Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

Rana Tharu people

2026-05-04T14:31:03Z

ShivaniSikri: created new data

{{Short description|Ethnic group in Nepal}}
{{For|the ethnic group in Indonesia|Rana people}}
{{Ethnic group
|group = Rana Tharu
|native_name = राना थारू
|native_name_lang = ne
|image = Népal rana tharu1650a.jpg
|image_caption = Rana Tharu woman
|region1 = {{flag|Nepal}}
|pop1 = 83,308
|ref1 = <ref>{{cite report |date=2021 |title=National Population and Housing Census 2021, Caste/Ethnicity Report |author=National statistics Office |work=Government of Nepal |url=https://censusnepal.cbs.gov.np/results/downloads/caste-ethnicity}}</ref>
|region2 = {{Flag|India}}
|pop2 = 91,342
|ref2 = <ref>{{Cite report |title=A-11 Individual Scheduled Tribe Primary Census Abstract Data and its Appendix |publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |author=General & Census Commissioner |year=2011 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/PCA/ST.html |work=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India |access-date=2017-11-20}}</ref>
|languages = [[Rana Tharu language|Rana Tharu]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Hindi]]
|religions = [[Hinduism]]
|related_groups = {{hlist|[[Bhoksa people]]|[[Tharu people]]|}}
}}
[[File:Népal rana tharu1818a Crop.jpg|thumb|Two Rana Tharu women preparing to fish.]]
'''Rana Tharu''' is an ethnic group generally classified as part of the [[Tharu people]] of [[Nepal]] and [[India]]. They are living in [[Kailali District|Kailali]] and [[Kanchanpur District|Kanchanpur Districts]] of the far western Nepali [[Terai]] and also in India, in [[Udham Singh Nagar district]], [[Uttarakhand]] and [[Kheri district]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guneratne |first=A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T7FWQ6dzYZQC |title=Many tongues, one people: The making of Tharu identity in Nepal |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2002 |isbn=0801487285 |location=Ithaca, New York}}</ref> As of 2001, Rana Tharu people were the largest of five [[Scheduled castes and scheduled tribes|scheduled tribes]] in Uttarakhand, with a population of 256,129 accounting for 33.4% of all scheduled tribes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Office of the Registrar General |date=2001 |title=Uttaranchal. Data Highlights: The Scheduled Tribes. Census of India 2001 |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Tables_Published/SCST/dh_st_uttaranchal.pdf |access-date=2008-03-16}}</ref>

The Rana Tharu community of Kailali and Kanchanpur districts have long demanded an identity separate from other Tharus. The Nepal Charter dated 18 May 2020 lists Rana Tharus as a distinct ethnic group; this listing was celebrated by Rana Tharus across Kaliali and Kanchanpur.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rana |first=B. |date=2022 |title=Five misconceptions about Rana Tharus |website=The Record |url=https://www.recordnepal.com/five-misconceptions-about-rana-tharu-and-pan-tharu-identity |access-date=27 October 2023}}</ref>

== Origin ==
The Rana Tharus in western Nepal claim to be of [[Rajput]] origin and to have migrated from the [[Thar Desert]] in [[Rajasthan]] to Nepal's [[Far Western Region, Nepal|Far Western]] Terai region after the defeat of [[Maharana Pratap]] against a [[Mughal emperor]] in the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shukla |first=P.K. |date=1994 |title=The Tharus of Bihar : A historical and anthropological study |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=55 |pages=646–654 |quote=All these scholars reject the claim of the Tharus as originally coming from the region of Thar desert in Rajasthan}}</ref> Most scholars refute this claim. The Rana Tharu version of the origin myth as that of Indian origin is long-standing and locally shared by all Tharus in Nepal’s far west, a version that has been reported by anthropologists and travelers from the time of the British [[East India Company]] up to the present.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Skar, H. O. |year=1995 |title=Myths of origin: the Janajati Movement, local traditions, nationalism and identities in Nepal |journal=Contributions to Nepalese Studies |volume=22 |issue=31–42 |url=http://lib.icimod.org/record/9900/files/6846.pdf}}</ref>

== Marriage system ==
Traditionally, Rana Tharus practice [[Arranged marriage|arranged marriages]], which parents often arrange already during the couple's childhood. The wedding ceremony is held when the bride and groom reach marriable age. The ceremony lasts several days, involving all the relatives of the two families.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kittelsen, T. C. |title=Nepal: Tharu and Tarai Neighbours |last2=Gurung, G. M. |publisher=Educational Enterprises |year=1999 |editor-last=Skar, H. O. |series=Bibliotheca Himalayica |volume=16 |location=Kathmandu |pages=205–222 |chapter=Symbols of tradition, signs of change: marriage customs among the Rana Tharu of Nepal |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> Among the Rana Tharus in [[Bardiya District]], it is also custom to arrange marriage of a daughter in exchange for getting a bride for a son or vice versa. Parents give particular attention to the working capacity of the groom and bride, rather than the economic situation of the in-law family. [[Polygamous]] marriages are also customary among Tharu people, with rich land holders marrying between two and five women.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pun, S. |title=Water, land, and law. Changing rights to land and water in Nepal. Proceedings of a workshop held in Kathmandu, March 1998 |publisher=Legal Research and Development Forum, Wageningen Agricultural University, Erasmus University Rotterdam |year=2000 |isbn=9993316008 |editor-last=Pradhan, R. |location=Kathmandu, Wageningen, Rotterdam |pages=195–216 |chapter=Gender, land and irrigation management in Rajapur |editor-last2=Benda-Beckmann, F. v. |editor-last3=Benda-Beckmann, K. v. |chapter-url=https://edepot.wur.nl/336541#page=201}}</ref>

== Language ==
The language of the recognized indigenous nationality of Rana Tharu is ‘[[Rana Tharu language|Rana Tharu]]’.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Dhakal |first=Dubi Nanda |title=Notes on Rana Tharu language |url=https://www.academia.edu/43908543/Notes_on_Rana_Tharu_grammar}}</ref> Under the umbrella of the Nepal Rana Tharu Samaj, a protest was held demanding the Rana Tharu language be made one of the official languages of Sudurpaschim Pradesh. In Kanchanpur, mother-tongue education is provided in the Rana Tharu language up to grade three. The [[Language Commission (Nepal)|Language Commission of Nepal]] has recommended Rana Tharu as official language in Sudurpashchim Province. Rana Tharu is also spoken in specific areas of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]] including the [[Lakhimpur Kheri district|Lakhimpur Kheri]] district, particularly in [[Palia Kalan]] and Chandan Chauki block, situated on the [[India–Nepal border]]. Additionally, it is spoken in the [[Udham Singh Nagar district|Udham Singh Nagar]] district of [[Uttarakhand]] state.

The language has linguistic distinctions with dialects in India and shows lexical similarities with [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] as well.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Rana Tharu language |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/thr/}}</ref> Additionally [[Buksa language]], is largely mutually intelligible with Rana Tharu.

Rana Tharu is used in various aspects of life, including at home, with friends, and in religious contexts. It is actively spoken outside the home such as in the workplace and education. The language is widely utilized by all members of the community and coexists with the use of [[Hindi]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Ethnic groups in Nepal]]
[[Category:Tharu culture]]
[[Category:Sudurpashchim Province]]

Manoranjan Byapari

2026-05-02T15:51:25Z

ShivaniSikri: new initial stub w/ refs

{{Short description|Indian writer and activist}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Manoranjan Byapari
| native_name =
| image = Monoranjan Bapari7.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = c. 1950-51<ref>{{Cite book |last=Byapari |first=Manoranjan |title=Interrogating My Chandal Life: An Autobiography Of A Dalit |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2018 |location=New Delhi |pages=11 |language=English |translator-last=Mukherjee |translator-first=Sipra}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Pirojpur District|Pirojpur]], [[East Bengal]], [[Dominion of Pakistan]]
| office1 = Member of the [[West Bengal Legislative Assembly]]
| constituency1 = [[Balagarh (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Balagarh]]
| predecessor1 = [[Ashim Kumar Majhi]]
| term_start1 = 2 May 2021
| office2 = Chairperson of [[West Bengal]] Dalit Sahitya Academy
| term_start2 = 14 September 2020
| party = [[Trinamool Congress]]
| other_party = [[Naxalism]]
| spouse = Anita Byapari<ref>{{Cite book |last=Byapari |first=Manoranjan |title=Interrogating My Chandal Life: An Autobiography Of A Dalit |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2018 |location=New Delhi |pages= 234 |language=English |translator-last=Mukherjee |translator-first=Sipra}}</ref>
| children = 2<ref>{{Cite book |last=Byapari |first=Manoranjan |title=Interrogating My Chandal Life: An Autobiography Of A Dalit |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2018 |location=New Delhi |pages= xiii |language=English |translator-last=Mukherjee |translator-first=Sipra}}</ref>
}}
'''Manoranjan Byapari''' (born c. 1950–51) is an Indian writer, socio-political activist, and a politician.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahluwalia |first=Mallika |title=Divided by Partition: United by Resilience: 21 Inspirational Stories from 1947 |publisher=Rupa Publications |year=2018 |location=New Delhi |pages=60–66 |language=English |chapter=Jijibisha: The Will to Survive: Manoranjan Byapari}}</ref> He stands as one of the pioneering authors in the realm of [[Dalit literature]] in [[Bengali language|Bengali]], hailing from the Indian state of [[West Bengal]]. Hindered by financial constraints, he was precluded from availing formal education, thereby distinguishing himself as a unique exemplar—a former convict turned [[Pulled rickshaw|rickshaw puller]]—having authored a substantial corpus comprising twelve novels, in addition to over a hundred short stories and non-fiction essays.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/books/books-authors/manoranjan-byapari-from-fetters-to-letters/article5606992.ece|title=Manoranjan Byapari: from fetters to letters|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/rickshaw-puller-from-kolkata-steals-show-at-11th-jaipur-literature-festival/1032833/|title=Rickshaw puller from Kolkata steals show at 11th Jaipur Literature Festival|newspaper=[[The Financial Express (India)]]}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Byapari was born into a [[Bengalis|Bengali]] [[Namasudra]] family in Turuk-Khali, [[Pirojpur District|Pirozpur]], [[Barisal Division|Barisal]], [[East Bengal]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=A Dalit writer's journey: Of multiple identities and struggles|url=https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/reviews-recommendations/a-dalit-writers-journey-of-multiple-identities-and-struggles|access-date=15 June 2020|website=National Herald|date=8 April 2018|language=en}}</ref> His family relocated to West Bengal when he was three years old, initially settling in the Shiromanipur Refugee camp in Bankura. Subsequently, they were compelled to relocate to various locations, including [[Ghutiari Sharif railway station|Ghutiyari Sharif]], Gholadoltala Refugee Camp in [[South 24 Parganas|South 24 Paraganas]], where they resided until 1969. However, at the age of fourteen, Byapari departed from his familial abode, engaging in a series of economically modest positions within the informal sector across diverse cities such as [[Assam]], [[Lucknow]], [[Delhi]], and [[Allahabad]]. Following a two-year stint in [[Dandakaranya Project|Dandakaranya]], he resettled in Kolkata in 1973.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sarangi|first=Jaydeep|date=2012|title=From Wheels to Stalls : Jaydeep Sarangi in Conversation with Manoranjan Byapari|url=http://pintersociety.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Jaydeep-Sarangi.pdf|journal=Lapis Lazuli –An International Literary Journal|volume=2|issue=1}}</ref> Notably, he briefly affiliated with the [[Naxals]] in central India.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/will-to-power-2/|title=Will To Power|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref> It was during his period of incarceration that he embarked on a self-directed educational pursuit, acquiring literacy. His close association with the labour activist [[Shankar Guha Niyogi]] is also noteworthy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Byapari |first=Manoranjan |title=Interrogating My Chandal Life: An Autobiography Of A Dalit |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2018 |location=New Delhi |pages=280–308 |language=English |translator-last=Mukherjee |translator-first=Sipra}}</ref>

== Political career ==
He was elected as a [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] from [[Balagarh Assembly constituency|Balagarh]], representing the [[Trinamool Congress]] in the [[2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=West Bengal elections 2021: Manoranjan Byapari, a rickshaw puller, cook to an iconic writer in the fray|url=https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/india/west-bengal-elections-2021-manoranjan-byapari-a-rickshaw-puller-cook-to-an-iconic-writer-in-the-fray-1.77971682|access-date=22 July 2021|website=gulfnews.com|date=20 March 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

== Life as an author ==
He gained prominence following the publication of his influential essay titled "Is there a Dalit writing in Bangla?" which was translated by Meenakshi Mukherjee and featured in the [[Economic and Political Weekly]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=13 October 2007 |title=Is There Dalit Writing in Bangla? |url=https://www.epw.in/journal/2007/41/perspectives/there-dalit-writing-bangla.html |language=en}}</ref> Concurrently employed as a rickshaw puller, he encountered [[Mahasweta Devi]] fortuitously, and she subsequently invited him to contribute to her journal, 'Bartika.'<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ndtv.com/delhi-news/delhi-a-rickshaw-pullers-journey-from-prison-to-books-540211|title=Delhi: A rickshaw puller's journey from prison to books|publisher=[[NDTV]]}}</ref> Within his scholarly contributions, he posits the contention that upper-caste refugees from [[East Bengal]] were accorded preferential treatment during their resettlement in Kolkata.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mainstreamweekly.net/article4116.html|title=Memoirs of Chandal Jeevan: An Underdog's Story - Mainstream Weekly|website=www.mainstreamweekly.net|access-date=4 August 2016}}</ref> Furthermore, a documentary chronicling his life has been produced by [[Rajya Sabha TV]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Rajya Sabha TV|title=RSTV Documentary - Writer|date=14 August 2014|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CJ3yw9Mhq9c|access-date=4 August 2016}}</ref>

=== Books ===
He authored a memoir titled "ইতিবৃত্তে চণ্ডাল জীবন" in [[Bengali language|Bengali]], which was subsequently translated into [[English language|English]] by Sipra Mukherjee under the title ''[[Interrogating My Chandal Life: An Autobiography of a Dalit]]'' (Sage-Samya), and it received The Hindu Prize.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Griffin |first1=Peter |title=Names, audiences, trolls: The Hindu Lit for Life 2019 had it all |url=https://www.thehindu.com/lit-for-life/names-audiences-trolls-the-hindu-lit-for-life-2019-had-it-all/article26048649.ece/photo/1/ |newspaper=The Hindu |language=en-IN |date=19 January 2019}}</ref> This literary work documents the myriad experiences of oppression and marginalisation faced by Dalits in Bengal, a region often characterised as a 'casteless society' by the prevailing [[bhadralok]] narrative.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7qXbCgAAQBAJ|title=The Politics of Caste in West Bengal|last1=Chandra|first1=Uday|last2=Heierstad|first2=Geir|last3=Nielsen|first3=Kenneth Bo|date=25 September 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317414773|language=en}}</ref> His identity as a Dalit is integral to his literary expression, wherein he emphasises, "I’m a Dalit by birth. Only a Dalit, oppressed by social forces, can experience true dalan (oppression) in life. There should be that dalan as a Dalit in Dalit writing. Dalit literature should be grounded in Dalit life. Some of my writings delve into Dalit life, deserving impartial evaluation devoid of preconceived judgments." He articulates his dual identification as a chandal, both by birth and through a manifestation of indignation (krodha chandal).<ref>{{cite web |date=25 November 2018 |title=A migrant from East Bengal, Manoranjan Byapari "interrogated" his life as chandal |url=https://www.counterview.net/2018/11/a-migrant-from-east-bengal-manoranjan.html |access-date=22 June 2023 }}</ref>

== Awards ==
* Suprabha Majumdar prize awarded by [[Paschimbanga Bangla Akademi]] in 2014.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/books/books-authors/manoranjan-byapari-from-fetters-to-letters/article5606992.ece|title=Manoranjan Byapari: from fetters to letters|date=23 January 2014|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=1 July 2017|last1=Tatke|first1=Sukhada}}</ref>
* Sharmila Ghosh Smriti Literary prize in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 September 2022 |title=Bengali writer Manoranjan Byapari wins the 2022 Shakti Bhatt Prize |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/books-and-literature/bengali-writer-manoranjan-byapari-wins-the-2022-shakti-bhatt-prize-8152519/ |access-date=22 June 2023 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
* [[The Hindu Literary Prize]] in non-fiction in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Hindu Prize – The Hindu LFL |url=https://www.thehindulfl.com/the-hindu-prize |website=www.thehindulfl.com |language=en |access-date=10 September 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420030738/https://www.thehindulfl.com/the-hindu-prize/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Shakti Bhatt Prize]] in 2022.<ref name="shakti-bhatt-2022">{{cite news |author=Scroll Staff |title=Bengali author Manoranjan Byapari is the winner of 2022 Shakti Bhatt Book Prize |url=https://scroll.in/article/1032454/bengali-author-manoranjan-byapari-is-the-winner-of-2022-shakti-bhatt-book-prize |access-date=15 September 2022 |work=[[Scroll.in]] |date=15 September 2022}}</ref>
* [[JCB Prize for Literature]] in 2023, his book The Nemesis was shortlisted for the JCB Prize for Literature.<ref>{{ cite web|last1=Daftuar |first1=Swati |url= https://www.thehindu.com/books/jcb-award-fiction-book-shortlist-2023-announcement/article67442325.ece |title=Meet the stars: A journey through 2023's JCB Prize shortlist |work=The Hindu |date=20 October 2023 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Monoranjan Bapari}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Byapari, Manoranjan}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Bengali-language writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 2021–2026]]
[[Category:Trinamool Congress politicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Novelists from West Bengal]]
[[Category:People from Hooghly district]]
[[Category:People from Nazirpur Upazila]]
[[Category:Politicians from Pirojpur District]]
[[Category:Writers from Pirojpur District]]

Arindam Sinha

2026-04-24T19:55:39Z

ShivaniSikri: put up some info initial version.

{{Short description|Indian judge (born 1965)}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1965|09|22}}
| name = Arindam Sinha
| office = [[Judge]] of [[Allahabad High Court]]
| term_start = 7 April 2025
| term_start1 = 8 October 2021
| term_end1 = 6 April 2025 {{small|Acting CJ: 20 January 2025 – 25 March 2025}}
| office2 = [[Judge]] of [[Calcutta High Court]]
| term_start2 = 30 October 2013
| term_end2 = 7 October 2021
| nominator = [[Sanjiv Khanna]]
| nominator1 = [[N. V. Ramana]]
| nominator2 = [[P. Sathasivam]]
| appointer = [[Droupadi Murmu]]
| appointer1 = [[Ram Nath Kovind]]
| appointer2 = [[Pranab Mukherjee]]
| office1 = [[Judge]] of [[Orissa High Court]]
}}
'''Arindam Sinha''' (born on 22 September 1965<ref>{{Cite web |last=National Informatics Centre (NIC, Orissa) |title=Judge {{!}} Orissa High Court, Cuttack |url=https://www.orissahighcourt.nic.in/judges/judges-profile/hon-ble-mr-justice-arindam-sinha/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222192350/https://www.orissahighcourt.nic.in/judges/judges-profile/hon-ble-mr-justice-arindam-sinha/ |archive-date=2024-12-22 |access-date=2025-03-28 |website=www.orissahighcourt.nic.in |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>) is an Indian [[judge]], who is currently serving on the [[Allahabad High Court]], in the state of Uttar Pradesh. He is also a former judge of the [[High courts of India|high courts]] of [[Calcutta High Court|Calcutta]] and [[Orissa High Court|Orissa]], and has also served as the [[Acting (law)|Acting]] [[Chief Justice]] of the latter high court.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-01-17 |title=Justice Arindam Sinha to be acting CJ |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhubaneswar/justice-arindam-sinha-to-be-acting-cj/articleshow/117338616.cms |access-date=2025-03-28 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Early life ==
He was born on 22 September 1965. He enrolled as an advocate on 11 March 1991. He practised mainly before Calcutta High Court for 22 years.

He was elevated as Additional Judge of the Calcutta High Court on 30 October 2013 and was appointed as permanent Judge on 14 March 2016.

He was transferred and took oath as Judge of the High Court of Orissa on 8 October 2021 where he also served as Acting Chief Justice consequent upon the retirement of the then Chief Justice [[Chakradhari Sharan Singh]] on 19 January 2025. Collegium proposed his transfer to Allahabad High Court on 20 March 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dutta |first=Jyoti Prakash |date=2025-03-20 |title=SC Collegium Recommends Transfer Of Orissa HC Acting Chief Justice Arindam Sinha To Allahabad HC |url=https://www.livelaw.in/top-stories/supreme-court-collegium-recommends-orissa-high-court-acting-chief-justice-arindam-sinha-transfer-287055 |access-date=2025-03-28 |website=www.livelaw.in |language=en}}</ref> Subsequently the central government notified his transfer and he was transferred to Allahabad High Court.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bench |first=Bar & |date=2025-03-28 |title=Centre notifies transfer of Justice Arindam Sinha from Orissa to Allahabad High Court |url=https://www.barandbench.com/news/litigation/centre-notifies-transfer-of-justice-arindam-sinha-from-orissa-to-allahabad-high-court |access-date=2025-03-28 |website=Bar and Bench - Indian Legal news |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sinha, Arindam}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1965 births]]

{{india-law-bio-stub}}

Idukki District Council

2026-04-24T08:54:47Z

ShivaniSikri:

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Thodupuzha [[Panchayat samiti|block council]]
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| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kerala]]
| established_title = 
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| government_type = [[Panchayati raj]]
| governing_body = District Council
| leader_title = President
| leader_name = Administrative Rule
| leader_title1 = Vice President
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| demographics1_info1 = [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[English language|English]], [[Hindi]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
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The District Councils are the territory level of local government under Panchayati Raj act in India. '''Idukki District Council''' is in [[Kerala]] state in [[India]]. It was established in 1995 in accordance with Kerala Panchayati Raj Act 1994.<ref>https://lsgkerala.gov.in/ml/act/kerala-panchayat-raj-act-1994 Kerala Panchayath Raj Act 1994</ref> The District Council is functioning as a local governing body at [[District#India|district]] level. Its members are elected by people from each electoral division. The electoral college]] is based on the [[universal suffrage]]. The Idukki District Council has jurisdiction over [[Idukki district|Idukki District]], except for the municipal towns of [[Kalpetta|Kalpatta]] and [[Thodupuzha]]. The [[State election commission (India)|State Election Commission]] is responsible for conducting these elections.

== Block councils in jurisdiction ==
* Adimali
* Azhutha
* Devikulam
* Elamdesham
* Idukki
* Kattapana
* Nedumkandam
* [[Thodupuzha Block Panchayath|Thodupuzha]]

== Politics ==
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" cellpadding="5" style="width:75%; font-size:95%;"
|-
! Party
! Abbreviation
! Symbol
|-
| [[Indian National Congress]]
|INC(I)
|
|-
| [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
|CPI(M)
| [[File:CPI(M) election symbol - Hammer Sickle and Star.svg|Hammer, Sickle and Star|20px]]
|-
| [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|BJP
| [[File:Lotos flower symbol.svg|20px|Lotus]]
|-
| [[Communist Party of India]]
|CPI
| [[File:CPI symbol.svg|Ears of Rice and Sickle|20px]]
|-
| [[Kerala Congress (M)]] Jose K. Mani Faction
|KC(M)
| [[File:Indian election symbol two leaves.svg|Two Leaves|20px]]
|-
| [[Indian Union Muslim League]]
|IUML
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Lader.svg|Ladder|20px]]
|-
| [[Kerala Congress (M)]] P. J. Joseph Faction
|KC(M)_PJJ
| Chenda
|-
| [[Janadhipathya Kerala Congress]]
|KC(D)
| Scooter
|-
| [[Kerala Congress (Joseph)]]
|KC(J)
| [[File:Indian Election Symbol Cycle.png|20px]]
|-
| [[Kerala Congress (Secular)]]
|KC(S)
|
|-
| Independent Supported by UDF
|UDF Ind.
| Various (Umbrella etc.)
|-
| Independent Supported by LDF
|LDF Ind.
| Various (Umbrella etc.)
|-
| Independent Supported by NDA
|NDA Ind.
| Various (Umbrella etc.)
|-
| Independent
|Ind.
| Various (Umbrella, apple etc.)
|-
|}

== 2020-2025 Council ==

<ref>http://www.lsgelection.kerala.gov.in/election/candidate/viewCandidate Idukki District Council Election 2020</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ 2015-2020<ref>http://117.239.77.93/lbtrend/lbtrend2015/views/lnkResultsDist.php Idukki District Council Election 2015</ref>
|-
! Division Name !! Representative !! Party !! Notes
|-
| Adimali ||Soly Jesus|| INC(I) ||
|-
| Devikulam ||C. Rajendran || CPI(M) ||
|-
| Karimannoor ||Indu Sudhakaran || INC(I) ||
|-
| Karimkunnam ||C. V. Sunitha || KC(M)_PJJ ||
|-
| Moolamattam ||M. J. Jacob|| KC(M)_PJJ ||
|-
| Mullaringadu ||Shainy Reji|| KC(M)_PJJ ||
|-
| Munnar ||Bhavya|| CPI ||
|-
| Nedumkandom ||V N Mohanan || CPI (M) ||
|-
| Painavu ||K. G. Sathyan || CPI(M) ||
|-
| Pambadumpara ||Jiji K. Philip || CPI||
|-
| Rajakkad ||Ushakumari
Mohankumar
| CPI (M) ||
|-
| Thopramkudy ||Shainy Saji|| KC(M)_PJJ ||
|-
| Upputhara ||Asha Antony || CPI ||
|-
| Vagamon ||K. T. Binu || CPI(M) ||
|-
| Vandanmedu ||Joseph Kurivila|| KC(M) ||
|-
| Vandiperiyar ||S. P. Rajendran|| CPI ||
|}

== 2015-2020 Council ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 2015-2020<ref>http://117.239.77.93/lbtrend/lbtrend2015/views/lnkResultsDist.php Idukki District Council Election 2015</ref>
|-
! Division Name !! Representative !! Party !! Notes
|-
| Adimali ||Infant Thomas || INC(I) ||
|-
| Devikulam ||Baby Sakthivel || CPI(M) ||
|-
| Karimannoor ||Manojkumar N.T (Manoj Thankappan) || INC(I) ||
|-
| Karimkunnam ||Mathew John ( Thampi Manunkal) || KC(M) ||
|-
| Moolamattam ||Sunitha C.V || KC(M) ||
|-
| Mullaringadu ||Vishnu K.Chandran || CPI(M) ||
|-
| Munnar ||S.Vijayakumar || INC(I) ||
|-
| Murickassery ||Noble Jose (Noble Joseph) || IND ||
|-
| Nedumkandom ||Nirmala Nandakumar || CPI(M) ||
|-
| Painavu ||Lisamma Sajan || IND ||
|-
| Pampadumpara ||Molly Michael || INC(I) ||
|-
| Rajakkad ||Kochuthresia Paulose || INC(I) ||
|-
| Upputhara ||Syriac Thomas || INC(I) ||
|-
| Vagamon ||Molly Dominic || CPI ||
|-
| Vandanmedu ||Kunjumol Chacko || INC(I) ||
|-
| Vandiperiyar ||Vijayakumari Udayasooryan || INC(I) ||
|}

== 2010-2015 Council ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 2010-2015<ref>http://117.239.77.93/LocalBodyElection2010/main/Election2010.html Idukki District Council Election 2010</ref>
|-
! Division Name !! Representative !! Party !! Notes
|-
| Adimaly ||Mercy Joy || INC(I) ||
|-
| Devikulam ||D. Kumar || INC(I) ||
|-
| Karimannoor ||Indu Sudhakaran || INC(I) ||
|-
| Karimkunnam ||Sheela Stephen || KC(M) ||
|-
| Kattapana ||Mary Antony || KC(M) ||
|-
| Moolamattom ||Alex Kozhimala || KC(M) ||
|-
| Munnar ||Suseela || INC(I) ||
|-
| Murikkasery ||Shiny Saji || KC(M) ||
|-
| Nedumkandam ||K.N. Murali || KC(M) ||
|-
| Painav ||Georgy George || INC(I) ||
|-
| Pambadumpara ||K.T. Michael || INC(I) ||
|-
| Peerumade ||Jancy Shaji || INC(I) ||
|-
| Rajakkad ||Kochuthressia Poulose || INC(I) ||
|-
| Vagamon ||M.T. Thomas || INC(I) ||
|-
| Vandanmade ||M.M. Varghese || INC(I) ||
|-
| Vandiperiyar ||Suresh Babu || INC(I) ||
|}

== 2005-2010 Council ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 2005-2010<ref>http://sec.kerala.gov.in/images/A55-idk.pdf Idukki District Council Election 2005</ref>
|-
! Division# !! Division Name !! Representative !! Party !! Notes
|-
| 1 || Adimaly ||P. R. Sukumaran || INC(I) ||
|-
| 2 || Munnar ||P. Palanivel || CPI ||
|-
| 3 || Devikulam ||Tessy Francis || CPI(M) ||
|-
| 4 || Rajakkad ||O. G. Madhanan || CPI(M) ||
|-
| 5 || Murikkasery ||Noble Joseph || KC(J) ||
|-
| 6 || Nedumkandam ||Latha Rajaji || CPI(M) ||
|-
| 7 || Pambadumpara ||Jameela Raghavan || CPI ||
|-
| 8 || Kattapana ||Joy Vettikuzhy || KC(J) ||
|-
| 9 || Kumaly ||Ambika K. V. || CPI(M) ||
|-
| 10 || Valadi ||Vazhoor Soman || CPI ||
|-
| 11 || Vagamon ||E. S. Bijimol || CPI ||
|-
| 12 || Peerumade ||Antappan Jacob || CPI(M) ||
|-
| 13 || Arakkulam ||Sheela Stephan || ||
|-
| 14 || Karimkunnam ||K. N. Murali || DIC(K) ||
|-
| 15 || Karimannoor ||Roy K. Poulose || INC(I) ||
|-
| 16 || Painav ||Shajini || CPI(M) ||
|}

== 2000-2005 Council ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 2000-2005<ref>http://sec.kerala.gov.in/images/6-Results-idk.pdf Idukki District Council Election 2000</ref>
|-
! Division#!! Division Name !! Representative !! Party !! Notes
|-
| 1 || Adimaly ||Annakutty Yackob || INC(I) ||
|-
| 2 || Munnar ||P. Palanivel || CPI ||
|-
| 3 || Devikulam ||S. Rajendran || CPI(M) ||
|-
| 4 || Rajakumari ||O. G. Madhanan || CPI(M) ||
|-
| 5 || Murikkasery ||Mary Augusthy || UDF ||
|-
| 6 || Kattapana ||M. C. Thomas || KC(M) ||
|-
| 7 || Nedumkandam ||Sini Gopinath || CPI ||
|-
| 8 || Vandanmade ||S Njansundaran || INC(I) ||
|-
| 9 || Kumaly ||Merina John || Ind. ||
|-
| 10 || Peerumade ||Antappan Jacob || CPI(M) ||
|-
| 11 || Elappara ||M. T. Thomas || INC(I) ||
|-
| 12 || Arakkulam ||Sam George || KC(J) ||
|-
| 13 || Karimkunnam ||Joseph Augustine || KC(J) ||
|-
| 14 || Karimannoor ||Sarojini Chandran || INC(I) ||
|-
| 15 || Vazhathoppu ||K. N. Murali || UDF ||
|}

==See also==
* [[2020 Kerala local body elections]]
* [[2015 Kerala local body elections]]
* [[Devikulam (State Assembly constituency)]]
* [[Idukki (State Assembly constituency)]]
* [[Peerumade (State Assembly constituency)]]
* [[Thodupuzha (Assembly constituency)]]
* [[Udumbanchola (State Assembly constituency)]]
* [[Idukki (Lok Sabha constituency)]]
* [[Local government in India]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Local government in Kerala]]

Nandini Shankar

2026-04-21T12:02:25Z

ShivaniSikri: new a details added tags.

{{Short description|Indian violinist}}


{{Infobox musical artist 
| name = Nandini Shankar
| birth_name =
|alias =
| image = Nandini Shankar (Violinist).jpg
| caption =
| birth_place =[[Mumbai]], India
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1993|1|7}}
| death_date =
| instrument = [[Violin]]
| genre = [[Hindustani classical music]], [[Jazz fusion|Fusion]]
| occupation = [[Violin]]ist
| years_active =
| website = {{URL|www.nandinishankar.com}}
}}

'''Nandini Shankar''' is an Indian violinist who performs Hindustani classical music and fusion. She is the daughter of [[Sangeeta Shankar]]<ref>{{Citation
| title = Sangeeta Shankar - The Legacy Continues
| url = http://www.sangeetashankar.com/legacy.html
| access-date = 2014-09-23
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150411080822/http://www.sangeetashankar.com/legacy.html
| archive-date = 2015-04-11
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> and granddaughter of [[N. Rajam]].<ref>[[N. Rajam]]</ref>

== Early life ==
Shankar started her training when she was 3 years old and gave her first public performance at 8. She gave her first full-fledged solo performance at the age of 13 years.<ref>{{Citation
| title = Nandini Shankar's Official Website
| url=https://www.nandinishankar.com
}}</ref> She plays violin in the ''Gayaki Ang''.

== Personal life ==
Nandini Shanker is grand daughter of Indian violinist [[Padma Bhushan]] [[N. Rajam]] and her mother Dr Sangeeta Shanker is also highly acclaimed violinist. Nandini married the renowned Carnatic music fusion artist, [[Mahesh Raghvan]] on 9 May 2021.

== Education ==
Nandini Shankar excelled in [[Academy|academics]]. She completed her [[graduation]] in commerce, and is a qualified Indian [[Chartered accountant|Chartered Accountant]] (ICAI). She completed her M.A. in Music.

== Performing career ==

Shankar performed at [[Carnegie Hall]]<ref name="carnegie">{{Citation
|title = Carnegie Hall
|url = http://www.carnegiehall.org/Calendar/2015/10/16/0830/PM/Kaushiki-Chakrabortys-Sakhi/
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150604031942/http://www.carnegiehall.org/Calendar/2015/10/16/0830/PM/Kaushiki-Chakrabortys-Sakhi/
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = 2015-06-04
}}</ref> in 2016, [[Théâtre de la Ville]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sangeeta Shankar and daughters |url=https://www.theatredelaville-paris.com/en/spectacles/saison-2021-2022/musiques/sangeeta-shankar-and-daughters |access-date=2024-05-17 |website=Théâtre de la ville de Paris |language=en}}</ref> in 2021 and [[Esplanade – Theatres on the Bay|The Esplanade]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=C. to I. News |date=2023-09-25 |title=From singer Armaan Malik’s stage debut in Singapore to ‘killarious’ Tamil comedy, Kalaa Utsavam 2023 brings the full range of Indian performance arts |url=https://www.connectedtoindia.com/from-singer-armaan-maliks-stage-debut-in-singapore-to-killarious-tamil-comedy-kalaa/ |access-date=2024-05-17 |website=Connected to India News I Singapore l UAE l UK l USA l NRI |language=en}}</ref> in 2023. Countries in which she has performed include the United States,<ref name="carnegie" /> Canada,<ref name="europalia" /> New Zealand,<ref name="nz">{{Citation
| title = Young Violin Master to perform in New Zealand next month
| url=https://www.indiannewslink.co.nz/young-violin-master-to-perform-in-new-zealand-next-month/
}}</ref> Switzerland ,<ref name="switzerland">{{Citation
| title = Indisches Konzert mit Nandini Shankar
| url=https://rietberg.ch/en/calendar/5359
}}</ref> the [[United Kingdom]],<ref name="uk">{{Citation
| title = Indika: Evening Raga - Ragini & Nandini Shankar
| url = https://www.milapfest.com/events/indika-evening-raga-ragini-nandini-shankar/
| access-date = 2018-08-26
| archive-date = 2020-09-20
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200920114455/https://www.milapfest.com/events/indika-evening-raga-ragini-nandini-shankar/
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> France, [[Germany]], Belgium,<ref name="europalia" /> Venice, Luxembourg,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jalsa – IBCL |url=https://ibcl.lu/jalsa/ |access-date=2024-05-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> Greece, [[Netherlands]],<ref name="meru" /> Hungary, the UAE,<ref>{{Citation
| title = Hindustani Violin Concert
| url=http://www.thenational.ae/arts-lifestyle/hindustani-violin-concert-in-dubai
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020020117/http://www.thenational.ae/arts-lifestyle/hindustani-violin-concert-in-dubai
| url-status=dead
| archive-date=October 20, 2015
}}</ref> Bahrain,<ref>{{Cite web |title=All-women classical band enthrals audience |url=https://www.gdnonline.com/Details/1311350}}</ref> Bangladesh,<ref name="bengal">{{Citation
| title = Violins charm Bengal classical fest
| url=http://www.thedailystar.net/backpage/musical-marvel-continues-180106
}}</ref> Malaysia,<ref name="malaysia" /> Sri Lanka, Indonesia<ref name="indonesia">{{Citation
| title = Sakhi: Bold and beautiful
| url=https://www.indiannewslink.co.nz/young-violin-master-to-perform-in-new-zealand-next-month/
}}</ref> and Singapore.<ref>{{Citation
| title = Nandini Shankar
| url=https://www.nandinishankar.com
}}</ref>
She has performed at festivals including the [[Europalia]],<ref name="europalia">{{Citation
| title = Europalia
| url = http://www.europalia.eu/archives/india/en/article/three-generations_141.html
| access-date = 2014-09-23
| archive-date = 2018-10-31
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181031005315/https://europalia.eu/archives/india/en/article/three-generations_141.html
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>
[[Sawai Gandharva Bhimsen Festival]],<ref>{{Citation
| title = DNA Syndication
| url=http://dnasyndication.com/dna_photogallery_editorial_images/pid=DNPUN9411
}}</ref>
<ref>{{Citation
| title = DNA India - Pune's Sawai Gandharva Mahotsav ends on a soulful note
| url=https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-punes-sawai-gandharva-mahotsav-ends-on-a-soulful-note-1624710
}}</ref>
<ref>{{Citation
| title = Mid-Day Archives: Performance by 3 generations of family steals show on final day
| url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/performance-by-3-generations-of-family-steals-show-on-final-day/145660
}}</ref>
Yaksha (festival),<ref>Yaksha (festival)</ref>
[[Saptak Festival of Music]],<ref>{{Citation
| title = Saptak Annual Festival
| url=https://imcradiodotnet.wordpress.com/2009/12/30/saptak-annual-festival-2010-viraasat-1st-till-13th-jan-2010/
}}</ref>
Aarohi for Pancham Nishad,<ref>{{Citation
| title = Pancham Nishad - Past Events
| url = http://www.panchamnishad.com/past-events1.html
| access-date = 2014-09-23
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140623163004/http://www.panchamnishad.com/past-events1.html
| archive-date = 2014-06-23
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>
[[ITC SRA Sangeet Sammelan]],<ref name="itc">{{Citation
| title = ITC - Sangeet Sammelan
| url=http://www.itcsra.org/sra_sammelan/itcsammelan_del_0910.html
}}</ref>
MERU in Netherlands,<ref name="meru">{{Citation
| title = MERU Concerts - Three Generations
| url=http://concert.meru-mvu.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Concert_Spring_2014_NL.pdf
}}</ref>
Jaya Smriti organised by [[Hema Malini]],<ref>{{Citation
| title = Solaris Event Archives
| url = http://www.solarisimages.com/archive_event_gallery.php?id=4291
| access-date = 2014-09-23
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052538/http://www.solarisimages.com/archive_event_gallery.php?id=4291
| archive-date = 2016-03-04
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>
Temple of Fine Arts,<ref name="malaysia">{{Citation
| title = Thyagaraja Tansen Music Festival, The Temple of Fine Arts, Malaysia
| url=http://www.radioandmusic.com/content/editorial/news/thyagaraja-tansen-music-festival-kick-start-9-feb
}}</ref>
Bhilwara Sur Sangam,<ref>{{Citation
| title = Bhilwara Group presents music festival
| url=https://article.wn.com/view/2013/03/30/Bhilwara_Group_presents_music_festival/
}}</ref> The Association of Performing Arts of India,<ref>{{Citation
| title = Gallery, The Association of Performing Arts of India
| url=http://www.apaiart.com/gallery.html
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021062618/http://www.apaiart.com/gallery.html
| url-status=usurped
| archive-date=October 21, 2009
}}</ref>
[[T. N. Krishnan]] Foundation,<ref>{{Citation
| title = Parampara, T. N. Krishnan Foundation
| url = http://www.tnkrishnan-foundation.org/2007_11_01_archive.html
| access-date = 2014-09-23
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233345/http://www.tnkrishnan-foundation.org/2007_11_01_archive.html
| archive-date = 2016-03-03
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>
Delhi International Arts Festival,<ref>{{Citation
| title = Delhi International Arts Festival
| url=http://www.diaf.in/diaf2007_2.html
}}</ref>
Bengal Music Foundation,<ref name="bengal" />
and [[Dover Lane Music Conference]].<ref>{{Citation
| title = Dover Lane Music Conference
| url=http://www.indiatvnews.com/entertainment/bollywood/dover-lane-music-conference-three-generation-violinists-26139.html
}}</ref> She has been telecast in [[Idea Jalsa]]<ref>{{Citation
| title = Youtube, Payoji Maine - Bhajan (Dr. N. Rajam, Sangeeta Shankar, Ragini Shankar & Nandini Shankar)
| url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qa3ROJ2P3Wg
}}</ref> and made a music video with her sister [[Ragini Shankar]].<ref>{{Citation
| title = Legendary Legacy, Record Label
| url = http://legendarylegacy.com/view_au_vi.php?enc_prod_id=8ebda540cbcc4d7336496819a46a1b68
| access-date = 2014-09-23
| archive-date = 2016-03-04
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070022/http://legendarylegacy.com/view_au_vi.php?enc_prod_id=8ebda540cbcc4d7336496819a46a1b68
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

Nandini Shankar and her sister [[Ragini Shankar|Ragini]] have been signed by Decca Records US, a part of Universal Music Group for a full-length music album for their musical ensemble 'Taraana’.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-14 |title=Violinists Ragini and Nandini Shankar’s debut album infuses global sounds |url=https://www.mid-day.com/mumbai-guide/things-to-do/article/sister-act-23275139 |access-date=2024-05-17 |website=Mid-day |language=en}}</ref> She regularly releases singles with her husband [[Mahesh Raghvan]]. She is a part of Sakhi, India's first all-girl Indian classical musical band, formed by [[Kaushiki Chakraborty]].<ref>{{Citation
| title = First All Women's Classical Band, Sakhi
| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/music/Kaushiki-Chakraborty-forms-first-all-womens-classical-band-Sakhi/articleshow/45940344.cms
}}</ref> She is also a part of 'inStrings', a fusion band combining various genres from across the world.

She resides in Mumbai.

== Discography ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Month/Year of Release
!Name
!Genre
!Artist(s)
!Type
!Label
|-
|December 2023
|Orange to Red
|Indian Classical
|Nandini Shankar, Abhishek Mishra
|Album
|Legendary Legacy Promotions Pvt. Ltd.
|-
|September 2023
|Meeting of the Ragas
|Indian Fusion
|Mahesh Raghvan, Nandini Shankar
|Single
|Mahesh Raghvan & Nandini Shankar
|-
|July 2023
|A Billion Stars
|Indian Fusion
|Mahesh Raghvan, Nandini Shankar
|Single
|Legendary Legacy Promotions Pvt. Ltd.
|-
|June 2023
|Taraana
|Indian Fusion
|Nandini Shankar, Ragini Shankar
|Album
|Verve Label Group
|-
|June 2023
|Na Maanoongi
|Indian Fusion
|Mahesh Raghvan, Nandini Shankar
|Single
|Legendary Legacy Promotions Pvt. Ltd.
|-
|March 2021
|The Khamaj Connection
|Indian Fusion
|Mahesh Raghvan, Nandini Shankar
|Single
|Legendary Legacy Promotions Pvt. Ltd.
|-
|August 2020
|Aaj Jaane Ki Zidd Na Karo (Violin)
|Ghazal
|Nandini Shankar
|Single
|Nandini Shankar
|-
|December 2019
|The Kapi Dance
|Indian Fusion
|Mahesh Raghvan, Nandini Shankar
|Single
|Legendary Legacy Promotions Pvt. Ltd.
|-
|August 2019
|Raga Livewire
|Indian Fusion
|Nandini Shankar, Rhythm Shaw
|Single
|Legendary Legacy Promotions Pvt. Ltd.
|-
|June 2019
|Immerse
|Indian Classical
|Nandini Shankar, Ojas Adhiya
|Album
|Legendary Legacy Promotions Pvt. Ltd.
|-
|April 2019
|Saffron Nirvana
|Indian Classical/Devotional
|Nandini Shankar, Ojas Adhiya
|Single
|Legendary Legacy Promotions Pvt. Ltd.
|-
|March 2019
|Naina More
|Indian Semi-Classical
|Nandini Shankar
|Single
|Strumm Sound
|-
|February 2019
|Yaad Piya Ki Aaye
|Indian Semi-Classical
|Nandini Shankar
|Single
|Strumm Sound
|-
|June 2017
|Kaushikis Sakhi
|Indian Classical
|Sakhi
|Album
|Saregama
|-
|March 2006
|Three Generations
on the Violin
|Indian Classical
|N. Rajam, Sangeeta Shankar,
Ragini Shankar, Nandini Shankar,

Vinayak Netke
|Video
Album
|Legendary Legacy Promotions Pvt. Ltd.
|}

== Awards and honours ==
 
Jaya Smriti presented by Hema Malini, 2012 
Jashn-e-Youngistan presented by the Vice-President of India, [Venkaiah Naidu], 2018
<ref>{{Citation
| title = Jashn-E-Youngistan 2018 honoured violinsts Ragini Shankar and Nandini Shankar
| url=https://m.dailyhunt.in/news/india/english/news24online-epaper-newsonline/jashn+e+youngistan+2018+honoured+violinsts+ragini+shankar+and+nandini+shankar-newsid-102297839
}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|3}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shankar, Nandini}}
[[Category:Indian women violinists]]
[[Category:Hindustani musicians|Violinists]]
[[Category:1993 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian violinists]]

Shobi Thilakan

2026-04-18T14:18:21Z

ShivaniSikri: Put up a stub

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Short description|Indian actor and voice-over artist}}
{{Indian name|Shobi|Thilakan}}{{Infobox person
| name = Shobi Thilakan
| native_name = ഷോബി തിലകൻ
| image = Shobi Thilakan (cropped).jpg
| image_size =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Plankamon, [[Ayroor]], [[Pathanamthitta district|Pathanamthitta]], [[Kerala]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| years_active =
| parents = {{Unbulleted_list|[[Thilakan]]|Santha}}
}}

'''Shobi Thilakan''' is an Indian actor and voice-over artist who works prominently in [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam films]] and television. He is the son of late actor [[Thilakan]]. Shobi has won the [[Kerala State Film Awards|Kerala State Film Award]] for the best dubbing artist in 2021.<ref name="TOI01">{{cite news |title=Manjil Virinja Poovu actor Shobi Thilakan wins the Kerala State Film Awards for the best dubbing artist |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/manjil-virinja-poovu-actor-shobi-thilakan-wins-the-kerala-state-film-awards-for-the-best-dubbing-artist/articleshow/87078869.cms?from=mdr |access-date=12 December 2022 |date=17 October 2021 |archive-date=12 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221212075435/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/malayalam/manjil-virinja-poovu-actor-shobi-thilakan-wins-the-kerala-state-film-awards-for-the-best-dubbing-artist/articleshow/87078869.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="OM01">{{cite news |last1=RB |first1=Sreelekha |title=When I do a Rajamouli film, I also become part of cinema history: Shobi Thilakan |url=https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/interviews/2022/04/26/rajamouli-film-cinema-history-shobi-thilakan.html |access-date=12 December 2022 |date=26 April 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111233001/https://www.onmanorama.com/entertainment/interviews/2022/04/26/rajamouli-film-cinema-history-shobi-thilakan.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Early life and career ==
Shobi is the son of acclaimed actor [[Thilakan]] and brother of actor [[Shammi Thilakan]].

He provides the on-screen voice for a number of actors in films and television shows.
He is playing a role in the serial ''[[Manjil Virinja Poovu]]'', in which he plays a hefty part. Shobi also played a cameo role in ''[[Ammayariyathe]]''.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year !! Film!! Role !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2012 || ''[[Namukku Parkkan]]'' || Pandian ||
|-
| 2013 || ''[[Ayaal]]'' || ||
|-
| 2014 || ''[[The Dolphins (film)|The Dolphins]]'' || ||
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Varathan]]'' || Baby ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2019 || ''[[Neeyum Njanum]]'' || ||
|-
|| ''[[Kalippu]]'' || ||
|-
| rowspan=3 | 2023 || ''[[1921: Puzha Muthal Puzha Vare]]'' || Lavankutty ||
|-
| ''[[Ayalvaashi]]'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Soubin Shahir's Ayalvaashi gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/feb/21/soubin-shahirs-ayalvaashi-gets-a-release-date-40218.html |access-date=2023-03-15 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |date=21 February 2023 |language=en |archive-date=2023-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315074359/https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2023/feb/21/soubin-shahirs-ayalvaashi-gets-a-release-date-40218.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Pendulum (2023 film)|Pendulum]]'' || Antony ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pendulum - Malayalam Movie Review, Ott, Release Date, Trailer, Budget, Box Office & News - FilmiBeat |url=https://www.filmibeat.com/malayalam/movies/pendulum.html |access-date=2023-07-20 |website=www.filmibeat.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2024 || ''[[Grrr (film)|Grrr]]'' || Iravi ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-05-06 |title=Kunchacko Boban's Grrr gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2024/May/06/kunchacko-bobans-grrr-gets-a-release-date |access-date=2024-05-06 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Bougainvillea (film)|Bougainvillea]]'' || [[Inspector]] Suresh Rajan ||
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2025 || ''[[Thudarum (film)|Thudarum]]'' || Maniyans father ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=‘I’ve acted with your fathers…now I’m acting with you children’: Mohanlal to Rani Sarran |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/movies-music/news/ive-acted-with-your-fathersnow-im-acting-with-you-children-mohanlal-to-rani-sarran-rscujl65 |access-date=2025-06-21 |website=@mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[JSK: Janaki V v/s State of Kerala]]'' ||CI Gopakumar||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2025-05-28 |title=Suresh Gopi and Anupama Parameswaran's JSK gets release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2025/May/28/suresh-gopi-and-anupama-parameswarans-jsk-gets-release-date |access-date=2025-05-28 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2 | 2026 || ''[[Aashaan]]'' || ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=Cinema Express |date=2026-01-30 |title=Indrans-Joemon Jyothir starrer Aashaan gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2026/Jan/30/indrans-joemon-jyothir-starrer-aashaan-gets-a-release-date |access-date=2026-01-30 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| {{Pending film| Dridam}} || {{TableTBA}} ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-04-16 |title=Shane Nigam-starrer Dridam gets a release date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/malayalam/news/2026/Apr/16/shane-nigam-starrer-dridam-gets-a-release-date |access-date=2026-04-18 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|}

== Voice-over ==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Film !! Voice for !! Character !! Director
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2001 || ''[[Naranathu Thampuran]]'' || [[Baburaj (actor)|Baburaj]] || Vikraman || [[Viji Thampi]]
|-
| ''[[Akashathile Paravakal]]'' || [[I. M. Vijayan]] || Valayar Manikyam || [[V.M. Vinu]]
|-
| ''[[Nariman (film)|Nariman]]'' || [[Baburaj (actor)|Baburaj]] || Ajayan || [[K. Madhu]]
|-
| rowspan="8"| 2002 || ''[[Kuberan (2002 film)|Kuberan]]'' || [[Suresh Krishna (actor)|Suresh Krishna]] || Sanjay || [[Sundar Das]]
|-
| ''[[Bhavam]]'' || Murali Menon ||Joy || Satish Menon
|-
| rowspan="2"| ''[[Shivam (2002 film)|Shivam]]'' || [[Baburaj (actor)|Baburaj]] || Medayil Ashokan || rowspan="2"| [[Shaji Kailas]]
|-
| [[Jijoy Rajagopal]] ||Francis
|-
| ''[[Thandavam]]'' || Iqbal || [[Deputy superintendent of police|DYSP]] || [[Shaji Kailas]]
|-
| rowspan="2"| ''[[Stop Violence]]'' || [[Baburaj (actor)|Baburaj]] || [[Constable]] Sugunan || rowspan="2"| [[A. K. Sajan]]
|-
| Saji Soman || Acid
|-
| ''[[Chathurangam (2002 film)|Chathurangam]]'' || [[Baburaj (actor)|Baburaj]] || [[Sub Inspector|S.I]] Thankaraj || [[K. Madhu]]
|-
| rowspan="8"| 2003 || ''The Fire'' || [[Mohan Raj]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] Thomas Jose || Shankar Krishna
|-
| ''[[Kasthooriman]]'' || Sumesh Surendran || Benny Joseph Alukka || [[A.K. Lohithadas]]
|-
| ''[[Balettan]]'' || [[Riyaz Khan]] || Bhadran || [[V.M. Vinu]]
|-
| rowspan="2"| ''[[Ivar (2003 film)|Ivar]]'' || [[Lishoy]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] || rowspan="2"| [[T.K. Rajeev Kumar]]
|-
| [[Rajesh Hebbar]] ||Alambu Rajan
|-
| ''[[War and Love (2003 film)|War and Love]]'' || [[Prabhu (actor)|Prabhu]] || [[Lieutenant colonel|Lt Colonel]] Sharath Chandran || [[Vinayan]]
|-
| ''Malsaram'' || rowspan="2"| [[Suresh Krishna (actor)|Suresh Krishna]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] Alex || Anil C. Menon
|-
| ''[[Pattanathil Sundaran]]'' || Kizhakkethil Sasidharan || Vipin Mohan
|-
| rowspan="8"| 2004 || ''[[Vamanapuram Bus Route]]'' || [[Adithya Menon]] || Karipidi Gopi || Sonu Shishupal
|-
| ''Udayam'' || Anil || [[Assistant superintendent of police|A.S.P]] Jithendran [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] || Vinu Joemon
|-
| ''[[Wanted (2004 film)|Wanted]]'' || [[Adithya Menon]] || Guru || Murali Nagavally
|-
| ''Kakkakarumban'' || [[Riyaz Khan]] || Issac || M.A. Venu
|-
| ''[[Natturajavu]]'' || [[Ranjith (actor)|Ranjith]] || Karnan || [[Shaji Kailas]]
|-
| ''[[Sathyam (2004 film)|Sathyam]]'' || [[Anandaraj]] || [[Commissioner of Police (India)|City Police Commissioner]] Mambilly Mukundan Menon [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] || [[Vinayan]]
|-
| ''[[Mampazhakkalam]]'' || [[Adithya Menon]] || Dr. Raghuram || [[Joshiy]]
|-
| ''[[Black (2004 film)|Black]]'' || [[Rahman (actor)|Rahman]] || [[Sub Inspector|S.I]] Ashok Srinivas || [[Ranjith (director)|Ranjith]]
|-
| rowspan="12"| 2005 || ''[[Iruvattam Manavaatti]]'' || [[Santhosh Jogi]] || || R. Sanal
|-
| rowspan="2"| ''[[Thommanum Makkalum]]'' || [[Anand (actor)|Anand]] ||Kaliyappan || rowspan="2"| [[Shafi]]
|-
| [[Baiju Ezhupunna]] || SI Thankaraj
|-
| ''[[Chandrolsavam]]'' || [[Ranjith (actor)|Ranjith]] || Kalathil Ramanunni || [[Ranjith (director)|Ranjith]]
|-
| ''[[Five Fingers (2005 film)|Five Fingers]]'' || rowspan="2"| [[Riyaz Khan]] ||Hari Narayanan [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] || Sanjeev Raj
|-
| ''[[Pauran]]'' || MLA Thomaskutty Alias Thomachan || [[Sundar Das]]
|-
| ''[[Pandippada]]'' || Sabu Varghese || Kaali || [[Rafi–Mecartin]]
|-
| ''[[By the People (2005 film)|By the People]]'' || [[Vincent Asokan]] || Paramasivan || [[Jayaraj]]
|-
| ''[[Maanikyan]]'' || [[Suresh Krishna (actor)|Suresh Krishna]] || Rajendran || [[K. K. Haridas]]
|-
| ''[[Lokanathan IAS]]'' || rowspan="2"| [[Ranjith (actor)|Ranjith]] || Brahmanandan || Anil C. Menon
|-
| ''[[Rajamanikyam]]'' || Simon Nadar || [[Anwar Rasheed]]
|-
| ''[[Sarkar Dada]]'' || [[Riyaz Khan]] || Abbas || [[Sasi Shanker]]
|-
| rowspan="16"| 2006 || | ''Highway Police'' || rowspan="2"| [[Riyaz Khan]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] Jayachandran || Prasad Vallacherry
|-
| ''[[Lion (2006 film)|Lion]]'' || [[Assistant superintendent of police|A.S.P]] Harshan [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] || [[Joshiy]]
|-
|''[[Vargam]]'' || [[Anand (actor)|Anand]] || Arakkal Shereef || [[M. Padmakumar]]
|-
| ''[[Ravanan (2006 film)|Ravanan ]]'' || [[Ajay Rathnam]] || R Krishna Moorthy Alias R K || Jojo K. Varghese
|-
| rowspan="2"| ''[[Chinthamani Kolacase]]'' || [[Baburaj (actor)|Baburaj]] || Isra Qureshi || rowspan="2"| [[Shaji Kailas]]
|-
| [[Biju Pappan]] ||Sundaram
|-
| ''[[Chess (2006 film)|Chess]]'' || [[Jagannatha Varma]] || [[Deputy inspector general of police|DIG]] Bharathan Kurup [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] ||
Raj Babu
|-
| rowspan="2"| ''[[Chacko Randaaman]]'' || [[Adithya Menon]] || Karimbadam Gopi Alias Parunthu Gopi || rowspan="2"| [[Sunil Kariattukara]]
|-
| [[Baburaj (actor)|Baburaj]] || Karimbadam Mohandas
|-
| ''[[Moonnamathoral]]'' || Murali Menon || Vijaya Kumaran Menon || [[V. K. Prakash]]
|-
| ''Jayam'' || [[Anandaraj]] || Njattuvetti Bharathan || Sonu Shishupal
|-
| ''[[The Don (2006 film)|The Don]]'' || [[Spadikam George]] || [[Deputy superintendent of police|DYSP]] Anirudhan || [[Shaji Kailas]]
|-
| ''[[Bada Dosth]]'' || [[Riyaz Khan]] || [[Sub Inspector|S.I]] Niranjan Das || [[Viji Thampi]]
|-
| ''[[Smart City (film)|Smart City]]'' || [[Baburaj (actor)|Baburaj]] || [[Sub Inspector|S.I]] Divakaran || [[B. Unnikrishnan]]
|-
| ''[[Baba Kalyani (film)|Baba Kalyani]]'' || rowspan="2"| Kiran Raj ||Basha || [[Shaji Kailas]]
|-
| ''[[Kanaka Simhasanam]]'' || Narasimha Raju || [[Rajasenan]]
|-
| rowspan="19"| 2007 || | ''[[Vikramarkudu|Vikramadithyan]]''|| [[Ravi Teja]] || [[Additional superintendent of police|A.S.P]] Vikram Singh Rathore [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] & Athani Sathya Babu || [[S. S. Rajamouli]]
|-
| ''[[Sketch (2007 film)|Sketch]]''|| [[Saiju Kurup]] || Shivahari Iyer || Prasad Yadav
|-
| ''[[Speed Track]]'' || [[Riyaz Khan]] || Tinu Nalinakshan || S.L. Puram Jayasurya
|-
| ''[[Abraham & Lincoln]]'' || Manu Mohith || Sonarkella Shankarnath || [[Pramod Pappan]]
|-
| ''[[Payum Puli]]'' || [[Riyaz Khan]] || Isaac John || [[Mohan Kupleri]]
|-
| ''[[Big B (film)|Big B]]''|| [[Shereveer Vakil]] || Sayippu Tony || [[Amal Neerad]]
|-
| ''[[Chotta Mumbai]]'' || [[Jasper (actor)|Jasper]] || Sebatti || [[Anwar Rasheed]]
|-
| ''[[Khaki (2007 film)|Khaki]]'' || [[Nawab Shah (actor)|Nawab Shah]] || Parthiban || Bipin Prabhakar
|-
| ''[[Time (2007 film)|Time]]'' || [[Mohan Raj]] || Kurian Varghese || [[Shaji Kailas]]
|-
| ''[[Goal (2007 Malayalam film)|Goal]]'' || rowspan="2"| [[Rahman (actor)|Rahman]] || Vijay Das || [[Kamal (director)|Kamal]]
|-
| ''[[Nanma]]'' || Nakulan || Sarathchandran Wayanad
|-
| ''[[Rakshakan]]'' || [[Ashish Vidyarthi]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] Sugathan || [[Thulasidas]]
|-
| rowspan="2"| ''[[Hallo (film)|Hallo]]'' || [[Mohan Raj]] || Pattambi Ravi Alias Chattambi Ravi || rowspan="2"| [[Rafi–Mecartin]]
|-
| [[Kundara Johny]] || [[Commissioner of Police (India)|City Police Commissioner]]
|-
| ''[[Yogi (2007 film)|Yogi (Malayalam Version)]]'' || [[Prabhas]]|| Eeswar Chandra Prasad Alias Yogi ||rowspan="2"| [[V. V. Vinayak]]
|-
| ''[[Bunny (2005 film)|Bunny The Lion]]'' || [[Prakash Raj]] || Somaraj
|-
| ''[[Black Cat (2007 film)|Black Cat]]'' || [[Ashish Vidyarthi]]|| Prabhul Kumar || [[Vinayan]]
|-
| ''[[Malliswari (2004 film)|Malliswari The Princess]]'' || [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]]|| Prasad || [[K. Vijaya Bhaskar]]
|-
| ''[[Romeo (2007 film)|Romeo]]'' || Murali Mohan || Jayaraj Menon || [[Rajasenan]]
|-
| rowspan="13"| 2008 || rowspan="2" | ''[[Kabadi Kabadi (2008 film)|Kabadi Kabadi]]'' || [[Bose Venkat]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] Yatheendran ||rowspan="2"| Sudheer-Manu
|-
| [[Besant Ravi]] || Pothu
|-
| ''[[Tulasi (2007 film)|Tulasi (Malayalam Version)]]'' || [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]] || Tulasi Ram || [[Boyapati Srinu]]
|-
| ''[[Aandavan (2008 film)|Aandavan]]'' || [[Anand (actor)|Anand]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] Sadashivan Panicker || [[Akku Akbar|Akbar Jose]]
|-
| ''[[One Way Ticket (2008 film)|One Way Ticket]]'' || [[Nishanth Sagar]] || Sasi || Bipin Prabhakar
|-
| ''[[Shambu (2008 film)|Shambu]]'' || [[Riyaz Khan]] || Parthasaradhi || K.B. Madhu
|-
| ''[[Parugu|Krishna]]'' || [[Prakash Raj]] || Neelakantan || [[Bhaskar (director)|Bhaskar]]
|-
| ''[[Aayudham (2008 film)|Aayudham]]'' || [[Adithya Menon]] || [[Commissioner of Police (India)|Commissioner]] Mahendran [[Indian Police Service|IPS]]
|| [[M. A. Nishad]]
|-
| ''[[Mayabazar (2008 film)|Mayabazar]]'' || [[Vincent Asokan]] || Andrews || Thomas Sebastian
|-
| ''[[Lakshyam (2007 film)|Chandu]]'' || [[Jagapathi Babu]] || [[Assistant Commissioner of Police (India)|ACP]] Subhash Chandra Bose [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] || [[Sriwass]]
|-
| ''Gulmohar''|| [[Kollam Thulasi]] || [[Deputy superintendent of police|DYSP]] Shivan || [[Jayaraj]]
|-
| ''[[Kurukshetra (2008 film)|Kurukshetra]]'' || [[Ravi Mariya]] || [[Brigadier]] Krishna || [[Major Ravi]]
|-
| ''[[Thalappavu]]'' || Joly Joseph || [[Deputy inspector general of police|DIG]] Pazhassi Raj || [[Madhupal]]
|-
|rowspan="10"| 2009 || ''[[Red Chillies (film)|Red Chillies]]'' || [[Biju Pappan]] || Satheeshan Alias Banker || [[Shaji Kailas]]
|-
| ''[[Sagar Alias Jacky Reloaded]]'' || [[Sampath Raj]] || Michael Rosario || [[Amal Neerad]]
|-
| ''[[I. G. – Inspector General]]'' || [[Ashish Vidyarthi]] || Scaria Zachariah || [[B. Unnikrishnan]]
|-
| ''[[Samastha Keralam PO]]'' || [[Vincent Asokan]] || Michael Alias Christy Thomas || Bipin Prabhakar
|-
| ''[[Black Dalia]]'' || Vimal Raj || Bhadran || [[Baburaj (actor)|Baburaj]]
|-
| ''[[Passenger (2009 film)|Passenger]]''|| [[Anandsami]]||Anali Shaji || [[Ranjith Sankar]]
|-
| ''Dalamarmarangal''|| [[Sai Kumar (Malayalam actor)|Sai Kumar]] || Pratapan || Vijayakrishnan
|-
| ''[[Duplicate (2009 film)|Duplicate]]'' || [[Riyaz Khan]] || [[Assistant Commissioner of Police (India)|ACP]] Antony Rosarrio [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] || Shibu Prabhakar
|-
| ''[[Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (film)|Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja]]'' || [[R. Sarathkumar]] || [[Edachena Kunkan]] || [[Hariharan (director)|Hariharan]]
|-
| ''[[Gangotri (2003 film)|Simhakutty]]'' || [[Prakash Raj]] || Neelakantan || [[K. Raghavendra Rao]]
|-
| rowspan="17"| 2010 || ''[[Black Stallion (film)|Black Stallion]]'' || [[Ashish Vidyarthi]] || Irumban John || [[Pramod Pappan]]
|-
| ''[[Body Guard (2010 film)|Body Guard]]'' || [[Thiagarajan]] || Ashokan || [[Siddique (director)|Siddique]]
|-
| ''[[Thanthonni]]'' || [[Ranjith (actor)|Ranjith]] || Neelakandan || [[George Varghese (director)|George Varghese]]
|-
| ''[[Pulliman (2010 film)|Pulliman]]'' || [[Ponvannan]] || Kalan Vasu || Anil K. Nair
|-
| ''[[Varudu|Varan]]'' || [[Arya (actor)|Arya]] || Diwakar || [[Gunasekhar]]
|-
| ''[[Janakan]]'' || [[Sampath Ram]] || [[Assistant Commissioner of Police (India)|ACP]] Vikraman [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] || N. R. Sanjeev
|-
| ''[[Alexander the Great (2010 film)|Alexander the Great ]]'' || rowspan="2"| [[John Kokken]] || Thomas || Murali Nagavally
|-
| ''[[Shikkar]]'' || Thampi || [[M. Padmakumar]]
|-
| ''[[Vandae Maatharam]]'' || [[Arjun Sarja]] || [[Superintendent of police (India)|SSP]] Anwar Hussain [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] || T. Aravind
|-
| ''[[Arundhati (2009 film)|Arundhati (Malayalam Version)]]'' || [[Sonu Sood]] || Pasupathi || [[Kodi Ramakrishna]]
|-
| ''[[Oridathoru Postman]]'' || [[Sarath Kumar]] || Yasin Mubarak || [[Shaji Azeez]]
|-
| ''[[Chekavar (film)|Chekavar]]'' || [[Sreejith Ravi]] || Udumbu Rocky || Sajeevan
|-
| ''[[The Thriller]]'' || [[Vincent Asokan]]|| RDX Anil || [[B. Unnikrishnan]]
|-
| ''[[Elektra (2010 film)|Elektra]]'' || [[Prakash Raj]] || Abraham || [[Shyamaprasad]]
|-
| ''[[Anwar (2010 film)|Anwar]]'' || [[Sampath Raj]] || Basheer || [[Amal Neerad]]
|-
| ''[[Chaverpada]]'' || [[Pawan (actor)|Pawan]] || Jehangir Mustafa Alias Jaggu Bhai || T. S. Jaspal
|-
| ''[[Marykkundoru Kunjaadu]]'' || [[Anand (actor)|Anand]] || Johnykutty || [[Shafi (director)|Shafi]]
|-
| rowspan="17"| 2011 || ''[[Traffic (2011 film)|Traffic]]'' || [[Rahman (actor)|Rahman]] || Siddharth Shanker || [[Rajesh Pillai]]
|-
| ''[[The Metro (film)|The Metro]]'' || [[R. Sarathkumar]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] Jacob Alexander & [[Head Constable]] Alexander || Bipin Prabhakar
|-
| ''[[Arjunan Sakshi]]'' || [[Anand (actor)|Anand]] || Rajan Thomas || [[Ranjith Sankar]]
|-
| ''[[Urumi (film)|Urumi]]'' || [[Deepak Jethi]] || Balia Hassan || [[Santosh Sivan]]
|-
| ''[[Doubles (2011 film)|Doubles]]''|| [[Avinash Yelandur|Avinash]]|| Louie || [[Sohan Seenulal]]
|-
| ''[[China Town (2011 film)|China Town]]'' || [[Pradeep Rawat (actor)|Pradeep Rawat]] || Gowda || [[Rafi–Mecartin]]
|-
| ''[[The Filmstaar]]'' || [[Thalaivasal Vijay]] || Sakhavu Ragahvan || Sanjeev Raj
|-
| ''[[Melvilasom]]'' || [[Nizhalgal Ravi]] || [[Major (rank)|Major]] Ajay Puri || [[Madhav Ramadasan]]
|-
| ''[[Badrinath (film)|Badrinath (Malayalam Version)]]'' || [[Prakash Raj]] || Bheeshma Narayanan || [[V.V. Vinayak]]
|-
| ''[[Uppukandam Brothers Back in Action|Uppukandam Brothers: Back in Action]]'' || [[Richard Rishi]] || Ettuveetil Ganeshan || [[T. S. Suresh Babu]]
|-
| ''[[Collector (2011 film)|Collector]]'' || rowspan="2" | [[Adithya Menon]] || John Williams || Anil C. Menon
|-
| rowspan="2"| ''[[Manushyamrugam]]'' || Kamaal Pasha || rowspan="2"| [[Baburaj (actor)|Baburaj]]
|-
| Vijay Rangaraju || Para Vasu
|-
| ''[[Teja Bhai & Family]]'' || [[Suman (actor)|Suman]] || Mohan Kartha || [[Diphan]]
|-
| ''[[Sevenes]]'' || [[Sampath Ram]] || Beypoor Sreedharan || [[Joshiy]]
|-
| ''[[Makaramanju]]'' || [[Santosh Sivan]] || [[Raja Ravi Varma]] || [[Lenin Rajendran]]
|-
| ''[[Pachuvum Kovalanum]]'' || [[Riyaz Khan]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] Sanjay || [[Thaha]]
|-
| rowspan="13"| 2012 || rowspan="2" |''[[Asuravithu (2012 film)|Asuravithu]]'' || Jiya Irani || Aaron || rowspan="2"| [[A. K. Sajan]]
|-
| [[I. M. Vijayan]] || Valarpadam Kurudhu Mustafa
|-
| ''[[Casanovva]]''|| [[Vikramjeet Virk]] || Alexi || [[Rosshan Andrrews]]
|-
| ''[[Ordinary (film)|Ordinary]]''|| [[Chemban Vinod Jose]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] Habeeb Rahman || [[Sugeeth]]
|-
| ''[[Hero (2012 film)|Hero]]'' || [[Thalaivasal Vijay]] || Dharmarajan Master || [[Diphan]]
|-
| rowspan="2"| ''[[Bachelor Party (2012 film)|Bachelor Party]]'' || [[Rahman (actor)|Rahman]] || Benny || rowspan="2"| [[Amal Neerad]]
|-
| [[John Vijay]] || Prakash Kammath
|-
| ''[[Eega|Eecha]]'' || [[Sudeepa]] || Sudeep || [[S.S. Rajamouli]]
|-
|''[[Simhasanam (2012 film)|Simhasanam]]'' || [[Riyaz Khan]] || [[Superintendent of police (India)|S.P]] Vetrivel Maran [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] ||
[[Shaji Kailas]]
|-
| ''[[Julayi|Gajapokkiri ]]'' || [[Sonu Sood]] || Bichu || [[Trivikram Srinivas]]
|-
| ''[[Scene Onnu Nammude Veedu]]'' || [[Thilakan]] || Vishwan || Shyju Anthikad
|-
| ''[[Matinee (2012 film)|Matinee]]'' || [[Thalaivasal Vijay]] || Najeeb's Father || [[Aneesh Upasana]]
|-
| ''[[Karmayodha]]'' || [[Murali Sharma]] || Khais Khanna || [[Major Ravi]]
|-
| rowspan="11"| 2013 || ''[[Romans (2013 film)|Romans]]'' || [[Nizhalgal Ravi]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] Vetrimaran || [[Boban Samuel]]
|-
| ''[[Lokpal (film)|Lokpal]]'' || [[Thalaivasal Vijay]] || [[Prosecutor|Public Prosecutor]] P.K. Ramabhadran || [[Joshiy]]
|-
| ''[[Cowboy (2013 film)|Cowboy]]'' || [[Bala (actor)|Bala]] || Xavier || P. Balachandra Kumar
|-
| ''[[Ithu Pathiramanal]]'' || [[Pradeep Rawat (actor)|Pradeep Rawat]] || [[Constable]] Shouriyar || [[M. Padmakumar]]
|-
| ''[[Sound Thoma]]'' || [[Subbaraju]] || [[Sub Inspector|S.I]] Rakesh || [[Vysakh]]
|-
| ''[[August Club]]'' || [[Thilakan]] || KPT Menon || [[K. B. Venu]]
|-
| ''[[Mumbai Police (film)|Mumbai Police]]'' || [[Rahman (actor)|Rahman]] || [[Commissioner of Police (India)|Commissioner]] Farhan Aman [[Indian Police Service|IPS]] || [[Rosshan Andrrews]]
|-
| ''[[Dookudu|Choodan]]'' || [[Sonu Sood]] || Nayak || [[Srinu Vaitla]]
|-
| ''[[D Company (2013 film)|D Company ]]'' ( Segment 1 : Oru Bolivian Diary 1995 )|| [[Aadukalam Naren]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] Nripan Chakraborty || [[M. Padmakumar]]
|-
| ''3G''|| [[Ravi Mariya]] || Vasudevan || A. Jayaprakash
|-
| ''[[Geethaanjali]]'' || [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] ||Kathalikaattu Thirumeni || [[Priyadarshan]]
|-
| rowspan="9"| 2014 || rowspan='3"| ''[[Yevadu|Bhaiyya My Brother]]'' || [[P. Sai Kumar]] || Dharma || rowspan="3"| [[Vamshi Paidipally]]
|-
| [[Murali Sharma]] || [[Assistant Commissioner of Police (India)|ACP]] K. Ashok Varma [[Indian Police Service|IPS]]
|-
| [[John Kokken]] || Deva
|-
| ''[[Ring Master]]'' || [[Anand (actor)|Anand]] || Raju || [[Rafi-Mecartin|Rafi]]
|-
| ''[[Vaayai Moodi Pesavum|Samsaaram Aarogyathinu Haanikaram]]'' || [[John Vijay]] || "Nuclear Star" Bhoomesh || [[Balaji Mohan]]
|-
| rowspan="3"| ''[[Race Gurram|Lucky The Racer]]'' || [[Ravi Kishan]] || Bellari Shiva Reddy || rowspan="3"| [[Surender Reddy]]
|-
| [[Prakash Raj]] || Prem Prakash
|-
| [[Paruchuri Venkateswara Rao]] || [[Assistant Commissioner of Police (India)|ACP]] Sameer's Father
|-
| ''[[Cousins (2014 film)|Cousins]]'' || [[Pradeep Rawat (actor)|Pradeep Rawat]] || Nagaraja Gowder || [[Vysakh]]
|-
| rowspan="6"| 2015 || ''Village Guys''|| [[Ranjith (actor)|Ranjith]] || Raghupathy || Shaan
|-
| ''[[Temper (film)|Temper (Malayalam Version)]]'' || [[Prakash Raj]] || Waltair Vasu || [[Puri Jagannadh]]
|-
| ''Manikkyam''|| Ajay Ghosh. S || Krishnan Muthalali || R. J. Prasad
|-
| '' [[S/O Satyamurthy|S/O Satyamurthy (Malayalam Version)]]'' || [[Prakash Raj]] || Satyamurthy || [[Trivikram Srinivas]]
|-
| ''[[Lavender (2015 film)|Lavender]]'' || [[Thalaivasal Vijay]] ||Joseph Tharakan || Altas. T. Ali
|-
| ''[[Baahubali: The Beginning|Baahubali: The Beginning (Malayalam Version)]]'' ||[[Rana Daggubati]]||[[Bhallaladeva|Palwardevan]] || [[S.S. Rajamouli]]
|-
| rowspan="4"| 2016 || ''[[Puthiya Niyamam|Vasuki]]'' || [[Mammootty]] || [[Advocate]] Louis Pothen || [[A. K. Sajan]]
|-
| ''[[Aadupuliyattam]]'' || rowspan="2"| [[Om Puri]] || rowspan="2"| Yogendra Muni || rowspan="2"| [[Kannan Thamarakkulam]]
|-
| [[Aadupuliyattam|Shenbaga Kottai]]
|-
| ''[[Kasaba (2016 film)|Kasaba]]'' || [[Sampath Raj]] || Parameshwaran Nambiar || [[Renji Panicker|Nithin Renji Panicker]]
|-
| rowspan="5"| 2017 || ''[[Ezra (2017 film)|Ezra]]'' || [[Babu Antony]] || Rabbi David Benyamin || Jay K.
|-
| ''[[The Great Father|The Great Father (Tamil Version)]]'' || [[Mammootty]] || David Nainan || [[Haneef Adeni]]
|-
| ''[[Baahubali 2: The Conclusion|Baahubali 2: The Conclusion (Malayalam Version)]]'' || rowspan="2"| [[Rana Daggubati]] || [[Bhallaladeva|Palwardevan]] || [[S.S. Rajamouli]]
|-
| ''[[Nene Raju Nene Mantri|Raja Kireedam]]'' || Jogendran || [[Teja (director)|Teja]]
|-
| ''[[Solo (2017 film)|Solo]]'' || [[Nassar (actor)|Nassar]] || [[Brigadier]] Ramachandran || [[Bejoy Nambiar]]
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2018 || ''[[Parole (2018 film)|Parole]]'' || [[Prabhakar (actor)|Prabhakar]] || Bullet Raghavan || Sharrath Sandith
|-
| ''[[Naa Peru Surya|Ente Peru Surya, Ente Veedu India]]'' || [[Sarath Kumar]] || Gangan || [[Vakkantham Vamsi]]
|-
| ''[[K.G.F: Chapter 1|K.G.F: Chapter 1 (Malayalam Version)]]'' || [[Anant Nag]] || [[K.G.F (film series)|Anand Ingalagi]] || [[Prashant Neel]]
|-
| rowspan="6" | 2019 || ''[[Vinaya Vidheya Rama|Vinaya Vidheya Rama (Malayalam Version)]]'' || [[Mukesh Rishi]] || Parashuraman || [[Boyapati Srinu]]
|-
| ''[[Yatra (2019 film)|Yatra (Tamil Version)]]'' || [[Mammootty]] || [[ Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy]] || [[Mahi V Raghav]]
|-
| ''[[Madhura Raja]]'' || [[R. K. Suresh]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] David || [[Vysakh]]
|-
| ''[[Ratsasan|Rakshasan]]'' || [[Munishkanth]] || [[Inspector|C.I]] Das ||Ram Kumar
|-
| ''Mangalath Vasundhara'' || [[Ranjith (actor)|Ranjith]] || [[Deputy superintendent of police|DYSP]] Sathyasheelan || K.R. Sivakumar
|-
| ''[[Kurukshetra (2019 film)|Kurukshetra (Malayalam Version)]]'' || [[Darshan (Kannada actor)|Darshan]] || [[Duryodhana|Duryodhanan]] || [[Naganna]]
|-
| rowspan="1"| 2020 || ''[[Bhoomiyile Manohara Swakaryam]]'' || || || Shyju Anthikad
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2021 || ''[[Sulthan (2021 film)|Jai Sulthan]]'' || [[Lal (actor)|Lal]] || Manzoor || [[Bakkiyaraj Kannan]]
|-
| ''[[Black Widow (2021 film)|Black Widow (Malayalam Version)]]'' || [[David Harbour]] || [[Alexei Shostakov (Marvel Cinematic Universe)|Alexei Shostakov/Red Guardian ]] || [[Cate Shortland]]
|-
| rowspan="8"| 2022 || ''[[Aaraattu (2022 film)|Aaraattu]]'' || [[Riyaz Khan]] || Damodaran || [[B. Unnikrishnan]]
|-
| ''[[RRR (film)|RRR (Malayalam Version)]]'' || rowspan="2" | [[Ram Charan]]|| [[Alluri Sitarama Raju]] || [[S. S. Rajamouli]]
|-
| ''[[Acharya (2022 film)|Acharya (Malayalam Version)]]'' || [[Comrade]] Siddha || [[Koratala Siva]]
|-
| ''[[Pathonpatham Noottandu]]'' || [[Sudev Nair]] || Padaveedan Nambi || [[Vinayan]]
|-
| ''[[Vikrant Rona|Vikrant Rona (Malayalam Version)]]'' || [[Sudeepa]] || Vikrant "Vicky" Rona || [[Anup Bhandari]]
|-
| ''[[Ponniyin Selvan: I|Ponniyin Selvan I (Malayalam Version)]]''||[[R. Sarathkumar]]||[[Paluvettaraiyar|Periya Pazhuvettaraiyar]] || [[Mani Ratnam]]
|-
| ''[[Kumari (2022 film)|Kumari]]'' || [[Spadikam George]]|| Kaanhirangat Velyachan Thampuran || [[Nirmal Sahadev]]
|-
| [[Kotigobba 3|Kodeeshwaran 3]] || [[Sudeepa]] || Satya & Shiva Alias Ghost || Shiva Karthik
|-
| rowspan="3"| 2023 || ''[[Ponniyin Selvan: II|Ponniyin Selvan: II (Malayalam Version)]]''||[[R. Sarathkumar]] || [[Paluvettaraiyar|Periya Pazhuvettaraiyar]] || [[Mani Ratnam]]
|-
| ''[[Skanda (film)|Skanda (Malaylam Version)]]'' || [[Sharath Lohithaswa]] || Ranjith Reddy || [[Boyapati Srinu]]
|-
| ''[[Antony (2023 film)|Antony]]''||Hariprasanth M.G|| Tarzan || [[Joshiy]]
|-
| rowspan="1"| 2024 || ''Kadakan''||[[Ranjith (actor)|Ranjith]] || [[Inspector]] Rajeev || Sajil Mampad
|-
| rowspan="1"| 2025 || [[Max (2024 film)|''Max (Malayalam Version)'']] || [[Sudeepa]] || [[Inspector]] Arjun Mahakshay Alias Max || Vijay Karthikeyaa
|}

== Television ==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Serial !! Role !! Channel
|-
| 2006 || ''[[Swami Ayyappan (TV series)|Swami Ayyappan]]'' || Chandakan || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|-
| 2007-2010 || ''Snehathooval'' || || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|-
| 2010 || ''Indraneelam'' || || [[Surya TV]]
|-
| 2013-2018 || ''[[Parasparam (TV series)|Parasparam]]'' || [[Sub Inspector|S. I.]] Dhanabalan || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|-
|2015 || ''My Marumakan'' || || [[Surya TV]]
|-
|2016-2017 || ''[[Rathri Mazha (TV series)|Rathri Mazha]]''|| Chevala Raghavan || [[Flowers (TV channel)|Flowers TV]]
|-
| 2016-2019 || ''[[Bharya (TV series)|Bharya]]'' || [[Sub Inspector|S. I.]] Balaraman || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|-
| 2018 || ''[[Makkal (TV series)|Makkal]]'' || Paramu || [[Mazhavil Manorama]]
|-
| 2019-2021 || ''[[Sathya Enna Penkutty]]'' || Padhmanabhan || [[Zee Keralam]]
|-
| 2019-2023 || ''[[Manjil Virinja Poovu]]'' || Bhaskaran || [[Mazhavil Manorama]]
|-
|2020
| ''[[Namukku Paarkkuvan Munthirithoppukal]]'' || || [[Surya TV]]
|-
| 2020-2022 || ''[[Ente Maathavu]]'' || Bhoominathan || [[Surya TV]]
|-
| 2020-2023||''[[Ammayariyathe]]'' || [[Deputy superintendent of police|DYSP]] Domnic Thomas || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|-
| 2020-2024 || ''[[Kudumbavilakku]]'' || Advocate Vasudevan || [[Asianet (TV channel)|Asianet]]
|-
| 2022-2023 || ''Ennum Sammatham'' || [[Deputy superintendent of police|DYSP]] || [[Mazhavil Manorama]]
|-
| 2022-2025 || ''[[Bhavana (TV series)|Bhavana]]'' || Vijayapadman || [[Surya TV]]
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Male actors from Pathanamthitta]]
[[Category:Kerala State Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Indian male voice actors]]

Veer Bala Rastogi

2026-04-17T22:07:03Z

ShivaniSikri: Put up a article...

{{short description|Indian author of biology textbooks}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}

'''Veer Bala Rastogi''' is a writer of textbooks on biology in [[India]]. She earned her master's degree in [[Zoology]] with distinction standing first in order of merit, and for this feat, she was awarded Gold Medal. She did her Ph.D. from [[Meerut University]] under the guidance of eminent zoologist, Dr. M.L. Bhatia, Professor in Zoology, [[University of Delhi]] as External Supervisor.

Rastogi is a member of Fellow of Academy of Zoology and was also a member of Textbook Evaluation Committee, [[NCERT]], [[New Delhi]]. She was a member of academic staff of Zoology, Meerut College, Meerut during 1961–1967, teaching undergraduate and postgraduate students.

She has been writing books for over six decades. She has authored many books in biology for public examinations conducted by the [[Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations]] (CISCE), the [[Central Board of Secondary Education]] (CBSE), and several state boards. Her books on [[Cytology]], [[Genetics]], [[Molecular Biology]], [[Biostatistics]], [[Evolutionary Biology]], [[Developmental Biology]], [[Animal Ecology]], [[Environmental Biology]] ([[Ecology]]), etc. are very popular at university level all over the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/Zoology/suggested-reading.html |title=IAS Zoology Books, Civil Service Exam Book for Zoology, Zoology Books for IAS Exam |publisher=Civilserviceindia.com |date=2000-08-09 |accessdate=2014-04-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://knrnpublications.com/biology-genetics-3.html |title=KNRN Publishers : Biology- Genetics By : Dr. Veer Bala Rastogi |publisher=Knrnpublications.com |date= |accessdate=2014-04-19 |archive-date=17 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317021952/http://www.knrnpublications.com/biology-genetics-3.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

She is the recipient of the Distinguished Author Award 2012 conferred by the Federation of Educational Publishers in India, Delhi.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rastoji, Veer Bala}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian zoologists]]
[[Category:Women zoologists]]
[[Category:Indian women biologists]]
[[Category:Scientists from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Women scientists from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Chaudhary Charan Singh University alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women]]

Shamator–Chessore Assembly constituency

2026-04-16T04:42:34Z

ShivaniSikri: Put up new post...

{{short description|Legislative Assembly constituency in Nagaland State, India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| map_image = Shamator–Chessore Assembly constituency map.svg
| name = Shamator–Chessore
| state = [[Nagaland]]
| district = [[Shamator district|Shamator]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Nagaland (Lok Sabha constituency)|Nagaland]]
| established = 1974
| constituency_no = 58
| reservation = ST
| type= SLA
| mla = [[Keoshu Yimchunger]]
|party = {{Party index link|Naga People's Front}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|National Democratic Alliance}}
| latest_election_year = [[2023 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
| electors = {{formatnum:18788}}<ref name=election2023>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14874-nagaland-general-legislative-election-2023/ |title=Nagaland General Legislative Election 2023 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |accessdate=20 April 2023}}</ref>{{update after|2028|5}}
}}
'''Shamator–Chessore''' is one of the 60 [[Nagaland Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] constituencies of [[Nagaland]] state in [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://legislativebodiesinindia.nic.in/States/nagaland/nagaland-w.htm |title=Nagaland Legislative Assembly |website=legislativebodiesinindia.nic.in |accessdate= 10 February 2021}}</ref> It is part of [[Shamator district]] and is reserved for candidates belonging to the [[Scheduled Tribes]].

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Year
!Member
!colspan="2"|Party
|-
| [[1974 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|1974]] || P. Monokiu || {{Full party name with color|Nagaland Nationalist Organisation}}
|-
| [[1977 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|1977]] || rowspan=3 | K. Zungkum Yimchunger || {{Full party name with color|United Democratic Alliance (Nagaland)}}
|-
| [[1982 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|1982]] || {{Full party name with color|Naga National Democratic Party|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[1987 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|1987]]
|-
| [[1989 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|1989]] || Yamukum || {{Full party name with color|Naga People's Front}}
|-
| [[1993 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|1993]] || rowspan=3 | K. Yamakam || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[1998 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|1998]]
|-
| [[2003 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|2003]]
|-
| [[2008 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|2008]] || rowspan=2 | R. Tohanba || {{Full party name with color|Naga People's Front|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2013 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|2013]]
|-
| [[2018 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|2018]] || Toshi Wungtung<ref name=election2018/> || {{Full party name with color|Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party|rowspan=3}}
|-
| [[2021 Nagaland Legislative Assembly by-election|2021 by-election]] || rowspan=2 | [[Keoshu Yimchunger]]<ref name="bye-election2021"/>
|-
| [[2023 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election|2023]]
|}

== Election results ==
=== 2023 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2023 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]]: Shamator–Chessore<ref>{{cite news |last1=The Indian Express |title=Nagaland Assembly Election results 2023: Check full list of winners |url=https://indianexpress.com/elections/nagaland-assembly-election-results-2023-winners-8473973/ |access-date=3 March 2023 |date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230303042608/https://indianexpress.com/elections/nagaland-assembly-election-results-2023-winners-8473973/ |archive-date=3 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=[[Keoshu Yimchunger]] |party=Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party |votes=9,065 |percentage=56.25% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=R. Tohanba |party=Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas) |votes=6,770 |percentage=42.01% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=H. Mukam |party=Naga People's Front |votes=146 |percentage=0.91% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=W. Akum Yimkhiung |party=Indian National Congress |votes=85 |percentage=0.53% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Nota |party=None of the above |votes=49 |percentage=0.30% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,295 |percentage=14.24% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=16,115 |percentage=85.77% |change= 85.77% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 18,788 |change =7.38% }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party |loser=Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 2021 Assembly by-election ===
In the October 2021 by-election, [[Keoshu Yimchunger]] of the [[Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party|NDPP]] was unchallenged, and hence won the seat by default.<ref name="bye-election2021">{{cite web |url=https://www.northeasttoday.in/2021/10/13/nagaland-keoshu-yimchunger-wins-58-shamator-chessore-seat-uncontested/ |title=Nagaland: Keoshu Yimchunger Wins 58 Shamator-Chessore Seat Uncontested |date=13 October 2021 |access-date= 22 October 2021}}</ref> The by-election was needed because of the death of the sitting member, Toshi Wungtung, on 1 July 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://indigenousherald.com/TripuraNews/nagaland-mla-toshi-wungtung-dies-after-brief-illness-17570.html |title=Nagaland MLA Toshi Wungtung dies after brief illness |date=1 July 2021 |access-date= 22 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://nagalandpage.com/toshi-wungtung-laid-to-rest/ |title=Nagaland Accords State Funeral To Toshi Wungtung - Nagaland Page |date=3 July 2021 |access-date= 22 October 2021}}</ref>
{{Election box begin|title= [[2021 Nagaland Legislative Assembly by-election]]: Shamator–Chessore}}
{{Election box winning candidate unopposed with party link| |candidate=[[Keoshu Yimchunger]] |party=Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party |votes=Uncontested }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 17,496 |change =0.77% }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party |loser=Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2018 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2018 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]]: Shamator–Chessore<ref name=election2018>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3652-nagaland-general-legislative-election-2018/?do=download&r=8575&confirm=1&t=1&csrfKey=0b619cd94134dd7b05162acdebe1ba9f|title=Nagaland General Legislative Election 2018 - Nagaland - Election Commission of India |website=eci.gov.in |date= |author= |accessdate= December 29, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceo.nagaland.gov.in/ElectionFiles/NLA/13th_General_Election_Report_NLA_2018.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128161430/https://ceo.nagaland.gov.in/ElectionFiles/NLA/13th_General_Election_Report_NLA_2018.pdf |archive-date=28 January 2022 | title = Report on the General Election to the 13th Nagaland Legislative Assembly 2018 |website=Chief Electoral Officer, Nagaland}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Toshi Wungtung |party=Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party |votes=4,311 |percentage=28.79% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=R. Tohanba |party=Naga People's Front |votes=4,004 |percentage=26.74% |change=-16.39% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=H. Mukam |party=Janata Dal (United) |votes=3,654 |percentage=24.40% |change=0.31% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=K. Yimso Yimchunger |party=National People's Party (India) |votes=2,945 |percentage=19.67% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=None of the Above |party=None of the above |votes=61 |percentage=0.41% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=307 |percentage=2.05% |change=-16.98% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=14,975 |percentage=86.25% |change= -0.63% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 17,363 |change =-1.47% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Nationalist Democratic Progressive Party |loser=Naga People's Front |swing= -14.34% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 2013 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2013 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]]: Shamator–Chessore<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceo.nagaland.gov.in/ElectionFiles/NLA/12th_General_Election_Report_NLA_2013.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125124535/https://ceo.nagaland.gov.in/ElectionFiles/NLA/12th_General_Election_Report_NLA_2013.pdf |archive-date=25 November 2022 | title = Report on the General Election to the 11th Nagaland Legislative Assembly 2013 |website=Chief Electoral Officer, Nagaland}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=R. Tohanba |party=Naga People's Front |votes=6,602 |percentage=43.12% |change=-5.68% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=K. Yimso Yimchunger |party=Janata Dal (United) |votes=3,688 |percentage=24.09% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Dokiu Kecham |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,638 |percentage=17.23% |change=-19.03% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=H. Mukam |party=Independent politician |votes=2,346 |percentage=15.32% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,914 |percentage=19.03% |change=6.50% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=15,309 |percentage=86.87% |change= -5.51% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 17,622 |change =-15.16% }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Naga People's Front |loser=Naga People's Front |swing= -5.68% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 2008 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2008 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]]: Shamator–Chessore<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceo.nagaland.gov.in/ElectionFiles/NLA/11th_General_Election_Report_NLA_2008.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128170532/https://ceo.nagaland.gov.in/ElectionFiles/NLA/11th_General_Election_Report_NLA_2008.pdf |archive-date=28 January 2022 | title = Report on the General Election to the 11th Nagaland Legislative Assembly 2008 |website=Chief Electoral Officer, Nagaland}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=R. Tohanba |party=Naga People's Front |votes=9,315 |percentage=48.80% |change=19.79% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=K. Yamakam |party=Indian National Congress |votes=6,922 |percentage=36.26% |change=5.77% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=M. Rokkimong |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=2,301 |percentage=12.05% |change=3.46% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Thongthong |party=Janata Dal (Secular) |votes=652 |percentage=3.42% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=2,393 |percentage=12.54% |change=11.06% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=19,088 |percentage=92.38% |change= -6.16% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 20,772 |change =34.08% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Naga People's Front |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 2003 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[2003 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]]: Shamator–Chessore<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceo.nagaland.gov.in/ElectionFiles/NLA/10th_General_Election_Report_NLA_2003.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623083626/https://ceo.nagaland.gov.in/ElectionFiles/NLA/10th_General_Election_Report_NLA_2003.pdf |archive-date=23 June 2022 | title = Report on the General Election to the 10th Nagaland Legislative Assembly 2003 |website=Chief Electoral Officer, Nagaland}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=K. Yamakam |party=Indian National Congress |votes=4,602 |percentage=30.49% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Zungkum |party=Naga People's Front |votes=4,379 |percentage=29.01% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=R. Tohanba |party=Independent politician |votes=3,218 |percentage=21.32% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=W. Akum Yimkhiung |party=Nationalist Democratic Movement |votes=1,597 |percentage=10.58% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Rokkimong |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=1,297 |percentage=8.59% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=223 |percentage=1.48% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=15,093 |percentage=98.54% |change= 98.54% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 15,492 |change =14.57% }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1998 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1998 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]]: Shamator–Chessore<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ceo.nagaland.gov.in/ElectionFiles/NLA/9th_General_Election_Report_NLA_1998.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128160926/https://ceo.nagaland.gov.in/ElectionFiles/NLA/9th_General_Election_Report_NLA_1998.pdf |archive-date=28 January 2022 | title = Report on the General Election to the 9th Nagaland Legislative Assembly 1998 |website=Chief Electoral Officer, Nagaland}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate unopposed with party link| |candidate=K. Yamakam |party=Indian National Congress |votes=Uncontested |percentage= |change=}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 13,522 |change =15.49% }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Indian National Congress |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1993 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1993 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]]: Shamator–Chessore}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=K. Yamakam |party=Indian National Congress |votes=5,121 |percentage=44.74% |change=-0.36% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Y. Throngshi |party=Naga People's Front |votes=3,226 |percentage=28.18% |change=-26.72% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Z. Akum |party=Independent politician |votes=3,100 |percentage=27.08% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,895 |percentage=16.55% |change=6.76% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=11,447 |percentage=98.04% |change= 4.78% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 11,708 |change =56.32% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Indian National Congress |loser=Naga People's Front |swing= -10.16% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1989 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1989 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]]: Shamator–Chessore}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=Yamukum |party=Naga People's Front |votes=3,816 |percentage=54.90% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=K. Zungkum Yimchunger |party=Indian National Congress |votes=3,135 |percentage=45.10% |change=17.60% }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=681 |percentage=9.80% |change=5.70% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=6,951 |percentage=93.26% |change= -0.13% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 7,490 |change =0.11% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Naga People's Front |loser=Naga National Democratic Party |swing= 23.30% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1987 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1987 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]]: Shamator–Chessore}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=K. Zungkum Yimchunger |party=Naga National Democratic Party |votes=2,189 |percentage=31.60% |change=-13.34% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Yamukum |party=Indian National Congress |votes=1,905 |percentage=27.50% |change=-7.35% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Throngshe |party=Independent politician |votes=1,196 |percentage=17.27% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=K. M. Caming |party=Independent politician |votes=1,060 |percentage=15.30% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Thasankiu |party=National People's Party (India) |votes=577 |percentage=8.33% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=284 |percentage=4.10% |change=-5.99% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=6,927 |percentage=93.38% |change= 19.83% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 7,482 |change =-25.27% }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Naga National Democratic Party |loser=Naga National Democratic Party |swing= -13.34% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1982 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1982 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]]: Shamator–Chessore}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=K. Zungkum Yimchunger |party=Naga National Democratic Party |votes=3,255 |percentage=44.94% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Yamakan Kichan |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,524 |percentage=34.85% |change=-5.24% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=K. M. Caming |party=Independent politician |votes=1,464 |percentage=20.21% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=731 |percentage=10.09% |change=6.95% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=7,243 |percentage=73.55% |change= -17.16% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 10,012 |change =34.03% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Naga National Democratic Party |loser=United Democratic Alliance (Nagaland) |swing= 1.71% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1977 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1977 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]]: Shamator–Chessore}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=K. Zungkum Yimchunger |party=United Democratic Alliance (Nagaland) |votes=2,863 |percentage=43.23% |change=19.09% }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Yamakan Kichan |party=Indian National Congress |votes=2,655 |percentage=40.09% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Muzhi |party=Independent politician |votes=891 |percentage=13.45% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=Thongthong |party=Independent politician |votes=214 |percentage=3.23% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=208 |percentage=3.14% |change=-23.46% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=6,623 |percentage=90.71% |change= 22.17% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 7,470 |change =0.67% }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=United Democratic Alliance (Nagaland) |loser=Nagaland Nationalist Organisation |swing= -8.00% }}
{{Election box end}}
=== 1974 Assembly election ===
{{Election box begin|title= [[1974 Nagaland Legislative Assembly election]]: Shamator–Chessore}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link| |candidate=P. Monokiu |party=Nagaland Nationalist Organisation |votes=2,473 |percentage=51.23% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=K. Zungkum Yimchunger |party=Independent politician |votes=1,189 |percentage=24.63% |change= }}
{{Election box candidate with party link| |candidate=K. M. Caming |party=United Democratic Alliance (Nagaland) |votes=1,165 |percentage=24.14% |change= }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=1,284 |percentage=26.60% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=4,827 |percentage=68.54% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 7,420 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=Nagaland Nationalist Organisation |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[List of constituencies of the Nagaland Legislative Assembly]]
* [[Tuensang district]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Nagaland}}

{{coord|26.07|94.88|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shamator-Chessore Assembly constituency}}
[[Category:Tuensang district]]
[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Nagaland]]
[[Category:Politics of Nagaland]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 1974]]
[[Category:1974 establishments in Nagaland]]

Jai Jai Swami Samarth

2026-04-12T03:28:44Z

ShivaniSikri: Adding a info.

{{Short description|2020 Indian Marathi devotional TV series}}
{{Infobox television
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| genre = [[Spirituality]]
| writer = Shirish Latkar
| director = Umesh Namjoshi
| starring = [[#Cast|See below]]
| theme_music_composer =
| country = India
| language = Marathi
| num_seasons =
| num_episodes = 1796 
| producer = Rakesh Sarang Sangeeta Sarang
| editor = Narpat Choudhary
| camera = [[Multiple-camera setup|Multi-Camera]]
| runtime = 22 minutes
| company = CamsKlub Studios
| network = [[Colors Marathi]]
| first_aired = {{start date|2020|12|28|df=yes}}
| last_aired = present
| end_theme =
| open_theme =
}}

'''''Jai Jai Swami Samarth''''' is an Indian [[Marathi language]] devotional TV series which airing on [[Colors Marathi]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jai Jai Swami Samartha and Yog Yogeshwar Jay Shankar to air special episodes on Guru Purnima |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/jai-jai-swami-samartha-and-yog-yogeshwar-jay-shankar-to-air-special-episodes-on-guru-purnima/articleshow/92827690.cms |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> It premiered from 28 December 2020 by replacing ''[[Swamini]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exclusive- Producer Rakesh Sarang and writer Shrish Latkar get candid about their TV show Jai Jai Swami Samartha, casting Akshay Mudwadkar as Swami and much more |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/exclusive-producer-rakesh-sarang-and-writer-shrish-latkar-get-candid-about-their-tv-show-jai-jai-swami-samartha-casting-akshay-mudwadkar-as-swami-and-much-more/articleshow/80251578.cms |access-date=2021-01-13 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> It is directed by Umesh Namjoshi and written by Shirish Latkar under the banner of CamsKlub Studios.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Team Jai Jai Swami Samarth visits Akkalkot to seek blessings of Swami Samarth in the temple |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/team-jai-jai-swami-samarth-visits-akkalkot-to-seek-blessings-of-swami-samarth-in-the-temple/articleshow/100029708.cms |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Akshay Mudwadkar plays the role of [[Swami Samarth]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jai Jai Swami Samarth and Yog Yogeshwar Jay Shankar to air Datta Jayanti special episodes |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/jai-jai-swami-samarth-and-yog-yogeshwar-jay-shankar-to-air-datta-jayanti-special-episodes/articleshow/96050167.cms |access-date=2022-12-07 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Plot ==
It is story of [[Swami Samarth]], an Indian spiritual master of [[Dattatreya]] tradition. Dignified, assertive, and commanding, he had little patience for the townspeople's impulsiveness and mischief. Widely known for his spirituality in [[Maharashtra]], he lived during the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=From Akshay Mudwadkar playing the lead role to the inspirational storyline; everything you need to know about the upcoming TV show Jai Jai Swami Samartha |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/from-akshay-mudwadkar-playing-the-lead-role-to-the-inspirational-storyline-everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-upcoming-tv-show-jai-jai-swami-samartha/photostory/79937320.cms |access-date=2020-12-24 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

== Cast ==
=== Main ===
* Akshay Mudwadkar as [[Swami Samarth]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Akshay Mudawadkar on Jai Jai Swami Samarth completing 750 episodes: Not a single day goes by when I step out of the house and no one comes to meet me |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/akshay-mudawadkar-on-jai-jai-swami-samarth-completing-750-episodes-not-a-single-day-goes-by-when-i-step-out-of-the-house-and-no-one-comes-to-meet-me/articleshow/100094606.cms |access-date=2023-05-09 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

=== Recurring ===
* Vijaya Babar as Chanda<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exclusive - Entire team of 'Jai Jai Swami Samartha' has worked hard to portray Swami's Aadimaya avatar best on-screen, says Akshay Mudwadkar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/exclusive-entire-team-of-jai-jai-swami-samartha-has-worked-hard-to-portray-swamis-aadimaya-avatar-best-on-screen-says-akshay-mudwadkar/articleshow/82064223.cms |access-date=2021-04-14 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
* Swanand Barve as Cholappa<ref>{{Cite web |title=Marathi TV show based on the life of Swami Samartha to launch soon |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/marathi-tv-show-based-on-the-life-of-swami-samartha-to-launch-soon/articleshow/74649378.cms |access-date=2020-03-16 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
* Akshata Naik as Yesubai<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exclusive: "It is a huge responsibility to play the role of Swami Samarth without hurting their devotees' sentiments," says Akshay Mudwadkar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/exclusive-it-is-a-huge-responsibility-to-play-the-role-of-swami-samarth-without-hurting-their-devotees-sentiments-says-akshay-mudwadkar/articleshow/80056976.cms |access-date=2021-01-01 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
* Satish Salagare as Ramacharya
* Madhavi Soman as Sundara<ref>{{Cite web |title=Colors Marathi welcomes New Year with two new shows ‘Jai Jai Swami Samarth’ and ‘Sakkhe Shejari’ |url=https://www.medianews4u.com/colors-marathi-welcomes-new-year-with-two-new-shows-jai-jai-swami-samarth-and-sakkhe-shejari/ |access-date=2020-12-23 |website=Media News4U}}</ref>
* Neeta Pendse as Radhakka
* Vikas Patil as Haribhau<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vikas Patil joins TV show Jai Jai Swami Samarth as Swamisut |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/marathi/vikas-patil-joins-tv-show-jai-jai-swami-samarth-as-swamisut/articleshow/100281403.cms |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>
* Srushti Bahekar as Devyani
* Anuj Thackeray as Sumukh

== Awards ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Colors Marathi Awards 2021-22
!Category
!Recipient
!Role
!Ref.
|-
|Best Child Actor
|
|Krishnappa
|rowspan="6"|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmibeat.com/marathi-movies/news/colors-marathi-awards-2021-2022-winners-list-jai-jai-swami-samarth-jeev-majha-guntala-bag-big-awards-332078.html|title=Colors Marathi Awards 2021-2022 Winners List Out! Jai Jai Swami Samarth & Jeev Majha Guntala Bag Big Awards|website=Filmibeat|access-date=2022-03-28}}</ref>
|-
|Best Father
|Swanand Barve
|Cholappa
|-
|Best Actor
|Akshay Mudwadkar
|[[Swami Samarth]]
|-
|Best Family
|
|Cholappa Family
|-
|Best Title Song
|
|
|-
|Best Serial
|Rakesh Sarang
|Producer
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|tt13660422}}
* [https://www.hotstar.com/in/shows/jai-jai-swami-samarth/1971002534 ''Jai Jai Swami Samarth''] at [[JioHotstar]]

[[Category:Marathi-language television shows]]
[[Category:Colors Marathi original programming]]
[[Category:2020 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Indian television series about Hindu deities]]

Phaltan Man Assembly constituency

2026-04-09T18:12:38Z

ShivaniSikri: created a data!

{{Short description|Constituency of the Maharashtra legislative assembly in India}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Phaltan Man
| type= SLA
| state = Maharashtra
| established = 1951 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/146-archive-delimitation-orders |title= Archive Delimitation Orders - DPACO 1951 |access-date=31 January 2026 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
| abolished = 1955 <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/146-archive-delimitation-orders |title= Archive Delimitation Orders - Final Order DC (1953-1955) |access-date=31 January 2026 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
| electors = 91,163
| mla = Naik Nimbalkar Malojirao Alias Nanasaheb
| party = {{Party index link|Indian National Congress}}
| constituency_no =
| latest_election_year = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]]
| district =
| loksabha_cons =
| reservation = SC
}}
Phaltan–Man Assembly constituency was a former assembly constituency in the [[India|Republic of India]] state of [[Maharashtra]]. After 1955 Delimitation Act, its boundaries were revised and the area was added into the [[Phaltan Assembly constituency]].
==Members of the Legislative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Election
! Member
! colspan=2|Party
|-
| bgcolor="#FFB2B2" rowspan="2" | [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election|1952]] || Naik Nimbalkar Malojirao Alias Nanasaheb || {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[Ganpatrao Devji Tapase]]
|}

==Election results==
=== Assembly Election 1952 ===
{{Election box begin |title = [[1952 Bombay State Legislative Assembly election]] : Phaltan Man <ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]|title=Statistical Report on General Election, 1951 to the Legislative Assembly of Bombay |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114083220/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/SE_1951/StatReport_51_BOMBAY.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2012|format=pdf}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = Naik Nimbalkar Malojirao Alias Nanasaheb |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 31,633 |percentage = 35.00% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link |candidate = [[Ganpatrao Devji Tapase]] |party = Indian National Congress |votes = 26,887 |percentage = 29.75% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Nalavade Krishna Bala |party = Kamgar Kisan Paksha |votes = 11,864 |percentage = 13.13% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Bandisode Sadashiv Maruti |party = Scheduled Castes Federation |votes = 7,856 |percentage = 8.69% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Satpute Babu Rama |party = Independent politician |votes = 5,033 |percentage = 5.57% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Jagdale Shamrao Banduji |party = Independent politician |votes = 3,966 |percentage = 4.39% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link |candidate = Kachare Bapurao Bhaurao |party = Socialist Party (India, 1948) |votes = 3,140 |percentage = 3.47% |change = ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes = 19,769 |percentage = 21.87% |change = }}
{{Election box turnout |votes = 90,379 |percentage = 99.14% |change = }}
{{Election box total valid |votes= 90,379}}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 91,163 |ref = |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner = Indian National Congress |swing = }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Maharashtra}}
[[Category:Former assembly constituencies of Maharashtra]]
{{coord missing|Maharashtra}}
{{Maharashtra-geo-stub}}

Babu Singh (Rajasthan politician)

2026-04-08T05:05:05Z

ShivaniSikri: put up basic bio and citations.

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Babu Singh Ratore
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1972|11|15}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Babu Singh Rathore Biography in Hindi: About Family, Political life, Age, Photos {{!}} Patrika |url=https://www.patrika.com/topic/babu-singh-rathore/ |accessdate=13 January 2020 |work=[[Rajasthan Patrika]] |language=hindi}}</ref>
 [[Nathrau]], [[Jodhpur]], Rajasthan
|image =
|office = Member of the [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]]
|term_start = 2003
|term_end = 2018
|predecessor = Khet Singh Rathore
|successor = [[Meena Kanwar]]
|office1 = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]
|prime_minister1 =
|term_start1 = 2003
|term_end1 = 2008
|predecessor1 =
|successor1 =
|office2 =
|prime_minister2 =
|term_start2 = 2008
|term_end2 = 2013
|term_start3 = 2013
|term_end3 = 2018
|term_start4 = 2023
|term_end4 = present
|predecessor2 =
|successor2 =
|constituency = [[Shergarh, Rajasthan|Shergarh]]
|birth_place =
|occupation = Politician
|children =
|party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|alma_mater =
|profession =
|sibling =
|website =
}}
'''Babu Singh Rathore''' is an Indian politician from the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and a three-term member of the [[Rajasthan Legislative Assembly]] representing the [[Shergarh, Rajasthan|Shergarh]] Vidhan Sabha constituency of [[Rajasthan]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rajassembly.nic.in/MembersPage.asp?DivNo=108 | title=Babu Singh Rajasthan Legislative Assembly Members of the 14th House | publisher=rajassembly.nic.in | accessdate=27 February 2017}}</ref>

In the [[2018 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2018 election]], Babu Singh lost to [[Indian National Congress]] candidate [[Meena Kanwar]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Shergarh Assembly Election Results 2018: Congress' Meena Kanwar defeats BJP's Babusingh Rathod |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/elections/rajasthan-election/article/shergarh-assembly-constituency-election-2018-rajasthan-assembly-polls-rajasthan-vasundhara-raje-bharatiya-janata-party-bjp-congress-sachin-pilot/320690 |publisher=Times Now |accessdate=13 January 2020 |language=en |date=4 December 2018}}</ref>

He won the election for the fourth time in [[2023 Rajasthan Legislative Assembly election|2023]] by defeating [[Indian National Congress|INC]] candidate Meena Kanwar.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Singh, Babu}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1972 births]]
[[Category:People from Jodhpur]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Rajasthan MLAs 2013–2018]]
[[Category:Rajasthan MLAs 2023–2028]]

{{Rajasthan-BJP-politician-stub}}

Adarsavanthudu

2026-04-05T10:37:55Z

ShivaniSikri: put up initial info w/ infobox

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Adarsavanthudu
| image =
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| writer = [[Acharya Aatreya]] {{small|(dialogues)}}
| story = Kodi Ramakrishna
| screenplay = Kodi Ramakrishna
| producer = Ch. Prakash Rao
| director = [[Kodi Ramakrishna]]
| starring = [[Akkineni Nageswara Rao]] [[Radha (actress)|Radha]]
| music = [[S. Rajeswara Rao]]
| cinematography = S. Navakanth
| editing = Veemuri Ravi
| studio = Maheejaa Films<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C4HZ43XtYqo |title=Adarshavanthudu (Overview) |work=Youtube}}</ref>
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1984|7|30}}
| runtime = 126 mins
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}

'''''Adarsavanthudu''''' ({{translation|Ideal Person}}) is a 1984 [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[drama (film and television)|drama film]], produced by Ch. Prakash Rao under the Maheejaa Films banner and directed by [[Kodi Ramakrishna]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.knowyourfilms.com/film/Adarshavanthudu/20339 |title=Adarshavanthudu (Cast & Crew) |work=Know Your Films}}</ref> It stars [[Akkineni Nageswara Rao]] and [[Radha (actress)|Radha]], with music composed by [[S. Rajeswara Rao]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0186800/?ref_=nm_flmg_act_66 |title=Adarshavanthudu (Review) |work=IMDb}}</ref>

==Plot==
Sridhar is an advocate, the son of a tycoon, and retired Chief Justice Raja Shekaram. Sridhar always enjoys life in the field and returns after completing his LLB. On the way, he gets acquainted with a girl named Lakshmi, who abuses his arrogance, but he likes her attitude. After reaching home, Sridhar takes up his first case and proves an innocent girl as a prostitute. Due to this, the girl commits suicide, suffering Sridhar out of remorse. At that moment, his driver, Chiranjeevi, consoles him and makes him understand the difference between justice & injustice. From there, Sridhar decides to stand for righteousness. Meanwhile, Sridhar's maternal uncle, Dattudu, tyrants his village, mingling with his associate Lingaiah, bringing a false case where Sridhar supports the truth and punishes the accusations. Keeping this grudge in mind, Dattudu tries to kill Sridhar when Chiranjeevi sacrifices his life to save him. Before dying, he entrusts his family responsibilities to Sridhar. Sridhar must differ from his father and leave the house in this issue. After that, Sridhar reaches Chiranjeevi's village, headed by Lingaiah, and meets his parents, Raghavaiah & Janakamma, where he is surprised to see Lakshmi as their daughter. At present, Sridhar merges with them, but Lakshmi has doubts, so she digs out the truth and blames him for the cause. On the other side, Lingaiah has an evil eye on Lakshmi and threatens Raghavaiah to make his marriage with her for his debt, which leads to his death. Even though Lingaiah's enormities increase daily, he occupies entire villagers' fields and does not allow them to farm. Sridhar aids them when Lakshmi understands his virtue, and both fall in love. Parallelly, Dattudu witnesses Sridhar, mistakes him for an identical person, and plagues Lingaiah to replace him as Sridhar to grab his property. Knowing their malice, Sridhar agrees, and with a play, he ceases them. Finally, the movie ends on a happy note with the marriage of Sridhar & Lakshmi.

==Cast==
*[[Akkineni Nageswara Rao]] as Sridhar
*[[Radha (actress)|Radha]] as Lakshmi
*[[Jaggayya]] as Justice Raja Shekharam
*[[Kanta Rao]] as Raghavaiah
*[[Ramakrishna (Telugu actor)|Ramakrishna]] as Chiranjeevi
*[[Gollapudi Maruthi Rao]] as Dattudu
*[[Nutan Prasad]] as Lingaiah
*[[Anjali Devi]] as Janakamma
*Athili Lakshmi as Annapurna
*Shyamala Gowri as Kavitha

==Crew==
*'''Art''': Bhaskar Raju
*'''Choreography''': Siva Subramanyam, Tarun
*'''Lyrics — Dialogues''': [[Acharya Aatreya]]
*'''Playback''': [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[P. Susheela]], Madhavapeddi Ramesh
*'''Music''': [[S. Rajeswara Rao]]
*'''Editing''': Veemuri Ravi
*'''Cinematography''': S. Navakanth
*'''Producer''': Ch. Prakash Rao
*'''Story — Screenplay — Director''': [[Kodi Ramakrishna]]
*'''Banner''': Maheejaa Films
*'''Release Date''': 30 July 1984

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Adarsavanthudu
| type = film
| artist = [[S. Rajeswara Rao]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 1984
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = Soundtrack
| length = 20:02
| label =
| producer = [[S. Rajeswara Rao]]
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title =
| next_year =
}}

Music composed by [[S. Rajeswara Rao]]. Lyrics were written by Acharya Aatreya.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!S. No.!!Song title !!Singers !!length
|-
|1
|"Jeevathamante"
|[[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
|3:21
|-
|2
|"Neeli Neeli Ningilo"
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, [[P. Susheela]]
|3:42
|-
|3
|"Peedaleni Roju"
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Madhavapeddi Ramesh
|3:55
|-
|4
|"Emito Aavuthandi"
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, P. Susheela
|4:17
|-
|5
|"Puttiperigedi"
|S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
|4:07
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Kodi Ramakrishna}}

[[Category:Indian drama films]]
[[Category:Films scored by S. Rajeswara Rao]]
[[Category:Films directed by Kodi Ramakrishna]]
[[Category:1984 drama films]]
[[Category:1984 films]]
[[Category:1984 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:1984 Indian films]]

Acalyptris acontarcha

2026-03-28T23:38:15Z

ShivaniSikri: put up the pg needs work

{{Short description|Species of moth}}
{{Speciesbox
| image =
| image_caption =
| taxon = Acalyptris acontarcha
| authority = ([[Edward Meyrick|Meyrick]], 1926)
| synonyms =
}}

'''''Acalyptris acontarcha''''' is a [[species]] of [[moth]] of the family [[Nepticulidae]]. It was described by [[Edward Meyrick]] in 1926. It is known from [[Katwar]], [[India]].<ref>[http://nepticuloidea.info/category/nepticuloidea/acalyptris/acalyptris-platani-group/acalyptris-acontarcha ''Acalyptris acontarcha''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823031529/http://nepticuloidea.info/category/nepticuloidea/acalyptris/acalyptris-platani-group/acalyptris-acontarcha |date=2011-08-23 }} at Nepticulidae.info.</ref> The hostplant for the species is ''[[Hymenodictyon obovatum]]''.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q4671716}}

[[Category:Acalyptris|acontarcha]]
[[Category:Endemic fauna of India]]
[[Category:Moths of Asia]]
[[Category:Moths described in 1926]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Edward Meyrick]]

{{Acalyptris-stub}}

Criminal Procedure Code, 1973 (India)

2026-03-26T00:49:32Z

ShivaniSikri: created pg...

