Bharatpedia - User contributions [en]

Syed Muhammad Anwer

2026-05-24T20:31:44Z

Sherrie7069: Started basic info v1

{{Short description|Chief Justice of Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=September 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{COI|date=October 2023}}
{{Cleanup rewrite|date=September 2024}}
}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Justice Dr Syed Muhammad Anwer
| image = Justice Dr Syed Mohammed Anwer.jpg
| caption =
| birth_place = [[Rawalpindi]], Pakistan
| occupation = Judge
| known_for = Aalim Judge of the [[Federal Shariat Court]]

| education = Bachelors (LLB Honors) degree from [[International Islamic University, Islamabad]]; LLM in International Economic Law from [[Kyushu University]]; MPhil degree in Public Policy and International Relations from Kyushu University; PhD in Islamic Studies from the [[University of Punjab]]; Maulvi Fazil and Daur-i-tafseer from traditional madrasahs
}}
'''Justice Dr.Syed Muhammad Anwer''' (Urdu: سید محمد انور)<ref>{{cite web |last=Federal Shariat Court |first=Pakistan |date=16 May 2022 |title=Chief Justice of Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan |url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/en/honble-chief-justice/ |access-date=7 September 2022 |archive-date=28 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228232447/https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/en/honble-chief-justice/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hon'ble Chief Justice |first=FSC, Pakistan |title=Profile Picture of Hon'ble Chief Justice Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan. |url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Acting-HCJ-edited.jpg}}</ref> was appointed as Judge Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan on 21.05.2020. He took oath as Acting Chief Justice [[Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan]] on 16.05.2022.<ref>{{cite web |last=Federal Shariat Court |first=Pakistan |date=16 May 2022 |title=Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan Press Release |url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Press%20Release/Press%20Release%2016.05.2022.pdf |access-date= |website=Federal Shariat Court}}</ref>
Justice Dr Syed Muhammad Anwer was elevated as Aalim Judge in Federal Shariat Court on 10 July 2023,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Law and Justice |url=https://moib.gov.pk/News/54486 |access-date=10 July 2023 |archive-date=22 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022150438/https://moib.gov.pk/News/54486 |url-status=live }}</ref> by the [[President of Pakistan]] Dr. [[Arif Alvi]] via Notification dated 5 July 2023.<ref name="Notification of Appointment by President of Pakistan as Acting Chief Justice of the Federal Shariat Court">{{cite web |last1=Government of Pakistan |first1=Ministry of Law and Justice |title=Ministry of Law and Justice |url=https://molaw.gov.pk/NewsDetail/NTgxMzI2YjYtMGE2Ny00MzZiLThjODctNmVhOWI2NGJjODk4 |access-date=5 July 2023 |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816114833/https://www.molaw.gov.pk/NewsDetail/NTgxMzI2YjYtMGE2Ny00MzZiLThjODctNmVhOWI2NGJjODk4 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Justice Dr Syed Mohammed Anwer was born in [[Rawalpindi]], Pakistan. He attended [[F. G. Sir Syed College]]. He obtained his Bachelors's (LLB Honors) degree from [[International Islamic University, Islamabad]]. He is officially recognised amongst the prominent alumnus of the International Islamic University Islamabad.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.iiu.edu.pk/ |title=International Islamic University Islamabad – University website |access-date=18 July 2025 |archive-date=1 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250701201058/https://www.iiu.edu.pk/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Admissions Open at IIUI for Fall 2025 |url=https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=703515179071900&set=a.145150684908355 |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=www.facebook.com}}</ref> Later, he pursued higher education at [[Kyushu University]] in Japan as a [[Monbukagakusho Scholarship]], completing his LLM<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://maap.edu.pk/ |title=MEXT Alumni Association of Pakistan |access-date=17 October 2024 |archive-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006000149/http://maap.edu.pk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> in [[International Economic Law]]. Additionally, he earned his MPhil degree in Public Policy and International Relations, specializing in Comparative Political Studies and Administration in Asia (CSPA), from the same university. Anwer acquired religious education from traditional madrasahs, receiving degrees such as Maulvi Fazil<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://bisegrw.edu.pk/download/governed/Adibandothers.pdf | title=Chapter 4 - Adib, Alim and Fazil examinations | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241127090452/https://bisegrw.edu.pk/download/governed/Adibandothers.pdf | archive-date=2024-11-27}}</ref> and Daur-i-[[tafseer]]. He also completed Masters in Oriental Learning M.O.L from University of Punjab. Lastly, he pursued his Ph.D. in Islamic Studies at the [[University of Punjab]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/en/mr-justice-dr-syed-muhammad-anwer/ |title=Mr. Justice Dr. Syed Muhammad Anwer - Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan |work=Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan - Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan |publisher=Federalshariatcourt.gov.pk |date=1965-09-26 |accessdate=2023-08-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ips.org.pk/dr-syed-muhammad-anwer/ |title=Dr Syed Muhammad Anwer - Institute of Policy Studies |publisher=Ips.org.pk |date= 7 September 2019|accessdate=2023-08-06}}</ref>

==Career==
Before elevation, he was appointed by the then President of Pakistan, Mamnoon Husain as a member of the [[Council of Islamic Ideology]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wasif |first1=Sehrish |title=Appointment of CII Members |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/1725540/president-appoints-new-cii-members |access-date=14 April 2023 |agency=The Express Tribune |ref=Appointment by President of Pakistan as Member of Council of Islamic Ideology}}</ref> on the basis of his extensive research and contributions in the field of Islamic jurisprudence, Islamic finance and Shariah. He was an Advocate of the [[Supreme Court of Pakistan]] having expertise in diverse legal disciplines ranging from civil and criminal litigation, corporate law, IT telecom, E-commerce and International trade and finance etc. He also held different offices related to the legal profession including Member legal to Customs Appellate Tribunal, Islamabad,<ref name="Notification of Appointment as Judicial Member (BS-21) Customs Appellate Tribunal">{{cite web |last1=Government of Pakistan |first1=Ministry of Law and Justice |title=Notification |url=https://molaw.gov.pk/NewsDetail/MWJhMDU5OTQtMjAxNS00ZTdkLTg4Y2YtNGQ4YmMwNjQ5MzE0 |access-date=14 April 2023}}</ref> director legal ministry of IT and telecom where he drafted laws for the IT and telecom sector of Pakistan. He remained chairman of Electronic Certification and Accreditation council (ECAC), a legal body to regulate e-commerce in Pakistan by virtue of the Electronic Transaction Ordinance 2002. In this capacity he drafted fundamental regulations for the ECAC to provide the legal foundation for electronic transactions in Pakistan necessary for the certification authorities to operate in Pakistan. He remained Deputy Attorney General Islamabad,<ref name="News of Appointment by President of Pakistan as Deputy Attorney General">{{cite news |title=Appointment of Additional, Deputy Additional Attorneys General approved |url=https://fp.brecorder.com/2014/09/201409131223377/ |access-date=14 April 2023 |agency=Business Recorder |archive-date=26 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226173654/https://fp.brecorder.com/2014/09/201409131223377/ |url-status=live }}</ref> prior to which he was elected President of Islamabad Bar Association for the year 2013.

==Notable judgments==
===Prohibition of riba/interest===
Justice Dr. Syed Muhammad Anwer authored a judgement<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/S-P%2030-L1991%20Riba%20Case-28.04.2022.pdf | title=Shariat petition No.30-L of 1991 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428161336/https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/S-P%2030-L1991%20Riba%20Case-28.04.2022.pdf | archive-date=2022-04-28}}</ref> in the case of M/s. Farooq Brothers Vs. UBL, PLD 2023 Federal Shariat Court 47 on the prohibition of riba announced on 28 April 2022<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1687237 | title=Federal Shariat Court declares interest-based banking system against Sharia | date=28 April 2022 | access-date=17 October 2024 | archive-date=30 October 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241030110124/https://www.dawn.com/news/1687237 | url-status=live }}</ref> (27 Ramadan 1443 AH). The judgement provides a clear definition of Riba and imposes a strict prohibition on all types of Riba, irrespective of the fact as to whatever purpose the loan is taken, marking the first time when banking interest was declared as being Riba. The judgement establishes a reasonable five-year period<ref>{{Cite web |last=Malik |first=Hasnaat |date=2022-04-28 |title=FSC gives govt five years to eliminate Riba |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2354573/fsc-gives-govt-five-years-to-eliminate-riba |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=www.tribune.com.pk |language=en}}</ref> for full implementation of the decision in order to transform Pakistan's economy into one that is asset-based, risk-sharing, and [[Interest-free economy|interest-free]]. The decision states that Riba will be eliminated from Pakistan by December 31, 2027, which is the date on which it will go into effect fully. The Federal [[Government of Pakistan]], the State Bank of Pakistan and National Bank of Pakistan have withdrawn their appeals<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2385489/govt-announces-end-to-riba-in-five-years | title=Govt announces end to riba in five years | date=9 November 2022 }}</ref> and consequently accepted applicability of the judgment by promising to implement its directives by the stated deadline of December 2027.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Pakistan govt to implement 'interest-free' banking system by 2027 |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/international/pakistan-govt-to-implement-interest-free-banking-system-by-2027-122110901733_1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240626172620/https://www.business-standard.com/article/international/pakistan-govt-to-implement-interest-free-banking-system-by-2027-122110901733_1.html |archive-date=2024-06-26 |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=www.business-standard.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
In a historic and unprecedented move towards promoting Islamic finance, Pakistan's Parliament has unanimously passed the 26th Constitutional Amendment, mandating the complete elimination of Riba (interest) by January 1, 2028.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2504265/26th-amendment-mandates-elimination-of-riba-by-2028 | title=26th amendment mandates elimination of Riba by 2028 | date=21 October 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UqDCY6PD22E | title=Ring Road Rawalpindi Latest News | Rawalpindi Ring Road | Margalla Avenue Extension to Motorway | website=[[YouTube]] | date=26 May 2024 }}</ref> This amendment follows the April 28, 2022,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2504345/mufti-taqi-usmani-lauds-elimination-of-riba-through-26th-amendment | title=Mufti Taqi Usmani praises JUI Chief Maulana Fazlur Rehman for efforts in eliminating Riba through 26th amendment | date=21 October 2024 }}</ref> Federal Shariat Court judgement, authored by Justice Dr. Syed Mohammed Anwer, which set a five-year timeline for the removal of Riba from Pakistan's financial system.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2505052/jui-f-to-celebrate-constitutional-amendment-with-nationwide-youm-e-tashakur-on-friday | title=JUI-F to celebrate constitutional amendment with nationwide 'Youm-e-Tashakur' on Friday | date=24 October 2024 | access-date=18 November 2024 | archive-date=26 October 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241026230853/https://tribune.com.pk/story/2505052/jui-f-to-celebrate-constitutional-amendment-with-nationwide-youm-e-tashakur-on-friday | url-status=live }}</ref> Arabic Translation of judgment <ref>{{cite web | title=Arabic Translation of FSC Judgement on Riba by Justice Dr Syed Muhammad Anwer | date=2022 | url=https://archive.org/details/arabic-translation-of-fsc-judgement-on-riba-by-justice-dr-syed-muhammad-anwer }}</ref>

===Domestic violence===
In this judgement<ref>{{cite web | url=https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/pakistans-federal-shariat-court-affirms-that-the-punjab-protection-of-women-against-violence-act-2016-aligns-with-islamic-injunctions/ | title=Pakistan's Federal Shariat Court Affirms that the 'Punjab Protection of Women Against Violence Act 2016' Aligns with Islamic Injunctions | OHRH }}</ref> Justice Anwer held on Nov. 22, 2022, that no provision of the Punjab Protection of Women against Violence Act, 2016, is against the injunctions of Islam<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Shariat%20Petition%2003-I%20of%202016%20Prof%20M%20Ibrahim%20Khan%20-%20Women%20Protection.pdf | title=Shariat petition No. 03/I of 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227090930/https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Shariat%20Petition%2003-I%20of%202016%20Prof%20M%20Ibrahim%20Khan%20-%20Women%20Protection.pdf | archive-date=2023-02-27}}</ref> as laid down in the Quran and Sunnah. He held that women have the fundamental right to access justice<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2023-01-25/pakistan-federal-shariat-court-upholds-punjab-protection-of-women-against-violence-act/ | title=Pakistan: Federal Shariat Court Upholds Punjab Protection of Women against Violence Act | website=[[Library of Congress]] | access-date=17 October 2024 | archive-date=19 December 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241219045740/https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2023-01-25/pakistan-federal-shariat-court-upholds-punjab-protection-of-women-against-violence-act/ | url-status=live }}</ref> to redress their grievances.He further elaborated that the reason for appointing the male as Qawwam (قوام) is that they are duty bound to maintain the women of their family properly it does not mean that a man being a ‘Qawwam’ is allowed to inflict ‘domestic violence’ or tashadood (تشدد) upon women.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.app.com.pk/national/domestic-violence-legislation-ensures-justice-delivery-protection-of-women-cj-fsc/ | title=Domestic violence legislation ensures justice delivery, protection of women: CJ FSC | date=12 December 2022 | access-date=17 October 2024 | archive-date=28 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328092341/https://www.app.com.pk/national/domestic-violence-legislation-ensures-justice-delivery-protection-of-women-cj-fsc/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

===Child marriage===
This case concerned the Sindh Child Marriage Restraint Act 2013, which set the minimum age of marriage for both girls and boys at 18 years. Justice Anwer held<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Sr.P.No.10.I.of.2020.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=17 October 2024 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411151019/https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Sr.P.No.10.I.of.2020.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> that setting a minimum age for marriage by an Islamic state, is in accordance with the injunctions of Islam,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Shariat%20Petition%2005-I%20OF%202022%20Ali%20Azhar.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=18 July 2025 |archive-date=2 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241202224120/https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Shariat%20Petition%2005-I%20OF%202022%20Ali%20Azhar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/en/leading-judgements/ |title=Leading Judgements - Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan |work=Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan - Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan |date=25 November 2017 |access-date=18 July 2025 |archive-date=16 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250616103629/https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/en/leading-judgements/ |url-status=live }}</ref> because such fixation of minimum age limit provides a reasonable time to girls to complete basic education, which normally helps in developing mental maturity (rushd) in a person.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1740845 | title=Federal Shariat Court upholds Sindh law on minimum age for marriage | date=7 March 2023 | access-date=17 October 2024 | archive-date=30 May 2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250530155439/https://www.dawn.com/news/1740845 | url-status=live }}</ref> He further held In the light of principles of goals of Shariah, or Maqasid al Shariah, according to which protection of physical health as well as the mental health of a citizen is the duty of a Muslim state,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2404684/shariat-court-dismisses-petition-against-sindh-child-marriage-act | title=FSC dismisses petition against Sindh child marriage act | date=6 March 2023 }}</ref> firstly, under the goal of protection of life of its citizens and, secondly, under the goal of protection of intellect of its citizens.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.brecorder.com/news/40230369 | title=Law against child marriage | work=Brecorder | date=9 March 2023 }}</ref>.
As Chief Justice Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan, Justice Dr. Syed Muhammad Anwer took Suo Motu notice<ref>{{Cite web |last=Malik |first=Hasnaat |date=2022-12-20 |title=Shariat Court takes suo motu over underage marriage |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2391975/shariat-court-takes-suo-motu-over-underage-girls-marriage |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=www.tribune.com.pk |language=en}}</ref> of an underage girl’s marriage immediately after reports about the incident floated on media. The incident of the five-year old girl reportedly happened in Khuzdar district of Baluchistan. The Court observed that the cruel, un-Islamic and heartless ritual is found in many parts of Pakistan where girls, are given in marriage or servitude to an aggrieved family as compensation to end disputes, often murder. The Suo Motu notice led to various legislative actions taken by the federation and provinces. The provincial assembly of Baluchistan has ultimately passed a Bill<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shahid |first=Saleem |date=2025-11-15 |title=Balochistan Assembly passes child marriage bill |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1955174 |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=www.dawn.com |language=en}}</ref> for prohibition of child marriages tilted as the Balochistan Child Marriage Restraint Act, 2025 setting minimum age for marriage at 18<ref>{{Cite web |last=Shah |first=Syed Ali |date=2025-11-14 |title=Balochistan slaps minimum two-year sentence for marrying minor |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2577458/balochistan-slaps-minimum-two-year-sentence-for-marrying-minor |access-date=2026-01-16 |website=The Express Tribune |language=en}}</ref> which has gained extensive approval and recognition The international community as well as the EU has also acknowledged the efforts to raise legal marriage age in Pakistan to 18 as it conforms to the provisions of CEDAW to which Pakistan is a signatory.

===Outlawing practice of swara and vani===
On 25 October 2021, Justice Dr. Syed Muhammad Anwer delivered a landmark judgement<ref>{{cite web | url=https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/federal-shariat-court-of-pakistan-declares-the-custom-of-swara-as-un-islamic-and-unconstitutional/ | title=Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan declares the custom of Swara as un-Islamic and unconstitutional | OHRH | access-date=17 October 2024 | archive-date=3 November 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241103230633/https://ohrh.law.ox.ac.uk/federal-shariat-court-of-pakistan-declares-the-custom-of-swara-as-un-islamic-and-unconstitutional/ | url-status=live }}</ref> in Sakeena Bibi V. Secretary Law, Government of Pakistan where he held that the practice of Swara is unconstitutional and un-Islamic as it is against the principles of the Quran and Sunna. Swara (also known as Vani and Budla-i-sulh) is a custom/tradition whereby, women and girls belonging to the offender's family are given in marriage or servitude to the aggrieved persons as compensation for reconciliation in case of rivalry, murder, or abduction in order to settle the dispute.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/910102-advancing-children-s-rights | title=Advancing children's rights | date=20 November 2021 | access-date=17 October 2024 | archive-date=19 February 2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219192644/https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/910102-advancing-children-s-rights | url-status=live }}</ref> It is a form of arranged or forced child marriage. The decision<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Judgment%20on%20Swara%20(Shariat%20Petition%2025.10.2021).pdf | title=Shariat petition No. 01/I of 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220805134402/https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Judgment%20on%20Swara%20(Shariat%20Petition%2025.10.2021).pdf | archive-date=2022-08-05}}</ref> is made by a council of tribal elders called Jirga or Panchayat. The practice violates the rights of women and girls to a significant extent and places them at high risk of violence and abuse.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1654025 | title=Federal Shariat Court declares swara as un-Islamic | date=26 October 2021 | access-date=17 October 2024 | archive-date=14 October 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241014073718/https://www.dawn.com/news/1654025 | url-status=live }}</ref>

===Declaring khula as an absolute right of women===
Justice Anwer held<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Shariat%20Petition%2016-I%20of%202022%20Haji%20Saif%20ur%20Rehman%20vs%20Govt%20of%20Pakistan%20-%20Khulla.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=17 October 2024 |archive-date=30 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241130161835/https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Shariat%20Petition%2016-I%20of%202022%20Haji%20Saif%20ur%20Rehman%20vs%20Govt%20of%20Pakistan%20-%20Khulla.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> that the right of khula granted to women by the Quran and Sunnah is an absolute and unique right, whereby a marriage can be dissolved through a court at her will. He further held that a wife can get this right by showing her willingness to return the mehar (dower) to her husband and in addition by simply stating in a court of law that she can no longer live with her husband as his wife “within the prescribed limits set by the Almighty Allah as a reason for dissolution of marriage”.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2439967/fsc-declares-womens-right-to-khula-as-absolute | title=FSC declares women's right to khula as absolute | date=8 October 2023 | access-date=17 October 2024 | archive-date=27 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227130312/https://tribune.com.pk/story/2439967/fsc-declares-womens-right-to-khula-as-absolute | url-status=live }}</ref> Finally, the judgment noted that it is the fundamental right of a woman according to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran and Sunnah to claim a decree for dissolution of marriage from the court of law, which cannot be denied.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://niche.com.pk/federal-shariat-court-rules-womens-right-to-khula-as-absolute/ | title=Federal Shariat Court rules women's right to Khula as absolute | date=9 October 2023 | access-date=17 October 2024 | archive-date=9 October 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241009091420/https://niche.com.pk/federal-shariat-court-rules-womens-right-to-khula-as-absolute/ | url-status=live }}</ref>

===Appointment of female judges is not un-islamic===
Justice Anwer held<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/SHARIAT%20PETITION%20NO.25-I%20OF%202022.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=17 October 2024 |archive-date=9 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241109221218/https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/SHARIAT%20PETITION%20NO.25-I%20OF%202022.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> that the appointment of female judges subject to the provisions of any law and the Constitution is not against the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran and Sunnah. He highlights the fact that in the whole corpus of Ahadiths, hundreds of Ahadiths are reported by the female companions (صحابيات) of [[Muhammad]] but not a single Muhadith (محدث) of any era or any scholar of any schoolof Islamic jurisprudence ever discredited any Hadith of Muhammad only on this basis that such a Hadith is reported by a woman. Secondly he pointed out that some Umahat al-Moomineen would give Juristic opinions commonly called the Fatwas. The books of Ahadith including Sahih Bukhari and [[Sahih Muslim]] contain Fatawa of [[Aisha]] (i.e. the legal opinions of Aisha so much so that there are reported instances where very senior companions sought legal opinion from Aisha. This therefore displays a strong tradition and history of legal and jurisprudential scholarship of [[women in Islam]].

===Denial of women's inheritance right is un-islamic===
In a landmark ruling<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1899075 |title=Depriving women of their inheritance is 'un-Islamic', Shariat Court rules |date=20 March 2025 |access-date=18 July 2025 |archive-date=15 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250515111631/https://www.dawn.com/news/1899075/ |url-status=live }}</ref> the Federal Shariat Court (FSC) on 19 March 2025 declared all or any custom, by virtue of which any female member of a family is being or has been denied or deprived of her right of inheritance, have no legal force whatsoever<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2535245/fsc-declares-denial-of-womens-inheritance-rights-un-islamic |title=FSC declares denial of women's inheritance rights 'un-Islamic |date=19 March 2025 |access-date=18 July 2025 |archive-date=19 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250319111943/https://tribune.com.pk/story/2535245/fsc-declares-denial-of-womens-inheritance-rights-un-islamic |url-status=live }}</ref>.The 21-page judgement, authored by Justice Dr Syed Muhammad Anwar of the four-member bench that also comprised Chief Justice Iqbal Hameedur Rehman, Justice Khadim Hussain M. Sheikh and Justice Ameer Mohammad Khan, came on a petition moved against the custom of ‘Chaddar’ or ‘Parchi’ — prevalent in parts of Bannu district — that either deprived women of inheritance right granted by the Holy Quran and Sunnah, or forced them to accept a share of less value than their inheritance through jirgas<ref>{{cite web | title=ماہرنگ بلوچ سمیت بلوچ یکجہتی کمیٹی کے رہنماؤں کے خلاف تین افراد کے قتل اور دہشت گردی کی دفعات کے تحت مقدمات درج, صفحہ 2 سے 3 | date=21 March 2025 | url=https://www.bbc.com/urdu/live/cvge4119neet?page=2#asset:0d3609a6-4c09-4b04-b750-619107b60bfd }}</ref>.The Shariat Court declared the practice un-Islamic and illegal, having no legal force, subject such criminal actions to punishment.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nation.com.pk/20-Mar-2025/fsc-declares-denial-of-women-s-inheritance-un-islamic |title=FSC declares denial of women's inheritance un-Islamic |date=20 March 2025 |access-date=18 July 2025 |archive-date=8 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250408080238/https://www.nation.com.pk/20-Mar-2025/fsc-declares-denial-of-women-s-inheritance-un-islamic |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Transgender persons act===
In 2023, Acting FSC Chief Justice Dr Syed Muhammad Anwer ruled that the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act 2018 is incompatible with Islamic principles.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1754516 |title=FSC strikes down transgender law for being 'against Islam' |date=20 May 2023 |access-date=18 July 2025 |archive-date=21 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250421024203/https://www.dawn.com/news/1754516 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 108-page judgement,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Shariat%20Petition%2005-I%20OF%202020%20Hammad%20Hussain%20v%20FOP%20-%20Transgender.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=18 July 2025 |archive-date=3 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250403163249/https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Shariat%20Petition%2005-I%20OF%202020%20Hammad%20Hussain%20v%20FOP%20-%20Transgender.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> the court concluded that the use of the term “transgender” for gender identity based on self-perceived identity, contrary to the biological sex of the person, was against the injunctions of Islam. Arabic Translation of Judgment.<ref>{{cite web | title=Arabic Translation of FSC Judgement on Transgender Act by Justice Dr Syed Muhammad Anwer | date=2022 | url=https://archive.org/details/arabic-translation-of-fsc-judgement-on-transgender-act-by-justice-dr-syed-muhammad-anwer }}</ref>

==Awards and honors==

'''Justice A R Cornelius Award 2024'''

Implementation Minority Rights Forum Award Committee nominates Justice A R Cornelius Award 2024<ref>{{cite web | url=https://staging.brightfuturesocietypk.org/justice-cornelius-award/ | title=Justice Cornelius Award – Bright Future Society | access-date=18 November 2024 | archive-date=27 November 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241127091402/https://staging.brightfuturesocietypk.org/justice-cornelius-award/ | url-status=live }}</ref> to Honorable Mr. Justice Dr. Syed Muhammad Anwar, Senior Judge [[Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan]]. The award was presented by Honorable Mr. Justice [[Syed Mansoor Ali Shah]], Senior Judge Supreme Court of Pakistan, Mr. Samuel Maksan, Chairman Implementation Minority Rights Forum and Honorable Mr. [[Azam Nazir Tarar]], Federal Minister for Law, Justice & Human Rights.

'''Cambridge Lifetime Achievement Award'''

In a historic inaugural presentation, the Cambridge Lifetime Achievement Award<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.zawya.com/en/press-release/companies-news/islamic-retail-banking-summit-2024-fostering-collaboration-and-innovation-ogdk34jo | title=Islamic Retail Banking Summit 2024: Fostering collaboration and innovation }}</ref> 2024 was conferred upon Honourable Justice Dr. Syed Muhammad Anwer from the [[Federal Shariat Court of Pakistan]]. His pivotal role in the landmark decision to integrate a Riba-free economy into the Pakistani constitution marks a monumental shift in Islamic finance, celebrating his lifelong dedication to Islamic financial principles.

