangas===
{{Main|Eastern Ganga dynasty}}
{{See also|Konark Sun Temple|Jagannath Temple (Puri)}}
[[File:Konark Temple painting 1848 Odisha in British Museum.png|thumb|200x200px|[[Konark Sun Temple]] at [[Konark]], [[Odisha]], built by King Narasimhadeva I (1236–1264 AD) also a [[World Heritage Site]].]]
The '''Eastern Ganga dynasty''' rulers reigned over [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kaḷinga]] which consisted of the parts of the modern-day Indian states of [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Chhattisgarh]], Madhya Pradesh and [[Andhra Pradesh]] from the 11th century to the early 15th century.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-225335/Ganga-dynasty Ganga Dynasty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623023431/http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-225335/Ganga-Dynasty |date=23 June 2008 }} www.britannica.com.</ref> Their capital was known by the name Kalinganagar, which is the modern [[Srimukhalingam]] in Srikakulam District of [[Andhra Pradesh]] bordering [[Odisha]]. Today they are most remembered as the builders of the [[Konark Sun Temple]] a [[World Heritage Site]] at [[Konark]], [[Odisha]]. It was built by King Narasimhadeva I (1238–1264 CE). During their reign (1078–1434 CE) a new style of temple architecture came into being, commonly called as Indo-Aryan architecture. This dynasty was founded by King Anantavarma Chodaganga Deva (1078–1147 CE). He was a religious person and a patron of art and literature. He is credited for having built the famous [[Jagannath Temple (Puri)|Jagannath Temple]] of Puri in [[Odisha]].
[[File:Loving Couple (Mithuna) 13th century, Eastern Ganga Dynasty, Orissa, India.jpg|thumb|Loving Couple (Mithuna) 13th century, Eastern Ganga Dynasty, Orissa, India]]
King Anantavarman Chodagangadeva was succeeded by a long line of illustrious rulers such as [[Narasimhadeva I]] (1238–1264 CE). The rulers of Eastern Ganga dynasty not only defended their kingdom from the constant attacks of the [[Muslim]] rulers from both northern and southern India but were perhaps one of the few empires to have successfully invaded and defeated their Muslim adversaries. The Eastern Ganga King Narasimha Deva I invaded the Muslim kingdom of Bengal and handed a heavy defeat to the Sultan. This ensured that Sultanate never encroached upon the domains of the Ganga Emperors for nearly a century. His military exploits still survive today as folklore in Odisha. This kingdom prospered through trade and commerce and the wealth was mostly used in the construction of temples. The rule of the dynasty came to end under the reign of King Bhanudeva IV (1414–1434 CE), in the early 15th century.

===The Senas===
{{Main|Sena Empire}}
The Palas were followed by the [[Sena dynasty]] who brought [[Bengal]] under one ruler during the 12th century. [[Vijay Sen]] the second ruler of this dynasty defeated the last [[Pala Empire|Pala emperor]] [[Madanapala (Pala dynasty)|Madanapala]] and established his reign. [[Ballal Sena]] introduced [[Kulīna System]] in Bengal and made [[Nabadwip]] the capital. The fourth king of this dynasty [[Lakshman Sen]] expanded the empire beyond Bengal to [[Bihar]], [[Assam]], northern [[Odisha]] and probably to [[Varanasi]]. Lakshman was later defeated by the [[Muslim]]s and fled to eastern Bengal where he ruled few more years. The Sena dynasty brought a revival of [[Hinduism]] and cultivated [[Sanskrit literature]] in India.

===The Varmans===
The '''Varman Dynasty''' (not to be confused with the [[Varman dynasty]] of Kamarupa) ruled over eastern [[Greater Bengal|Bengal]] and were contemporaries of the Senas.

==The Northeast==
===Kamarupa===
{{Main|Kamarupa Kingdom}}
The '''Kāmarūpa''', also called '''Pragjyotisha''', was one of the historical kingdoms of [[Assam]] alongside [[Davaka]],{{r|sharma 2005| p=248}} Davaka (Nowgong) and Kamarupa as separate and submissive friendly kingdoms. that existed from 350 to 1140 CE. Ruled by three dynasties from their capitals in present-day [[Guwahati]], [[North Guwahati]] and [[Tezpur]], it at its height covered the entire [[Brahmaputra Valley]], [[North Bengal]], [[Bhutan]] and parts of [[Bangladesh]], and at times portions of [[West Bengal]] and [[Bihar]].<ref>{{Harvcol|Sircar|1990|pp=63–68}}</ref>

====The Varmans====
The [[Varman dynasty]] (350–650 CE), the first historical rulers of [[Kamarupa]]; was established by [[Pushyavarman]], a contemporary of [[Samudragupta]].<ref>Arun Bhattacharjee (1993), ''Assam in Indian Independence'', p. 143</ref> While Pushyavarman was the contemporary of the Gupta Emperor Samudra Gupta, Bhaskaravarman was the contemporary of Harshavardhana of Kanauj.<ref>"Three thousand years after these mythical ancestors (Naraka, Bhagadatta and Vajradatta) there occurred Pushyavarman as the first historical king, after whom we have an uninterrupted line of rulers up to Bhaskarvarman."{{harv|Sharma|1978|p=xxix}}</ref> This dynasty became vassals of the [[Gupta Empire]], but as the power of the Guptas waned, [[Mahendravarman (Varman dynasty)|Mahendravarman]] (470–494 CE) performed two [[Ashvamedha]] (horse sacrifices) and threw off the imperial yoke.{{efn|"According to him (D C Sircar) Narayanavarma, the father of Bhutivarman, was the first Kamarupa king to perform horse-sacrifices and thus for the first time since the days of Pusyavarman freedom from the Gupta political supremacy was declared by Narayanavarma. But a careful study or even a casual perusal of the seal attached to the Dubi C.P. and of the nalanda seals should show that it is Sri Mahendra, the father of Narayanavarma himself, who is described as the performer of two horse-sacrifices."{{harv|Sharma|1978|p=8}} }} The first of the three Kamarupa dynasties, the Varmans were followed by the [[Mlechchha dynasty|Mlechchha]] and then the [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Pala]] dynasties.

====The Mlechchhas====
The [[Mlechchha dynasty]] succeeded the Varman dynasty and ruled to the end of the 10th century. They ruled from their capital in the vicinity of the Harrupeshwara ([[Tezpur]]). The rulers were aboriginals, with lineage from [[Narakasura]]. According to historical records, there were ten rulers in this dynasty. The Mlechchha dynasty in Kamarupa was followed by the Pala kings.
[[File:Assam MK Lion.JPG|right|thumb|200px|9th–10th century lion sculpture representing powerful [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Kamarupa-Palas]], [[Madan Kamdev]]]]

====The Palas====
The [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Pala dynasty of Kamarupa]] succeeded the Mlechchha dynasty, ruled from its capital at [[Durjaya]] ([[North Gauhati]]). Dynasty reigned till the end of the 12th century.

[[Brahma Pala]] (900–920 CE), was founder Pala dynasty (900–1100 CE) of Kamarupa. Dynasty ruled from its capital [[Durjaya]], modern-day [[North Guwahati]]. The greatest of the Pala kings, [[Dharma Pala]] had his capital at Kamarupa Nagara, now identified with [[North Guwahati]]. [[Ratna Pala]] was another notable sovereign of this line. Records of his land-grants have been found at Bargaon and [[Sualkuchi]], while a similar relic of [[Indra Pala]], has been discovered at Guwahati. Pala dynasty come to end with [[Jaya Pala]] (1075–1100 CE).<ref>{{cite book |title=Readings in the history & culture of Assam |last=Samiti |first=Kamarupa Anusandhana |year=1984 |publisher=Kamarupa Anusandhana Samiti|pages=227}}</ref>

=== Twipra ===
{{main|Twipra Kingdom|Manikya dynasty}}
The '''Twipra Kingdom''' ruled ancient [[Tripura]]. Kingdom was established around the confluence of the Brahmaputra river with the Meghna and Surma rivers in today's Central Bangladesh area. The capital was called Khorongma and was along the Meghna river in the Sylhet Division of present-day Bangladesh.

==Deccan plateau and the South==
In the first half of the millennium the South saw various small kingdoms rise and fall mostly independent to the turmoil in the Gangetic plains and the spread of the [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] to the southern tip of India.
From the mid-seventh to the mid-13th centuries, [[regionalism (politics)|regionalism]] was the dominant theme of political and dynastic history of the Indian subcontinent. Three features commonly characterize the sociopolitical realities of this period.
* First, the spread of Brahmanical religions was a two-way process of [[Sanskrit]]ization of local cults and localization of Brahmanical social order.
* Second was the ascendancy of the Brahman priestly and landowning groups that later dominated regional institutions and political developments.
* Third, because of the seesawing of numerous dynasties that had a remarkable ability to survive perennial military attacks, regional kingdoms faced frequent defeats but seldom total annihilation.

Peninsular India was involved in an 8th-century tripartite power struggle among the [[Chalukya]]s (556–757 CE), the [[Pallava]]s (300–888 CE) of [[Kanchipuram]], and the [[Pandyas]]. The Chalukya rulers were overthrown by their subordinates, the [[Rashtrakutas]] (753–973 CE). Although both the [[Pallava]] and [[Pandya]] kingdoms were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between the [[Pallava]] and [[Chalukya]] realms.

The emergence of the [[Rashtrakutas]] heralded a new era in the history of South India. South Indian kingdoms had hitherto ruled areas only up to and south of the [[Narmada River]]. It was the [[Rashtrakuta]]s who first forged north to the Gangetic plains and successfully contested their might against the [[Pala Empire|Palas]] of Bengal and the [[Rajput]] [[Prathihara]]s of [[Gujarat]].

Despite interregional conflicts, local autonomy was preserved to a far greater degree in the south where it had prevailed for centuries. The absence of a highly centralized government was associated with a corresponding local autonomy in the administration of villages and districts. Extensive and well-documented overland and maritime trade flourished with the [[Arab]]s on the west coast and with [[Southeast Asia]]. Trade facilitated cultural diffusion in Southeast Asia, where local elites selectively but willingly adopted Indian art, architecture, literature, and social customs.

The interdynastic rivalry and seasonal raids into each other's territory notwithstanding, the rulers in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and South India patronized all three religions - [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Jainism]]. The religions vied with each other for royal favor, expressed in land grants but more importantly in the creation of monumental temples, which remain architectural wonders. The cave temples of [[Elephanta Island]] (near [[Mumbai]] or [[Bombay]], as it was known formerly), [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]], and [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]] (in Maharashtra), and structural temples of [[Pattadakal]], [[Aihole]], [[Badami]] in Karnataka and [[Mahaballipuram]] and [[Kanchipuram]] in Tamil Nadu are enduring legacies of otherwise warring regional rulers.

By the mid-7th century, [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] began to decline as sectarian [[Hindu]] devotional cults of [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]] vigorously competed for popular support.

Although [[Sanskrit]] was the language of learning and theology in South India, as it was in the north, the growth of the [[bhakti]] (devotional) movements enhanced the crystallization of [[vernacular literature]] in [[Dravidian languages]]: [[Kannada language|Kannada]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]; they often borrowed themes and vocabulary from Sanskrit but preserved much local cultural lore. Examples of Tamil literature include two major poems, [[Cilappatikaram]] (The Jewelled Anklet) and [[Manimekalai]] (The Jewelled Belt); the body of devotional literature of [[Jain]] and [[Buddhist]] and also Hindu devotional movements; and the reworking of the [[Ramayana]] by Kamban in the 12th century. A nationwide cultural synthesis had taken place with a minimum of common characteristics in the various regions of South Asia, but the process of cultural infusion and assimilation would continue to shape and influence India's history through the centuries.

===The Sangam Era Kingdoms===
{{Main|Sangam period|Ancient Tamil country}}

Farther south were three ancient Tamil states — [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] (on the west), [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] (on the east), and [[Pandya]] (in the south). They were involved in internecine warfare seeking regional supremacy. They are mentioned in Greek and Ashokan sources as important Indian kingdoms beyond the Mauryan Empire. A corpus of ancient [[Tamil literature]], known as [[Sangam literature|Sangam]] (academy) works, provides much useful information about life in these kingdoms in the era 300 BCE to 200 CE.

Tamil social order was based on different ecoregions. Segments of society were characterized by [[matriarchy]] and matrilineal succession—which survived well into the 19th century—cross-cousin marriage, and strong regional identity. Tribal chieftains emerged as "kings" just as people moved from pastoralism toward agriculture sustained by irrigation based on rivers by small-scale water tanks (as man-made ponds are called in India) and wells, as well as maritime trade with Rome and [[Southeast Asia]].

Discoveries of Roman gold coins in various sites attest to extensive [[South India]]n links with the outside world. As with [[Pataliputra]] in the northeast and [[Taxila]] in the northwest (in modern Pakistan), the city of [[Madurai]], the capital of the [[Pandyan Kingdom]] (in modern [[Tamil Nadu]]), was the center of intellectual and literary activity. Poets and bards assembled there under royal patronage at successive concourses to composed anthologies of poems and expositions on [[Tamil language|Tamil]] grammar. By the end of the 1st century BCE, South Asia was crisscrossed by overland trade routes, which facilitated the movements of Buddhist and [[Jainism|Jain]] missionaries and other travelers and opened the area to a synthesis of many cultures.

===The Cheras===
{{Main|Chera Empire}}
From early pre-historic times, Kerala and Tamil Nadu were the homes of the four Tamil-Malayalam states of the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]], [[Chola dynasty|Chola]], [[Pandyan Dynasty|Pandya]] and [[Pallavas]]. The oldest extant [[Sangam Literature|literature]], dated between 300 BCE and 600 CE mentions the exploits of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Cherans, who spoke Tamil language ruled from the capitals of [[Kuttanad]], [[Muziris]], [[Karur]], and traded extensively with West Asian kingdoms.

An unknown dynasty called [[Kalabhras]] invaded and displaced the three [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil]] kingdoms between the 4th and the 7th centuries. This is referred to as the Dark Age in [[Tamil people|Tamil]] history. They were eventually expelled by the [[Pallavas]] and the [[Pandyas]].

===The Kalabhras===
{{Main|Kalabhras}}
Little of their origins or the time during which they ruled is known beyond that they ruled over the entirety of the southern tip of India during the 3rd to the 6th century, overcoming the [[Sangam period|Sangam]] era kingdoms. The appear to be patrons of [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] as the only source of information on them is the scattered mentions in the many [[Buddhist]] and [[Jain]] literature of the time. They were contemporaries of the [[Kadambas]] and the [[Western Ganga Dynasty]]. They were overcome by the rise of the [[Pallavas]] and the resurgence of the [[Pandyan Kingdom]].

===The Kadambas===
{{Main|Kadambas}}
[[File:Doddagaddavalli Lakshmidevi temple1 retouched.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Kadamba tower at [[Doddagaddavalli]]]]
The '''Kadamba Dynasty''' ({{langx|kn|ಕದಂಬರು}}) (345–525 CE) was an ancient royal family of [[Karnataka]] that ruled from [[Banavasi]] in present-day [[Uttara Kannada]] district. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger [[Kannada]] empires, the [[Chalukya]] and the [[Rashtrakuta]] empires for over five hundred years during which time they branched into [[Goa]] and [[Hanagal]]. At the peak of their power under King Kakushtavarma, they ruled large parts of Karnataka. During the pre-Kadamba era the ruling families that controlled Karnataka, the [[Mauryas]], [[Satavahanas]] and Chutus were not natives of the region and the nucleus of power resided outside present day Karnataka. The Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada, the language of the soil at an administrative level. In the history of Karnataka, this era serves as a broad based historical starting point in the study of the development of region as an enduring geo-political entity and Kannada as an important regional language.

The dynasty was founded by [[Mayurasharma]] in 345 which at times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. One of his successors, [[Kakusthavarma]] was a powerful ruler and even the kings of imperial [[Gupta Dynasty]] of northern India cultivated marital relationships with his family, giving a fair indication of the sovereign nature of their kingdom. Tiring of the endless battles and bloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti adopted Jainism. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the [[Western Ganga Dynasty]] of [[Talakad]] and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy.

===The Western Gangas===
[[File:Gomateswara.jpg|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Bahubali]] as Gommateshvara built by the Western Ganga is one of the largest monolithic statues in the world.]]
{{Main|Western Gangas}}
The '''Western Ganga Dynasty''' (350–1000 CE) ({{langx|kn|ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಗಂಗ ಸಂಸ್ಥಾನ}}) was an important ruling dynasty of ancient [[Karnataka]] in India. They are known as '''Western Gangas''' to distinguish them from the [[Eastern Ganga Dynasty|Eastern Gangas]], who in later centuries ruled over modern [[Odisha]]. The general belief is the Western Gangas began their rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the [[Pallava dynasty]] of [[South India]], a geo-political event sometimes attributed to the southern conquests of [[Samudragupta]]. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, initially ruling from [[Kolar, Karnataka|Kolar]] and later moving their capital to [[Talakad]] on the banks of the [[Kaveri]] in modern [[Mysore district]].

After the rise of the imperial [[Chalukya dynasty]] of [[Badami]], the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of [[Kanchipuram]]. The Chalukyas were replaced by the [[Rashtrakuta Dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] of [[Manyakheta]] in 753 CE as the dominant power in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]. After a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes, the [[Chola dynasty]] of [[Tanjavur]]. In the late 10th century, north of Tungabhadra river, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola Dynasty saw renewed power south of the [[Kaveri]]. The defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of Ganga influence over the region.

Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to polity, culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important. The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage towards [[Jainism]] resulting in the construction of monuments in places such as [[Shravanabelagola]] and [[Kambadahalli]]. The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and [[Sanskrit]] flourished. [[Chavundaraya]]'s writing, ''Chavundaraya Purana'' of 978 CE, is an important work in Kannada prose. Many classics were written on subjects ranging from [[Indian religions|religious topics]] to [[Elephant#Working animal|elephant management]].