#REDIRECT [[Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973]]

Ken Ghosh

2026-03-24T21:30:14Z

ShivaniSikri:

{{Short description|Indian film director and screenwriter}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2016}}
{{Infobox person
| image = Ken Ghosh.jpg
| caption = Director Ken Ghosh at the launch of book "Nick Time" by Komal Mehta. 2013
| name = Ken Ghosh
| birthname =
| occupation = [[Film director]], [[Film writer]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1966|08|19|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharastra]], India
| alma_mater = [[The Bishop's School (Pune)|The Bishop's School]]
| othername =
| yearsactive =
| spouse =
| homepage =
}}

'''Ken Ghosh''' is an Indian director, producer and screenwriter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Filmmaker Ken Ghosh shares his "Andhadhun" moment with Tabu - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/filmmaker-ken-ghosh-shares-his-andhadhun-moment-with-tabu/articleshow/68245336.cms |access-date=2020-07-08 |work=[[The Times of India]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304080315/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/filmmaker-ken-ghosh-shares-his-andhadhun-moment-with-tabu/articleshow/68245336.cms |archive-date=4 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Arshad Warsi, R Madhavan to play conmen in Ken Ghosh's next film - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/Arshad-Warsi-R-Madhavan-to-play-conmen-in-Ken-Ghoshs-next-film/articleshow/18363781.cms |access-date=2020-07-08 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-10-15 |title=Amitabh Bachchan is simply great; it has been a wonderful experience working with him: Ken Ghosh |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/amitabh-bachchan-is-simply-great-it-has-been-a-wonderful-experience-working-with-him-ken-ghosh-1152037.html |access-date=2020-07-08 |website=News18 |publisher=[[News18]]}}</ref>

==Filmography==

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Director
!Producer
! Writer
! Notes
|-
|1999
|''Double Gadbad''
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|
|-
|2000
|''Har Pal''
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|Short film
|-
| 2003
| ''[[Ishq Vishk]]''
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|{{yes|Story}}
|Also editor
|-
| 2004
|''[[Fida]]''
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
|2005
|''A.D.A.''
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
|2007
|''[[Chain Kulii Ki Main Kulii]]''
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|
|-
| 2010
|''[[Chance Pe Dance]]''
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|Also lyricist
|-
|2017
|''[[Dev DD]]''
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|{{no}}
| rowspan="4" |[[Web series]]
|-
| rowspan="2" |2018
|''[[XXX (web series)|XXX]]''
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|-
|''[[Haq Se]]''
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|{{no}}
|-
|2019
|''[[Abhay (TV series)|Abhay]]''
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|-
|2021
|''[[State of Siege: Temple Attack]]''
|{{yes}}
|{{no}}
|{{yes}}
|[[List of ZEE5 original films|ZEE5]] film
|-
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|id=1264481}}
{{Commons category|Ken Ghosh}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ghosh, Ken}}
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Film directors from Mumbai]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian people]]
[[Category:Hindi-language film directors]]

Lok Adalat

2026-03-23T03:52:46Z

ShivaniSikri: new a data needs work.

{{Short description|System of alternative dispute resolution in India}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=April 2013}}
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Lok Adalat (People's Court or People's Tribunal)
| native_name =
| type = Agency
| seal =
| seal_width =
| logo =
| logo_caption =
| motto =
| employees =
| budget =
| formed = 1987
| jurisdiction = [[Supreme Court of India]]
| headquarters = [[New Delhi]], [[India]]
| chief1_name = [[Chief Justice of India|CJI]] [[Bhushan Ramkrishna Gavai]]
| chief1_position = Patron-in-Chief
| chief2_name = Justice [[Surya Kant]]
| chief2_position = Executive Chairman
| chief3_name =
| chief3_position =
| chief4_name =
| chief4_position =
| chief5_name =
| chief5_position =
| chief6_name =
| chief6_position =
| chief7_name =
| chief7_position =
| chief8_name =
| chief8_position =
| chief9_name =
| chief9_position =
| parent_department =
| website = https://nalsa.gov.in/home
| footnotes =
| status = Active
}}
'''Lok Adalat'''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-11-03|title=Lok Adalat (Peoples Court)|url=https://parkplus.io/blog/challan/lok-adalat|access-date=2022-01-03|language=en}}</ref> ({{Translation|'''People's Court''' or '''People's Tribunal'''}}) is a [[Statutory corporation|statutory organization]] in India, under the [[Legal Services Authorities Act 1987|Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987]]. It was created as an [[alternative dispute resolution]] mechanism in [[India]] to resolve disputes/grievances outside the conventional court system.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-26 |title=Lok Adalat |url=https://nalsa.gov.in/lok-adalat |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=nalsa.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> It is a forum where cases pending before [[Panchayati raj|panchayat]], or at a pre-litigation stage in a court of law, are settled. Under this Act, the award (decision) made by the Lok Adalats is deemed to be a civil court case and is final and binding on all parties. No formal [[appeal]] against such an award lies before any court of law. However, if the parties are not satisfied with the award of the Lok Adalat they are still free to initiate litigation by approaching the court of appropriate jurisdiction.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-02-26|title=Lok Adalat|url=https://nalsa.gov.in/lok-adalat|access-date=2021-07-16|website=nalsa.gov.in|language=en}}</ref> The first Lok Adalats were held in [[Gujarat]]<ref name="lok ref5">{{cite news |last1=yash |first1=Agarwal |title=have-lok-adalats-performed-and-worked-as-it-should |url=https://www.theleaflet.in/have-lok-adalats-performed-and-worked-as-it-should/ |access-date=25 October 2021 |publisher=theleaflet.in |date=5 December 2020}}</ref> in 1982 and in [[Chennai]] in 1986.

Section 22 B of The Legal Services Authorities Act 1987 provides for the establishment of Permanent Lok Adalats (PLA) for exercising jurisdiction in respect of one or more public utility services (PUS). Section 22 A of The Legal Services Authorities Act 1987 states what constitutes 'Public Utility Services' for the purpose of Permanent Lok Adalat.<ref>{{cite web|title=Permanent Lok Adalat|url=http://hslsa.gov.in/sites/default/files/documents/PLA.pdf|publisher=Haryana State Legal Services Authority}}</ref>

Lok Adalats are constituted at below levels-National, State, District, and Taluk:<ref name="Lok Ref2">{{cite news |title=Lok Adalats unclog a choked justice delivery system |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/specials/insight/lok-adalats-unclog-a-choked-justice-delivery-system-1034264.html |access-date=28 September 2021 |publisher=Deccan Herald |date=26 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="lok ref6">{{cite news |title=Scores of People Become Entitled to Legal Aid in SC as Govt Triples Income Criteria |url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/scores-of-people-become-entitled-to-legal-aid-in-sc-as-govt-triples-income-criteria-1988207.html |access-date=25 October 2021 |publisher=news18.com |date=1 January 2019}}</ref>

* State Authorities.
* High Court.
* District and Taluk level.

Types of Lok Adalat:

* Permanent Lok Adalat - Provides a mechanism for disposing of cases relating to public utility services, transport, postal, and telegraph.
* National Lok Adalat - Since 2015, these have been held every month on specific topics across India. They are held on a single day disposing of a large number of pending cases.
* Mega Lok Adalat - Held across all courts in the state on a single day.
* Mobile Lok Adalats - These types of Lok Adalats are organized occasionally, and they travel from one place to another across the country to help resolve disputes.
Lok Adalats come under National Legal Services Authority<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-02-26 |title=Lok Adalat |url=https://nalsa.gov.in/lok-adalat |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=nalsa.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> and the respective State [[Legal Services Authorities|Legal Services Authority]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=LOK ADALAT {{!}} Delhi State Legal Services Authority |url=http://dslsa.org/national-lok-adalat/ |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=dslsa.org}}</ref>

== Mechanism ==
The following types of cases can be admitted in Lok Adalat.<ref name="Lok Ref1">{{cite news |title=Lok Adalat |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hans-Classroom/2018-04-25/Lok-Adalat/376372?infinitescroll=1 |access-date=28 September 2021 |publisher=thehansindia.com |date=25 April 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

1. Any dispute or case pending in any court of law in India:

* Criminal offenses which is compoundable.
* Cases under section 138 of the Negotiable Instruments Act.
* Issues relating to the recovery of money.
* Issues under the Indian Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.
* Issues relating to labour disputes.
* Issues relating to public utility bills such as electricity or water, excluding non-compoundable offenses.
* Issues relating to matrimony.

2. Any dispute that is planned to be filed in Court but did not come up for a hearing. Following Pre-Litigation, cases can also be filed in Lok-Adalat:

* Cases under section 138 of the Negotiable Instruments Act.
* Cases relating to the recovery of money.
* Issues relating to labour disputes.
* Issues relating to public utility bills such as electricity or water, excluding non-compoundable offenses.
* General maintenance-related disputes.
* Other miscellaneous cases that are civil disputes, criminal compoundable cases, and matrimonial disputes.

However, any legal issue that is not compoundable as per the Indian legal system cannot be taken up in the Lok Adalat.

The Lok Adalat is presided over by Members, who have the role of statutory conciliators only but no judicial role. They can only persuade the parties to come to a settlement. Sometimes counseling sessions are also held between opposing parties.<ref name="Loka Ref3">{{cite news |title=Lok Adalat disposes of 8.5 lakh cases in a day across Maharashtra |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/mumbai-news/lok-adalat-disposes-of-8-5-lakh-cases-in-a-day-across-maharashtra-101632673899685.html |access-date=29 September 2021 |work=Hindustan Times |date=26 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

The main condition of the Lok Adalat is that both parties in dispute agree to settlement<ref name="lok ref7">{{cite news |title=lok-adalat-confined-only-to-passing-of-award-based-on-compromise-1894483.html |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2018/nov/05/lok-adalat-confined-only-to-passing-of-award-based-on-compromise-1894483.html |access-date=25 October 2021 |publisher=newindianexpress.com |date=5 November 2018}}</ref> and if they are unable to do so, the Permanent Lok Adalat gets jurisdiction to decide the case, provided it is not related to any offense.

No court fee is charged, and if a court matter is referred to the Lok Adalat and is settled subsequently, the court fee originally paid in the court on the complaints/petition is refunded to the parties.

Procedural laws and the [[Indian Evidence Act|Evidence Act]] are not strictly followed while assessing claims.

Decisions are binding on the parties<ref name="lok ref8">{{cite news |title=lok-adalats-can-pass-decree-in-criminal-cases-sc/articleshow/10911746.cms |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/lok-adalats-can-pass-decree-in-criminal-cases-sc/articleshow/10911746.cms |access-date=25 October 2021 |publisher=Times of India |date=29 November 2011}}</ref> and their order is capable of execution through a legal process.

Lok Adalat is effective in the settlement of money claims.{{Fact or opinion|date=September 2020}} Disputes like partition suits, [[damages]], and [[Matrimonial law|matrimonial]] cases can be easily settled before Lok Adalat, as the scope for compromise through an approach of give and take is high. A Lok Adalat can take up civil cases (including marriage and family disputes) and compoundable criminal cases. The decision of a Lok Adalat deciding any case coming before it is deemed as final, and any award or decree issued is enforceable on competing parties.<ref name="lok ad ref9">{{cite news |title=Case Closed Via Lok Adalat Amounts To Decree/ Award; Courts Can't Recall The Said Order, Bar Under S. 362 CrPC Will Apply: Karnataka High Court|url=https://www.livelaw.in/news-updates/karnataka-hc-decree-award-by-lok-adalat-cant-be-recalled-by-courts-bar-under-362-crpc-183755 |access-date=26 October 2021 |publisher=livelaw.in |date=14 October 2021}}</ref> Additionally, the issued order cannot be recalled or reviewed by the court.

Lok Adalat, as per the Supreme Court judgement, is formed to arrive at a compromise or solution between parties in dispute and hence does not have jurisdiction to go into the merits of the complaint.<ref name="and lok ref15">{{cite news |title=Lok Adalat can't decide cases on merits|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/lok-adalat-cant-decide-cases-on-merits-sc-1041603.html |access-date=25 October 2021 |publisher=deccanherald.com |date=18 October 2021}}</ref>

Lok Adalat or Alternate Dispute Resolution (ADR) system was strengthened by the Government of India in 2021 by introducing the Draft Mediation bill, 2021, which added many provisions for fast and efficient resolution through this system.<ref name="lok ref 20">{{cite news |title=Explainer: What does the ‘Draft Mediation Bill’ propose |url=https://factly.in/explainer-what-does-the-draft-mediation-bill-propose/ |access-date=22 November 2021 |publisher=FACTLY |date=20 November 2021}}</ref>

== Permanent Lok Adalat ==
The Permanent Lok Adalat (PUS) is a civil court whose main purpose is to summon a person or document. Permanent Lok Adalats are set up at the State Level in India, which in principle follows the Lok Adalat at the National level. The Permanent Lok Adalat is composed of a chairperson (who is a serving or a retired District and Sessions Judge or a Judicial Officer higher in the rank) and two other persons (or members performing judicial duties).<ref name="Lok Ref1" /> It deals with cases relating to public utility services such as transport, postal, or telegraph, and is formed as a pre-dispute platform for making conciliatory efforts between parties. The PLA (PUS) is not bound by the Civil Procedure Code or the Indian Evidence Act of 1872. It has wide powers to devise its own procedures. The decisions of the Permanent Lok Adalats are binding and are not subject to appeal.

The pecuniary jurisdiction of PLA (PUS) is up to Rs. 1 crore,<ref name="Lok Adalat">{{Cite web|url=https://nalsa.gov.in/lok-adalat/permanent-lok-adalat|title = Permanent Lok Adalat|date = 4 August 2022}}</ref> while in cases that have no direct monetary connection, the PLA (PUS) can pass any order within the wider ambit of the Statutory and Constitutional mandate. The court of Permanent Lok Adalat (PUS) has been set up country-wide in [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Delhi]], [[Haryana]], [[Kerala]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], and [[Andhra Pradesh]]. Uttar Pradesh has the highest number of functional Permanent Lok Adalat (PUS). It has more than 50 Courts of PLA (PUS) in as many districts. They operate in [[Kanpur Nagar]], [[Allahabad]], [[Lucknow]], [[Aligarh]], [[Baghpat]], [[Meerut]], [[Ghaziabad]], and [[Gautam Buddha Nagar]].

As of 30 September 2015, more than 15.14 lakhs Lok Adalats have been organized in the country since its inception. More than 8.25 crore cases have been settled by this mechanism so far.<ref name="Lok Adalat"/>

==See also==
* [[Gram Nyayalayas Act, 2008]]
* [[Legal Services Authorities Act 1987]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://nalsa.gov.in/lok-adalat official website]

{{Lok Adalat}}

[[Category:Lok Adalat| ]]
[[Category:Dispute resolution]]
[[Category:Law of India]]

Crocodile

2026-03-21T16:42:26Z

ShivaniSikri: small improve page for clarity additionally

{{Short description|Family of large reptilian carnivores}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Crocodile
| fossil_range = [[Eocene]]–[[Holocene]], {{Geological range|46|0}}
| image = Nile crocodile head.jpg
| image_caption = [[Nile crocodile]] (''Crocodylus niloticus'')
| image2 = Pangil Crocodile Park Davao City.jpg
| image2_caption = [[Saltwater crocodile]] (''Crocodylus porosus'')
| taxon = Crocodylidae
| authority = [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], 1807
| type_genus = ''[[Crocodylus]]''
| type_genus_authority = [[Joseph Nicolai Laurenti|Laurenti]], 1768
| range_map = Crocodylidae_Distribution.png
| range_map_caption = Global distribution of crocodile species
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
| subdivision = *[[Crocodylinae]]
*[[Osteolaeminae]]
}}

A '''crocodile''' ([[family (biology)|family]] '''Crocodylidae''') or '''true crocodile''' is a large, [[semiaquatic]] [[reptile]] that lives throughout the [[tropics]] in [[Africa]], [[Asia]], the [[Americas]] and [[Australia]]. The term "crocodile" is sometimes used more loosely to include all [[extant taxon|extant]] members of the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Crocodilia]], which includes the [[alligator]]s and [[caiman]]s (both members of the family [[Alligatoridae]]), the [[gharial]] and [[false gharial]] (both members of the family [[Gavialidae]]) as well as other extinct [[Taxon|taxa]]. This article will use "crocodile" or "true crocodile" to refer only to the species [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomically]] included in the Crocodylidae family, [[Neontology#Extant taxa versus extinct taxa|extant]] or [[extinct]].

Crocodile [[Measurement|size]], [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]], [[behaviour]] and [[ecology]] differ among [[species]]. However, they have many similarities in these areas as well. All crocodiles are [[semiaquatic]] and tend to congregate in [[freshwater]] habitats such as [[river]]s, [[lake]]s, [[wetland]]s and sometimes in [[brackish]] water and [[Seawater|saltwater]]. They are [[carnivorous]] animals, feeding mostly on [[vertebrate]]s such as [[fish]], [[reptile]]s, [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s, and sometimes on [[invertebrate]]s such as [[mollusc]]s and [[crustacean]]s, depending on [[species]] and age. All crocodiles are [[tropical]] species that, unlike [[alligator]]s, are very sensitive to [[cold]]. Many species are at the risk of [[extinction]], some being classified as [[critically endangered]].

==Etymology==
The word ''crocodile'' (''croc.'') was derived during the [[Middle English]] period<ref name=OED>{{cite web|url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/crocodile_n?tl=true|website=www.oed.com|title=crocodile noun|date=|publisher=Oxford University Press|via=Cresswell (2010) www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199547920.001.0001/acref-9780199547920-e-1305: "ME"}}</ref> from the [[transliteration]] ''krokódilos'' of a Greek{{efn|The Ancient Greek words for ''croc.'' were: σοῦχος<ref name=tuftscroc.>{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/definitionlookup?type=begin&q=crocodile&target=greek|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu|title=English-to-Greek Word Search Results for crocodile|publisher=[[LSJ]]: [[Perseus Project]]|access-date=14 April 2025}}</ref> which was the Ancient Egyptian ''croc.''<ref>{{cite web|url= https://lsj.gr/wiki/%CF%83%CE%BF%E1%BF%A6%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%82|website=lsj.gr|title=σοῦχος|date=|publisher=[[LSJ]]|access-date=14 April 2025}}</ref> and,<ref name=tuftscroc./> probably,<ref name=LSJcroc.>{{cite web|url=https://lsj.gr/wiki/%E1%BD%80%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%84%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82|website=lsj.gr|title=ὀδοντοτύραννος|date=|publisher=[[LSJ]]|access-date=14 April 2025}}</ref> ὀδοντοτύραννος<ref name=tuftscroc./> the Ancient Indian ''croc.''<ref name=LSJcroc./>}} word which translates as "stones worm".<ref name=10.1093>{{cite web|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199547920.001.0001/acref-9780199547920-e-1305|website=www.oxfordreference.com|title=crocodile|editor= Julia Cresswell|date=2010|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|archive-url=https://archive.today/20250414114622/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199547920.001.0001/acref-9780199547920-e-1305|archive-date=14 April 2025}}</ref>{{efn|It has been suggested,<ref name=Wylie1780231237>{{cite book|last1=Wylie|first1=Dan |location=Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa|date= 15 July 2013|chapter=|chapter-url=|editor-last1=|editor-first1= |editor-last2=|editor-first2=|title=Crocodile|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWDqAQAAQBAJ&q=crocodile+A+(further)+corrupted+form+cocodrille+is+found+in+Old+French|series=|language=|volume=|edition=|publisher=[[Reaktion Books]]|page=16|isbn=978-1-78023-123-5|issn=|via=}}</ref><ref name=10.1093/><ref name=Russini >{{cite web|author1=Giuliano Russini |url=https://www.monaconatureencyclopedia.com/crocodylus-cataphractus/?lang=en|website=www.monaconatureencyclopedia.com|title=Crocodylus cataphractus|date=26 April 2012|publisher=}}</ref><ref name=Aleksic>{{cite web|author= [[Adam Aleksic]]|url=https://www.etymologynerd.com/blog/pebble-worm|website=The Etymology Nerd|title=
PEBBLE WORM|date=|publisher=}}</ref><ref name=Ikram>{{cite book|last1=Ikram|first1=Salima |year=2010|chapter=Crocodiles: Guardians of the Gateways|chapter-url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/36713843/Ikram_Crocodiles_Guardians_of_the_Gateways-libre.pdf?1424471010=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3D2010_Crocodiles_Guardians_of_the_Gateway.pdf&Expires=1744727479&Signature=g3LWrL~Tu0FWtwHSK33KJxtbx7-gV1vZpqBCuZZfGHg7Sf5V3eHRkkvRBaiSIuVZPFj9S8botv1Etljh~VZ4A-TmPoGadOTOWLO8hwafinAZzVkRMYqi9b~8t6rTEzoeOaoy8QToIuVOKLcQyRDYBxwUOZtjziZhgKveQofAVIe9MI~g6VdHzen0JRs9nLME84tPxGjuYVZhfqVRbcN3VBnAIkwatufoviWcSh9GnIYk4MVKwUujdxtIBxRh0SbtF6fZfCjAmvSgOIGXJm2Z-zUAfYQCgWFdtEBmy1iD7qcY0W1eqOy5gv9T3bIuUIflv1f2krbK1eOAupativWFIA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA|editor-last1=Hawass |editor-first1=Z. |editor-last2=Ikram|editor-first2=S. |title=Thebes and Beyond: Studies in Honour of Kent R. Weeks|url=|series=|page=85 (1)|volume=|edition=|publication-place=Cairo|publisher=[[Supreme Council of Antiquities|Supreme Council of Antiquities Press]]|publication-date=2010 |isbn=|issn=|via=Google scholar & www.academia.edu/10965872/2010_Crocodiles_Guardians_of_the_Gateways_In_Z_Hawass_and_S_Ikram_eds_Thebes_and_Beyond_Studies_in_Honour_of_Kent_R_Weeks_Cairo_Supreme_Council_of_Antiquities_Press_85_98}}
</ref> that the word parts ''croc.'' & ''dile'' are compounded from {{lang|grc-Latn|krokè}} ({{gloss|pebbles}}), and {{lang|grc-Latn|drilos<ref name=10.1093/><ref name=Aleksic/><ref name=Ikram/> / deilos<ref name=Wylie1780231237/><ref name=Russini /> }} ({{gloss|worm}}),<ref name=Wylie1780231237/><ref name=10.1093/><ref name=Russini /><ref name=Aleksic/><ref name=Ikram/> although the former is only attested as a "a stripling" a colloquialism for a young man, or, a circumcised man<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lsj.gr/wiki/%CE%B4%CF%81%E1%BF%96%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82|website=lsj.gr|title=δρῖλος|date=|publisher=|via=dictionary.reference.com/browse/crocodile [access-date=26 April 2013]}}</ref> the latter in ancient sources in fact is interpreted as: cowardly, vile, worthless, lowborn, mean<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lsj.gr/wiki/%CE%B4%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BB%CF%8C%CF%82|website=lsj.gr|title=δειλός|date=|publisher=[[LSJ]]|via= biblehub.com/greek/1169.htm}}</ref>}} Through [[Ancient Greece]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/vor?lookup=krokodeilos&lang=greek |title=Perseus Lookup Tool |access-date=30 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205859/http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/vor?lookup=krokodeilos&lang=greek |archive-date=3 March 2016 }}</ref><ref name=Несторов/> the [[English language]] word has developed<ref name=10.1093/> from Grecian origination in [[Anatolia#Ancient Anatolia|Anatolia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Grigoriev|first1=Stanislav|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360291199|date=2022|location=[[Russian Academy of Sciences]]|title=ORIGINS OF THE GREEKS AND GREEK DIALECTS|journal=[[Journal of Ancient History and Archaeology]]|volume=9 |issue=1|pages=Abstract|doi=10.14795/j.v9i1.697|publisher=Editura Mega Print SRL - [[Technical University of Cluj-Napoca|Universitatea Tehnică din Cluj-Napoca]]: [[Central and Eastern European Online Library]] & [[researchgate]].net|issn=2360-266X|via=bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2025/2025.04.18/ - scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=how+Greek+formed+from+proto-greek&btnG=|doi-access=free}}</ref>

A very early extant [[Ancient Greek]] source is an [[Aesop's Fable]] named [[:el:s:Αισώπου Μύθοι/Αλώπηξ και κροκόδειλος|Ἀλώπηξ καὶ κροκόδειλος]] of the sixth century BC.<ref name=Несторов/> [[Herodotus]] a century after in consideration of the Greek word thought it was from the [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]] period.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Herodotus|author-link1=Herodotus |chapter=69|chapter-url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D69%3Asection%3D3|editor-last1= Godley|editor-first1=A. D.|editor1-link=A. D. Godley|title=The Histories: Book 2 - Section 3|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D0|translator=A. D. Godley|volume=|edition=|publication-place=Cambridge|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|publication-date=1920 |via=etymonline.com/index.php?search=crocodile [access-date=16 March 2010] & ijhth.journals.ekb.eg/article_194385_58a53f74295669c490be0d372bbca44c.pdf p.19 Moussa, WFI (Egypyt, 2021)|quote=The Egyptians do not call them crocodiles, but khampsae. The Ionians named them crocodiles, from their resemblance to the lizards which they have in their walls1. 1. κροκόδειλος is Ionic for a lizard; the commoner word is σαύρα or σαῦρος. χάμψα is the Egyptian "em-suh", a name which survives in the Arabic "timsah", i.e. em-suh with the feminine article prefixed.}}</ref>

The [[Latin language]] word ''crocodilus'' existed in first century AD in the work ''[[Natural Histories|Naturalis Historia]]'' of [[Pliny the Elder]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Pliny the Elder|author-link1=Pliny the Elder |date=1938|chapter=XXVIII|chapter-url=https://www.loebclassics.com/view/pliny_elder-natural_history/1938/pb_LCL418.77.xml|editor-last1=HENDERSON|editor-first1=JEFFREY|title=Natural Histories|url=https://www.loebclassics.com/view/pliny_elder-natural_history/1938/pb_LCL330.3.xml|series=[[Loeb Classical Library]]|language=Latin|publication-place=[[Harvard University]]|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=|issn=|doi=10.4159/DLCL.pliny_elder-natural_history.1938|via=Luigi Prada (2023) www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/zaes-2021-0024/html}}</ref> Examples in writing in the sixth and seventh century AD, {{lang|la|crocodillorum}} and {{lang|la|crocodili}} existed,<ref name=Несторов>{{Cite journal|last1=Несторов (Nestorov)|first1=Маријана (Marijana)|date=2014|title=A Traveler's Guide to Crocodiles in the Middle Ages|journal=Lucida intervalla (www.klasicnenauke.rs/lucida-intervalla)|volume=43|issue=|pages=140, 145–6|doi=|issn=|url=https://www.klasicnenauke.rs/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/li43-nestorov.pdf|publisher=Одељење за класичне науке (Department of Classical Sciences): [[University of Belgrade|Univerzitet u Beogradu]]|s2cid=|doi-access=|quote= Cocodrillus igitur de subito excitans vivu[m] transglutit eum.}}</ref> though {{lang|la|corcodrillus}} <ref name=pdf33468>{{Cite journal|last1=traulsen|first1=johannes|url=https://riviste.unimi.it/interfaces/article/download/9625/pdf/33468|date=2018|title=The Desert Fathers' Beasts Crocodiles in Medieval German Monastic Literature|journal=Interfaces|volume=5|issue=|page=79|doi=10.13130/interfaces-05-07|publisher=[[Milan University|Milano University Press]] (www.unimi.it/en/university/la-statale/milano-university-press-our-publishing-house)|doi-access=|via=(riviste.unimi.it/interfaces/article/download/9625/pdf/33468) www.dictionary.com/browse/crocodile: [[Dictionary.com]]}}</ref> and {{lang|la|cocodrillus}} <ref name=Несторов/><ref name=pdf33468/> were forms in [[Medieval Latin]].<ref name=pdf33468/> The Latin form is found as ''cocodrille'' c. the 13th century in the [[Old French]] work [[Li livres dou tresor]], in which the croc. is ''jaune'' (yellow).<ref>{{cite web |author1=Paolo Acquaviva|url=https://rolinc.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/acquaviva-rolinc-21.2.23.pdf|location=University of Dublin|website=rolinc.org|title=Varieties of definiteness and constructionist interpretation|page=13|publisher=Romance Linguistics Circle - Università di Bergamo, University of Cambridge, Università di Messina, University of Newcastle, University of Oxford |publication-date=21 February 2023|quote=The OF is found quoted from Mathieu (2009)}}</ref>

The earliest known source in the English language is within the work [[Kyng Alisaunder]]<ref name=OED/><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/metricalromances01webeiala#page/n93/mode/2up ''King Alisaunder''] Weber edition (1810)</ref> from towards the beginning of the 14th century, a [[Magic (supernatural)|magical]] [[Romance (prose fiction)#Medieval romance|romance]] poetry work of [[rhyming couplets]], where the word is found line 5720:<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|last2=|first2=|chapter=chapter III|editor-last1=Weber, ESQ.|editor-first1=Henry |editor1-link=Henry Weber|title=Metrical Romances of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Centuries: published from ancient manuscripts with an introduction, notes, and a glossary - Kyng Asisaunder: Part II. |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/metricalromances01webeiala#page/n93/mode/2up|series=|language=|volume=|edition=|publication-place=Edinburgh; London|publisher=[[Archibald Constable and Co]]; [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]], and [[Constable, Hunter, Park, and Hunter]]|publication-date=1810 |page=236|issn=|access-date=15 April 2025|quote=To the Most Noble Elizabeth [[Marchioness of Stafford]], [[Countess of Sutherland]]|via=[[University of California]], [[Los Angeles]]}}</ref>

:Forth went the kyng wondres sekynde :
:A griselich hest he gonne fynde;
:So mychel seigh he neuere, ne non swiche;
:Two heudes it had wel ferlich
:To a cokedrill that on was liche,
:That others the monoceros selcouthliche.{{efn|The croc. in question was an Indian croc. The text tells the tale of [[Alexander of Macedonia]]:
:Weber p.226 - "Alexander returns into [[Upper India]] where he defeats the inhabitants - The host attacked by a monstrous beast, and by elephants," (text form: ''olifauntz'', line 5734) "which are subdued";
commences line 5688:
:The kynge thennes went forth,
:Ayein into Ynde in the north,
:That is y-cleped, als I fynde
:In the book, the vpper Ynde.
}}

Writing sometime after 1483 on his visit to the [[Holy Land]]s [[Felix Fabri]] in German and Latin mentions the Cocodrillen and ''cocodrillos'' respectively.<ref name=Несторов/>{{efn|The modern / current German term is: das Krokodil<ref>{{cite web|url=https://translate.google.com/?hl=es&sl=en&tl=de&text=crocodile&op=translate|website=translate.google.com|title=crocodile|date=}}</ref>}} By 1538 the exact same form of the modern word as the current English is found in [[French language#History|French]];{{efn|Is shown in ''Gessner'', 1560, Historiæ animalium p. 54 as "GALLICE Crocodile" (i.e. French<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/gallice_adv?tl=true|website=www.oed.com|title=† Gallice adverb|date=|publisher=[[Oxford University]]}}</ref>) - see: p.27:<ref>{{cite web|author=Dirk HR Spennemann|url=https://www.bsanz.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Spennemann-Merians-crocodile-supplementary-2.pdf|website=www.bsanz.org|title=Matthäus Merian's crocodile in the Historiae naturalis de quadrupetibus—Supplemental data—|date=|publisher=Institute for Land Water and Society; [[Charles Sturt University]]}}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/crocodile|website=www.cnrtl.fr|title=Étymol. et Hist. 1. a)|date=|publisher=[[CNRTL]]|publication-place= 44, avenue de la Libération BP 30687 54063 Nancy Cedex - France}}</ref> ''croc''. is within a poem of [[Edmund Spenser]],{{efn|

''[[Prosopopoia|PROSOPOPOIA.]][[Mother Hubberd's Tale|Or Mother Hubberds Tale.]]''<ref name=EdSp/>

:Then vnto him all monstrous beasts resorted
:Bred of two kindes, as Griffons, Minotaures,
:Crocodiles, Dragons, Beauers, and Centaures:
:With those himselfe he strengthned mightelie,
:That feare he neede no force of enemie.}}<ref name=EdSp>{{cite journal|url=https://www.luminarium.org/renascence-editions/hubberd.html|website=www.luminarium.org|title=Spenser's Minor Poems|editor=Ernest de Sélincourt|editor-link=Ernest de Sélincourt|date=1910|doi=10.1086/SPSv23p153 |publication-place=Oxford|publication-date=1591|via=Sean Henry (2008) www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/SPSv23p153|url-access=subscription}}</ref> thought written in 1579–80,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rpo.library.utoronto.ca/content/prosopopoia-or-mother-hubbards-tale|website=rpo.library.utoronto.ca|title=Edmund Spenser, Complaints, containing sundry, small poems of the world's vanity (1591). Facs. edn. (Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1970). PR 2357 A1 1591A Robarts Library|date=|publisher=[[University of Toronto]]|quote=Notes 479}}</ref> and in the works of [[William Shakespeare]], who died in 1616.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/search/search-results.php|website=www.opensourceshakespeare.org|title=Antony and Cleopatra; Hamlet; Henry VI, Part II; Othello|date=|publisher=[[George Mason University]] }}</ref> The similitude of the English word formation to a Latin source was caused at least by the transmission<ref>{{cite web|author=Richard Tarrant|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195389661/obo-9780195389661-0302.xml|website=www.oxfordbibliographies.com|title=Oxford Bibliographies Online: Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature|date=2018|publisher=[[Oxford University]]|doi=10.1093/obo/9780195389661-0302}}</ref> of a relevant ancient science<ref>{{cite web|author=Aude Doody|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195389661/obo-9780195389661-0194.xml|website=|title=Oxford Bibliographies Online: Pliny the Elder|date=2019|publisher=[[Oxford University]]|doi=10.1093/obo/9780195389661-0194|quote=The Natural History is a key document in the history of science }}</ref> from the influx of the publication of translations of Pliny the Elder some time towards the end of fourteenth and, or, beginning of fifteenth century. The publication of concrete realization in the anatomical work of [[Andreas Vesalius]] during 1543 inspired the creation of monographs and books of animals contributing to new science in [[zoology]].<ref name=FEg.>{{Cite journal|last1= Egerton|first1=Frank N.|date=October 2003|url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/bullecosociamer.84.4.206|title=A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 11: Emergence of Vertebrate Zoology During the 1500s|journal=[[Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America]]|volume=84|issue=4|pages=206–212|doi=10.1890/0012-9623(2003)84[206:AHOTES]2.0.CO;2|issn= |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|doi-access=}}</ref>

==Taxonomy and phylogeny==
{{See also|List of crocodilians}}
Crocodylidae was named as a [[family (biology)|family]] by [[Georges Cuvier]] in 1807. It belongs to the larger [[Superfamily (taxonomy)|superfamily]] [[Crocodyloidea]], which also includes additional extinct crocodile relatives. These all belong to the [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Crocodilia]], which also includes [[alligators]] and [[gharials]].

Although crocodiles, alligators, and the gharial are similar in appearance, they belong to separate [[family (biology)|biological families]]. The gharial, with its narrow [[snout]], is easier to distinguish, while [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] differences are more difficult to spot in crocodiles and alligators. The most obvious external differences are visible in the head, with crocodiles having narrower and longer heads, with a more V-shaped than a U-shaped snout compared to alligators and caimans. Another obvious trait is that the upper and lower jaws of the crocodiles are the same width, and the [[teeth]] in the lower jaw fall along the edge or outside the upper jaw when the mouth is closed; therefore, all teeth are visible, unlike an alligator, which possesses in the upper jaw small depressions into which the lower teeth fit. Also, when the crocodile's mouth is closed, the large fourth tooth in the lower jaw fits into a constriction in the upper jaw. For hard-to-distinguish specimens, the protruding tooth is the most reliable feature to define the [[species]]' [[family (biology)|family]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cbd-faq-q1.htm |title=Crocodilian Biology Database – FAQ – What's the difference between a crocodile and an alligator |publisher=Flmnh.ufl.edu |access-date=5 April 2009}}</ref> Crocodiles have more [[webbing]] on the toes of the hind [[Foot|feet]] and can better tolerate [[saline water|saltwater]] due to specialized [[salt gland]]s for filtering out salt, which are present, but non-functioning, in alligators. Another trait that separates crocodiles from other crocodilians is their much higher levels of [[aggression]].<ref name="Guggisberg">{{cite book | author = Guggisberg, C. A. W. | title = Crocodiles: Their Natural History, Folklore, and Conservation| year = 1972 | page = 195 | isbn = 978-0-7153-5272-4 | publisher = David & Charles | location = Newton Abbot, England}}</ref>

Crocodylidae is [[cladistic]]ally defined as a [[crown group]] composed of the [[last common ancestor]] of the [[Nile crocodile]] (''Crocodylus niloticus''), the [[Dwarf crocodile]] (''Osteolaemus tetraspis''), and all of its descendants.<ref name="Rio2021">{{cite journal |last1=Rio |first1=Jonathan P. |last2=Mannion |first2=Philip D. |date=6 September 2021 |title=Phylogenetic analysis of a new morphological dataset elucidates the evolutionary history of Crocodylia and resolves the long-standing gharial problem |journal=[[PeerJ]] |volume=9 |article-number=e12094 |doi=10.7717/peerj.12094 |pmid=34567843 |pmc=8428266 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It contains two [[subfamily (biology)|subfamilies]]: [[Crocodylinae]] and [[Osteolaeminae]].<ref name="Hekkala2021">{{Cite journal|last1=Hekkala |first1=E. |last2=Gatesy |first2=J. |last3=Narechania |first3=A. |last4=Meredith |first4=R. |last5=Russello |first5=M. |last6=Aardema |first6=M. L. |last7=Jensen |first7=E. |last8=Montanari |first8=S. |last9=Brochu |first9=C. |last10=Norell |first10=M. |last11=Amato |first11=G. |date=27 April 2021 |title=Paleogenomics illuminates the evolutionary history of the extinct Holocene "horned" crocodile of Madagascar, Voay robustus |journal=Communications Biology |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |page=505 |doi=10.1038/s42003-021-02017-0 |pmid=33907305 |pmc=8079395 |issn=2399-3642 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Crocodylinae contains 13–14 living species, as well as 6 [[extinct]] species. Osteolaeminae was named by Christopher Brochu in 2003 as a subfamily of Crocodylidae separate from Crocodylinae,<ref name=C.thorbjarnarsoni>{{Cite journal | last1 = Brochu | first1 = C. A. | last2 = Storrs | first2 = G. W. | doi = 10.1080/02724634.2012.652324 | title = A giant crocodile from the Plio-Pleistocene of Kenya, the phylogenetic relationships of Neogene African crocodylines, and the antiquity of ''Crocodylus'' in Africa | journal = Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology | volume = 32 | issue = 3 | pages = 587–602 | year = 2012 | bibcode = 2012JVPal..32..587B | s2cid = 85103427 }}</ref> and contains the two [[extant taxon|extant]] [[genus|genera]] ''[[Osteolaemus]]'' and ''[[Mecistops]]'', along with several extinct genera. The number of extant species within Osteolaeminae is currently in question.<ref name="Eaton"/>
[[File:Crocfarm.jpg|thumb|[[Crocodile farm]]ing in Australia]]
[[File:Crocadiles.jpg|right|thumb|Crocodiles in [[Costa Rica]]]]
[[File:Crocodylus acutus mexico 01.jpg|thumb|right|[[American crocodile]] at [[La Manzanilla, Jalisco, Mexico]]]]
[[File:Voay robustus.JPG|thumb|A skull of the extinct ''[[Voay robustus]]'']]
* '''Subfamily [[Crocodylinae]]'''
** Genus ''[[Crocodylus]]''
***''[[Crocodylus acutus]]'', [[American crocodile]]
***''[[Crocodylus halli]]'', [[Hall's New Guinea crocodile]] found South of the [[New Guinea Highlands]]<ref name="MurrayRussoZorrillaMcMahan2019">{{cite journal | last1 = Murray | first1 = Christopher M. | last2 = Russo | first2 = Peter | last3 = Zorrilla | first3 = Alexander | last4 = McMahan | first4 = Caleb D. | year = 2019 | title = Divergent Morphology among Populations of the New Guinea Crocodile, Crocodylus novaeguineae (Schmidt, 1928) Diagnosis of An Independent Lineage and Description of A New Species. | journal = Copeia | volume = 107 | issue = 3| pages = 517–523 | doi = 10.1643/CG-19-240 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
***''[[Crocodylus intermedius]]'', [[Orinoco crocodile]]
***''[[Crocodylus johnsoni]]'', [[freshwater crocodile]], or Johnstone's crocodile
***''[[Crocodylus mindorensis]]'', [[Philippine crocodile]]
***''[[Crocodylus moreletii]]'', [[Morelet's crocodile]] or Mexican crocodile
***''[[Crocodylus niloticus]]'', [[Nile crocodile]] or African crocodile (the subspecies found in Madagascar is sometimes called the black crocodile)
***''[[Crocodylus novaeguineae]]'', [[New Guinea crocodile]] found North of the [[New Guinea Highlands]]
****''[[Crocodylus raninus]]'', the [[Borneo crocodile]], is related to ''C. novaeguineae'', but whether or not it is a distinct species remains unclear.<ref name=Ross1990>{{cite journal |author=Ross, Charles A. |year=1990 |title=''Crocodylus raninus'' S. Müller and Schlegel, a valid species of crocodile (Reptilia: Crocodylidae) from Borneo |journal=[[Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington]] |volume=103 |issue=4 |pages=955–961 |url=http://biostor.org/reference/69031}}</ref>
***''[[Crocodylus palustris]]'', [[Mugger Crocodile|mugger]], marsh or Indian crocodile
***''[[Crocodylus porosus]]'', [[saltwater crocodile]] or estuarine crocodile
***''[[Crocodylus rhombifer]]'', [[Cuban crocodile]]
***''[[Crocodylus siamensis]]'', [[Siamese crocodile]] (may be extinct in the wild)
***''[[Crocodylus suchus]]'', [[West African crocodile]], desert or sacred crocodile
***''[[Crocodylus anthropophagus]]''{{extinct}}
***''[[Crocodylus checchiai]]''{{extinct}}
***''[[Crocodylus falconensis]]''{{extinct}}
***''[[Crocodylus palaeindicus]]''{{extinct}}
***''[[Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni]]''{{extinct}}
** Genus ''[[Voay]]''{{extinct}}
***''[[Voay robustus]]''{{extinct}} (formerly ''Crocodylus robustus'')
* '''Subfamily [[Osteolaeminae]]'''
** Genus ''[[Osteolaemus]]''
*** ''[[Osteolaemus tetraspis]]'', [[dwarf crocodile]]
*** ''[[Osteolaemus osborni]]'', [[Osborn's dwarf crocodile]]
*** Recent (2009) DNA analysis indicate a third distinct species, currently unnamed.<ref name="Eaton"/>
** Genus ''[[Mecistops]]''
***''[[Mecistops cataphractus]]'' [[West African slender-snouted crocodile]]
*** ''[[Mecistops leptorhynchus]]'' [[Central African slender-snouted crocodile]]
** Genus ''[[Brochuchus]]''{{extinct}}
*** ''[[Brochuchus pigotti]]''{{extinct}} (formerly ''Crocodylus pigotti'')
*** ''[[Brochuchus parvidens]]''{{extinct}}
** Genus ''[[Euthecodon]]''{{extinct}}
*** ''[[Euthecodon nitriae]]''{{extinct}}
*** ''[[Euthecodon brumpti]]''{{extinct}}
*** ''[[Euthecodon arambourgi]]''{{extinct}}
** Genus ''[[Rimasuchus]]''{{extinct}}
*** ''[[Rimasuchus lloydi]]''{{extinct}} (formerly ''Crocodylus lloydi'')

===Phylogeny===
Recent molecular studies using [[DNA sequencing]] have shown crocodiles to be more closely related to the [[gavialid]]s rather than to [[alligator]]s, contrary to prior theories based on [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] studies alone.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://repository.si.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/686e0c04-2d0e-48af-ae23-2c2ec8ea2f79/content |title= True and False Gharials: A Nuclear Gene Phylogeny of Crocodylia |author= Harshman, J.; Huddleston, C. J.; Bollback, J. P.; Parsons, T. J.; Braun, M. J. |date= 3 February 2003 |page= 386 - 402 |issn= 1076-836X|doi=10.1080/10635150309323 |pmid=12775527|journal= Society of Systematic Biologists |volume=52|issue=3|access-date= 21 March 2026 |url-status=live |doi-access=free |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20260321161525/https://repository.si.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/686e0c04-2d0e-48af-ae23-2c2ec8ea2f79/content |archive-date= 21 March 2026 }}</ref><ref name="Gatesy2008">{{cite journal|last1=Gatesy |first1=J. |last2=Amato |first2=G. |year=2008 |title=The rapid accumulation of consistent molecular support for intergeneric crocodylian relationships |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]]|volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=1232–1237 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2008.02.009|pmid=18372192|bibcode=2008MolPE..48.1232G }}</ref><ref name=bite>{{cite journal| author=Erickson, G. M.| author2=Gignac, P. M.| author3=Steppan, S. J.| author4=Lappin, A. K.| author5=Vliet, K. A.| author6=Brueggen, J. A.| author7=Inouye, B. D.| author8=Kledzik, D.| author9=Webb, G. J. W. | year=2012 | title=Insights into the ecology and evolutionary success of crocodilians revealed through bite-force and tooth-pressure experimentation | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=7 |issue=3 |article-number=e31781 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0031781|editor1-last=Claessens|editor1-first=Leon|bibcode = 2012PLoSO...731781E | pmid=22431965 | pmc=3303775| doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="LeeYates2018">{{cite journal | author=Michael S. Y. Lee |author2=Adam M. Yates |date=27 June 2018 |title=Tip-dating and homoplasy: reconciling the shallow molecular divergences of modern gharials with their long fossil |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=285 |issue=1881 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2018.1071 |pmid=30051855 |pmc=6030529 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Hekkala2021"/>

Below is a [[cladogram]] showing the relationships of the major [[extant taxon|extant]] crocodile groups based on molecular studies, excluding separate extinct taxa:
{{clade| style=font-size:85%;line-height:85%
|label1='''[[Crocodilia]]'''
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Alligatoridae]]
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Caimaninae]]
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Caiman (genus)|Caiman]]'' [[File:Caiman crocodilus llanos white background.JPG|90 px]]
|2=''[[Melanosuchus]]'' [[File:Melanosuchus niger white background.jpg|120 px]] }}
|2=''[[Paleosuchus]]'' [[File:Dwarf Caiman white background.jpg|90 px]] }}
|label2=[[Alligatorinae]]
|2=''[[Alligator]]'' [[File:Alligator white background.jpg|100 px]] }}
|label2=[[Longirostres]]
|2={{clade
|label1='''Crocodylidae'''
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Crocodylus]]'' [[File:Siamese Crocodile white background.jpg|90 px]]
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Mecistops]]'' [[File:Crocodylus cataphractus faux-gavial d'Afrique2 white background.JPG|90 px]]
|2=''[[Osteolaemus]]'' [[File:Bristol.zoo.westafrican.dwarf.croc.arp. white background.jpg|90 px]] }} }}
|label2=[[Gavialidae]]
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Gavialis]]'' [[File:Gavialis gangeticus (Gharial, Gavial) white background.jpg|110 px]]
|2=''[[Tomistoma]]'' [[File:Tomistoma schlegelii. white background.JPG|90 px]]
}} }} }} }}

Below is a more detailed cladogram of Crocodylidae, based on a 2021 study using [[paleogenomics]] that extracted DNA from the extinct ''[[Voay]]''.<ref name="Hekkala2021"/> Recently recognised species (''M. leptorhynchus'', ''C. halli'' and the third ''Osteolaemus'' species) placed according to 2023 study by Sales-Oliveira ''et al.''<ref name="Sales-Oliveira2023">{{cite journal |author=Sales-Oliveira, V. |author2=Altmanová, M. |author3=Gvoždík, V. |author4=Kretschmer, R. |author5=Ezaz, T. |author6= Liehr, T. |author7=Padutsch, N. |author8=Badjedjea G. |author9=Utsunomia, R. |author10=Tanomtong, A. |author11=Ciof, M. |title=Cross‑species chromosome painting and repetitive DNA mapping illuminate the karyotype evolution in true crocodiles (Crocodylidae) |journal=Chromosoma |volume=132 |year=2023 |issue=4 |pages=289–303 |doi=10.1007/s00412-023-00806-6}}</ref>
{{clade| style=font-size:90%;line-height:85%
|label1='''Crocodylidae'''
|sublabel1=([[crown group]])
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Osteolaeminae]]
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''Mecistops cataphractus'' [[West African slender-snouted crocodile]]
|2=''Mecistops leptorhynchus'' [[Central African slender-snouted crocodile]] }}
|2=''[[Euthecodon]]'' {{extinct}} }}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Brochuchus]]'' {{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Rimasuchus]]'' {{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade|1=''Osteolaemus osborni'' [[Osborn's dwarf crocodile]] }}
|2={{clade
|1=''Osteolaemus tetraspis'' [[Dwarf crocodile]]
|2=''Osteolaemus'' sp. West }} }} }} }} }}
|label2=[[Crocodylinae]]
|2={{clade
|label1=''[[Voay]]''
|1=''Voay robustus'' {{extinct}}
|label2=''[[Crocodylus]]''
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Crocodylus anthropophagus]]'' {{extinct}}
|2=''[[Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni]]'' {{extinct}} }}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Crocodylus palaeindicus]]'' {{extinct}}
|2=''Crocodylus'' Tirari Desert {{extinct}} }} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1={{clade|1={{clade|1=''Crocodylus johnstoni'' [[Freshwater crocodile]] }} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''Crocodylus novaeguineae'' [[New Guinea crocodile]]
|2=''Crocodylus halli'' [[Crocodylus halli|Hall's New Guinea crocodile]] }}
|2={{clade|1=''Crocodylus mindorensis'' [[Philippine crocodile]] }} }} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade|1={{clade|1=''Crocodylus porosus'' [[Saltwater crocodile]]}} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade|1=''Crocodylus siamensis'' [[Siamese crocodile]] }}
|2={{clade|1=''Crocodylus palustris'' [[Mugger crocodile]] }} }} }} }}
|2={{clade
|2={{clade
|1={{clade|1={{clade|1={{clade|1={{clade|1=''Crocodylus suchus'' [[West African crocodile]] }} }} }} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade|1={{clade|1={{clade|1=''Crocodylus niloticus'' [[Nile crocodile]] }} }} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade|1={{clade|1=''Crocodylus rhombifer'' [[Cuban crocodile]] }} }}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''Crocodylus intermedius'' [[Orinoco crocodile]]
|2=''Crocodylus acutus'' [[American crocodile]] }}
|2={{clade|1=''Crocodylus moreletii'' [[Morelet's crocodile]] }} }} }} }} }}
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Crocodylus checchiai]]'' {{extinct}}
|2=''[[Crocodylus falconensis]]'' {{extinct}} }} }} }} }} }} }} }}

Alternatively, some [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] studies have recovered ''[[Mecistops]]'' as a [[basal (phylogeny)|basal]] member of [[Crocodylinae]], more closely related to ''[[Crocodylus]]'' than to ''[[Osteolaemus]]'' and the other members of [[Osteolaeminae]],<ref name="Rio2021"/><ref name="Azzara2021">{{cite journal |last1=Azarra |first1=Beatrice |last2=Boschian |first2=Giovanni |last3=Brochu |first3=Christopher |last4=Delfino |first4=Massimo |last5=Iurino |first5=Dawid Adam |last6=Kimambo |first6=Jackson Stanley |last7=Manzi |first7=Giorgio |last8=Masao |first8=Fidelis T. |last9=Menconero |first9=Sofia |last10=Njau |first10=Jackson K |last11=Cherin |first11=Marco |year=2021 |title=A new cranium of Crocodylus anthropophagus from Olduvai Gorge, northern Tanzania |journal=Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia (Research in Paleontology and Stratigraphy) |volume=127 |issue=2 |pages=275–295 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352560805 |doi=10.13130/2039-4942/15771 |s2cid=237962496 }}</ref> as shown in the cladogram below.<ref name="Azzara2021"/>
{{clade| style=font-size:85%;line-height:85%
|grouplabel1={{clade labels |width=10em; |label1='''Paleoafrican ''Crocodylus''''' |top1=40% |color1=red |label2='''Neotropical ''Crocodylus''''' |top2=60% |color2=black |style2=background-color:#ffffee; |label3='''Indo-Pacific ''Crocodylus''''' |top3=85% |color3=green}}
|label1='''Crocodylidae'''
|1={{clade
|label1='''[[Osteolaeminae]]'''
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Rimasuchus lloydi]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Voay robustus]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1=''Osteolaemus osborni'' [[Osborn's dwarf crocodile]]
|2=''Osteolaemus tetraspis'' [[Dwarf crocodile]] }} }}
|3={{clade
|1=''[["Crocodylus" gariepensis]]''{{extinct}}
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Brochuchus parvidens]]''{{extinct}}
|2=''[[Brochuchus pigotti]]''{{extinct}} }}
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Euthecodon arambourgi]]''{{extinct}}
|2=''[[Euthecodon brumpti]]''{{extinct}} }} }} }} }}
|label2='''[[Crocodylinae]]'''
|2={{clade
|1='''''Mecistops''' cataphractus'' [[West African slender-snouted crocodile]]
|2={{clade
|style1=background-color:#ffdddd;
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni]]''{{extinct}} |barbegin1=red
|2=''[[Crocodylus anthropophagus]]''{{extinct}} |barend2=red }}
|2={{clade
|1=''Crocodylus niloticus'' [[Nile crocodile]]
|2={{clade
|1=''[[Crocodylus checchiai]]''{{extinct}}
|style2=background-color:#ffffee;
|2=''Crocodylus moreletii'' [[Morelet's crocodile]] |barbegin2=yellow
|style3=background-color:#ffffee;
|3=''Crocodylus intermedius'' [[Orinoco crocodile]] |bar3=yellow
|style4=background-color:#ffffee;
|4=''Crocodylus acutus'' [[American crocodile]] |bar4=yellow
|style5=background-color:#ffffee;
|5=''Crocodylus rhombifer'' [[Cuban crocodile]] |barend5=yellow }}
|style3=background-color:#ddffdd;
|3=''[[Crocodylus palaeindicus]]''{{extinct}} |barbegin3=lightgreen |barend3=lightgreen
|style4=background-color:#ccffcc;
|4={{clade
|1=''Crocodylus palustris'' [[Mugger crocodile]] |barbegin1=green
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=''[[Crocodylus ossifragus]]''{{extinct}} |bar1=green
|2=''Crocodylus siamensis'' [[Siamese crocodile]] |bar2=green }}
|2={{clade
|1=''Crocodylus mindorensis'' [[Philippine crocodile]] |bar1=green
|2=''Crocodylus johnstoni'' [[Freshwater crocodile]] |bar2=green
|3=''Crocodylus porosus'' [[Saltwater crocodile]] |bar3=green
|4={{clade
|1=''Crocodylus raninus'' [[Borneo crocodile]] |bar1=green
|2=''Crocodylus novaeguineae'' [[New Guinea crocodile]]  |barend2=green }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }}

==Species==
[[File:Crocodylidae Distribution.png|thumb|left|upright=3|Distribution of crocodiles]]{{Clear}}
A total of 18 [[extant taxon|extant]] species have been recognized. Further [[genetic study]] is needed for the confirmation of proposed species under the genus ''[[Osteolaemus]]''.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Species name!! Image !! Distribution!! Description/Comments
|-
| valign="top" | [[American crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Crocodylus acutus''}})
|[[File:Crocodylus acutus mexico 02-edit1.jpg|140 px]]
| valign="top" | Throughout the [[Caribbean Basin]], including many of the [[Caribbean island]]s and [[South Florida]].
| valign="top" | A larger sized species, with a greyish colour and a prominent V-shaped snout. Prefers [[brackish]] water, but also inhabits lower stretches of [[river]]s and true [[marine biology|marine]] environments. This is one of the rare species that exhibits regular sea-going behaviour, which explains the great distribution throughout the [[Caribbean]]. It is also found in [[hypersaline lake]]s such as [[Lago Enriquillo]], in the [[Dominican Republic]], which has one of the largest populations of this species.<ref name="nationalgeographic1">{{cite web|url=http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/american-crocodile/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117092839/http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/american-crocodile |archive-date=17 January 2010 |title=American Crocodiles, American Crocodile Pictures, American Crocodile Facts – National Geographic |publisher=Animals.nationalgeographic.com |date=15 April 2013 |access-date=25 April 2013}}</ref> Diet consists mostly of aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates. Classified as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]], but certain local populations under greater threat.
|-
|[[Crocodylus halli|Hall's New Guinea crocodile]] (''Crocodylus halli'')
|
|The island of [[New Guinea]], south of the [[New Guinea Highlands]]
|A smaller species that closely resembles and was long classified under the [[New Guinea crocodile]], which it is now considered to be genetically distinct from. It lives south of the mountain barrier that divides the two species' ranges. It can be physically distinguished from the New Guinea crocodile by its shorter [[maxilla]] and enlarged [[postcrania]]l elements. Cranial elements can still widely vary within the species, with populations from [[Lake Murray (Papua New Guinea)|Lake Murray]] having much wider heads than those from the [[Aramia River (New Guinea)|Aramia River]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Murray|first1=Christopher M.|last2=Russo|first2=Peter|last3=Zorrilla|first3=Alexander|last4=McMahan|first4=Caleb D.|date=September 2019|title=Divergent Morphology among Populations of the New Guinea Crocodile, Crocodylus novaeguineae (Schmidt, 1928): Diagnosis of an Independent Lineage and Description of a New Species|journal=Copeia|volume=107|issue=3|pages=517–523|doi=10.1643/CG-19-240|issn=0045-8511|doi-access=free}}</ref>
|-
| valign="top" | [[Orinoco crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Crocodylus intermedius''}})
|[[File:Croc inter.jpg|140 px]]
| valign="top" | [[Colombia]] and [[Venezuela]]
| valign="top" | This is a large species with a relatively elongated snout and a pale tan coloration with scattered dark brown markings. Lives primarily in the [[Orinoco|Orinoco Basin]]. Despite having a rather narrow snout, preys on a wide variety of vertebrates, including large mammals. It is a [[Critically Endangered]] species.
|-
| valign="top" | [[Freshwater crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Crocodylus johnstoni''}})
|[[File:Australia Cairns 18.jpg|140 px]]
| valign="top" | [[Northern Australia]]
| valign="top" | A smaller species with a narrow and elongated snout. It has light brown coloration with darker bands on body and tail. Lives in [[river]]s with considerable distance from the sea, to avoid confrontations with saltwater crocodiles. Feeds mostly on [[fish]] and other small vertebrates.
|-
| valign="top" | [[Philippine crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Crocodylus mindorensis''}})
|[[File:Crocodylus mindorensis basking on a rock in the Disulap River, Barangay Disulap - ZooKeys-266-001-g102.jpg|140 px]]
| valign="top" | [[Endemic]] to the [[Philippines]]
| valign="top" | This is a relatively small species with a rather broader snout. It has heavy dorsal armour and a golden-brown colour that darkens as the animal matures. Prefers [[freshwater]] habitats and feeds on a variety of small to medium sized vertebrates. This species is [[Critically Endangered]] and the most severely threatened species of crocodile.<ref>(2011-09-06). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110923180815/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/09/pictures/110906-giant-crocodile-philippines-biggest-ever-caught-captured#/giant-saltwater-crocodile-found-philippines-enclosure_39953_600x450.jpg "Pictures: Biggest Crocodile Ever Caught?"]. National Geographic Daily News.</ref>
|-
| valign="top" | [[Morelet's crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Crocodylus moreletii''}})
| [[File:Morelets.crocodile.arp.jpg|140 px]]
| valign="top" | Atlantic regions of [[Mexico]], [[Belize]] and [[Guatemala]]
| valign="top" | A small to medium sized crocodile with a rather broad snout. It has a dark greyish-brown colour and is found in mostly various [[freshwater]] habitats. Feeds on mammals, birds and reptiles. It is listed as [[Least Concern]].
|-
| valign="top" | [[Nile crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Crocodylus niloticus''}})
| [[File:Nile croc couple 690V1510 - Flickr - Lip Kee.jpg|140 px]]
| valign="top" | [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]
| valign="top" | A large and aggressive species with a broad snout, especially in older animals. It has a dark bronze coloration and darkens as the animal matures. Lives in a variety of freshwater habitats but is also found in brackish water. It is an [[apex predator]] that is capable of taking a wide array of [[Africa]]n vertebrates, including large ungulates and other predators.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_cnil.htm |title=IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group |publisher=Crocodilian.com |access-date=25 April 2013 |archive-date=25 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025183255/http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_cnil.htm }}</ref> This species is listed as [[Least Concern]].
|-
|-
| valign="top" | [[New Guinea crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Crocodylus novaeguineae'')}}
| [[File:Neuguinea-krokodil-0272.jpg|140 px]]
| valign="top" | The island of [[New Guinea]], north of the [[New Guinea Highlands]]
| valign="top" | A smaller species of crocodile with a grey-brown colour and dark brown to black markings on the tail. The young have a narrower V-shaped snout that becomes wider as the animal matures. Prefers [[freshwater]] habitats, even though is tolerant to salt water, in order to avoid competition and predation by the saltwater crocodile. This species feeds on small to mid-sized vertebrates.
|-
| valign="top" | [[Mugger crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Crocodylus palustris''}})
|[[File:Mugger crocodile Crocodylus palustris (2155269175).jpg|140 px]]
| valign="top" | The [[Indian subcontinent]] and surrounding countries
| valign="top" | This is a modest sized crocodile with a very broad snout and an alligator-like appearance. It has dark-grey to brown coloration. Enlarged scutes around the neck make it a heavily armoured species. Prefers slow moving [[river]]s, [[swamp]]s and [[lake]]s. It can also be found in [[coastal]] swamps but avoids areas populated by saltwater crocodiles.<ref>[http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/cst_cpal_dh_map.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123063953/http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/cst_cpal_dh_map.htm|date=23 January 2013}}. Crocodile Species List. Retrieved on 13 April 2013.</ref> Feeds on a wide array of vertebrates.
|-
| valign="top" | [[Saltwater crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Crocodylus porosus''}})
|[[File:Crocodylus porosus 4.jpg|140 px]]
| valign="top" | Throughout {{nowrap|[[Southeast Asia]]}}, [[Northern Australia]] and surrounding waters
| valign="top" | The largest on average living reptile and most aggressive of all crocodiles. It is a big-headed species and has a relatively broad snout, especially when older. The coloration is pale yellow with black stripes when young but dark greenish-drab coloured as adults. Lives in [[brackish]] and [[marine biology|marine]] environments as well as lower stretches of [[river]]s. This species has the greatest distribution of all crocodiles. Tagged specimens showed long-distance marine travelling behaviour. It is the [[apex predator]] throughout its range and preys on virtually any animal within its reach. It is classified as [[Least Concern]] but with several populations under greater risk.<ref name=IUCN>{{Cite iucn | author = Crocodile Specialist Group | title = ''Crocodylus porosus'' | volume = 1996 | article-number = e.T5668A11503588 | date = 1996 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.1996.RLTS.T5668A11503588.en }}</ref>
|-
|[[Crocodylus raninus|Borneo crocodile]] (''Crocodylus raninus'')
|
|Island of Borneo in [[Southeast Asia]]
|A freshwater species of crocodile that has been considered a synonym of the [[saltwater crocodile]].
|-
| valign="top" | [[Cuban crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Crocodylus rhombifer''}})
|[[File:Cuban Crocodile.JPG|140 px]]
| valign="top" | Found only in the [[Zapata Swamp]] and [[Isle of Youth]] of [[Cuba]]
| valign="top" | It is a small but extremely aggressive species of crocodile that prefers [[freshwater]] [[swamps]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.markoshea.info/reptileworld_zone2-4.php|title=Mark O'Shea – The Official Website}}</ref> The coloration is vibrant even as adults and the scales have a "pebbled" appearance. It is a relatively terrestrial species with agile locomotion on land, and sometimes displays terrestrial hunting. The snout is broad with a thick upper-jaw and large teeth. The unique characteristics and fossil record indicates a rather specialized [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] in the past, preying on megafauna such as the giant sloth. This species sometimes displays pack-hunting behaviour, which might have been the key to hunting large species in the past, despite its small size.<ref name = "Alexander">{{Cite journal| last = Alexander | first = Marc | title = Last of the Cuban crocodile? | journal = Americas (English Edition)| date = 1 January 2006| url = http://www.thefreelibrary.com/_/print/PrintArticle.aspx?id=141091822| issn = 0379-0940 | access-date = 9 July 2010}}</ref> Today most prey are small to medium sized vertebrates. It is [[Critically Endangered]], and the remaining wild population is under threat of hybridization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/06/110624-cuban-american-crocodile-animals-hybrids-science/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110626155943/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/06/110624-cuban-american-crocodile-animals-hybrids-science/|archive-date=26 June 2011|title=Hybrid Cuban-American Crocodiles on the Rise|date=26 June 2011}}</ref>
|-
| valign="top" | [[Siamese crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Crocodylus siamensis''}})
|[[File:Crocodylus siamensis (head, mouth open, in zoo).jpg|140 px]]
| valign="top" | [[Indonesia]], [[Brunei]], [[East Malaysia]] and southern [[Indochina]]
| valign="top" | A fairly small crocodile that prefers [[freshwater]] habitats. It has a relatively broad snout and olive-green to dark green coloration. It feeds on a variety of small to mid-sized vertebrates. Listed as [[Critically Endangered]], but might be already extinct in the wild; status is unknown.<ref name=Bezuijen>{{cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=Boyd K. |last2=Bezuijen |first2=Mark R. |title=Siamese Crocodile Crocodylus Siamensis |journal=Crocodiles |year=2010 |edition=Third |url=http://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/20_C-637b6a34.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/20_C-637b6a34.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=13 January 2018 }}</ref>
|-
| valign="top" | [[West African crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Crocodylus suchus''}})
|[[File:Crocodile - Copenhagen Zoo.jpg|140 px]]
| valign="top" | [[Western Africa|Western]] and [[Central Africa]]
| valign="top" | Recent studies revealed that this is distinct species from the larger Nile crocodile.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110914/full/news.2011.535.html Nile crocodile is two species], Nature.com</ref><ref name = "schmitz">{{cite journal|author1=Schmitz, A. |author2=Mausfeld, P. |author3=Hekkala, E. |author4=Shine, T. |author5=Nickel, H. |author6=Amato, G. |author7= Böhme, W. |name-list-style=amp |year=2003|title=Molecular evidence for species level divergence in African Nile crocodiles ''Crocodylus niloticus'' (Laurenti, 1786)|journal=Comptes Rendus Palevol|volume=2|issue=8 |pages=703–12|doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2003.07.002|bibcode=2003CRPal...2..703S }}</ref> It has a slightly narrower snout and is much smaller compared to its larger cousin.
|-
| valign="top" | [[Osborn's dwarf crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Osteolaemus osborni''}})
|[[File:Osteolaemus osborni 88103967.jpg|140px]]
| valign="top" | [[Western Africa]]
| valign="top" | It is a heavily armoured species with uniform black coloration in adults, while juveniles have a lighter brown banding. Lives in the tropical forests of Western Africa. Feeds on small vertebrates and large aquatic invertebrates. It is a fairly terrestrial species and exhibits terrestrial hunting, especially at night.
|-
| valign="top" | [[Dwarf crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Osteolaemus tetraspis''}})
|[[File:Dwarf crocodile 01.JPG|140 px]]
| valign="top" | [[Western Africa]]
| valign="top" | It belongs to its own [[monotypic]] [[genus]]; however, new studies indicate there might be two or even three distinct species.<ref name="Eaton">{{cite journal|last=Eaton|first=Mitchell J.|author2=Andrew Martin |author3=John Thorbjarnarson |author4=George Amato |title=Species-level diversification of African dwarf crocodiles (Genus Osteolaemus): A geographic and phylogenetic perspective|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|date=March 2009|volume=50|issue=3|pages=496–506|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2008.11.009 |pmid=19056500|bibcode=2009MolPE..50..496E }}</ref> It is a heavily armoured species with uniform black coloration in adults, while juveniles have a lighter brown banding. Lives in the tropical forests of Western Africa. Feeds on small vertebrates and large aquatic invertebrates. It is a fairly terrestrial species and exhibits terrestrial hunting, especially at night. This species is classified as [[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]].
|-
|[[West African slender-snouted crocodile]] ({{nowrap|''Mecistops cataphractus''}})
|[[File:Crocodylus cataphractus faux-gavial d'Afrique2.JPG|frameless|140x140px]]
|[[Western Africa]]
|A medium sized species with a narrow and elongated snout. Lives in [[freshwater]] habitats within tropical forests of the continent. Feeds mostly on [[fish]] but also other small to medium sized vertebrates. It is a [[Critically endangered|Critically Endangered]] species.
|-
|[[Central African slender-snouted crocodile]] (''Mecistops leptorhynchus'')
|[[File:Crocodylus cataphractus 2009.jpg|frameless|142x142px]]
|[[Central Africa]]
|A medium sized species found in watery areas in dense rainforest. Feeds largely on fish. Insufficient conservation data, but was classified as [[Critically endangered|Critically Endangered]] when lumped with ''M. cataphractus'', although ''M. leptorhynchus'' is doing better in its home range.
|}

{{For|information on Tomistoma or false gharial, that is recently not considered as a true crocodile|False gharial}}

==Characteristics==
{{Hatnote|Crocodiles are similar to alligators and caimans; for their common characteristics and differences among them, see [[Crocodilia]].}}
[[File:Skull & scutes - Crocodylinae.jpg|thumb|Skulls and scutes of [[American crocodile|American]], [[Nile crocodile|Nile]] and [[Saltwater crocodile]]s, with post-occipital [[scute]]s highlighted in red, [[Nape|nuchal]] shield in blue and dorsal scutes in green]]
[[File:Crocodilelyd5.png|thumb|Crocodiles, like dinosaurs, have the abdominal ribs modified into ''[[gastralium|gastralia]]''.]]
Apart from the advantage conferred by its sufficiently large size relative to other animals in the ecosystem,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Somaweera |first1=Ruchira |last2= Brien|first2=Matthew|last3= Shine|first3=Richard|location=Australia|date=1 December 2013|url=https://meridian.allenpress.com/herpetological-monographs/article-abstract/27/1/23/33006/The-Role-of-Predation-in-Shaping-Crocodilian|title=The Role of Predation in Shaping Crocodilian Natural History|journal=[[Herpetological Monographs]]|volume=27 |issue=1|pages=Abstract|issn=0733-1347|doi=10.1655/HERPMONOGRAPHS-D-11-00001 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> other physical traits contribute a crocodile's position as [[predator]]. Its external [[morphology (biology)|morphology]] is a sign of its [[aquatic animal|aquatic]] and predatory lifestyle. Its [[Drag (physics)|streamlined]] body enables it to swim swiftly; it also tucks its feet to the side while swimming, making it faster by decreasing water resistance. Crocodiles have [[webbed feet]] which, though not used to propel them through the water, allow them to make fast turns and sudden moves in the water or initiate swimming. Webbed feet are an advantage in shallow water, where the animals sometimes move around by walking. Crocodiles have a [[palatal]] flap, a rigid tissue at the back of the mouth that blocks the entry of water. The palate has a special path from the [[nostril]] to the [[glottis]] that bypasses the mouth. The nostrils are closed during submergence.

Like other [[archosaur]]s, crocodilians are [[diapsid]], although their [[post-temporal fenestra]]e are reduced. The walls of the braincase are bony but lack supratemporal and postfrontal bones.<ref name=ausfauna>Grigg, Gordon and Gans, Carl (1993) [http://eprint.uq.edu.au/archive/00002011/02/croc.pdf Morphology And Physiology Of The Crocodylia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050720011236/http://eprint.uq.edu.au/archive/00002011/02/croc.pdf |date=20 July 2005 }}, in Fauna of Australia Vol 2A Amphibia and Reptilia, chapter 40, pp. 326–336. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.</ref> Their [[tongue]]s are not free, but held in place by a membrane that limits movement; as a result, crocodiles are unable to stick out their tongues.<ref>{{cite book | last = Huchzermeyer | first = Fritz | year = 2003 | title = Crocodiles: Biology, Husbandry and Diseases | publisher = CABI Publishing | isbn =978-0-85199-656-1 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4Arv-IUFnuoC| page = 13 }}</ref> Crocodiles have smooth skin on their bellies and sides, while their dorsal surfaces are armoured with large [[osteoderms]]. The armoured skin has scales and is thick and rugged, providing some protection. They are still able to absorb heat through this armour, as a network of small [[capillaries]] allows blood through the scales to absorb heat. The osteoderms are highly vascularised and aid in calcium balance, both to neutralize acids while the animal cannot breathe underwater<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wednesday|first=25 April 2012 Anna SallehABC|date=25 April 2012|title=Antacid armour key to tetrapod survival|url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2012/04/25/3488040.htm|access-date=26 July 2020|website=www.abc.net.au|language=en-AU}}</ref> and to provide calcium for eggshell formation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Dacke|first1=C.|last2=Elsey|first2=R.|last3=Trosclair|first3=P.|last4=Sugiyama|first4=T.|last5=Nevarez|first5=Javier|last6=Schweitzer|first6=Mary|date=1 September 2015|title=Alligator osteoderms as a source of labile calcium for eggshell formation|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280973901|journal=Journal of Zoology|volume=297|issue=4|pages=255–264|doi=10.1111/jzo.12272}}</ref> Crocodilian tegument have pores believed to be sensory in function, analogous to the [[lateral line]] in fishes. They are particularly seen on their upper and lower jaws. Another possibility is that they are secretory, as they produce an oily substance which appears to flush mud off.<ref name=ausfauna />

===Size===
[[File:Large Crocodylus porosus.jpg|thumb|230px|A [[saltwater crocodile]] in captivity]]
Size greatly varies among species, from the [[dwarf crocodile]] to the [[saltwater crocodile]]. Species of the dwarf crocodile ''Osteolaemus'' grow to an adult size of just {{convert|1.5|to|1.9|m|ft|abbr=on}},<ref>[http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_otet.htm]. Crocodilian Species List. Retrieved on 14 April 2012</ref> whereas the saltwater crocodile can grow to sizes over {{convert|6|m|ft|abbr=on}} and weigh over {{convert|1000|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>Guinness Book of World Records. Retrieved on 8 April 2013.</ref> Several other large species can reach over {{convert|5.2|m|ft|abbr=on}} long and weigh over {{convert|900|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Crocodilians show pronounced [[sexual dimorphism]], with males growing much larger and more rapidly than females.<ref name=ausfauna /> Despite their large adult sizes, crocodiles start their lives at around {{convert|20|cm|in|abbr=on}} long. The largest species of crocodile is the saltwater crocodile, found in eastern India, northern Australia, throughout [[South-east Asia]], and in the surrounding waters.

The brain volume of two adult crocodiles was 5.6 cm3 for a [[spectacled caiman]] and 8.5 cm3 for a larger [[Nile crocodile]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0178491| pmid=28614349| pmc=5470673|bibcode = 2017PLoSO..1278491J|title = Volume of the crocodilian brain and endocast during ontogeny| journal=PLOS ONE| volume=12| issue=6| article-number=e0178491|last1 = Jirak|first1 = Daniel| last2=Janacek| first2=Jiri| year=2017| doi-access=free}}</ref>

The largest crocodile ever held in captivity is a saltwater–Siamese hybrid named Yai ({{langx|th|ใหญ่}}, meaning big; 10 June 1972 – 15 August 2025<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=24787940410830027&set=a.530917453625661|via=Facebook|language=thai|access-date=2025-09-14|date=2025-09-14|title=RIP Utan (เจ้าใหญ่) 🐊 (1964-2025)|first=Supanut|last=Benjadumrongkit}}</ref>) at the [[Samutprakarn Crocodile Farm and Zoo]], [[Thailand]]. This animal measures {{convert|6|m|abbr=on}} in length and weighs {{convert|1200|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref>[http://www.worldcrocodile.com/centerfarm.swf The Guinness Book of Records. Largest Captive Crocodile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105124058/http://www.worldcrocodile.com/centerfarm.swf |date=5 November 2010 }}, Worldcrocodile.com</ref>

The longest crocodile captured alive was [[Lolong]], a saltwater crocodile which was measured at {{convert|6.17|m|ft|abbr=on}} and weighed at {{convert|1075|kg|abbr=on}} by a National Geographic team in Agusan del Sur Province, Philippines.<ref>{{cite web|last=Britton|first=Adam|title=Lolong officially the world's largest crocodile in captivity|url=https://crocodilian.blogspot.com/2012/06/lolong-officially-worlds-largest.html|publisher=Crocodilian.com|access-date=12 July 2012|date=23 June 2012|archive-date=18 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218183151/http://crocodilian.blogspot.com/2012/06/lolong-officially-worlds-largest.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Displaced Species|url=http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=824855&publicationSubCategoryId=64|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130131170445/http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=824855&publicationSubCategoryId=64|archive-date=31 January 2013|newspaper=PhilStar|access-date=12 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=GMA News with Ben Serrano|author2=Paterno Esmaquel|name-list-style=amp|title=NatGeo team confirms Lolong the croc is world's longest|url=http://www.gmanews.tv/story/237992/nation/natgeo-team-confirms-lolong-the-croc-is-worlds-longest|work=GMA News Online Top Stories|date=9 November 2011 |publisher=GMA Network Inc.|access-date=15 November 2011}}</ref>

===Teeth===
Crocodiles are [[polyphyodont]]s; they are able to replace each of their 80 teeth up to 50 times in their 35- to 75-year lifespan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/science/2013/05/solving-an-alligator-mystery-may-help-humans-regrow-lost-teeth/#ixzz2jeiA3qon|title=Solving an Alligator Mystery May Help Humans Regrow Lost Teeth|first=Rachel|last=Nuwer|author-link=Rachel Nuwer |access-date=4 November 2013|archive-date=25 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625153648/http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/science/2013/05/solving-an-alligator-mystery-may-help-humans-regrow-lost-teeth/#ixzz2jeiA3qon}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Specialized stem cell niche enables repetitive renewal of alligator teeth|first1=Ping|last1=Wu|first2=Xiaoshan|last2=Wu|first3=Ting-Xin|last3=Jiang|first4=Ruth M.|last4=Elsey|first5=Bradley L.|last5=Temple|first6=Stephen J.|last6=Divers|first7=Travis C.|last7=Glenn|first8=Kuo|last8=Yuan|first9=Min-Huey|last9=Chen|first10=Randall B.|last10=Widelitz|first11=Cheng-Ming|last11=Chuong|author-link11=Cheng-Ming Chuong|date=28 May 2013|journal=PNAS|volume=110|issue=22|pages=E2009–E2018|doi=10.1073/pnas.1213202110|pmid=23671090|pmc=3670376|bibcode=2013PNAS..110E2009W|doi-access=free}}</ref> Next to each full-grown tooth, there is a small replacement tooth and an [[Animal tooth development|odontogenic]] [[stem cell]] in the [[dental lamina]] in standby that can be activated if required.<ref>[http://www-hsc.usc.edu/~cmchuong/2013AllTooth.pdf Specialized stem cell niche enables repetitive renewal of alligator teeth] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104212952/http://www-hsc.usc.edu/~cmchuong/2013AllTooth.pdf |date=4 November 2013 }}</ref>

==Biology and behaviour==

Crocodilians are more closely related to birds and dinosaurs than to most animals classified as reptiles, the three families being included in the group [[Archosauria]] ('ruling reptiles'). Despite their prehistoric look, crocodiles are among the more biologically complex reptiles. Unlike other reptiles, a crocodile has a [[cerebral cortex]] and a four-chambered [[heart]]. Crocodilians also have the functional equivalent of a diaphragm by incorporating muscles used for aquatic locomotion into respiration.<ref name="Uriona & Farmer, 2008">{{cite journal|vauthors=Uriona TJ, Farmer CG |year=2008|title=Recruitment of the diaphragmaticus, ischiopubis and other respiratory muscles to control pitch and roll in the American alligator (''Alligator mississippiensis'') |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=211|pages=1141–1147|pmid=18344489|doi=10.1242/jeb.015339|issue=Pt 7|doi-access=free|bibcode=2008JExpB.211.1141U }}</ref> [[Salt gland]]s are present in the tongues of crocodiles and they have a pore opening on the surface of the tongue, a trait that separates them from alligators. Salt glands are dysfunctional in Alligatoridae.<ref name=ausfauna /> Their function appears to be similar to that of salt glands in [[marine turtle]]s. Crocodiles do not have sweat glands and release heat through their mouths. They often sleep with their mouths open and may pant like a dog.<ref>{{cite web | author= Anitai, Stefan | title = 14 Amazing Facts About Crocodiles – Living dinosaurs | date = 3 November 2007 | url=http://news.softpedia.com/news/14-Amazing-Facts-About-Crocodiles-69931.shtml | publisher= Softpedia | access-date = 1 April 2008}}</ref> Four species of freshwater crocodile climb trees to bask in areas lacking a shoreline.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.herpetologynotes.seh-herpetology.org/Volume7_PDFs/Dinets_HerpetologyNotes_volume7_pages3-7.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.herpetologynotes.seh-herpetology.org/Volume7_PDFs/Dinets_HerpetologyNotes_volume7_pages3-7.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live | title=Climbing behaviour in extant crocodilians |author1=Dinets, Vladimir |author2=Britton, Adam |author3=Shirley, Matthew | journal=Herpetology Notes | year=2013 | volume=7 | pages=3–7}}</ref>

===Senses===
[[File:A crocodiles eye (7825799462).jpg|thumb|Crocodile eye]]
Crocodiles have acute senses, an evolutionary advantage that makes them successful predators. The eyes, ears and nostrils are located on top of the head, allowing the crocodile to lie low in the water, almost totally submerged and hidden from prey.

====Vision====
Crocodiles have very good night vision, and are mostly [[Nocturnality|nocturnal]] hunters. They use the disadvantage of most prey animals' poor nocturnal vision to their advantage. The light receptors in crocodilians' eyes include [[Cone cell|cones]] and numerous [[Rod cells|rods]], so it is assumed all crocodilians can see colours.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wikis.evergreen.edu/m2o1112/index.php/Reptiles|title=Reptiles|author=evergreen|access-date=29 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615152003/http://wikis.evergreen.edu/m2o1112/index.php/Reptiles|archive-date=15 June 2013}}</ref> Crocodiles have vertical-slit shaped pupils, similar to those of domestic cats. One explanation for the evolution of slit pupils is that they exclude light more effectively than a circular pupil, helping to protect the eyes during daylight.<ref name="Land, (2006)">{{cite journal | last1 = Land | first1 = M.F. | year = 2006 | title = Visual optics: the shapes of pupils | journal = Current Biology | volume = 16 | issue = 5| pages = R167–R168 | doi=10.1016/j.cub.2006.02.046 | pmid=16527734| doi-access = free | bibcode = 2006CBio...16.R167L }}</ref> On the rear wall of the eye is a [[tapetum lucidum]], which reflects incoming light back onto the retina, thus utilizing the small amount of light available at night to best advantage. In addition to the protection of the upper and lower eyelids, crocodiles have a [[nictitating membrane]] (sometimes called a "third eyelid") that can be drawn over the eye from the inner corner while the lids are open. The eyeball surface is thus protected under the water while a certain degree of vision is still possible.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/143679/crocodile/38424/Form-and-function|title=Crocodile|author=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=29 April 2013}}</ref>

====Olfaction====
Crocodilian [[Olfaction|sense of smell]] is also very well developed, aiding them to detect prey or animal carcasses that are either on land or in water, from far away. It is possible that crocodiles use olfaction in the egg prior to hatching.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica" />

[[Chemoreception]] in crocodiles is especially interesting because they hunt in both terrestrial and aquatic surroundings. Crocodiles have only one olfactory chamber and the [[vomeronasal organ]] is absent in the adults<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hansen | first1 = A | year = 2007 | title = Olfactory and solitary chemosensory cells: two different chemosensory systems in the nasal cavity of the American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis | journal = BMC Neuroscience | volume = 8 | article-number = 64 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2202-8-64 | pmid = 17683564 | pmc = 1950884 | doi-access = free }}</ref> indicating all olfactory perception is limited to the olfactory system. Behavioural and olfactometer experiments indicate that crocodiles detect both air-borne and water-soluble chemicals and use their olfactory system for hunting. When above water, crocodiles enhance their ability to detect volatile odorants by gular pumping, a rhythmic movement of the floor of the pharynx.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gans | first1 = C. | last2 = Clark | first2 = B. | year = 1976 | title = Studies on ventilation of Caiman crocodilus (Crocodilia: Reptilia) | url =https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/21779/1/0000173.pdf | journal = Respir. Physiol | volume = 26 | issue = 3| pages = 285–301 | doi=10.1016/0034-5687(76)90001-3| pmid = 951534 | hdl = 2027.42/21779 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Putterill | first1 = J.F. | last2 = Soley | first2 = J.T. | year = 2006 | title = Morphology of the gular valve of the Nile crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus (Laurenti, 1768) | journal = J. Morphol. | volume = 267 | issue = 8| pages = 924–939 | doi=10.1002/jmor.10448| pmid = 16634086 | s2cid = 21995436 }}</ref> Crocodiles close their nostrils when submerged, so olfaction underwater is unlikely. Underwater food detection is presumably gustatory and tactile.<ref>Schwenk, K. (2008). Comparative anatomy and physiology of chemical senses in nonavian aquatic reptiles. In, ''Sensory Evolution on the Threshold: Adaptations in Secondarily Aquatic Vertebrates''. J.G.M [[Hans Thewissen|Thewissen]] and S. Nummels (Eds). University of California Press, Berkeley. pp. 65–81</ref>

====Hearing====
Crocodiles can hear well; their [[Eardrum|tympanic membranes]] are concealed by flat flaps that may be raised or lowered by muscles.<ref name=ausfauna />

====Touch====
The touch sensors, concentrated in crocodile skin, can be thicker than those in human fingerprints.<ref>{{Cite web|date=9 November 2012|title=Croc Jaws More Sensitive Than Human Fingertips|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/121108-nile-crocodile-duncan-leitch-science-human-sensitive-touch|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210325143141/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/121108-nile-crocodile-duncan-leitch-science-human-sensitive-touch|archive-date=25 March 2021|access-date=31 January 2022|website=Animals|language=en}}</ref> Crocodiles can feel touch on their skin.<ref>{{Cite web|date=14 October 2021|title=Do Crocodiles Feel Pain? (Surprising Answer) {{!}}|url=https://wildexplained.com/do-crocodiles-feel-pain/|access-date=31 January 2022|language=en-us}}</ref>

'''Cranial''': The upper and lower jaws are covered with sensory pits, visible as small, black speckles on the skin, the crocodilian version of the [[lateral line]] organs seen in fish and many amphibians, though arising from a completely different origin. These pigmented nodules encase bundles of [[Axon|nerve fibers]] innervated beneath by branches of the trigeminal nerve. They respond to the slightest disturbance in surface water, detecting vibrations and small pressure changes as small as a single drop.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/alligators-detect-silent-ripples-when-hunting-1.320458|title=Alligators detect silent ripples when hunting|author=CBCnews|year=2002|access-date=29 April 2013|work=CBC News}}</ref> This makes it possible for crocodiles to detect prey, danger and intruders, even in total darkness. These sense organs are known as domed pressure receptors (DPRs).<ref name="Jackson and Brooks">{{cite journal | last1 = Jackson | first1 = K. | last2 = Brooks | first2 = D.R. | year = 2007 | title = Do crocodiles co-opt their sense of "touch" to "taste"? A possible new type of vertebrate sensory organ | url = http://people.whitman.edu/~jacksok/AMRE2447.pdf | journal = Amphibia-Reptilia | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 277–285 | doi = 10.1163/156853807780202486 | access-date = 29 April 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130730091857/http://people.whitman.edu/~jacksok/AMRE2447.pdf | archive-date = 30 July 2013 }}</ref>

'''Post-Cranial''': While alligators and caimans have DPRs only on their jaws, crocodiles have similar organs on almost every scale on their bodies. The function of the DPRs on the jaws is clear; to catch prey, but it is still not clear what the function is of the organs on the rest of the body. The receptors flatten when exposed to increased osmotic pressure, such as that experienced when swimming in sea water [[hyperosmotic]] to the body fluids. When contact between the integument and the surrounding sea water solution is blocked, crocodiles are found to lose their ability to discriminate salinities. It has been proposed that the flattening of the sensory organ in hyperosmotic sea water is sensed by the animal as "touch", but interpreted as chemical information about its surroundings.<ref name="Jackson and Brooks" /> This might be why in alligators they are absent on the rest of the body.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/cbd-gb1.htm |title=Crocodilian Biology Database – Integumentary Sense Organs |publisher=Crocodilian.com |access-date=26 April 2013}}</ref>

===Hunting and diet===
[[File:Crocodile attack during Mara River crossing - frame 1 - Flickr - Lip Kee.jpg|thumb|Nile crocodile attacking wildebeest]]
[[File:Human Crocodile Conflict.jpg|thumb|An example of humans and mugger crocodiles in the same environment]]
[[File:Crocodile at Ranganathittu, Mysore, Karnataka.JPG|thumb|Even a cruising crocodile is difficult to locate]]
Crocodiles are [[ambush predator]]s, waiting for fish or land animals to come close, then rushing out to attack. Crocodiles mostly eat [[fish]], [[amphibian]]s, [[crustacean]]s, [[mollusc]]s, [[bird]]s, [[reptile]]s, and [[mammal]]s, and they occasionally [[cannibalize]] smaller crocodiles. What a crocodile eats varies greatly with species, size and age. From the mostly fish-eating species, like the [[Slender-snouted crocodile|slender-snouted]] and [[freshwater crocodile]]s, to the larger species like the [[Nile crocodile]] and the [[saltwater crocodile]] that prey on large mammals, such as [[Bovinae|buffalo]], [[deer]] and [[wild boar]], diet shows great diversity. Diet is also greatly affected by the size and age of the individual within the same species. All young crocodiles hunt mostly [[invertebrates]] and small [[fish]], gradually moving on to larger prey. Being [[ectotherm]]ic (cold-blooded) predators, they have a very slow [[metabolism]], so they can survive long periods without food. Despite their appearance of being slow, crocodiles have a very fast strike and are top [[predator]]s in their environment, and various species have been observed attacking and killing other [[predator]]s such as [[shark]]s and [[big cat]]s.<ref name = NGeographicCroc>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/?nav=A-Z |title=Saltwater Crocodile, Saltwater Crocodile Profile, Facts, Information, Photos, Pictures, Sounds, Habitats, Reports, News – National Geographic |publisher=Animals.nationalgeographic.com |access-date=16 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_cnil.htm |title=Crocodilian Species – Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) |publisher=Crocodilian.com |access-date=26 April 2013 |archive-date=25 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025183255/http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_cnil.htm }}</ref> Crocodiles are also known to be aggressive [[scavenger]]s who feed upon [[carrion]] and steal from other predators.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.australiananimallearningzone.com/saltwater-crocodile-crocodylus-porosus.htm|title=Saltwater Crocodile Profile|work=Australian Animal|date=22 December 2012 }}</ref> Evidence suggests that crocodiles also feed upon fruits, based on the discovery of seeds in stools and stomachs from many subjects as well as accounts of them feeding.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.popsci.com/article/science/are-crocodiles-secret-fruit-lovers|title=ARE CROCODILES SECRET FRUIT-LOVERS?|magazine=[[Popular Science]]|author=Jon Tennant}} 13 November 2013</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/39198-crocodiles-alligators-eat-fruit.html?li_source=LI&li_medium=more-from-livescience|title=Crikey! Crocodiles and Alligators Snack on Fruit|work=[[Live Science]]|author=Charles Q. Choi|date=27 August 2013}} 27 August 2013</ref>

Crocodiles have the most acidic stomach of any vertebrate. They can easily digest bones, hooves and horns. The [[BBC TV]]<ref>BBC channel 1 program ''Inside The Perfect Predator'', Thursday 25 March 2010</ref> reported that a [[Nile crocodile]] that has lurked a long time underwater to catch prey builds up a large [[oxygen debt]]. When it has caught and eaten that prey, it closes its right [[aortic arch]] and uses its left aortic arch to flush blood loaded with [[carbon dioxide]] from its muscles directly to its stomach; the resulting excess acidity in its blood supply makes it much easier for the stomach lining to secrete more [[stomach acid]] to quickly dissolve bulks of swallowed prey flesh and bone. Many large crocodilians swallow stones (called gastroliths or stomach stones), which may act as ballast to balance their bodies or assist in crushing food,<ref name=ausfauna /> similar to grit ingested by birds. [[Herodotus]] claimed that Nile crocodiles had a [[symbiosis|symbiotic relationship]] with certain birds, such as the [[Egyptian plover]], which enter the crocodile's mouth and pick [[leech]]es feeding on the crocodile's blood; with no evidence of this interaction actually occurring in any crocodile species, it is most likely mythical or allegorical fiction.<ref>{{cite web |author=Adam Britton |url=https://crocodilian.blogspot.com/2009/09/crocodile-myths-1-curious-trochilus.html |title=Croc Blog: Crocodile myths #1 – the curious trochilus |publisher=Crocodilian.blogspot.com |date=6 September 2009 |access-date=26 April 2013 |archive-date=11 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130311082746/http://crocodilian.blogspot.com/2009/09/crocodile-myths-1-curious-trochilus.html }}</ref>

====Bite====
[[File:Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) trying to swallow a big Tilapia (Oreochromis sp.)... (16818888756).jpg|thumb|left|Nile crocodile trying to swallow a big [[Tilapia]] in [[Kruger National Park]], South Africa]]
Since they feed by grabbing and holding onto their prey, they have [[Evolution|evolved]] sharp teeth for piercing and holding onto flesh, and powerful muscles to close the jaws and hold them shut. The teeth are not well-suited to tearing flesh off of large prey items as are the dentition and claws of many mammalian carnivores, the hooked bills and talons of [[Bird of prey|raptorial birds]], or the serrated teeth of sharks. However, this is an advantage rather than a disadvantage to the crocodile since the properties of the teeth allow it to hold onto prey with the least possibility of the prey animal escaping. Cutting teeth, combined with the exceptionally high [[bite|bite force]], would pass through flesh easily enough to leave an escape opportunity for prey. The jaws can bite down with immense force, by far the strongest bite of any animal. The force of a large crocodile's bite is more than {{convert|5000|lbf|N|abbr=on}}, which was measured in a {{convert|5.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[Nile crocodile]], in the field;<ref>National Geographic documentary; "Bite Force", Brady Barr.</ref> comparing to {{convert|335|lbf|N|abbr=on}} for a [[Rottweiler]], {{convert|800|lbf|N|abbr=on}} for a [[hyena]], {{convert|2200|lbf|N|abbr=on}} for an [[American alligator]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dogfacts.wordpress.com/2008/02/03/national-geographics-dr-brady-barrs-bite-pressure-tests/ |title=National Geographic's Dr. Brady Barr's Bite Pressure Tests | Dog Facts |publisher=Dogfacts.wordpress.com |access-date=26 April 2013|date=3 February 2008 }}</ref>{{failed verification|date=October 2014}} and {{convert|4095|lbf|N|abbr=on}} for the largest confirmed [[great white shark]].<ref name="GWB">{{cite journal|last=Wroe|first=S.|author2=Huber, D. R.|author3=Lowry, M.|author4=McHenry, C.|author5=Moreno, K.|author6=Clausen, P.|author7=Ferrara, T. L.|author8=Cunningham, E.|author9=Dean, M. N. |author10= Summers, A. P.|title=Three-dimensional computer analysis of white shark jaw mechanics: how hard can a great white bite?|url=http://www.bio-nica.info/Biblioteca/Wroe2008GreatWhiteSharkBiteForce.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.bio-nica.info/Biblioteca/Wroe2008GreatWhiteSharkBiteForce.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|journal=Journal of Zoology|volume=276|issue=4|pages=336–342|year= 2008|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00494.x}}</ref>

A {{convert|4.59|m|ft|abbr=on}} long saltwater crocodile has been confirmed as having the strongest [[bite|bite force]] ever recorded for an animal in a laboratory setting. It was able to apply a bite force value of {{convert|3690|lbf|N|abbr=on}}, and thus surpassed the previous record of {{convert|2125|lbf|N|abbr=on}} made by a {{convert|3.9|m|ft|abbr=on}} long [[American alligator]].<ref name="bite" /><ref name="lappin">{{cite journal|title=The ontogeny of bite-force performance in American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)|journal=[[Journal of Zoology]]|volume=260|issue=3|pages=317–327|url=http://www.alligatorfarm.us/images/Research/Erickson%20et%20al.%202003.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.alligatorfarm.us/images/Research/Erickson%20et%20al.%202003.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|doi=10.1017/S0952836903003819|year=2003|last1=Erickson|first1=Gregory M.|last2=Lappin|first2=A. Kristopher|last3=Vliet|first3=Kent A.}}</ref> Based on regression of mean body mass versus mean bite force, the bite force of a {{Convert|6.7|m|ft|abbr=on}} saltwater crocodile with an estimated mass of {{Convert|1308|kg|lb|abbr=on}} was estimated at between {{Convert|6187|lbf|N|abbr=on}} and {{Convert|7736|lbf|N|abbr=on}}.<ref name="bite" /> The study, led by Dr. [[Gregory M. Erickson]], also shed light on the larger, [[extinct]] species of [[crocodilian]]s. Since crocodile [[anatomy]] has barely changed over the last 200 million years,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stockdale |first1=Maximilian T. |last2=Benton |first2=Michael J. |date=2021-01-07 |title=Environmental drivers of body size evolution in crocodile-line archosaurs |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-020-01561-5 |journal=Communications Biology |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |article-number=38 |doi=10.1038/s42003-020-01561-5 |issn=2399-3642}}</ref> current data on modern crocodilians can be used to estimate the bite force of extinct species. An {{convert|11|to(-)|12|m|ft|adj=on}} ''[[Deinosuchus]]'' would apply a force of {{convert|23100|lbf|N|abbr=on}}, nearly twice that of the latest, higher bite force estimations of ''[[Tyrannosaurus]]'' ({{convert|12814|lbf|N|abbr=on}}).<ref name="nationalgeographic1" /><ref name="FalkinghamBatesBiteforce2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/The-Tyrannosaurus-Rexs-Dangerous-and-Deadly-Bite-37252918/|title=The Tyrannosaurus Rex's Dangerous and Deadly Bite|website=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]|date=October 2012|first=Riley|last=Black|access-date=6 June 2021}}</ref><ref name="BatesFalkingham2012">{{Cite journal|last1=Bates|first1=K. T.|last2=Falkingham|first2=P.L.|date=29 February 2012|title=Estimating maximum bite performance in Tyrannosaurus rex using multi-body dynamics|journal=Biology Letters|volume=8|issue=4|pages=660–664|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2012.0056|pmid=22378742|pmc=3391458}}</ref><ref>Crispian Scully, (2002) ''Oxford Handbook of Applied Dental Sciences'', Oxford University Press –{{ISBN|978-0-19-851096-3}} P156</ref> The extraordinary bite of crocodilians is a result of their [[anatomy]]. The space for the jaw muscle in the [[skull]] is very large, which is easily visible from the outside as a bulge at each side. The [[muscle]] is so stiff, it is almost as hard as bone to touch, as if it were the continuum of the skull. Another trait is that most of the muscle in a crocodile's jaw is arranged for clamping down. Despite the strong muscles to close the jaw, crocodiles have extremely small and weak muscles to open the jaw. Crocodiles can thus be subdued for study or transport by [[duct tape|taping]] their jaws or holding their jaws shut with large [[rubber band]]s cut from automobile [[tire|inner tube]]s.

===Locomotion===
[[File:Crocodile farm in Mexico.JPG|thumb|A crocodile, in a farm, gaping to thermoregulate]]
Crocodiles can move quickly over short distances, even out of water. The [[land speed]] record for a crocodile is {{convert|17|km/h|0|abbr=on}} measured in a galloping [[Freshwater crocodile|Australian freshwater crocodile]].<ref>{{cite web | last = Britton | first = Adam | title = Crocodilian Biology Database FAQ, "How fast can a crocodile run?" | url=http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cbd-faq-q4.htm | access-date = 2 February 2008}}</ref> Maximum speed varies between species. Some species can gallop, including Cuban crocodiles, Johnston's crocodiles, New Guinea crocodiles, [[Dwarf crocodile|African dwarf crocodiles]], and even small [[Nile crocodiles]]. The fastest means by which most species can move is a "belly run", in which the body moves in a snake-like (sinusoidal) fashion, limbs splayed out to either side paddling away frantically while the tail whips to and fro. Crocodiles can reach speeds of {{convert|10|-|11|km/h|0|abbr=on}} when they "belly run", and often faster if slipping down muddy riverbanks. When a crocodile walks quickly, it holds its legs in a straighter and more upright position under its body, which is called the "high walk". This walk allows a speed of up to 5 km/h.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Walters|first1=Martin|last2=Johnson|first2=Jinny|title=Encyclopedia of Animals|publisher=Marks and Spencer p.l.c|isbn=978-1-84273-964-8|page=145}}</ref>

Crocodiles may possess a [[homing instinct]]. In northern Australia, three rogue saltwater crocodiles were relocated {{convert|400|km|0|abbr=on}} by [[helicopter]], but returned to their original locations within three weeks, based on data obtained from tracking devices attached to them.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Read M. A.|author2=Grigg G. C.|author3=Irwin S. R.|author4=Shanahan D.|author5=Franklin C. E. |year=2007 |title=Satellite Tracking Reveals Long Distance Coastal Travel and Homing by Translocated Estuarine Crocodiles, ''Crocodylus porosus'' |journal= PLOS ONE |volume=2 |issue=9 |article-number=e949 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000949 |editor1-last=Lusseau |editor1-first=David |pmid=17895990 |pmc=1978533|bibcode=2007PLoSO...2..949R|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Longevity===
Measuring crocodile age is unreliable, although several techniques are used to derive a reasonable guess. The most common method is to measure lamellar growth rings in bones and teeth—each ring corresponds to a change in growth rate which typically occurs once a year between dry and wet seasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cbd-faq-q3.htm |title=Crocodilian Biology Database, FAQ. "How long do crocodiles live for?" |publisher=Flmnh.ufl.edu |access-date=26 April 2013}}</ref> Bearing these inaccuracies in mind, it can be safely said that all crocodile species have an average lifespan of at least 30–40 years, and in the case of larger species an average of 60–70 years. The oldest crocodiles appear to be the largest species. [[Saltwater crocodile|''C. porosus'']] is estimated to live around 70 years on average, with limited evidence of some individuals exceeding 100 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/cbd-faq-q3.htm |title=Crocodilian Biology Database – FAQ – How long do crocodiles live for? |publisher=Crocodilian.com |access-date=26 April 2013 |archive-date=21 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321151949/http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/cbd-faq-q3.htm }}</ref>

In captivity, some individuals are claimed to have lived for over a century. A male crocodile lived to an estimated age of 110–115 years in a Russian zoo in [[Yekaterinburg]].<ref name=yeka /> Named Kolya, he joined the zoo around 1913 to 1915, fully grown, after touring in an animal show, and lived until 1995.<ref name=yeka>{{cite news | agency=Associated Press | title=Crocodile at Russian zoo dies; on display since czars | date=16 February 1995 | work=The News–Journal | location=Daytona Beach, Florida | volume=70 | issue=47 | publisher=News–Journal Corporation | url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1901&dat=19950216&id=MqgtAAAAIBAJ&pg=2827,36264 }}</ref> A male freshwater crocodile lived to an estimated age of 120–140 years at the [[Australia Zoo]].<ref name=campbell2010>{{cite news | title=Freshie the croc dies at age 140 | first=Kieran | last=Campbell | date=24 March 2010 | url=http://www.sunshinecoastdaily.com.au/news/freshie-the-croc-dies-at-age-140/494141/ | work=Sunshine Coast Daily }}</ref> Known affectionately as "Mr. Freshie", he was rescued around 1970 by [[Bob Irwin]] and [[Steve Irwin]], after being shot twice by hunters and losing an eye as a result, and lived until 2010.<ref name=campbell2010 /> Crocworld Conservation Centre, in [[Scottburgh]], South Africa, claims to have a male [[Nile crocodile]] that was born in 1900. Named Henry, the crocodile is said to have lived in [[Botswana]] along the [[Okavango River]], according to centre director Martin Rodrigues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/johannesburg-worlds-oldest-crocodile-turns-114/518422-2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217215908/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/johannesburg-worlds-oldest-crocodile-turns-114/518422-2.html |archive-date=17 December 2014 |title=Johannesburg: World's oldest crocodile turns 114 |publisher=IBN Live |date=16 December 2014| access-date=19 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/celebrancumpleanosdelcocodrilomaslongevodelmundo-1911287.html |title=Celebran cumpleaños del cocodrilo más longevo del mundo |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] |date=16 December 2014 |access-date=19 December 2014 |archive-date=21 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221220518/http://www.elnuevodia.com/celebrancumpleanosdelcocodrilomaslongevodelmundo-1911287.html }}</ref>

===Social behaviour and vocalisation===
[[File:Crocodiles resting together.jpeg|thumbnail|right|Captive crocodiles resting together with open jaws.]]
Crocodiles are the most social of reptiles. Even though they do not form social groups, many species congregate in certain sections of [[river]]s, tolerating each other at times of [[feeding]] and [[Body temperature|basking]]. Most species are not highly territorial, with the exception of the saltwater crocodile, which is a highly [[territory (animal)|territorial]] and aggressive species: a mature, male saltwater crocodile will not tolerate any other males at any time of the year, but most other species are more flexible. There is a certain form of [[hierarchy]] in crocodiles: the largest and heaviest males are at the top, having access to the best basking site, while females are priority during a group feeding of a big kill or carcass. A good example of the hierarchy in crocodiles would be the case of the [[Nile crocodile]]. This species clearly displays all of these behaviours. Studies in this area are not thorough, however, and many species are yet to be studied in greater detail.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_cnil.htm |title=Crocodilian Species List |publisher=Crocodilian.com |access-date=26 April 2013 |archive-date=25 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025183255/http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/csp_cnil.htm }}</ref> [[Mugger crocodile]]s are also known to show toleration in group feedings and tend to congregate in certain areas. However, males of all species are aggressive towards each other during mating season, to gain access to females.

Crocodilians are the most vocal of all reptiles, producing a wide variety of sounds depending on species, age, size and sex. Depending on the context, some species can communicate over 20 different messages through [[Animal communication|vocalisations]] alone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://crocodilian.com/cnhc/croccomm.html |title=Crocodilian Communication |publisher=Crocodilian.com |access-date=29 April 2013}}</ref> Some of these vocalisations are made during social communication, especially during [[territory (animal)|territorial]] displays towards the same sex and [[courtship display|courtship]] with the opposite sex; the common concern being [[reproduction]]. Therefore most [[conspecific]] vocalisation is made during the [[breeding season]], with the exception being year-round [[territorial behaviour]] in some species and quarrels during feeding. Crocodiles also produce different distress calls and in aggressive displays to their own kind and other animals; notably other predators during [[Interspecific competition|interspecific]] predatory confrontations over carcasses and terrestrial kills.

Specific vocalisations include —

* '''Chirp''': When about to hatch, the young make a "peeping" noise, which encourages the female to excavate the nest. The female then gathers the hatchlings in her mouth and transports them to the water, where they remain in a group for several months, protected by the female<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arkive.org/nile-crocodile/crocodylus-niloticus/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123041108/http://www.arkive.org/nile-crocodile/crocodylus-niloticus/|archive-date=23 January 2009|author=Arkive|title=Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'')|access-date=29 April 2013}}</ref>
* '''Distress call''': A high-pitched call used mostly by younger animals to alert other crocodiles to imminent danger or an animal being attacked.
* '''Threat call''': A hissing sound that has also been described as a coughing noise.
* '''Hatching call''': Emitted by a female when breeding to alert other crocodiles that she has laid eggs in her nest.
* '''Bellowing''': Male crocodiles are especially vociferous. Bellowing choruses occur most often in the spring when breeding groups congregate, but can occur at any time of year. To bellow, males noticeably inflate as they raise the tail and head out of water, slowly waving the tail back and forth. They then puff out the throat and with a closed mouth, begin to vibrate air. Just before bellowing, males project an [[infrasonic]] signal at about 10 Hz through the water, which vibrates the ground and nearby objects. These low-frequency vibrations travel great distances through both air and water to advertise the male's presence and are so powerful they result in the water's appearing to "dance".<ref>{{cite book |first1=Diane |last1=Ackerman |title=A Natural History of the Senses |year=1991 |publisher=Vintage Books |page=352 |isbn=978-0-679-73566-3}}</ref>

===Reproduction===
====Mating====
[[File:Nile crocodile eggs.jpg|thumb|Crocodile eggs]]
[[courtship display|Courtship]] takes place in a series of behavioural interactions that include a variety of snout rubbing and submissive display that can take a long time. Mating always takes place in water, where the pair can be observed mating several times.<ref name="autogenerated2000"/>

====Egg-laying & nesting====
[[Egg]]-laying usually takes place at night and about 30–40 minutes, which are laid in either holes or mound [[nest]]s, depending on species.<ref name="autogenerated2000"/> The eggs are hard shelled, but translucent at the time of egg-laying. Depending on the species of crocodile, 7 to 95 eggs are laid.<ref name=webb/> [[Scute]]s may play a role in calcium storage for eggshell formation.<ref name=":0" />

[[Nest]]ing periods range from a few weeks up to six months. A hole nest is usually excavated in sand and a mound nest is usually constructed out of vegetation. Females can build or dig several trial nests which appear incomplete and abandoned later.<ref name="autogenerated2000">{{cite book |author1=K. Richardson |author2=G. Webb |author3=C. Manolis |title = Crocodiles: Inside and Out |year = 2000}}</ref> Females are highly protective of their nests and young. Crocodile [[embryo]]s do not have sex chromosomes, and unlike humans, sex is not determined genetically. [[Temperature-dependent sex determination|Sex is determined by temperature]], where at {{convert|30|°C|0|abbr=on}} or less most hatchlings are females and at {{convert|31|°C|0|abbr=on}}, offspring are of both sexes. A temperature of {{convert|32|to|33|°C|0|abbr=on}} gives mostly males whereas above {{convert|33|°C|0|abbr=on}} in some species continues to give males, but in other species resulting in females, which are sometimes called high-temperature females.<ref name=webb>{{cite book |author1=G. Webb |author2=C. Manolis |title = Crocodiles of Australia |year = 1989}}</ref> Temperature also affects growth and survival rate of the young, which may explain the [[sexual dimorphism]] in crocodiles. The average [[incubation period]] is around 80 days, and also is dependent on temperature and species that usually ranges from 65 to 95 days. The eggshell structure is very conservative through evolution but there are enough changes to tell different species apart by their eggshell microstructure.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Marzola | first1 = M. | last2 = Russo | first2 = J. | last3 = Mateus | first3 = O. | year = 2015 | title = Identification and comparison of modern and fossil crocodilian eggs and eggshell structures | journal = Historical Biology | volume = 27 | issue = 1| pages = 115–133 | doi=10.1080/08912963.2013.871009| bibcode = 2015HBio...27..115M | s2cid = 85685470 }}</ref>

At the time of hatching, the young start calling within the eggs. Hearing the calls, the female usually excavates the nest and sometimes takes the unhatched eggs in her mouth, slowly rolling the eggs to help the process. The young have an egg-tooth at the tip of their snouts, which is developed from the skin, and that helps them pierce out of the shell. Once hatched, the young are usually carried to the water in the female's mouth. She will then introduce her hatchlings to the water and even feed them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2008/11/08/crocs-feed-their-babies/|title=Do crocodilians (sometimes) feed their young?|publisher=Science Blogs|author=Darren Naish |date=8 November 2011 }} 8 November 2008</ref> The mother takes care of her young for over a year before the next mating season. In the absence of the mother crocodile, the father will act in her place to take care of the young.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oddstuffmagazine.com/10-delightful-baby-animals-that-grow-up-to-be-fatal-predators.html|title=10 Delightful Baby Animals that Grow up to Be Fatal Predators|date=3 February 2012|publisher=Odd Stuff}} 3 February 2012</ref> However, even with sophisticated [[Paternal care|parental nurturing]], young crocodiles have a very high mortality rate due to their vulnerability to predation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://animals.mom.me/life-cycle-alligators-crocodiles-8058.html|title=THE LIFE CYCLE OF ALLIGATORS AND CROCODILES|publisher=Demand Media|author= Jasey Kelly}}</ref> A group of [[hatchling]]s is called a pod or [[Crèche (zoology)|crèche]].<ref name="autogenerated2000" />

===Cognition===
Crocodiles possess some advanced cognitive abilities.<ref name="LA">{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-clever-crocodiles-alligators-sticks-twigs-birds-lure-prey-20131206-story.html|title=Scary smart! Clever crocodiles, alligators use sticks to lure prey|author=Amina Khan|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=6 December 2013}} 6 December 2013</ref><ref name="Wash">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/crocodiles-and-their-ilk-may-be-smarter-than-they-look/2013/12/06/1084cf28-5d2c-11e3-bc56-c6ca94801fac_story.html|title=Crocodiles and their ilk may be smarter than they look|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|author=Jason G. Goldman}} 9 December 2013</ref> Crocodiles [[cooperative hunting|cooperatively hunt]].<ref name="One">{{cite web|url=http://www.oneworldmagazine.org/tales/crocs/smart.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000930224445/http://www.oneworldmagazine.org/tales/crocs/smart.html|archive-date=30 September 2000|title=The Crocodile Files|work=One World Magazine}}</ref> Large numbers of crocodiles swim in circles to trap fish and take turns snatching them. In hunting larger prey, crocodiles swarm in, with one holding the prey down as the others rip it apart.