'''QAU Lifetime Achievement Award'''

[[Quaid-i-Azam University]] Islamabad honoured Justice Dr Syed Muhammad Anwer with the prestigious Lifetime Achievement Award<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.zawya.com/en/press-release/events-and-conferences/international-islamic-economics-and-development-conference-concludes-successfully-at-qau-h8euxnyw | title=International Islamic Economics and Development Conference concludes successfully at QAU | access-date=18 July 2025 | archive-date=31 December 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241231035039/https://www.zawya.com/en/press-release/events-and-conferences/international-islamic-economics-and-development-conference-concludes-successfully-at-qau-h8euxnyw | url-status=live }}</ref> on 18 December 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |last=isbpostadmin |date=2024-12-18 |title=QAU-IPS hold 2nd International Islamic Economics conference on the theme of Islamic Social Finance |url=https://islamabadpost.com.pk/qau-ips-hold-2nd-international-islamic-economics-conference-on-the-theme-of-islamic-social-finance/ |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Islamabad Post |language=en-US |archive-date=13 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250113212800/https://islamabadpost.com.pk/qau-ips-hold-2nd-international-islamic-economics-conference-on-the-theme-of-islamic-social-finance/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=abrar |date=2024-12-18 |title=Islamic Economics gaining prominence as conventional models struggle to address global shifts - |url=https://sabahnews.net/english/news/islamic-economics-gaining-prominence-as-conventional-models-struggle-to-address-global-shifts/ |access-date=2024-12-19 |language=en-US |archive-date=14 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250114230756/https://sabahnews.net/english/news/islamic-economics-gaining-prominence-as-conventional-models-struggle-to-address-global-shifts/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/2517525/experts-discuss-islamic-economics-at-qau-moot | title=Experts discuss Islamic economics at QAU moot | date=22 December 2024 | access-date=18 July 2025 | archive-date=22 December 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222021945/https://tribune.com.pk/story/2517525/experts-discuss-islamic-economics-at-qau-moot | url-status=live }}</ref>

'''Life Time Achievement Award by Minhaj University'''

At the occasion of 8th [[World Islamic Economics and Finance Conference]] (WIEFC 2025),<ref>{{cite web | title=8th World Islamic Economics and Finance Conference (WIEFC 2025) - Minhaj-ul-Quran | url=https://www.minhaj.org/english/General/tid/59357/8th-World-Islamic-Economics-and-Finance-Conference-WIEFC-2025.html }}</ref> held at [[Minhaj University Lahore]], Justice Dr. Syed Muhammad Anwer was recognized with a Lifetime Achievement Award in recognition of his contribution to the field of Islamic Jurisprudence and Legal Scholarship. <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://en.thepress.mv/17635 |title=Dr. Muneeza honored with lifetime achievement award at WIEFC 25 | ThePress |date=26 January 2025 |access-date=18 July 2025 |archive-date=15 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250615184217/https://en.thepress.mv/17635 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Instagram | url=https://www.instagram.com/minhajuniversitylahore/p/DFPh13xsoTw/?img_index=1 }}</ref>

'''Prestigious IRI Writers Award'''

In acknowledgement of his books and academic research works on Islam, Islamic jurisprudence and Islamic history the most prestigious Research Constitutional body of Islamic Republic of Pakistan, the [[Islamic Research Institute]] of Pakistan - IRI awarded<ref>{{cite web | title=April 25, 2025 – International Islamic University Islamabad | url=https://www.iiu.edu.pk/2025/04/25/ }}</ref> the " Writers Award " to Justice Dr Syed Mohammed Anwer on 25 April, 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ISLAMIC RESEARCH INSTITUTE HOLDS 3RD GRADUATION CEREMONY AT FAISAL MASJID CAMPUS |url=https://www.facebook.com/100063586973605/posts/1238917838237770/?rdid=oW8CjDVqbYfs1YI4# |access-date=16 January 2026 |website=www.facebook.com}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Anwer, Syed Muhammad}}
[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Pakistani judges]]
[[Category:People from Rawalpindi]]
[[Category:International Islamic University alumni]]
[[Category:Kyushu University alumni]]
[[Category:University of the Punjab alumni]]
[[Category:Pakistani lawyers]]
[[Category:Pakistani legal scholars]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Pallavaram Assembly constituency

2026-05-07T07:35:31Z

Sherrie7069: adding new details w/ infobox

{{Short description|State Legislative Assembly constituency in Tamil Nadu, India}}
{{About|the constituency|the locality|Pallavaram}}
{{use Indian English|date=May 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}}

{{Infobox Indian constituency
| type = SLA
| constituency_no = 30
| map_image = Constitution-Pallavaram.svg
| district = [[Chengalpattu district|Chengalpattu]]
| loksabha_cons = [[Sriperumbudur Lok Sabha constituency|Sriperumbudur]]
| established = 2008
| state = [[Tamil Nadu]]
| party = {{Party index link|Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam}}
| alliance = {{legend2|{{party color|Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam}}|'''[[TVK-led Alliance|TVK+]]'''|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
| mla = [[J. Kamatchi]]
| latest_election_year = [[2026 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2026]]
| name = Pallavaram
| electors = 336,963
| reservation =
}}

'''Pallavaram''' is a [[Legislative Assembly of Tamil Nadu|state assembly constituency]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], India, that was formed after the constituency [[Electoral boundary delimitation|delimitation]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Constituencies, Post-Delimitation 2008|url=http://www.elections.tn.nic.in/forms/int3.pdf|publisher=Chief Electoral Officer, Tamil Nadu|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515102633/http://elections.tn.nic.in/forms/int3.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2012}}</ref> Its State Assembly Constituency number is 30. Located in [[Chengalpattu district]], it is included in [[Sriperumbudur Lok Sabha constituency]] for national elections.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/Tamilnadu/Final%20Notification%20&%20Order%20.pdf |title= Tamil Nadu - Final Notification & Order |website= Delimitation Commission of India |publisher= National Informatics Centre |access-date= 25 January 2017}}</ref> It is one of the 234 State Legislative Assembly Constituencies in Tamil Nadu in India.

It includes All Wards in Zone 1 and Zone 2, Wards comprising Hashinapuram and Nemilicherry villages in Zone 3 of [[Tambaram City Municipal Corporation]], Ward 159 in Zone 12 of [[Greater Chennai Corporation]] (Meenambakkam) and Pozhichalur and Tirusulam Villages in St.Thomas Mount Panchayat Union.

== Members of Legislative Assembly ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" width="50%"
! style="background-color:#666666; color:white"|Year
! style="background-color:#666666; color:white"|Winner
! style="background-color:#666666; color:white" colspan="2" | Party
|-
| [[2011 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2011]]
| [[P. Dhansingh]]
| {{Full party name with color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}
|-
| [[2016 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2016]]
| rowspan="2"|[[I. Karunanithi]]<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Election Commission of India |title=2016 Tamil Nadu General Election: Constituency Data Summary |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2016/09-Constitutional%20Data%20Summarytamil.pdf |access-date=27 May 2016|page=30}}</ref>
| {{Full party name with color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|rowspan=2}}
|-
| [[2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2021]]
|-
|[[2026 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election|2026]]
|[[J. Kamatchi]]
|
|[[Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam]]
|}

==Election results==
{{bar box
|float=right
|title= Vote share of winning candidates
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=300px
|barwidth=275px
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[#2021|2021]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|47.50}}
{{bar percent|[[#2016|2016]]|{{party color|Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|44.94}}
{{bar percent|[[#2011|2011]]|{{party color|All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam}}|52.70}}
}}

{{Election box begin|title= [[2026 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Pallavaram}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=[[J. Kamatchi]]<ref>{{cite web
|title=General Election to Assembly Constituencies: Trends & Results May-2026 – Pallavaram
|url=https://results.eci.gov.in/ResultAcGenMay2026/candidateswise-S2230.htm
|publisher=Election Commission of India
|access-date=5 May 2026}}</ref>
|party=Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam
|votes=133611
|percentage=48.40
|change=New}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=D. Murugesan
|party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam
|votes=78918
|percentage=28.58
|change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=V. Venkatesan
|party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
|votes=48921
|percentage=17.72
|change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=Dr. R. Karthikeyan
|party=Naam Tamilar Katchi
|votes=14065
|percentage=5.09
|change=}}

{{Election box candidate with party link
|candidate=NOTA
|party=None of the above
|votes=1602
|percentage=0.58
|change=}}

{{Election box margin of victory
|votes=54693
|percentage=19.82
|change=}}

{{Election box turnout
|votes=276117
|percentage=81.95
|change=}}

{{Election box registered electors
|reg. electors=336963
|change=}}

{{Election box gain with party link
|winner=Tamilaga Vettri Kazhagam
|loser=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam
|swing=}}

{{Election box end}}

=== 2021 ===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Pallavaram<ref>{{cite web|title=Pallavaram Election Result|url= https://www.news18.com/assembly-elections-2021/tamil-nadu/-s22a030|access-date= 12 Jun 2022}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[I. Karunanithi]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=126,427 |percentage=47.50% |change=+2.56 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=S. Rajendran |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=88,644 |percentage=33.30% |change=-2.82 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Minishree Kanagaraj |party=Naam Tamilar Katchi |votes=21,522 |percentage=8.09% |change=+6.3 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Senthil Arumugam |party=Makkal Needhi Maiam |votes=20,774 |percentage=7.80% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA |party=None of the above |votes=1,945 |percentage=0.73% |change=-1.59 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Murugesan |party=Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam |votes=3,719 |percentage=1.40% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=37,783 |percentage=14.19% |change=5.37% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=266,190 |percentage=61.03% |change= -0.72% }}
{{Election box rejected|votes=618|percentage=0.23% }}{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 436,175 |change = }}
{{Election box hold with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= 2.56% }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2016 ===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2016 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Pallavaram<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elections.tn.gov.in/TNLA2016/AC%20WISE%20CANDIDATE%20COUNT.pdf|access-date= 30 Apr 2022|archive-date= 30 Apr 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430083638/https://www.elections.tn.gov.in/TNLA2016/AC%20WISE%20CANDIDATE%20COUNT.pdf|title=Assembly wise Candidate Valid Votes count 2016, Tamil Nadu|website=www.elections.tn.gov.in}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=[[I. Karunanithi]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=112,891 |percentage=44.94% |change=+0.91 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[C. R. Saraswathi]] |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=90,726 |percentage=36.12% |change=-16.58 }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=C. Veeralakshmi |party=Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=14,083 |percentage=5.61% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=Dr. Gopi Ayyaswamy |party=Bharatiya Janata Party |votes=11,781 |percentage=4.69% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Venkatesan |party=Pattali Makkal Katchi |votes=9,339 |percentage=3.72% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=NOTA |party=None of the above |votes=5,823 |percentage=2.32% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=P. Srinivasa Kumar |party=Naam Tamilar Katchi |votes=4,488 |percentage=1.79% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=22,165 |percentage=8.82% |change=0.16% }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=251,204 |percentage=61.75% |change= -10.45% }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 406,839 |change = }}
{{Election box gain with party link |winner=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |swing= -7.76% }}
{{Election box end}}

=== 2011 ===

{{Election box begin|title= [[2011 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election]]: Pallavaram<ref>{{Cite report|url=http://www.elections.tn.gov.in/Web/Index_card_TNLA2011/10-DETAILEDRESULT_ver4.3.pdf|title=Detailes Result 2011, Aseembly Election Tamil Nadu|work=Election Commission of Tamil Nadu|access-date=9 May 2021| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20170215085458/http://www.elections.tn.gov.in/Web/Index_card_TNLA2011/10-DETAILEDRESULT_ver4.3.pdf| archive-date =15 February 2017}}</ref>}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|candidate=P. Dhansingh |party=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=105,631 |percentage=52.70% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=[[T. M. Anbarasan]] |party=Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |votes=88,257 |percentage=44.03% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Kumar |party=Loktantrik Samajwadi Party (India) |votes=1,082 |percentage=0.54% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=B. Rajappa |party=Bahujan Samaj Party |votes=1,074 |percentage=0.54% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box candidate with party link|candidate=R. Samesudoss |party=Indhiya Jananayaga Katchi |votes=1,052 |percentage=0.52% |change= ''New'' }}
{{Election box margin of victory |votes=17,374 |percentage=8.67% |change= }}
{{Election box turnout |votes=277,671 |percentage=72.19% |change= }}
{{Election box registered electors |reg. electors = 200,455 |change = }}
{{Election box new seat win |winner=All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam |loser= |swing= }}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Tamil Nadu assembly elections|state=expanded}}
{{Assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu}}

{{coord|12.97|80.15|display=title}}

[[Category:Assembly constituencies of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Kanchipuram district]]
[[Category:Politics of Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:2008 establishments in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Legislative Assembly constituencies of Indian states established in 2008]]

List of Indian films with the highest digital rights

2026-05-06T19:26:20Z

Sherrie7069:

{{Short description|none}}

This page lists some of the [[Cinema of India|Indian films]] with the highest digital rights value, focusing on films that have achieved notable success in theatres before making their debut on streaming platforms. The leading [[Over-the-top media service|OTT services]] in [[Over-the-top media services in India|India]] include [[Netflix]], [[Amazon Prime]] Video, and [[Disney+ Hotstar]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-08-28 |title=Top streaming platforms in content hungry India |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/top-streaming-platforms-in-content-hungry-india/articleshow/112864590.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-08-31 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

== Overview ==
With the rapid growth of the digital content market, [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|post-pandemic]] Indian films have secured substantial deals for their digital distribution, often surpassing traditional revenue streams. This trend highlights the increasing influence of streaming platforms in Indian cinema.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-01 |title=Online streaming overtakes film industry as primary revenue source: Report |url=https://www.fortuneindia.com/macro/online-streaming-overtakes-film-industry-as-primary-revenue-source-report/117776 |access-date=2024-08-31 |website=www.fortuneindia.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=OTT vs. Cinema: The Changing Landscape of Entertainment Consumption |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/finance-excel/ott-vs-cinema-the-changing-landscape-of-entertainment-consumption-50916/ |access-date=2024-08-31 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The Indian streaming market has experienced remarkable expansion, with projections indicating it will reach $5 billion by the end of 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramachandran |first=Naman |date=2024-08-21 |title=India's Streaming Universe Grows to 547 Million Users as Paid Subscriptions Stagnate, Says Report |url=https://variety.com/2024/tv/news/india-streaming-market-size-2024-1236113486/ |access-date=2024-08-31 |website=Variety |language=en-US}}</ref> This growth is fueled by the rise of digital platforms and a surge in subscriptions. Currently, the OTT audience in India stands at 547 million users, reflecting a 14% increase from 2023’s 481 million, representing a 38% market penetration.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-08-21 |title=Indian OTT universe grew 14% to 547 million in 2024: Ormax |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/media/entertainment/media/indian-ott-universe-grew-14-to-547-million-in-2024-ormax/articleshow/112688847.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-08-31 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

Only films released [[COVID-19 pandemic|post-pandemic]] have been considered, as the surge in digital platforms began during the [[COVID-19 lockdown in India|lockdown]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.ETBrandEquity.com |title=How the pandemic emerged as a blessing for India's OTT industry - ET BrandEquity |url=https://brandequity.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/digital/how-the-pandemic-emerged-as-a-blessing-for-indias-ott-industry/84056159 |access-date=2024-08-31 |website=ETBrandEquity.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dr. Ghosh |first=Subhajit |date=5 May 2023 |title=A Study on OTT Boom in India as an Outcome of COVID-19 |url=https://www.erpublications.com/uploaded_files/download/dr-subhajit-ghosh_Xdbba.pdf |journal=International Journal of Enhanced Research in Management & Computer Applications}}</ref> Some films have been distributed to multiple platforms to appeal to wider audiences as per language aiming to diversify their audience reach. Currently, [[Kalki 2898 AD]] holds the highest sold digital rights, divided between two platforms Netflix and Amazon Prime Video at ₹375 crores.<ref name="kalki" />

== Highest digital deals ==
The following table lists the highest digital rights deals for Indian films value at [[Indian rupee|₹]]100 [[crore]] or more.

{| class="wikitable sortable plain row headers"
|+
!Rank
!Title
!OTT Platform
!Digital Rights
!Language
!Year
!Ref.
|-
|1
|''[[Kalki 2898 AD]]''
|[[Amazon Prime Video]] / [[Netflix India|Netflix]]
|₹175 crore
|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|2024
|<ref name="kalki">{{Cite news |date=2024-06-28 |title=‘Kalki 2898 AD’ makes huge money even before start of BO journey: Prabhas’s film sold to OTT sites for Rs 375 cr |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/kalki-2898-ad-makes-huge-money-even-before-start-of-bo-journey-prabhass-film-sold-to-ott-sites-for-rs-375-cr/articleshow/111318611.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-09-12 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hungama |first=Bollywood |date=2024-08-19 |title=EXPLAINED: Why the Prabhas starrer Kalki 2898 AD and other Pan-India films are available on different streaming giants 2898 : Bollywood News - Bollywood Hungama |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/features/explained-prabhas-starrer-kalki-2898-ad-pan-india-films-available-different-streaming-giants/ |access-date=2024-08-31 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2
|''[[RRR]]''
|[[ZEE5]] / Netflix / [[Disney+ Hotstar]]
|₹325 crore{{efn-lg|''RRR''{{'}}s digital and satellite rights combined is 325 crore.}}
|Telugu
|2022
|<ref>{{cite web |title=RRR Pre-Release Business: SS Rajamouli’s period drama collects Rs 900 crore already – CREATES ALL TIME RECORD |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/box-office/rrr-pre-release-business-ss-rajamouli-s-period-drama-collects-rs-900-crore-already-creates-all-time?amp&utm_source=chatgpt.com |website=PINKVILLA |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en |date=1 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pre-Release Business: RRR |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/pre-release-business-rrr-687340 |website=www.thehansindia.com |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en |date=22 May 2021}}</ref>
|-
|3
|''[[KGF: Chapter 2]]''
| Amazon Prime Video
|₹320 crore
|[[Kannada]]
|2022
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=KGF Chapter 2 Rights Sold to OTT Platform for Whopping Rs 320 Crores: Report |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/kgf-chapter-2-rights-sold-to-ott-platform-for-whopping-rs-320-crores-report-5113627.html |access-date=2025-09-12 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Yash starrer KGF Chapter 2 OTT rights sold for THIS whopping amount? |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-yash-starrer-kgf-chapter-2-ott-rights-sold-for-this-whopping-amount-2950888 |website=DNA India |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|4
|''[[Pushpa 2: The Rule]]''
| Netflix
|₹275 crore
|Telugu
|2024
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-12-16 |title=Pushpa 2 OTT release: When you could watch Allu Arjun blockbuster online |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/pushpa-2-ott-release-when-you-could-watch-allu-arjun-blockbuster-online/articleshow/116356894.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-09-12 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-28 |title='Pushpa 2' OTT release details: Allu Arjun's record defying blockbuster to release on THIS streaming platform. Details here - BusinessToday |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/trending/entertainment/story/pushpa-2-ott-release-details-allu-arjuns-record-defying-blockbuster-to-release-on-this-streaming-platform-details-here-462214-2025-01-28 |access-date=2025-09-12 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|5
|''[[Adipurush]]''
|Netflix / Amazon Prime Video
|₹200 crore
|[[Hindi]] Telugu
|2023
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hymavati |first=Ravali |date=2023-05-30 |title=Prabhas And Kriti Sanon’s Adipurush Digital Rights Are Sold At A Whopping Price |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/tollywood/prabhas-and-kriti-sanons-adipurush-digital-rights-are-sold-at-a-whopping-price-799876 |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=www.thehansindia.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|6
|''[[Salaar: Part 1 – Ceasefire]]''
|Netflix / Disney+ Hotstar
|₹160–162 crore
|Telugu
|2023
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Prabhas's Salaar Movie OTT Rights Sold for Record Price |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/cinema/prabhass-salaar-movie-ott-rights-sold-for-record-price-835739 |website=www.thehansindia.com |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en |date=7 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Sharma |first1=Bhavana |title=Salaar OTT Release Date {{!}} Salaar OTT Release Date |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/020124/netflix-bags-salaar-digital-streaming-rights-1.html |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en |date=2 January 2024}}</ref>
|-
|7
|''[[Devara: Part 1]]''
|Netflix
|₹150–155 crore
|Telugu
|2024
|<ref>{{cite web |last1=Prakash |first1=B. V. S. |title=Jr NTR strikes record deal, Rs 150 cr with Netflix? |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/jr-ntr-strikes-record-deal-rs-150-cr-with-netflix-1822050 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en |date=8 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-19 |title=Jr NTR-starrer Devara's Digital Rights Secured By Netflix At Record Price? What We Know |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/jr-ntr-starrer-devaras-digital-rights-secured-by-netflix-at-record-price-what-we-know-8746610.html |access-date=2024-08-31 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|8
|''[[Dhurandhar: The Revenge]]''
|Jio Hotstar
|₹150 crore
|Hindi
|2026
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hungama |first=Bollywood |date=2026-02-04 |title=SCOOP: Dhurandhar 2 OTT rights EXPLODE to Rs. 150 cr; Ranveer Singh creates yet another RECORD as Jio Hotstar wins big! : Bollywood News - Bollywood Hungama |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/scoop-dhurandhar-2-ott-rights-explode-to-rs-150-cr-ranveer-singh-creates-yet-another-record-as-jio-hotstar-wins-big/ |access-date=2026-02-24 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|9
|''[[Singham Again]]''
|Amazon Prime Video
|₹130 crore
|Hindi
|2024
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Singham Again rakes in Rs. 130 crores from Amazon Prime in historic OTT deal for Rohit Shetty and Ajay Devgn : Bollywood News - Bollywood Hungama |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/bollywood/singham-rakes-rs-130-crores-amazon-prime-historic-ott-deal-rohit-shetty-ajay-devgn/ |website=Bollywood Hungama |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en |date=3 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title='Bhool Bhulaiyaa 3' vs 'Singham Again': Ajay Devgn's film falls behind Kartik Aaryan's horror comedy in non theatrical sales - BusinessToday |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/trending/entertainment/story/bhool-bhulaiyaa-3-vs-singham-again-ajay-devgns-film-falls-behind-kartik-aaryans-horror-comedy-in-non-theatrical-sales-448696-2024-10-04 |website=Business Today |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en |date=4 October 2024}}</ref>
|-
|10
|''[[Kantara: Chapter 1]]''
|Amazon Prime Video
|₹125 crore
|Hindi
|2025
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Kantara Chapter 1 OTT release: Where to watch Rishab Shetty's 800 cr film |url=https://www.business-standard.com/entertainment/ott-releases-this-week-kantara-2-lokah-to-idli-kadai-more-to-debut-nc-125102800995_1.html |website=Business Standard |access-date=28 October 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Kantara: The Legend Chapter 1 OTT release date for 4 language versions announced. When is Hindi option expected to stream? |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/kantara-the-legend-chapter-1-ott-release-date-for-4-language-versions-announced-when-is-hindi-option-expected-to-stream/articleshow/124848115.cms?from=mdr |website=The Economic Times |access-date=28 October 2025 |date=27 October 2025}}</ref>
|-
|11
|''[[Leo (2023 Indian film)|Leo]]''
|Netflix
|₹120 crore
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|2023
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Thalapthy Vijay's Leo First Tamil Film To Earn Rs 400 Crore In Pre-Release Business |url=https://www.news18.com/news/movies/thalapthy-vijays-leo-first-tamil-film-to-earn-rs-400-crore-in-pre-release-business-7184329.html |website=News18 India |access-date=28 October 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Thalapathy 67: Digital and satellite rights of Leo sold for this whopping amount; Details inside |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/life/entertainment-thalapathy-67-digital-and-satellite-rights-of-leo-sold-for-this-whopping-amount-details-inside-2974614/ |website=The Financial Express |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en |date=8 February 2023}}</ref>
|-
|12
|''[[Coolie (2025 film)|Coolie]]''
|Amazon Prime Video
|₹120 crore
|Tamil
|2025
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-08-18 |title=Rajinikanth's Coolie OTT release: Where and when to watch Lokesh Kanagaraj's movie after theatrical run |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/rajinikanths-coolie-ott-release-where-and-when-to-watch-lokesh-kanagarajs-movie-after-theatrical-run/articleshow/123315955.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-09-13 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Coolie OTT release: When and where to watch Rajinikanth's action thriller? |url=https://www.business-standard.com/entertainment/coolie-ott-release-when-and-where-to-watch-rajinikanth-s-action-thriller-nc-125081800486_1.html |website=Business Standard |access-date=13 September 2025}}</ref>
|-
|13
|''[[Jawan (film)|Jawan]]''
|Netflix
|₹120 crore
|Hindi
|2023
|<ref>{{cite web |last1=Britto |first1=Anita |title=Did Shah Rukh Khan's Jawan get sold to Netflix for a whopping Rs 120 crore? Here's what we know |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/did-shah-rukh-khan-s-jawan-get-sold-to-netflix-for-a-whopping-rs-120-crore-here-s-what-we-know-1968812-2022-07-01 |website=India Today |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en |date=1 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Jawan OTT and Satellite rights: Makers of Shah Rukh Khan starrer in profits already? |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/jawan-ott-and-satellite-rights-makers-of-shah-rukh-khan-starrer-in-profits-already/5fa59b2d0b283 |website=OTTPlay |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|14
|''[[Thug Life (2025 film)|Thug Life]]''
|Netflix
|₹110 crore
|Tamil
|2025
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Kamal Haasan’s ‘Thug Life’ fined Rs 25 lakh for early OTT release after box office failure |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/kamal-haasans-thug-life-fined-rs-25-lakh-for-early-ott-release-after-box-office-failure/article69734708.ece |website=The Hindu |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en-IN |date=25 June 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title='Thug Life': Streaming rights to Kamal Haasan-Mani Ratnam movie sold for unprecedented amount to Netflix |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/thug-life-streaming-rights-to-kamal-haasan-mani-ratnam-movie-sold-for-unprecedented-amount-to-netflix-3199182 |website=Deccan Herald |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|15
|''[[The Greatest of All Time]]''
| Netflix
|₹110 crore
|Tamil
|2024
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Thalapathy Vijay's 'GOAT': Where to stream online |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/entertainment/thalapathy-vijays-goat-where-to-stream-online-3177840 |website=Deccan Herald |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=GOAT OTT release date announced: Check language options. When and where to watch Vijay's blockbuster |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/goat-ott-release-date-announced-check-language-options-when-and-where-to-watch-vijays-blockbuster/articleshow/113856817.cms?from=mdr |website=The Economic Times |access-date=28 October 2025 |date=2 October 2024}}</ref>
|-
|16
|[[Game Changer (film)|''Game Changer'']]
|Amazon Prime Video / ZEE5
|₹105 crore
|Telugu
|2025
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Ram Charan-starrer Game Changer’s OTT Rights Sold At Rs 105 Crore |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/ram-charan-starrer-game-changers-ott-rights-sold-at-rs-105-crore-report-8823748.html |website=News18 India |access-date=28 October 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Sekhar |first1=Vineela |title=Amazon Prime Secures Ram Charan and Kiara Advani’s 'Game Changer' OTT Release |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/ott-web-series/amazon-prime-secures-ram-charan-and-kiara-advanis-game-changer-ott-release-866667 |website=www.thehansindia.com |access-date=28 October 2025 |language=en |date=21 March 2024}}</ref>
|-
|17
|''[[Pathaan (film)|Pathaan]]''
|Amazon Prime Video
|₹100 crore
| Hindi
|2023
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-22 |title=Here's how many crores Amazon Prime Video paid for the rights of Pathaan which is releasing on OTT |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/life/entertainment-heres-how-many-crores-amazon-prime-video-paid-for-the-rights-of-pathaan-which-is-releasing-on-ott-on-this-date-2962558/ |access-date=2024-08-31 |website=Financialexpress |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|}

== See also ==

* [[List of most expensive Indian films]]
* [[List of highest-grossing Indian films]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist-lg}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian film-related lists]]

Muslim conquests of Afghanistan

2026-04-29T20:35:03Z

Sherrie7069: created basic post basic info.