===The Badami Chalukyas===
{{Main|Chalukya Empire}}
{{See also|Badami Chalukya Architecture|Pattadakal|Badami Cave Temples|Aihole|Mahakuta group of temples}}
The '''Chalukya Empire''', natives of the [[Aihole]] and [[Badami]] region in Karnataka, were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/62/mode/2up 62–63]}}{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=168}}
Jayasimha and Ranaraga, ancestors of Pulakeshin I, were administrative officers in the Badami province under the Kadambas (Fleet in Kanarese Dynasties, p. 343),{{incomplete short citation|date=November 2024}}<ref>Moraes (1931). p. 51{{incomplete short citation|date=November 2024}}</ref>{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=328}}{{sfn|Sen|1999|loc=p. 360: "They belonged to the Karnataka country and their mother tongue was Kannada."}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=58}} They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the Sanskrit language in their administration.{{efn|A considerable number of their records are in Kannada.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/62/mode/2up 63]}} }}{{efn|7th century Chalukya inscriptions call Kannada the natural language.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=345}} }} In the middle of the 6th century the Chalukyas came into their own when [[Pulakeshin I]] made the hill fortress in Badami his center of power.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=360}} During the rule of [[Pulakeshin II]] a south Indian empire sent expeditions to the north past the [[Tapti River]] and [[Narmada River]] for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana, the King of Northern India (''Uttarapatheswara''). The [[Aihole]] inscription of Pulakeshin II, written in classical Sanskrit language and old Kannada script dated 634,{{efn|In this composition, the poet deems himself an equal to Sanskrit scholars of lore like Bharavi and Kalidasa.{{sfn|Sastri|1958|p=312}} }}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=59}} proclaims his victories against the Kingdoms of Kadambas, Western Gangas, [[Alupas]] of South Canara, [[Mauryas of Puri]], [[Kosala Kingdom|Kingdom of Kosala]], [[Malwa]], [[Lata (region)|Lata]] and Gurjaras of southern [[Rajasthan]]. The inscription describes how King Harsha of [[Kannauj]] lost his ''Harsha'' (joyful disposition) on seeing a large number of his war elephants die in battle against Pulakeshin II.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=169}}{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=361–362}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=59–60}}{{efn|Some of these kingdoms may have submitted out of fear of Harshavardhana of Kannauj.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 59, citing Majumdar}} The rulers of Kosala were the Panduvamshis of South Kosala.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 59, citing Sircar}} }}

[[File:Relief of seated Vishnu at the Badami cave temple no.3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Badami Cave Temples]] No 3. (Vishnu)]]
These victories earned him the title ''Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy'' (lord of the south). Pulakeshin II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached the [[Bay of Bengal]] in present-day Odisha. A Chalukya viceroyalty was set up in Gujarat and Vengi (coastal Andhra) and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule them. Having subdued the Pallavas of Kanchipuram, he accepted tributes from the [[Pandyas]] of [[Madurai]], [[Chola dynasty]] and [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]] of the Kerala region. Pulakeshin II thus became the master of India, south of the Narmada River.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=170}} Pulakeshin II is widely regarded as one of the great kings in Indian history.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=58}}<ref name="great1">Ramesh 1984, p76</ref> [[Hiuen-Tsiang]], a [[China|Chinese]] traveller visited the court of Pulakeshin II at this time and [[Persian Empire|Persian]] emperor [[Khosrau II]] exchanged ambassadors.{{efn|From the notes of Arab traveller Tabari.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=60}} }} However, the continuous wars with [[Pallavas]] took a turn for the worse in 642 when the Pallava king [[Narasimhavarman I]] avenged his father's defeat,<ref name="vincent">{{cite book
|last = Smith
|first= Vincent Arthur
|title= The Early History of India
|year=1904
|publisher= The Clarendon press
|pages = 325–327
}}</ref> conquered and plundered the [[Vatapi|capital of Pulakeshin II]] who may have died in battle.<ref name="vincent" />{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=362}} A century later, Chalukya [[Vikramaditya II]] marched victoriously into [[Kanchipuram]], the Pallava capital and occupied it on three occasions, the third time under the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II. He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a [[Kannada]] inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=331, 345}}{{sfn|Sastri|1958|p=140}}<ref name="kanchi2">Ramesh (1984), pp159–160</ref>{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=364}} He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, Cholas and Keralas in addition to subduing a [[Kalabhra]] ruler.<ref name="kanchi4">Ramesh (1984), p159</ref>

The [[Kappe Arabhatta]] record from this period (700) in ''tripadi'' (three line) metre is considered the earliest available record in Kannada poetics.  The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind.<ref name="legacy">Hardy (1995). p65–66</ref>{{incomplete short citation|date=November 2024}} More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to them, built between 450 and 700, have survived in the [[Malaprabha]] basin in Karnataka, over 125 temples exist in Aihole alone.<ref>{{cite web |title=Index |website=Monuments of India|url=http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/india.html|first=Michael D. |last=Gunther |date=2002|access-date=2006-11-10|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508172924/http://art-and-archaeology.com/india/india.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The constructions are centred in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland. The structural temples at [[Pattadakal]], a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], the cave temples of [[Badami]], the temples at [[Mahakuta group of temples|Mahakuta]] and early experiments in temple building at [[Aihole]] are their most celebrated monuments.<ref name="legacy"/> Two of the famous paintings at [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]] cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are also credited to them.{{r|monuments}}{{efn|Kamath quotes K. V. Soundararajan, speaking of the Chalukyan art:{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/74/mode/2up 74]}} "The Badami Chalukya introduced in the western Deccan a glorious chapter alike in heroism in battle and cultural magnificence in peace, in Western Deccan".}} Further, they influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat and [[Vengi]] as evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/74/mode/2up 74]}}

===The Pallavas===
{{Main|Pallava Empire}}
[[File:Mamallapuram1a.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Shore Temple]] in [[Mamallapuram]] built by the [[Pallavas]]. (c. eighth century CE)]]
The 7th century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the [[Pallavas]] under [[Mahendravarman I]] and his son ''Mamalla'' [[Narasimhavarman I]]. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the 2nd century.{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=91–92}} It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers under the [[Satavahana]] Empire.<ref>Durga Prasad, ''History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D''., pp 68</ref> After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts of [[Andhra Pradesh|Andhra]] and the Tamil country. Later they had marital ties with the [[Vishnukundina]] who ruled over the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]. It was around 550 AD under King [[Simhavishnu]] that the Pallavas emerged into prominence. They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south as the [[Kaveri River]]. Pallavas ruled a large portion of [[South India]] with [[Kanchipuram]] as their capital. [[Dravidian architecture]] reached its peak during the Pallava rule.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} [[Narasimhavarman II]] built the [[Shore Temple]] which is a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]. Many sources describe [[Bodhidharma]], the founder of the [[Zen]] school of [[Buddhism]] in China, as a [[prince]] of the Pallava dynasty.<ref>Kamil V. Zvelebil (1987). "The Sound of the One Hand", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', Vol. 107, No. 1, pp. 125–126.</ref>

===The Eastern Chalukyas===
{{Main|Eastern Chalukyas}}
'''Eastern Chalukyas''' were a [[South Indian]] dynasty whose kingdom was located in the present day [[Andhra Pradesh]]. Their capital was [[Vengi]] and their dynasty lasted for around 500 years from the 7th century until c. 1130 CE when the Vengi kingdom merged with the [[Chola]] empire. The Vengi kingdom was continued to be ruled by Eastern Chalukyan kings under the protection of the Chola empire until 1189 CE, when the kingdom succumbed to the [[Hoysalas]] and the [[Yadu|Yadavas]]. They had their capital originally at Vengi now (Pedavegi, Chinavegi and Denduluru) near [[Eluru]] of the [[West Godavari district]] end later changed to Rajamahendravaram ([[Rajamundry]]).

Eastern Chalukyas were closely related to the [[Chalukyas]] of Vatapi ([[Badami]]). Throughout their history they were the cause of many wars between the more powerful [[Cholas]] and [[Western Chalukyas]] over the control of the strategic Vengi country. The five centuries of the Eastern Chalukya rule of Vengi saw not only the consolidation of this region into a unified whole, but also saw the efflorescence of [[Telugu people|Telugu]] culture, literature, poetry and art during the later half of their rule. It can be said to be the golden period of [[Andhra Pradesh|Andhra]] history.

===The Pandyas===
{{Main|Pandyan Empire}}
Pallavas were replaced by the Pandyas in the 8th century. Their capital [[Madurai]] was in the deep south away from the coast. They had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of [[Srivijaya]] and their successors. As well as contacts, even diplomatic, reaching as far as the [[Roman Empire]]. During the 13th century of the Christian era [[Marco Polo]] mentioned it as the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|richest empire]] in existence.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} Temples like [[Meenakshi Amman Temple]] at [[Madurai]] and [[Nellaiappar Temple]] at [[Tirunelveli]] are the best examples of Pandyan Temple architecture.<ref>'Advanced History of India', K.A. Nilakanta Sastri (1970)p. 181–182, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi</ref> The Pandyas excelled in both trade as well as literature and they controlled the pearl fisheries along the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world.

===The Rashtrakutas===
{{Main|Rashtrakuta Empire}}
{{See also|Rashtrakuta literature|Economy of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta|Society of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta|Ellora Caves}}
[[File:Indian Rashtrakuta Empire map.svg|thumb|right|200px|[[Rashtrakuta|Rashtrakuta Empire]] in 800 CE, 915 CE.]]
[[File:Kailasha temple at ellora.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Ellora Kailasanathar Temple|Kailash Temple]] in [[Ellora Caves]]]]
In the middle of the 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta family rulers of [[Berar sultanate|Berar]] (in present-day [[Amravati district]] of [[Maharashtra]]). Sensing an opportunity during a weak period in the Chalukya rule, [[Dantidurga]] trounced the great Chalukyan "Karnatabala" (power of Karnata).{{efn|From the Rashtrakuta inscriptions.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=57, 64}}{{ubl|The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that feudatory Dantidurga defeated the Chalukyas and humbled their great ''Karnatik'' army (referring to the army of the Badami Chalukyas){{r|Reu|p=54}} }} }} Having overthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas made [[Manyakheta]] their capital (modern Malkhed in [[Kalaburagi district]]).{{efn|From Karda plates: "A capital which could put to shame even the capital of gods"<ref>Altekar (1934). p. 47</ref>{{full citation needed|date=November 2024}} {{ubl|
"A capital city built to excel that of Indra"{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=4, 132, 146}} }} }} Although the origins of the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries is controversial, during the eighth through the 10th centuries they emphasised the importance of the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in their administration. Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only. They encouraged literature in both languages and thus literature flowered under their rule.{{efn|Even royalty of the empire took part in poetic and literary activities.{{sfn|Thapar|1990|p=334}} Literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flowered during the Rashtrakuta rule.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=73, 88–89}} }}<ref>Altekar (1934). pp. 411–413</ref>{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=87}}{{full citation needed|date=November 2024}}<ref name="patron"/>{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=93}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=114}}{{r|Reu|pp=37–38}}

The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making their initial successful forays into the [[doab]] region of [[Ganges River]] and [[Yamuna|Jamuna River]] during the rule of [[Dhruva Dharavarsha]].{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=89}} His victories were a "[[digvijaya (conquest)|digvijaya]]" gaining only fame and booty in that region.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 75, citing Altekar}} The rule of his son [[Govinda III]] signaled a new era with Rashtrakuta victories against the [[Pala Dynasty]] of [[Bengal]] and Gurjara [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Pratihara]] of north western India resulting in the capture of [[Kannauj]]. The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a period of a [[tripartite struggle]] for the resources of the rich [[Gangetic plains]].{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=90}} Because of Govinda III's victories, historians have compared him to [[Alexander the Great]] and [[Pandava]] [[Arjuna]] of the Hindu epic [[Mahabharata]].{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=199}}
The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the [[sacred waters]] of the Ganges River.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=76}} [[Amoghavarsha I]], eulogised by contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the four great emperors of the world, succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an important cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=91}}{{efn|[[Kavirajamarga]] in Kannada and ''Prashnottara Ratnamalika'' in Sanskrit{{r|Reu|p=38}} }}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=90}} The benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature,{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=91}} he has been compared to emperor [[Ashoka]].{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=80}} The rule of [[Indra III]] in the 10th century enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=92}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 81}} [[Krishna III]] followed Indra III to the throne in 939. A patron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior, his reign marked the submission of the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] of [[Ujjain]] in the north and Cholas in the south.{{r|Chopra partial cite|pp=92–93}}{{full citation needed|date=November 2024}}

An Arabic writing ''Silsilatuttavarikh'' (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle empires of the world.{{r|Reu|p=39}} ''Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik'' (912) called them the "greatest kings of India" and there were many other contemporaneous books written in their praise.<ref name="hara">''Murujul Zahab'' by Al Masudi (944), ''Kitabul Akalim'' by Al Istakhri (951), ''Ashkal-ul-Bilad'' by Ibn Haukal (976)</ref>{{r|Reu|pp=41–42}} The Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread from [[Cape Comorin]] in the south to Kannauj in the north and from [[Banaras]] in the east to Broach (Bharuch) in the west.<ref name="Himalayas">From the Sanjan inscriptions, {{cite web |title=The Rashrakutas |url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/rashtrakutas/ |author=Jyotsna Kamat|publisher=1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri|access-date=2006-12-20|archive-date=6 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406134533/http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/rashtrakutas/|url-status=live}}</ref>
While the Rashtrakutas built many fine monuments in the Deccan, the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the monolithic Kailasanatha temple at [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]], the temple being a splendid achievement.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=200}} In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designated [[UNESCO World Heritage Sites]].<ref name="karnataka_whs">{{cite web|title=Reclaiming past glory |url=http://www.archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb272007/spectrum1437452007226.asp |author=Vijapur, Raju S. |publisher=Spectrum |work=Deccan Herald |access-date=2007-02-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007194411/http://archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb272007/spectrum1437452007226.asp |archive-date=7 October 2011 }}</ref>

===The Western Chalukyas===
{{Main|Western Chalukya Empire}}
{{See also|Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukya Architecture}}
In the late 10th century, the [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukyas]], also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas or 'Later' Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutas under whom they had been serving as feudatories. [[Manyakheta]] was their capital early on before they moved it to Kalyani (modern [[Basavakalyan]]). Whether the kings of this empire belonged to the same family line as their namesakes, the [[Badami Chalukyas]] is still debated.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=137}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 100, citing: Fleet, Bhandarkar and Altekar and Gopal, B. R.}} Whatever the Western Chalukya origins, Kannada remained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of their time was prolific.{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=356–358}}<ref name="patron">Narasimhacharya (1988). pp. 68, 17–21</ref>{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=93}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=114}} More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to the Chalukya King [[Vikramaditya VI]] than to any other king prior to the 12th century,<ref>{{cite web|title=Chalukyas of Kalyana |url= http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/deckings.htm|author=Kamat, Jyotsna|publisher=1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri|access-date=2006-12-24|archive-date=8 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308045748/http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/deckings.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Tailapa II]], a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi (modern [[Bijapur district, Karnataka|Bijapur district]]), re-established the Chalukya rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during the reign of [[Karka II]]. He timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the invading [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] of Central India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 101: From the 957 and 965 records}}{{sfn|Sastri|1958|p=162}} Tailapa II was helped in this campaign by the Kadambas of [[Hanagal]].<ref>Moraes (1931). pp. 93–94{{incomplete short citation|date=November 2024}}</ref> This era produced prolonged warfare with the Chola dynasty of [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamilakam]] for control of the resources of the [[Godavari River]]–[[Krishna River]] doab region in [[Vengi]]. [[Someshvara I]], a brave Chalukyan king, successfully curtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of the [[Tungabhadra River]] region despite suffering some defeats{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 103, citing Ganguli}}{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=167–168}} while maintaining control over his feudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kaḷinga]] regions.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=104}} For approximately 100 years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of South Karnataka region (Gangavadi).{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=164, 174}} The Cholas occupied Gangavadi from 1004 to 1114.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=118}}
[[File:Ornate pillars in the Saraswati temple at Gadag.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gadag style pillars, [[Western Chalukya Architecture|Western Chalukya art]].]]

In 1076 CE, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family, [[Vikramaditya VI]], changed the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=139}} His fifty-year reign was an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya Vikrama era".{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=468–469}} His victories over the Cholas in the late 11th and early 12th centuries put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi region permanently.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=139}} Some of the well-known contemporaneous feudatory families of the Deccan under Chalukya control were the Hoysalas, the [[Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri]], the [[Kakatiya dynasty]] and the Southern Kalachuri.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=139}} At their peak, the Western Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the [[Narmada River]] in the north to the [[Kaveri River]] in the south. Vikramaditya VI is considered one of the most influential kings of Indian history. Poet [[Bilhana]] in his Sanskrit work wrote "Rama Rajya" regarding his rule; poet Vijnaneshwara called him "A king like none other".{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=106}}{{sfn|Sastri|1958|p=6}} Important architectural works were created by these Chalukyas, especially in the Tungabhadra river valley, that served as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later Hoysalas.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 115: quoting Sastri (1955), pp. 427–428: "Their creations have the pride of place in Indian art tradition."}}{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=427–428}}{{sfn|Foekema|1996|loc=p. 14: "Of the city of Kalyana, situated in the north of Karnataka nothing is left, but a fabulous revival in temple building during the 11th century in central Karnataka testifies to the wealth during Kalyan Chalukya rule."}} With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence.

The [[Kalachuris of Mahishmati|Kalachuri]]s of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from central India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modern Mangalavedhe in Maharashtra).{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=107}} [[Bijjala II]], the most powerful ruler of this dynasty, was a commander (''mahamandaleswar'') during the reign of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. [https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/114/mode/2up 114] (From the 1142 and 1147 records)}} Seizing an opportune moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas, Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and annexed their capital [[Basavakalyana|Kalyani]].{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=139}}{{sfn|Sen|1999|loc=p. 108: From the Chikkalagi records}} His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short-lived as the Chalukyas were eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=140}}{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=109}}

===The Yadavas===
{{Main|Yadava dynasty}}
The '''Seuna''', ''Sevuna'' or '''Yadava dynasty''' ([[Marathi language|Marathi]]: देवगिरीचे यादव, {{langx|kn|ಸೇವುಣರು}}) (c. 850–1334 CE) was an Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the [[Tungabhadra]] to the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] rivers, including present-day [[Maharashtra]], north [[Karnataka]] and parts of [[Madhya Pradesh]], from its capital at Devagiri (present-day [[Daulatabad, Maharashtra|Daulatabad]] in Maharashtra). The Yadavas initially ruled as feudatories of the [[Western Chalukyas]]. Around the middle of the 12th century, they declared independence and established rule that reached its peak under Singhana II. The foundations of [[Marathi people|Marathi]] culture was laid by the Yadavas and the peculiarities of [[Maharashtra]]'s social life developed during their rule.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

===The Kakatiyas===
{{Main|Kakatiya dynasty}}
The [[Kakatiya dynasty]] was a South Indian dynasty that ruled [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Telangana]], India from 1083 to 1323 CE. They were one of the great [[Telugu people|Telugu]] kingdoms that lasted for centuries.