[[Vladimir Dinets]] of the [[University of Tennessee]], observing crocodile's use of [[Tool use by animals#In reptiles|twigs as bait]] was inconclusive.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dinets|first1=Vladimir |last2=Brueggen
|first2=J.C. |last3=Brueggen
|first3=J.D. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271994159|date=December 2013|title=Crocodilians use tools for hunting|journal=[[Ethology Ecology & Evolution]]|volume=27|issue=1|pages=74–78|publisher= www.[[researchgate]].net|doi=10.1080/03949370.2013.858276}}
</ref>

==Relationship with humans==
===Danger to humans===
{{Main|Crocodile attacks}}

[[File:Marine Stingers Sign Cairns.JPG|thumb|Crocodile warning sign, [[Trinity Beach, Queensland]], Australia]]
The larger species of crocodiles are very dangerous to humans, mainly because of their ability to strike before the person can react.<ref name=iucncsg>{{cite web|title=Crocodilian Attacks|url=http://www.iucncsg.org/pages/Crocodilian-Attacks.html|publisher=IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group (iucncsg.org)|access-date=3 February 2013}}</ref> The [[saltwater crocodile]] and [[Nile crocodile]] are the most dangerous, killing hundreds of people each year in parts of Southeast Asia and Africa. The [[mugger crocodile]] and [[American crocodile]] are also dangerous to humans.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

===Crocodile products===
{{Further|Crocodile farm|Crocodile skin}}
[[File:Crocodile wallets.jpg|thumb|Crocodile leather wallets from a [[Bangkok]] crocodile farm]]
[[File:Teriyaki CrocTail.jpg|thumb|A plate of crocodile meat in [[teriyaki sauce]] in [[Helsinki]], Finland]]
Crocodiles are protected in many parts of the world, but are also farmed commercially. Their hides are tanned and used to make leather goods such as shoes and [[handbag]]s; crocodile meat is also considered a delicacy.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/30/us/anahuac-journal-alligator-farmer-feeds-demand-for-all-the-parts.html |title=Anahuac Journal; Alligator Farmer Feeds Demand for All the Parts |work=The New York Times |date=30 November 1998 |last=Lyman |first=Rick |access-date=13 November 2013}}</ref> The most commonly farmed species are the saltwater and Nile crocodiles, while a hybrid of the saltwater and the rare [[Siamese crocodile]] is also bred in Asian farms. Farming has resulted in an increase in the saltwater crocodile population in Australia, as eggs are usually harvested from the wild, so landowners have an incentive to conserve their habitat. Crocodile leather can be made into goods such as wallets, briefcases, purses, handbags, belts, hats, and shoes. [[Crocodile oil]] has been used for various purposes.<ref>{{cite book|author=Elisabeth Janos|title=Country Folk Medicine: Tales of Skunk Oil, Sassafras Tea and Other Old-Time Remedies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FUaaDBFsYFEC&pg=PA56|year=2004|publisher=Globe Pequot Press|isbn=978-1-59228-178-7|page=56}}</ref> [[Vietnamese cuisine#Exotic dishes|Crocodiles were eaten by Vietnamese]] while they were taboo and off limits for Chinese. Vietnamese women who married Chinese men adopted the Chinese taboo.<ref name="Peters2012">{{cite book |author=Erica J. Peters |title=Appetites and Aspirations in Vietnam: Food and Drink in the Long Nineteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o_P1ig12re4C&pg=PA142 |year=2012 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-2075-4 |pages=142–}}</ref>

Crocodile meat is consumed in some countries, such as Australia, [[Ethiopia]], Thailand, South Africa, China, and Cuba (in pickled form). It is also occasionally eaten as an "exotic" delicacy in the western world.<ref>{{cite news| last1=Armstrong| first1=Hilary|title=Best exotic restaurants in London|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/goingout/restaurants/best-exotic-restaurants-in-london-6863561.html|newspaper=[[London Evening Standard]]|access-date=4 September 2016|date=8 April 2009}}</ref> Cuts of meat include backstrap and tail fillet.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

Due to high demand for crocodile products, [[Traffic (conservation programme)|TRAFFIC]] states that 1,418,487 Nile Crocodile skins were exported from Africa between 2006 and 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.traffic.org/what-we-do/species/reptiles-and-amphibians/|title=Reptiles and amphibians – Species we work with at TRAFFIC|website=www.traffic.org|access-date=10 January 2019}}</ref>

==={{anchor|hunting}}Crocodile hunting and conservation===

[[Aboriginal Australians]] harvested eggs and hunted crocodiles in a sustainable way for many thousands of years. The [[Brinkin people]] (aka Marrithiyal) of the [[Daly River (Northern Territory)|Daly River]] in the [[Northern Territory]] (NT) used [[harpoon]]s and [[bamboo]], and even their own hands to capture crocodiles for food.<ref name=mash>{{cite web | last=Ryall | first=Jenni | title=Incredible video shows how crocodiles were hunted in Australia in 1949 |format=text + video, 10m.| website=[[Mashable]] | date=29 October 2021 | url=https://mashable.com/article/crocodile-hunters-australia | access-date=29 August 2023}}</ref> After settlement of northern Australia, in the late-19th and early 20th centuries, non-[[Indigenous Australians|Indigenous]] people killed individual crocodiles, mostly by locals to protect the population, or novelty-seeking visitors, or just opportunistically, so numbers were not noticeably reduced. From the 1930s, commercial hunting began, with Aboriginal people often employed to kill the crocodiles using traditional methods. From the 1940s to the 1960s, hunting began on a larger scale using [[.303 rifle]]s.<ref name=qha>{{cite web | title=Crocodile hunting | website=Queensland Historical Atlas | date=21 August 2013 | url=https://www.qhatlas.com.au/crocodile-hunting | access-date=29 August 2023}}</ref> They were hunted for leather, with the skins shipped to plants in capital cities.<ref name=mash/> [[Western Australia]] banned hunting freshwater crocodiles in 1962 and saltwater crocodiles in 1970, while NT bans were brought in 1964 and 1971; [[Queensland]] did not pass such legislation. The federal government later banned the export of crocodile skins, which brought commercial hunting to an end in Queensland.<ref name=qha/> They have been a [[protected species]] since the 1970s, when numbers were down to approximately 3,000 in the NT at the lowest estimate. In 2021, after several attacks on humans by the "salties" and an estimated population of around 200,000 had been reached, Queensland politician [[Bob Katter]] called for the reintroduction of hunting.<ref name= vidler2021>{{cite web | last=Vidler | first=Adam | title=With more big crocs than ever, should hunting be allowed? | website=[[Nine News|9News]] | date=29 March 2021 | url=https://www.9news.com.au/national/crocodile-populations-rising-protected-hunting-bob-katter/023d28c2-ee46-436c-a790-a5c952efe160 | access-date=29 August 2023}}</ref>

===In religion and mythology===
{{Further|Crocodilia#Cultural depictions}}
[[File:Sobek Oxford.jpg|thumb|right|Statue of [[Sobek]] from the mortuary temple of [[Amenemhat III]] {{circa}} 1810 BC. [[Ashmolean Museum]], Oxford.]]
[[File:Plaque with Crocodile Deity, ca. 700-900.,33.448.12.jpg|thumb|Brooklyn Museum – Plaque from Cocle, Panama, with Crocodile Deity, ca. 700–900.,33.448.12]]
Crocodiles have appeared in various forms in religions across the world. [[Ancient Egypt]] had [[Sobek]], the crocodile-headed god, with his cult-city [[Crocodilopolis]], as well as [[Taweret]], the goddess of childbirth and fertility, with the back and tail of a crocodile.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/sobek.htm|title=Egypt: The Crocodile God, Sobek|publisher=Tour Egypt|author=Catherine C. Harris}}</ref> The [[Wukari Federation#Religion|Jukun shrine in the Wukari Federation]], Nigeria is dedicated to crocodiles in thanks for their aid during migration.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200906240052.html|title=Nigeria: How Giant Crocodiles Guided Jukun to Kwararafa|work=All Africa|author=Fidelis Mac-Leva}} 24 June 2009</ref> In [[Madagascar]] various peoples such as the [[Sakalava people|Sakalava]] and [[Antandroy]] see crocodiles as ancestor spirits and under local ''[[Fady (taboo)|fady]]'' often offer them food;<ref name="Campbell, Gwyn 2012">Campbell, Gwyn (2012). David Griffiths and the Missionary "History of Madagascar". Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. {{ISBN|978-90-04-19518-9}}.</ref><ref>Marty Crump, Livros no Google Play
Eye of Newt and Toe of Frog, Adder's Fork and Lizard's Leg: The Lore and Mythology of Amphibians and Reptiles, University of Chicago Press, 16 November 2015</ref> in the case of the latter at least a crocodile features prominently as an ancestor deity.<ref name="Campbell, Gwyn 2012"/><ref>An ''[[The Athenaeum (British magazine)|Athenæum]]'' article [https://books.google.com/books?id=-t8RAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA247 makes a claim] of a specific crocodile deity named textually as "Jacaret", but less biased sources do not mention this theonym in any capacity.</ref>

Crocodiles appear in different forms in [[Hinduism]]. [[Varuna]], a [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] and Hindu god, rides a part-crocodile [[Makara (Hindu mythology)|makara]]; his consort [[Varuni]] rides a crocodile.<ref name="One" /> Similarly the goddess personifications of the [[Ganges|Ganga]] and [[Yamuna]] rivers are often depicted as riding crocodiles.<ref>{{cite web | title = Holy Rivers, Lakes, and Oceans | work = Heart of Hinduism | publisher = ISKCON Educational Services | year = 2004 | url = http://hinduism.iskcon.org/practice/504.htm | quote = Most rivers are considered female and are personified as goddesses. Ganga, who features in the Mahabharata, is usually shown riding on a crocodile (see right). | access-date = 16 September 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141014184216/http://hinduism.iskcon.org/practice/504.htm | archive-date = 14 October 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Ganga The River Goddess – Tales in Art and Mythology | date = August 2003 | first = Nitin | last = Kumar | url = http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/ganga/ | quote = The second distinguishing aspect of Ganga's iconography is her animal mount, which is often shown serving as a pedestal for her. This is the makara, a hybrid creature having the body of a crocodile and the tail of a fish. The makara in Hindu thought corresponds to the star sign of Capricorn in western astrology. The crocodile is a unique animal in that it can live on both land and sea. It thus denotes the wisdom of both the earth and waters.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Hindu gods and their holy mounts | publisher = Sri.Venkateswara Zoological Park | url = http://svzoo.org/html/anicult2.htm | quote = The river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, were appropriately mounted on a tortoise and a crocodile respectively. | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140623165912/http://svzoo.org/html/anicult2.htm | archive-date = 23 June 2014}}</ref> Also in India, in [[Goa]], crocodile worship is practised, including the annual ''Mannge Thapnee'' ceremony.<ref>{{cite journal |author= |title=The Crocodile is God in Goa |journal=Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter |date=January–March 1995 |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=8 |url=http://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/CSG%20-96e3654b.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/CSG%20-96e3654b.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Sikh]] warriors known as [[nihang]] also have connections with crocodiles. ''Nihang'' may come from the Persian word for a mythical sea creature ({{langx|fa|نهنگ}}).<ref>{{cite book | last=Taba| first= David| year=2011| title= Iranian Character of The Armenian Language | page=9}}</ref> The term owes its origin to [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] historians, who compared the ferocity of the Akali with that of crocodiles.<ref>{{cite web | title=Explainer Nihang Sikh sect in spotlight again after Singhu killing | website=The Federal | date=15 October 2021 | url=https://thefederal.com/videos/explainers/explainer-nihang-sikh-sect-in-spotlight-again-after-singhu-killing/ | access-date=29 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=The Nihang | website=Sikh Heritage | url=http://www.sikh-heritage.co.uk/movements/Nihangs/Nihangs.htm | access-date=29 August 2023}}</ref> In [[Sikhism]] however, ''Akali'' refers to the immortal army of Akal (god).<ref>{{cite book | last=Singh | first=Khushwant | year=1999 | title=A History of the Sikhs Voghzlume I:1469–1839 | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=India | isbn = 0-19-562643-5 | page=215}}</ref>

In Latin America, [[Cipactli]] was the giant earth crocodile of the [[Aztec]] and other [[Nahua peoples]].{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}
[[File:City of Surabaya Logo.svg|thumb|upright|Fighting shark and crocodile, the emblem of Surabaya]]
The name of [[Surabaya]], Indonesia, is locally believed to be derived from the words "''suro"'' ([[shark]]) and "''boyo"'' (crocodile), two creatures which, in a local [[mythology|myth]], fought each other in order to gain the title of "the strongest and most powerful animal" in the area. It was said that the two powerful animals agreed for a truce and set boundaries; that the shark's domain would be in the sea while the crocodile's domain would be on the land. However one day the shark swam into the river estuary to hunt; this angered the crocodile, who declared it his territory. The Shark argued that the river was a water-realm which meant that it was shark territory, while the crocodile argued that the river flowed deep inland, so it was therefore crocodile territory. The two animals bit each other and a ferocious fight ensued. Finally the shark, badly bitten, fled to the open sea, and in the end the crocodile ruled the estuarine area that today is the city.<ref name="Irwan Rouf & Shenia Ananda 60">{{cite book|author1=Irwan Rouf|author2=Shenia Ananda|title=Rangkuman 100 Cerita Rakyat Indonesia: Dari Sabang Sampai Merauke|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cPJqcwuSOUkC&pg=PA64| year=2013| publisher=AnakKita |isbn=978-602-9003-82-6 |page=60}}</ref> Another source alludes to a [[Jayabaya]] prophecy—a 12th-century psychic king of [[Kediri Kingdom]]—as he foresaw a fight between a giant [[white shark]] and a giant white crocodile taking place in the area. This is sometimes interpreted as a foretelling of the [[Mongol invasion of Java]], a major conflict between the forces of the [[Kublai Khan]], [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] ruler of [[China]], and those of [[Raden Wijaya]]'s [[Majapahit]] in 1293.<ref name="EastJava">{{cite web|title=Welcome to Surabaya City, East Java|publisher=Surabaya Tourism, EastJava.com| url=http://www.eastjava.com/tourism/surabaya/|access-date=17 November 2014}}</ref> The two animals are now used as the city's symbol, with the two facing and circling each other, as depicted in a statue appropriately located near the entrance to the [[Surabaya Zoo|city zoo]] (see photo on the [[Surabaya]] page).{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

===In language and as symbols===

[[File:The American River Ganges (Thomas Nast cartoon).jpg|thumb|1876 U.S. cartoon by [[Thomas Nast]] depicting Roman Catholic bishops as crocodiles attacking public schools, with the connivance of Irish Catholic politicians]]

{{Main|Crocodile tears|Crocodile (politics)}}

The term "[[crocodile tears]]" (and equivalents in other languages) refers to a false, insincere display of emotion, such as a [[hypocrite]] crying fake tears of [[grief]]. It is derived from an ancient anecdote that crocodiles weep in order to lure their prey, or that they [[Crying|cry]] for the victims they are eating, first told in the ''[[Bibliotheca (Photius)|Bibliotheca]]'' by [[Photios I of Constantinople]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Bibliothèque. Tome VIII: Codices 257–280. |last=PHOTIUS |others=Texte établi et traduit par R. Henry. |year=1977 |publisher=Les Belles Lettres |location=Paris |language=fr, grc |isbn=978-2-251-32227-8 |page=93 }}</ref> The story is repeated in bestiaries such as [[List of medieval bestiaries#DeBestiis|''De bestiis et aliis rebus'']]. This tale was first spread widely in English in the stories of the ''Travels of [[Sir John Mandeville]]'' in the 14th century, and appears in several of [[Shakespeare]]'s plays.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-KxOZWvNdgC&pg=PT185 |title=Curious creatures in zoology |author=John Ashton |isbn=978-1-4092-3184-4 |year=2009}}</ref> In fact, crocodiles can and do generate tears, but they do not actually cry.<ref>[http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cbd-faq-q6.htm Britton, Adam (n.d.). Do crocodiles cry 'crocodile tears'?] ''Crocodilian Biology Database''. Retrieved 13 March 2006 from the Crocodile Specialist Group, Crocodile Species List, FAQ.</ref>

In the UK, a row of [[schoolchildren]] walking in pairs, or two by two is known as "crocodile".<ref>Martin H. Manser, Turton and Nigel D. Turton {{Google books|DXHJ1ylVHnYC|Advanced Learner's Dictionary|page=164}}</ref><ref>Angela Brazil {{Google books|mmtGAgAAQBAJ|The Nicest Girl in the School|page=50}}</ref>

In politics, a crocodile has been used in different countries to describe [[politician]]s and [[Parliamentary group|political groups]], sometimes as a compliment for a leader seen as strong and strategic, while in others it is a negative label linked to [[corruption]], [[greed]], or [[Predation|predatory behavior]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lasco |first=Gideon |date=2017-09-07 |title=Political animals |url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/106935/political-animals |access-date=2025-09-22 |website=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-23 |title=Crocodiles are not hated creatures, symbols of corruption centuries ago. Here's why. |url=https://interaksyon.philstar.com/hobbies-interests/2021/06/23/194515/crocodiles-are-not-hated-creatures-symbols-corruption-centuries-ago-heres-why/ |access-date=2025-09-22 |website=Interaksyon |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Fashion logos===
The French clothing company [[Lacoste]] features a crocodile in its [[logo]]. The American shoe company [[Crocs]] also uses this imagery in its logo.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sandu |first=Bogdan |date=2023-09-25 |title=The Crocs Logo History, Colors, Font, and Meaning |url=https://www.designyourway.net/blog/crocs-logo/ |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=Design Your Way |language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Reptiles}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*''[[The Crocodile Hunter]]'' 
*[[Crocodilian armor]]
*[[Sobek]] – an ancient Egyptian deity associated with the Nile crocodile
{{div col end}}
{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Further reading==
* Iskandar, DT (2000). ''Turtles and Crocodiles of Insular Southeast Asia and New Guinea''. ITB, Bandung.
* Crocodilian Biology Database, FAQ. [http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cbd-faq-q3.htm FLMNH.ufl.edu], "How long do crocodiles live for?" {{sic}} Adam Britton.
* Crocodilian Biology Database, FAQ. [http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cbd-faq-q4.htm FLMNH.ufl.edu], "How fast can a crocodile run?" Adam Britton.

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
{{Wikispecies|Crocodylidae}}
{{Wikiversity}}
*{{Commons-inline}}
* [http://www.crocodilian.com/ Crocodilian Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708204615/http://www.crocodilian.com/ |date=8 July 2011 }}
* [http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cbd.html Crocodilian Biology Database]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060623064651/http://www.nit.com.au/travel/story.aspx?id=3696 Crocodile Attacks in Australia]
* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/680840.stm BBC news finds powerful agent in crocodile blood]
* [https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/fashion-luxury/article/2096381/worlds-most-expensive-handbag-sells-hong-kong-over-us377000 World's most expensive handbag sells in Hong Kong for over US$377,000 – a Hermès white crocodile] (31 May 2017), ''[[South China Morning Post]]''
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-44844367 292 New Guinea crocodiles massacred] in [[West Papua (province)|West Papua]], Indonesia

{{Crocodilia|C.}}
{{Extinct Crocodilia|C.}}
{{Crocs}}
{{Meat}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q43169|from2=Q2535664}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Crocodile}}
[[Category:Crocodylidae| ]]
[[Category:Extant Ypresian first appearances]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier]]
[[Category:Crocodilian families]]

Gauriganj, India

2026-03-21T16:15:45Z

ShivaniSikri: correct citations for clarity and improved wording

{{short description|Town in Uttar Pradesh, India}}
{{Redirect|Gauriganj|the village in Nepal|Gauriganj, Nepal}}
{{one source|date=June 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement


| name = Gauriganj
| other_name =
| native_name = 
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Municipal corporation
| motto =

| image_skyline = Gngview.jpg
| image_caption = Gauriganj skyline
| image_map = Gauriganj block map.png
| map_caption = Map of Gauriganj CD block
| image_flag =
| image_seal =
| mapsize =
| pushpin_map = India Uttar Pradesh#India
| pushpin_label_position = bottom
| pushpin_mapsize =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Gauriganj in Uttar Pradesh
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[List of states and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of Uttar Pradesh|Division]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Ayodhya division|Ayodhya]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of Uttar Pradesh|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Amethi district|Amethi]]
| government_type = [[Municipal council (India)|Municipal Council]]
| governing_body = Gauriganj Municipal Council
| leader_title = Municipal Chairperson
| leader_name = Reshmi<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sec.up.nic.in/site/NewWinnerList2023.aspx|title=2023 UP Municipal Election results|work=ECI Uttar Pradesh|access-date=22 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sec.up.nic.in/site/IndividualULBResult2023.aspx|title=2023 UP Municipal Election detailed results|work=ECI Uttar Pradesh|accessdate=12 July 2023}}</ref>
| leader_party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]
| government_footnotes =
| leader_title1 = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]]
| leader_name1 = [[Rakesh Pratap Singh (politician)|Rakesh Pratap Singh]] ([[Independent politician|IND]])<ref>{{cite web |title=Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly (UPLA): Member info |url=http://www.upvidhansabhaproceedings.gov.in/web/guest/member?memberId=20817 |website=www.upvidhansabhaproceedings.gov.in |access-date=14 October 2019}}</ref>
| established_title = 
| established_date =

| unit_pref = 
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 

| population_as_of = 2011
| population_footnotes = <ref name="Census2011Gov"/>
| population_note =
| population_total = 390,935
| population_density_km2 = 855
| blank2_name = Sex ratio
| blank2_info = 904:1000 [[male|♂]]/[[female|♀]]
| demographics_type1 = Language
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Hindi]]<ref name="langoff">{{cite web|title=52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India|url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|website=nclm.nic.in|publisher=[[Ministry of Minority Affairs]]|access-date=11 January 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525141614/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM52ndReport.pdf|archive-date=25 May 2017}}</ref>
| demographics1_title2 = Additional official
| demographics1_info2 = [[Urdu]]<ref name="langoff"/>

| timezone = [[Indian Standard Time]]
| utc_offset = +5:30
| timezone_DST =
| coordinates = {{coord|26.206|81.690|display=inline,title}}
| elevation_footnotes = 
| elevation_m = 104

| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 227409
| blank3_name = [[Vehicle registration plate|Vehicle Registration]]
| blank3_info = UP-36
| blank_name = Telephone code
| blank_info = 05-368
| footnotes =
}}

'''Gauriganj''' is a city, municipal corporation, tehsil and administrative headquarters of [[Amethi district]] in [[Ayodhya division]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India.<ref name="Census2011Gov"/> It is situated about 126 km from the state capital [[Lucknow]]. Before July 2010, it was part of [[Sultanpur district]]. After that Gauriganj, Amethi, Jais, Jagdispur and Salon formed a new district Chhatrapati Sahuji Maharaj Nagar, later named Gauriganj and now Amethi. Gauriganj is connected with State Highway 34 and National Highway 128.

==Etymology==
Gauriganj is named after [[Parvati|Gauri]], a deity in Hinduism.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}

==History==
At the turn of the 20th century, Gauriganj was described as "a rising town, with a station on the [[Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway]]."<ref name="Gazetteer 1903">{{cite book |last1=Nevill |first1=H.R. |title=Sultanpur: A Gazetteer, Being Volume XLVI Of The District Gazetteers Of The United Provinces Of Agra And Oudh |date=1903 |publisher=Government Press |location=Allahabad |pages=178–9 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.113213 |access-date=13 December 2021}}</ref> It then technically consisted of two villages, [[Katra-Lalganj]] and [[Madhopur, Gauriganj|Madhopur]].<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> The bazar was founded by Madho Singh, the [[Raja]] of [[Amethi Estate |Amethi]](d.1891).<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> Gauriganj then hosted a rising [[grain trade|grain market]] and had a pound, police station, and post office, as well as an upper primary school, which had many students from both Gauriganj itself and the surrounding countryside; it had a small building, though, which was not big enough to accommodate the student body adequately.<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> The town was then surrounded by several deep hollows.<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> West of Katra-Lalganj were low-lying fields where only ''[[jarhan]]'' rice was grown.<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> The population of Gauriganj as of 1901 was 2,543, including a large [[Bania (caste)|Bania]] community which was larger than any other town in the district except Sultanpur.<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/> There was a Muslim minority of 194, and the rest of the town's population was a mix of [[Ahir]]s, [[Kurmi]]s, and [[Gadariya]]s, as well as some [[Pasi (caste)|Pasi]]s.<ref name="Gazetteer 1903"/>

==Geography==
=== Climate ===
Gauriganj has a warm subtropical climate with very cold and dry winters from December to mid-February, and dry, hot summers from April to mid-June. During extreme winters, the maximum temperature is around 12 degrees Celsius and the minimum is around 3 to 4 degrees Celsius. Fog is quite common from late December to late January. Summers can be quite hot with temperatures rising to 40 to 45 degrees Celsius.

Gauriganj has a tropical wet and dry climate with average temperatures ranging between {{convert|20|and|28|C|F}}. Gauriganj experiences three distinct seasons: summer, monsoon and a mild autumn. Typical summer months are from March to May, with maximum temperatures ranging from {{convert|30|to|45|C|F}}. Although summer doesn't end until May, the city often receives heavy thundershowers in May, and humidity remains high. The rainy season is from mid-June to mid-September, when it gets an average rainfall of 722 mm, mostly from the south-west monsoon winds. Even during the hottest months, the nights are usually cool due to Gauriganj's altitude. The highest temperature ever recorded was {{convert|48.3|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. The monsoon lasts from June to October, with moderate rainfall and temperatures ranging from {{convert|10|to|28|C|F}}. Autumn begins in November. The daytime temperature hovers around {{convert|28|°C|°F|abbr=on}} while the night temperature is below {{convert|10|°C|°F|abbr=on}} for most of December and January, often dropping to {{convert|3|to|4|C|F}}.

==Demographics==
As of [[2011 Indian Census]], Gauriganj tehsil had a total population of 390,935, of which 196,844 were males and 194,091 were females. Population within the age group of 0 to 6 years was 59,192. The total number of literates in Gauriganj was 214,282, which constituted 54.8% of the population with male literacy of 60.1% and female literacy of 45.4%. The effective literacy rate of 7+ population of Gauriganj was 64.6%, of which male literacy rate was 75.9% and female literacy rate was 53.3%. The [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes]] population was 108,841 and 86 respectively. Gauriganj had 67,832 households in 2011.<ref name="Census2011Gov">{{cite web |title=Census of India: Gauriganj |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/pca/SearchDetails.aspx?Id=194745 |website=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=27 March 2022}}</ref>

The [[1961 Census of India|1961 census]] recorded Gauriganj as having a population of 1,883 people (1,038 male and 845 female), in 468 households and 456 physical houses.<ref name="Census 1961">{{cite book |title=Census 1961: District Census Handbook, Uttar Pradesh (44 - Sultanpur District) |date=1965 |location=Lucknow |pages=118, 121–2, 147, xxxviii-xxxix |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1035/1/22847_1961_SUL.pdf |access-date=13 December 2021}}</ref>

=== Languages and religion ===
[[File:Queen Nagamati talks to her parrot, Padmavat, c1750.jpg|thumb|An illustrated manuscript of the epic poem ''[[Padmavat]]'', by [[Malik Muhammad Jayasi]] (c. 1750)]]
[[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]] are the official languages. [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] is also widely spoken along with English.

[[Hinduism]] is followed by large numbers of the population. A significant part of the population of the city consists of followers of [[Islam]] and [[Sikh]]ism. [[Christians]] and [[Jain]]s constitute a minority of the population.

==Government and politics==
===Civic administration===
Gauriganj had a police force of 2 sub-inspectors, 1 head constable, and 13 constables.<ref name="Census 1961"/>

===Amenities===
Gauriganj has a post office, a railway station, a library, and a government-run dispensary with 4 male and 2 female beds, as well as a maternity and child welfare centre and a family planning centre.<ref name="Census 1961"/>

==Economy==
Gauriganj hosts a grain market on Mondays and Fridays, with an average attendance of about 2,000 at the time of the 1961 census.<ref name="Census 1961"/>

==Cityscape / Culture==
[[Durga Puja]] is celebrated in Gauriganj with cultural activities from the 8th day of [[Navratri]] for 14 days. Moorty Visarjan is also a big event as it takes approximately 90 hours to complete with thousands of indulged people. [[Krishna Janmashtami]] is also celebrated with great joy. In Some Aashram (likes: Baba Balak Das etc.) and some temples (e.g. Doodh Nath Mandir, Ram Janki Mandir, Hanuman Mandir) Feast (i.e. Vishal Bhog Bhandara) took places annually.{{clarify|date=November 2015}}

[[Eid-ul-Fitr]], [[Eid-ul-Adha]], [[Eid Milad-un-Nabi]] and [[Shab-e-Barat]] are also celebrated in Gauriganj.

===Places of interest===
* [[Nandmahar Dham]]
* [[Lodi Baba Mandir]]
* [[Durgan Dham Temple]]
* [[Mata Mawai Dham]]
* [[Ulta Gadha Dham]]
* [[LBA music Guariganj]]

==Education==
The [[1951 Census of India|1951 census]] recorded Gauriganj as having a district board-run primary school, with 201 students in attendance as of 1 January of the year.<ref name="Census 1951">{{cite book |title=Census of India, 1951: District Census Handbook Uttar Pradesh (49 - Rae Bareli District) |date=1955 |location=Allahabad |pages=198 |url=http://lsi.gov.in:8081/jspui/bitstream/123456789/843/1/52301_1951_SUL.pdf |access-date=13 December 2021}}</ref>

==Villages==
Gauriganj CD block has the following 102 villages:<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Uttar Pradesh District Census Handbook - Sultanpur, Part A (Village and Town Directory) |pages=181–98 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/09/0948_PART_A_DCHB_SULTANPUR.pdf |website=Census 2011 India|access-date=13 December 2021}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Village name
! Total land area (hectares)
! Population (in 2011)
|-
| [[Manmatipur]] || 194 || 795
|-
| [[Bhatgawan]] || 389.7 || 3,654
|-
| [[Bastidai]] || 464.1 || 2,086
|-
| [[Manjhwara]] || 428.9 || 3,074
|-
| [[Gulalpur, Amethi|Gulalpur]] || 273.4 || 1,208
|-
| [[Benipur Baldeo]] || 256.7 || 1,398
|-
| [[Rauja]] || 190.1 || 1,538
|-
| [[Tulsi Pur]] || 246.1 || 1,341
|-
| [[Mau, Gauriganj|Mau]] || 504.1 || 3,865
|-
| [[Sarauli]] || 127 || 687
|-
| [[Oripur]] || 191 || 1,883
|-
| [[Basupur, Amethi|Basupur]] || 194 || 1,402
|-
| [[Itaujapachhim]] || 290.2 || 2,303
|-
| [[Mohanpur, Amethi|Mohanpur]] || 45.4 || 107
|-
| [[Gopalipur, Amethi|Gopalipur]] || 178.4 || 603
|-
| [[Sujanpur, Gauriganj|Sujanpur]] || 379.8 || 1,872
|-
| [[Narauli, Amethi|Narauli]] || 345.7 || 2,153
|-
| [[Guwawan]] || 665.2 || 4,716
|-
| [[Rohshi Khurd]] || 432.8 || 2,078
|-
| [[Sarai Hirday Shah]] || 361.6 || 2,564
|-
| [[Jagdishpur, Gauriganj|Jagdishpur]] || 187.7 || 1,384
|-
| [[Bishundas Pur]] || 393.2 || 2,255
|-
| [[Gauri Pur]] || 266.3 || 2,690
|-
| [[Gopiya Pur]] || 29 || 294
|-
| [[Hasram Pur]] || 44.4 || 118
|-
| [[Ana Pur]] || 156.3 || 1,072
|-
| [[Dost Pur]] || 101 || 586
|-
| [[Jethauna]] || 176.8 || 1,018
|-
| [[Harakh Pur]] || 236.1 || 1,892
|-
| [[Jethumawai]] || 95 || 1,037
|-
| [[Medan Mawi]] || 88.9 || 418
|-
| [[Belkhaur]] || 83.7 || 1,950
|-
| [[Lila Tikara]] || 78.6 || 417
|-
| [[Suja Pur]] || 38.2 || 333
|-
| [[Dhani Jalalpur]] || 55.6 || 685
|-
| [[Basthan]] || 51.1 || 233
|-
| [[Shahbaj Pur]] || 152.2 || 1,222
|-
| [[Garha Mafi]] || 220.6 || 1,563
|-
| [[Darpipur]] || 158.8 || 1,012
|-
| [[Baburi Tola]] || 48.6 || 402
|-
| [[Sarai Barwand Singh]] || 125.5 || 984
|-
| [[Behta]] || 231.1 || 1,557
|-
| [[Barna Tikar]] || 447.5 || 2,927
|-
| [[Madhopur, Gauriganj|Madho Pur]] || 179.2 || 4,717
|-
| [[Raj Garh]] || 107.3 || 2,028
|-
| [[Misrauli]] || 231.8 || 1,738
|-
| [[Sarai Bhag Mani]] || 235.8 || 2,185
|-
| [[Mahima Pur]] || 218.5 || 737
|-
| [[Asaida Pur]] || 158.9 || 1,387
|-
| [[Katra Lal Ganj]] || 230.1 || 5,834
|-
| [[Bali Pur Khurdwan]] || 112.6 || 1,449
|-
| [[Amiya, Amethi|Amiya]] || 123.6 || 799
|-
| [[Chauhan Pur]] || 61.8 || 360
|-
| [[Palia, Gauriganj|Palia]] || 68.1 || 549
|-
| [[Argwan]] || 174.3 || 1,195
|-
| [[Sembhue]] || 135.8 || 966
|-
| [[Kaji Patti]] || 44.3 || 503
|-
| [[Rampur Kurwa]] || 183.5 || 1,298
|-
| [[Senipur]] || 73.7 || 653
|-
| [[Madhupur, Amethi|Madhupur]] || 51 || 214
|-
| [[Sultanpur, Amethi|Sultanpur]] || 63.4 || 493
|-
| [[Jagmalpur]] || 113.9 || 520
|-
| [[Paiga, Amethi|Paiga]] || 293.1 || 1,053
|-
| [[Gvjar Tol]] || 141.4 || 1,102
|-
| [[Pure Fajil]] || 312.2 || 1,685
|-
| [[Dharu Pur]] || 117 || 1,112
|-
| [[Sogara]] || 376.2 || 1,693
|-
| [[Biswan, Amethi|Biswan]] || 59.2 || 353
|-
| [[Asura, Gauriganj|Asura]] || 123.1 || 803
|-
| [[Dhanapur, Gauriganj|Dhanapur]] || 110 || 953
|-
| [[Bhawan Shah Pur]] || 129 || 821
|-
| [[Lugri]] || 314 || 1,148
|-
| [[Pachehri]] || 234.1 || 1,403
|-
| [[Paharpur, Gauriganj|Paharpur]] || 84.3 || 494
|-
| [[Raghipur]] || 60 || 1,207
|-
| [[Banwari Pur]] || 94.1 || 337
|-
| [[Ronhsi Buzurg]] || 210.3 || 1,072
|-
| [[Chandai Pur]] || 199.7 || 1,329
|-
| [[Atta Nagar]] || 244.4 || 1,417
|-
| [[Bahan Pur]] || 194 || 1,828
|-
| [[Sakrawan]] || 225.4 || 1,322
|-
| [[Ramai Pur]] || 126.2 || 381
|-
| [[Saripur]] || 162.2 || 895
|-
| [[Kharanwan]] || 112.2 || 1,056
|-
| [[Saintha]] || 639.6 || 4,076
|-
| [[Tikariya]] || 360.8 || 2,031
|-
| [[Khajuri, Amethi|Khajuri]] || 147 || 1,066
|-
| [[Basaikpur]] || 193.4 || 1,787
|-
| [[Gundur, Amethi|Gundur]] || 168.9 || 1,020
|-
| [[Raja Patti]] || 63.1 || 278
|-
| [[Babupur, Amethi|Babupur]] || 122.4 || 1,226
|-
| [[Anni Baijal]] || 460 || 3,063
|-
| [[Aintha]] || 116.9 || 1,369
|-
| [[Pathanpur]] || 221.4 || 1,449
|-
| [[Pahar Ganj, Amethi|Pahar Ganj]] || 404.9 || 2,682
|-
| [[Ismailpur, Amethi|Ismailpur]] || 52 || 427
|-
| [[Chhitepur]] || 153.1 || 1,093
|-
| [[Pandri, Amethi District|Pandri]] || 412 || 2,513
|-
| [[Gudun Pur]] || 106 || 874
|-
| [[Samhanwa]] || 495 || 2,561
|-
| [[Pure Udhao]] || 17.1 || 267
|-
| [[Lal Shah Pur]] || 125.1 || 422
|-class="sortbottom"
| '''Block total''' || '''144,669''' || '''20,372.8'''
|-
!Village name !! Total land area (hectares) !! Population (in 2011)
|}

==Notable people==

* [[Manoj Muntashir]] is an Indian lyricist, poet and screenwriter was born in this town.
* [[Rakesh Pandey (author)|Rakesh Pandey]] (writer and author)
* [[Jagdish Piyush]] (journalist, writer and author)
* [[Akshay Pratap Singh]] (MLC and former MP)
* [[Deepak Singh (politician)|Deepak Singh]] (former MLC)
* [[Rakesh Pratap Singh]] (MLA)
* [[Rudra Pratap Singh (politician)|Rudra Pratap Singh]] (former MP, former MLA, former MLC)

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:LDA 1.jpg|Bhandara at Baba Balak Das Ashram, Stage (2011)
File:BBD 1.jpg|Bhandara at Baba Balak Das Ashram (2011)
File:Hanuman Mandir(2).jpg|Hanuman Mandir, Madhopur
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{Commons-inline}}

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Cities and towns in Amethi district]]

[[pl:Gauriganj]]

Syed Muzaffaruddin Nadwi

2026-03-16T20:07:52Z

ShivaniSikri: Put up a post...

{{Short description|Indian-born Pakistani academic (1900–1984)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Syed Muzaffaruddin Nadwi
| birth_date = 1900
| birth_place = Maninda, near [[Sheikhpura]], [[Bengal Presidency]], British India
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1984|06|18|1900}}
| death_place = [[Karachi]], Pakistan
| resting_place = [[Sakhi Hassan Graveyard]], Karachi
| occupation = {{hlist|Scholar|writer|educator|translator}}
| alma_mater = {{Plainlist|
* [[Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama]]
* [[Presidency College, Calcutta]]
* [[University of Calcutta]]
}}
}}

'''Syed Muzaffaruddin Nadwi''' (1900–18 June 1984), also transliterated as '''Syed Muzaffar-ud-Din Nadvi''' or '''Syed Muzaffar Uddin Nadvi''', was an Indian-born Pakistani Islamic scholar, writer, educator, and translator. He wrote works in Urdu and English, focusing on Islamic studies, history, and philosophy. Nadwi authored several books and translations, including on topics such as Islamic thought, comparative religion, and biographical studies. He was involved in both traditional Islamic scholarship and modern academic writing.

== Early life and education ==
Syed Muzaffaruddin Nadwi was born in 1900 in Maninda, near [[Sheikhpura]], which at the time was part of the [[Bengal Presidency]] in British India (now in [[Sheikhpura district]], Bihar, India).<ref name="AbulKalam">{{cite book |last=Rahmani |first=Abul Kalam |title=Tazkira-e-Mashaheer-e-Adab Sheikhpura |trans-title=Biographical Dictionary of Literary Figures of Sheikhpura |publisher=Zainab Nunaravi |location=Kolkata |year=2005 |page=52 |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/tazkira-e-mashaheer-e-adab-shekhpura-abul-kalam-rahamni-ebooks }}</ref> He studied at [[Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama]] in Lucknow and graduated in 1915 at the age of seventeen. During his studies at Nadwa, he benefited from scholars such as [[Syed Sulaiman Nadvi]], Abdul Salam Nadvi, Muhammad Khalil Arab, as well as Shibli Nomani (Faqih-e-Awwal) and [[Shibli Nomani]] (Mutakallim).<ref>{{cite book |last=Azeem |first=Iqbal |author-link=Iqbal Azeem |title=Mashriqi Bengal mein Urdu |trans-title=Urdu in Eastern Bengal |publisher=Mashriq Cooperative Publications |location=Dhaka |year=1954 |pages=266–267 |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/mashriqi-bengal-mein-urdu-iqbal-azeem-ebooks }}</ref> In the same year, he passed the Central Madrasa examination. After completing his traditional Islamic studies, he pursued modern education and earned a B.A. from [[Presidency College, Calcutta]] in 1922. He later obtained two M.A. degrees privately, one in Arabic (1925) and another in Persian (1927) from the [[University of Calcutta]].{{Sfn|Azeem|1954|p=267}}

== Career ==
After his B.A., Nadwi worked at the [[University of Dhaka]] from 1922 to 1927. Between 1922 and 1924, he served as an assistant in Persian and Urdu, and from 1924 to 1927, he worked as a lecturer in Arabic and Persian.{{Sfn|Azeem|1954|p=267}} In 1927, he joined the Bengal Educational Service and served as a professor at [[Maulana Azad College|Islamia College, Calcutta]] until 1943. After 1943, he was appointed at the Islamic Intermediate College in [[Chittagong]], where he worked until 1944. In 1945, he was appointed as the Muslim Educational Officer of Bengal. However, the same year he returned to [[Maulana Azad College|Islamia College, Calcutta]], where he served as Vice Principal from 1946 to 1947. Following the partition of India, he became Principal of the Islamic Intermediate College in Chittagong, where he continued his educational work.{{Sfn|Azeem|1954|p=267}} Additionally, he served as Principal of S.N. College, [[Dinajpur]], and as Assistant Director of Public Instruction in East Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadvi (Syed) |first=Muzaffar Uddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7zgzAAAAMAAJ&q=muzaffar+uddin+nadwi+principal |title=Muslim Thought and Its Source |date=1965 |publisher=M. Ashraf |page=v |language=en}}</ref> After living for some years in [[East Pakistan]] (now [[Bangladesh]]), he migrated to [[West Pakistan]] (now [[Pakistan]]), eventually settling in [[Karachi]].{{Sfn|Rahmani|2005|p=53}}

== Literary works ==
Nadwi wrote in both Urdu and English, focusing on Islamic studies, philosophy, and history.{{Sfn|Azeem|1954|p=267}} His writing was noted for clarity and simplicity. In his article on Sufism, he criticized practices he believed to be deviations from original Islamic teachings and expressed concerns about widespread misconceptions regarding contemporary Sufi practices in India.{{Sfn|Rahmani|2005|pp=52–54}} According to [[Syed Sulaiman Nadvi]], Muzaffaruddin Nadwi, despite holding an M.A. degree, consistently engaged in scholarly Islamic pursuits and wrote on contemporary issues in Islamic studies. Nadwi contributed a detailed and researched English-language article in ''The Islamic Review'' critically responding to [[Reynold Alleyne Nicholson|Professor Nicholson]]'s views on the origins and sources of Islamic mysticism (Sufism). Nicholson had argued that Sufism was not originally part of Islam but had come from external influences. Nadwi's article refuted this claim and was appreciated by knowledgeable scholars of his time.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nadvi |first=Syed Sulaiman|author-link =Sulaiman Nadvi|title=Shazrat-e-Sulaimani |trans-title=Shazrat-e-Sulaimani (Selected Writings of Sulaiman Nadvi) |volume=2 |publisher=[[Darul Musannefin Shibli Academy]] |location=Azamgarh |year=1997 |page=271 |language=ur}}</ref>

His articles were published in various Urdu literary journals, including ''Ma'arif'' (Azamgarh), ''Nadeem'' (Gaya), ''Jadoo'', and ''Urdu Jadeed'' (Calcutta). During his student years at Nadwa, he also edited a handwritten student magazine titled ''Muallim al-Sibyan'' (The Children's Instructor).{{Sfn|Azeem|1954|p=268}}

In Urdu, his notable work is a translation and commentary on the German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. The book, titled ''Nietzsche'', is a translation of M. A. Mugge’s work and was published in 1926 by [[Darul Musannefin Shibli Academy|Darul Musannifin, Azamgarh]], at the request of [[Syed Sulaiman Nadvi]].{{Sfn|Azeem|1954|p=268}}<ref name="KitabiyatTarajim">{{cite book |editor=Mirza Hameed Baig |title=Kitabiyat-e-Tarajim, Volume 1 |trans-title=Bibliography of Translations |publisher=Muqtadara Qaumi Zaban |location=Islamabad |year=1986 |pages=250 |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/kitabiyat-e-tarajim-volume-001-ebooks }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Urdu translation of M.A.Magge's 'Nietzsche' by Muzaffar-ud-Din Nadvi |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/nitshe-mamagge-ebooks |access-date=2025-06-29 |website=[[Rekhta (website)|Rekhta]] |language=ur}}</ref>

He translated Part II of Syed Sulaiman Nadwi’s ''Arz-ul-Quran'' into English in 1936, incorporating additional material and revisions, which was published under the title ''A Geographical History of the Quran''.<ref name="BazmRaftagan">{{cite book |last=Abdur Rahman Nadwi |first=Syed Sabahuddin |title=Bazm-e-Raftagan Part 1 |trans-title=The Gathering of the Departed |publisher=Maktaba Jamia Limited |location=New Delhi |year=1981 |pages=102 |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/bazm-e-raftagan-part-001-syed-sabahuddin-abdur-rahman-ebooks-1 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Azeem|1954|p=268}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadvi (Syed) |first=Muzaffar Uddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o55xDbQdLdEC&pg=PR6 |title=A Geographical History of the Qur'an |year=2009 |orig-year=First published 1936 |edition=Revised |publisher=Islamic Book Press |isbn=978-967-5062-18-6 |language=en}}</ref>

Among his English works are:
* ''Muslim Thought and Its Source'' (1931){{Sfn|Azeem|1954|p=268}}
* ''An Impartial Study of Nawab Siraj-ud-Dawla'' (1953)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Case |first=Margaret H. |url=http://archive.org/details/southasianhistor0000case_t4a9 |title=South Asian history, 1750-1950 : a guide to periodicals, dissertations, and newspapers |date=1968 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-1-4008-7486-6 |location=Princeton, New Jersey |page=140 |language=en |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref>
* ''An Easy History of the Prophet of Islam'' (1954)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadvi (Syed) |first=Muzaffar Uddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_VTB1VGP8gC |title=An Easy History of the Prophet of Islam |date=1954 |publisher=Sh. Muhammad Ashraf |language=en}}</ref>
* ''Human Rights and Obligations (In the Light of the Qur'an and Hadith)'' (1966)<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Islam |first1=Md Nazrul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ci3YDwAAQBAJ&dq=Muzaffaruddin+nadwi&pg=PA307 |title=Islam and Democracy in South Asia: The Case of Bangladesh |last2=Islam |first2=Md Saidul |date=2020-03-20 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-42909-6 |page=307 |language=en}}</ref>
* ''A Comparative Study of Islam & Other Religions'' (1977)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadvi (Syed) |first=Muzaffar Uddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w6AtAQAAIAAJ |title=A Comparative Study of Islam & Other Religions |date=1977 |publisher=Sh. Muhammad Ashraf |language=en}}</ref>
* ''Islamic State of Pakistan''{{Sfn|Azeem|1954|p=268}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Syed Muzaffaruddin Nadwi |url=https://archive.org/details/ageographicalhistoryofthequran/page/n3/mode/1up |title=A Geographical History of the Qur'an |pages=Title}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pal |first=J. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gZuAAAAMAAJ&q=islamic+state+and+pakistan+by+Muzaffar+uddin+nadvi |title=Jinnah and the Creation of Pakistan |date=1983 |publisher=Sidhuram Publications |page=162 |language=en}}</ref>
* Islami Taleem-o-Tarbiyat (in Urdu){{Sfn|Slaich|2008|p=434}}

His works have also appeared in translation:
* Pashto: ''Islāmī fikar mākḫaẕ'' (1963)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadvi (Syed) |first=Muzaffar Uddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SyZNzwEACAAJ |title=Da Islāmī fikar māḫaẕ |date=1963 |publisher=Pušto Akeḍemī da Pušto Yūnīwarsitī |language=ps}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadvi |first=Muzaffar Uddin |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/NADDIF |title=Da Islami Fikar Makhaz |date=1963 |publisher=[[Pashto Academy]] |location=University of Peshawar}}</ref>
* Turkish: ''Hazret-i Muhammed Aleyhisselam Hakkında Konferanslar'' (1967) by Osman Keski̇oğlu<ref>{{Cite web |title=KESKİOĞLU, Osman |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/keskioglu-osman |access-date=2025-06-29 |website=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi |language=tr}}</ref>
* Indonesian: ''Pemikiran Muslim dan sumbernya'' (1984)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadvi (Syed) |first=Muzaffar Uddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ntuAQAACAAJ |title=Pemikiran Muslim dan sumbernya |date=1984 |publisher=Pustaka |language=id}}</ref>
* Indonesian: ''Sejarah Geography Qur'an'' (1985) by Bambang Bujono<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadvi (Syed) |first=Muzaffar Uddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tBx5nQAACAAJ |title=Sejarah Geography Qur'an |date=1985 |publisher=Pustaka Firdaus |language=id}}</ref>
* Turkish: ''Kur'ān-ı Kerîm'de kavimler ve toplumlar'' (2003) by Abdullah Davudoğlu<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadvi (Syed) |first=Muzaffar Uddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v9EmAAAACAAJ |title=Kur'ân'-ı Kerîm'de kavimler ve toplumlar: Âd, Semûd, Medyen |date=2003 |publisher=İnkılab yayınları |isbn=978-975-7560-65-4 |language=tr}}</ref>

== Death ==
Nadwi died on 18 June 1984 in [[Karachi]], Pakistan, and is buried in Sakhi Hasan graveyard in Karachi.<ref name="KhftaganKarachi">{{cite book |last=Aslam |first=Muhammad |title=Khuftagan-e-Karachi |trans-title=The Deceased of Karachi |publisher=Idara-e-Tahqiqat-e-Pakistan, Punjab University |location=Lahore |year=1991 |pages=294 |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/khuftagan-e-karachi-mohammad-aslam-ebooks }}</ref><ref name="WafiyatAhlQalam">{{cite book |last=Slaich |first=Muhammad Munir Ahmad |title=Wafiyat-e-Ahl-e-Qalam |trans-title=Deaths of Literary Figures |publisher=Academy of Letters Pakistan |location=Islamabad |year=2008 |pages=434 |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/wafiyat-e-ahl-e-qalam-mohammad-munir-ahmad-ebooks }}</ref><ref name="WafiyatMashahir">{{cite book |last=Aslam |first=Muhammad |title=Wafiyat-e-Mashahir-e-Pakistan 1947-1987 |trans-title=Deaths of Famous Personalities of Pakistan |publisher=Muqtadara Qaumi Zaban |location=Islamabad |year=1990 |pages=282 |url=https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/wafiyat-e-mashaheer-e-pakistan-1947-ta-1987-wafat-pane-wali-pakistani-shakhsiyat-ebooks }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nadwi, Syed Muzaffaruddin}}
[[Category:1900 births]]
[[Category:1984 deaths]]
[[Category:Pakistani scholars]]
[[Category:Pakistani writers]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to Pakistan]]
[[Category:People from Sheikhpura district]]
[[Category:Urdu-language Pakistani writers]]
[[Category:Urdu-language translators]]
[[Category:English-language Pakistani writers]]
[[Category:English–Urdu translators]]
[[Category:Historians of Islam]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:Presidency University, Kolkata alumni]]
[[Category:Darul Uloom Nadwatul Ulama alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Dhaka]]

Bowling (cricket)

2026-03-15T04:54:20Z

ShivaniSikri: minor edit

{{Short description|Cricket delivery}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2013}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
[[File:Muralitharan bowling to Adam Gilchrist.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[spin bowling|Spinner]] [[Muttiah Muralitharan]] bowling to the batter, [[Adam Gilchrist]]]]
In [[cricket]], '''bowling''' is the action of [[throwing|propelling]] the [[cricket ball|ball]] toward the [[wicket]] defended by a batter. A player skilled at bowling is called a ''bowler'';<ref>{{Cite web|title=Terms {{!}} Cricket Web|url=https://www.cricketweb.net/terms/|access-date=2020-08-31|website=www.cricketweb.net}}</ref> a bowler who is also a competent [[:Batting (cricket)|batter]] is known as an ''[[all-rounder]]''. Bowling the ball is distinguished from [[throwing (cricket)|''throwing'' the ball]] by a strictly specified biomechanical definition, which restricts the angle of extension of the elbow.<ref>{{Cite web|title=International Cricket Council|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/cricket/rules-and-regulations/illegal-bowling-actions|access-date=2020-08-31|website=www.icc-cricket.com}}</ref> A single act of bowling the ball towards the batter is called a ''ball'' or a ''[[delivery (cricket)|delivery]]''. Bowlers bowl deliveries in sets of six, called an ''[[over (cricket)|over]]''. Once a bowler has bowled an over, a teammate will bowl an over from the other end of the pitch.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Glossary of cricket terms & sayings|url=http://www.wandererscricket.com/glossary.html|access-date=2020-08-31|website=www.wandererscricket.com}}</ref> The [[Laws of Cricket]] govern how a ball must be bowled.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lords.org/laws-and-spirit/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-42-fair-and-unfair-play,68,AR.html |title=Laws of Cricket: Law 42 (Fair and unfair play) |publisher=Lords.org |access-date=23 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105121449/http://www.lords.org/laws-and-spirit/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-42-fair-and-unfair-play%2C68%2CAR.html |archive-date=5 January 2013 }}</ref> If a ball is bowled illegally, an [[umpire (cricket)|umpire]] will rule it a ''[[no-ball]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lords.org/laws-and-spirit/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-24-no-ball,50,AR.html |title=Laws of Cricket: Law 24 (No ball) |publisher=Lords.org |access-date=23 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227213453/http://www.lords.org/laws-and-spirit/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-24-no-ball%2C50%2CAR.html |archive-date=27 December 2012 }}</ref> If a ball is bowled too wide of the striker for the batter to be able to play at it with a proper cricket shot, the bowler's end umpire will rule it a ''[[wide (cricket)|wide]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lords.org/laws-and-spirit/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-25-wide-ball,51,AR.html |title=Laws of Cricket: Law 25 (Wide ball) |publisher=Lords.org |access-date=23 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121124062459/http://www.lords.org/laws-and-spirit/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-25-wide-ball,51,AR.html |archive-date=24 November 2012 }}</ref>

There are different types of bowlers, from [[fast bowling|fast bowlers]], whose primary weapon is pace, through [[Swing bowling|swing]] and [[seam bowling|seam bowlers]] who try to make the ball deviate in its course through the air or when it bounces,<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Different Types Of Fast Bowlers In Cricket Explained!|url=https://cricketershub.com/types-of-fast-bowlers-cricket/|access-date=2020-08-31|website=Cricketers Hub|language=en-GB}}</ref> to slow bowlers, who will attempt to deceive the batter with a variety of flight and spin. A [[spin bowling|spin bowler]] usually delivers the ball quite slowly and puts spin on the ball, causing it to turn at an angle while bouncing off the pitch.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SPIN BOWLER {{!}} definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/spin-bowler|access-date=2020-08-31|website=dictionary.cambridge.org|language=en-US}}</ref>

A team can be said to have elected to "have a bowl" when it wins the [[toss (cricket)|coin toss]] and chooses to field.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Omnisport|date=2017-11-16|title=Memorable Ashes Moments: 'We're gonna have a bowl' - Hussain's coin toss horror-show|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/cricket/memorable-ashes-moments-we-re-gonna-have-a-bowl-hussain-s-coin-toss-horror-show|access-date=2020-12-02|website=www.sportskeeda.com|language=en-us}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of cricket}}
{{Bowling techniques sidebar |expanded=all}}
[[File:Shoaib Akhtar.jpg|left|upright=0.7|thumb|Pakistani [[Shoaib Akhtar]] holds the world record for delivering the fastest ball ({{cvt|161.3|km/h|mph}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-10000/fastest-bowl-of-a-cricket-ball/|title=Fastest delivery of a cricket ball (male)|website=guinnessworldrecords.com|date=February 2003 }}</ref>]]
In the early days of cricket, [[underarm bowling]] was the only method employed.
Many theories exist about the origins of cricket. One suggests that the game began among shepherds hitting a stone or a ball of wool with their crooks and, at the same time, defending the wicket gate into the sheep-fold (from [[Anglo Saxon]] 'cricce', a crooked staff). A second theory suggests the name came from a low stool known as a 'cricket' in England, which from the side looked like the long, low wicket used in the early days of the game (originally from the [[Flemish dialects|Flemish]] 'krickstoel', a low stool on which parishioners knelt in church). There is also a reference to 'criquet' in North-East France in 1478 and evidence that the game evolved in South-East England in the [[Middle Ages]].

In 1706 William Goldwyn published the first description of the game. He wrote that two teams were first seen carrying their curving bats to the venue, choosing a pitch and arguing over the rules to be played. They pitched two sets of wickets, each with a "milk-white" bail perched on two stumps; tossed a coin for first knock, the umpire called "play" and the "leathern orb" was bowled. They had four-ball overs, the umpires leant on their staves (which the batters had to touch to complete a run), and the scorers sat on a mound making notches.

The first written "[[Laws of Cricket]]" were drawn up in 1744. They stated, "the principals shall choose from amongst the gentlemen present two umpires who shall absolutely decide all disputes. The stumps must be 22 inches high and the bail across them six inches. The ball must be between 5 & 6 ounces, and the two sets of stumps 22 yards apart". There were no limits on the shape or size of the bat. It appears that 40 notches was viewed as a very big score, probably due to the bowlers bowling quickly at shins unprotected by pads. The world's first cricket club was formed in Hambledon in the 1760s and the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) was founded in 1787.

During the 1760s and 1770s it became common to pitch the ball through the air, rather than roll it along the ground. This innovation gave bowlers the weapons of length, deception through the air, plus increased pace. It also opened new possibilities for spin and swerve. In response, batters had to master timing and shot selection. One immediate consequence was the replacement of the curving bat with the straight one. All of this raised the premium on skill and lessened the influence of rough ground and brute force. It was in the 1770s that the modern game began to take shape. The weight of the ball was limited to between five and a half and five and three-quarter ounces, and the width of the bat to four inches. The latter ruling followed an innings by a batter called [[Thomas White (cricketer, born c. 1740)|Thomas "Daddy" White]], who appeared with a bat the width of the wicket. In 1774, the first leg before law was published. Also around this time, a third stump became commonplace. By 1780, the duration of a [[first-class cricket]] match was generally three days, and this year also saw the creation of the first six-seam cricket ball. In 1788, the MCC published its first revision of the laws, which prohibited charging down an opponent and also provided for mowing and covering the wicket to standardise conditions. The desire for standardisation reflected the massive increase in the popularity of cricket during the 18th century. Between 1730 and 1740, 150 cricket matches were recorded in the papers of the time. Between 1750 and 1760, this figure rose to 230, and between 1770 and 1790 over 500.

The 19th century saw a series of significant changes. Wide deliveries were outlawed in 1811. The circumference of the ball was specified for the first time in 1838 (its weight had been dictated 60 years earlier). Pads, made of cork, became available for the first time in 1841, and these were further developed following the invention of vulcanised rubber, which was also used to introduce protective gloves in 1848. In the 1870s, boundaries were introduced – previously, all hits had to be run; if the ball went into the crowd, the spectators would clear a way for the fieldsman to fetch it. The biggest change, however, was in how the ball was delivered by the bowler.

At the start of the century, all bowlers were still delivering the ball under-arm. However, so the story goes, [[John Willes (cricketer)|John Willes]] became the first bowler to use a "round-arm" technique after practising with his sister Christina, who had used the technique, as she was unable to bowl underarm due to her wide dress impeding her delivery of the ball.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cricketweb.net/resources/history/index.php |title=John Willes and his sister invent overarm bowling |publisher=Cricketweb.net |access-date=23 January 2013}}</ref>

The round-arm action came to be employed widely in matches but was quickly determined to be illegal and banned by the MCC, who stated that "the ball must be delivered underhand, not thrown or jerked, with the hand underneath the elbow at the time of delivering the ball".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cricketweb.net/resources/history/index.php |title=MCC Laws of bowling |publisher=Cricketweb.net |access-date=23 January 2013}}</ref> When it was accepted the rules stated that the arm could not be raised above the shoulder. It was quickly found, however, that a raised arm imparted more accuracy and generated more bounce than the roundarm method. Again, the governing body banned the method. It was not until the method was finally accepted by the MCC in 1835<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cricketweb.net/resources/history/index.php |title=Overarm bowling accepted by the MCC |publisher=Cricketweb.net |access-date=23 January 2013}}</ref> that it grew rapidly in popularity amongst all players. Underarm bowling hitherto had almost disappeared from the game.

===Modern-day underarm bowling===
An infamous "[[Underarm bowling incident of 1981|underarm bowling incident]]" occurred during a match in 1981, in which the Australian bowler, Trevor Chappell, took advantage of the fact that underarm bowling was still legal by rolling the ball along the ground. By doing so he avoided the possibility that the New Zealand batter, Brian McKechnie, would score a six from the last ball to tie the match, as the bat would not be able to hit the ball high enough to score a six.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2004/s1035164.htm|title = Underarm incident was a cry for help: Greg Chappell |last = Knight|first = Ben| work = ABC Local Radio: The World Today| publisher = Australian Broadcasting Corporation|date = 30 January 2004|access-date = 12 August 2009}}</ref>

As a result of this incident underarm bowling was subsequently made illegal in all grades of cricket, except by prior agreement of both teams, as it was not considered to be within the spirit of the game.<ref>{{Cite web|title=No ball Law {{!}} MCC|url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/the-laws-of-cricket/no-ball|access-date=2021-12-18|website=www.lords.org}}</ref>

==The bowling action==
[[Image:Bowling action.png|thumb|left|The typical bowling action of a fast bowler.]]
[[File:Brett Lee Bowling.jpg|thumb|Australian [[Fast bowling|fast bowler]] [[Brett Lee]] in action in 2005.]]
{{main|Bowling action}}
{{See also|Throwing (cricket)}}

Bowling the ball is distinguished from simply throwing the ball by a strictly specified biomechanical definition.

Originally, this definition said that the elbow joint must not straighten out during the bowling action. Bowlers generally hold their elbows fully extended and keeping the bowling arm straight, releasing it near the top of the arc. Flexion at the elbow is not allowed, but any extension of the elbow was deemed to be a throw and would be liable to be called a no-ball. This was thought to be possible only if the bowler's elbow was originally held in a slightly flexed position.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Elliott|first1=Bruce C.|last2=Alderson|first2=Jacqueline A.|last3=Denver|first3=Eliot R.|date=2007|title=System and modelling errors in motion analysis: Implications for the measurement of the elbow angle in cricket bowling|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0021929007000085|journal=Journal of Biomechanics|language=en|volume=40|issue=12|pages=2679–2685|doi=10.1016/j.jbiomech.2006.12.012|pmid=17307186 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Portus|first1=Marc R.|last2=Rosemond|first2=Charles D.|last3=Rath|first3=David A.|date=2006|title=Cricket: Fast bowling arm actions and the illegal delivery law in men's high performance cricket matches|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14763140608522875|journal=Sports Biomechanics|language=en|volume=5|issue=2|pages=215–230|doi=10.1080/14763140608522875|pmid=16939154 |s2cid=219698572 |issn=1476-3141|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":1">"Definition of fair delivery - the arm". ''[[Laws of cricket]]''.</ref>

In 2005, this definition was deemed to be physically impossible by a scientific investigative commission. Biomechanical studies that showed that ''almost'' all bowlers extend their elbows somewhat throughout the bowling action, because the stress of swinging the arm around ''hyperextends'' the elbow joint. A guideline was introduced to allow extensions or hyperextensions of angles up to 15 degrees before deeming the ball illegally thrown.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1"/>

Bowling actions are typically divided into ''side on'' and ''front on'' actions. In the side on action, the back foot lands parallel to the bowling crease and the bowler aims at the wicket by looking over his front shoulder. In the front on action, the back foot lands pointing down the pitch and the bowler aims at the wicket by looking inside the line of his front arm. Many bowlers operate with a ''mid-way'' action with the back foot landing at roughly 45 degrees and the upper body aligned somewhere between side on and front on. This differs from a ''mixed'' action, which mixes distinct elements of both side on and front on actions, and is generally discouraged amongst young bowlers as it can lead to problems in later life due to the twisting of the back inherent in the action.

[[File:Bart King c1908cr.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|[[Philadelphian cricket team|Philadelphian]] cricketer [[Bart King]] bowling]]

==Goals of bowling==
In a game of cricket, the ultimate priority of the fielding side is to restrict the total number of runs scored by the batting side, and the actions of the bowlers will be fundamental to achieving this objective. The primary means of achieving this is by dismissing the batting side by getting all ten of the opposition wickets as quickly as possible. A secondary objective will be to keep the batting side's run rate as low as possible. In fact, in most forms of cricket, the twin aims of the fielding side are targeted concurrently, as the achievement of one aim tends to have a positive effect upon the other. Taking regular opposition wickets will remove the better batters from the crease, typically leading to a slowing of the scoring rate. Conversely, slowing the scoring rate can put additional pressure on the batters and force them into taking extra risks, which will often lead to wickets.

Depending upon the format of the match, these two strategies will be given different weights. In an unlimited, timed or declaration match, the main aim of the bowling attack will be to take wickets, so attacking bowling and fielding strategies will be used. In a limited overs match, this aim will also be supplemented by the secondary need to prevent the batting side from scoring quickly, so more defensive strategies will be used. In general, the shorter the number of overs per side, the more priority will be given to this secondary target of maintaining a low run-rate. It is also highly probable that the need for attacking or defensive strategies can switch frequently as a cricket match progresses. It is the sign of a good cricket captain to be able to tell which strategy is most appropriate in any set of circumstances and the best way of implementing it.

==Bowling tactics==
[[File:Jim Allenby 2007.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jim Allenby]] in midflight, illustrating the position of the body during a delivery at the end of a run up, prior to bowling the ball.]]

The simultaneous twin objectives of bowling are to take wickets and prevent run scoring opportunities. Both objectives are achieved through the underlying aim of bowling the ball in such a way that the batter is unable to connect with the ball in the middle of the bat and control its movement after contact. There are three distinct means of achieving this aim: by bowling the ball on a good line and length, by bowling with sufficient pace that the batter struggles to react to the delivery, or by bowling the ball in such a way that it has lateral movement as it approaches the batter, either in the air or off the ground. A good bowler may be able to combine two of these skills, a truly great bowler may be able to combine all three.

===Line and length===
The fundamental skill of bowling on a good length incorporates the ability to pitch the ball such a distance from the batter that he is unable to move forward and drive the ball on the half volley, and is also unable to step back and play the ball on the back foot. This removes many of the batter's attacking options, and also increases the probability of misjudging a delivery and losing the wicket. A good length delivery is one in which the ball has had sufficient time to move far enough off the pitch to beat the bat but the batter has not had time to react to the movement and adjust the shot. The faster the bowler and the greater the movement he is able to generate, the larger the area of the pitch that can be designated an effective "good" length.

Other areas of the pitch may also often be used as a variation to a good length delivery. Primarily these are the [[yorker]], in which the ball is bowled directly at the batter's feet as a surprise delivery intended to dismiss the batter [[bowled]], and the [[bouncer (cricket)|bouncer]] in which the ball is bowled on such a short length that it rises towards the batter's throat or head as a means of physical intimidation. But the height of an attempted yorker or [[full toss]] must not be higher than the batter's waist, or else it will be called a no-ball [[Beamer (cricket)|beamer]], which could have bowlers banned from the match.

The line a bowler chooses to bowl will depend on several factors: the movement he is generating on the ball, the shots the batter is able to play, and the field the captain has set. The two most common tactics are to either bowl directly at the stumps, or to bowl 3 inches to 6 inches outside the line of off stump. Bowling at the stumps is an attacking tactic with the intention of dismissing the batter [[bowled]] or [[Leg before wicket|lbw]]. It can also be used as a defensive tactic, as the batter will feel less able to play risky shots knowing that he will be dismissed should he miss the ball. Bowling outside off stump is known as ''the corridor of uncertainty''. When done well, this line may confuse the batter into whether to defend the ball or leave it, and may tempt him to play away from his body with his head not in line with the ball. The main aim of this tactic is to dismiss the batter caught by the [[Wicket-keeper|wicketkeeper]] or in the [[slip (cricket)|slip]]s. Other bowling variations, such as bowling wide of off stump or bowling at leg stump are generally seen as negative and defensive tactics.

Some different types of bowling tactic:
*[[Bodyline]]
*[[Leg theory]]
*[[Off theory]]

===Pace and movement===
Other than the ability to land the ball on a strategically optimum line and length, the main weapons of the bowler are his ability to move the ball sideways as it approaches the batter and his ability to deliver the ball at a high velocity.

The velocities of cricket bowlers vary between {{convert|40|and|100|mph|0|abbr=on}}. In professional cricket, a bowler in the 40–60 mph range would be said to be a slow bowler, in the 60–80 mph range a medium pace bowler, and a bowler 80 mph+ a fast bowler. In the amateur game, these distinctions would be approximately 10 mph slower. Many professional fast bowlers are able to reach speeds of over 85 mph, with a handful of bowlers in the world able to bowl at 95 mph+. The ability to react to a cricket ball travelling at 85 mph is a skill that only professional and high level amateur cricketers possess. The pace of a bowler not only challenges the reaction speed of the batter, but also his physical courage. Fast bowlers are able to exploit this by bowling bouncers, either regularly or as an occasional surprise delivery.

Bowlers are also able to get the ball to move sideways by using either ''spin'' or ''swing''. Adding a spin to a cricket ball will make it deviate due to the [[Magnus effect]] in its flight (like a [[slider (pitch)|slider]] in baseball), and then produce sideways movement off the ground. Swing is obtained by using air pressure differences caused by angling the seam of the cricket ball to produce a lateral movement in the air. Fast bowlers will generally only use swing to obtain movement, but medium pace and slow bowlers will often use a combination of the two. The intention is that in creating movement in the delivery, the batter will misjudge the line of the ball as it arrives, causing him to miss it entirely, in which case he may be dismissed bowled or lbw, or miss-hit it, in which case he may be out caught.

To avoid becoming predictable, a bowler will typically bowl a variety of different deliveries with different combinations of pace and movement. A tactically astute bowler may be able to spot a potential weakness in a batter that a particular delivery may be able to exploit. Bowlers will often also bowl deliveries in preplanned sets, with the intention of dismissing the batter with the final delivery in the set. This is known as "setting a trap" for the batter.<ref>{{Cite web|title=England v Sri Lanka: Story of day five at Lord's|url=https://www.skysports.com/cricket/news/12123/10312877/england-v-sri-lanka-story-of-day-five-at-lords|access-date=2020-09-11|website=Sky Sports|language=en}}</ref> batters and bowlers will often also engage in a game of "cat and mouse", in which the bowler varies his tactics to try and trap and dismiss the batter, but the batter also keeps adjusting his tactics in response.

== Limited overs ==

In [[limited overs cricket]], there is a limitation on the number of overs each bowler can bowl. This number depends on the match length, and is usually 20% of the total overs in the [[innings]]. For example, the usual limit for twenty-over cricket is four overs per bowler, for forty-over cricket eight per bowler and for fifty-over cricket ten per bowler. There is, however, no limit on the number of overs each bowler may bowl in [[first-class cricket]] matches, except that no two overs can be bowled consecutively thus restricting any one bowler from a maximum of 50% (plus 1 over) of each innings total. The rule also applies in terms of breaks within a Test innings (Drinks, Lunch and Tea breaks, end of day and beginning of next day). The rule can only be broken if one finishes the end of the previous match starts the next match.

==See also==
{{Commons category|Bowling (cricket)}}
* [[Glossary of cricket terms]]
* [[Throwing (cricket)|Throwing]]
* [[Bowling machine]]
* [[Fielding (cricket)|Fielding]]
* [[Batting (cricket)]]
* [[Over (cricket)|Over]]
* [[Pitch (baseball)|Pitch]] – ''throwing a baseball''

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Cricket positions}}

==Further reading==
* https://www.britannica.com/sports/bowling-cricket

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bowling (Cricket)}}
[[Category:Bowling (cricket)| ]]
[[Category:Cricket terminology]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Cricket]]

Periyar and Tamil grammar

2026-03-13T18:03:56Z

ShivaniSikri: created new post!

{{Short description|Dravidian social reformer (1879–1973)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2020}}
[[File:PeriyarEVRStamp.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Periyar]]]]
{{Periyar}}
[[Periyar]] (17 September 1879 – 24 December 1973) was a [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] [[social reformer]] and politician from [[India]], who founded the [[Self-Respect Movement]] and [[Dravidar Kazhagam]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Political Ideas in Modern India: thematic explorations |author1=Thomas Pantham |author2=Vrajendra Raj Mehta |author3=Vrajendra Raj Mehta |year= 2006|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=0761934200|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KJejtAaonsEC&q=%22Self-respect+movement%22&pg=PA48}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Political Theory and Political Thought |author= N.D. Arora/S.S. Awasthy|year= 2007|isbn=978-8124111642|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=szBpnYfmH0cC&q=%22Self-respect+movement%22&pg=PA425}}</ref><ref name="Thakurta-1">Thakurta, Paranjoy Guha and Shankar Raghuraman (2004) ''A Time of Coalitions: Divided We Stand'', Sage Publications. New Delhi, p. 230.</ref> Periyar placed great importance on the [[Tamil language]] for its benefit and upliftment to the [[Tamil people]] and advocated for its preservation.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}}.

In the wake of the imposition of [[Hindi]] throughout the Indian sub-continent and in [[Tamil Nadu]], Periyar stated that "the [[love]] of one's tongue is the foremost of all loves that are required of the people born in our land. He said that has no love for his tongue has no love for his land. A nation functions on the basis for the love of one's language. So it is my prayer that Tamils love for their tongue should grow. I affirm again and again that love of the [[mother-tongue]] is a must for those born in Tamil Nadu. The [[Bengali people|Bengalis]] love [[Bengali language|Bengali]]. The [[Marathi people|Maharashtrians]] love for the [[Marathi language]]. The [[Telugu people|Andhras]] love the [[Telugu language]]. But the [[Tamil people|Tamils]] have no love for the Tamil-tongue. The [[Tamil people|Tamils]] will never progress unless they bestow love on their mother-tongue. If I love Tamil, it is not merely because it is the mother-tongue or the language of the Tamil Nadu State. Nor am I attached to Tamil by reason of its uniqueness or its antiquity. If I love Tamil, it is because I am aware of the advantages I expect through it and the measure of loss that will occur by the absence of it".{{Citation needed|date=January 2026}}

==Critique of the Tamil language==
{{Dravidian politics-col}}
Periyar raised praises and criticisms of Tamil and other Dravidian languages by stating "as I am aware of the [[disadvantage]]s of another language being imposed on our country, I am intolerant of it and oppose it, I do not resist it merely because it is new or it belongs to another land. It is my opinion that the Tamil language is capable of contributing to the [[Social progress|progress]] and [[Freedom (philosophy)|freedom]] of the people in all fields, and will be conductive to a life of dignity and reason. However, people may ask whether all such resources are available in Tamil. Even if all these qualities are not found, I am aware that Tamil has arts, customs, traditions, and an appropriate vocabulary, which can contribute to a greater advancement than most other languages in India. Therefore, other languages that are likely to cause disadvantage to Tamil is unwelcome".<ref name="Veeramani-3">Veeramani, ''Collected Works of Periyar'', pp. 550-552.</ref>

Periyar claimed that [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Malayalam]], and [[Kannada]] came from the same tongue, or same mother language of [[Old Tamil#Old Tamil|Old Tamil]]. He explained that the Tamil language is called by four different names since it is spoken in four different Dravidian states, and thus she has four different names. With relation to writing, Periyar stated that using the Tamil script about the arts which are useful to the people in their life and which foster knowledge, talent and courage, and propagating them among the masses, thereby will enlighten the people. Further, he explained that it will enrich the language, and thus it can be regarded as a zeal for Tamil.<ref name="Veeramani-3"/> Periyar believed that Tamil language will make the Dravidian people unite under the banner of Tamil culture, and that it will make the Kannadigas, Andhras and the Malayalees be vigilant. With regards to a Dravidian alliance under a common umbrella language, Periyar stated that "a time will come for unity. This will go on till there is an end to the North Indian domination. We shall reclaim an independent [[sovereign state]] for us".<ref name="Veeramani-1">Veeramani, [January 1981](2005) ''Collected Works of Periyar E.V.R.'', Third Edition, Chennai. The Periyar Self-Respect Propaganda Institution, p. 503.</ref>

Periyar was also known to have issued controversial remarks on Tamil language and Tamil people from time to time. On one occasion, he referred to Tamil people as "barbarians"<ref name="periyar_antitamilremarks_thehindu">{{cite news | last=Raghavan | first=B. S. | title=Thanthai Periyar | date=9 October 2000 | url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/businessline/2000/10/09/stories/040955of.htm | work=The Hindu Business Line | accessdate=2008-10-27 | url-status=usurped | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011123031012/http://www.hinduonnet.com/businessline/2000/10/09/stories/040955of.htm | archivedate=23 November 2001 }}</ref> and Tamil language as the "language of barbarians".<ref name="periyar_antitamilremarks_thehindu" /><ref name="periyar_antitamilremarks_indiatoday">{{cite news | last=S. Ramaswamy | first=Cho | authorlink=Cho Ramaswamy | title=E.V. Ramaswami Naicker and C.N. Annadurai | url=http://www.india-today.com/itoday/millennium/100people/durai.html | work=India Today: 100 people of the millennium | accessdate=2008-10-27 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024183112/http://www.india-today.com/itoday/millennium/100people/durai.html | archivedate=2008-10-24 }}</ref><ref name="periyar_antitamilremarks_newstoday">{{cite news|last=Sundaram |first=V. |title=The boy who gives a truer picture of 'Periyar' |date=6 March 2006 |url=http://www.newstodaynet.com/2006sud/06mar/0803ss1.htm |work=News Today |accessdate=2008-10-27 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020232217/http://www.newstodaynet.com/2006sud/06mar/0803ss1.htm |archivedate=20 October 2008 }}</ref><ref name="periyar_bio1">{{Cite book| title=Periyar E. V. Ramaswamy: A Proper Perspective D.G.S. ; [with an Introd. by Avvai. Sambandan]| last=Dasgupta| first=Shankar| year=1975| pages= 24| publisher=Vairam Pathippagam}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Opinion pieces quoting without primary link|date=February 2026}} However, Anita Diehl explains that Periyar made these remarks on Tamil because it had no respective feminine verbal forms.<ref name="Diehl-3.2"/>

==Tamil alphabet reform==
Periyar took the Tamil reformation ideas suggested by Tamil scholars and implemented in his Viduthalai journal on [[Tamil script|Tamil alphabet]] reforms and his reasons were for the following such as the vowel 'ஈ' (i), having a cursive and looped representation of the short form, 'இ' (I). In [[vatteluttu|stone inscriptions]] of 400 or 500 years ago, many [[Tamil script|Tamil letters]] are found in other shapes. As a matter of necessity and advantage to cope with the printing technology, Periyar thought that it was sensible to change a few letters, reduce the number of letters, and alter a few signs. He further explained that the older and the more divine a language and its letters were said to be, they need reform. Because of changes brought about by means of modern transport and international contact, and happenings that have attracted words and products from many countries, foreign words and their pronunciations have been assimilated into Tamil quite easily. Just as a few compound characters have separate signs to indicate their length as in ' கா ', ' கே ' (kA:, kE:), Periyar argued why should not other compound characters like ' கி ', ' கீ ', 'கு ', ' கூ ' (kI, ki:,kU, ku:) (indicated integrally as of now), also have separate signs. Further, changing the shape of letters, creating new symbols and adding new letters and similarly, dropping those that are redundant, were quite essential according to Periyar. Thus, the [[Recognition (sociology)|glory]] and excellence of a language and its script depend on how easily they can be understood or learned and on nothing else".<ref name="Diehl-3.2">Diehl, ''E.V. Ramasamy Vengayam-Periyar'', p. 61.</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/periyar-was-critical-of-tamil-he-also-rationalised-it/articleshow/119177334.cms Periyar was critical of Tamil, he also rationalised it] - [[The Times of India]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Periyar E. V. Ramasamy And Tamil Grammar}}
[[Category:Tamil language]]
[[Category:Periyar E. V. Ramasamy]]

Muddupalani

2026-03-12T04:37:22Z

ShivaniSikri: improved information further

{{Short description|18th-century Telugu poet and scholar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
[[File:Costumes de Differents Pays, 'Bayadere' LACMA M.83.190.203.jpg|thumb|303x303px|Contemporary depiction of an 18th century [[Devadasi]]]]
'''Muddupalani''' ({{floruit|{{circa|1750}}}}) was a [[Telugu language|Telugu speaking]] [[poetry|poet]] and ''[[devadasi]]'' attached to the court of [[Pratap Singh of Thanjavur|Pratap Singh]] (1739–63), the [[Thanjavur Maratha kingdom|Maratha king]] of [[Thanjavur|Tanjore]]. Some commentators date her life to 1739-90, and her place of birth as [[Munagapaka|Nagavasram]] in [[Thanjavur district]].<ref>Muddupalani. (2011). ''Radhika Santwanam—The Appeasement of Radhika''. Trans. Sandhya Mulchandani. New Delhi: Penguin, p. xi.</ref> She is noted as a poet and scholar and particularly for her erotic epic ''[[Rādhikā-sāntvanam]]'' ("Appeasing Radha").

==Life==
[[File:Pratap Singh of Thanjavur.jpg|thumb|Pratap Singh of Thanjavur|280x280px]]
Muddupalani was well versed in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Sanskrit]] literature, was an accomplished dancer, and came from a ''devadasi'' family:<ref>Pran Nevile, "[http://www.tribuneindia.com/1999/99dec12/sunday/head3.htm The courtesan was also a scholar]", ''[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]]'', 12 December 1999, accessed 8 December 2010; Paromita Bose, ‘"Devadasi" Reform in Colonial South India: The Case of ''Radhika Santwanam'' ’, in ''Transcultural Negotiations of Gender'', ed. by S. Bhaduri and I. Mukherjee (Springer India, 2016), pp. 115-21 (p. 116). DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2437-2_11.</ref>

<blockquote>Muddupalani was the granddaughter of an exceptionally gifted courtesan called [[Tanjanayaki]], who was not only a talented musician but was also adept at the [[Rasa (aesthetics)|nava rasas]]. At her soirees, where music and conversation flowed, she entertained learned scholars and aristocrats. But ... she longed to have children. She adopted a boy and a girl, children of [[Ayyavaya]], a man she considered her brother. She raised the young boy, whom she named [[Muthyalu]], to adulthood, and got him married to another talented and beautiful courtesan called [[Rama Vadhuti]]. A staunch devotee of Lord [[Kartikeya|Subramanya Swami]], Muthyalu named his first-born daughter after the temple town of [[Palani]] where stands a famous temple dedicated to the beautiful warrior son of Lord Shiva. Keeping the surname Muddu before the name, a general practice in the south, Muddupalani was thus born into an extremely talented, artistic and devout household.<ref>Muddupalani. (2011). ''Radhika Santwanam—The Appeasement of Radhika''. Trans. Sandhya Mulchandani. New Delhi: Penguin, pp. xi-xii.</ref></blockquote>

She became one of the consorts of Pratap Singh,<ref>Muddupalani. (2011). ''Radhika Santwanam—The Appeasement of Radhika''. Trans. Sandhya Mulchandani. New Delhi: Penguin, p. xii.</ref> whose court was noted for its patronage of the arts, and whose predecessors included [[Raghunatha Nayak]] (r. 1600-34), whose court also played host to numbers of skilled female poets and musicians, such as [[Ramabhadramba]] and [[Madhuravani]]:

<blockquote>Unlike a family woman in her time, as a courtesan Muddupalani would have had access to learning and the leisure to write and practise the arts. She would have owned property and expected and enjoyed functional equality with men. Obviously, the esteem in which Muddupalani was held and the acclaim her work received can be attributed as much to the contexts, literary and social, she drew upon as to her own talent.<ref>''Women Writing in India: 600 B. C. to the Present'', ed. by Susie Tharu and K. Lalita, 2 vols (London: Pandora, 1991), I 6.</ref></blockquote>

The ''Rādhikā-sāntvanam'' seems to reflect Muddupalani's own experiences of sexual and interpersonal relationships:<ref>''Women Writing in India: 600 B. C. to the Present'', ed. by Susie Tharu and K. Lalita, 2 vols (London: Pandora, 1991), I 117.</ref>

<blockquote>apparently, her grandmother Tanjanayaki too had been a consort of the king, displaced by Muddupalani. After a few years, when the king renewed his attentions towards the older woman, the young and petulant Muddupalani is said to have become progressively jealous and taciturn, leaving the king no option but to appease her.<ref>Muddupalani. (2011). ''Radhika Santwanam—The Appeasement of Radhika''. Trans. Sandhya Mulchandani. New Delhi: Penguin, pp. xii-xiii.</ref></blockquote>

Little more is known of Muddupalani's life, beyond what can be gleaned from the ''Rādhikā-sāntvanam'', in which she says

::Which other woman of my kind has
::felicitated scholars with such gifts and money?
::To which other women of my kind have
::epics been dedicated?
::Which other woman of my kind has
::won such acclaim in each of the arts?
::You are incomparable,
::Muddupalani, among your kind.
::[...]
::A face that glows like the full moon,
::skills of conversation, matching the countenance.
::Eyes filled with compassion,
::matching the speech.
::A great spirit of generosity,
::matching the glance.
::These are the ornaments
::that adorn Palani,
::when she is praised by kings.<ref>''Women Writing in India: 600 B. C. to the Present'', ed. by Susie Tharu and K. Lalita, 2 vols (London: Pandora, 1991), I 116-17.</ref>

==Works==
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Krishna and Radha Seated on a Terrace.jpg|thumb|Brooklyn Museum - Krishna and Radha Seated on a Terrace]]
Her best-known work is ''[[Rādhikā-sāntvanam]]'' ("Appeasing Radha"), an [[love poetry|erotic]] [[narrative poem]] that deals with the marital relationship of the deity [[Krishna]], his female friend [[Radha]] and new wife [[Ila (Hinduism)|Ila]], and the appeasement of the jealousy of Radha. Much later it was added that she received the concept of this poem when Krishna visited her in a dream and suggested that she write about the subject.<ref>Velcheru Narayana Rao and David Shulman, ''Classical Telugu Poetry: An Anthology'', "Muddupalani", pp. [http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=kt096nc4c5&chunk.id=ch24&toc.id=ch13&brand=ucpress 293-296]</ref> The poem became the subject of a censorship controversy in the early 20th century, because of its sexual frankness, and especially, because it portrayed its women characters as taking the initiative in sex.<ref>Susie J. Tharu and Ke Lalita, ''Women Writing in India: 600 B.C. to the early twentieth century'' (Feminist Press, 1991; {{ISBN|1-55861-027-8}}), pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=u297RJP9gvwC&dq=Radhika+Santwanam&pg=PA118 116-119]</ref>

Muddupalani's other well-known work is ''[[Ashtapadi (Muddupalani)|Ashtapadi]]'', a [[Telugu language|Telugu]] translation of [[Jayadeva]]'s eponymous work.<ref>{{cite book|last=Luniya|first=Bhanwarlal Nathuram |title=Life and culture in medieval India|year=1978|publisher=Kamal Prakashan|page=159|oclc=5749542}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Madhavananda|first1=Swami|last2=Majumdar|first2=Ramesh Chandra|title=Great women of India|year=1982|publisher=Advaita Ashrama|pages=338–339|oclc=9702931}}</ref> She also translated the ''[[Thiruppavai]]'' by [[Andal]],<ref>Paromita Bose, ‘"Devadasi" Reform in Colonial South India: The Case of ''Radhika Santwanam'' ’, in ''Transcultural Negotiations of Gender'', ed. by S. Bhaduri and I. Mukherjee (Springer India, 2016), pp. 115-21 (p. 116). DOI 10.1007/978-81-322-2437-2_11.</ref> and experimented with a form called ''saptapadalu'', seven-lined songs, none of which survive.<ref>''Women Writing in India: 600 B. C. to the Present'', ed. by Susie Tharu and K. Lalita, 2 vols (London: Pandora, 1991), I 118.</ref>

''Rādhikā-sāntvanam'' was translated into Tamil by D.Uma Devi from university of Delhi.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{MarathaEmpire}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Telugu poets]]
[[Category:Indian women poets]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian poets]]
[[Category:18th-century Indian women writers]]
[[Category:Women from the Maratha Empire]]
[[Category:Poets from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:People from Thanjavur]]
[[Category:Writers from Thanjavur district]]
[[Category:Indian courtesans]]

Nagarjuna (actor)

2026-03-07T17:45:29Z

ShivaniSikri:

{{short description|Indian actor and film producer (born 1959)}}
{{Family name hatnote|Akkineni|lang=Telugu}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Nagarjuna
| image = Nagarjuna Akkineni at ANR Awards.jpg
| caption = Nagarjuna in 2024
| birth_name = Akkineni Nagarjuna
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1959|8|29}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/akkineni-nagarjuna-rings-in-56th-birthday-in-thailand/ |title=Akkineni Nagarjuna rings in 56th birthday in Thailand |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=29 August 2015 |access-date=8 June 2019}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Madras]] (present-day Chennai), [[Madras State]], India
| alma_mater = [[Eastern Michigan University]] (B.S.)
| occupation = {{flatlist|
*Actor
*film producer
*entrepreneur}}
| works = [[Nagarjuna filmography|Full list]]
| awards = [[List of awards and nominations received by Nagarjuna|Full list]]
| yearsactive = 1961–present
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Lakshmi Daggubati|1984|reason=divorced|1990}}
* {{marriage|[[Amala Akkineni]]|1992}}
}}
| children = {{hlist|[[Naga Chaitanya]]|[[Akhil Akkineni]]}}
| father = [[Akkineni Nageswara Rao]]
| family = See [[Daggubati-Akkineni family]]
}}
'''Akkineni Nagarjuna'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nagarjuna Akkineni: From being born into a successful film family to forging his own path; lesser-known facts about the star |url=https://www.ottplay.com/photo-gallery/nagarjuna-akkineni-from-being-born-into-a-successful-film-family-to-forging-his-own-path-lesser-known-facts-about-the-star/f09b3e11bf58 |access-date=29 August 2025 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref> (born 29 August 1959) is an Indian actor best known for his works primarily in [[Telugu cinema]], as well as in a few [[Hindi cinema|Hindi]] and [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]] films.<ref>{{cite news |title=Discovering South India's richest actors: A closer look at Prabhas, Ram Charan, Nagarjuna, and Rajinikanth's net worth |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/life/lifestyle-discovering-south-indias-richest-actors-a-closer-look-at-prabhas-ram-charan-nagarjuna-and-rajinikanth-3427839/ |work=The Financial Express |date=22 March 2024 |access-date=28 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Top 7 richest South Indian actors 2024: Nagarjuna Akkineni to Thalapathy Vijay |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/top-7-richest-south-indian-actors-2024-nagarjuna-akkineni-to-thalapathy-vijay-1347498 |work=Pinkvilla |date=12 September 2024 |access-date=16 October 2024}}</ref> He has appeared in [[Nagarjuna filmography|over 90 films]] and is a recipient of two [[National Film Awards]] for ''[[Ninne Pelladata (1996 film)|Ninne Pelladata]]'' (1996) and ''[[Annamayya (film)|Annamayya]]'' (1997). Nagarjuna has also won ten [[Nandi Awards]] and three [[Filmfare Awards South]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Shrikrishna |first=Aditya |date=21 October 2019 |title=Beyond Bollywood: The biggest icons of the south film industry |url=https://www.vogue.in/magazine-story/south-indian-film-industry-rajnikanth-chiranjeevi-mammootty-shobana/ |magazine=Vogue |access-date=27 September 2021}}</ref> In 2013, he represented the [[Cinema of South India]] at the Delhi Film Festival's 100 Years of Indian Cinema's celebration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://movies.ndtv.com/bollywood/delhi-festival-to-celebrate-100-years-of-indian-cinema-359259 |title=NDTV Movies |work=ndtv.com}}</ref> In 1995, he ventured into film production, with a production unit operating in [[Seychelles]], and was a co-director of an [[Emmy Award]]-winning film animation company called Heart Animation.<ref name="45thawardPDF">{{cite web |url=http://dff.nic.in/2011/45th_NFA.pdf |title=45th National Film Awards |publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]] |access-date=11 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029193927/http://dff.nic.in/2011/45th_NFA.pdf |archive-date=29 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Nagarjuna is the co-owner of [[Annapurna Studios]] and is also the president of the non-profit film school [[Annapurna College of Film and Media]] based in [[Hyderabad]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/I-need-a-break-Nagarjuna/articleshow/12742767.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521135318/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-04-20/news-interviews/31373291_1_nagarjuna-naga-chaitanya-sri-ramadasu |url-status=live |archive-date=21 May 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=I need a break: Nagarjuna |date=20 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2010/12/01/stories/2010120151451900.htm |title=Nagarjuna is brand ambassador for Kalyan Jewellers |work=Business Line |date=1 December 2010 |access-date=24 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120231825/http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2010/12/01/stories/2010120151451900.htm |archive-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/article2217811.ece |location=Chennai, India |work=The Hindu |title=Swept away by 'Nag' magic |date=11 July 2011}}</ref>

In 1989, Nagarjuna starred in the [[Mani Ratnam]]-directed [[romantic drama film]] ''[[Geethanjali (1989 film)|Geetanjali]]'', which won the [[National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment|National Film Award for Best Popular Film]]. In the same year, he appeared in the commercially successful ''[[Siva (1989 Telugu film)|Siva]]'', an [[action film]] directed by [[Ram Gopal Varma]]; featured at the [[13th International Film Festival of India|13th IFFI' 90]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Chinnarayana |first=Pulagam |url=http://s1056.photobucket.com/user/PavanJandhyala/library/Siva?sort=3&page=1 |title=శివ{{mdash}}సెల్యులాయిడ్ చరిత్రలో సహజావేశం |trans-title=Siva{{mdash}}A natural frustration in the history of celluloid |language=Telugu |date=August 2007 |magazine=[[Telugu Naadi (magazine)|Telugu Naadi]] |issn=1559-7008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160531122221/http://s1056.photobucket.com/user/PavanJandhyala/library/Siva?sort=3&page=1 |archive-date=31 May 2016 |access-date=9 April 2016 |page=54}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=International Film Festival of India 1990 |url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm13IIFAAward.aspx?PdfName=13IIFA.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420093021/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm13IIFAAward.aspx?PdfName=13IIFA.pdf |archive-date=20 April 2016 |access-date=17 April 2016 |publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]}}</ref> Nagarjuna made his [[Bollywood]] debut with the 1990 Hindi remake of ''[[Shiva (1990 film)|Shiva]]''. Known by his works in [[biographical films]], he played 15th-century composer [[Annamacharya]] in ''[[Annamayya (film)|Annamayya]]'' (1997), Yavakri (the son of the ascetic [[Bharadvaja]]) in ''[[Agni Varsha]]'' (2002), Major [[Padmapani Acharya]] in the [[war film]] ''[[LOC: Kargil]]'' (2003), 17th-century composer [[Kancherla Gopanna]] in ''[[Sri Ramadasu]]'' (2006), [[Suddala Hanmanthu]] in ''[[Rajanna]]'' (2011), [[Sai Baba of Shirdi]] in ''[[Shirdi Sai]]'' (2012), Chandaludu in ''[[Jagadguru Adi Shankara]]'' (2013), and [[Hathiram Bhavaji]] in ''[[Om Namo Venkatesaya]]'' (2017).<ref>{{cite news |author=Suresh Krishnamoorthy |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/at-the-end-of-the-day-nag-wants-to-feel-good/article4667516.ece |title=At the end of the day, Nag wants to feel good |work=The Hindu |date=30 April 2013 |access-date=25 August 2013 |location=Chennai, India}}</ref>

Nagarjuna has largely starred in action films in a variety of roles, establishing himself as an action star with works such as '' [[Aranyakanda (film)|Aranyakanda]]'' (1986), ''[[Aakhari Poratam]]'' (1988), ''[[Vicky Daada]]'' (1989), ''[[Siva (1989 Telugu film)|Siva]]'' (1989), ''[[Neti Siddhartha]]'' (1990), ''[[Chaitanya (film)|Chaitanya]]'' (1991), ''[[Nirnayam (1991 film)|Nirnayam]]'' (1991), ''[[Antham]]'' (1992), ''[[Killer (1992 film)|Killer]]'' (1992), ''[[Khuda Gawah]]'' (1992), ''[[Rakshana]]'' (1993), ''[[Varasudu]]'' (1993), ''[[Hello Brother (1994 film)|Hello Brother]]'' (1994), ''[[Govinda Govinda (1994 film)|Govinda Govinda]]'' (1994), ''[[Criminal (1994 film)|Criminal]]'' (1994), ''[[Ratchagan]]'' (1997), ''[[Azad (2000 film)|Azad]]'' (2000), ''[[Sivamani (film)|Sivamani]]'' (2003), ''[[Mass (2004 film)|Mass]]'' (2004), ''[[Super (2005 film)|Super]]'' (2005), ''[[Don (2007 film)|Don]]'' (2007), ''[[King (2008 film)|King]]'' (2008), ''[[Wild Dog (film)|Wild Dog]]'' (2021), ''[[Brahmāstra: Part One – Shiva|Brahmastra]]'' (2022), ''[[Naa Saami Ranga]]'' (2024), ''[[Kuberaa]] '' (2025) and ''[[Coolie (2025 film)|Coolie]]'' (2025).

== Early life and family ==
Akkineni Nagarjuna was born on 29 August 1959 at St. Isabel's Hospital in [[Madras]] (present-day Chennai),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nagarjuna Akkineni: From being born into a successful film family to forging his own path; lesser-known facts about the star |url=https://www.ottplay.com/photo-gallery/nagarjuna-akkineni-from-being-born-into-a-successful-film-family-to-forging-his-own-path-lesser-known-facts-about-the-star/f09b3e11bf58 |access-date=29 August 2025 |website=OTTPlay |language=en}}</ref> into a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] speaking family of veteran actor [[Akkineni Nageswara Rao]] and Annapurna ([[née]] Kollipara ) . He was the youngest of 5 kids . His family hails from [[Ramapuram (Venkata Raghava Puram)|Ramapuram]] in [[Krishna District]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Naidu |first1=T. Appala |last2=Varma |first2=P. Sujatha |date=22 January 2014 |title=Visitors throng ANR's home at Ramapuram |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada//article60352813.ece |work=The Hindu |access-date=23 July 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

The family later moved to Hyderabad, where he did his schooling in [[Hyderabad Public School]] and [[Twelfth Grade#India|intermediate education]] from [[Little Flower Junior College]], [[Hyderabad]]. He completed the first year of his [[Mechanical Engineering]] undergraduation at the [[College of Engineering, Guindy]], [[Anna University]] in Madras,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thebetterindia.com/153870/college-engineering-guindy-chennai-news/ |title=India's Oldest Engineering College Turns 225: 6 Alumni Who Have Made Guindy Proud! |publisher=The Better India |author=Vidya Raja |date=31 July 2018}}</ref> where former Indian cricketer [[Krishnamachari Srikkanth|Krishnamachari Srikanth]] was his college mate. He then transferred to [[Eastern Michigan University]] in [[Ypsilanti, Michigan]] where he earned a Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://spawnofmzone.blogspot.in/2009/09/know-your-foe-eastern-michigan-2009.html |location=Ypsilanti, MI |work=[[Eastern Michigan University]] newsletter |title=Know your Foe – Eastern Michigan 2009, famous alums, Indian actor Nagarjuna Akkineni |date=18 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/I-chose-life-over-Bollywood-Nagarjuna/articleshow/6147698.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106154151/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-11/news-interviews/28294835_1_telugu-superstar-bus-rides-discipline |url-status=live |archive-date=6 November 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=I chose life over Bollywood: Nagarjuna |date=11 July 2010}}</ref>

== Career ==
{{Main|Nagarjuna filmography}}

===1961–1988: Early career and success===

Nagarjuna stepped into the field of acting as an infant in the movie ''[[Velugu Needalu]]'' (1961).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/movies/nagarjuna-turns-65-telugu-cinema-icons-top-movies-songs-and-family-life-9025172.html|title = Nagarjuna Turns 65: Telugu Cinema Icon's Top Movies, Songs and Family Life}}</ref> He began acting as a child artist in ''[[Sudigundalu]]'' (1967) directed by [[Adurthi Subba Rao]]. Both movies starred his father [[Akkineni Nageswara Rao]] in the lead role.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ottplay.com/photo-gallery/nagarjuna-akkineni-from-being-born-into-a-successful-film-family-to-forging-his-own-path-lesser-known-facts-about-the-star/f09b3e11bf58|title = Nagarjuna Akkineni: From being born into a successful film family to forging his own path; lesser-known facts about the star}}</ref> Years later he made his debut as a lead actor through the 1986 Telugu film ''[[Vikram (1986 Telugu film)|Vikram]]'', directed by [[V. Madhusudhana Rao]]. It is the remake of the 1983 [[Hindi film]] ''[[Hero (1983 film)|Hero]]''. The film was a success, giving Nagarjuna a good start. Later, he starred in films like ''[[Majnu (1987 film)|Majnu]]'', directed by [[Dasari Narayana Rao]], which was well received. Nagarjuna got positive reviews for his portrayal of a heartbroken man. He then starred in ''[[Sankeertana]]'', a below average grosser directed by debutant [[Geetha Krishna]] with music by [[Ilaiyaraaja]]. The film was appreciated for its content and music. In 1988, he starred in the blockbuster ''[[Aakhari Poratam]]'', scripted by [[Yandamuri Veerendranath]], and directed by [[K. Raghavendra Rao]] where he was paired opposite [[Sridevi]] and [[Suhasini Maniratnam|Suhasini]]. In 1988, he starred in ''[[Janaki Ramudu]]'' alongside [[Vijayashanti]] was directed again by K. Raghavendra Rao.

===1989–1999: Breakthrough and Stardom===

In 1989, he starred in the [[Mani Ratnam]]-directed [[Romantic drama film|romantic drama]] ''[[Geethanjali (1989 film)|Geetanjali]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/features/geethanjali-movie-telugu-mani-ratnam-nagarjuna-ilayaraaja-finding-the-roots-of-mani-ratnams-geethanjali|title = Finding The Roots Of Mani Ratnam's Geethanjali| date=22 June 2021 }}</ref> The film won the [[National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment]] in 1990. Immediately, he saw another success, ''[[Siva (1989 Telugu film)|Siva]]''. This film marked the debut of director [[Ram Gopal Varma]]. This film is considered a trendsetter in Telugu cinema, and made Nagarjuna a superstar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scroll.in/reel/837747/film-flashback-shiva-from-the-days-when-ram-gopal-varma-was-truly-great|title = Film flashback: 'Shiva', from the days when Ram Gopal Varma was truly great| date=16 May 2017 }}</ref> In 1990, he subsequently made his [[Bollywood]] debut with the Hindi remake of the same film titled ''[[Shiva (1990 film)|Shiva]]''. Even the Hindi version saw huge box-office success. He followed it up with sub fare like ''[[Prema Yuddham]]'', ''[[Iddaru Iddare]]'' and ''[[Nirnayam (1991 film)|Nirnayam]]''. He then starred in ''[[Jaitra Yatra]]'', for which he received critical acclaim.

He followed it up with box office hits like ''[[Nirnayam (1991 film)|Nirnayam]]'' (1991), ''[[Killer (1992 film)|Killer]]'' (1992) and working with eminent directors such as [[Fazil (director)|Fazil]] and [[Priyadarshan]]. Nagarjuna was fondly called "Celluloid Scientist" for his nature of experimenting with different scripts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/bio-data/bio-nag.html|title = Nag's Bio-Data}}</ref> Some of his prominent hit films released subsequently included ''[[President Gari Pellam]]'' (1992), ''[[Varasudu]]'' (1993), ''[[Allari Alludu]]'' (1993), ''[[Hello Brother (1994 film)|Hello Brother]]'' (1994) and ''[[Gharana Bullodu]]'' (1995). Many of his films were also dubbed into Tamil.

[[File:Telugu actor Nagarjuna and Narendra Modi.jpg|thumb|250 px|left|Nagarjuna seen with Indian prime minister [[Narendra Modi]]]]

He starred in his first Hindi-Telugu bilingual ''[[Criminal (1994 film)|Criminal]]'' directed by [[Mahesh Bhatt]]. In 1996, Nagarjuna starred opposite actress [[Tabu (actress)|Tabu]] and produced ''[[Ninne Pelladata (1996 film)|Ninne Pelladata]]'', directed by [[Krishna Vamsi]]. The movie won the [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Telugu]] and [[Filmfare Award for Best Film – Telugu]]. The next year, Nagarjuna acted in ''[[Annamayya (film)|Annamayya]]'' (1997), in which he portrayed the role of [[Annamacharya]], a 15th-century Telugu singer and poet.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aninews.in/news/entertainment/out-of-box/celebrating-nagarjuna-akkineni-5-best-performances-of-the-legendary-actor20240829153839/|title =Celebrating Nagarjuna Akkineni: 5 best performances of the legendary actor}}</ref> This won him his [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu]] and his first [[Nandi Award for Best Actor]]. He also received a [[National Film Award – Special Mention (feature film)|National Award]] for this role. Later that year, he starred in the Tamil film ''[[Ratchagan]]'', directed by [[Praveen Gandhi]]. In 1998, he appeared in the romantic comedy ''[[Aavida Maa Aavide]]'' and then plays as lead role in the Hindi action ''[[Angaaray (1998 film)|Angaaray]]'' with [[Akshay Kumar]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://filmyfocus.com/movies/aavida-maa-aavide|title =Aavida Maa Aavide}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/1998/jul/22ang.htm|title =It's cool in the underworld}}</ref> He co-starred with [[Ajay Devgn]] in the drama film ''[[Zakhm]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/1998/dec/28zak.htm|title =Hate, love and god}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.rediff.com/movies/1998/jul/22ang.htm|title =It's cool in the underworld}}</ref> In 1999, he was seen in two films ''[[Seetharama Raju]]'' and ''[[Ravoyi Chandamama]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://filmyfocus.com/movies/seetharama-raju|title =Seetharama Raju}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-ravoyi.html|title =Movie review - Ravoyi Chandamama - A review}}</ref>

===2000–2010: Diverse roles and continued successes===

His subsequent releases were Tamil remakes ''[[Nuvvu Vasthavani]]'' (2000), ''[[Ninne Premistha]]'' (2000) and ''[[Snehamante Idera]]'' (2001). Followed by Malalayam remakes ''[[Bava Nachadu]]'' (2001) and ''[[Adhipathi]]'' (2001). He starred in romantic comedies such as ''[[Santosham (2002 film)|Santosham]]'', ''[[Manmadhudu]]'', and ''[[Sivamani (film)|Sivamani]]''. He produced ''[[Satyam (2003 film)|Satyam]]'' in 2003, which starred his nephew [[Sumanth]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-satyam.html|title =Movie review - Sathyam}}</ref> In 2004, Nagarjuna had two releases, ''[[Nenunnanu]]'' and ''[[Mass (2004 film)|Mass]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-mass.html|title =Movie review - Nenunnanu}}</ref> The latter was produced by Nagarjuna and directed by choreographer [[Raghava Lawrence]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-nenunnanu.html|title =Movie review - Mass }}</ref>
In 2005, Nagarjuna acted in and produced ''[[Super (2005 film)|Super]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/news/functions/pressmeet-super.html|title =Super}}</ref> In 2006, he starred in ''[[Sri Ramadasu]]'', his second period film based on the 18th-century Telugu Saint / poet of the same name.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sri Ramadasu floors them all |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/04/15/stories/2006041503530200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060515163313/http://www.hindu.com/2006/04/15/stories/2006041503530200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 May 2006 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=15 April 2006 |access-date=2 March 2010 |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Nagarjuna received the [[Nandi Award for Best Actor]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/news/2000march20/nandiawards2006.html|title =Nandi Awards 2006}}</ref> In 2007, he appeared in ''[[Don (2007 film)|Don]]'' <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2007/dec/21don.htm|title =Nagarjuna rocks in Don}}</ref> and a year later, he appeared in ''[[King (2008 film)|King]]'' alongside [[Trisha (actress)|Trisha]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-king.html|title =Telugu Movie review - King}}</ref> In 2010, he had the films ''[[Kedi (2010 film)|Kedi]]'' and ''[[Ragada]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-kedi.html|title =Telugu Movie review - Kedi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-ragada.html|title =Telugu Movie review - Ragada}}</ref>

===2011–present===

In 2011, he appeared in the action thriller ''[[Gaganam]]''. The Tamil version was titled ''[[Payanam (2011 film)|Payanam]]''. He was seen also in the period action film in ''[[Rajanna]]''<ref>{{cite news |title=Nagarjuna Rajanna movie details |url=http://cinema.currentweek.net/2011/04/nagarjunas-rajanna-set-caught-fire-rs.html |access-date=7 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110415040114/http://cinema.currentweek.net/2011/04/nagarjunas-rajanna-set-caught-fire-rs.html |archive-date=15 April 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2012, Nagarjuna) appears as [[Sai Baba of Shirdi|Sai Baba]] in ''[[Shirdi Sai]]'' and then action fantasy film ''[[Damarukam]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-shirdisai.html|title =Telugu Movie review - Shirdi Sai}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/mr-dhamarukam.html|title =Telugu Movie review - Dhamarukam}}</ref> His next film ''[[Greeku Veerudu]]'' (2013) alongside [[Nayanthara]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.idlebrain.com/movie/archive/greekuveerudu.html|title =Greeku Veerudu}}</ref> His next ''[[Bhai (2013 film)|Bhai]]'' was a disaster at the box office.<ref>[http://www.ifilmish.com/nag-looks-handsome-in-love-story/ Nagarjuna's Love Story] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231011736/http://www.ifilmish.com/nag-looks-handsome-in-love-story/ |date=31 December 2012 }} ifilmish.com</ref> In 2014, Nagarjuna starred in the blockbuster family drama, ''[[Manam (film)|Manam]]'', directed by [[Vikram Kumar]]. He had a dual role in ''[[Soggade Chinni Nayana]]'' (2016), which turned out to be one of his biggest blockbusters. Later he played a cripple in [[Vamshi Paidipally]]'s bilingual film ''[[Oopiri]]'', which Starred [[Karthi]]. This movie which was a hit. In 2017, he played a devotional role in the film ''[[Om Namo Venkatesaya]]''. It garnered average reviews from critics and turned out to be a disaster. He then starred in a horror film titled ''[[Raju Gari Gadhi 2]]'' (2017), which had an average run at the box office. In 2018, he starred in the film ''[[Officer (2018 film)|Officer]]'' directed and produced by [[Ram Gopal Varma]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/reviews/story/officer-movie-review-nagarjuna-ram-gopal-varma-1248073-2018-06-01|title =Officer Movie Review: Dull cop story from RGV and Nagarjuna|date =June 2018}}</ref> In 2018, the action comedy ''[[Devadas (2018 film)|Devadas]]'', alongside [[Nani (actor)|Nani]] was released to positive reviews.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/movie-reviews/300918/devadas-movie-review-its-nag-and-nani-show-completely.html|title =Devadas movie review: It's Nag and Nani show completely|date =30 September 2018}}</ref> In 2019, he was seen in the romantic comedy ''[[Manmadhudu 2]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/manmadhudu-2-review-excellent-nagarjuna-and-rakul-preet-drive-a-passable-entertainer-1579206-2019-08-09|title =Manmadhudu 2 Review: Excellent Nagarjuna and Rakul Preet drive a passable entertainer|date =9 August 2019}}</ref>

The next film, Nagarjuna delivers a fine performance in the action thriller, ''[[Wild Dog (film)|Wild Dog]]'' (2021). He plays alongside his son [[Naga Chaitanya]] in ''[[Bangarraju]]'' (2022).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmcompanion.in/reviews/bangarraju-movie-review-a-sequel-that-delivers-on-mass-but-drags-its-plot-nagarjuna-naga-chaitanya|title =Bangarajju Movie Review: An Inconsistent Mix of Mass And Drama That Works Only In Parts|date =14 January 2022}}</ref> Then, he acted in the Hindi fantasy action-adventure ''[[Brahmāstra: Part One – Shiva]]'' (2022).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/movie-reviews/brahmastra-part-one-shiva/movie-review/94089269.cms|title =Brahmastra Part One: Shiva Movie Review : Ranbir Kapoor and Alia Bhatt starrer superhero adventure plays with fire|work =The Times of India}}</ref> Next, Nagarjuna played as Interpol officer in the action thriller ''[[The Ghost (2022 film)|The Ghost]]'' (2022).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/the-ghost/movie-review/94657124.cms|title =The Ghost Movie Review : Nagarjuna and Sonal Chauhan shine in this half-baked film|work =The Times of India}}</ref> In 2024, ''[[Naa Saami Ranga]]'' marks a triumphant comeback for Akkineni Nagarjuna.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/naa-saami-ranga/movie-review/106831833.cms|title =Naa Saami Ranga Movie Review : Nagarjuna's wholesome entertainer enlivens Sankranti spirit|work =The Times of India}}</ref> The next, Nagarjuna plays a former CBI officer who descends into crime after witnessing injustice for years in the bilingual film, ''[[Kuberaa]]'' (2025) starring with [[Dhanush]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/telugu/kuberaa-nagarjuna-clarifies-real-hero-remark-after-backlash-says-not-dhanush-this-film-belongs-to-article-152132030|title = Kuberaa: Nagarjuna Clarifies 'Real Hero' Remark After Backlash, Says 'Not Dhanush, This Film Belongs To...' | date=23 June 2025 }}</ref> Follow-up to the Tamil film, ''[[Coolie (2025 film)|Coolie]]'' (2025) playing the villain, starring [[Rajinikanth]] in the lead role and directed by [[Lokesh Kanagaraj]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/telugu-cinema/nagarjuna-says-his-role-in-coolie-is-too-bad-to-tell-his-grandchildren-lokesh-kanagaraj-rajinikanth-101754981625327.html|title = Nagarjuna says his role in Coolie is 'too bad' to tell his grandchildren: 'It took Lokesh 7–8 meetings to convince me' | date=12 August 2025 }}</ref>

== Other work ==
=== Television ===
[[File:Nagarjuna Indian badminton league 13.jpg|thumb|250 px|upright|right|Co-owner Nagarjuna during Mumbai Masters Match at Indian Badminton League 2013]]
Nagarjuna made his début as a television producer in 2009 with the soap opera ''[[Yuva]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nagarjuna launches 'Yuva' |url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/11/20/stories/2007112059490200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203191852/http://www.hindu.com/2007/11/20/stories/2007112059490200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 December 2007 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=20 November 2007 |access-date=2 March 2010 |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> He was a major shareholders of the television channel [[Maa TV]] before it was sold to the Star Network.<ref>{{cite news |title=Actor Nagarjuna to focus on entertainment biz |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2007/12/20/stories/2007122051572300.htm |work=[[Business Line]] |date=20 December 2007 |access-date=2 March 2010}}</ref> Nagarjuna hosted the Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language version of ''[[Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?]]'' titled ''[[Meelo Evaru Koteeswarudu]]''. The first season of the show was telecast on [[MAA TV]] from 9 June 2014 to 7 August 2014 (40 episodes). The second season was also showcased on [[MAA TV]] from 9 December 2014 to 27 February 2015 (55 episodes).<ref name="Nagarjuna to host Telugu KBC">{{cite news |title=Nagarjuna to host Telugu KBC |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/nagarjuna-to-host-telugu-kbc/article5928383.ece |access-date=28 February 2021 |work=The Hindu |date=19 April 2014 |language=en-IN}}</ref> In 2015, he was honoured with the Entertainment Leader Award (Television) for his work in the show at the [[TV5 (India)|TV5]] Business Leaders Awards ceremony.<ref>{{cite news |title=Entertainment Leader Award to Actor Nagarjuna |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2015/apr/26/entertainment-leader-award-to-actor-nagarjuna-747242.html |access-date=28 February 2021 |work=The New Indian Express |date=26 April 2015}}</ref> He had hosted the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh season of [[Bigg Boss (Telugu TV series)|''Bigg Boss'']] in 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022 and 2023 and the First Season of [[Bigg Boss Non-Stop (season 1)| ''Bigg Boss Non Stop'']] in 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bigg Boss Telugu Season 5 new promo: Nagarjuna promises an end to boredom, watch |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/bigg-boss-telugu-season-5-new-promo-nagarjuna-promises-an-end-to-boredom-7453934/ |access-date=15 August 2021 |work=The Indian Express |date=15 August 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Ownerships, endorsements and earnings ===

Since 2013, he is a co-owner of the [[Mumbai Masters]] of the [[Indian Badminton League]], along with [[Sunil Gavaskar]], and of the [[Mahi Racing Team India]], along with [[MS Dhoni]].<ref name="Nagarjuna to host Telugu KBC" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/badminton/Sunil-Gavaskar-and-actor-Nagarjuna-buy-Mumbai-franchise-of-IBL/articleshow/21130311.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130721064540/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-07-18/badminton/40656495_1_indian-badminton-league-ibl-team-nagarjuna |url-status=live |archive-date=21 July 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Sunil Gavaskar and actor Nagarjuna buy Mumbai franchise of IBL |date=18 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=After Megastar its now Superstar |url=http://www.cinesprint.com/tollywood/hot-gossips/467-after-megastar-its-now-superstar.html |website=cinesprint.com |access-date=7 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808044721/http://www.cinesprint.com/tollywood/hot-gossips/467-after-megastar-its-now-superstar.html|archive-date=8 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nagarjuna currently endorses [[Kalyan Jewellers]] in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} He was listed as No. 36 and No. 43 in ''[[Forbes]] India''{{'}}s top 100 Celebrities for the years 2012 and 2013 respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://forbesindia.com/profile/nagarjuna/114 |title=Nagarjuna |work=forbesindia.com|access-date=4 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129011640/http://forbesindia.com/profile/nagarjuna/114|archive-date=29 January 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news-interviews/Pawan-Kalyan-tops-Forbes-list-in-Tollywood/articleshow/27299856.cms |title=Pawan Kalyan tops Forbes list in Tollywood |work=The Times of India|date=15 January 2017 }}</ref> He is one of the co-owners of the [[Indian Super League]] club [[Kerala Blasters FC]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Chiranjeevi, Nagarjuna to co-own Sachin's Kerala Blasters |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/sports/chiranjeevi-nagarjuna-to-coown-sachins-kerala-blasters/article8676707.ece |access-date=18 August 2019 |work=@businessline |date=1 June 2016}}</ref>

=== N3 Realty Enterprises ===
Nagarjuna is the founding partner of N3 Realty Enterprises, the parent entity for N-Convention center, N-Grill and District N. The later two establishments are now non-existent. In 2014, advocate-general K. Ramakrishna Reddy believed that the N Convention is an unauthorised and illegal structure.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/140703/nation-current-affairs/article/n-convention-centre-legal-opinion-sought |title=N Convention Centre: Legal opinion sought |work=Deccan Chronicle |date=3 July 2014}}</ref> Subsequently, through legal opinions, a correction path of the land was initiated by the local administrators.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/n-convention-on-correction-path/article6209269.ece |title=N Convention on 'correction' path? |newspaper=The Hindu |date=14 July 2014 |last1=Singh |first1=T. Lalith}}</ref> On 24 August 2024, the Hyderabad Disaster Response and Asset Monitoring and Protection (HYDRAA) demolished the N-Convention centre citing encroachment of adjacent lake.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Bommala |first1=Nabinder |date=24 August 2024 |title=Nagarjuna's N-Convention encroached 1.12 acres: HYDRAA |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/southern-states/telangana/nagarjunas-n-convention-encroached-112-acres-hydraa-1818776 |work=Deccan Chronicle |access-date=24 August 2024}}</ref> However, Nagarjuna has clarified in a statement that the land on which N-convention has been built is a Patta Documented land and not even one cent of the land beyond that has been encroached upon.<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 August 2024 |title=Nagarjuna addresses 'Exaggerated' rumors on N-Convention demolition, clarifies land dispute |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/nagarjuna-addresses-exaggerated-rumors-on-n-convention-demolition-clarifies-land-dispute/articleshow/112825896.cms |access-date=29 August 2025 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> In a press conference, former member of the Lok Sabha, Balka Suman said that Nagarjuna's N-Convention center was demolished because Nagarjuna refused to pay a bribe of Rs. 400 crore as demanded by Chief Minister Revanth Reddy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Srinivas |first=Dr Veena |date=18 September 2024 |title=నాగార్జునను సీఎం రేవంత్ రెడ్డి 400 కోట్లు డిమాండ్ చేశారా! |url=https://telugu.oneindia.com/news/telangana/revanth-reddy-asked-nagarjuna-for-400-crores-balka-suman-sensational-comments-404097.html |access-date=29 August 2025 |website=telugu.oneindia.com |language=te}}</ref>

== Philanthropy ==
Nagarjuna, along with his wife Amala, are co-founders of [[Blue Cross of Hyderabad]], recognised by the [[Animal Welfare Board of India]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bluecrosshyd.in/team.php |title=Our Team – Blue Cross Of Hyderbad |work=bluecrosshyd.in |access-date=26 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804000535/http://www.bluecrosshyd.in/team.php |archive-date=4 August 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Blue Cross of Hyderabad – The Team |url=http://www.bluecrosshyd.in/team.php |work=Blue Cross of Hyderabad |date=26 January 2011 |access-date=26 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804000535/http://www.bluecrosshyd.in/team.php |archive-date=4 August 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is a non-government organisation (NGO) in Hyderabad, which works for the welfare of animals. Nagarjuna was also involved in welfare programs undertaken by the [[MAA TV]] association, and presently serves as the brand ambassador for HIV/AIDS awareness campaigns.<ref>{{cite news |title=Maa Tv associationTeam |url=http://www.hindu.com/2011/01/23/stories/2011012360940200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128065253/http://www.hindu.com/2011/01/23/stories/2011012360940200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 January 2011 |date=26 January 2011 |access-date=26 January 2011 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> In 2010, he starred in an [[HIV/AIDS]] animated software tutorial created by [[TeachAids]], a nonprofit founded at [[Stanford University]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Animation lessons on HIV/AIDS awareness released |url=http://www.hindu.com/2010/11/27/stories/2010112765081200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204231641/http://www.hindu.com/2010/11/27/stories/2010112765081200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 December 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=27 November 2010 |access-date=1 December 2010 |location=Chennai, India}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
In February 1984, Nagarjuna married Lakshmi Daggubati, the daughter of [[D. Ramanaidu]], a prominent film-maker, and sister of the actor [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]] and producer [[D. Suresh Babu|Suresh Babu]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Who is Lakshmi Daggubati? Naga Chaitanya's mother and interior designer whose saree gift to Sobhita Dhulipala is talk of the town |work=Pinkvilla |access-date=25 October 2024 |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/who-is-lakshmi-daggubati-naga-chaitanyas-mother-and-interior-designer-whose-saree-gift-to-sobhita-dhulipala-is-talk-of-the-town-1354592}}</ref> Lakshmi and Nagarjuna have one son, actor [[Naga Chaitanya]] born on 23 November 1986.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Happy birthday, Naga Chaitanya! From 'Ye Maaya Chesave' to 'Manam', a look at the star's most successful films |work=Economic Times |date=23 November 2022 |access-date=29 November 2022 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/happy-birthday-naga-chaitanya-from-ye-maaya-chesave-to-manam-a-look-at-the-stars-most-successful-films/articleshow/95707987.cms}}</ref> However, the couple got divorced in 1990. Nagarjuna then married actress [[Amala Akkineni|Amala]] on 11 June 1992,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/hyderabad-times/A-day-in-the-life-of-Amala-Akkineni/articleshow/1612443872.cms |title=A day in the life of Amala Akkineni |work=The Times of India |date=19 December 2001 |access-date=16 August 2015 |archive-date=10 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810235836/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/hyderabad-times/A-day-in-the-life-of-Amala-Akkineni/articleshow/1612443872.cms |url-status=live}}</ref> and the couple have one son, actor [[Akhil Akkineni|Akhil]], born on 8 April 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/akhil-akkineni-theres-no-guarantee-for-success/article7846059.ece?secpage=true&secname=entertainment|title=Akhil Akkineni: There's no guarantee for success|accessdate=15 November 2015|author=Sangeetha Devi Dundoo|work=The Hindu |date=5 November 2015 }}</ref>

== Accolades ==
{{Main|List of awards and nominations received by Nagarjuna}}

Nagarjuna has been the recipient of two [[National Film Awards]], ten [[Nandi Awards]] and three [[Filmfare Awards South]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Nagarjuna Akkineni |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/nagarjuna-akkineni |access-date=7 April 2020 |work=India Today |language=en |archive-date=7 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407070807/https://www.indiatoday.in/nagarjuna-akkineni |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|id=0015459}}
* [https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/celebrity/nagarjuna/ Nagarjuna] at [[Bollywood Hungama]]

{{Nagarjuna (actor)}}
{{Bigg Boss Telugu}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Nagarjuna}}
[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Akkineni–Daggubati family|Nagarjuna]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Telugu film producers]]
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[[Category:Eastern Michigan University alumni]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Andhra Pradesh]]
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Partition of India

2026-03-07T13:32:59Z

ShivaniSikri: Improved article clarity and structure

{{Short description|1947 division of British India}}
{{protection padlock|small= yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox historical event
| image = Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = The prevailing religions of the British Indian Empire based on the Census of India, 1901
| Location = [[British India]]{{efn|name=bi}}
| Date = August 1947
| Result = [[Partition (politics)|Partition]] of [[British Raj|British Indian Empire]] into independent dominions the [[Dominion of India|Union of India]] and the [[Dominion of Pakistan]] and [[Refugee crisis|refugee crises]]
| fatalities = 200,000–2 million{{sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=2}}{{efn|"The death toll remains disputed with figures ranging from 200,000 to 2 million."{{sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=2}}}}
| displaced = 12–20 million displaced<ref name="Springer Science & Business Media">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tGiSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6|title=Population Redistribution and Development in South Asia|last=|first=|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2012|isbn=978-9400953093|location=|page=6}}</ref>{{efn|name=Displacement}}
| URL =
}}

The '''partition of India''' in 1947 was the division of [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]]{{efn|name=bi|British India consisted of the [[Presidencies and provinces of British India]], those regions of the [[British Raj|British Indian Empire]] which were directly administered by Britain; other regions, of nominal sovereignty, many of which were indirectly ruled by Britain, were called [[princely state]]s.}} into two independent dominion states, the [[Dominion of India|Union of India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Partition (n), 7. b |publisher=Oxford English Dictionary |edition=3rd |year=2005 |quote=The division of British India into India and Pakistan, achieved in 1947.}}</ref> The Union of India is today the [[Republic of India]], and the Dominion of Pakistan is the [[Islamic Republic of Pakistan]] and the [[People's Republic of Bangladesh]]. The [[Partition (politics)|partition]] involved the division of two provinces, [[Bengal]] and the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]], based on district-wide non-Muslim (mostly [[Hindu]] and [[Sikh]]) or [[Muslim]] majorities. It also involved the division of the [[British Indian Army]], the [[Royal Indian Navy]], the [[Indian Civil Service]], the [[History of rail transport in India|railways]], and the central treasury, between the two new dominions. The partition was set forth in the [[Indian Independence Act 1947]] and resulted in the end of the [[British Raj]], or Crown rule in India. The two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August 1947.

With the partition of British India and withdrawal of the British from the Indian subcontinent, the Indian Independence Act provided that the princely states were released from their [[subsidiary alliance]]s and other obligations to the British, while the British withdrew from their obligations to the states, leaving the rulers to decide whether to [[Instrument of accession|accede]] to India or Pakistan or to remain independent outside both.<ref>[[Ishtiaq Ahmed (political scientist)|Ishtiaq Ahmed]], ''State, Nation and Ethnicity in Contemporary South Asia'' (London & New York, 1998), p. 99</ref> [[Sardar Patel]] said in a speech in January 1948, "On the lapse of Paramountcy, every Indian State became a separate independent entity."<ref>R. P. Bhargava, ''The Chamber of Princes'' (Northern Book Centre, 1991) [https://books.google.com/books?id=BAQgNE1uSEgC&pg=PA313 p. 313]</ref> The [[Political integration of India|political integration]] of the princely states into the two new dominions was begun by many accessions in August 1947, but mostly it followed on later. Critically, the rulers of the states of [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], and others, chose independence.<ref>{{citation |first=Lucien D. |last=Benichou |title=From Autocracy to Integration: Political Developments in Hyderabad State, 1938–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Loiq3YrFy40C |date=2000 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-1847-6 |page=229, 230}}</ref>

The partition displaced between 12 and 20 million people along religious lines,{{efn|name=Displacement}} creating overwhelming refugee crises associated with the [[mass migration]] and [[population transfer]] that occurred across the newly constituted dominions; there was large-scale violence, with disputed estimates of the loss of life before, at the time of, or following the partition. As of 2009, the estimates still varied between two hundred thousand and two million.{{sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=2}}{{efn|"The death toll remains disputed to this day with figures ranging from 200,000 to 2 million."{{sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=2}}}} The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphere of hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan that plagues [[Indo-Pakistani relations]] to the present.