{{Short description|7th to 19th-century Muslim conquests in present-day Afghanistan}}
{{History of Afghanistan}}
{{Islam}}
{{Campaignbox Early Muslim Expansions}}
[[File:Minaret of jam 2009 ghor.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Minaret of Jam]] built by the [[Ghurid dynasty]]]]

The [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] of [[Afghanistan]] began during the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] as the [[Arab Muslims]] expanded eastwards to [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], [[Sistan]] and [[Transoxiana]]. Fifteen years after the [[battle of Nahāvand]] in 642 AD, they controlled all [[Sassanid Empire|Sasanian]] domains except in Afghanistan.<ref name=Hind/> Fuller [[Islamization]] was not achieved until the period between 10th and 12th centuries under [[Ghaznavid]] and [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurid]] dynasties who patronized Muslim religious institutions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39|title=Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban|author=Nile Green|pages=39|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780520294134|year=2017}}</ref>

[[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and [[Sistan]], where [[Zoroastrianism]] was well-established, were conquered.<ref name=Green>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46|title=Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban|author=Nile Green|pages= 44, 46–47|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780520294134|year=2017}}</ref> The Arabs had begun to move towards the lands east of [[Persia]] in the 7th century.<ref name="Bosworth153">''Historic Cities of the Islamic World'', ed. C.E. Bosworth, (Brill, 2007), 153.</ref> The Muslim frontier in modern Afghanistan had become stabilized after the first century of the [[Lunar Hijri calendar]] as the relative importance of the Afghan areas diminished.<ref name=André/> From historical evidence, it appears [[Tokharistan]] (Bactria) was the only area conquered by Arabs where [[Buddhism]] heavily flourished.<ref name=Musk/> [[Balkh]]'s final conquest was undertaken by [[Qutayba ibn Muslim]] in 705.<ref name=Gibb32/>

The eastern regions of Afghanistan were at times considered [[Greater India|politically as parts of India]].<ref name="Lal1979">{{cite book |last1=Mehta |first1=Jaswant Lal |title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12598 |date=1979 |publisher=Sterling Publishers |isbn=9788120706170 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.12598/page/n55 31] |language=en |quote=Modern Afghanistan was part of ancient India; the Afghans belonged to the pale of Indo-Aryan civilisation. In the eighty century, the country was known by two regional names—Kabul land Zabul. The northern part, called Kabul (or Kabulistan) was governed by a Buddhist dynasty. Its capital and the river on the banks of which it was situated, also bore the same name. Lalliya, a Brahmin minister of the last Buddhist ruler Lagaturman, deposed his master and laid the foundation of the Hindushahi dynasty in c. 865.}}</ref><ref name="Chandra2006">{{cite book |last1=Chandra |first1=Satish |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals |date=2006 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=9788124110669 |page=41 |language=en |quote=Although Afghanistan was considered an integral part of India in antiquity, and was often called "Little India" even in medieval times, politically it had not been a part of India after the downfall of the Kushan empire, followed by the defeat of the Hindu Shahis by Mahmud Ghazni.}}</ref> [[Buddhism and Hinduism]] held sway over the region until the Muslim conquest.<ref name=Unwin>{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Age of Imperial Unity|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|publisher=G. Allen & Unwin|year=1951|page=635|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref> [[Kabul]] and [[Zabulistan]] which housed Buddhism and other [[Indian religions]], offered stiff resistance to the early Muslim advance.<ref name=Green/> Nevertheless, the Arab [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]] regularly claimed nominal overlordship over the Zunbils and Kabul Shahis.
<ref name="JLL167">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Jonathan L. |last2=Sims Williams |first2=Nicholas |title=Bactrian Inscription from Yakawlang sheds new light on history of Buddhism in Afghanistan |journal=Silk Road Art and Archaeology |date=2003 |volume=9 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4091971 |language=en|page=167}}</ref>

The expeditions of Caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]] (r. 813–833 AD) were the last by the Arabs on Kabul and Zabul.<ref name=Majumdar1/> The king of Kabul was captured by him and converted to Islam.<ref name=ba1>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA470|title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750|author=Ahmad Hasan Dani, B.A. Litvinsky|publisher=UNESCO|page=470|isbn=9789231032110|date=January 1996}}</ref> The last Zunbil was killed by [[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar|Ya'qub bin al-Layth]] along with his former overlord Salih b. al-Nadr in 865.<ref name=Bayne/> Meanwhile, the Hindu Shahi of Kabul were defeated under [[Mahmud of Ghazni]].<ref name="Afghanistan Page 15"/> Indian soldiers were a part of the Ghaznavid army<ref name=Fadl/> and the 14th-century Muslim scholar [[Ibn Battuta]] described the [[Hindu Kush]] as meaning "slayer of Indians", because large numbers of slaves brought from [[Indian subcontinent|India]] died from its treacherous weather.<ref name=Ransom/>

The geographer [[Ya'qubi]] states that the rulers of [[Bamiyan]], called the ''Sher'', converted in the late 8th century. Ya'qub is recorded as having plundered its pagan idols in 870 while a much later historian [[Shabankara'i]] claims that [[Alp-Tegin]] obtained conversion of its ruler in 962.<ref name=monasteries/> No permanent Arab control was established in [[Ghur]]<ref name=Variorum/> and it became Islamised after Ghaznavid [[Razzia (military)|raids]].<ref name= "Satish2"/> By the time of [[Bahram-Shah of Ghazna|Bahram-Shah]], Ghur was converted and politically united.<ref name=Habib/>

The [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] habitat during their conquest by Mahmud was located in the [[Sulaiman Mountains]] in the south of Afghanistan.<ref name=Ninhar/> Prior to Pashtun settlement in the Kabul River valley, [[Tajiks]] formed the dominant population of [[Kabul]], [[Nangarhar]], [[Logar province|Logar Valley]] and [[Laghman Province|Laghman]] in east Afghanistan.<ref>Harlan 1939:127</ref> The Pashtuns later began settling westward from Sulaiman Mountains in the south, and displaced or subjugated the indigenous populations such as Tajiks, [[Hazaras]], the [[Farsiwan]]is, [[Nuristanis]] and [[Pashayi people]] before or during 16th and 17th centuries.<ref name=DostMuhammad/>

Before their conversion, the Nuristanis or ''Kafir'' people of [[Kafiristan]] practiced a form of [[ancient Hinduism]] infused with locally developed accretions.<ref name="nuristan.info"/> The region from [[Nuristan]] to [[Kashmir]] was host to a vast number of "Kafir" cultures.<ref name=academia/> They remained politically independent until being conquered and converted under Afghan Amir [[Abdul Rahman Khan]] in 1895–1896.<ref name=Pellat/>

==Arab conquests and rule==
{{see also|Rashidun Caliphate|Umayyad Caliphate|Abbasid Caliphate|Muslim conquest of Persia}}
[[File:Ancient Khorasan highlighted.jpg|thumb|left|Names of territories during the [[Caliphate]]]]

During the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]], the [[Arab people|Arabs]] were drawn eastwards from the Iraqi plains to central and eastern Persia, then to [[Media (region)|Media]], into [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], [[Sistan]] and [[Transoxiana]]. 15 years after the [[Battle of Nahāvand]], the Arabs controlled all Sasanian domains except some parts of Afghanistan, Tabaristan and [[Makran]].<ref name=Hind>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC|title=Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest. 2|author=André Wink|page=120|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=0391041738|year=2002}}</ref> [[Nancy Dupree]] states that advancing Arabs carrying the religion of Islam easily took over Herat and Sistan, but the other areas often revolted and converted back to their old faiths whenever the Arab armies withdrew. The harshness of the Arab rule caused the native dynasties to revolt after the Arab power weakened like the Saffarids founded by the zealous [[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar|Yaqub]] who conquered many cities of the region.<ref name="Dupree">[[Nancy Dupree|Dupree, Nancy]] (1971) "Sites in Perspective (Chapter 3)" ''An Historical Guide To Afghanistan'' Afghan Tourist Organization, Kabul, [http://worldcat.org/oclc/241390 OCLC 241390]</ref> Historian Cameron A. Petrie states that while the Arab expansion had both social and religious motives, it was their extraction of taxes from the subjugated people that invited the numerous local rebellions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7QWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA68|title=Resistance at the Edge of Empires: The Archaeology and History of the Bannu basin from 1000 BC to AD 1200|page=68|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=Cameron A. Petrie|isbn=9781785703065|date=2020-12-28}}</ref>

Medieval Islamic scholars divided modern-day Afghanistan into two regions – the provinces of Khorasan and Sistan. Khorasan was the eastern [[satrapy]] of the [[Sasanian Empire]], containing Balkh and Herat. Sistan included a number of Afghan cities and regions including [[Ghazni]], [[Zarang]], [[Lashkargah|Bost]], [[Qandahar]] (also called [[Arachosia|al-Rukhkhaj]] or [[Zamindawar]]), [[Kabul]], [[Kabulistan]] and [[Zabulistan]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|title=Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban|author=Nile Green|pages=43, 44|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780520294134|year=2017}}</ref>

Before Muslim rule, the regions of [[Balkh]] ([[Bactria]] or ''[[Tokharistan]]''), [[Herat]] and Sistan were under Sasanian rule. Further south in Balkh region, in [[Bamiyan]], indication of Sasanian authority diminishes, with a local dynasty apparently ruling from the [[late antiquity]], probably [[Hephthalite]]s subject to the [[Yabgu]] of [[Western Turkic Khaganate|Western Turks]]. While Herat was controlled by Sasanians, its hinterlands were controlled by northern Hephthalites who continued to rule the [[Ghur]]id mountains and river valleys. The Arab [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]] regularly claimed nominal overlordship over the Zunbils and Kabul Shahis, and in 711 [[Qutayba ibn Muslim]] managed to force them to pay tribute.<ref name="JLL167"/> They would also be conquered by the [[Saffarids]] and [[Ghaznavids]].<ref name=Green/>

In Afghanistan, the frontier of the Islamic conquest had become more or less stationary by the end of the first century of Hijri calendar. One reason was that the relative importance of Sistan and [[Baluchistan]] had begun to diminish by the time of [[Mu'awiya I]], when the conquests of Bactria and Transoxiana were undertaken. In addition, the conquest in the eastern direction was extended to [[Makran]] and [[Sind]], with Muslim colonies becoming established there in 711–12.<ref name=André>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC&pg=PA121|title=Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest. 2|author=André Wink|page=120|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|isbn=9004095098|date=June 1991}}</ref>

===Sistan===
{{main|Muslim conquest of Sistan}}
[[Image:Sakastan Sasanian era.png|thumb|300px|right|Map of [[Sakastan]] under the [[Sasanian Empire]].]]
The earlier Arabs called Sistan as ''Sijistan'', from the [[Middle Persian|Persian]] word ''Sagestan''. It is a lowland region, lying round and eastwards from the [[Godzareh Depression|Zarah lake]], which includes deltas of [[Helmand River|Helmand]] and other rivers which drain into it.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJqxGH_QuXcC&pg=PA334|title=The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate|author=Guy Le Strange|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=334|author-link=Guy Le Strange|isbn=9781107600140|date=2011-06-16}}</ref> The Muslim conquest of Sistan began in 23 [[Hijri year|AH]] (643-644 AD) when [[Asim ibn 'Amr al-Tamimi|Asim bin Amr]] and [[Abdallah ibn Amir]] invaded the region and besieged Zaranj. The Sistanis concluded a treaty with Muslims, mandating them to pay the [[kharaj]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume= 59|title=Sistan's transition to Islam in historical perspective|page=914|publisher=[[Indian History Congress]]|first=Hamiddulah|last=Marazi}}</ref>

The cash-strapped [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] king [[Yazdegerd III]] who had a large retinue, had fled to [[Carmania (region)|Kerman]] in 650. He had to flee from Kerman to Sistan after his arrogance angered the [[marzban]] of the place, eluding an Arab force from [[Basra]] which defeated and killed the marzban. Yazdegerd lost the support of governor of Sistan after demanding taxes from him and had to leave for [[Merv]].<ref name=Daryaee/> It is not known whether this governor was a Sasanian prince or a local ruler at that time. The Arabs had campaigned in Sistan a few years earlier and Abdallah b. Amir had now gone in pursuit of Yazdegerd. He arrived in Kirman in 651 and sent a force under [[Rabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithi]] to Sistan.<ref name=Frye>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA24|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4|author=Richard N. Frye|page=24|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|author-link=Richard N. Frye|isbn=9780521200936|date=1975-06-26}}</ref>

Rabi crossed the desert between Kirman and Sistan, reaching the fortress of Zilaq which was within five [[Parasang|farsangs]] of the Sistan frontier. The fort was surrendered by its [[dihqan]].<ref name=Frye/> The fortress of Karkuya, whose [[fire temple]] is mentioned in the anonymously authored ''[[Tarikh-i Sistan|Tarikh-e-Sistan]]'', along with Haysun and Nashrudh, surrendered to Rabi.<ref name=Daryaee>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jxd2Zr9Ilw8C&pg=PA214|title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History|author=Touraj Daryaee|page=214|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|author-link=Touraj Daryaee|isbn=9780199732159|date=2012-02-16}}</ref><ref name=Frye/> Rabi then encamped in Zaliq and projected the seizure of Zarang, which though had earlier submitted to Arabs, needed to be subdued again. Although its marzban [[Aparviz of Sakastan|Aparviz]] put up a strong resistance, he was forced to surrender.<ref name=Frye/>

The Zaranj forces had received heavy casualties during the battle with Arab forces and were driven back to the city.<ref name=Daryaee/> According to sources, when Aparviz appeared before Rabi to discuss the terms, he found the Arab general was sitting on a chair made out of two dead soldiers and his entourage had been instructed to make seats and bolsters in the same fashion. Aparviz was terrified into submission and wished to spare his people of this fate. A peace treaty was concluded with payment of heavy dues.<ref name=Frye/> The treaty mandated one million [[dirhams]] as annual tribute, in addition to 1,000 slave boys bearing 1,000 gold vessels. The city was also garrisoned by Rabi.<ref name=Daryaee/>

Rabi thus succeeded in gaining Zarang with considerable difficulty and remained at the place for several years. Two years later, the people of Zarang rebelled and expelled Rabi's lieutenant and garrison. Abdallah b. Amir sent 'Abd ar-Rahman b. Samura to take back the city, who also added [[Lashkar Gah|Bust]] and [[Zabul]] to Arab gains.<ref name=Frye/> 'Abd ar-Rahman besieged Zaranj and after the marzban surrendered, the tribute was doubled.<ref name=Doryajee1>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jxd2Zr9Ilw8C&pg=PA216|title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History|author=Touraj Daryaee|pages=216|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|author-link=Touraj Daryaee|isbn=9780199732159|date=2012-02-16}}</ref> The tribute imposed on Zarang was 2 million dirhams and 2,000 slaves.<ref name=Shaban28>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA28|title=The Abbasid Revolution|author=M.A. Shaban|pages=28|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521295345|date=1979-03-08}}</ref>

During the period of the [[First Fitna|first civil war]] in the Arab caliphate (656–661), rebels in Zarang imprisoned their governor while Arab bandits started raiding remote towns in Sistan to enslave people.<ref name=Doryajee1/> They gave in to the new governor Rib'i, who took control of the city and restored law and order.<ref>{{cite book|title=Central Asia|publisher=Area Study Centre (Central Asia), [[University of Peshawar]]|page=87|year=1979}}</ref> 'Abdallah b. Amir was made the governor of Basra and its eastern dependencies again from 661 to 664. Samura was sent back to Sistan in 661.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-poAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA217|title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History|author=Touraj Daryaee|page=217|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|author-link=Touraj Daryaee|isbn=9780199875757|date=2011-09-05}}</ref> An expedition to Khorasan was sent under him that included reputed leaders like [[Umar ibn Ubayd Allah ibn Ma'mar|Umar b. 'Ubaydillah b. Ma'mar]], 'Abdullah b. Khazim, [[Qatari ibn al-Fuja'a|Qatariyy b. al-Fuja'a]] and [[Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra]].<ref name=Shaban28/> Samura reconquered Zarang, while also conquering the region between Zarang and Kisht, [[Arachosia]], [[Zamindawar]], Bust and Zabul.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xeK9w9P0sBQC&pg=PA139|title=World Religions and Islam: A Critical Study, Part 1|author=Hamid Naseem Rafiabadi|page=139|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=9788176254144|year=2003}}</ref>

[[Ziyad ibn Abihi]] was appointed governor of Basra in 664 and was also made governor of Kufa and its dependencies in 670, making him the viceroy of the entire eastern half of the Islamic empire. He sent his kinsman Ubaydallah b. Abi Bakra to destroy the Zoroastrian [[fire temples]] in [[Fars province|Fars]] and Sistan, confiscate their property and kill their priests. While the fire temple of [[Karyan, Fars|Kariyan]] was destroyed, the one at Karkuya survived along with its [[herbad]].<ref name=Daryee217>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-poAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA217|title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History|author=Touraj Daryaee|pages=217|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|author-link=Touraj Daryaee|isbn=9780199875757|date=2011-09-05}}</ref> Ziyad's son [[Abbad ibn Ziyad|Abbad]] was appointed governor of Sijistan by [[Mu'awiya I]] in 673 and served until 681.<ref name="Zetterstéen5">{{EI2|article=ʿAbbād b. Ziyād|last=Zetterstéen|first=K. V.|volume=1|page=5}}</ref> During the course of his governorship, the province apparently remained stable and Abbad led an eastward expedition which brought [[Kandahar]] to the caliphate.<ref name="Zetterstéen5"/> Caliph [[Yazid I]] replaced Abbad with his brother [[Salm ibn Ziyad|Salm]], who was already governor of Khurasan.<ref name="Zetterstéen5"/>

===Khorasan===

{{main|Muslim conquest of Khorasan}}
[[File:Transoxiana 8th century.svg|thumb|300px|[[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], [[Transoxiana]] and [[Tokharistan]] in the 8th century]]

There is general agreement among Arabic sources that Khorasan's conquest began in the reign of [[Uthman]] under Abdallah b. Amir, who had been appointed the governor of Basra (r. 649–655). [[Sayf ibn Umar|Sayf]]'s tradition however disagrees with this, dating it to 639 under the reign of [[Umar]] with [[Ahnaf ibn Qais]] leading the expedition. [[Al-Tabari]] meanwhile relates that Ahnaf's conquests occurred in 643. This could be because of confusion of Ahnaf's later activities under Ibn Amir and an attempt to magnify his role in Khorasan's conquest.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA16|title=The 'Abbāsid Revolution|page=16|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=M. A. Shaban|isbn=9780521295345|date=1979-03-08}}</ref>

The conquest of southern Persia was completed by 23 AH with Khorasan remaining the only region remaining unconquered. Since the Muslims did not want any Persian land to remain under Persian rule, Umar ordered Ahnaf b. Qais to march upon it. After capturing the towns of [[Tabas]] and [[Ferdows|Tun]], he attacked the region's easternmost city [[Herat]]. The Persians put up stiff resistance but were defeated and surrendered. A garrison was deployed in the city, while a column was detached which subjugated [[Nishapur]] and [[Tus, Iran|Tus]].<ref name=AIAkram>{{cite book|title=The Muslim Conquest of Persia|publisher=Maktabah Booksellers and Distributors|author=Agha Ibrahim Akram|pages=280, 281|author-link=Agha Ibrahim Akram}}</ref> Umar had dispatched Ahnaf with 12,000 men from Kufa and Basra after Yazdegerd who had fled to Merv. After the Arabs arrived there, Yazdegerd fled to [[Marw al-Rudh]] from where he sent ambassadors to the [[Khakan]] of the [[Western Turkic Khaganate|Turks]], the ruler of [[Sogdia|Soghd]] and the Chinese emperor, asking for their assistance. Yazdegerd later fled to Balkh, where he was defeated by the Arabs and fled across [[Oxus River]].<ref name=Bombay/>

Umar forbade Ahnaf from crossing the river as the land beyond it was unknown to Arabs and was very far for them.<ref name=AIAkram/> Yazdegerd proceeded to Soghd whose ruler supplied him with a large army. The Khaqan of Turks after assembling the troops from [[Ferghana]], crossed the Oxus along with Yazdegerd and marched to Balkh. Ribi' b. Amir meanwhile retired with Kufan troops to Marw al-Rudh where he joined al-Ahnaf.<ref name=Bombay/> The Sasanian king and the Khakan leading an army of 50,000 cavalry composed of men from Soghd, [[Turkestan]], Balkh and [[Tokharistan]], arrived at Marw al-Rudh. Ahnaf had an army of 20,000 men. The two sides fought each other from morning till evening for two months at a place called Deir al-Ahnaf.<ref name=Bombay/>

The fighting at Deir al-Ahnaf went on until Ahnaf, after being informed of a Turkic chief inspecting the outposts, went there during a particular night and successively killed three Turkic chiefs during their inspection. After learning of their deaths, the Khakan became afflicted by it and withdrew to Balkh, then he withdrew across the river to Turkestan. Yazdegerd meanwhile left from Marw al-Rudh to Merv, from where he took his empire's wealth and proceeded to Balkh to join the Khakan. He told his officials that he wanted to hand himself to the protection of the Turks, but they advised him against it and asked him to seek protection from the Arabs which he refused. He left for Turkestan while his officials took away his treasures and gave them to Ahnaf, submitting to the Arabs and being allowed to go back to their respective homes.<ref name=Bombay>{{cite book|title=The Journal, Volume 11|pages=213, 214|publisher=[[The Asiatic Society of Mumbai|Asiatic Society of Bombay]]|year=1969}}</ref>

Abdullah b. Amir went to Khorasan from Kerman in 650 and set out along with a vanguard of [[Banu Tamim|Tamimi Arabs]] and 1,000 [[asawira]] via Quhistan. The people of [[Tabasayn]] had broken their peace treaty and had allied with the [[Hephthalites]] of [[Herat Province|Herat]]. al-Ahnaf reconquered Quhistan and defeated Herat's Hephthalites at [[Nishapur]]. The [[kanarang]] or marzban of [[Tus, Iran|Tus]] asked the Arabs for assistance against the raiding Hephthalites of Herat and [[Badghis]]. He agreed to a peace agreement for 600,000 dinars.<ref name=Doryajee2>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jxd2Zr9Ilw8C&pg=PA215|title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History|author=Touraj Daryaee|page=215|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|author-link=Touraj Daryaee|isbn=9780199732159|date=2012-02-16}}</ref>

The Hephthalite action prompted the Muslims undertaking military operation to secure their positions in Khorasan. After the fall of Tus, Ibn Amir sent out an army against Herat. The ruler (marzaban or ''azim'') of the place agreed to a peace treaty for Herat, Badghis and [[Pushang]] for a tribute of 1 million dirhams.<ref name=Doryajee2/> The ruler who was known as ''azim'' or the "mighty one" in ''[[Futuh al-Buldan]]'', may have been a Hephthalite chief.<ref name=Gibb>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA56|title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume V|author=Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|page=56|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|author-link=Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|year=1967}}</ref> The [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun Caliphs]] followed the earlier rule of [[Muhammad]] of imposing ''[[jizya]]'' on several bodies jointly and in some cases also imposed the condition that they host Muslims. This rule was followed in most Iranian towns, with the jizya not specified on per capita basis, but being left to the local rulers, though some Muslim commanders stressed the amount on the ability of the ruler to pay. The same wording can be seen in Ibn Amir's treaty.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C&pg=PA199|title=The Spread of Islam Throughout the World|author=Idris El Hareir, Ravane Mbaye|page=199|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|isbn=9789231041532|year=2011}}</ref>

In 652, Ibn Amir sent al-Ahnaf to invade [[Tokharistan]] with 4,000 Arabs and 1,000 Iranian Muslims (evidently the Tamimis and asawira), probably because of assistance of its ruler to Yazdegerd's son [[Peroz III|Peroz]]. While Marw al-Rudh's garrison agreed to a peace term for the entire district under 300,000 dirhams, the town itself remained besieged.<ref name=Doryajee2/> It was the last major stronghold of Sasanians and fell to al-Ahnaf after a fierce battle.<ref name=Gibb/> After bloody fighting, its marzaban agreed to a peace treaty for 60,000 or 600,000 dirhams as well as a mutual defence pact. He was also allowed to keep his ancestral lands, for the office of marzaban to be hereditary in his family, and to be exempt from taxes along with his whole family.<ref name=Doryajee2/> Baladhuri quotes [[Abu Ubaidah (scholar)|Abu Ubayda]] as stating that the Turks were supporting the inhabitants of the town. These Turks were Hephthalites, probably from [[Guzgan]], which may explain the reason behind the Arabs next attacking Guzgan, [[Faryab]] and [[Taloqan|Talqan]].<ref name=Shaban22/>

[[Al-Mada'ini]] specifically states that Ahnaf while leading the next expedition, did not want to ask for assistance from the non-Muslims of Marw al-Rudh, probably as he did not trust them.<ref name=Shaban22/> The Arabs camped at Qasr al-Ahnaf, a day's march to the north of Marw al-Rudh. The 30,000-strong army comprising troops of Guzgan, Faryab and Talqan, supported by the [[Chaghaniyan|Chaghanian]] troops, advanced to meet them. The battle was inconclusive, but the opposing side dispersed with some remaining at Guzgan while the Arabs withdrew to Marw al-Rudh. Ahnaf sent an expedition, led by al-Aqra' b. Habis and apparently consisting exclusively of Tamimis, to Guzgan. The Arabs defeated Guzgan and entered it by force. Ahnaf meanwhile advanced towards Balkh, making peace treaties with Faryab and Taloqan along the way.<ref name=Shaban22>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA22|title=The 'Abbāsid Revolution|page=22|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=M. A. Shaban|isbn=9780521295345|date=1979-03-08}}</ref>

The permanent pacification of Khorasan was a protracted affair with the local potentates often rebelling and appealing to outside powers like the Hephthalites, [[Western Turks]] or [[Turgesh]], [[Sogdians]] and the imperial Chinese who claimed a degree of suzerainty over Central Asia, for help.<ref name=Gibb/> Within a year after Yazdegerd's death, a local Iranian notable named Qarin started a revolt against the Arabs in Quhistan. He gathered his supporters from Tabasayn, Herat and Badghis, assembling a reported army of 40,000 insurgents against Arabs in Khorasan. The Arabs made a surprise attack however, killing him and many of his people while many others were taken captive.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA26|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=26|author=Richard Nelson Frye|isbn=9780521200936|date=1975-06-26}}</ref> It was expected that the recently subjugated people would revolt. However, in Khorasan, no all-out effort seems to have been undertaken to the expel the Arabs after Qarin's rebellion. Chinese sources state that there was an attempt to restore Peroz by Tokharistan's army, however this episode is not confirmed by Arab sources.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA27|title=The Abbasid Revolution|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=27|author=M.A. Shaban|isbn=9780521295345|date=1979-03-08}}</ref>

Peroz had settled among the Turks, took a local wife and had received troops from the king of Tokharistan. In 661, he established himself as king of Po-szu (Persia) with Chinese help in a place the Chinese called Ja-ling (Chi-ling), which is assumed to be Zarang. His campaigns are reflected in Muslim sources, which mention revolts in Zarang, Balkh, Badghis, Herat, [[Bushanj]] and also in Khorasan during the [[First Fitna]] period in reigns of [[Ali]] and [[Mu'awiya I]]. Though they do not mention Peroz, they do state that Ali's newly appointed governor of Khorasan had heard in Nishapur that governors of the Sasanian king had come back from Kabul and Khorasan had rebelled. However, the region was reconquered under Mu'awiya. Piroz went back to the [[Tang Empire]]'s capital and was given a grandiose title as well as permission to build a fire temple in 677.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7k0hAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5|title=The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=5, 6|author=Patricia Crone|author-link=Patricia Crone|isbn=9781139510769|date=2012-06-28}}</ref>

[[Yazid ibn al-Muhallab]] succeeded his father as governor of Khorasan in 702 and campaigned in Central Asia, but achieved little success apart from [[Nezak Tarkhan]]'s submission at Badghis.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jxd2Zr9Ilw8C&pg=PA219|title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History|author=Touraj Daryaee|page=219|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|author-link=Touraj Daryaee|isbn=9780199732159|date=2012-02-16}}</ref>