===The Kalachuris===
{{See also|Kalachuri dynasty (disambiguation){{!}}Kalachuri dynasties (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Kudalasangama.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sangamanatha temple at [[Kudalasangama]], [[North Karnataka]]]]
Kalachuri is the name used by two kingdoms who had a succession of dynasties from the 10th to 12th centuries, one ruling over areas in Central India (west [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]]) and were called [[Chedi Kingdom|Chedi]] or ''Haihaya'' (''Heyheya'') (northern branch) and the other southern Kalachuri who ruled over parts of [[Karnataka]]. They are disparately placed in time and space. Apart from the dynastic name and perhaps a belief in common ancestry, there is little in known sources to connect them.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

The earliest known [[Kalachuris of Mahishmati|Kalachuri family of Mahishmati]] (550–620 CE) ruled over northern [[Maharashtra]], Malwa and western Deccan. Their capital was Mahismati situated in the Narmada river valley. There were three prominent members; Krishnaraja, Shankaragana and Buddharaja. They distributed coins and epigraphs around this area.<ref name="Students' Britannica India">Students' Britannica India By Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani.</ref>

'''[[Kalachuris of Kalyani]]''' or the southern Kalachuris (1130–1184 CE) at their peak ruled parts of the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] extending over regions of present-day [[North Karnataka]] and parts of [[Maharashtra]]. This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan between 1156 and 1181 CE. They traced their origins to ''Krishna'' who was the conqueror of ''Kalinjar'' and Dahala in [[Madhya Pradesh]]. It is said that ''Bijjala'' a viceroy of this dynasty established the authority over [[Karnataka]]. He wrested power from the [[Chalukya]] king Taila III. Bijjala was succeeded by his sons Someshwara and Sangama but after 1181 CE, the [[Chalukyas]] gradually retrieved the territory. Their rule was a short and turbulent and yet very important from the socio-religious movement point of view; a new sect called the [[Lingayat]] or [[Virashaiva]] sect was founded during these times.<ref name="Students' Britannica India"/>

A unique and purely native form of [[Kannada]] literature-poetry called the ''Vachanas'' was also born during this time. The writers of ''[[Vachanas]]'' were called ''Vachanakaras'' (poets). Many other important works like Virupaksha Pandita's ''Chennabasavapurana'', Dharani Pandita's ''Bijjalarayacharite'' and Chandrasagara Varni's ''Bijjalarayapurana'' were also written.

'''[[Kalachuris of Tripuri]]''' (Chedi) ruled in central India with its base at the ancient city of Tripuri (Tewar); it originated in the 8th century, expanded significantly in the 11th century, and declined in the 12th–13th centuries.

===The Hoysalas===
{{Main|Hoysala Empire}}
{{See also|Literature in the Hoysala Empire|Economy of the Hoysala Empire|Hoysala architecture}}
[[File:Shilabaalika on pillar bracket in Chennakeshava Temple at Belur3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Shilabalika, Chennakeshava temple, [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]].]]
The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule from [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]] in the 11th century as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in the south Karnataka region).{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=498}} In the early 12th century they successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincingly defeating them in the battle of [[Talakad]] and moved their capital to nearby [[Halebidu]].{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=499}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=pp. 124–126, quoting William Coelho: "Vishnuvardhana made many military conquests later to be further expanded by his successors into one of the most powerful empires of South India"; quoting B. S. K. Iyengar: "He was the true maker of the Hoysala kingdom".}} Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of [[Malnad]] Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling them ''Maleparolganda'' or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs" (''Malepas'').{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=498}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 123, citing B. L. Rice}}{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=251}}{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=367}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=123}}{{efn|Natives of south Karnataka,{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=150}} }} With the waning of the Western Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the late 12th century.

During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres such as ''Ragale'' (blank verse), ''Sangatya'' (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument), ''Shatpadi'' (seven line) etc. became widely accepted.<ref name="patron"/>{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=93}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=114}}<ref name="ragala10">Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), pp164, 203; Rice E. P. (1921), p59</ref>{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=132–134}}{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=359, 361}} The Hoysalas expanded the [[Vesara]] architecture stemming from the Chalukyas,{{sfn|Sastri|1958|p=427}}culminating in the Hoysala architectural articulation and style as exemplified in the construction of the [[Chennakeshava Temple, Belur|Chennakesava Temple]] at Belur and the [[Hoysaleswara temple]] at Halebidu.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=500–501}} Both these temples were built in commemoration of the victories of the Hoysala [[Vishnuvardhana]] against the Cholas in 1116.{{sfn|Foekema|1996|p=14}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=124}} [[Veera Ballala II]],{{efn|Kamath cites [[J. Duncan M. Derrett]] and William Coelho as considering Ballala II as the most outstanding of the Hoysala kings.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/132/ 132]}}{{sfn|Coelho|1950}} }} the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom"
(''Cholarajyapratishtacharya''), "Emperor of the south" (''Dakshina Chakravarthi'') and "Hoysala emperor" (''Hoysala Chakravarthi''). The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near [[Srirangam]] a provincial capital.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=499}} This gave them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 126, citing B .S. K. Iyengar}}{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=252}}

In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged, the first of the [[Muslim]] incursions into [[South India]] began. After over two decades of waging war against a foreign power, the Hoysala ruler at the time, [[Veera Ballala III]], died in the battle of [[Madurai]] in 1343.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=500}} This resulted in the merger of the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire with the areas administered by [[Harihara I]], founder of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], located in the Tungabhadra region in present-day Karnataka. The new kingdom thrived for another two centuries with [[Vijayanagara]] as its capital.{{efn|Two theories exist about the origin of Harihara I and his brother [[Bukka Raya I]]. One states that they were [[Kannadiga]] commanders of the Hoysala army and another that they were [[Telugu language|Telugu]] speakers and commanders of the earlier [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya Kingdom]].{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/166/mode/2up 159–160]}} }}

===The Cholas===
{{Main|Chola Empire}}
{{See also|Early Cholas|Medieval Cholas|Later Cholas}}
[[File:Rajendra map new.svg|thumb|right|200px|[[Chola Empire]] under [[Rajendra Chola]] c. 1030 CE]]
By the 9th century, under [[Rajaraja Chola]] and his son [[Rajendra Chola]], the Cholas rose as a notable power in south Asia. The [[Chola Empire]] stretched as far as [[Bengal]]. At its peak, the empire spanned almost 3,600,000 km2 (1,389,968 sq mi). Rajaraja Chola conquered all of peninsular [[South India]] and parts of [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Rajendra Chola]]'s navies went even further, occupying coasts from Burma (now [[Myanmar]]) to [[Vietnam]], the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], [[Lakshadweep]], [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]] in South East Asia and Pegu islands. He also conquered the rest of the Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=199-200}}He defeated [[Mahipala]], the king of the Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital and named it [[Gangaikonda Cholapuram]].{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

The Cholas excelled in building magnificent temples. [[Brihadeeswarar Temple|Brihadeshwara Temple]] in [[Thanjavur]] is a classical example of the magnificent [[architecture]] of the Chola kingdom. Brihadshwara temple is an [[UNESCO Heritage Site]] under "[[Great Living Chola Temples]]".<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250 Great Living Chola Temples] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105115252/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250 |date=5 January 2013 }}.</ref> Another example is the [[Chidambaram Temple]] in the heart of the temple town of [[Chidambaram]].

==See also==
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Hinduism]]
* [[History of Bengal]]
* [[History of Bihar]]
* [[Political history of medieval Karnataka]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
* {{Country study}} – [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html India]
** {{Cite book |date=1996 |last1=Heitzman |first1=James |first2=Robert L. |last2=Worden |title=India: A Country Study |url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/frdcstdy.indiacountrystud00heit?r=-1.155,0.002,3.309,1.232,0 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |ref=none |archive-date=14 July 2012 |access-date=17 November 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714040603/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html |url-status=dead }}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist |refs=
<ref name="Chopra partial cite">Chopra (2003). Part 1{{full citation needed|date=November 2024}}</ref>

<ref name="Hoernle">{{cite book|author1-link=Rudolf Hoernlé |first1= A. F. Rudolf |last1=Hoernlé|last2=Stark|first2=Herbert Alick |date=1909 |edition =Fourth, revised and enlarged |orig-date= First published 1904 |title=A History of India|publisher= Orissa Mission Press |location=[[Cuttack]], Orrisa, India |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindia00hoeruoft/page/n5/mode/2up}}</ref>

<ref name="1977 Majumdar">{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The classical age|first1=Ramesh Chandra |last1=Majumdar |first2= Achut Dattatrya |last2=Pusalker |first3=A. K. |last3=Majumdar |first4=Dilip Kumar |last4=Ghose |first5=Vishvanath Govind |last5=Dighe |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|date=1977|page=66}}</ref>

<ref name="Reu">Reu (1933).{{full citation needed|date=November 2024}}</ref>

<ref name="sharma 2005">Sharma, Suresh Kant; Sharma, Usha (2005).''Discovery of North-East India: Geography, History, Culture''. Vol. 3.</ref>

<ref name="monuments">{{cite web|title=History of Karnataka—Chalukyas of Badami|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm |author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|access-date=2006-11-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104095148/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm |archive-date=2006-11-04}}</ref>
}}

=== Sources ===
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* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nTFuAAAAMAAJ |title=History of Kashmir |first=Haidar Malik |last=Chadurah |publisher=Bhavna Prakashan |year=1991 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Coelho |first1=William |title=The Hoysala Vamsa |date=1950 |publisher=Indian Historical Research Institute, St Xavier's College |location=Bombay |page=134 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.126668/page/n147/mode/2up}}
* [[Alexander Cunningham|Cunningham, Alexander]] (1888) ''Coins of the Indo-Scythians, Sakas, and Kushans'', Reprint: Indological Book House, Varanasi, India, 1971.
* {{cite book |last1=Foekema |first1=Gerard |title=A complete guide to Hoysaḷa temples |date=1996 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-345-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Ganguly |first=D. C. |editor=R. S. Sharma |title=A Comprehensive History of India (A. D. 300–985) |volume=3, Part 1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXtDAAAAYAAJ |year=1981 |publisher=Indian History Congress; Orient Longmans }}
* {{cite book |first=Dilip Kumar|last= Ganguly |title=History and Historians in Ancient India |url=https://archive.org/details/historyhistorian00gang |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyhistorian00gang/page/117 117] |year=1984 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=978-0-391-03250-7 }}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUlwmXjE9DQC&pg=PA2 |title=Kashmir Under the Sultans |first=Mohibbul |last=Hasan |publisher=Aakar |year=1959 |isbn=9788187879497 }}
* Hill, John E. (2004). ''The Peoples of the West from the [[Weilüe]]'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.'' Draft annotated English translation.[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html#section7 Weilue: The Peoples of the West] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223070446/http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html#section7 |date=23 December 2017 }}
* Hill, John E. (2009) ''Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE''. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. {{ISBN|978-1-4392-2134-1}}.
* {{Cite book |date=1980 |last1=Kamath |first1=Suryanath U. |title=A Concise History of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present |publisher=Archana Prakshana |location=Bangalore |url=https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/n5/mode/2up}} – Republished in new edition by Jupiter Books, 2001. {{OCLC| 7796041}}
* {{cite book |last1=Keay |first1=John |title=India: A history |date=2000 |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/n7/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last1=Keay |first1=John |title=India discovered: The recovery of a lost civilization |date=2001 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=London |isbn=978-0-00-712300-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/indiadiscoveredr0000keay/page/n3/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
* Latif, S. M. (1891) ''History of the Panjab'', Reprinted by Progressive Books, Lahore, Pakistan, 1984.
* {{cite book|title=The Śakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture|date= 1976 |page=80 |first=Vishwa Mitra |last=Mohan|chapter=Indo-Scythians}}
* {{cite book |last1=Niyogi |first1=Roma |others=Foreword by R. C. Majumdar |title=The History of the Gāhaḍavāla Dynasty |date=1959 |publisher=Calcutta Oriental Book Agency |location=Calcutta |url=https://indianculture.gov.in/ebooks/history-gahadavala-dynasty |language=en |oclc=555203407|via=Indian Culture Portal, Government of India}}
* {{cite book| title=The Shahis of Afghanistan and Punjab |date= 1973|first=D. B. |last=Pandey}}
* {{cite book |first=Sailendra Nath |last=Sen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA172 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |publisher=New Age |year=1999 |isbn=9788122411980 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rapson |first1=E. J. (Edward James) |title=Catalogue of the coins of the Andhra dynasty, the Western Kṣatrapas, the Traikūṭaka Dynasty, and the 'Bodhi' Dynasty |date=1908 |publisher=British Museum Department of Coins and Medals |location=London |isbn=978-81-206-0522-0 |pages=ix–ccviii |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins0000raps/page/n105/mode/2up |chapter=Introduction}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sastri |first1=K. A. Nilakanta |title=A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar |date=1958 |orig-date= First published 1955 |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.505532/page/n3/mode/2up }}
* {{cite book |last=Sastri |author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri | first= K. A | orig-year= 1935| year= 2000| title= The CōĻas| publisher= University of Madras | location= Madras |url=https://archive.org/stream/K.A.NilakantaSastriBooks/K.%20A.%20Nilakanta%20Sastri/Colas}}
* {{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Mukunda Madhava|title=Inscriptions of Ancient Assam|publisher=Gauhati University, Assam|year=1978}}
* {{cite book |first = Upinder |last=Singh |title = A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA383 |year = 2008 |publisher = Pearson Education India |isbn = 978-81-317-1120-0 }}
*{{Citation
| last = Sircar
| first = D C
| contribution = Pragjyotisha-Kamarupa
| year = 1990
| title = The Comprehensive History of Assam
| editor-last = Barpujari
| editor-first = H K
| volume = I
| pages = 59–78
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Publication Board, Assam
}}
*{{Cite book|first=Romila |last=Thapar|author-link=Romila Thapar |date=1990 |title=A History of India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |volume=One |edition=Reprint of 1966 |publisher=Penguin UK |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindia00romi/page/n3/mode/2up |isbn=978-0-14-194976-5 |language=en |via=Internet Archive |url-access=registration}} – [https://books.google.com/books?id=1Y02AiEu1kcC via Google Books]
* {{cite book |first=Romila |last=Thapar |title=A History of India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |date= 2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0143029892|url= https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfEarlyIndiaFromTheOriginsToAD1300Thapar/page/n5/mode/2up }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wink |first1=André |title=Al-Hind |date=1991 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden; New York; Köln |isbn=978-90-04-09249-5 |volume= 1: ''Early medieval India and the expansion of Islam: 7th–11th centuries''}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chopra |first1=Pran Nath |last2=Puri |first2=B. N. |last3=Das |first3=M. N. |last4=Pradhan |first4=A. C. |title=A comprehensive history of ancient India – Part 1: Ancient India |date=2003 |publisher=Sterling Publishers |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-207-2503-4 |ref=none}}
* Majumdar, R. C.; Pusalker, A. D.; & Majumdar, A. K. (1988). ''The history and culture of the Indian people''. Vol. 3. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
*{{Cite book|first=Jadunath |last=Sarkar|author-link=Jadunath Sarkar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0oPIo9TXKcC|title=A History of Jaipur: c. 1503–1938|date=1994|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-0333-5|language=en|ref=none}}
*{{Cite book|first=Jadunath |last=Sarkar|author-link=Jadunath Sarkar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qoRDAAAAYAAJ|title=Military History of India|date=1960|publisher=Orient Longmans|isbn=9780861251551|language=en|ref=none}}
{{refend}}
{{Clear}}

{{India topics}}
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}

[[Category:Iron Age Asia]]
[[Category:Iron Age cultures of South Asia]]

Angami–Pochuri languages

2025-12-21T23:14:27Z

Shubhamsaini9: improved layout additionally

{{Short description|Family of Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Infobox language family
|name=Angami–Pochuri
|region=[[Nagaland]]
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|fam2=[[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]]
|fam3=[[Central Tibeto-Burman languages|Central Tibeto-Burman]] (?)
|fam4=[[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]]
|child1=[[Angami languages|Angami]]
|child2=[[Pochuri languages|Pochuri]]
|glotto=anga1286
|glottorefname=Angami–Pochuri
}}
The '''Angami–Pochuri languages''' are a small family of [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] spoken in southern [[Nagaland]] and Northern Manipur of northeast [[India]]. Conventionally classified as "Naga", they are not clearly related to other [[Naga languages]], and are conservatively classified as an independent branch of Sino-Tibetan, pending further research.

==Languages==
{{tree list}}
*'''Angami–Pochuri'''
**'''Angami languages'''
***[[Angami language|Angami]]
***[[Chokri language|Chokri]] (Chokri Chakhesang)
***[[Kuzhami language|Kuzhami]]
***[[Sopvoma language|Sopvoma]] (Mao)
***[[Poula language|Poula]] (Poumai)
**'''Pochuri languages'''
***[[Pochuri language|Pochuri]]
***[[Ntenyi language|Ntenyi]] (Northern Rengma)
***[[Rengma language|Rengma]]
***[[Sümi language|Sümi]] (Sema)
{{tree list/end}}

'''Rengma–Simi''' might form a third branch according to Burling (2003).<ref>Burling, R. (2003). The Tibeto-Burman languages of Northeastern India. In G. Thurgood & R. LaPolla (Eds.), The Sino-Tibetan Languages (pp. 169-191). London: Routledge.</ref><ref>{{cite web| editor1-last= Hammarström| editor1-first = Harald| editor2-last = Forke| editor2-first = Robert| editor3-last = Haspelmath| editor3-first = Martin| editor4-last = Bank| editor4-first = Sebastian| year = 2020|title = Angami-Pochuri | work = [[Glottolog]] 4.3| url = https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/anga1286}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* George van Driem (2001) ''Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region.'' Brill.

{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Kuki-Chin–Naga languages}}
{{Languages of Northeast India}}
{{Nagaland}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Angami-Pochuri languages}}
[[Category:Angami–Pochuri languages| ]]
[[Category:Languages of Nagaland]]
[[Category:Languages of Manipur]]

{{st-lang-stub}}

Monetary Policy Committee (India)

2025-12-04T04:32:51Z

Shubhamsaini9: stub

{{Short description|Responsible for fixing the benchmark interest rate in India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Monetary Policy Committee
| seal =
| logo =
| formed =
| jurisdiction =
| employees =
| budget =
| chief1_name = [[Sanjay Malhotra]], [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]
| chief1_position = [[Governor of the Reserve Bank of India]] and ''ex-officio'' chairperson
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| parent_department = [[Reserve Bank of India]]
| parent_agency =
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| type = Committee
}}

The '''Monetary Policy Committee''' is responsible for fixing the benchmark [[interest rate]] in [[India]]. The meetings of the Monetary Policy Committee are held at least four times a year (specifically, at least once a quarter) and it publishes its decisions after each such meeting.