The term ''partition of India'' does not cover the earlier separations of [[Burma]] (now [[Myanmar]]) and [[Dominion of Ceylon|Ceylon]] (now [[Sri Lanka]]) from the administration of British India.{{efn|Coastal Ceylon, part of the [[Madras Presidency]] of British India from 1796, became the separate [[crown colony]] of [[British Ceylon]] in 1802. Burma, gradually annexed by the British during 1826–86 and governed as a part of the British Indian administration until 1937, was [[Separation of Burma|directly administered]] thereafter.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,788006,00.html Sword For Pen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117060229/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,788006,00.html |date=17 January 2008 }}, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', 12 April 1937</ref> Burma was granted independence on 4 January 1948 and Ceylon on 4 February 1948. (See [[History of Sri Lanka]] and [[History of Burma]].)}} It does not cover the incorporation of the enclaves of [[French India]] into India during the period 1947–1954, nor the annexation of [[Goa]] and other districts of [[Portuguese India]] by India in 1961. Other contemporaneous political entities in the region in 1947, such as [[Sikkim]], [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], and the [[Maldives]], were unaffected by the partition.{{efn|The Himalayan kingdom of [[Sikkim]] was established as a [[princely state]] after the ''Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty'' of 1861, however, the issue of sovereignty was left undefined.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sikkim |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-46212 |year=2008}}</ref> In 1947, Sikkim became an independent kingdom under the [[suzerainty]] of India and remained so until 1975 when it was absorbed into India as the 22nd state. Other Himalayan kingdoms, [[Nepal]] and [[Bhutan]], having signed treaties with the British designating them as ''independent states'', were not a part of British India.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23632 Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. "Nepal."], [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-25008 Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. "Bhutan."]</ref> The Indian Ocean archipelago of [[The Maldives]], became a [[protectorate]] of the [[British crown]] in 1887 and gained its independence in 1965.}}

The [[Bangladesh Liberation War|secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan]] in 1971 was a later partition of Pakistan, and not of India.

==Background==
{{See also|Islam in South Asia}}

===Pre-World War II (1905–1938)===

====Partition of Bengal: 1905====
{{main|Partition of Bengal (1905)}}

<gallery mode="packed" height="152">
File:Hindu percent 1909.jpg|1909 percentage of Hindus.
File:Muslim percent 1909.jpg|1909 percentage of Muslims.
File:Sikhs buddhists jains percent1909.jpg|1909 percentage of Sikhs, Buddhists, and Jains.
</gallery>
[[File:British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg|thumb|British Indian Empire in ''[[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]]'', 1909. [[British India]] is shaded pink, the [[Princely state|princely states]] yellow.]]
In 1905, during his second term as [[Governor-General of India|viceroy of India]], [[Lord Curzon]] divided the [[Bengal Presidency]]—the largest [[Administrative division|administrative subdivision]] in British India—into the Muslim-majority province of [[Eastern Bengal and Assam]] and the Hindu-majority province of [[Bengal]] (present-day Indian states of [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], and [[Odisha]]).<ref name="spear176">{{harvnb|Spear|1990|p=176}}</ref> Curzon's act, the [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|partition of Bengal]]—which had been contemplated by various colonial administrations since the time of [[Lord William Bentinck]], though never acted upon—was to transform [[Nationalism|nationalist]] politics as nothing else before it.<ref name="spear176" />

The Hindu elite of Bengal, many of whom owned land that was leased out to Muslim [[peasant]]s in East Bengal, protested strongly. The large [[Bengali Hindus|Bengali-Hindu]] [[Indian middle class|middle-class]] (the ''[[Bhadralok]]''), upset at the prospect of Bengalis being outnumbered in the new Bengal province by [[Biharis]] and [[Oriyas]], felt that Curzon's act was punishment for their political assertiveness.<ref name="spear176" /> The pervasive protests against Curzon's decision predominantly took the form of the ''[[Swadeshi movement|Swadeshi]]'' ('buy Indian') campaign, involving a boycott of British goods. Sporadically, but flagrantly, the protesters also took to [[political violence]], which involved attacks on civilians.<ref>{{harvnb|Spear|1990|p=176}}, {{harvnb|Stein|2010|pp=280–281}}, {{harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=193}}, {{harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=156}}</ref> The violence was ineffective, as most planned attacks were either prevented by the British or failed.<ref name="bandyo260" /> The rallying cry for both types of protest was the slogan ''[[Vande Mataram|Bande Mataram]]'' ([[Bengali language|Bengali]], {{Literal translation|Hail to the Mother}}), the title of a song by [[Bankim Chandra Chatterjee]], which invoked a [[mother goddess]], who stood variously for Bengal, India, and the Hindu goddess [[Kali]].<ref name="ludden193">{{harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=193}}</ref> The unrest spread from [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcutta's English-educated students returned home to their villages and towns.<ref name="ludden199">{{harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=199}}</ref> The religious stirrings of the slogan and the political outrage over the partition were combined as young men, in such groups as [[Jugantar]], took to [[bomb]]ing public buildings, staging armed robberies,<ref name="bandyo260">{{harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=260}}</ref> and [[Assassination|assassinating]] British officials.<ref name="ludden193" /> Since Calcutta was the imperial capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became known nationally.<ref name="ludden193" />

The overwhelming, predominantly-Hindu protest against the partition of Bengal, along with the fear of reforms favouring the Hindu majority, led the Muslim elite of India in 1906 to the new viceroy [[Lord Minto]], asking for separate electorates for Muslims. In conjunction, they demanded representation in proportion to their share of the total population, reflecting both their status as former rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This would result{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} in the founding of the [[All-India Muslim League]] in [[Dhaka|Dacca]] in December 1906. Although Curzon by now had returned to England following his resignation over a dispute with his military chief, [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]], the League was in favor of his partition plan.<ref name="ludden199" /> The Muslim elite's position, which was reflected in the League's position, had crystallized gradually over the previous three decades, beginning with the [[1871 Census of India|1871 Census of British India]],{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} which had first estimated the populations in regions of Muslim majority.<ref name="ludden200">{{harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=200}}</ref> For his part, Curzon's desire to court the Muslims of East Bengal had arisen from British anxieties ever since the 1871 census, and in light of the history of Muslims fighting them in the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|1857 Rebellion]] and the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]].{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

In the three decades since the 1871 census, Muslim leaders across [[North India]] had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups.<ref name="ludden200" /> The [[Arya Samaj]], for example, had not only supported the [[cow protection movement]] in their agitation,<ref>{{harvnb|Stein|2010|p=266}}</ref> but also—distraught at the census' Muslim numbers—organized "reconversion" events for the purpose of welcoming Muslims back to the Hindu fold.<ref name="ludden200" /> In the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]], Muslims became anxious in the late-19th century as Hindu political representation increased, and Hindus were politically mobilized in the [[Hindi–Urdu controversy]] and the anti-cow-killing riots of 1893.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=20}} In 1905, Muslim fears grew when [[Lokmanya Tilak|Tilak]] and [[Lala Lajpat Rai|Lajpat Rai]] attempted to rise to leadership positions in the Congress, and the Congress itself rallied around the symbolism of Kali.<ref name="ludden201" /> It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the ''bande mataram'' rallying cry had first appeared in the novel ''[[Anandmath]]'' in which Hindus had battled their Muslim oppressors.<ref name="ludden201">{{harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=201}}</ref> Lastly, the Muslim elite, including [[Dhaka Nawab Family|Nawab of Dacca]], [[Khwaja Salimullah]], who hosted the League's first meeting in his mansion in [[Shahbag]], were aware that a new province with a Muslim majority would directly benefit Muslims aspiring to political power.<ref name="ludden201" />

====World War I, Lucknow Pact: 1914–1918====
{{Main|Lucknow Pact}}

[[File:Indiantroops medical ww1.jpg|thumb|Indian medical orderlies attending to wounded soldiers with the ''Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force'' in [[Mesopotamia]] during [[World War I]].]]

[[File:Gandhi back in india1915.gif|thumb|[[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]] (seated in the carriage, on the right, eyes downcast, with black flat-top hat) receives a big welcome in Karachi in 1916 after his return to India from South Africa.]]

[[File:Jinnah lucknow pact1916.jpg|thumb|[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], seated, third from the left, was a supporter of the Lucknow Pact, which, in 1916, ended the three-way rift between the Extremists, the Moderates and the League.]]

[[World War I]] would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the [[British Indian Army]] would take part in the war, and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers from [[dominion]]s like Canada and Australia, would travel to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by the new medium of the radio.<ref name="brown-p197-198">{{harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=197–198}}</ref> India's international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s.<ref name="brown-p197-198" /> It was to lead, among other things, to India, under its name, becoming a [[League of Nations members#1920: founder members|founding member]] of the [[League of Nations]] in 1920 and participating, under the name, "Les Indes Anglaises" (British India), in the [[1920 Summer Olympics]] in Antwerp.<ref>[http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1920/1920.pdf Olympic Games Antwerp 1920: Official Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505163318/http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1920/1920.pdf |date=5 May 2011 }}, Nombre de bations representees, p. 168. Quote: "31 Nations avaient accepté l'invitation du Comité Olympique Belge: ... la Grèce – la Hollande Les Indes Anglaises – l'Italie – le Japon ..."</ref> Back in India, especially among the leaders of the [[Indian National Congress]], it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians.<ref name="brown-p197-198" />

The [[Lucknow Pact|1916 Lucknow Session]] of the Congress was also the venue of an unanticipated mutual effort by the Congress and the Muslim League, the occasion for which was provided by the wartime partnership between Germany and Turkey. Since the Ottoman Sultan, also held guardianship of the Islamic holy sites of [[Mecca]], [[Medina]], and [[Jerusalem]], and, since the British and their allies were now in conflict with the Ottoman Empire, doubts began to increase among some Indian Muslims about the "religious neutrality" of the British, doubts that had already surfaced as a result of the [[Partition of Bengal (1905)#Reunited Bengal (1911)|reunification of Bengal]] in 1911, a decision that was seen as ill-disposed to Muslims.<ref name="brown-p200-201">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=200–201}}</ref> In the Lucknow Pact, the League joined the Congress in the proposal for greater self-government that was campaigned for by Tilak and his supporters; in return, the Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in the provincial legislatures as well as the Imperial Legislative Council. In 1916, the Muslim League had anywhere between 500 and 800 members and did not yet have its wider following among Indian Muslims of later years; in the League itself, the pact did not have unanimous backing, having largely been negotiated by a group of "Young Party" Muslims from the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]] (UP), most prominently, the brothers [[Mohammad Ali Jauhar|Mohammad]] and [[Maulana Shaukat Ali|Shaukat Ali]], who had embraced the Pan-Islamic cause.<ref name="brown-p200-201" /> It gained the support of a young lawyer from Bombay, [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], who later rose to leadership roles in the League and the Indian independence movement. In later years, as the full ramifications of the pact unfolded, it was seen as benefiting the Muslim minority elites of provinces like UP and Bihar more than the Muslim majorities of Punjab and Bengal. At the time, the "Lucknow Pact" was an important milestone in nationalistic agitation and was seen so by the British.<ref name="brown-p200-201" />

====Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms: 1919====
[[Secretary of State for India]] [[Edwin Samuel Montagu|Montagu]] and [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy]] [[Frederic John Napier Thesiger, 3rd Baron Chelmsford|Lord Chelmsford]] presented a report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter.<ref name="brown-p205-207">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=205–207}}</ref> After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee to identify who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the [[Government of India Act of 1919]] (also known as the [[Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms]]) was passed in December 1919.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> The new Act enlarged both the provincial and [[Imperial Legislative Council|Imperial]] legislative councils and repealed the Government of India's recourse to the "official majority" in unfavourable votes.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications, and income-tax were retained by the [[Governor-General of India|viceroy]] and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land-revenue, local self-government were transferred to the provinces.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new [[Diarchy|dyarchical]] system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps.

A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> Seats were also reserved for non-[[Brahmin]]s, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principle of "communal representation", an integral part of the [[Indian Councils Act 1909|Minto–Morley Reforms]], and more recently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for [[Muslims]], [[Sikhs]], [[Christianity in India|Indian Christians]], [[Anglo-Indians]], and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and imperial legislative councils.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> The Montagu–Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level, though restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control.<ref name="brown-p205-207" />

====Introduction of the two-nation theory: 1920s====
{{main|Two-nation theory}}

The ''two-nation theory'' is the assertion, based on the former Indian Muslim ruling class' sense of being culturally and historically distinct, that Indian [[Hindus]] and Muslims are two distinct nations.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-78yjVybQfkC&q=The+Idea+of+Pakistan |page=36 |quote=Thus the idea of Pakistan rests on the elite Indian muslim sense of being culturally and historically distinct |title=the Idea of Pakistan |author=Stephen P. Cohen |date=2004 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9780815797616}}</ref><ref name="winks2001">Talbot, Ian. 1999. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=eEd7tQEACAAJ&pg=PA253 Pakistan's Emergence]." Pp. 253–63 in ''[[The Oxford History of the British Empire|The Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography]]'', edited by [[Robin Winks|R. W. Winks]]. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-820566-1}}. {{OCLC|1036799442}}.</ref><ref name="khan1940">{{cite book |last1=Ambedkar |first1=B. R. |author1-link=B. R. Ambedkar |title=Pakistan or the Partition of India |url=https://archive.org/details/pakistanorthepar035378mbp/page/349/mode/1up |year=1946 |orig-year=First published 1940 |edition=3rd |publisher=Thacker & Co. Ltd. |page=349 |quote=There is much in the Musalmans which, if they wish, can roll them into a nation. But isn't there enough that is common to both Hindus and Musalmans, which if developed, is capable of moulding them into one people? Nobody can deny that there are many modes, manners, rites and customs which are common to both. Nobody can deny that there are rites, customs and usages based on religion which do divide Hindus and Musalmans. The question is, which of these should be emphasized}}</ref> It argued that religion resulted in cultural and social differences between Muslims and Hindus.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JSHFDgAAQBAJ |title=Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 Volumes] |author=Cenap Çakmak |date=2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=866 |isbn=9781610692175}}</ref> While some professional Muslim Indian politicians used it to secure or safeguard a large share of political spoils for the Indian Muslims with the withdrawal of British rule, others believed the main political objective was the preservation of the cultural entity of Muslim India.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=APLmIxRyEjEC&dq=barani+two+nation+theory&pg=PA16 |title=Two Nations: The Philosophy of Muslim Nationalism |author=Anil Chandra Banerjee |date=1981 |publisher=Concept}}</ref> The two-nation theory was a founding principle of the [[Pakistan Movement]] (i.e., the ideology of [[Pakistan]] as a Muslim [[nation-state]] in South Asia), and the partition of India in 1947.<ref name="Two-Nation Theory Exists">{{cite news |title=Two-Nation Theory Exists |newspaper=Pakistan Times |url=http://www.pakistantimes.net/2007/04/03/oped2.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111023629/http://www.pakistantimes.net/2007/04/03/oped2.htm |archive-date=11 November 2007}}</ref>

[[Theodore Beck]], who played a major role in founding of the [[All-India Muslim League]] in 1906, was supportive of two-nation theory. Another British official supportive of the theory includes [[Theodore Morison]]. Both Beck and Morison believed that parliamentary system of majority rule would be disadvantageous for the Muslims.<ref name="Ahmed 2020">{{cite book | last=Ahmed | first=I. | title=Jinnah: His Successes, Failures and Role in History | publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited | year=2020 | isbn=978-93-5305-664-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1hP9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT118 | access-date=11 July 2023 | pages=117–118}}</ref>

[[Arya Samaj]] leader [[Lala Lajpat Rai]] laid out his own version of two-nation theory in 1924 to form "a clear partition of India into a Muslim India and a non-Muslim India". Lala believed in partition in response to the riots against Hindus in Kohat, [[North-West Frontier Province]] which diminished his faith in Hindu-Muslim unity.<ref name="Ahmed 2020"/><ref name="Hoodbhoy">{{cite book | last=Hoodbhoy | first=P. | title=Pakistan: Origins, Identity and Future | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2023 | isbn=978-1-000-85667-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MgSqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT231 | access-date=11 July 2023 | page=231}}</ref><ref name="Bonney 2004">{{cite book | last=Bonney | first=R. | title=Three Giants of South Asia: Gandhi, Ambedkar, and Jinnah on Self-determination | publisher=Media House | series=South Asian history academic papers | year=2004 | isbn=978-81-7495-174-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SpmpK8hgbkkC&pg=PA7 | access-date=11 July 2023 | page=7}}</ref>

[[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]] had initially proposed an embryonic form of the two-nation theory in his 1923 ideological pamphlet ''[[Essentials of Hindutva]]''. The pamphlet served as the founding text of [[Hindutva]], a [[Hindu nationalism|Hindu nationalist]] ideology.<ref name="Bapu">{{cite book | last=Bapu | first=Prabhu | title=Hindu Mahasabha in Colonial North India, 1915-1930: Constructing Nation and History | publisher=Routledge | series=Online access with subscription: Proquest Ebook Central | year=2013 | isbn=978-0-415-67165-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iUFalxUFFWkC | page=77}}</ref> In 1937, during the 19th session of the [[Hindu Mahasabha]] in Ahmedabad, Savarkar declared, "India cannot be assumed today to be a unitarian and homogenous nation. On the contrary, there are two nations in the main: the Hindus and the Muslims, in India".<ref name="counterview">{{cite web |date=24 January 2016 |title=Savarkar in Ahmedabad 'declared' two-nation theory in 1937, Jinnah followed 3 years later |url=https://www.counterview.net/2016/01/savarkar-in-ahmedabad-declared-support.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127013303/https://www.counterview.net/2016/01/savarkar-in-ahmedabad-declared-support.html |archive-date=27 January 2016}}</ref> The theory is a source of inspiration to several [[Hindutva]] organisations, with causes as varied as the redefinition of Indian Muslims as non-Indian foreigners and second-class citizens in India, the expulsion of all Muslims from India, the establishment of a legally Hindu state in India, prohibition of conversions to [[Islam]], and the promotion of [[Ghar Wapsi|conversions or reconversions]] of Indian Muslims to Hinduism.<ref name="epw1979r">Shakir, Moin. 1979. "Review: Always in the Mainstream." ''[[Economic and Political Weekly]]'' 14(33):1424. {{JSTOR|4367847}}

"[T]he Muslims are not Indians but foreigners or temporary guests—without any loyalty to the country or its cultural heritage—and should be driven out of the country ..."</ref><ref name="sankhdher1991">Sankhdher, M. M., and K. K. Wadhwa. 1991. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bwGKAAAAMAAJ National unity and religious minorities]''. Gitanjali Publishing House. {{ISBN|978-81-85060-36-1}}.

"... In their heart of hearts, the Indian Muslims are not Indian citizens, are not Indians: they are citizens of the universal Islamic ummah, of Islamdom ..."</ref><ref name="savarkar1989">[[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar|Savarkar, Vinayak Damodar]], and Sudhakar Raje. 1989. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ByFuAAAAMAAJ Savarkar: commemoration volume]''. Savarkar Darshan Pratishthan.

"His historic warning against conversion and call for Shuddhi was condensed in the dictum 'Dharmantar is Rashtrantar' (to change one's religion is to change one's nationality) ..."</ref><ref name="chakravarty1990">[[Nikhil Chakravarty|Chakravarty, Nikhil]], ed. 1990. ''Mainstream'', 28:32–52. {{ISSN|0542-1462}}. "'Dharmantar is Rashtrantar' is one of the old slogans of the VHP..."</ref>

In 1940, [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] undertook the ideology that religion is the determining factor in defining the nationality of Indian Muslims. He termed it as the awakening of Muslims for the creation of Pakistan.<ref>[[Conor Cruise O'Brien|Cruise O'Brien, Conor]]. August 1988. "[https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/88aug/obrien.htm Holy War Against India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128075043/https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/88aug/obrien.htm |date=28 January 2021 }}". ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'' 262(2):54–64. Retrieved 8 June 2020.</ref> However, Jinnah opposed Partition of Punjab and Bengal and advocated for the integration of all of Punjab and Bengal into Pakistan without the displacement of any of its inhabitants, whether they were Sikhs or Hindus.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1614173 |title=The Two-Nation Reality versus Theory: Opposition to Partition |author=Javed Jabbar |date=21 March 2021 |work=Dawn |access-date=27 March 2023}}</ref> In 1943, Savarkar publicly expressed his support for Jinnah, stating, "I have no quarrel with Mr Jinnah’s two-nation theory. We, Hindus, are a nation by ourselves and it is a historical fact that Hindus and Muslims are two nations".<ref name="counterview" />

There are varying interpretations of the two-nation theory, based on whether the two postulated nationalities can coexist in one territory or not, with radically different implications. One interpretation argued for sovereign autonomy, including the right to secede, for Muslim-majority areas of the Indian subcontinent, but without any transfer of populations (i.e., Hindus and Muslims would continue to live together). A different interpretation contends that Hindus and Muslims constitute "two distinct and frequently antagonistic ways of life and that therefore they cannot coexist in one nation."<ref name="caldarola1982">{{Citation | title=Religions and societies, Asia and the Middle East | author=Carlo Caldarola | year=1982 | isbn=978-90-279-3259-4 | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R1ME01zxL98C | quote="... Hindu and Muslim cultures constitute two distinct and frequently antagonistic ways of life, and that therefore they cannot coexist in one nation ..." | access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref> In this version, a transfer of populations (i.e., the total removal of Hindus from Muslim-majority areas and the total removal of Muslims from Hindu-majority areas) was a desirable step towards a complete separation of two incompatible nations that "cannot coexist in a harmonious relationship."<ref name="harman1977">{{Citation | title=Plight of Muslims in India | author=S. Harman | year=1977 | isbn=978-0-9502818-2-7 | publisher=DL Publications | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0x1uAAAAMAAJ | quote="... strongly and repeatedly pressed for the transfer of the population between India and Pakistan. At the time of partition, some of the two-nation theory protagonists proposed that the entire Hindu population should migrate to India, and all Muslims should move over to Pakistan, leaving no Hindus in Pakistan and no Muslims in India ..." | access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref><ref name="sankhdher1992">{{Citation | title=Secularism in India, dilemmas and challenges | author=M. M. Sankhdher | year=1992 | isbn=9788171004096 | publisher=Deep & Deep Publication | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h8wfAAAAIAAJ | quote="... The partition of the country did not take the two-nation theory to its logical conclusion, i.e., complete transfer of populations ..." | access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Gandhi at Peshawar meeting.jpg|thumb|Gandhi and [[Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] at a pro-independence rally in [[Peshawar]], 1938]]

Opposition to the theory has come from two sources. The first is the concept of a [[Greater India|single Indian nation]], of which Hindus and Muslims are two intertwined communities.<ref name="zakaria2004">{{Citation | title=Indian Muslims: where have they gone wrong? | author=Rafiq Zakaria | year=2004 | isbn=978-81-7991-201-0 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aMlKSmWRQ8cC | quote="... As a Muslim, Hindus, and Muslims are one nation and not two ... two nations have no basis in history... they shall continue to live together for another thousand years in united India ..."}}</ref> This is a founding principle of the modern, officially [[Secularity|secular]] [[Republic of India]]. Even after the formation of Pakistan, debates on whether Muslims and Hindus are distinct nationalities or not continued in that country as well.<ref name="gop1953">[[Pakistan Constituent Assembly]]. 1953. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=AmIKAAAAIAAJ Debates: Official report, Volume 1; Volume 16]." [[Government of Pakistan|Government of Pakistan Press]]."[S]ay that Hindus and Muslims are one, single nation. It is a very peculiar attitude on the part of the leader of the opposition. If his point of view were accepted, then the very justification for the existence of Pakistan would disappear ..."</ref> The second source of opposition is the concept that while Indians are not one nation, neither are the Muslims or Hindus of the subcontinent, and it is instead the relatively [[Homogeneity and heterogeneity|homogeneous]] provincial units of the subcontinent which are true nations and deserving of [[sovereignty]]; the [[Baloch people|Baloch]] have presented this view,<ref name="janmahmad1989">{{Citation | title=Essays on Baloch national struggle in Pakistan: emergence, dimensions, repercussions | author=Janmahmad | year=1989 | publisher=Gosha-e-Adab | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRErAAAAMAAJ | quote="... would be completely extinct as a people without any identity. This proposition is the crux of the matter, shaping the Baloch attitude towards Pakistani politics. For Baloch to accept the British-conceived two-nation theory for the Indian Muslims would mean losing their Baloch identity in the process ..." | access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref> along with the [[Sindhis|Sindhi]]<ref>{{Citation | title=The idea of Pakistan | author=Stephen P. Cohen | author-link=Stephen P. Cohen | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-8157-1502-3 | publisher=Brookings Institution Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-78yjVybQfkC | page=212 | quote="[In the view of G. M. Sayed,] the two-nation theory became a trap for Sindhis—instead of liberating Sindh, it fell under Punjabi-Mohajir domination, and until his death in 1995 he called for a separate Sindhi 'nation', implying a separate Sindhi country." | access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref> and [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]]<ref name="salim1991">{{Citation | title=Pashtun and Baloch history: Punjabi view | author=Ahmad Salim | year=1991 |publisher=Fiction House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-yvxtAAAAMAAJ | quote="... Attacking the 'two-nation theory' in Lower House on December 14, 1947, Ghaus Bux Bizenjo said: "We have a distinct culture like Afghanistan and Iran, and if the mere fact that we are Muslim requires us to amalgamate with Pakistan, then Afghanistan and Iran should also be amalgamated with Pakistan ..."}}</ref> sub-nationalities of Pakistan and the [[Assamese people|Assamese]]<ref name="SinghSingh20082">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lQpswqcdDLIC&pg=PA137|title=Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy|author1=Principal Lecturer in Economics Pritam Singh|author2=Pritam Singh|year=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-04946-2|pages=137–|access-date=1 August 2017}}</ref> and [[Punjabis|Punjabi]]<ref name="Singh2008">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzZ8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT173|title=Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy|author=Pritam Singh|date=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-04945-5|pages=173–|access-date=1 August 2017}}</ref> sub-nationalities of India.

====Muslim homeland, provincial elections: 1930–1938====
[[File:Nehru bajaj sarojini khan azad1940a.jpg|thumb|[[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Sarojini Naidu]], [[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]], and [[Maulana Azad]] at the 1940 Ramgarh session of the Congress in which Azad was elected president for the second time.]]

[[File:Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman.jpg|thumb|[[Chaudhari Khaliquzzaman]] (left) seconding the 1940 Lahore Resolution of the [[All-India Muslim League]] with [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah|Jinnah]] (right) presiding, and [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] centre.]]

In 1933, [[Choudhry Rahmat Ali]] had produced a pamphlet, entitled ''[[Pakistan Declaration|Now or Never]]'', in which the term ''[[Pakistan]]'', 'land of the pure', comprising the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]], [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North West Frontier Province (Afghania)]], [[Kashmir]], [[Sind Province (1936–55)|Sindh]], and [[Balochistan (Chief Commissioner's Province)|Balochistan]], was coined for the first time.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=31}} It did not attract political attention and,{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=31}} a little later, a Muslim delegation to the Parliamentary Committee on Indian Constitutional Reforms gave short shrift to the idea of Pakistan, calling it "chimerical and impracticable".{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=31}}

In 1932, British Prime Minister [[Ramsay MacDonald]] accepted [[B. R. Ambedkar|Ambedkar]]'s demand for the "[[Scheduled castes|Depressed Classes]]" to have separate representation in the central and provincial legislatures. The Muslim League favoured this "communal award" as it had the potential to weaken the Hindu caste leadership. [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who was seen as a leading advocate for [[Dalit]] rights, went on a fast to persuade the British to repeal these separate electorates. Ambedkar had to back down when it seemed Gandhi's life was threatened.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ayoob |first=Mohammed |author-link=Mohammed Ayoob |url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-turning-point-in-1932/article23752117.ece|title=The turning point in 1932: on Dalit representation|date=3 May 2018|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=28 May 2018|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109111508/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-turning-point-in-1932/article23752117.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=July 2024|reason=Scholarly sources such as Menon 1957, Nugent 1979, Mehra 1985, or Tripathi 2012 would be better than a modern newspaper op-ed that isn't subject to peer review.}}

Two years later, the ''[[Government of India Act 1935]]'' introduced provincial autonomy, increasing the number of voters in India to 35 million.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} More significantly, law and order issues were for the first time devolved from British authority to provincial governments headed by Indians.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} This increased Muslim anxieties about eventual Hindu domination.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} In the [[1937 Indian provincial elections]], the Muslim League turned out its best performance in Muslim-minority provinces such as the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]], where it won 29 of the 64 reserved Muslim seats.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} In the Muslim-majority regions of the Punjab and Bengal regional parties outperformed the League.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} In Punjab, the [[Unionist Party (Punjab)|Unionist Party]] of [[Sikandar Hayat Khan (Punjabi politician)|Sikandar Hayat Khan]], won the elections and formed a government, with the support of the Indian National Congress and the [[Shiromani Akali Dal]], which lasted five years.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} In Bengal, the League had to share power in a coalition headed by [[A. K. Fazlul Huq]], the leader of the [[Krishak Praja Party]].{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}}

The Congress, on the other hand, with 716 wins in the total of 1585 provincial assemblies seats, was able to form governments in 7 out of the 11 provinces of [[British India]].{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} In its manifesto, Congress maintained that religious issues were of lesser importance to the masses than economic and social issues. The election revealed that it had contested just 58 out of the total 482 Muslim seats, and of these, it won in only 26.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} In UP, where the Congress won, it offered to share power with the League on condition that the League stops functioning as a representative only of Muslims, which the League refused.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} This proved to be a mistake as it alienated Congress further from the Muslim masses. Besides, the new UP provincial administration promulgated cow protection and the use of Hindi.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} The Muslim elite in UP was further alienated, when they saw chaotic scenes of the new Congress Raj, in which rural people who sometimes turned up in large numbers in government buildings, were indistinguishable from the administrators and the law enforcement personnel.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|pp=32–33}}

The Muslim League conducted its investigation into the conditions of Muslims under Congress-governed provinces.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}} The findings of such investigations increased fear among the Muslim masses of future Hindu domination.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}} The view that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress was now a part of the public discourse of Muslims.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}}

===During and post-World War II (1939–1947)===
[[File:Indian Empire (1947).png|thumb|300px|[[Colonial India]] in 1947, before the partition, covering the territory of modern [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]].]]
[[File:India Distribution of Muslims, 1941 - DPLA - 119f08253fce2dd2b0b8499c1b1622cb.jpg|thumb|Muslim dominated region, 1941 census]]

With the outbreak of [[World War II]] in 1939, [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Linlithgow]], [[Viceroy of India]], declared war on India's behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}} By contrast the Muslim League, which functioned under state patronage,{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=34}} organized "Deliverance Day" celebrations (from Congress dominance) and supported Britain in the war effort.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}} When Linlithgow met with nationalist leaders, he gave the same status to [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah|Jinnah]] as he did to [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]], and, a month later, described the Congress as a "Hindu organization".{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=34}}

In March 1940, in the League's annual three-day session in [[Lahore]], Jinnah gave a two-hour speech in English, in which were laid out the arguments of the [[two-nation theory]], stating, in the words of historians Talbot and Singh, that "Muslims and Hindus...were irreconcilably opposed monolithic religious communities and as such, no settlement could be imposed that did not satisfy the aspirations of the former."{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}} On the last day of its session, the League passed what came to be known as the [[Lahore Resolution]], sometimes also "Pakistan Resolution",{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}} demanding that "the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in the majority as in the [[Northwest India (pre-1947)|north-western]] and eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign." Though it had been founded more than three decades earlier, the League would gather support among South Asian Muslims only during the Second World War.<ref>{{cite book|author=Yasmin Khan|title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan, New Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PEpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|date=2017|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-23364-3|pages=18–|quote=Although it was founded in 1909 the League had only caught on among South Asian Muslims during the Second World War. The party had expanded astonishingly rapidly and was claiming over two million members by the early 1940s, an unimaginable result for what had been previously thought of as just one of the numerous pressure groups and small but insignificant parties.|access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref>

====August Offer, Cripps Mission: 1940–1942====
{{Main|August Offer|Cripps Mission}}

In August 1940, [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Linlithgow]] proposed that India be granted [[dominion|dominion status]] after the war. Having not taken the Pakistan idea seriously, Linlithgow supposed that what Jinnah wanted was a non-federal arrangement without Hindu domination. To allay Muslim fears of Hindu domination, the "August Offer" was accompanied by the promise that a future constitution would consider the views of minorities.<ref>{{cite book|author1=William Roger Louis|author2=Wm. Roger Louis|title=Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC&pg=PA397|year=2006|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-347-6|pages=397–|quote=He made a serious misjudgment in underestimating Muslim sentiment before the outbreak of the war. He did not take the idea of 'Pakistan' seriously. After the adoption of the March 1940 Lahore resolution, calling for the creation of a separate state or states of Pakistan, he wrote: 'My first reaction is, I confess, that silly as the Muslim scheme for partition is, it would be a pity to throw too much cold water on it at the moment.' Linlithgow surmised that what Jinnah feared was a federal India dominated by Hindus. Part of the purpose of the famous British 'August offer' of 1940 was to assure the Muslims that they would be protected against a 'Hindu Raj' as well as to hold over the discussion of the 1935 Act and a 'new constitution' until after the war.|access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref> Neither the Congress nor the Muslim League were satisfied with the offer, and both rejected it in September. The Congress once again started a program of [[civil disobedience]].<ref>{{cite book|author=L. J. Butler|title=Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FciqvzTfAuEC&pg=PA41|year=2002|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-448-1|pages=41–|quote=Viceroy Linlithgow's 'August Offer,' made in 1940, proposed Dominion status for India after the war, and the inclusion of Indians in a larger Executive Council and a new War Advisory Council, and promised that minority views would be taken into account in future constitutional revision. This was not enough to satisfy either the Congress or the Muslim League, who both rejected the offer in September, and shortly afterward Congress launched a fresh campaign of civil disobedience.|access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref>

In March 1942, with the Japanese fast moving up the [[Malayan Peninsula]] after the [[Fall of Singapore]],{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=34}} and with the Americans supporting independence for India,{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|pp=34–35}} [[Winston Churchill]], then Britain's prime minister, sent Sir [[Stafford Cripps]], leader of the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]], with an offer of dominion status to India at the end of the war in return for the Congress's support for the war effort.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=35}} Not wishing to lose the support of the allies they had already secured—the Muslim League, Unionists of Punjab, and the princes—Cripps's offer included a clause stating that no part of the British Indian Empire would be forced to join the post-war dominion. The League rejected the offer, seeing this clause as insufficient in meeting the principle of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ayesha Jalal|title=The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_0LBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT81|date=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-93570-8|page=81|quote=Provincial option, he argued, was insufficient security. Explicit acceptance of the principle of Pakistan offered the only safeguard for Muslim interests throughout India and had to be the precondition for any advance at the center. So he exhorted all Indian Muslims to unite under his leadership to force the British and the Congress to concede 'Pakistan.' If the real reasons for Jinnah's rejection of the offer were rather different, it was not Jinnah but his rivals who had failed to make the point publicly.|access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref> As a result of that proviso, the proposals were also rejected by the Congress, which, since its founding as a polite group of lawyers in 1885,{{Sfn|Khan|2007|p=18}} saw itself as the representative of all Indians of all faiths.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=35}} After the arrival in 1920 of Gandhi, the pre-eminent strategist of Indian nationalism,{{Sfn|Stein|2010|p=289|ps=: Quote: "Gandhi was the leading genius of the later, and ultimately successful, campaign for India's independence"}} the Congress had been transformed into a mass nationalist movement of millions.{{Sfn|Khan|2007|p=18}}

====Quit India Resolution: August 1942====
{{Main|Quit India Movement}}

In August 1942, Congress launched the [[Quit India Resolution]], asking for drastic constitutional changes which the British saw as the most serious threat to their rule since the [[Indian rebellion of 1857]].{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=35}} With their resources and attention already spread thin by a global war, the nervous British immediately jailed the Congress leaders and kept them in jail until August 1945,{{Sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=209}} whereas the Muslim League was now free for the next three years to spread its message.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=34}} Consequently, the Muslim League's ranks surged during the war, with Jinnah himself admitting, "The war which nobody welcomed proved to be a blessing in disguise."{{Sfn|Khan|2007|p=43}} Although there were other important national Muslim politicians such as Congress leader [[Abul Kalam Azad]], and influential regional Muslim politicians such as [[A. K. Fazlul Huq]] of the leftist [[Krishak Praja Party]] in Bengal, [[Sikander Hyat Khan]] of the landlord-dominated [[Unionist Muslim League|Punjab Unionist Party]], and [[Abdul Ghaffar Khan|Abd al-Ghaffar Khan]] of the pro-Congress [[Khudai Khidmatgar]] (popularly, "red shirts") in the [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North West Frontier Province]], the British were to increasingly see the League as the main representative of Muslim India.<ref>{{harvnb|Robb|2002|p=190}}</ref> The Muslim League's demand for Pakistan pitted it against the British and Congress.<ref name="Metcalf20092">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pR0LzVCpfw8C&pg=PA410|title=Islam in South Asia in Practice|last=Gilmartin|first=David|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3138-8|editor-last=D. Metcalf|editor-first=Barbara|pages=410–|chapter=Muslim League Appeals to the Voters of Punjab for Support of Pakistan|quote=At the all-India level, the demand for Pakistan pitted the League against the Congress and the British.|access-date=23 September 2017}}</ref>

====Labour victory in the UK election, decision to decolonize: 1945====
The [[1945 United Kingdom general election]] was won by the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]. A government headed by [[Clement Attlee]], with [[Stafford Cripps]] and [[Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence|Lord Pethick-Lawrence]] in the Cabinet, was sworn in. Many in the new government, including Attlee, had a long history of supporting the decolonization of India. The government's [[exchequer]] had been exhausted by the Second World War and the British public did not appear to be enthusiastic about costly distant involvements.{{sfn|Brown|1994|p=330|ps=India had always been a minority interest in British public life; no great body of public opinion now emerged to argue that war-weary and impoverished Britain should send troops and money to hold it against its will in an empire of doubtful value. By late 1946 both Prime Minister and Secretary of State for India recognized that neither international opinion nor their own voters would stand for any reassertion of the ''raj'', even if there had been the men, money, and administrative machinery with which to do so.}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=212|ps=More importantly, though victorious in war, Britain had suffered immensely in the struggle. It simply did not possess the manpower or economic resources required to coerce a restive India.}} Late in 1945, the British government decided to end British Raj in India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948.<ref name="British Raj Independence movement">{{cite web|title=From Empire to Independence: The British Raj in India 1858–1947|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/independence1947_01.shtml|website= History|publisher=BBC|access-date=2 August 2014 | last=Chandrika Kaul |date=3 March 2011}}</ref> Attlee wrote later in a memoir that he moved quickly to restart the self-rule process because he expected colonial rule in Asia to meet renewed opposition after the war from both nationalist movements and the United States,<ref>{{cite book| author=Attlee, Clement|title=As It Happened|publisher=Viking Press|date=1954|page=254 }}</ref> while his exchequer feared that post-war Britain could no longer afford to garrison an expansive empire.{{sfn|Brown|1994|p=330|ps=India had always been a minority interest in British public life; no great body of public opinion now emerged to argue that war-weary and impoverished Britain should send troops and money to hold it against its will in an empire of doubtful value. By late 1946 both Prime Minister and Secretary of State for India recognized that neither international opinion nor their own voters would stand for any reassertion of the ''raj'', even if there had been the men, money, and administrative machinery with which to do so.}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=212|ps=More importantly, though victorious in war, Britain had suffered immensely in the struggle. It simply did not possess the manpower or economic resources required to coerce a restive India.}}

====Indian provincial elections: 1946====
{{further|1945 Indian general election|1946 Indian provincial elections}}

Labour Prime Minister [[Clement Attlee]] had been deeply interested in Indian independence since the 1920s, being surrounded by Labour statesmen who were affiliated with [[V. K. Krishna Menon|Krishna Menon]] and the [[India League]], and for years had supported it. He now took charge of the government position and gave the issue the highest priority.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} A [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India|Cabinet Mission]] was sent to India led by the Secretary of State for India, [[Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence|Lord Pethick Lawrence]], which also included [[Stafford Cripps|Sir Stafford Cripps]], who had visited India four years before. The objective of the mission was to arrange for an orderly transfer to independence.<ref name="judd-mutiny" /> In February 1946, [[Mutiny|mutinies]] broke out in the armed services, starting with RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow [[repatriation]] to Britain.<ref name="judd-mutiny">{{harvnb|Judd|2004|pp=172–173}}</ref> These mutinies failed to turn into revolutions as the mutineers surrendered after the Congress and the Muslim League convinced the mutineers that they won't get victimised.<ref name="Karsten 1998 p. 324">{{cite book | last=Karsten | first=P. | title=Motivating Soldiers: Morale Or Mutiny | publisher=Garland Pub. | series=Military and society : a collection of essays / ser. ed. Peter Karsten | year=1998 | isbn=978-0-8153-2977-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qGCI_QNHh20C&pg=PA324| page=324}}</ref>

In early 1946, new elections were held in India.<ref name="Metcalf2012">{{cite book|author=Barbara Metcalf|title=Husain Ahmad Madani: The Jihad for Islam and India's Freedom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQjrAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT107|date=2012|publisher=Oneworld Publications|isbn=978-1-78074-210-6|pages=107–|access-date=26 June 2017}}</ref> This coincided with the infamous [[Indian National Army trials#The first trial|trial of three senior officers]]—[[Shah Nawaz Khan (general)|Shah Nawaz Khan]], [[Prem Sahgal]], and Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon—of [[Subhas Chandra Bose]]'s defeated [[Indian National Army]] (INA) who stood accused of [[treason]]. Now as the trials began, the Congress leadership, although having never supported the INA, chose to defend the accused officers and successfully rescued the INA members.<ref>{{harvnb|Judd|2004|pp=170–171}}</ref><ref name="Lebra 2003 p. 217">{{cite book | last=Lebra | first=J.C. | title=Indian National Army and Japan | publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies | year=2003 | isbn=978-981-4515-41-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lB9qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT217 | page=217}}</ref>

British rule had lost its legitimacy for most Hindus, and conclusive proof of this came in the form of the 1946 elections with the Congress winning 91 percent of the vote among non-Muslim constituencies, thereby gaining a majority in the Central Legislature and forming governments in eight provinces, and becoming the legitimate successor to the British government for most Hindus. If the British intended to stay in India the acquiescence of politically active Indians to British rule would have been in doubt after these election results, although many rural Indians may still have acquiesced to British rule at this time.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=328–329|ps=: "Yet these final years of the raj showed conclusively that British rule had lost legitimacy and that among the vast majority of Hindus Congress had become the raj's legitimate successor. Tangible proof came in the 1945–6 elections to the central and provincial legislatures. In the former, Congress won 91 percent of the votes cast in non-Muslim constituencies, and in the latter, gained an absolute majority and became the provincial raj in eight provinces. The acquiescence of the politically aware (though possibly not of many villagers even at this point) would have been seriously in doubt if the British had displayed any intention of staying in India."}}</ref> The Muslim League won the majority of the Muslim vote as well as most reserved Muslim seats in the provincial assemblies, and it also secured all the Muslim seats in the Central Assembly.
{{Gallery
|align=center
|width=180 |File:Cabinet mission to india1946.jpg|Members of the [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India]] meeting [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]]. On the extreme left is [[Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence|Lord Pethick Lawrence]]; on the extreme right, [[Stafford Cripps|Sir Stafford Cripps]].
|File:Old-muslim-couple1947.jpg|An aged and abandoned Muslim couple and their grandchildren are sitting by the roadside on this arduous journey. "The old man is dying of exhaustion. The caravan has gone on," wrote Bourke-White.
|File:Old-sikh-man-carrying-wife1947.jpg|An elderly Sikh man is carrying his wife. Over 10 million people were uprooted from their homeland and traveled on foot, bullock carts and trains to their promised new home.
|File:Gandhi Badshah Khan in Bela Bihar 1947.jpg|Gandhi in Bela, Bihar, after attacks on Muslims, 28 March 1947.
}}

====Cabinet Mission: July 1946====
{{Main|1946 Cabinet Mission to India}}

Recovering from its performance in the 1937 elections, the Muslim League was finally able to make good on the claim that it and Jinnah alone represented India's Muslims<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2012">{{cite book|author1=Barbara D. Metcalf|author2=Thomas R. Metcalf|title=A Concise History of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c7UgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA212|date=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-53705-6|pages=212–|access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref> and Jinnah quickly interpreted this vote as a popular demand for a separate homeland.{{Sfn|Stein|2010|p=347}} Tensions heightened while the Muslim League was unable to form ministries outside the two provinces of Sind and Bengal, with the Congress forming a ministry in the NWFP and the key Punjab province coming under a coalition ministry of the Congress, Sikhs and Unionists.<ref name="BoseJalal2004">{{harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|pp=148–149}}</ref>

The British, while not approving of a separate Muslim homeland, appreciated the simplicity of a single voice to speak on behalf of India's Muslims.{{Sfn|Stein|2010|p=347}} Britain had wanted India and its army to remain united to keep India in its system of 'imperial defense'.<ref name="Roberts2003">{{cite book|author=Jeffery J. Roberts|title=The Origins of Conflict in Afghanistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pj8DIT_bva0C&pg=PA85|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-97878-5|pages=85–|quote=Virtually every Briton wanted to keep India united. Many expressed moral or sentimental obligations to leave India intact, either for the inhabitants' sake or simply as a lasting testament to the Empire. The Cabinet Defense Committee and Chiefs of Staff stressed the maintenance of a united India as vital to the defense (and economy) of the region. A unified India, an orderly transfer of power, and a bilateral alliance would, they argued, leave Britain's strategic position undamaged. India's military assets, including its seemingly limitless manpower, naval and air bases, and expanding production capabilities, would remain accessible to London. India would thus remain of crucial importance as a base, training ground, and staging area for operations from Egypt to the Far East.|access-date=13 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Britain, the Commonwealth and the End of Empire|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/endofempire_overview_01.shtml|first=John|last=Darwin|date=3 March 2011|work=BBC|access-date=10 April 2017|quote=But the British still hoped that a self-governing India would remain part of their system of 'imperial defense'. For this reason, Britain was desperate to keep India (and its army) united.|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112030518/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/endofempire_overview_01.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> With India's two political parties unable to agree, Britain devised the ''Cabinet Mission Plan''. Through this mission, Britain hoped to preserve the united India which they and the Congress desired, while concurrently securing the essence of Jinnah's demand for a Pakistan through 'groupings.'<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2002">{{cite book|author1=Barbara D. Metcalf|author2=Thomas R. Metcalf|title=A Concise History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGCBNTDv7acC&pg=PA212|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-63974-3|pages=212–|quote=By this scheme, the British hoped they could at once preserve united India desired by the Congress, and by themselves, and at the same time, through the groups, secure the essence of Jinnah's demand for a 'Pakistan'.|access-date=10 April 2017}}</ref> The Cabinet Mission scheme encapsulated a federal arrangement consisting of three groups of provinces. Two of these groupings would consist of predominantly Muslim provinces, while the third grouping would be made up of the predominantly Hindu regions. The provinces would be autonomous, but the centre would retain control over the defence, foreign affairs, and communications. Though the proposals did not offer independent Pakistan, the Muslim League accepted the proposals. Even though the unity of India would have been preserved, the Congress leaders, especially Nehru, believed it would leave the Center weak. On 10 July 1946, [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] gave a "provocative speech," rejected the idea of grouping the provinces and "effectively torpedoed" both the [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India|Cabinet Mission Plan]] and the prospect of a United India.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Barbara D. Metcalf|author2=Thomas R. Metcalf|title=A Concise History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGCBNTDv7acC&pg=PA213|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-63974-3|pages=211–213|quote=Its proposal for an independent India involved a complex, three-tiered federation, whose central feature was the creation of groups of provinces. Two of these groups would comprise the Muslim majority provinces of east and west; a third would include the Hindu majority regions of the center and south. These groups, given responsibility for most of the functions of government, would be subordinated to a Union government, would be subordinated to a Union government controlling defense, foreign affairs, and communications. Nevertheless, the Muslim League accepted the Cabinet mission's proposals. The ball was now in Congress's court. Although the grouping scheme preserved a united India, the Congress leadership, above all Jawaharlal Nehru, now slated to be Gandhi's successor, increasingly concluded that under the Cabinet mission proposals the Center would be too weak to achieve the goals of the Congress, which envisioned itself as the successor to the Raj. Looking ahead to the future, the Congress, especially its socialist wing headed by Nehru, wanted a central government that could direct and plan for an India, free of colonialism, that might eradicate its people's poverty and grow into an industrial power. India's business community also supported the idea of a strong central government In a provocative speech on 10 July 1946, Nehru repudiated the notion of compulsory grouping or provinces, the key to Jinnah's Pakistan. Provinces, he said, must be free to join any group. With this speech, Nehru effectively torpedoed the Cabinet mission scheme, and with it, any hope for a united India.|access-date=18 March 2020}}</ref>

====Direct Action Day: August 1946====
After the Cabinet Mission broke down, in July 1946, Jinnah held a press conference at his home in Bombay. He proclaimed that the Muslim League was "preparing to launch a struggle" and that they "have chalked out a plan". He said that if the Muslims were not granted a separate Pakistan then they would launch "direct action". When asked to be specific, Jinnah retorted: "Go to the Congress and ask them their plans. When they take you into their confidence I will take you into mine. Why do you expect me alone to sit with folded hands? I also am going to make trouble."<ref name="Bourke-White, Margaret 1949 p. 15">Bourke-White, Margaret (1949). Halfway to Freedom: A Report on the New India in the Words and Photographs of Margaret Bourke-White. Simon and Schuster. p. 15.</ref>

The next day, Jinnah announced 16 August 1946 would be "[[Direct Action Day]]" and warned Congress, "We do not want war. If you want war we accept your offer unhesitatingly. We will either have a divided India or a destroyed India."<ref name="Bourke-White, Margaret 1949 p. 15"/>

On that morning, armed Muslim gangs gathered at the [[Ochterlony Monument]] in Calcutta to hear [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]], the League's Chief Minister of Bengal, who, in the words of historian Yasmin Khan, "if he did not explicitly incite violence certainly gave the crowd the impression that they could act with impunity, that neither the police nor the military would be called out and that the ministry would turn a blind eye to any action they unleashed in the city."{{Sfn|Khan|2007|pp=64–65}} That very evening, in Calcutta, Hindus were attacked by returning Muslim celebrants, who carried pamphlets distributed earlier which showed a clear connection between violence and the demand for Pakistan, and directly implicated the celebration of Direct Action Day with the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would later be called the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946".{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=69|ps=: Quote: "Despite the Muslim League's denials, the outbreak was linked with the celebration of Direction Action Day. Muslim procession that had gone to the staging ground of the 150-foot [[Ochterlony Monument]] on the maidan to hear the Muslim League Prime Minister Suhrawardy attacked Hindus on their way back. They were heard shouting slogans as 'Larke Lenge Pakistan' (We shall win Pakistan by force). Violence spread to North Calcutta when Muslim crowds tried to force Hindu shopkeepers to observe the day's strike (''hartal'') call. The circulation of pamphlets in advance of Direct Action Day demonstrated a clear connection between the use of violence and the demand for Pakistan."}} The next day, Hindus struck back, and the violence continued for three days in which approximately 4,000 people died (according to official accounts), both Hindus and Muslims. Although India had outbreaks of religious violence between Hindus and Muslims before, the [[Calcutta]] killings were the first to display elements of "[[ethnic cleansing]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=67}} Quote: "The signs of 'ethnic cleansing' are first evident in the Great Calcutta Killing of 16–19 August 1946."</ref> Violence was not confined to the public sphere, but homes were entered and destroyed, and women and children were attacked.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=68}} Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress-led interim government was installed, with [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] as united India's prime minister.

The communal violence spread to [[1946 Bihar riots|Bihar]] (where Hindus attacked Muslims), to [[Noakhali riots|Noakhali in Bengal]] (where Muslims targeted Hindus), to [[Garhmukteshwar]] in the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]] (where Hindus attacked Muslims), and on to [[Rawalpindi]] in March 1947 in which Hindus and Sikhs were [[1947 Rawalpindi massacres|attacked or driven out]] by Muslims.<ref>{{harvnb|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=67}} Quote: "(Signs of 'ethnic cleansing') were also present in the wave of violence that rippled out from Calcutta to Bihar, where there were high Muslim casualty figures, and to Noakhali deep in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta of Bengal. Concerning the Noakhali riots, one British officer spoke of a 'determined and organized' Muslim effort to drive out all the Hindus, who accounted for around a fifth of the total population. Similarly, the Punjab counterparts to this transition of violence were the Rawalpindi massacres of March 1947. The level of death and destruction in such West Punjab villages as Thoa Khalsa was such that communities couldn't live together in its wake."</ref>

====Plan for partition: 1946–1947====
In London, the president of the [[India League]], [[V. K. Krishna Menon]], nominated [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma]] as the only suitable viceregal candidate in clandestine meetings with Sir Stafford Cripps and Clement Attlee.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramesh |first=Jairam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzlizQEACAAJ |title=Chequered Brilliance |date=2019 |publisher=Penguin Books India PVT, Limited |isbn=978-0-670-09232-1 |language=en}}</ref> Prime Minister Attlee subsequently appointed [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Louis Mountbatten]] as [[Governor-General of India|India's last viceroy]], giving him the task to oversee British India's independence by 30 June 1948, with the instruction to avoid partition and preserve a united India, but with adaptable authority to ensure a British withdrawal with minimal setbacks. Mountbatten hoped to revive the Cabinet Mission scheme for a federal arrangement for India. But despite his initial keenness for preserving the centre, the tense communal situation caused him to conclude that partition had become necessary for a quicker transfer of power.<ref>{{cite book |last= Ziegler |first= Philip |title= Mountbatten: The Official Biography |location= London |publisher= HarperCollins |year= 1985 |isbn= 978-0002165433 |page= [https://archive.org/details/mountbattenoffic00phil/page/359 359] |url= https://archive.org/details/mountbattenoffic00phil/page/359 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ayesha Jalal|title=The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D63KMRN1SJ8C&pg=PA251|date=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-45850-4|page=250|quote=These instructions were to avoid partition and obtain a unitary government for British India and the Indian States and at the same time observe the pledges to the princes and the Muslims; to secure agreement to the Cabinet Mission plan without coercing any of the parties; somehow to keep the Indian army undivided, and to retain India within the Commonwealth. (Attlee to Mountbatten, 18 March 1947, ibid, 972–974)|access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ayesha Jalal|title=The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D63KMRN1SJ8C&pg=PA251|date=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-45850-4|page=251|quote=When Mountbatten arrived, it was not wholly inconceivable that a settlement on the Cabinet Mission's terms might still be secured limited bloodshed called for a united Indian army under effective control. But keeping the army intact was now inextricably linked with keeping India united, this is why Mountbatten started by being vehemently opposed to 'abolishing the center'.|access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Talbot|first1=Ian|title=Partition of India: The Human Dimension|journal=Cultural and Social History|year=2009|volume=6|issue=4|pages=403–410|quote=Mountbatten had intended to resurrect the Cabinet Mission proposals for a federal India. British officials were unanimously pessimistic about a Pakistan state's future economic prospects. The agreement to an Indian Union contained in the Cabinet Mission proposals had been initially accepted by the Muslim League as the grouping proposals gave considerable autonomy in the Muslim majority areas. Moreover, there was the possibility of withdrawal and thus acquiring Pakistan by the backdoor after a ten year interval. The worsening communal situation and extensive soundings with Indian political figures convinced Mountbatten within a month of his arrival that partition was the only way to quickly and smoothly transfer power.|doi=10.2752/147800409X466254|s2cid=147110854}}</ref>

====Proposal of the ''Indian Independence Act''====
{{Main|Indian Independence Act 1947}}

When Lord Mountbatten formally proposed the plan on 3 June 1947, Patel gave his approval and lobbied Nehru and other Congress leaders to accept the proposal. Knowing Gandhi's deep anguish regarding proposals of partition, Patel engaged him in private meetings discussions over the perceived practical unworkability of any Congress-League [[Coalition government|coalition]], the rising violence, and the threat of civil war. At the All India Congress Committee meeting called to vote on the proposal, Patel said:<ref>{{cite book |last=Menon |first=V. P. |title=Transfer of Power in India |page=385}}</ref><blockquote>I fully appreciate the fears of our brothers from [the Muslim-majority areas]. Nobody likes the division of India, and my heart is heavy. But the choice is between one division and many divisions. We must face facts. We cannot give way to emotionalism and sentimentality. The [[Congress Working Committee|Working Committee]] has not acted out of fear. But I am afraid of one thing, that all our toil and hard work of these many years might go waste or prove unfruitful. My nine months in office have completely disillusioned me regarding the supposed merits of the [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India|Cabinet Mission]] Plan. Except for a few honourable exceptions, Muslim officials from the top down to the chaprasis ([[peon]]s or servants) are working for the League. The communal veto given to the League in the Mission Plan would have blocked India's progress at every stage. Whether we like it or not, de facto Pakistan already exists in the Punjab and Bengal. Under the circumstances, I would prefer a de jure Pakistan, which may make the League more responsible. Freedom is coming. We have 75 to 80 percent of India, which we can make strong with our genius. The League can develop the rest of the country.</blockquote>Following Gandhi's denial<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NurqxSttqjoC&pg=PA38 |title=Gandhi, the Forgotten Mahatma |first=Jagdish Chandra |last=Jain |date=1 January 1987 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=9788170990376 |access-date=22 May 2020}}</ref> and the Congress approval of the plan, Patel, Rajendra Prasad, and C. Rajagopalachari represented Congress on the Partition Council, with Jinnah, Liaqat Ali Khan and Abdur Rab Nishtar representing the Muslim League. Late in 1946, the [[Attlee ministry|Labour government in Britain]], its [[exchequer]] exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, decided to end British rule of India, with power being transferred no later than June 1948. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, [[Louis Mountbatten]], advanced the date, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence.

====Radcliffe Line====
{{Main|Radcliffe Line}}
[[File:How India be split up (1947).jpg|thumb|Map speculating on a possible division of India from ''The Daily Herald'' newspaper, 4 June 1947.]]

In June 1947, the nationalist leaders, including [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]], Valllabh Bhai Patel and J B Kripalini on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah, Liaqat Ali Khan, and Abdul Rab Nishtar representing the Muslim League, and [[Master Tara Singh]] representing the [[Sikhs]], agreed to a partition of the country in stark opposition to Gandhi's opposition to partition. The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation of Pakistan; the plan included a partition of the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal. The communal violence that accompanied the publication of the [[Radcliffe Line]], the line of partition, was even more horrific. Describing the violence that accompanied the partition of India, historians Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh wrote:<blockquote>There are numerous eyewitness accounts of the maiming and mutilation of victims. The catalogue of horrors includes the disemboweling of pregnant women, the slamming of babies' heads against brick walls, the cutting off of the victim's limbs and genitalia, and the displaying of heads and corpses. While previous communal riots had been deadly, the scale and level of brutality during the Partition massacres were unprecedented. Although some scholars question the use of the term '[[genocide]]' concerning the partition massacres, much of the violence was manifested with genocidal tendencies. It was designed to cleanse an existing generation and prevent its future reproduction."{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|pp=67–68}}</blockquote>

====Independence: August 1947====
[[File:Partition of India 1947 en.svg|thumb|200px|The partition of India: green regions were all part of Pakistan by 1948, and orange ones part of India. The darker-shaded regions represent the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]] and [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] provinces partitioned by the Radcliffe Line. The grey areas represent some of the key [[princely state]]s that were eventually integrated into India or Pakistan.]]

Mountbatten administered the independence oath to Jinnah on the 14th, before leaving for India where the oath was scheduled on the midnight of the 15th.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Farooqui |first1=Tashkeel Ahmed |last2=Sheikh |first2=Ismail |date=15 August 2016 |title=Was Pakistan created on August 14 or 15? |work=The Express Tribune |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1160291/pakistan-created-august-14-15/ |url-status=live |access-date=16 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816113500/http://tribune.com.pk/story/1160291/pakistan-created-august-14-15/ |archive-date=16 August 2016}}</ref> On 14 August 1947, the new [[Dominion of Pakistan]] came into being, with [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] sworn in as its first Governor-General in [[Karachi]]. The following day, 15 August 1947, India, now [[Dominion of India]], became an independent country, with official ceremonies taking place in New Delhi, Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]]. Mountbatten remained in New Delhi for 10 months, serving as the first [[Governor-General of India|governor-general]] of an independent India until June 1948.{{Sfn|Heathcote|2002|p=189}} Gandhi remained in Bengal to work with the new refugees from the partitioned subcontinent.

==Geographic partition, 1947==

===Mountbatten Plan===
[[File:Mountbatten 4 august 1947.jpg|thumb|upright|Mountbatten with a countdown calendar for the transfer of power in the background]]
At a press conference on 3 June 1947, Lord Mountbatten announced the date of independence – 14 August 1947 – and also outlined the actual division of British India between the two new dominions in what became known as the "Mountbatten Plan" or the "3 June Plan". The plan's main points were:
* Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]] and [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] [[Legislatures of British India|legislative assemblies]] would meet and vote for partition. If a simple majority of either group wanted partition, then these provinces would be divided.
* [[Sindh|Sind]] and [[Balochistan|Baluchistan]] were to make their own decision.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Menon|first=V. P.|author-link=V. P. Menon|title=Transfer of Power in India|year=1997|orig-year=First published 1957|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-0884-2|page=512}}</ref>
* The fate of [[North-West Frontier Province]] and [[Sylhet District|Sylhet]] district of [[Assam]] was to be decided by a [[referendum]].
* The separate independence of Bengal was ruled out.
* A [[Boundary commissions (United Kingdom)|boundary commission]] to be set up in case of partition.

The Indian political leaders had accepted the Plan on 2 June. It could not deal with the question of the [[princely state]]s, which were not [[British possessions]], but on 3 June Mountbatten advised them against remaining independent and urged them to join one of the two new Dominions.<ref>Sankar Ghose, ''Jawaharlal Nehru, a biography'' (1993), p. 181</ref>

The [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]]'s demands for a separate country were thus conceded. The [[Indian National Congress|Congress]]'s position on unity was also taken into account while making Pakistan as small as possible. Mountbatten's formula was to divide India and, at the same time, retain maximum possible unity. Abul Kalam Azad expressed concern over the likelihood of violent riots, to which Mountbatten replied:<blockquote>At least on this question I shall give you complete assurance. I shall see to it that there is no bloodshed and riot. I am a soldier and not a civilian. Once the partition is accepted in principle, I shall issue orders to see that there are no communal disturbances anywhere in the country. If there should be the slightest agitation, I shall adopt the sternest measures to nip the trouble in the bud.<ref name="Jagmohan2005">{{Cite book |last=Jagmohan |date=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QsDSGn8jLPAC |title=Soul and Structure of Governance in India |publisher=Allied Publishers |page=49 |isbn=978-8177648317 |access-date=13 August 2016}}</ref> </blockquote>[[Jagmohan]] has stated that this and what followed showed a "glaring failure of the government machinery."<ref name="Jagmohan2005" />

On 3 June 1947, the partition plan was accepted by the [[Congress Working Committee]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5l0BPnxN1h8C&pg=PA341|title=Hindu Culture During and After Muslim Rule: Survival and Subsequent Challenges|last=Gopal|first=Ram|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd|year=1991|isbn=978-8170232056|page=133|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref> ''Boloji''{{Unreliable source?|date=April 2017}} states that in Punjab, there were no riots, but there was communal tension, while Gandhi was reportedly isolated by Nehru and Patel and observed ''maun vrat'' (day of silence). Mountbatten visited Gandhi and said he hoped that he would not oppose the partition, to which Gandhi wrote the reply: "Have I ever opposed you?"<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-NnfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=India's Foreign Relations, 1947–2007|last=Ray|first=Jayanta Kumar|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=58|isbn=978-1136197154|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref>

[[File:Lord Mountbatten meets Nehru, Jinnah and other Leaders to plan Partition of India.jpg|thumb|left|Mountbatten meeting with [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] (left) and [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] (right) in discussing the partition of British India, 1947.]]
Within British India, the border between India and Pakistan (the [[Radcliffe Line]]) was determined by a British Government-commissioned report prepared under the chairmanship of a London [[barrister]], [[Cyril Radcliffe|Sir Cyril Radcliffe]]. Pakistan came into being with two non-contiguous areas, [[East Pakistan]] (today Bangladesh) and [[West Pakistan]], separated geographically by India. India was formed out of the majority Hindu regions of British India, and Pakistan from the majority Muslim areas.

On 18 July 1947, the [[British Parliament]] passed the [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian Independence Act]] that finalized the arrangements for partition and abandoned British [[suzerainty]] over the [[princely state]]s, of which there were several hundred, leaving them free to choose whether to [[Instrument of Accession|accede]] to one of the new dominions or to remain independent outside both.<ref>[[Ishtiaq Ahmed (political scientist)|Ishtiaq Ahmed]], ''State, Nation and Ethnicity in Contemporary South Asia'' (London & New York, 1998), p. 99</ref> The [[Government of India Act 1935]] was adapted to provide a legal framework for the new dominions.

Following its creation as a new country in August 1947, Pakistan applied for membership of the United Nations and was accepted by the General Assembly on 30 September 1947. The [[Dominion of India]] continued to have the existing seat as India had been a founding member of the United Nations since 1945.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raju |first=Thomas G. C. |date=Fall 1994 |title=Nations, States, and Secession: Lessons from the Former Yugoslavia |journal=Mediterranean Quarterly |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=40–65}}</ref>

===Punjab Boundary Commission===
[[File:Punjabdoabs1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|A map of the Punjab region {{circa|1947}}.]]
The Punjab—the region of the five rivers east of [[Indus]]: [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Beas River|Beas]], and [[Sutlej]]—consists of [[Fluvial processes|inter-fluvial]] ''[[doab]]s'' ('two rivers'), or tracts of land lying between two [[Confluence|confluent rivers]] (see map on the right):
* the [[Sindh Sagar Doab|''Sindh-Sagar'' doab]] (between Indus and Jhelum);
* the [[Jech Doab|''Jech'' doab]] (Jhelum/Chenab);
* the [[Rechna Doab|''Rechna'' doab]] (Chenab/Ravi);
* the [[Bari Doab|''Bari'' doab]] (Ravi/Beas); and
* the [[Bist Doab|''Bist'' doab]] (Beas/Sutlej).

In early 1947, in the months leading up to the deliberations of the Punjab Boundary Commission, the main disputed areas appeared to be in the Bari and Bist doabs. Some areas in the Rechna doab were claimed by the Congress and [[Sikhs]]. In the Bari doab, the districts of [[Gurdaspur District (British Punjab)|Gurdaspur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Lahore District|Lahore]], and [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]] were all disputed.<ref name="spate">{{harvnb|Spate|1947|pp=126–137}}</ref> All districts (other than Amritsar, which was 46.5% Muslim) had Muslim majorities; albeit, in Gurdaspur, the Muslim majority, at 51.1%, was slender. At a smaller area-scale, only three ''[[tehsil]]s'' (sub-units of a district) in the Bari doab had non-Muslim majorities: [[Pathankot district|Pathankot]], in the extreme north of Gurdaspur, which was not in dispute; and [[Amritsar]] and [[Tarn Taran Sahib|Tarn Taran]] in Amritsar district. Nonetheless, there were four Muslim-majority tehsils east of Beas-Sutlej, in two of which Muslims outnumbered Hindus and Sikhs together.<ref name="spate" />

Before the Boundary Commission began formal hearings, governments were set up for the East and the West Punjab regions. Their territories were provisionally divided by "notional division" based on simple district majorities. In both the Punjab and Bengal, the Boundary Commission consisted of two Muslim and two non-Muslim judges with Sir [[Cyril Radcliffe]] as a common chairman.<ref name="spate" /> The mission of the Punjab commission was worded generally as: "To [[Demarcation line|demarcate]] the boundaries of the two parts of Punjab, based on ascertaining the [[Contiguous distribution|contiguous]] majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims. In doing so, it will take into account other factors." Each side (the Muslims and the Congress/Sikhs) presented its claim through counsel with no liberty to bargain. The judges, too, had no mandate to compromise, and on all major issues they "divided two and two, leaving Sir Cyril Radcliffe the invidious task of making the actual decisions."<ref name="spate" />

== Independence, migration, and displacement ==
{{Gallery
|align=center
|width=180 |File:Send-off-delhi1947.jpg|Train to Pakistan being given an honor-guard send-off. New Delhi railway station, 1947.|File:Oxcart-train1947.jpg|Rural Sikhs in a long oxcart train headed towards India, 1947.|File:Two-men-carrying-woman1947.jpg|Two Muslim men (in a rural refugee train headed towards Pakistan) carrying an old woman in a makeshift ''doli'' or palanquin, 1947.|File:Refugeetrain1.jpg|A refugee train on its way to Punjab, Pakistan.}}

Mass migration occurred between the two newly formed states in the months immediately following the partition. There was no conception that population transfers would be necessary because of the partitioning. Religious minorities were expected to stay put in the states they found themselves residing. An exception was made for Punjab, where the transfer of populations was organized because of the communal violence affecting the province; this did not apply to other provinces.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n5c9ta97GeoC&pg=PA40|title=The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories|author=Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali Zamindar|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-231-13847-5|pages=40–|quote=Second, it was feared that if an exchange of populations was agreed to in principle in Punjab, ' there was likelihood of trouble breaking out in other parts of the subcontinent to force Muslims in the Indian Dominion to move to Pakistan. If that happened, we would find ourselves with inadequate land and other resources to support the influx.' Punjab could set a very dangerous precedent for the rest of the subcontinent. Given that Muslims in the rest of India, some 42 million, formed a population larger than the entire population of West Pakistan at the time, economic rationality eschewed such a forced migration. In divided Punjab, millions of people were already on the move, and the two governments had to respond to this mass movement. Thus, despite these important reservations, the establishment of the MEO led to an acceptance of a 'transfer of populations' in divided Punjab, too, 'to give a sense of security' to ravaged communities on both sides. A statement of the Indian government's position of such a transfer across divided Punjab was made in the legislature by Neogy on November 18, 1947. He stated that although the Indian government's policy was 'to discourage mass migration from one province to another.' Punjab was to be an exception. In the rest of the subcontinent migrations were not to be on a planned basis, but a matter of individual choice. This exceptional character of movements across divided Punjab needs to be emphasized, for the agreed and 'planned evacuations' by the two governments formed the context of those displacements.|access-date=24 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAkarK3gLDgC&pg=PA149|title=The Making of the Modern Refugee|author=Peter Gatrell|date=2013|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-967416-9|pages=149–|quote=Notwithstanding the accumulated evidence of inter-communal tension, the signatories to the agreement that divided the Raj did not expect the transfer of power and the partition of India to be accompanied by a mass movement of population. Partition was conceived as a means of preventing migration on a large scale because the borders would be adjusted instead. Minorities need not be troubled by the new configuration. As Pakistan's first Prime Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, affirmed, 'the division of India into Pakistan and India Dominions was based on the principle that minorities will stay where they were and that the two states will afford all protection to them as citizens of the respective states'.|access-date=24 April 2018}}</ref>

The population of undivided India in 1947 was about 390 million. Following the partition, there were perhaps 330 million people in India, 30 million in West Pakistan, and 30 million people in East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh).<ref name="Tucker 2017 p. 241">{{cite book | last=Tucker | first=S.C. | title=Modern Conflict in the Greater Middle East: A Country-by-Country Guide | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | year=2017 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QPHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT241 | isbn=979-8-216-11844-2| access-date=1 December 2023 | page=241}}</ref> Once the boundaries were established, about 14.5 million people crossed the borders to what they hoped was the relative safety of religious majority. The 1951 Census of Pakistan identified the number of displaced persons in Pakistan at 7,226,600, presumably all Muslims who had entered Pakistan from India; the 1951 Census of India counted 7,295,870 displaced persons, apparently all Hindus and [[Sikhs]] who had moved to India from Pakistan immediately after the partition.<ref name="Springer Science & Business Media3">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tGiSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |title=Population Redistribution and Development in South Asia |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2012 |isbn=978-9400953093 |page=6 |access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref>

During Partition, a full population exchange was a contentious issue that received differing opinions among Indian leaders. [[B.R. Ambedkar]] and [[Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel]] supported the idea of a complete population exchange between India and Pakistan. This meant that all the 42 million [[Islam in India|Muslims in India]] would move to Pakistan, while all the 19 million Hindus, Sikhs and other minorities in [[West Pakistan|West]] and [[East Pakistan]] would migrate to India. Their rationale was rooted in ensuring lasting communal peace by eliminating the possibility of future inter-religious conflicts and reducing the risk of large-scale violence.<ref>Ministry of External Affairs
https://www.mea.gov.in › ambPDF
Pakistan or the Partition of India', Dr B. R. Ambedkar</ref> Ambedkar had argued in his writings, including Thoughts on Linguistic States, that such a population exchange, though harsh, was a practical solution to the communal problem that had led to Partition.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://sundayguardianlive.com/news/dr-ambedkars-thoughts-on-partition-shouldnt-be-ignored | title=Dr Ambedkar's thoughts on Partition shouldn't be ignored | date=7 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>drambedkar.co.in
http://drambedkar.co.in › 9th...PDF
THOUGHTS ON LINGUISTIC STATES - Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar</ref> Similarly, Patel, the Iron Man of India, believed that the lingering presence of hostile minorities could lead to future instability.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://scroll.in/article/900187/i-say-bitter-things-to-hindus-and-muslims-alike-but-i-am-a-friend-of-muslims-vallabhbhai-patel | title=Vallabhbhai Patel: 'I say bitter things to Hindus and Muslims alike. But I am a friend of Muslims' | date=31 October 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.asian-voice.com/Opinion/Columnists/Vallabhbhai-Patel-and-the-Indian-Muslims | title=Vallabhbhai Patel and the Indian Muslims }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://sundayguardianlive.com/opinion/patel-not-nehru-prime-minister | title=Patel, not Nehru, should have been Prime Minister | date=8 June 2019 }}</ref> They saw the success of the earlier [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]] after the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] (1923) as a precedent.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.sacw.net/article2880.html | title=B R Ambedkar's 'transfer of population as solution' to minority issues - extract from his book on Pakistan - South Asia Citizens Web }}</ref> However, this proposal was rejected by [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who strongly opposed the idea of compulsory population exchange. Nehru and Gandhi upheld the vision of a secular India where communities could coexist peacefully regardless of religion. They believed that a forced population transfer would cause immense suffering and disrupt the social fabric. Gandhi, in particular, had faith in Hindu-Muslim unity and insisted that Muslims who chose to stay in India should be welcomed as equal citizens.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/from-the-archives-driving-out-muslims-will-ruin-hinduism-says-gandhiji-101696009189437.html | title=From the Archives: 'Driving out Muslims will ruin Hinduism', says Gandhiji | work=Hindustan Times | date=29 September 2023 }}</ref> As a result, the full population exchange did not occur.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/books/the-muslims-who-stayed-back-book-review-another-india-the-making-of-the-worlds-largest-muslim-minority-194777-by-pratinav-anil/article66880427.ece | title=Book Review: Pratinav Anil's 'Another India the Making of the World's Largest Muslim Minority, 1947–77' is about the Muslims who stayed back | date=22 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/was-nehrus-golden-age-for-muslims-really-a-betrayal/articleshow/100985762.cms | title=How India's Muslims paid the price of Nehru's 'secularism' | work=The Times of India }}</ref> While a partial migration took place, with around 14.5 million people crossing borders amidst horrific violence, millions remained on both sides. This decision had profound consequences. India retained its Muslim population, which grew to become a significant minority, while Pakistan's Hindu and Sikh populations dwindled drastically over the decades due to migration and persecution.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Doshi |first1=Vidhi |last2=Mehdi|first2=Nisar |title=70 years later, survivors recall the horrors of India-Pakistan partition |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia-pacific/70-years-later-survivors-recall-the-horrors-of-india-pakistan-partition/2017/08/14/3b8c58e4-7de9-11e7-9026-4a0a64977c92_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=14 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://exhibits.stanford.edu/1947-partition/about/1947-partition-of-india-pakistan | title=1947 Partition of India & Pakistan | date=12 June 2017 }}</ref> The absence of a full exchange has led to enduring [[Religious violence in India|communal tensions and periodic conflicts]] over the years, with proponents arguing that such an exchange might have prevented these issues.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/know-your-rights/communalism-in-india-37421/ | title=Communalism in India | work=The Times of India }}</ref>

==Regions affected by partition==
The newly formed governments had not anticipated, and were completely unequipped for, a two-way migration of such staggering magnitude. Massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the new India–Pakistan border.<ref name="m395">{{cite book | last=Rahman | first=Shazia | title=Place and Postcolonial Ecofeminism: Pakistani Women's Literary and Cinematic Fictions | publisher=Nebraska | series=Expanding Frontiers: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Studies of Women, Gender, and Sexuality | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-4962-1341-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4CaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 | page=23}}</ref>

On 13 January 1948, Mahatma Gandhi started his fast with the goal of stopping the violence. Over 100 religious leaders gathered at Birla House and accepted the conditions of Gandhi. Thousands of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs gathered outside [[Gandhi Smriti|Birla house]] to uphold peace and unity. Representatives of organisations including [[Hindu Mahasabha]], [[Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind|Jamait-ul-Ulema]], [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS), visited Birla house to pledge communal harmony and the end of violence.<ref name="k555">{{cite book | last=Paranjape | first=M.R. | title=The Death & afterlife of Mahatma Gandhi | publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited | year=2018 | isbn=978-93-5305-335-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k3FyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT182| page=182}}</ref> Maulana Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistan's High Commissioner to India [[Zahid Husain (banker)|Zahid Hussain]] also made their visit.<ref name="h442">{{cite book | last=Jack | first=H.A. | title=The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings | publisher=Grove Press | series=Grove Press Eastern philosophy and literature series | year=1994 | isbn=978-0-8021-3161-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pjN3jZQ74AoC&pg=PA458 | access-date=2024-08-14 | page=458}}</ref> By 18 January, Gandhi agreed to break his fast. This fast is credited for putting an end to communal violence.<ref name="h942">{{cite book | last=Brown | first=J.M. | title=Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1991 | isbn=978-0-300-05125-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=boDAE8MLAJMC | page=380}}</ref><ref name="r701">{{cite book | last=Kibriya | first=M. | title=Gandhi and Indian Freedom Struggle | publisher=APH Publishing Corporation | year=1999 | isbn=978-81-7648-058-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ReuoHDkgSG4C&pg=PA344 | access-date=2024-08-14 | page=344}}</ref><ref name="c674">{{cite book | last=Rollason | first=J. | title=Gandhi | publisher=Pearson Education | series=Penguin readers | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-292-29334-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BegsEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT26 | page=26}}</ref><ref name="j117">{{cite book | last=Wolpert | first=Stanley | title=Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi | publisher=Oxford University Press, USA | series=Oxford paperbacks | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-19-515634-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpBy6BCupe4C&pg=PA254 | page=254}}</ref><ref name="h008">{{cite book | last=Hatt | first=C. | title=Mahatma Gandhi | publisher=Evans | series=Judge for yourself | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-237-52308-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6vvy-J7vhcC&pg=PA41 |quote=Revived by the success of his fast, which also helped bring calm to the rest of India, Gandhi resumed his routine of ending the day with a prayer meeting outside Birla House. | page=41}}</ref>

While estimates of the number of deaths vary greatly, ranging from 200,000 to 2,000,000, most of the scholars accept approximately 1 million died in the partition violence.<ref name="Roy 2018">{{cite book | last=Roy | first=Haimanti | title=The Partition of India | publisher=OUP India | series=Oxford India Short Introductions | year=2018 | isbn=978-0-19-909382-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVZxDwAAQBAJ | quote=Most scholars now accept that approximately 1 million people died from Partition-related violence. | page=76}}</ref> The worst case of violence among all regions is concluded to have taken place in Punjab.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |title=Partition of India: The Human Dimension |journal=Cultural and Social History |year=2009 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=403–410 |quote=The number of casualties remains a matter of dispute, with figures being claimed that range from 200,000 to 2 million victims. |doi=10.2752/147800409X466254 |s2cid=147110854}}</ref><ref name="Butalia 2000">{{Cite book |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/b/butalia-silence.html|title=The Other Side of Silence: Voices From the Partition of India |last=Butalia |first=Urvashi |author-link=Urvashi Butalia |publisher=Duke University Press |year=2000 |page=3 |isbn=0-8223-2494-6 |quote=Never before or since have so many people exchanged their homes and countries so quickly ... people moved between the new, truncated India and the two wings, East and West, of the newly created Pakistan ... Slaughter sometimes accompanied and sometimes prompted their movement; many others died from malnutrition and contagious diseases. Estimates of the dead vary from 200,000 (the contemporary British figure) to two million (a later Indian estimate) ... despite many warnings, the new governments of India and Pakistan were unprepared for the convulsion: they had not anticipated ... |access-date=25 March 2016 |archive-date=25 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325043612/https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/b/butalia-silence.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |author-link=Yoginder Sikand |year=2004 |title=Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-Faith Relations |publisher=Routledge |page=5 |isbn=978-1-134-37825-8 |quote=Partition wrought in its wake the greatest forced migration in the history of humankind ... between 1 and 2 million people, Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs and Dalits, were killed.}}</ref>

===Punjab===
[[File:A refugee special train at Ambala Station during partition of India.jpg|thumb|A refugee special train at Ambala Station during the Partition of India]]

The Partition of India split the former [[Punjab Province (British India)|British province of Punjab]] between the [[Dominion of India]] and the [[Dominion of Pakistan]]. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan's [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab province]]; the mostly Hindu and Sikh eastern part became India's [[East Punjab]] state (later divided into the new states of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]]). Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and the fears of all such minorities were so great that the partition saw many people displaced and much inter-communal violence. Some have described the violence in Punjab as a retributive genocide.<ref name="washedu">{{cite web|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf|title=The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means, methods, and purposes|access-date=19 December 2006|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414111514/http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Total migration across Punjab during the partition is estimated at 12 million people;{{efn|name=Displacement|"Some 12 million people were displaced in the divided province of Punjab alone, and up to 20 million in the subcontinent as a whole."<ref name="Zamindar2013">{{cite book |chapter=India–Pakistan Partition 1947 and forced migration |author=Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali Zamindar |title=The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm285 |date=4 February 2013 |doi=10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm285 |isbn=9781444334890 |access-date=16 January 2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122014723/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm285 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} around 6.5 million Muslims moved into West Punjab, and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved into East Punjab.

[[File:Refugees on train roof during Partition.ogv|thumb|Video of refugees on train roof during the Partition of India]]

Virtually no Muslim survived in East Punjab (except in [[Malerkotla]] and [[Nuh district|Nuh]]) and virtually no Hindu or Sikh survived in West Punjab (except in [[Rahim Yar Khan District|Rahim Yar Khan]] and [[Bahawalpur District|Bahawalpur]]).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thefridaytimes.com/tft/a-heritage-all-but-erased/|title=A heritage all but erased|date=25 December 2015|work=The Friday Times|access-date=26 June 2017|archive-date=24 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424215718/https://www.thefridaytimes.com/2015/12/25/a-heritage-all-but-erased/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Lawrence James observed that [[Francis Mudie|Sir Francis Mudie]], the governor of West Punjab, "estimated that 500,000 Muslims died trying to enter his province, while the British High Commissioner in Karachi put the full total at 800,000. This makes nonsense of the claim by Mountbatten and his partisans that only 200,000 were killed".<ref>James (1998), p. 636</ref><ref name="EPW" />

During this period, many alleged that Sikh leader [[Tara Singh (activist)|Tara Singh]] was endorsing the killing of Muslims. On 3 March 1947, at [[Lahore]], Singh, along with about 500 Sikhs, declared from a dais "Death to Pakistan."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sikh-history.com/sikhhist/personalities/sewadars/tarasingh.html |title=Sikh Social Warriors |access-date=25 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723065112/http://www.sikh-history.com/sikhhist/personalities/sewadars/tarasingh.html |archive-date=23 July 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> According to political scientist [[Ishtiaq Ahmed (political scientist)|Ishtiaq Ahmed]]:<ref>{{cite web |date=27 September 2018 |title=The 'bloody' Punjab partition – VIII |url=http://www.sacw.net/article2843.html |access-date=25 July 2018 |archive-date=25 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725214556/http://www.sacw.net/article2843.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="fairobserver.com">{{cite web |last=Ahmed |first=Ishtiaq |date=31 January 2013 |title=The Punjab Bloodied, Partitioned and Cleansed |url=http://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/punjab-bloodied-partitioned-and-cleansed/ |access-date=1 March 2017 |archive-date=9 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809173128/https://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/punjab-bloodied-partitioned-and-cleansed/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="dawnshafiqbutt">{{cite news |last=Butt |first=Shafiq |date=24 April 2016 |title=A page from history: Dr Ishtiaq underscores need to build bridges |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1254069 |work=Dawn |access-date=1 March 2017 |archive-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810040954/https://www.dawn.com/news/1254069 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |year=1993 |title=The role of the crowd in the Muslim League struggled for Pakistan |journal=The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=307–333 |doi=10.1080/03086539308582893 |quote=Four thousand Muslim shops and homes were destroyed in the walled area of Amritsar during a single week in March 1947. were these exceptions which prove the rule? It appears that casualty figures were frequently higher when Hindus rather than Muslims were the aggressors.}}</ref>

<blockquote>On March 3, radical Sikh leader Master Tara Singh famously flashed his [[kirpan]] (sword) outside the Punjab Assembly, calling for the destruction of the Pakistan idea prompting violent response by the Muslims mainly against Sikhs but also Hindus, in the Muslim-majority districts of northern Punjab. Yet, at the end of that year, more Muslims had been killed in East Punjab than Hindus and Sikhs together in West Punjab.</blockquote>

Nehru wrote to Gandhi on 22 August that, up to that point, twice as many Muslims had been killed in [[East Punjab]] than Hindus and Sikhs in [[West Punjab]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Nisid Hajari|title=Midnight's Furies: The Deadly Legacy of India's Partition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bO5zCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA139|year=2015|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-547-66921-2|pages=139–|access-date=18 December 2017}}</ref>

===Bengal===
{{Main|Partition of Bengal (1947)}}
The province of [[Bengal]] was divided into the two separate entities of [[West Bengal]], awarded to the Dominion of India, and [[East Bengal]], awarded to the Dominion of Pakistan. East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan in 1955,{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} and later became the independent nation of [[Bangladesh]] after the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] of 1971.

The districts of [[Murshidabad District|Murshidabad]] and [[Malda district|Malda]], located on the right bank of the Ganges, were given to India despite having Muslim majorities. The Hindu-majority [[Khulna District]], located on the mouths of the Ganges and surrounded by Muslim-majority districts, were given to Pakistan, as were the eastern-most [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]].<ref name="Spoils">{{cite book |last=Chatterji |first=Joya |author-link=Joya Chatterji |year=2007 |title=The Spoils of Partition: Bengal and India, 1947–1967 |pages=31, 58–60 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-87536-3}}</ref>

Thousands of Hindus, located in the districts of East Bengal, which were awarded to Pakistan, found themselves being attacked, and this religious persecution forced hundreds of thousands of Hindus from East Bengal to [[East Bengali refugees|seek refuge]] in India. The massive influx of Hindu refugees into Calcutta affected the demographics of the city. Many Muslims left the city for East Pakistan, and the refugee families occupied some of their homes and properties.

Total migration across Bengal during the partition is estimated at 3.3 million: 2.6 million Hindus moved from East Pakistan to India and 0.7 million Muslims moved from India to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).

====Chittagong Hill Tracts====
The sparsely populated [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] were a special case. Located on the eastern limits of Bengal, it provided the Muslim-majority [[Chittagong]] with a [[hinterland]]. Despite the Tracts' 98.5% Buddhist majority in 1947<ref name=Khisha>{{cite book|last=Khisha|first=Mukur K.|title=All That Glisters|year=1998|publisher=Minerva Press|isbn=978-1861060525|pages=49}}</ref> the territory was given to Pakistan.<ref name="Spoils" />

===Sindh===
There was no mass violence in Sindh as there was in Punjab and Bengal.
At the time of partition, the majority of [[Sindh]]'s prosperous upper and middle class was Hindu. The Hindus were mostly concentrated in cities and formed the majority of the population in cities including [[Hyderabad, Sindh|Hyderabad]], [[Karachi]], [[Shikarpur, Pakistan|Shikarpur]], and [[Sukkur]]. During the initial months after partition, only some Hindus migrated. In late 1947, the situation began to change. Large numbers of Muslims refugees from India started arriving in Sindh and began to live in crowded refugee camps.<ref name="Sindhi Voices from the Partition">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theheritagelab.in/sindhi-voices-partition/|title=Sindhi Voices from the Partition|publisher=The HeritageLab.in|date=16 August 2020|access-date=8 June 2020|archive-date=8 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608110538/https://www.theheritagelab.in/sindhi-voices-partition/|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 6 December 1947, communal violence broke out in Ajmer in India, precipitated by an argument between
some Sindhi Hindu refugees and local Muslims in the Dargah Bazaar. Violence in Ajmer again broke out in the middle of December with stabbings, looting and arson resulting in mostly Muslim casualties.<ref name="Bhavnani">{{cite book |title=The Making of Exile: Sindhi Hindus and the Partition of India |last=Bhavnani |first=Nandita |publisher=Westland |year=2014 |isbn=978-93-84030-33-9}}</ref> Many Muslims fled across the Thar Desert to Sindh in Pakistan.<ref name="Bhavnani" /> This sparked further anti-Hindu riots in [[Hyderabad, Sindh]]. On 6 January anti-Hindu riots broke out in Karachi, leading to an estimate of 1100 casualties.<ref name="Bhavnani" /><ref>{{cite book |title=The Global World of Indian Merchants, 1750–1947 |last=Markovits |first=Claude |year=2000 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-62285-1 |page=278}}</ref> The arrival of Sindhi Hindu refugees in North Gujarat's town of Godhra in March 1948 again sparked riots there which led to more emigration of Muslims from Godhra to Pakistan.<ref name="Bhavnani"/> These events triggered the large scale exodus of Hindus.
An estimated 1.2 – 1.4 million Hindus migrated to India primarily by ship or train.<ref name="Sindhi Voices from the Partition"/>

Despite the migration, a significant Sindhi Hindu population still resides in Pakistan's Sindh province, where they number at around 2.3 million as per Pakistan's 1998 census. Some districts in Sindh had a Hindu majority like [[Tharparkar District]], [[Umerkot]], [[Mirpurkhas]], [[Sanghar]] and [[Badin]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pakistanhinducouncil.org/hindupopulation.asp |title=Population of Hindus in the World |website=Pakistan Hindu Council |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518031747/http://www.pakistanhinducouncil.org/hindupopulation.asp |archive-date=18 May 2013}}</ref>
Due to the religious persecution of Hindus in Pakistan, Hindus from Sindh are still migrating to India.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/05/world/asia/pakistan-hindu-india-modi.html |title=Hard Times Have Pakistani Hindus Looking to India, Where Some Find Only Disappointment |first=Maria |last=Abi-Habib |date=5 October 2019 |work=The New York Times |access-date=10 July 2020 |archive-date=2 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102204537/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/05/world/asia/pakistan-hindu-india-modi.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religion in Sindh (1941 & 1951)
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in Pakistan|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="sindh1941">{{cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.28215545 |jstor=saoa.crl.28215545 |access-date=5 May 2024 |title=Census of India, 1941. Vol. 12, Sind |author1=India Census Commissioner |year=1941 |volume=12 |archive-date=29 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230129064845/https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.28215545 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|28}}{{efn|name=Sindh1941|1941 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Dadu District|Dadu]], [[Hyderabad District, Sindh|Hyderabad]], [[Karachi]], [[Larkana District|Larkana]], [[Nawabshah District|Nawabshah]], [[Sukkur District|Sukkur]], [[Tharparkar district|Tharparkar]], [[Upper Sind Frontier District|Upper Sind Frontier]]), and one [[princely state]] ([[Khairpur (princely state)|Khairpur]]), in Sindh Province, British India. See 1941 census data here:<ref name="sindh1941"/>}}
! colspan="2" |1951<ref name="sindh1951">{{cite web|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/31311|title=CPopulation According to Religion, Tables-6, Pakistan - Census 1951|access-date=28 September 2024}}</ref>{{rp|22–26}}{{efn|name=Sindh1951|Including [[Federal Capital Territory (Karachi)]]}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
| [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 3,462,015
|{{Percentage | 3462015 | 4840795 | 2 }}
| 5,535,645
|{{Percentage | 5535645 | 6047748 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]
| 1,279,530
|{{Percentage | 1279530 | 4840795 | 2 }}
| 482,560
|{{Percentage | 482560 | 6047748 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 32,627
|{{Percentage | 32627 | 4840795 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 20,304
|{{Percentage | 20304 | 4840795 | 2 }}
| 22,601
|{{Percentage | 22601 | 6047748 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Tribal religions in India|Tribal]]
| 37,598
|{{Percentage | 37598 | 4840795 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 3,841
|{{Percentage | 3841 | 4840795 | 2 }}
| 5,046
|{{Percentage | 5046 | 6047748 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain Prateek Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 3,687
|{{Percentage | 3687 | 4840795 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Judaism]] [[File:Star of David.svg|15px]]
| 1,082
|{{Percentage | 1082 | 4840795 | 2 }}
| {{N/a}}
| {{N/a}}
|-
| [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma Wheel (2).svg|15px]]
| 111
|{{Percentage | 111 | 4840795 | 3 }}
| 670
|{{Percentage | 670 | 6047748 | 2 }}
|-
| Others
| 0
|{{Percentage | 0 | 4840795 | 2 }}
| 1,226
|{{Percentage | 1226 | 6047748 | 2 }}
|-
! Total Population
! 4,840,795
!{{Percentage | 4840795 | 4840795 | 2 }}
! 6,047,748
!{{Percentage | 6047748 | 6047748 | 2 }}
|}

===Gujarat===
It experienced large refugee migrations.
An estimated 642,000 Muslims migrated to Pakistan, of which 75% went to Karachi largely due to business interests. The [[1951 Census of India|1951 Census]] registered a drop of the Muslim population in the state from 13% in 1941 to 7% in 1951.<ref name="YājñikaSheth2005">{{cite book|author1=Acyuta Yājñika|author2=Suchitra Sheth|title=The Shaping of Modern Gujarat: Plurality, Hindutva, and Beyond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmKIiAPgnF0C&pg=PA225|year=2005|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-400038-8|pages=225–|access-date=16 July 2018}}</ref>

The number of incoming refugees was also quite large, with over a million people migrating to Gujarat.
These Hindu refugees were largely Sindhi and Gujarati.<ref name="Balasubrahmanyan2011">{{Cite journal|title=Partition and Gujarat: The Tangled Web of Religious, Caste, Community and Gender Identities|year=2011|publisher=tandfonline|doi=10.1080/00856401.2011.620556|last1=Balasubrahmanyan|first1=Suchitra|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=34|issue=3|pages=460–484|s2cid=145404336}}</ref>

===Delhi===
[[File:Muslim refugees in the Tomb of Humayun.png|thumb|Muslim refugees in the Tomb of Humayun, 1947]]
[[File:Manchester guardian purana-qila1947.jpg|thumb|upright|A crowd of Muslims at the Old Fort (Purana Qila) in Delhi, which had been converted into a vast camp for Muslim refugees waiting to be transported to Pakistan. ''[[The Guardian|Manchester Guardian]]'', 27 September 1947]]

For centuries Delhi had been the capital of the [[Mughal Empire]] from Babur to the successors of Aurangzeb and previous Turkic Muslim rulers of North India. The series of Islamic rulers keeping Delhi as a stronghold of their empires left a vast array of Islamic architecture in Delhi, and a strong Islamic culture permeated the city.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} In 1911, when the British Raj shifted their colonial capital from Calcutta to Delhi, the nature of the city began changing. The core of the city was called 'Lutyens' Delhi,' named after the British architect Sir [[Edwin Lutyens]], and was designed to service the needs of the small but growing population of the British elite. Nevertheless, the 1941 census listed Delhi's population as being 33.2% Muslim.<ref name="Census1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/south-asia-open-archives/saoa/censusofindia1941-28216851/|title=Census of India, 1941 Volume XVI Delhi|access-date=16 January 2023|archive-date=11 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011130147/https://www.jstor.org/site/south-asia-open-archives/saoa/censusofindia1941-28216851/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|80}}

As refugees began pouring into Delhi in 1947, the city was ill-equipped to deal with the influx of refugees. Refugees "spread themselves out wherever they could. They thronged into camps ... colleges, temples, ''[[Gurdwara|gurudwaras]]'', ''[[Dharamshala (type of building)|dharmshalas]]'', [[Barracks|military barracks]], and gardens."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|title=Gandhi before India|date=3 February 2015|publisher=National Geographic Books |isbn=978-0-307-47478-0|oclc=903907799}}</ref> By 1950, the government began allowing squatters to construct houses in certain portions of the city. As a result, neighbourhoods such as [[Lajpat Nagar]] and [[Patel Nagar]] sprang into existence, which carry a distinct Punjabi character to this day. As thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees from West Punjab and North-West Frontier Province fled to the city, upheavals ensued as communal [[pogrom]]s rocked the historical stronghold of Indo-Islamic culture and politics. A Pakistani diplomat in Delhi, Hussain, alleged that the Indian government was intent on eliminating Delhi's Muslim population or was indifferent to their fate. He reported that army troops openly gunned down innocent Muslims.<ref name="Hajari2015">{{cite book|author=Nisid Hajari|title=Midnight's Furies: The Deadly Legacy of India's Partition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bO5zCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA160|year=2015|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-547-66921-2|pages=160–|access-date=18 November 2017}}</ref> Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru estimated 1,000 casualties in the city. Other sources put the casualty rate 20 times higher. [[Gyanendra Pandey (historian)|Gyanendra Pandey]]'s 2010 account of the violence in Delhi puts the figure of Muslim casualties in Delhi at between 20,000 and 25,000.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zamindar |first=Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali |date=2010 |title=The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories |publisher=Columbia University Press |page=247 |isbn=978-0-231-13847-5}}</ref>

Tens of thousands of Muslims were driven to refugee camps regardless of their political affiliations, and numerous historical sites in Delhi such as the [[Purana Qila]], Idgah, and Nizamuddin were transformed into [[refugee camp]]s. In fact, many Hindu and Sikh refugees eventually occupied the abandoned houses of Delhi's Muslim inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kumari |first=Amita |year=2013 |title=Delhi as Refuge: Resettlement and Assimilation of Partition Refugees |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |pages=60–67}}</ref>

At the culmination of the tensions, total migration in Delhi during the partition is estimated at 830,000 people; around 330,000 Muslims had migrated to Pakistan and around 500,000 Hindus and Sikhs migrated from Pakistan to Delhi.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/capital-gains-how-1947-gave-birth-to-a-new-identity-a-new-ambition-a-new-delhi/story-e0GfoFrhwStTU2910v5DrJ_amp.html|title=Capital gains: How 1947 gave birth to a new identity, a new ambition, a new Delhi|date=24 April 2018|publisher=Hindustan Times|access-date=13 May 2021|archive-date=13 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513122824/https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/capital-gains-how-1947-gave-birth-to-a-new-identity-a-new-ambition-a-new-delhi/story-e0GfoFrhwStTU2910v5DrJ_amp.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[1951 Census of India|1951 Census]] registered a drop of the Muslim population in the city from 33.2% in 1941 to 5.7% in 1951.<ref>{{cite book |title=Muslims In Indian Cities |last=Sharma |first=Bulbul |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers India |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-5029-555-7}}</ref><ref name="Census1951">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/saoa.crl.25803729 |jstor=saoa.crl.25803729 |access-date=12 May 2024 |title=Census of India, 1951: Punjab, Pepsu, Himachal Pradesh, Bilaspur & Delhi |year=1951 |last1=Vashishta |first1=Lakshmi Chandra |last2=India. Superintendent Of Census Operations |first2=Punjab |volume=3 }}</ref>{{rp|298}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religious groups in Delhi (1941 & 1951){{efn|1941: Data for the entirety of Delhi Province, which included Delhi Municipality, New Delhi Municipality, New Delhi Cantonment, Delhi Civil Lines, Shahdara, Narela, Mehrauli, Najafgargh, Delhi Cantonment Fort, and rural outlying areas.<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|14}}}}
! rowspan="2" |[[Religion in India|Religious]] group
! colspan="2" |1941<ref name="Census1941"/>{{rp|80}}
! colspan="2" |1951<ref name="Census1951"/>{{rp|298}}
|-
![[Population|{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}]]
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
!{{abbr|Pop.|Population}}
!{{Abbr|%|percentage}}
|-
| [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi2|1941: Including [[Ad-Dharmi]]s}}
| 567,264
| {{Percentage | 567264 | 917939 | 2 }}
| 1,467,854
| {{Percentage | 1467854 | 1744072 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 304,971
| {{Percentage | 304971 | 917939 | 2 }}
| 99,501
| {{Percentage | 99501 | 1744072 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 17,475
| {{Percentage | 17475 | 917939 | 2 }}
| 18,685
| {{Percentage | 18685 | 1744072 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 16,157
| {{Percentage | 16157 | 917939 | 2 }}
| 137,096
| {{Percentage | 137096 | 1744072 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain Prateek Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 11,287
| {{Percentage | 11287 | 917939 | 2 }}
| 20,174
| {{Percentage | 20174 | 1744072 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Zoroastrianism]] [[File:Faravahar.svg|15px]]
| 284
| {{Percentage | 284 | 917939 | 2 }}
| 164
| {{Percentage | 164 | 1744072 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Buddhism]] [[File:Dharma Wheel (2).svg|15px]]
| 150
| {{Percentage | 150 | 917939 | 2 }}
| 503
| {{Percentage | 503 | 1744072 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Judaism]] [[File:Star of David.svg|15px]]
| 55
| {{Percentage | 55 | 917939 | 2 }}
| 90
| {{Percentage | 90 | 1744072 | 2 }}
|-
| Others
| 296
| {{Percentage | 296 | 917939 | 2 }}
| 5
| {{Percentage | 5 | 1744072 | 2 }}
|-
! Total population
! 917,939
! {{Percentage | 917939 | 917939 | 2 }}
! 1,744,072
! {{Percentage | 1744072 | 1744072 | 2 }}
|}

===Princely states===
In several cases, rulers of [[princely state]]s were involved in communal violence or did not do enough to stop in time. Some rulers were away from their states for the summer, such as those of the Sikh states. Some believe that the rulers were whisked away by communal ministers in large part to avoid responsibility for the soon-to-come ethnic cleansing.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} In [[Bahawalpur|Bhawalpur]] and [[Patiala]], upon the return of their ruler to the state, there was a marked decrease in violence, and the rulers consequently stood against the cleansing. The [[Nawab of Bahawalpur]] was away in Europe and returned on 1 October, shortening his trip. A bitter [[Hassan Suhrawardy]] would write to [[Mahatma Gandhi]]:

{{Blockquote|What is the use now, of the Maharaja of Patiala, when all the Muslims have been eliminated, standing up as the champion of peace and order?<ref>{{cite book |last1=Copland |first1=Ian |title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India, c. 1900–1950 |date=2005 |page=159}}</ref>}}

With the exceptions of [[Jind]] and [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], the violence was well organised in the Sikh states, with logistics provided by local government.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Copland |first1=I |title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India, c. 1900–1950 |date=2005 |page=158}}</ref> In [[Patiala State|Patiala]] and [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], the Maharajas responded to the call of [[Master Tara Singh]] to cleanse India of Muslims. The Maharaja of Patiala was offered the headship of a future united Sikh state that would rise from the "ashes of a Punjab civil war."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Copland |first1=Ian |title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India, c. 1900–1950 |date=2005 |page=148}}</ref> The Maharaja of Faridkot, Harinder Singh, is reported to have listened to stories of the massacres with great interest going so far as to ask for "juicy details" of the carnage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Copland|first=Ian|date=2002|title=The Master and the Maharajas: The Sikh Princes and the East Punjab Massacres of 1947|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3876650|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=36|issue=3|pages=657–704|doi=10.1017/S0026749X02003050|jstor=3876650|s2cid=146123606|issn=0026-749X|access-date=20 November 2021|archive-date=20 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120220504/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3876650|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The Maharaja of [[Bharatpur State]] personally witnessed the cleansing of [[Meo (ethnic group)|Muslim Meos]] at Khumbar and [[Deeg]]. When reproached by Muslims for his actions, [[Brijendra Singh]] retorted by saying: "Why come to me? Go to Jinnah."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=squHDAAAQBAJ&q=%22Why+come+to+me%3F+Go+to+Jinnah.%22&pg=PA157|title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India, c. 1900–1950|isbn=9780230005983|last1=Copland|first1=I.|date=26 April 2005|publisher=Springer |access-date=11 March 2021}}</ref>

In [[Alwar State|Alwar]] and [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]] communal sentiments extended to higher echelons of government, and the prime ministers of these States were said to have been involved in planning and directly overseeing the cleansing. In [[Bikaner]], by contrast, the organisation occurred at much lower levels.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Copland |first1=Ian |title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India, c. 1900–1950 |date=2005 |page=157}}</ref>

====Alwar and Bharatpur====
In [[Alwar]] and [[Bharatpur, Rajasthan|Bharatpur]], princely states of Rajputana (modern-day Rajasthan), there were bloody confrontations between the dominant, Hindu land-holding community and the Muslim cultivating community.<ref name="Pandey2001">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZdLhnFet4w4C&pg=PA39|title=Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism and History in India|last=Pandey|first=Gyanendra|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-521-00250-9|page=39|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref> Well-organised bands of [[Hindu Jats]], [[Ahir]]s and [[Gurjar]]s, started attacking [[Meo (ethnic group)|Muslim Meos]] in April 1947. By June, more than fifty Muslim villages had been destroyed. The Muslim League was outraged and demanded that the Viceroy provide Muslim troops. Accusations emerged in June of the involvement of Indian State Forces from Alwar and Bharatpur in the destruction of Muslim villages both inside their states and in British India.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EwJeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306|title=The Indian Army and the End of the Raj|last=Marston|first=Daniel|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1139915762|page=306|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref>

In the wake of unprecedented violent attacks unleashed against them in 1947, 100,000 Muslim Meos from Alwar and Bharatpur were forced to flee their homes, and an estimated 30,000 are said to have been massacred.<ref>{{harvnb|Khan|2007|p=135}}</ref> On 17 November, a column of 80,000 Meo refugees went to Pakistan. However, 10,000 stopped travelling due to the risks.<ref name="Pandey2001" />

====Jammu and Kashmir====
{{Main|1947 Jammu massacres}}

In September–November 1947 in the [[Jammu]] region of the [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|princely state of Jammu and Kashmir]], a large number of Muslims were killed, and others driven away to [[West Punjab]]. The impetus for this violence was partly due to the "harrowing stories of Muslim atrocities", brought by Hindu and Sikh refugees arriving to Jammu from West Punjab since March 1947. The killings were carried out by extremist [[Hindus]] and [[Sikhs]], aided and abetted by the forces of the [[Dogra dynasty|Jammu and Kashmir]] State, headed by the [[Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir]] [[Hari Singh]]. Observers state that Hari Singh aimed to alter the demographics of the region by eliminating the Muslim population and ensure a Hindu majority.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chattha, Ilyas Ahmad (September 2009), Partition and Its Aftermath: Violence, Migration and the Role of Refugees in the Socio-Economic Development of Gujranwala and Sialkot Cities, 1947–1961|publisher=University of Southampton, retrieved 16 February 2016|pages=179, 183}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |author=A.G. Noorani |date=25 February 2012 |title=Horrors of Partition |url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2904/stories/20120309290407300.htm |magazine=Frontline |access-date=7 March 2017 |archive-date=25 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225142101/http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2904/stories/20120309290407300.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> This was followed by a massacre of Hindus and Sikhs starting in November 1947, in Rajouri and Mirpur by Pashtun tribal militias and Pakistani soldiers.<ref name="RajouriMirpur">{{cite book |last=Snedden |first=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Snedden |year=2013 |orig-year=First published 2012 as ''The Untold Story of the People of Azad Kashmir'' |title=Kashmir: The Unwritten History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0cPjAAAAQBAJ |publisher=HarperCollins India |page=56 |isbn=978-93-5029-898-5 |access-date=12 July 2021}}; {{cite book |last=Das Gupta |first=Jyoti Bhusan |year=2012 |orig-year=First published 1968 |title=Jammu and Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dpTpCAAAQBAJ |publisher=Springer |page=97 |isbn=978-94-011-9231-6 |access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> Women were raped and sexually assaulted, while many of those killed, raped and injured had come to these areas to escape massacres in West Punjab, which had become part of Pakistan.<ref name="RajouriMirpur"/>

==Resettlement of refugees: 1947–1951==

===Resettlement in India===
According to the [[1951 Census of India]], 2% of India's population were refugees (1.3% from [[West Pakistan]] and 0.7% from [[East Pakistan]]).

The majority of Hindu and Sikh Punjabi refugees from [[West Punjab]] were settled in Delhi and [[East Punjab]] (including Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). Delhi received the largest number of refugees for a single city, with the population of Delhi showing an increase from under 1 million (917,939) in the Census of India, 1941, to a little less than 2 million (1,744,072) in the 1951 Census, despite a large number of Muslims leaving Delhi in 1947 to go to Pakistan whether voluntarily or by coercion.<ref>Census of India, 1941 and 1951</ref> The incoming refugees were housed in various historical and military locations such as the [[Purana Qila]], [[Red Fort]], and military barracks in [[Kingsway Camp]] (around the present [[University of Delhi|Delhi University]]). The latter became the site of one of the largest refugee camps in northern India, with more than 35,000 refugees at any given time besides [[Kurukshetra]] camp near [[Panipat]]. The campsites were later converted into permanent housing through extensive building projects undertaken by the Government of India from 1948 onwards. Many housing colonies in Delhi came up around this period, like [[Lajpat Nagar]], [[Rajinder Nagar]], [[Nizamuddin East]], [[Punjabi Bagh]], Rehgar Pura, [[Jangpura]], and Kingsway Camp. Several schemes such as the provision of education, employment opportunities, and easy loans to start businesses were provided for the refugees at the all-India level.<ref>{{cite book |title=Since 1947: Partition Narratives among Punjabi Migrants of Delhi |last=Kaur |first=Ravinder |year=2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-568377-6}}</ref> Many Punjabi Hindu refugees were also settled in Cities of Western and Central [[Uttar Pradesh]]. A Colony consisting largely of Sikhs and [[Punjabi Hindus]] was also founded in Central Mumbai's [[Sion Koliwada (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Sion Koliwada]] region, and named [[Guru Tegh Bahadur Nagar]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://scroll.in/article/887276/facing-eviction-residents-of-mumbais-partition-era-colony-fear-they-will-become-refugees-again |title=Facing eviction, residents of a Mumbai Partition-era colony fear they will become homeless again |last=Johari |first=Aarefa |work=Scroll.in |access-date=20 October 2018 |archive-date=2 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802154416/https://scroll.in/article/887276/facing-eviction-residents-of-mumbais-partition-era-colony-fear-they-will-become-refugees-again |url-status=live}}</ref>

Hindus [[East Bengali refugees|fleeing from East Pakistan]] (now [[Bangladesh]]) were settled across [[East India|Eastern]], [[Central India|Central]] and [[Northeast India|Northeastern India]], many ending up in neighbouring Indian states such as [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]], and [[Tripura]]. Substantial number of refugees were also settled in [[Madhya Pradesh]] (incl. [[Chhattisgarh]]) [[Bihar]] (incl. [[Jharkhand]]), [[Odisha]] and [[Andaman islands]] (where Bengalis today form the largest linguistic group)<ref>{{cite news |title=Meet the Bengali refugees who now dominate businesses, farms in Chhattisgarh's tribal belt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/meet-the-bengali-refugees-who-now-dominate-businesses-farms-in-chhattisgarhs-tribal-belt/articleshow/73362371.cms |work=Economic Times |date=19 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/over-1cr-bengali-refugees-living-outside-bengal/articleshow/67348291.cms|title=Over 1 crore Bengali refugees living outside Benga|date=2 January 2019|work=The Times of India|access-date=1 August 2021|archive-date=5 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605133643/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/over-1cr-bengali-refugees-living-outside-bengal/articleshow/67348291.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sindhi Hindus settled predominantly in [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]], and [[Rajasthan]]. Substantial numbers, however, were also settled in [[Madhya Pradesh]], A few also settled in Delhi. A new township was established for Sindhi Hindu refugees in Maharashtra. The [[Governor-General of India]], Sir Rajagopalachari, laid the foundation for this township and named it [[Ulhasnagar]] ('city of joy').

Substantial communities of Hindu Gujarati and Marathi Refugees who had lived in the cities of Sindh and [[Saraikistan|Southern Punjab]] were also resettled in the cities of modern-day Gujarat and Maharashtra.<ref name="Balasubrahmanyan2011" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-why-create-problems-when-we-live-in-peace-marathi-speaking-community-from-karachi-to-shiv-sena-2137208|title=Why create problems when we live in peace: Marathi-speaking community from Karachi to Shiv Sena|date=22 October 2015|work=DNA|access-date=26 July 2021|archive-date=26 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726223609/https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-why-create-problems-when-we-live-in-peace-marathi-speaking-community-from-karachi-to-shiv-sena-2137208|url-status=live}}</ref>

A small community of Pashtun Hindus from [[Loralai]], [[Balochistan]] was also settled in [[Jaipur]]. Today they number around 1,000.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1697086/pakistan|title=70 years on, one Pashtun town still safeguards its old Hindu-Muslim brotherhood|work=Arab News|date=30 June 2020|access-date=1 August 2021|archive-date=1 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801203052/https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1697086/pakistan|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Refugee camps====
The list below shows the number of relief camps in districts of Punjab and their population up to December 1948.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://data.conferenceworld.in/IETES/20.pdf |title=Statistics of Refugee Camps and Their Administration in Combined Punjab |last1=Pushpa |date=26 November 2017 |publisher=A.R. Research Publication |book-title= |pages=129–130 |location=Chandigarh, India |conference=4the International Conference on 'Recent Research Development in Environment, Social Sciences and Humanities' |isbn=978-93-86171-82-5}}</ref>
{|class="Wikipedia sortable"
|+Number of relief camps in East Punjab
! District (up to December 1948)
!No. of camps
!No. of persons
|-
|Amritsar||5||129,398
|-
|Gurdaspur||4||3,500
|-
|Ferozpur||5||53,000
|-
|Ludhiana||1||25,000
|-
|Jalandhar||19||60,000
|-
|Hoshiarpur||1||11,701
|-
|Hissar||3||3,797
|-
|Rohtak||2||50,000
|-
|Ambala||1||50,000
|-
|Karnal (including Kurukshetra)||4||325,000
|-
|Gurugram (Gurgaon)||40||20,000
|-
|Total||85||721,396
|}

===Resettlement in Pakistan===
The 1951 Census of Pakistan recorded that the most significant number of Muslim refugees came from the [[East Punjab]] and nearby [[Rajputana|Rajputana states]] ([[Alwar]] and [[Bharatpur, Rajasthan|Bharatpur]]). They numbered 5,783,100 and constituted 80.1% of Pakistan's total refugee population.<ref name="Chitkara">{{cite book |title=Converts Do Not Make A Nation |last=Chitkara |first=G.M. |publisher=APH Publishing |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-7024-982-5 |page=216}}</ref> This was the effect of the retributive ethnic cleansing on both sides of the Punjab where the Muslim population of East Punjab was forcibly expelled like the Hindu/Sikh population in [[West Punjab]].

Migration from other regions of India were as follows: [[Bihar]], [[West Bengal]], and [[Odisha|Orissa]], 700,300 or 9.8%; UP and Delhi 464,200 or 6.4%; [[Gujarat]] and [[Mumbai|Bombay]], 160,400 or 2.2%; [[Bhopal]] and [[Hyderabad]] 95,200 or 1.2%; and [[Chennai|Madras]] and [[Mysore]] 18,000 or 0.2%.<ref name="Chitkara" />

So far as their settlement in Pakistan is concerned, 97.4% of the refugees from East Punjab and its contiguous areas went to West Punjab; 95.9% from Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa to the erstwhile East Pakistan; 95.5% from UP and Delhi to West Pakistan, mainly in [[Karachi Division]] of [[Sindh]]; 97.2% from Bhopal and Hyderabad to [[West Pakistan]], mainly [[Karachi]]; and 98.9% from Bombay and Gujarat to West Pakistan, largely to Karachi; and 98.9% from Madras and Mysore went to West Pakistan, mainly Karachi.<ref name="Chitkara" />

West Punjab received the largest number of refugees (73.1%), mainly from East Punjab and its contiguous areas. Sindh received the second largest number of refugees, 16.1% of the total migrants, while the Karachi division of Sindh received 8.5% of the total migrant population. East Bengal received the third-largest number of refugees, 699,100, who constituted 9.7% of the total Muslim refugee population in Pakistan. 66.7% of the refugees in East Bengal originated from West Bengal, 14.5% from Bihar and 11.8% from Assam.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ghosh |first=Papiya |year=2001 |title=The Changing Discourse Of The Muhajirs |journal=India International Centre Quarterly |volume=28 |issue=3 |page=58 |jstor=23005560}}</ref>

NWFP and Baluchistan received the lowest number of migrants. NWFP received 51,100 migrants (0.7% of the migrant population) while Baluchistan received 28,000 (0.4% of the migrant population).

The government undertook a census of refugees in West Punjab in 1948, which displayed their place of origin in India.