===Tokharistan===

[[Tokharistan]], roughly ancient [[Bactria]], is today divided between Afghanistan, [[Tajikistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]]. According to the most general usage of the name, Tokharistan is the wide valley around the upper Oxus river surrounded by mountains on three sides before the river moves into open plains. The major city was [[Balkh]], one of the greatest urban centers of northeastern Iran. It was located upon [[Silk Road|crossroads and conduits of trade]] in many directions, enabling control of these routes if it was conquered. During the governorship of [[Abdallah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani|Abu 'l Abbas 'Abdallah b. Tahir]] (r. 828–845), a list of districts (''kuwar'') of the region exists, including as far as [[Principality of Chaghaniyan|Saghaniyan]] in the north and Kabul in the south. Other places listed are [[Tirmidh]], [[Juzjan]], [[Bamiyan]], Rūb and Samanjan. Some Arab geographers used the name only for the southern part of Oxus valley.<ref name=Musk>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfWXIfbynwYC&pg=PA47|title=Islam and Tibet – Interactions along the Musk Route|publisher=Routlegde|pages=46–48|isbn=9780754669562|year=2011}}</ref>

Balkh was also a part of Khorasan along with other areas through varying extensions of time.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CvpeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|title=Greater Khorasan: History, Geography, Archaeology and Material Culture|author=Rocco Rante|publisher=Routlegde|page=67|isbn=9783110331707|date=2015-03-10}}</ref> Per al-Tabari, Yazdegerd fled from [[Merv|Marw-al Rudh]] to Balkh during Ahnaf's conquest of Khorasan in 643. He fortified himself but was defeated by the Arabs and fled across the [[Oxus River]].<ref name=Bombay/> Yazdegerd proceeded to Soghd, whose ruler supplied him a large army. The Khaqan of Turks after assembling the troops from [[Ferghana]], crossed the Oxus along with Yazdegerd and marched to Balkh.<ref name=Bombay/>

In 652, Ibn Amir sent al-Ahnaf to invade [[Tokharistan]] with 4,000 Arabs and 1,000 [[Iranian Muslims]] (evidently the Tamimis and asawira), probably because of assistance of its ruler to Yazdegerd's son [[Peroz III|Peroz]]. He approached Balkh after conquering Marw al-Rudh and fighting an inconclusive battle with a 30,000-strong force from Guzgan, Faryab and Talqan. After arriving at Balkh, he besieged the city, with its inhabitants offering a tribute of 400,000 or 700,000 dirhams. He deputed his cousin to collect the tribute and advanced to [[Khwarezm]] but returned to Balkh as winter approached.<ref name=Shaban22/> It was in Balkh in fall of 652 when the local people introduced his cousin Asid to gifting gold and silver to their governor during [[Mehregan|Mihrijan]].<ref name=Doryajee1/>

[[Ziyad ibn Abih|Ziyad b. Abi Sufyan]] reorganised Basra and Kufa, excluding many from the ''[[divan|diwan]]'' and inspiring him to settle 50,000 families in Khorasan. Both Baladhuri and Mad'aini agree upon the number, though the latter states each half were from Basra and Kufa. Al-'Ali disagrees, stating the Kufans were 10,000. Ghalib had been unsuccessful in his expedition, and Rabi b. Ziyad al-Harithi, who was appointed governor of Khorasan in 671, led the settlement expedition. He advanced to Balkh and made a peace treaty with the locals who had revolted after al-Ahnaf's earlier treaty.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA32|title=The 'Abbāsid Revolution|pages=31, 32|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=M. A. Shaban|isbn=9780521295345|date=1979-03-08}}</ref>

[[Qutayba ibn Muslim]] led the final conquest of Balkh. He was tasked with subduing the revolt in Lower Tokharistan. His army was assembled in the spring of 705 and marched through Marw al-Rudh and Talqan to Balkh. Per one version in [[Tarikh al-Tabari]], the city was surrendered peacefully. Another version, probably to promote a [[Bahila|Bahilite]] claim on the [[Barmakids]], speaks of a revolt among the residents. The latter may be the correct version as Tabari describes the city as ruined four years later.<ref name=Gibb32>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6TN8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT32|title=The Arab Conquests in Central Asia|publisher=Read Books Ltd.|author=H.A.R. Gibb|year=2013|page=32|author-link=H.A.R. Gibb|isbn=9781446545638}}</ref> The wife of Barmak, a physician of Balkh, was taken captive during the war and given to 'Abdullah, Qutayba's brother. She was later restored to her lawful husband after spending a period in 'Abdullah's [[harem]]. [[Khalid ibn Barmak|Khalid]] was thus born in 706 and Abdallah accepted the implications of paternity without disturbing Barmak's conventional responsibilities or affecting Khalid's upbringing.<ref>{{cite book|title=Harun Al Rashid|publisher=[[D. Appleton & Company|D. Appleton Century Company]]|author=St John Philby|year=1934|page=94|author-link=St John Philby}}</ref>

In 708–709, the Ispahbadh, who was a local ruler, received a letter from the Hephthalite rebel Nezak Tarkhan, who was trying to unite the aristocracy of Tokharistan against Qutayba.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA44HL|title=Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban|author=Nile Green|publisher=University of California Press|page=44|isbn=9780520294134|year=2017}}</ref> The Arabs built a new military encampment called ''Baruqan'' two farsangs away from the city. In 725, the governor [[Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri]] had the city restored after a feud among Arab troops, with Barmak being employed as his agent for the task.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Iranica Volume 3 Issues 5–8|page=558|publisher=Routlegde & Kegan Paul|year=1988}}</ref>

Early Arabs tended to treat Iran as a single cultural unit, however it was a land of many countries with distinct populations and cultures. From historical evidence, it appears that [[Tokharistan]] was the only area heavily colonized by Arabs where [[Buddhism]] flourished, and the only area incorporated into the Arab empire where Sanskrit studies were pursued up to the conquest. The grandson of Barmak was the ''[[vizier]]'' of the Arab empire and took personal interest in Sanskrit works and Indian religions.<ref name=Musk/> The eighth-century Korean traveller [[Hyecho|Hui'Chao]] records [[Hinayana|Hinayanists]] in Balkh under Arab rule.<ref name=Hinya>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y7IHmyKcPtYC&pg=PA958|title=The Cambridge History of Iran: Seleucid Parthian|author=E. Parsater|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1993|page=958|isbn=9780521246934}}</ref> He visited the area around 726, mentioning that the true king of Balkh was still alive and in exile. He also describes all the inhabitants of the regions as Buddhists under Arab rule. Other sources indicate however that the Bactrians practiced many different religions.<ref name=MuskHui>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfWXIfbynwYC&pg=PA53|title=Islam and Tibet – Interactions along the Musk Route|publisher=Routlegde|pages=51, 53|isbn=9780754669562|year=2011}}</ref>

Among Balkh's Buddhist monasteries, the largest was ''[[Nava Vihara]]'', later Persianized to ''Naw Bahara'' after the Islamic conquest of Balkh.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|title=Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban|author=Nile Green|publisher=University of California Press|page=44|isbn=9780520294134|year=2017}}</ref> It is not known how long it continued to serve as a place of worship after the conquest. Accounts of early Arabs offer contradictory narratives. Per al-Baladhuri, its stupa-vihara complex was destroyed under Mu'awiya in 650s. Tabari while reporting about the expedition in 650s, does not mention any tension around the temple, stating that Balkh was conquered by Rabi peacefully. He also states that Nizak went to pray at the site during his revolt against Qutayba in 709, implying it may not have been destroyed. Also, the tenth-century geographical treatise ''[[Hudud al-'Alam]]'' describes remaining royal buildings and Naw Bahara's decorations including painted image and wonderful works, probably [[Fresco-secco|secco]] or [[fresco]] [[murals]] and carvings on the temple's walls that survived into the author's time.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85|title=Sacred Landscape in Medieval Afghanistan: Revisiting the Faḍā'il-i Balkh|author=Arezou Azad|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=85|isbn=9780199687053|date=November 2013}}</ref>

Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Chinese sources from the 2nd century BC to the 7th century AD, identify a people called "[[Tushara Kingdom|Tukharas]]", in the country later called Tukharistan. [[Badakhshan]] was earlier the seat of the Tukharas.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EtwtSZwyWpgC&pg=PA753|title=Ritual, State, and History in South Asia: Essays in Honour of J.C. Heesterman|editor1=J. C. Heesterman|editor2=Albert W. Van den Hoek|editor3=Dirk H. A. Kolff |editor3-link=Dirk H. A. Kolff |editor4=M. S. Oort|publisher=Brill|page=85|isbn=9004094679|year=1992}}</ref> There is no precise date for the Arab conquest of Badakhshan nor any record of how Islam was introduced there. Al-Tabari too mentions this region only once.<ref name=Pellat1>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam: New Edition – Volume I|editor=[[Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb|H. A. R. Gibb]] |editor2=[[Johannes Hendrik Kramers|J. H. Kramers]] |editor3=[[Évariste Lévi-Provençal|E. Lévi-Provençal]] |editor4=[[Joseph Schacht|J. Schact]] |editor5=[[Bernard Lewis]] |editor6=[[Charles Pellat]]|page=852|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|year=1986}}</ref> In 736, [[Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri]] sent an expedition into Upper Tokharistan and Badakhshan against the rebel [[Al-Harith ibn Surayj]] who had occupied the fortress of Tabushkhan.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNGq6sU-xbgC&pg=PA180|title=The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads|author=Khalid Yahya Blankinship|publisher=SUNY Press|page=180|isbn=9780791418284|date=1994-06-28}}</ref> Juday' b. 'Ali al-Kirmani, who was sent on the expedition against al-Harith, captured Tabushkhan.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA124|title=The 'Abbāsid Revolution|author=M. A. Shaban|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=124|isbn=9780521295345|date=1979-03-08}}</ref> Juday also had its captive defenders killed while its women and children were enslaved and sold in Balkh despite being of Arab origin.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XfeQDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT306|title=The Arab Kingdom and its Fall|author=J. Wellhausen |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781315410319|date=2016-11-10}}</ref> al-Harith later allied with the Turgesh and continued his rebellion until being pardoned by Caliph [[Yazid III|Yazid b. Walid]] in 744.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTLMgO9dU4cC&pg=PA33|title=Revolt: The Social and Military Aspects of the 'Abbāsid Revolution|author=Moshe Sharon|publisher=[[Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam]]|page=33|author-link=Moshe Sharon|isbn=9789652233882|year=1990}}</ref>

Taking advantage of the factional fighting among the Arabs, Transoxiana started rebelling and Asad b. 'Abdallah in response attacked [[Principality of Khuttal|Khuttal]] in 737. Armed forces of Soghd, [[Tashkent|Chach]] and many Turks, led by the Turkish Khagan [[Suluk (Turgesh khagan)|Sulu]], arrived to assist them. Asad [[Battle of the Baggage|fled leaving behind the baggage of plunder]] from Khuttal.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FcKtIPVQ6REC&pg=PA461|title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750|author=Ahmed Hassan Dani|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|page=461|author-link=Ahmed Hassan Dani|isbn=9788120815407|year=1999}}</ref> When he returned with the main body of his troops, the Turks retired to Tokharistan and he returned to Balkh. In December 737, the Turgesh attacked [[Khulm]] but were repelled by the Arabs. Bypassing Balkh, they captured Guzgan's capital and sent out raiding parties. Asad mounted a [[Battle of Kharistan|surprise attack on the Turks at Kharistan]], who only had 4,000 troops. The Turgesh suffered a devastating defeat and lost almost whole of their army. Sulu and al-Harith fled to the territory of Tokharistan's Yabghu, with Sulu returning to his territory in winter of 737–738.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7G61UifCEZMC&pg=PA118|title=The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power Among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese During the Early Middle Ages|author=Christopher I. Beckwith|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|pages=117–118|author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith|isbn=0691024693|date=1993-03-28}}</ref>

===The Zunbils===
[[File:Arabsumf1.png|thumb|325px|right|The Zunbils were affected by [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent]].
{{legend|#FFF200|Desert areas ([[Registan Desert]] and [[Thar Desert]])}}
{{legend|#FFC90E|Zunbils}}
{{legend|#FFC891|[[Turk Shahis]]}}
{{legend|#A349A4|[[Karkota dynasty|Kingdom of Kashmir]]}}
{{legend|#CD9F87|[[Brahman dynasty of Sindh|Kingdom of Sindh]] (c. 632– 711 CE) then, [[Caliphal province of Sind]] (712-854 CE)}}
{{legend striped|#CEEDF4|#E7F7FA|[[Kingdom of Valabhi]] (c.475–c.776 CE)}}
]]
The [[Zunbils]] in the pre-[[Saffarid]] period ruled in [[Zabulistan]] and [[Zamindawar]], stretching between [[Ghazni]] and Bost, and had acted as a barrier against Muslim expansion for a long time. Zamindawar is known to have a shrine dedicated to the god Zun. It has been linked with the [[Hindu god]] [[Surya|Aditya]] at [[Multan]], [[Bon|pre-Buddhist religious]] and [[Imperial cult|kingship practices]] of [[Tibet]], as well as [[Shaivism]]. The followers of the Zunbils were called Turks by the Arabic sources, however they applied the name to all their enemies in eastern fringes of Iran.<ref name=Wink/><ref>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 344, 357|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref> They are described as having Turkish troops in their service by sources like Tabari and ''Tarikh-e-Sistan''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Islam in Asia: South Asia|page= 15|publisher=Magnes Press|year=1984|author=[[Raphael Israeli]], Anthony Hearle Johns}}</ref>

The first time the title of Zunbil appears in Arabic sources, it does so along with that of the Kabul Shah and according to Tabari was the title of the brother of Kabul's king (either [[Barha Tegin]] or [[Tegin Shah]]). The Zunbil apparently broke away from the overlordship of Kabul around 680 AD and established his own kingdom in Zabulistan and al-Rukhkhaj.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7QWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69|title=Resistance at the Edge of Empires: The Archaeology and History of the Bannu basin from 1000 BC to AD 1200|page=69|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=Cameron A. Petrie|isbn=9781785703065|date=2020-12-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA200|title=The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors|pages=200, 202|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|author=Cameron A. Petrie|isbn=9781785703065|date=2020-12-28}}</ref>

The kingdom of Zabulistan (ar-Rukhkhaj) with its capital at Ghazni, where the king Zunbil or Rutbil resided, is mentioned by Chinese sources under the suzerainty of [[Yabgu|Jabghu]] of [[Turkestan]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13|title=The 'Abbāsid Revolution|page=13|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=M. A. Shaban|isbn=9780521295345|date=1979-03-08}}</ref> The significance for Arabs of the realm of Zun and its rulers was them preventing their early campaigns from invading the [[Indus Valley]] through eastern and southern Afghanistan. It was only under the early [[Saffarids]] that mass-Islamization took place unlike the plunder-raids or tribute levies of Arab rule.<ref name=Wink>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC&pg=PA119|title=Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest – Volume I|publisher=Brill|pages=119, 124|isbn=9004095098|date=June 1991}}</ref> The expeditions under Caliph [[al-Ma'mun]] against Kabul and Zabul were the last ones and the long conflict ended with the dissolution of the Arab empire following soon thereafter.<ref name=Majumdar1/>

[[Sajawand|Sakawand]] in Zabulistan was a major centre of Hindu pilgrimage.<ref name="Mishra1972">{{cite book |last=Mishra |first=Yogendra |title=The Hindu Sahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab, A.D. 865-1026: a phase of Islamic advance into India |year=1972 |publisher=Vaishali Bhavan |pages=42–43 |quote=When Fardaghan arrived in Zabulistan, he led his army against Sakawand, a large Hindu place of worship in that country with a temple and many idols. He took the temple, broke the idols into pieces, and overthrew the idolaters. He informed Amr ibn Lais of the conquest and asked for reinforcements. When the news of the fall of Sakawand reached Kamalu, who was Rai of Hindustan, he collected an innumerable army and marched towards Zabulistan to take revenge.}}</ref><ref name="Elliot1953">{{cite book |last=Elliot |first=Sir Henry Miers |title=The History of India |year=1953 |page=20 |quote=There was a large place of worship in that country, which was called Sakawand, and people used to come on pilgrimage from the most remote parts of Hindustan to the idols of that place. When Fardaghan arrived in Zabulistan he led his army against it, took the temple, broke the idols in pieces, and overthrew the idolaters. Some of the plunder he distributed among the troops, the rest he sent to Amru Lais, informing him of the conquest, and asking for reinforcements. |publisher=Trübner and Co.}}</ref>

====7th century====
After appearing at Zarang, [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura]] and his force of 6,000 Arabs penetrated to the shrine of Zun in 653–654. He broke off a hand from the idol of Zun and plucked out the rubies used as its eyes to demonstrate to the marzban of Sistan that the idol could neither hurt nor benefit anyone.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sīstān Under the Arabs: From the Islamic Conquest to the Rise of the Ṣaffārids (30-250/651-864)|publisher=Indiana University|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|page=35|author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref> He also took [[Zabul]] by treaty by 656.<ref name=Doryajee2/> In the shrine of Zoon in [[Zamindawar]], it is reported that Samura "broke off a hand of the idol and plucked out the rubies which were its eyes in order to persuade the [[marzbān]] of Sīstān of the god's worthlessness."<ref name="TD216"/><ref>André Wink, "Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World", Brill 1990. p 120</ref> Samura explained to the marzbān: "my intention was to show you that this idol can do neither any harm nor good."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.alamahabibi.com/English%20Articles/Amir_Kror_and_His_Ancestry.htm |title=Amir Kror and His Ancestry |work=Abdul Hai Habibi |publisher=alamahabibi.com |access-date=August 14, 2012}}</ref> [[Lashkargah|Bost]] and [[Zabul]] submitted to the Arab invader by treaty in 656 CE.<ref name="TD216">{{cite book |last1=Daryaee |first1=Touraj |last2=Daryāyī |first2=Tūraǧ |title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History |date=16 February 2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-973215-9 |page=216 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jxd2Zr9Ilw8C&pg=PA216 |language=en}}</ref> The Muslims soon lost these territories during the [[First Fitna|First Civil War]] (656–661).<ref name="TD216"/>

In 665 CE, after being reappointed to Sistan under Mu'awiya, Samura defeated Zabulistan whose people had broken the earlier agreement.<ref name=Majumdar/> Samura was replaced as governor by Rabi b. Ziyad and died in 50 AH (670 AD), while the king of [[Zabul]] rebelled along with the [[Turk Shahis|Kabul Shah]] and the two together reconquered Zabulistan and Rukhkhaj according to al-Baladhuri.

Ar-Rabi, the Arab governor, however attacked the Zunbil at Bust and made him flee. He then pursued him to Rukhkhaj, where he attacked him and then subdued the city of ad-Dawar.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=Majumdar>{{cite book|title=Readings in political history of India, ancient, mediaeval, and modern|author=R.C. Majumdar|publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation|year=1993|page=220|author-link=R.C. Majumdar}}</ref> Ziyad b. Abi Sufyan was appointed governor of Basra in 665, with Khorasan and Sistan coming under his mandate as well. He had first appointed Rabi to Sistan but replaced him later with 'Ubaydallah b. Abi Bakra. During this period, Zunbil's fierce resistance continued until he finally agreed to pay one million dirhams per Baladhuri and ''Tarikh-e-Sistan''.<ref name=Shaban41>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA41|title=The 'Abbāsid Revolution|pages=40–41|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=M. A. Shaban|isbn=9780521295345|date=1979-03-08}}</ref> The Zunbil also negotiated for a peace treaty for both Zabul and Kabul.<ref name=":1"/>

Al-Baladhuri records that under Mu'awiya, Sistan's governor [[Abbad ibn Ziyad|'Abbad b. Ziyad b. Abihi]] raided and captured the city of [[Qandahar]] after bitter fighting. He also mentions the characteristic high caps of the people of the city. Though his text is somewhat ambiguous, it seems that 'Abbad had renamed the town as '''Abbadiya'' after himself. The Muslim rule was probably toppled and the name is never heard after his governorship ended in 680–1, by 698 there was no Muslim-controlled region east of Bost.<ref name=Cities>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CgawCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA269|title=Historic Cities of the Islamic World|page=269|publisher=Brill|year=2007|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|isbn=9789047423836}}</ref> The city was ruled by Arab Muslims and Zunbils, and then later Saffarids and Ghaznavids. It is infrequently mentioned in the early Islamic sources.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bYtmAgAAQBAJ&q=kandahar+zunbils&pg=PA522|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam|page=522|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|editor=Ian Richard Netton|isbn=9781135179601}}</ref>

In 681, [[Salm ibn Ziyad|Salm b. Ziyad]] was appointed the governor of Khorasan and Sistan by [[Yazid I]]. He appointed his brother [[Yazid ibn Ziyad|Yazid b. Ziyad]], apparently to lead a military expedition against the Zunbil of Zabulistan. The expedition however was disastrous, with Yazid being killed, his brother Abu-'Ubayda captured, while Arabs received heavy casualties. Salm sent an expedition by Talha b. 'Abdillah al-Khuzai to rescue his brother and pacify the region. The Arab captives were ransomed for half million dirhams and the region was pacified more through diplomacy than force.<ref name=Shaban41/><ref name=Daryaee218>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jxd2Zr9Ilw8C&pg=PA218|title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History|author=Touraj Daryaee|page=218|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|author-link=Touraj Daryaee|isbn=9780199732159|date=2012-02-16}}</ref>

After Talha's death in 683–684, a virtual anarchy was unleashed amongst Sistan's Arabs. His army refused allegiance to Yazid or [[Mu'awiya II]] and his son 'Abadallah had to abandon Zarang, which was left without any in charge. Many Arabs took over various quarters of Zarang and areas of Sistan. This prompted the Zunbil and his allies, who had already inflicted a humiliating defeat on the Arabs earlier, to intervene in the Arab affairs at Sistan and Bust.<ref name=Bosworth50>{{cite book|title=Sīstān Under the Arabs: From the Islamic Conquest to the Rise of the Ṣaffārids (30-250/651-864)|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|publisher= Indiana University|page=50|year=1968}}</ref> Baladhuri says of this period:

{{Quote box
|quote=He [ Talha ] appointed as his successor as his man from the [[Banu Bakr#Tribe tree / classic relations|Banu Yashkur]] [ [[Banu Bakr|scions of Bakr]] ], but the Mudari group expelled him; factional strife (''[[Asabiyyah|'assabiya]]'') broke out, each group seizing a town for itself, so that the Zunbil became tempted to intervene there.
|source=[[Futuh al-Buldan]]<ref name=Bosworth50/>
|align=center
|qalign = center
|salign=right
}}

During the [[Second Fitna]] period, the Zunbil attacked Sistan in 685 but was defeated and killed by the Arabs.<ref name=Daryaee218/>

[[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan|Abdalmalik]] appointed [[Umayya ibn Abdallah ibn Khalid ibn Asid]] as governor of Khorasan in 74 AH (693-4 AD), with Sistan included under his governorship. Umayya sent his son Abdullah as head of the expedition in Sistan. Though initially successful, the new Zunbil was able to defeat them. Per some accounts, Abdullah himself was killed. Umayya was dismissed and Sistan was added to the governorship of [[al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA50|title=The 'Abbāsid Revolution|page=50|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=M. A. Shaban|isbn=9780521295345|date=1979-03-08}}</ref>

====Under Al-Hajjaj====

Al-Hajjaj, who had become governor of Iraq and the East in 78 AH (697–98 AD), had appointed Ubaidallah, who was a ''[[mawla]],'' as his deputy in Sistan. The Zunbils, who had been left unchecked, had completely stopped paying the tribute. This provided a pretext to terminate the peace treaty between the two sides. Ubaidallah was appointed for an expedition against them in 698 and was ordered by Al-Hajjaj to "attack until he laid waste to Zunbil's territories, destroyed his strongholds, killed all his fighting men and enslaved his progeny". The ensuing campaign was called the "Army of Destruction" (''Jaish al-Fana'''). However, it ended disastrously for the Arabs.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA122|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th-11th Centuries|publisher=Brill|page=122|isbn=0391041738|year=2002}}</ref>

Al-Baladhuri's account on the authority of Al-Mada'ini in ''Futuh al-Buldan'' and ''[[Genealogies of the Nobles|Ansab al-Ashraf]]'', is the fullest documentation of the campaign. Tabari's account runs parallel but is based on [[Abu Mikhnaf]] and does not include the poem of [[A'sha Hamdan]] included in ''Ansab al-Ashraf''. [[Ibn Qutaybah]]'s ''Kitab al-Ma'arif'' only makes a bare mention. ''[[History of the Caliphs|Ta'rikh al-khulafa']]'' has a more detailed account and epitomises accounts of Tabari and Baladhuri. ''Tarikh-e-Sistan'' confuses the campaign with another one against the [[Khwarij]] of Zarang. The army consisted of Iraqis from Basra and Kufa, though Baladhuri mentions presence of some Syrians. Ubaidallah himself led the Basrans while the [[Tabi' al-Tabi‘in|Tabi]] Shuraih b. Hani' al-Harithi ad-Dabbi led the Kufans.<ref name=Fanaa>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 362–366|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref>

They marched to [[Zamindawar]] or al-Rukhkhaj (the classical [[Arachosia]]) but found it barren and foodless. Their advance probably happened in summer of 698, as A'sha Hamdan's poem refers to the scorching heat they had to endure. In [[Zabulistan]]'s regions of Ghazni and [[Gardiz]], they plundered a significant amount of cattle and other animals, in addition to destroying various strongholds. The Zunbils, who were [[scorched earth|devastating the countryside whilst retreating]], were luring the Arabs into a trap to an inhospitable and foodless terrain. ''Futuh al-Buldan'' states that the Muslims almost penetrated Kabul. Tabari meanwhile says that they came within 18 farsakhs of the summer capital of Zunbils in the [[Kandahar Province|Qandahar region]].<ref name=Fanaa/>

The plan of the Zunbils worked and they trapped the Arabs into a valley. Ubaidallah realizing the gravity of the situation, offered 500,000 or 700,000 dirhams as well as his three sons along with some Arab leaders as hostages while promising not to raid again during his tenure as Sistan's governor. Shuraih, who had earlier advised retreat, felt a withdrawal would be dishonorable. He was joined by a group of people into the battle, and all but a handful of them were killed. The remnant of the Arab army withdrew back to Bust and Sistan, suffering from starvation and thirst. Many died in the "Desert of Bust", presumably the [[Registan Desert]], with only 5,000 making it back to Bust. Many of those who survived died by gorging themselves on the food sent to them according to Tabari. Ubaidallah had arranged food for them after seeing their suffering and himself died, either from grief or an ear affliction.<ref name=Fanaa/>

Al-Hajjaj prepared another expedition in 699, reportedly of 40,000 troops from Kufa and Basra under [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath|Abdurrahman b. Muhammad b. al-Ash'ath]]. Though disguised as a military expedition, it was actually a forced migration of the elements from the two Iraqi cities troublesome to Hajjaj. It was equipped to the best standards and was called the "Army of Peacocks" because of the men included in its ranks. It included the proudest and most distinguished leaders of Iraq led by Ibn al-Ash'ath, grandson of [[Al-Ash'ath ibn Qays]]. It also included distinguished elders who served in the first armies of conquest as well as those who fought at [[Battle of Siffin]]. This Arab army arrived in Sistan in the spring of 699.<ref name=Peacocks>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TEFMYRxteB4C&pg=PA110|title=Islamic History: Volume 1, AD 600-750 (AH 132): A New Interpretation|pages= 110–111|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1971|author=M.A. Shabam|isbn=9780521291316}}</ref>

The Arabs advanced east into Zabulistan and won several victories. However the troops did not want to fight in this inhospitable region and started becoming restive. Al-Hajjaj instructed them to continue the advance into Zabulistan's heart no matter what it took, making it clear to them he wanted them to return to their homes.<ref name=Peacocks/> Ibn al-Ash'ath also made an agreement with the Zunbils, that no tribute would be demanded if he won and in case he lost, he would be sheltered to protect him from Al-Hajjaj.<ref name=Bosworth60>{{cite book|title=Sīstān Under the Arabs: From the Islamic Conquest to the Rise of the Ṣaffārids (30-250/651-864)|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|publisher= Indiana University|page=60|year=1968}}</ref> The troops mutinied against Hajjaj's enforced emigration and returned to Iraq but were crushed by the Syrian troops. They fled back to the east while Ibn al-Ash'ath fled to Sistan where he died in 704 AD.<ref name=Peacocks/>