The committee comprises six members – three officials of the [[Reserve Bank of India]] and three external members nominated by the [[Government of India]]. They need to observe a "silent period" seven days before and after the rate decision for "utmost confidentiality". The [[Governor of the Reserve Bank of India]] is the chairperson [[Ex officio member|ex officio]] of the committee. Decisions are taken by majority with the governor having the casting vote in case of a tie. The current mandate of the committee is to maintain 4% annual [[inflation]] until 31 March 2026 with an upper tolerance of 6% and a lower tolerance of 2%.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=151264|title=Monetary Policy Committee constitution under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 notified.|website=pib.nic.in|access-date=2017-06-24}}</ref>

The [[Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934]], was amended by [[Finance Act (India)]], 2016, to constitute MPC which will bring more transparency and accountability in fixing India's monetary policy.<ref name=":1" /> The monetary policy are published after every meeting with each member explaining his opinions. The committee is answerable to the Government of India if the inflation exceeds the range prescribed for three consecutive quarters.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/india-adopts-inflation-target-of-4-for-next-five-years-under-monetary-policy-framework/articleshow/53564923.cms|title=India adopts inflation target of 4% for next five years under monetary policy framework|last=ET Bureau|date=2016-08-06|work=The Economic Times|access-date=2017-06-24}}</ref>

== Establishment and purpose ==
Key decisions pertaining to benchmark interest rates used to be taken by the [[governor of the Reserve Bank of India]] alone prior to the establishment of the committee. The governor of RBI is appointed and can be disqualified by the government anytime. This led to uncertainty and resulted in friction between the government and the RBI, especially during the times of low growth and high inflation. Before the constitution of the MPC, a Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) on monetary policy with experts from monetary economics, central banking, financial markets and public finance advised the Reserve Bank on the stance of monetary policy. However, its role was only advisory in nature.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/FS_Overview.aspx?fn=2752|title=Reserve Bank of India - Function Wise Monetary|website=www.rbi.org.in|access-date=2019-09-17}}</ref>

The setting up of a committee to decide on monetary policy was first proposed by the [[Urjit Patel]] Committee. The committee suggested a five-member MPC - three members from the RBI and two nominated by the government.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.livemint.com/Politics/eTA07fSI1HXNq9H095ipRK/Govt-appoints-three-members-to-Monetary-Policy-Committee.html | title=RBI's Monetary Policy Committee gets three outside experts as members | work=mint | date=22 September 2016 | last1=Mishra | first1=Asit Ranjan }}</ref> The government initially proposed a seven-member committee<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/finance/no-veto-power-for-rbi-governor-in-deciding-interest-rates-says-draft-code-115072400057_1.html|title=No veto power for RBI governor in deciding interest rates, says draft code|last=Reporter|first=B. S.|date=2015-07-24|work=Business Standard India|access-date=2017-06-24}}</ref> - three from the RBI and four nominated by it. Subsequent negotiations led to the current composition of the committee, with the external members having a four-year term. After discussions, the finance ministry and RBI agreed on a six-member MPC that addressed earlier concerns of excessive government influence over monetary policy in the country.

The Reserve Bank's Monetary Policy Department (MPD) assists the MPC in formulating the monetary policy. Views of key stakeholders in the economy, and analytical work of the Reserve Bank contribute to the process for arriving at the decision on the policy repo rate. The Financial Markets Operations Department (FMOD) operationalises the monetary policy, mainly through day-to-day liquidity management operations. The Financial Markets Committee (FMC) meets daily to review the liquidity conditions so as to ensure that the operating target of monetary policy (weighted average lending rate) is kept close to the policy repo rate. Monetary Policy Committee came into force on 27 June 2016.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=146546|title=Government initiates process to constitute Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934|date=27 June 2016|work=Press Bureau of India|access-date=1 December 2019}}</ref>

Suggestions for setting up a monetary policy committee is not new and goes back to 2002 when YV Reddy committee proposed to establish a MPC, then Tarapore committee in 2006, Percy Mistry committee in 2007, Raghuram Rajan committee in 2009 and then Urjit Patel Committee in 2013.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}}

== Composition ==
The composition of the current monetary policy committee is as follows:<ref name=":0" />
# Governor of the Reserve Bank of India – Chairperson, ''ex officio -'' [[Sanjay Malhotra]]
# Deputy Governor of the Bank in charge of monetary policy – [[Poonam Gupta (economist)|Poonam Gupta]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Poonam Gupta gets Monetary Policy Department(MPC)|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/money-and-banking/rbi-shuffles-portfolios-of-dy-guvs-poonam-gupta-gets-monetary-policy-department-charge/article69530503.ece}}</ref>
# Executive Director of the Bank in charge of monetary policy – Indranil Bhattacharyya<ref>{{cite web |title=RBI ED Indranil Bhattacharyya nominated as MPC member |url=https://www.thehindu.com/business/Economy/rbi-ed-indranil-bhattacharyya-nominated-as-mpc-member/article69964314.ece}}</ref>
#
# Ram Singh, Director, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi.
# Saugata Bhattacharya, Economist.
# Nagesh Kumar, Director and Chief Executive, Institute for Studies in Industrial Development, New Delhi.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=2060887|title=Government notifies reconstitution of Monetary Policy Committee under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934|work=Press Trust of India|access-date=2024-10-24|language=en}}</ref>

Members referred from 4 to 6 above, will hold office for a period of four years from the date of appointment while the other three members are official. None of the central government nominees are eligible to be re-appointed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-business/mpc-members-to-get-rs-15-lakh-per-meet-must-disclose-assets/article19338895.ece|title=MPC members to get Rs. 1.5 lakh per meet, must disclose assets|work=The Hindu|access-date=2017-07-24|language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Reserve Bank of India]]
* [[Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934]]

== References ==
<references />

{{Reserve Bank of India}}

[[Category:Subsidiaries of the Reserve Bank of India]]
[[Category:Monetary policy]]

W. C. Renouf

2025-11-26T07:00:52Z

Shubhamsaini9: created a info

{{Short description|British philatelist (1868–1954)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = W. C. Renouf
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 5 March 1868
| birth_place = [[St Helier]], [[Jersey]]
| death_date = 28 June 1954
| death_place = Jersey
| death_cause =
| residence =
| alma mater = [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], University of Oxford
| occupation = [[Civil servant]] in [[British Raj|India]]
| employer = [[Indian Civil Service]] (1889–1922)
| title =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| known for = Study of the philately of India
| boards =
| spouse =
| children =
| parents =
| relations =
| website =
}}
'''Winter Charles Renouf''' [[Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire|CIE]] (5 March 1868 – 28 June 1954) was a British member of the [[Indian Civil Service]] who specialised in agriculture. He was also a [[justice of the peace]] in India, official member of the Central Legislative Assembly, and political agent at [[Bahawalpur]]. In 1921, he was president of the [[Cantonment Reforms Committee]] set up by the [[British Raj|Government of India]]. He retired in 1922.

Renouf was a noted [[philatelist]] who was one of the first to take an interest in early Indian postal markings and British Indian stamps used abroad. He edited ''[[The Philatelic Journal of India]]'' and was Hon. Vice-President of the [[Philatelic Society of India]]. In 1921, he signed the [[Roll of Distinguished Philatelists]]. His philatelic work was continued by [[Jal Cooper]] and his classification system of Indian postal markings continues to be referred to as "Renouf types".

==Early life and family==
Winter Renouf was born on 5 March 1868 in [[St Helier]], Jersey, in the Channel Islands.<ref name=Parish>{{cite book |title=Jersey, Church of England Births and Baptisms |date=1813–1915 |publisher=Anglican Parish Registers, Jersey Archive, Jersey Heritage |location=St Helier, Jersey, Channel Islands |page=398}}</ref> His father, Francis G. Renouf, was a mathematician and a [[master mariner]], and his mother was Elizabeth J. Renouf (née Vardon).<ref name=Parish/><ref>[https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:Q2WS-P329 Winter C Renouf Census • England and Wales Census, 1881] Family Search, Retrieved 2 December 2023. {{subscription required}}</ref><ref name=roll>''[http://www.abps.org.uk/Awards/Roll_of_Distinguished_Philatelists/RDP_Background_20111231_LR.pdf Background notes on The Roll of Distinguished Philatelists September 2011]'', Roll of Distinguished Philatelists Trust, London, 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130819000841/http://abps.org.uk/Awards/Roll_of_Distinguished_Philatelists/RDP_Background_20111231_LR.pdf Archived here.]</ref> He was educated at [[Victoria College, Jersey|Victoria College]], Jersey, before attending Wren and Gurney's [[Preparatory school (United Kingdom)|preparatory school]] in London from where he won a scholarship<ref>"Colleges, Public Schools, &c.", ''The Times'', 27 August 1887, p. 13.</ref> to [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], University of Oxford.<ref name=Office>{{cite book |last1=Office |first1=Great Britain India |title=The India List and India Office List |date=1819 |publisher=Harrison. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3VQTAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA598|page=598 |language=en}}</ref> He passed the examination of the [[Indian Civil Service]] in 1887 in second place.<ref name="SJG1887">{{cite news |title=The Civil Service of India |work=[[St James's Gazette]] |date=5 July 1887 |location=London |page=13}}</ref>

Renouf married Ellie Marion (née Sheeu) on 14 November 1893, at [[Rawalpindi]].<ref name=C&MG1893>{{cite news |title=By the way |work=[[Civil and Military Gazette]] |date=20 November 1893 |location=Lahore |page=4}}</ref> Their best man was Mr O'Dwyer.<ref name=C&MG1893/> Ellie died in 1941.<ref name=obit/>

==Career==
Renouf reached India in 1889 where he joined the Bengal Civil Service.<ref name=EOM1889>{{cite news |title=To the North-West Provinces, Oudh, Punjab, and Central Provinces|work=Englishman's Overland Mail |date=19 November 1889 |location=West Bengal |page=14}}</ref> He served in the Punjab as assistant commissioner at [[Murree]].<ref name=C&MG1892>{{cite news |title=Indian Civil Service |work=Civil and Military Gazette |date=23 July 1892 |location=Lahore |page=8}}</ref> In 1892 he was appointed [[Justice of the Peace]]<ref name=C&MG1892/> and in 1899 he was appointed deputy commissioner.<ref name=Office/> In 1901, he became director of land records and agriculture.<ref name=Office/> In 1910, he published a bulletin on the advantages of growing "[[Durum|hard]]" Canadian red wheats there over the "[[Common wheat|soft]]" white wheats that predominated, the latter having been introduced following a report by [[Rank Hovis McDougall#History|McDougall Brothers]] in their favour in 1882.<ref>"Agriculture: Wheat growing in the Punjab", ''The Times'', 16 May 1910, p. 14.</ref><ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=oTroj7pY5SAC&pg=PA807 Indian Wheat]", ''Journal of the Society of Arts'', 1883, p. 807.</ref> He was an official member of the [[Central Legislative Assembly]]<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177811/page/n73/ ''The Combined Civil List For India &c.''], Pioneer Press, Allahabad, 1921.</ref> and [[Indian Political Department|political agent]] at [[Bahawalpur]].<ref name=obit/> In 1921, he was president of the [[Cantonment Reforms Committee]] set up by the [[British Raj|Government of India]]<ref>[https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.962/mode/2up ''Report of the Cantonment Reforms Committee''], Government Monotype Press, Simla, 1921, p. i.</ref> before retiring the following year.<ref name=obit/>

==Philately==
[[File:Jal Cooper 1997 stamp of India.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Jal Cooper on a 1997 stamp of India with early Indian postal markings, an area of study pioneered by Renouf and continued by Cooper.]]
Renouf was a noted philatelist who was one of the first to take an interest in early Indian postal markings and British Indian stamps used abroad, publishing monographs on those subjects in 1919 and 1920 respectively. He edited ''The Philatelic Journal of India'' and was Hon. Vice-President of the Philatelic Society of India. He signed the Roll of Distinguished Philatelists in 1921.<ref name=abps/> He joined the [[Royal Philatelic Society London]] in 1923 where he was proposed by [[Edward Denny Bacon]] and [[Herbert R. Oldfield]].<ref>"Philatelic Societies' Meetings: The Royal Philatelic Society, London", ''The London Philatelist'', Vol. 32, No. 383 (November 1923), pp. 267-268 (p. 267).</ref> His work on early Indian cancellations was expanded and re-written as an appendix to volume three (Asia) of [[Robson Lowe]]'s ''The Encyclopaedia of British Empire Postage Stamps 1775-1950''.<ref>"Introduction" in Robson Lowe (Ed.) (1951) ''The Encyclopaedia of British Empire Postage Stamps 1775-1950. Volume III The Empire in Asia''. London: Robson Lowe Ltd., p. xi.</ref>

In an obituary in 1954, [[Jal Cooper]], whose philatelic interests coincided with Renouf's and who continued his work, described Renouf as one of the "stalwarts" of early Indian philately.<ref name=cooper>"The Late Mr. W. C. Renouf, C.I.E., I.C.S.", Jal Cooper, ''News Sheet''. India Study Circle, No. 20 (1954), p. 2.</ref> His Indian collection was auctioned by Robson Lowe in 1960.<ref name=abps>[http://www.abps.org.uk/Home/Who_Was_Who/index.xalter#R Who Was Who in British Philately], [[Association of British Philatelic Societies]], 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2014. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110713234319/http://www.abps.org.uk/Home/Who_Was_Who/index.xalter Archived here.]</ref>

==Death and legacy==
Renouf died at his home in Jersey on 28 June 1954<ref name=obit>"Mr. W. C. Renouf", ''The Times'', 1 July 1954, p. 10.</ref> after a "very painful and long illness" during the last two years of which he became blind, causing him to be unable to follow his hobby of philately which he regarded as a great loss.<ref name=cooper/> He received an obituary from Jal Cooper in the newsletter of the India Study Circle.<ref name=cooper/> He is buried with his wife at [[St Clement, Jersey|St Clement]], Jersey. His classification of Indian postmarks is still referred to in the pages of the India Study Circle's ''India Post'' as "Renouf types".<ref>"Underpaid", Clifford Gregory, ''India Post'', Vol. 39, No. 161 (March 2005), p. 37.</ref>

==Publications==

===Articles===
* "The Cultivation of 'Stronger' and More Valuable Wheats for Export from the Punjab", ''Bulletin'', No. 1 (1910), Department of Agriculture, Punjab.
* "Early Indian Cancellations, 1855-1884". Appendix I (pp. 485-549) in Robson Lowe (Ed.) ''The Encyclopaedia of British Empire Postage Stamps 1775-1950. Volume III The Empire in Asia''. Robson Lowe Ltd., London, 1951.

===Books===
* ''Early Indian Cancellations and Postmarks 1852-84''. Philatelic Society of India, Lahore, 1919. (Supplement, 1923)
* ''British-Indian Stamps Used Abroad''. Philatelic Society of India, Lahore, 1920. (Supplement, 1923)

==See also==
* [[Green Revolution in India]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Renouf, Winter Charles}}

[[Category:1868 births]]
[[Category:1954 deaths]]
[[Category:People from St Helier]]
[[Category:People educated at Victoria College, Jersey]]
[[Category:Indian Civil Service (British India) officers]]
[[Category:Justices of the peace]]
[[Category:Members of the Central Legislative Assembly of India]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire]]
[[Category:British philatelists]]
[[Category:Signatories to the Roll of Distinguished Philatelists]]
[[Category:Philately of India]]

The Tribe (2024 TV series)

2025-11-16T04:55:39Z

Shubhamsaini9:

{{Short description|2024 Indian reality television series}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox television
| image = The Tribe poster.jpeg
| caption =
| genre = [[Reality television]]
| based_on =
| writer = Aneesha Baig
| director = Omkar Potdar
| presenter =
| starring = [[#Cast|See below]]
| theme_music_composer =
| open_theme =
| end_theme =
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| num_seasons = 
| num_episodes = 
| list_episodes =
| producer = {{plainlist|
* [[Karan Johar]]
* Apoorva Mehta
* Aneesha Baig
}}
| location = [[Los Angeles]], USA
| cinematography =
| editor =
| camera = [[Multiple-camera setup|Multiple-camera]]
| runtime = 34-41 mins
| company = [[Dharma Productions|Dharmatic Entertainment]]
| network = [[Amazon Prime Video]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|df=y|2024|10|4}}
| last_aired = 
| related =
}}
'''''The Tribe''''' is an Indian [[Reality television|reality]] television series directed by Omkar Potdar and written by Aneesha Baig.<ref>{{cite web | title='The Tribe' on Prime Video: Inside the glamorous lives of young Indian influencers | website=The Statesman | date=23 September 2024 | url=https://www.thestatesman.com/entertainment/ott/the-tribe-on-prime-video-inside-the-glamorous-lives-of-young-indian-influencers-1503346178.html}}</ref> Produced under [[Dharma Productions|Dharmatic Entertainment]],<ref>{{cite web | title=Karan Johar Says 'Troll Me' As He Shares His Thoughts On The Tribe: 'Succumb To The Real Ridiculousness' | website=News18 | date=2 October 2024 | url=https://www.news18.com/movies/karan-johar-says-troll-me-as-he-shares-his-thoughts-on-the-tribe-succumb-to-the-real-aridiculousness-9071373.html}}</ref> starring Alanna Panday, Alaviaa Jaaferi, Srushti Porey, Aryaana Gandhi,<ref>{{cite web | title=Aryaana Gandhi, aka Yaani, Ventures into Reality TV with Amazon Prime's 'The Tribe' | website=The Asian Age | date=15 April 2024 | url=https://www.asianage.com/in-focus/150424/aryaana-gandhi-aka-yaani-ventures-into-reality-tv-with-amazon-primes-the-tribe.html}}</ref> Alfia Jafry<ref>{{cite web | title=Alfia Jafry opens up on her debut with 'The Tribe' | website=The Tribune | date=6 April 2024 | url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/entertainment/alfia-jafry-opens-up-on-her-debut-with-the-tribe-607919/}}</ref> and Hardik Zaveri.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Tribe: From Alanna Panday to Alaviaa Jaaferi, meet bold faces of upcoming reality series on influencer culture | website=OTTPlay | date=30 September 2024 | url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/the-tribe-alanna-panday-alaviaa-jaaferi-bold-faces-reality-series-influencer-culture-prime-video/fbd5a27f85775 | access-date=2 October 2024 | archive-date=30 September 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930083219/https://www.ottplay.com/news/the-tribe-alanna-panday-alaviaa-jaaferi-bold-faces-reality-series-influencer-culture-prime-video/fbd5a27f85775 | url-status=live }}</ref> It premiered on [[Amazon Prime Video]] on 4 October 2024.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Tribe: Alanna Panday, Karan Johar reality series to premiere in October | website=Hindustan Times | date=23 September 2024 | url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/web-series/the-tribe-alanna-panday-karan-johar-reality-series-to-premiere-in-october-101727092021131.html}}</ref>

== Cast ==
* Alanna Panday<ref name="Cast" >{{cite web | last=Felt | first=Klein | title=The Tribe Amazon Prime Cast: Meet the Real People (Photos) | website=The Direct | date=10 October 2024 | url=https://thedirect.com/article/the-tribe-cast-amazon-prime-people-photos}}</ref>
* Alaviaa Jaaferi<ref name="Cast" />
* Alfia Jafry<ref name="Cast" />
* Aryaana Gandhi<ref name="Cast" />
* Hardik Zaveri<ref name="Cast" />
* Srushti Porey<ref name="Cast" />
* Ivor McCray<ref name="Cast" />
* [[Rakhi Sawant]]<ref>{{cite web | last=Singh | first=Kashvi Raj | title=Watch: Rakhi Sawant Teaches How To Create Drama To Alanna Panday, Alaviaa Jaaferi And The Tribe | website=News18 | date=11 October 2024 | url=https://www.news18.com/movies/watch-rakhi-sawant-teaches-how-to-create-drama-to-alanna-panday-alaviaa-jaaferi-and-the-tribe-9083273.html}}</ref>