====Data====
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break|width=33%}}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+'''Number of Muslim refugees in West Punjab from the Districts of East Punjab and Neighbouring Regions'''{{sfn|Chattha|2009|p=111}}
|-
!Places
!Number
|-
|Amritsar (East Punjab)
|741,444
|-
|Jalandhar (East Punjab)
|520,189
|-
|Gurdaspur (East Punjab)
|499,793
|-
|Hoshiarpur (East Punjab)
|384,448
|-
|Karnal (East Punjab)
|306,509
|-
|Hissar (East Punjab)
|287,479
|-
|Ludhiana (East Punjab)
| 255,864
|-
|Ambala (East Punjab)
|222,939
|-
|Gurgaon (East Punjab)
|80,537
|-
|Rohtak (East Punjab)
|172,640
|-
|Delhi
|91,185
|-
|Kangra (East Punjab)
|33,826
|-
|United Provinces
|28,363
|-
|Shimla (East Punjab)
|11,300
|-
|'''Total'''
|'''3,636,516'''
|}
{{Col-break|width=33%}}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+ '''Number of Muslim refugees in West Punjab from the Princely states in East Punjab and Rajputana'''{{sfn|Chattha|2009|p=111}}
|-
!Name
!Number
|-
|Patiala (East Punjab)
|308,948
|-
|Alwar (Rajputana)
|191,567
|-
|Kapurthala (East Punjab)
|172,079
|-
|Faridkot (East Punjab)
|66,596
|-
|Bharatpur (Rajputana)
|43,614
|-
|Nabha (East Punjab)
|43,538
|-
|Jind (East Punjab)
|41,696
|-
|Together other small states
|39,322
|-
|'''Total'''
|'''907,360'''
|}
{{Col-break|width=33%}}
{{Col-end}}
{{clear}}

== Missing people ==
A study of the total population inflows and outflows in the districts of Punjab, using the data provided by the [[1931 Census of India|1931]] and [[1951 Census of India|1951 Census]] has led to an estimate of 1.3 million missing Muslims who left western India but did not reach Pakistan.<ref name="EPW">{{Cite journal |last1 = Bharadwaj |first1 = Prasant |first2 = Asim |last2 = Khwaja |first3 = Atif |last3 = Mian |date = 30 August 2008 |title = The Big March: Migratory Flows after the Partition of India |url = http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/akhwaja/papers/Big%20March%20EPW%20Publish08.pdf |journal = Economic & Political Weekly |page = 43 |access-date = 16 January 2016 |archive-date = 3 December 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121203132100/http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/akhwaja/papers/Big%20March%20EPW%20Publish08.pdf |url-status = dead }}</ref> The corresponding number of missing [[Hindus]]/[[Sikhs]] along the western border is estimated to be approximately 0.8 million.<ref name="Bharadwaj, Prasant 2008">Bharadwaj, Prasant; Khwaja, Asim; Mian, Atif (30 August 2008). "The Big March: Migratory Flows after the Partition of India" (PDF). ''Economic & Political Weekly'': 43. Retrieved 16 January 2016</ref> This puts the total of missing people, due to partition-related migration along the Punjab border, to around 2.2 million.<ref name="Bharadwaj, Prasant 2008"/>
Another study of the demographic consequences of partition in the Punjab region using the 1931, 1941 and 1951 censuses concluded that between 2.3 and 3.2 million people went missing in the Punjab.<ref>Hill, K., Selzer, W., Leaning, J., Malik, S., & Russell, S. (2008). The Demographic Impact of Partition in Punjab in 1947. Population Studies, 62(2), 155–170.</ref>

==Rehabilitation of women==
{{Further information|Violence against women during the Partition of India}}

Both sides promised each other that they would try to restore women abducted and raped during the riots. The Indian government claimed that 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women were abducted, and the Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted during riots. By 1949, there were legal claims that 12,000 women had been recovered in India and 6,000 in Pakistan.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=m-EYXNnvMugC&q=12000&pg=PA125 Perspectives on Modern South Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and ... – Kamala Visweswara] (16 May 2011)</ref> By 1954, there were 20,728 Muslim women recovered from India, and 9,032 Hindu and Sikh women recovered from Pakistan.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=yNN4SE7cL60C&dq=muslim+hindu+women+recovered+1947+riots&pg=PA99 Borders & boundaries: women in India's partition – Ritu Menon, Kamla Bhasi] (24 April 1993).</ref> Most of the Hindu and Sikh women refused to go back to India, fearing that their families would never accept them, a fear mirrored by Muslim women.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781856494489|url-access=registration|title=Embodied violence: Communalising women's sexuality in South Asia|last2=de Alwi|first2=Malathi|publisher=Zed Books|year=1996|isbn=978-1-85649-448-9|last1=Jayawardena|first1=Kumari}}</ref>

Some scholars have noted some 'positive' effects of partition on women in both Bengal and Punjab. In Bengal, it had some emancipatory effects on refugee women from East Bengal, who took up jobs to help their families, entered the public space and participated in political movements. The disintegration of traditional family structures could have increased the space for the agency of women. Many women also actively participated in the communist movement that later took place in West Bengal of India. Regarding Indian Punjab, one scholar has noted, "Partition narrowed the physical spaces and enlarged the social spaces available to women, thereby affecting the practice of purda or seclusion, modified the impact of caste and regional culture on marriage arrangements and widened the channels of educational mobility and employment for girls and women."<ref>{{cite journal |last=SenGupta |first=Anwesha |date=Summer 2012 |title=Looking Back at Partition and Women: A Factsheet |url=http://wiscomp.org/peaceprints/4-1/4.1.9.pdf |journal=Peace Prints: South Asian Journal of Peacebuilding |volume=4 |issue=1 |page=}}</ref>

==Post-partition migration==

===Pakistan===
Due to [[Violence against Muslims in independent India|persecution of Muslims in India]], even after the [[1951 Census of India|1951 Census]], many Muslim families from India continued migrating to Pakistan throughout the 1950s and the early 1960s. According to historian [[Omar Khalidi]], the Indian Muslim migration to [[West Pakistan]] between December 1947 and December 1971 was from [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Delhi]], [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Karnataka]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Tamil Nadu]], and [[Kerala]]. The next stage of migration was between 1973 and the 1990s, and the primary destination for these migrants was Karachi and other urban centres in Sindh.<ref name="Khalidi">{{cite journal|last=Khalidi|first=Omar|date=Autumn 1998|title=From Torrent to Trickle: Indian Muslim Migration to Pakistan, 1947–97|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=37|pages=339–352|jstor=20837002|number=3}}</ref>

In 1959, the [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO) published a report stating that from 1951 to 1956, a total of 650,000 Muslims from India relocated to West Pakistan.<ref name="Khalidi"/> However, Visaria (1969) raised doubts about the authenticity of the claims about Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan, since the 1961 Census of Pakistan did not corroborate these figures. However, the [[1961 Pakistan Census|1961 Census of Pakistan]] did incorporate a statement suggesting that there had been a migration of 800,000 people from India to Pakistan throughout the previous decade.<ref name="lse.ac.uk">{{Cite web |url=http://www.lse.ac.uk/asiaResearchCentre/_files/ARCWP04-Karim.pdf |title=Effects of Migration, Socioeconomic Status and Population Policy on Reproductive Behaviour |access-date=15 January 2016 |archive-date=27 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127011533/http://www.lse.ac.uk/asiaResearchCentre/_files/ARCWP04-Karim.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Of those who left for Pakistan, most never came back.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan declined drastically in the 1970s, a trend noticed by the Pakistani authorities. In June 1995, Pakistan's interior minister, [[Naseerullah Babar]], informed the National Assembly that between the period of 1973–1994, as many as 800,000 visitors came from India on valid travel documents. Of these only 3,393 stayed.<ref name="Khalidi" /> In a related trend, intermarriages between Indian and Pakistani Muslims have declined sharply. According to a November 1995 statement of Riaz Khokhar, the [[High Commissioner of Pakistan|Pakistani High Commissioner]] in New Delhi, the number of cross-border marriages has dropped from 40,000 a year in the 1950s and 1960s to barely 300 annually.<ref name="Khalidi" />

In the aftermath of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, 3,500 Muslim families migrated from the Indian part of the [[Thar Desert]] to the Pakistani section of the Thar Desert.<ref name="Hasan2009">Hasan, Arif; Mansoor, Raza (2009). ''Migration and Small Towns in Pakistan; Volume 15 of Rural-urban interactions and livelihood strategies are working paper''. IIED. p. 16. {{ISBN|978-1-84369-734-3}}.</ref> 400 families were settled in Nagar after the 1965 war and an additional 3,000 settled in the [[Chachro Taluka|Chachro taluka]] in Sindh province of West Pakistan.<ref name="Hasan, Arif 1987 p. 25">Hasan, Arif (30 December 1987). "Comprehensive assessment of drought and famine in Sind arid ones leading to a realistic short and long-term emergency intervention plan" (PDF). p. 25. Retrieved 12 January 2016.</ref> The government of Pakistan provided each family with 12 acres of land. According to government records, this land totalled 42,000 acres.<ref name="Hasan, Arif 1987 p. 25"/>

The 1951 census in Pakistan recorded 671,000 refugees in East Pakistan, the majority of which came from West Bengal. The rest were from [[Bihar]].<ref name="Hill et al., page 13">{{Cite web |url=http://iussp2005.princeton.edu/papers/52236 |title=The Demographic Impact of Partition: Bengal in 1947 |last1=Hill |first1=K. |last2=Seltzer |first2=W |last3=Leaning |first3=J. |last4=Malik |first4=S. J. |last5=Russell |first5=S. S. |date=1 September 2006 |format=PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901210605/http://iussp2005.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=52236|access-date=22 May 2020|archive-date=1 September 2006}}</ref> According to the ILO in the period 1951–1956, half a million Indian Muslims migrated to East Pakistan.<ref name="Khalidi" /> By 1961 the numbers reached 850,000. In the aftermath of the riots in [[Ranchi]] and [[Jamshedpur]], Biharis continued to migrate to East Pakistan well into the late sixties and added up to around a million.<ref>Ben Whitaker, ''The Biharis in Bangladesh'', Minority Rights Group, London, 1971, p. 7.</ref> Crude estimates suggest that about 1.5 million Muslims migrated from West Bengal and Bihar to East Bengal in the two decades after partition.<ref>Chatterji – Spoils of partition. p. 166</ref>

===India===
Due to [[Persecution of Hindus#Pakistan|religious persecution in Pakistan]], Hindus continue to flee to India. Most of them tend to settle in the state of Rajasthan in India.<ref name="dawn10Sep2015">{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1206092|title=Hindu refugees from Pakistan encounter suspicion and indifference in India|last=Rizvi|first=Uzair Hasan|date=10 September 2015|work=Dawn|access-date=15 January 2016|archive-date=14 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214025324/http://www.dawn.com/news/1206092|url-status=live}}</ref> According to data of the [[Human Rights Commission of Pakistan]], just around 1,000 Hindu families fled to India in 2013.<ref name="dawn10Sep2015"/> In May 2014, a member of the ruling [[Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz|Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz]] (PML-N), [[Ramesh Kumar Vankwani]], revealed in the [[National Assembly of Pakistan]] that around 5,000 Hindus are migrating from Pakistan to India every year.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1105830|title=5,000 Hindus migrating to India every year, NA told|last=Haider|first=Irfan|date=13 May 2014|work=Dawn|access-date=15 January 2016|archive-date=29 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229174650/http://www.dawn.com/news/1105830|url-status=live}}</ref> Since India is not a signatory to the [[Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees|1951 United Nations Refugee Convention]], it refuses to recognise Pakistani Hindu migrants as refugees.<ref name="dawn10Sep2015" />

The population in the [[Tharparkar District|Tharparkar district]] in the Sindh province of West Pakistan was 80% Hindu and 20% Muslim at the time of independence in 1947. During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|Indo-Pakistani Wars of 1965]] and [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971]], an estimated 1,500 Hindu families fled to India, which led to a massive demographic shift in the district.<ref name="Hasan2009" /><ref>{{cite news |last1=Yagnik |first1=Bharat |last2=Chauhan |first2=Ashish |title=Shivnagar: State's biggest 'ghetto' of '71 war refugees {{!}} Ahmedabad News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/shivnagar-states-biggest-ghetto-of-71-war-refugees/articleshow/68237599.cms |work=The Times of India |date=3 March 2019 |access-date=1 August 2021 |archive-date=1 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801005739/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/shivnagar-states-biggest-ghetto-of-71-war-refugees/articleshow/68237599.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> During these same wars, 23,300 Hindu families also migrated to [[Jammu Division]] from [[Azad Kashmir]] and [[Punjab, Pakistan|West Punjab]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/over-54000-families-of-pok-west-pakistan-residing-in-various-parts-of-jammu-province/articleshow/46839265.cms?from=mdr|title=Over 54,000 families of PoK, Punjab residing in various parts of Jammu Province|date=7 April 2015|publisher=Economic Times|access-date=1 August 2021|archive-date=1 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801005004/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/over-54000-families-of-pok-west-pakistan-residing-in-various-parts-of-jammu-province/articleshow/46839265.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref>

The migration of Hindus from East Pakistan to India continued unabated after partition. The [[1951 Census of India|1951 census in India]] recorded that 2.5 million refugees arrived from East Pakistan, of which 2.1 million migrated to West Bengal while the rest migrated to Assam, Tripura, and other states.<ref name="Hill et al., page 13" /> These refugees arrived in waves and did not come solely at partition. By 1973, their number reached over 6 million. The following data displays the major waves of refugees from East Pakistan and the incidents which precipitated the migrations:<ref>P. N. Luthra – Rehabilitation, pp. 18–19</ref><ref>Aditi Kapoor, {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20070305174949/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2000/07/30/stories/13300611.htm A home ... far from home?]}}, ''The Hindu'', 30 July 2000. During the Bangladesh liberation war, 11 million people from both communities took shelter in India. After the war, 1.5 million decided to stay.</ref>

====Post-partition migration to India from East Pakistan====
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|-
! Year
! Reason
! Number
|-
| 1947
| Partition
| 344,000
|-
| 1948
| Fear due to the [[annexation of Hyderabad]]
| 786,000
|-
| 1950
| [[1950 Barisal Riots]]
| 1,575,000
|-
| 1956
| Pakistan becomes [[Islamic Republic]]
| 320,000
|-
| 1964
| [[1964 East Pakistan genocide|Riots]] over [[Hazratbal disappearance episode|Hazratbal incident]]
| 693,000
|-
| 1965
| [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]]
| 107,000
|-
| 1971
| [[Bangladesh liberation war]]
| 1,500,000
|-
! 1947–1973
! Total
! 6,000,000<ref>{{citation |title='Dispersal' and the Failure of Rehabilitation: Refugee Camp-dwellers and Squatters in WestBengal |first=Joya |last=Chatterji |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=41 |number=5 |date=September 2007 |jstor=4499809 |page=998|doi=10.1017/S0026749X07002831 |s2cid=145529015 }}</ref>
|}

In 1978, India gave citizenship to 55,000 Pakistani Hindus.<ref name="dawn10Sep2015" /> By the time of the [[1998 Census of Pakistan]], Muslims made up 64.4% of the population and Hindus 35.6% of the population in Tharparkar.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
Around 70,000 Hindus migrated to India due to increased persecution in the aftermath of the riots and mob attacks in response to [[Demolition of the Babri Masjid]].{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

==Perspectives==
{{main|Opposition to the Partition of India}}
[[File:Refugees on train roof during Partition.ogv|thumb|Refugees on train roof during partition]]

The partition was a highly controversial arrangement, and remains a cause of much tension on the [[Indian subcontinent]] today. According to American scholar Allen McGrath,<ref>{{cite book |author=Stephen P. Cohen |author-link=Stephen P. Cohen |year=2004 |title=The Idea of Pakistan |url=https://archive.org/details/ideaofpakistan00cohe |url-access=registration |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/ideaofpakistan00cohe/page/59 59] |isbn=978-0-8157-9761-6 |quote=American scholar Allen Mcgrath}}</ref> many British leaders including the British [[Viceroy]], Mountbatten, were unhappy over the partition of India.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Allen McGrath |year=1996 |title=The Destruction of Pakistan's Democracy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0FuAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=38 |isbn=978-0-19-577583-9 |quote=Undivided India, their magnificent imperial trophy, was besmirched by the creation of Pakistan, and the division of India was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, Mountbatten among them. |access-date=21 March 2017}}</ref> [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Louis Mountbatten]] had not only been accused of rushing the process through but also is alleged to have influenced the [[Radcliffe Line]] in India's favour.<ref name="Ferguson2003">{{cite book |author=Niall Ferguson |title=Empire: how Britain made the modern world |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QhEiAQAAIAAJ |year=2003 |publisher=Allen Lane |page=349 |isbn=9780713996159 |quote=In particular, Mountbatten put pressure on the supposedly neutral Boundary Commissioner, Sir Cyril Radcliffe—cruelly mocked at the time by W.H.Auden—to make critical adjustments in India's favor when drawing the frontier through the Punjab. |author-link=Niall Ferguson |access-date=17 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.weeklyholiday.net/150202/inret.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060117062957/http://www.weeklyholiday.net/150202/inret.html |url-status=dead |title=K. Z. Islam, 2002, The Punjab Boundary Award, ''In retrospect'' |work=Holiday |archive-date=17 January 2006 |access-date=22 May 2020}}</ref><ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/6926464.stm Partitioning India over lunch, Memoirs of a British civil servant Christopher Beaumont] . BBC News (10 August 2007).</ref> The commission took longer to decide on a final boundary than on the partition itself. Thus the two nations were granted their independence even before there was a defined boundary between them. The boundary line was revealed on 17 August, two days after the partition. This implied that the boundary location was delayed in order to complete the British withdrawal from India so that the British cannot be burdened by the partition.<ref name="Ramone 2017 p.">{{cite book | last=Ramone | first=Jenni | title=Postcolonial Theories | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | series=Transitions | year=2017 | isbn=978-0-230-34407-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LpNKEAAAQBAJ| page=59}}</ref>

Historian [[Stanley Wolpert]] alleges that British haste led to the scale of slaughter and suffering during the partition.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wolpert |first1=Stanley |author1-link=Stanley Wolpert |title=Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India |url=https://archive.org/details/shameful-flight/page/1/mode/1up |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-515198-5 |pages=1–2}}</ref> Because independence was declared ''prior'' to the actual partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new border. It was a task at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest population movements in recorded history. According to [[Richard Symonds (academic)|Richard Symonds]], at the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless.<ref>{{cite book |last=Symonds |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Symonds (academic) |year=1950 |title=The Making of Pakistan |location=London |publisher=Faber and Faber |page=74 |oclc=1462689 |quote=At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve millions became homeless.}}</ref>

However, many argue that the British were forced to expedite the partition by events on the ground.<ref name="Lawrence p 72">Lawrence J. Butler, 2002, ''Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World'', p. 72</ref> Once in office, Mountbatten quickly became aware that if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India.<ref name="Lawrence p 72"/> Law and order had broken down many times before partition, with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second World War, Britain had limited resources,<ref>Lawrence J. Butler, 2002, ''Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World'', p 72</ref> perhaps insufficient to the task of keeping order. Another viewpoint is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty, he had no real options left and achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances.<ref>Ronald Hyam, ''Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation, 1918–1968'', p. 113; Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-86649-9}}, 2007</ref> The historian Lawrence James concurs that in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be involved in a potentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out.<ref>Lawrence James, ''Rise and Fall of the British Empire''</ref>

[[File:Partition of India.PNG|thumb|upright=1.2|Four nations ([[Dominion of India]], [[Dominion of Pakistan]], [[Dominion of Ceylon]], and [[Union of Burma]]) that gained independence in 1947 and 1948]]

When the 2017 film [[Viceroy's House (film)|Viceroy's House]] was being made, pertaining to Partition, Britain's [[Charles III|then-Prince Charles]], who is a great-nephew of Mountbatten, recommended the book ''The Shadow of the Great Game: The Untold Story of India's Partition'' to the filmmaker. The book argues that Mountbatten had been used by the British establishment, which had long sought Partition to maintain a strategic base in northwestern South Asia that could guard British interests in the Middle East and check Soviet advances (see also [[Great Game#On India]]).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Thorpe |first=Vanessa |date=2017-01-16 |title=A British film with a Punjabi heart: director's personal take on partition |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2017/jan/16/viceroys-house-tells-bloody-truth-of-partition |access-date=2024-09-13 |work=The Observer |language=en-GB |issn=0029-7712}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-09-01 |title=How Prince Charles influenced Gurinder Chadha's film on the Partition of India and Pakistan |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/how-prince-charles-influenced-gurinder-chadha-s-new-film-partition-n798216 |access-date=2024-09-13 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref>

Venkat Dhulipala rejects the idea that the British [[divide and rule]] policy was responsible for partition and elaborates on the perspective that Pakistan was popularly imagined as a sovereign Islamic state or a 'New Medina', as a potential successor to the defunct Turkish caliphate<ref name="The Express Tribune">{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/943379/was-pakistan-sufficiently-imagined-before-independence/|title=Was Pakistan sufficiently imagined before independence?|date=23 August 2015|work=The Express Tribune|access-date=8 March 2017|archive-date=8 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308145112/https://tribune.com.pk/story/943379/was-pakistan-sufficiently-imagined-before-independence/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="scroll28Jun2016" /> and as a leader and protector of the entire Islamic world. Islamic scholars debated over creating Pakistan and its potential to become a true Islamic state.<ref name="The Express Tribune" /><ref name="scroll28Jun2016">{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/article/810132/the-venkat-dhulipala-interview-on-the-partition-issue-jinnah-and-ambedkar-were-on-the-same-page|title=The Venkat Dhulipala interview: 'On the Partition issue, Jinnah and Ambedkar were on the same page'|last=Ashraf|first=Ajaz|work=Scroll.in|access-date=8 March 2017|archive-date=5 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205112539/http://scroll.in/article/810132/the-venkat-dhulipala-interview-on-the-partition-issue-jinnah-and-ambedkar-were-on-the-same-page|url-status=live}}</ref> The majority of Barelvis supported the creation of Pakistan<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzivCgAAQBAJ&q=barelvi+ulema+pakistan+movement&pg=PA167|title=State and Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and Security|last1=Long|first1=Roger D.|last2=Singh|first2=Gurharpal|last3=Samad|first3=Yunas|last4=Talbot|first4=Ian|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1317448204|page=167|quote=In the 1940s a solid majority of the Barelvis were supporters of the Pakistan Movement and played a supporting role in its final phase (1940–7), mostly under the banner of the All-India Sunni Conference which had been founded in 1925.|access-date=18 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XfI-hEI8a9wC&q=Barelvi+ulama+1946+elections&pg=PA87|title=Pakistan: The Struggle Within|last=John|first=Wilson|publisher=Pearson Education India|year=2009|isbn=978-8131725047|page=87|quote=During the 1946 election, Barelvi Ulama issued fatwas in favour of the Muslim League.|access-date=18 November 2020|archive-date=24 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424215714/https://books.google.com/books?id=XfI-hEI8a9wC&q=Barelvi+ulama+1946+elections&pg=PA87|url-status=live}}</ref> and believed that any co-operation with Hindus would be counterproductive.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WgFeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA135|title=The Awakening of Muslim Democracy: Religion, Modernity, and the State|last=Cesari|first=Jocelyne|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1107513297|page=135|quote=For example, the Barelvi ulama supported the formation of the state of Pakistan and thought that any alliance with Hindus (such as that between the Indian National Congress and the Jamiat ulama-I-Hind [JUH]) was counterproductive.|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref> Most Deobandis, who were led by Maulana Husain Ahmad Madani, [[Opposition to the partition of India|were opposed to the creation of Pakistan]] and the two-nation theory. According to them Muslims and Hindus could be a part of a single nation.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9sI_Y2CKAcC&pg=PA224|title=A History of Pakistan and Its Origins|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2004|isbn=978-1843311492|page=224|quote=Believing that Islam was a universal religion, the Deobandi advocated a notion of a composite nationalism according to which Hindus and Muslims constituted one nation.|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KPKoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|title=Indian Muslims and Citizenship: Spaces for Jihād in Everyday Life|last=Abdelhalim|first=Julten|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1317508755|page=26|quote=Madani...stressed the difference between ''qaum'', meaning a nation, hence a territorial concept, and ''millat'', meaning an Ummah and thus a religious concept.|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-tWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA52|title=Living with Religious Diversity|last=Sikka|first=Sonia|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1317370994|page=52|quote=Madani makes a crucial distinction between ''qaum'' and ''millat''. According to him, qaum connotes a territorial multi-religious entity, while millat refers to the cultural, social and religious unity of Muslims exclusively.|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref>

In their authoritative study of the partition, Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh have said that the partition was not the inevitable end of the so-called British 'divide and rule policy' nor was it the inevitable end of Hindu-Muslim differences.<ref>Jayeeta Sharma (2010) A Review of "The Partition of India," History: Reviews of New Books, 39:1, 26–27, {{doi|10.1080/03612759.2011.520189}}</ref>

A cross-border student initiative, ''The History Project'', was launched in 2014 to explore the differences in perception of the events leading up to the partition. The project resulted in a book that explains both interpretations of the shared history in Pakistan and India.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/ |title=The News International: Latest News Breaking, Pakistan News |work=The News International |access-date=22 May 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202012815/http://tns.thenews.com.pk/marshall-plan-pakistan/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://thehistory-project.org/ |title=The History Project |publisher=The History Project |access-date=18 November 2017 |archive-date=1 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301055805/http://www.thehistory-project.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Documentation efforts, oral history and legacy==
In 2010, a [[Berkeley, California]] and Delhi, India-based non-profit organization, [[The 1947 Partition Archive]], began documenting [[Oral history|oral histories]] from those who lived through the partition and consolidated the interviews into an archive.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sengupta |first=Somini |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/14/arts/potent-memories-from-a-divided-india.html |title=Potent Memories From a Divided India |date=13 August 2013 |work=The New York Times |access-date=22 February 2020 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=13 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213173415/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/14/arts/potent-memories-from-a-divided-india.html |url-status=live}}</ref> As of June 2021, nearly 9,700 interviews are preserved from 18 countries and are being released in collaboration with five university libraries in India and Pakistan, including [[Ashoka University]], [[Habib University]], [[Lahore University of Management Sciences]], [[Guru Nanak Dev University]] and [[Delhi University]] in collaboration with [[Tata Trusts]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kamal |first=Neel |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/1947-partition-archive-releases-university-access-points-in-india-and-pakistan-universities-for-researchers/articleshow/83422027.cms |title=1947 Partition Archive releases University Access Points in India and Pakistan Universities for Researchers |date=11 June 2021 |work=The Times of India |access-date=4 July 2021 |language=en-IN |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709091632/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/1947-partition-archive-releases-university-access-points-in-india-and-pakistan-universities-for-researchers/articleshow/83422027.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>

In August 2017, The Arts and Cultural Heritage Trust (TAACHT) of United Kingdom set up what they describe as "the world's first [[Partition Museum]]" at Town Hall in [[Amritsar]], Punjab. The Museum, which is open from Tuesday to Sunday, offers [[multimedia]] exhibits and documents that describe both the political process that led to partition and carried it forward, and video and written narratives offered by survivors of the events.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/partition-museum-1029593-2017-08-15 |title=Worlds first Partition Museum to be inaugurated in Amritsar, Gulzar's book to be launched |date=15 August 2017 |access-date=4 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185858/https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/partition-museum-1029593-2017-08-15 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2019 book by [[Kavita Puri]], ''[[Partition Voices|Partition Voices: Untold British Stories]]'', based on the [[BBC Radio 4]] documentary series of the same name, includes interviews with about two dozen people who witnessed partition and subsequently migrated to Britain.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ghosh |first=Bishwanath |url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/partition-voices-untold-british-stories-review-the-long-shadow-of-partition/article29232929.ece |title='Partition Voices – Untold British Stories' review: The long shadow of Partition |date=24 August 2019 |work=The Hindu |access-date=22 February 2020 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222040957/https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/partition-voices-untold-british-stories-review-the-long-shadow-of-partition/article29232929.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://scroll.in/article/937336/this-collection-of-partition-interviews-gives-us-new-ways-to-look-at-migration-and-refugees |title=This collection of Partition interviews gives us new ways to look at migration and refugees |last=Mishra |first=Anodya |date=15 September 2019 |work=Scroll.in |language=en-US |access-date=22 February 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126030410/https://scroll.in/article/937336/this-collection-of-partition-interviews-gives-us-new-ways-to-look-at-migration-and-refugees |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 14 August 2021, Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] announced ''Partition Horrors Remembrance Day'' to remind the nation of the sufferings of the Indians during the partition. This move was criticised by the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] with [[Jairam Ramesh]] saying that the day has been conceptualised with biased intent and its aim is to use traumatic events as "fodder" for Modi's current political fights.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/bjp-congress-cross-swords-on-horrors-of-partition-genesis-of-1947-tragedy/articleshow/93562916.cms | title=BJP & Congress cross swords on horrors of Partition, genesis of 1947 tragedy | newspaper=The Times of India | date=15 August 2022 }}</ref>

===Artistic depictions of the partition===
{{main|Artistic depictions of the Partition of India}}

The partition of India and the associated bloody riots inspired many in India and Pakistan to create literary, cinematic, and artistic depictions of this event.<ref name="Cleary2002">{{cite book |last=Cleary |first=Joseph N. |title=Literature, Partition and the Nation-State: Culture and Conflict in Ireland, Israel, and Palestine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=omFqtDGADfYC |access-date=27 July 2012 |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65732-7 |page=104 |quote=The partition of India figures in a good deal of imaginative writing...}}</ref> While some creations depicted the massacres during the refugee migration, others concentrated on the aftermath of the partition and the difficulties faced by the refugees in both sides of the border. Works of fiction, films, and art that relate to the events of partition continue to be made to the present day.

====Literature====
Literature describing the human cost of independence and partition includes, among others:
* "[[Subh-e-Azadi]]" ('Freedom's Dawn'; 1947), [[Urdu poetry|Urdu poem]] by [[Faiz Ahmad Faiz]]<ref name="Tiwari2013">{{cite journal |last1=Tiwari |first1=Sudha |title=Memories of Partition: Revisiting Saadat Hasan Manto |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |date=22 June 2013 |volume=48 |issue=25 |pages=50–58 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23527974 |issn=0012-9976 |jstor=23527974}}</ref>
* "[[Toba Tek Singh (short story)|Toba Tek Singh]]" (1955), short story by [[Saadat Hassan Manto]]<ref name="Tiwari2013" />
* ''[[Train to Pakistan]]'' (1956) by [[Khushwant Singh]]<ref name="Roy2011">{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Rituparna |title=South Asian Partition Fiction in English: From Khushwant Singh to Amitav Ghosh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HCQfRFr6iMgC |year=2011 |publisher=[[Amsterdam University Press]] |isbn=978-90-8964-245-5 |pages=24–29 |access-date=27 July 2012}}</ref>
* ''[[A Bend in the Ganges]]'' (1965) by [[Manohar Malgonkar]]<ref name="Roy2011" />
* ''Tamas'' (1974) by [[Bhisham Sahni]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bhatia |first1=Nandi |last2=Ferdous |first2=Hasan |author1-link=Sudipto Chatterjee |editor1-last=Natarajan |editor1-first=Nalini |chapter=Twentieth-Century Hindi Literature |title=Handbook of Twentieth-Century Literatures of India |year=1996 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=0-313-28778-3 |pages=146–147}}</ref>
* ''Azadi'' (1975) by [[Chaman Nahal]], originally written in English and winner of the 1977 [[Sahitya Akademi Award|Sahitya Akedemi Award]] in India<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Frances |author1-link=Frances Harrison |title=Literary Representation: Partition in Indian and Pakistani Novels in English |journal=Indian Literature |date=September–October 1991 |volume=34 |issue=5 (145) |pages=94–110 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23336961 |issn=0019-5804 |jstor=23336961}}</ref>
* ''[[Cracking India|Ice-Candy Man]]'' (1988) by [[Bapsi Sidhwa]]<ref name="Roy2011" />

[[Salman Rushdie]]'s novel ''[[Midnight's Children]]'' (1980), which won the [[Booker Prize]] and [[The Best of the Booker]], wove its narrative based on the children born with magical abilities on midnight between 14 and 15 August 1947.<ref name="Roy2011" /> ''[[Freedom at Midnight]]'' (1975) is a non-fiction work by [[Larry Collins (writer)|Larry Collins]] and [[Dominique Lapierre]] that chronicled the events surrounding the first [[Independence Day (India)|Independence Day]] celebrations in 1947.

The novel ''Lost Generations'' (2013) by Manjit Sachdeva describes the March 1947 massacre in rural areas of [[Rawalpindi]] by the [[Muslim League (Opposition)|Muslim League]], followed by massacres on both sides of the new border in August 1947 seen through the eyes of an escaping [[Sikhs|Sikh]] family, their settlement and partial rehabilitation in Delhi, and ending in ruin (including death), for the second time in 1984, at the hands of mobs after a Sikh assassinated the prime minister.

====Film====
The partition has been a frequent topic in film.<ref name="Bhatia2008">{{cite book |last=Mandal |first=Somdatta |editor1-last=Bhatia |editor1-first=Nandi |editor2-last=Roy |editor2-first=Anjali Gera |title=Partitioned Lives: Narratives of Home, Displacement, and Resettlement |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YWB0GmmoOSMC |access-date=27 July 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1416-4 |pages=66–69 |chapter=Constructing Post-partition Bengali Cultural Identity through Films}}</ref><ref name="hindi guide">{{cite journal |last1=Dwyer |first1=R. |title=Bollywood's India: Hindi Cinema as a Guide to Modern India |doi=10.1080/03068374.2010.508231 |journal=Asian Affairs |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=381–398 |year=2010 |s2cid=70892666 }} {{subscription required}}</ref><ref name="Sarkar2009">{{cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Bhaskar |title=Mourning the Nation: Indian Cinema in the Wake of Partition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wghFNlpM3PIC |access-date=27 July 2012 |date=2009 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8223-4411-7 |page=121}}</ref> Early films relating to the circumstances of the independence, partition and the aftermath include:
* ''Lahore'' (1948)
* ''[[Chinnamul]]'' (1950, directed by [[Nemai Ghosh (director)|Nemai Ghosh]]; Bengali)<ref name="Bhatia2008" />
* ''[[Nastik (1954 film)|Nastik]]'' (1954)
* ''[[Chhalia]]'' (1960)
* ''[[Bhowani Junction (film)|Bhowani Junction]]'' (1956, directed by [[George Cukor]])
* ''[[Dharmputra]]'' (1961)<ref name="vishwanath 2009" />
* [[Ritwik Ghatak]]'s Bengali trilogy: ''[[Meghe Dhaka Tara (1960 film)|Meghe Dhaka Tara]]'' (1960), ''[[Komal Gandhar]]'' (1961), and ''[[Subarnarekha (1962 film)|Subarnarekha]]'' (1962)<ref name="Bhatia2008" /><ref name="ritwik journal">Raychaudhuri, Anindya. 2009. "Resisting the Resistible: Re-writing Myths of Partition in the Works of Ritwik Ghatak." ''Social Semiotics'' 19(4):469–481. {{doi|10.1080/10350330903361158}}.</ref>
* ''[[Garm Hava]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Tamas (film)|Tamas]]'' (1987)<ref name="vishwanath 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Vishwanath |first1=Gita |last2=Malik |first2=Salma |year=2009 |title=Revisiting 1947 through Popular Cinema: a Comparative Study of India and Pakistan |journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]] |volume=XLIV |issue=36 |pages=61–69 |url=http://www.careerlauncher.com/lstcontent/plansuppliments/attachments/40/62/REVISITING%201947%20THROUGH%20popular%20cinema.pdf |access-date=27 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053940/http://www.careerlauncher.com/lstcontent/plansuppliments/attachments/40/62/REVISITING%201947%20THROUGH%20popular%20cinema.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2013}}</ref>
* [[Partition (1987 film)|''Partition'']] (1987)

From the late 1990s onwards, more films on the theme of partition were made, including several mainstream ones, such as:
* ''[[Earth (1998 film)|Earth]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Train to Pakistan (film)|Train to Pakistan]]'' (1998; based on the aforementioned book)
* ''[[Hey Ram]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Gadar: Ek Prem Katha]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Khamosh Pani]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Pinjar (film)|Pinjar]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Partition (2007 film)|Partition]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Madrasapattinam]]'' (2010)<ref name="vishwanath 2009" />
* ''[[Begum Jaan (2017 film)|Begum Jaan]]'' (2017)
* ''[[Viceroy's House (film)|Viceroy's House]]'' (2017)
* ''[[Sarhad (documentary)|Sarhad]]'' (2019)
* ''[[Gandhi Godse – Ek Yudh]]'' (2023)

The biographical films ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'' (1982), ''[[Jinnah (film)|Jinnah]]'' (1998), ''[[Sardar (1993 film)|Sardar]]'' (1993), and ''[[Bhaag Milkha Bhaag]]'' (2013) also feature independence and partition as significant events in their screenplay.
* The Pakistani drama ''[[Dastaan (2010 TV series)|Dastaan]]'', based on the novel ''[[Bano (novel)|Bano]]'', highlights the plight of Muslim girls who were abducted and raped during partition.
* The 2013 Google India "[[Reunion (advertisement)|Reunion]]" advertisement, which is about the partition, has had a strong impact in India and Pakistan, leading to hope for the easing of travel restrictions between the two countries.<ref name="expresstrib">{{cite news |url=http://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/19647/google-can-envision-pakistan-india-harmony-in-less-than-4-minutes-can-we/ |title=Google can envision Pakistan-India harmony in less than 4 minutes...can we? |last=Naqvi |first=Sibtain |date=19 November 2013 |newspaper=[[The Express Tribune]] |access-date=22 November 2013 |archive-date=22 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122010954/http://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/19647/google-can-envision-pakistan-india-harmony-in-less-than-4-minutes-can-we |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="pti">{{cite news |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/131115/news-current-affairs/article/google-ad-reignites-hope-easier-indo-pak-visas |title=Google reunion ad reignites hope for easier Indo-Pak visas |agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]] |date=15 November 2013 |newspaper=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |access-date=22 November 2013 |archive-date=18 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131118085407/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/131115/news-current-affairs/article/google-ad-reignites-hope-easier-indo-pak-visas |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="tears">{{cite news |url=http://www.pri.org/stories/2013-11-20/ad-google-india-may-bring-you-tears |title=This ad from Google India brought me to tears |last=Chatterjee |first=Rhitu |date=20 November 2013 |work=The World |publisher=[[Public Radio International]] |access-date=22 November 2013 |archive-date=24 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131124204857/http://www.pri.org/stories/2013-11-20/ad-google-india-may-bring-you-tears |url-status=live}}</ref> The advertisement went viral<ref name="tia">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech-news/googles-india-pak-reunion-ad-strikes-emotional-chord/articleshow/25753015.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117102808/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-11-14/internet/44072930_1_yusuf-sweet-shop-ad |url-status=live |archive-date=17 November 2013 |title=Google's India-Pak reunion ad strikes emotional chord |date=14 November 2013 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> and was viewed more than 1.6 million times before officially debuting on television on 15 November 2013.<ref name="apjohnson">{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/india-pakistan-agree-emotional-google-ad-hit-20898645 |title=Google ad an unlikely hit in both India, Pakistan by referring to traumatic 1947 partition |last=Johnson |first=Kay |date=15 November 2013 |publisher=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |access-date=28 June 2020 |archive-date=22 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122200122/http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/india-pakistan-agree-emotional-google-ad-hit-20898645 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* The partition is also depicted in the historical [[sports drama]] film ''[[Gold (2018 film)|Gold]]'' (2018), based on events which impacted the [[India men's national field hockey team|Indian national field hockey team]] at the time.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/gold-fact-check-truth-vs-fiction-akshay-kumar-film-1321509-2018-08-23 |title=Gold fact check: Truth vs fiction in Akshay Kumar film |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Ananya |date=23 August 2018 |website=India Today |access-date=22 January 2021 |archive-date=6 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806073756/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/gold-fact-check-truth-vs-fiction-akshay-kumar-film-1321509-2018-08-23 |url-status=live |quote=In 1947, when Kishan Lal walked next to Dhyan Chand in East Africa in the Indian colours, the legendary field hockey team from 1936 had all but emptied. With 1947 came the Partition and most of the talented players were partitioned too with many moving to Pakistan}}</ref>
* "[[Demons of the Punjab]]", a 2018 episode of British sci-fi show ''[[Doctor Who]]'', depicts the events of the partition from the perspective of a family torn apart by their religious differences.
* The [[Disney+]] television series ''[[Ms. Marvel (miniseries)|Ms. Marvel]]'' (2022) depicts a fictional version of the partition, from the perspective of a Muslim family fleeing to Pakistan.

====Art====
The early members of the [[Bombay Progressive Artists' Group|Bombay Progressive Artist's Group]] cited the partition as a key reason for its founding in December 1947. Those members included [[F. N. Souza]], [[M. F. Husain]], [[S. H. Raza]], [[Sadanand Bakre|S. K. Bakre]], [[H. A. Gade]], and [[K. H. Ara]], who went on to become some of the most important and influential Indian artists of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|date=12 May 2012|title=Progressive Artists Group of Bombay: An Overview|url=http://www.artnewsnviews.com/view-article.php?article=progressive-artists-group-of-bombay-an-overview&iid=29&articleid=800|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214145023/http://www.artnewsnviews.com/view-article.php?article=progressive-artists-group-of-bombay-an-overview&iid=29&articleid=800|archive-date=14 December 2013|access-date=18 November 2017|publisher=Artnewsnviews.com}}</ref>

Contemporary Indian artists that have made significant artworks about the partition are [[Nalini Malani]], [[Anjolie Ela Menon]], [[Satish Gujral]], [[Nilima Sheikh]], [[Arpita Singh]], [[Krishen Khanna]], Pran Nath Mago, S. L. Parasher, [[Arpana Caur]], Tayeba Begum Lipi, Mahbubur Rahman, Promotesh D Pulak, and [[Pritika Chowdhry]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Storey|first=Thomas|date=7 August 2013|title=Traversing Boundaries: Five Bangladeshi Artists Question the Legacy of Partition|url=https://theculturetrip.com/asia/bangladesh/articles/traversing-boundaries-five-bangladeshi-artists-question-the-legacy-of-partition/|access-date=8 January 2022|website=Culture Trip|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108042614/https://theculturetrip.com/asia/bangladesh/articles/traversing-boundaries-five-bangladeshi-artists-question-the-legacy-of-partition/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Micieli-Voutsinas|first=Jacque|date=2013|title="Subaltern" Remembrances: Mapping Affective Approaches to Partition Memory|journal=Social Transformations: Journal of the Global South|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=27–58|doi=10.13185/2799-015X.1029|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Micieli-Voutsinas|first=Jacque|date=3 July 2015|title=What the Nation Re-members: Resisting Victim Nationalism in Partition Memorial Project|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/2373566X.2015.1103196|journal=GeoHumanities|volume=1|issue=2|pages=398–413|doi=10.1080/2373566X.2015.1103196|s2cid=147050563|issn=2373-566X|access-date=29 October 2021|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Partition Art - Pritika Chowdhry's art installations about Partition|url=https://www.pritikachowdhry.com/partition-art|access-date=8 January 2022|website=Pritika Chowdhry Art|language=en|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108042618/https://www.pritikachowdhry.com/partition-art|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=14 December 2017|title=A Visual History of the Partition of India : A Story in Art • The Heritage Lab|url=https://www.theheritagelab.in/india-partition-art/|access-date=29 October 2021|website=The Heritage Lab|language=en-GB|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029052819/https://www.theheritagelab.in/india-partition-art/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sharma|first=Ekatmata|date=17 August 2019|title=Revisiting Partition through art|url=https://www.artculturefestival.in/revisiting-partition-through-art/|access-date=29 October 2021|website=Art Culture Festival|language=en-US|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029052819/https://www.artculturefestival.in/revisiting-partition-through-art/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Project Dastaan]] is a peace-building initiative that reconnects displaced refugees of the partition in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh with their childhood communities and villages through [[virtual reality]] digital experiences.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}}

Artist Bindu Mehra has made digital films depicting lived memories of the partition, including ''The Inaccessible Narrative.''<ref>{{Cite news |title=Artist Bindu Mehra on retelling stories in different voices |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/features/artist-bindu-mehra-on-retelling-stories-in-different-voices-534590 |work=The Tribune}}</ref>

==See also==

{{portal|History|India|Pakistan}}
* [[Violence against women during the partition of India]]
* [[History of Bangladesh]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Pakistan]]
* [[History of the Republic of India]]
* [[Indian independence movement]]
* [[Kashmir conflict]]
* [[List of princely states of India]]
* [[Pakistan Movement]]
* [[Princely states of Pakistan]]
* [[The 1947 Partition Archive]]
* [[Partition Horrors Remembrance Day]]
* [[Religion in Bangladesh]]
* [[Religion in India]]
* [[Religion in Pakistan]]
* [[Religious violence in India]]
* [[Sectarian violence in Pakistan]]

==Notes==

{{notelist}}
{{Notelist|40em}}

==References==

{{reflist}}
[https://thediplomat.com/2017/08/70-years-of-the-radcliffe-line-understanding-the-story-of-indian-partition/ 70 Years of the Radcliffe Line: Understanding the Story of Indian Partition]

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;Articles:
* Brass, Paul. 2003. [http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means, methods, and purposes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414111514/http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf |date=14 April 2021 }} ''Journal of Genocide Research'' (2003), 5#1, 71–101
* {{citation | last1 = Gilmartin | first1 = David | year = 1998 | title = Partition, Pakistan, and South Asian History: In Search of a Narrative| journal = The Journal of Asian Studies | volume = 57 | issue = 4| pages = 1068–1095 | doi=10.2307/2659304| jstor = 2659304 | s2cid = 153491691 | doi-access = free }}
* {{citation | last1 = Gilmartin | first1 = David | year = 1998 | title = A Magnificent Gift: Muslim Nationalism and the Election Process in Colonial Punjab | journal = Comparative Studies in Society and History | volume = 40 | issue = 3| pages = 415–436 | jstor=179270| doi = 10.1017/S0010417598001352 | s2cid = 144603264 }}
* Gupta, Bal K. "Death of Mahatma Gandhi and Alibeg Prisoners" www.dailyexcelsior.com
* Gupta, Bal K. "Train from Pakistan" www.nripulse.com
* Gupta, Bal K. "November 25, 1947, Pakistani Invasion of Mirpur". www.dailyexcelsior.com
* {{citation |last=Jeffrey |first=Robin |year=1974 |title=The Punjab Boundary Force and the Problem of Order, August 1947 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=491–520 |jstor=311867 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x0000562x|s2cid=145786107 }}
* {{Citation |url=https://www.academia.edu/5044993 |title=Bodies of Partition: Of Widows, Residue and Other Historical Waste |journal=Histories of Victimhood, Ed., Henrik Rønsbo and Steffen Jensen, Pennsylvania University Press |author=Ravinder Kaur |year=2014 |access-date=10 May 2015 |archive-date=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424215716/https://www.academia.edu/5044993 |url-status=live }}
* Kaur, Ravinder. 2009. [https://www.academia.edu/3195375/Distinctive_Citizenship_Refugees_Subjects_and_Post-colonial_State_in_Indias_Partition 'Distinctive Citizenship: Refugees, Subjects and Postcolonial State in India's Partition'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020023854/http://www.academia.edu/3195375/Distinctive_Citizenship_Refugees_Subjects_and_Post-colonial_State_in_Indias_Partition |date=20 October 2017 }}, Cultural and Social History.
* Kaur, Ravinder. 2008. [https://www.academia.edu/3195344/Narrative_absence_An_Untouchableaccount_of_Partition_migration 'Narrative Absence: An 'untouchable' account of India's Partition Migration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019233320/http://www.academia.edu/3195344/Narrative_absence_An_Untouchableaccount_of_Partition_migration |date=19 October 2017 }}, Contributions to Indian Sociology.
* Kaur Ravinder. 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080724043212/http://opendemocracy.net/article/conflicts/india_pakistan/partition "India and Pakistan: Partition Lessons"]. Open Democracy.
* Kaur, Ravinder. 2006. [https://www.academia.edu/3195382/The_Last_Journey_Exploring_Social_Class_in_the_1947_Partition_Migration "The Last Journey: Social Class in the Partition of India"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020003419/http://www.academia.edu/3195382/The_Last_Journey_Exploring_Social_Class_in_the_1947_Partition_Migration |date=20 October 2017 }}. Economic and Political Weekly, June 2006. epw.org.in
* Khalidi, Omar (1998-01-01). "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20837002?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents From Torrent to Trickle: Indian Muslim Migration to Pakistan, 1947–97] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330184359/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20837002?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents |date=30 March 2017 }}". Islamic Studies. 37 (3): 339–352.
* {{citation |last1=Khan |first1=Lal |title=Partition – Can it be undone? |publisher=Wellred Publications |year=2003 |page=228 |isbn=978-1-900007-15-3}}
* {{citation | last1 = Mookerjea-Leonard | first1 = Debali | year = 2005 | title = Divided Homelands, Hostile Homes: Partition, Women and Homelessness | journal = Journal of Commonwealth Literature | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 141–154 | doi=10.1177/0021989405054314| s2cid = 162056117 }}
* {{citation | last1 = Mookerjea-Leonard | first1 = Debali | year = 2004 | title = Quarantined: Women and the Partition | journal = [[Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East]] | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 35–50 | doi = 10.1215/1089201x-24-1-35 | s2cid = 145294986 | url = https://muse.jhu.edu/article/181217 | access-date = 27 July 2021 | archive-date = 20 April 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210420180043/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/181217 | url-status = live | url-access = subscription }}
* {{citation | last1 = Morris-Jones | year = 1983 | title = Thirty-Six Years Later: The Mixed Legacies of Mountbatten's Transfer of Power | journal = International Affairs | volume = 59 | issue = 4| pages = 621–628 | doi=10.2307/2619473| jstor = 2619473}}
* {{citation |title=The Partition of India |journal=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] |date=22 December 2001 |first=A. G. |last=Noorani |volume=18 |issue=26 |url=http://hindu.com/fline/fl1826/18260810.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080402193634/http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1826/18260810.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 April 2008 |access-date=12 October 2011 }}
* {{citation |last=Spate |first=O. H. K. |author-link = Oskar Spate |title=The Partition of the Punjab and of Bengal |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=110 |issue=4/6 |year=1947 |pages=201–218 |doi=10.2307/1789950 |jstor=1789950 |bibcode=1947GeogJ.110..201S }}
* {{citation | last1 = Spear | first1 = Percival | year = 1958 | title = Britain's Transfer of Power in India | journal = Pacific Affairs | volume = 31 | issue = 2| pages = 173–180 | doi=10.2307/3035211| jstor = 3035211 }}
* {{citation | last1 = Talbot | first1 = Ian | year = 1994 | title = Planning for Pakistan: The Planning Committee of the All-India Muslim League, 1943–46| journal = Modern Asian Studies | volume = 28 | issue = 4| pages = 875–889 | doi=10.1017/s0026749x00012567| s2cid = 145250631 }}
* {{citation | last1 = Visaria | first1 = Pravin M | year = 1969 | title = Migration Between India and Pakistan, 1951–61| journal = Demography | volume = 6 | issue = 3| pages = 323–334 | doi=10.2307/2060400| pmid = 21331852 | jstor = 2060400 | s2cid = 23272586 | doi-access = free }}

; Primary sources
* Mansergh, Nicholas, and Penderel Moon, eds. ''The Transfer of Power 1942–47'' (12 vol., London: HMSO . 1970–83) comprehensive collection of British official and private documents
* Moon, Penderel. (1998) ''Divide & Quit''
* Narendra Singh Sarila, "The Shadow of the Great Game: The Untold Story of India's Partition," Publisher: Carroll & Graf {{ISBN?}}

; Popularizations:
* Collins, Larry and Dominique Lapierre: ''Freedom at Midnight''. London: Collins, 1975. {{ISBN|0-00-638851-5}}
* Seshadri, H. V. (2013). The tragic story of partition. Bangalore: Sahitya Sindhu Prakashana, 2013. {{ISBN?}}
* Zubrzycki, John. (2006) ''The Last Nizam: An Indian Prince in the Australian Outback''. Pan Macmillan, Australia. {{ISBN|978-0-330-42321-2}}.

; Memoirs and oral history:
* {{citation |last=Azad |first=Maulana Abul Kalam |author-link=Abul Kalam Azad |year=2003 |orig-year=First published 1959 |title=India Wins Freedom: An Autobiographical Narrative |location=New Delhi |publisher=Orient Longman |isbn=978-81-250-0514-8}}
* Bonney, Richard; Hyde, Colin; Martin, John. "Legacy of Partition, 1947–2009: Creating New Archives from the Memories of Leicestershire People," ''Midland History,'' (Sept 2011), Vol. 36 Issue 2, pp 215–224
* Mountbatten, Pamela. (2009) ''India Remembered: A Personal Account of the Mountbattens During the Transfer of Power'' {{ISBN?}}

;Historical-Fiction:
* Mohammed, Javed: ''Walk to Freedom'', Rumi Bookstore, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-9701261-2-2}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==


{{Sister project links|auto=yes|d=yes|c=Category:Partition of India

}}
* [http://www.1947partitionarchive.org 1947 Partition Archive]
* [https://www.britannica.com/event/Partition-of-Bengal Partition of Bengal] – [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
* [http://www.indianmemoryproject.com/category/battle-and-conflict/1947-partition/ India Memory Project – 1947 India Pakistan Partition]
* [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/the-road-to-partition/ The Road to Partition 1939–1947 – The National Archives]
* [https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/lords/1947/jul/16/indian-independence-bill Indian Independence Bill, 1947] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515165404/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/lords/1947/jul/16/indian-independence-bill |date=15 May 2021 }}
* [http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x5ymvad India's Partition: The Forgotten Story British film-maker Gurinder Chadha, directors of Bend It Like Beckham and Viceroy's House, travels from Southall to Delhi and Shimla to find out about the Partition of India – one of the most seismic events of the 20th century. Partition saw India divided into two new nations – Independent India and Pakistan. The split led to violence, disruption, and death.]
* [https://www.andrewwhitehead.net/partition-voices-sir-ian-scott.html Sir Ian Scott, Mountbatten's deputy private secretary in 1947, talking about the run up to Partition]
* [https://digital.soas.ac.uk/oa3 India: A People Partitioned oral history interviews by Andrew Whitehead, 1992–2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515165403/https://digital.soas.ac.uk/oa3 |date=15 May 2021 }}

; Bibliographies:
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130923121836/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Independent/partition_bibliography.html Select Research Bibliography on the Partition of India], Compiled by Vinay Lal, Department of History, UCLA; [[University of California at Los Angeles]]
* [http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/SSEAL/SouthAsia/india_colonial.html South Asian History: Colonial India] – [[University of California, Berkeley]] Collection of documents on colonial India, Independence, and Partition
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/india/indiasbook.html#Indian%20Nationalism Indian Nationalism] – [[Fordham University]] archive of relevant public-domain documents

{{Indian independence movement}}
{{Pakistan Movement}}
{{Indo-Pakistani relations}}
{{Secession in Countries}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Bangladesh and the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:India and the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Pakistan and the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Partition of India| ]]
[[Category:Dissolutions of countries|India]]
[[Category:Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Ethnic cleansing in Asia]]
[[Category:Forced migration in Asia]]
[[Category:History of the British Empire]]
[[Category:History of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:History of the Republic of India]]
[[Category:Partition (politics)]]
[[Category:Pakistan Movement]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:August 1947 in Asia]]
[[Category:Politically motivated migrations]]
[[Category:1947 in British India]]
[[Category:1940s in Islam]]
[[Category:Genocides in Asia]]

Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai

2026-03-04T04:00:46Z

ShivaniSikri: formatting fix

{{distinguish|Jis Desh Mein Ganga Rehta Hain}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai
| image = Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai poster.jpg
| caption = Film poster
| director = [[Radhu Karmakar]]
| producer = [[Raj Kapoor]]
| writer = Arjun Dev Rashk
| starring = [[Raj Kapoor]] [[Padmini (actress)|Padmini Ramachandran]] [[Pran (actor)|Pran]]
| music = [[Shankar Jaikishan]] [[Shailendra (lyricist)|Shailendra]] (lyrics) [[Hasrat Jaipuri]] (lyrics)
| cinematography = Tara Dutt
| editing = [[G. G. Mayekar]]
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1960}}
| runtime = 167 min
| country = India
| language = Hindi
| budget =
| gross = {{INR|2 [[crore]]}}<ref name=Boxoffice>{{cite web|url=http://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=166&catName=MTk2MA==|title=Box office 1960|website=Boxofficeindia.com|access-date=28 Feb 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207075735/https://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=166&catName=MTk2MA==|archive-date=7 February 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
}}

'''''Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai''''' ({{Translation|The country in which the [[Ganges]] flows}}) was an Indian film released in 1960,<ref>{{Citation |last=Karmakar |first=Radhu |title=Jis Desh Men Ganga Behti Hai |type=Drama, Musical, Romance |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0053965/ |access-date=2025-05-21 |others=Raj Kapoor, Padmini, Pran Sikand |publisher=R.K. Films Ltd.}}</ref> directed by [[Radhu Karmakar]] and produced by [[Raj Kapoor]]. The film stars [[Padmini (actress)|Padmini]], [[Raj Kapoor]] and [[Pran (actor)|Pran]] in lead roles. This was the first directorial venture of Karmakar, who had previously been cinematographer for many of Kapoor's films. It was declared a "hit" at Box Office India.<ref name=Boxoffice />

The team of [[Shankar Jaikishan]] composed the songs, lyrics were written by [[Shailendra (lyricist)|Shailendra]] and [[Hasrat Jaipuri]], including "O Basanti Pawan Pagal", "Aa Ab Laut Chalen", and "Hothon Pe Sacchai Rehti Hai".

The outdoor shooting with the marble rock background is done in [[Bhedaghat]] in Madhya Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Padmini Birthday: राज कपूर संग बेहद हिट थी पद्मिनी की जोड़ी, मध्यप्रदेश में की थी इस खास काम की शुरुआत |url=https://www.amarujala.com/photo-gallery/entertainment/bollywood/padmini-movie-jis-desh-mein-ganga-behti-hai-shoot-in-bhedaghat-in-jabalpur-madhya-pradesh-film-with-raj-kapoor |access-date=2025-12-19 |website=Amar Ujala |language=hi}}</ref>

==Plot==

Raju ([[Raj Kapoor]]) is a poor, friendly orphan who wins his bread by singing songs. One day, he sees an injured man and helps him. Later, he is kidnapped by a few bandits who mistake him to be an undercover policeman. It then turns out that the injured man he helped is the leader (Sardar) of this gang. The Sardar takes good care of Raju and treats him with honour. Sardar's daughter Kammo ([[Padmini (actress)|Padmini]]) falls in love with Raju. Kammo and Sardar convince Raju that they are good bandits who are making sure that wealth is equally distributed amongst people.

On one of the lootings, Raju witnesses the murder of a newlywed couple. He decides to go to the police and leaves the gang. One of the bandits, Raka ([[Pran (actor)|Pran]]), kills the Sardar and takes over, captures Raju; and tries to forcibly marry Kammo. Raju eloped and tells all the truth to the police, they decide to confront and kill the bandits. Raju begs the police to not kill them but is shunned. Raju is then posed in a dilemma of what to do and finds himself helpless when he sees police stooping just as low to stop crime. He then returns to the colony of dacoits to convince them to surrender to the police in order to ensure good and respectful life to their family, especially their children.

This movie was inspired by initiatives of [[Vinoba Bhave]] and [[Jayaprakash Narayan]], on their call, hundreds of dacoits surrendered to police and mainstreamed to the society at large.

==Cast==
* [[Raj Kapoor]] as Raju
* [[Padmini (actress)|Padmini]] as Kammo
* [[Pran (actor)|Pran]] as Raka
* [[Chanchal (actress)|Chanchal]] as Bijli
* [[Lalita Pawar]] as Mirabai
* [[Raj Mehra]] as Police Superintendent
* [[Ramayan Tiwari]] as Mirabai's Husband
* [[Nana Palsikar]] as Tau
* Nayampalli as Sardar
* [[Sulochana Chatterjee|Salochana Chatterjee]] as Police Superintendent's wife
* Vishwa Mehra as Bhimu
* Baboo Rao
* S.K.Singh
* Rattan Gaurang
* Chang
* Mohamed Ali
* Anwari Bai
* [[Sadhana Shivdasani|Sadhana]]
* Azim
* Master Amar
* Moolchand as Groom's father

==Music==
Composed by Shankar Jaikishan, lyrics by Shailendra and Hasrat Jaipuri.
{{Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Mera Naam Raju | extra1 =[[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]| length1 = 03:10
| title2 = Kya Hua, Yeh Mujhe Kya Hua | extra2 = [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Asha Bhosle]] | length2 =
| title3 = Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai | extra3 = [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]| length3 = 04:13
| title4 = Ho Maine Pyar Kiya | extra4 = [[Lata Mangeshkar]] | length4 =
| title5 = Hum Bhi Hain, Tum Bhi Ho | extra5 = [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Geeta Dutt]], [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]], [[Manna Dey]], [[Mahendra Kapoor]] | length5 = 07:35
| title6 = Begaane Shaadi Mein Abdullah Diwana | extra6 = [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]] | length6 = 03:29
| title7 = O Basanti, Pawan Pagal | extra7 = [[Lata Mangeshkar]] | length7 = 03:52
| title8 = Pyar Kar Le | extra8 = [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]] | length8 =
| title9 = Aa Ab Laut Chalen | extra9 = [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]| length9 = 04:15
}}

==Awards==
The film won many prestigious awards at National Film Awards and Filmfare Awards. The film stood out at the [[9th Filmfare Awards]] function by winning the most (four) awards in various categories from eight nominations.

; [[9th Filmfare Awards]]<nowiki>:</nowiki>

'''Won'''

* [[Filmfare Award for Best Film|Best Film]] – [[Raj Kapoor]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] – [[Raj Kapoor]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Editing|Best Editing]] – [[G. G. Mayekar|G.G. Mayekar]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Art Direction|Best Art Direction]] – [[M. R. Acharekar]]

'''Nominated'''

* [[Filmfare Award for Best Director|Best Director]] – [[Radhu Karmakar]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] – [[Padmini (actress)|Padmini]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] – [[Pran (actor)|Pran]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Music Director|Best Music Director]] – [[Shankar–Jaikishan]]
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist|Best Lyricist]] – [[Shailendra (lyricist)|Shailendra]] for "Hothon Pe Sacchai"
* [[Filmfare Award for Best Male Playback Singer|Best Male Playback Singer]] – [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]] for "Hothon Pe Sacchai"
;[[National Film Awards]]<nowiki>:</nowiki>
* [[8th National Film Awards|1960]]: [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi|Certificate of Merit for Best Feature Film in Hindi]]<ref name="8thaward">{{cite web|url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm8thNFAAward.aspx|title=8th National Film Awards|publisher=[[International Film Festival of India]]|access-date=7 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123052231/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm8thNFAAward.aspx|archive-date=23 November 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Further reading==
* Rajni Bakshi, "Raj Kapoor", in Ashis Nandy, ed., ''The Secret Politics of Our Desires: Innocence, Culpability and Indian Popular Cinema'' (Delhi: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998), 92-117. {{ISBN|1856495167}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0053965|Jis Desh Men Ganga Behti Hai}}

{{National Film Award Best Feature Film Hindi}}
{{FilmfareAwardBestFilm 1954–1970}}

[[Category:1960 Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:1960 films]]
[[Category:R. K. Films films]]
[[Category:Films scored by Shankar–Jaikishan]]
[[Category:1960 directorial debut films]]

Sathruvu

2026-03-03T18:27:48Z

ShivaniSikri: improve information for accuracy and cleaned formatting

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Sathruvu
| image = Sathruvu poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical poster
| director = [[Kodi Ramakrishna]]
| producer = [[M. S. Raju]]
| screenplay = Kodi Ramakrishna [[G. Satyamurthy]] {{small|(dialogue)}}
| story =
| based_on =
| starring = [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]] [[Vijayashanti]] [[Kota Srinivasa Rao]]
| narrator =
| music = [[Raj–Koti]]
| cinematography = [[S. Gopal Reddy]]
| editing = Suresh Tata
| studio = [[Sumanth Art Productions]]
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1991|01|02|df=y}}
| runtime = 140 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Sathruvu''''' ({{translation|Nemesis}}) is a 1991 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[crime thriller film]] directed by [[Kodi Ramakrishna]] and produced by [[M. S. Raju]] under Sumanth Art Productions. It stars [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]], [[Vijayashanti]], and [[Kota Srinivasa Rao]] with music composed by [[Raj–Koti]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-01-02|title=''Sathruvu'' Clocks 30 Years: 5 Reasons to Watch the Venkatesh-Vijayashanthi Starrer|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/sathruvu-clocks-30-years-5-reasons-to-watch-the-venkatesh-vijayashanthi-starrer/photostory/80073252.cms|access-date=2021-05-08|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

Released on 2 January 1991, the film received positive reviews and was successful at the box office.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 December 2001 |title=Interview with Kodi Rama Krishna by Jeevi |url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/interview_kodi.html |access-date=2022-09-12 |website=[[Idlebrain.com]] |quote=I have done Satruvu later with him, which has become a super hit.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2 January 2021|title=వెంకటేశ్‌ 'శత్రువు'కు 30ఏళ్లు|url=https://www.eenadu.net/latestnews/sathruvu-movie-completes-30-years/121001433|access-date=2021-05-08|website=[[Eenadu]]|language=te}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Venkatesh Sathruvu 30 Years: వెంకటేష్ హిట్ సినిమా 'శత్రువు'కు 30 ఏళ్లు పూర్తి..|url=https://telugu.news18.com/news/movies/venkatesh-vijayashanti-classic-movie-sathruvu-completed-30-years-and-here-some-interesting-story-pk-709442.html|access-date=2021-05-08|website=[[News18 Telugu]]|language=te}}</ref> The film was remade in [[Kannada]] as ''[[Nanna Shathru]]'' (1992) and in [[Hindi]] as ''[[Vijeta (1996 film)|Vijeta]]'' (1996).

==Plot==
Ashok is an advocate who works as a junior along with his two friends Raghava and Bhaskar for advocate Durga Prasad, who always fights for Justice. Durga Prasad and his wife Lakshmi treat them as their own children. Venkataratnam is a powerful contractor who has the entire system in his hands. Once, Venkataratnam cheats the Govt. by saying that he has constructed the hostel for poor people without doing it, just showing it on papers. Durga Prasad takes up the case and gathers all the proofs against him. Venkataratnam threatens Durga Prasad a lot who does not yield to it. Finally, Venkataratnam kills Durga Prasad and his wife Lakshmi in front of the court and destroys all the evidence. Before dying, Durga Prasad takes a word from Ashok, that he should win this case under any circumstances. Ashok gives respect to his words and takes up the case, but he fails to get the case admitted because there is no evidence. In that frustration, Ashok reacts on Venkataratnam publicly in court. Finally, he is suspended from the court and arrested.

Now Ashok decides to take revenge against Venkataratnam and his gang. He eliminates Venkataratnam's men one by one which creates fear to Venkataratnam. So he sends his henchmen DIG Prakash Rao to hand over the case to ACP Vijaya, who was none other than Ashok's lover in his college days. Both of them challenge each other. Ashok challenges to complete his mission, while Vijaya challenges that she will stop him under any circumstance. During the process, Vijaya finds out that DIG works for Venkataratnam and collects all the proof for Venkatratnam's arrest. When she gets ready to arrest them, they plan to kill her. Ashok comes to her rescue and eliminates Venkataratnam and his entire gang. Finally, Ashok successfully completes his mission and the movie ends.

==Cast==
{{Colbegin}}
* [[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]] as Ex Advocate Ashok
* [[Vijayashanti]] as ACP Vijaya
* [[Kota Srinivasa Rao]] as Venkataratnam
* [[Captain Raju]] as DIG Prakash Rao
* [[Vijayakumar (Tamil actor)|Vijay Kumar]] as Durga Prasad
* [[Jaya Prakash Reddy]] as Mayor Gowdappa
* [[Anandaraj|Anand Raj]] as Satya Murthy
* [[Babu Antony]] as Jorge
* [[Maharshi Raghava]] as Raghava
* [[Nagesh]] as Contestable Ramayah
* [[Brahmanandam]] as Contestable Sambayah
* [[Babu Mohan]] as House Owner
* [[P. L. Narayana]] as Major Michel (Chintu's grandfather)
* [[Sangeeta (Telugu actress)|Sangeetha]] as Lakshmi (Durga Prasad's wife)
* [[Kalpana Rai]] as House Owner's Wife
* Master Satish as Chintu
{{colend}}

==Production==
M. S. Raju provided the basic story idea of the film and he chose Satya Murthy as the writer and together worked to develop the story line. The team hired Vijaya Shanti as heroine. During the making of the film, [[Vijayashanti]] had the film ''[[Karthavyam (1990 film)|Karthavyam]]''. Venky had two other films - ''[[Dhruva Nakshatram (1989 film)|Dhruva Nakshatram]]'' and ''[[Bobbili Raja]]'' - released at the same time. Initially, Kodi Rama Krishna opted for a newcomer for Kota's character, but Raju convinced Kodi Rama Krishna to take Kota for that character.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.idlebrain.com/celeb/interview/interview_msraju.html|title=Telugu Cinema Etc - Idlebrain.com}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
{{Infobox album
| name = Sathruvu
| type = film
| artist = [[Raj–Koti]]
| cover =
| alt =
| released = 1990
| recorded =
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = Soundtrack
| length = 21:54
| label = CAUVERY Audio Company
| producer = [[Raj–Koti]]
| prev_title = [[Raja Vikramarka (1990 film)|Raja Vikramarka]]
| prev_year = 1990
| next_title = [[Iddaru Iddare]]
| next_year = 1990
}}

Music composed by [[Raj–Koti]]. Music released on CAUVERY Audio Company.
{{Track listing
| collapsed =
| headline =
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| total_length = 21:54
| all_writing =
| all_lyrics =
| all_music =
| title1 = Amma Sampangi Reku
| lyrics1 = [[Sirivennela Sitaramasastri|Sirivennela Sitarama Sastry]]
| extra1 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]], [[K. S. Chithra|Chitra]]
| length1 = 4:44

| title2 = Chey Chey
| lyrics2 = [[Veturi]]
| extra2 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Chitra
| length2 = 4:59

| title3 = Maata Vintara
| lyrics3 = Veturi
| extra3 = [[Mano (singer)|Mano]], Chitra
| length3 = 4:13

| title4 = Produnne Puttindi
| lyrics4 = Sirivennela Sitarama Sastry
| extra4 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Chitra
| length4 = 3:56

| title5 = Yamathakidi
| lyrics5 = Veturi
| extra5 = S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Chitra
| length5 = 4:02
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|0307454}}

{{Kodi Ramakrishna}}
{{M. S. Raju}}
{{Filmfare Best Telugu Film}}

[[Category:1991 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:1991 films]]
[[Category:Indian courtroom films]]
[[Category:Indian legal films]]
[[Category:Indian action films]]
[[Category:Indian crime thriller films]]
[[Category:Films about corruption in India]]
[[Category:1991 crime thriller films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Kodi Ramakrishna]]
[[Category:Films scored by Raj–Koti]]
[[Category:Telugu films remade in other languages]]

Pondattiye Deivam

2026-03-03T04:55:26Z

ShivaniSikri: created new data!

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2016}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Pondattiye Deivam
| image = Pondattiye Deivam.jpg
| caption = Poster
| director = [[N. K. Viswanathan]]
| producer = T. S. Saravanan
| writer = [[P. Kalaimani]] (dialogue)
| screenplay = N. K. Viswanathan
| story = P. Kalaimani
| starring = {{ubl|[[S. Ve. Shekher]]|[[Sithara (actress)|Sithara]]}}
| music = Bala Bharathi
| cinematography = N. K. Viswanathan
| editing = V. Uthaya Sankaran
| distributor =
| studio = Kalyani Cine Arts
| released = {{Film date|df=y|1994|03|04}}
| runtime = 125 minutes
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Pondattiye Deivam''''' ({{translation|Wife is Goddess}}) is a 1994 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[comedy film]] directed by [[N. K. Viswanathan]]. The film stars [[S. Ve. Shekher]] and [[Sithara (actress)|Sithara]], with [[Janagaraj]], [[V. K. Ramasamy (actor)|V. K. Ramasamy]], [[Vennira Aadai Moorthy]], [[Vinu Chakravarthy]], [[J. Livingston|Livingston]], [[Kovai Sarala]] and [[Roopa Sree]] playing supporting roles. The film, produced by T. S. Saravanan, was released on 4 March 1994.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pondatiye deivam ( 1994 ) |url=http://www.cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/newfilmdb.cgi?name=pondatiye%20deivam |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924140521/http://www.cinesouth.com/cgi-bin/filmography/newfilmdb.cgi?name=pondatiye%20deivam |archive-date=2012-09-24 |access-date=2016-11-05 |website=Cinesouth}}</ref>

== Plot ==

Pattabi ([[S. Ve. Shekher]]) is submitted to his dominating wife Parimala ([[Sithara (actress)|Sithara]]) and she makes his life a living hell. Parimala is goodwill but she has a hysterical temper that is frightening her husband Pattabi. Pattabi works as a secretary in Cholla company and earns a decent salary, but his miserly wife forbids him to spend money and keeps all his money. So Pattabi spends his time lamenting about his wife's torture to others. The poor Pattabi is not helped by his irresponsible father Sundaram ([[Janagaraj]]) who always bets on horse races, his father-in-law Periya Karuppu Thevar ([[Vinu Chakravarthy]]) who only supports Parimala's choices and his nosy neighbour Vaidhyanathan ([[Vennira Aadai Moorthy]]) who doesn't miss an opportunity to put Pattabi in trouble. Only his Pattabi's boss ([[V. K. Ramasamy (actor)|V. K. Ramasamy]]) understands his feelings. The killjoy Parimala has a twin sister: Shyamala. Unlike Parimala, Shyamala is a deaf and fearful person.

In the past, Parimala was an honest police officer. One day, Pattabi rushed to work in the morning with his scooter, he went through a red traffic light. Parimala and the police constables followed him, Pattabi ran away from them and fell into a swimming pool. Parimala then saved him from drowning. Because of this accident, she lost her job. Pattabi then married her.

One day, Parimala throws Sundaram out of their house, for Pattabi it's the [[straw that broke the camel's back]]. Pattabi's boss has a friend Pandiyan ([[J. Livingston|Livingston]]), he is a jailbird and a true misogyny. He comes to help Pattabi from Parimala, but things don't go as planned. Pandiyan killed Parimala and with Pattabi's help, Pandiyan throws the dead body in a river.

Sundaram returns home with his newfound mistress Margaret ([[Kovai Sarala]]) and her daughter Julie ([[Roopa Sree]]). Sundaram then makes believe Periya Karuppu Thevar that Parimala ran away with another man. Periya Karuppu Thevar is hell bent to save his family's prestige so Shyamala passes off as Parimala. What transpires next forms the rest of the story.

== Cast ==

{{cast listing|
*[[S. Ve. Shekher]] as Pattabi
*[[Sithara (actress)|Sithara]] as Parimala and Shyamala
*[[Janagaraj]] as Sundaram, Pattabi's father
*[[V. K. Ramasamy (actor)|V. K. Ramasamy]] as Pattabi's boss
*[[Vennira Aadai Moorthy]] as Vaidhyanathan
*[[Vinu Chakravarthy]] as [[Periya Karuppu Thevar]]
*[[J. Livingston|Livingston]] as Pandiyan
*[[Kovai Sarala]] as Margaret
*[[Roopa Sree]] as Julie
*Sharmili as Manonmani
*[[Idichapuli Selvaraj]]
*[[Typist Gopu]] as Kandaswamy
*[[O. A. K. Sundar]]
*[[Karuppu Subbiah]]
*[[T. K. S. Natarajan]] as Natarajan
}}

== Soundtrack ==

The soundtrack were composed by Bala Bharathi, with lyrics written by [[Pulamaipithan]] and [[Muthulingam (poet)|Muthulingam]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Pondattiye Deivam |url=https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/pondattiye-deivam/J0FxEQzC5KA_ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202153053/https://www.jiosaavn.com/album/pondattiye-deivam/J0FxEQzC5KA_ |archive-date=2 February 2024 |access-date=2 February 2024 |work=[[JioSaavn]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singer(s) !! Duration
|-
| "Pombalathan Deivamedi" || [[Mano (singer)|Mano]], [[Sujatha Mohan]] || 4:10
|-
| "Naan Thaan Di" || [[Swarnalatha]]|| 3:13
|-
| "Nee Vesham Podhum" || [[Malgudi Subha]] || 3:05
|-
| "Vaigai Karai Vaalum Deviye" || [[K. S. Chithra]] || 4:50
|-
| "Ambal Nerula" || [[Swarnalatha]] || 3:20
|}

== Reception ==
Malini Mannath of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' labelled the film as "average entertainer" but she praised the lead pair.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=1994-03-11 |title=Wife, my Goddess ! |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=vWFlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=G5QNAAAAIBAJ&pg=1902%2C372437 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527062429/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=vWFlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=G5QNAAAAIBAJ&pg=1902%2C372437 |archive-date=27 May 2024 |access-date=2016-11-05 |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=6 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}

[[Category:1994 Indian films]]
[[Category:1994 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1994 comedy films]]
[[Category:1994 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by N. K. Viswanathan]]
[[Category:Indian comedy films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

May Maadham

2026-03-03T04:54:52Z

ShivaniSikri: General improvements to article content

{{Short description|1994 film directed by Venus Balu}}
{{Copy edit|for=the plot|date=February 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox film
| image = May Maadham poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = Balu
| producer = [[G. Venkateswaran]]
| writer = Balu [[Crazy Mohan]] (dialogues)
| starring = [[Vineeth]] [[Sonali Kulkarni]]
| music = [[A. R. Rahman]]
| cinematography = [[P. C. Sreeram]]
| editing = [[B. Lenin]] [[V. T. Vijayan]]
| studio = [[GV Films]]
| released = {{Film date|1994|09|09|df=y}}
| runtime =
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}
'''''May Maadham''''' ({{translation|''The Month of May''}}) is a 1994 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[romantic musical film]] directed by Balu and produced by [[G. Venkateswaran]] via [[GV Films]]. The film stars [[Vineeth]] and [[Sonali Kulkarni]], and has music by [[A. R. Rahman]]. It is based on the 1953 American film ''[[Roman Holiday]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 March 2016 |title=சுட்ட படம் |trans-title=Stolen film |url=https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/116914-sutta-padam-roman-holiday-%E2%80%98may-madham |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210615120552/https://cinema.vikatan.com/tamil-cinema/116914-sutta-padam-roman-holiday-%E2%80%98may-madham |archive-date=15 June 2021 |access-date=15 June 2021 |website=[[Ananda Vikatan]] |language=ta}}</ref> The film was released on 9 September 1994.

== Plot ==
Sandhya is living under full control of her businessman father Rangarajan who tries to bring her up as a disciplined homely girl and one day fixes her marriage with a US-based businessman who also loves Sandhya very much. Sandhya finds out one day that her spouse-to-be us guy is bald and by making him buy coconut drink she runs away by catching a running train. The train reaches Madras but Sandhya's bag get accidentally taken by Shekar's assistant who after seeing thousand rupees inside Sandhya's bag takes away the money and enjoys a night party. Sandhya comes with a policeman and catch Shekar who now only knows of the bag mistakenly took and sees no money inside when Sandhya asks for money and Shekhar's assistant tells all spend at party, Shekhar assures Sandhya that she will be given her money back, as Sandhya tells she is hungry Shekhar takes her to a hotel but runs away without paying. The hotel owner makes Sandhya do the hotel work the whole night. The next day Shekhar who is a photographer is going to get money as he has to take photos for a wedding and this time Sandhya comes and destroys the film roll inside the camera after which Shekhar is fired out with no money. Now Shekar has to sell his old car that is very old and not working properly, mainly to pay money back to Sandhya, after bargaining money with a customer Shekhar walks away after telling the customer to pay money to Sandhya, sandhya's photo gets seen by a fashion studio and asks Shekhar's master to get the girl so the master meets Shekhar and offers money and shekhar walks away to find Sandhya and sees Sandhya giving tea for the local people and gets more friends. Sandhya sees her big photo cut out in front of the fashion studio and asks shekhar how her photo came out like this that is danger to her as her father Rangarajan is searching her to marry her against her wish and while entering the fashion studio sees her father and so comes out and goes far away from where they used to live, Shekhar takes her to mahabalipuram temple and show a mouth like opening where as Shekhar says whoever tells truth they can put their hand and withdraw the hand and so Shekhar puts his hand inside and after scaring Sandhya takes out the hand, Sandhya who was emotionally disturbed after getting happy by Shekhar finally tells she also put her hand inside the mouth like opening but her hand gets stuck and she falls unconscious, horrified Shekhar carries Sandhya to a hospital and after check up while coming out Rangarajan is seen in front and Rangarajan tells sandhya have brain fever needs costly treatment that he only can give and after Sandhya gets cured will marry her to Shekar, Shekar accepts and so Rangarajan carries Sandhya with her to his house but next day Sandhya is seen in wedding engagement arrangements and Rangarajan tells give one wedding invitation card to Shekhar also to make him understand how dangerous he is. Shekhar totally shattered gets advised by his assistant to catch captain who is a drunkard in deep drinking habit due to his love failure, captain takes Shekar in his helicopter to sandhya's house and takes away Sandhya after telling that Rangarajan is not a true businessman as he changed the terms he talked with Shekhar regarding marriage and now arranging marriage to someone but Rangarajan still enraged points revolver but Shekar walks away to helicopter, now the us businessman bridegroom at the side moves the revolver gripped hand away and tells better the love more for Shekar be granted and walks away, film ends with helicopter flying away and Shekar and Sandhya married at their local area.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Vineeth]] as Eeshwar<ref>{{Cite news |last=R |first=Aishwaryaa |date=11 June 2019 |title=Mohan is gone, but the craziness will go on |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/comment/mohan-is-gone-but-the-craziness-will-go-on-739529.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012112409/https://www.deccanherald.com/opinion/comment/mohan-is-gone-but-the-craziness-will-go-on-739529.html |archive-date=12 October 2020 |access-date=23 August 2019 |work=[[Deccan Herald]]}}</ref>
* [[Sonali Kulkarni]] as Sandhya<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sundaram |first=Nandhu |date=19 July 2018 |title=Karuthamma, Nammavar, Kadhalan, Nattamai – Tamil cinema offered its best in the watershed year of 1994 |url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/karuthamma-nammavar-kadhalan-nattamai-tamil-cinema-offered-its-best-in-the-watershed-year-of-1994-4775931.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817212007/https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/karuthamma-nammavar-kadhalan-nattamai-tamil-cinema-offered-its-best-in-the-watershed-year-of-1994-4775931.html |archive-date=17 August 2018 |access-date=15 June 2021 |website=[[Firstpost]]}}</ref>
* [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]] as Aandal
* [[Kaka Radhakrishnan]] as Sadha Sivam
* [[Janagaraj]] as Captain
* [[R. Sundarrajan]] as All in All Ayyasamy
* [[P. C. Ramakrishna]] as Rangarajan, Sandhya's father
* Rajeshkumar as Rajeshkumar
* [[Pandu (actor)|Pandu]] as Police constable
* [[Anand Krishnamoorthi]] as Thirugnana Sambanthan (Calcutta)
* [[Oru Viral Krishna Rao]] as Colony resident
* [[Madhan Bob]] as Ramasamy
* [[S. N. Lakshmi]] as Sandhya's grandmother
* [[C. R. Saraswathi]]
* [[Sathyapriya]] as Female pimp
* [[Pasi Sathya]] as Poongodi
* [[A. V. Ramanan]]
* Marthandan as Mad man
* [[Vellai Subbaiah]] as Customer
* Jaya Prahasam as Gurusamy
* [[Mounika (actress)|Mounika]] in a special appearance in song "Aadipaaru Mangatha"
* [[Silk Smitha]] in a special appearance in song "Palakattu Machanukku"
}}

== Production ==
[[Ajith Kumar]] was initially considered to play the lead role before [[Vineeth]] was cast.<ref>{{Cite web |last=யுவராஜ் |first=லாவண்யா |date=9 September 2022 |title=May Madham : 'அஜித் வேண்டாம்... வினித் போதும்...' மே மாதம் பிறந்தவரை புறக்கணித்து வந்த மே மாதம்! |url=https://tamil.abplive.com/entertainment/may-madham-movie-was-released-on-this-day-28-years-ago-ajith-kushboo-was-the-first-chosen-pair-for-this-film-72382 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20250209120251/https://tamil.abplive.com/entertainment/may-madham-movie-was-released-on-this-day-28-years-ago-ajith-kushboo-was-the-first-chosen-pair-for-this-film-72382 |archive-date=9 February 2025 |access-date=9 February 2025 |website=[[ABP Nadu]] |language=ta }}</ref> The film marks [[Sonali Kulkarni]]'s only Tamil film to date.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pawar |first=Yogesh |date=6 May 2018 |title=Smita Patil's tree has grown |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-smita-patil-s-tree-has-grown-2611999 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823085740/https://www.dnaindia.com/bollywood/report-smita-patil-s-tree-has-grown-2611999 |archive-date=23 August 2019 |access-date=23 August 2019 |work=[[Daily News and Analysis]]}}</ref> She was encouraged to audition for the film by [[Mani Ratnam]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bhopatkar |first=Tejashree |date=11 July 2021 |title=#BigInterview: Sonali Kulkarni: I was told, 'Dark girls don't look good on camera' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/biginterview-sonali-kulkarni-i-was-told-dark-girls-dont-look-good-on-camera/articleshow/84300344.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511143712/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/biginterview-sonali-kulkarni-i-was-told-dark-girls-dont-look-good-on-camera/articleshow/84300344.cms |archive-date=11 May 2022 |access-date=27 May 2022 |work=[[The Times of India]] |language=en}}</ref> The song "Madrasa Suthi" was filmed in [[Marina Beach]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Raman |first=Mohan |author-link=Mohan Raman |date=24 August 2020 |title=#MadrasThroughTheMovies: A stroll by the Marina Beach & its landmarks |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/madrasthroughthemovies-a-stroll-by-the-marina-beach-its-landmarks/articleshow/77708724.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019213952/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/madrasthroughthemovies-a-stroll-by-the-marina-beach-its-landmarks/articleshow/77708724.cms |archive-date=19 October 2020 |access-date=27 May 2022 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=22 August 2025 |title=Marina beach in Chennai: silent witness to Tamil cinema's many moods |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/silent-witness-to-tamil-cinemas-many-moods/article69952575.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250822113537/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/silent-witness-to-tamil-cinemas-many-moods/article69952575.ece/amp/ |archive-date=22 August 2025 |access-date=2 September 2025 |website=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref>

== Soundtrack ==
The soundtrack was composed by [[A. R. Rahman]] with lyrics by [[Vairamuthu]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=May Madham (1994) |url=https://mio.to/album/May+Maadham+%281994%29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823085739/https://mio.to/album/May%2BMaadham%2B(1994) |archive-date=23 August 2019 |access-date=23 August 2019 |website=Music India Online}}</ref> Rahman initially wanted to include a [[Rapping|rap]] song, at a time when the genre was still nascent in India, but scrapped the song as he felt it did not suit the score.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 October 2025 |title=Suresh Peters: Tamil considered me a pop singer, Malayalam rescued me |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2025/Oct/23/malayalaminterviews2025oct22suresh-peters-tamil-considered-me-a-pop-singer-malayalam-rescued-me |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251101042055/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2025/Oct/23/malayalaminterviews2025oct22suresh-peters-tamil-considered-me-a-pop-singer-malayalam-rescued-me |archive-date=1 November 2025 |access-date=1 November 2025 |website=[[The New Indian Express]] |language=en}}</ref> The song "Margazhi Poove" is set in [[Hindolam]] raaga,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mani |first=Charulatha |author-link=Charulatha Mani |date=9 August 2011 |title=A Raga's Journey – Hindolam Highlights |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/a-ragas-journey-hindolam-highlights/article2373052.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823073618/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/a-ragas-journey-hindolam-highlights/article2373052.ece |archive-date=23 August 2019 |access-date=23 August 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> while "Enmel Vizhundha Mazhaithuli" is set in [[Kapi (raga)|Kapi]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mani |first=Charulatha |author-link=Charulatha Mani |date=7 December 2012 |title=Notes that intrigue |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/Notes-that-intrigue/article15616721.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823073938/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/Notes-that-intrigue/article15616721.ece |archive-date=23 August 2019 |access-date=23 August 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> In a 2018 interview, Vairamuthu recalled that after he had written most of the lyrics for "Margazhi Poove", Rahman wanted him to write further lyrics for "a short tune that plays between the BGM". Vairamuthu felt it was impossible to fit words into the tune but Rahman remained adamant. Though irritated, Vairamuthu accepted the challenge and found the perfect lyrics: "Venba... Paadivarum Vandukku/ Senthaen... Thandhuvidum sempookkal/ Konjam... Paadavarum Pennukku/ Sandham... Thandhuvidum Mynahkkal".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Suganth |first=M |date=5 September 2018 |title=When Rahman gives me a tune, I'll have to find both the melody and the words: Vairamuthu |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/when-rahman-gives-me-a-tune-ill-have-to-find-both-the-melody-and-the-words-vairamuthu/articleshow/65670555.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190823085620/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/when-rahman-gives-me-a-tune-ill-have-to-find-both-the-melody-and-the-words-vairamuthu/articleshow/65670555.cms |archive-date=23 August 2019 |access-date=23 August 2019 |work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> Rahman reused the songs in the [[Hindi]] film ''[[Love You Hamesha]]'' (2022).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Padmanabhan |first=Savitha |date=12 March 2001 |title=Chords & Notes |url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-miscellaneous/tp-others/chords-notes/article27921560.ece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190823082819/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-miscellaneous/tp-others/chords-notes/article27921560.ece |archive-date=23 August 2019 |access-date=23 August 2019 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Venky |title=Music review of 'Love You Hamesha' |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/musicreviews/loveu.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030220125616/http://www.chennaionline.com/musicreviews/loveu.asp |archive-date=2003-02-20 |access-date=2026-02-14 |website=Chennai Online}}</ref>

{{track listing
| headline = Tamil
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Adi Paru Mangatha
| extra1 = [[Suneeta Rao]], [[T. K. Kala]] and [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]]
| length1 = 04:26
| title2 = Palakkattu Machanukku
| extra2 = G. V. Prakash Kumar, Noel James, [[A. R. Rahman]] (backing vocals)
| length2 = 04:37
| title3 = Marghazhi Poove
| extra3 = Shobha Shankar, [[Choir|Chorus]]
| length3 = 06:18
| title4 = En Mel Vizhunda
| extra4 = [[P. Jayachandran]], [[K. S. Chithra]]
| length4 = 05:05
| title5 = Madrasai Suthi
| extra5 = [[Shahul Hameed]], [[Swarnalatha]], G. V. Prakash Kumar and [[Manorama (Tamil actress)|Manorama]]
| length5 = 04:51
| title6 = Minnalae
| extra6 = [[S. P. Balasubrahmanyam]]
| length6 = 05:37
}}

{{track listing
| headline = Telugu<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hrudayaanjali (1999) |url=https://mio.to/album/Hrudayaanjali+%281999%29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823085736/https://mio.to/album/Hrudayaanjali%2B(1999) |archive-date=23 August 2019 |access-date=23 August 2019 |website=Music India Online}}</ref>
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| title1 = Achampeta Mangatha
| extra1 = [[Anupama (singer)|Anupama]], [[Suneeta Rao]], [[T. K. Kala]] and G. V. Prakash Kumar
| length1 = 04:26
| lyrics1 = [[Vennelakanti (writer)|Vennelakanti]]
| title2 = Madarasu Chuttivaste
| extra2 = [[Srinivas (singer)|Srinivas]], [[Swarnalatha]], [[G. V. Prakash Kumar]], Noel David, [[Malgudi Subha]]
| length2 = 04:51
| lyrics2 = Ghantasala Ratnakumar
| title3 = Maanasa Veena
| extra3 = [[K. S. Chithra]], chorus
| length3 = 06:18
| lyrics3 = [[Sirivennela Sitarama Sastry]]
| title4 = Edapai Jarina
| extra4 = K. S. Chithra, [[P. Unnikrishnan|Unnikrishnan]]
| length4 = 05:05
| lyrics4 = [[Bhuvana Chandra]]
| title5 = Palakollu Mavayya
| extra5 = G. V. Prakash Kumar, Gopal Rao
| length5 = 04:37
| lyrics5 = Bhuvana Chandra
}}

== Release and reception ==
''May Maadham'' was released on 9 September 1994.<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 September 1994 |title=May Madham |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19940909&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=1 December 2017 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=4 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Malini Mannath of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' wrote on the same day, "Despite its flaws, ''May Maadham'' is an engaging little film that is worth viewing".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mannath |first=Malini |date=9 September 1994 |title=Laugh-riot |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19940909&printsec=frontpage&hl=en |access-date=1 December 2017 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |pages=6 |via=[[Google News Archive]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Thulasi of ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' appreciated the film for Sreeram's cinematography, Rahman's music, Mohan's dialogues and the cast performances.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=துளசி |date=25 September 1994 |title=மே மாதம் |url=https://archive.org/details/kalki1994-09-25/page/n20/mode/2up |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230301020435/https://archive.org/details/kalki1994-09-25/page/n20/mode/2up |archive-date=1 March 2023 |access-date=1 March 2023 |magazine=[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]] |page=19 |language=ta |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> The film was commercially unsuccessful, breaking GV Films' success streak that began in 1990.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 March 2022 |title=No One Helped G Venkateswaran in His Tough Times, Says Producer KT Kunjumon |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/no-one-helped-g-venkateswaran-in-his-tough-times-says-producer-kt-kunjumon-4823537.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327005435/https://www.news18.com/news/movies/no-one-helped-g-venkateswaran-in-his-tough-times-says-producer-kt-kunjumon-4823537.html |archive-date=27 March 2022 |access-date=27 May 2022 |website=[[News18]]}}</ref> The film was subsequently dubbed in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] under the title ''Hrudayanjali'' in 1998.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hrudayanjali |url=https://indiancine.ma/BHNL/info |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230301021841/https://indiancine.ma/BHNL/info |archive-date=1 March 2023 |access-date=14 December 2021 |website=indiancine.ma}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title}}
* {{Rotten Tomatoes}}

[[Category:1990s romantic musical films]]
[[Category:1994 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:1994 directorial debut films]]
[[Category:1994 films]]
[[Category:1994 Indian films]]
[[Category:1994 musical films]]
[[Category:1994 romance films]]
[[Category:Films produced by G. Venkateswaran]]
[[Category:Films scored by A. R. Rahman]]
[[Category:Films set in Chennai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Chennai]]
[[Category:Films shot in Ooty]]
[[Category:Films with screenplays by Crazy Mohan]]
[[Category:Indian remakes of American films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic musical films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language romantic musical films]]

Church of Our Lady of Springs

2026-03-02T02:09:33Z

ShivaniSikri: added data.

{{Short description|Church in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox Historic building
| image = File:Igreja de Nossa Senhora das Brotas, Anjediva.jpg
| caption = The church with its altar
| name = Church of Our Lady of Springs
| native_name = {{native name|pt|Igreja de Nossa Senhora das Brotas}}
| location_town = [[Anjediva Island]], [[Goa]]
| location_country = [[India]]
| coordinates = {{coord|14.761|74.111|display=title,inline}}
| architect =
| client =
| engineer =
| construction_start_date = AD 1502
| completion_date = AD 1502, AD 1506, and AD 1729
| demolished_date =
| cost =
| structural_system =
| architectural_style = [[Portugal|Portuguese]] Baroque
| size =
}}

The '''Church of Our Lady of Springs''' ({{langx|pt|Igreja de Nossa Senhora das Brotas}}) is located in the vicinity of the [[Fort Anjediva]] on the [[Anjadip Island]], off the west Coast of India under the administrative control of [[Goa]], India. Initially, in 1502, it was built as a small thatched [[chapel]], but later, in 1506, was made into a more permanent structure. It was rebuilt in 1682 and subsequently refurbished in 1729. An Insignia awarded by [[Rome]] as the ‘Mother Church’ is seen in this church.<ref>
{{cite news
| author = Team Herald
| title = Faithful shocked over Parrikar's 'no' to feasts on Anjediva Island
| url = https://www.heraldgoa.in/Goa/Faithful-shocked-over-Parrikar%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%98no%E2%80%99-to-feasts-on-Anjediva-Island/99511.html
| work = [[OHeraldo]]
| location = [[Margao]]
| date = 2 March 2016
| access-date = 6 September 2017
}}
</ref><ref name=church>{{cite web
|url = http://www.colaco.net/1/Anjadiva.htm
|title = The Travesty at Anjediva! (pg. 1)
|work = Colaco.net
|accessdate = 6 September 2017
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140320185022/http://www.colaco.net/1/Anjadiva.htm#
|archive-date = 2014-03-20
|url-status = dead
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.colaco.net/1/Anjadiva2.htm
| title = The Travesty at Anjediva! (pg. 2)
| work = Colaco.net
| accessdate = 6 September 2017
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090105205953/http://www.colaco.net/1/Anjadiva2.htm
| archive-date = 5 January 2009
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

This church is stated to be the oldest [[Christian church]] in India, outside of [[Kerala]] and visited by devotees from [[Karwar]], Binaga and other villages of [[Karnataka]] and [[Goa]].<ref name=oheral>
{{cite news
| author = Team Herald
| url = http://oheraldo.in/pagedetails.asp?nid=15397&cid=15
| title = Not only politicians break promises
| newspaper = [[OHeraldo]]
| location = [[Panaji]]
| date = 12 January 2009
| accessdate = 10 October 2010
}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

The ancient church was under the control of the [[Vicar]] of the [[diocese]] of [[Karwar]], facing the city of Goa. The church is now under the ownership of the Government of Goa but is administered by the [[Indian Navy]] who are in possession of the island to build a strategic naval base.<ref>
{{cite news
| last = Carvalho
| first = Nirmala
| url = http://www.asianews.it/index.php?art=2483&l=en
| title = Hindu fundamentalists prevent Catholic celebration on Anjediva Island
| date = 2 February 2005
| work = [[AsiaNews]]
| access-date = 6 September 2017
}}
</ref>

==History==
History of the church is dated to 22 August 1502 when Fr Henrique de Coimbra with other eight [[Franciscans]], landed at Anjadipa Island as part of the second [[Portugal|Portuguese]] expedition under the leadership of [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]]. A makeshift chapel was built in 1502 and first mass in Goa was held there. A permanent church was built at the same location in 1506. The present church was re-built in 1729.<ref name=goa>
{{cite web
| last = D'Souza
| first = Joel
| url = http://www.goacom.com/goanow/99/mar/issue1/backwoods.html
| title = Blessed Backwoods: Ancient Anjediva
| date = 9 October 1999
| work = Goa Now
| publisher = Goacom.com
| access-date = 6 September 2017
| url-status = dead
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110423043908/http://www.goacom.com/goanow/99/mar/issue1/backwoods.html
| archive-date = 23 April 2011
}}
</ref>

The other landmark on the island is the Chapel of St Francis located near this Church, which has not been refurbished and is mostly in ruins.<ref name=goa/>

==Restoration==
The Church of Lady of Springs has been restored and festivals are held here every year, mainly because of the assistance of the people (of both [[Christians|Christian]] and [[Hindu]] [[community]]) of [[Karwar]], [[Sirsi, Karnataka|Sirsi]] and Binaga. The [[Parish Priest]] of St Annes Church at Binaga, Fr Britto D Silva, and the former Parish Priest Fr. Kurien, who earned the sobriquet of "Anjedivacho Pisso", coordinated efforts to restore the church to some of its past glory.<ref name=church/>

==Pilgrimage==
Until recently, [[Goan Catholics]] from all parts of the world have been visiting this "Brotas" church on pilgrimage for worship.<ref name=anjediva>{{cite web
|last = D'Abreu
|first = Francisco S.
|date = 26 October 2002
|url = http://www.colaco.net/1/AbreuAnjediva1.htm
|title = Anjediva – 1
|work = Colaco.net
|access-date = 6 September 2017
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110527205952/http://www.colaco.net/1/AbreuAnjediva1.htm#
|archive-date = 2011-05-27
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>

After the [[Indian Navy]] took over the island to establish 'Project Sea Bird' (a naval base project), disputes have cropped up on allowing pilgrims to visit the churches here, since the area is now considered a military ‘high security’ zone. It is claimed that when the [[Government of Goa]] handed over the island in December 1987 to the Indian Navy there was a stipulation that pilgrims would be allowed to visit the Church of Our Lady of Springs and the Chapel of St Francis D’Assissi on the island, particularly on feast days on 2 February and 4 October. {{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} The issue has remained unresolved although the Navy continues to grant permission on a year-to-year basis.<ref name=oheral/> The issue has been raised in the [[Indian Parliament]] by [[Member of Parliament|MP]] [[Rajya Sabha]], who demands that devotees should be allowed to celebrate the religious festivals every year on the two Islands.

To resolve the situation, it has been suggested that the numbers of pilgrims be controlled, access be restricted to only those who are issued a photo identity card by the Government of Goa, only one group of pilgrims be allowed to visit at a time, and just one mass be held in the Church.<ref name=oheral/>

==Access==
The Church on Anjadip Island is located {{convert|4|km|mi}}, south of Baticala, the ancient kingdom of Garsopa, in present-day [[Karwar]].<ref>
{{cite news
| author = TNN
| title = Navy denies Goans access to Anjediva island again
| url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Navy-denies-Goans-access-to-Anjediva-island-again/articleshow/46101044.cms
| work = [[The Times of India]]
| location = Panaji
| date = 3 February 2015
| access-date = 6 September 2017
}}
</ref> Karwar is approached by the [[National Highway (India)|National Highway]] NH 17. From Karwar, a {{convert|2|km|mi}} causeway leads to the Officers (Sea Bird) gate and then to the historic church. The church is also approachable by boat ride from the Binga beach.<ref name=goa/> In the past, the approach involved a trip of one hour by [[Recreational trawler|trawler]] and then by [[canoe]] to the island.<ref name=church/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Roman Catholic church buildings in Goa]]
[[Category:Churches in South Goa district]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches completed in 1729]]
[[Category:1729 establishments in the Portuguese Empire]]
[[Category:18th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in India]]

Oral tradition

2026-02-16T03:49:40Z

ShivaniSikri: updated details

{{Short description|Culture preserved through speech or song}}
{{about|oral tradition in general|the gospel tradition in Christianity|Oral gospel traditions|the journal|Oral Tradition (journal){{!}}''Oral Tradition'' (journal)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
[[File:Kyrgyz Manaschi, Karakol.jpg|thumb|A traditional [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]] [[manaschi]] performing part of the [[Epic of Manas]] at a [[yurt]] camp in [[Karakol]]]]
'''Oral tradition''', or '''oral lore''', is a form of [[human communication]] in which knowledge, art, beliefs, ideas and [[culture]] are received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another.<ref name = "Vansina">[[Jan Vansina|Vansina, Jan]]: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (1985), reported statements from present generation which "specifies that the message must be oral statements spoken, sung or called out on musical instruments only"; "There must be transmission by word of mouth over at least a generation". He points out, "Our definition is a working definition for the use of historians. Sociologists, linguists or scholars of the verbal arts propose their own, which in, e.g., sociology, stresses common knowledge. In linguistics, features that distinguish the language from common dialogue (linguists), and in the verbal arts features of form and content that define art (folklorists)."</ref><ref name=britannicaot/><ref name = "Ki-Zerbo">Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: "Methodology and African Pre-history", 1990, ''UNESCO International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa''; James Currey Publishers, {{ISBN|0-85255-091-X}}, 9780852550915; see Ch. 7; "Oral tradition and its methodology" at pages 54–61; at page 54: "Oral tradition may be defined as being a testimony transmitted verbally from one generation to another. Its special characteristics are that it is verbal and the manner in which it is transmitted."</ref> The transmission is through [[speech]] or song and may include [[Folklore|folktale]]s, [[ballad]]s, [[chant]]s, [[prose]] or [[poetry]]. The information is [[memorisation|mentally recorded]] by [[List of oral repositories|oral repositories]], sometimes termed "walking libraries", who are usually also performers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=John |first=Magnus |date=1979 |title=Libraries in oral-traditional societies |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1016/0020-7837%2879%2990003-7 |journal=International Library Review |language=en |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=321–339 |doi=10.1016/0020-7837(79)90003-7 |issn=0020-7837|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |last1=Chisita |first1=Collence |last2=Abdullahi |first2=Ismaili |year=2010 |title=The Challenges and Opportunities of preparing LIS Students for orally based communities |url=https://www.academia.edu/64565540 |publisher=World Library and Information Congress: 76th Ifla General Conference and Assembly |via=[[Academia.edu]]}}</ref> Oral tradition is a [[Media (communication)|medium of communication]] for a society to transmit [[oral history]], [[oral literature]], [[oral law]] and other knowledge across generations without a [[writing system]], or in parallel to a writing system. It is the [[History of communication#Storytelling|most widespread]] medium of human communication.<ref name="Oral tradition">{{Cite web |title=Oral tradition |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/oral-tradition |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=Britannica |language=en-GB}}</ref> They often remain in use in the [[modern era]] throughout for [[cultural preservation]].

Religions such as [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Catholicism]],<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a2.htm|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church – The Transmission of Divine Revelation|website=vatican.va|access-date=2020-01-15|archive-date=2014-10-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027062716/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a2.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Jainism]] have used oral tradition, in parallel to writing, to transmit their canonical [[Religious text|scriptures]], [[ritual]]s, [[hymn]]s and mythologies.<ref name="Goody1987p82">{{cite book|author=Jack Goody |title=The Interface Between the Written and the Oral |url=https://archive.org/details/interfacebetween00good |url-access=registration |year=1987|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-33794-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/interfacebetween00good/page/110 110]–121 }}</ref><ref name=witzel68/><ref name=lopez1995p21>{{cite journal|author= Donald S. Lopez Jr.|year= 1995|title= Authority and Orality in the Mahāyāna|journal= Numen|volume= 42|number= 1|pages= 21–47|publisher= Brill Academic|jstor= 3270278|doi= 10.1163/1568527952598800|url= https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43799/1/11076_1995_Article_1568527952598800.pdf|hdl= 2027.42/43799|hdl-access= free|access-date= 2019-09-23|archive-date= 2011-01-01|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110101012117/http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43799/1/11076_1995_Article_1568527952598800.pdf|url-status= live}}</ref> African societies have broadly been labelled ''oral civilisations'', contrasted with ''literate civilisations'', due to their reverence for the [[spoken word|oral word]] and widespread use of oral tradition.{{Efn|This characterisation has come under criticism by some African scholars, as it implies conflict between the oral and written. They instead contend that in reality, the characterisation is defined by the interaction between three ways of expression and diffusion: the oral, the written, and the printed word.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopedia of African Religions and Philosophy |chapter=Orality |year=2022 |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/978-94-024-2068-5_296 |url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-024-2068-5_296 |last1=Mouralis |first1=Bernard |pages=537–539 |isbn=978-94-024-2066-1 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Bethwell Allan Ogot]] notes that images of Africa composed by Western writers have often been in terms of "opposites" and how they differ from "us".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ogot |first=Bethwell Allan |title=Rereading the History and Historiography of Epistemic Domination and Resistance in Africa |journal=African Studies Review |year=2009 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1353/arw.0.0127 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/article/abs/rereading-the-history-and-historiography-of-epistemic-domination-and-resistance-in-africa/775F359EADE441ABC3CB3E4A68B1B679|url-access=subscription }}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |title=Once upon a Time: Oral Traditions as History in Africa |journal=Daedalus |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=442–468 |year=1971 |publisher=MIT Press |jstor=20024011 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20024011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hama |first1=Boubou |last2=Ki-Zerbo |first2=Joseph |title=General History of Africa: Volume 1 |chapter=The place of history in African society |year=1981 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000042225&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_27359687-a44e-44a0-b09c-9dc9dbeaec74%3F_%3D042225engo.pdf&updateUrl=updateUrl1135&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000042225/PDF/042225engo.pdf.multi&fullScreen=true&locale=en#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A421%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D}}</ref>

Oral tradition is memories, knowledge, and expression held in common by a group over many generations: it is the long preservation of immediate or contemporaneous [[testimony]].<ref name = "Vansina"/><ref name=Henige1988>{{cite journal |last1=Henige |first1=David |title=Oral, but Oral What? : The Nomenclatures of Orality and Their Implications |journal=Oral Tradition |date=1988 |volume=3 |issue=1–2 |pages=229–238 |hdl=10355/64090 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It may be defined as the recall and transmission of specific, preserved textual and cultural knowledge through vocal utterance.<ref name=britannicaot>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/oral-tradition Oral Tradition] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809191457/https://www.britannica.com/topic/oral-tradition |date=2016-08-09 }}, ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', John Miles Foley</ref><ref name="MacKay1999p1"/> Oral tradition is usually popular, and can be [[wikt:exoteric|exoteric]] or [[wikt:esoteric|esoteric]]. It speaks to people according to their understanding, unveiling itself in accordance with their aptitudes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bâ |first=Amadou |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000042225 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 1 |date=1981 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The living tradition}}</ref>{{Rp|page=168}}

As an [[academic discipline]], oral tradition refers both to objects and methods of study.<ref>Dundes, Alan, "Editor's Introduction" to ''The Theory of Oral Composition'', [[John Miles Foley]]. Bloomington, IUP, 1988, pp. ix–xii</ref> It is distinct from [[oral history]],<ref name=Henige1988/> which is the recording of personal testimony of those who experienced historical eras or events.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/oral_history.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110820112837/http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/oral_history.html|url-status=dead|title=Oral History|archive-date=August 20, 2011}}</ref> Oral tradition is also distinct from the study of [[orality]], defined as [[thought]] and its verbal expression in societies where the technologies of [[literacy]] (writing and print) are unfamiliar.<ref>Ong, Walter, S.J., ''Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word''. London: Methuen, 1982, p. 12.</ref> [[Folklore]] is one albeit not the only type of oral tradition.<ref>[[Linda Degh|Degh, Linda]]. ''American Folklore and the Mass Media''. Bloomington: IUP, 1994, p. 31</ref><ref>[http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1984/4/84.04.01.x.html Folklore in the Oral Tradition, Fairytales, Fables and Folk-legend] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719070432/http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1984/4/84.04.01.x.html |date=2016-07-19 }}, Julie Carthy (1984), ''The Oral Tradition'', Volume IV, Yale University, '''Quote:''' "Folklore is said to be in the oral tradition. Dundes states that the most common criterion for a definition of folklore is its means of transmission that is, orally. He clarifies however that materials other than folklore are also orally conveyed. Therefore oral transmission itself is not sufficient to distinguish folklore from non-folklore."</ref>

==History==
According to John Foley, oral tradition has been an ancient human tradition found in "all corners of the world".<ref name="MacKay1999p1"/> Modern archaeology has been unveiling evidence of the human efforts to preserve and transmit arts and knowledge that depended completely or partially on an oral tradition, across various cultures:
{{Blockquote|
The Judeo-Christian Bible reveals its oral traditional roots; medieval European manuscripts are penned by performing scribes; geometric vases from archaic Greece mirror Homer's oral style. (...) Indeed, if these final decades of the millennium have taught us anything, it must be that oral tradition never was the other we accused it of being; it never was the primitive, preliminary technology of communication we thought it to be. Rather, if the whole truth is told, oral tradition stands out as the single most dominant communicative technology of our species as both a historical fact and, in many areas still, a contemporary reality.
|John Foley|''Signs of Orality''<ref name="MacKay1999p1">{{cite book |last1=MacKay |first1=E. Anne |title=Signs of Orality: The Oral Tradition and Its Influence in the Greek and Roman World |date=1999 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-11273-5 |pages=1–2 }}</ref>}}

Before the introduction of [[Text (literary theory)|text]], oral tradition remained the only means of communication in order to establish societies as well as its institutions.<ref name="Oral tradition"/> Despite widespread comprehension of [[literacy]] in the recent century,<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Literacy - Our World in Data |url=https://ourworldindata.org/literacy#:~:text=Over%20the%20course%20of%20the,better%20educated%20than%20ever%20before. |access-date=2024-08-23 |journal=Our World in Data| date=6 March 2024 |language=en-GB | last1=Roser | first1=Max | last2=Ortiz-Ospina | first2=Esteban }}</ref> oral tradition remains the dominant communicative means within the world.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Oral Tradition : Words, Signs and Gestures |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44295581 |access-date=2024-08-23 |journal=Indian Literature |jstor=44295581 |language=en-GB |last1=Mahapatra |first1=Sitakant |date=1994 |volume=5 |issue=163 |pages=69–78 }}</ref>

=== Africa ===
[[File:Sénégal-Chef indigène et son griot (AOF) cropped.jpg|thumb|Griot for a native ruler in Senegal]]
In Africa, the oral tradition includes proverbs, folktales, songs, dances, customs, traditional medicine, religious practices, and cultural sayings that are told and expressed to teach lessons about life, social systems, religion, and spirituality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iheanacho |first1=Valentine U. |title=The significance of African oral tradition in the making of African Christianity |journal=HTS Teologiese Studies |date=2021 |volume=77 |issue=2 |doi=10.4102/hts.v77i2.6819 |url=https://hts.org.za/index.php/hts/article/view/6819 |access-date=19 March 2025|doi-access=free }}</ref> All [[List of Indigenous peoples|indigenous African societies]] use oral tradition to learn their origin and [[History of Africa|history]], civic and religious duties, crafts and skills, as well as traditional myths and [[legend]]s.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Cooper |first1=Grace C. |title=Oral Tradition in African Societies |journal=Negro History Bulletin |date=1983 |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=101–103 |jstor=44246885 }}</ref> It is also a key socio-cultural component in the practice of their [[Traditional African religions|traditional spiritualities]], as well as mainstream [[Abrahamic religions]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iheanacho |first1=Valentine U. |title=The significance of African oral tradition in the making of African Christianity |journal=HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies |date=22 September 2021 |volume=77 |issue=2 |id={{Gale|A679072762}} {{ProQuest|2582693440}} |doi=10.4102/hts.v77i2.6819 |s2cid=240523785 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Jan Vansina]] differentiates between ''oral'' and ''literate'' civilisations, stating: "The attitude of members of an oral society toward [[spoken word|speech]] is similar to the reverence members of a literate society attach to the [[written word]]. If it is hallowed by authority or antiquity, the word will be treasured." For centuries in Europe, all data felt to be important were written down, with the most important texts prioritised, such as [[Bible]], and only trivia, such as song, legend, anecdote, and proverbs remained unrecorded. In Africa, all the principal political, legal, social, and religious texts were transmitted orally. When the [[Bamum people|Bamums]] in Cameroon [[Writing systems of Africa#West Africa|invented a script]], the first to be written down was the [[chronicle|royal chronicle]] and the code of [[customary law]]. Most African courts had archivists who learnt by heart the royal genealogy and history of the state, and served as its [[unwritten constitution]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1971 |title=Once upon a Time: Oral Traditions as History in Africa |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20024011 |journal=Daedalus |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=442–468 |jstor=20024011 |issn=0011-5266}}</ref>

The performance of a tradition is accentuated and rendered alive by various gesture, social conventions and the unique occasion in which it is performed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ebine |first=SA |title=The Roles of Griots in African Oral Tradition among the Manding |journal=International Journal of Research |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2019 |url=https://www.globalacademicgroup.com/journals/approaches/V11N1P23-2019_Approaches.pdf}}</ref> Furthermore, the climate in which traditions are told influences its content. In [[Burundi]], traditions were short because most were told at informal gatherings and everyone had to have their turn; in neighbouring [[Rwanda]], many narratives were longer because a one-man professional had to entertain his patron for a whole evening, with every production checked by fellow specialists and errors punishable. Frequently, [[gloss (annotation)|glosses]] or [[Commentary (philology)|commentaries]] were presented parallel to the narrative, sometimes answering questions from the audience to ensure understanding, although often someone would learn a tradition without asking their master questions and not really understand the meaning of its content, leading them to speculate in the commentary.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Ebine |first=SA |title=The Roles of Griots in African Oral Tradition among the Manding |journal=International Journal of Research |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2019 |url=https://www.globalacademicgroup.com/journals/approaches/V11N1P23-2019_Approaches.pdf}}</ref> Oral traditions only exist when they are told, except for in people's minds, and so the frequency of telling a tradition aids its preservation.<ref name=":4" /> These African ethnic groups also utilize oral tradition to develop and train the human intellect, and the memory to retain information and sharpen imagination.<ref name=":3" />

====West Africa====
[[File:Balafon griot (1).jpg|thumb|Balafon griot]]
{{See also|Griot|History of the Soninke people|Oral history in modern Mali|Epic of Sundiata|Kouroukan Fouga|Kwagh-Hir|Gassire's lute|Oríkì|Mbeku|Agadzagadza|Asebu Amanfi|Anansi}}
Perhaps the most famous repository of oral tradition is the west African [[griot]] (named differently in different languages).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Abdul-Fattah |first1=Hakimah |title=How Griots Tell Legendary Epics through Stories and Songs in West Africa |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/perspectives/sahel-sunjata-stories-songs |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |date=20 April 2020 |access-date=25 November 2024}}</ref> The griot is a hereditary position and exists in [[Dyula people|Dyula]], [[Soninke people|Soninke]], [[Fula people|Fula]], [[Hausa people|Hausa]], [[Songhai people|Songhai]], [[Wolof people|Wolof]], [[Serer people|Serer]], and [[Mossi people|Mossi]] societies among many others, although more famously in [[Mandingo people|Mandinka society]]. They constitute a [[caste]] and perform a range of roles, including as a historian or library, musician, poet, [[mediation|mediator]] of family and tribal disputes, spokesperson, and served in the king's court,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Iantosca |first1=Caroline |title=Music and Storytelling in West Africa |url=https://worldview.unc.edu/news-article/music-and-storytelling-in-west-africa/#:~:text=If%20you%20were%20born%20into,of%20your%20village%20and%20family. |website=The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill |publisher=UNC Chapel Hill |access-date=25 November 2024}}</ref> not dissimilar from the European [[bard]]. They keep records of all births, death, and marriages through the generations of the village or family. When [[Sundiata Keita]] founded the [[Mali Empire]], he was offered [[Balla Fasséké]] as his griot to advise him during his reign, giving rise to the [[Kouyate family|Kouyate line of griots]]. Griots often accompany their telling of oral tradition with a musical instrument, as the ''[[Epic of Sundiata]]'' is accompanied by the [[balafon]], or as the [[Kora (instrument)|kora]] accompanies other traditions.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Sundiata Epic: Griots, Words, Songs and Performance |url=https://www.brandeis.edu/compact/programs/global-community-engagement/2024-2025/mali-residency.html |website=Brandeis University |access-date=25 November 2024}}</ref> In modern times, some griots and descendants of griots have dropped their historian role and focus on music, with many finding success, however many still maintain their traditional roles.

====East Africa====
{{See also|Empire of Kitara|Kilwa Chronicle|Hainteny|Ebyevugo|Ibonia|Fumo Liyongo|Ibitekerezo|Azmari}}

Kenya safeguarded its oral tradition by ratifying the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage in October 2007.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nyangila |first1=Jacob |title=Safeguarding Endangered Oral Traditions in East Africa |journal=National Museums of Kenya - UNESCO |date=2008 |url=https://www.academia.edu/63377949 |access-date=13 January 2025}}</ref>

====North Africa====
{{See also|Malhun|T'heydinn|Asefru}}

====Central Africa====
{{See also|Mwindo epic}}

====Southern Africa====
{{See also|The Child with a Moon on his Chest (Sotho)|South African folklore|Afrikaans folklore|Emperor Shaka the Great}}

===Europe===
====Albania====
[[File:Gjama.jpg|thumb|Men of [[Theth]] ([[Shala (tribe)|Shala]]) practicing the [[gjâmë]] – the [[Albanians|Albanian]] lamentation of the dead – in the funeral of Ujk Vuksani, 1937. The earliest figurative representations of this practice in traditional Albanian-inhabited regions appear on [[Dardani]]an funerary stelae of [[classical antiquity]].{{sfn|Joseph|Dedvukaj|2024|pp=1–3}}]]
{{Further|Albanian folklore|Albanian paganism|Albanian epic poetry|Kângë Kreshnikësh|Kanun (Albania)}}
Albanian traditions have been handed down orally across generations.<ref>{{harvnb|Elsie|1994|p=i}}; {{harvnb|Elsie|2001|p=ix}}; {{harvnb|Tarifa|2008|pp=3, 11–12}}; {{harvnb|Sokoli|2013|pp=182–184}}.</ref> They have been preserved through traditional memory systems that have survived intact into modern times in [[Albania]], a phenomenon that is explained by the lack of state formation among [[Albanians]] and their ancestors – the [[Illyrians]], being able to preserve their [[Albanian tribes|"tribally" organized society]]. This distinguished them from civilizations such as [[Ancient Egypt]], [[Minoans]] and [[Mycenaeans]], who underwent state formation and disrupted their traditional memory practices.{{sfn|Galaty|2018|pp=100–102}}

[[Albanian epic poetry]] has been analysed by [[Homeric scholarship|Homeric scholars]] to acquire a better understanding of [[Homer]]ic epics. The long oral tradition that has sustained Albanian epic poetry reinforces the idea that pre-Homeric epic poetry was oral.{{sfn|Gadamer|2013|p=160}} The theory of [[oral-formulaic composition]] was developed also through the scholarly study of Albanian epic verse.{{sfn|Blum|2023|p=91}} The Albanian traditional singing of epic verse from memory is one of the last survivors of its kind in modern [[Europe]],<ref>{{harvnb|Elsie|2014|p=1}}.</ref> and the last survivor of the Balkan traditions.<ref>{{harvnb|Di Lellio|Dushi|2024}}.</ref>

==== Ancient Greece ====
{{See also|Rhapsode|Aoidos}}
"All ancient Greek literature", states Steve Reece, "was to some degree oral in nature, and the earliest literature was completely so".<ref>Reece, Steve. "[https://www.academia.edu/30640456/Orality_and_Literacy_Ancient_Greek_Literature_as_Oral_Literature Orality and Literacy: Ancient Greek Literature as Oral Literature]", in David Schenker and Martin Hose (eds.), ''Companion to Greek Literature'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 2015) 43-57. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101220823/https://www.academia.edu/30640456/Orality_and_Literacy_Ancient_Greek_Literature_as_Oral_Literature |date=2020-01-01 }}.</ref> [[Homer]]'s epic poetry, states Michael Gagarin, "was largely composed, performed and transmitted orally".<ref>{{cite book |author=Michael Gagarin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkfRvkgDTOsC |title=Signs of Orality |publisher=BRILL Academic |year=1999 |isbn=978-9004112735 |editor=E. Anne MacKay |pages=163–164}}</ref> As folklores and legends were performed in front of distant audiences, the singers would substitute the names in the stories with local characters or rulers to give the stories a local flavor and thus connect with the audience, but making the historicity embedded in the oral tradition unreliable.<ref>{{cite book |author=Wolfgang Kullmann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkfRvkgDTOsC |title=Signs of Orality |publisher=BRILL Academic |year=1999 |isbn=978-9004112735 |editor=E. Anne MacKay |pages=108–109}}</ref> The lack of surviving texts about the Greek and Roman religious traditions have led scholars to presume that these were ritualistic and transmitted as oral traditions, but some scholars disagree that the complex rituals in the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations were an exclusive product of an oral tradition.<ref>{{cite book |author=John Scheid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uZ5JP8gZgJEC&pg=PA17 |title=Religion and Law in Classical and Christian Rome |date=2006 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |isbn=978-3-515-08854-1 |editor=Clifford Ando and Jörg Rüpke |pages=17–28 |author-link=John Scheid}}</ref>

==== Ireland ====
An Irish ''[[seanchaí]]'' (plural: ''seanchaithe''), meaning bearer of "old lore"'','' was a traditional [[Irish language]] storyteller (the [[Scottish Gaelic]] equivalent being the ''seanchaidh,'' [[Anglicisation|anglicised]] as shanachie). The job of a ''seanchaí'' was to serve the head of a lineage by passing information orally from one generation to the next about [[Irish folklore]] and history, particularly in medieval times.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McKendry |first=Eugene |title=Study Ireland: An Introduction to Storytelling, Myths and Legends |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/schools/11_16/storyteller/pdf/gen_notes_all.pdf |url-status=live |website=BBC Northern Ireland |access-date=2022-01-18 |archive-date=2022-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211021132/https://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/schools/11_16/storyteller/pdf/gen_notes_all.pdf }}</ref>

==== Rome ====
The potential for oral transmission of history in [[ancient Rome]] is evidenced primarily by [[Cicero]], who discusses the significance of oral tradition in works such as ''Brutus'',<ref>Cicero, Brutus, (75) translated by E. Jones (1776) Attalus, available at: Attalus</ref> ''Tusculan Disputations'',<ref>Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, (1.3) translated by J. King. Loeb Classical Library. London: Heinemann, 1927</ref> and ''On The Orator''.<ref>Cicero, On The Orator, (3.197) translated by E. Sutton. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1942</ref> While [[Cicero|Cicer]]o's reliance on Cato's Origines may limit the breadth of his argument,<ref name="ReferenceA">Wiseman, T. Historiography and Imagination. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1994</ref> he nonetheless highlights the importance of storytelling in preserving [[Roman history]]. [[Valerius Maximus]] also references oral tradition in Memorable Doings and Sayings (2.1.10).<ref>Valerius Maximus, Memorable Doings and Sayings, translated by D. Shackleton Bailey. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000</ref>

Wiseman argues that celebratory performances served as a vital medium for transmitting Roman history and that such traditions evolved into written forms by the third century CE.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> He asserts that the history of figures like the house of Tarquin was likely passed down through oral storytelling for centuries before being recorded in literature.<ref>Wiseman, T. Roman Legend and Oral Tradition, The Journal of Roman Studies, 79, 129-137. Available at: JSTOR</ref> Although Flower critiques the lack of ancient evidence supporting Wiseman's broader claims,<ref>Flower, H. (1995). Fabulae Praetextae in Context: When Were Plays on Contemporary Subjects Performed in Republican Rome? The Classical Quarterly, New Series, 45(1), 170-190. Available at: JSTOR</ref> Wiseman maintains that dramatic narratives fundamentally shaped historiography.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

=== Asia ===
In Asia, the transmission of folklore, mythologies as well as scriptures in ancient India, in different Indian religions, was by oral tradition, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate [[Vedic chant|mnemonic techniques]]:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lopez |first1=Donald |title=Authority and Orality in the Mahāyāna |journal=Numen |date=1995 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=21–47 |doi=10.1163/1568527952598800 |jstor=3270278 |hdl=2027.42/43799 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

According to Goody, the Vedic texts likely involved both a written and oral tradition, calling it a "parallel products of a literate society".<ref name="Goody1987p82"/><ref name="lopez1995p21"/> Mostly recently, research shows that oral performance of (written) texts could be a philosophical activity in [[Early Chinese Empire|early China]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wong |first=Peter T. K. |date=2022 |title=The Soundscape of the Huainanzi 淮南子: Poetry, Performance, Philosophy, and Praxis in Early China |journal=Early China |language=en |volume=45 |pages=515–539 |doi=10.1017/eac.2022.6 |s2cid=250269080 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

It is a common knowledge in India that the primary Hindu books called Vedas are great example of Oral tradition. Pundits who memorized three Vedas were called Trivedis. Pundits who memorized four vedas were called Chaturvedis. By transferring knowledge from generation to generation Hindus protected their ancient Mantras in Vedas, which are basically Prose.