When Ibn al-Ash'ath returned to Sistan in 702-703 AD, he wasn't allowed into Zarang and fled to Bust where he was abducted by Iyad b. Himyan al-Bakri as-Sadusi, whom he had appointed as the deputy over Bust, so Iyad could resecure favor of al-Hajjaj. The Zunbil however attacked the town and threatened to slaughter or enslave everyone there unless Ibn al-Ash'ath was handed over to him. Iyad set him free and he went to the Zunbil's territory along with his army.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sīstān Under the Arabs: From the Islamic Conquest to the Rise of the Ṣaffārids (30-250/651-864)|pages= 60–61|publisher=Indiana University|year=1968|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref> The Zunbil was however persuaded by Al-Hajjaj's representative to surrender him. His fate is however unclear. Per some accounts, he committed suicide, while according to others he was killed by the Zunbil, who sent his head to the Umayyads in Sistan.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tNiAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA69|title=The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750|page=69|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|author=G. R. Hawting|author-link=G. R. Hawting|isbn=9781134550593}}</ref> Following this, a truce was declared between Al-Hajjaj and the Zunbil, in return for the latter paying tribute [[in kind]] and in return, Al-Hajjaj promised not to attack him.<ref name=Shaban69>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA69|title=The 'Abbāsid Revolution|page=69|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=M. A. Shaban|isbn=9780521295345|date=1979-03-08}}</ref>

====From 8th century====

Qutayba b. Muslim, the conqueror of Transoxiana, called Sijistan an "ill-omened front",<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNGq6sU-xbgC&pg=PA129|title=The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads|author=Khalid Yahya Blankinship|year=1994|publisher=SUNY Press|page=129|isbn=9780791418284}}</ref> and forced the Zunbils to pay tribute.<ref name="JLL167"/> [[Khalid al-Qasri]] in Iraq appointed Yazid b. al Ghurayf al-Hamdani as Sistan's governor, a Syrian from [[Jund al-Urdunn]], in 725. Yazid resumed the campaign by sending an army under the command of Balal b. Abi Kabsha. They however did not obtain anything from the Zunbils.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjP0i6FSfLwC&pg=PA130|title=The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|page=130|author=Khalid Yahya Blankinship|date=28 June 1994 |isbn=9780791496831}}</ref>

The new governor of Sistan, al-Asfah b. 'Abd Allah al-Kalbi, a [[Syrian]], embarked on an ambitious policy of campaigning against the Zunbils. The first one was carried out in 726. During the second one in late 727–728, he was warned by the Sijistanis who were with him to not campaign in winter, especially in the mountain defiles. Per [[Ya'qubi]], his army was completely annihilated by the Zunbils. Per ''Tarikh al-Sistani'', al-Asfah managed to get back to Sistan where he died. The next two governors did not undertake any campaigns. The Zunbil was unable to take advantage of the annihilation of al-Asfah's army, but the defeat was a heavy one. It would become one in a series of blows for the caliphate.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjP0i6FSfLwC&pg=PA147|title=The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|page=147|author=Khalid Yahya Blankinship|date=28 June 1994 |isbn=9780791496831}}</ref>

The Sistan front remained quiet in the latter part of Abd al-Malik's reign except perhaps the Kharjite activity, with long tenures and blank records of 'Abd Allah b. Abi Baruda and Ibrahim b. 'Asim al-'Uqayli suggesting that the instability in the region had been controlled to an extent. It appears this was only possible because no more campaigns were undertaken against the Zunbils.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zjP0i6FSfLwC&pg=PA186|title=The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads|publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|pages=185–186|author=Khalid Yahya Blankinship|date=January 1994 |isbn=9780791496831}}</ref>

[[Al-Mansur]] sent Ma'n b. Zaida ash-Shabani to Sistan in response to the disturbances there. Ma'n along with his nephew Yazid b. Ziyad undertook an expedition against the Zunbil for making him obedient and restoring the tribute not paid since the time of al-Hajjaj. It is especially well-documented by al-Baladhuri. He ordered the Zunbil to pay the tribute and was offered camels, Turkish tents and slaves, but this did not placate him.<ref name=Bosworth82>{{cite book|title=Sīstān Under the Arabs: From the Islamic Conquest to the Rise of the Ṣaffārids (30-250/651-864)|publisher=Indiana University|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|pages=82–83|author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref> Per al-Baldahuri, under the reign of al-Mansur, Hisham b. 'Amr al-Taghlibi after conquering Kandahar, destroyed its idol-temple and built a mosque in its place.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Israel Oriental Studies|volume=2|title= A note on early Muslim attitudes to idolatry|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Tel Aviv University]]|author=Yohanan Friedmann|page=177|year=1972|author-link=Yohanan Friedmann}}</ref>

Ma'n and Yazid advanced into Zamindawar but the Zunbil had fled to Zabulistan. They nonetheless pursued and defeated him, taking 30,000 as captives, including Faraj al-Rukhkhaji, who would later become a secretary of the department of private estates of the Caliph under [[al-Ma'mun]]. Zunbil's deputy Mawand (who is recorded as his son-in-law Mawld in ''Tarikh-e-Sistan'') offered submission, which was requested, and was sent with 5,000 of their soldiers to [[Baghdad]], where he was treated kindly and given pensions along with his chieftains per Baladhuri.<ref name=Majumdar1>{{cite book|title=Readings in Political History of India, Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern|publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|page=223|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref><ref name=Bosworth82/>

The tribute was paid by the Zunbils to ''amils'' of caliphs [[al-Mahdi]] and [[Harun al-Rashid|ar-Rashid]], though rather irregularly.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=59|title=Sistan's transition to Islam in historical perspective|page=917|publisher=[[Indian History Congress]]|first=Hamiddulah|last=Marazi}}</ref> When the Caliph [[Al-Ma'mun]] (r. 813–833 AD) visited Khorasan, he was paid double the tribute by Rutbil, but was evidently left unmolested and the Arabs later subdued Kabul.<ref name=Majumdar1/>

===Kabulistan===
[[File:Turk Shahi 700ad.jpg|thumb|The [[Turk Shahi]] kingdom of Kabul in 700 AD]]
The area of Kabul was initially ruled by the [[Nezak Huns]]. Sometime after the defeat of their last king [[Ghar-ilchi]] at the hands of Samura, the Turkic [[Barha Tegin]] rebelled and assaulted Kabul. Ghar-ilchi was killed and Barha Tegin proceeded to proclaim himself as the king of Kabul, before taking Zabulistan in the south. The "[[Turk Shahi]]" dynasty established by him however split into two around 680 AD.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/> The dynasty was [[Buddhist]] and were followed by a [[Hindu]] dynasty shortly before the Saffarid conquest in 870 AD.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA125|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World – Volume I: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th-11th Centuries|author=André Wink|publisher=Brill|page=125|isbn=0391041738|year=2002}}</ref>

[[Al-Ma'mun]]'s expeditions were the last Arab conflict against Kabul and Zabul and the long-drawn conflict ended with the dissolution of the empire.<ref name=Majumdar1/> Muslim missionaries converted many people to Islam; however, the entire population did not convert, with repetitive revolts from the mountain tribes in the Afghan area taking place. The [[Hindu Shahi]] dynasty was defeated by [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] (r. 998–1030), who expelled them from [[Gandhara]] and also encouraged mass-conversions in Afghanistan and India.<ref name="Afghanistan Page 15">{{cite book |author=Martin Ewans |author-link=Martin Ewans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQC4AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |title=Afghanistan – A New History |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-29826-1 |page=15}}</ref>

During the caliphate of Uthman, new popular uprisings had broken out in Persia and continued for five years from 644 to 649. The revolts were suppressed and Abdullah b. Amir, who was appointed governor of Basra, had captured many cities including Balkh, Herat and Kabul.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pu5eCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA148|title=Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam|author=Geoff Simmons|publisher=Springer|page=148|isbn=9781349247639|date=2016-01-13}}</ref>

After Mu'awiya became the Caliph, he prepared an expedition under 'Abd ar-Rahman b. Samura to Khorasan. Per Baladhuri, after recapturing Zarang as well as conquering other cities, the Arabs besieged Kabul for a few months and finally entered it.<ref name=Shaban28/> Samura concluded a treaty and proceeded to attack Bost, al-Rukhkhaj and Zabulistan. The people of Kabul however rebelled and Samura was forced to recapture the city. The account of ''Tarjuma-i Futuhat'' however differs and states that Samura besieged the city for a year. After capturing it, he had all the soldiers massacred and their wives and children taken as captives. He also ordered the captured king Ghar-ilchi to be beheaded, but spared him when he converted. Around the same time according to al-Baladhuri, [[Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra]] launched an attack on the Indian frontier, reaching up to [[Bannu]] and "al-Ahwaz" (Waihind).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7QWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|title=Resistance at the Edge of Empires: The Archaeology and History of the Bannu basin from 1000 BC to AD 1200|page=67|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=Cameron A. Petrie|isbn=9781785703065|date=2020-12-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Last Two Dynasties of the Śahis: An Analysis of Their History, Archaeology, Coinage and Palaeography|author=Abdur Rehman|publisher=Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Quaid-i-Azam University|pages=58–59|year=1979}}</ref> The historian [[Firishta]] states that while capturing Kabul in 664 AD, Samura had made converts of some 12,000 people.<ref>{{cite book|title=Proceedings – Punjab History Conference, Volume 3|publisher=[[Punjabi University]]|page=59}}</ref>

The new king of Kabul [[Barha Tegin]] and the Zunbil campaigned against the Arabs after Samura's departure, recapturing Kabul, Zabulistan and al-Rukhkhaj. Rabi b. Ziyad attacked the Zunbil after becoming governor in 671 AD. His successor Ubayd Allah b. Abi Bakra continued the campaign in 673 AD, with the Zunbil negotiating for both Zabul and Kabul soon afterwards.<ref name=":1"/> About the time of death of Yazid I however, "the people of Kabul treacherously broke the compact". The Arab army sent to reimpose it was routed.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3LDBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122|title=In God's Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire|author=Robert G. Hoyland|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=122|author-link=Robert G. Hoyland|isbn=9780199916368|year=2015}}</ref>

In about 680–683, the kingdom split into two with the Zunbil fleeing from his brother, the king of Kabul, and approaching Salm b. Ziyad at Amul in Khorasan. In return for him agreeing to acknowledge Salm as his overlord, the Zunbil was allowed to settle down in Amul. Soon he drove his brother out and established himself in Amul. The location of Amul mentioned by Tabari is not certain, [[Josef Markwart]] identified it with Zabul. Tabari however claims the Kabul Shah fled instead from the Zunbil and established himself as an independent king during the reign of Mu'awiya.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=The Last Two Dynasties of the Śahis: An Analysis of Their History, Archaeology, Coinage and Palaeography|author=Abdur Rehman|publisher=Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Quaid-i-Azam University|page=66|year=1979}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRjsrA5tfLIC&pg=PA76|title=The History of al-Tabari Vol. 14: The Conquest of Iran A.D. 641-643/A.H. 21-23|translator=G. Rex Smith |publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|isbn=9781438420394|page=76|year=2015}}</ref>

Abdur Rehman, who studied the descriptions of Tabari however stated that these events should be seen as having happened in Yazid's time since Salm was governor under his reign.<ref>{{cite book|title=Annals of the Institute for Research in Humanities, Kyoto University Issue=34|page=63|publisher=Zinbun-Kagaku-Kenkyusyo|year=2000}}</ref> In 152 AH (769 AD), [[Humayd ibn Qahtaba]], the governor of Khorasan, raided Kabul.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZnDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA187|title=The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political History|page=187|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=9781317358077}}</ref> According to [[Ibn al-Athir]], al-'Abbas b. Ja'far led an expedition against Kabul sent by his father Ja'far b. Muhamamad in 787–78, which Bosworth claims is the one attributed to Ibrahim b. Jibril by Al-Ya'qubi.<ref name=Jibril>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qjE9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA125|title=The 'Abbasid and Carolingian Empires: Comparative Studies in Civilizational Formation|pages=125–129|publisher=Brill|year=2017|isbn=9789004353046}}</ref>

The only record of an event in early Abbasid period obviously related to the area south of the Hindu Kush, is the expedition against Kabul in 792-793 ordered by [[Al-Fadl ibn Yahya]] and led by Ibrahim b. Jibril. It is mentioned by al-Tabari's chronicle, the tenth century ''Kitāb al-Wuzarā'wa al-Kuttāb'' of al-Jahshiyari and by al-Ya'qubi. Per al-Jahshiyari, he conquered Kabul and acquired a lot of wealth. Al-Ya'qubi states that rulers and landlords of Tukharistan, including Bamiyan's king, joined this army, implying it crossed the Hindu Kush from the north. It also mentions the subjugation of "Ghurwand" (present-day [[Ghorband]]). He also mentions the "Pass of Ghurwand", which judging by the itinerary of the expedition from Tukharistan to Bamiyan to [[Ghorband River|Ghorband]] valley, is identical to [[Shibar Pass]]. They then marched to Shah Bahar where an idol venerated by the locals was destroyed. The inhabitants of various towns then concluded peace treaties with Fadl, one of which was identified by [[Josef Markwart]] as [[Ancient Kapisa|Kapisa]].<ref name=Jibril/>

Al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833 AD) while visiting Khorasan, launched an attack on Kabul, whose ruler submitted to taxation.<ref name=Majumdar1/> The king of Kabul was captured and he then converted to Islam.<ref name="ba1"/> Per sources, when the Shah submitted to al-Ma'mun, he sent his crown and bejeweled throne, later seen by the Meccan historian [[al-Azraqi]], to the Caliph who praised Fadl for "curbing polytheists, breaking idols, killing the refractory" and refers to his successes against Kabul's king and ''ispahabad''. Other near-contemporary sources however refer to the artifacts as a golden jewel-encrusted idol sitting on a silver throne by the [[Hindu Shahi]] ruler or by an unnamed ruler of "Tibet" as a sign of his conversion to Islam.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OLNE_li8C10C&pg=PA30|title=Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter|publisher= Princeton University Press|author=Finbarr B. Flood|page=30|isbn=978-0691125947|date=2009-05-03}}</ref>

===Qutayba's campaigns===

[[Qutayba b. Muslim]] was appointed the governor of Khorasan in 705 by al-Hajjaj b. Yusuf, the governor of Iraq and the East. He began his rule with the reconquest of western Tokharistan in the same year.<ref name=Beckwith>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7G61UifCEZMC&pg=PA70|title=The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power Among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese During the Early Middle Ages|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=70|author=Christopher I. Beckwith|isbn=0691024693|date=1993-03-28}}</ref> Qutayba, who was tasked with subduing the revolt in Lower Tokharistan, led the final conquest of Balkh. His army was assembled in spring of 705 and marched to Balkh. Per one version of al-Tabari, the city was surrendered peacefully. Another version, speaks of a revolt among the residents.<ref name=Gibb32/> In 706, he received the submission of Nizak, the leader of Badghis.<ref name=Beckwith/> In 707, he marched on [[Bukhara oasis]] along with Nizak in his army but the campaign did not achieve any major objective.<ref>{{cite book|title=The great Arab conquests: how the spread of Islam changed the world we live in|publisher=Hachette UK|page=260|author=Hugh N. Kennedy|author-link=Hugh N. Kennedy}}</ref>

According to Baldhuri, when Qutayba became the governor of Khorasan and Sistan, he appointed his brother 'Amr to Sistan. 'Amr asked the Zunbil to pay tribute in cash but he refused, prompting Qutayba to march against him. The campaign was also partially encouraged by his desire to eliminate the support of the southern Hephthalites, the Zabulites, for their northern brethren to revolt. Zunbil, who was surprised by this unexpected move and scared of Qutayba's reputation, quickly capitulated. Qutayba, realizing the real strength of the Zunbils, accepted it and returned to [[Merv]], leaving only an Arab representative in Sistan.<ref name=Shaban69/>

Per Al-Mada'ini, Qutayba returned to Merv after conquering Bukhara in 709. The rebellion of the Hephthalite principalities from the region of Guzgan, including Taloqan and Faryab, led Qutayba to dispatch 12,000 men from Merv to Balkh in winter of 709. The rebellion was led and organized by Nezak Tarkhan and was supported by Balkh and Marw al-Rudh's dihqan Bādām. Nizak had realised that independence would not be possible if Arab rule was strengthened in Khorasan, and perhaps was also encouraged by Qutayba's attempts to achieve his objectives through diplomacy. The success of Zunbils may also have encouraged him.<ref name=Shaban66>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66|title=The 'Abbāsid Revolution|page=66|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=M. A. Shaban|isbn=9780521295345|date=1979-03-08}}</ref>

Nizak wrote to the Zunblis asking for help. In addition, he also forced the weak Jābghū of Tokharistan to join his cause to persuade all princes of the Principalities of Tukharistan to do the same. His plan to stage the revolt in spring of 710 was however spoilt by Qutayba. Bādām fled when Qutayba advanced on Marw al-Rudh<ref name=Shaban66/> but his two sons were caught and crucified by him. Qutayba next marched to Taloqan,<ref name=Kennedy>{{cite book|title=The great Arab conquests: how the spread of Islam changed the world we live in|publisher=Hachette UK|page=264|author=Hugh N. Kennedy|author-link=Hugh N. Kennedy}}</ref> which was the only place in his campaign where the inhabitants were not given a complete amnesty, concerning which [[H.A.R. Gibb]] states the "traditions are hopelessly confused". Per one account, he executed and crucified a band of bandits there, though it is possible it was selected for this severity as it was the only place where there was an open revolt.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6TN8CgAAQBAJ&q=qutayba+robbers&pg=PT36|title=The Arab Conquests in Central Asia|publisher=Read Books Ltd.|author=H.A.R. Gibb|year=2013|page=36|author-link=H.A.R. Gibb|isbn=9781446545638}}</ref>

Faryab and Guzgan both submitted and their inhabitants were not harmed. From there, Qutayba went on to receive the submission of people of Balkh. Almost all of Nizak's princely allies had reconciled themselves with Qutayba and there were Arab governors in all towns of Tokharistan, spoiling his plans. He fled south to the [[Hindu Kush]], hoping to reach Kabul<ref name=Kennedy/> and entrenched himself in an inaccessible mountain pass guarded by a fortress. The Arabs succeeded in gaining the fort with help of Ru'b Khan, ruler of Ru'b and Siminjan.<ref>{{cite book|title=Regions of the World|publisher=Luzac|author=Vladimir Minorsky|page=338|year=1937|author-link=Vladimir Minorsky}}</ref> Nizak fled along the modern road that leads from the Oxus valley to [[Salang Pass]] and holed up in an unidentified mountain refuge in a site of [[Baghlan Province]]. Qutayba caught up with him and besieged him for two months.<ref name=Kennedy/>

Sulaym al-Nasih (the counsellor), a ''[[mawla]]'' of Khorasan, helped in obtaining Nizak's surrender to Qutayba who promised a pardon. Nonetheless, he was executed along with 700 of his followers after orders from al-Hajjaj. The Jabghu of Tokharistan was sent as a valuable hostage to [[Damascus]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_03AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA67|title=The 'Abbāsid Revolution|page=67|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=M. A. Shaban|isbn=9780521295345|date=1979-03-08}}</ref> Qutayba then went in pursuit of Juzjan's king, who requested amnesty and called for exchange of hostages as a precautionary measure. This was agreed upon and Habib b. 'Abd Allah, a Bahilite, was sent as prisoner by Qutayba while the king sent some of his family members in return. The peace treaty was agreed but the king died in Taloqan on his return journey. His subjects accused the Muslims of poisoning him and killed Habib, with Qutayba retaliating by executing Juzjan's hostages.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Islamic Culture|publisher=Islamic Culture Board|volume=45|title=A Survey of the expansion of Islam into Central Asia during the Umayyad Caliphate|author=Dr. S. A. Hasan|editor1=Marmaduke William Pickthall|editor2=Muhammad Asad|page=103}}</ref>

===Other regions===

====Ghur====

Tabari records that in 667 AD, [[Ziyad ibn Abih|Ziyad b. Abihi]] had sent Hakam b. 'Amr al-Ghafri to Khorasan as [[Amir]]. Hakam raided [[Ghur]] and Farawanda, bringing them to submission through force of arms and conquered them. He obtained captives and a large amount of plunder from them. A larger expedition was undertaken under [[Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri]], the governor of Khorasan, who raided Gharchistan in 725, receiving its submission as well as the conversion of its king to Islam. He next attacked Ghur whose residents hid their valuables in an inaccessible cave, but he was able to plunder the wealth by lowering his men in crates.<ref name=Variorum>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 143–144|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref>

Asad's success prompted him to undertake a second expedition in 108-109 AH against Ghur. The poet Thabit Qutna's eulogical poem of Asad recorded by Tabari called it a campaign against the Turks saying, "Groups of the Turks who live between Kabul and Ghur came to you, since there was no place in which they might find refuge from you." Bosworth states that this campaign may have actually taken place in Guzgan or [[Bamiyan]] rather than the purely-[[Persian people|Iranian]] Ghur. He also states that no doubt further sporadic raids continued throughout the Umayyad rule, though not noted by historians. It is known that [[Nasr ibn Sayyar]]'s commander Sulaiman b. Sul had raided Gharchistan and Ghur some time before 739 AD.<ref name=Variorum/>

The early history of Ghor is unclear. [[Minhaj-i-Siraj]] in [[Tabaqat-i-Nasiri]] states that Shansab, who established the [[Ghurid dynasty]], was converted by the Arab Caliph Ali which [[Mohammad Habib]] and [[K. A. Nizami]] dismissed as unlikely. He further adds that the Ghurid Amir Faulad assisted [[Abu Muslim]] in overthrowing the Umayyads during the [[Abbasid Revolution]].<ref name="Faulad">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iRJuAAAAMAAJ&q=amir+faulad+abu+muslim|title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat, A.D. 1206-1526, edited by Mohammad Habib and Khaliq Ahmad Nizami|date=1970|publisher=People's Publishing House|pages=145–46}}</ref> He also recounts a legend about a dispute between two prominent families of the area. They sought the intercession of the Abbasids and the ancestor of the Shansabi family, Amir Banji, was subsequently confirmed as the ruler by [[Harun al-Rashid]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wink|first=André|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC&dq=banji+harun+al+rashid&pg=PA95|title=Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest. 2|date=1991|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-09509-0|pages=95|language=en}}</ref><ref name=Nab/>

No permanent control was ever established on Ghur. According to Bosworth, its value was only for its slaves which could best be obtained in occasional temporary raids.<ref name=Variorum/> Arab and Persian geographers never considered it important.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 139–138|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref> In all sources it is cited as supplying slaves to slave markets in Khorasan, indicating it had a mostly "infidel" population. [[Istakhari]] called it a land of infidels (''dar al-kufr'') annexed to Islamic domain because of its Muslim minority. However ''[[Hudud al-'Alam]]'' stated it had a mostly-Muslim population.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZifdBLwZisQC&pg=PA84|title=Studies in Arabic and Islam: Proceedings of the 19th Congress : Halle 1998|page= 143|publisher=[[Peeters Publishers]]|year=1977|author=Stefan Leder|isbn=9789042911208}}</ref>

====Ghazni====

The pre-Ghaznavid royal dynasty of [[Ghazni]] were the [[Lawiks]]. Afghan historian [[Abdul Hai Habibi|'Abd al-Hayy Habibi Qandahari]], who in 1957 examined a manuscript containing tales about miracles (''[[karamat]]'') of ''[[Sheikh (Sufism)|Shaikh]]'' Sakhi Surur of [[Multan]], who lived in the 12th century, concluded it dated to 1500. He recorded one of its anecdotes which records the history of Ghazni by the Indian traditionalist and lexicographer Radi ad-Din Hasan b. Muhammad al-Saghani (died 1252) from Abu Hamid az-Zawuli. According to it, a great mosque at Ghazni was earlier a great idol-temple built in honor of the Rutbils and Kabul-Shahs by Wujwir Lawik. His son Khanan converted to Islam and was sent a poem by the Kabul-Shah saying, "Alas! The idol of Lawik has been interred beneath the earth of Ghazni, and the Lawiyan family have given away [the embodiment of] their kingly power. I am going to send my own army; do not yourself follow the same way of the Arabs [ie., Islam]."<ref>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 301–302|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref>

Habibi continues stating that Khanan later reconverted to the faith of the Hindu-Shahis. His grandson Aflah however upon assuming power demolished the idol-temple and built a mosque in its place. When the saint Surur arrived at the mosque, he is said to have found the idol of Lawik and destroyed it.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 302–303|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref> The ''[[Siyasatnama]]'' of [[Nizam al-Mulk]], the ''[[Tabaqat-i Nasiri]]'' of [[Minhaj-i-Siraj|Juzjani]] and the ''Majma' al-ansāb fī't-tawārīkh'' of Muhammad Shabankara'i (14th century) mention Lawik. Juzjani gives the Lawik who was defeated by Alp-tegin the Islamic ''[[Kunya (Arabic)|kunya]]'' of ''Abu Bakr'', though Shabankara'i claims he was a pagan. A variant of his name appears as Anuk in ''Tabaqat-i Nasiri''.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 298|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref>

The Buddhist monastery of [[Tepe Sardar]] existed near Ghazni during the time Arabs were threatening the Ghazni region, and was destroyed by a fire possibly due to the first Muslim invasion of the region in 671–672 CE. It may have been the "Šāh Bahār" (temple of the king) mentioned as having been destroyed by Muslims in 795 CE in the ''[[Kitab al-Buldan (Ya'qubi book)|Kitab al-Buldan]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ghazni.bdus.cloud/buddhist/the-buddhist-site-of-tapa-sardar|title=The Buddhist site of Tapa Sardar|work=Italian Archaeological Mission in Afghanistan|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019030419/https://ghazni.bdus.cloud/buddhist/the-buddhist-site-of-tapa-sardar|archive-date=19 October 2021|url-status=live|access-date=19 June 2024}}</ref>

====Bamyan====

[[Ya'qubi]] states that the lord of [[Bamyan]] called the ''Shēr'', was converted to Islam under Caliph [[Al-Mansur]] (d.775) by Muzahim b. Bistam, who married his son Abu Harb Muhammad to his daughter. However, in his history he changes it to the rule of [[Al-Mahdi]] (r. 775–785). Ya'qubi also states that [[Al-Fadl ibn Yahya]] made Hasn, Abu Harb Muhammad's son, as the new ''Shēr'' after his successful campaign in [[Ghorband]].<ref name=Scarcia>{{cite journal|journal=East and West|volume=14|jstor=29754702 |title=A Preliminary Report on a Persian Legal Document of 470-1078 found at Bāmiyān|author=Gianroberto Scarcia|issue=1/2|publisher=[[Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente]]|page=74|author-link=:it:Gianroberto Scarcia|year=1963}}</ref> Ya'qubi states that the ruler of Bamiyan had accompanied an expedition dispatched by [[Al-Fadl ibn Yahya]] in 792–793 against the Kabul Shahi.<ref name=Jibril/>