== Production ==
On 19 March 2024, the series was announced by [[Amazon Prime Video]].<ref>{{cite web | title='Citadel: Honey Bunny' to 'Mirzapur 3', all titles in Prime Video's 2024 slate | website=The Hindu | date=19 March 2024 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/citadel-honey-bunny-to-mirzapur-3-all-titles-in-prime-videos-2024-slate/article67969985.ece | access-date=2 October 2024 | archive-date=24 July 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240724070904/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/citadel-honey-bunny-to-mirzapur-3-all-titles-in-prime-videos-2024-slate/article67969985.ece | url-status=live }}</ref> The filming took place in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] in 2023.<ref>{{cite web | last=Chatterjee | first=Pyusha | title=Explore Los Angeles And Beyond Through The Shooting Locations Of 'The Tribe' | website=Travel and Leisure Asia | date=3 October 2024 | url=https://www.travelandleisureasia.com/in/destinations/north-america/explore-los-angeles-through-amazon-primes-the-tribe-shooting-locations/}}</ref>

== Release ==
The trailer for the series was released on 26 September 2024.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Tribe trailer: Jaaved Jaaferi takes a dig at influencers as his daughter Alaviaa, Ananya Panday's cousin Alanna try to make it big in LA | website=The Indian Express | date=27 September 2024 | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/the-tribe-trailer-jaaved-jaaferi-takes-a-dig-at-influencers-9591386/ | access-date=2 October 2024 | archive-date=2 October 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002070944/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/web-series/the-tribe-trailer-jaaved-jaaferi-takes-a-dig-at-influencers-9591386/ | url-status=live }}</ref> The series was released on [[Amazon Prime Video]] on 4 October 2024.<ref>{{cite web | last=Negi | first=Shrishti | title=CTRL To The Tribe: Here's What You Can Watch This Weekend On OTT | website=News18 | date=3 October 2024 | url=https://www.news18.com/movies/ctrl-to-the-tribe-heres-what-you-can-watch-this-weekend-on-ott-9071735.html}}</ref>

== Reception ==
Neha Sen of ''[[Deccan Herald]]'' gave the series 2/5 stars.<ref>{{cite web | title='The Tribe' review: Simply fabulous and foolish | website=Deccan Herald | date=5 October 2024 | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/the-tribe-review-simply-fabulous-and-foolish-3220315}}</ref> Shristi Sahoo of ''[[Rediff]]'' rated the series 3 out of 5 stars.<ref>{{cite web | last=Sahoo | first=Shristi | title=The Tribe Is Glamorous But Brutal | website=Rediff | date=7 October 2024 | url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/review/the-tribe-is-glamourous-but-brutal/20241007.htm}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt27561741}}
* [https://www.primevideo.com/detail/0R2V1E968GZ0E1L6OE0PEVS7D1/ ''The Tribe''] on [[Amazon Prime Video]]

{{Amazon Prime Video original series|state=collapsed}}
{{Portal bar|India|Television}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tribe (2024 TV series)}}
[[Category:2024 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Indian reality television series]]
[[Category:Amazon Prime Video original programming]]

{{India-tv-stub}}
{{Reality-tv-prog-stub}}

Elumalai

2025-11-05T15:09:29Z

Shubhamsaini9: minor fix lead per sources and corrected details as per guidelines

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Elumalai
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[Panchayat town]]
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India Tamil Nadu
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Tamil Nadu, India
| coordinates = {{coord|9.87|N|77.7|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Madurai district|Madurai]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 18.31
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 15746
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = 
| postal_code =
| registration_plate =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Elumalai''' is a [[panchayat town]] in [[Peraiyur taluk]] of [[Madurai district]] in the Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]]. It is one of the nine panchayat towns in the district. Spread across an area of {{cvt|18.31|km2}}, it had a population of 15,746 individuals as per the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]].

== Geography and administration ==
Elumalai is located in [[Peraiyur taluk]] of [[Madurai district]] in the Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="TP">{{cite web|url=https://www.townpanchayat.in/Elumalai|title=Elumalai|work=[[Government of Tamil Nadu]]|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cra.tn.gov.in/tn_gvillages.pdf|title=Villages of Tamil Nadu|work=[[Government of Tamil Nadu]]|access-date=1 June 2025|archive-date=12 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241112222132/https://www.cra.tn.gov.in/tn_gvillages.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> It is one of the nine [[panchayat town]]s in the district.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tn.gov.in/dtp/townpanchayats.pdf|title=Town panchayats in Tamil Nadu|work=[[Government of Tamil Nadu]]|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref> Spread across an area of {{cvt|18.31|km2}},<ref name="Pop">{{cite web|url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/india/tamilnadu/madurai/3342416000__elumalai/|title=Elumalai|work=Citypopulation.de|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref> it was established in 1984.<ref name="TP"/> The town panchayat is sub-divided into 18 wards.<ref name="TP"/> It is headed by a chairperson, who is elected by the members, who are chosen through direct elections.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://knowindia.india.gov.in/profile/local-government.php|title=Local Government|publisher=[[Government of India]]|access-date=1 January 2023|page=1|archive-date=4 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004071216/https://knowindia.india.gov.in/profile/local-government.php|url-status=live}}</ref> The town forms part of the [[Usilampatti Assembly constituency]] that elects its member to the [[Tamil Nadu legislative assembly]] and the [[Theni Lok Sabha constituency]] that elects its member to the [[Parliament of India]].<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.elections.tn.gov.in/web/pslist/english/Madurai_eng.pdf|title=Polling stations in Madurai district|work=[[Election Commission of India]]|access-date=1 June 2025}}</ref>

==Demographics==
As per the [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]], Elumalai had a population of 15,746 individuals across 4,224 households.<ref name="Census">{{cite report|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/api/tables/data/2011/PC11_PCA-TV/255?_source=dt&labels=indicator&state=33&district=623&subdistrict=5839&town_village=803750&geo_level=4&format=csv|title=Geo level data: Census of India 2011|access-date=1 June 2025|publisher=[[Census Commission of India]]}}</ref> The population saw a marginal increase compared to the previous census in [[2001 Census of India|2001]] when 14,130 inhabitants were registered. The population consisted of 7,890 males and 7,856 females.<ref name="Pop"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=16 June 2004|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=1 June 2008|publisher=[[Census Commission of India]]}}</ref> About 1,725 individuals were below the age of six years.<ref name="Census"/> About 5% of the population belonged to [[scheduled castes]]. The entire population is classified as urban. The town has an average literacy rate of 65.1%.<ref name="Pop"/><ref name="Census"/>

About 42% of the eligible population were employed, of which majority were involved in [[agriculture]] and allied activities.<ref name="Pop"/><ref name="Census"/> [[Hinduism]] was the majority religion which was followed by 96.8% of the population, with [[Christianity]] (0.3%) and [[Islam]] (2.6%) being minor religions.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11392/download/14505/DDW33C-01%20MDDS.XLS|title=Religion: Census of India 2011|access-date=1 June 2025|publisher=[[Census Commission of India]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Cities and towns in Madurai district]]

Behea, Bihar

2025-11-03T23:03:09Z

Shubhamsaini9: added initial entry added tags.

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2018}}{{more citations needed|date=July 2013}}{{Infobox settlement
| name = Behea
| other_name = Bihiya
| nickname =
| settlement_type = town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_map = Behea block map.png
| map_caption = Location in Behea block
| pushpin_map = India Bihar#India3
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Bihar, India
| coordinates = {{coord|25.5607|N|84.45935|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Bihar]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Bhojpur District, Bihar|Bhojpur]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 100
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 26707<ref name="Census 2011" />
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 802152
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = 58-42 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| website = {{URL|bhojpur.bih.nic.in}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Behea''' or '''Bihiya''' (historically spelled in British sources as '''Bihiā''' or '''Beheea'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=J. H. |date=1874-06-01 |title=Report on Cholera in the Shahabad District |journal=The Indian Medical Gazette |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=146–147 |issn=0019-5863 |pmc=5128170 |pmid=28995022}}</ref>) is a nagar panchayat town and block in [[Bhojpur district, India|Bhojpur district]] in the Indian state of [[Bihar]]. Historically, it was a seat of the [[Harihobans|Harihoban]] [[Rajput|Rajputs]] and later, in the colonial era, became the headquarters of the influential Bihiā Estate. The town is particularly notable for the 19th-century invention of the Bihiā Mill, a bullock-powered sugar mill that became widely adopted.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Bihar District Census Handbook - Bhojpur, Part A (Village and Town Directory) |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/BiharA.html |access-date=1 April 2020 |website=Census 2011 India |pages=42, 46–47, 51–55, 59–61, 63, 71–84, 90, 92, 94, 752, 808–809}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=O'Malley |first=Lewis Sydney Steward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R0_RAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22shahabad+district%22&pg=PA1 |title=Shahabad |date=1906 |publisher=Bengal Secretariat Book Department |language=en}}</ref>

==History==

=== Early history ===
Historically, Bihiya was an early seat of power for the [[Chero]] tribe, who are said to have had a palace in the area. The Cheros were later displaced by the [[Harihobans|Harihoban]] Rajputs. After migrating from the Central Provinces and then the Saran district, the Harihobans settled in Bihiya and, after a conflict lasting over a century, established it as their chief seat. Remains of their ancestral fort are reportedly still present.<ref name=":0" />

According to tradition, in 1528,<ref name="Peasant Revolt">{{cite journal |author=Kalyan Mukherjee |year=1979 |title=Peasant Revolt in Bhojpur |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=14 |issue=36 |pages=1536–1538 |jstor=4367921}}</ref> the scion of the Bihiya Harihobans, whose name is given as either Ram Pal Singh<ref name="Peasant Revolt" /> or Bhopat Deo,<ref name="Census 2011" /> raped a local [[Brahmin]] woman named Mathin or Mahini, in line with the custom of "[[Droit du seigneur#Europe|taking of dola]]", which allowed the local Rajput lord to sleep with a lower-caste woman on her wedding night.<ref name="Peasant Revolt" /> Mathin then committed suicide, but not before laying a curse upon the Harihobans, who eventually left Bihiya and moved to [[Ballia]] across the [[Ganges]].<ref name="Census 2011" /> A temple called the Mathin Dai was built in Bihiya in her memory.

=== Colonial era ===
After the [[revolt of 1857]], the trajectory of the area was transformed. The lands around the town, which were part of the confiscated property of the [[Kunwar Singh]], were consolidated by the British government into the ''Bihiā estate''. As a reward for their services, this estate was settled for 50 years with Messrs. Burrows, Thomson and Mylne.

The new proprietors undertook significant development. The surrounding jungle, which had served as a refuge for rebels, was systematically cleared. The estate started the construction of the [[Bihia Canal]], a 31-mile-long offshoot of the [[Arrah Canal]] that irrigated the area.<ref name="Gazetteer">{{cite book |last1=Hunter |first1=William Wilson |title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Volume II: Balasor to Biramganta |date=1885 |publisher=Trübner & Co. |location=London |page=422 |edition=Second |url=https://archive.org/details/imperialgazette02huntuoft/page/n7/mode/2up |access-date=6 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

Bihiya was first listed as a nagar panchayat town in the 1980s.<ref name="Census 2011" />

==Demographics==
{{historical populations
| align = left
| source = [[2011 Census of India]]<ref name="Census 2011"/>

| 1971 | 8253
| 1981 | 11602
| 1991 | 17082
| 2001 | 20741
| 2011 | 26707
}}
As of the 2001 [[census]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999|archive-date=2004-06-16|title= Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)|access-date=2008-11-01|publisher= Census Commission of India}}</ref> the population was approximately 25,000, of which 17% were below age 6. The population was primarily a mix of Hindus and Muslims, and the primary spoken language was [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]]. 59% of the population was reported to be [[Literacy in India|literate]], including 41% among females.

The population of Bihiya sub-district in 2001 was 139,374; this increased to 151,722 by 2011. Likewise, the population of the town of Bihiya itself increased by 28.8%, from 20,741 in 2001 to 26,707 in 2011. The district overall had a [[sex ratio]] of 918 in 2011 (917 in rural areas, and 920 in the town of Bihiya itself). In the 0-6 age group, the ratio was higher: 923 in rural areas, 964 in the town of Bihiya, and 928 overall. Members of [[scheduled castes]] formed 16.65% of the sub-district's total population, and 9.09% of the population of the town of Bihiya. Likewise, members of [[scheduled tribes]] constituted 1.39% of the total population of the sub-district, and 3.21% of the population of the town of Bihiya. The 3.21% of scheduled tribe members in the town of Bihiya was the highest percentage of towns in Bhojpur district in 2011. The literacy rate of the sub-district as a whole was 67.8% in 2011 (69.4% in rural areas, and 78.2% in the town of Bihiya itself).<ref name="Census 2011" />

25.66% of the population of Bihiya sub-district, and 24.31% of the population of the town of Bihiya, was engaged in main or marginal work in 2011; both figures were the lowest in Bhojpur district for sub-districts and towns respectively. A plurality of workers in Bihiya sub-district were agricultural labourers who did not own or rent their own land (instead, they work on another person's land for wages), accounting for 40.79% of the workforce. Cultivators who did own or lease their own land constituted 25.05% of the sub-district's workforce, household industry workers were 4.10%, and other workers were the remaining 29.24%. These figures were all fairly close to the average for the entire district of Bhojpur. Patterns of employment were different in the town of Bihiya, where both categories of agricultural workers combined formed less than 20% of the workforce. Other workers were 70.49%, compared to the 72.55% average for all towns in Bhojpur.<ref name="Census 2011" />

== Transport ==
Behea is served by a railway station and bus stop.

==Economy==
=== Bihiā mills ===
In the late 19th century, the town became best known for an important agricultural invention: the iron roller sugar mill. Invented in 1874 by Messrs. Thomson and Mylne of the Bihiā Estate, these bullock-powered mills were a significant improvement over the crude machines then in use. The "Bihiā mills" became immensely popular across the region, establishing the town as a center of local industry and innovation.<ref name=":0" />

The main occupations are agriculture and commerce. Behea is in a fertile agricultural area where the main crops are wheat and rice.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://farmech.dac.gov.in/FarmerGuide/BI/index1.html|title=Bihar|website=farmech.dac.gov.in|access-date=2019-12-22}}</ref> Farmers are independent land owners who raise their own cattle and crops. A small number of [[Zamindars]] (landlords) rent their farms to others. The main water source for irrigation is a tributary of the [[Ganga|Ganga river]].

Of the total land area in Bihiya sub-district, 71.92% is under cultivation; of the cultivated area, 63.91% is [[Irrigation in India|irrigated]].<ref name="Census 2011" />

Small-scale industries include an asbestos factory and brick-making.

Behea is a business hub for small-scale traders, who mainly collect agricultural products from farmers to sell elsewhere. Power shortages constrict Behea's economic potential.

The commercial district is the Raja Bazaar on Station Road, which includes shopping complexes such as the Jagdamba Market. Jewelry shops dominate the district.

According to the 2011 Census of India, the main three commodities manufactured in the town of Bihiya are [[bamboo]] products, [[brooms]], and [[biscuits]].<ref name="Census 2011" />
==List of villages==
Apart from the town of Bihiya, the block of Bihiya comprises the following 98 villages, of which 76 are inhabited and 22 are uninhabited:<ref name="Census 2011" /> (GP = [[Gram Panchayat]])

{| class="wikitable sortable"

|-
! Village name
! Total land area (hectares)
! Population (in 2011)
|-
| Amiya || 46 || 804
|-
| Amrai || 342 || 2,033
|-
| [[Andar, Bihiya|Andar]] || 219 || 1,790
|-
| Andauli || 50 || 253
|-
| Bagahin || 96 || 4,653
|-
| Banahin || 348 || 1,841
|-
| Bandha || 79 || 2,287
|-
| Bankat || 22 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| [[Bankat, Bihiya|Bankat]] || 171 || 3,077
|-
| Bara || 153 || 1,938
|-
| [[Baruna, Bihiya|Baruna]] || 130 || 1,035
|-
| Basdeopur || 122 || 1,103
|-
| [[Bela, Bihiya|Bela]] || 39 || 732
|-
| [[Belauna, Bihiya|Belauna]] || 76 || 1,249
|-
| Bharsanda Jado || 87 || 3,163
|-
| Bharsanda Mangit || 104 || 1,310
|-
| Bhinriya || 111 || 1,249
|-
| [[Bhoja Chak]] || 43 || 316
|-
| [[Bibi Mah Chak]] || 42 || 281
|-
| Bikrampur || 26 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Bikrampur || 145 || 936
|-
| Birpur || 136 || 2,785
|-
| [[Chakwath, Bihiya|Chakwath]] (GP) || 482 || 4,964
|-
| Chaughara || 57 || 133
|-
| [[Dalpatpur, Bihiya|Dalpatpur]] || 40 || 960
|-
| Dariwan || 102 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Dhanikara || 28 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Dharhara || 50 || 881
|-
| [[Dodhra, Bihiya|Dodhra]] (GP) || 253 || 4,108
|-
| [[Dubauli, Bihiya|Dubauli]] || 28 || 224
|-
| Dusadhi Chak || 39 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| English Pur
|50
|900
|-
| Gajrar || 130 || 785
|-
| Garhatha || 53 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Gaudar Chak Tal || 45 || 60
|-
| Gaudar Rudar Nagar (GP) || 208 || 5,015
|-
| Ghagha (GP) || 70 || 2,126
|-
| [[Hirdepur, Bihiya|Hirdepur]] || 89 || 294
|-
| Itwa || 108 || 2,207
|-
| [[Jadopr, Bihiya|Jadopur]] || 278 || 2,923
|-
| [[Jamua, Bihiya|Jamua]] || 176 || 2,308
|-
| Jogibir || 197 || 1,661
|-
| Kaleyanpur (GP) || 269 || 5,923
|-
| [[Kamriaon, Bihiya|Kamriaon]] (GP) || 251 || 4,259
|-
| Kanela || 34 || 841
|-
| Kaneli || 126 || 1,815
|-
| Kanhai Geyan Sinh || 131 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Karkhiyan || 106 || 1,168
|-
| [[Katea, Bihiya|Katea]] (GP) || 582 || 6,329
|-
| Kauriya || 191 || 2,208
|-
| Kawalpura || 60 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Kewal Patti || 129 || 1,023
|-
| [[Khakhu Bandh]] || 202 || 426
|-
| Kharauni || 153 || 1,373
|-
| Kuardah || 114 || 907
|-
| Kundesar || 362 || 3,141
|-
| [[Mahuaon]] || 291 || 3,093
|-
| Makhdumpur || 89 || 946
|-
| Maniara || 206 || 1,565
|-
| Marinpur || 141 || 1,317
|-
| Marwatia || 86 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Maujhali (GP) || 171 || 3,162
|-
| [[Meha Chak, Bihiya|Meha Chak]] || 110 || 71
|-
| [[Misrauli, Bihiya|Misrauli]] || 53 || 1,222
|-
| Mohanpur || 27 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Moti Rampur || 27 || 875
|-
| [[Nainagarha, Bihiya|Nainagarha]] || 35 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Narayanpur || 32 || 1,297
|-
| Narayanpur || 46 || 546
|-
| [[Nausha Tanr, Bihiya|Nausha Tanr]] || 87 || 1,019
|-
| Nawada || 199 || 2,058
|-
| [[Nawadih, Bihiya|Nawadih]] || 113 || 1,059
|-
| [[Osain, Bihiya|Osain]] || 480 || 6,308
|-
| Pahari Pipra || 32 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Parariya || 40 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Patkhaulia || 36 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Phingi (GP) || 152 || 2,557
|-
| [[Phulai, Bihiya|Phulai]] || 65 || 955
|-
| Pipra Jagdishpur (GP) || 115 || 2,830
|-
| Rajaur || 309 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| [[Ramdatahi, Bihiya|Ramdatahi]] || 18 || 321
|-
| Ramdubwal || 74 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Rampur || 40 || 520
|-
| Rani Sagar (GP) || 113 || 7,711
|-
| Rati Dubawal || 61 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Rustampur || 48 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Sahjauli || 180 || 1,473
|-
| Saho Dih || 191 || 1,673
|-
| [[Samardah, Bihiya|Samardah]] || 103 || 2,282
|-
| [[Sharaur, Bihiya|Sharaur]] || 183 || 2,175
|-
| Shiupur (GP) || 217 || 2,653
|-
| [[Sikariya, Bihiya|Sikariya]] || 352 || 2,843
|-
| Sirampur || 19 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Sukhari Chak || 41 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| Sukrauli || 67 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|-
| [[Teghra, Bihiya|Teghra]] || 130 || 3,049
|-
| Tetariya || 99 || 907
|-
| [[Tiar, Bihiya|Tiar]] (GP) || 841 || 4,338
|-
| Tikhpur || 156 || 0 ''(uninhabited)''
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Patna Division}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Bhojpur district, India]]