The early Buddhist texts are also generally believed to be of oral tradition, with the first by comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek, Serbia and other cultures, then noting that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without being written down.<ref name="Goody1987p82"/>

====Middle East====
{{See also|Oral Torah}}
In the Middle East, [[Arabic language|Arabic]] oral tradition has significantly influenced literary and cultural practices.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|first1=Dwight F.|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv371cp40|title=Rhyme and Rhyming in Verbal Art, Language, and Song|chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv371cp40.5|chapter=Rhyme in Arabic Oral Poetry|publisher=Finnish Literature Society|editor-last1=Sykäri|editor-first1=Venla|editor-last2=Fabb|editor-first2=Nigel|volume=14|year=2022|pages=47–62 |jstor=j.ctv371cp40.5 |isbn=978-951-858-587-2 }}</ref> Arabic oral tradition encompassed various forms of expression, including [[Metre (poetry)|metrical poetry]], [[Blank verse|unrhymed prose]], [[rhymed prose]] (''[[saj']]''), and [[prosimetrum]]—a combination of prose and poetry often employed in historical narratives. [[Arabic poetry|Poetry]] held a position of particular importance, as it was believed to be a more reliable medium for information transmission than prose. This belief stemmed from observations that highly structured language, with its rhythmic and phonetic patterns, tended to undergo fewer alterations during oral transmission.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|first1=Dwight F.|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv371cp40|title=Rhyme and Rhyming in Verbal Art, Language, and Song|chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv371cp40.5|chapter=Rhyme in Arabic Oral Poetry|publisher=Finnish Literature Society|editor-last1=Sykäri|editor-first1=Venla|editor-last2=Fabb|editor-first2=Nigel|volume=14|pages=48–49|year=2022|jstor=j.ctv371cp40.5 |isbn=978-951-858-587-2 }}</ref>

Each genre of rhymed poetry served distinct social and cultural functions. These range from spontaneous compositions at celebrations to carefully crafted historical accounts, political commentaries, and entertainment pieces. Among these, the folk epics known as [[siyar]] (singular: sīra) were considered the most intricate. These prosimetric narratives, combining prose and verse, emerged in the early Middle Ages. While many such epics circulated historically, only one has survived as a sung oral poetic tradition: [[Sirat Bani Hilal|Sīrat Banī Hilāl]]. This epic recounts the westward migration and conquests of the [[Banu Hilal]] [[Bedouin]] tribe from the 10th to 12th centuries, culminating in their rule over parts of North Africa before their eventual defeat.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|first1=Dwight F.|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv371cp40|title=Rhyme and Rhyming in Verbal Art, Language, and Song|chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv371cp40.5|chapter=Rhyme in Arabic Oral Poetry|publisher=Finnish Literature Society|editor-last1=Sykäri|editor-first1=Venla|editor-last2=Fabb|editor-first2=Nigel|volume=14|page=56|year=2022|jstor=j.ctv371cp40.5 |isbn=978-951-858-587-2 }}</ref> The historical roots of Sīrat Banī Hilāl are evident in the present-day distribution of groups claiming descent from the tribe across North Africa and parts of the Middle East. The epic's development into a cohesive narrative was first documented by the historian [[Ibn Khaldūn]] in the 14th century. In his writings, Ibn Khaldūn describes collecting stories and poems from nomadic Arabs, using these oral sources to discuss the merits of colloquial versus classical poetry and the value of oral histories in written historical works.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|first1=Dwight F.|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv371cp40|title=Rhyme and Rhyming in Verbal Art, Language, and Song|chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv371cp40.5|chapter=Rhyme in Arabic Oral Poetry|publisher=Finnish Literature Society|editor-last1=Sykäri|editor-first1=Venla|editor-last2=Fabb|editor-first2=Nigel|volume=14|page=57|year=2022|jstor=j.ctv371cp40.5 |isbn=978-951-858-587-2 }}</ref>

The [[Torah]] and other ancient Jewish literature, the Judeo-Christian Bible and texts of early centuries of Christianity are rooted in an oral tradition, and the term "People of the Book" is a medieval construct.<ref name="MacKay1999p1" /><ref>{{cite book |author=Delbert Burkett |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EcsQknxV-xQC&pg=PA124 |title=An Introduction to the New Testament and the Origins of Christianity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-00720-7 |pages=124–125, 45–46, 106–107, 129–130}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Leslie Baynes |title=The Heavenly Book Motif in Judeo-Christian Apocalypses 200 BCE-200 CE |publisher=BRILL Academic |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-20726-4 |pages=40–41 with footnotes}} {{cite book |author1=Birger Gerhardsson |title=Memory and Manuscript: Oral Tradition and Written Transmission in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity |author2=Eric John Sharpe |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1961 |isbn=978-0-8028-4366-1 |pages=71–78}}</ref> This is evidenced, for example, by the multiple scriptural statements by Paul admitting "previously remembered tradition which he received" orally.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Terence C. |last1=Mournet |title=Oral Tradition and Literary Dependency: Variability and Stability in the Synoptic Tradition and Q |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |year=2005 |isbn=978-3-16-148454-4 |pages=138–141}}</ref>

===Oceania===
====Australia====
[[Australian Aboriginal culture]] has thrived on oral traditions and oral histories passed down through thousands of years.
In a study published in February 2020, new evidence showed that both [[Budj Bim]] and [[Tower Hill (volcano)|Tower Hill]] volcanoes erupted between 34,000 and 40,000 years ago.<ref name=earlier>{{cite web | first=Sian | last=Johnson | title=Study dates Victorian volcano that buried a human-made axe | website=ABC News | date=26 February 2020 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-26/study-dates-victorian-volcano-that-buried-a-human-made-axe/11991290 | access-date=9 March 2020 | archive-date=8 September 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200908041638/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-26/study-dates-victorian-volcano-that-buried-a-human-made-axe/11991290 | url-status=live }}</ref> Significantly, this is a "minimum age constraint for human presence in [[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]]", and also could be interpreted as evidence for the oral histories of the [[Gunditjmara]] people, an [[Aboriginal Australian]] people of south-western Victoria, which tell of volcanic eruptions being some of the oldest oral traditions in existence.<ref name="MatchanPhillips2020">{{cite journal |last1=Matchan |first1=Erin L. |last2=Phillips |first2=David |last3=Jourdan |first3=Fred |last4=Oostingh |first4=Korien |title=Early human occupation of southeastern Australia: New insights from 40Ar/39Ar dating of young volcanoes |journal=Geology |date=April 2020 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=390–394 |doi=10.1130/G47166.1 |bibcode=2020Geo....48..390M |s2cid=214357121 }}</ref> A basalt stone axe found underneath [[volcanic ash]] in 1947 had already proven that humans inhabited the region before the eruption of Tower Hill.<ref name=earlier/>

=== Americas ===
==== Native American ====
Native American society was always reliant upon oral tradition, if not [[storytelling]], in order to convey knowledge, morals and [[Native American cultures in the United States|traditions]] amongst others,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oral Traditions |url=https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/oral_traditions/ |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=www.indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca|language=en-GB}}</ref> a trait [[European colonization of the Americas|Western settlers]] deemed as representing an inferior race without neither culture nor history,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Native American Oral Literatures |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199827251/obo-9780199827251-0070.xml |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=www.oxfordbibliographies.com|language=en-GB}}</ref> often cited as a reason behind [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|indoctrination]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief History of Civil Rights in the United States: The Allotment and Assimilation Era (1887 - 1934) |url=https://library.law.howard.edu/civilrightshistory/indigenous/allotment |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=www.library.law.edu|language=en-GB}}</ref>

Writing systems are not known to exist among Native North Americans before contact with Europeans except among some Mesoamerican cultures, and possibly the South American [[quipu]] and North American [[wampum]], although those two are debatable. Oral storytelling traditions flourished in a context without the use of writing to record and preserve history, scientific knowledge, and social practices.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Native American Storytelling: A Reader of Myths and Legends|url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe|url-access=limited|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4051-1541-4|editor-last=Kroeber|editor-first=Karl|location=Malden, MA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe/page/n11 1]}}</ref> While some stories were told for amusement and leisure, most functioned as practical lessons from tribal experience applied to immediate moral, social, psychological, and environmental issues.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Native American Storytelling: A Reader of Myths and Legends|url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe|url-access=limited|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4051-1541-4|editor-last=Kroeber|editor-first=Karl|location=Malden, MA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe/page/n13 3]}}</ref> Stories fuse fictional, supernatural, or otherwise exaggerated characters and circumstances with real emotions and morals as a means of teaching. Plots often reflect real life situations and may be aimed at particular people known by the story's audience. In this way, social pressure could be exerted without directly causing embarrassment or [[social exclusion]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Native American Storytelling: A Reader of Myths and Legends|url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe|url-access=limited|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4051-1541-4|editor-last=Kroeber|editor-first=Karl|location=Malden, MA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe/page/n12 2]}}</ref> For example, rather than yelling, [[Inuit culture|Inuit]] parents might deter their children from wandering too close to the water's edge by telling a story about a sea monster with a pouch for children within its reach.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2019/03/13/685533353/a-playful-way-to-teach-kids-to-control-their-anger|title=How Inuit Parents Teach Kids To Control Their Anger|website=NPR |date=13 March 2019|language=en|access-date=2019-04-29|last1=Doucleff|first1=Michaeleen|last2=Greenhalgh|first2=Jane|archive-date=2020-10-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026061927/https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2019/03/13/685533353/a-playful-way-to-teach-kids-to-control-their-anger|url-status=live}}</ref> One single story could provide dozens of lessons.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Native American Stories, Told by Joseph Bruchac|last1=Caduto|first1=Michael|last2=Bruchac|first2=Michael|publisher=Fulcrum Publishing|year=1991|isbn=978-1-55591-094-5|location=Golden, Colorado|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00bruc}}</ref> Stories were also used as a means to assess whether traditional cultural ideas and practices are effective in tackling contemporary circumstances or if they should be revised.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Native American Storytelling: A Reader of Myths and Legends|url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe|url-access=limited|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4051-1541-4|editor-last=Kroeber|editor-first=Karl|location=Malden, MA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanst00kroe/page/n16 6]}}</ref>

Native American storytelling is a collaborative experience between storyteller and listeners. Native American tribes generally have not had professional tribal storytellers marked by social status.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Red Earth, White Lies: Native Americans and the Myth of Scientific Fact|last=Deloria, jr.|first=Vine|publisher=Scribner|year=1995|isbn=978-0-684-80700-3|location=New York, NY|pages=54}}</ref> Stories could and can be told by anyone, with each storyteller using their own vocal inflections, word choice, content, or form.<ref name=":0" /> Storytellers not only draw upon their own memories, but also upon a collective or tribal memory extending beyond personal experience but nevertheless representing a shared reality.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ballenger|first=Bruce|date=Autumn 1997|title=Methods of Memory: On Native American Storytelling|journal=College English|volume=59|issue=7|pages=789–800|doi=10.2307/378636|jstor=378636}}</ref> Native languages have in some cases up to twenty words to describe physical features like rain or snow and can describe the spectra of human emotion in very precise ways, allowing storytellers to offer their own personalized take on a story based on their own lived experiences.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Red Earth, White Lies: Native Americans and the Myth of Scientific Fact|last=Deloria, jr.|first=Vine|publisher=Scribner|year=1995|isbn=978-0-684-80700-3|location=New York, NY|pages=51}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lawrence|first=Randee|date=Spring 2016|title=What Our Ancestors Knew: Teaching and Learning Through Storytelling|journal=New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education|volume=2016|issue=149|pages=63–72|doi=10.1002/ace.20177}}</ref> Fluidity in story deliverance allowed stories to be applied to different social circumstances according to the storyteller's objective at the time.<ref name=":0" /> One's rendition of a story was often considered a response to another's rendition, with plot alterations suggesting alternative ways of applying traditional ideas to present conditions.<ref name=":0" />

Listeners might have heard the story told many times, or even may have told the same story themselves.<ref name=":0" /> This does not take away from a story's meaning, as curiosity about what happens next was less of a priority than hearing fresh perspectives on well-known themes and plots.<ref name=":0" /> Elder storytellers generally were not concerned with discrepancies between their version of historical events and neighboring tribes' version of similar events, such as in origin stories.<ref name=":1" /> Tribal stories are considered valid within the tribe's own frame of reference and tribal experience.<ref name=":1" /> The 19th century Oglala Lakota tribal member [[Four Guns]] was known for his justification of the oral tradition and criticism of the written word.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/americanindianvo00harv |title=American Indian Voices |publisher=Millbrook Press |location=Brookfield, Conn. |author=Karen D. Harvey |year=1995 |page=[https://archive.org/details/americanindianvo00harv/page/66 66] |isbn=9781562943820}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanre0000unse |title=Native American Reader: Stories, Speeches, and Poems |publisher=Denali Press |location=Juneau, Alaska |year=1990 |page=[https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanre0000unse/page/73 73] |isbn=9780938737209}}</ref>

Stories are used to preserve and transmit both tribal history and environmental history, which are often closely linked.<ref name=":1" /> Native oral traditions in the Pacific Northwest, for example, describe natural disasters like earthquakes and tsunamis. Various cultures from Vancouver Island and Washington have stories describing a physical struggle between a Thunderbird and a Whale.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last1=Ludwin|first1=Ruth|last2=Smits|first2=Gregory|date=2007|title=Folklore and earthquakes: Native American oral traditions from Cascadia compared with written traditions from Japan|journal=Geological Society of London, Special Publications|volume=273|issue=1|pages=67–94|doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2007.273.01.07|bibcode=2007GSLSP.273...67L|s2cid=130713882}}</ref> One such story tells of the Thunderbird, which can create thunder by moving just a feather, piercing the Whale's flesh with its talons, causing the Whale to dive to the bottom of the ocean, bringing the Thunderbird with it. Another depicts the Thunderbird lifting the Whale from the Earth then dropping it back down. Regional similarities in themes and characters suggests that these stories mutually describe the lived experience of earthquakes and floods within tribal memory.<ref name=":22" /> According to one story from the [[Suquamish people|Suquamish Tribe]], [[Agate Pass]] was created when an earthquake expanded the channel as a result of an underwater battle between a serpent and bird. Other stories in the region depict the formation of glacial valleys and moraines and the occurrence of landslides, with stories being used in at least one case to identify and date earthquakes that occurred in 900 CE and 1700.<ref name=":22" />

Further examples include [[Arikara]] origin stories of emergence from an "underworld" of persistent darkness, which may represent the remembrance of life in the Arctic Circle during the last ice age, and stories involving a "deep crevice", which may refer to the Grand Canyon.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Echo-Hawk|first=Roger|date=Spring 2000|title=Ancient History in the New World: Integrating Oral Traditions and the Archaeological Record in Deep Time|journal=American Antiquity|volume=65|issue=2|pages=267–290|doi=10.2307/2694059|jstor=2694059|s2cid=163392796}}</ref> Despite such examples of agreement between geological and archeological records on one hand and Native oral records on the other, some scholars have cautioned against the historical validity of oral traditions because of their susceptibility to detail alteration over time and lack of precise dates.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mason|first=Ronald J.|date=2000|title=Archaeology and Native North American Oral Traditions|journal=American Antiquity|volume=65|issue=2|pages=239–266|doi=10.2307/2694058 |jstor=2694058|s2cid=147149391}}</ref> The [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]] considers oral traditions as a viable source of evidence for establishing the affiliation between cultural objects and Native Nations.<ref name=":32" />

==Transmission==
[[File:Helsinki-Folk-singer-statue-1750.JPG|thumb|The legendary Finnish storyteller [[Väinämöinen]] with his [[kantele]]]]
Oral traditions face the challenge of accurate transmission and verifiability of the accurate version, particularly when the culture lacks written language or has limited access to writing tools. Oral cultures have employed various strategies that achieve this without writing. For example, a heavily rhythmic speech filled with [[mnemonic device]]s enhances memory and recall. A few useful mnemonic devices include [[alliteration]], repetition, [[assonance]], and proverbial sayings. In addition, the verse is often metrically composed with an exact number of syllables or [[morae]]—such as with Greek and Latin prosody and in [[Sanskrit prosody|Chandas]] found in Hindu and Buddhist texts.<ref name="TElizarenkova1995p112"/><ref name="Allan2013p228">{{cite book|author=Peter Scharf|editor=Keith Allan|title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BQfDosHckzEC|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-164344-6|pages=228–234}}</ref>

The verses of the epic or text are typically designed wherein the long and short syllables are repeated by certain rules, so that if an error or inadvertent change is made, an internal examination of the verse reveals the problem.<ref name="TElizarenkova1995p112">{{cite book|author=Tatyana J. Elizarenkova|title=Language and Style of the Vedic Rsis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j-B0Y-IwTQAC|year=1995|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-1668-6|pages=111–121}}</ref> Oral traditions can be passed on through plays and acting, as shown in modern-day [[Cameroon]] by the Graffis or Grasslanders who perform and deliver speeches to teach their history through oral tradition.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Oral tradition in African literature|others=Smith, Charles,, Ce, Chinenye|date=4 September 2015 |isbn=9789783703681|location=[Nigeria]|oclc=927970109}}</ref> Such strategies facilitate transmission of information without a written intermediate, and they can also be applied to oral governance.<ref name="Longman Publishers USA">{{cite book|last1=Crowley|first1=David|last2=Heyer|first2=Paul|title=Communication in History: Technology, Culture, Society|date=1999|publisher=Longman Publishers USA|page=67|edition=Third}}</ref>

===Oral transmission of law===
{{main|Oral law}}

{|style="border:1px; border: thin solid white; background-color:#f6f6FF; margin:20px;" cellpadding="10"
|-
| The law itself in oral cultures is enshrined in formulaic sayings, proverbs, which are not mere jurisprudential decorations, but themselves constitute the law. A judge in an oral culture is often called on to articulate sets of relevant proverbs out of which he can make equitable decisions in the cases under formal litigation before him.<ref name="Longman Publishers USA"/>
|}

[[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[The Jungle Book]]'' provides an excellent demonstration of oral governance in the [[Law of the Jungle]].{{Citation needed|reason=Kipling reference needs source and citation|date=June 2022}} Not only does grounding rules in oral proverbs allow for simple transmission and understanding, but it also legitimizes new rulings by allowing extrapolation. These stories, traditions, and proverbs are not static, but are often altered upon each transmission, barring any change to the overall meaning.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hanson|first1=Erin|title=Oral Traditions|url=http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/culture/oral-traditions.html|website=Indigenous Foundations|access-date=5 May 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518082618/http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/culture/oral-traditions.html|archive-date=18 May 2015}}</ref> In this way, the rules that govern the people are modified by the whole and not authored by a single entity.

===Indian religions===
Ancient texts of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] were preserved and transmitted by an oral tradition.<ref>{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe |title=Handbook of Oriental Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7s19sZFRxCUC |year=2002|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-90-04-12556-8 |pages=24–29, 226–237}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Donald Lopez |title=Buddhist Scriptures |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pd-2IIzip4C |year=2004|publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-190937-0 |pages=xi–xv}}</ref> For example, the [[śruti]]s of Hinduism called the [[Veda]]s, the oldest of which trace back to the second millennium BCE. [[Michael Witzel]] explains this oral tradition as follows:<ref name=witzel68/>

{{Blockquote|The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a ''tape-recording''... Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present.|Michael Witzel<ref name=witzel68>M Witzel, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., {{ISBN|1-4051-3251-5}}, pages 68–71</ref>}}

Ancient Indians developed techniques for listening, memorization and recitation of their knowledge, in schools called [[Guru]]kul, while maintaining exceptional accuracy of their knowledge across the generations.<ref name=scharfe28>{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe |title=Handbook of Oriental Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7s19sZFRxCUC |year=2002|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-90-04-12556-8 |pages=24–29, 226–232}}</ref> Many forms of recitation or ''pathas'' were designed to aid accuracy in recitation and the transmission of the ''[[Veda]]s'' and other knowledge texts from one generation to the next. All hymns in each Veda were recited in this way; for example, all 1,028 hymns with 10,600 verses of the [[Rigveda]] was preserved in this way; as were all other Vedas including the [[Principal Upanishads]], as well as the Vedangas. Each text was recited in a number of ways, to ensure that the different methods of recitation acted as a cross check on the other. Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat summarizes this as:<ref name=filliozat-p139/>
* ''Samhita-patha'': continuous recitation of Sanskrit words bound by the phonetic rules of euphonic combination;
* ''Pada-patha'': a recitation marked by a conscious pause after every word, and after any special grammatical codes embedded inside the text; this method suppresses euphonic combination and restores each word in its original intended form;
* ''Krama-patha'': a step-by-step recitation where euphonically combined words are paired successively and sequentially and then recited; for example, a hymn "word1 word2 word3 word4...", would be recited as "word1word2 word2word3 word3word4 ...."; this method to verify accuracy is credited to Vedic sages Gargya and Sakalya in the Hindu tradition and mentioned by the ancient Sanskrit grammarian Panini (dated to pre-Buddhism period);
* ''Krama-patha'' modified: the same step-by-step recitation as above, but without euphonic-combinations (or free form of each word); this method to verify accuracy is credited to Vedic sages Babhravya and Galava in the Hindu tradition, and is also mentioned by the ancient Sanskrit grammarian Panini;
* ''{{IAST|Jata-pāṭha}}'', ''{{IAST|dhvaja-pāṭha}}'' and ''{{IAST|ghana-pāṭha}}'' are methods of recitation of a text and its oral transmission that developed after 5th century BCE, that is after the start of Buddhism and Jainism; these methods use more complicated rules of combination and were less used.

These extraordinary retention techniques guaranteed an accurate Śruti, fixed across the generations, not just in terms of unaltered word order but also in terms of sound.<ref name=scharfe28/><ref>Wilke, Annette and Moebus, Oliver. Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism (Religion and Society). De Gruyter (February 1, 2007). P. 495. {{ISBN|3110181592}}.</ref> That these methods have been effective, is testified to by the [[Rigveda#Transmission|preservation of]] the most ancient Indian religious text, the ''[[Rigveda|{{IAST|Ṛgveda}}]]'' ({{circa|1500 BCE}}).<ref name=filliozat-p139>{{cite book|author=Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat|editor=Karine Chemla|title=History of Science, History of Text|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u9w13rSxWcsC|year=2006|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-2321-7|pages=138–140}}</ref>

===Poetry of Homer===
{{Further|Oral-formulaic composition}}
Research by [[Milman Parry]] and [[Albert Lord]] indicates that the verse of the Greek poet [[Homer]] has been passed down not by rote memorization but by "[[oral-formulaic composition]]". In this process, extempore composition is aided by use of stock phrases or "formulas" (expressions that are used regularly "under the same metrical conditions, to express a particular essential idea").<ref>Milman Parry, ''L'epithèt traditionnelle dans Homère'' (Paris, 1928), p. 16; cf. Albert B. Lord, ''The singer of tales'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960), p. 4</ref> In the case of the work of Homer, formulas included ''eos rhododaktylos'' ("rosy fingered dawn") and ''oinops pontos'' ("winedark sea") which fit in a modular fashion into the poetic form (in this case six-colon Greek hexameter). Since the development of this theory, of oral-formulaic composition has been "found in many different time periods and many different cultures",<ref name=ADFotA2003:17>[[#ADFotA2003|Dundes, ''Fables of the Ancients?'', 2003]]: p.17</ref> and according to another source (John Miles Foley) "touch[ed] on" over 100 "ancient, medieval and modern traditions".<ref>Foley, John Miles. ''The Theory of Oral Composition''. Bloomington: IUP, 1991, p 36.</ref><ref>Catherine S. Quick, 'Annotated Bibliography 1986-1990', ''Oral Tradition'' 12.2 (1997) 366-484</ref><ref>Bannister, Oral-Formulaic Study, 65-106.</ref>

===Islam===
The most recent of the world's major religions,<ref name="EMONT-why">{{cite journal |last1=EMONT |first1=Jon |title=Why Are There No New Major Religions? |journal=Atlantic |date=6 August 2017 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/08/new-religions/533745/ |access-date=10 July 2019 |archive-date=10 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710025159/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/08/new-religions/533745/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Islam]] claims two major sources of divine revelation—the [[Quran]] and [[hadith]]—compiled in written form relatively shortly after being revealed:<ref name="Carroll-Q-H">{{cite web |last1=Carroll |first1=Jill |title=The Quran & Hadith |url=https://www.world-religions-professor.com/quran.html |website=World Religions |access-date=10 July 2019 |archive-date=20 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220092934/https://www.world-religions-professor.com/quran.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
*The [[Quran]]—meaning "recitation" in Arabic—is believed by Muslims to be God's revelation to the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]], delivered to him from 610 CE until his death in 632 CE. It is said to have been carefully compiled and edited into a standardized written form (known as the {{transliteration|ar|[[mushaf]]}}){{#tag:ref|"During Abu Bakr's khalifate, at Omar's suggestion, all the pieces of the Qur'an were compiled in one place. It was a miscellaneous collection at first, because then the revelations were coming in, people recorded them on anything that came to hand -- a sheet of parchment, a piece of leather, a stone, a bone, whatever. As khalifa, Omar began a sorting process. In his presence, each written verse was checked against the memorized version kept by the professional reciters whom this society regarded as the most reliable keepers of information. Scribes then recorded the authorized copy of each verse before witnesses, and these verse were organized into one comprehensive collection."<ref>{{cite book |author=Tamim Ansary |title=Destiny Disrupted, a History of the World Through Islamic Eyes |url=https://archive.org/details/destinydisrupted00ansa_0 |url-access=registration |publisher=Public Affairs |year=2009|isbn=9781586486068 }}</ref>|group=Note}} about two decades after the last verse was revealed.
*[[Hadith]]—meaning "narrative" or "report" in Arabic—is the record of the words, actions, and the silent approval, of Muhammad, and was transmitted by "oral preachers and storytellers" for around 150–250 years. Each hadith includes the {{transliteration|ar|[[isnad]]}} (chain of human transmitters who passed down the tradition before it was sorted according to accuracy, compiled, and committed to written form by a reputable scholar.{{#tag:ref|Muhammad is thought to have died in 632 CE. The compilers of the six collections of Sunni hadith that have enjoyed near-universal acceptance as part of the official canon of Sunni Islam died (that is, must have stopped compiling hadith) between 795 CE and 915 CE.|group=Note}}

The oral milieu in which the sources were revealed,<ref name=AGBRtT2014:2/> and their oral form in general are important.<ref name="QP"/> The [[Arabic epic literature|Arab poetry]] that preceded the Quran and the hadith were orally transmitted.<ref name=AGBRtT2014:2>[[#AGBRtT2014|Bannister, "Retelling the Tale", 2014]]: p.2</ref> Few Arabs were literate at the time and paper was not available in the Middle East.<ref>Michael Zwettler, The Oral Tradition of Classical Arabic Poetry, Ohio State Press, 1978, p.14.</ref><ref name=arab-news-27-2-2015/>

The written Quran is said to have been created in part through memorization by [[Companions of the Prophet|Muhammad's companions]], and the decision to create a standard written work is said to have come after the death in battle ([[Battle of Yamama|Yamama]]) of a large number of Muslims who had memorized the work.<ref name="QP">{{cite web |title=Quran Project - Appendix - Preservation and Literary Challenge of the Quran |url=https://www.quranproject.org/Quran-Project-Appendix-Preservation-and-Literary-Challenge-of-the-Quran--224-d |website=Quran Project |date=26 February 2015 |access-date=10 July 2019 |archive-date=21 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621200307/http://www.quranproject.org/Quran-Project-Appendix-Preservation-and-Literary-Challenge-of-the-Quran--224-d |url-status=live }}</ref>

For centuries, copies of the Qurans were transcribed by hand, not printed, and their scarcity and expense made reciting the Quran from memory, not reading, the predominant mode of teaching it to others.<ref name=arab-news-27-2-2015/> To this day the Quran is memorized by millions and its recitation can be heard throughout the Muslim world from recordings and mosque loudspeakers (during [[Ramadan]]).<ref name=arab-news-27-2-2015/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Abu Zakariya |title=The Miraculous Preservation of the Qur'an. |url=http://www.manyprophetsonemessage.com/2014/01/08/the-miraculous-preservation-of-the-quran/ |website=Many Prophets One Message |publisher=One Reason |access-date=10 July 2019 |date=8 January 2014 |archive-date=10 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710025157/http://www.manyprophetsonemessage.com/2014/01/08/the-miraculous-preservation-of-the-quran/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Muslims state that some who teach memorization/recitation of the Quran constitute the end of an "un-broken chain" whose original teacher was Muhammad himself.<ref name=arab-news-27-2-2015>{{cite news |title=Qur'an and its preservation through chain of oral tradition |url=http://www.arabnews.com/islam-perspective/news/710661 |access-date=13 June 2019 |agency=Arab News |date=27 February 2015 |archive-date=21 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421140608/http://www.arabnews.com/islam-perspective/news/710661 |url-status=live }}</ref> It has been argued that "the Qur'an's rhythmic style and eloquent expression make it easy to memorize," and was made so to facilitate the "preservation and remembrance" of the work.<ref>The Qur'an, verses 44:58; 54:17, 22, 32, 40. Arab-news-27-2-2015</ref>

Islamic doctrine holds that from the time it was revealed to the present day, the Quran has not been altered,{{#tag:ref|An alternative belief is that some of what was revealed to Muhammad was later abrogated in some way by God. "The {{transliteration|ar|mushaf}} is incomplete, in the sense that not everything that was once revealed to Muhammad is to be found today in our {{transliteration|ar|mushaf}}. The Quran, however, is complete, in the sense that everything that God intends us to find in the {{transliteration|ar|mushaf}} we shall find there, for whatever God intended to include, He made sure to preserve..."<ref>{{Cite book | first1=John | last1=Burton | title=The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theories of Abrogation | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | year=1990 | isbn=0-7486-0108-2 | url=http://www.almuslih.org/Library/Burton,%20J%20-%20The%20Sources%20of%20Islamic%20Law.pdf | access-date=21 July 2018 | ref=JBSILITA1990 | page=44 | archive-date=4 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200104171116/http://www.almuslih.org/Library/Burton,%20J%20-%20The%20Sources%20of%20Islamic%20Law.pdf | url-status=dead }}</ref>|group=Note}} its continuity from divine revelation to its current written form ensured by the large numbers of Muhammad's supporters who had reverently memorized the work, a careful compiling process and divine intervention.<ref name="QP"/> (Muslim scholars agree that although scholars have worked hard to separate the corrupt and uncorrupted hadith, this other source of revelation is not nearly so free of corruption because of the hadith's great political and theological influence.)

At least two non-Muslim scholars ([[Alan Dundes]] and Andrew G. Bannister) have examined the possibility that the Quran was not just "recited orally, but actually composed orally".<ref name=AGBRtT2014:1>[[#AGBRtT2014|Bannister, "Retelling the Tale", 2014]]: p.1</ref> Bannister postulates that some parts of the Quran—such as the seven re-tellings of the story of the [[Iblis]] and [[Adam]], and the repeated phrases "which of the favours of your Lord will you deny?" in sura 55—make more sense addressed to listeners than readers.<ref name=AGBRtT2014:2/>

Banister, Dundes and other scholars (Shabbir Akhtar, Angelika Neuwirth, Islam Dayeh)<ref name=AGBRtT2014:1-4>[[#AGBRtT2014|Bannister, "Retelling the Tale", 2014]]: p.1-4</ref> have also noted the large amount of "formulaic" phraseology in the Quran consistent with "[[oral-formulaic composition]]" mentioned above.<ref name=ADFotA2003:16>[[#ADFotA2003|Dundes, ''Fables of the Ancients?'', 2003]]: p.16</ref> The most common formulas are the [[God in Islam#Attributes|attributes of Allah]]—all-mighty, all-wise, all-knowing, all-high, etc.—often found as doublets at the end of a verse. Among the other repeated phrases{{#tag:ref|Dundes lists of repeated phrases come from an English translation and so those Quranic phrases in the original Arabic sometimes have slight differences|group=Note}} are "Allah created the heavens and the earth" (found 19 times in the Quran).<ref>The Quran, 6:14, 79; 7:54, 10:3, 12:101, 14:10, 19, 32; 17:99, 29:44, 61; 30:8, 31:25, 32:4, 35:1, 39:38, 46; 42:11, 45:22, 46:33, cf. 2:117, 6:101</ref><ref name=ADFotA2003:32>[[#ADFotA2003|Dundes, ''Fables of the Ancients?'', 2003]]: p.32</ref>

As much as one third of the Quran is made up of "oral formulas", according to Dundes' estimates.<ref name=ADFotA2003:65>[[#ADFotA2003|Dundes, ''Fables of the Ancients?'', 2003]]: p.65</ref> Bannister, using a computer database of (the original Arabic) words of the Quran and of their "grammatical role, root, number, person, gender and so forth", estimates that depending on the length of the phrase searched, somewhere between 52% (three word phrases) and 23% (five word phrases) are oral formulas.<ref name=AGBRtT2014:6-7>[[#AGBRtT2014|Bannister, "Retelling the Tale", 2014]]: p.6-7</ref> Dundes reckons his estimates confirm "that the Quran was orally transmitted from its very beginnings". Bannister believes his estimates "provide strong corroborative evidence that oral composition should be seriously considered as we reflect upon how the Qur'anic text was generated."<ref name=AGBRtT2014:10>[[#AGBRtT2014|Bannister, "Retelling the Tale", 2014]]: p.10</ref>

Dundes argues oral-formulaic composition is consistent with "the cultural context of Arabic oral tradition", quoting researchers who have found poetry reciters in the [[Najd]] (the region next to where the Quran was revealed) using "a common store of themes, motives, stock images, phraseology and prosodical options",<ref name="P._Marcel_Kurpershoeck_1994:57">{{cite book |first1=P. Marcel |last1=Kurpershoeck |date=1994 |page=57 |title=Oral Poetry and Narratives from Central Arabia |volume=1 |location=Leiden |publisher=E.J.Brill}}</ref><ref name=AGBRtT2014:68>[[#AGBRtT2014|Bannister, "Retelling the Tale", 2014]]: p.68</ref> and "a discursive and loosely structured" style "with no fixed beginning or end" and "no established sequence in which the episodes must follow".{{#tag:ref|Scholar Saad Sowayan referring to the genre of "Saudi Arabian historical oral narrative genre called {{transliteration|ar|suwalif}}".<ref name="Saad Sowayan,1992:22">{{cite book |first1=Saad |last1=Sowayan |date=1992 |page=22 |title=The Arabian Oral Historical Narrative: An Ethnographic and Linguistic Analysis |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz}}</ref>|group=Note}}<ref name=ADFotA2003:68-9>[[#ADFotA2003|Dundes, ''Fables of the Ancients?'', 2003]]: p.68-9</ref>

=== Catholicism ===
The [[Catholic Church]] upholds that its teaching contained in its [[deposit of faith]] is transmitted not only through [[Sacred Scripture|scripture]], but as well as through [[sacred tradition]].<ref name=":2" /> The [[Second Vatican Council]] affirmed in {{lang|la|[[Dei verbum]]}} that the teachings of [[Jesus Christ]] were initially passed on to early Christians by "the [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostles]] who, by their oral preaching, by example, and by observance handed on what they had received from the lips of Christ, from living with Him, and from what He did".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html|title=Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation "Dei verbum"|last=Paul VI|date=November 18, 1965|website=www.vatican.va|publisher=The Hole See|access-date=2020-01-15|archive-date=2014-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531175312/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Catholic Church asserts that this mode of transmission of the faith persists through current-day [[bishop]]s, who by right of [[apostolic succession]], have continued the oral passing of what had been revealed through Christ through their preaching as teachers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html|title=Dogmatic Constitution on the Church "Lumen gentium"|last=Paul VI|date=November 21, 1964|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=2020-01-15|archive-date=2014-09-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906031754/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Eastern Orthodoxy ===

In Eastern Orthodoxy, there is one Tradition, the tradition of the church, incorporating the scriptures and the teaching of the [[Church Fathers]].<ref name="goarch">{{Cite web|url=https://www.goarch.org/-/tradition-in-the-orthodox-church|title=Tradition in the Orthodox Church - Theology - Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America|website=www.goarch.org|access-date=5 January 2021}}</ref>

Sacred Tradition for the Eastern Orthodox is the deposit of faith given by [[Jesus]] to the Apostles and passed on in the Church from one generation to the next without addition, alteration, or subtraction.<ref>"Tradition and Traditions", in Leonid Ouspensky and Vladimir Lossky, ''The Meaning of Icons'', (Olten, Switzerland: Urs Graf-Verlag, 1952), 17, in the revised edition (Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1982), 15.</ref>

==Music==
{{main|Music#Oral and aural tradition}}{{Expand section|date=August 2025}}

== Study ==
[[File:Filip_Visnjic_guslar.jpg|right|thumb|[[Filip Višnjić]] (1767–1834), [[Serbia|Serbian]] blind [[Gusle|guslar]]]]
In the work of the Serb scholar [[Vuk Stefanović Karadžić]] (1787–1864), a contemporary and friend of the [[Brothers Grimm]]. Vuk pursued similar projects of "salvage folklore" (similar to [[rescue archaeology]]) in the [[cognate]] traditions of the South [[Slavs|Slavic]] regions which would later be gathered into [[Yugoslavia]], and with the same admixture of [[Romanticism|romantic]] and [[nationalistic]] interests (he considered all those speaking the [[Eastern Herzegovinian dialect]] as Serbs). Somewhat later, but as part of the same scholarly enterprise of nationalist studies in folklore,<ref>[http://journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/5i/5_radloff.pdf "Early Scholarship on Oral Traditions"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529035828/http://journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/5i/5_radloff.pdf|date=2008-05-29}}: Radloff, Jousse and Murko ''Oral Tradition'' 5:1 (1990) 73-90</ref> the [[Turcology|turcologist]] [[Vasily Radlov]] (1837–1918) would study the songs of the [[Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast|Kara-Kirghiz]] in what would later become the Soviet Union; Karadzic and Radloff would provide models for the work of Parry.

=== Walter Ong ===
In a separate development, the [[Media theory|media theorist]] [[Marshall McLuhan]] (1911–1980) would begin to focus attention on the ways that [[Communication|communicative]] [[Mass media|media]] shape the nature of the content conveyed.<ref>See for example Marshall McLuhan, ''The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man''. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1962.</ref> He would serve as mentor to the [[Jesuit]] [[Walter Ong]] (1912–2003), whose interests in [[cultural history]], [[psychology]] and [[rhetoric]] would result in ''Orality and Literacy'' (Methuen, 1980) and the important but less-known ''Fighting for Life: Contest, Sexuality and Consciousness'' (Cornell, 1981).<ref>Walter J. Ong. ''Fighting for Life: Context, Sexuality, and Consciousness''. Cornell University Press, Ithaca & London, 1981.</ref> These two works articulated the contrasts between cultures defined by [[Orality#Primary orality|primary orality]], writing, print, and the [[secondary orality]] of the electronic age.<ref name="autogenerated32">Foley, John Miles. ''The Theory of Oral Composition''. Bloomington: IUP, 1991, pp. 57 ff.</ref>
{| cellpadding="10" style="border:1px; border: thin solid white; background-color:#f6f6FF; margin:20px;"
|I style the orality of a culture totally untouched by any knowledge of writing or print, 'primary orality'. It is 'primary' by contrast with the 'secondary orality' of present-day high technology culture, in which a new orality is sustained by telephone, radio, television and other electronic devices that depend for their existence and functioning on writing and print. Today primary culture in the strict sense hardly exists, since every culture knows of writing and has some experience of its effects. Still, to varying degrees many cultures and sub-cultures, even in a high-technology ambiance, preserve much of the mind-set of primary orality.<ref>Walter J. Ong. ''Orality and Literacy'', p. 11.</ref>
|}
Ong's works also made possible an integrated theory of oral tradition which accounted for both production of content (the chief concern of Parry-Lord theory) and its reception.<ref name="autogenerated33">Foley, John Miles. ''The Theory of Oral Composition''. Bloomington: IUP, 1991, pp. 57 ff.</ref> This approach, like McLuhan's, kept the field open not just to the study of aesthetic culture but to the way physical and behavioral artifacts of oral societies are used to store, manage and transmit knowledge, so that oral tradition provides methods for investigation of cultural differences, other than the purely verbal, between oral and literate societies.

The most-often studied section of ''Orality and Literacy'' concerns the "[[psychodynamics]] of orality" This chapter seeks to define the fundamental characteristics of 'primary' orality and summarizes a series of descriptors (including but not limited to verbal aspects of culture) which might be used to index the relative orality or literacy of a given text or society.<ref>Walter J. Ong. ''Orality and literacy: the technologizing of the word'', pp. 31-76.</ref>

=== John Miles Foley ===
In advance of Ong's synthesis, [[John Miles Foley]] began a series of papers based on his own fieldwork on South Slavic oral genres, emphasizing the dynamics of performers and audiences.<ref>Foley, John Miles. ''The Theory of Oral Composition''. Bloomington: IUP, 1991, p 76.</ref> Foley effectively consolidated oral tradition as an academic field<ref>{{Cite web |title=not found |url=http://illumination.missouri.edu/spr05/fol1.htm |access-date=November 25, 2024 |website=illumination.missouri.edu |archive-date=3 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080703174035/http://illumination.missouri.edu/spr05/fol1.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> when he compiled ''Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research'' in 1985. The bibliography gives a summary of the progress scholars made in evaluating the oral tradition up to that point, and includes a list of all relevant scholarly articles relating to the theory of [[Oral-Formulaic Composition]]. He also both established both the journal ''Oral Tradition'' and founded the ''Center for Studies in Oral Tradition'' (1986) at the [[University of Missouri]]. Foley developed Oral Theory beyond the somewhat mechanistic notions presented in earlier versions of Oral-Formulaic Theory, by extending Ong's interest in cultural features of oral societies beyond the verbal, by drawing attention to the agency of the [[bard]] and by describing how oral traditions bear meaning.

The bibliography would establish a clear underlying methodology which accounted for the findings of scholars working in the separate [[Linguistics]] fields (primarily [[Ancient Greek]], Anglo-Saxon and Serbo-Croatian). Perhaps more importantly, it would stimulate conversation among these specialties, so that a network of independent but allied investigations and investigators could be established.<ref>Foley, John Miles. ''Oral Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography''. NY: Garland, 1985. ''The Theory of Oral Composition''. Bloomington: IUP, 1991, pp. 64-66.</ref>

Foley's key works include ''The Theory of Oral Composition'' (1988);<ref>John Miles Foley. ''The Theory of Oral Composition: History and Methodology''. Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1988.</ref> ''Immanent Art'' (1991); ''Traditional Oral Epic: The Odyssey, Beowulf and the Serbo-Croatian Return-Song'' (1993); ''The Singer of Tales in Performance'' (1995); ''Teaching Oral Traditions'' (1998); ''How to Read an Oral Poem'' (2002). His [[Pathways Project]] (2005–2012) draws parallels between the media dynamics of oral traditions and the [[Internet]].

===Acceptance and further elaboration===
The theory of oral tradition would undergo elaboration and development as it grew in acceptance.<ref>Foley, John Miles. "Oral Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography." NY: Garland, 1985. ''The Theory of Oral Composition''. Bloomington: IUP, 1991, p. 70</ref> While the number of formulas documented for various traditions proliferated,<ref>A. Orchard, 'Oral Tradition', ''Reading Old English Texts'', ed. K O'Brien O'Keeffe (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 101-23</ref> the concept of the formula remained lexically bound. However, numerous innovations appeared, such as the "formulaic system"<ref>Fry, Donald K. "Old English Formulas and Systems" ''English Studies'' 48 (1967):193-204.</ref>{{#tag:ref|Donald K. Fry responds to what was known, pejoratively, in Greek studies as the "hard Parryist" position, in which the formula was defined in terms of verbatim lexical repetition (see Rosenmyer, Thomas G. "The Formula in Early Greek Poetry" ''Arion'' 4 (1965):295-311). Fry's model proposes underlying generative templates which provide for variation and even artistic creativity within the constraints of strict metrical requirements and extempore composition-in-performance|group=Note}} with structural "substitution slots" for [[Syntax|syntactic]], [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] and [[narrative]] necessity (as well as for artistic invention).<ref>Davis, Adam Brooke "Verba volent, scripta manent: Oral Tradition and the Non-Narrative Genres of Old English Poetry." Diss. Univ. of Missouri at Columbia. DAI 52A (1991), 2137 pp. 202, 205</ref> Sophisticated models such as Foley's "word-type placement rules" followed.<ref>Foley, John Miles. Immanent Art: From Structure to Meaning in Traditional Oral Epic. Bloomington: IUP, 1991. 30, 31, 202n22, 207 n36, 211n43</ref> Higher levels of formulaic composition were defined over the years, such as "[[ring composition]]",<ref>Foley, John Miles. "The Singer of Tales in Performance. Bloomington: IUP, 1995. 55, 60, 89 108, 122n40</ref> "responsion"<ref>Olsen, Alexandra Hennessey. "Oral -Formulaic Research in Old English Studies:II" ''Oral Tradition'' 3:1-2 (1988) 138-90, p. 165) Olsen cites Foley's "Hybrid Prosody and Old English Half-Lines" in ''Neophilologus'' 64:284-89 (1980).</ref> and the "[[type-scene]]" (also called a "theme" or "typical scene"<ref>Foley, John Miles. ''The Singer of Tales in Performance''. Bloomington: IUP, 1995. 2, 7, 8n15, 17 et passim.</ref>). Examples include the "Beasts of Battle"<ref>Magoun, Francis P. "The Oral-Formulaic Character of Anglo-Saxon Narrative Poetry." ''Speculum'' 28 (1953): 446-67</ref> and the "Cliffs of Death".<ref>Fry, Donald K. "The Cliff of Death in Old English Poetry." In ''Comparative Research in Oral Traditions: A Memorial for Milman Parry'', ed. John Miles Foley. Columbus: Slavica, 1987, 213-34.</ref> Some of these characteristic patterns of narrative details, (like "the arming sequence;"<ref>[[Paul Zumthor|Zumthor, Paul]] "The Text and the Voice." Transl. Marilyn C. Englehardt. ''New Literary History'' 16 (1984):67-92</ref> "the hero on the beach";<ref>D. K. Crowne, "The Hero on the Beach: An Example of Composition by Theme in Anglo-Saxon Poetry", ''Neuphilologische Mitteilungen'', 61 (1960), 371.</ref> "the traveler recognizes his goal")<ref>Clark, George. "The Traveller Recognizes His Goal." ''Journal of English and Germanic Philolog''y, 64 (1965):645-59.</ref> would show evidence of global distribution.<ref>Armstrong, James I. "The Arming Motif in the Iliad". ''The American Journal of Philology'', Vol. 79, No. 4. (1958), pp. 337-354.</ref>

At the same time, the fairly rigid division between oral and literate was replaced by recognition of transitional and compartmentalized texts and societies, including models of [[diglossia]] ([[Brian Stock (historian)|Brian Stock]]<ref>[[Brian Stock (historian)|Brian Stock]]. "The Implications of Literacy. Written Language and Models of Interpretation in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries" (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983)</ref> [[Franz Bäuml]],<ref>Bäuml, Franz H. "Varieties and Consequences of Medieval Literacy and Illiteracy", in ''Speculum'', Vol. 55, No. 2 (1980), pp.243-244.</ref> and [[Eric Havelock]]).<ref>Havelock, Eric Alfred. ''Preface to Plato''. "Vol. 1 A History of the Greek Mind", Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1963.</ref> Perhaps most importantly, the terms and concepts of "[[orality]]" and "[[literacy]]" came to be replaced with the more useful and apt "[[traditionality]]" and "[[textuality]]".<ref name="autogenerated22">Davis, Adam Brooke. "Agon and Gnomon: Forms and Functions of the Anglo-Saxon Riddles" in ''De Gustibus: Essays for Alain Renoir''. Ed John Miles Foley. NY: Garland, 1992 110-150</ref> Very large units would be defined ([[The Indo-European Return Song]])<ref>Foley, John Miles. ''Immanent Art'' Bloomington: IUP, 1991. 15, 18, 20-21, 34, 45, 63-64, 64n6, 64-68,, 74n23, 75, 76, 77n28, 78, 80, 82, 82n38, 83, 87-91, 92, 93, 94, 102, 103, 104n18, 105, 109, 110n32</ref> and areas outside of [[Epic poetry|military epic]] would come under investigation: women's song,<ref>[[Marta Weigle|Weigle, Marta]]. "Women's Expressive Forms" in Foley, John Miles, ed. "Teaching Oral Traditions" NY:MLA 1998. pp. 298-</ref> [[Riddle|riddles]]<ref name="autogenerated22" /> and other genres.

The methodology of oral tradition now conditions a large variety of studies, not only in [[folklore]], [[literature]] and literacy, but in [[philosophy]],<ref>Kevin Robb. "Greek Oral Memory and the Origins of Philosophy." ''The Personalist: An International Review of Philosophy'', 51:5-45.; A study of the AG oral mentality that assumes (1) the existence of composition and thinking that took shape under the aegis of oral patterns, (2) the educational apparatus as an oral system, and (3) the origins of philosophy as we know it in the abstract intellectual reaction against the oral mentality. The opening section on historical background covers developments in archaeology and textual criticism (including Parry's work) since the late nineteenth century, with descriptions of and comments on formulaic and thematic structure. In "The Technique of the Oral Poet" (14-22), he sketches both a synchronic picture of the singer weaving his narrative and a diachronic view of the tradition developing over time. In the third part, on the psychology of performance, he discusses "the prevalence of rhythmic speech over prose; the prevalence of the event' over the abstraction'; and the prevalence of the paratactic arrangement of parts... over alternative schema possible in other styles" (23). In sympathy with Havelock (1963), he interprets Plato's reaction against the poets as one against the oral mentality and its educative process.</ref> [[communication theory]],<ref>"Review: Communication Studies as American Studies" Daniel Czitrom ''American Quarterly'', Vol. 42, No. 4 (Dec., 1990), pp. 678-683</ref> [[Semiotics]],<ref>Nimis, Stephen A. ''Narrative Semiotics in the Epic Tradition''. Indiana University Press: Bloomington, 1988</ref> and including a very broad and continually expanding variety of languages and ethnic groups,<ref>{{cite web |title=African American Culture Through Oral Tradition |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~e73afram/ag-am-mp.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124025135/http://www.gwu.edu/~e73afram/ag-am-mp.html |archive-date=January 24, 2009 |website=www.gwu.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Wayne State University Press - Language and Literature: - Page 1 |url=http://wsupress.wayne.edu/literature/armenian/hacikyanhal1.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210055400/http://wsupress.wayne.edu/literature/armenian/hacikyanhal1.htm |archive-date=2012-02-10 |access-date=2012-10-23 |publisher=Wsupress.wayne.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Native/American Digital Storytelling: Situating the Cherokee Oral Tradition within American Literary History : Literature Compass |url=http://www.blackwell-compass.com/subject/literature/article_view?article_id=lico_articles_bpl376 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209224529/http://www.blackwell-compass.com/subject/literature/article_view?article_id=lico_articles_bpl376 |archive-date=February 9, 2012 |website=www.blackwell-compass.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Women in Oral Literature: Dreams of Transgressions in two Berber Wonder Tales |url=http://www.usp.nus.edu.sg/post/poldiscourse/casablanca/sarhrouny1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313044612/http://www.usp.nus.edu.sg/post/poldiscourse/casablanca/sarhrouny1.html |archive-date=March 13, 2008 |website=www.usp.nus.edu.sg}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Studies in Canadian Literature |url=http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/SCL/bin/get.cgi?directory=vol18_2/&filename=McGrath.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805160107/http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/SCL/bin/get.cgi?directory=vol18_2%2F&filename=McGrath.htm |archive-date=2011-08-05 |access-date=2012-10-23 |publisher=Lib.unb.ca}}</ref> and perhaps most conspicuously in [[biblical studies]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Oral Tradition |url=http://journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/1i/3_culley.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529035834/http://journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/1i/3_culley.pdf |archive-date=2008-05-29 |access-date=2008-05-13}}</ref> in which [[Werner Kelber]] has been especially prominent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelber |first1=Werner H |date=2003 |title=Oral Tradition in Bible and New Testament Studies |journal=Oral Tradition |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=40–42 |doi=10.1353/ort.2004.0025 |hdl=10355/64878 |id={{Project MUSE|51595}} |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}</ref> The annual bibliography is indexed by 100 areas, most of which are ethnolinguistic divisions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Oral Tradition |url=http://oraltradition.org/bibliography/areas |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028144615/http://oraltradition.org/bibliography/areas |archive-date=2012-10-28 |access-date=2012-10-23 |publisher=Oral Tradition}}</ref>

Present developments explore the implications of the theory for [[rhetoric]]<ref>Boni, Stefano. Contents and contexts : the rhetoric of oral traditions in the oman of Sefwi Wiawso, Ghana. Africa. 70 (4) 2000, pages 568-594. London</ref> and [[Composition (language)|composition]],<ref>Miller, Susan, ''Rescuing the Subject. A Critical Introduction to Rhetoric and the Writer''. Southern Illinois University Press, 2004</ref> [[interpersonal communication]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Minton |first1=John |date=1995 |title=The Reverend Lamar Roberts and the Mediation of Oral Tradition |journal=The Journal of American Folklore |volume=108 |issue=427 |pages=3–37 |doi=10.2307/541732 |jstor=541732}}</ref> [[cross-cultural communication]],<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Simpkins |first1=Maureen |date=2002 |editor1-last=Mojab |editor1-first=Shahrzad |editor2-last=McQueen |editor2-first=William |title=From Ear to Ear: Cross-Cultural Understandings of Aboriginal Oral Tradition |conference=Adult Education and the Contested Terrain of Public Policy. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Association for the Study of Adult Education |pages=263–268 |id={{ERIC|ED478964}}}}</ref> [[postcolonial studies]],<ref>''"Culture Education" and the Challenge of Globalization in Modern Nigeria'' by Ademola Omobewaji Dasylva. This paper has to do with the challenges of globalization in modern Nigeria and the process of "culture education", a terminology used to emphasize the peculiar means and methods of instruction by which a society imparts its body of values and mores in the pursuance and attainment of the society's collective vision, aspirations, and goals. Within this framework, this paper examines the legacies of imperialism and colonization within the Nigerian educational system––particularly in reference to the teaching of folklore and oral tradition––including the destruction of indigenous knowledge systems and the continuing lack of adequate resources in African universities. The paper concludes by offering suggestions for a more fully synthesized indigenous and formal Nigerian educational system as a method of addressing postcolonial rupture. [http://journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/21ii/Dasylva.pdf PDF] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529035829/http://journal.oraltradition.org/files/articles/21ii/Dasylva.pdf|date=2008-05-29}} ''Oral Tradition'' 21/2 (2006):325-41.</ref> [[rural community development]],<ref>{{cite web |title=General Information - Rural Human Services Program |url=http://www.uaf.edu/iac/RHS/about.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907025120/http://www.uaf.edu/iac/RHS/about.html |archive-date=7 September 2008 |access-date=22 May 2022 |website=www.uaf.edu}}</ref> [[popular culture]]<ref>Skidmore, Thomas E. ''Black Into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought'' New York: Oxford University Press, 1974 p. 89</ref> and [[film studies]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Peplinski |first1=Carrie |title=Culture, Communication and Media Studies - Oral Traditions and Weapons of Resistance: The Modern Africa Filmmaker as Griot |url=http://ccms.ukzn.ac.za/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=382&Itemid=46 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813070823/http://ccms.ukzn.ac.za/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=382&Itemid=46 |archive-date=13 August 2011 |access-date=22 May 2022 |website=Culture, Communication & Media Studies - UKZN}}</ref> and many other areas. The most significant areas of theoretical development at present may be the construction of systematic [[hermeneutics]]<ref>J. A. (Bobby) Loubser, "Shembe Preaching: A Study in Oral Hermeneutics", in ''African Independent Churches. Today'', ed. M. C. Kitshoff ([[Lewiston, New York]]: [[Edwin Mellen Press]], 1996</ref><ref>Kelber, Werner H. "The Oral and the Written Gospel: The Hermeneutics of Writing and Speaking in the Synoptic Tradition" Philadelphia: Fortress P 1983.</ref><ref>Swearingen, C. Jan. "Oral Hermeneutics during the Transition to Literacy: The Contemporary Debate". ''Cultural Anthropology'', Vol. 1, No. 2, The Dialectic of Oral and Literary Hermeneutics (May, 1986), pp. 138-156</ref> and [[aesthetics]]<ref>Foley, John Miles. ''The Theory of Oral Composition: History and Methodology''. Bloomington: IUP, 1988. 55, 64, 66, 72, 74, 77, 80, 97, 105, 110-111, 129n20,; artistic cp to mechanistic, 21, 25, 38, 58, 63-64, 65, 104, 118-119n20, 120-121n16, 124n31, 125n53, oral aesthetic cp to literate aesthetics, 35, 58, 110-11, 121n26.</ref><ref>Foley, John Miles. ''Immanent Art: From Structure to Meaning in Traditional Oral Epic''. Bloomington: IUP, 1991. 245</ref>

=== Criticism ===
The theory of oral tradition encountered early resistance from scholars who perceived it as potentially supporting either one side or another in the controversy between what were known as [[Homeric Question|"unitarians" and "analysts"]]—that is, scholars who believed [[Homer]] to have been a single, historical figure, and those who saw him as a conceptual "author function", a convenient name to assign to what was essentially a repertoire of traditional narrative.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Combellack |first1=Frederick M. |date=1959 |title=Milman Parry and Homeric Artistry |journal=Comparative Literature |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=193–208 |doi=10.2307/1768354 |jstor=1768354}}</ref> A much more general dismissal of the theory and its implications simply described it as "unprovable"<ref>Rutherford, R.B. Homer: Odyssey Books XIX & XX,, Cambridge UP 1992 remarks on oral-formulaic diction, pp. 47-49</ref> Some scholars, mainly outside the field of oral tradition,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Botstein |first1=Leon |date=1995 |title=Hearing Is Seeing: Thoughts on the History of Music and the Imagination |journal=The Musical Quarterly |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=581–589 |doi=10.1093/mq/79.4.581 |jstor=742376 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oring |first1=Elliott |date=2006 |title=Folk or Lore? The Stake in Dichotomies |journal=Journal of Folklore Research |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=205–218 |doi=10.2979/JFR.2006.43.3.205 |s2cid=144634366 |id={{Project MUSE|209125}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=chapter4.DOC |url=http://www.valdosta.edu/folkwriting/pdf/chapter4.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213082630/http://www.valdosta.edu/folkwriting/pdf/chapter4.PDF |archive-date=2012-02-13 |access-date=2012-10-23}}</ref> represent (either dismissively or with approval) this body of theoretical work as reducing the great [[Epic poetry|epics]] to children's party games like "[[Telephone (game)|telephone]]" or "[[Chinese whispers]]". While games provide amusement by showing how messages distort content via uncontextualized transmission, Parry's supporters argue that the theory of oral tradition reveals how oral methods optimized the [[signal-to-noise ratio]] and thus improved the quality, stability and [[integrity]] of content transmission.<ref>Dawkins, Richard. ''The God Delusion''. Great Britain: Bantam, 2006 p. 118 -- Dawkins contradicts this view, however, on p. 227)</ref>

There were disputes concerning particular findings of the theory. For example, those trying to support or refute Crowne's hypothesis found the "Hero on the Beach" formula in numerous Old English poems. Similarly, it was also discovered in other works of [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] origin, [[Middle English poetry]], and even an [[Iceland|Icelandic]] prose [[saga]]. J.A. Dane, in an article<ref>Dane, J.A. "Finnsburh and Iliad IX: A Greek Survival of the Medieval Germanic Oral-Formulaic Theme The Hero on the Beach." ''Neophilologus'' 66:443-449</ref> characterized as "polemics without rigor"<ref>Foley, John Miles. ''Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography'', (NY: Garland Publishing, 1985), p. 200</ref> claimed that the appearance of the theme in [[Ancient Greek]] poetry, a tradition without known connection to the Germanic, invalidated the notion of "an autonomous theme in the baggage of an oral poet".

Within Homeric studies specifically, Lord's ''[[The Singer of Tales]]'', which focused on problems and questions that arise in conjunction with applying oral-formulaic theory to problematic texts such as the ''[[Iliad]]'', ''[[Odyssey]]'', and even ''[[Beowulf]]'', influenced nearly all of the articles written on [[Homer]] and oral-formulaic composition thereafter. However, in response to Lord, Geoffrey Kirk published ''The Songs of Homer'', questioning Lord's extension of the oral-formulaic nature of Serbian and Croatian literature (the area from which the theory was first developed) to Homeric epic. Kirk argues that Homeric poems differ from those traditions in their "metrical strictness", "formular system[s]", and creativity. In other words, Kirk argued that Homeric poems were recited under a system that gave the reciter much more freedom to choose words and passages to get to the same end than the Serbo-Croatian poet, who was merely "reproductive".<ref>Kirk, Geoffrey S. ''The Songs of Homer.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962. pp88 - 91.</ref><ref>Foley, John M. ''Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography.'' New York: Garland Publishing, Inc, 1985. p. 35.</ref> Shortly thereafter, Eric Havelock's ''Preface to Plato'' revolutionized how scholars looked at Homeric epic by arguing not only that it was the product of an oral tradition, but also that the oral-formulas contained therein served as a way for ancient Greeks to preserve cultural knowledge across many different generations.<ref>Foley, John M. ''Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography.'' New York: Garland Publishing, Inc, 1985. p. 36.</ref> [[Adam Parry]], in his 1966 work "Have we Homer's ''Iliad''?", theorized the existence of the most fully developed oral poet to his time, a person who could (at his discretion) creatively and intellectually create nuanced characters in the context of the accepted, traditional story. In fact, he discounted the Serbo-Croatian tradition to an "unfortunate" extent, choosing to elevate the Greek model of oral-tradition above all others.<ref>Foley, John M. ''Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography.'' New York: Garland Publishing, Inc, 1985. pp. 36, 505.</ref><ref>Parry, Adam. "Have we Homer's ''Iliad''?"''Yale Classical Studies.''20 (1966), pp.. 177-216.</ref> Lord reacted to Kirk's and Parry's essays with "Homer as Oral Poet", published in 1968, which reaffirmed Lord's belief in the relevance of Yugoslav poetry and its similarities to Homer and downplayed the intellectual and literary role of the reciters of Homeric epic.<ref>Foley, John M. ''Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography.'' New York: Garland Publishing, Inc, 1985. pp. 40, 406.</ref>

Many of the criticisms of the theory have been absorbed into the evolving field as useful refinements and modifications. For example, in what Foley called a "pivotal" contribution, [[Larry Benson]] introduced the concept of "written-formulaic" to describe the status of some Anglo-Saxon poetry which, while demonstrably written, contains evidence of oral influences, including heavy reliance on formulas and themes<ref>Foley, John M. ''Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography''. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. 1985. p. 42.; Foley cites "The Literary Character of Anglo-Saxon Formulaic Poetry" Publications of the Modern Language Association 81 (1966):, 334-41</ref> A number of individual scholars in many areas continue to have misgivings about the applicability of the theory or the aptness of the South Slavic comparison,<ref>George E. Dimock. "From Homer to Novi Pazar and B ack." ''Arion'', 2, iv:40-57. Reacts against the Parry-Lord hypothesis of an oral Homer, claiming that, although Lord demonstrated that the oral poet thinks in verse and offered many explanations of the various facets of the Homeric Question by recourse to the Yugoslav analogy, the difference between Homer and other, literate poets is one of degree rather than kind. Wants to rescue Homer's art from what he sees as the dangers inherent in the oral theory model.</ref> and particularly what they regard as its implications for the creativity which may legitimately be attributed to the individual artist.<ref>Perhaps the most prominent and steadfast opponent of oral traditional theory on these grounds was [[Arthur Brodeur]], in, e.g., ''The Art of Beowulf''. Berkeley: University of California Press. 3rd printing 1969; "A Study of Diction and Style in Three Anglo-Saxon Narrative Poems." In ''Nordica et Anglica''. Ed. Allan H. Orrick. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 97-114; "Beowulf: One Poem or Three?" In ''Medieval Literature and Folklore Studies in Honor of Francis Lee Utley''. Ed. Jerome Mandel and Bruce A. Rosenberg. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. pp. 3-26.</ref> However, at present, there seems to be little systematic or theoretically coordinated challenge to the fundamental tenets of the theory; as Foley put it, ""there have been numerous suggestions for revisions or modifications of the theory, but the majority of controversies have generated further understanding.<ref>Foley, John Miles. ''The Theory of Oral Composition: History and Methodology''. Bloomington:IUP, 1988." p.93</ref>

== Historiography ==
{{See also|African historiography#Oral tradition}}The development of [[African historiography]] in the mid to late 20th century saw a movement towards utilising oral sources alongside [[Auxiliary sciences of history|auxiliary disciplines]], due to the paucity of written sources.<ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=Falola |first=Toyin |title=The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 5: Historical Writing Since 1945 |date=2011-05-05 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-922599-6 |editor-last=Schneider |editor-first=Axel |pages=399–421 |chapter=African Historical Writing |access-date=2025-02-09 |editor2-last=Woolf |editor2-first=Daniel |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/26006/chapter-abstract/193882589?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false}}</ref> Oral traditions differ from written texts in that they are more directly subject to the sensory experience of the listener(s).<ref name=":25">{{Cite book |last=Cooper |first=Barbara |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/writing-african-history/FB32EABC860F3200AE367888F9205353?pageNum=1&searchWithinIds=FB32EABC860F3200AE367888F9205353&productType=BOOK_PART&searchWithinIds=FB32EABC860F3200AE367888F9205353&productType=BOOK_PART&sort=mtdMetadata.bookPartMeta._mtdPositionSortable:asc&pageSize=30&template=cambridge-core/book/contents/listings&ignoreExclusions=true |title=Writing African History |date=2005 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-58046-164-1 |editor-last=Philips |editor-first=John Edward |series=Rochester Studies in African History and the Diaspora |chapter=Oral sources and the challenges of African history}}</ref>{{Rp|page=202}} In 1961, [[Jan Vansina]] published ''[[Oral tradition (book)|Oral tradition]]'' in which he made the case for the validity of oral sources as historical sources, and it is regarded as one of the most influential works written about African history and oral tradition.<ref name=":232">{{Cite book |last=Henige |first=David |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/writing-african-history/FB32EABC860F3200AE367888F9205353?pageNum=1&searchWithinIds=FB32EABC860F3200AE367888F9205353&productType=BOOK_PART&searchWithinIds=FB32EABC860F3200AE367888F9205353&productType=BOOK_PART&sort=mtdMetadata.bookPartMeta._mtdPositionSortable:asc&pageSize=30&template=cambridge-core/book/contents/listings&ignoreExclusions=true |title=Writing African History |date=2005 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-58046-164-1 |editor-last=Philips |editor-first=John Edward |series=Rochester Studies in African History and the Diaspora |chapter=Oral tradition as a means of reconstructing the past}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=171-172}} Oral traditions have been utilised in the reconstruction of various [[Indigenous peoples]]' histories, including [[Māori history|Maori's]], [[History of Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans']], and [[History of the Polynesian people|Polynesians']].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahuika |first=Nepia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z5KwDwAAQBAJ&dq=oral+tradition+historiography&pg=PP1 |title=Rethinking Oral History and Tradition: An Indigenous Perspective |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-068168-5 |language=en |chapter=Oral history and Indigenous People}}</ref>{{Reference page|pages=1-15}}

Historians collect and transcribe oral traditions via [[fieldwork]], a practice that was initially foreign to historians who would usually spend most of their time sifting through [[Archive|archives]] and libraries.{{Efn|Tapes are preferred over transcriptions as they include more information about the interviewee's attitudes, such as laughter, hesitations, disagreements etc.<ref name=":23" />{{rp|page=188}}}} Unfortunately, in Africa most of the early tapes and transcriptions weren't submitted to public depositories, gravely impacting verifiability and future critique of interpretation. Researchers tend not to be fluent in the local language, and employ interpreters to translate questions and answers, harming the communication of meanings and understanding.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last=Henige |first=David |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/writing-african-history/FB32EABC860F3200AE367888F9205353?pageNum=1&searchWithinIds=FB32EABC860F3200AE367888F9205353&productType=BOOK_PART&searchWithinIds=FB32EABC860F3200AE367888F9205353&productType=BOOK_PART&sort=mtdMetadata.bookPartMeta._mtdPositionSortable:asc&pageSize=30&template=cambridge-core/book/contents/listings&ignoreExclusions=true |title=Writing African History |date=2005 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-58046-164-1 |editor-last=Philips |editor-first=John Edward |series=Rochester Studies in African History and the Diaspora |chapter=Oral tradition as a means of reconstructing the past}}</ref>{{Rp|page=|pages=170, 173, 177}} Individualised interviews tend to be preferred because in group performances, which consist of the narrator and audience sharing and shaping the story, improvisation to entertain may be prioritised over accuracy of the tale. Occasionally, traditions are influenced by written works or incorporate recently acquired information, called [[feedback]].<ref name=":23" />{{Rp|page=|pages=180,183}} As oral tradition rarely incorporates chronological devices, [[Regnal list|lists of rulers]] have been crucial to establishing dates and chronologies.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Odhiambo |first=E. S. Atieno |date=2004 |title=The Usages of the past: African historiographies since independence |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-research-and-documentation/article/abs/usages-of-the-past-african-historiographies-since-independence/CBA353B3608A35A71E2536CC673C8C73 |journal=African Research and Documentation |language=en |volume=96 |pages=3–61 |doi=10.1017/S0305862X00014369 |issn=0305-862X |url-access=subscription}}</ref> This is done via generational averaging, with the most common length chosen for generations being 27 years. In some cases, a ruler or event is mentioned in contemporary written sources of whose dates are known. Some lists have been known to grow over time, harming their credibility.<ref name=":23" />{{Rp|page=186}} [[Barbara Cooper (historian)|Barbara Cooper]] emphasises the creativity of the oral poet, and criticises the [[Oral-formulaic composition|formulaic approach]] saying that the meaning sits in the performance, not necessarily captured through analysis of a transcription or interpretation of the words. [[Karin Barber]] said that oral traditions enact struggles and power, not only of historical individuals but also of the oral poet in that the oral 'text' only exists for the speaker and listeners.<ref name=":252">{{Cite book |last=Cooper |first=Barbara |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/writing-african-history/FB32EABC860F3200AE367888F9205353?pageNum=1&searchWithinIds=FB32EABC860F3200AE367888F9205353&productType=BOOK_PART&searchWithinIds=FB32EABC860F3200AE367888F9205353&productType=BOOK_PART&sort=mtdMetadata.bookPartMeta._mtdPositionSortable:asc&pageSize=30&template=cambridge-core/book/contents/listings&ignoreExclusions=true |title=Writing African History |date=2005 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-58046-164-1 |editor-last=Philips |editor-first=John Edward |series=Rochester Studies in African History and the Diaspora |chapter=Oral sources and the challenges of African history}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=200-201}} [[Jan Bender Shetler]] wrote that oral historians "reconstruct (rather than reproduce) oral traditions through the use of [[mnemonic]] systems, the central elements of which scholars of oral tradition call core images or [[clichés]]", and that the core images are the key to historical interpretation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mseba|first=Admire|date=2020-05-03|title=Narratives, Rituals and Political Imaginations: The Social and Political World of the Vashona of North-Eastern Zimbabwe from the 16th to the 19th Centuries|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03057070.2020.1743522|journal=Journal of Southern African Studies|language=en|volume=46|issue=3|pages=435–454|doi=10.1080/03057070.2020.1743522|issn=0305-7070|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

There have been various academic debates in African historiography surrounding oral tradition. The first in the 1960s involved [[Jan Vansina]] and his students developing a rigorous approach to recover the past from oral traditions, counteracting scepticism and outright dismissal of the concept of African history. This was successful, despite not engaging and cooperating with African-American movements around [[oral history]]. The second focussed on the argument that oral traditions consisted of faithful memories of past events, which faced criticism from [[functionalists]] who argued that oral traditions function to reinforce present-day realities and give relatively little information about the past (called the "presentist critique"), and [[Structural anthropology|structuralists]] who emphasised the mythological and symbolic elements of oral tradition (called the "cosmological critique"). The cosmological critique was answered by [[Joseph C. Miller|Joseph Miller]]'s ''The African Past Speaks'' (1980), in which historians emphasised the need to pay attention to how cultural understanding, political struggle, and memory shape traditions, and explore and analyse discrepancies between traditions which tend to signal problems, shifts, struggles, and loud silences. On the other hand, the presentist critique has proved pertinent and has been harder to dismiss.<ref name=":252" />{{Rp|pages=193-197}} A [[folklorist]] critique of Africanist historians emphasised the role of the individual [[List of oral repositories|traditional oral historian]] in the crafting and preservation of oral traditions (and the possibility of infusion of autobiographical or experiential information, necessitating inquiry about the storyteller's life), rather than Africanists' focus on the influence of institutions, and the importance of an [[emic]] (insider) approach, rather than an [[etic]] (outsider) approach where the traditions are transcribed and interpreted from an outsider/European perspective.<ref>{{Citation |last=Mirzeler |first=Mustafa Kemal |title=Oral Tradition and Identity |date=2021 |work=The Palgrave Handbook of African Oral Traditions and Folklore |pages=403–419 |editor-last=Akinyemi |editor-first=Akintunde |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-55517-7_20 |access-date=2025-05-05 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-55517-7_20 |isbn=978-3-030-55517-7 |editor2-last=Falola |editor2-first=Toyin |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==See also==
{{col div|colwidth=25em}}
* [[:Category:Oral tradition]]
* [[:Category:Oral literature]]
* [[:Category:Folklore]]
* [[American Indian elder]]
* [[Folk process]]
* "''[[Gawęda]]''" (a genre of Polish oral folklore)
* "[[Gold Duck]]" ([[Polish language|Polish]]: "''Złota Kaczka''")
* [[Griot]]
* [[Hadith]]
* [[Intangible culture]]
* [[Oral history]]
* [[Oral law]]
* [[Oral Torah]]
* [[Oral Tradition (journal)|Oral Tradition Journal]]
* [[Oral-formulaic composition]]
* [[Orality]]
* [[Panchatantra]]
* [[Parampara]]
* [[Patha]], [[Śrauta]]
* [[Secondary orality]]
* [[Traditional knowledge]]
* [[Understanding Media]]
* [[World Oral Literature Project]]
{{colend}}

==References==

===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=Note}}<references group="lower-alpha" />

===Citations===
{{Reflist|2}}

===Bibliography===

* {{cite journal |last1=Bannister |first1=Andrew G. |title=Retelling the Tale: A Computerised Oral-Formulaic Analysis of the Qur'an. Presented at the 2014 International Qur'an Studies Association Meeting in San Diego |url=https://www.academia.edu/9490706 |website=academia.edu |access-date=20 May 2019 |ref=AGBRtT2014}}
*{{cite book|last=Blum|first=Stephen|title=Music Theory in Ethnomusicology|series=Oxford theory in ethnomusicology|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2023|isbn=9780199303526|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hty3EAAAQBAJ}}

*{{cite book|last1=Di Lellio|first1=Anna|last2=Dushi|first2=Arbnora|title=The Epic World|chapter=Gender Performance and Gendered Warriors in Albanian Epic Poetry|editor-last=Lothspeich|editor-first=Pamela|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2024|series=Routledge Worlds|isbn=9781000912203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rdbrEAAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book |last1=Dundes |first1=Alan |title=Fables of the Ancients?: Folklore in the Qur'an |date=2003 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yfo2AgAAQBAJ&q=pre-modern+folkloric+stories+in+the+bible+quran |access-date=2 May 2019 |ref=ADFotA2003|isbn=9780585466774 }}

*{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|url=http://www.elsie.de/en/books/b09.html|format=pdf|title=Albanian Folktales and Legends|year=1994|publisher=Naim Frashëri Publishing Company|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090728124130/http://www.elsie.de/en/books/b09.html|archive-date=2009-07-28}}
*{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ve4SAQAAIAAJ|title=Albanian Folktales and Legends|year=2001|publisher=Dukagjini Publishing House}}
*{{cite journal|last=Elsie|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Elsie|title=Why Is Albanian Epic Verse So Neglected?|journal=Paper Presented at the International Conference on the Albanian Epic of Legendary Songs in Five Balkan Countries: Albania, Kosova, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro|publisher=Institute of Albanian Studies|place=Pristina|url=http://www.elsie.de/pdf/articles/A2014AlbanianEpicVerse.pdf|year=2014}}

*Foley, John Miles. ''Oral Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography''. NY: Garland, 1985
*Foley, John Miles. ''The Theory of Oral Composition''. Bloomington: IUP, 1991

*{{cite book|first=Hans-Georg|last=Gadamer|author-link=Hans-Georg Gadamer|title=Truth and Method|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2013|orig-year=1989|edition=revised second|isbn=9781780936581|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XaROAQAAQBAJ}}
*{{Cite book|last=Galaty|first=Michael L.|title=Memory and Nation Building: From Ancient Times to the Islamic State|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2018|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SEBiDwAAQBAJ|isbn=9780759122628}}

*{{cite journal|last1=Joseph|first1=Brian D.|last2=Dedvukaj|first2=Lindon|title=Turning night into day: Milieu and semantic change in Albanian|journal=Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America|publisher=[[Linguistic Society of America]]|doi=10.3765/plsa.v9i1.5681|volume=9|number=1|year=2024|page=5681 |doi-access=free}}

*{{cite book|last=Sokoli|first=Ramadan|editor=Margaret Read MacDonald|translator=Pranvera Xhelo|chapter=The Albanian World in the Folk Teller's Stories|title=Traditional Storytelling Today: An International Sourcebook|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|orig-year=1999|isbn=9781135917142|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i8RdAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA181}}

*{{cite journal|last=Tarifa|first=Fatos|title=Of Time, Honor, and Memory: Oral Law in Albania|journal=Oral Tradition|volume=23|issue=1|year=2008|pages=3–14|doi=10.1353/ort.0.0017 |url=https://journal.oraltradition.org/wp-content/uploads/files/articles/23i/02_23.1tarifa.pdf}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Wong |first=Peter T. K. |date=2022 |title=The Soundscape of the Huainanzi 淮南子: Poetry, Performance, Philosophy, and Praxis in Early China |journal=Early China |language=en |volume=45 |pages=515–539 |doi=10.1017/eac.2022.6 |s2cid=250269080 |doi-access=free }}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://afas.wustl.edu/african-oral-history#:~:text=The%20recollections%20of%20ordinary%20African%20women%20and,sources%20for%20much%20of%20twentieth%2Dcentury%20African%20history.&text=Even%20more%20problematically%2C%20this%20Eurocentric%20bias%20has,orally%2C%20to%20preserve%20and%20recollect%20their%20past./ African Oral History] from [[Washington University in St. Louis]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051122173607/http://www.interdisciplines.org/defispublicationweb/papers/6 Back to the Oral Tradition]
*[https://www.worldoftales.com Folk Tales from around the world]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20191028235921/http://www.oraltradition.org/ The Center for Studies in Oral Tradition]
*[http://www.chs.harvard.edu/mpc/ The Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024125752/http://www.chs.harvard.edu/mpc/ |date=24 October 2007 }}
*[https://journal.oraltradition.org/ Oral Tradition Journal]
*[http://www.oralliterature.org The World Oral Literature Project]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071218232032/http://epress.lib.uh.edu/pr/v2/n1/harnad.2n1 Post-Gutenberg Galaxy]
*[https://dedalo.dev/ Dédalo Project. Open Software Platform for Management of Intangible Cultural Heritage and Oral History]
*[http://aton.ttu.edu Archive of Turkish Oral Narrative at Texas Tech University]

{{Folklore genres}}
{{Portal bar|history}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Oral tradition| ]]
[[Category:Folklore]]
[[Category:Folklore by type]]

Ramnath Goenka

2026-02-15T05:10:32Z

ShivaniSikri:

{{Short description|Indian newspaper publisher (1904–1991)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ramnath Goenka
| image = Ramnath Goenka 1942.jpg
| caption = Goenka in 1942
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1904|4|22}}
| birth_place = [[Darbhanga]], [[Bengal Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1991|10|5|1904|4|3}}
| death_place = [[Bombay]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| occupation = Media businessman
| party = [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh]]
| spouse =
}}

'''Ramnath Goenka''' (22 April 1904 – 5 October 1991) was an Indian newspaper publisher. He bought the majority stake of ''[[The Indian Express]]'' in 1930s. He created the [[Indian Express Group]] with various English and regional language publications.<ref name=":0">"A doyen of Indian Journalism, Shri Goenka's greatest passion was the print media. He with the permission of his Capitalists partner Raja Mohan Prasad for whom he worked as a working partner on a salary of rs 100 per month from 1926 to 1936 acquired these properties and media empire from the partnership firm and gave a declaration of trust DTD 1-09-1936 making Raja Mohan Prasad as the beneficiary of this entire empire and he being a nominal trustee launched the Indian Express in 1932 which he did not fulfill. The Prasad family finally filed a suit for ownership in 1982 of the empire and properties and all investments along with undisputed marked 445 exhibits including current legal heirs admittance in sworn affidavit stating source of funds from partnership firm and Raja Mohan prasad." https://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/lsdeb/ls10/ses2/02201191.htm</ref> In 2000, ''[[India Today]]'' magazine, named him amongst their list of ''"100 People Who Shaped India"''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.india-today.com/itoday/millennium/100people/goenka.html|title=THOUGHT & ACTION: The Baron|last=Naqvi|first=Saeed|year=2000|publisher=Indian Today|access-date=28 July 2010|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924042427/http://www.india-today.com/itoday/millennium/100people/goenka.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Ramnath Goenka Excellence in Journalism Awards]], named after Ramnath Goenka, are one of the awards in India in the field of journalism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/ramnath-goenka-foundation/|title=Ramnath Goenka Awards, Journalism Awards, Journalism Awards for Excellence 2015|website=expressindia.indianexpress.com|language=en|access-date=2018-05-03|archive-date=10 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510180047/http://expressindia.indianexpress.com/ramnath-goenka-foundation/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cij.co.in/Award.php|title=:: Award ::|website=cij.co.in|language=en|access-date=2018-05-03|archive-date=7 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407045634/http://cij.co.in/Award.php|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thewire.in/culture/wires-sangeeta-barooah-pisharoty-wins-ramnath-goenka-award-feature-writing|title=The Wire's Sangeeta Barooah Pisharoty Wins Ramnath Goenka Award for Feature Writing - The Wire|website=The Wire|access-date=2018-05-03}}</ref>

==Early life==
Ramnath Goenka was born on 22 April 1904<ref>{{cite news |title=Glowing tributes to Ramnath Goenka |url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/04/23/stories/2004042306051100.htm |date=22 April 2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040602165924/http://www.hindu.com/2004/04/23/stories/2004042306051100.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=2 June 2004 |access-date=28 February 2022}}</ref> in Darbhanga [[Bihar]], to Basantlal Goenka.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reed|first=Stanley|author-link=Stanley Reed (British politician)|title=The Indian And Pakistan Year Book And Who's Who 1950|date=1950|publisher=[[The Times Group|Bennett Coleman and Co. Ltd.]]|page=679|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.15206|access-date=20 February 2018}}</ref>

==Career ==

Worked as a managing partner on a salary of 100 Rs per month from 1926 to 1936 under partner Raja Mohan Prasad in the partnership firms Murli Prasad Mohan Prasad from 1926 to 1931 and then Chunnilal Murliprasad from 1931 onwards, who were Consignee sales agents (Dubashish agents) for a British trading company importing gold, silver and cotton in India. Simultaneously, he took up a job as chief salesman of the British trading company from 1931 to 1936 on a salary of Rs. 800 per month, out of which 500 belonged to the partnership firm. This empire, along with properties, was acquired for the Trust of Raja Mohan Prasad and is held in trust by the current legal heirs.

During the [[The Emergency (India)#Criticism|Emergency Period]] of India, Ramnath Goenka was one of the few businessmen and journalists who opposed the Indira Gandhi government.<ref name="Sharma, 2012" >{{cite book | author = Vishwamitra Sharma | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0Y43DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 | title = Famous Indians of the 20th Century|page = 82| publisher = V & S Publishers |year = 2012 | oclc = 800734508|isbn = 9789350572412 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20190424145702/https://books.google.it/books?id=0Y43DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA82%23v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date = April 24, 2019|url-status = live}}</ref> He made a formidable team with [[Arun Shourie]] whom he appointed as editor of the Indian Express, exposing corruption and censorship.<ref name="print">{{cite web | last=Paranjape | first=Makarand R. |authorlink=Makarand Paranjape| title=Arun Shourie, crusader against corruption faces corruption charge | website=ThePrint | date=20 September 2020 | url=https://theprint.in/opinion/being-indian/arun-shourie-crusader-against-corruption-charged-with-corruption-it-happens-only-in-india/506475/ | access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>

== Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha ==
In the [[1971 Indian general election]], Goenka was elected as the [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha]] from [[Vidisha Lok Sabha constituency]] as a candidate of [[Bharatiya Jana Sangh]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Members : Lok Sabha |url=http://loksabhaph.nic.in/members/partyardetail.aspx?party_code=62&lsno=5 |website=loksabhaph.nic.in |publisher=Parliament of India |access-date=2 August 2022}}</ref>

==Death==
Goenka died in Mumbai on 5 October 1991.<ref name=":0" />

In 1997 the heirs of Ramnath Goenka made a division of the Indian Express Group into two separated operations. The northern segment was put under the control of [[Viveck Goenka]], whereas the southern one went to the family branch of Manoj Sonthalia.<ref>{{cite book | author = Robin Jeffrey | author-link = Robin Jeffrey |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=D2H7ByahsJ0C&pg=PA109 |title = India's Newspaper Revolution: Capitalism, Politics and the Indian-language Press, 1977-99 | page = 109| publisher =C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|year = 2000 |oclc= 246163109|isbn= 9781850654346}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |title=The Goenka Letters: Behind the scenes in The Indian Express |first=T. J. S. |last=George|author-link=T. J. S. George
|year=2006 |publisher=East West Books |location=Madras |isbn=978-81-88661-50-3}}
*{{cite book |title=Warrior of the Fourth Estate |first=B. G. |last=Verghese|year=2005 |author-link=B. G. Verghese |publisher=Penguin India |isbn=0-670-05842-4}} – official biography
*{{cite book |title=Ramnath Goenka: A life in Black and White |first=Ananya |last=Goenka |year=2005}} – a privately published book written by his daughter-in-law
*{{cite book |title=India's Newspaper Revolution: Capitalism, Politics and the Indian-Language Press, 1977–99|author-link=Robin Jeffrey
|first=Robin |last=Jeffrey |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. |year=2000 |isbn=9781850654346 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D2H7ByahsJ0C}}
*{{cite book |title=First Draft: Witness to the Making of Modern India |first=B. G. |last=Verghese
|publisher=Westland Ltd./HOV Services |year=2010 |isbn=9789380283760 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lrIYE7V6nzUC}}
*{{cite book |title=Mahabharata in Polyester |first=Hamish |last=McDonald|year=2010 |author-link= Hamish McDonald|publisher=UNSW Press |isbn=9781742240114 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=prFa4kbotqoC}}
*{{cite book |title=Media Credibility |first=S. K. |last=Aggarwal |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1989 |isbn=9788170991571 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hDmn6LI_ZDEC}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://in.rediff.com/money/2002/jul/08amb4.htm Dhirubhai's fight with RNG]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Goenka, Ramnath}}
[[Category:1904 births]]
[[Category:1991 deaths]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Rajasthani people]]
[[Category:Indian newspaper founders]]
[[Category:Indian Express Limited people]]
[[Category:Members of the Constituent Assembly of India]]
[[Category:Rai Sahibs]]
[[Category:India MPs 1971–1977]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:People from Vidisha]]
[[Category:People from Bihar]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Jana Sangh politicians]]
[[Category:People from Darbhanga]]
[[Category:People of the Emergency (India)]]

Rathin Kisku

2026-02-10T02:57:20Z

ShivaniSikri: updated page

{{short description|Indian singer (born 1984)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Notability|Biographies|date=November 2019}}
{{BLP sources|date=November 2019}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Rathin Kisku
| caption = Rathin Kisku
| image = ᱨᱚᱛᱷᱤᱱ ᱠᱤᱥᱠᱩ (Rathin Kisku).jpg
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1984|03|22}}
| birth_place = [[Gopalnagar]], [[Birbhum]], West Bengal, India
| occupation = {{hlist|Singer|lyricist|composer}}
| awards = * Lal Sukra Award 2008, West Bengal Government
* Birbhum District Baul Award 2009
* Santali Film Fair Award 2010
}}

'''Rathin Kisku''' is an Indian singer. His style of music is between [[Baul]] and traditional [[Santal]] music, which earned him the nickname "''Adivasi Baul"''.<ref name=TG>{{cite news|title=Baul international|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/baul-international/cid/1006346|accessdate=28 November 2018|website=The Telegraph|location=Kolkota}}</ref>

==Life and work==
Kisku was born in a [[Santal people|Santal]] family<ref name=TG/> in a small village near [[Shantiniketan|Santiniketan]]. The area is influenced by [[Rabindranath Tagore]], who lived in Santiniketan. His former home is now a museum and attraction for tourists. Santinitekan is also considered one of the centers of Baul. During his school years, Kisku frequently participated in local cultural events. He dropped out of school without a degree, but was able to get vocal training in [[Hindustani classical music|classical Hindustani]]. Kisku eventually pursued graduation from school. Kisku published his first CD in 2007 at the [[Goethe-Institut]] in Calcutta.{{Citation needed|date=February 2019}} Previously, he was the lead singer on the ''Ghosaldanga Bishnubati Adibasi Trust''. Kisku has released more CDs with music publisher [[Saregama]] in India.

In Europe, he became known in 2005 due to a performance at ARTE. In 2005 and 2008, he undertook concert tours through (Germany) and [[Austria]] with the support of Martin Kämpchen. During the first of these trips, he also appeared on the Swiss radio [[Radio SRF 2 Kultur|DRS 2]]. In 2007, Kisku undertook a concert tour to [[Bangladesh]], where he appeared in [[Dhaka]] together with Anusheh.{{Who|date=February 2019}} This concert tour was again supported by the Goethe-Institut. In 2008, he was the main performer for the ceremony of the Santhali Filmfare Awards. Kisku has appeared repeatedly in Indian radio and television programs. The singer is married and lives in [[Bolpur]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Dorfentwicklung Indien: Baul-Sänger Rathin Kisku|url=http://www.dorfentwicklung-indien.de/santal-kultur/kuenstler-in-der-dorfarbeit/baul-saenger-rathin-kisku/|accessdate=28 November 2018|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Career of Rathin Kisku|publisher=Dorfentwicklung Indien|url=http://www.dorfentwicklung-indien.de/fileadmin/Infos/Mitglied_werden/Rathin_Kisku-Daten_Laufbahn.pdf|accessdate=28 November 2018|archive-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129054421/http://www.dorfentwicklung-indien.de/fileadmin/Infos/Mitglied_werden/Rathin_Kisku-Daten_Laufbahn.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Awards function lacks sheen|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/jharkhand/awards-function-lacks-sheen/cid/582281|accessdate=28 November 2018|website=The Telegraph|location=Kolkota}}</ref>

With his fusion of traditional Santal music with more mainstream Indian music styles, Kisku is considered to be an example of a modern young Santal man balancing tradition with the demands of today.<ref>{{citation|periodical=D+C|title=The young generation of India's Adivasis struggles with tough problems other youth do not have|date=13 May 2013 |language=German|url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/young-generation-indias-adivasis-struggles-tough-problems-other-youth-do-not-have|access-date=28 November 2018
}}</ref>

Recently he performed in [[New Delhi]] in front of 10,000 people on 6 January 2019.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kisku, Rathin}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male singers]]
[[Category:1984 births]]
[[Category:Santali people]]
[[Category:Santali-language singers]]
[[Category:Bengali musicians]]
[[Category:Musicians from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Santali-language playback singers]]

Hingoli Lok Sabha constituency

2026-02-02T09:06:27Z

ShivaniSikri: Adding new pg

{{Short description|Constituency of the Indian parliament in Maharashtra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=May 2015}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Hingoli Lok Sabha
| type = LS
| map_image = {{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|type=shape|from=Lok Sabha constituencies/2019/Maharashtra/Hingoli.map}}
| map_caption = Hingoli Lok Sabha Constituency map
| map_alt =
| state = [[Maharashtra]]
| established = {{Start date and age|df=yes|paren=yes|br=yes|1977}}
| assembly_cons = [[Umarkhed Assembly constituency|Umarkhed]] [[Kinwat Assembly constituency|Kinwat]] [[Hadgaon Assembly constituency|Hadgaon]] [[Basmath Assembly constituency|Basmath]] [[Kalamnuri Assembly constituency|Kalamnuri]] [[Hingoli Assembly constituency|Hingoli]]
| latest_election_year = [[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
| reservation = None
| incumbent_image = Nagesh_Patil.jpeg
| mp = [[Nagesh Bapurao Patil Ashtikar|Nagesh Ashtikar]]
| party = {{Party index link|Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)}}
| alliance = {{Party index link|Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance}}
| electors = 18,17,734
| preceded_by = [[Hemant Sriram Patil]]
}}

'''Hingoli Lok Sabha constituency''' is one of the 48 [[Lok Sabha]] (parliamentary) constituencies in [[Maharashtra]] state in western [[India]].

==Assembly segments==
Presently, after the implementation of [[Electoral boundary delimitation|delimitation]] of the parliamentary constituencies in 2008, based on the recommendations of the [[Delimitation Commission of India]] constituted in 2002, Hingoli Lok Sabha constituency comprises six [[Vidhan Sabha]] (legislative assembly) segments. These segments with constituency numbers are:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/acs.php |title=District wise List of Assembly and Parliamentary Constituencies |publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Maharashtra website |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318055304/http://ceo.maharashtra.gov.in/acs.php |archive-date=18 March 2010 }}</ref>
{|class="wikitable"
! #
! Name
! District
! Member
! colspan="2" | Party
!colspan=2 |Leading {{small|(in 2024)}}
|-
|82
|[[Umarkhed Assembly constituency|Umarkhed]] (SC)
| rowspan="1" |[[Yavatmal district|Yavatmal]]
|[[Kisan Wankhede]]
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party|rowspan=2}}
|{{party name with color|Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)|rowspan=6}}
|-
| 83
|[[Kinwat Assembly constituency|Kinwat]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Nanded district|Nanded]]
|[[Bhimrao Keram]]
|-
|84
|[[Hadgaon Assembly constituency|Hadgaon]]
|[[Baburao Kadam|Baburao Kadam Kohalikar]]
|{{party name with color|Shiv Sena (2022–present)}}
|-
|92
|[[Basmath Assembly constituency|Basmath]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Hingoli district|Hingoli]]
|[[Chandrakant Nawghare]]
|{{party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party}}
|-
|93
|[[Kalamnuri Assembly constituency|Kalamnuri]]
|[[Santosh Bangar]]
|{{party name with color|Shiv Sena (2022–present)}}
|-
|94
|[[Hingoli Assembly constituency|Hingoli]]
|[[Tanaji Sakharamji Mutkule|Tanaji Mutkule]]
|{{party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|}

== Members of Parliament ==
{|class ="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Name
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|colspan="4"|{{center|''1952-76 : Constituency does not exist''}}
|-
|[[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
|[[Chandrakant Ramkrishna Patil]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|-
|[[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|rowspan="3"|[[Uttam Rathod]]
| {{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=3}}
|-
|[[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
|-
|[[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
|-
|[[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|[[Vilasrao Gundewar]]
| {{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena|rowspan=2}}
|-
|[[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|[[Shivaji Mane]]
|-
|[[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|[[Suryakanta Patil]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
|[[Shivaji Mane]]
|{{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena}}
|-
|[[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|[[Suryakanta Patil]]
|{{Full party name with color|Nationalist Congress Party}}
|-
|[[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|[[Subhash Bapurao Wankhede|Subhash Wankhede]]
|{{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena}}
|-
|[[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
|[[Rajiv Satav]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|-
|[[2019 Indian general election|2019]]
|[[Hemant Patil]]
|{{Full party name with color|Shiv Sena}}
|-
|[[2024 Indian general election|2024]]
|[[Nagesh Bapurao Patil Ashtikar]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)}}" |
| [[Shiv Sena (UBT)|Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)]]
|-
|}

==Election results==
===2024===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2024 Indian general election]]: [[Hingoli]]<ref name="Lok Sabha 2024 Election Results: Hingoli">{{cite news |last1=Election Commission of India |title=Lok Sabha 2024 Election Results: Hingoli |url=https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S1315.htm |accessdate=9 November 2024 |date=4 June 2024 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20241109182943/https://results.eci.gov.in/PcResultGenJune2024/candidateswise-S1315.htm |archivedate=9 November 2024}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|candidate= [[Nagesh Bapurao Patil Ashtikar]]
|party= Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)
|votes= 4,92,535
|percentage= 42.49
|change=''New''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate= [[Baburao Kadam|Baburao Kadam Kohalikar]]
|party= Shiv Sena
|votes= 3,83,933
|percentage= 33.12
|change={{down}}17.53
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|candidate= Dr. B.D.Chavhan
|party=Vanchit Bahujan Aghadi
|votes= 1,61,814
|percentage= 13.96
|change={{down}}1.08
}}
{{Election box candidate |
|candidate= Ambadas Sukaji Gade
|party= Independent
|votes= 14,742
|percentage= 1.27
|change=''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = Vijay Ramji Gabhane
|votes = 14,644
|percentage = 1.26
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the Above]]
|votes = 3,123
|percentage = 0.27
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 1,08,602
|percentage =9.37
|change ={{down}}14.63
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes =11,59,300
|percentage = 63.78
|change = {{down}}3.06
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|winner = Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray)
|loser = Shiv Sena
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}
{{notelist}}

===2019===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2019 Indian general election]]: [[Hingoli]]<ref name=election2019>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/1551-general-election-2019-including-vellore-pc/ |title=General Election 2019 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 22 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party= Shiv Sena
|candidate= [[Hemant Sriram Patil]]
|votes=5,86,312
|percentage=50.65
|change=
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party= Indian National Congress
|candidate= [[Subhash Bapurao Wankhede|Subhash Wankhede]]
|votes= 3,08,456
|percentage= 26.65
|change=
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party= Vanchit Bahujan Aghadi
|candidate= Mohan Fattusing Rathod
|votes=1,74,051
|percentage= 15.04
|change=
}}
{{Election box candidate|
|party= [[Independent politician|IND]]
|candidate= Sandesh Ram Chandra Chavan
|votes=23,690
|percentage=2.05
|change=
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes=2,77,856
|percentage=24.00
|change=+23.83
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes=11,58,767
|percentage=66.84
|change=+0.55
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Shiv Sena
|loser = Indian National Congress
| swing = +2.09
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2014===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2014 Indian general election]]: [[Hingoli]]<ref name=election2014>{{cite web |url=https://www.eci.gov.in/files/file/2857-constituency-wise-detailed-result/ |title=General Election 2014 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 22 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = [[Rajeev Satav]]
|votes = 4,67,397
|percentage = 48.59
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Shiv Sena
|candidate = [[Subhash Bapurao Wankhede|Subhash Wankhede]]
|votes = 4,65,765
|percentage = 48.42
|change = +6.81
}}

{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Chunnilal Jadhav
|votes = 25,145
|percentage = 2.61
|change = -11.01

}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Communist Party of India (Marxist)
|candidate = D.B.Naik
|votes = 14,986
|percentage = 1.43
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Mukti Party
|candidate = Uttamrao Pandurang Rathod
|votes = 9,770
|percentage = 0.93
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangh
|candidate = Ramrao Harising Rathod
|votes = 9,577
|percentage = 0.91
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Independent politician
|candidate = Uttam Maroti Dhabe
|votes = 7,878
|percentage = 0.75
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Aam Aadmi Party
|candidate = Vithal Kadam
|votes = 3,729
|percentage = 0.39
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 1,629
|percentage = 0.17
|change = -8.84
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 10,51,477
|percentage = 66.29
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Indian National Congress
|loser = Shiv Sena
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

===2009===
{{Election box begin | title=[[2009 Indian general election]]: [[Hingoli]]<ref name=election2009>{{cite web |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/98-general-election-2009/ |title=General Election 2009 |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date= 22 October 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Shiv Sena
|candidate = [[Subhash Bapurao Wankhede|Subhash Wankhede]]
|votes = 3,40,148
|percentage = 41.61
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Nationalist Congress Party
|candidate = [[Suryakanta Patil]]
|votes = 2,66,514
|percentage = 32.60
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Dr. B. D. Chavan
|votes = 1,11,357
|percentage = 13.62
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link|
|party = Bharipa Bahujan Mahasangha
|candidate = Madhavrao Naik
|votes = 52,329
|percentage = 6.40
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority|
|votes = 73,634
|percentage = 9.01
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout|
|votes = 8,17,467
|percentage = 59.68
|change =
}}
{{Election box gain with party link|
|winner = Shiv Sena
|loser = Nationalist Congress Party
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==See also==
* [[Yavatmal district]]
* [[Hingoli district]]
* [[Nanded district]]
* [[List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100613063216/http://indian-electionaffairs.com/assets/constituency%20maps/Maharashtra.pdf A map of the Lok Sabha constituencies in Maharashtra]
*[https://indiaelection.github.io/indiaelections2014info/parliament/2019/states/maharashtra/hingoli/lok_sabha_parliamentary_election_2019_results.html Hingoli lok sabha constituency election 2019 results details]

{{Lok Sabha constituencies of Maharashtra}}
{{coords|19.72|77.15|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hingoli Lok Sabha constituency}}
[[Category:Lok Sabha constituencies in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Hingoli district]]
[[Category:Politics of Nanded district]]
[[Category:Yavatmal district]]
[[Category:1977 establishments in Maharashtra]]

Syed Ali Shah Geelani

2026-01-27T22:03:48Z

ShivaniSikri: Expanded content with additional details

{{Short description|Kashmiri separatist leader (1929–2021)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Syed Ali Shah Geelani
| honorific-suffix =
| image = Syedaligeelani (cropped).jpg
| caption = Geelani in 2009
| office = [[All Parties Hurriyat Conference|Chairman of All Parties Hurriyat Conference]]
| term_start = 1998
| term_end = 20 July 2000
| predecessor = [[Mirwaiz Umar Farooq]]
| successor = Abdul Ghani Bhat
| office1 = [[All Parties Hurriyat Conference|Chairman of All Parties Hurriyat Conference]] (Geelani faction)
| term_start1 = 13 September 2003
| term_end1 = 29 June 2020<ref name="ThePrint2020Syed">{{cite news |title=Syed Geelani quits Hurriyat, accuses Pakistan-based separatist leaders of nepotism, corruption |newspaper=ThePrint |date=29 June 2020 |url=https://theprint.in/politics/syed-geelani-quits-hurriyat-accuses-pakistan-based-separatist-leaders-of-nepotism-corruption/450837/ |access-date=26 December 2021 |archive-date=26 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211226193819/https://theprint.in/politics/syed-geelani-quits-hurriyat-accuses-pakistan-based-separatist-leaders-of-nepotism-corruption/450837/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name=ThePrint2020Disillusionment>{{cite news |title=Disillusionment or Pakistan push? Story behind Syed Ali Shah Geelani's Hurriyat exit |newspaper=ThePrint |date=1 July 2020 |url=https://theprint.in/india/disillusionment-or-pakistan-push-story-behind-syed-ali-shah-geelanis-hurriyat-exit/452201/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703165800/https://theprint.in/india/disillusionment-or-pakistan-push-story-behind-syed-ali-shah-geelanis-hurriyat-exit/452201/ |archive-date=3 July 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hindufaction"/>
| predecessor1 = [[Masarat Alam Bhat]] (interim)
| successor1 = Masarat Alam Bhat (interim)<ref name="Masarat"/>
| office2 = Chairman of [[Tehreek-e-Hurriyat]]
| term_start2 = 12 October 2004
| term_end2 = 19 March 2018<ref name="NIEchairman"/><ref name="outlookchairman"/>
| predecessor2 = ''position established''
| successor2 = [[Ashraf Sehrai]]
| office3 = [[Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly|Member of Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly]]
| term_start3 = 1972
| term_end3 = 1977
| term_start4 = 1977
| term_end4 = 1982
| term_start5 = 1987
| term_end5 = 1990
| constituency5 = [[Sopore (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Sopore]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1929|09|29|df=y}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|2021|9|1|1929|9|29|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Baramulla district|Zoori Munz]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_place = [[Srinagar]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]
| alma_mater = [[Oriental College, Lahore]]{{sfnp|Hakeem, Paradise on Fire|2014|p=25}} [[University of Kashmir]]{{sfnp|Hakeem, Paradise on Fire|2014|p=26}}
| education = Adib 'Alim;{{sfnp|Hakeem, Paradise on Fire|2014|p=25}} Adib-i-Fazil;{{sfnp|Hakeem, Paradise on Fire|2014|p=26}} Munshi Fazil{{sfnp|Hakeem, Paradise on Fire|2014|p=26}}
| spouse = {{marriage|Unknown||1968|end=d}}<ref>{{cite news|title=Separatist leader Syed Ali Shah Geelani dies in Srinagar|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/separatist-leader-syed-ali-shah-geelani-dies-in-srinagar-11630546026919.html|date=2 September 2021|newspaper=[[Livemint]]|via=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]]|access-date=7 September 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907052903/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/separatist-leader-syed-ali-shah-geelani-dies-in-srinagar-11630546026919.html|url-status=live}}</ref> {{marriage|Jawahira Begum||2021}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Syed Ali Geelani, Separatist Leader in Kashmir, Dies at 91|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/02/world/asia/syed-ali-shah-geelani-dead.html|date=September 2, 2021|first=Sameer|last=Yasir|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=7 September 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907052827/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/02/world/asia/syed-ali-shah-geelani-dead.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| children = 6
| party = [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference|JKNC]] (until {{circa|1952}}){{sfnp|Hakeem, Paradise on Fire |2014 |p=26}} [[Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir|JIJK]] (1953–2010)<ref>{{citation |title=The Man Who Says NoTo New Delhi |newspaper=The Caravan |date=1 September 2010}}</ref> [[Tehreek-e-Hurriyat|Hurriyat]] (2004–2018)
| Imageskyline =
| occupation = Kashmiri separatist leader
| citizenship = Indian
| awards = [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]] (2020)<ref name="Nishan-e-Pakistan"/>
}}

'''Syed Ali Shah Geelani''' (29 September 1929 – 1 September 2021) was a [[separatist]] leader active in [[Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir|separatist insurgency]] of the Indian [[union territory]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref>{{harvp|Garner, Chechnya and Kashmir: The Jihadist Evolution|2013|loc=p. 423: "The Jamaat-e-Islami's ideologue, Saeed Ali Shah Geelani, played a key role in political discourse, aiming to discredit and displace the JKLF's agenda and provide a religious rationale for advocating Kashmir's accession to Pakistan. Geelani was one of the first to place the Kashmiri struggle within an '''Islamist''' paradigm."}}</ref><ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Syed-Ali-Shah-Geelani-emerging-as-most-powerful-separatist-in-Kashmir/articleshow/46909150.cms "Syed Ali Shah Geelani emerging as most powerful separatist in Kashmir "] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209142026/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Syed-Ali-Shah-Geelani-emerging-as-most-powerful-separatist-in-Kashmir/articleshow/46909150.cms|date=9 December 2018}}. ''indiatimes.com''. Retrieved on 23 July 2016.</ref><ref name="IT 201022">{{cite news |author=[[Kaveree Bamzai]] |date=30 October 2010 |title=Syed Ali Shah Geelani: The Man who Hates India |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/the-big-story/story/20101108-syed-ali-shah-geelani-the-man-who-hates-india-744614-2010-10-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902044013/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/the-big-story/story/20101108-syed-ali-shah-geelani-the-man-who-hates-india-744614-2010-10-30 |archive-date=2 September 2021 |access-date=29 June 2020 |newspaper=India Today}}</ref> A [[Pro-Pakistan sentiment|pro-Pakistan]] separatist,<ref name="Sumantra Bose22">[[Sumantra Bose]], [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-58395386 Syed Ali Shah Geelani: The man who fought for Kashmir’s freedom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903213430/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-58395386|date=3 September 2021}}, BBC News, 2 September 2021. "First, he made it clear that although a proud Kashmiri, he considered his national identity to be '''Pakistani'''. Second, he was implacably hostile to the idea of an independent Kashmir.... The JKLF leader's amused reaction made light of a deadly schism the two views of freedom - the majority view favouring independence and the minority '''pro-Pakistan''' view - had produced in the Kashmiri movement."</ref><ref name="IT pro-Pakistan22">{{cite news |author=[[Kaveree Bamzai]] |date=30 October 2010 |title=Syed Ali Shah Geelani: The Man who Hates India |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/the-big-story/story/20101108-syed-ali-shah-geelani-the-man-who-hates-india-744614-2010-10-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902044013/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/the-big-story/story/20101108-syed-ali-shah-geelani-the-man-who-hates-india-744614-2010-10-30 |archive-date=2 September 2021 |access-date=29 June 2020 |newspaper=India Today |quote=But he remains firm on the demand for self-determination, which in his view would lead to Kashmir's accession to Pakistan. He does not want an independent Kashmir, although independence is preferable to "Indian imperialism". He is an ideologue who believes Kashmir should be an Islamic state within '''a theocratic Pakistan'''.}}</ref><ref name="Jamal jihad22">{{harvp|Jamal, Shadow War|2009|loc=pp. 141–143: "Among top leaders of the organization [Jamaat-i-Islami] in 1989, only Syed Ali Shah Geelani was willing to publicly support armed '''jihad'''. ... A pro-militancy constituency secretly arranged for Syed Ali Shah Geelani to address the group [of leaders]. When negotiations stalled, Geelani appeared suddenly, made an impassioned speech and, according to accounts of the meeting, succeeded in pushing the group toward openly supporting the '''jihad''' [which ended with the creation of [[Hizbul Mujahideen]]]."}}</ref> he is regarded as the father of the [[Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir|Kashmir resistance movement]].<ref>
[https://presswire18.com/the-father-of-jihad-in-kashmir-led-separatist-politics-for-3-decades-a-chapter-ends-with-the-death-of-ali-shah-geelani/ The 'father of jihad' in Kashmir, led separatist politics for 3 decades...A chapter ends with the death of Ali Shah Geelani], PressWire18, 2 September 2021. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904035203/https://presswire18.com/the-father-of-jihad-in-kashmir-led-separatist-politics-for-3-decades-a-chapter-ends-with-the-death-of-ali-shah-geelani/ |date=4 September 2021}}. Quote: 'Former RAW chief and Officer on Special Duty to the then Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, AS Dulat, in his book on Kashmir, had called Geelani the “father of jihad”.'
</ref><ref name="Amir-e-Jhad">PTI, [https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/jamaat-e-lslami-j-k-established-strong-links-with-isi-in-regular-touch-with-pak-119030900221_1.html Why India banned Jamaat-e-lslami and the 'Amir-e-Jihad' Geelani connection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904154846/https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/jamaat-e-lslami-j-k-established-strong-links-with-isi-in-regular-touch-with-pak-119030900221_1.html |date=4 September 2021 }}, Business Standard, 9 March 2019.</ref><ref name="Praveen Swami">Praveen Swami, [https://www.news18.com/news/politics/the-sunset-of-kashmirs-jihadist-patriarch-syed-ali-shah-geelani-2692929.html The Sunset of Kashmir's Jihadist Patriarch, Syed Ali Shah Geelani] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903202811/https://www.news18.com/news/politics/the-sunset-of-kashmirs-jihadist-patriarch-syed-ali-shah-geelani-2692929.html |date=3 September 2021 }}, News18, 29 June 2020 (updated 1 September 2021).</ref>

He was a member of [[Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir]] since 1953, and was regarded as one of its most significant leaders. Geelani was also a three-time [[Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir|Member of the Legislative Assembly]] from the [[Sopore (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Sopore constituency]], elected on a Jamaat-e-Islami ticket in 1972, 1977 and in 1987.<ref>
[http://www.elections.in/jammu-and-kashmir/assembly-constituencies/sopore.html "Sopore Election 2014, Results, Candidate List and winner of Sopore Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) Constituency, Jammu And Kashmir"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326172205/http://www.elections.in/jammu-and-kashmir/assembly-constituencies/sopore.html |date=26 March 2019 }}. ''elections.in''. Retrieved on 23 July 2016.
</ref><ref name="Masarat">{{cite web |title=Masarat Alam: Successor to Geelani with 'anti-India sentiment' |publisher=Hindustantimes.com |date=10 March 2015 |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/masarat-alam-successor-to-geelani-with-anti-india-sentiment-in-his-blood/article1-1324422.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309230828/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/masarat-alam-successor-to-geelani-with-anti-india-sentiment-in-his-blood/article1-1324422.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 March 2015 }}</ref>

== Early life ==
Geelani was born in 1929 in a village called Zurimanz, in the [[Aloosa]] tehsil, in the [[Bandipora district]] of North Kashmir into a [[Sayyid|Syed]] family.{{efn|Abdul Hakeem states the birth place as the Khonus village, at the edge of [[Bandipora]].{{sfnp|Hakeem, Paradise on Fire|2014|p=25}}}} He was the son of a landless labourer in the canals department. Geelani was educated partly in [[Sopore]] and the rest in [[Lahore]]. He studied in a madrasa attached to the [[Wazir Khan Mosque|Masjid Wazir Khan]] and later enrolled in the [[Oriental College, Lahore|Oriental College]]. He completed ''Adib 'Alim'', a course in Islamic theology.{{sfnp|Sikand, Jama'at-i-Islami of Jammu and Kashmir|2002|p=719}}<ref name="Praveen Swami" />{{sfnp|Hakeem, Paradise on Fire|2014|p=25}}

== Career ==
Returning to Kashmir after studies in Lahore, Geelani became active in the [[Jammu & Kashmir National Conference]]. He was appointed the secretary of the party unit in Zurimanj. In 1946, during the [[Quit Kashmir]] movement of the National Conference, he came in contact with [[Maulana Masoodi|Maulana Sayeed Masoodi]], the general secretary of the National Conference, who took a liking to him and made him a reporter to the party newspaper ''Akhbar-i-Khidmat''.{{sfnp|Sikand, Jama'at-i-Islami of Jammu and Kashmir|2002|p=719}}<ref name="Praveen Swami" />

Maulana Masoodi also sponsored further studies for Geelani, who completed an ''adib-i-fazil'' course in Urdu and other courses in Persian and English. After this, he took a job as a school teacher, first at Pathar Masjid and later at Rainawari in Srinagar.{{sfnp|Sikand, Jama'at-i-Islami of Jammu and Kashmir|2002|p=719}} Here he came in contact with [[Saaduddin Tarabali]], a follower of the [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] founder Maulana [[Abul A'la Maududi]]. Maududi advocated a hardline Islamist ideology, whereby Islam had to be the foundation of the entire political order.{{sfnp|Hakeem, Paradise on Fire|2014|p=26}}<ref name="Praveen Swami" /> Geelani had borrowed a book of Maududi from the local book store, which made a deep impression upon him. He was to later say, Maududi had "beautifully.. expressed the feelings that lay deep down in my own heart".{{sfnp|Sikand, Jama'at-i-Islami of Jammu and Kashmir|2002|pp=719–720}} The National Conference headquarters, Mujahid Manzil, where Geelani apparently stayed, soon began to be seen as "a den of Pakistanis".{{sfnp|Hakeem, Paradise on Fire|2014|p=26}}

Geelani was soon moved out of Srinagar, and he came to work in the Intermediate College in Sopore. He stayed in this position for six years. During this time, he was reading the literature of [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] and conveying its contents to his students in lectures. He also addressed congregations in mosques. He had become a full-fledged member of Jamaat in 1952.{{sfnp|Hakeem, Paradise on Fire|2014|p=26}}

=== Electoral politics ===
Geelani entered into electoral politics ahead of the [[1971 Indian general election in Jammu and Kashmir|1971 Indian general election]]. Geelani had claimed that the Jamaat-e-Islami wanted to use it as an opportunity to spread its ideology, keep the Kashmir issue in prominence and protect basic and fundamental rights of the people.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}} Geelani contested as an [[independent candidate]] but lost to [[Syed Ahmed Aga]],<ref name="Wani">{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2019/mar/14/a-multi-cornered-fight-in-nc-bastion-faesal-the-dark-horse-1950913.html|title=Baramulla-Kupwara: A multi-cornered fight in National Conference bastion; Faesal the dark horse|author=Fayaz Wani|date=14 March 2019|access-date=18 February 2023|work=The New Indian Express|archive-date=18 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218091453/https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2019/mar/14/a-multi-cornered-fight-in-nc-bastion-faesal-the-dark-horse-1950913.html|url-status=live}}</ref> with the Jamaat alleging ballot-rigging.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

He participated in the [[1972 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1972 legislative assembly election]] from [[Sopore Assembly constituency|Sopore]]. He won from the seat in that year and again in the [[1977 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1977 legislative assembly election]]. He was however defeated in the [[1983 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1983 election]] due to the sympathy wave generated for the Jammu & Kashmir National Conference by the death of [[Sheikh Abdullah]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd2ZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT312|title=The Lost Rebellion: Kashmir in the Nineties|author=Manoj Joshi|publisher=Penguin Random House|year=2019|isbn=9788184752632|access-date=18 February 2023|archive-date=18 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218094607/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd2ZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT312|url-status=live}}</ref> Geelani also contested the [[1977 Indian general election in Jammu and Kashmir|1977 Indian general election]] as an independent candidate due to the banning of Jamaat in 1975, but lost to [[Abdul Ahad Vakil]].<ref name="Wani"/><ref name="Tahir"/>

In the [[1987 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|1987 legislative assembly election]], Jamaat-e-Islami candidates including Geelani participated under a coalition of parties called the [[Muslim United Front]] (MUF). Geelani won the seat from Sopore, but was expelled from the MUF in 1988.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RfhQAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188|title=Kashmir in Comparative Perspective: Democracy and Violent Separatism in India|author=Sten Wildmalm|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1997|isbn=9781136866944|pages=188, 189|access-date=18 February 2023|archive-date=18 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218095806/https://books.google.com/books?id=RfhQAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188|url-status=live}}</ref> Geelani resigned as an [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|MLA]] in August 1989 due to alleged widespread ballot rigging in the 1987 election.<ref name="Tahir">{{cite web|url=https://kashmirlife.net/a-quiet-burial-vol-13-issue-23-275799/|title=A Quiet Burial|work=Kashmir Life|author=Tahir Bhat|date=12 September 2021|access-date=18 February 2023|archive-date=18 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218091454/https://kashmirlife.net/a-quiet-burial-vol-13-issue-23-275799/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Separatist leader ===
Geelani was viewed as a key separatist leader in Kashmir.<ref>[https://www.dawn.com/news/916178/indian-police-arrest-syed-ali-geelani-in-kashmir Indian police arrest Syed Ali Geelani in Kashmir] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215120954/https://www.dawn.com/news/916178/indian-police-arrest-syed-ali-geelani-in-kashmir |date=15 December 2018 }}, Dawn, 8 September 2010.</ref> [[Omar Abdullah]], former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir, blamed Geelani for the rise in militancy and bloodshed in Kashmir, while his father and former Union Minister [[Farooq Abdullah]] urged Geelani to follow a path which would "save Kashmiri people from further destruction".<ref name="Farooq, Omar lash out at Geelani">{{cite news |title=Farooq, Omar lash out at Geelani |url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/04/29/stories/2007042902651000.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219050314/http://www.hindu.com/2007/04/29/stories/2007042902651000.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 December 2007 |location=Chennai, India |newspaper=The Hindu |date=29 April 2007 }}</ref><ref name="Farooq asks Geelani to adopt a path which can save people">{{cite news |title=Farooq asks Geelani to adopt a path which can save people |newspaper=The Hindu |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/002200709081922.htm |location=Chennai, India |date=8 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912183659/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/002200709081922.htm |archive-date=12 September 2007 }}</ref>