Later Shers remained Muslim and were influential at the Abbasid court. However, Muslim sources describe the Saffarid ruler [[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar]] looting Bamiyan's pagan idols. A much later historian Shabankara'i claims that Alp-Tegin obtained conversion of the Sher to Islam in 962. It seems there were lapses to Buddhism among some of the rulers as the Muslim influence grew weak. However, there is no evidence about the role of Buddhism during these periods or whether Buddhist monasteries remained the center of religious life and teaching.<ref name=monasteries>{{cite journal|journal=Islam in Asia|volume=1|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|title=The Coming of Islam in Afghanistan|editor1=Yohanan Friedmann|editor1-link=Yohanan Friedmann|editor2=Raphael Israeli|editor2-link=Raphael Israeli|editor3=Anthony Hearle Johns|publisher=Magnes Press|page=13|author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref>

==Post-Arab rule==
{{See also|Anarchy at Samarra}}
[[File:Map of the Samanid amirate at the death of Nasr II, 943.svg|thumb|300px|Area controlled by the Samanids in 943 under [[Nasr II]]]]

===Tahirids===

Khurasan was the base for early recruitment of Abbasid armies, especially the Abbasid takeover received support from Arab settlers aiming to undermine the important sections of non-Muslim aristocracy. The Abbasids succeeded in integrating Khorasan and the East into the central Islamic lands. The state was gradually [[Persianized]] through political influence and financial support of the ''[[dihqan]]s''. Al-Ma'mun emerged as the victor in the Fourth Fitna with the help of Khorasani forces and appointed [[Tahir ibn Husayn]] as the governor. Later, he appointed [[Talha ibn Tahir|Talha]] as the governor in 822 and Abdallah in 828.{{sfn|Bosworth|1969|p=103}}{{sfn|Kennedy|2016|p=139}}{{sfn|Esposito|2000|p=38}} But after the [[Anarchy at Samarra|Abbasid decline]], Khorasan ended up turning into a virtually independent state under a Persian ''mawla'' who rose to favour under Al-Ma'mun.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA112|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th-11th Centuries|publisher=Brill|page=112|isbn=0391041738|year=2002}}</ref>

According to [[Ibn Khordadbeh]], the Shah of Kabul had to send 2,000 [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz]] slaves worth 600,000 dirhams as annual tribute to the governor of Khorasan [[Abdallah ibn Tahir]] (r. 828–845).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8c3QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA174|title=Nomadism in Iran: From Antiquity to the Modern Era|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=174|isbn=9780199330799|year=2014}}</ref> In addition to the Oghuz slaves, he also had to pay an annual tribute of 1.5 million dirhams.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CgawCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA257|title=Historic Cities of the Islamic World|publisher=Brill|page=257|isbn=9789047423836|date=2007-12-26}}</ref> Mid-9th century, one of their tributaries Abu Da'udid or the [[Banijurids|Banijurid]] Amir Da'ud b. Abu Da'ud Abbas, undertook an obscure campaign into eastern Afghanistan and Zabulistan that was profitable. It is recorded that in 864 [[Muhammad ibn Tahir]] sent two elephants captured at Kabul, idols and aromatic substances to the caliph.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA99|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4|author=William Bayne Fisher|page=99|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521200936|date=1975-06-26}}</ref>

===Saffarids===
{{See also|Hindu Shahi–Saffarid wars}}[[File:Saffarid dynasty 861-1003.png|thumb|400px|Saffarid rule at its greatest extent under Ya'qub b. al-Layth al-Saffar]]

====Ya'qub b. al-Layth====

The Tahirid rule was overthrown by [[Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar]] of Sistan, the first independent Iranian ruler in the post-Islamic era. He also fought against the Abbasid Caliphate.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qwd5AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA153|title=Continuity in Iranian Identity: Resilience of a Cultural Heritage|author=Fereshteh Davaran|publisher=Routledge|page=153|isbn=9781134018314|date=2010-02-26}}</ref> He joined the [[Ayyār|'ayyar]] band of Salih b. al-Nadr/Nasr, who was recognised as Bust's amir in 852. al-Nasr aimed at taking over whole of Sistan and drove out the Tahirid governor in 854, with Sistan ceasing to be under the direct control of the Caliphate. al-Nasr himself was overthrown by Dirham b. Nasr who was overthrown by Ya'qub in 861.<ref name=Bayne>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA109|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4|author=William Bayne Fisher|page=109|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521200936|date=1975-06-26}}</ref> Ya'qub and his brother [[Amr ibn al-Layth|Amr]] advanced as far as [[Baghdad]] and to Kabul itself in eastern Afghanistan with their dynamism, advancing along the historic route taken by the modern [[Highway 1 (Afghanistan)|Lashkargah-Qandahar-Ghazni-Kabul road]]. Their eastern campaigns are documented by Arabic sources of [[Al-Masudi]]'s ''[[The Meadows of Gold|Murūj adh-dhahab]]'', [[Ibn al-Athir]]'s ''[[The Complete History|al-Kāmil fi't-tā'rīkh]]'' and ''[[Tarikh-i Sistan|Tarikh-e-Sistan]]''. The Persian historian [[Gardizi]]'s ''Zain al-akhbār'' also mentions the [[Saffarid]] campaigns.<ref name="Clifford Edmund Bosworth 300">{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|page=300|publisher=Variorum Reprints|author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref>

Salih fled to ar-Rukhkhaj or Arachosia, where he received the help of the Zunbil. Both Salih and the Zunbil were killed by Ya'qub in 865.<ref name=Bayne/> [[Abu Sa'id Gardezi]] mentions that Ya'qub advanced from Sistan to Bust and occupied the city. From here he advanced to [[Panjwayi|Panjway]] and Tiginabad (two of the chief towns of Arachosia), defeating and killing the Zunbil, though the date is not given. This account matches with that of ''Tarikh-e-Sistan''.<ref name=IsMEO/> [[Satish Chandra (historian)|Satish Chandra]] states that, "We are told that it was only in 870 AD that Zabulistan was finally conquered by one Yakub who was the virtual ruler of the neighbouring Iranian province of Siestan. The king was killed and his subjects were made Muslims."<ref name= "Satish1">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA17|title= Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One|publisher=Har-Anand Publishers|author=Satish Chandra|page=17|author-link= Satish Chandra (historian)|isbn= 9788124110645|year= 2004}}</ref>

[[Muhammad Aufi]]'s ''[[Jawami ul-Hikayat]]'' meanwhile states that during his invasion of Zabul, Yaqub employed a ruse to surrender after being allowed to pay homage to the ruler along with his troops, lest they disperse and become dangerous to both sides. Yaqub's troops "carried their lances concealed behind their horses and were wearing coats of mail under their garments. The Almighty made the army of Rusal (probably Rutbil), blind, so that they did not see the lances. When Yaqub drew near Rusal, he bowed his head as if to do homage, but raised a lance and thrust it in the back of Rusal so that he died on the spot. His people also fell like lightning upon the enemy, cutting them down with their swords and staining the earth with the blood of the enemies of the religion. The infidels when they saw the head of Rusal upon the point of a spear took to flight and great bloodshed ensued. This victory, which he achieved, was the result of treachery and deception, such as no one had ever committed."<ref name=Ashirbadi>{{cite book|title=The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D.: Including the Arab Invasion of Sindh, Hindu Rule in Afghanistan and Causes of the Defeat of the Hindus in Early Medieval Age|author=Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava|page=33|publisher=Shiva Lal Agarwala|author-link=Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava}}</ref>

[[Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava]] states that after this victory by Yaqub over Zabul, the position of Lallya alias Kallar, the Brahmin minister who had overthrown the last Kshatriya king of Kabul Lagaturman, seems to have become untenable. He shifted his capital to [[Attock Khurd|Udhaband]] in 870 AD. Lallya, credited as an able and strong ruler by [[Kalhana]] in ''[[Rajatarangini]]'', was driven out by Ya'qub from Kabul within a year of his usurpation according to Srivastava.<ref name=Ashirbadi/>

Gardezi states that after defeating the Zunbil, Yaqub then advanced into Zabulistan and then Ghazni, whose citadel he destroyed and forced Abu Mansur Aflah b. Muhammad b. Khaqan, the local ruler of nearby [[Gardez]], to tributary status. ''Tarikh-e-Sistan'' however in contrast states that he returned to Zarang after killing Salih. This campaign may be related to Gardizi's account of a later expedition in 870 where he advanced as far as Bamiyan and Kabul.<ref name=IsMEO>{{cite book|title=Sīstān Under the Arabs: From the Islamic Conquest to the Rise of the Ṣaffārids (30-250/651-864)|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|page=120|publisher=IsMEO|author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref> Salih b. al-Hujr, described as a cousin of the Zunbil, was appointed as the Saffarid governor of ar-Rukhkhaj, but rebelled two years after Zunbil's death and committed suicide to avoid capture.<ref name=IsMEO/>

Ya'qub had captured several relatives of the Zunbil's family after defeating Salih b. al-Nasr. Zunbil's son escaped from captivity in 869 and quickly raised an army in al-Rukhkhaj, later seeking refuge with the Kabul-Shah.<ref name=Bayne2>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA111|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4|author=William Bayne Fisher|page=111|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521200936|date=1975-06-26}}</ref> Per Gardizi, Ya'qub undertook another expedition in 870 which advanced as far as Kabul and Bamiyan.<ref name=IsMEO/> According to ''Tarikh-e-Sistan'', Bamiyan was captured in 871<ref name=Bayne2/> and its idol-temple was plundered.<ref name="Clifford Edmund Bosworth 300"/> Ya'qub defeated Kabul in 870 and again had to march there in 872 when the Zunbil's son took possession of Zabulistan. Ya'qub captured him from the fortress of Nay-Laman where he had fled.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|page=121|publisher=Variorum Reprints|author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref> In 871, Ya'qub sent 50 gold and silver idols he gained by campaigning from Kabul to Caliph [[Al-Mu'tamid]], who sent them to Mecca.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA112|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4|author=William Bayne Fisher|page=112|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521200936|date=1975-06-26}}</ref>

According to Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Ghor, which was ruled by [[Amir Suri]] in the 9th century, entered into a war against Ya'qub, but escaped conquest due to its difficult and mountainous terrain.<ref name="Nab"/>

====Amr b. al-Layth====

After Ya'qub's death in 879, Al-Mu'tamid recognised his brother and successor 'Amr b. al-Layth (r. 879–902), as governor of Khorasan, [[Isfahan province|Isfahan]], [[Fars province|Fars]], Sistan and Sindh.<ref name=Bayne1>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R63ACQAAQBAJ&pg=PA816|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4|author=William Bayne Fisher|page=112|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781317451587|date=June 2015}}</ref> The caliph however announced divesting him of all his governorships in 885 and reappointed Muhammad b. Tahir as the governor of Khorasan.<ref>{{cite book|title=Persian historiography to the end of the Twelfth century|author=Julie Scott Meisami|page=121|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|year=1999}}</ref> He was reappointed governor of Khorasan in 892 by [[Al-Mu'tadid]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ca4ABAAAQBAJ&pg=PT127|title=A History of Afghanistan: Volumes 1 and 2|author=Percy Sykes|page=127|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=9781317845867}}</ref>

Amr led an expedition as far as Sakawand in the [[Logar River|Logar Valley]], between Ghazni and Kabul, described as a Hindu pilgrimage-centre. In 896, he sent idols captured from Zamindawar and the Indian frontier, including a female copper idol with four arms and two girdles of silver set with jewels and pulled on a trolley by camels, to Baghdad.<ref name=Bayne1/> [[Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi|Al-Baihaki]] mentions Sakawand as a pass from Kabul to India. It was situated at or near [[Jalalabad]].<ref name=culture/> The idol taken from somewhere in eastern Afghanistan by Amr was displayed for three days in Basra and then for three days in Baghdad. [[Jamal J. Elias]] states that it may have been of [[Lakshmi]] or Sukhavati at Sakawand. Al-Masudi emphasises the attention it received as a spectacle, with crowds gathering to gawk at it.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/aishascushionrel0000elia|url-access=registration|title=Aisha's Cushion: Religious Art, Perception, and Practice in Islam|author=Jamal J. Elias|page=[https://archive.org/details/aishascushionrel0000elia/page/116 116]|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2012|author-link=Jamal J. Elias|isbn=9780674067394}}</ref>

Aufi states that Amr had sent Fardaghan as the prefect over Ghazni and he launched the raid on Sakawand, which was a part of the territory of Kabul Shahi and had a temple frequented by Hindus. The Shah of Kabul at this time was Kamaluka, called "Kamalu" in Persian literature. Fardaghan entered it and succeeded in surprising Sakawand.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sraddhānjali, Studies in Ancient Indian History: D.C. Sircar Commemoration Volume|author1=Dineshchandra Sircar|author1-link=Dineshchandra Sircar|author2=Kalyan Kumar Dasgupta|author3=Pranab Kumar Bhattacharya|author4=Rabin Dev Choudhury|page=162|publisher=Sundeep Prakashan |year=1988}}</ref> Sakawand was plundered,<ref name=culture>{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The age of imperial Kanauj|author=R.C. Majumdar|page=113|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |year=1964|author-link=R.C. Majumdar}}</ref> and its temple destroyed.<ref name=Kamalu>{{cite book|title=Central Asia|page=142|publisher=Area Study Centre (Central Asia), University of Peshawar |year=1982}}</ref>

Kamalu counter-attacked Fardaghan, who realising his forces were no match for his, resorted to spreading a false rumour that he knew his intentions and had organised a formidable army against him with 'Amr on the way to join him. The rumour had the desired effect and the opposing army slowed its advance, knowing that they could be ambushed and slaughtered if they advanced impetuously into the narrow defiles. Meanwhile, Fardaghan received reinforcements from Khorasan according to Aufi.<ref name=Quaid>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Central Asia|volume= 1|issue= 1|pages=97–98|publisher=Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, [[Quaid-i-Azam University]]|year=1978|title=Kamalu's invasion of Ghazna|author=Abdur Rahman}}</ref> According to Aufi, he cleverly averted the danger.<ref name=Kamalu/>

''Tarikh-e-Sistan'' does not mention any attack by Fardaghan on Sakawand however, instead beginning with the attack by Kamalu. Per it, when Amr was in [[Gurgan]], he heard that ''Nasad Hindi'' and ''Alaman Hindi'' had allied and invaded Ghazni. The Saffarid governor 'Fard 'Ali was defeated and fled.<ref name=Quaid/>

===Samanids===

[[File:Iran circa 1000AD.png|thumb|400px|Transoxian, [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and Iran at the beginning of 11th century]]

The [[Samanids]] came to rule over areas including Khorasan, Sistan, Tokharistan and [[Kabulistan]] after [[Isma'il ibn Ahmad|Ismail]] (r. 892–907) in 900 AD had defeated the Saffarids, who had taken over Zabulistan and the Kabul region.<ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of Asian Civilisations, Volumes 21–22|page= 200|publisher=Taxila Institute of Asian Civilisations, [[Quaid-i-Azam University]]|year=1998}}</ref> The Turks were highly noted for their martial prowess by the Muslim sources and were in high demand as slave-soldiers (''[[Ghilman|ghulam]]'', ''[[mamluk]]'') by the Caliphate in Baghdad and the provincial emirs. The slaves were acquired either in military campaigns or through trade. The Samanids were heavily involved in this trade of Turkish slaves from lands to the north and east of their state. As the enslavement was limited to non-Muslims and with the Turks increasingly adopting Islam beyond Samanid borders, they also entered [[Transoxiana]] as free men due to various causes.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ML2bBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|title=The Age of the Seljuqs|author=Edmund Herzig|page= 1|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2014|author-link=Edmund Herzig|isbn=9781780769479}}</ref>

The [[Ghaznavids]] arose indirectly from the atmosphere of disintegration, palace revolutions and succession putsches of the Samanid Empire.<ref name=Bayne165>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA165|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4|author=William Bayne Fisher|page=165|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521200936|date=1975-06-26}}</ref> [[Sabuktigin|Abu-Mansur Sabuktigin]] was one of the Samanid slave guards who rose from the ranks to come under the patronage of the Chief ''[[Hajib]]'' [[Alp-Tegin]].<ref name=Volume5/> After the death of the Samanid Amir [[Abd al-Malik I (Samanid emir)|'Abd al-Malik b. Nuh]], the commander of forces in Khorasan Alp-Tegin along with the ''[[vizier]]'' [[Muhammad Bal'ami]] attempted to place a ruler of their choice on the throne. The attempt failed however and Alp-Tegin decided to withdraw to the eastern fringes of the empire. Per the sources, he wanted to flee to India to avoid his enemies and earn divine merit by raiding the Hindus. He did not intend to capture Ghazni, but was forced to take it when he was denied transit by its ruler.<ref name=BosworthGhaznavid>{{cite book|title=The Ghaznavids: Their empire in Afghanistan and eastern Iran, 994 – 1040|author=C.E. Bosworth|page=1963|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|author-link=C.E. Bosworth}}</ref>

Alp-Tegin proceeded with his small force of ''ghulams'' and ''[[ghazis]]'' (200 ghulams and 800 ghazis according to ''[[Siyasatnama]]'', while ''Majma al-ansab'' of Muhammad b. Ali al-Shabankara'i (d. 1358) states 700 ghulams and 2,500 [[Tajiks]]). En route, he subdued the Iranian ''Sher'' of Bamiyan and the Hindu-Shahi king of Kabul. He then came to Ghazni, whose citadel he besieged for four months and wrested the town from its ruler, Abu 'Ali or [[Abu Bakr Lawik]] or Anuk. The origin of this chief was Turkic, though it is not known if he was a Samanid vassal or an independent ruler. [[Josef Markwart]] suggests he was a late representative of the Zunbils.<ref name=BosworthGhaznavid/> The Lawik dynasty of Ghazni was linked to the Hindu Shahi dynasty through marriage.<ref name=Bayne165/> Alp-Tegin was accompanied by Sabuktigin during the conquest of Ghazni.<ref name=Volume5>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC&pg=PA6|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5|author=John Andrew Boyle|page=165|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|author-link=John Andrew Boyle|isbn=9780521069366|year=1968}}</ref>

[[Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani]] states that Alp-Tegin had his position regularised by Amir [[Mansur I|Mansur b. Nuh]] through an investiture, however ''Siyasatnama'' mentions an expedition against Alp-Tegin from Bukhara which was defeated outside Ghazni. His ambiguous, semi-rebel status seems to be reflected in his coins, with two of his coins minted at [[Parwan]] mentioning his authority from the Samanids to mint coins only in an indirect way.<ref name=BosworthGhaznavid/> He was succeeded by his son [[Abu Ishaq Ibrahim of Ghazna|Abu Ishaq Ibrahim]], who lost Ghazni to [[Abu Ali Lawik]], the son of its expelled ruler. He recovered it however with Samanid help in 964–65.<ref name=Comprehensive>{{cite book|title=A Comprehensive History of India – Page 345|author=Ram Sharan Sharma|page=345|publisher=[[Orient Blackswan|Orient Longmans]]|author-link=Ram Sharan Sharma}}</ref>

Alp-Tegin's ghulams were reconciled with the Samanids in 965 but maintained their autonomy.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC&pg=PA359|title=The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1|author=Denis Sinor|page=359|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|author-link=Denis Sinor|isbn=9780521243049|date=March 1990}}</ref> After Ibrahim's death in 966, Bilge-Tigin was made the successor and he acknowledged the Samanids as his overlords. He died in 364 AH (974–975 AD) while besieging Gardez and was succeeded by [[Böritigin of Ghazni|Böritigin]] or Piri.<ref name=":2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7QWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|title=Resistance at the Edge of Empires: The Archaeology and History of the Bannu basin from 1000 BC to AD 1200|author=Cameron A. Petrie|page=83|publisher=[[Oxbow Books]]|author-link=Denis Sinor|isbn=9781785703065|date=28 December 2020}}</ref>

Piri's misrule led to resentment among the people who invited Abu Ali to take back the throne. The Kabul Shahis allied with him and the king, most likely [[Jayapala]], sent his son to assist Lawik in the invasion. According to the ''Majba al-Ansab'', Sabuktigin managed to convince the Muslim Turks living in Ghazni, Gardez and Bamyan to participate in a jihad against the Hindus. When the allied forces reached near [[Charkh District|Charkh]] on [[Logar River]], they were attacked by Sabuktigin who killed and captured many of them, while also capturing ten elephants. Lawik as well his ally were both killed in the battle. Piri was expelled and Sabuktigin became governor in 977 AD. The accession was endorsed by the Samanid ruler [[Nuh II]].<ref name=Strugglemajumdar>{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|page=3|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|year=1966|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref><ref name=":2"/>

Hudud al-'Alam states that Ghor was under the overlordship of [[Farighunids]].<ref name="Faulad"/> Both Gardezi and [[Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi|Baihaqi]] state that in 379 AH (979–980 AD), the Samanid Amir [[Nuh II|Nuh b. Mansur]] dispatched an expedition under Abu Ja'far Zubaidi to conquer Ghur, but he had to return after capturing several forts. As the Samanid governor of Zabulistan and Ghazni, Sabuktigin attacked it several times.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 147|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref> He was able to conquer eastern Ghur after initial set-backs and was acknowledged as a sovereign by [[Muhammad ibn Suri]].<ref name=Nab/>

===Ghaznavids===
{{Further|Alp-Tegin's invasion of Kabul and Ghazna|First Battle of Laghman|Second Battle of Laghman|Ghaznavid-Hindu Shahi wars}}

====Sabuktigin====

=====First war against Jayapala=====

The Ghaznavid campaigns from the time of Sabuktigin are recorded as ''[[jihad]]'' against the people of ''al-Hind'' to destroy idolatry and replace it by expanding Islam. The Kabul Shahis only retained [[Lamghan]] in the Kabul-Gandhara area by the time of Alp-Tegin. According to [[Firishta]], Sabuktigin had already begun raiding Multan and Lamghan under Alp-Tegin for slaves. This precipitated an alliance between the Shahi ruler [[Jayapala]], Bhatiya and Sheikh [[Hamid Khan Lodi]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA126|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th-11th Centuries|publisher=Brill|pages=126, 328|isbn=0391041738|year=2002}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Hindu Sahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab, A.D. 865-1026: A Phase of Islamic Advance Into India|author=Yogendra Mishra|publisher=Vaishali Bhavan|year=1972|pages=100–101}}</ref> He crossed the [[Khyber Pass]] many times and raided the territory of Jaipala.<ref name=Sastri>{{cite book|title=History of India, Volume 2|author=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|publisher=Viswanathan|page=10|author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri}}</ref>

Jayapala appointed Sheikh Hamid Khan Lodi as ruler over Multan and Lamghan, but Sabuktigin broke up this alliance after his accession through diplomatic means, convincing Lodi to acknowledge him as an overlord. Although Ferishta had identified Lodi and his family as [[Afghan (ethnonym)|Afghans]], historian Yogendra Mishra pointed out that this was an error, since they were descended from the Qurayshite Usama ibn Lawi ibn Ghalib.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Hindu Sahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab, A.D. 865-1026: A Phase of Islamic Advance Into India|author=Yogendra Mishra|publisher=Vaishali Bhavan|year=1972|pages=100–103}}</ref>

Sabuktigin plundered the forts in the outlying provinces of the Kabul Shahi and captured many cities, acquiring huge booty.<ref name=Strugglemajumdar/> He also established Islam at many places. Jaipal in retaliation marched with a large force into the valley of Lamghan ([[Jalalabad]]) where he clashed with Sabuktigin and his son. The battle stretched on several days until a snow storm affected Jaipala's strategies, forcing him to plead for peace.<ref name=Sastri/> Sabuktigin was inclined to grant peace to Jayapala but his son [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]] wanted total victory.<ref name=EralySabuk/>

Jaypala upon hearing Mahmud's plans warned Sabuktigin, "You have seen the impetuosity of the Hindus and their indifference to death... If therefore, you refuse to grant peace in the hope of obtaining plunder, tribute, elephants and prisoners, then there is no alternative for us but to mount the horse of stern determination, destroy our property, take out the eyes of our elephants, cast our children into fire, and rush out on each other with sword and spear, so that all that will be left to you to conquer and seize is stones and dirt, dead bodies, and scattered bones." Knowing Jaipala could carry out his threat, Sabuktigin granted him peace in return for his promise of paying tribute and ceding some of his territory.<ref name=EralySabuk>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyEoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54|title=The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate|author=Abraham Eraly|publisher=Penguin UK|page=54|author-link=Abraham Eraly|isbn=9789351186588|date=April 2015}}</ref>

=====Second war against Jayapala=====

After making peace with Sabuktigin, Jayapala returned to Waihind but broke the treaty and mistreated the amirs sent to collect the tribute. Sabuktigin launched another invasion in retaliation. While the mamluks remained the core of his army, he also hired the ''[[Afghan (ethnonym)|Afghans]]'', especially the [[Ghilji]] tribe, in his dominion.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xx7ICQAAQBAJ&pg=PA87|title=Warfare in Pre-British India – 1500BCE to 1740CE|author=Kaushik Roy|publisher=Routledge|page=87|isbn=9781317586920|date=2015-06-03}}</ref> According to al-Utbi, Sabuktigin attacked Lamghan, conquering it and burning the residences of the "infidels", while also demolishing its idol-temples and establishing Islam.<ref>{{cite book|title=Essays on Islam and Indian History|author=Richard Maxwell Eaton|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=98}}</ref> He proceeded to slaughter the non-Muslims, destroyed their temples and plundered their shrines. It is said that his forces even risked frostbite on their hands while counting the large booty.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IquM4BrJ4YC&pg=PT212|title=India: A History. Revised and Updated|author=John Keay|publisher=Grove/Atlantic Inc.|page=212|isbn=9780802195500|date=2011-04-12}}</ref>

To avenge the savage attack of Sabuktigin, Jayapala, who had earlier taken his envoys as hostage, decided to go to war again in revenge. According to al-Utbi, he assembled an army of 100,000 against Sabuktigin. The much later account of Ferishta states that it included troops from [[Kanauj]], [[Ajmer]], [[Delhi]] and [[Kalinjar]]. The two sides fought on an open battlefield in Laghman. Sabuktigin divided his army into packs of 500 who attacked the Indians in succession. After sensing that they were weakened, his forces mounted a concerted attack. The forces of Kabul Shahi were routed and those still alive were killed in the forest or drowned in the river.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IquM4BrJ4YC&pg=PT212|title=India: A History. Revised and Updated|author=John Keay|publisher=Grove/Atlantic Inc.|pages=212–213|isbn=9780802195500|date=2011-04-12}}</ref>

The second battle that took place between Sabuktigin and Jayapala in 988 AD, resulted in the former capturing territory between Lamghan and [[Peshawar]]. Al-Utbi also states that the Afghans and [[Ghaljis|Khaljis]], living there as nomads, took the oath of allegiance to him and were recruited into his army.<ref name=Raza>{{cite journal|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|title=The Afghans and their relations with the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids|author=Syed Jabir Raza|publisher=Indian History Congress|page=786|author-link=Jabir Raza}}</ref> He helped [[Nuh II]] in expelling the rebel and heretic [[Simjurids|Abu Ali Simjur]] from Khorasan, resulting in its governorship being given to Sabuktigin who appointed Mahmud as his deputy there. He also appointed [[Ismail of Ghazni|Ismail]] as the successor to his kingdom and died in 997. A succession war erupted between Ismail and Mahmud, with the latter gaining the throne in 998.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXAABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA187|title=A History of Afghanistan: Volumes 1 and 2|author=Percy Sykes|publisher=Routledge|page=187|author-link=Percy Sykes|isbn=9781317845874|date=2014-07-10}}</ref>

====Mahmud====

[[File:Mahmud in robe from the caliph.jpg|thumb|400px|centre|Mahmud receives a robe from Caliph [[Al-Qadir]]; painting by [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]]]]