Congress for Democracy

2025-11-02T05:33:59Z

Shubhamsaini9: revise

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox Indian Political Party
| party_name = Congress for Democracy
| founder = [[Jagjivan Ram]]
|leader =
*[[Jagjivan Ram]]
*[[Kadidal Manjappa]]
*[[Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna]]
| foundation = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1977|2|2}}
|dissolution = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1977|5|5}}
|merged = [[Janata Party]]
}}

The '''Congress for Democracy''' (CFD) was an Indian political party founded in 1977 by [[Jagjivan Ram]]. It was formed after [[Jagjivan Ram]], [[Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna]], and [[Nandini Satpathy]] left the [[Indian National Congress]] of [[Indira Gandhi]] and denounced her rule during the [[Indian Emergency]]. The party contested the [[1977 Indian general election]] with the [[Janata alliance]] and later merged with it.

==Formation==

[[Jagjivan Ram]] was a senior politician within the [[Indian National Congress]] and had been a loyalist of [[Indira Gandhi]]. He had held various cabinet posts, and had served as [[Minister of Defence (India)|India's defence minister]] during the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]. He was also the most prominent [[Scheduled Caste]] or [[Dalit]] politician in the nation.{{When|date=October 2025}}{{Attribution needed|date=October 2025}}

Ram had stayed loyal to Indira after she imposed a [[state of emergency]] in 1975. However, the state of emergency had proven widely unpopular and upon calling elections in 1977, it became apparent that Indira's [[Indian National Congress]] could suffer defeat. Consequently, Ram and his supporters resigned from the government and the [[Indian National Congress]] in January 1977, denouncing [[Indira Gandhi]] and her Emergency rule.

The Congress for Democracy was launched on 2 February 1977.<ref name="B">{{cite book|title=320 Million Judges|author=G. G. Mirchandani|pages=90–100|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=2003|isbn=81-7017-061-3}}</ref> [[Jagjivan Ram]] became the president of the party and former [[Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh]] [[Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna]] became the party general secretary. Other co-founders included the former [[List of chief ministers of Mysore|Chief minister of Mysore]] (Now [[Karnataka]]) [[Kadidal Manjappa]], who later became Party President, former [[Chief Minister of Orissa]] [[Nandini Satpathy]], former Union Minister of State for Finance [[K. R. Ganesh]], former M.P. [[Dwarka Nath Tiwary]] and [[Bihar]]i politician [[Raj Mangal Pandey]].<ref name="B"/>

==1977 election==

Although the new party was mocked by Indira's [[Indian National Congress]] as the "Congress for Defectors"<ref name="B"/> [[Jagjivan Ram]]'s support was actively courted by the opposition [[Janata party]] alliance as he was the most influential Scheduled Caste leader in the country.<ref name="B"/> While the Congress for Democracy agreed to jointly campaign and contest the election with the [[Janata party]], it stated that it would maintain a separate organisation and identity.<ref name="B"/>

In the 1977 elections, the Janata-CFD alliance won 298 seats, ousting the [[Indian National Congress]] from power for the first time in 30 years. The Congress for Democracy itself won only 28 seats, but its role in raising significant support for the Janata alliance amongst India's Scheduled Caste communities, formerly a loyal Congress base, earned it considerable influence in the formation of a new government.<ref name="B"/>

==Merger with Janata==

Along with [[Morarji Desai]] and [[Charan Singh]], [[Jagjivan Ram]] was a leading candidate to become the new [[Prime Minister of India]] as head of the Janata-CFD coalition.<ref name="B"/> Seeking to avoid a divisive contest, Janata leaders asked [[Jayaprakash Narayan]] (JP), who was seen as the spiritual leader of the party, to choose the leader, pledging to abide by his choice.

When JP chose Desai, the CFD expressed criticism at the un-democratic selection of the leader and hesitated about joining the government. However, JP and Desai coaxed Ram into joining the government as a [[Deputy Prime Minister of India]] and Minister of Defence. H. N. Bahuguna joined the Cabinet as [[Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers|Minister of Petroleum and Chemicals]]. On 5 May 1977 the Congress for Democracy announced its intention to merge its organisation with the [[Janata Party]].<ref name="B"/>

==Post-Janata==

Despite joining the ranks of the [[Janata Party]], CFD politicians remained specifically loyal to [[Jagjivan Ram]]. When Ram withdrew his support for the Desai government in 1979, he was supported by a significant number of former CFD MPs. With the fall of the Janata government in 1979-80, Ram and his supporters formed the [[Congress (J)]] - "J" standing for "Jagjivan", which maintained a small presence in the Indian Parliament.{{fact|date=August 2024}}

Bahuguna rejoined the Congress (I) for a brief period before founding Socialist Democratic Front.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lieten |first=Georges Kristoffel |date=1980 |title=Janata as a Continuity of the System |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3520400 |journal=Social Scientist |volume=9 |issue=5/6 |pages=14–35 |doi=10.2307/3520400 |jstor=3520400 |issn=0970-0293|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Indian National Congress (Jagjivan)]]
* [[Janata Party]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Indian political parties}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Defunct political parties in India]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1977]]
[[Category:1977 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Political parties disestablished in 1977]]
[[Category:1977 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress breakaway groups]]

K. Anvar Sadath

2025-10-28T16:22:04Z

Shubhamsaini9: starting new details w/ refs - done

{{Short description|Indian science writer}}
{{excessive citations|date=September 2025}}
{{For|others with similar name|Anwar Sadath}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = K. Anvar Sadath
| image = Anvar Sadath-CEO-KITE-Kerala 02.jpg
| caption = Anvar Sadath in 2023
| birth_name = K. Anvar Sadath
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1973|09|24}}
| birth_place = [[Malappuram]], [[Malappuram district]], [[Kerala]]), India
| office = State Office. KITE IT Division, [[Poojapura]]. Thiruvananthapuram
| awards = AECT's International Contributions Award
| children =
| parents =
| website =
}}
'''K. Anvar Sadath''' (born 24 September 1973) is a Malayalam science writer and the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of [[KITE Kerala|Kerala Infrastructure and Technology for Education]] (KITE),<ref>{{Cite web |title=IIT Palakkad |url=https://iitpkd.ac.in/palebluedot |access-date=2025-09-15 |website=iitpkd.ac.in}}</ref><ref name="INDIA">{{Cite web |title=AI education is a double-edged sword right now, says K Anvar Sadath, CEO of KITE, Kerala |url=https://indiaai.gov.in/article/ai-education-is-a-double-edged-sword-right-now-says-k-anvar-sadath-ceo-of-kite-kerala |access-date=2025-09-15 |website=IndiaAI |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Asia |first=EDUtech |date=2023-02-16 |title=In Conversation With… K Anvar Sadath, KITE, Governmnet of Kerala - EDUtech_talks |url=https://edutechtalks.com/in-conversation-with-k-anvar-sadath-kite-governmnet-of-kerala/ |access-date=2025-09-16 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Program Schedule {{!}} Big Data and Artificial Intelligence Conference 2025 |url=https://bda2025.iiitb.net/program-schedule/ |access-date=2025-09-16 |language=en-US}}</ref> a state-owned company in [[Kerala]], India. Anwar received [[Association for Educational Communications and Technology|AECT]]'s International Contributions Award for his contributions to the field of digital education.<ref name="HINDU">{{Cite news |last=Reporter |first=Staff |date=2018-08-01 |title=KITE chief wins global award |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/kite-chief-wins-global-award/article24574632.ece |access-date=2025-09-15 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Kerala IT Administrator Becomes First Indian To Receive AECT Award |url=https://www.ndtv.com/kerala-news/kerala-it-administrator-becomes-first-indian-to-receive-aect-award-1937961 |access-date=2018-10-26 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

== Early life and education ==
Anwar was born on September 24, 1973, in [[Karuvarakundu]], Malappuram district, Kerala. He studied physics in [[Government Victoria College, Palakkad]], and got MCA (Master of Computer Applications) from [[Government Engineering College, Thiruvananthapuram]].

== Career ==
Anwar has worked at the [[C-DAC Thiruvananthapuram|Centre for Development of Advanced Computing]] (C-DAC), [[Information Kerala Mission]] and the [[Kerala State IT Mission]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=ആർക്കൈവ് പകർപ്പ് |url=http://www.puzha.com/malayalam/bookstore/cgi-bin/author-detail.cgi?code=2035 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531153157/http://www.puzha.com/malayalam/bookstore/cgi-bin/author-detail.cgi?code=2035 |archive-date=2012-05-31 |access-date=2012-01-10}}</ref> He is the Executive Director of IT @ School Project in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-06-27 |title=Kerala IT@School to dispose one crore Kg e-Waste |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/kerala-itschool-to-dispose-one-crore-kg-e-waste/738340/ |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=The Financial Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Network |first=digitalLEARNING |date=2010-12-31 |title=IT Education @Kerala : K Anvar Sadath, Govt of Kerala, India - Elets digitalLEARNING - Elets Digital Learning |url=https://digitallearning.eletsonline.com/2011/01/it-education-kerala-k-anvar-sadath-govt-of-kerala-india/ |access-date=2025-09-15 |website=Elets digitalLEARNING |language=en-GB}}</ref> which was operated under the Education Department of Kerala.

He later joined as CEO of Kerala Infrastructure and Technology for Education. Some of his major work include starting 45,000 high-tech classrooms in Kerala,<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IANS |date=2017-11-23 |title=45,000 classrooms to go hi-tech in Kerala |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/kerala/45000-classrooms-go-hi-tech-kerala-72067 |access-date=2025-08-13 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Bharathi">{{Cite web |last=Bharathi |first=Vartha |title=Kerala IT administrator Anvar Sadath gets global recognition |url=https://english.varthabharati.in/india/kerala-it-administrator-anvar-sadath-gets-global-recognition |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=english.varthabharati.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=K. Anvar Sadath- Speaker in Kerala Architectural Festival KAF –2019{{!}} Keralaarchitecturalfestival.com |url=http://www.keralaarchitecturefestival.com/speakers_more.aspx?id=MzQ2 |access-date=2025-09-15 |website=www.keralaarchitecturefestival.com}}</ref> setting up 16,000 high-tech labs in schools,<ref>{{Cite web |last=migrator |date=2020-10-12 |title=Kerala becomes first state to go digital in public education |website=[[DT Next]] |url=https://www.dtnext.in/national/2020/10/12/kerala-becomes-first-state-to-go-digital-in-public-education |access-date=2025-08-13 |language=en}}</ref> starting School Wiki,<ref>{{Cite web |last=migrator |date=2020-10-12 |title=SchoolWiki to be re-launched |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/SchoolWiki-to-be-re-launched/article16085897.ece |access-date=2016-12-02 |work=The Hindu |language=en}}</ref> Samagra resource portal,<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-05-29 |title=Chief Minister to launch Samagra portal tomorrow |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/chief-minister-to-launch-samagra-portal-tomorrow/article24024376.ece |access-date=2025-09-15 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> "First Bell", digital classes for students in Kerala<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-07-27 |title=US to West Asia, Kerala govt's digital classes find learners across continents |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/education/us-to-west-asia-kerala-govts-digital-classes-find-learners-across-continents-6524994/ |access-date=2025-09-15 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-13 |title=Digital is future, KITE is here to stay: Anvar Sadath |url=https://englisharchives.mathrubhumi.com/features/web-exclusive/educationkeralascert-ca561be4 |access-date=2025-08-13 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=COVID-19: 81000 teachers to be trained online in Kerala |url=https://www.thehawk.in/news/showbiz/covid-19:-81000-teachers-to-be-trained-online-in-kerala |access-date=2025-09-16 |website=www.thehawk.in |language=en}}</ref> etc.

== Published books ==

* Internet Prayogavum Sadhyathayum<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anvar sadath |first=K. |url=https://find.uoc.ac.in/Record/291796/Details |title=ഇന്റർനെറ്റ് പ്രയോഗവും സാധ്യതയും |publisher=Chintha Publishers |location=Libray catalogue, University of Calicut}}</ref>
* Cyber crime and Indian cyber rule<ref>{{Cite book |last=Anvar sadath |first=K. |url=http://catalogue.nirmalagiricollege.ac.in/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=26125 |title=Cyber Kuttakrithyangalum Indian Cyber Niyamavum |publisher=D.C. Books |location=kottayam }}{{Dead link|date=September 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref>
* Nano technology: athisookshmathalathile sadyathayam prayogavum <ref>{{Cite book |last=Sadat |first=K. Anvar |url=http://opac.cusat.ac.in/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=50622&query_desc=pb:D.%20C.%20Books%20and%20branch:UL%20and%20branch:UL%20and%20branch:UL%20and%20branch:UL |title=Nano technology:athisookshmathalathile sadyathayam prayogavum |date=2005 |publisher=D.C. Books |isbn=978-81-264-1015-6 |location=Kottayam}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sadath |first=Anwar |url=http://library.assumptioncollege.edu.in/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=40546&shelfbrowse_itemnumber=41888 |title=Nanotechnology: Athisookshmathalathile Sadhyathayum Prayogavum |date=2006 |publisher=D.C. Books |location=Kottayam}}</ref>
* The tech world closer look<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Author K Avar Sadath |url=https://keralabookstore.com/about-author/k-avar-sadath/2544/ |access-date=2025-08-13 |language=ml}}</ref>

== Awards ==

* 2005: Award for Best Science Writing from the [[Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=ആർക്കൈവ് പകർപ്പ് |url=http://www.kscste.kerala.gov.in/pgm_sla.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320225056/http://www.kscste.kerala.gov.in/pgm_sla.htm |archive-date=2012-03-20 |access-date=2012-01-10}}</ref>
* 2012: Dr. C. P. Menon Memorial Award for Best Science Book.<ref>{{Cite web |title=K. Anvar Sadath- Speaker in Kerala Architectural Festival KAF –2019{{!}} Keralaarchitecturalfestival.com |url=http://www.keralaarchitecturefestival.com/speakers_more.aspx?id=MzQ2 |access-date=2025-08-13}}</ref>
* 2022: Prof. N. A. Kareem Award from the Vakkam Moulavi Foundation Trust for his contributions to the field of digital education.<ref>{{Cite web |title=എൻ.എ.കരീം അവാർഡ് അൻവർ സാദത്തിന് |date=8 July 2022 |url=https://newspaper.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/kerala-1.7675150 |access-date=2022-07-10 |language=en}}</ref>
* AECT International Award: He received an international award from the [[Association for Educational Communications and Technology]] (AECT) for his contributions to the field of digital education.<ref name="HINDU"/><ref name=":0"/><ref name="Bharathi"/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:1973 births]]
[[Category:People from Malappuram district]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Tattapani (Himachal Pradesh)

2025-10-18T16:12:57Z

Shubhamsaini9: created article.

{{Other uses|Tatta Pani (disambiguation){{!}}Tatta Pani}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Tattapani
| native_name = ''तत्तापानी''
| name =
| settlement_type =
| image_skyline = Tattapani Hot Springs next to Sutlej River Himachal Pradesh India.jpg
| imagesize =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_map =
| mapsize = 150 px
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India
| pushpin_label_position = 
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_mapsize =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| subdivision_type = [[Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Subdivisions of India|Province]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Himachal Pradesh]]
| population_total = 2000
| population_as_of =
| population_est =
| pop_est_as_of =
| population_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_m = 665
| population_density_km2 =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| leader_title1 =
| leader_name1 =
| area_code = 01907
| area_code_type = [[List of dialling codes of India|Calling code]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| footnotes =
| coordinates = {{coords|31.2487|77.0878|display=it}}
}}
'''Tattapani''' village is located in [[Seoni, Himachal Pradesh|Sunni]] near [[Karsog]], [[Mandi district]] at a distance of 52 km from [[Shimla]] and 29 km from Naldehra. It is situated on the right bank of river [[Sutlej|Satluj]] at an altitude of 2,230 ft. above the sea level.