He was one of the founding members of the [[All Parties Hurriyat Conference]] (APHC), an alliance of Kashmiri social and political organisations who supported a referendum for Kashmir, in 1993 and was the initial choice for the position of its chairman. [[Mirwaiz Umar Farooq]] was however chosen instead due to the secular organisations forming majority of the alliance.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2BPFAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT132|title=Paradise on Fire: Syed Ali Geelani and the Struggle for Freedom in Kashmir|author=Abdul Hakeem|publisher=Kube Publishing Limited|date=2 June 2014|isbn=9780953676866|page=132|access-date=4 February 2023|archive-date=4 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204100638/https://books.google.com/books?id=2BPFAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT132|url-status=live}}</ref> Geelani became the chairman in 1998,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qM6kW9ZRMRkC&pg=PA55|title=Demystifying Kashmir|author=Navnita Chadha Behera|publisher=Pearson Education|year=2006|isbn=9780815708599|page=53|access-date=4 February 2023|archive-date=4 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204104047/https://books.google.com/books?id=qM6kW9ZRMRkC&pg=PA55|url-status=live}}</ref> and was replaced by Abdul Ghani Bhat on 20 July 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.milligazette.com/Archives/15-7-2000/Art18.htm|title=Interview: Abdul Ghani Bhat|work=The Milli Gazette|access-date=20 July 2020|archive-date=25 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625123206/https://www.milligazette.com/Archives/15-7-2000/Art18.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

He also criticised the [[Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference]] for fielding proxy candidates in the [[2002 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|2002 assembly election]] and sought its removal, threatening to launch his own party.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/article30218114.ece|title=The battle within|author=[[Praveen Swami]]|work=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]|date=1 August 2003|access-date=7 February 2023|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207053638/https://frontline.thehindu.com/the-nation/article30218114.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2003, the Jamaat-e-Islami removed him as its representative from the executive body of Hurriyat in order to counter hardliners in the organisation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2003/may/24jk.htm|title=Geelani removed from Hurriyat executive by Jamaat-e-Islami|work=Press Trust of India|publisher=Rediff|date=23 May 2003|access-date=7 February 2023}}</ref> In August 2003 it removed him from the position of head of its political bureau, appointing [[Ashraf Sehrai]] in his place.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/geelani-is-out-of-jamaat-e-islami/articleshow/139060.cms|title=Geelani is out of Jamaat-e-Islami|work=The Times of India|date=20 August 2003|access-date=7 February 2023|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207053646/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/geelani-is-out-of-jamaat-e-islami/articleshow/139060.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

The appointment of [[Mohammad Abbas Ansari]] as chairman of Hurriyat precipitated a crisis in the organisation and it split in September 2003.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipcs.org/comm_select.php?articleNo=1156|title=The Hurriyat Splits (Urdu Media Survey 1-15 September 2003)|author=Amin Masoodi|work=Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies|date=20 September 2003|access-date=4 February 2023|archive-date=4 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204110804/http://www.ipcs.org/comm_select.php?articleNo=1156|url-status=live}}</ref> Geelani formed his own faction within the Hurriyat Conference, called the "All Parties Hurriyat Conference (G)", in September 2003 and was elected as its chairman for three years, replacing its interim chairman [[Masarat Alam Bhat]]. It consists of 24 parties. In 2006 he was re-elected for a term of three years despite expressing his desire to step down owing to ill health.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030916/main4.htm|title=Geelani heads breakaway Hurriyat group|work=The Tribune|date=15 September 2003|access-date=4 February 2023|archive-date=4 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204110759/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030916/main4.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2006/sep/13geel.htm|title=Geelani re-elected chairman of hardline Hurriyat Conference|work=Rediff|date=13 September 2006|access-date=4 February 2023|archive-date=4 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204080356/https://www.rediff.com/news/2006/sep/13geel.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NIEchairman">
{{cite web |author=Fayaz Wani |date=19 March 2018 |title=Syed Ali Shah Geelani quits as Tehreek-e-Hurriyat party chairman but will continue to head Hurriyat |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2018/mar/19/syed-ali-shah-geelani-quits-as-tehreek-e-hurriyat-party-chairman-but-will-continue-to-head-hurriyat-1789362.html |work=The New Indian Express}}
</ref> In 2015, he was appointed as the lifetime chairman of the faction.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/geelani-made-lifetime-chairman-of-hardline-hurriyat/articleshow/49922836.cms?from=mdr|title=Geelani made lifetime chairman of hardline Hurriyat|work=Press Trust of India|publisher=The Economic Times|date=25 November 2015|access-date=4 February 2023|archive-date=4 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204065735/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/geelani-made-lifetime-chairman-of-hardline-hurriyat/articleshow/49922836.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref>

In February 2004, he sought to form his own party.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jammu-kashmir.com/archives/archives2004/kashmir20040217c.html|title=Geelani To Float New Party|work=NNI News|publisher=Jammu-Kashmir.com|date=17 February 2004|access-date=7 February 2023|archive-date=24 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124193306/http://jammu-kashmir.com/archives/archives2004/kashmir20040217c.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Jamaat-e-Islami prohibited him from doing so<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jammu-kashmir.com/archives/archives2004/kashmir20040715c.html|title=Jamaat won't allow Geelani to float new party|work=[[The Daily Excelsior]]|publisher=Jammu-Kashmir.com|date=15 July 2004|access-date=7 February 2023|archive-date=24 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124151736/http://jammu-kashmir.com/archives/archives2004/kashmir20040715c.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and suspended him.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/1004512/in-petition-to-delhi-high-court-jamaat-e-islami-distances-itself-from-separatism-in-kashmir|title=In petition to Delhi High Court, Jamaat-e-Islami distances itself from separatism in Kashmir|author=Safwat Zargar|work=Scroll|date=5 September 2021|access-date=7 February 2023|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307121302/https://scroll.in/article/1004512/in-petition-to-delhi-high-court-jamaat-e-islami-distances-itself-from-separatism-in-kashmir|url-status=live}}</ref> In response, he dropped the idea for launching the party and tried to take over the leadership of the organisation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jammu-kashmir.com/archives/archives2004/kashmir20040726b.html|title=Geelani camp all set to capture Jamaat hqs on Aug 5|work=[[The Daily Excelsior]]|publisher=Jammu-Kashmir.com|date=26 July 2004|access-date=7 February 2023|archive-date=16 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216183238/http://jammu-kashmir.com/archives/archives2004/kashmir20040726b.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Bowing to the pressure, the Jamaat readmitted him in August 2004 and allowed him to form his own party.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30224181.ece|title=The hawks strike back|author=[[Praveen Swami]]|work=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]|date=27 August 2004|access-date=7 February 2023|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207053640/https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30224181.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> In the same month he founded the [[Tehreek-e-Hurriyat]] and was elected as its chairman for three years in October 2004.<ref name="NIEchairman"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jammu-kashmir.com/archives/archives2004/kashmir20041012c.html|title=Geelani Elected Chairman Of Tehreek-e-Hurriyat|work=The Hindustan Times|publisher=Jammu-Kashmir.com|date=12 October 2004|access-date=4 February 2023|archive-date=4 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204061057/https://www.jammu-kashmir.com/archives/archives2004/kashmir20041012c.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> He was re-elected to the position for three year-terms consecutively in 2007, 2010<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/geelani-re-elected-hurriyat-chairman-113102600614_1.html|title=Geelani re-elected Hurriyat chairman|work=Press Trust of India|date=17 September 2013|access-date=4 February 2023|agency=Press Trust of India|archive-date=4 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204071237/https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/geelani-re-elected-hurriyat-chairman-113102600614_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/geelani-reelected-as-chairman-of-hurriyat-arm/|title=Geelani re-elected as chairman of Hurriyat arm|work=The Indian Express|date=17 September 2013|access-date=4 February 2023|archive-date=4 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204065708/https://indianexpress.com/article/news-archive/web/geelani-reelected-as-chairman-of-hurriyat-arm/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2017 he was given a year-long extension after the party failed to hold regular elections in 2016 due to the [[2016–2017 Kashmir unrest]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/feb/26/geelani-gets-a-year-long-extension-as-chairman-of-tehreek-e-hurriyat-1575051.html|title=Geelani gets a year long extension as chairman of Tehreek-e-Hurriyat|work=The New Indian Express|date=26 February 2017|access-date=4 February 2023|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207101101/https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2017/feb/26/geelani-gets-a-year-long-extension-as-chairman-of-tehreek-e-hurriyat-1575051.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Jammat-e-Islami removed Geelani from its advisory council in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/2005/jun/16geelani.htm|title=Jamaat-e-Islami removes Geelani from advisory body|work=Press Trust of India|publisher=Rediff|date=16 June 2005|access-date=7 February 2023|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207043710/https://www.rediff.com/news/2005/jun/16geelani.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> It later started distancing itself from him and stated that he did not represent them, but the Tehreek-e-Hurriyat.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/geelani-not-our-man-says-jamaat/597813/|title=Geelani not our man, says Jamaat|author=Bashaarat Masood|work=The Indian Express|date=31 March 2010|access-date=7 February 2023}}</ref> In April 2010 it temporarily expelled him from the organisation due to him defending the freedom of the author of his biography ''Qaid-e-Inqilab – Ek Tareekh, Ek Tehreek'' over making derogatory remarks against the party,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jammu-kashmir.com/archives/archives2010/kashmir20100429c.html|title=Geelani Can't Be Reinstated: Jamaat|author=Shabir ul Haq|work=Kashmir Times|publisher=Jammu-Kashmir.com|date=29 April 2010|access-date=4 February 2023|archive-date=4 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204141016/https://www.jammu-kashmir.com/archives/archives2010/kashmir20100429c.html|url-status=live}}</ref> but later restored him as a basic member (''rukun'').<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kashmirlife.net/property-row-geelani-to-reply-jamaat-letter-12022014-55164/|title=Property row: Geelani to reply Jama'at letter|author=Muhammad Rafi|work=Kashmir Life|date=12 February 2014|access-date=7 February 2023|archive-date=7 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207102504/https://kashmirlife.net/property-row-geelani-to-reply-jamaat-letter-12022014-55164/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Geelani had called for numerous general strikes or shutdowns, in response to the deaths of unnamed suspected militants, local militants and death of civilians in Kashmir.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.authintmail.com/article/kashmir/partial-shutdown-kashmir-against-lolab-killings |title=Partial shutdown in Kashmir against Lolab killings |date=28 February 2014 |archive-date=14 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114080634/https://authint.com/ |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.authintmail.com/article/kashmir/hurriyat-calls-shutdown-sunday-against-naidkhai-killing |title=Hurriyat calls for shutdown on Sunday against Naidkhai killing |date=15 March 2014 |publisher=Authint Mail |archive-date=14 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114080634/https://authint.com/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Geelani had appealed to people of Kashmir to boycott the 2014 [[2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election|legislative assembly elections]] completely, not accepting the proposals for self-rule or autonomy that had been offered by the [[People's Democratic Party (India)|People's Democratic Party]] and the then ruling National Conference.<ref name="Tantry">{{cite web |author=Ishfaq Tantry |date=1 April 2014 |title=Kashmir: To Vote Or Not To Vote Is The Question |url=http://freepresskashmir.com/kashmir-to-vote-or-not-to-vote-is-the-question-073101/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140406152303/http://freepresskashmir.com/kashmir-to-vote-or-not-to-vote-is-the-question-073101/ |archive-date=6 April 2014 |publisher=Free Press Kashmir}}</ref><ref>[http://ibnlive.in.com/news/syed-ali-shah-geelanis-jk-election-boycott-call-resonates-in-his-hometown-sopore/516279-37-64.html "Syed Ali Shah Geelani's J&K election boycott call resonates in his hometown Sopore"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204083945/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/syed-ali-shah-geelanis-jk-election-boycott-call-resonates-in-his-hometown-sopore/516279-37-64.html|date=4 December 2014}}. ''in.com''. 3 December 2014.</ref> Despite repeated boycott appeals, the elections had record voter turnout of more than 65%, which was the highest in 25 years of history of the state.<ref>[https://www.deccanchronicle.com/141223/nation-current-affairs/article/jammu-and-kashmir-registers-highest-voter-turnout-25-years "Jammu and Kashmir registers highest voter turnout in 25 years, Jharkhand breaks records"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030212728/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/141223/nation-current-affairs/article/jammu-and-kashmir-registers-highest-voter-turnout-25-years |date=30 October 2023 }} . ''deccanchronicle.com''.</ref><ref>[https://archive.today/20150315203847/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/jk-polls-76-per-cent-voter-turnout-recorded-in-the-final-phase/519066-3-245.html "J&K polls: 76 percent voter turnout recorded in the final phase"]. ''in.com''. 20 December 2014. Retrieved on 23 July 2016.</ref><ref>[http://www.ndtv.com/assembly/jammu-and-kashmir-registers-highest-voter-turnout-in-25-years-jharkhand-breaks-records-715845 "Jammu and Kashmir Registers Highest Voter Turnout in 25 Years, Jharkhand Breaks Records"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402171902/http://www.ndtv.com/assembly/jammu-and-kashmir-registers-highest-voter-turnout-in-25-years-jharkhand-breaks-records-715845|date=2 April 2015}}. ''ndtv.com''. Retrieved on 23 July 2016.</ref> After record voting percentage in Kashmir, Geelani, along with other separatists, were criticised by Indian media for misleading people of Kashmir and for not representing true sentiments of Kashmiri people.<ref>[http://indianexpress.com/article/india/politics/jharkhand-jk-vote-for-phase-1-of-assembly-elections-today/ "J&K polls: Valley opts for ballot over bullet with 71 percent voting in first phase"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402161133/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/politics/jharkhand-jk-vote-for-phase-1-of-assembly-elections-today/|date=2 April 2015}}. ''indianexpress.com''. 25 November 2014. Retrieved on 23 July 2016.</ref><ref>[http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/toi-editorials/ballot-over-bullet-brisk-voting-in-jk-and-jharkhand-showcases-faith-in-democracy/ "Ballot over bullet: Brisk voting in J&K and Jharkhand showcases faith in democracy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402141520/http://blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/toi-editorials/ballot-over-bullet-brisk-voting-in-jk-and-jharkhand-showcases-faith-in-democracy/|date=2 April 2015}}. ''indiatimes.com''. 26 November 2014. Retrieved on 23 July 2016.</ref>

Geelani received the invitation to participate in the annual meeting of the foreign ministers of member states of the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC) and the Kashmir Contact Group to be held in New York from 27 September 2015.<ref>[https://www.indiatoday.in/india/jammu-and-kashmir/story/syed-ali-shah-geelani-decides-to-participate-in-oic-meet-in-new-york-263906-2015-09-20 "Syed Ali Shah Geelani decides to participate in OIC meet in New York"] . ''India Today''. Retrieved on 23 July 2016.</ref> After the killing of [[Burhan Muzaffar Wani]] and the [[2016–2017 Kashmir unrest|unrest that followed]] it, to restore normalcy in Kashmir, Geelani sent a letter to United Nations listing six confidence-building measures.<ref>[https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/repeal-afspa-release-prisoners-for-peace-and-resolution-says-geelani-329697-2016-07-17 "Repeal AFSPA, release prisoners for peace and resolution, says Geelani"] .''India Today'' . Retrieved on 23 July 2016.</ref><ref>[http://www.firstpost.com/india/kashmir-unrest-syed-ali-shah-geelani-lists-measures-for-return-of-peace-2899044.html Kashmir unrest: Syed Ali Shah Geelani lists measures for return of peace], Firstpost, 17 July 2016. {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402123137/https://www.firstpost.com/india/kashmir-unrest-syed-ali-shah-geelani-lists-measures-for-return-of-peace-2899044.html |date=2 April 2019 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/separatist-leader-geelani-asks-un-world-to-intervene-in-kashmir-terror/story-yBZ7Jul6DN9M4Pqw86b0yK.html "Separatist leader Geelani asks UN, world to intervene over Kashmir violence"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402075053/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/separatist-leader-geelani-asks-un-world-to-intervene-in-kashmir-terror/story-yBZ7Jul6DN9M4Pqw86b0yK.html |date=2 April 2019 }}. ''hindustantimes.com''. 17 July 2016. Retrieved on 23 July 2016.</ref>

In March 2018, Geelani announced his resignation as chairman of the Tehreek-e-Hurriyat citing ill health, being replaced with Ashraf Sehrai. However he remained the chairman of his faction of the All Parties Hurriyat Conference.<ref name="outlookchairman">{{cite web |date=19 March 2018 |title=Syed Ali Shah Geelani Resigns As Tehreek-e-Hurriyat Chairman, Muhammad Ashraf Sehrai To Replace Him |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/syed-ali-shah-geelani-resigns-as-tehreek-e-hurriyat-chairman-muhammad-ashraf-seh/309677 |work=Outlook}}</ref><ref name="NIEchairman"/> In June 2020 he announced his resignation from the faction, accusing it of nepotism and corruption, in addition to misinterpreting his speeches and taking decisions without him.<ref name="ThePrint2020Syed" /><ref name=ThePrint2020Disillusionment /><ref name="Hindufaction">{{cite web |author=Peerzada Ashiq |date=29 June 2020 |title=Ailing Syed Ali Geelani quits Hurriyat Conference |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hurriyat-chairman-syed-ali-shah-geelani-quits/article31943869.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203101729/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hurriyat-chairman-syed-ali-shah-geelani-quits/article31943869.ece |archive-date=3 February 2023 |access-date=3 February 2023 |work=The Hindu}}</ref> It however refused to accept his resignation and did not name a new chairman until after his death.<ref name="Masarat"/>

=== Sedition charge ===
On 29 November 2010, Geelani, along with writer [[Arundhati Roy]], activist [[Varavara Rao]] and three others,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tehelka.com/sedition-fir-puts-delhi-police-in-a-tough-spot/ |title=Sedition FIR puts Delhi Police in a tough spot |author=Kujal Majumder |publisher=Tehelka.com |archive-date=15 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140315173420/http://www.tehelka.com/sedition-fir-puts-delhi-police-in-a-tough-spot/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> was charged under "sections 124A ([[sedition]]), 153A (promoting enmity between classes), 153B (imputations, assertions prejudicial to national integration), 504 (insult intended to provoke breach of peace) and 505 (false statement, rumour circulated with intent to cause mutiny or offence against public peace...) to be read with Section 13 of the Unlawful Activities Prevention Act of 1967". The charges, which carried a maximum sentence of life imprisonment, were the result of a self-titled seminar they gave in [[New Delhi]], "Azadi-the Only Way" on 21 October, at which Geelani was heckled.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/sedition-case-registered-against-arundhati-roy-geelani-69431 |title=Sedition case registered against Arundhati Roy, Geelani |author=Press Trust of India |publisher=NDTV |date=29 November 2010 |archive-date=4 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004151802/http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/sedition-case-registered-against-arundhati-roy-geelani-69431 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Judge-ignores-key-ruling-in-Roy-sedition-case/articleshow/7045710.cms |title=Judge ignores key ruling in Roy sedition case |author=Manoj Mitta |newspaper=Times of India |date=5 December 2013 |archive-date=12 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112044804/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Judge-ignores-key-ruling-in-Roy-sedition-case/articleshow/7045710.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Geelani lived in Hyderpora, [[Srinagar]]. He had two sons; Nayeem and Naseem, and four daughters; Anisha, Farhat Jabeen, Zamshida, and Chamshida.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/14-properties-of-geelani-kin-worth-rs-150-crore-under-nia-lens/articleshow/59907752.cms |title=NIA: 14 properties of Geelani, kin worth Rs 150 crore under NIA lens |website=The Times of India |date=4 August 2017 |archive-date=12 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912002551/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/14-properties-of-geelani-kin-worth-rs-150-crore-under-nia-lens/articleshow/59907752.cms |url-status=live}}</ref> Anisha and Farhat are Geelani's daughters from his second marriage. Nayeem and his wife are both doctors who used to live and practise medicine in [[Rawalpindi]], Pakistan, but they returned to India in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/geelani-s-son-back-from-pak-after-12-yrs/717433/ |title=Geelani's son back from Pak after 12 yrs — Indian Express |website=archive.indianexpress.com |archive-date=6 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606001846/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/geelani-s-son-back-from-pak-after-12-yrs/717433 |url-status=live}}</ref> Geelani's younger son, Naseem works as a Senior scientist at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology in Srinagar.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/nia-grills-geelani-s-sons-jklf-chief-s-aide-in-terror-funding-case/story-Tj5lk6P0fbNNEG8ck0NJNK.html |title=NIA grills Geelani's sons, JKLF chief's aide in terror funding case |date=28 August 2017 |website=Hindustan Times |archive-date=11 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111113127/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/nia-grills-geelani-s-sons-jklf-chief-s-aide-in-terror-funding-case/story-Tj5lk6P0fbNNEG8ck0NJNK.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Geelani's grandson Izhaar is a crew member in a private airline in India. Geelani's daughter Farhat is a madani teacher in [[Jeddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and her husband is an engineer there.<ref name="tribuneindia">{{cite news |title=As Valley kids suffer, separatists' wards thrive in safe havens |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100919/main2.htm |newspaper=The Tribune |date=19 September 2010 |archive-date=9 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909122930/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20100919/main2.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theweek.in/content/archival/news/india/hurriyat-leaders-children-leading-life-luxury.html |title=Children of Hurriyat: A life of luxury, here's the list |website=theweek.in |archive-date=26 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526220845/https://www.theweek.in/content/archival/news/india/hurriyat-leaders-children-leading-life-luxury.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Geelani's other grandchildren are studying in leading schools of India. His cousin Ghulam Nabi Fai is presently in London.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/thesundaystandard/2016/jul/17/separatists-keep-own-kids-away-from-harms-way-881781.html |title=Separatists keep own kids away from harm's way |website=The New Indian Express |date=17 July 2016 |archive-date=1 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701012439/https://www.newindianexpress.com/thesundaystandard/2016/jul/17/Separatists-keep-own-kids-away-from-harms-way-881781.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Ruwa Shah, daughter of Kashmiri separatist [[Altaf Ahmad Shah]] (SAS Geelani's son-in-law) is a journalist.<ref>{{cite web |title=Geelani's granddaughter to hold anti-India show on Jan 7 |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/geelanis-granddaughter-to-hold-antiindia-show-on-jan-7/1699074 |url-status=live |website=outlookindia.com |archive-date=2 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902044014/https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/geelanis-granddaughter-to-hold-antiindia-show-on-jan-7/1699074}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/health/kashmiri-separatist-leader-altaf-ahmad-shahs-daughter-says-he-is-denied-proper-healthcare-in-tihar |title=Kashmiri separatist leader Altaf Ahmad Shah's daughter says he is denied proper healthcare in Tihar |first=Ruwa |last=Shah |website=The Caravan |archive-date=17 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617080316/https://caravanmagazine.in/health/kashmiri-separatist-leader-altaf-ahmad-shahs-daughter-says-he-is-denied-proper-healthcare-in-tihar |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/fear-father-imprisoned-pandemic-stricken-india-200624091448725.html |title=I fear for my father imprisoned in pandemic-stricken India |first=Ruwa |last=Shah |website=www.aljazeera.com |archive-date=2 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902044014/https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/6/28/i-fear-for-my-father-imprisoned-in-pandemic-stricken-india/ |url-status=live}}</ref> She previously worked as a journalist in India with organisations including the [[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]], [[Indo-Asian News Service|IANS]] and ''[[The Indian Express]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/profile/ruwa-shah.html |title=Ruwa Shah |website=www.aljazeera.com |archive-date=6 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606195708/https://www.aljazeera.com/profile/ruwa-shah.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/profile/author/ruwa-shah/ |title=Ruwa Shah |date=2 March 2014 |archive-date=20 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180120082502/http://indianexpress.com/profile/author/ruwa-shah/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Health issues, passport suspension and house arrest ===
Geelani's passport was seized in 1981 due to accusations of "anti-India" activities. With the exception of his [[Hajj]] pilgrimage in 2006, he has not been allowed to leave India.{{Update inline |date=October 2015}}<ref name="Ailing Kashmiri separatist">{{cite news |title=Ailing Kashmiri separatist |newspaper=Gulf Times |url=http://www.gulf-times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=136912&version=1&template_id=40&parent_id=22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080614021621/http://www.gulf-times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=136912&version=1&template_id=40&parent_id=22 |archive-date=14 June 2008 }}</ref> He was diagnosed with [[renal cancer]], and advised treatment from abroad in the same year. On the then Indian Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]]'s intervention, the government returned Geelani's passport to his son.<ref name="India Daily">{{cite web |url=http://www.indiadaily.com/editorial/16014.asp |title=IndiaDaily – Geelani applies for US visa for treatment in one of the specialist hospitals |archive-date=16 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070316103418/http://www.indiadaily.com/editorial/16014.asp |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2007, his condition worsened,<ref name="kashmirdispatch">{{cite web |url=http://www.kashmirdispatch.com/headlines/120321237-geelani-refuses-to-use-kashmir-govt-s-chopper.htm |title=Geelani refuses to use govt's chopper |date=12 January 2013 |publisher=Kashmir Dispatch |archive-date=13 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313125032/http://www.kashmirdispatch.com/headlines/120321237-geelani-refuses-to-use-kashmir-govt-s-chopper.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> although in the early stages of the cancer, it was life-threatening and surgery was advised. Geelani was set to travel to either the [[UK]] or the [[United States]].<ref name="Cancer-hit Geelani awaits travel documents">{{cite web |title=Cancer-hit Geelani awaits |publisher=India News |url=http://www.indiasnews.net/story/232351 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928094856/http://www.indiasnews.net/story/232351 |archive-date=28 September 2007 }}</ref> However, his visa request was rejected by the American government citing his violent approach in Kashmir conflict and he went to [[Mumbai]] for surgery. His supporters and family alleged that this was a "human rights violation".<ref name="US visa denial is rights violation">{{cite web |title=US visa denial is rights violation |publisher=India eNews |url=http://www.indiaenews.com/india/20070329/45196.htm |archive-date=27 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927185323/http://www.indiaenews.com/india/20070329/45196.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 6 March 2014, Geelani fell ill with a severe chest infection, shortly after returning to his home in [[Srinagar]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brecorder.com/general-news/172/1162433/ |title=Geelani flies to Delhi for treatment |publisher=Business Recorder |date=14 March 2014 |archive-date=15 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140315054317/http://www.brecorder.com/general-news/172/1162433/ |url-status=live}}</ref> He has been under house arrest for most of the time since 2010,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://freepresskashmir.com/is-ailing-geelani-leading-face-of-kashmirs-separatist-campaign-065510/ |title=Is Ailing Geelani Leading Face Of Kashmir's Separatist Campaign? |publisher=Free Kashmir |author=Kainaat Mushtaq |date=10 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140313094139/http://freepresskashmir.com/is-ailing-geelani-leading-face-of-kashmirs-separatist-campaign-065510/ |archive-date=13 March 2014}}</ref><ref name=":0"/> and was put under house arrest again on his return.<ref>{{cite web |title=Syed Ali Shah Geelani ailing, to be flown to Delhi |url=http://paktribune.com/news/Syed-Ali-Shah-Geelani-ailing-to-be-flown-to-Delhi-267505.html |publisher=Pak Tribune |date=13 March 2014 |archive-date=15 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140315071006/http://paktribune.com/news/Syed-Ali-Shah-Geelani-ailing-to-be-flown-to-Delhi-267505.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2015, Geelani applied for passport to visit his daughter in Saudi Arabia. The Indian government withheld it citing technical reasons, including the fact that he deliberately failed to fill in the nationality column required in the application.<ref>{{cite news |title=Geelani's passport plea after formalities completed: Rajnath |url=http://www.kashmirtimes.in/newsdet.aspx?q=41248 |newspaper=Kashmir Times |date=22 May 2015 |archive-date=26 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526003816/http://www.kashmirtimes.in/newsdet.aspx?q=41248 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Geelani's 'incomplete' passport application cannot be processed: MEA |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/geelanis-incomplete-passport-application-cannot-be-processed-mea/ |newspaper=Indian Express |date=22 May 2015 |archive-date=24 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524010312/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/geelanis-incomplete-passport-application-cannot-be-processed-mea/ |url-status=live}}</ref> On 21 July, the Government granted him a passport on humanitarian grounds, with a validity of nine months, after Geelani acknowledged his nationality as an Indian.<ref>[http://www.firstpost.com/india/geelani-granted-passport-two-months-after-govt-rejected-application-2355482.html "Govt issues passport with 9 months validity to Hurriyat chief Syed Ali Shah Geelani – Firstpost"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722175352/http://www.firstpost.com/india/geelani-granted-passport-two-months-after-govt-rejected-application-2355482.html |date=22 July 2015 }}. ''firstpost.com''. 22 July 2015.</ref><ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Govt-issues-passport-to-Hurriyat-leader-Syed-Ali-Shah-Geelani/articleshow/48163391.cms "Govt issues passport to Hurriyat leader Syed Ali Shah Geelani"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724151507/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Govt-issues-passport-to-Hurriyat-leader-Syed-Ali-Shah-Geelani/articleshow/48163391.cms |date=24 Ju2015 }}. ''The Times of India''. 22 July 2015.</ref>

=== Rumours of Geelani's death ===
On 12 March 2014, rumors of Geelani's death—spread by false or inaccurate edits to his Wikipedia article, "a particular Hindi news channel", and [[Facebook]] pages—led the government of Kashmir to suspend internet and phone service, according to some sources.<ref name="hindustantimes">{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/news-feed/jammusec/wikipedia-declares-geelani-dead-in-night-sends-kashmir-administration-into-tizzy/article1-1194114.aspx |title=Wikipedia declares Geelani dead, sends Kashmir admn into tizzy |author=Peerzada Ashiq |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=12 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313143239/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news-feed/jammusec/wikipedia-declares-geelani-dead-in-night-sends-kashmir-administration-into-tizzy/article1-1194114.aspx |archive-date=13 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="kashmirwatch">{{cite web |url=http://kashmirwatch.com/news.php/2014/03/12/8216-geelani-sahab-stable-don-8217-t-give-heed-to-rumours-8217.html |title=Geelani Sahab stable, Don't give heed to rumours |date=12 March 2014 |publisher=KashmirWatch |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312225406/http://kashmirwatch.com/news.php/2014/03/12/8216-geelani-sahab-stable-don-8217-t-give-heed-to-rumours-8217.html |archive-date=12 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="authint">{{cite web |url=https://www.authintmail.com/article/kashmir/wikipedia-entry-sparks-rumors-geelanis-death-govt-responds-curtailing-mobile |title=Wikipedia entry sparks rumors of Geelani's death; Govt responds by curtailing mobile internet |work=Authint Mail |date=12 March 2014 |archive-date=12 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312230826/https://www.authintmail.com/article/kashmir/wikipedia-entry-sparks-rumors-geelanis-death-govt-responds-curtailing-mobile |url-status=live}}</ref> However, the then Chief Minister [[Omar Abdullah]] said that the failures had nothing to do with Geelani's health and were due to a snapped power line as well as an optical fibre cut due to heavy snowfall, which left most of the valley without power. The cuts in Internet service, hours after a statement by Hurriyat that Geelani would be flown to New Delhi for medical treatment, were blamed for spreading the rumours.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/geelanis-health-sparks-conspiracy-rumours-across-kashmir-184714-2014-03-13 |title=Geelani's bad health sparks conspiracy rumours across Kashmir as communication lines falter |author=Naseer Ganai |magazine=India Today |date=13 January 2014 |archive-date=13 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313065938/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/geelanis-health-sparks-conspiracy-rumours-across-kashmir/1/349288.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/internet-outage-spurs-rumour-of-geelanis-death/ |title=Internet outage spurs rumour of Geelani's death |author=Bashirat Masood |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=13 March 2014 |archive-date=13 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313122603/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/internet-outage-spurs-rumour-of-geelanis-death/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kashmirlife.net/few-inches-of-snow-exposed-government-says-pdp-cpim12032014/ |title='Few Inches' Of Snow Exposed Government, Says PDP, CPI(M) |publisher=Kashmir Life |date=12 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140315201723/http://www.kashmirlife.net/few-inches-of-snow-exposed-government-says-pdp-cpim12032014/ |archive-date=15 March 2014}}</ref>

=== FEMA case ===
After the [[2019 Pulwama attack]], India took stronger action against pro-Pakistan separatists including Geelani. The [[Enforcement Directorate]] levied a penalty of ₹14.40 lakh and ordered confiscation of nearly ₹6.8 lakh in connection with a [[Foreign Exchange Management Act]] case against him for illegal possession of foreign exchange.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ed-slaps-1440-lakh-penalty-confiscates-68-lakh-in-fema-case-against-geelani/article26607536.ece |title=ED slaps ₹14.40 lakh penalty, confiscates ₹6.8 lakh in FEMA case against Geelani — The Hindu |newspaper=The Hindu |date=22 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190322102721/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ed-slaps-1440-lakh-penalty-confiscates-68-lakh-in-fema-case-against-geelani/article26607536.ece |archive-date=22 March 2019}}</ref>

== Death ==
Geelani reportedly developed breathing complications and died on 1 September 2021 at his Hyderpora residence in Srinagar due to his prolonged illness.<ref name="IT 2021">{{cite news |author1=Ashraf Wani |author2=Kamaljit Kaur Sandhu |title=Kashmiri separatist leader Syed Ali Shah Geelani dies in Srinagar |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/jammu-kashmir-leader-syed-ali-shah-geelani-died-srinagar-1848181-2021-09-01 |newspaper=India Today |date=2 September 2021 |access-date=1 September 2021 |archive-date=1 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901200157/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/jammu-kashmir-leader-syed-ali-shah-geelani-died-srinagar-1848181-2021-09-01 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Kashmir's Hurriyat Leader Syed Ali Shah Geelani Passes Away |url=https://thechenabtimes.com/2021/09/02/kashmirs-hurriyat-leader-syed-ali-shah-geelani-passes-away/ |date=1 September 2021 |publisher=[[The Chenab Times]] |archive-date=1 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901202552/https://thechenabtimes.com/2021/09/02/kashmirs-hurriyat-leader-syed-ali-shah-geelani-passes-away/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ashiq |first=Peerzada |date=2 September 2021 |title=Separatist leader Syed Ali Shah Geelani dies after prolonged illness |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/separatist-leader-syed-ali-shah-geelani-dies-after-prolonged-illness/article36238483.ece |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=1 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901185412/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/separatist-leader-syed-ali-shah-geelani-dies-after-prolonged-illness/article36238483.ece |url-status=live}}</ref>
His son Naseem alleged that police raided the house, took the body forcibly and buried it in a graveyard in his Hyderpora locality in the middle of the night.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ehsan |first=Mir |date=2 September 2021 |title=Kashmir locked down as Syed Ali Shah Geelani gets quiet burial |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/geelanis-family-alleges-forced-burial-at-night-amid-clampdown-in-kashmir-101630587012385.html |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905101842/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/geelanis-family-alleges-forced-burial-at-night-amid-clampdown-in-kashmir-101630587012385.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Tantray |first=Shahid |title=The night that Kashmir's Syed Ali Shah Geelani died |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/politics/kashmir-syed-ali-shah-geelani-death-burial |access-date=2023-09-01 |website=The Caravan |language=en |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905181149/https://caravanmagazine.in/politics/kashmir-syed-ali-shah-geelani-death-burial |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Naseem, no one from the close family was allowed to attend the burial, but they visited the grave next morning.<ref name=":0" /> Dilbag Singh, the Director General of [[Jammu and Kashmir Police]], however denied the allegations.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Iqbal |first1=Naveed |last2=Masood |first2=Bashaarat |date=3 September 2021 |title=Syed Ali Shah Geelani laid to rest, police deny family's claims of being kept out |language=en-IN |work=The Indian Express |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/syed-ali-shah-geelani-laid-to-rest-police-deny-familys-claims-of-being-kept-out-7485650/ |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905105911/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/syed-ali-shah-geelani-laid-to-rest-police-deny-familys-claims-of-being-kept-out-7485650/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0" />

Restrictions on travel and internet were imposed in Kashmir soon after Geelani's death.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wani |first=Fayaz |date=2 September 2021 |title=Restrictions imposed in Kashmir, mobile services shut as separatist leader Syed Ali Geelani laid to rest |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2021/sep/02/restrictions-imposed-in-kashmirmobile-services-shut-as-separatist-leader-syed-ali-geelani-laid-to-2353209.html |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905104120/https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2021/sep/02/restrictions-imposed-in-kashmirmobile-services-shut-as-separatist-leader-syed-ali-geelani-laid-to-2353209.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Malik |first=Saqib |date=4 September 2021 |title=Mobile telephony, broadband services restored across Kashmir |language=en-IN |work=Greater Kashmir |url=https://www.greaterkashmir.com/todays-paper/front-page/mobile-telephony-broadband-services-restored-across-kashmir |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905104120/https://www.greaterkashmir.com/todays-paper/front-page/mobile-telephony-broadband-services-restored-across-kashmir |url-status=live }}</ref> On 2 September 2021, [[first information report|FIR]] was registered against his family members under [[Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act|UAPA]] for clothing his body with a Pakistani flag and for allegedly raising “anti-national” slogans.<ref>{{cite news |last=Masoodi |first=Nazir |date=4 September 2021 |title=Videos Show Syed Ali Shah Geelani's Body In Pak Flag, Police Case Filed |language=en-IN |work=NDTV |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/videos-show-syed-ali-shah-geelanis-body-in-pak-flag-police-case-filed-2529999 |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905014759/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/videos-show-syed-ali-shah-geelanis-body-in-pak-flag-police-case-filed-2529999 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":0"/>

Kashmiri political leaders,<ref name="Firstpost">{{cite news |date=2 September 2021 |title=Kashmir separatist leader Syed Ali Shah Geelani passes away; Mehbooba Mufti and others offer condolences |language=en-IN |work=Firspost |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/kashmir-separatist-leader-syed-ali-shah-geelani-passes-away-mehbooba-mufti-and-others-offer-condolences-9931231.html |access-date=5 September 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=5 September 2021 |title=Dr Farooq, Omar Abdullah condole Geelani's demise |language=en-IN |work=Rising Kashmir |url=https://www.risingkashmir.com/-Dr-Farooq--Omar-Abdullah-condole-Geelani-s-demise-91477 |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=4 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904233722/https://www.risingkashmir.com/-Dr-Farooq--Omar-Abdullah-condole-Geelani-s-demise-91477 |url-status=live }}</ref> as well as members of Government of Pakistan, condoled his death. Prime Minister [[Imran Khan]] ordered flags to be flown at [[half-mast]] to mourn his death.<ref name="Firstpost" /><ref>{{cite news |date=2 September 2021 |title=Pakistan observes day of mourning over Kashmiri separatist leader Geelani's demise |language=en-IN |work=Press Trust of India |publisher=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/pakistan-observes-day-of-mourning-over-kashmiri-separatist-leader-geelanis-demise/article36243407.ece |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905112011/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/pakistan-observes-day-of-mourning-over-kashmiri-separatist-leader-geelanis-demise/article36243407.ece |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Honours and awards ==
On 14 August 2020, Pakistani President [[Arif Alvi]] conferred [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]], Pakistan's highest civil award on Geelani to recognise his decades-long struggle for Kashmiris’ right to [[self-determination]].<ref name="award">{{cite news |title=Geelani conferred with Pakistan's highest civil award |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/700761-geelani-conferred-with-pakistan-s-highest-civil-award |work=The News International |agency=Associated Press of Pakistan |date=15 August 2020}}</ref>

== Views ==
In February 2014, he said prisoners in Kashmir "are the victims of custodial violence and are harassed in Indian jails especially in [[Tihar Jail]]" after an incident where parents of Javaid Ahmad Khan, serving a life sentence, "had travelled thousands of kilometres and invested a lot of money to reach Delhi to meet their jailed son but were denied a meeting with him. "This is state terrorism", he said.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.kashmirtimes.in/newsdet.aspx?q=29031 |title=Geelani, Malik condemn misbehaviour of Tihar jail officials |newspaper=Kashmir Times |date=15 February 2014 |archive-date=15 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140315173429/http://www.kashmirtimes.in/newsdet.aspx?q=29031 |url-status=live}}</ref>

He is viewed as sympathetic to [[Jamaat-e-Islami|Jamat-e-Islami]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2014/Mar/15/geelani-before-and-beyond-8.asp |title=GEELANI: Before and Beyond |author=Mehmood Ur Rashid |date=15 March 2014 |archive-date=15 March 2014 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140315124932/http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2014/Mar/15/geelani-before-and-beyond-8.asp |url-status=live}}</ref> His official residence was viewed as Jamat property before he donated it to the Milli Trust.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kashmirobserver.net/news/top-news/hurriyat-g-says-jamaat-claims-unethical |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140315134437/http://www.kashmirobserver.net/news/top-news/hurriyat-g-says-jamaat-claims-unethical |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 March 2014 |title=Hurriyat (G) says Jama'at claims unethical |publisher=Kashmir Observer |date=15 March 2014}}</ref>

In November 2011, Geelani called for protests against the alleged "objectionable anti-Islamic" content on the social networking website [[Facebook]], which he described as a "satanic audacity". His call triggered protests in various parts of the [[Kashmir Valley]], leading to minor clashes between the protestors and the security forces.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Protests-in-Kashmir-against-blasphemy-on-Facebook/articleshow/10783138.cms |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717111543/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-11-18/india/30414238_1_networking-site-anti-islamic-maisuma |url-status=live |archive-date=17 July 2012 |title=Protests in Kashmir against 'blasphemy' on Facebook |author=M Saleem Pandit |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=18 November 2011 }}</ref>

Geelani condemned the killing of [[Osama bin Laden]] by the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mangalorean.com/news.php?newstype=local&newsid=236303 |title=Geelani lone Kashmiri leader to condemn Osama killing |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110508211944/http://mangalorean.com/news.php?newstype=local&newsid=236303 |archive-date=8 May 2011 }}</ref> After Bin Laden's death in May 2011, Geelani said that he would lead last rite prayers in absentia in [[Srinagar]] for the slain [[al-Qaeda]] leader.<ref name="articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com">{{cite web |url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-05-06/news/29516968_1_bin-funeral-prayers-syed-geelani |title=Osama dead: Tehreek-e-Hurriyat chairman Syed Geelani to lead last rite prayers for Osama bin Laden|publisher=Times of India |date=6 May 2011 |archive-date=3 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403060853/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2011-05-06/news/29516968_1_bin-funeral-prayers-syed-geelani |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Hurriyat-Conferences-Syed-Ali-Shah-Geelani-calls-for-funeral-prayers-for-Osama-bin-Laden/articleshow/8169912.cms |title=Hurriyat Conference's Syed Ali Shah Geelani calls for funeral prayers for Osama bin Laden — The Times of India |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=5 May 2011 |archive-date=14 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014173707/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Hurriyat-Conferences-Syed-Ali-Shah-Geelani-calls-for-funeral-prayers-for-Osama-bin-Laden/articleshow/8169912.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> After holding prayers for Osama in congregation of thousands of Kashmiris, a [[European Union]] delegation snubbed Geelani by cancelling a scheduled meeting with him.<ref>{{cite web |author=Muzaffar Raina |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1110517/jsp/nation/story_13992053.jsp |title=The Telegraph — Calcutta (Kolkata) | Nation | EU Osama snub to Geelani |publisher=Telegraphindia.com |date=17 May 2011 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402170636/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1110517/jsp/nation/story_13992053.jsp |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/eu-delegation-snubs-geelani-cancels-scheduled-meeting/article1-697857.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402144119/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/eu-delegation-snubs-geelani-cancels-scheduled-meeting/article1-697857.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 April 2015 |title=EU delegation snubs Geelani; cancels scheduled meeting |publisher=Hindustantimes.com |date=15 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/prayers-for-osama-eu-delegation-snubs-geelani-cancels-meeting/791097/ |title='Prayers for Osama': EU delegation snubs Geelani, cancels meeting — Indian Express |publisher=Archive.indianexpress.com |date=15 May 2011 |archive-date=4 April 2015 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150404165118/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/prayers-for-osama-eu-delegation-snubs-geelani-cancels-meeting/791097/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He further supported [[2001 Indian Parliament attack]] accused [[Afzal Guru]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2015/Feb/6/geelani-malik-shah-call-for-shutdown-on-feb-9-11-61.asp |title=Geelani, Malik, Shah call for shutdown on Feb 9/11 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402132621/http://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/2015/Feb/6/geelani-malik-shah-call-for-shutdown-on-feb-9-11-61.asp }}</ref> and one of [[2008 Mumbai Attacks]] masterminds and [[Lashkar-e-Taiba]] chief [[Hafiz Muhammad Saeed|Hafiz Saeed.]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kashmirdispatch.com/headlines/240128940-geelani-expresses-displeasure-over-ban-on-hafiz-saeed-s-group.htm |title=Geelani expresses displeasure over ban on Hafiz Saeed's group — Latest Kashmir News & Analysis |publisher=Kashmir Dispatch |date=24 January 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402122952/http://www.kashmirdispatch.com/headlines/240128940-geelani-expresses-displeasure-over-ban-on-hafiz-saeed-s-group.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Kashmir ===
Geelani said that while Pakistan supported "the indigenous struggle of the people of Jammu and Kashmir, morally, diplomatically and politically ... this does not mean Pakistan can take a decision on our behalf."<ref name="Al Jazeera profile">{{cite web |author=Asad Hashim |title=Profile: Syed Ali Shah Geelani |publisher=[[Al Jazeera English]] |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/kashmirtheforgottenconflict/2011/07/201171133554689430.html |access-date=7 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402073950/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/kashmirtheforgottenconflict/2011/07/201171133554689430.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Geelani would only support a dialogue process aimed at resolving Kashmir issue in accordance with the wishes and aspirations of the people of the state. But he believed that dialogue between India and Pakistan starts under diplomatic compulsions, and it is nothing but just a time delaying tactics. He was of the opinion that Kashmiris are not enemies of India or hold any grudge against its inhabitants. We are desirous of a strong India and Pakistan and it is only possible when Kashmir issue is resolved to pave the way for peace, prosperity and development in the region.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/report/will-support-talks-if-it-resolves-kashmir-issue-geelani/20150320.htm |title=Will support talks if it resolves Kashmir issue: Geelani — Rediff.com India News |work=Rediff.com |date=20 March 2015 |archive-date=29 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529203835/http://www.rediff.com/news/report/will-support-talks-if-it-resolves-kashmir-issue-geelani/20150320.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

He said, "Kashmir is not any border dispute between India and Pakistan which they can solve by bilateral understandings. It is the issue concerning future of 15 million people. The Hurriyat is not in principle against a dialogue process but without involvement of Kashmiri people, such a process has proved meaningless in the past. We don't have any expectations of it being fruitful in future too."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sabahnews.net/kashmir/aphc-to-support-dialogue-if-sacrifices-of-kashmiris-honored-geelani/ |title=APHC to support dialogue if sacrifices of Kashmiris honored: Geelani |publisher=SABAH News |date=20 June 2014 |archive-date=30 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151130083446/http://www.sabahnews.net/kashmir/aphc-to-support-dialogue-if-sacrifices-of-kashmiris-honored-geelani/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He further stated, "India should immediately and unconditionally release political prisoners, and withdraw cases against youth, which are pending in the courts for the past 20 years."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-should-accept-five-conditions-on-kashmir-geelani-115032300904_1.html |title=India should accept five conditions on Kashmir: Geelani | Business Standard News |newspaper=Business Standard India |publisher=Business-standard.com |date=23 March 2015 |archive-date=26 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526010343/http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-should-accept-five-conditions-on-kashmir-geelani-115032300904_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Separatism and relations with Pakistan ===
Geelani has been repeatedly criticised by Indian authorities for inciting violence in the Kashmir Valley and working as offshoot of Pakistan.<ref name="Al Jazeera profile" /><ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com">[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Protests-outside-Pakistani-high-commission-as-separatist-leaders-Yasin-Malik-and-Syed-Ali-Shah-Geelani-meet-envoy-Abdul-Basit/articleshow/40396781.cms "Protests outside Pakistani high commission as separatist leaders Yasin Malik and Syed Ali Shah Geelani meet envoy Abdul Basit"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140822063434/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Protests-outside-Pakistani-high-commission-as-separatist-leaders-Yasin-Malik-and-Syed-Ali-Shah-Geelani-meet-envoy-Abdul-Basit/articleshow/40396781.cms |date=22 August 2014 }}. The Times of India.</ref> Geelani said openly that he was not Indian. "Travelling on the Indian passport is a compulsion of every Kashmiri as Kashmir is an Internationally accepted Disputed region between India and Pakistan" are his words when applying for Indian Passport.<ref>[http://www.firstpost.com/india/i-am-not-indian-by-birth-its-a-compulsion-says-geelani-2281434.html "'Not Indian by birth, passport a compulsion': Govt slams Geelani's 'separatist jargon' – Firstpost"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921094118/http://www.firstpost.com/india/i-am-not-indian-by-birth-its-a-compulsion-says-geelani-2281434.html |date=21 September 2015 }}. ''firstpost.com''. 5 June 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/kashmir/not-an-indian-by-birth-geelani-says-getting-indian-passport-compulsion/ |title='Not an Indian by birth', Geelani says getting Indian passport 'compulsion' |date=5 June 2015 |website=Greater Kashmir |archive-date=2 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902044015/https://www.greaterkashmir.com/news/kashmir/not-an-indian-by-birth-geelani-says-getting-indian-passport-compulsion/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.firstpost.com/india/after-i-am-not-an-indian-by-birth-comment-geelani-calls-for-anti-india-seminar-in-srinagar-2286566.html "After 'I am not an Indian by birth' comment, Geelani calls for anti-India seminar in Srinagar – Firstpost"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150902133151/http://www.firstpost.com/india/after-i-am-not-an-indian-by-birth-comment-geelani-calls-for-anti-india-seminar-in-srinagar-2286566.html |date=2 September 2015 }}. ''firstpost.com''. 9 June 2015.</ref> "We are Pakistani; Pakistan is ours",<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150930132951/http://beta.paknationalists.com/kashmir%E2%80%99s-geelani-we-are-pakistanis-pakistan-is-ours/ "Account Suspended"]. ''paknationalists.com''. Retrieved 23 July 2016.</ref> he said in a big gathering of his supporters.

While Geelani's personal opinion about Kashmir was that it merge with Pakistan, he was known for standing up to both the Indian and Pakistani governments, snubbing anyone (including former President of Pakistan [[Pervez Musharraf]]) who did not support the right to self-determination for Kashmir.<ref name="Caravan 2010">{{Citation |last=Jeelani |first=Mehboob |date=2010-09-01 |title=How defiance made Syed Ali Geelani relevant in Kashmir |newspaper=The Caravan |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/reportage/man-who-says-no-new-delhi |url-access=subscription |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905181149/https://caravanmagazine.in/reportage/man-who-says-no-new-delhi |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Caravan 2021">{{cite web |last=Tantray |first=Shahid |date=2021-09-05 |title=The night that Kashmir's Syed Ali Shah Geelani died |newspaper=The Caravan |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/politics/kashmir-syed-ali-shah-geelani-death-burial |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905180606/https://caravanmagazine.in/politics/kashmir-syed-ali-shah-geelani-death-burial |archive-date=2021-09-05}}</ref>

[[Sheikh Mustafa Kamal]], a senior leader of Jammu & Kashmir National Conference and son of [[Sheikh Abdullah]] criticised Geelani for working on "dictations" given by Pakistan. He accused Geelani of being "a double agent" on "the payroll of Pakistan's [[Inter-Service Intelligence|ISI]]".<ref name="outlookindia.com">[http://www.outlookindia.com/news/article/Geelani-on-ISI-Payroll-NC-Leader/768901 "Geelani on ISI Payroll: NC Leader"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402162115/http://www.outlookindia.com/news/article/Geelani-on-ISI-Payroll-NC-Leader/768901 |date=2 April 2015 }}. ''outlookindia.com''.</ref><ref name="daily.bhaskar.com">[http://daily.bhaskar.com/news/NAT-TOP-geelani-on-payroll-of-isi-says-nc-leader-3529449.html "Geelani on payroll of ISI, says NC leader"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402162837/http://daily.bhaskar.com/news/NAT-TOP-geelani-on-payroll-of-isi-says-nc-leader-3529449.html |date=2 April 2015 }}. ''bhaskar.com''.</ref><ref name="ibnlive.in.com">[https://archive.today/20150316105439/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/geelani-on-payroll-of-isi-says-nc-leader/271529-37-64.html "Geelani on payroll of ISI, says NC leader"]. ''in.com''. 16 July 2012. Retrieved on 23 July 2016.</ref>

Pakistan also openly supported Geelani, the three-member delegation from [[High Commissioner (Commonwealth)|Pakistan High Commission]] led by [[Abdul Basit (diplomat)|Abdul Basit]] met Geelani at his Malviya Nagar residence in March 2015. Pakistan High Commissioner Abdul Basit assured Geelani of complete support conveying that the country's stand on Kashmir remains unchanged despite regime change in [[New Delhi]].<ref name="timesofindia.indiatimes.com" /><ref>Dawn.com, (9 March 2015). [http://www.dawn.com/news/1168445 "Pakistani high commissioner meets Hurriyat leader Geelani"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312101701/http://www.dawn.com/news/1168445 |date=12 March 2015 }}. ''dawn.com''.</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">[http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-pakistan-assures-syed-ali-geelani-of-complete-support-2067448 "Pakistan assures Syed Ali Geelani of complete support |Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402123412/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-pakistan-assures-syed-ali-geelani-of-complete-support-2067448 |date=2 April 2015 }}. ''dnaindia.com''. 10 March 2015</ref><ref name="asianage.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.asianage.com/india/pakistan-mischief-again-envoy-meets-syed-ali-geelani-429 |title=Pakistan mischief again: Envoy meets Syed Ali Geelani | the Asian Age |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402113543/http://www.asianage.com/india/pakistan-mischief-again-envoy-meets-syed-ali-geelani-429 |archive-date=2 April 2015 }}</ref> Abdul Basit also invited Geelani for [[Pakistan Day]] function on 23 March. Pakistan High Commission in New Delhi, ritually invites pro-separatist leadership of Jammu and Kashmir. On 14 August, the Pakistani government awarded him its highest civilian award, the [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]].<ref name="Nishan-e-Pakistan">{{cite web |title=President Alvi confers Nishan-e-Pakistan on Kashmiri leader Syed Ali Shah Geelani |newspaper=The News International |date=14 August 2020 |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/700497-president-alvi-confers-nishan-e-pakistan-to-kashmiri-leader-syed-ali-shah-gilani |access-date=14 August 2020 |archive-date=14 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814122446/https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/700497-president-alvi-confers-nishan-e-pakistan-to-kashmiri-leader-syed-ali-shah-gilani |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="award" />

In the last few decades, Geelani refused any proposal from Governments of India and Pakistan and was consistent in his demand for the United Nations promised [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 47|plebiscite of 1948]].<ref name="Caravan 2010" /><ref name="Caravan 2021" />

== Works ==
=== Books ===
Some of his works include:<ref>[https://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n89136268/ Syed Ali Shah Geelani's profile] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044715/https://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n89136268/ |date=6 March 2019 }} on ''[[WorldCat]]''</ref><ref name="hurriyat">{{cite web|title=::All Parties Hurriyat Conference APHC Syed Ali Geelani Kashmir News Updates World ::|url=http://www.huriyatconference.com/?JgBEAHUAcgBhAHQAaQBvAG4APQBUAGgAZQAgAEYAbwB1AG4AZABlAHIALgBhAHMAcAB4AGgAZwBkAGMAcwBqAGgAZwBzAGQAagBoAGYAZwBzAC0ANQA=-3xOCiJtUsuw=|access-date=2022-10-18|website=www.huriyatconference.com|archive-date=6 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606124316/http://www.huriyatconference.com/?JgBEAHUAcgBhAHQAaQBvAG4APQBUAGgAZQAgAEYAbwB1AG4AZABlAHIALgBhAHMAcAB4AGgAZwBkAGMAcwBqAGgAZwBzAGQAagBoAGYAZwBzAC0ANQA%3D-3xOCiJtUsuw%3D|url-status=live}}</ref>
*''Rūdād-i qafas'' ({{Translation|Story of jailhouse}}), 1993. Author's memoirs of his imprisonment.
*''Navā-yi ḥurriyyat'' ({{Translation|Voice of Hurriyat}}), 1994. Collection of letters, columns and interviews on Kashmir issue.
*''Dīd o shunīd'' ({{Translation|Acquaintance}}), 2005. Compilation based on answers to the various questions relating to Kashmir issue.
*''Bhārat ke istiʻmārī ḥarbe! : Kurālah Gunḍ se Jodhpūr tak!'' ({{Translation|India's colonial wars: From Kralgund to Jodhpur}}), 2006. Autobiographical reminiscences with special reference to his struggle for the liberation of Kashmir.
*''Sadāʼe dard : majmuvʻah taqārīr'' ({{Translation|Cry of pain: collection of speeches}}), 2006. Collection of speeches on Kashmir issue.
*''Millat-i maz̤lūm'' ({{Translation|Nation of oppressed}}), 2006. Collection of articles and columns on various issues of Jammu and Kashmir with special reference to autonomy and independence movements of Kashmir.
*''Safar-i Maḥmūd z̲ikr-i maẓlūm'' ({{Translation|Journey of the commendable account of the oppressed}}), 2007. Compilation based on answers to the various questions relating to Kashmir issue.
*''Maqtal se vāpsī : Rāncī jail ke shab o roz'' ({{Translation|Back from the gallows: night and day in Ranchi jail}}), 2008. Autobiographical reminiscences.
*''Iqbāl rūḥ-i dīn kā shanāsā'' ({{Translation|Acquaintance with Iqbal's spirit of religion}}), 2009. Study on the works of [[Muhammad Iqbal]].
*''ʻĪdain'' ({{Translation|Eids}}), 2011. Collection of sermons delivered on the occasion of [[Eid ul Fitr]], [[Eid ul Adha]], and [[Friday prayers]].
*''Vullar kināre : āp bītī'' ({{Translation|By the Wular: autobiography}}), 2012. Autobiography.
*''Qissa e Dard'' ({{Translation|Account of pain}})
*''Muqadma al-haq'' ({{Translation|Trial of truth}})
*''Tu baaki nahi'' ({{Translation|You are no more}})
*''Mera pyaar aur hai'' ({{Translation|My love is something else}})
*''Talkh haqayak'' ({{Translation|Bitter truth}})
*''Elaan-e jungbandi'' ({{Translation|Declaration of armistice}})
*''Hijrat aur shahadat'' ({{Translation|Migration and martyrdom}})
*''Qurbani'' ({{Translation|Sacrifice}})
*''Umeed-i bahar'' ({{Translation|Hope of spring}})
*''Payam-e aakhreen'' ({{Translation|The final message}})

=== Letters ===
*A letter to [[V.P. Singh]].
*A letter to [[Chandra Shekhar]].
Source:<ref name="hurriyat" />

=== Others ===
*''Vinoba Bhave se mulaqaat'' ({{Translation|A meeting with Vinoba Bhave}}). Pamphlet, about a meeting with Indian social reformer [[Vinoba Bhave]].
*''Aulaad-e Ibrahim'' ({{Translation|Children of Abraham}}). Pamphlet.
*''Ek pahlu yeh bhi hai Kashmir ki tasvir ka'' ({{Translation|Another aspect of Kashmir's affairs}}). Pamphlet.
*''Qaul-e-Faisal'' ({{Translation|Final judgment}})
*''11 September ke baad'' ({{Translation|After 9/11}})
*''Rasool-e rahmat aasir-i hazir main'' ({{Translation|Prophet Muhammad in present times}})
*''Iqbal apni paygam ki roshni mein'' ({{Translation|Iqbal in light of his message}})
*''Shayad ki utar jaaye tere dil mein meri baat'' ({{Translation|Maybe you will understand me}})
*''Wa'tasimu bihablillahi jamia'' ({{CiteQuran Ayah|3|103|b=yl|c=y}})
*''Shahadat Gahe Ulfat'' ({{Translation|Martyred in love}})
*''Rahravani ishq'' ({{Translation|Travelers of love}})
*''Kunu Ansarullah'' ({{Translation|Willing helpers of Allah}})
*''Kar-i jahan be-sabaat'' ({{Translation|Unstable world affairs}})
*''Kargil''
Source:<ref name="hurriyat" />

== See also ==
*[[Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir]]
*[[All Parties Hurriyat Conference]]
*[[Joint Resistance Leadership]]
*[[Asiya Andrabi]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite journal |last1=Garner |first1=George |title=Chechnya and Kashmir: The Jihadist Evolution of Nationalism to Jihad and Beyond |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |volume=25 |issue=3 |year=2013 |pages=419–434 |issn=0954-6553 |doi=10.1080/09546553.2012.664202 |s2cid=143798822 |ref={{sfnref|Garner, Chechnya and Kashmir: The Jihadist Evolution|2013}}}}
* {{citation |last=Hakeem |first=Abdul |title=Paradise on Fire: Syed Ali Geelani and the Struggle for Freedom in Kashmir |publisher=Revival Publications |location=Markfield, Leicestershire, UK |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-9536768-6-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2BPFAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT25 |ref={{sfnref|Hakeem, Paradise on Fire|2014}}}}
* {{citation |last=Jamal |first=Arif |title=Shadow War: The Untold Story of Jihad in Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TNO5MAAACAAJ |year=2009 |publisher=Melville House |isbn=978-1-933633-59-6 |ref={{sfnref|Jamal, Shadow War|2009}}}}
* {{citation |first=Yoginder |last=Sikand |author-link=Yoginder Sikand |title=The Emergence and Development of the Jama'at-i-Islami of Jammu and Kashmir (1940s-1990) |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=36 |pages=705–751 |number=3 |date=July 2002 |jstor=3876651 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x02003062|s2cid=145586329 |ref={{sfnref|Sikand, Jama'at-i-Islami of Jammu and Kashmir|2002}}}}
* {{citation |title=Jihad, Islam and Kashmir: Syed Ali Shah Geelani's Political Project |first=Yoginder |last=Sikand |author-link=Yoginder Sikand |journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]] |date=2-8 October 2010 |volume=45 |number=40 |pages=125–134 |jstor=25742155 |ref={{sfnref|Sikand, Jihad Islam and Kashmir|2010}}}}

{{Jammu and Kashmir freedom movement}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Geelani, Syed Ali Shah}}
[[Category:1929 births]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian Islamists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian Muslims]]
[[Category:Kashmiri politicians]]
[[Category:Kashmiri Muslims]]
[[Category:Kashmir separatist movement]]
[[Category:Independent politicians from Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:People from Baramulla district]]
[[Category:Oriental College, Lahore alumni]]
[[Category:Indian writers]]
[[Category:Kashmiri writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 1972–1977]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 1977–1983]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir MLAs 1987–1996]]
[[Category:Inmates of Tihar Jail]]
[[Category:Indian people imprisoned on terrorism charges]]
[[Category:Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir politicians]]

List of cities in Jammu and Kashmir by population

2026-01-25T03:19:40Z

ShivaniSikri: slightly update intro for consistency and updated info to improve readability

{{Short description|None}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2019}}
This is a list of [[urban agglomeration]]s with a population above 100,000 as per 2011 census in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|union territory]] of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]:<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | title = Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population 1 lakh and above |work= Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |access-date = 2012-07-07 }}</ref>

==Urban Agglomeration==

In the census of India 2011, an Urban Agglomeration has been defined as follows:<ref>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/1.%20Data%20Highlight.pdf | title = Urban Agglomerations and Cities |work= Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011|access-date = 2012-07-07 }}</ref>

"An urban agglomeration is a continuous urban spread constituting a town and its adjoining outgrowths (OGs), or two or more physically contiguous towns together with or without outgrowths of such towns. An Urban Agglomeration must consist of at least a statutory town and its total population (i.e. all the constituents put together) should not be less than 20,000 as per the 2001 Census. In varying local conditions, there were similar other combinations which have been treated
as urban agglomerations satisfying the basic condition of contiguity."

===Constituents of Urban Agglomerations in Jammu and Kashmir===
The constituents of Urban Agglomerations in Jammu and Kashmir, with a population of 1 lakh or above, are noted below:<ref>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_4_PR_UAs_1Lakh_and_Above_Appendix.pdf | title = Constituents of urban Agglomerations Having Population 1 Lakh & above |work= Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011|access-date = 2012-07-07 }}</ref>

*Srinagar Urban Agglomeration includes Srinagar (M Corp.), [[Bagh e Mehtab]] (OG), Shanker Pora (OG), Machwa(Nasratpora) (OG), Dharam Bagh (OG), Gopal Pora (OG), Wathora (OG), Badamibagh (CB), Pampora (MC) Narbal, Parihaspora and Kral Pora (CT),
*Jammu UA includes Jammu (MC), Kamini (OG), Khanpur (OG), Setani (OG), Narwal Bala (OG), Rakh Bahu (OG), Chhani Raaman (OG), Chhani Beja (OG), Chhani Kamala (OG), Chak Jalu (OG), Sunjawan (OG), Deeli (OG), Gangial (OG), Gadi Garh (OG), Raipur (OG), Rakh Raipur (OG), Chak Gulami (OG), Gujrai (OG), Hazuri Bagh (OG), Muthi (OG), Barnayi (OG), Dharmal (OG), Chanor (OG), Chwadi (OG), Keran (OG), Satwari (OG), Nagrota (CT), Chak Kalu (CT), Rakh Gadi Garh (CT), Bhore (CT), Chhatha (CT), Jammu (CB) and Bari Brahmana (MC).
*Anantnag UA includes Anantnag (M Cl), Rakh Chee (OG), Chee (OG), Mirgund (OG), Takai Bahram Shah (OG), Ghat Pushwari (OG), Bagh Nowgam (OG), Mong hall (OG), Haji Danter (OG), Bona Dialgam (OG), Uttersoo Naji gund (OG), Bug Nowgam (OG), Khirman Dooni pahoo (OG), Dooni Pahoo (OG), Brak Pora (OG), Fateh Garh (OG), Chiti pai Bugh (OG), Shamshi Pora (OG), Batengo (OG), Khandi Pahari (OG), Bagh-i- Sakloo (OG) and Mattan (MC).

::Abbreviations: M Corp. = Municipal Corporation, M = Municipality, CT = Census Town, OG = Out Growth, NA = Notified Area, CB = Cantonment Board

==Urban Agglomeration constituents==
Urban Agglomerations constituents with a population above 100,000 as per 2011 census are shown in the table below.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | title = Cities having population 1 lakh and above |work= Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |access-date = 2012-03-27}}</ref>

{|class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:center;font-size: 9pt"
|-
!rowspan="150" rowspan="1"|Urban Agglomeration
!width="150" rowspan="1"| Name of Constituent
!width="150" rowspan="1"| District
!rowspan="1"|Type*
!rowspan="1"|Population 2011
!rowspan="1"|Male
!rowspan="1"|Female
!width="90" rowspan="1"|Population below 5 yrs
!width="90" rowspan="1"|Literacy Rate
|-
|align="left"|[[Srinagar]]
|align="left"|[[Srinagar]]
|align="left"|[[Srinagar district|Srinagar]]
|align="left"|M Corp
|align="right"|1,192,792
|align="right"|631,916
|align="right"|560,876
|align="right"|148,176
|align="right"|70.98
|-
|align="left"|[[Jammu]]
|align="left"|[[Jammu]]
|align="left"|[[Jammu district|Jammu]]
|align="left"|M C
|align="right"|503,690
|align="right"|265,346
|align="right"|238,344
|align="right"|42,655
|align="right"|89.66
|-
|align="left"|[[Anantnag]]
|align="left"|[[Anantnag]]
|align="left"|[[Anantanag district|Anantanag]]
|align="left"|M CL
|align="right"|108,505
|align="right"|56,030
|align="right"|52,475
|align="right"|18,056
|align="right"|78.95

|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Cities of India}}
{{Jammu and Kashmir}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Jammu and Kashmir| List]]
[[Category:Jammu and Kashmir-related lists|Cities]]
[[Category:Lists of cities in India by population|Jammu and Kashmir]]

Shaivya (wife of Harishchandra)

2026-01-23T21:09:43Z

ShivaniSikri: Put up stub...

{{short description|Queen in Hindu mythology}}
{{infobox character
| image = File:Shaibya with her dead child (cropped).jpg
| caption = Shaivya bringing her son's corpse to the cremation ground; early 20th-century illustration
| name = Shaivya
| origin = [[Sivi Kingdom|Shivi]]
| lbl1 = Texts
| data1 = ''[[Markandeya Purana]], [[Devi Bhagavata Purana]]''
| noinfo = yes
| aliases = Shaibya, Taramati, Madhavi, Chandramati
| title = Queen of [[Ayodhya (Ramayana)|Ayodhya]], [[Kosala Kingdom]]
| spouse = [[Harishchandra]]
| children = [[Rohitashva]]
}}
'''Shaivya''' ({{langx|sa|शैव्या|Śaivyā}}, also spelt '''Shaibya'''), also known as '''Taramati''' ({{langx|sa|तारामती|Tārāmatī}}), is a queen in [[Hindu mythology]], best known as the wife of King [[Harishchandra]] of [[Ayodhya (Ramayana)|Ayodhya]] and mother of his sole heir, [[Rohitashva]]. Her story particularly appears in the Sanskrit texts ''[[Markandeya Purana]]'' and ''[[Devi Bhagvata Purana]]'', where she is portrayed as a loyal and long-suffering queen who endures severe hardships alongside her husband during his divinely orchestrated trials by the wrathful sage, [[Vishvamitra]].

According to the legend, when her husband, King Harishchandra, incurs the wrath of the sage Vishvamitra and is compelled to relinquish his kingdom and wealth, Shaivya remains by his side as they descend into poverty. When Vishvamitra demands further offerings, it is Shaivya who proposes selling herself to a wealthy [[Brahmin]] so that her husband can fulfill the sage’s demands. She endures severe hardship, including verbal abuse and physical mistreatment during her servitude. Her trials reach a climax when her son dies from a snake bite. In a state of grief and dishevelment, Shaivya unknowingly approaches her husband—now employed as a crematorium attendant—to seek permission for the funeral rites. Bound by his duties, he refuses to proceed without the required payment. They bewail their misfortunes and decide to immolate themselves on their son’s funeral pile. Ultimately, the gods and Vishvamitra—who have been testing the couple’s virtue—are moved by their unwavering moral integrity, and Shaivya and her family are restored to honor and granted entry into heaven.

In [[Marathi language|Marathi]] devotional literature, particularly the [[Warkari|Vārkarī]] interpretations of Harishchandra narratives, Shaivya is known as Taramati, a name that gained enduring popularity in western India and later in modern period. These narratives elevated her role, emphasizing her spiritual strength, endurance, and unwavering virtue, often paralleling her trials with devotional ideals of [[sattva]] (goodness) and [[bhakti]] (devotion). Shaivya remains a popular tragic heroine in Indian [[cultural memory]] and features prominently in numerous adaptations of the Harishchandra legend, including ''[[Raja Harishchandra]]'' (1913), India’s first full-length feature film.

==Names==
The [[Sanskrit]] term ''Śaivyā'' (often also written ''Śaibyā'') is derived from the term ''Śaivya''—an [[ethnonym]]ic adjective stemming from ''[[Shivi|Śivi]]'', the name of an ancient and celebrated royal figure or tribe. The suffix ''-ya'' or ''-īya'' in Sanskrit commonly denotes "descended from" or "related to," thereby rendering ''Śaivya'' as meaning “of the Śivis” or “descendant of Śivi.” The name is not exclusive to the wife of King Harishchandra in Sanskrit literature and has also been used for several other princesses from the Śivi lineage.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wagenaar |first1=Henk W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kWROaer5UsC&dq=shaiby%C4%81&pg=PA1026 |title=Allied Chambers transliterated Hindi-Hindi-English dictionary |last2=Parikh |first2=S. S. |date=1993 |publisher=Allied Publishers |isbn=978-81-86062-10-4 |language=hi}}</ref>

The ''[[Devi Bhagavata Purana|Devi-Bhagavata Purana]]'' introduces another name for the figure, in addition to ''Śaivya'', namely ''Mādhavī''.{{sfn|Warder| 1972|p=591}} In [[Marathi literature]], she is referred to as ''Tārāmatī'' instead, which has become widely associated with the character due to its repeated appearance in vernacular literature and modern media adaptations of the narrative.{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=200}} In Southern India, Shaivya is known as ''Chandramati''.{{sfn|Mani|2015|p=173}}

== Puranic accounts ==

=== ''Markandeya Purana'' ===
[[File:Harishchandra by RRV.jpg|thumb|Shaivya weeps at the auction, as the cruel Brahmin attempts to separate her son, painting by [[Raja Ravi Varma]]]]
Although Harishchandra appears in several earlier texts, Shaivya first gains narrative prominence in the ''[[Markandeya Purana]]'' (c. 250 CE), where she is portrayed as an peripheral figure in the earliest extant version of the legend.{{sfn|Jahanmir|Campana|2020|p=1995}} In this account, the sage [[Vishvamitra]] devises a series of trials to test Harishchandra’s adherence to truth and righteousness. The trials of Shaivya and her family begin when Harishchandra inadvertently disturbs Vishvamitra during his penance. Angered by the interruption, the sage demands a series of increasingly severe sacrifices. He first extracts from the king a promise to relinquish his entire kingdom and later insists that Harishchandra surrender all his possessions, sparing only himself, his wife, and his child. Unable to meet further escalating demands, the family travels to [[Varanasi]] in search of a livelihood. As they depart, the devastated citizens of [[Ayodhya (Ramayana)|Ayodhya]] lament Shaivya’s plight—once a noble queen, now condemned to suffering and hardship. Vishvamitra, unmoved by their sorrow, further humiliates Shaivya by beating her during the journey to hasten her pace. This act angers the [[Visvedevas|Vishvadevas]], a group of five deities, who protest the injustice, but Vishvamitra curses them for interfering in his trial.{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=186}}{{sfn|Warder|1972|p=536-7}}{{sfn|Pargiter|1904|p=35-36}}

Reduced to destitution, Harishchandra pledges to pay an additional sacrificial fee within a month. During this period of hardship in Varanasi, Shaivya remains unwavering in her support of Harishchandra. Witnessing his despair, she encourages him to remain devoted to truth, which she regards as the highest form of righteousness. In a profound act of loyalty and self-sacrifice, Shaivya volunteers to be sold to enable her husband to fulfil his vow. Harishchandra, devastated by the suggestion, breaks down, and Shaivya comforts him with dignity and resolve. Soon after, Vishvamitra arrives to demand immediate payment. Left with no alternative, the family proceeds to the market in Varanasi, where Harishchandra auctions Shaivya. She is purchased by a cruel and elderly [[Brahmin]] as a housemaid and is dragged away by her hair. Seeing her devasted son following her, Shaivya pleads with the buyer to purchase her son, [[Rohitashva]], as well, so they are not separated. The Brahmin reluctantly agrees. Despite the cruelty and humiliation she endures, Shaivya maintains her composure, offering comfort to her weeping son even as she suffers herself.{{sfn|Pargiter|1904|p=38-58}}{{sfn|Warder|1972|p=537}}

Tragedy strikes when Rohitashva dies from a [[Snakebite|snake bite]]. Shaivya brings his body to the [[Shmashana|cremation ground]] and attempts to perform the funeral rites herself. There, she unexpectedly reunites with her husband, Harishchandra, who by this time has been reduced to the role of an attendant at the cremation grounds. Due to the extreme hardships they have both endured, the couple initially fails to recognise one another. Recognition dawns only after they prepare their son’s funeral pyre. Harishchandra, moved by Shaivya’s lamentations, realises her identity, and the couple is overcome with sorrow and consolation. At this moment of profound human suffering and despair, the couple decide to end their sufferings by [[Self-immolation|immolating themselves]] along with their son's body. Divine forces, along with Vishvamitra, intervene. Their son is miraculously restored to life, and the gods reveal that the entire episode had been a moral test of their unwavering commitment to truth and righteousness. The royal family is restored to honour, and their virtue is rewarded with divine recognition and [[Entering heaven alive|heavenly ascent]].{{sfn|Warder|1972|p=537-8}}{{sfn|Pargiter|1904|p=38-58}}

=== ''Devi Bhagavata Purana'' ===
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma, Harischandra and Tharamathi.jpg|thumb|Taramati (Shaivya) laments the death of her son at the cremation ground, while Harishchandra helplessly watches, painting by [[Raja Ravi Varma]]]]
In the ''[[Devi Bhagavata Purana]]'', a later medieval female-centric Sanskrit text, the figure of Shaivya is developed in greater depth.{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=195}} She is introduced as the daughter of the king of the [[Sivi kingdom|Shivi Kingdom]], situated in the western region of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Among Harishchandra’s numerous consorts—numbering a hundred—Shaivya is portrayed as the chief queen and his principal partner in both devotion and suffering. The royal couple, though childless, are counseled by their family priest, the sage [[Vasishtha]], to seek divine intervention. Harishchandra prays to the god [[Varuna]], who agrees to grant them a son on the condition that the child will be offered in sacrifice. In due course, Shaivya gives birth to a son, Rohitashva. When the time arrives to fulfill the vow, Harishchandra—unable to sacrifice his own son—purchases a poor Brahmin boy and substitutes him for the offering. This act provokes the wrath of Vishvamitra, who deems the substitution dishonest and unworthy of true righteousness. Determined to test Harishchandra’s virtue further, Vishvamitra engineers an extended ordeal for the royal family.{{sfn|Mani|2015|p=874}}{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=197-8}} The narrative expands significantly beyond earlier accounts, portraying more intense suffering for Shaivya, with an attempt to justify her inhumane treatment for her family's attempt to sacrifice an innocent boy.{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=192-195}}<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Chakraberty |first=Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ykbAAAAYAAJ&q=%C5%9Baivy%C4%81+hari%C5%9Bcandra |title=Sex Life in Ancient India: An Explanatory & Comparative Study |date=1963 |publisher=Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay |language=en}}</ref>

In this version, the Brahmin who purchases Shaivya in the slave market is eventually revealed to be Vishvamitra in disguise. Under his control, Shaivya is subjected to repeated physical and verbal abuse. The tale describes in graphic detail the emotional and physical toll this takes on her, particularly after the death of her son. Rohitashva, while playing along the banks of the [[Ganges]], is bitten by a snake and dies. Upon hearing the news from other children, Shaivya collapses in grief and, after regaining consciousness, pleads with her master for permission to cremate her child. Her request is denied until she finishes her household chores, and she is threatened with a whip should she persist. Despite her desperate tears and pleas, the Brahmin strikes her and orders her back to work. Only at midnight, she is allowed to leave. Overwhelmed, Shaivya flees to the riverside where her son's body lies. She finds him stiff and blue from poison, and cries out in anguish. Locals gather but, failing to comprehend her identity, mistake her for a ghost or madwoman. Some attempt to harm her; others seize her by the hair and strike her repeatedly. Eventually, she is bound and dragged to the cremation grounds.{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=195}}{{sfn|Mani|2015|p=875}}

There, they demand that Harishchandra—now employed as an attendant of the cremation grounds—kill her for her perceived transgression. He refuses to harm a woman, prompting the local outcaste king to intervene and hand him a sword, insisting he carry out the command. As Harishchandra hesitates to raise the sword, Shaivya pleads to be allowed to cremate her son first. Moved by her grief, Harishchandra consents. Shaivya brings Rohitashva’s body to the cremation ground, and as the rites begin, mutual recognition slowly dawns. Nevertheless, Harishchandra insists that a funeral without the customary fee would violate his duties. With no means to pay, the couple decide to end their lives alongside their son. The ending is similar to the ''Markandeya Purana'' version.{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=}}{{sfn|Mani|2015|p=875}}

== In vernacular traditions ==
From the second millennium onwards, the Harishchandra legend attained immense popularity across regional literary cultures. In the early 13th century, the Kannada poet [[Raghavanka]] composed Harishchandra Kavya, a vernacular [[Akhyana|''ākhyāna-kāvya'']] that marked a significant milestone in South Asian literary history. In the poem, Shaivya is named Chandramati and here, she is accused of her son's murder before being brought to the cemetery for execution, like in the ''Devi Bhagavata Purana'' version.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Datta |first=Amaresh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zB4n3MVozbUC&dq=harishchandra+wife&pg=PA1556 |title=Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Devraj to Jyoti |date=1988 |publisher=Sahitya Akademi |isbn=978-81-260-1194-0 |language=en}}</ref>

Between the 14th and 18th centuries, at least ten major retellings appeared in [[Marathi language|Marathi]] alone, with additional adaptations found in [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Braj]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], and [[Telugu language|Telugu]].{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=183}}

=== Varkari narratives ===
[[File:Harishchadra Taramati.jpg|thumb|19th century print depicting Taramati being saved by the god [[Vishnu]]]]
Most notably, Shaivya gains significant emotional and narrative presence in medieval [[Marathi literature]], particularly within the Vishnu-centric [[Warkari|Varkari]] devotional tradition of [[Maharashtra]], where she known as Taramati instead. This shift is most prominently seen in the Marathi compositions of [[Namdev]] (1270–1350) and his disciple [[Janabai]] (d. 1350), both of whom were non-Brahmin saint-poets. Their retellings frame the Harishchandra legend as a moral and devotional exemplar, emphasizing the virtues of [[sattva]] (goodness) and [[bhakti]] (devotion) of characters, including Taramati, rather than social justice or Brahminical authority.{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=200}}

In Varkari versions, Taramati emerges as a co-sufferer alongside Harishchandra, enduring physical and psychological hardships that far exceed the scriptural accounts. Vishvamitra is depicted not as a divine sage but as a cruel antagonist, described with almost exaggerated villainy. He magically invades Harishchandra’s dreams to demand his kingdom and later, appearing in person, insists on further payment. When the king hesitates, Vishvamitra beats both him and Taramati with a stick. He then separates the family, unleashes supernatural disasters to torment them. The central journey to Varanasi becomes a prolonged trial in the Marathi versions, featuring episodes absent in Sanskrit tellings. Vishvamitra manipulates the elements against the royal family, creates hallucinations, and uses deception to test their resolve. On the road, he separates Taramati from her husband and son, shows her false corpses, and tempts them with illusory comforts, only for them to refuse.{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=201}} After Rohit dies, he falsely guides Taramati into a temple and while she sleeps, he smears her face with the blood and entrails of her deceased son and then accuses Taramati of being a witch, so that the townsfolk persecute her.{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=101}}

Throughout these ordeals, Taramati exemplifies steadfast devotion to both her husband and her dharma. She remains loyal and composed in the face of loss and humiliation, and even when wrongfully accused of witchcraft, she accepts her fate without wavering. The climactic moment in both Namdev’s and Janabai’s versions occurs when Harishchandra is ordered to execute her.{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=202}} In Namdev's version, Taramati prays to [[Vishnu]] just before the fatal blow, asking for rebirth with her husband and son and, strikingly, for Vishvamitra as her “adoring petitioner.” This prayer prompts Vishnu to miraculously intervene and halt the execution. In Janabai's retelling, however, the final transformation occurs within Vishvamitra himself. Moved by Harishchandra’s unwavering virtue, the sage stops the execution and offers Taramati the chance to make a wish. She repeats the same prayer as in Namdev’s version, omitting only the reference to the family’s guru, [[Vasishtha]]. The narrative concludes with Vishvamitra bestowing all his tapas (ascetic merit) on the king and restoring him to his throne, marking a sharp departure from the Puranic ending where the family ascends to heaven.{{sfn|Sathaye|2015|p=203}}

===Other===
Taramati is featured in popular oral traditions transmitted by funeral priests at the cremation [[Ghats in Varanasi|ghats]] of [[Varanasi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], especially in connection Harishchandra ghat, traditionally believed to be the same cremation ground where Harishchandra worked. Taramati's struggle to perform relentless domestic labor is emphasized, and like in other popular narrative, she is accused of witchcraft, but here, she begs for medical aid when her son is bitten. Her pleas for medical aid are met not with sympathy but with violence, as the wife of the Brahmin responds to her desperation by physically assaulting her, demanding compensation for the loss of their "investment" in the boy. The cremation ground scene is significantly different from other accounts as Harishchandra in this version refuses to recognize his wife and son, even after lightning reveals their identities. His insistence on the funeral tax (''kar''), regardless of personal connection, underscores the oral tradition’s emphasis on [[Karma|karmic]] obligation and the transactional nature of death rituals. In this telling, Taramati offers her wedding ring as payment and even prepares to strip her sari to fulfill the last of the Dom’s perquisites, which is eventually prevented by intervention of the gods and sages.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parry |first=Jonathan P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r10f4uwzcosC&dq=taramati&pg=PA25 |title=Death in Banaras |date=1994-07-07 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-46625-7 |language=en}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
[[File:Raja Harishchandra scene—Taramati and Harishchandra.jpg|thumb|A scene from [[Raja Harishchandra]] (1913) depicting [[Anna Salunke]] as Taramati (Shaivya) and [[Dattatraya Damodar Dabke]] as Harishchandra]]
Shaivya or Taramati occupies a foundational place in the history of [[Cinema of India|Indian cinema]] as the first heroine to appear in a feature film.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mishra |first=D. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=whtmAAAAMAAJ&q=raja+harishchandra+taramati |title=Great Masters of Indian Cinema: The Dadasaheb Phalke Award Winners |date=2006 |publisher=Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India |isbn=978-81-230-1361-9 |language=en}}</ref> Her role was central to the 1913 silent film ''[[Raja Harishchandra]]'' by [[Dadasaheb Phalke]], which is widely regarded as the first full-length Indian motion picture. Casting Taramati proved difficult due to prevailing social norms that discouraged women from acting. Although male actors commonly played female roles in theatre, Phalke insisted the role be played by a woman. He conducted an extensive but unsuccessful search for a heroine, even approaching to courtesans and women in red-light districts, believing they might be more amenable to appearing on screen. Eventually, with no willing female candidates available, Phalke cast a young man named [[Anna Salunke]], owing to his slender build and delicate features, in the role of Taramati.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dwyer |first=Rachel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsKR1RKoJKUC&dq=salunke+taramati&pg=PA23 |title=Filming the Gods: Religion and Indian Cinema |date=2006-09-27 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-38070-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dtec0Ykfo1sC&dq=salunke+taramati&pg=PA1939 |title=Mother Maiden Mistress: Women In Hindi Cinema,1950-2010 |date=2012-04-17 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-93-5029-485-7 |language=en}}</ref> Taramati's appearance in the film was based upon the artworks of painters [[Raja Ravi Varma]] and [[M. V. Dhurandhar]] and had strong [[Culture of Maharashtra|Marathi]] influence, with costly silks used for her nine-yard styled saree.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vāṭave |first=Bāpū |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zTZnAAAAMAAJ&q=taramati+silk |title=Dadasaheb Phalke, the Father of Indian Cinema |date=2004 |publisher=National Book Trust |isbn=978-81-237-4319-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ramachandran |first1=T. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9rthUDKxyEC&q=taramati+saree |title=70 Years of Indian Cinema, 1913-1983 |last2=Rukmini |first2=S. |date=1985 |publisher=CINEMA India-International |isbn=978-0-86132-090-5 |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{Cite book |last=Sathaye |first=Adheesh A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LjsqDwAAQBAJ&q=T%C4%81r%C4%81mat%C4%AB&pg=PA162 |title=Crossing the Lines of Caste: Visvamitra and the Construction of Brahmin Power in Hindu Mythology |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-934110-8 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Jahanmir |first1=Yasmine Marie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9svxDwAAQBAJ&dq=shaivya+taramati&pg=RA1-PA1995 |title=Western Theatre in Global Contexts: Directing and Teaching Culturally Inclusive Drama Around the World |last2=Campana |first2=Jillian |date=2020-08-12 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-53400-3 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Warder |first=Anthony Kennedy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kKD-v7tPc8EC&dq=%C5%9Baivy%C4%81+hari%C5%9Bcandra&pg=PA553 |title=Indian Kāvya Literature: The bold style (Śaktibhadra to Dhanapāla) |date=1972 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0450-0 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pargiter |first=F. E. (Frederick Eden) |url=http://archive.org/details/cu31924022991974 |title=The Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa |date=1904 |publisher=Calcutta : Asiatic Society of Bengal |others=Cornell University Library}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mani |first=Vettam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mvXsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=Puranic Encyclopedia: A Comprehensive Work with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature |date=2015-01-01 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0597-2 |language=en}}

[[Category:Solar dynasty]]
[[Category:Queens in Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Entering heaven alive]]

Kabhi Kabhie Mere Dil Mein

2026-01-23T20:22:48Z

ShivaniSikri: added references

{{short description|1976 song performed by Mukesh}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox song
| name = Kabhi Kabhie Mere Dil Mein
| language = [[urdu]]
| artist = [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]] and [[Lata Mangeshkar]]
| album = [[Kabhie Kabhie (1976 film)|Kabhi Kabhie]]
| released = 1976
| recorded = [[Mehboob Studio]], [[Bandra]](W), [[Mumbai]], [[India]]
| genre = [[Film score]]
| length = 4:45
| label = [[Saregama]]
| lyricist = [[Sahir Ludhianvi]]
| composer = [[Mohammed Zahur Khayyam|Khayyam]]
| producer = Khayyam
}}

'''"Kabhi Kabhie Mere Dil Mein"''' ({{translation|Sometimes..in My Heart}}) is the title song of the 1976 Hindi film ''[[Kabhie Kabhie (1976 film)|Kabhi Kabhie]]'' directed by [[Yash Chopra]]. The title song of the film written by [[Sahir Ludhianvi]] was performed by [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]] and [[Lata Mangeshkar]].<ref>[http://planetbollywood.com/displayReview.php?id=042606031000 Kabhi Kabhie Music Review] Planet Bollywood.com.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.raaga.com/channels/hindi/moviedetail.asp?mid=H000074|title=Kabhi Kabhie songs}}</ref>

The song was recorded at Mehboob Studio of noted producer-director, [[Mehboob Khan]],<ref>[http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=18751 This studio gave a struggling musician a new dawn]{{dead link|date=February 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} Mohammed Wajihuddin, ''[[Indian Express]]'', 26 May 2002.</ref> and remains one of the finest creations of both its music director and lyricist, both of whom later won [[Filmfare Award]]s in their respective categories.<ref>[http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=172772 Sahir: A poet par excellence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105015348/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=172772 |date=5 November 2012 }} ''[[Indian Express]]'', 8 March 2006.</ref><ref name="toi">{{cite news
| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/PM-meets-musician-Khayyam/articleshow/1714730.cms
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025044538/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-07-07/india/27788046_1_30-minute-meeting-jagjit-kaur-music
| url-status=live
| archive-date=25 October 2012
| title=PM meets musician Khayyam
| work=[[The Times of India]]
| date=7 July 2006
| agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]]
| access-date=2 July 2013
| location=[[New Delhi]]}}</ref>

== About the song ==
{{Listen
| filename = Kabhi Kabhie Mere Dil Mein.ogg
| title = Kabhi Kabhie Mere Dil Mein sample music
| description = A 28 seconds sample of the popular song "Kabhi Kabhie Mere Dil Mein.ogg".
| format = [[Ogg]]
| pos = right
}}

This song is regarded to have been a masterpiece by lyricist [[Sahir Ludhianvi]].<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ACLz1ZYv1GA Sahir Ludhianvi - Kabhi Kabhi Original Voice, 16 May 2014, Sahir Ludhianvi]</ref> The original song is in literary [[Urdu]] and was in fact a poem from his collection ''Talkhiyan''. The version used in the movie {{Lang|hi-latn|[[Kabhie Kabhie (1976 film)|Kabhi Kabhie]]}} used simpler words.

This music for this song was composed by [[Mohammed Zahur Khayyam|Khayyam]] and sung by [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]. The song was originally created by Khayyam for an unreleased film made in 1950 by [[Chetan Anand (director)|Chetan Anand]]. The song was recorded by [[Geeta Dutt]] and [[Sudha Malhotra]]. However this song was never released.

== Music video ==
This song features Bollywood star [[Amitabh Bachchan]] and [[Raakhee]], and shot in [[Kashmir]], during the winter season.

==Versions==
The original literary version <ref>[https://rekhta.org/ebooks/talkhiyan-sahir-ludhianvi-ebooks Talkhiyan, Sahir Ludhianvi, 1985, Hali Publishing House, Delhi]</ref> was significantly modified to create a version which is more sentimental and lyrical.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
<poem>The original literary version:
Kabhi Kabhi mere dil mein khayaal aataa hai
Ki zindagi teri zulfon ki narm chhaaon mein
Guzarne paati to shaadaab ho bhi sakti thi
Yeh tiraagi jo mere zist ka muqaddar hai
Teri nazar ki shuaon mein kho bhi sakti thi</poem>
{{col-break}}
<poem>The movie version is:
Kabhi Kabhi Mere Dil Me, Khayal Aata Hai
Ke Jaise Tujhko Banaya Gaya Hai Mere Liye (x2)
Tu Ab Se Pahle Sitaro Me Bas Rahi Thi Kahi
Tujhe Zameen Pe bhoolaya Gaya Hai Mere Liye (x2)</poem>
{{col-end}}

Kabhi Kabhie song has another version in soundtrack, where in the opening verses are recited by [[Amitabh Bachchan]] as he does in the film, during the TV interview scene with [[Raakhee]], and then cuts to the song playing in flashback.

Yet another version, where it is a duet between [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]] and [[Lata Mangeshkar]], was picturized on the wedding night scene of Pooja (Rakhee) and Vijay Khanna ([[Shashi Kapoor]]). This version topped the year end [[Binaca Geetmala annual list 1976|Annual list 1976]] of [[Radio Ceylon]] radio show, [[Binaca Geetmala]]. Previously in the film, poet Amit, (Amitabh Bachchan presents his first book of verse titled ‘Kabhi Kabhie’ to his beloved Pooja as a wedding gift after she tells him that her parents have decided to marry her off to an industrialist's son, and Amit turns out to be Pooja's husband favourite poet and he recites the song to her on their wedding night.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ww.smashits.com/music/hindi-film/songs/1170/kabhi-kabhie-love-is-life.html|title=Kabhi Kabhie Songs|access-date=16 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918181110/http://ww.smashits.com/music/hindi-film/songs/1170/kabhi-kabhie-love-is-life.html|archive-date=18 September 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The song was later resung and remixed by Dal Hothi, followed many years later by a remixed version by [[Bally Sagoo]].

The melody was taken for the 1985 Indonesian song Khayalan Masa Lalu 'Imaginations of the Past', sung by [[Ida Laila]].

==Awards==
* 1977: [[Filmfare Award]]
** [[Filmfare Best Music Director Award|Best Music]]: [[Mohammed Zahur Khayyam|Khayyam]]
** [[Filmfare Best Lyricist Award|Best Lyricist]]: [[Sahir Ludhianvi]]: "Kabhi Kabhie Mere Dil Mein"
** [[Filmfare Best Male Playback Award|Best Male Playback Singer]]: [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]]: "Kabhi Kabhie Mere Dil Mein"<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Filmfare_Awards/1977 1977 Filmfare Awards] [[IMDb]]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0074730/soundtrack Kabhi Kabhie Soundtrack] at [[Internet Movie Database]]
* [https://www.saregama.com/song-lyrics/kabhi-kabhi-mere-dil-mein-solo_22795 Lyrics]

{{Lata Mangeshkar}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:1976 songs]]
[[Category:Songs written for Hindi-language films]]
[[Category:Mukesh (singer) songs]]
[[Category:Lata Mangeshkar songs]]
[[Category:Songs with music by Khayyam]]
[[Category:Songs with lyrics by Sahir Ludhianvi]]
[[Category:Songs in Urdu]]

Battle of Phulwari

2026-01-12T07:54:08Z

ShivaniSikri: put up new data basic info

{{Short description|1741 battle in Odisha}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Phulwari
| place = Phulwari, [[Odisha]]
| date = 3 March 1741
| result = [[Bengal Subah]] victory<ref name=":2" />
| commander1 = [[Alivardi Khan]] Sayyid Ahmad Khan Manikchand{{AWOL}} [[Mir Jafar]] [[Mir Qasim|Qasim Ali Khan]] Musaheb Khan Dilir Khan Aslat Khan
| commander2 = [[Lutfullah Tabrizi]] [[Agha Baqer Khan]]{{WIA}} Allauddin Muhammad Khan Abed Khan{{Turncoat}} Mukhlis Ali Khan{{Turncoat}} Muqarrab Khan{{Turncoat}} Mujtaba Ali{{KIA}} Mir Ali Akbar{{KIA}} Mir Abdul Aziz{{KIA}}
| combatant1 = {{flagicon image|Bengal subah flag (Nautical).svg}} [[Bengal Subah]]
| combatant2 = [[Odisha]] [[Subah]]
| strength1 = 10,000 or 12,000<ref name=":1" />
| strength2 = Unknown soldiers 300 cannons
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = 300 killed All artilleries captured
| territory = [[Odisha]] annexed to [[Bengal Subah]]<ref name=":3" />
| partof = [[Capture of Odisha (1741)]]
}}

The '''Battle of Phulwari''' on 3 March 1741 was a decisive engagement at the plains of Phulwari, near [[Balasore]] in present-day [[Odisha]] in Eastern India. In 1740 A.D. [[Alivardi Khan]] became the Nawab Bengal Subah deposing [[Sarfaraz Khan]] in the [[Battle of Giria]]. [[Lutfullah Tabrizi]] also known as Rustam Jang and Murshid Quli II, the Deputy Governor of Odisha, refused to accept Alivardi's suzerainty. He sought to avenge his brother-in-law Sarfaraz Khan and asserted independence. This ensued conflict between the two and Alivardi's forces clashed with Lutfullah Tabrizi's in a battle in the plains of Phulwari. Faced with betrayals, and a fierce counterattack led by [[Mir Jafar]], the battle ended in Lutfullah Tabrizi's defeat, the death of key commanders, and the severe wounding of his son-in-law [[Agha Baqer Khan|Mirza Baqar]], solidifying Alivardi's control over Bengal, [[Bihar]], and Odisha.

== Background ==
Alivardi Khan then the governor of Bihar marched from Patna into Bengal, defeated and killed [[Sarfaraz Khan]] ({{Reign|1739|1740}}) at the [[Battle of Giria]] on 10 April 1740, and became the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1964|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.43007/page/n68/mode/1up 45]}}{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279485/page/n64/mode/1up 42]}}</ref> [[Lutfullah Tabrizi]], the son-in-law of [[Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan]] and Deputy Governor of Orissa (Odisha) refused to acknowledge the authority of Alivardi Khan. At first he tried to make an agreement with Alivardi. His wife Dardana Begam persuaded him to avenge her half-brother Sarfaraz’s death. Subsequently he declared independence.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1964|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.43007/page/n69/mode/1up 45]}}{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279485/page/n64/mode/1up 42]}}</ref>

== Prelude ==
Lutfullah Tabrizi left his wife Dardana Bagum and son Yahya Khan at the with all his wealth at the [[Barabati fort|fort of Barabati]].<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Banerji|1951|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.32062/page/n150/mode/1up 77]}}</ref> In December 1740, he marched from [[Cuttack]] with his two sons-in-law, [[Agha Baqer Khan|Mirza Baqar Khan]] and Allauddin Muhammad Khan. Crossing [[Balasore]] he reached at the plains of Phulwari{{Efn|Four miles north of [[Balasore]] town.{{sfn|Datta|1939|p=43}}}} and encamped there, forming a round circle of 300 [[Cannon|cannons]] around the tents.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279485/page/n65/mode/1up 43]}}</ref>

On hearing of Lutfullah Tabrizi's advance, Alivardi started from [[Murshidabad]] in January 1741 with his nephew, Sayyid Ahmad alias Saulat Jung, at the head of 10,000 or 12,000 [[cavalry]], into Orissa.<ref name=":1">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279485/page/n65/mode/1up 43]}} "On hearing of [[Lutfullah Tabrizi|Rustam Jang]]'s advance, he started from [[Murshidabad]] in the month of January, 1741, with his nephew Sayeed Ahmad (surnamed Maham-ud-daulah Saulat Jang) at the head of ten or twelve thousand [[cavalry]], leaving Haji Ahmad and [[Nawazish Muhammad Khan|Nawazish Muhammad]] (Shahamat Jang) in charge of the government of Bengal"{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Haque|1980|p=|pp=[https://archive.org/details/muslim-administration-in-orissa-1980/page/202/mode/1up 201–202]}} "On hearing of Murshid Quli's advance, Alivardi started from Murshidabad in January 1741, with his nephew Sayeed Ahmad (surnamed Maham-ud-daulah Saulat Jang) at the head of ten or twelve thousand cavalry, …"{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Banerji|1951|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.32062/page/n151/mode/1up 78]}} "[[Ghulam Husain Salim]] puts the strength of 'Aliwardi's army at one lakh cavalry and infantry in the place of the modest twelve thousand of [[Ghulam Hussain Khan|Ghulam Husain]]."</ref> [[Ghulam Husain Salim]] writes Alivardi’s army made of 100,000 cavalry and [[infantry]]. According to [[Madala Panji|Madla Panji]], Alivardi the number is 500 elephants, 4,000 cavalry and one lakh infantry.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Haque|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/muslim-administration-in-orissa-1980/page/202/mode/1up 202]}}</ref> The figures are over exaggerated.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279485/page/n65/mode/1up 43]}}</ref>

Marching to [[Midnapore]], Alivardi reached to [[Jaleswar|Jalasore]]. There he crossed the [[Subarnarekha River]] and encamped at Ramachandrapur, three miles near the plains of Phulwari. Despite being near Lutfullah Tabrizi's camp, Alivardi could not attack due to severe provisions shortage caused by Midnapore zamindars failure to supply as the zamindars of Orissa who were loyal to Lutfullah Tabrizi intercepted the supplies. In the meantime, [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] [[bargis]] raided his camp. Alivardi being pressed decided to make peace with Lutfullah Tabrizi, but Alivardi's general Mustafa Khan advised entrenching through the rains and renewing the campaign afterward.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Haque|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/muslim-administration-in-orissa-1980/page/202/mode/1up 202]}}{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279485/page/n66/mode/1up 44]}}{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Banerji|1951|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.32062/page/n153/mode/1up 79]}}</ref>

== Battle ==
Conflicts erupted when Mirza Baqar, instigated by Abed Khan sallied forth from his camp a contingent composed of Barha [[Sayyid]] soldiers and launched an assault on Alivardi's forces. In the initial onslaught, Alivardi captured the entirety of Lutfullah Tabrizi's [[artillery]], which had been left inadequately guarded due to Mirza Baqer's early assault. Lutfullah Tabrizi came out to help Mirza Baqer. Despite the significant loss, Lutfullah Tabrizi, Mirza Baqar, and their troops fought vigorously which forced portion of the Bengal soldiers to flee the battlefield, leaving their commander on the brink of defeat. Alivardi was pushed two miles away from the battlefield. Seeing Alivardi in distress, Manikchand, peshkar of the [[Bardhaman Raj|Raja of Burdwan]], secretly offered to join Lutfullah Tabrizi's side with his troops for personal safety, but Mirza Baqar, suspecting his sincerity, opposed the proposal.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Haque|1980|pp=[https://archive.org/details/muslim-administration-in-orissa-1980/page/202/mode/1up 202–203]}}{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279485/page/n67/mode/1up 45]}}</ref>

Lutfullah Tabrizi gained the upper hand on the battlefield but faced betrayal from his generals. Abed Khan entered into a secret agreement with Mustafa Khan, Alivardi's commander. Pretending to launch an attack on the enemy, Abed Khan advanced with his soldiers, only to defect to the opposing side. This betrayal was soon followed by similar actions from several other army officers, including Mukhlis Ali Khan, Muqarrab Khan, and a number of [[Pashtuns|Afghan]] generals.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Haque|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/muslim-administration-in-orissa-1980/page/203/mode/1up 203]}}{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279485/page/n67/mode/1up 45]}}</ref>

Undeterred by these defections, Mirza Baqar launched a swift and forceful assault on the left wing of Alivardi's army, which was under the command of veteran generals such as [[Mir Jafar]] and [[Mir Qasim|Qasim Ali Khan]]. This sudden attack initially caused great disorder and confusion among the Bengal forces. Mir Jafar, however, promptly mounted a gallant resistance, counterattacking Baqer's troops and coming to the aid of Alivardi's defeated generals, including Musaheb Khan, Dilir Khan, and Aslat Khan. This action greatly inspired Alivardi's soldiers, who renewed their assault on the enemy. Lutfullah Tabrizi's generals Mujtaba Ali, Mir Ali Akbar, and Mir Abdul Aziz was slain alongside 300 Sayyid soldiers. Mirza Baqar was wounded seriously and was carried from the battlefield in a [[Litter (vehicle)|palanquin]]. The army abandoned the fight. Lutfullah Tabrizi fled for his safety.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Haque|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/muslim-administration-in-orissa-1980/page/204/mode/1up 204]}}{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279485/page/n67/mode/1up 46]}}</ref> Thus Alivardi gained victory in the battle of Phulwari.<ref name=":2">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Haque|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/muslim-administration-in-orissa-1980/page/206/mode/1up 206]}} "After his victory in the battle of Phulwari, Alivardi hurriedly advanced to Cuttack and seized two lakhs of rupees in cash and precious articles of the same value belonging to Murshid Quli."{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Ray|1960|p=|pp=[https://archive.org/details/orissa-under-marathas-1960/page/7/mode/1up 7–8]}} "Consequently in a battle which was fought between Aliwardi Khan and Rustam Jang at Phulwari on 1741 the latter was defeated and fled away to the Deccan …"</ref>

== Aftermath ==
Lutfullah Tabrizi fled to [[Machilipatnam|Masaulipatam]] in the territory of [[Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I|Asaf Jah Nizam-ul-Mulk]] in Deccan.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=|pp=47, 48}}</ref> Alivardi dispatched Mirza Khairullah Beg to capture Dardana Bagum and Yahya Khan. Ramchandradeva II of [[Khordha|Khurdah]], loyal to Lutfullah Tabrizi dispatched his general Shah Murad Khan. Mirza Khairullah Beg seized Lutfullah Tabrizi's treasure but his family fled.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Banerji|1951|pp=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.32062/page/n153/mode/1up 79–80]}}</ref> He stayed at Odisha for two months and appointed Sayyid Ahmad Khan alias Saulat Jung, his second son-in-law as the Deputy Governor of Orissa<ref name=":3">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Sarkar|1964|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.43007/page/n69/mode/1up 45]}}{{Break}}{{Harvard citation no brackets|Ray|1960|p=[https://archive.org/details/orissa-under-marathas-1960/page/8/mode/1up 8]}}</ref> He also left Gujar Khan in command of three thousand cavalry and four thousand infantry.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Datta|1939|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279485/page/n70/mode/1up 48]}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Battle of Giria]]
* [[Battle of Katwa (1742)|Battle of Katwa]]
* [[Battle of Rani Sarai]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Datta |first=Kalikinkar |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279485 |title=Alivardi and His Times |date=1939 |publisher=University of Calcutta |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Haque |first=Mohammed Anwarul |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Muslim_Administration_in_Orissa_1568_175.html?id=Co8eAAAAMAAJ |title=Muslim Administration in Orissa, 1568-1751 A.D. |date=1980 |publisher=Punthi Pustak |language=en |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/muslim-administration-in-orissa-1980 |archive-date=2021-07-01}}
* {{Cite book |last=Banerji |first=R. D. |author-link=R. D. Banerji |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.32062 |title=History of Orissa |date=1951 |publisher=Prabasi Press |volume=II |location=Calcutta |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Bhabani Charan |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Orissa_Under_Marathas_1751_1803.html?id=37A9AAAAMAAJ |title=Orissa Under Marathas, 1751-1803 |date=1960 |publisher=Kitab Mahal |language=en |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/orissa-under-marathas-1960 |archive-date=2024-01-21}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |author-link=Jadunath Sarkar |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.43007 |title=Fall Of The Mughal Empire 1739-1754 |date= |publisher=Orient Longman Ltd |year=1964 |edition=3rd |volume=I |language=en}}
{{refend}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1741]]
[[Category:1741 in India]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Bengal Subah]]

Wui language

2026-01-02T02:13:54Z

ShivaniSikri: Put up data...

{{Short description|Sino-Tibetan language spoken in India}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Wui
| nativename = tʰa³³weɪ⁵² ma³³lan³¹
| states = [[India]]
| region = Wui village, [[Noklak District]], [[Nagaland]]
| ethnicity = Wui Naga
| speakers = < 1,000
| date = 2023
| ref = <ref name="ICSTLL56"/>
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2 = [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]]
| fam3 = [[Central Tibeto-Burman languages|Central Tibeto-Burman]] (?)
| fam4 = [[Kuki-Chin–Naga languages|Kuki-Chin–Naga]]
| fam5 = [[Central Naga languages|Central Naga]] (?)
| iso3 =
| glotto = wuii1234
| glottorefname =
}}

'''Wui''' (autonym: ''tʰa³³wɛ⁵² ma³³lan⁵²'', lit. 'crab language') is a [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] language spoken in [[Wui village]], [[Noklak District]], [[Nagaland]], India ({{coord|26.036|N|95.067|E}}). There are just under 1,000 speakers.<ref name="ICSTLL56">{{cite conference|conference=56th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, 10–12 October 2023|location=Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok|date=2023|title=Preliminary Report on Wui: An Undocumented Language of Eastern Nagaland|first=Alexander R.|last=Coupe}}</ref>

==Background==
Wui is spoken in the single village of Wui, which has about 150 houses. Wui village is situated 10 km west of the India-Myanmar border on the [[Patsho]] Range in eastern [[Nagaland]]. It is estimated that there are less than 1,000 speakers.<ref name="ICSTLL56"/>

Nearby languages include [[Tikhir language|Tikhir]] (Aoic) and various [[Khiamniungan language|Khiamniunganic]] (Konyakian) varieties. Wui speakers consider themselves to be an ethnic subgroup of the [[Khiamniungan people]] and also speak [[Patsho Khiamniungan]]. Many Wui people are fluent in [[Nagamese language|Nagamese]].<ref name="ICSTLL56"/>

==Classification==
Due to its divergent lexicon and typological features, the classification of Wui is uncertain. Coupe (2023) suggests a divergent [[Central Naga languages|Central Naga]] affiliation. However, Wui lacks rhotics, which are characteristic of most Central Naga languages.<ref name="ICSTLL56"/>

==Phonology==
The phonological inventory of Wui is as follows.<ref name="ICSTLL56"/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Consonants
|-
! !! labial/ labiodental !! dental !! palatal/ palato-alveolar !! velar !! glottal
|-
! stop, unasiprated
| p || t || || k || ʔ
|-
! stop, aspirated
| pʰ || tʰ || || kʰ ||
|-
! affricate, unaspirated
| || ts || tʃ || ||
|-
! affricate, aspirated
| || tsʰ || tʃʰ || ||
|-
! nasal
| m || n || ɲ || ŋ ||
|-
! nasal, glottalized
| mˀ || nˀ || || ŋˀ ||
|-
! fricative
| (v) || s || ʃ || ||
|-
! approximant
| w || l || j || || h
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Vowels
|-
| i || ʉ || u
|-
| ɛ || || ɔ
|-
| || a ||
|}

There are three phonemic tones in Wui, which are:<ref name="Swadesh"/>

*high level /55/
*mid level /33/
*high falling /52/

==Pronouns==
Wui personal pronouns are as follows.<ref name="ICSTLL56"/>

{| class="wikitable"
! !! singular !! dual !! plural
|-
! 1st person
| ŋa⁵² || i³³tsai⁵² || i³³sɪm³³
|-
! 2nd person
| naŋ⁵² || la³³tsaɪ⁵² || la³³sɪm³³
|-
! 3rd person
| ta³³pau⁵² || tʃaʊ³³ɲɪt³³ || tʃaʊ³³la³³
|}

==Lexicon==
Below are some [[Swadesh list]] items for Wui as provided in Coupe (2023).<ref name="Swadesh">Coupe, Alexander R. (2023). "Swadesh 100 list comparisons – Wui v. Aoic & Patsho Khiamniungan". Supplementary material in ''Preliminary Report on Wui: An Undocumented Language of Eastern Nagaland''. 56th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, 10–12 October 2023. Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Gloss !! Wui
|-
| I || ŋa⁵²
|-
| you (sg.) || nâŋ
|-
| we || i³³tsaɪ⁵²
|-
| this || tʃaʊ⁵²
|-
| that || kʰɔ⁵²
|-
| who? || siʊ⁵²
|-
| what? || kaʊ⁵⁵tɔ⁵²
|-
| all || tɛ³³la³³pʊm⁵²
|-
| many || paŋ⁵²nɛ³³
|-
| one || kʰaʔ³³
|-
| two || a³³ɲɪt³³
|-
| big || ta⁵⁵waʔ³³
|-
| long || ʃi⁵⁵nɛ³³
|-
| small || a³³laŋ⁵²
|-
| woman || tʰa³³ɲu³³lia⁵²
|-
| man || ta³³pu³³lia⁵²
|-
| person || maiʔ⁵⁵
|-
| fish || tha³³ŋɔʔ⁵⁵
|-
| bird || u³³lia⁵²
|-
| dog || haɪ⁵²
|-
| louse || tʃʰɪ⁵⁵paɪ⁵²
|-
| tree || sɪn⁵²
|-
| seed || tʃaɪʔ³³
|-
| leaf || taʊ³³ɔ⁵²
|-
| root || ta³³lɪn³³
|-
| bark || siŋ³³kʊap³³
|-
| skin || tsak³³kʊap³³
|-
| flesh || ta³³ma³³tɪn⁵⁵
|-
| blood || tʰaɪʔ³³
|-
| bone || tă³³lɪt³³
|-
| grease || ta³³sɛ⁵²
|-
| egg || vɛ⁵⁵la⁵⁵tai³³
|-
| horn || ta³³la³³tʃaɪ⁵⁵
|-
| tail || ta³³la³³ma⁵⁵
|-
| hair || tă³³kɛ³³ɲɪm³³
|-
| head || tă³³kɛ⁵²
|-
| ear || nʉ³³pʉ³³
|-
| eye || ɲit³³tsaŋ³¹
|-
| nose || thă³³no³³
|-
| mouth || tha³³ɔ⁵²
|-
| tooth || pʰɔ⁵²
|-
| tongue || ma³³la⁵²
|-
| fingernail || mă³³lɪn⁵²
|-
| foot || mă³³pʰɔ⁵²
|-
| knee || ma³³kʰɔk³³
|-
| hand || kʰɛt³³
|-
| belly || han⁵²
|-
| neck || ʉ⁵²
|-
| breasts || la³³ɲʉʔ³³
|-
| heart || tă³³ŋi³³la³³sa⁵²
|-
| drink || ʉʔ⁵⁵
|-
| eat || tsɔ⁵⁵jaʔ⁵²
|-
| bite || ma³³kăk⁵²
|-
| see || a³³tsaʊ⁵⁵pɛʔ³³
|-
| know || ma³³tat³³
|-
| sleep || ip³³
|-
| die || tă³³saɪ³³wa⁵²
|-
| kill || ta³³lɛ³³sat⁵⁵
|-
| swim || tɛɪ³³ la³³tʰak⁵⁵
|-
| walk || a³³pɪaŋ⁵⁵pɛʔ³¹
|-
| come || lɔʔ³³
|-
| sit || nuɪʔ⁵⁵
|-
| stand || jap³³
|-
| give || lɛ⁵⁵paɪʔ³³
|-
| say || hɔʔ³³
|-
| sun || ja⁵⁵ŋaɪ⁵⁵
|-
| moon || ɔ⁵²
|-
| star || tʃɪ⁵⁵nɛ⁵⁵
|-
| water || taɪ⁵²
|-
| rain || tɪn³³taɪ⁵²
|-
| stone || loŋ⁵²
|-
| earth || la³³la³³
|-
| cloud || la³³ma⁵²
|-
| smoke || ma³³ma³³kʰaʊʔ⁵⁵
|-
| fire || ma⁵²
|-
| ash || laʊ⁵⁵ʊt⁵⁵
|-
| path || lam⁵²
|-
| white || ma³³ŋi⁵²
|-
| night || tsi³³ɪn³³
|-
| full || lɛ⁵⁵ta⁵⁵tʃɪ̰n³³
|-
| name || ɲɪn⁵²
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Kuki-Chin–Naga languages}}
{{Languages of Northeast India}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ao languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Nagaland]]

Kavasseri

2025-12-22T04:40:17Z

ShivaniSikri: minor cleanup

{{Short description|Gram panchayat in the Palakkad district, Kerala, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
'''Kavassery''' is a [[gram panchayat]] in the [[Palakkad district]], state of [[Kerala]], [[India]]. It is a very local government organisation that serves the villages of [[Kavasseri-I]] and [[Kavasseri-II]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://panchayatdirectory.gov.in/adminreps/viewGPmapcvills.asp?gpcode=224679&rlbtype=V |title=Reports of National Panchayat Directory |publisher=Ministry of Panchayati Raj |access-date=30 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235050/http://panchayatdirectory.gov.in/adminreps/viewGPmapcvills.asp?gpcode=224679&rlbtype=V |archive-date=30 December 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Its postal code is from 678543 to 678545.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mapsofindia.com/pincode/india/kerala/palakkad/kavassery.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114171358/http://www.mapsofindia.com/pincode/india/kerala/palakkad/kavassery.html |archive-date=14 January 2017 |title=Pin Code of Kavassery in Palakkad, Kerala}}</ref>

==Demographics==

{{As of|2011}} India [[census]], Kavasseri-I had a population of 17,333 with 8,448 males and 8,885 females.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kavasseri-I Village Population - Alathur - Palakkad, Kerala |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/data/village/627701-kavasseri-i-kerala.html |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=www.census2011.co.in}}</ref>

{{As of|2011}} India [[census]], Kavasseri-II had a population of 11,855 with 5,683 males and 6,172 females.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kavasseri-II Village Population 2025: Census Data and Literacy - Alathur, Palakkad, KERALA |url=https://censusofindia.net/kerala/palakkad/alathur/kavasseriii/627702 |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=censusofindia.net}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{coord missing|Kerala}}

[[Category:Gram panchayats in Palakkad district]]

1st Pondicherry Assembly

2025-12-15T18:43:59Z

ShivaniSikri: put up first post w/ sources.