The Samanid amir [[Mansur II]] appointed Bektuzun as Khorasan's governor after Sabuktigin's death. Mahmud however wished to reacquire the governorship after defeating his brother Ismail and his allies. Bektuzun and Fa'iq, the ''de facto'' power behind the Samanid throne, toppled Mansur II as they did not trust him, and replaced him with [[Abd al-Malik II (Samanid emir)|Abu'l Fawaris 'Abd al-Malik]]. Their forces were however defeated in 999 by Mahmud, who acquired all the lands south of Oxus, with even those to the north of the river submitting to him. The Samanid dynasty was later ended by the [[Karakhanids]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA159|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4|author=Richard N. Frye|pages=158–159|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|author-link=Richard N. Frye|isbn=9780521200936|date=1975-06-26}}</ref> In 1002, Mahmud also defeated the Saffarid Amir [[Khalaf ibn Ahmad]] and annexed Sistan.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC&pg=PA50|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5|editor=[[John Andrew Boyle]]|page=50|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521069366|year=1968}}</ref>

=====Wars against Kabul Shahi=====

Mahmud systemized plunder raids into India as a long-term policy of the Ghaznavids. The first raid was undertaken in September 1000, but was meant for reconnaissance and identifying the possible terrain and roads that could be used for future raids. He reached Peshawar by September 1001 and was attacked by Jayapala. The two sides [[Battle of Peshawar (1001)|clashed]] on 27–28 November 1001 and Jayapala was captured.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xx7ICQAAQBAJ&pg=PA88|title= Warfare in Pre-British India – 1500BCE to 1740CE|publisher=Routledge|author=Kaushik Roy|page=88|isbn= 9781317586920|date= 2015-06-03}}</ref> [[Anandapala]] who was at Waihind, had to pay a heavy ransom to have his father and others released. Jayapala later self-immolated out of shame and Anandpala succeeded him.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iUk5k5AN54sC&pg=PA51|title= Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India, Volume 1|publisher=Sterling Publishers|author=Jaswant Lal Mehta|page=51|isbn= 9788120706170|year= 1979}}</ref> Mahmud attacked Anandpala later over his refusal to allow him passage during his attack on [[Multan]], which was controlled by [[Fateh Daud]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|page=8|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|year=1966|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref> The two sides clashed in 1009 in the eastern side of [[Indus]] at Chhachh, with Mahmud defeating Anandapala and capturing the fort of Bhimnagar.<ref name=SatishChandra>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA18|title= Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One|publisher=Har-Anand Publishers|author=Satish Chandra|page=18|author-link= Satish Chandra (historian)|isbn= 9788124110645|year= 2004}}</ref> He was allowed to rule as a feudatory in [[Punjab (region)|Punjab]] for some time.<ref name=SatishChandra/>

An alliance between Anandpala's son, Trilochanpala, and Kashmiri troops was later defeated.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1eMfzTBcXcYC&pg=PA152|title= Culture and Political History of Kashmir, Volume 1|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.|author=Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai|page=152|author-link= Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai|isbn= 9788185880310|year= 1994}}</ref> During the warfare from 990–91 to 1015, Afghanistan, and later Punjab and Multan were lost to the Ghaznavids.<ref name=SatishChandra/> Trilochanpala's rule was limited to eastern Punjab and he gained respite from the Muslim invasions with retreat to [[Sirhind]]. He allied with the [[Chandellas]] and in 1020-21 was defeated at a river called Rahib by Al-Utbi, while Firishta and [[Nizamuddin Ahmad]] identify it as [[Yamuna]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|page=16|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|year=1966|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref> He was killed in 1021 AD by his mutinous troops and succeeded by Bhimapala,<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Central Asia|issue= 23|title= Janjuas: The Sahis of Udabhanda (Hund)|author=Husain Khan
|publisher=Area Study Centre (Central Asia), University of Peshawar|page=78|year=1988}}</ref> who became the last ruler of the Kabul Shahi and was killed fighting the Ghaznavids in 1026 AD. The remnants of the royal family sought refuge with the [[Lohara dynasty]] of Kashmir and Punjab passed under the control of Muslim conquerors.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rOVpOG6MPMcC&pg=PA500|title= History of Ancient India|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|author=Rama Shankar Tripathi|page=500|isbn= 9788120800182|year= 1967}}</ref>

Mahmud used his plundered wealth to finance his armies which included mercenaries. The Indian soldiers, presumably Hindus, who were one of the components of the army, with their commander called ''[[sipahsalar]]-i-Hinduwan'', lived in their quarter of Ghazni while practicing their own religion. Indian soldiers under their commander Suvendhray remained loyal to Mahmud. They were also used against a Turkic rebel, with the command given to a Hindu named Tilak according to [[Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi|Baihaki]].<ref name=Fadl>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PnBMFaGMabYC&pg=PA40|title= Somanatha: The Many Voices of a History|publisher=Verso|author=Romila Thapar|page=40|author-link= Romila Thapar|isbn= 9781844670208|year= 2005}}</ref>

The renowned 14th-century Moroccan Muslim scholar [[Ibn Battuta]] remarked that the [[Hindu Kush]] meant the "slayer of Indians", because the slaves brought from [[Indian subcontinent|India]] who had to pass through there died in large numbers due to the extreme cold and quantity of snow.<ref name=Ransom>{{cite book|author=Christoph Witzenrath|title=Eurasian Slavery, Ransom and Abolition in World History, 1200–1860|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7LG1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45 |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-14002-3 |page=45|quote=Ibn Battuta, the renowned Moroccan fourteenth century world traveller remarked in a spine-chilling passage that Hindu Kush means slayer of the Indians, because the slave boys and girls who are brought from India die there in large numbers as a result of the extreme cold and the quantity of snow.}}</ref> He states:

{{Quote box
|quote=After this I proceeded to the city of Barwan, in the road to which is a high mountain, covered with snow and exceedingly cold; they call it the Hindu Kush, that is Hindu-slayer, because most of the slaves brought thither from India die on account of the intenseness of the cold.
|source=''The Travels of Ibn Battuta: in the Near East, Asia and Africa, 1325–1354''<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZW8AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA97|title=The Travels of Ibn Battuta: in the Near East, Asia and Africa, 1325–1354|publisher=Courier Corporation|year=2013|page=97|isbn=9780486123042}}</ref>
|align=center
|qalign = center
|salign=right
}}

=====Invasions of Ghur=====

[[File:MuhammadibnSuriPaintingHistoryofIran.jpg|thumb|300px|Painting of [[Muhammad ibn Suri]] (white-haired) with his men by [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]]]]

The conversion of Ghur occurred over a long period and it was mostly pagan until the 10th century, which [[Mohammad Habib]] and [[Khaliq Ahmad Nizami]] say was probably a result of the missionary activities by the [[Karramiyya]] movement established in the region in 10th–11th centuries. Its imperfect conversion is visible by the fact that while the people of Ghur had Muslim names, they led the life of pagans. Muhammad b. Suri, who had acknowledged Sabuktigin as his sovereign, withheld tribute after his death, started plundering caravans and harassed the subjects of Mahmud.<ref name=Nab/> [[Rawżat aṣ-ṣafāʾ]] called him a pagan, and al-Utbi stated that he was a Hindu.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=xd5VonTOppMC&dq=al+otbi+ghor+hindus&pg=PA161] Page 161 from "E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936"</ref>

In 1011, Mahmud dispatched an expedition to conquer Ghur under Altuntash, governor of [[Herat]], and Arslan Hajib, governor of [[Tus, Iran|Tus]]. Muhammad b. Suri, the king, placed himself in inaccessible hills and ravines. The Ghurids were however defeated and Suri was captured along with his son Shith. [[Abu Ali ibn Muhammad|Abu Ali]], who had remained on good terms with the Sultan, was made the ruler of Ghur by him. Eastern Ghur was brought under Ghaznavid control.<ref name=Nab>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lodSckjlNuMC&pg=PA179|title= History of Civilizations of Central Asia – Volume IV, Part I|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|editor1=M. S. Asimov|editor2=C. E. Bosworth|page=179|isbn= 9788120815957|year= 1992}}</ref> In 1015, Mahmud attacked Ghur's southwestern district of Khwabin and captured some forts.<ref name=Nizami>{{cite book|title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat, A.D. 1206–1526|publisher=[[Orient Longmans]]|year=1970|page=147|editor=[[Mohammad Habib]], [[K. A. Nizami]]}}</ref>

In 1020, Mahmud's son [[Ma'sud I of Ghazni|Ma'sud]] was dispatched to take Ghur's northwestern part called Tab. He was helped by Abul Hasan Khalaf and Shirwan, chieftains of the south-western and north-eastern regions respectively. He captured many forts, bringing the entire region of Ghur, except maybe the inaccessible interior, under Ghaznavid control.<ref name=Nizami/> He also captured the stronghold of the chieftain Warmesh-Pat of Jurwas, levying a tribute of arms.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 142|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref> Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani praises Abu Ali for firmly establishing Islamic institutions in Ghur. The progress of Islam in this divided region after his death is however unknown.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Medieval History of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia|pages= 138, 149|publisher=Variorum Reprints|year=1977|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref>

Ghur remained a pagan enclave until the 11th century. Mahmud who raided it, left Muslim precepts to teach Islam to the local population. The region became Muslim by 12th century, though the historian [[Satish Chandra (historian)|Satish Chandra]] states that [[Mahayana Buddhism]] is believed to have existed until the end of the century.<ref name= "Satish2">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA22|title= Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One|publisher=Har-Anand Publishers|author=Satish Chandra|page=22|author-link= Satish Chandra (historian)|isbn= 9788124110645|year= 2004}}</ref> Neither Mahmud nor Ma'sud conquered the interior. Habib and Nizami say that the Ghurids were gradually converted by propagandists of new mystic movements. The Shansabani eventually succeeded in establishing their seniority in Ghor, if not its unification. By the time of [[Bahram-Shah of Ghazna|Sultan Bahram]], Ghur was converted and politically unified.<ref name=Habib>{{cite book|title=Politics and Society During the Early Medieval Period: Collected Works of Professor Mohammad Habib|pages= 141|publisher=People's Publishing House|year=1977|author=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|author-link= Clifford Edmund Bosworth}}</ref> According to Minhaj, both [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad|Ghiyasuddin]] and [[Muhammad of Ghor|Mu'izzuddin]] were Karamis who later converted to [[Shafi‘i]] and [[Hanafi]] Islam respectively.<ref>{{cite book|title= A Comprehensive History of India: Volume Five – The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206–1526)|publisher=People's Publishing House|editor=[[Mohammad Habib]], [[Khaliq Ahmad Nizami]]|page=150}}</ref> ''[[Tarikh-i guzida]]'' however says that the Ghorids were only converted to Islam by Mahmud.<ref>Tarikh -I-Guzida of Hamdu-lla-Mustaufi. Page 65 from ''The History of India told by its own Historians H M Eliot and Dowson'' Volume 3</ref>

==Conversion of Pashtuns==

The name ''Afghanistan'' was first used in a political sense by Saifi Herawi in the 14th century. It was even used during the height of the [[Durrani Empire]]. Only after the [[Durand line]] was fixed, did its modern usage for the land between it and the Oxus river became usual. The people who were mostly responsible for establishing the Afghan kingdom are referred to as ''Pashtun'', who were also called "[[Afghan (ethnonym)|Afghans]]". The name ''[[Pashtuns|Pashtun]]'' (or ''Pakthun'') is the original and oldest name.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_C4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PR17|title=Government and Society in Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir 'Abd Al-Rahman Khan|author=Hasun Kawun Kakar|page= xvii|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|isbn=9780292729001|date=2011-01-15}}</ref>

The tenth-century Persian geography ''[[Hudud al-'Alam]]'' is the earliest known mention of the Afghans. In ''Discourse on the Country of Hindistan and Its Towns'', it states that, "Saul, a pleasant village on a mountain. In it live Afghans." [[Ibn Battuta]] described Saul as being situated between [[Gardez]] and Husaynan along a common trade route, the exact location of Husaynan is unknown. [[Akhund Darweza]] states that their original homeland was Qandahar from where they immigrated in 11th century upon the request of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] to assist him in his conquests gradually expanding Pashtun settlements. Afghan tradition considers "Kase Ghar" in [[Sulaiman Mountains|Sulayman range]] as the homeland.<ref>{{cite book|title= The transformation of Afghan tribal society: Tribal expansion, Mughal imperialism and the Roshaniyya insurrection, 1450-1600|pages=133–134|author=Joseph Theodore Arlinghaus, Duke University Dept. of History|publisher=Duke University|year=1988}}</ref> ''Hudud al-'Alam'' also mentions that the king of Ninhar ([[Nangarhar]]) had many wives including "Moslem, Afghan and Hindu".<ref name=Ninhar/>

The Pashtun traditions speak of [[Islamization]] during [[Muhammad]]'s time through [[Khalid ibn Walid|Khalid ibn al-Walid]].<ref name=Meel>{{cite book|title= Peshawar: Historic City of the Frontier|pages=64–65|author=Ahmed Hassan Dani|publisher=Sang-e-Meel Publications|year=1995}}</ref> [[Qais Abdur Rashid]], the presumed ancestor of the Afghans, is said to have led a delegation to Mecca from [[Ghor]] after being summoned by Khalid b. Walid and converted to Islam while also distinguishing himself in the service of Muhammad. He adopted the name Abdul Rashid, and his three sons – [[Sarbani|Saraban]], Ghurghust, [[Bettani|Baitan]], and an adopted son [[Karlani|Karlanri]] linked to Saranban, are considered to be the progenitors of the major Afghan divisions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AAHna6aqtX4C&pg=PA30|title= Historical Dictionary of Afghanistan|page=30|author=Ludwig W. Adamec|publisher= Scarecrow Press|year=2012|isbn= 9780810878150}}</ref>

[[Qais Abdur Rashid|Qais]] traveled to Medina to receive Mohammed's blessings and fought against the Meccans. Muhammad himself conferred the title of ''Pashtun'' upon Qais and his people according to the tradition. They returned to Ghor to spread Islam and pledged loyalty to Mahmud.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6_SCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA11|title= Afghan Modern: The History of a Global Nation|pages=11–12|author=Robert D. Crews|publisher= Harvard university Press|year=2015|isbn= 9780674286092}}</ref> Per Ni'matullah, the Ghurid ruler [[Muhammad of Ghor|Mu'izz al-Din]] had initiated their eastward migration (or settlements) into present-day north-west Pakistan, in course of his military campaigns.<ref name=DostMuhammad1>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf2cvE5jYrYC&pg=PA160|title=State and Tribe in Nineteenth-century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan (1826–1863)|publisher=[[Psychology Press]]|author=Christine Noelle|page=160|isbn=9780700706297|year=1997}}</ref>

The Arabs, at war with the Kabul Shah, had directed their campaigns in direction of [[Gandhara]]. By the time of [[Mu'awiya I|Mu'awiya]], Sistan's governorship was separated from Khorasan, with the governor looking after the region and keeping a check on Kabul Shah. [[Ahmed Hassan Dani]] considered that the Arab activities may have led to conversion of Afghans as well, and it may have been wholesale because of their tribal nature, i.e., all the Afghan tribes adopted Islam at once.<ref name=Meel/>

Quoting ''Matla-al-Anwar'', [[Ferishta]] states that a man named Khalid, son of Abdullah, stated by some to be a descendant of [[Khalid bin Walid]] or [[Abu Jahl]], was for some time governor of Herat, Ghor, [[Gharjistan]] and Kabul. After being relieved of the charge, he took up residence in Koh Sulaiman, with the [[Lodi (Pashtun tribe)|Lodis]] and [[Sur (Pashtun tribe)|Suris]] being the descendant of his daughter who married a converted Afghan.<ref>{{cite book|title= Peshawar: Historic City of the Frontier|pages=64|author=Ahmed Hassan Dani|publisher=Sang-e-Meel Publications|year=1995}}</ref>

Al-Utbi in ''[[Tarikh Yamini|Tarikh-i-Yamini]]'' states that the Afghans were enlisted by Sabuktigin and also Mahmud. During this period, the Afghan habitat was in the Sulaiman Mountains.<ref name=Ninhar>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXAABAAAQBAJ&pg=PA14|title= A History of Afghanistan: Volumes 1 and 2|page=14|author=Percy Sykes|publisher=Routledge|isbn= 9781317845874|date= 2014-07-10}}</ref> After defeating Jayapala in 988 AD, Sabuktigin had acquired the territory between [[Laghman Province|Laghman]] and [[Peshawar]]. Al-Utbi states that the Afghans and [[Ghaljis|Khaljis]], living there as nomads, took the oath of allegiance to him and were recruited into his army.<ref name=Raza/><ref>''The Process of Acculturation in Regional Historiography:The Case of the Delhi Sultanate'', Iqtidar Husain Siddiqui, '''Art and Culture: Endeavours in Interpretation''', Vol.1, Ed. Ahsan Jan Qaisar, Som Prakash Verma, Mohammad Habib, (Abhinav Publications, 1996), 7.</ref>

Writing in the 11th century AD, [[Al-Biruni]] in his ''Tarikh al Hind'' stated that the Afghan tribes lived in mountains west of India.<ref name=Vogelsang>The Afghans By Willem Vogelsang Edition: illustrated Published by Wiley-Blackwell, 2002 Page 118 {{ISBN|0-631-19841-5}}, {{ISBN|978-0-631-19841-3}}</ref> He notes, "In the western frontier mountains of India there live various tribes of the Afghans and extend up to the neighbourhood of the [[Indus Valley|Sindu valley]]." He earlier also noted about the mountains, "In marching from our country to [[Sindh]] we start from the country of [[Nimruz Province|Nimroz]], i.e. the country of Sijistan, whilst marching to Hind or India proper we start from the side of Kabul... In the mountains which form the frontier of India towards the west there are tribes of the Hindus, or of people near akin to them – rebellious savage races – which extend as far as the farthermost frontiers of the Hindu race."<ref>{{cite book|title= Peshawar: Historic City of the Frontier|pages=62–63|author=Ahmed Hassan Dani|publisher=Sang-e-Meel Publications|year=1995}}</ref>

Mahmud had gone to war against pagan Afghans while campaigning in the Sulayman mountains.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2lrRAAAAMAAJ&q=Mahmud+Ghaznavi+had+to+fight+against+the+infidel+Afghans+in+the+Sulaiman+mountains|title=Studies in Asian History: Proceedings|first=Indian Council for Cultural|last=Relations|date=March 21, 1969|publisher=Asia Publishing House [for] Indian Council for Cultural Relations}}</ref> Firishta states that Afghans fought on both sides during the [[Second Battle of Tarain|war]] between Mu'izz al-Din and [[Prithviraj Chauhan|Pithorai]] in 1192 AD, which [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] says probably indicates that they were not completely converted yet.<ref name=Wesnick>''E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 : Volume I'' By M Th Houtsma, [[T. W. Arnold]], A J Wensinck Edition: reprint, illustrated Published by BRILL, Page 217, 1993 {{ISBN|90-04-09796-1}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-09796-4}}</ref>

In 1519, [[Babur]] mounted an [[Battle of Bajaur (1519)|attack]] on the fort of [[Bajaur]] and sent a [[Dilazak]] Afghan as an ambassador to the Gibri Sultan of Bajaur, Mir Haidar 'Ali, to surrender and enter his services. Gibri, a [[Dardic languages|Dardic language]] of Bajaur, was also spoken by the royal family and nobility of the [[Swat Valley]]. The Gibris decided to resist and Babur's forces stormed it in two days. He ordered a general massacre of its inhabitants on the pretext that they had rebelled against [[Babur#At Kabul|Kabul's regime]] and were infidels who had [[apostasy|forsaken]] Islam.<ref>{{cite book|title= The transformation of Afghan tribal society: tribal expansion, Mughal imperialism and the Roshaniyya insurrection, 1450-1600|publisher=Duke University|author=Joseph Theodore Arlinghaus|pages=191, 200–201}}</ref>

The westward movement of Pashtuns from Sulaiman mountains to [[Qandahar]] and [[Herat]] is thought to have begun in the 15th century. In the 16th century, the area around Qandahar formed a bone of contention between the [[Ghilzai]]s and [[Durranis|Abdalis]]. The latter gave in and moved towards Herat during the reign of [[Safavid]] [[Abbas I of Persia|Shah Abbas I]]. Their settlements displaced or subjugated the indigenous populations, especially the [[Tajiks]] who were also the dominant population in Kabul, [[Nangarhar]] and [[Laghman Province|Laghman]] in east Afghanistan. Before the advent of Ghilzais of the [[Ahmadzai (Ghilji clan)|Ahmadzai]] division in the late 16th century, [[Logar River]] was also a Tajik stronghold. The Pashtuns also displaced the original [[Nuristanis|Kafirs]] and [[Pashayi people]] in [[Kunar Valley]] and Laghman Valley, located south of Kabul in east Afghanistan, to the infertile mountains. Regions to the south and east of [[Ghazni]] were the strongholds of [[Hazaras]] before the 16th century. They also lost [[Maidan Wardak Province|Wardak]] to [[Wardak (Pashtun tribe)|the tribe of the same name]] when the latter invaded in the 17th century. In Qandahar, the [[Farsiwan]]is, Hazaras, [[Kakar]]s and [[Baloch people]] were subjugated.<ref name=DostMuhammad>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf2cvE5jYrYC&pg=PA161|title=State and Tribe in Nineteenth-century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan (1826–1863)|publisher=[[Psychology Press]]|author=Christine Noelle|page=161|isbn=9780700706297|year=1997}}</ref>

== Conquests of Kafiristan ==

[[File:AfghanistanNurestan.png|thumb|300px|[[Nuristan]] province, renamed from [[Kafiristan]] in 1896]]

[[Kafiristan]] is a mountainous region of the [[Hindu Kush]] that was isolated and politically independent until the [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Afghan]] conquest of 1896.<ref name=Pellat/> Before their conversion to Islam, the Nuristanis or Kafir people practiced a form of [[ancient Hinduism]] infused with locally developed accretions.<ref name="nuristan.info">{{cite web|url=http://nuristan.info/Nuristani/Nuristanis1.html|title=Richard Strand's Nuristân Site: Peoples and Languages of Nuristan|author=Richard F. Strand|date=31 December 2005|work=nuristan.info|author-link=Richard Strand}}</ref>

Kafiristan proper from west to east comprises basins of [[Alishang]], [[Alingar River|Alingar]], Pech or Prasun, Waigal and [[Landai Sin Valley|Bashgal]]. The region became a refuge of an old group of [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European people]], probably mixed with an older substratum, as well as a refuge of a distinct Kafiri group of [[Indo-Iranian languages]], forming part of the wider [[Dardic languages]]. The inhabitants were known as "[[kafir]]s" due to their enduring paganism, while other regions around them became Muslim. However, the influence from district names in Kafiristan of Katwar or Kator and the ethnic name [[Kata people|Kati]] has also been suggested. The Kafirs were divided into [[Siah-Posh Kafirs|Siyah-Posh]], comprising five sub-tribes who spoke the [[Kamkata-vari language]]; while the others were called [[Safed-Posh]], comprising Prasungeli, Waigeli, Wamai and Ashkun.<ref name=Pellat>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume IV|editor1=C. E. Bosworth|editor1-link=C. E. Bosworth |editor2=E. Van Donzel|editor3=Bernard Lewis|editor3-link=Bernard Lewis|editor4=Charles Pellat|editor4-link=Charles Pellat|page=409|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]}}</ref>

The Kafirs called themselves "Balor", a term that appeared in Chinese sources as early as the fifth century AD. In both the Chinese sources and Muslim sources like the 16th-century work of Kashmir's conqueror [[Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat]], the terms "Bolor" and "Boloristan" denote the area from the [[Kabul River|Kabul valley]] to Kashmir, [[Yarkant County|Yarkand]] and [[Kashgar]]. The country is the most inaccessible part of Hindu Kush. The Muslim conquerors could not achieve a lasting success here.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Baz_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84|title=An Historical Geography of Iran|author=Vasily Bartold|pages=84–85|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|author-link=Vasily Bartold|isbn=9781400853229|date=2014-07-14}}</ref>

The vast area extending from modern Nuristan to Kashmir contained a host of "Kafir" cultures and Indo-European languages that became Islamized over a long period. Earlier, it was surrounded by Buddhist areas. The Islamization of the nearby [[Badakhshan]] began in the 8th century and Kafiristan was completely surrounded by Muslim states in the 16th century with the Islamization of [[Baltistan]]. The Buddhist states temporarily brought literacy and state rule into the region. The decline of Buddhism resulted in it becoming heavily isolated.<ref name=academia>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/35077429|journal=Archivio per l'Antropologia e la Etnologia
|title=Fence of Peristan - The Islamization of the "Kafirs" and Their Domestication|publisher=Società Italiana di Antropologia e Etnologia|author=Alberto M. Cacopardo|year=2016|pages=69, 77}}</ref>

There have been varying theories about the origins of the Kafirs.<ref name=LudwigAdamec>{{cite book|title=Historical and Political Gazetteer of Afghanistan, Volume 6|author=Ludwig W. Adamec
|page=348|publisher=Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt Graz |year=1985|author-link=Ludwig W. Adamec
}}</ref> Oral traditions of some Nuristanis place themselves to be at confluence of [[Kabul River|Kabul]] and [[Kunar River]] a millennium ago, being driven off from [[Kandahar]] to Kabul to [[Ancient Kapisa|Kapisa]] to [[Kama district|Kama]] with the Muslim invasion. They identify themselves as late arrivals here, being driven by [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], who after establishing his empire, forced the unsubmissive population to flee.<ref name="nuristan.info"/> [[George Scott Robertson]] considered them to be part of the old Indian population of Eastern Afghanistan and stated that they fled to the mountains while refusing to convert to Islam after the Muslim invasion in the 10th century.<ref name=LudwigAdamec/> The name Kator was used by Lagaturman, the last king of the Turk Shahi. The title "Shah Kator" was assumed by [[Chitral (princely state)|Chitral]]'s ruler Mohtaram Shah who assumed it upon being impressed by the majesty of the erstwhile pagan rulers of Chitral.<ref>{{cite journal|journal= Journal of Central Asia|volume= 14|title= The Genesis of the Royal Title|author= Dr. Hussain Khan|publisher= Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, [[Quaid-i-Azam University]]|pages=111, 112}}</ref> The theory of Kators being related to the Turki Shahis is based on the information of ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh|Jami- ut-Tawarikh]]'' and ''[[Tarikh-i guzida|Tarikh-i-Binakiti]]''.<ref>{{cite book|title= The Shahis of Afghanistan and the Punjab|author= Deena Bandhu Pandey|publisher= Historical Research Institute; Oriental Publishers|page=65|year=1973}}</ref> The region was also named after its ruling elite. The royal usage may be the origin behind the name of Kator.<ref>{{cite journal|journal= Journal of Central Asia|volume= 14|title= The Genesis of the Royal Title|author= Dr. Hussain Khan|publisher= Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, [[Quaid-i-Azam University]]|page=114}}</ref>

===Mahmud of Ghazni===

In 1020–21, Mahmud of Ghazni led a campaign against Kafiristan and the people of the "pleasant valleys of Nur and Qirat" according to Gardizi.<ref name=Saran>{{cite book|title= A Comprehensive History of India|publisher=Orient Longmans|author=Ram Sharan Sharma|page=357|author-link=Ram Sharan Sharma}}</ref> The Persian chronicles speak of Qirat and Nur (or Nardin), which [[H. M. Elliot]] on authority of [[Al-Biruni]] identifies with Nur and Kira tributaries of Kabul river.<ref name=Habib2>{{cite book|title= Politics and Society During the Early Medieval Period: Collected Works of Professor Mohammad Habib, Volume 2|publisher=People's Publishing House|author=Mohammad Habib|pages=58–59, 100|author-link=Mohammad Habib}}</ref> Ferishta wrongly calls these two valleys as "Nardin" and Qirat and confuses this conquest with the one against "Nardin" or [[Nandana]]. He also wrongly mentions that it took place after 412 AH.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw1EBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|title= The Life and Times of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=Muhmmad Nazim|pages=74–75|isbn= 9781107456594|date= 2014-08-13}}</ref> [[Alexander Cunningham]] identifies the places conquered as "[[Bairat]]h" and "Narayanpura".<ref name=Narayanpura>{{cite journal|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|title=Identification of 'Naraina': A famous political|author=Richard N. Frye|page=153|publisher=[[Indian History Congress]]|author-link=Richard N. Frye}}</ref>