It is known for its hot water springs.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lohumi|first=Bhanu P|date=13 January 2021|title=After 92 years, no traditional 'khichdi bhandara' at Tattapani|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/himachal/after-92-years-no-traditional-khichdi-bhandara-at-tattapani-198034|access-date=2021-08-27|website=Tribune India}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sengar|first=Resham|date=23 March 2021|title=Take a dip at India's best natural hot water springs|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/take-a-dip-at-indias-best-natural-hot-water-springs/photostory/81643064.cms|access-date=2021-08-27|website=Times of India Travel}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Mandi district}}

[[Category:Villages in Mandi district]]

{{HimachalPradesh-geo-stub}}

Akbarbhai Chavda

2025-10-07T03:58:58Z

Shubhamsaini9: Improved article clarity and structure

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1916)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Akbarbhai Chavda
| birth_name =
| caption =
| image =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1916|4|10|df=y}}
| birth_place = Parantij, Sabarkantha, Gujarat, India
| residence =
| death_date = {{death date|1997|1|21|df=y}}
| death_place = Sabarkantha, Gujarat, India
| office1 = [[Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]
| constituency3 = [[Banaskantha (Lok Sabha constituency)|Banaskantha]], [[Gujarat]]
| term1 = 1952–1962
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 = [[Zohraben Chavda]]
| office2 =
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| religion =
| otherparty =
| spouse = Zohraben Chavda
| children =
| website =
| footnotes =
| date = |
| year = |
| source = https://loksabha.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/659.htm
}}

'''Akbarbhai Dalumiya Chavda''' (born 10 April 1916) was an Indian social worker, Gandhian and politician. He was elected to the 1st and 2nd [[Lok Sabha]], the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]] from [[Banaskantha (Lok Sabha constituency)|Banaskantha]] constituency in [[Gujarat]].<ref name="Sabha2003">{{cite book|author=India. Parliament. Lok Sabha|title=Indian Parliamentary Companion: Who's who of Members of Lok Sabha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLZVAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=14 May 2019|year=2003|publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat|page=96}}</ref><ref name="PathakParekh1966">{{cite book|author1=Devavrat N. Pathak|author2=Mathuradas Govindji Parekh|author3=Kirtidev Dahyabhai Desai|title=Three general elections in Gujarat: development of a decade, 1952-1962|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t0Q5AQAAIAAJ|accessdate=14 May 2019|year=1966|publisher=Gujarat University|page=156}}</ref><ref name="Tribes1953">{{cite book|author=India. Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|title=Report of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MehFAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA13|accessdate=14 May 2019|year=1953|publisher=Manager, Government of India Press|page=13}}</ref> He was succeeded as an MP by his wife Zohraben, who was elected to the 3rd Lok Sabha in 1967.

== Life ==
Chavda started out with a job in the police department, but watching the Indian freedom struggle inspired him to join and fight for his country. Leaving his job, he became a follower of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] and contributed to the movement across the country, until finally in 1947 India became a free and independent country.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Pioneer Founder – Sarvodaya Ashram Sanali |url=https://www.sanaliashram.com/pioneer-founder/ |access-date=2023-06-08 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Post independence, while traveling in the tribal areas of Danta taluka in 1948-49, he witnessed firsthand, the lack of development - near zero literacy, the predominance of a hunter gatherer lifestyle and the apparent exploitation of the region by the local prince. He took it upon himself to help and started a small school in a hut with five children. His wife Zohraben was his steadfast partner in these endeavours.<ref name=":0" />

== Political career ==
In 1952, Chavda was elected to the 1st Session of the Lok sabha as an MP from [[Banaskantha district|Banaskantha]] district. Despite his duties as a lawmaker, he maintained a close relationship with Sanali, opening an Ayurvedic clinic to tend to the health and welfare of the local tribal people. This was soon followed by the establishment of a primary school in the taluka.<ref name=":0" />

Meanwhile, the government had announced the 1952 Sarvodaya Yojana, a Gandhian plan spearheaded by [[Jayaprakash Narayan|Jaiprakash Narayan]] that sought to address the fields of education, agriculture, village industry and health, focusing on improving the situation of India's most rural citizens.

He worked in the service of those who needed help, extolling his motto "labor, service, and simplicity". Averse to wealth, he wore simple clothes, didn't own a house and didn't seek financial gain. Chavda was respectfully known as the Gandhiji of Banaskantha, where he served as the District Congress President and as the Chairman of the District Education Committee.<ref name=":0" />

His Ashram at Sanali still stands and continues his work of education and charity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us – Sarvodaya Ashram Sanali |url=https://www.sanaliashram.com/about-us/ |access-date=2023-06-08 |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Death ==
Akbarbhai Chavda died on 21 January 1997.<ref name=":0" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://loksabha.nic.in/writereaddata/biodata_1_12/659.htm Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chavda, Akbarbhai}}
[[Category:1916 births]]
[[Category:1997 deaths]]
[[Category:India MPs 1952–1957]]
[[Category:India MPs 1957–1962]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Gujarat]]
[[Category:Gandhians]]

{{Gujarat-INC-politician-stub}}

Rajesh Cherthala

2025-09-28T20:50:36Z

Shubhamsaini9: update formatting further and improved wording

{{short description|Indian musician}}
{{Notability|Music|date=December 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Rajesh Cherthala
| image =
| birth_name = Rajesh Kumar MD
| birth_place = [[Cherthala]], [[Alappuzha district]], [[Kerala]], India
| occupation = Musician
| years_active = 2004 - Present
| instrument = Flute
| caption = Rajesh performing at one of his concerts
| genre = * Carnatic
* Hindustani
* Western
| website = http://rajeshcherthala.in/
| origin = [[India]]
| birth_date = 9 June 1978
}}

'''Rajesh Cherthala''' (born 9 June 1978) is a musician and flutist from [[Cherthala]], [[Kerala]], in [[India]], who has been recorded on more than 150 Indian film songs. He is known for his live performances of fusion music incorporating a variety of genres like Western, Carnatic and Hindustani.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/rajesh-cherthala-my-dream-is-to-perform-more-carnatic-and-hindustani-concerts/articleshow/70534576.cms|title=Rajesh Cherthala: My dream is to perform more Carnatic and Hindustani concerts |date=August 6, 2019|first=Deepa |last=Soman |website=The Times of India|language=en|access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Rajesh was born as eldest son of Cherthala Math Dasappan and Nirmala in [[Cherthala]], [[Alappuzha district]], Kerala.<ref name="Mathrubhumi">{{cite news |last1=Biju |first1=Antony |title=പുല്ലാങ്കുഴലിന്റെ പാട്ടുകാരൻ |url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/features/malayalam-news-1.1578782 |work=Mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref> He studied at St. Mathews High School, Kannankara and SN College, Cherthala.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> His parents encouraged him to learn music in his childhood days.

His wife is Raji Rajesh. They have two daughters Amala. R.Das and Amrutha.R.Das.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rajeshcherthala.in/bio.html|title=Rajesh_Cherthala|website=rajeshcherthala.in|access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mediaonetv.in/videos/2019/02/16/rajesh-cherthala-flute|title=വിശേഷങ്ങള്‍ പങ്കുവെച്ച് പുല്ലാങ്കുഴൽ വിസ്മയം രാജേഷ് ചേർത്തല|website=mediaone|access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref>

== Career ==
His first teacher was an artist named 'Sunbright' from Puthanangadi, Cherthala.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> [[Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia]] is his Guru now.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> He studies flute at Chaurasya's Vrindavan Gurukul in [[Mumbai]], staying with him.<ref name="Mathrubhumi"/> His first studio recording was that conducted by violinist Thiruvizha Ullas at [[Kalabhavan|Kalabhavan Kochi]], Rajesh was introduced into cinema by [[Jassie Gift]], one of the well-known Malayalam playback singers from Kerala, in 2004. Later, he went on to play for over 300 films, completing more than 1,000 songs (not to include the albums).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://malayalam.news18.com/photogallery/kerala/rajesh-cherthala-music-performance-at-sannidhanam-rv-191955.html|title=സന്നിധാനത്ത് മധുമുരളിയിൽ നാദമഴ പെയ്യിച്ച് രാജേഷ് ചേർത്തലയും സംഘവും|date=2020-01-04|website=News18 Malayalam|access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/thiruvananthapuram/2018/jun/22/making-melodious-music-1831648.html | newspaper=[[New Indian Express]] | accessdate=30 December 2019 | title=Making melodious music: Flautist Rajesh Cherthala says he aims to bring comfort to people through his music | author=Neha Anna Thomas | date=22 June 2018 }}</ref>

== Filmography ==
Rajesh performed as an instrumentalist for the following films:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rajeshcherthala.in/movies.html|title=Rajesh_Cherthala|website=rajeshcherthala.in|access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref>

{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
* [[Rain Rain Come Again|Rain rain come again]]
* [[Ashwaroodan|Aswaroodan]]
* [[Anandabhadram|Ananda bhadram]]
* [[Arabikkatha|Arabikkadha]]
* [[Nasrani (film)|Nasrani]]
* [[Kavyam]]
* [[Love in Singapore (2009 film)|Love in Singapore]]
* [[Daddy Cool (2009 Malayalam film)|Daddy Cool]]
* [[Minnaminnikoottam|Minnaminni koottam]]
* [[Dam 999]]
* [[Best Actor (film)|Best Actor]]
* [[Mayamohini]]
* [[Avatharam (2014 Malayalam film)|Avatharam]]
* [[Jawan of Vellimala|Jewan of Vellimala]]
* [[Rose Guitarinaal|Rose Guitarinal]]
* [[Kaliyachan]]
* [[American-Born Confused Desi|ABCD]]
* [[Balyakalasakhi (2014 film)|Balyakalasakhi]]
* [[Pakida]]
* [[Polytechnic (film)|Poly Technic]]
* [[Vedivazhipadu|Vedi vazhipadu]]
* [[Ring Master]]
* [[Bangalore Days]]
* [[Munnariyippu]]
* [[Mr. Fraud|Mr.Fraud]]
* [[Angry Babies in Love|AngriBabies in Love]]
* [[Vikramadithyan|Vikramadityan]]
* [[Manglish (film)|Manglish]]
* [[Law Point|Low point]]
* [[Varsham (2014 film)|varsham]]
* [[Ithihasa|Ithihas]]
* [[Ormayundo Ee Mukham]]
* [[Abhiyum Njanum]]
* [[Swargathekkal Sundaram|Sworgathekkal Sundaram]]
* [[Bhaskar the Rascal]]
* [[Loham]]
* [[Mathai Kuzhappakkaranalla|Mathai kuzhappakkaranalla]]
* [[Kanthari]]
* [[Chirakodinja Kinavukal]]
* [[Lukka Chuppi|Lukka Chuppy]]
* [[Oru Second Class Yathra|Oru Second class Yatra]]
* [[Premam]]
* [[KL 10 Patthu|KL10]]
* [[Anarkali|Anarkkali]]
* [[Rani Padmini (film)|RaniPadmini]]
* [[She Taxi (film)|SheeTaxy]]
* [[Pathemari|pathemary]]
* [[Sarathi (2011 film)|Sarathi]]
* [[Vellimoonga]]
* [[Left Right Left (film)|Left RIGHT left]]
* [[Proprietors: Kammath & Kammath|Kammath & Kammathñ]]
* [[Janapriyan]]
* [[Paleri Manikyam: Oru Pathirakolapathakathinte Katha (film)|Palery Manikyam]]
* [[Da Thadiya|Da ...Thadiya]]
* [[Thathwamasi]]
* [[Veeraputhran|Veeraputran]]
* [[Veendum Kannur|Veendum Kannr]]
* [[Bavuttiyude Namathil|Bavuttiyude namathil]]
* [[Chennaiyil Oru Naal|Chennaiyil Orunal]]
* [[Jilebi (2015 film)|Jileby]]
}}

== Television Episodes ==

* Comedy Super Nite – 2 <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.flowerstv.in/tag/rajesh-cherthala/|title=Rajesh cherthala Archives|website=Flowers TV|language=en-US|access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref>

== Awards ==

* Baba Alexander New Delhi honoring Social Activist Award 2017<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://babaalexander.org/news/presenting-social-activist-award-to-rajesh-cherthala/|title=Presenting Social Activist Award to Rajesh Cherthala – BABA ALEXANDER NEW DELHI|website=babaalexander.org|date=29 September 2018 |access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref>
*Radio Mrchi Award
*

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://rajeshcherthala.in/bio.html Official Website]
*{{YouTube|title=|channel=UC8R7YzmI67W6efiOmlfF6uQ}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cherthala, Rajesh}}
[[Category:Indian flautists]]
[[Category:Musicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:Carnatic instrumentalists]]
[[Category:Venu players]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1978 births]]

{{India-musician-stub}}

Niranjan Bhagat

2025-09-27T20:59:46Z

Shubhamsaini9: started the info basic info - done

{{Short description|Indian Gujarati-language poet (1826–2018)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox writer 
| name = Niranjan Bhagat
| image = Niranjan Bhagat.jpg
| caption= Bhagat at his residence in Ahmedabad, 2005
| birth_date= {{Birth date|1926|5|18|df=yes}}
| birth_place= [[Ahmedabad]], [[Bombay Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date= {{death date and age|2018|2|1|1926|5|18|df=y}}
| death_place= Ahmedabad, [[India]]
| occupation = Poet, essayist, critic, editor
| language = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], English
| nationality = Indian
| education =
| notableworks = ''Gujarati Sahiyta – Purvardha Uttarardha''
| awards = [[Sahitya Academy Award]] (1999)
| signature = Niranjan Bhagat Gujarati author Signature.svg
|module = {{Listen |embed= yes |filename=Voice of Niranjan Bhagat.ogg|title= Niranjan Bhagat's voice |description=Speech on [[Charles Baudelaire]]}}
|website = {{official website}}
}}

'''Niranjan Narhari Bhagat''' (18 May 1926 – 1 February 2018) was<ref>{{cite web |title=Remembering Niranjan Bhagat (1926-2018), a giant of Gujarati poetry |url=https://scroll.in/article/867310/remembering-niranjan-bhagat-1926-2018-a-giant-of-gujarati-poetry |website=scroll.in |date=3 February 2018 |accessdate=18 August 2018 |archive-date=18 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818150609/https://scroll.in/article/867310/remembering-niranjan-bhagat-1926-2018-a-giant-of-gujarati-poetry |url-status=live }}</ref> an Indian [[Gujarati language]] poet, critic and translator who won the 1999 [[List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Gujarati|Sahitya Akademi Award for Gujarati language]] for his critical work ''Gujarati Sahiyta – Purvardha Uttarardha''. He was also an English poet, and had written over a hundred poems in English, most being written in the style of ''[[Gitanjali]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kavi Kosh - Niranjan Bhagat |url=http://kavitakosh.org/kk/%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%A8_%E0%AA%AD%E0%AA%97%E0%AA%A4 |website=kavitakosh.org |accessdate=17 October 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031061819/http://kavitakosh.org/kk/%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%A8_%E0%AA%AD%E0%AA%97%E0%AA%A4 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Early life==
Niranjan Narhari Bhagat was born on 18 May 1926 in [[Ahmedabad]].<ref name="gsp">{{cite web|url= http://gujaratisahityaparishad.com/prakashan/sarjako/savishesh/Savishesh-Niranjan-Bhagat.html|title= સાહિત્યસર્જક: નિરંજન ભગત|first= Chandrakant|last= Topiwala|publisher= Gujarati Sahitya Parishad|language= Gujarati|trans-title= Writer: Niranjan Bhagat|access-date= 29 October 2011|archive-date= 13 June 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120613212212/http://gujaratisahityaparishad.com/prakashan/sarjako/savishesh/Savishesh-Niranjan-Bhagat.html|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="Dutt1999">{{cite book|author=Kartik Chandra Dutt|title=Who's who of Indian Writers, 1999: A-M|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QA1V7sICaIwC&pg=PA131|year=1999|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=978-81-260-0873-5|page=131|access-date=23 October 2016|archive-date=15 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215103357/https://books.google.com/books?id=QA1V7sICaIwC&pg=PA131|url-status=live}}</ref> He completed M.A. in English Literature in 1950.<ref name="Death" />

==Career==
[[File:Niranjan Bhagat with child Amitabh Madia.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Niranjan Bhagat with child Amitabh Madia, son of [[Chunilal Madia]], 1971|left]]
Bhagat joined L. D. Arts College as a lecturer. Later he joined Saint Xavier's College, Ahmedabad, as a professor of English in 1975 and served there until his retirement.<ref name="Datta1987">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC&pg=PA420|title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: A–Devo|author=Amaresh Datta|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|year=1987|isbn=978-81-260-1803-1|pages=420–421|access-date=23 October 2016|archive-date=15 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215103107/https://books.google.com/books?id=ObFCT5_taSgC&pg=PA420|url-status=live}}</ref> He served as the president of [[Gujarati Sahitya Parishad]] in 1997–98. He also served as a member of Advisory Board for Gujarati, [[Sahitya Akademi]], Delhi, from 1963 to 1968.

He received [[Narmad Suvarna Chandrak]] in 1953 for his book ''Chhandolay'' and [[Sahitya Akademi Award]] in 1999 for his critical work ''Gujarati Sahiyta – Purvardha Uttarardha''.<ref name="Death" /> He also received [[Kumar Suvarna Chandrak]] in 1949, [[Ranjitram Suvarna Chandrak]] in 1969, [[Premanand Suvarna Chandrak]] in 1998, Sachchidanand Sanman in 2000 and the [[Narsinh Mehta Award]] in 2001.<ref name="Datta1987" /><ref name="sahitya">{{cite web | url=http://www.sahitya-akademi.gov.in/old_version/awa10318.htm#gujarati | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331234109/http://www.sahitya-akademi.gov.in/old_version/awa10318.htm#gujarati | archivedate=2009-03-31 | title=Sanskrit Sahitya Akademi Awards 1955–2007 | publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] Official website | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Death==
Bhagat died of a [[stroke]] on 1 February 2018 at a hospital in Ahmedabad at the age of 91.<ref name="Death">{{cite web|url=http://deshgujarat.com/2018/02/01/veteran-gujarati-poet-litterateur-niranjan-bhagat-passes-away/|title=Veteran Gujarati Poet Niranjan Bhagat passes away|publisher=Deshgujarat|accessdate=1 February 2018|date=1 February 2018|archive-date=2 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180202013715/http://deshgujarat.com/2018/02/01/veteran-gujarati-poet-litterateur-niranjan-bhagat-passes-away/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Gujarati]]
* [[List of Gujarati-language writers]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title=Niranjan Bhagat in English (Sixty Six Poems) |last=Bhagat |first=Niranjan |translator-last=Parekh |translator-first=Shailesh |date=2004 |publisher=[[Gujarati Sahitya Parishad]] |location=Ahmedabad |oclc=62153007}}
* {{cite book |title=Kavishri Niranjan Bhagat |series=Sahitya Sarjak Shreni |last=Brahmabhatt |first=Prasad |language=gu |date=2016 |publisher=Parshva Publication |location=Ahmedabad |isbn=9789351084747 |oclc=974566783}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-ach|aw}}
{{s-bef | before = [[Jayant Kothari]]}}
{{s-ttl | title = Recipient of the [[List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Gujarati|Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Gujarati]] | years = 1999}}
{{s-aft | after = [[Vinesh Antani]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Sahitya Akademi Award for Gujarati}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhagat, Niranjan}}
[[Category:1926 births]]
[[Category:2018 deaths]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Gujarati]]
[[Category:Gujarati-language poets]]
[[Category:Writers from Ahmedabad]]
[[Category:Indian literary critics]]
[[Category:Poets from Gujarat]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Ranjitram Suvarna Chandrak]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Gujarati Sahitya Parishad]]

NTPC Ramagundam Floating Solar Power Plant

2025-09-06T08:40:51Z

Shubhamsaini9: Added new entry

{{Short description|Photovoltaic power station in Ramagundam, India}}
{{Infobox power station
| name = NTPC Ramagundam Floating Solar Power Plant
| name_official =
| image =
| image_size =
| image_caption = NTPC Ramagundam Floating Solar Power Plant ([[Google Earth]])
| image_alt =
| location_map_size =
| location_map_caption= Location of the NTPC Ramagundam Floating Solar Power Plant
| coordinates = {{coord|18.731712|N|79.468583|E|region:IN_type:landmark_source:dewiki|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref =
| country = India
| location = [[Ramagundam]], [[Telangana]].
| status = O
| construction_began =
| commissioned =
| decommissioned =
| cost =
| owner =
| operator = [[National Thermal Power Corporation]]
| th_fuel_primary =
| th_fuel_tertiary =
| ps_units_operational=
| ps_units_manu_model =
| th_cogeneration =
| th_combined_cycle =
| ps_electrical_capacity= 100 MW
| ps_electrical_cap_fac=
| website =
| extra =
}}

'''NTPC Ramagundam Floating Solar Power Plant''' is a floating [[photovoltaic power station]] in [[Ramagundam]], [[India]].