{{Infobox legislative term
| name = 1st Assembly of Pondicherry
| image =
| image_size =
| caption = Legislative Assembly Building, rue Victor Simonel, [[Puducherry (city)|Puducherry]], [[India]]
| body = [[Pondicherry Legislative Assembly]]
| election = [[1959 Pondicherry Representative Assembly election]]
| before = ''[[2nd Pondicherry Representative Assembly]]''
| after = ''[[2nd Pondicherry Assembly|2nd Assembly of Pondicherry]]''
| government = [[Indian National Congress]]
| opposition = People's Front
| term_start = {{Start date|1963|07|01|df=y}}
| term_end = {{End date|1964|08|24|df=y}}
| membership1 = 39
}}
The [[Pondicherry Representative Assembly]] was converted into the [[Pondicherry Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] on 1 July 1963 as per Section 54(3) of The Union Territories Act, 1963.<ref name="1963Act">{{cite web|url=https://rajnivas.py.gov.in/rti/governmentunionterritoriesact1963.pdf|title=The Government of Union Territories Act, 1963|publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|access-date=8 June 2020}}</ref> All the 39 members who were elected by [[1959 Pondicherry Representative Assembly election|1959]] were deemed to have been elected to the '''First Assembly of Pondicherry''' ''Première Assemblée de Pondichéry'' (1 July 1963 – 24 August 1964).<ref name="ref2004">{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DFqbAAAAMAAJ|title=Cabinet Responsibility to Legislature|work= G. C. Malhotra|publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat|year=2004}}. Its term was fixed to expire on 24 August 1964.</ref>{{rp|966}}

==Background==
The ''First Representative Assembly of Pondicherry'' which was constituted in 1955 after [[1955 Pondicherry Representative Assembly election]]. However, that government was not stable as the ruling party was ridden with personal strifes and factions. The [[Government of India]] had to intervene finally by dissolving the Assembly following the instability caused by the change of party affiliation of members. Then, the [[List of lieutenant governors of Puducherry|Chief Commissioner]] took over the administration in October 1958. Later, after nine months, second general elections were held to the Pondicherry Representative Assembly in [[1955 Pondicherry Representative Assembly election|1959]].<ref>{{cite news |last= K. K. |first=Rajagopalan |date= September 12, 1959|title= Pondicherry Assembly Elections An Analysis |url=https://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1959_11/37/pondicherry_assembly_electionsan_analysis.pdf |work= The Economic Weekly|access-date=10 June 2020 }}</ref>

==Important members==
* '''[[List of speakers of the Puducherry Legislative Assembly|Speaker]]:'''
**A.S. Gangeyan from 22 July 1963 to 18 September 1964<ref name="ref2004"/>{{rp|968}}
* '''[[Deputy Speaker]]:'''
**[[Kamichetty S.V. Rao Naidu]] from 27 November 1963<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-9Y451PfQpUC|title=Administration Report|page=3|work= Dept. of Fisheries, Government of Pondicherry|year=1963}}</ref> to 24 August 1964<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8E3VAAAAMAAJ|title=India, A Reference Annual 1964|page=398|work= Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India|publisher=Publications Division|year=1964}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IOKAZJXA4H4C|title=Le gazette de l'Etat|page=569|work= Government of Pondicherry|year=1964}}</ref>
* '''[[List of chief ministers of Puducherry|Chief minister]]:'''
** [[Edouard Goubert]] from 1 July 1963 to 24 August 1964
* '''[[Leader of opposition]]:'''
** [[V. Subbiah]] from 29 August 1964 – 19 September 1968

==Members of the 1st Pondicherry Representative Assembly==
{| class="wikitable Sortable" border="2"
|- valign="top"
!||Party Name
! Members
|-
| style="background-color:{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|  || style="text-align:left;"|[[Indian National Congress|Congress]]
| align="right"|21
|-
| style="background-color:{{party color|Popular Front}}"|  || style="text-align:left;"|People's Front (P.F.)
| align="right"|13
|-
| style="background-color:{{party color|Independent}}"|  || style="text-align:left;"|[[Praja Socialist Party|PSP]]
| align="right"| 1
|-
| style="background-color:{{party color|Independent}}"|  || style="text-align:left;"|[[Independent politician|Independents]]
| align="right"| 4
|}
'''Keys:'''
{{legend2|#00FFFF|[[Indian National Congress|Congress]] (21) |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#FF0000|People's Front (P.F.) (13) |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#FFF000|Praja Socialist Party (P.S.P.) (1) |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#D3D3D3|[[Independent politician|Independent]] (4) |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Members of the 1st Pondicherry Representative Assembly
|-
!S. No!!Name !!Constituency!!Region!!Party
|-
|1
| [[Kamichetty Savithri]]
|Anakalapettai{{refn|group=note|i.e. Kanakalapeta constituency}}
|Yanam
|bgcolor=#D3D3D3|Ind.
|-
|2
|[[K.S.V. Prasadarao Naidu]]
|Andhrapettai{{refn|group=note|i.e. Adi Andhrapeta constituency}}
|Yanam
|bgcolor=#D3D3D3|Ind.
|-
|3
|P.C. Purushottam Rettiar
|Archivak–Tavalacoupom
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|[[Indian National Congress|Congress]]
|-
|4
|K.Ramanujam
|Ariankuppam
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|-
|5
|K. Subrahmania Padayachi
|Bahour
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|6
|M.M.Hussein
|Bussy Street
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|-
|7
| Annamalai Naicker
|Embaralam-Kalamandapam
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|8
|S. Somasundara Chettiar
|Kalapet
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|9
|Mohamed Ismail Maricar
|Karikal North
|Karikal
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|10
|K.E.M. Mohamed Ibrahim Maricar
|Karikal Central
|Karikal
|bgcolor=#D3D3D3|Ind.
|-
|11
|K.V. Prosper
|Karikal South
|Karikal
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|12
| K.S.Govindaraj
|Karaikovil Pathu
|Karikal
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|13
|Smt. Saraswathi Subbiah
|Kasikaddai
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|-
|14
|P.C. Murugaswamy Clemenceau
|Kurichikuppam
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|-
|15
|R.L. Purushottam Reddiar
|Kuruvinattam-Kariambuttur
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|16
| V.Ramaswamy Pillai
| Madhakovil
|Karikal
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|17
|C. E. Barathan
|Mahe Town
|Mahe
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|18
|[[Édouard Goubert]]
|Mannadipet
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress `
|-
|19
|[[V.Subbaiah]]
|Murungapakkam-Nainar Mandapam
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|-
|20
|P. Abraham
|Muthialpet
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|21
|P. Shanmugam
|Nedungadu
|Karikal
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|22
|N. Govindaraju
|Nellitope Town
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|-
|23
|D. Rathinasabapathy Pillai
|Neravy
|Karikal
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|24
| Venkatasubba Reddiar
|Nettapakkam
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|25
|N. Guruswamy
|Oulgaret
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|-
|26
|R. Vaithilingam
|Ooppalaom
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|-
|27
|R. Pakir Mohammed
|Oossetteri
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|-
|28
|C.T.Raman
|Palloor
|Mahe
|bgcolor=#FFF000|[[Praja Socialist Party|P.S.P.]]
|-
|29
| T.N.Purushottama
|Panthakkal
|Mahe
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|30
|A. S. Gangeyan
|Rajbhavan
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|31
| V.Narayanaswamy
|Reddiarpalayam Town
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|-
|32
|P.Narayana Swamy
|Saram and Lawspet
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|-
|33
| S. Natarajan
|Sellipet-Souttoukeny
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|-
|34
| K. M. Guruswamy Pillai
|Thirumeni Alagar
|Karikal
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|35
| V. M. C. Varada Pillai
|Thirumalayapattinam North
|Karikal
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|36
|Nagamuthu Pillai
|Thirumalarayanpattinam South
|Karikal
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|37
| Subbarayulu Naicker
|Tirunalar-Badrakaliamman Kovil
|Karikal
|bgcolor=#00FFFF|Congress
|-
|38
|Soundarassamy
|Tirunalar-Darbaranyeswarar Koil
|Karikal
|bgcolor=#D3D3D3|Ind.
|-
|39
|M. Chidambaram
|Villenour
|Pondicherry
|bgcolor=#FF0000|P.F.
|}

== See also ==
*[[Government of Puducherry]]
*[[List of chief ministers of Puducherry]]
*[[List of lieutenant governors of Puducherry]]
*[[Puducherry Legislative Assembly]]
*[[Pondicherry Representative Assembly]]
*[[1959 Pondicherry Representative Assembly election]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

{{Legislature of the Puducherry}}

[[Category:Terms of the Puducherry Legislative Assembly]]
[[Category:Pondicherry MLAs 1963–1964| ]]
[[Category:1963 establishments in Pondicherry]]
[[Category:1964 disestablishments in India]]

Abuhar

2025-12-09T00:58:36Z

ShivaniSikri: put up some pg more to come.

{{Short description|Village in West Bengal}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Abuhar
| settlement_type = Village
| population_total = 984
| area_total_ha =
| name =
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal # India
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|25|27|50.34|N|88|22|57.99|E|scale:6250}}
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 733121
| population_as_of = 2011
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of West Bengal|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Dakshin Dinajpur district|Dakshin Dinajpur]]
| other_name =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset = +5:30
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Climate of India|Climate]]
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Balurghat (Lok Sabha constituency)|Balurghat]]
| demographics1_info1 =
| demographics_type1 = Muslims = 100% {{increase}} Hindus = 0% Others (Christian, Sikh, Buddhists) = 0%
| demographics1_title1 =
| website = {{URL|ddinajpur.nic.in/}}
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| area_total_km2 = 1.377
| area_land_ha =
| population_blank1_title = [[Male]]
| population_blank1 = 496
| population_blank2_title = [[Female]]
| population_blank2 = 488
| blank1_name_sec2 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec2 = [[Buniadpur]]
| registration_plate = WB
| blank_info_sec1 = [[Climatic regions of India|Moderate, Comfortable]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]])
| area_code = 03524
| area_code_type = Telephone Code
| demographics2_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[English language|English]]
| demographics_type2 = Languages
| demographics2_title1 = Official
}}
'''Abuhar''' is a small [[village]] located in [[Kushmandi]] subdivision of [[Dakshin Dinajpur district]] in [[West Bengal]], India.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Dakshin Dinajpur 2011 Census .XLXS file |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/PCA%20CDB-1905-F-Census.xlsx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211020851/https://censusindia.gov.in/pca/cdb_pca_census/PCA%20CDB-1905-F-Census.xlsx |archive-date=11 February 2020 |access-date=28 April 2022 |website=CensusIndia.gov.in |quote=No: 138 on the XL Sheet}}</ref>

== Location ==
It is situated {{convert|10.8|km|mi|abbr=on}} from sub-district headquarters [[Buniadpur]].<ref>According to [[Google Maps]].</ref> [[Balurghat]] is the district headquarters of this village. [[Kalikamora]] gram panchayat is the [[gram panchayat]] of this village. The total geographical area of the village is {{convert|137.7|hectare|acre km2}}. The village code of this village is 310462.

== Population ==
With about 248 houses, this village has a total population of 984 people amongst them are 496 male and 488 female and a total geographical area of {{convert|137.7|hectare|acre}} or 1.377 km2. The literacy rate of the total population of this village is 71.65% among 73.59% males and 69.67% females are literate.<ref name=":0" />

== See also ==

* [[Amlahar]] village in [[Dakshin Dinajpur district|Dakshin Dinajpur]].
* [[Kalikamora]] village in [[Dakshin Dinajpur district|Dakshin Dinajpur]].

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Villages in Dakshin Dinajpur district]]

{{DakshinDinajpur-geo-stub}}

2023–24 Gokulam Kerala FC season

2025-12-04T21:23:17Z

ShivaniSikri: put up a info more to come.

{{Short description|Indian football club season}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox football club season
| club = [[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam Kerala]]
| season = 2023–24
| chairman = Gokulam Gopalan
| manager = [[Domingo Oramas Cabrera|Mingo Oramas]] ''(until 31 March 2024)'' Sereef Khan ''(from 31 March 2024)''
| mgrtitle = Head Coach
| stadium = [[EMS Stadium]]
| league = [[2023–24 I-League|I-League]]
| league result = [[2023–24 I-League|3rd]]
| cup1 = [[Durand Cup]]
| cup1 result = Quarter Final
| cup2 = [[2024 Indian Super Cup|Super Cup]]
| cup2 result = Group Stage
| cup3 =
| cup3 result =
| league topscorer = [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] 19 Goals
| season topscorer = [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] 20 Goals
| average attendance = 8,760
| highest attendance = 19,764
| lowest attendance = 2,000
| largest win =5-0 (vs [[Rajasthan United FC|Rajasthan United]] (H), 09 November 2023, I-League)
| largest loss =

| prevseason = [[2022–23 Gokulam Kerala F.C. season|2022–23]]
| nextseason = [[2024–25 Gokulam Kerala F.C. season|2024–25]]
| updated = 13 April 2024
}}
The '''2023–24 season''' is '''[[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam Kerala]]'s''' seventh season since its establishment in 2017 and their sixth season in the [[I-League]]. In addition to the [[I-League]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/football/aiff-looks-to-increase-teams-in-i-league-number-of-foreigners-in-squad-to-be-reduced-8585723/ | title=AIFF looks to increase teams in I-League, number of foreigners in squad to be reduced | date=May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://i-league.org/aiff-invites-bids-for-new-clubs-to-join-hero-i-league-2023-24-season-onwards/ | title=AIFF invites bids for new clubs to join Hero I-League 2023-24 season onwards | Hero I-League }}</ref> Gokulam Kerala will participate in the [[Super Cup (India)|Indian Super Cup]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-03 |title=AIFF restores Federation Cup, inducts five new clubs in I-League |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/i-league-indian-football-five-new-teams-aiff-executive-committee-federation-cup-restored/article67038334.ece |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=sportstar.thehindu.com |language=en}}</ref> and [[Durand Cup]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://theprint.in/sport/durand-cup-2023-football-tournament-to-kick-off-from-august-3/1619424/ | title=Durand Cup 2023 football tournament to kick off from August 3 | date=8 June 2023 }}</ref> on 6 June 2023, Spanish manager [[Domingo Oramas Cabrera|Mingo Oramas]] agreed a two-year deal to become GKFC manager.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.onmanorama.com/sports/football/2023/06/07/gokulam-kerala-appoint-spaniard-domingo-oramas-as-head-coach.html | title=Gokulam Kerala appoint Spaniard Domingo Oramas as head coach }}</ref> On 30 June 2023, the organization committee announced that Gokulam is participating in the Asia's oldest football tournament,Durand cup.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.sportingnews.com/in/football/news/which-teams-participating-durand-cup-2023/rclqlsqnfktbygrx49qndcqj | title=Which are the teams participating in Durand Cup 2023? | Sporting News India | date=30 June 2023 }}</ref> The organizers of the 132nd Durand Cup football tournament announced the groups for the 24-participating teams, with defending champions [[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]] clubbed with two popular Kerala sides [[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]] and 2019 champions '''Gokulam Kerala''' in Group C, to be held in Kolkata. The [[Indian Air Force (football team)|Indian Air Force]] is the fourth side in the group.<ref>https://khelnow.com/football/2023-07-indian-football-durand-cup-teams-groups-venue"</ref> On 5 August 2023, gokulam announced 22 member squad for durand cup
<ref>https://twitter.com/GokulamKeralaFC/status/1687818969615650816/Title:We are honored to be a part of the prestigious Durand Cup. 🏆 The #GKFC squad is geared up to showcase our skills and determination! #DurandCup2023</ref> Gokulam kerala confirmed their Participation in Super cup along with other 5 I-league clubs.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/indian-football/kalinga-super-cup-group-stage-draw-teams-format-schedule-indian-super-league-i-league/article67650441.ece | title=Kalinga Super Cup 2023-24 group stage draw announced: Odisha FC and Bengaluru FC clubbed in same group | date=18 December 2023 }}</ref> On 31 March, it was announced that GKFC had sacked head coach Domingo oramas following their defeat to Delhi FC.

==Current technical staff==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Position'''
!style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Name'''
|-
| Head Coach
|
|-
| Assistant Coach
| {{flagicon|IND}} Shereef Khan
|-
| Fitness and conditioning Coach
|
|-
|Technical Director
| Vacant
|-
| Goalkeeping Coach
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sandip Nandy]]
|-
| Team Manager
| {{flagicon|IND}} Aravind AR
|-
|}

== First-team squad ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; font-size:90%;"
|-
! style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"| Squad no.
! style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"| Name
! style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"| Nationality
! style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"| Position(s)
! style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"| Age
! style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"| Previous club
! style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"| Since
! style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"| Apps
! style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"| Goals
! style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"| Assists
|-
! colspan="10" style="background:#7D2838; color:white; text-align:center" | '''Goalkeepers'''
|-
| 1
| [[Loitongbam Bishorjit Singh|Bishorjit Singh]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Goalkeeper (association football)|GK]]
| 31
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
| 2023
| 4
| 0
| 0
|-
| 21
| [[Avilash Paul]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Goalkeeper (association football)|GK]]
| 28
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mohun Bagan Super Giant|Mohun Bagan SG]]
| 2023
| 14
| 0
| 0
|-
| 35
| [[Devansh Dabas]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Goalkeeper (association football)|GK]]
| 22
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Chennaiyin FC|Chennaiyin]](Loan)
| 2023
| 10
| 0
| 0
|-
! colspan="10" style="background:#7D2838; color:white; text-align:center" | '''Defenders'''
|-
| 2
| [[Salam Ranjan Singh]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Defender (association football)|CB]]
| 27
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
|2023
|21
|0
|1
|-
| 3
| [[Saurabh Meher]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Right-back|RB]]/[[Left-back|LB]]
| 23
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Gokulam Kerala FC (Reserves)|GKFC Reserves]]
|2022
|2
|0
|0
|-
| 4
| [[Vikas Singh Saini|Vikas Saini]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Defender (association football)|RB]]
| 26
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Churchill Brothers]]
|2022
|31
|0
|1
|-
| 5
| [[Nidhin Krishna]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Defender (association football)|CB]]/ [[Defender (association football)#Full-back|RB]]
| 24
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kerala United FC|Kerala United]]
|2023
|25
|1
|0
|-
| 12
| [[Laishram Johnson]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Right-back|RB]]/[[Left-back|LB]]
| 18
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sagolband United]]
|2023
|7
|1
|0
|-
| 15
| [[Abdul Nediyodath|Abdul Hakku]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Defender (association football)|CB]]/ [[Defender (association football)#Full-back|RB]]
| 28
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]]
|2022
|36
|2
|1
|-
| 17
| [[Aminou Bouba]]
| {{flagicon|CMR}}
| [[Defender (association football)|CB]]
| 32
|{{flagicon|CMR}} [[Eding Sport FC]]
|2021
|75
|5
|2
|-
| 33
| [[Muhammed Saheef|Muhammad Saheef]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Defender (association football)|LB]]
| 20
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]](Loan)
|2023
|23
|0
|1
|-
| 45
| [[Anas Edathodika]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Defender (association football)|CB]]
| 37
|
|2023
|4
|0
|0
|-
| 66
| [[Mashoor Shereef]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Defender (association football)|CB]]/[[Right-back|RB]]
| 31
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Punjab FC|Punjab]]
|2024
|3
|0
|0
|-
| 93
| [[Akhil Praveen]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Defender (association football)|CB]]
| 28
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kerala United FC|Kerala United]]
|2022
|17
|0
|0
|-
! colspan="10" style="background:#7D2838; color:white; text-align:center" | '''MidFielders'''
|-
| 6
| [[Rishad PP]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Midfielder|CM]]
| 27
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Gokulam Kerala FC (Reserves)|GKFC Reserves]]
|2021
|44
|2
|4
|-
| 10
| [[Pitu Viera]]
| {{flagicon|ESP}}
| [[Midfielder|AM]]
| 26
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[FC La Unión Atlético|La Unión Atlético]]
|2024
|6
|1
|1
|-
| 20
| [[Nikola Stojanović (footballer, born 1995)|Nikola Stojanović]]
| {{flagicon|SRB}}
| [[Midfielder|CM]]
| 28
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
|2024
|11
|5
|1
|-
| 29
| [[Noufal PN]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Midfielder|AM]]
| 22
|{{flagicon|India}} [[Gokulam Kerala FC (Reserves)|GKFC Reserves]]
|2022
|53
|5
|16
|-
| 42
| Abhijith Kurungodan
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Midfielder|CM]]
| 26
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Gokulam Kerala FC (Reserves)|GKFC Reserves]]
|2021
|37
|4
|4
|-
| 44
| [[Basit Ahmed Bhat]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Midfielder|LM]]
| 25
|{{flagicon|India}} [[Downtown Heroes FC|Downtown Heroes]]
|2023
|13
|0
|0
|-
| 46
| [[Christy molly Davis|Christy Davis]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Midfielder|CM]]
| 24
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
|2023
|12
|0
|1
|-
| 77
| [[Lalliansanga Renthlei]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Midfielder|CM]]
| 24
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Odisha FC|Odisha]](Loan)
|2023
|3
|1
|0
|-
| 99
| [[Calvin Rosario Baretto|Calvin Baretto]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Midfielder|CM]]
| 23
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Gokulam Kerala FC (Reserves)|GKFC Reserves]]
|2023
|1
|0
|0
|-
! colspan="10" style="background:#7D2838; color:white; text-align:center" | '''Forwards'''
|-
| 7
| [[Komron Tursunov]]
| {{flagicon|TJK}}
| [[Forward (association football)|FW]]
| 27
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
|2023
|20
|6
|2
|-
| 8
| [[Sreekuttan VS]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Forward (association football)|FW]]
| 24
|{{flagicon|India}} [[Kerala blasters]]
|2022
|71
|7
|7
|-
| 9
| [[Senthamil Shanbagam]]
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Forward (association football)|FW]]
| 22
| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Chennaiyin FC|Chennaiyin]]
| 2023
| 7
| 0
| 0
|-
| 11
| [[Sourav K]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Forward (association football)|FW]]
| 22
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Gokulam Kerala FC (Reserves)|GKFC Reserves]]
|2021
|45
|4
|3
|-
| 22
| [[Shijin Thadhayouse]]
| {{flagicon|India}}
| [[Forward (association football)|FW]]
| 21
| {{flagicon|India}} SAI
|2022
|22
|3
|1
|-
| 25
| [[Matija Babović]]
| {{flagicon|SRB}}
| [[Forward (association football)|FW]]
| 24
|{{flagicon|SLO}} [[FC Petržalka|Petržalka]]
|2024
|11
|5
|1
|-
| 38
| [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]]
| {{flagicon|ESP}}
| [[Forward (association football)|FW]]
| 34
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[SD Ejea|Ejea]]
|2023
|28
|20
|9
|-
|}

== New contracts ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Date'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Position'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''No.'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |''' Player'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Ref.'''
|-
|20 June 2023
| MF
| 06
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Rishad PP]]
|<ref>https://twitter.com/GokulamKeralaFC/status/1671056275906662403/photo/1</ref>
|}

==Transfers and loans ==

===Transfers in===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="background:#7D2838; color:#FFFFFF; |'''Entry date'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Position'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Player'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Previous club'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Fee'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Ref.'''
|-
|4 June 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[basudeb mandi]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[United SC]]
| None
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://halfwayfootball.com/ileague-gokulam-kerala-fc-sign-midfielder-basudeb-mandi/ | title=Gokulam Kerala FC complete the signing of midfielder Basudeb Mandi - Halfway Football | date=4 June 2023 }}</ref>
|-
|16 June 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Nili (footballer)|Nili Perdomo]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|GRE}} [[Athens Kallithea F.C.|Kallithea]]
| None
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://thebridge.in/football/nili-perdomo-heads-gokulam-kerala-fc-42534/ | title=Nili Perdomo heads to Gokulam Kerala FC | date=16 June 2023 }}</ref>
|-
|22 June 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Rahul Raju]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Bengaluru FC]]
| None
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://halfwayfootball.com/ileague-gokulam-kerala-fc-sign-rahul-raju-on-a-permanent-deal/ | title=Gokulam Kerala FC sign Rahul Raju on a Permanent Deal - Halfway Football | date=19 June 2023 }}</ref>
|-
|10 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Laishram Johnson Singh]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sagolband United FC]]
| None
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gokulamkeralafc.com/gokulam-signs-young-defender-laishram-johnson-singh-from-manipur/ | title=Gokulam Signs Young Defender Laishram Johnson Singh from Manipur | date=10 July 2023 }}</ref>
|-
|11 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Nidhin Krishna]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kerala United FC]]
| None
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gokulamkeralafc.com/gkfc-agrees-to-a-three-year-deal-with-kerala-defender-nidhin-krishna/ | title=GKFC Agrees to a Three-Year Deal with Kerala Defender Nidhin Krishna | date=11 July 2023 }}</ref>
|-
|13 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Salam Ranjan Singh]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
| None
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gokulamkeralafc.com/gokulamkerala-fc-bolsters-defense-with-the-signing-of-salam-ranjan-singh-from-manipur/ | title=GokulamKerala FC Bolsters Defense with the Signing of Salam Ranjan Singh from Manipur | date=13 July 2023 }}</ref>
|-
|13 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| GK
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Bishal Lama
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Shillong Lajong FC|Shillong Lajong]]
| None
|<ref>https://twitter.com/GokulamKeralaFC/status/1679464840748990465/Title:Welcome aboard, Bishal Lama! 🙌 Our newest addition to GKFC, a young Indian talent ready to defend our goal and make his mark. Let's write history together!</ref>
|-
|14 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| GK
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Bishorjit Singh
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
| None
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gokulamkeralafc.com/gokulamkeralafc-strengthens-goalkeeping-squad-with-the-signing-of-bishorjit-loitongbam-from-manipur/ | title=GokulamKeralaFC Strengthens Goalkeeping Squad with the Signing of Bishorjit Loitongbam from Manipur | date=14 July 2023 }}</ref>
|-
|18 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Basit Ahmed Bhat]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Downtown Heroes FC|Downtown Heroes]]
| None
|
|-
|19 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Naocha Singh Ngangbam]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Ksherti Iril]]
| None
|<ref>https://twitter.com/GokulamKeralaFC/status/1681570234636062720/Title:We're excited to announce the signing of Naocha Singh Ngangbam,</ref>
|-
|19 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| GK
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Zothanmawia]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
| None
|<ref>https://twitter.com/GokulamKeralaFC/status/1681627984736948225/Title:Meet the newest addition to our goalkeeping squad, Zothanmawia! 🧤</ref>
|-
|20 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Naro Hari Shrestha]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[ARA FC]]
| None
|
|-
|24 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Rahul Khokhar
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Bangalore Eagles FC]]
| None
|
|-
|31 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[SD Ejea|Ejea]]
| None
|<ref>https://twitter.com/GokulamKeralaFC/status/1685987520595861505/Title: We've just signed the dynamic Forward Álex Sánchez from Spain on a one-year deal.</ref>
|-
|31 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Abhijith K]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Reserves
| None
|
|-
|31 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Calvin Barretto]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Reserves
| None
|
|-
|21 August 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|TJK}} [[Komron Tursunov]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
| None
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.transfermarkt.co.in/gokulam-add-komron-tursunov-tajikistan-striker-valued-at-3-6-crore/view/news/426210 | title=Gokulam add Komron Tursunov - Tajikistan striker valued at ₹3.6 Crore }}</ref>
|-
|29 August 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Edu Bedia]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[FC Goa|Goa]]
| None
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/gokulam-kerala-spring-surprise-with-edu-bedia-capture/articleshow/102685824.cms|title=Gokulam Kerala spring surprise with Edu Bedia capture|newspaper=The Times of India|first=Marcus|last=Mergulhao|date=13 August 2023|access-date=29 August 2023}}</ref>
|-
|31 August 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| GK
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Avilash Paul]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Mohun Bagan Super Giant|Mohun Bagan SG]]
| None
|
|-
|1 September 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Christy Molly Davis
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
| None
|
|-
|6 September 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Muhammed Bilal
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Sreenidhi B
| None
|
|-
|8 September 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Muhammed Basit
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Southern Samity]]
| None
|
|-
|14 September 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Azfar Noorani
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Mumbai Kenkre FC|Mumbai Kenkre]]
| None
|<ref>https://twitter.com/GokulamKeralaFC/status/1702272134280892570/Title:New wings for GKFC! Excited to welcome Mumbai's own Azfar Noorani to the squad!</ref>
|-
|21 September 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| GK
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Iqbal
| style="text-align:left;"|
| None
|
|-
|1 October 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Senthamizhi Shanbagam]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Chennaiyin FC|Chennaiyin]]
| None
|
|-
|15 October 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Anas Edathodika]]
| style="text-align:left;"|Free Agent
| None
|
|-
|2 January 2024
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|SER}} [[Nikola Stojanović (footballer, born 1995)|Nikola Stojanović]]
| style="text-align:left;"|Free Agent
| None
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.arunfoot.com/gokulam-kerala-fc-announce-signing-of-playmaker-nikola-stojanovic/ | title=Gokulam Kerala FC announce signing of playmaker Nikola Stojanovic! | date=2 January 2024 }}</ref>
|-
|20 January 2024
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Mashoor Shereef]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Punjab FC]]
| None
|
|-
|7 February 2024
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Pitu Viera]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[FC La Unión Atlético|La Unión Atlético]]
| None
|
|-
|9 February 2024
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|SRB}} [[Matija Babović]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|SLO}} [[FC Petržalka|Petržalka]]
| None
|
|-
|}

=== Loan in ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''Start date'''
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''End date'''
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''Position'''
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''Player'''
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''From club'''
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''Fee'''
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''Ref'''
|-
| 31 August 2023
| 31 May 2024
| style="text-align:center;" | FW
| style="text-align:left;" |{{flagicon|NGA}} Justine Emmanuel
| style="text-align:left;" |{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]]
|₹ 28K
|
|-
| 2 September 2023
| 31 May 2024
| style="text-align:center;" | DF
| style="text-align:left;" |{{flagicon|IND}} [[Muhammed Saheef|Muhammad Saheef]]
| style="text-align:left;" |{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]]
|None
|.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=KBFC CONFIRM MULTIPLE LOANS |url=https://keralablastersfc.in/kbfc-confirm-multiple-loans/ |access-date=2023-09-01 |website=Kerala Blasters |date= September 2023|language=English}}</ref>
|-
| 3 September 2023
| 31 May 2024
| style="text-align:center;" | GK
| style="text-align:left;" |{{flagicon|IND}} [[Devansh Dabas]]
| style="text-align:left;" |{{flagicon|IND}} [[Chennaiyin FC|Chennaiyin]]
|None
|
|-
| 27 January 2024
| 31 May 2024
| style="text-align:center;" | MF
| style="text-align:left;" |{{flagicon|IND}} [[Lalliansanga Renthlei]]
| style="text-align:left;" |{{flagicon|IND}} [[Odisha FC|Odisha]]
|None
|
|-
|}

=== Loan out ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''Start date'''
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''End date'''
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''Position'''
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''Player'''
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''To club'''
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''Fee'''
! style="background:#d50000; color:white;" |'''Ref'''
|-
| 8 September 2023
| 31 May 2024
| style="text-align:center;" | MF
| style="text-align:left;" |{{flagicon|IND}} [[Arjun Jayaraj]]
| style="text-align:left;" |{{flagicon|IND}} [[Sporting Club Bengaluru]]
|None
|
|-
| 11 October 2023
| 31 May 2024
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Rahul Raju]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Churchill Brothers FC Goa|Churchill Brothers]]
| None
|
|-
| 10 January 2024
| 31 May 2024
| style="text-align:center;" | MF
| style="text-align:left;" |{{flagicon|IND}} [[Dilip Oraon]]
| style="text-align:left;" |{{flagicon|IND}} [[United SC]]
|None
|
|-
|}

===Transfers out===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Exit date'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Position'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''No.'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Player'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''To club'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Fee'''
! style="background:#7D2838; color:white;" |'''Ref.'''
|-
| 1 June 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:center;"| 23
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|AFG}} [[Farshad Noor]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|BRU}} [[DPMM FC|Brunei DPMM]]
| Free Agent
|<ref>{{cite web |title=DPMM FC SIGNS NORTH MACEDONIAN GOALKEEPER KRISTIN[sic] NAUMOVSKI AND AFGHANISTAN MIDFIELDER FARSHAD MOOR[sic].|url=https://www.dpmmfc.club/news/dpmm-fc-signs-north-macedonian-goalkeeper-kristin-naumovski-and-afghanistan-midfielder-farshad-moor-2781174.html|date=22 May 2023|publisher=Borneo Bulletin|accessdate=27 May 2023}}</ref>
|-
| 1 June 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:center;"| 66
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sajad Hussain Parray]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Hyderabad FC|Hyderabad]]
| Loan Return
|
|-
| 1 June 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:center;"| 99
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Rahul Raju]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]
| Loan Return
|
|-
| 1 June 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| GK
| style="text-align:center;"| 42
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Shibinraj Kunniyil]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Indian Air Force (football team)|Indian Air Force]]
| Loan Return
|
|-
| 19 June 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:center;"| 02
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Subhankar Adhikari]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]]
| Free Agent
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://halfwayfootball.com/ileague-subhankar-adhikari-set-to-sign-for-sreenidi-deccan-fc/ | title=Defender Subhankar Adhikari set to sign for Sreenidi Deccan FC - Halfway Football | date=3 June 2023 }}</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/sreenidideccan/status/1670631539208749056/photo/1</ref>
|-
| 1 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:center;"| 50
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} Tanmoy Ghosh
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
| Free Agent
|
|-
| 3 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:center;"| 19
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Jobby Justin]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Bhawanipore FC|Bhawanipore]]
| Free Agent
|
|-
| 3 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:center;"| 14
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Jijo Joseph]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Bhawanipore FC|Bhawanipore]]
| Free Agent
|
|-
| 7 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| GK
| style="text-align:center;"| 40
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[James Kithan]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Delhi FC|Delhi]]
| Free Agent
|<ref>{{cite tweet|user=Delhi_FC|number=1677225551524687872|title= The Guardian of our Goal, a picture of strength and quality, we're delighted to welcome back 𝐉𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐊𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐧! }}</ref>
|-
| 25 July 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:center;"| 70
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Sergio Mendigutxia]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|SWE}} [[AFC Eskilstuna]]
| Free Agent
|
|-
| 3 August 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:center;"| 05
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Pawan Kumar (footballer, born 1995)|Pawan Kumar]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]]
| Free Agent
|<ref>{{cite tweet|user=sreenidideccan|number=1686950151838171136|title=Join us in welcoming I-League Champion 🥇 Pawan Kumar to #SreenidiDeccanFC 🟠🟢guampores}}</ref>
|-
| 5 August 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| GK
| style="text-align:center;"| 01
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Bilal Khan (footballer)|Bilal Khan]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Churchill Brothers FC Goa|Churchill Brothers]]
| Free Agent
|
|-
| 21 August 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:center;"| 47
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Omar Ramos]]
| style="text-align:left;"|
| Free Agent
|
|-
| 21 August 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:center;"| 10
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Kaká (footballer, born May 1991)|Kaká]]
| style="text-align:left;"|
| Free Agent
|
|-
| 21 August 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:center;"| 09
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|GHA}} [[Samuel Mensah Koney]]
| style="text-align:left;"|
| Free Agent
|
|-
| 16 September 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| DF
| style="text-align:center;"| 3
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mohammed Jassim]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
| Free Agent
|
|-
| 11 October 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| GK
| style="text-align:center;"| 21
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Zothanmawia]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Chhinga Veng FC|Chhinga Veng]]
| Free Agent
|
|-
| 11 October 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:center;"| 7
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Thahir Zaman]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} Real Malabar FC
| Free Agent
|
|-
| 11 October 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:center;"| 18
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Shilton D'Silva]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} Income Tax Bengaluru
| Free Agent
|
|-
| 11 October 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:center;"| 14
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Naro Hari Shrestha]]
| style="text-align:left;"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Diamond Harbour FC]]
| Free Agent
|
|-
|28 October 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| GK
|
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Bishal Lama
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Shillong Lajong FC|Shillong Lajong]]
| None
|
|-
|21 December 2023
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:center;"| 10
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Nili (footballer)|Nili Perdomo]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|GRE}} [[Chania FC|Chania]]
| None
|
|-
|10 January 2024
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
|
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Ngangom Ronald Singh]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[FC Bengaluru United|Bengaluru United]]
| None
|
|-
|10 January 2024
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
|
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} Naocha Singh Ngangbam
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[FC Bengaluru United|Bengaluru United]]
| None
|
|-
|16 January 2024
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:center;"| 23
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Edu Bedia]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Gimnàstic de Tarragona|Gimnàstic]]
| None
|
|-
|27 January 2024
| style="text-align:center;"| MF
| style="text-align:center;"| 53
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Azfar Noorani]]
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Mumbai Kenkre FC|Mumbai Kenkre]]
| Free Transfer
|
|-
|29 January 2024
| style="text-align:center;"| FW
| style="text-align:center;"| 14
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|NGA}} Justine Emmanuel
| style="text-align:left;"|{{flagicon|IND}} [[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]]
| Loan Return
|<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=ISL 2023-24: Justine Emmanuel returns to Kerala Blasters after loan spell with Gokulam |url=https://khelnow.com/football/2024-01-indian-football-isl-justine-emmanuel-return-to-kerala-blasters-fc|access-date=30 January 2024 |website=KhelNow.com |archive-date=30 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130135310/https://khelnow.com/tools/ads/ad-4.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|}

==Pre-season==
{{football box collapsible
| round = [[Friendly match|Friendly]]
| date = 2 August 2023
| time = 16:00 IST
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 0-1
| report =
| team2 = [[Kerala Police (football team)|Kerala Police]]
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[EMS Stadium]]
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| attendance =
| referee =
| result = L
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = [[Friendly match|Friendly]]
|date = {{start date|2023|08|17|df=y}}
|time = 18:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1 = [[Jamshedpur FC|Jamshedpur]]
|score = 2–0
|report = https://www.fcjamshedpur.com/news/jamshedpur-fc-lead-2-0-against-gokulam-kerala-as-heavy-rain-abandons-pre-season-opener
|team2 = Gokulam Kerala
|goals1 =
* [[Rei Tachikawa|Tachikawa]] {{goal}}
* [[Alen Stevanović|Stevanović]] {{goal}}
|goals2 =
|stadium = Flatlets Training Ground
|location = [[Jamshedpur]]
|attendance =
|motm =
|referee =
|result = L
|note = The match was abandoned due to heavy rain around the 75th-minute mark.
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = Friendly
|date= 3 September 2023
|time= 16.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=Gokulam Kerala
|score= 1–0
|report =
|team2=[[Indian Navy (football club)|Indian Navy]]
|goals1=
|goals2=
|location= [[Kozhikode]]
|stadium= [[EMS Stadium]]
|attendance=
|result=W
|motm=
|referee=
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = Friendly
|date= 6 September 2023
|time= 16.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1=Gokulam Kerala
|score= 1–1
|report =
|team2=[[Odisha FC|Odisha]]
|goals1=
|goals2=
|location= [[Bhubaneswar]]
|stadium=
|attendance=
|result=D
|motm=
|referee=
}}
{{football box collapsible
|round = Friendly
|date= 9 September 2023
|time= 17.30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|team1= [[FC Goa|Goa]]
|score= 1-0
|report =
|team2=Gokulam Kerala
|goals1=
|goals2=
|location= [[Margao]]
|stadium=
|attendance=
|result=L
|motm=
|referee=
}}

==Competitions==

===Overview===
{{Fb overview2
|c=1
|c1=[[2023-24 I-League|I-League]] |fm1= 28 October 2023 |lm1=12 April 2024 |sr1=Match Day 1 |fp1= 3RD |w1=12|l1=6|d1=6|f1=55 |a1=34
|c2=[[Durand Cup]]|fm2=9 August 2023|lm2=25 August 2023 |sr2=[[2023 Durand Cup#Group stage|Group stage]] |fp2=[[2023 Durand Cup#Quarter finals|Quarter finals]]|w2=2|l2=2|d2=0|f2=7|a2=7
|c3=[[Super Cup (India)|Indian Super Cup]]|fm3=11 January 2024|lm3=21 January 2024 |sr3=Group Stage |fp3=Group Stage|w3=0|l3=2|d3=1|f3=1|a3=4
|u={{Start date|2024|04|12|df=y}}
}}

===I-League===
{{Main|2023–24 I-League}}

==== League table ====
{{:2023–24 I-League|team=GOK}}

==== Results by round ====
{{#invoke:sports rbr table|table|legendpos=b
|header = Round
|label1 = Ground
| res1 =[[EMS Stadium|H]]/[[EMS Stadium|H]]/[[EMS Stadium|H]]/[[Kalyani Stadium|A]]/[[SSA Stadium|A]]/[[EMS Stadium|H]]/[[EMS Stadium|H]]/[[Bankimanjali Stadium|A]]/[[TRC Turf Ground|A]]/[[Rajiv Gandhi Stadium (Aizawl)|A]]/[[Deccan Arena|A]]/[[Kalyani Stadium|A]]/[[EMS Stadium|H]]/[[Namdhari Stadium|A]]/[[Namdhari Stadium|A]]/[[Tilak Maidan|A]]/[[Namdhari Stadium|A]]/[[EMS Stadium|H]]/[[EMS Stadium|H]]/[[EMS Stadium|H]]/[[EMS Stadium|H]]/[[EMS Stadium|H]]/[[SSA Stadium|A]]/[[EMS Stadium|H]]

|label2 = Result
| res2 =D/W/W/W/L/D/D/D/L/D/W/W/W/W/W/W/L/L/D/W/L/L/W/W
|label3 = Position
| res3 =5/3/1/1/3/5/5/6/7/6/6/4/4/3/2/2/3/4/4/3/4/5/5/3

|text_H=Home|text_A=Away
|color_W=green2|text_W=Win
|color_D=yellow2|text_D=Draw
|color_L=red2|text_L=Loss
|color_1=1st|color_2=2nd|color_3=3rd|color_10-=red1

|source=
|updated=12 April 2024
}}

==== Matches ====
'''Note''': I-League announced the fixtures for the 2023–24 season on 6 October 2023.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://i-league.org/aiff-announces-fixtures-for-i-league-iwl/feed/ | title=Comments on: AIFF announces fixtures for I-League, IWL }}</ref>

{{football box collapsible
| round = 1
| date = {{Start date|2023|10|28|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 2-2
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=21852 Report]
| team2 = [[Inter Kashi]]
| goals1 = *[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|8}}
*[[Noufal PN]] {{goal|54}}
| goals2 =
* Lalrindika{{goal|30}}
* Asif {{goal|90+2}}
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| stadium = [[Kozhikode Corporation EMS Stadium|EMS Stadium]]
| attendance = 19,764
| result = D
| motm = [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] (Gokulam)
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 2
| date = {{Start date|2023|11|5|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 4-1
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=21862 Report]
| team2 = [[NEROCA FC|NEROCA]]
| goals1 = *[[Nili (footballer)|Nili Perdomo]] {{goal|28}}
*[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|48||86|P}}
*Justine Emmanuel {{goal|84}}
| goals2 = *[[David Simbo]] {{goal|83}}
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| stadium = [[Kozhikode Corporation EMS Stadium|EMS Stadium]]
| attendance = 10,485
| result = W
| motm = [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] (Gokulam)
| referee = K. Ramadasan
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 3
| date = {{Start date|2023|11|9|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 5-0
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=21867 Report]
| team2 = [[Rajasthan United FC|Rajasthan United]]
| goals1 = *[[Komron Tursunov]] {{goal|33}}
*[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|61||74||88}}
*[[Sreekuttan V. S.|Sreekuttan VS]] {{goal|69}}
| goals2 =
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| stadium = [[Kozhikode Corporation EMS Stadium|EMS Stadium]]
| attendance = 4,318
| result = W
| motm = [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] (Gokulam)
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 4
| date = {{Start date|2023|11|13|df=y}}
| time = 16.30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
| score = 0-2
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=21871 Report]
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 =
| goals2 = *[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|1||16}}
| location = [[Kolkata]]
| stadium = [[Kalyani Stadium]]
| attendance =
| result = W
| motm = [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] (Gokulam)
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 5
| date = {{Start date|2023|11|19|df=y}}
| time = 14.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Shillong Lajong FC|Shillong Lajong]]
| score = 3-1
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=21880 Report]
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 = *Daniel Gonçalves {{goal|29}}
*[[Renan Paulino]] {{goal|75|P}}
*[[Hardy Nongbri]] {{goal|90+7}}
| goals2 = *[[Nili (footballer)|Nili Perdomo]] {{goal|43}}
| location = [[Shillong]]
| stadium = SSA Stadium
| attendance =
| result = L
| motm = [[Hardy Nongbri]](Shillong)
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 6
| date = {{Start date|2023|11|26|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 1-1
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=21889 Report]
| team2 = [[Churchill Brothers FC Goa|Churchill Brothers]]
| goals1 = *[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|72|P}}
| goals2 = *[[Richard Costa]] {{goal|37}}
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| stadium = [[Kozhikode Corporation EMS Stadium|EMS Stadium]]
| attendance = 13,425
| result = D
| motm = Emiliano Callegari (Churchill)
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 7
| date = {{Start date|2023|12|2|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 2-2
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=21896 Report]
| team2 = [[Namdhari FC|Namdhari]]
| goals1 = *[[Noufal PN]] {{goal|35}}
*[[Komron Tursunov]] {{goal|81}}
| goals2 = *Akashdeep Singh {{goal|40}}
*Palwinder Singh {{goal|45+3}}
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| stadium = [[Kozhikode Corporation EMS Stadium|EMS Stadium]]
| attendance = 2,000
| result = D
| motm =
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 8
| date = {{Start date|2023|12|8|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
| score = 1-1
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=21904 Report]
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 = *[[Abdul Nediyodath|Abdul Hakku]] {{goal|40|OG}}
| goals2 = *[[Sreekuttan V. S.|Sreekuttan VS]] {{goal|64}}
| location = [[Kolkata]]
| stadium = [[Bankimanjali Stadium|Naihati Stadium]]
| attendance =
| result = D
| motm = Mirjalol kasimov (Mohammedan)
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 9
| date = {{Start date|2023|12|11|df=y}}
| time = 11.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]]
| score = 3-0
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=21909 Report]
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 = *[[Gnohere Krizo]] {{goal|31||64}}
*[[Jeremy Laldinpuia]] {{goal|59}}
| goals2 =
| location = [[Srinagar]]
| stadium = [[TRC Turf Ground]]
| attendance =
| result = L
| motm =
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 10
| date = {{Start date|2023|12|16|df=y}}
| time = 15.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Aizawl FC|Aizawl]]
| score = 1-1
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=21914 Report]
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 = *Lalbiakdika {{goal|31}}
| goals2 = *[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|45+4}}
| location = [[Aizawl]]
| stadium = [[Rajiv Gandhi Stadium (Aizawl)|Rajiv Gandhi Stadium]]
| attendance =
| result = D
| motm = [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] (Gokulam)
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 11
| date = {{Start date|2023|12|19|df=y}}
| time = 15.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]]
| score = 1-4
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=21917 Report]
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 = *[[William Alves (footballer, born 1991)|William Alves]] {{goal|74|P}}
| goals2 = *[[Nili (footballer)|Nili Perdomo]] {{goal|9}}
*[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|39||52}}
*[[Sreekuttan V. S.|Sreekuttan VS]] {{goal|45+1}}
| location = [[Hyderabad]]
| stadium = [[Deccan Arena]]
| attendance =
| result = W
| motm = [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] (Gokulam)
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 12
| date = <s>{{Start date|2024|02|02|df=y}} </s>
| time = 14.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Delhi FC|Delhi]]
| score = Postponed
| report =
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| location = [[Bhaini Ala]]
| stadium = Namdhari Stadium
| attendance =
| result = P
| motm =
| referee =
| note = Match postponed due to poor weather and unsafe playing conditions.
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 13
| date = {{Start date|2024|02|09|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Inter Kashi]]
| score = 2-4
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=26839 Report]
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 = *Phijam Vikash Singh {{goal|23}}
*[[Mari Barco]] {{goal|39||52}}
| goals2 = *[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|30}}
*Abhijith Kurungodan {{goal|39}}
*[[Nikola Stojanović (footballer, born 1995)|Nikola Stojanović]] {{goal|74||90+3}}
| location = [[Kolkata]]
| stadium = [[Kalyani Stadium]]
| attendance = 123
| result = W
| motm = [[Nikola Stojanović (footballer, born 1995)|Nikola Stojanović]] (Gokulam)
| referee = [[Pranjal Banerjee]]
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 14
| date = {{Start date|2024|02|12|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 2-0
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=26844 Report]
| team2 = [[Shillong Lajong FC|Shillong Lajong]]
| goals1 = *[[Sourav K]] {{goal|45+4}}
*[[Matija Babović]] {{goal|72}}
| goals2 =
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| stadium = [[Kozhikode Corporation EMS Stadium|EMS Stadium]]
| attendance = 2,500
| result = W
| motm = [[Sourav K]] (Gokulam)
| referee = Williams Joy Koshiy
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 15
| date = {{Start date|2024|02|16|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Rajasthan United FC|Rajasthan United]]
| score = 1-4
| report =
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 = *Denzell {{goal|9}}
| goals2 = *[[Komron Tursunov]] {{goal|28||64}}
*[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|50}}
*Laishram Johnson {{goal|81}}
| location = [[Bhaini Ala]]
| stadium = Namdhari Stadium
| attendance =
| result = W
| motm = [[Komron Tursunov]] (Gokulam)
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 12
| date = {{Start date|2024|02|19|df=y}}
| time = 14.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Delhi FC|Delhi]]
| score = 1-2
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=26832 Report]
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 = *Nidhin {{goal|85|OG}}
| goals2 = *[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|85|P}}
*[[Lalliansanga Renthlei]] {{goal|90+3}}
| location = [[Bhaini Ala]]
| stadium = Namdhari Stadium
| attendance = 200
| result = W
| motm = [[Lalliansanga Renthlei]](Gokulam)
| referee =Pratik Mondal
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 16
| date = {{Start date|2024|02|24|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Churchill Brothers FC Goa|Churchill Brothers]]
| score = 1-2
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=26859 Report]
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 = *[[Ogana Louis]] {{goal|49}}
| goals2 = *[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|9}}
*Abhijith Kurungodan {{goal|19}}
| location = [[Vasco da Gama, Goa|Vasco]]
| stadium = [[Tilak Maidan]]
| attendance = 1025
| result = W
| motm = Abhijith Kurungodan(Gokulam)
| referee = Tanmoy Dhar
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 17
| date = {{Start date|2024|02|29|df=y}}
| time = 15.30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Namdhari FC|Namdhari]]
| score = 2-1
| report =
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 = *Harmanpreet{{goal|3}}
*Akashdeep {{goal|90+7}}
| goals2 = *[[Sourav K]] {{goal|83}}
| location = [[Bhaini Ala]]
| stadium = Namdhari Stadium
| attendance =
| result = L
| motm =
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 18
| date = {{Start date|2024|03|03|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 2-3
| report =
| team2 = [[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan]]
| goals1 = *[[Noufal PN]] {{goal|45+1}}
*Nidhin Krishna {{goal|65}}
| goals2 = *[[Eddie Hernández]] {{goal|16}}
*[[Alexis Gómez (footballer)|Alexis Gómez]] {{goal|23}}
*David Lalhlansanga {{goal|90+7}}
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| stadium = [[Kozhikode Corporation EMS Stadium|EMS Stadium]]
| attendance =
| result = L
| motm =
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 19
| date = {{Start date|2024|03|10|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 1-1
| report =
| team2 = [[Real Kashmir FC|Real Kashmir]]
| goals1 = *[[Matija Babović]] {{goal|68}}
| goals2 = *[[Gnohero Krizo]] {{goal|65}}
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| stadium = [[Kozhikode Corporation EMS Stadium|EMS Stadium]]
| attendance =
| result = D
| motm = [[Matija Babović]] (Gokulam)
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 20
| date = {{Start date|2024|03|14|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 4-3
| report =
| team2 = [[Aizawl FC|Aizawl]]
| goals1 = *[[Matija Babović]] {{goal|28||65}}
*[[Nikola Stojanović (footballer, born 1995)|Nikola Stojanović]] {{goal|42}}
*Pitu Viera {{goal|70}}
| goals2 = *[[Lalbiakdika Vanlalvunga]] {{goal|84}}
*Akhil {{goal|45|OG}}
*[[Lalrinzuala Lalbiaknia]] {{goal|19}}
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| stadium = [[Kozhikode Corporation EMS Stadium|EMS Stadium]]
| attendance =
| result = W
| motm =
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 21
| date = {{Start date|2024|03|17|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 1-2
| report =
| team2 = [[Sreenidi Deccan FC|Sreenidi Deccan]]
| goals1 = *[[Nikola Stojanović (footballer, born 1995)|Nikola Stojanović]] {{goal|44}}
| goals2 = *[[William Alves (footballer, born 1991)|William Alves]] {{goal|48||72|P}}
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| stadium = [[Kozhikode Corporation EMS Stadium|EMS Stadium]]
| attendance =
| result = L
| motm = [[William Alves (footballer, born 1991)|William Alves]]
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 22
| date = {{Start date|2024|03|23|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 0-2
| report =
| team2 = [[Delhi FC|Delhi]]
| goals1 =
| goals2 = *[[Sérgio Barboza]]{{goal|59||87}}
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| stadium = [[Kozhikode Corporation EMS Stadium|EMS Stadium]]
| attendance =
| result = L
| motm = [[Sérgio Barboza]]
| referee =
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 23
| date = {{Start date|2024|04|07|df=y}}
| time = 19.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[NEROCA FC|NEROCA]]
| score = 0-3
| report =
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 =
| goals2 = *[[Komron Tursunov]] {{goal|44}}
*[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|90+1||90+3}}
| location = [[Shillong]]
| stadium = SSA Stadium
| attendance = 100
| result = W
| motm = [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]]
| referee = KYNSANPHAR LYNGDOH NONGUM
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 24
| date = {{Start date|2024|04|12|df=y}}
| time = 16.30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 6-1
| report =
| team2 = [[TRAU FC|TRAU]]
| goals1 = *[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|19}}
*[[Noufal PN]] {{goal|28||34}}
*[[Komron Tursunov]] {{goal|39}}
*[[Matija Babović]] {{goal|90+2}}
*[[Nikola Stojanović (footballer, born 1995)|Nikola Stojanović]] {{goal|90+4|P}}
| goals2 = *[[Isahak Nuhu Seidu]] {{goal|61|P}}
| location = [[Kozhikode]]
| stadium = [[Kozhikode Corporation EMS Stadium|EMS Stadium]]
| attendance =
| result = W
| motm = [[Noufal PN]]
| referee =
}}

===Durand Cup===
{{Main|2023 Durand Cup}}
Gokulam Kerala were drawn in the Group C for the 132nd edition of the Durand Cup alongside defending champions '''Bengaluru FC''' and popular Kerala side '''Kerala Blasters''' <ref>{{cite web | url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/durand-cup-groups-venues-teams-fixtures-east-bengal-mohun-bagan-bengaluru-kerala-blasters/article67064155.ece | title=Groups revealed for 132nd Durand Cup | date=10 July 2023 }}</ref>
{{:2023 Durand Cup group stage|transcludesection=Group C|team=GOK}}
==== Matches ====
Fixture announced on 22 July 2023 <ref>{{cite web | url=https://thefangarage.com/articles/19476-durand-cup-2023-fixtures-results-and-points-table | title=Durand Cup 2023: Fixtures, Results and Points Table | the Fan Garage (TFG) | date=21 July 2023 }}</ref>

{{football box collapsible
| round = 1
| date = {{start date|2023|08|09|df=y}}
| time = 16.45 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 2–0
| report = [https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=19702 Report]
| team2 = [[Indian Air Force (football team)|Indian Air Force]]
| goals1 =
*[[Sourav K.|Sourav]] {{goal|36}}
*[[Sreekuttan V. S.|Sreekuttan]] {{goal|67}}
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Kishore Bharati Krirangan]]
| location = [[Kolkata]]
| attendance =
| motm =
| referee = K Ramdasan
|result =W
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 2
| date = {{start date|2023|08|13|df=y}}
| time = 14.30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Kerala Blasters FC|Kerala Blasters]]
| score = 3–4
| report = https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=19709
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 =
*J. Emmanuel {{goal|35}}
*[[Prabir Das|Das]] {{goal|54}}
*[[Adrián Luna|Luna]] {{goal|77}}
| goals2 =
*[[Aminou Bouba|Bouba]] {{goal|17}}
*[[Sreekuttan V. S.|Sreekuttan]] {{goal|43}}
*[[Naocha Singh|N. Singh]] {{goal|45+1|o.g.}}
*Abhijith {{goal|47}}
| stadium = [[Mohun Bagan Ground]]
| location = [[Kolkata]]
| attendance =
| motm = [[Nili (footballer)|Nili Perdomo]] (Gokulam Kerala)
| referee =
|result =W
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 3
| date = {{start date|2023|08|22|df=y}}
| time = 18.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[Bengaluru FC|Bengaluru]]
| score = 2–0
| report = https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=19726
| team2 = [[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam Kerala]]
| goals1 =
*R. Yadav {{goal|58}}
*Lalpekhlua {{goal|89}}
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Kishore Bharati Krirangan]]
| location = [[Kolkata]]
| attendance =
| motm = Robin Yadav (Bengaluru)
| referee =
| result =L
}}

====Quarter-final====

{{football box collapsible
| round = QF
| date = {{start date|2023|08|25|df=y}}
| time = 18:00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = [[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]
| score = 2-1
| report = https://i-league.org/match-details/?mid=20341
| team2 = Gokulam Kerala
| goals1 =
* [[Jordan Elsey|J. Elsey]] {{goal|1}}
* [[Aminou Bouba|A. Bouba]] {{goal|80|o.g.}}
| goals2 = * [[Aminou Bouba|A. Bouba]] {{goal|57}}
| stadium = [[Vivekananda Yuba Bharati Krirangan]]
| location = [[Kolkata]]
| attendance =
| motm =
| referee =
| result = L
}}

===Indian Super Cup===
{{Main|2024 AIFF Super Cup}}
Gokulam Kerala entered the competition in the Group Stage,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/indian-football/kalinga-super-cup-group-stage-draw-teams-format-schedule-indian-super-league-i-league/article67650441.ece | title=Kalinga Super Cup 2023-24 group stage draw announced: Odisha FC and Bengaluru FC clubbed in same group | date=18 December 2023 }}</ref> the fixtures were announced on 18 December 2023.

====Group C====
{{:2024 AIFF Super Cup group stage|transcludesection=Group C|Show Team=Gokulam Kerala}}
===== Matches =====
{{football box collapsible
| round = 1
| date = {{start date|2024|01|11|df=y}}
| time = 14.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 1-2
| report =
| team2 = [[Mumbai City FC|Mumbai City]]
| goals1 =*[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]] {{goal|23}}
| goals2 = *[[Ayush Chhikara]] {{goal|76}}
*[[Abdenasser El Khayati|El Khayati]] {{goal|90+7|P}}
| stadium = [[Kalinga Stadium]] (Pitch 1)
| location = [[Bhubaneshwar]]
| attendance =
| motm =
| referee =
|result =L
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 2
| date = {{start date|2024|01|16|df=y}}
| time = 14.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 0-2
| report =
| team2 = [[Chennaiyin FC|Chennaiyin]]
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Kalinga Stadium]] (Pitch 1)
| location = [[Bhubaneshwar]]
| attendance =
| motm =
| referee =
|result =L
}}

{{football box collapsible
| round = 3
| date = {{start date|2024|01|21|df=y}}
| time = 14.00 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| team1 = Gokulam Kerala
| score = 0-0
| report =
| team2 = [[Punjab FC|Punjab]]
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Kalinga Stadium]] (Pitch 1)
| location = [[Bhubaneshwar]]
| attendance =
| motm =
| referee =
| result =D
}}

==Squad statistics ==

=== Appearances===
Players with no appearances are not included on the list.

As of match played 12 April 2024

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2"|No.
! rowspan="2"|Pos.
! rowspan="2"|Nat.
! rowspan="2" style="width:180px;"|Name
! colspan="2" style="width:86px;"|[[2022–23 I-League|I-League]]
! colspan="2" style="width:86px;"|[[2023 Indian Super Cup|Super Cup]]
! colspan="2" style="width:86px;"|Durand Cup
! colspan="2" style="width:86px;"|Total
|-
!Apps
!Starts
!Apps
!Starts
!Apps
!Starts
!Apps
!Starts
|-
|1
|GK
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Loitongbam Bishorjit Singh|Bishorjit Singh]]
||3||3||1||1||1||1||'''5'''||'''5'''
|-
|2
|DF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Salam Ranjan Singh]]
||18||15||0||0||3||2||'''21'''||'''17'''
|-
|3
|DF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Saurabh Meher]]
||0||0||0||0||2||2||'''2'''||'''2'''
|-
|4
|DF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Vikas Singh Saini|Vikas Saini]]
||11||8||2||0||3||3||'''16'''||'''11'''
|-
|5
|DF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Nidhin Krishna]]
||20||18||3||3||2||2||'''25'''||'''21'''
|-
|6
|MF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Rishad PP]]
||19||10||2||2||0||0||'''21'''||'''12'''
|-
|<s>7</s>
|MF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Rahul Raju]]
||0||0||0||0||4||2||'''4'''||'''2'''
|-
|7
|FW
|{{Flagicon|TJK}}
|align=left|[[Komron Tursunov]]
||20||13||0||0||1||1||'''21'''||'''14'''
|-
|8
|FW
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Sreekuttan V. S.|Sreekuttan VS]]
||17||10||3||2||4||2||'''24'''||'''14'''
|-
|9
|FW
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Senthamil Shanbagam]]
||7||1||0||0||0||0||'''7'''||'''1'''
|-
|<s>10</s>
|MF
|{{Flagicon|ESP}}
|align=left|[[Nili (footballer)|Nili Perdomo]]
||11||9||0||0||4||4||'''15'''||'''13'''
|-
|10
|MF
|{{Flagicon|ESP}}
|align=left|Pitu Viera
||6||2||0||0||0||0||'''6'''||'''2'''
|-
|11
|FW
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Sourav K]]
||15||4||3||0||3||2||'''21'''||'''6'''
|-
|12
|DF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Laishram Johnson]]
||6||3||2||1||-||-||'''8'''||'''4'''
|-
|13
|DF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|Rahul Khokar
||1||0||0||0||0||0||'''1'''||'''0'''
|-
|<s>14</s>
|FW
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Naro Hari Shrestha]]
||0||0||0||0||1||0||'''1'''||'''0'''
|-
|<s>14</s>
|FW
|{{Flagicon|NGA}}
|align=left|Justine Emmanuel
||8||3||3||2||-||-||'''11'''||'''5'''
|-
|<s>15</s>
|MF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Arjun Jayaraj]]
||0||0||0||0||1||0||'''1'''||'''0'''
|-
|15
|DF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Abdul Hakku Nediyodath|Abdul Hakku]]
||13||12||2||2||0||0||'''15'''||'''14'''
|-
|17
|DF
|{{Flagicon|CMR}}
|align=left|[[Aminou Bouba]]
||12||9||3||3||4||4||'''19'''||'''16'''
|-
|<s>18</s>
|MF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Shilton D'Silva]]
||0||0||0||0||3||1||'''3'''||'''1'''
|-
|20
|MF
|{{Flagicon|SRB}}
|align=left|[[Nikola Stojanović (footballer, born 1995)|Nikola Stojanović]]
||9||9||2||2||0||0||'''11'''||'''11'''
|-
|<s>21</s>
|GK
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Zothanmawia]]
||0||0||0||0||3||3||'''3'''||'''3'''
|-
|21
|GK
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Avilash Paul]]
||13||11||3||2||-||-||'''16'''||'''13'''
|-
|22
|FW
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Shijin Thadhayouse]]
||4||1||0||0||4||2||'''8'''||'''3'''
|-
|<s>23</s>
|MF
|{{Flagicon|ESP}}
|align=left|[[Edu Bedia]]
||10||10||0||0||-||-||'''10'''||'''10'''
|-
|25
|FW
|{{Flagicon|SRB}}
|align=left|[[Matija Babović]]
||12||5||0||0||0||0||'''12'''||'''5'''
|-
|29
|MF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Noufal PN]]
||23||17||3||1||4||2||'''30'''||'''21'''
|-
|30
|DF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|Bibin Ajayan
||2||1||0||0||0||0||'''2'''||'''1'''
|-
|33
|DF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Muhammed Saheef|Muhammad Saheef]]
||21||18||2||2||-||-||'''23'''||'''20'''
|-
|35
|GK
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Devansh Dabas]]
||10||10||0||0||-||-||'''10'''||'''10'''
|-
|38
|FW
|{{Flagicon|ESP}}
|align=left|[[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]]
||22||18||2||2||4||3||'''28'''||'''23'''
|-
|42
|MF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|Abhijith Kurungodan
||22||19||3||3||4||2||'''29'''||'''24'''
|-
|44
|MF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Basit Ahmed Bhat]]
||9||2||2||1||4||4||'''15'''||'''7'''
|-
|45
|DF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Anas Edathodika]]
||4||3||0||0||0||0||'''4'''||'''3'''
|-
|46
|MF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Christy Davis]]
||11||8||2||1||0||0||'''13'''||'''9'''
|-
|77
|MF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Lalliansanga Renthlei]]
||3||0||-||-||-||-||'''3'''||'''0'''
|-
|93
|DF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Akhil Praveen]]
||13||9||1||1||4||2||'''18'''||'''12'''
|-
|99
|MF
|{{Flagicon|IND}}
|align=left|[[Calvin Rosario Baretto|Calvin Baretto]]
||0||0||0||0||1||1||'''1'''||'''1'''
|-
|}

===Goal scorers===

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Rank
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|No.
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Pos.
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Nat.
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Name
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|I League
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Super Cup
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Durand Cup
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Total
|-
| rowspan="1"| 1
| 38
| FW
| {{flagicon|ESP}}
| [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]]
| |19||1||0||'''20'''
|-
| rowspan="1"| 2
| 7
| FW
| {{flagicon|TJK}}
| [[Komron Tursunov]]
| |6||0||0||'''6'''
|-
| rowspan="4"| 3
| 8
| FW
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Sreekuttan V. S.]]
| |3||0||2||'''5'''
|-
| 20
| MF
| {{flagicon|SRB}}
| [[Nikola Stojanović (footballer, born 1995)|Nikola Stojanović]]
| |5||0||0||'''5'''
|-
| 25
| FW
| {{flagicon|SRB}}
| [[Matija Babović]]
| |5||0||0||'''5'''
|-
| 29
| MF
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Noufal PN]]
| |5||0||0||'''5'''
|-
| rowspan="3"| 7
| <s>10</s>
| FW
| {{flagicon|ESP}}
| [[Nili (footballer)|Nili Perdomo]]
| |3||0||0||'''3'''
|-
| 11
| FW
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Sourav K.]]
| |2||0||1||'''3'''
|-
| 42
| MF
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| Abhijith Kurungodan
| |2||0||1||'''3'''
|-
| rowspan="1"| 10
| 17
| DF
| {{flagicon|CMR}}
| [[Aminou Bouba]]
| |0||0||2||'''2'''
|-
| rowspan="5"| 11
| 5
| DF
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Nidhin Krishna]]
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
| 10
| MF
| {{flagicon|ESP}}
| [[Pitu Viera]]
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
| 12
| DF
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Laishram Johnson Singh]]
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
| <s>14</s>
| FW
| {{flagicon|IND}}
|Justine Emmanuel
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
| 77
| MF
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Lalliansanga Renthlei]]
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
|- class="sortbottom"
|colspan="5"| Own Goals ||0||0||1||'''1'''
|- class="sortbottom"
|colspan="5"| '''Total'''||'''55'''||'''1'''||'''7'''||'''63'''
|}

===Assists===
Not all goals have an assist.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Rank
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|No.
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Pos.
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Nat.
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Name
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|I League
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Super Cup
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Durand Cup
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Total
|-
| rowspan="1"| 1
| 29
| MF
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Noufal PN]]
| |9||0||1||'''10'''
|-
| rowspan="1"| 2
| 38
| FW
| {{flagicon|ESP}}
| [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]]
| |6||0||3||'''9'''
|-
| rowspan="3"| 3
| <s>10</s>
| MF
| {{flagicon|ESP}}
| [[Nili (footballer)|Nili Perdomo]]
| |3||0||1||'''4'''
|-
| <s>23</s>
| MF
| {{flagicon|ESP}}
| [[Edu Bedia]]
| |4||0||0||'''4'''
|-
| 42
| MF
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| Abhijith Kurungodan
| |3||0||1||'''4'''
|-
| rowspan="1"| 6
| 8
| FW
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Sreekuttan V. S.|Sreekuttan VS]]
| |3||0||0||'''3'''
|-
| rowspan="1"| 7
| 7
| FW
| {{flagicon|TJK}}
| [[Komron Tursunov]]
| |2||0||0||'''2'''
|-
| rowspan="7"| 8
| 2
| DF
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Salam Ranjan Singh]]
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
| 6
| MF
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Rishad PP]]
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
| 11
| FW
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Sourav K]]
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
| 20
| MF
| {{flagicon|SRB}}
| [[Nikola Stojanović (footballer, born 1995)|Nikola Stojanović]]
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
| 25
| FW
| {{flagicon|SRB}}
| Matija Babović
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
| 33
| DF
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Muhammed Saheef|Muhammad Saheef]]
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
| 46
| MF
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Christy molly Davis]]
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
|}

===Clean sheets===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 95%; text-align: center;"
|-
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|No.
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Nation
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Name
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|I-League
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Super Cup
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Durand Cup
!style="background:#d50000; color:white; text-align:center;"|Total
|-
| 35
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Devansh Dabas]]
| |3||0||0||'''3'''
|-
| 21
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Avilash Paul]]
| |1||0||0||'''1'''
|-
| <s>21</s>
| {{flagicon|IND}}
| [[Zothanmawia]]
| |0||0||1||'''1'''
|-
|}

===Disciplinary record===
{{updated|match played 12 April 2024}}

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!rowspan="2"| No.
!rowspan="2"| Pos.
!rowspan="2"| Name
!colspan="2" width=120| I League
!colspan="2" width=120| Super Cup
!colspan="2" width=120|Durand Cup
!colspan="2" width=120| Total
|-
!{{yel}} !! {{sent off}} !! {{yel}} !! {{sent off}} !! {{yel}} !! {{sent off}} !! {{yel}} !! {{sent off}}
|-
|2
|DF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Salam Ranjan Singh]]
|2
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|2
|0
|-
|4
|DF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Vikas Singh Saini|Vikas Saini]]
|2
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|2
|0
|-
|5
|DF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Nidhin Krishna]]
|9
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|9
|0
|-
|6
|MF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Rishad PP]]
|1
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|1
|0
|-
|<s>7</s>
|MF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Rahul Raju]]
|0
|0
|0
|0
|1
|0
|1
|0
|-
|8
|MF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Sreekuttan VS]]
|2
|0
|1
|0
|0
|0
|3
|0
|-
|9
|FW
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Senthamil Shanbagam]]
|1
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|1
|0
|-
|<s>10</s>
|MF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Nili (footballer)|Nili Perdomo]]
|3
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|3
|0
|-
|14
|FW
|align="left"| {{flagicon|NGA}} Justine Emmanuel
|3
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|3
|0
|-
|15
|DF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Abdul Nediyodath|Abdul Hakku]]
|1
|0
|1
|0
|0
|0
|2
|0
|-
|17
|DF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|CMR}} [[Aminou Bouba]]
|1
|0
|0
|0
|1
|0
|2
|0
|-
|20
|MF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|SRB}} [[Nikola Stojanović (footballer, born 1995)|Nikola Stojanović]]
|2
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|2
|0
|-
|<s>21</s>
|GK
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Zothanmawia]]
|0
|0
|0
|0
|1
|0
|1
|0
|-
|21
|GK
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Avilash Paul]]
|0
|0
|1
|0
|0
|0
|1
|0
|-
|<s>23</s>
|MF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Edu Bedia]]
|2
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|2
|0
|-
|33
|DF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Muhammed Saheef|Muhammad Saheef]]
|2
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|2
|0
|-
|35
|GK
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Devansh Dabas]]
|0
|1
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|1
|-
|38
|FW
|align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Álex Sánchez (footballer, born 1989)|Álex Sánchez]]
|3
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|3
|0
|-
|42
|MF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} Abhijith Kurungodan
|2
|0
|0
|0
|1
|0
|3
|0
|-
|44
|MF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Basit Ahmed Bhat]]
|0
|0
|2
|1
|1
|0
|3
|1
|-
|45
|DF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Anas Edathodika]]
|1
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|1
|0
|-
|46
|MF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Christy molly Davis]]
|2
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|2
|0
|-
|66
|DF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Mashoor Shereef]]
|0
|1
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|1
|-
|93
|DF
|align="left"| {{flagicon|IND}} [[Akhil Praveen]]
|2
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|2
|0
|-
|
|
|align="left"| {{flagicon|ESP}} Domingo Oramas
|1
|1
|0
|0
|0
|0
|1
|1
|-
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Gokulam Kerala FC}}
{{2023–24 in Indian football}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:2023-24 Gokulam Kerala F.C. season}}
[[Category:2023–24 I-League by team]]
[[Category:Gokulam Kerala FC seasons]]
[[Category:2023–24 in Indian football]]

Anglo-Indian reserved seats in the Lok Sabha

2025-10-20T05:22:45Z

ShivaniSikri:

{{Short description|Former reserved seats in the Lok Sabha}}
Between 1952 and 2020, two seats were reserved in the [[Lok Sabha]], the lower house of the [[Parliament of India]], for members of the [[Anglo-Indian]] community. These two members were nominated by the [[President of India]] on the advice of the [[Government of India]]. In January 2020, the Anglo-Indian reserved seats in the Lok Sabha and [[State legislative assemblies of India|state legislative assemblies]] of India were discontinued by the 126th Constitutional Amendment Bill of 2019, when enacted as the [[One Hundred and Fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India#:~:text=The One Hundred and Fourth,Lok Sabha and State Legislative|104th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Anglo Indian Representation To Lok Sabha, State Assemblies Done Away; SC-ST Reservation Extended For 10 Years: Constitution (104th Amendment) Act To Come Into Force On 25th Jan|url=http://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2020/215637.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=25 January 2020|website=egazette.nic.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.elections.in/government/anglo-indian-mps.html|title=Anglo Indian Members of Parliament (MPs) of India – Powers, Salary, Eligibility, Term|website=www.elections.in}}</ref>

The Article 331 of the Indian Constitution gave reservation to the Anglo-Indian community during the creation of the Constitution, the article 331 also says that this reservation would cease to exist 10 years after the commencement of the Constitution. But this reservation was extended to 1970 through the 8th Amendment. The period of reservation was extended to 1980 through 23rd amendment and then to 1990 through 45th amendments, to 2006 through 62nd amendment, to 2010 through 79th amendments and to 2020 through the 95th Amendment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indialegallive.com/top-news-of-the-day/news/centre-notifies-constitutional-amendment-away-quota-anglo-india-84961|title=Centre notifies constitutional amendment doing away with quota for Anglo Indian|access-date=3 June 2020}}</ref> In January 2020, the Anglo-Indian reserved seats in the Parliament and State Legislatures of India were abolished by the 104th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livelaw.in/news-updates/constitution-104th-amendment-act-to-come-into-force-151919|title=Anglo Indian Representation To Lok Sabha, State Assemblies Done Away; SC-ST Reservation Extended For 10 Years: Constitution (104th Amendment) Act To Come Into Force On 25th Jan|website=www.livelaw.in|date=23 January 2020|access-date=2 June 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.elections.in/government/anglo-indian-mps.html|title=Anglo Indian Members of Parliament (MPs) of India – Powers, Salary, Eligibility, Term|website=www.elections.in}}</ref> The reason cited by the [[Minister of Law and Justice|Union Law Minister]] [[Ravi Shankar Prasad]] who introduced the Bill in the Lok Sabha is that the Anglo-Indians population in India was just 296 in the [[2011 Census of India]], though this figure is disputed.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/who-are-the-anglo-indians-and-why-do-they-have-a-quota-in-lok-sabha-and-some-state-legislatures/527529|title=Who are the Anglo-Indians and why do they have a quota in Lok Sabha and some state legislatures?|author=Sumeet Kaul|access-date =2 June 2020}}</ref> The total number of Anglo-Indians is disputed with estimates up to 150,000. Some sources suggest a population between 75,000 and 100,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2019/12/13/kerala-anglo-indian-community-ernakulam-kollam-kannur.html|access-date=14 September 2023|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021014456/https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2019/12/13/kerala-anglo-indian-community-ernakulam-kollam-kannur.html|title=In Kerala Anglo-Indians are 100,000 strong, not minuscule 124!|date=13 December 2019|website=Onmanorama|archive-date=21 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/212353/anglo-indians-yearn-magical-past | title=Anglo-Indians yearn for the magical past | date=17 December 2011 }}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|Reserved political positions in India}}
The Anglo-Indian community were the only community in India that had its own representatives nominated to the [[Lok Sabha]] ([[lower house]]) in the [[Parliament of India]]. This right was secured from [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] by [[Frank Anthony]], the first and long-time president of the All India Anglo-Indian Association. The community was represented by two members. This was done because the community had no native state of its own. Fourteen [[States and union territories of India|states]] of India ([[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Gujarat]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Telangana]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Uttarakhand]] and [[West Bengal]]) also had a nominated member each in their respective [[State Legislative Assembly (India)|State Legislative Assemblies]].

The reserved seats were expected to have been phased out by the 1960s, but continued to be renewed by successive governments, until this provision was abolished in 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/16/the-two-mps-of-british-descent-who-do-not-have-to-stand-in-indian-election|title=The two MPs of British descent who do not have to stand in Indian election|first=Michael|last=Safi|newspaper=The Guardian |date=April 16, 2019|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref> Law Minister Ravi Shankar Prasad cited the 2011 Census as counting merely 296 Anglo-Indians in India, prompting challenges from many opposition MPs. [[Kanimozhi]] of the [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]] party pointed out that the state [[Tamil Nadu]] alone had a few thousand Anglo-Indians.<ref name=":0" />

=== Before independence ===
[[Henry Gidney]] was a nominated member of the [[Central Legislative Assembly]] under the 'Special Interests/Anglo-Indian' category in the [[1920 Indian general election|1920]], [[1923 Indian general election|1923]], [[1926 Indian general election|1926]], [[1930 Indian general election|1930]], and [[1934 Indian general election|1934]] elections.

== List of Anglo-Indian members in the Lok Sabha ==
The following is a list of members nominated for the seats after each election.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aiadanapur.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=66&Itemid=81|title=Anglo Indian MP's In India|website=www.aiadanapur.org}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable sortable"
! scope=col rowspan=2|Election
! scope=colgroup colspan=3|Member 1
! scope=colgroup colspan=3|Member 2
|-
! scope=col | Name
! scope=col colspan=2|Party
! scope=col | Name
! scope=col colspan=2|Party
|-
! scope=row | [[1951–52 Indian general election|1951–52]]
|rowspan=5|[[Frank Anthony]]
|{{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)|rowspan=5}}
|rowspan=4|[[A. E. T. Barrow]]
|{{Full party name with color|Independent (politician)|rowspan=6}}
|-
! scope=row | [[1957 Indian general election|1957]]
|-
! scope=row | [[1962 Indian general election|1962]]
|-
! scope=row | [[1967 Indian general election|1967]]
|-
! scope=row | [[1971 Indian general election|1971]]
|[[Marjorie Godfrey]]
|-
! scope=row | [[1977 Indian general election|1977]]
|[[Rudolph Rodrigues]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Party}}
|rowspan=3|[[A. E. T. Barrow]]
|-
! scope=row | [[1980 Indian general election|1980]]
|rowspan=2|[[Frank Anthony]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
! scope=row | [[1984 Indian general election|1984]]
|-
! scope=row | [[1989 Indian general election|1989]]
|[[Joss Fernandez]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|[[Paul Mantosh]]
|{{Full party name with color|Janata Dal}}
|-
! scope=row | [[1991 Indian general election|1991]]
|[[Frank Anthony]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress}}
|rowspan=3|[[Robert E. Williams (politician)|Robert E. Williams]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=4}}
|-
! scope=row | ''1993''
| colspan=3 align=center| Vacant
|-
! scope=row | ''1995''
|[[Sheila F. Irani]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
! scope=row | [[1996 Indian general election|1996]]
|[[Neil O'Brien (quizmaster)|Neil O'Brien]]
|[[Hedwig Rego]]
|-
! scope=row | [[1998 Indian general election|1998]]
|rowspan=2|[[Beatrix D'Souza]]
|{{Full party name with color|Samata Party|rowspan=2}}
|[[Neville Foley]]
|{{Full party name with color|Samata Party}}
|-
! scope=row | [[1999 Indian general election|1999]]
|[[Denzil B. Atkinson]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
! scope=row | [[2004 Indian general election|2004]]
|rowspan=2|[[Ingrid McLeod]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|[[Francis Fanthome]]
|{{Full party name with color|Indian National Congress|rowspan=2}}
|-
! scope=row | [[2009 Indian general election|2009]]
|[[Charles Dias]]
|-
! scope=row | [[2014 Indian general election|2014]]
|[[George Baker (Indian actor)|George Baker]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|[[Richard Hay (politician)|Richard Hay]]
|{{Full party name with color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}
|-
|}

== See also ==
* [[Anglo-Indian reserved seat in the Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly]]
* [[List of former constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]
* [[Reserved political positions in India]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Parliament of India}}
{{Lok Sabha}}

[[Category:Lok Sabha]]
[[Category:Former constituencies of the Lok Sabha]]
[[Category:Ethnic bodies and representatives elections]]

Baidyanathpur, Paschim Bardhaman

2025-10-07T15:50:32Z

ShivaniSikri: adjust article

{{For|village in Chandpur District, Bangladesh|Baidyanathpur}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Baidyanathpur
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Census Town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal#India3
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India
| coordinates = {{coord|23.720252|N|87.278569|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Paschim Bardhaman district|Paschim Bardhaman]]
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 2.42
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 15,704
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages*
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Hindi]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 713219
| area_code_type = Telephone code/[[Subscriber trunk dialling|STD]]
| area_code = 0341
| registration_plate = WB
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Asansol (Lok Sabha constituency)|Asansol]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Pandaveswar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Pandaveswar]]
| website = {{URL|paschimbardhaman.co.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Baidyanathpur''' is a [[census town]] in the [[Pandabeswar (community development block)|Pandabeswar]] [[Community development blocks in India|CD block]] in the [[Durgapur subdivision]] of the [[Paschim Bardhaman district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]].

==Geography==
{{OSM Location map
| width=430| height=350| zoom=11
| coord={{coord|23|39|20|N|87|15|10|E}}| float=left|caption='''Cities, towns and ECL Areas in the northern portion of Durgapur subdivision in Paschim Bardhaman district''' MC: Municipal Corporation, CT: census town, R: rural administrative centre Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly
|mark-coord1= {{coord|23|44|4|N|87|14|22|E}} | label-pos1=left|label1= Kendra Khottamdi | numbered1=CT| mark-title1=[[Kendra Khottamdi]] (CT)|label-color1=#800000 |label-size1=11| mark-size1=12|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1= #A40000|shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2
|mark-coord2={{coord|23|36|40|N|87|16|28|E}} | label-pos2=right|label2= Ichhapur| numbered2=CT| mark-title2=[[Ichhapur, Paschim Bardhaman|Ichhapur]] (CT)
|mark-coord3={{coord|23|38|6|N|87|16|3|E}} | label-pos3=right|label3= Sarpi| numbered3=CT| mark-title3=[[Sarpi, Paschim Bardhaman|Sarpi]] (CT)
|mark-coord4={{coord|23|39|49|N|87|18|0|E}} | label-pos4=right|label4= Nabaghanapur| numbered4=CT| mark-title4=[[Nabaghanapur]] (CT)
|mark-coord5={{coord|23|41|5|N|87|18|6|E}} | label-pos5=right|label5= Sirsha| numbered5=CT| mark-title5=[[Sirsha, India|Sirsha]] (CT)
|mark-coord6={{coord|23|42|44|N|87|19|26|E}} | label-pos6=right|label6= Banagram| numbered6=CT| mark-title6=[[Banagram, Paschim Bardhaman|Banagram]] (CT)
|mark-coord7={{coord|23|42|10|N|87|18|37|E}} | label-pos7= bottom|label7= Mandarbani| numbered7=CT| mark-title7=[[Mandarbani]] (CT)
|mark-coord8={{coord|23|39|5|N|87|11|20|E}} | label-pos8=left|label8= Bahula| numbered8=CT| mark-title8=[[Bahula]] (CT)
|mark-coord9={{coord|23|40|25|N|87|11|55|E}} | label-pos9=right|label9= Chhora| numbered9=CT| mark-title9=[[Chhora]] (CT)
|mark-coord10={{coord|23|41|10|N|87|11|50|E}} | label-pos10=right|label10= Haripur| numbered10=CT| mark-title10=[[Haripur, Paschim Bardhaman|Haripur]] (CT)
|mark-coord11={{coord|23|40|15|N|87|14|5|E}} | label-pos11=right|label11= Sankarpur| numbered11=CT| mark-title11=[[Sankarpur, Paschim Bardhaman|Sankarpur]] (CT)
|mark-coord12={{coord|23|40|47|N|87|14|41|E}} | label-pos12=left|label12= Nabgram| numbered12=CT| mark-title12=[[Nabgram]] (CT)
|mark-coord13={{coord|23|40|40|N|87|15|53|E}} | label-pos13=right|label13= Konardihi| numbered13=CT| mark-title13=[[Konardihi]] (CT)
|mark-coord14={{coord|23|42|35|N|87|17|22|E}} | label-pos14=right|label14= Mahal| numbered14=CT| mark-title14=[[Mahal, Paschim Bardhaman|Mahal]] (CT)
|mark-coord15={{coord|23|43|12|N|87|16|42|E}} | label-pos15=right|label15= Baidyanathpur| numbered15=CT| mark-title15=Baidyanathpur (CT)|shape-color15=black| label-size15=13|label-color15=black 
|mark-coord16={{coord|23|42|49|N|87|15|13|E}} | label-pos16=left|label16= Dalurband| numbered16=CT| mark-title16=[[Dalurband]] (CT)
|mark-coord17={{coord|23|43|40|N|87|15|45|E}} | label-pos17=left|label17= Ramnagar| numbered17=CT| mark-title17=[[Ramnagar, Pandaveswar|Ramnagar]] (CT)
|mark-coord18={{coord|23|43|14|N|87|14|5|E}} | label-pos18=left|label18= Bilpahari| numbered18=CT| mark-title18=[[Bilpahari]] (CT)
|mark-coord19={{coord|23|38|35|N|87|15|40|E}} | label-pos19=right|label19= Chak Bankola| numbered19=CT| mark-title19=[[Chak Bankola]] (CT)
|mark-coord20={{coord|23|38|29|N|87|11|22|E}} | label-pos20=right|label20= Parashkol| numbered20=CT| mark-title20=[[Parashkol]] (CT)
|mark-coord21={{coord|23|40|0|N|87|13|33|E}} | label-pos21=left|label21=ECL Kenda |labela21= Area Office |numbered21=0| mark-title21=[[Kenda Area|ECL Kenda Area Office]] (A)| label-size21=12| shape-color21=#AA6666
|mark-coord22={{coord|23|43|39|N|87|16|20|E}} | label-pos22= right|label22=ECL Pandaveswar Area Office | numbered22=0| mark-title22=[[Pandaveswar Area|ECL Pandaveswar Area Office]] (A)|shape-color22=#AA6666| label-size22=12
|mark-coord23={{coord|23|39|49|N|87|14|13|E}} | label-pos23=right|label23=ECL Bankola|labela23= Area Office | numbered23=0| mark-title23=[[Bankola Area|ECL Bankola Area Office]] (A)|shape-color23= #AA6666|label-size23=12
|mark-coord24={{coord|23|40|21|N|87|17|16|E}} | label-pos24=right|label24=ECL Jhanjhra Area Office | numbered24=0| mark-title24=[[Jhanjra|ECL Jhanjhra Area Office]] (A)|shape-color24=#AA6666| label-size24=12
|mark-coord25={{coord|23|40|50|N|87|10|50|E}} | label-pos25=left|label25=ECL |labela25= Sonpur Bazari|labelb25 = Area Office | numbered25=0| mark-title25=[[Sonpur Bazari|ECL Sonpur Bazari Area Office]] (A)|shape-color25=#AA6666| label-size25=12
|mark-coord26={{coord|23|34|12|N|87|16|48|E}} | label-pos26=right|label-color26=#800000| label26=Durgapur | numbered26=MC| mark-title26=[[Durgapur]] (MC)|shape-color14=#800000
|mark-coord27={{coord|23|39|25|N|87|18|27|E}} | label-pos27=right|label-color27=#C42222| label27= Laudoha | numbered27=R| mark-title27=[[Laudoha]] (R)|shape-color27=#C42222
|mark-coord28={{coord|23|42|25|N|87|16|18|E}} | label-pos28=left|label-color28=#C42222| label28= Pandabeswar | numbered28=R| mark-title28=[[Pandabeswar]] (R)|shape-color28=#C42222
|mark-coord29={{coord|23|39|0|N|87|17|33|E}} | label-pos29=right|label-color29=#C42222| label29= Tilaboni | numbered29=R| mark-title29=[[Tilaboni]] (R)|shape-color29=#C42222
|mark-coord30={{coord|23|39|0|N|87|15|55|E}} | label-pos30=left|label-color30=#C42222| label30= Shyamsundarpur | numbered30=R| mark-title30=[[Shyamsundarpur, Paschim Bardhaman]] (R)|shape-color30=#C42222
|mark-coord31={{coord|23|42|15|N|87|20|48|E}} | label-pos31=right|label-color31=#C42222| label31= Madhaipur | numbered31=R| mark-title31=[[Madhaipur]] (R)|shape-color31=#C42222
|mark-coord32={{coord|23.75125|87.16556}}| label32=Ajay River| label-color32 = #77A1CB| label-angle32=0| label-pos32=right| label-size32=10| mark-size32=0| mark-title32 =none
|mark-coord33={{coord|23.554889|87.166754}}| label33=Damodar River| label-color33 = #77A1CB| label-angle33=20| label-pos33=top| label-size33=10| mark-size33=0| mark-title33 =none}}

===Location===
Baidyanathpur is located at {{coord|23.720252|N|87.278569|E|}}.

The Asansol-Durgapur region is composed of undulating [[laterite]] region. This area lies between two mighty rivers – the [[Damodar River|Damodar]] and the [[Ajay River|Ajay]]. They flow almost parallel to each other in the region – the average distance between the two rivers is around 30 km. For ages the area was heavily forested and infested with plunderers and marauders. The discovery of coal in the 18th century led to industrialisation of the area and most of the forests have been cleared.<ref>Chattopadhyay, Akkori, ''Bardhaman Jelar Itihas O Lok Sanskriti'' (History and Folk lore of Bardhaman District.), {{in lang|bn}}, Vol I, pp 14-15, Radical Impression. {{ISBN|81-85459-36-3}}</ref>

[[Mahal, Paschim Bardhaman|Mahal]], Baidynathpur, [[Dalurband]], [[Ramnagar, Pandaveswar|Ramnagar]], [[Bilpahari]] and [[Kendra Khottamdi]] form a cluster of census towns in the northern portion of Pandabeswar CD block.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/DCHB/DCHB_A/19/1909_PART_A_DCHB_BARDDHAMAN.pdf | title = District Census Handbook Bardhaman, Series 20, Part XII A, Census of India 2011 | work= Map of Pandabeswar CD Block, page 243| publisher = Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal |accessdate = 7 September 2018}}</ref>

===Urbanisation===
According to the 2011 census, 79.22% of the population of the Durgapur subdivision was urban and 20.78% was rural. The Durgapur subdivision has 1 municipal corporation at [[Durgapur]] and 38 (+1 partly) [[census town]]s (partly presented in the map alongside; all places marked on the map are linked in the full-screen map).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook |title = District Statistical Handbook 2014 Burdwan |work = Table 2.2, 2.4(a) |publisher = Department of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of West Bengal |accessdate = 15 September 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190121045803/http://www.wbpspm.gov.in/publications/District%20Statistical%20Handbook |archive-date = 21 January 2019 |url-status = dead }}</ref>

==Demographics==
According to the [[2011 Census of India]], Baidyanathpur had a total population of 15,704 of which 8,132 (52%) were males and 7,572 (48%) were females. Population in the age range 0–6 years was 1,838. The total number of literate persons in Baidyanathpur was 9,475 (68.33% of the population over 6 years).<ref name=census3-2011>{{cite web| url = http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/pcadata/Houselisting-housing-WB.html |title = 2011 Census – Primary Census Abstract Data Tables | work= West Bengal – District-wise |publisher= Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India | accessdate = 7 September 2018 }}</ref>

*For language details see [[Pandabeswar (community development block)#Language and religion]]

[[Pandabeswar]] is shown as part of Baidyanathpur in the map of Pandabeswar CD Block [http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/DCHB/DCHB_A/19/1909_PART_A_DCHB_BARDDHAMAN.pdf] on page 243 of the District Census Handbook, Bardhaman, 2011.

==Infrastructure==


According to the ''District Census Handbook 2011, Bardhaman'', Baidyanathpur covered an area of 2.42 km2. Among the civic amenities, the protected water-supply involved service reservoir, tap water from treated sources, uncovered wells. It had 1,322 domestic electric connections. Among the educational facilities it had were 2 primary schools, 2 secondary schools, 2 senior secondary schools.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/DCHB/DCHB_A/19/1909_PART_A_DCHB_BARDDHAMAN.pdf| title = District Census Handbook Barddhaman, Census of India 2011, Series 20, Part XII A | work= Section II Town Directory, Pages 1179-1210; Statement I: Status and Growth History, Page 1179; Statement II: Physical Aspects and Location of Towns, Page 1188; Statement III: Civic and other Amenities, Page 1191; Statement IV: Medical Facilities, Page 1196; Statement V: Educational, Recreational and Cultural Facilities, Page 1200; Statement VI: Industry and Banking, Page 1209 | publisher = Directorate of census Operations V, West Bengal |accessdate = 14 May 2020}}</ref>

==Economy==
As per the ECL website telephone numbers, operational collieries in the [[Pandaveswar Area]] of [[Eastern Coalfields]] in 2018 are: Dalurband Colliery, Khottadih OCP, Khottadih UG, Madhaipur Colliery, Manderbony Colliery, Pandaveswar Colliery and South Samla Colliery.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.easterncoal.gov.in/contactus/cugtel/pandaveswar.pdf| title = Area wise Closed User Group (CUG) Telephone Numbers | work = Pandaveswar Area | publisher = Eastern Coalfields Limited | accessdate = 7 September 2018}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Paschim Bardhaman District}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Paschim Bardhaman district]]

Tufanganj railway station

2025-09-26T01:15:59Z

ShivaniSikri:

{{Short description|Railway station in West Bengal, India}}
{{Infobox station
| name = '''Tufanganj Railway Station'''
| type = [[Indian Railways]] station
| style = Indian Railways
| image =
| image_caption =
| address = Station road , Kamat Phulbari P ,Tufanganj , Pin -736159 , Dist - Cooch Behar
State: West Bengal
| country = India
| coordinates = {{Coord|26.3345|89.6699|type:railwaystation_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| elevation = {{convert|35|m|ft}}
| line = New Cooch Behar-Golokganj branch line
| other =
| structure = [[Intersection_(road)#At_grade_railways|At grade]]
| platform = 3
| tracks = 3
| parking = yes
| opened =
| closed =
| rebuilt =
| electrified =
| accessible =
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = TFGN
| zone = [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone|North East Frontier Railway]]
| division = {{rwd|Alipurduar}}
}}
| owned =
| operator =
| status =
| former = [[Eastern Bengal Railway]]
| passengers =
| pass_year =
| pass_percent =
| pass_system =
| map_type = India West Bengal#India
| map_caption = Location in West Bengal##Location in India
| map_dot_label =
| services =
}}
'''Tufanganj railway station'''<ref>{{Cite web|title=Departures from TFGN/Tufanganj (3 PFs)|url=https://indiarailinfo.com/departures/tufanganj-tfgn/9770|website=indiarailinfo.com}}</ref> serves the city of '''[[Tufanganj]]''' lying in [[Cooch Behar district]] in the Indian state of [[West Bengal]]. The station lies in New Cooch Behar-Golokganj branch line under [[Alipurduar railway division]] of [[Northeast Frontier Railway]] zone. Important trains like [[Kolkata–Sairang Express]], [[Alipurduar–Silghat Town Rajya Rani Express]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=05418/Silghat Town - Alipurduar Rajya Rani Special|url=http://amp.indiarailinfo.com/train/-train-silghat-town-alipurduar-rajya-rani-special-05418/137944/9057/449|website=indiarailinfo.com}}</ref> [[Siliguri–Dhubri Intercity Express]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Siliguri-Dhubri Intercity Express|url=https://indiarailinfo.com/train/-train-dhubri-intercity-express-15765xx/13867/445/449|website=indiarailinfo.com}}</ref> are available from Tufanganj.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Alipurduar railway division]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Cooch Behar district]]

Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li'l Champs 2014

2025-09-22T03:51:31Z

ShivaniSikri: created new article

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2015}}
{{Infobox television season
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| starring = [[Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs#Contestants|see below]]
| num_episodes =
| network = [[Zee TV]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2014|12|27|df=y}}
| last_aired = {{End date|2015|3|21|df=y}}
| prev_season = [[Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2011|2011]]
| next_season = [[Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2017|2017]]
}}
'''''Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2014''''' was the fifth season of ''[[Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs]]'', a singing competition television series, which premiered on 27 December 2014 on [[Zee TV]]. The series aired on every Saturday and Sunday nights for one hour.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bestmediainfo.com/2014/12/zee-tv-launches-sa-re-ga-ma-pa-lil-champs-season-5/|title=Zee TV launches 'Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li'l Champs' Season 5|work=BestBediaInfo Bureau|date=29 December 2014|accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref> The grand finale was held on 21 March 2015 for three hours, and the winner was Gagan Gaonkar.<ref name="Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li’l Champs 5 Grand Finale: Gagan Gaonkar wins the title!">{{cite news|url=http://www.india.com/showbiz/sa-re-ga-ma-pa-lil-champs-5-grand-finale-gagan-gaonkar-wins-the-title-325499/|title=Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li'l Champs 5 Grand Finale: Gagan Gaonkar wins the title!|newspaper=India.com|author=Prathamesh Jadhav|date=21 March 2015|accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref>

[[Alka Yagnik]] was the ''Mahaguru'' in this season, while the judges’ chairs were occupied by leading singers [[Shaan (singer)|Shaan]] and [[Monali Thakur]]. Shaan was the captain of the boys’ team and Monali was the captain of the girls’ team.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/alka-yagnik-shaan-and-monali-thakur-to-judge-sa-re-ga-ma-pa-lil-champs-5/|title=Alka Yagnik, Shaan and Monali Thakur to judge Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li'l Champs 5|newspaper=[[Indian Express]]|author=Karan Shah|date=26 December 2014|accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref> [[Aditya Narayan]] was the host of the season.

The fifth season opened with an opening of 4776 TVTs, which is the highest amongst singing reality shows.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bestmediainfo.com/2015/01/sa-re-ga-ma-pa-lil-champs-opens-highest-amongst-singing-reality-shows/|title=Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Li'l Champs opens highest amongst singing reality shows|work=BestMediaInfo Bureau|date=8 January 2015|accessdate=30 April 2015}}</ref>

'''Host'''

Aditya Narayan

'''Captains'''

Shaan

Monali Thakur

'''Maha Guru'''

Alka Yagnik

'''Top 12 Contestants'''

Gagan Gaonkar - '''''Winner'''''

Keshav Tyohar - 1st Runner Up

Aishwarya Saha - 2nd Runner Up

Arunita Kanjilal - 3rd Runner up

Ridham Kalyan - 4th Runner up

Antara Sarkar - Eliminated

Isis Paul - Eliminated

Sneha Shankar - Eliminated

Varenyam Pandya - Eliminated

Aravind Nair - Eliminated

Ishita Vishwakarma - Eliminated

Prabhupada Mohanty - Eliminated

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.zeetv.com/shows/sa-re-ga-ma-pa-lil-champs-on-zee-tv/ Official website]

{{Sa Re Ga Ma Pa}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2014}}
[[Category:2014 Indian television seasons]]
[[Category:2010s Indian television series]]
[[Category:Hindi-language television shows]]
[[Category:Television shows set in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Zee TV original programming]]
[[Category:Sa Re Ga Ma Pa]]

Sadali, Chikkaballapura

2025-09-13T22:59:21Z

ShivaniSikri: Put up a bio...

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2018}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Sadali
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = ಸಾದಲಿ
| other_name =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = town
| image_skyline = channakesava temple 1.jpg
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Front view of Channakesava temple
| pushpin_map = India Karnataka
| pushpin_label_position = right
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Karnataka, India
| coordinates = {{coord|13|38|N|77|52|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of India|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = Chikballapur
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body = Mandal Panchayat
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = ಸಾದಲಿ
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| population_as_of =
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Kannada]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 562104
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = Nearest city
| blank1_info_sec1 = Bangalore
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = Chikballapur
| blank3_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank3_info_sec1 = Sidlaghatta
| blank4_name_sec1 = Civic agency
| blank4_info_sec1 = Mandal Panchayat
| website =
| footnotes =
| official_name =
}}
[[File:channakesava temple 4.jpg|thumb|right|Closer view from same side]]
[[File:channakesava temple 5.jpg|thumb|right|Entrance]]
[[File:Channakesava temple 2.jpg|thumb|right|Dancers]]
[[File:Channakeshava temple 3.jpg|thumb|right|Rama Lakshmana with Hamuman]]

'''Sadali''' is a [[hobli]] (group of villages) headquarters in [[Chikballapur district]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]]. It is located at a distance of about 100 km from [[Bangalore]]. It is equidistant from five [[taluk]] headquarters: [[Sidlaghatta|Shidlaghatta]], [[Chintamani, Karnataka|Chintamani]], [[Bagepalli]], [[Gudibanda]] and [[Chikballapur]].

Sadali has mythological, historical and semi-historical folklore links.

==Geography==
Sadali in Sidlagatta Taluk, is a village north of Sidlagatta town on the road to Bagepalli. It is surrounded by small hillocks. It has two big tanks built by the kings of erstwhile [[Kingdom of Mysore]].<ref>Gazetteer of India,Mysore State,Kolar District (1968) 552-553</ref>

==Mythology==
Tradition has it that it was founded by [[Sahadeva]], the youngest of the [[Pandava]] brothers, and hence was called Sahadevapatna/Sahadevapura. It was later abbreviated as Sahadevapalli, Sadahalli and now Sadali.<ref>Gazetteer of India, Mysore State,Kolar District(1968 Edition) 34 and 552-553</ref>

==History==
It was one of the provinces under [[Vijayanagara Empire]] called the Sadali Kingdom, which seems to have included Chikkaballapur and the adjoining area; this was in Naganna Odeyar's charge under [[Bukka]] in 1371 AD. Naganna Odeyar and his son Depanna Odeyar <ref>Epigraphia Carnatica Vol.X,Rice Version, Chikkaballapura,63</ref> figure prominently in connection with Sadali between 1370 and 1385. Their exact relation with the ruling family of Vijayanagara is not known.

In the historical period, the village changed hands several times. Khasim Khan, a Military Commandant of [[Moghul Empire]] conquered this area and it was annexed to the Sira Suba ([[Province of Sira]]) and bestowed as a Jagir on two Muslim chiefs. (One of them was Fateh Mohamad, father of [[Hyder Ali]]). To prevent its falling into the hands of Nawab of Cuddapah, they privately disposed of it about 1759 AD to Dodda Baire Gauda of [[Chikballapur]] and later it was seized by Hyder Ali, father of [[Tippu Sultan]] in 1762 AD. Dodda Baire Gauda was a descendant of Rana Baire Gauda who ruled [[Avathi]]. This dynasty was responsible for development of Chikballapur, Doddaballapur, Sidlagatta and Sadali.<ref>Gazetteer of India,Mysore State,Kolar District (1968) 51-52,552-553 and Swarna Bhoomi (Kannada) Publisher=Sahakari Sahitya Sangha,Kolar (1968)18-22</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category|Sadali, Karnataka}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Chikkaballapura district]]

Bikapur Assembly constituency

2025-08-08T04:50:41Z

ShivaniSikri: added a stub

{{Short description|Constituency of the Uttar Pradesh legislative assembly in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox Indian constituency
| name = Bikapur
| map_image = 274-Bikapur.svg
| mla = [[Amit Singh Chauhan]]
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
| latest_election_year = 2022
| state = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
| district = [[Ayodhya district|Ayodhya]]
| reservation = None
| type = SLA
| electors = 3,80,107
| constituency_no = 274
}}
'''Bikapur''' is a constituency of the [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]] covering [[Sohawal tehsil]] and the city of Bikapur in the [[Ayodhya district]] of Uttar Pradesh, India.<ref name=delimitation2008>{{cite web |url=https://upload.indiacode.nic.in/showfile?actid=AC_CEN_3_20_00030_200233_1517807324510&type=order&filename=Delimitation%20Order,2008.pdf |title=Delimitation of Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies Order, 2008 |date=26 November 2008 |access-date= 24 June 2021}}</ref> Bikapur is one of five assembly constituencies in the [[Faizabad Lok Sabha constituency]]. As of 2022, its representative is [[Amit Singh Chauhan]] of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].{{update after|2027}}

== Members of the Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Member<ref name="election2018">{{Cite web |title=Bikapur Election and Results 2018, Candidate list, Winner, Runner-up, Current MLA and Previous MLAs |url=https://www.elections.in/uttar-pradesh/assembly-constituencies/Bikapur.html |access-date= |website=Elections in India}}</ref>
! colspan="2" |Party
|-
|[[1962 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1962]]
|Akhand Pratap Singh
| rowspan="3" style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
| rowspan="3" |[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1967 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1967]]
|Raj Bahadur Divedi
|-
|[[1969 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1969]]
|Manwati Devi
|-
|[[1974 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1974]]
|Sita Ram Nishad
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Kranti Dal}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Kranti Dal]]
|-
|[[1977 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1977]]
|Sant Shriram Dwivedi
| style="background-color: {{party color|Janata Party}}" |
|[[Janata Party]]
|-
|[[1980 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1980]]
| rowspan="2" |Sitaram Nishad
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress (I)}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress (I)]]
|-
|[[1985 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1985]]
| style="background-color: {{party color|Indian National Congress}}" |
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|-
|[[1989 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1989]]
| rowspan="2" |Sant Shriram Dwivedi
|style="background-color: {{party color|Independent}}" |
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|-
|[[1991 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1991]]
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[1993 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1993]]
|Parshuram
| rowspan="3" style="background-color: {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
| rowspan="3" |[[Samajwadi Party]]
|-
|[[1996 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|1996]]
| rowspan="2" |Sitaram Nishad
|-
|[[2002 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2002]]
|-
|[[2007 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2007]]
|Jitendra Kumar Singh
|style="background-color: {{party color|Bahujan Samaj Party}}" |
|[[Bahujan Samaj Party]]
|-
|[[2012 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2012]]
|[[Mitrasen Yadav]]
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Samajwadi Party}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Samajwadi Party]]
|-
|2016^
|[[Anand Sen Yadav]]
|-
|[[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2017]]
|Shobha Singh Chauhan
| rowspan="2" style="background-color: {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}" |
| rowspan="2" |[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
|[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election|2022]]
|[[Amit Singh Chauhan]]
|}

==Election results==

=== 2022 ===
<ref name="election2012">{{cite web |title=State Election, 2012 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3262-uttar-pradesh-2012/ |accessdate=20 April 2023 |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref><ref name="election2017">{{cite web |title=State Election, 2017 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/3471-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2017/ |accessdate=26 March 2022 |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref><ref name="election2022">{{cite web |title=State Election, 2022 to the Legislative Assembly Of Uttar Pradesh |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/file/14185-uttar-pradesh-general-legislative-election-2022/ |accessdate=4 March 2023 |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]]}}</ref>
{{Election box begin | title=[[2022 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly election]]: Bikapur<ref name="election2022"/>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Amit Singh Chauhan
|votes = {{formatnum:107268}}
|percentage = 44.34
|change = {{increase}}2.14
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Firoz Khan Urf Gabbar<ref name="election2022-2">{{cite web | url=https://www.samajwadiparty.in/election_candidates_list_2022 | title=Election Candidate List 2022 | Samajwadi Party }}</ref>
|votes = {{formatnum:101708}}
|percentage = 42.04
|change = {{increase}}11.79
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Sunil Pathak
|votes = {{formatnum:21385}}
|percentage = 8.84
|change = {{decrease}}13.45
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Indian National Congress
|candidate = Akhilesh Yadav
|votes = {{formatnum:4394}}
|percentage = 1.82
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:1382}}
|percentage = 0.57
|change = {{decrease}}0.45
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:5560}}
|percentage = 2.3
|change = {{decrease}}9.65
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:241937}}
|percentage = 63.65
|change = {{increase}}1.95
}}
{{Election box gain with party link
|
|winner = Bharatiya Janata Party
|loser =
|swing =
}}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2017 ===
{{Election box begin
|title = [[2017 Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly Election]]: Bikapur<ref name="election2017"/>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
|party = Bharatiya Janata Party
|candidate = Shobha Singh Chauhan
|votes = {{formatnum:94074}}
|percentage = 42.2
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Samajwadi Party
|candidate = Anand Sen
|votes = {{formatnum:67422}}
|percentage = 30.25
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = Bahujan Samaj Party
|candidate = Jitendra Singh
|votes = {{formatnum:49690}}
|percentage = 22.29
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen
|candidate = Juver Ahmad
|votes = {{formatnum:3275}}
|percentage = 1.47
|change =
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
|party = None of the above
|candidate = [[None of the above (India)|None of the above]]
|votes = {{formatnum:2257}}
|percentage = 1.02
|change =
}}
{{Election box majority
|votes = {{formatnum:26652}}
|percentage = 11.95
|change =
}}
{{Election box turnout
|votes = {{formatnum:222916}}
|percentage = 61.7
|change =
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |title=Results of Uttar Pradesh Assembly Elections |url=https://old.eci.gov.in/files/category/92-uttar-pradesh/ |website=eci.gov.in |publisher=Election Commission of India |access-date=15 March 2022}}

{{Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh}}
{{coord|26.60|82.13|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Ayodhya district]]
[[Category:Politics of Uttar Pradesh]]

S. A. Hussain

2025-07-16T23:10:27Z

ShivaniSikri: created a info!

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = S. A. Hussain
| image = SAHussain.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Hussain in 2008
| birth_date = 13 August 1944
| birth_place = [[Karkala]], near [[Mangalore]]
| death_date = 30 December 2009
| death_place = Karkala
| residence =
| citizenship = India
| nationality =
| fields = [[Ornithology]]
| workplaces =
| alma_mater = [[Sri Bhuvanendra College]]
| doctoral_advisor =
| academic_advisors =
| doctoral_students =
| notable_students =
| known_for =
| author_abbrev_bot =
| author_abbrev_zoo =
| influences =
| influenced =
| awards =
| signature = 
| signature_alt =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Syed Abdulla Hussain''' (13 August 1944 – 30 December 2009) was an Indian [[ornithologist]]. He is best known for the work he undertook at the [[Bombay Natural History Society]] (BNHS) along with [[Salim Ali]]. A species of frog ''[[Nyctibatrachus hussaini]]'' from [[Kudremukh]] near his home, was named after him but the species name later became embroiled in controversy.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Krishnamurthy, SV and Manjunatha, Reddy AH and Gururaja, KV |year=2001| title= A new species of frog in the genus Nyctibatrachus (Anura: Ranidae) from Western Ghats, India| journal= [[Current Science]]|volume= 80|issue=7| pages=887–891|url=http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/apr102001/887.pdf}}</ref><ref name=rjrd>{{cite journal|author=Daniels, R. J. R.|year=2008|title= Taxonomic vandalism: The case of the giant wrinkled frog| journal= [[Current Science]] |volume= 94| issue=2| pages=158–159 |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jan252008/158.pdf }}</ref>

Hussain was born in [[Karkala]], near Mangalore (then a part of the [[Madras Presidency]]) where his father Syed Hussain was a noted lawyer. His early education was at Basti Mission School and obtained a university degree in science from [[Sri Bhuvanendra College]] at Karkala. He applied for a field research position in the Bird Migration study project of the Bombay Natural History Society and although he had no formal education in zoology, Salim Ali found him very observant and accepted him. Hussain accompanied Ali on numerous expeditions and later conducted surveys on his own. Hussain became assistant curator of the BNHS in 1979, a senior scientist from 1985 to 1990 and then a deputy director of research until 1992. He later moved to Malaysia where he headed the Asian Wetland Bureau. He was also briefly the vice-chairman of BirdLife International.<ref>Yahya, HSA (2010) [http://int-ornith-union.org/HUSSAIN_OBITUARY.pdf Remembering Hussain Bhai: An Obituary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726181718/http://int-ornith-union.org/HUSSAIN_OBITUARY.pdf# |date=2011-07-26 }}. International Ornithologist's Union</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lip2000.com/scientists/page2.html|title=Syed Abdulla Hussain}}{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In 1974, he was part of a group that went in search of the [[forest owlet]] at a locality falsely claimed by [[Richard Meinertzhagen]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Rasmussen PC |title=Rediscovery of an Indian enigma: the Forest Owlet|publisher= Oriental Bird Club| year=1998|url= http://www.orientalbirdclub.org/publications/bullfeats/forowlet.html}}</ref>

After retiring from work, he moved back to live in Karkala, where he started the Biodiversity Initiative Trust. The organization worked locally, particularly for conservation of the Kudremukh region. In 2003, he suggested a plan for the conversion of the Kudremukh Iron Ore Company township into a biodiversity research station as mining in this biodiversity hotspot had been stopped by the Indian government.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hussain, SA|title=Kudremukh National Park, Karnataka: a profile and a strategy for the future|journal=[[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]]|volume=100|pages=202–211}}</ref> He died of a heart attack at his home on 30 December 2009.

==Contributions to ornithology==
Several of his early publications were based on studies of the bird collection at the BNHS. These include the extension in the range of ''[[Dinopium shorii]]'' in the Eastern Ghats,<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Abdulali, H |author2=Hussain, SA |year=1973|title= On the occurrence of Goldenbacked Threetoed Woodpecker [''Dinopium shorii'' (Vigors)] south of the Himalayan Range|journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]]|volume=70|issue=1| pages=200–201}}</ref> the validity of ''[[Otus bakkamoena|Otus bakkamoena stewarti]]'',<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Abdulali, H |author2=Hussain, SA |year=1971|title= On the validity of ''Otus bakkamoena stewarti'' Koelz|journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]] |volume=68|issue=3|pages= 829–830}}</ref> an extension of the range of [[Asian palm swift]] ''Cypsiurus parvus infumatus'' (north of the Brahmaputra river)<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Abdulali, H |author2=Hussain, SA |year=1972|title= Northern range of the Eastern Palm Swift [''Cypsiurus parvus infumatus'' (Sclater)]|journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]]|volume= 69| issue=1| page= 186}}</ref> In the course of his travels he noted several range extensions including the [[brown-winged kingfisher]] from Chilka,<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Daniel, JC |author2=Hussain, SA |year=1974|title= The Brownwinged Storkbilled Kingfisher ''Pelargopsis amauroptera'' (Pearson) in Orissa|journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]] |volume=71| issue=2|pages=304–305}}</ref> [[Cetti's warbler]] from [[Bharatpur, India|Bharatpur]],<ref>{{cite journal|author= Hussain, SA |year=1974|title= Extension of the range of Cetti's Warbler ''Cettia cetti albiventris'' Severtzov|journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]] |volume=71| issue=3|pages= 611–613}}</ref> [[purple cochoa]] from Mussoorie (westernmost limit).<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Hussain, SA |author2=Waltner, RC |year=1975|title= Occurrence of the Purple Cochoa ''Cochoa purpurea'' Hodgson, near Mussoorie, U.P|journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]] |volume= 72| issue=2|page=552}}</ref> His finding of the [[broad-tailed grassbird]] from Point Calimere opens up the possibility of the species in Sri Lanka, from where an old questionable specimen record exists.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hussain, SA |year=1976|title= Occurrence of the Broadtailed Grass Warbler [''Schoenicola platyura'' (Jerdon)] on the Coromandel coast|journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]] |volume=73| issue=2|pages=400–401}}</ref> In 1972 he visited Narcondam Island to study the [[Narcondam hornbill]], capturing two adult hornbills and their chicks. The two hornbill chicks were taken to Bombay, the male died on the ship journey while the female escaped in Madras, never to be found. The chicks lived for about 6 years, the female showed aggression to the male sibling and an injury to the male resulted in death. Based on his observations he suggested that the species was closer to ''[[Rhyticeros plicatus]]'' than to ''[[Rhyticeros undulatus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hussain, SA |year=1984|title= Some aspects of the biology and ecology of Narcondam Hornbill (''Rhyticeros narcondami'')|journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]] |volume=81|issue=1|pages=1–18}}</ref> In the summer of 1977 he and Salim Ali, went to Bhutan to look for the [[yellow-rumped honeyguide]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Hussain A |author2=Ali, S |year=1983|title= Some notes on the ecology and the status of the Orangerumped Honeyguide ''Indicator xanthonotus'' in the Himalayas| journal=[[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]] |volume=80| issue=3|pages= 564–574}}</ref> He noted the opportunistic behaviour of the honeyguides, making use of the attacks of ''[[Vespa mandarinia]]'' on the hives of ''[[Apis dorsata laboriosa]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Hussain, SA |author2=Ali, S |year=1979|title= Beehive predation by Wasps (Genus ''Vespa'') and its possible benefit to Honeyguides (Indicatoridae) in Bhutan|journal=[[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]]| volume=76|issue=1|pages= 157–159}}</ref> He also saw a honeyguide in the Valley of Flowers which he suggested should belong to the little-known subspecies ''radcliffi'' described by [[Allan Octavian Hume]].<ref>{{cite journal|author= Hussain, SA |year=1978|title= Orangerumped Honeyguide ''Indicator xanthonotus'' in the Garhwal Himalayas|journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]] |volume=75| issue=2|pages=487–488}}</ref> He described a new subspecies of the bay owl ''[[Phodilus badius]]'' (''P. b. ripleyi'') in 1977.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Hussain, SA |author2=Khan, MAR |year=1977| title= A new subspecies of Bay Owl [''Phodilus badius'' (Horsfield)] from peninsular India| journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]] |volume=74| issue=2| pages= 334–336}}</ref> In 1983 he surveyed the [[black-necked crane]] in Ladakh.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hussain, SA |year=1985|title= Status of Blacknecked Crane in Ladakh – 1983 problems and prospects|journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]] |volume= 82| issue=3| pages= 449–458}}</ref> He published several observations made during ringing camps, particularly at Point Calimere. In 1992 he wrote about the distribution and status of the [[white-naped tit|white-winged tit]] in Kutch.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Hussain, SA |author2=Tiwari, JK |year=1992|title= Status and distribution of White-winged Black Tit in Kachchh, Gujarat India|journal= [[Bird Conservation International]]|volume=1992|pages=115–122|doi=10.1017/s0959270900002343|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In 1987, he coordinated the midwinter "Asian Waterfowl Census" conducted by volunteers across India. He produced an identification booklet with illustrations by Carl D'Silva to aid volunteers identify water birds.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Hussain, SA |author2=D'Silva, C |year=1987|title= Waterfowl Indicator|publisher= Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author= Hussain, SA |year=1987|title= Asian waterfowl count|journal= [[Newsletter for Birdwatchers]]| volume= 27| issue=11&12|page=4|url=https://archive.org/stream/NLBW27#page/n30/mode/1up/}}</ref>

A partial list of publications includes:
* {{cite journal|author1=Hussain, SA |author2=Panday, JD |author3=Shekar, PB |year=1976|title= Extension of range of the Large Yellownaped Woodpecker (''Picus flavinucha flavinucha'' Gould)|journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]]|volume= 73| issue=2| page=394}}
* {{cite journal|author1=Ripley, SD |author2=Hussain, SA |year=1984|title= ''Hypsipetes madagascariensis sinensis'' (La Touche)|journal= Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume= 81| issue=1|pages=195–196|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48293397}}
* {{cite journal|author1=Abdulali, h |author2=Hussain, SA |year=1971|title= Occurrence of Eastern Ringed Plover ''Charadrius hiaticula tundrae'' (Lowe) in Tamil Nadu|journal= Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume= 68| issue=2| pages=450–451|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48430638}}
* {{cite journal|author1=Abdulali, H |author2=Hussain, SA |year=1971|title= A second record of the migratory Jungle Nightjar (''Caprimulgus indicus jotaka'' Temm. & Schl.) in Indian limits|journal= Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=68| issue=2|pages=451–452|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48430639}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Abdulali, H |author2=Hussain, SA |year=1971 |title= Extension of the breeding range of Sykes's Nightjar (''Caprimulgus mahrattensis'' Sykes) in Indian limits |journal= Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=68 |issue=2 |page=452 |url= https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48430640}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Abdulali, H |author2=Hussain, SA |year=1971 |title= Occurrence of the Long-eared Owl [''Asio otus otus'' (Linnaeus)] in North Burma |journal= [[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society]] |volume= 68 |issue=2 |pages= 452–453 |url= https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48430640}}
* {{cite journal|author1=Abdulali, H |author2=Hussain, SA |year=1972|title= Occurrence of the Egyptian Nightjar ''Caprimulgus aegyptius aegyptius'' Lichtenstein in Baluchistan| journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=69| issue=1| pages= 185–186|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48289034}}
* {{cite journal|author1=Hussain, SA |author2=Balachandran, S |year=1993|title= Recovery of Russian ringed Grey Plover (''Pluvialis squatarola'') at Point Calimere|journal= Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume= 90|issue=3|pages= 508–509|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48609779}}
* {{cite journal|author1=Balachandran, S |author2=Hussain, SA |year=1994|title= Longest longevity record for the Lesser Sandplover ''Charadrius mongolus'' Pallas|journal= Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume= 91| issue=1|pages=140–141|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48296521}}
* {{cite journal|author1=Balachandran, S |author2=Mohapatra, KK |author3=Hussain, SA |year=1995|title= Moult in three species of Bulbuls of the Genus ''Pycnonotus'' at Tirupati Hills of the Eastern Ghats, India|journal= Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=92|issue=2| pages=151–159}}
* {{cite journal|author= Hussain, SA |year=1991|title= I.C.B.P. National report – India|journal= [[Newsletter for Birdwatchers]]|volume= 31|issue=1&2| pages=2–6|url=https://archive.org/stream/NLBW31_12#page/n3/mode/1up/}}
* {{cite journal|author1=Balachandran, S |author2=Hussain, SA |author3=Underhill, LG |year=2000|title= Primary moult, biometrics, mass and age composition of Grey Plovers ''Pluvialis squatarola'' in southeastern India| journal= [[Bird Study]]| volume= 47| pages=82–90|doi= 10.1080/00063650009461162|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal| author =Hussain, SA |title=Sidney Dillon Ripley II 1913–2001| journal=[[Ibis (journal)|Ibis]]|volume=144| issue=3| doi=10.1046/j.1474-919X.2002.00090_1.x|page=550|year=2002|doi-access=free}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.mangalorean.com/browsearticles.php?arttype=mom&momid=89 An interview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107110628/http://mangalorean.com/browsearticles.php?arttype=mom&momid=89 |date=7 January 2010 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110708042332/http://hussainanekere.blogspot.com/ S. A. Hussain's own blog]
* [https://archive.org/details/SAHussain Memories of S A Hussain (2010)]
* [https://archive.org/details/sa-hussain-crane Hussain, S.A. In quest of a Himalayan crane. Times of India. 26 September 1976]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hussain, S. A.}}
[[Category:Indian ornithologists]]
[[Category:1944 births]]
[[Category:2009 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Dakshina Kannada district]]
[[Category:Scientists from Karnataka]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian zoologists]]
[[Category:Members of the Bombay Natural History Society]]