== History ==
The 100 MW plant is built on the balancing reservoir of the [[NTPC Ramagundam]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=kgi-admin |date=2023-04-29 |title=Power plant profile: NTPC Ramagundam Floating Solar PV Park, India |url=https://www.power-technology.com/data-insights/power-plant-profile-ntpc-ramagundam-floating-solar-pv-park-india/ |access-date=2023-11-19 |website=Power Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> and reached full operational capacity on July 1, 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2022-07-01 |title=100 MW NTPC floating solar plant at Ramagundam fully operational |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/100-mw-ntpc-floating-solar-plant-at-ramagundam-fully-operational/article65589829.ece |access-date=2023-11-19 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Spanning 500 acres and built by [[Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited]] at a cost of {{INRConvert|423|c|year=2022}},<ref>{{Cite web |title=India's largest floating solar power project commissioned |url=https://pib.gov.in/pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1838489 |access-date=2023-11-19 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-02 |title=Explained: Why Telangana's floating solar plant is greener than ground-mounted ones |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/telangana-floating-solar-plant-environment-ntpc-explained-8005585/ |access-date=2023-11-19 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> the floating plant consists of 40 blocks, each capable of producing 2.5 MW. These segments house a floating structure carrying 11,200 solar panels, all mounted on [[High-density polyethylene]] floaters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-07 |title=Explained: Ramagundam Floating Solar PV Project, IndiaRamagundam Floating Solar PV Project, India's Largest Floating Solar Power Project's Largest Floating Solar Power Project? |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/explainers/ramagundam-floating-solar-pv-project-indias-largest-floating-solar-power-project-573940.html |access-date=2023-11-19 |website=IndiaTimes |language=en-IN}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
{{authority control}}

{{India-powerstation-stub}}
{{Renewable-power-plant-stub}}

[[Category:Renewable energy power stations in India]]
[[Category:Photovoltaic power stations in India]]

Sancharam (TV series)

2025-08-20T13:38:12Z

Shubhamsaini9: general expanded details for clarity based on references

{{short description|Indian travel documentary}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox television
| image = Sancharam new.png
| caption = Logo
| runtime = 30 minutes
| creator = [[Santhosh George Kulangara]]
| presenter = Santhosh George Kulangara
| narrated = Anish Punnen Peter
| producer = Santhosh George Kulangara
| country = India
| location =
| language = Malayalam
| network = [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
| network2 = [[Safari TV]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2001}}
| last_aired = {{End date|2013}}
| first_aired2 = {{Start date|2013}}
| last_aired2 = present
| num_episodes = 2100
}}

'''''Sancharam''''' ({{translation|Travel}}) is an Indian [[Malayalam]]-language [[travel documentary]] telecast on [[Safari TV]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ks |first=Mochish |date=2022-05-22 |title=How Safari TV Is Experimenting With Television Content In Kerala |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/art-entertainment/how-safari-tv-is-experimenting-with-television-content-in-kerala-news-197913 |access-date=2022-05-28 |work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]] |language=en}}</ref> The program was shot, edited and directed by [[Santhosh George Kulangara]]. It airs at 09:30 pm and 10 pm ([[Indian Standard Time|IST]]) every weekday and is re-telecast the next day (weekdays only) four times. It originally aired on [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]] on Sundays, and now airs on Safari TV, which is owned by Kulangara.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=SAFARI TV - ABOUT US|url=https://www.safaritvchannel.com/about.html|access-date=2021-02-06|website=Safari TV}}</ref> An internet edition of ''Sancharam'' is also available free of cost. It is said to be the first [[internet television]] in [[Kerala]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.santhoshgeorge.com/images/Mathrubhumi/Mathrubhoomi%202007%20January%202%20page%207.jpg |title=Internet Television Channel Sancharam inaugurated |newspaper=Mathrubhumi|date= 2 January 2007|page =7}}</ref>

== Awards ==
[[File:Logo-sancharam.jpg|frame|Old logo]]
''Sancharam'' has received many awards. Some of the awards include:<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/17/stories/2004021707720500.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040705182936/http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/17/stories/2004021707720500.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 July 2004|title=TV megaserial Awards| location=Chennai, India|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=17 February 2004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sancharam.com/awards.html|title=Sancharam video, awards|publisher=sancharam.com|access-date=8 August 2007|archive-date=14 March 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080314050906/http://www.sancharam.com/awards.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Best TV serial award<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.musicindiaonline.com/n/i/malayalam/11/ |title=TV megaserial Awards announced |publisher=Music India Online |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070923010257/http://www.musicindiaonline.com/n/i/malayalam/11/|archivedate=23 September 2007}}</ref>
* Vivekananda Awards<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IER20071026015628&Page=R&Headline=Vivekananda+Awards+presented&Title=Kerala&Topic=0|title=Vivekananda Awards for Santhosh George Kulangara|newspaper=New Indian Express}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* [[Limca Book of Records]], added in its 2007 edition<ref name="Limca">{{Cite web|url=http://www.limcabookofrecords.in/record_gallery.asp?sid=2626&catname=Television|title=First telecast of a visual travelogue in Malayalam|publisher=[[Limca Book of Records]]|accessdate=2006-08-08|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723070223/http://www.limcabookofrecords.in/record_gallery.asp?sid=2626&catname=Television|archivedate=23 July 2008}}</ref>
* Kerala's Film Critics Award: for the best Television program telecasted in 2005.
* Souparnikatheeram State Award: Television Award for the best director of a non-fictional program.<ref name="Madhyamam2005April30page12">{{Cite news|date=30 April 2005|title=Sancharam got RAPA National Award|page=12|work=Madhyamam|url=https://santhoshgeorge.com/images/media-new/Madhyamam2005April30page12.jpg}}</ref>
* All India RAPA Award-2004: award of 'best non-fiction television program' given away by Radio and TV Advertising Practitioners Association (RAPA)<ref>{{Cite news|date=30 April 2005|title=Sancharam got RAPA National Award|page=9|work=Mathrubhumi|url=https://santhoshgeorge.com/images/media-new/Mathrubhoomi2005April30page9.jpg}}</ref>
* National Film Academy Award: program has been declared eligible for the award instituted by National Film Academy for the section 'Other than Fiction'<ref name="Deshabhimani2004May19page5">{{Cite news|date=19 May 2004|title=Sancharam got two National Award|page=5|work=Deshabhimani|url=https://santhoshgeorge.com/images/media-new/Deshabhimani2004May19page5.jpg}}</ref>
* Kerala Film Critics Association Award-2003<ref name="Madhyamam2005April30page12" />
* All India Akshaya National Award-2003<ref name="Deshabhimani2004May19page5" />
* National Award: This is one of the awards given at National level in the Radio-Mini screen field. This program selected for the award from the TV programs of about 20 different languages.

==Sources==
===Notes===
{{notelist}}

===References===
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website|https://www.safaritvchannel.com/}}

[[Category:Malayalam-language television shows]]
[[Category:Documentary web series]]
[[Category:Asianet (TV channel) original programming]]
[[Category:Indian television series]]

Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran

2025-05-27T00:45:18Z

Shubhamsaini9: updated page

{{short description|Malayalam-language poet and translator}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
[[File:Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran Changanassery Lakshmipuram Palace.jpg|200px|thumbnail|right|Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran [[Changanassery]] [[Lakshmipuram Palace]]]]
'''Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|CSI}}; (19 February 1845 – 22 September 1914) also spelt '''Kerala Varma Valiya Koilthampuran''' and known as '''Kerala Varma''', was a [[Malayalam]] - language poet and translator who had an equal facility in writing in English and [[Sanskrit]] from the Indian state of [[Kerala]].<ref name=apmila>Paniker, Ayyappa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=m1R2Pa3f7r0C&dq=%22Balijepalli+Lakshmikantham%22&pg=PA231 "Modern Malayalam Literature"] chapter in George, K. M., editor, ' 'Modern Indian Literature, an Anthology' ', pp 231, 236 published by Sahitya Akademi, 1992, retrieved 10 January 2009</ref> He was a prince of [[Parappanad]], and consort to the [[Travancore royal family|Senior Rani of Attingal and Maharani of Travancore]], [[Bharani Thirunal Lakshmi Bayi]], intended to father future sovereigns of Travancore, although the couple was childless, necessitating the adoption of Lakshmi Bayi's grand-nieces. Kerala Varma is also known as the ''Kalidasa of Kerala'', and was both brother-in-law and cousin to painter [[Raja Ravi Varma]], also a prince of Parappanad, though from the [[Kilimanoor Palace|Kilimanoor branch]], whom he presented with his first oil paints.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sreedhara Menon|first=A.|title=Cultural Heritage of Kerala|page=199}}</ref> A third Parappanad prince, his grammarian nephew [[A. R. Raja Raja Varma]], is known as the ''Panini of Kerala''.

Kerala Varma has been called "a colossal Renaissance figure in 19th century Kerala" and "perhaps the first of the major [Malayalam language] writers who consciously and deliberately began to absorb and celebrate the Western influence" on his native literature. He advocated resuscitation of [[Malayalam]] literature by absorbing selected Western influences combined with native Sanskritic elements in poetry, drama and prose.<ref name=apmila/>

==Life==
He was born in [[Changanacherry]] at the [[Lakshmipuram Palace]] on 19 February 1845 (6 Kumbham 1020) in [[Pushya|Pooyam]] star{{Clarify|date=August 2011}}. His mother was Pooram Nal Devi Amba Thampuratti while his father was [[Cheriyoor]] Mullapally Narayanan [[Nambudiri|Namboothiri]] of [[Perimchellur|Perinchelloor]] Gramam in [[Taliparamba]], in [[Kannur]]. His family had fled [[Malabar (Northern Kerala)|Malabar]] and sought refuge in [[Travancore]] during the invasion of [[Tipu Sultan]] towards the end of the 18th century. After peace was restored, however, the [[Parappanad]] Royal family agreed to accept a pension from the [[British Empire|British]] government and also from that of [[Travancore]], in which several branches would remain, from among which future [[Prince consort|princes consort]] of the seniormost two females in the [[Travancore royal family]], [[Rani of Attingal|Senior and Junior Rani of Attingal]], each a Maharani of Travancore, were drawn.

Although the Koil Thampuran was born at Changanacherry, his family subsequently moved to [[Haripad]] and settled at the Ananthapuram Palace. In 1859 he was married to Her Highness [[Bharani Thirunal Lakshmi Bayi]], the adopted niece of [[Uthram Thirunal]], then Maharajah of [[Travancore]]. His marriage to the Senior Rani thus brought him into close association with the [[Travancore Royal Family]]. Later, however, through palace intrigues and personal disaffection with the Maharajah [[Ayilyam Thirunal]] he was confined at [[Haripad]] forcefully in 1875, only to be released and reunited with his wife in 1880 by Maharajah [[Visakham Thirunal]]. He wrote an apology letter to Ayilyam Tihirunal on 26 January 1877 admitting all charges including being in league with Visakham Thirunal and writing a letter to the diwan and later lying that he never wrote such a letter. He also admitted of being attracted to [[Christianity]] and addicted to [[Bhang]].<ref>{{citation|work=The Ivory Throne: Chronicles of the House of Travancore|page=67|editor-last1=Pillai|editor-first1=Manu S|title=Valiya Koil Thampuran|url=|publisher=Harper Collins|year=2013}}</ref> He was awarded with the [[Order of the Star of India|Companion of the Order of the Star of India]] in 1885 by the [[British Empire|British]] Government. After the death of his consort Rani Lakshmi Bayi in 1901 he was appointed the guardian of her two grandnieces, the Senior and Junior Ranis of [[Travancore]], including Maharani [[Sethu Lakshmi Bayi]].

He died in a car accident in September 1914. At that time, cars were rare in India, and only rich people like him had cars. According to the sources, Kerala Varma was going to [[Vaikom Mahadeva Temple]] with his nephew and disciple [[A. R. Rajaraja Varma]], another great scholar, called as 'Kerala Panini'. On the way of return, he stayed at [[Ananthapuram Palace]], [[Haripad]]. The next day, while going to [[Thiruvananthapuram]], his car got crashed, and he succumbed to his injuries two days later. It is regarded as first [[Road accident]] related death in India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India’s first motor vehicle accident led to the death of a Kerala prince in 1914 |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/news/kerala/india-first-motor-vehicle-accident-led-to-the-death-of-kerala-prince-22-september-1914-ba3c60da |access-date=2025-05-24 |website=@mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref>

People from various spheres mourned his death. He was cremated with full state honours at his home in [[Changanassery]].

==Literary works==

Kerala Varma was in close touch with literary movements in both northern and southern parts of Kerala, including ''Bhashaposhini Sabha'' and magazines such as ''[[Vidya Vinodini]]'' and ''[[Malayala Manorama]]''.<ref name=apmila/>

His work ''Abhijnana Sakunthalam''(1898), a translation of Kalidasa's ''Sakunthalam'', is one of the most acclaimed works of poetry in [[Malayalam]] from that period. It influenced a number of other translations of Sanskrit classics into Malayalam and was a success on the stage. The subsequent spate of translations from English and Sanskrit into Malayalam was an important feature of Malayalam literature in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref name=apmila/>

He has also written ''Mayoorasandesham'' (also spelt ''Mayura Sandesam''; 1894<ref name=apmila/>) on the line of Kalidasa's ''MeghaDooth''(aka ''Meghaduta''). In this poetry he has used the peacocks of [[Haripad]] temple to send his messages to his wife, the Maharani, in [[Trivandrum]]. His celebrated work ''Visakhavijaya'' was written after his release by [[Visakham Thirunal]].

==See also==
{{portal|Poetry}}
*[[Muloor S. Padmanabha Panicker]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Travancore State Manual by Velu Pillai
* Visakhavijaya- A Study by Poovattoor Ramakrishna Pillai

{{Malayalam Literature |state=collapsed}}
{{Kingdom of Travancore}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thampuran, Kerala Varma Valiya Koil}}
[[Category:Indian male poets]]
[[Category:Malayalam poets]]
[[Category:Poets from British India]]
[[Category:Indian Sanskrit scholars]]
[[Category:Translators of Kalidasa]]
[[Category:1845 births]]
[[Category:1914 deaths]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Star of India]]
[[Category:Travancore royal family]]
[[Category:Road incident deaths in India]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:People from Changanassery]]
[[Category:Writers from Kottayam district]]
[[Category:Poets from Kerala]]
[[Category:19th-century Indian translators]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian translators]]

Rajendra Meshram

2025-02-28T16:26:50Z

Shubhamsaini9: started initial post w/ infobox - done

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2024}}

'''Rajendra Meshram''' (born 1963)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Rajendra Meshram(Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP)):Constituency- DEVSAR(SINGRAULI) - Affidavit Information of Candidate |url=https://www.myneta.info/mp2013/candidate.php?candidate_id=704 |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=www.myneta.info}}</ref> is an Indian politician from [[Madhya Pradesh]]. He is an MLA from [[Devsar, Madhya Pradesh Assembly constituency|Devsar Assembly constituency]], which is reserved for Scheduled Caste community, in [[Singrauli district|Singrauli District]]. He won the [[2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]], representing Bharatiya Janata Party.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Live |first=A. B. P. |date=2023-12-03 |title=Devsar Election Result 2023 Live: Bjp Candidate Rajendra Meshram Wins From Devsar |url=https://news.abplive.com/elections/devsar-election-result-2023-live-updates-constituency-vote-counting-winner-loser-bjp-congress-bsp-mp-assembly-election-results-news-1646859 |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=news.abplive.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Devsar assembly election results 2023: Devsar Winning Candidates List and Vote Share |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/elections/madhya-pradesh/devsar-assembly-result-12081 |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life and education ==
Meshram is from [[Devsar, Madhya Pradesh Assembly constituency|Devsar]], Singrauli District, Madhya Pradesh. He is the son of Nathulal. He passed Class 12 in 1981 and later did his diploma in pharmacy passing the examination conducted by the Technical Board of Education, Madhya Pradesh, in 1988.<ref name=":0" />

== Career ==
Meshram won from Devsar Assembly constituency in the 2023 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election representing [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]. He polled 88,660 votes and defeated his nearest rival, Banshmani Prasad Verma of the [[Indian National Congress]], by a margin of 22,454 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Devsar, Madhya Pradesh Assembly Election Results 2023 Highlights: Devsar सीट पर BJP प्रत्याशीRajendra Meshram की जीत |url=https://www.aajtak.in/elections/story/devsar-madhya-pradesh-assembly-election-results-2023-live-1830223-2023-12-03 |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=आज तक |language=hi}}</ref> He first became an MLA winning the [[2013 Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]] representing the Bharatiya Janata Party from Devsar. In 2013, he defeated his nearest rival, Banshmani Prasad Verma, who then contested as an independent candidate, by a margin of 33,214 votes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Devsar Constituency Election Results 2023: Devsar Assembly Seat Details, MLA Candidates & Winner |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/elections/assembly-elections/madhya-pradesh/constituency-show/devsar |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Meshram, Rajendra}}
[[Category:1963 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Madhya Pradesh MLAs 2013–2018]]
[[Category:Madhya Pradesh MLAs 2023–2028]]
[[Category:People from Singrauli district]]