These people worshipped the lion.<ref name=Nazim>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw1EBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA74|title= The Life and Times of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=Muhmmad Nazim|page=75|isbn= 9781107456594|date= 2014-08-13}}</ref> While [[Clifford Edmund Bosworth]] considers that Mahmud attacked "pagan [[Afghan (ethnonym)|Afghans]]", Joseph Theodore Arlinghaus of [[Duke University]] does not consider it correct because his source [[Gardizi]] simply calls them "pagan (kafiran)" and not "pagan Afghans", as they were not known to be pagan or live on borders of Nuristan in the 11th century.<ref>{{cite book|title= The transformation of Afghan tribal society: tribal expansion, Mughal imperialism and the Roshaniyya insurrection, 1450-1600|publisher=Duke University|author=Joseph Theodore Arlinghaus|page=132}}</ref> [[Mohammad Habib]] however considers that they might have been worshipping Buddha in the form of a lion (''Sakya Sinha'').<ref name=Habib2/> [[Ramesh Chandra Majumdar]] states that they had a Hindu temple which was destroyed by Mahmud's general.<ref name=amirrc>{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|page=13|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|year=1966|author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar}}</ref> [[Ram Sharan Sharma]] meanwhile states that they may have been Buddhist.<ref name=Saran/> Cunningham claims based on the reporting of Ferishta that the place was plundered by 'Amir Ali after being taken.<ref name=Narayanpura/>

According to Gardizi, while returning from his recent invasion of India, Mahmud had heard about the Kafirs and the chief of Qirat surrendered without any struggle and accepted to convert, with the inhabitants converting as well. Nur however refused to surrender and his general 'Amir Ali led an attack on it, forcing its people to convert.<ref>{{cite book|title=Studies in Medieval Indian History|author=Sri Ram Sharma|page=28|publisher=Dayanand College|year=2006}}</ref> According to Firshta, the rulers of both of them submitted and accepted Islam in 1022.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uQ7k2vQlYxEC&pg=PA123|title=Al-Hind: The Slavic Kings and the Islamic conquest, 11th-13th centuries|author=André Wink|page=123|publisher=Brill|year=2002|isbn=0391041746}}</ref> He adds, "On breaking a great temple situated there, the ornamented figure of a lion came out of it, which according to the belief of the Hindus was four thousand years old."<ref name=Habib2/>

However, no permanent conquest was attempted.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA172|title=The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4|author=Richard N. Frye|page=172|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|author-link=Richard N. Frye|isbn=9780521200936|date=1975-06-26}}</ref> ''Iqbal namah-i-Jahangiri'' stated that Kafirs still lived in Darrah-i-Nur which Mahmud of Ghazni had claimed to have converted. The [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Jahangir]] had received a delegation of these pure Kafirs in [[Jalalabad]] and had honoured them with gifts.<ref name=Peristan/>

===Timurids===

[[File:Timur reconstruction03.jpg|thumb|200px|Facial reconstruction of Timur from his skull]]

The campaigns of Timur are recorded by [[Zafarnama (Yazdi biography)|Zafarnama]], written by [[Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi]], which is based on [[Zafarnama (Shami biography)|another work]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Delhi Sultanate|author=R.C. Majumdar|page=4|publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=1951|author-link=R.C. Majumdar}}</ref> On his way to India, Timur attacked the Siyah-Posh in 1398 AD after receiving complaints from the trading city of [[Andarab]] about the raids by the Kafirs. He penetrated Kafiristan from Khawak pass and restored an old fortress there.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Baz_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA85|title=An Historical Geography of Iran|author=Vasily Bartold|page=85|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|author-link=Vasily Bartold|isbn=9781400853229|date=2014-07-14}}</ref> He personally proceeded against the Kator region, which extended from Kabul to Kashmir.<ref name=Sultanatemajumdar/>

Timur sent a detachment of 10,000 soldiers against the Siyah-Poshas under Burhan Aglan and had the fort of Kator deserted by Kafirs destroyed, while the houses of the city were burnt. The Kafirs took refuge on top of a hill and many were killed in the ensuing clash. Some held out for three days but agreed to convert after Timur offered them the choice between death and Islam. They however soon apostatised and ambushed Muslim soldiers in the night. The Muslims repelled them and a number of the Kafirs were killed, with 150 being taken prisoner and later executed. Timur ordered his men "to kill all the men, to make prisoners of women and children, and to plunder and lay waste all their property." His soldiers carried out the order and he directed them to build a tower of skulls of the dead Kafirs.<ref name=Sultanatemajumdar/>

Timur had his expedition engraved on a neighbouring hill in the month of [[Ramadan]]. His detachment sent against the Siyah-Poshas however met with disaster, with Aglan being routed and forced to flee. A small detachment of 400 men under Muhammad Azad was then sent and defeated the Kafirs, retrieving the horses and armour Aglan lost. Timur later captured a few more places, though nothing more is stated, presumably he left the Siyah-Poshas alone. He proceeded to exterminate the rebellious Afghan tribes and crossed the [[Indus River]] in September 1398.<ref name=Sultanatemajumdar>{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Delhi Sultanate|author=R.C. Majumdar|page=113|publisher=[[Allen & Unwin]] |year=1951|author-link=R.C. Majumdar}}</ref>

The [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] [[Sultan Mahmud Mirza]] is said to have raided Kafiristan twice by ''[[Baburnama]]'', which earned him the title of ''[[ghazi (warrior)|ghazi]]''.<ref name=Pellat/>

===Yarkand Khanate===

Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat invaded Balor under orders of [[Sultan Said Khan]] in 1527-1528 AD, and was accompanied by Said's eldest son [[Abdurashid Khan|Rashid Khan]]. The expedition was an Islamic frontier raid called ''[[Ghazi (warrior)|ghaza]]''.<ref name=OUP/> Dughlat undertook highly devastating plundering raids against the region.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Central Asia|volume=2|issue=1|title=Bolor – A Contribution to the Political and Ethnic Geography of Pakistan|page=59|author=Karl Jettmar|publisher=Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, [[Quaid-i-Azam University]]|year=1979}}</ref>

Rashid Khan (r. 1533–1560) undertook further expeditions against Bolor (Kafiristan), which are recorded by ''Tarikh-i-Kashgar'' and ''Bahr al-asar'' of Mahmud b. Amir Wali. The Kashgari author mentions it briefly, though Wali goes into detail. The first campaign failed with a number of Kashgari captured and enslaved by the people of Bolor. A second invasion was successful and forced them to submit. ''Tarikh-i-Kashgar'' states that Bolor was governed by Shah Babur after [[Abdallah (Moghul Khan)|Abdullah Khan's]] successful campaign in 1640.<ref name=OUP>{{cite book|title=Proceedings of the Second International Hindukush Cultural Conference|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|editor1-last=Bashir|editor1-first=Elena|editor1-link=Elena Bashir|editor2=Israr-ul-Din}}</ref>

===Mughals===

[[Babur]] himself came to the region in the winter of 1507–1508 and had an inscription carved commemorating his transit.<ref name=Pellat/> While fleeing to India to take refuge in the Afghan-Indian borderlands after [[Muhammad Shaybani|Shibani Khan]] attacked [[Qandahar]], which Babur had recently conquered, he marched from Kabul to [[Lamghan]] in September 1507. He eventually reached the [[Adinapur]] fort in [[Nangarhar]] district and commented that his men had to forage for food and raided the rice fields of the Kafirs in the Alishang district.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6wPbXSyvjYC&pg=PA229|title=The Garden of the Eight Paradises: Bābur and the Culture of Empire in Central Asia, Afghanistan and India (1483-1530)|author=Stephen Frederic Dale|page=229|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2004|isbn=9004137076}}</ref>

While writing in his memoirs, Babur noted that when he captured [[Asadabad, Afghanistan|Chigha Sarai]] in 1514, the "Kafirs of Pech came to their assistance."<ref name=Ludwig/> He mentions some Muslim ''nīmčas'' or half-breeds, probably converted Kafirs, who married with the Kafirs and lived at Chigha Sarai, located at confluence of [[Kunar River]] and [[Pech River]].<ref name=Pellat/> In 1520, he mentions sending Haidar Alamdar to the Kafirs, who returned and met him under Bandpakht along with some Kafir chiefs who gifted him some [[wineskin]]s.<ref name=Ludwig>{{cite book|title=Historical and Political Gazetteer of Afghanistan, Volume 6|author=Ludwig W. Adamec
|page=351|publisher=Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt Graz |year=1985|author-link=Ludwig W. Adamec
}}</ref>

The relationship between the Siahposh and the residents of Panjshir and Andarab remained the same even more than a century after Timur's expedition. Babur records about Panjshir that, "It lies upon the road, and is in the immediate vicinity of Kafiristan. The inroads of the robbers of Kafiristan are made through Panjshir. In consequence of their vicinity of the Kafirs – the inhabitants of this district are happy to pay them a fixed contribution. Since I last invaded Hindustan, and subdued it (in 1527), the Kafirs have descended into Panjshir, and returned after slaying a great number of people and committing extensive damages."<ref name=Ludwig/>

Per ''Tabakat-i-Akbari'', the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Akbar]] had dispatched his younger brother [[Mirza Muhammad Hakim]], who was a staunch adherent of the missionary-minded [[Naqshbandi]] [[Sufism|Sufi]] order, against the Kafirs of Katwar in 1582.<ref name=Pellat/> Hakim was a semi-independent governor of Kabul.<ref name="Ğihād">{{cite journal|journal=Israel Oriental Studies|volume=10|page=153|publisher=[[Tel Aviv University]]|author=C. E. Bosworth|title=Ğihād in Afghanistan and Muslim India|author-link=C. E. Bosworth}}</ref> The ''Sifat-nama-yi Darviš Muhammad Hān-i Ğāzī'' of [[Qadi|Kadi]] Muhammad Salim who accompanied the expedition mentions its details<ref name=Pellat/> and gives Hakim the epithet of ''[[Dervish|Darviš]] Khan Gazi''.<ref name="Ğihād"/>

Muhammad Darvish's religious crusade fought its way from Lamghan to Alishang, and is stated to have conquered and converted 66 valleys to Islam. After conquering Tajau and Nijrau valleys in Panjshir area, his forces established a fort at Islamabad, located at the confluence of Alishang and Alingar rivers. They continued the raid up to Alishang and made their last effort against the non-Muslims of Alingar, fighting up to Mangu, the modern border between [[Pashayi languages|Pashai]] and [[Askunu language|Ashkun-speaking]] areas.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gates of Peristan: history, religion and society in the Hindu Kush|publisher=Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente|author=Alberto M. Cacopardo, Augusto S. Cacopardo|page=32}}</ref>

The conquest does not seem to have had a lasting effect, as [[Henry George Raverty]] mentions that Kafirs still lived in upper part of Alishang and Tagau.<ref name=Peristan>{{cite journal|journal=Archivio per l'Antropologia e la Etnologia
|title=Fence of Peristan – The Islamization of the "Kafirs" and Their Domestication|publisher=Società Italiana di Antropologia e Etnologia|author=Alberto M. Cacopardo|year=2016|page=90}}</ref> ''Khulasat al-ansab'' of Hafiz Rahmat Khan stated that the Afghans and Kafirs of Lamghan were still fighting each other during the time of Jahangir.<ref name=Peristan/>

===Final subjugation===
[[File:Amir Abdur Rahman Khan of Afghanistan-cropped.jpg|thumb|Amir [[Abdur Rahman Khan]]]]
{{main|Conquest of Kafiristan}}
Under Amir [[Sher Ali Khan]], Afghanistan was divided into provinces (''[[wilayat]]s'') of Kabul, Kandahar, Herat and [[Afghan Turkestan]]. [[Uruzgan]] and Kafiristan were later incorporated into Kabul.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_C4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49|title=Government and Society in Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir 'Abd Al-Rahman Khan|author=Hasun Kawun Kakar|page= 49|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|isbn=9780292729001|date=2011-01-15}}</ref> Some parts of Kafiristan were already following Islam before its conquest. Amir [[Abdul Rahman Khan]] tried to persuade them to convert to Islam by deputing Kafir elders. The Kafirs were meanwhile poorly armed as compared to Afghans and numbered only 60,000. By 1895, the demarcation of nearby [[Chitral district|Chitral]] under indirect [[British Empire|British]] rule, and the conquest of [[Pamirs]] by [[Russian Empire|Russia]], worried him about the endangerment of integration of Afghanistan through the independent Kafiristan.<ref name=Texas>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_C4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA151|title=Government and Society in Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir 'Abd Al-Rahman Khan|author=Hasun Kawun Kakar|page=xxiv, 151|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|isbn=9780292729001|date=2011-01-15}}</ref> Afghan tribes meanwhile undertook slave raids in places like Kafiristan, [[Hazarajat]], Badakhshan and Chitral.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_C4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174|title=Government and Society in Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir 'Abd Al-Rahman Khan|author=Hasun Kawun Kakar|page=174|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|isbn=9780292729001|date=2011-01-15}}</ref>

The territory between Afghanistan and [[British Raj|British India]] was [[Durand Line|demarcated between 1894 and 1896]]. Part of the frontier lying between Nawa Kotal in outskirts of [[Mohmand Agency|Mohmand country]] and [[Bashgal Valley]] on outskirts of Kafiristan were demarcated by 1895 with an agreement reached on 9 April 1895.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PfrXAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|title=An Historical Geography of Iran|author=Vasily Bartold|page=85|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|author-link=Vasily Bartold|isbn=9781107662094|date=2013-10-17}}</ref> Abdur Rahman wanted to force every community and tribal confederation with his single interpretation of Islam due to it being the only uniting factor. After the subjugation of the [[Hazaras]], Kafiristan was the last remaining autonomous part. [[Field marshal]] Ghulam Hayder Khan sent a message to Kafirs of Barikut which stated, "It is not the duty of the government to compel, force or impose on them to accept, or take the path of the religion of Islam. The obligation that does exist is this: they render obedience and pay their taxes. As long as they do not disobey their command, they will not incinerate themselves with the fire of ''[[padishah]]'s'' [king's] wrath. In addition, they are not to block the building of the road [that was planned through their territory]."<ref name=Katib/>

Emir Abdur Rahman Khan's forces invaded Kafiristan in the winter of 1895–1896 and captured it in 40 days according to his autobiography. Columns invaded it from the west through Panjshir to Kullum, the strongest fort of the region. The columns from the north came through [[Badakhshan]] and from the east through [[Asmar, Afghanistan|Asmar]]. A small column also came from south-west through [[Laghman Province|Laghman]]. The Kafirs were forcibly converted to Islam and resettled in Laghman, while the region was settled by veteran soldiers and other Afghans. Kafiristan was renamed as [[Nuristan]].<ref name=Sykes1>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXAABAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA195|title=A History of Afghanistan: Volumes 1 and 2, Volume 1|author=Percy Sykes|publisher=Routledge|page=195|author-link=Percy Sykes|isbn=9781317845874|date=2014-07-10}}</ref> Other residents also converted to avoid the ''[[jizya]]''.<ref name=Katib/>

His victory was celebrated with the publishing of a poem in 1896 or 1897 and [[Faiz Mohammad Katib Hazara]] gave him the title of "Idol-Smasher".<ref name=Katib>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142|title=Afghanistan's Islam: From Conversion to the Taliban|author=Nile Green|publisher=University of California Press|pages=142–143|isbn=9780520294134|year=2017}}</ref> About 60,000 of the Kafirs became converts. [[Mullah]]s were deployed after the conquest to teach them about fundamentals of Islam. The large-scale conversion proved difficult however and complete Islamization took some time. Kafir elders are known to have offered sacrifices in their shrines upon hearing rumours of Rahman's death in 1901.<ref name=Texas/> Three main roads connecting Badakhshan with [[Kunar Province|Kunar]] and Lamghan (Chigha Sirai-[[Kuran wa Munjan|Munjan]], [[Asmar, Afghanistan|Asmar]]-Badakhshan and Munjan-Laghman) were built after the conquest.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_C4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA224|title=Government and Society in Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir 'Abd Al-Rahman Khan|author=Hasun Kawun Kakar|page=224|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|isbn=9780292729001|date=2011-01-15}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[History of Afghanistan]]
*[[Timeline of Afghan history]]
*[[History of Arabs in Afghanistan]]
*[[Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Afghanistan]]
*[[Early Muslim conquests]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. [[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period]]; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125948/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=80201010&ct=0 The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877] – This online Copy has been posted by: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929132016/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List])
* {{cite journal|title=The Ṭāhirids and Persian Literature|first=C. E.|last=Bosworth|author-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|journal=Iran|volume=7|publisher=Taylor & Francis Ltd.|year=1969|pages=103–106|doi=10.2307/4299615|jstor=4299615}}
* {{Baghdad During the Abbasid Caliphate|edition=Second}}
*{{cite book|first=John L. |last=Esposito|title=The Oxford History of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HUDXkJIE3EC&pg=PA39|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199880416}}
*{{The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates|edition=Third}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* ''The Guardian'': "[https://www.theguardian.com/print/0,3858,5217828-103595,00.html Lost Tribe Struggles for Survival]"
* ''Press Trust of India'' :"[https://web.archive.org/web/20070205074605/http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/20010105/iin05014.html Inscription throws new light to Hindu rule in Afghanistan ]"
*[http://www.apaa.info/ Association for the Protection of Afghan Archeology]

{{Islam topics|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muslim Conquest of Afghanistan}}
[[Category:Ancient peoples of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Arab ethnic groups|Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Military history of the Ghaznavid Empire]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Ghurid dynasty]]
[[Category:Military history of the Timurid Empire]]
[[Category:Early Muslim conquests|Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Former monarchies in Afghan history]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Invasions of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Military history of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Nuristanis]]
[[Category:Pashtun society]]
[[Category:Spread of Islam]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Abbasid Caliphate]]
[[Category:Wars involving Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Rashidun Caliphate]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Umayyad Caliphate]]

Sundarakanda (2025 film)

2026-04-29T01:19:52Z

Sherrie7069: started a data

{{Short description|2025 Indian film}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Sundarakanda
| image = Sundarakanda_2025.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| native_name = 
| director = Venkatesh Nimmalapudi
| writer = Venkatesh Nimmalapudi
| screenplay =
| story =
| based_on = 
| producer = {{Plainlist|
* Santhosh Chinnapolla
* Gowtham Reddy
* Rakesh Mahankalli
}}
| starring = {{Plainlist|
* [[Nara Rohith]]
* [[Sridevi Vijaykumar]]
* [[Virti Vaghani]]
}}
| narrator =
| cinematography = Pradeesh M. Varma
| editing = Rohan Chillale
| music = [[Leon James (composer)|Leon James]]
| studio = Sandeep Picture Palace
| distributor = Aran Media Works
| released = {{Film date|2025|8|27|df=yes}}
| runtime = 137 minutes
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Sundarakanda''''' is a 2025 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[romantic comedy]] [[Drama (film and television)|drama]]. Story, screenplay, and direction were handled by Venkatesh Nimmalapudi, who structured the film as a light-hearted romantic drama focusing on modern relationships and personal experiences. The music and background score were composed by Leon James, whose compositions enhance the emotional atmosphere of the film, while the technical team Shri Raghu, Kamala manohari and Gorla Mahesh contributed to presenting the story with an engaging cinematic style.. It stars [[Nara Rohith]], [[Sridevi Vijaykumar]] and [[Virti Vaghani]] in lead roles.

The film was released on 27 August 2025.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-08-26 |title='Sundarakanda': CBFC clears Nara Rohith's romantic drama for Ganesh Chaturthi release - Read |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/sundarakanda-cbfc-clears-nara-rohiths-romantic-drama-for-ganesh-chaturthi-release-read/articleshow/123519675.cms |access-date=2025-09-25 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Siddharth ([[Nara Rohith]]) is a bachelor in his late 30s who is struggling to find a life partner. He has rejected numerous proposals because each candidate fails to meet five specific qualities he has in mind—qualities inspired by his memories and ideals.

One day, he meets Eira ([[Virti Vaghani]]), a college student who unexpectedly matches all the traits he has been seeking. Siddharth falls for her, but there's a significant obstacle: Eira's mother Vaishnavi ([[Sridevi Vijaykumar]]) strongly disapproves of their union, primarily because of the age difference.

As the story unfolds, it is revealed that Vaishnavi and Siddharth share a past—she was his first love during his school days. This twist intensifies the conflict and complicates Siddharth's attempt to win over both Eira and Vaishnavi's acceptance.

The narrative then progresses through comedic episodes, family drama, and emotional confrontations as Siddharth strives to overcome misunderstandings and relational hurdles. The film builds up to whether he can reconcile with Vaishnavi's objections and whether his love for Eira can prevail.

== Cast ==
{{Cast listing|
* [[Nara Rohith]] as Siddharth
* [[Sridevi Vijaykumar]] as Vaishnavi, Eira’s mother and Siddharth’s childhood love-interest
* [[Virti Vaghani]] as Eira, Siddharth’s love-interest
* [[Naresh (actor)|Naresh]] as Surendra, Siddharth’s father
* [[Rupa Lakshmi]] as Lakshmi, Siddharth’s mother
* [[Vasuki Anand]] as Megha, Siddharth's sister
* [[Satya (Telugu actor)|Satya]] as Satya, Eira’s professor
* Sunaina Badam  as Satya’s wife
* [[VTV Ganesh]] as Venkata Rao, Vaishnavi’s father and Eira’s grandfather
* [[Abhinav Gomatam]] as Siddharth’s friend
* [[Raghu Babu]] as Siddharth’s office manager
* [[Ajay (actor)|Ajay]] as Shiva, Siddharth’s childhood rival
* [[Raghu Karumanchi]] as Venkatarao’s henchmen
* Hashmi Duvvapu as Swamy, Siddharth’s friend
* Anil Kalyan as Rajeev, Siddharth’s friend
* Pavithra Bathula as Kumari, a maid
* [[Vasu Inturi]]
* Bhargav Garamapalli
* Surya Gopinath Adimulam
* Pavan Malla
* [[Viswant Duddumpudi]] as Dr. Sanjay (Cameo)
}}

== Soundtrack ==
{{Track listing
| headline = Track listing
| extra_column = Singer(s)
| all_music = [[Leon James (composer)|Leon James]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/sundarakanda-original-motion-picture-soundtrack/1837413003|title=Sundarakanda (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) by Leon James & Sri Harsha Emani on Apple Music|date=September 3, 2025|via=music.apple.com}}</ref>
| total_length = 18:27
| all_lyrics = Sri Harsha Emani
| title1 = Bahusa Bahusa
| extra1 = [[Sid Sriram]]
| length1 = 4:41
| title2 = Hammayya
| extra2 = [[Ram Miriyala]]
| length2 = 3:42
| title3 = Please Please Ma'am
| extra3 = Arjun Chandy, Deepak Blue, Aravind Srinivas, Sai Sharan, Reshma Shyam, Haripriya, Lavita Lobo
| length3 = 3:28
| title4 = Dear Eira
| extra4 = Keerthana Vaidyanathan
| length4 = 4:11
| title5 = Dear Eira Reprise
| extra5 = Haripriya
| length5 = 2:25
}}

== Release ==
''Sundarakanda'' was released on 27 August 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Telangana |date=2025-08-26 |title=Censor Board clears Nara Rohith's Sundarakanda for release with U/A certificate |url=https://telanganatoday.com/censor-board-clears-nara-rohiths-sundarakanda-for-release-with-u-a-certificate |access-date=2025-09-25 |website=Telangana Today |language=en}}</ref> Post-theatrical digital streaming rights and satellite television rights were acquired by [[JioHotstar]] and [[Star Maa]] respectively. It was released on JioHotstar on 23 September 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-18 |title=Nara Rohith's Sundarakanda gets a streaming date |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2025/Sep/18/nara-rohiths-sundarakanda-gets-a-streaming-date |access-date=2025-09-25 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>

== Reception ==
''[[The Times of India]]'' rated the film 3/5 stars and wrote, "A watchable entertainer with clean humour, strong performances and a quirky hook that falters in execution. If you can overlook the predictable beats and uneven second half, Sundarakanda works as a light watch".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sundarakanda Movie Review: An entertaining watch with laughs and lapses |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movie-reviews/sundarakanda/movie-review/123548689.cms |access-date=2025-09-25 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> Srivathsan Nadadhur of ''[[The Hindu]]'' stated, "Director Venkatesh Nimmalapudi has a smart premise, though the treatment is a mixed bag. It errs on way too many occasions to be a light, memorable film with a quirky concept".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nadadhur |first=Srivathsan |date=2025-08-27 |title='Sundarakanda' movie review: Nara Rohith's romcom is a mixed bag |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/sundarakanda-movie-review-nara-rohiths-telugu-romcom-directed-by-venkatesh-nimmalapudi/article69982136.ece |access-date=2025-09-25 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Aditya Devulapally of ''[[OTTplay]]'' rated the film 3.5/5 stars and wrote, "On the whole, ''Sundarakanda'' is a new-age romantic drama that has good comedy, amazing emotions, and a contemporary take on love".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ottplay.com/review/sundarakanda-review-nara-rohiths-film-has-emotions-comedy-and-family-drama-in-the-right-mix/d0ac5b9dc9944|title=Sundarakanda Review: A dignified take on age-gap handled with maturity|website=OTTPlay}}</ref> A critic from ''[[Cinema Express]]'' rated the film 2.5/5 and wrote, "It is uneven, often embarrassing, sometimes graceful. It gives us glimpses of a better film within it, and if nothing else, it pushes Telugu cinema a little further into uncomfortable terrain".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Devulapally |first=Aditya |date=August 27, 2025 |title=Sundarakanda Movie Review: A daring misfire that wrestles with uncomfortable truths about desire and delusion |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/review/2025/Aug/27/sundarakanda-movie-review-a-daring-misfire-that-wrestles-with-uncomfortable-truths-about-desire-and-delusion |website=Cinema Express}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title|32161505}}

[[Category:2025 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2025 romantic comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:2025 Indian films]]
[[Category:Telugu-language romantic comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Films set in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Films set in Visakhapatnam]]
[[Category:Films shot in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Films shot in Visakhapatnam]]
[[Category:Films scored by Leon James (composer)]]
[[Category:Midlife crisis films]]

Kathua Waterfront

2026-04-22T16:33:42Z

Sherrie7069:

{{short description|Development at Kathua, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox urban development project
| name = Kathua Waterfront
| image =
| caption =
| other_names =
| location = [[Kathua]], [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], India
| address =
| coordinates = {{coord|32.3891|75.5261|display=inline,title}}
| status = Open for Public
| groundbreaking =
| proposed =
| constructed =
| est_completion =
| opening = June 2025 - Ongoing
| demolished =
| destroyed =
| use = [[waterfront (area)|Waterfront]]
| architect =
| architecture_firm =
| developer = Kathua District Administration & Jammu & Kashmir Union Territory Administration<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kashmirahead.com/kathua-waterfront-project-unveiled-a-vision-for-a-vibrant-future/|title=Kathua Waterfront project unveiled: A vision for a vibrant future|work=Kashmir Ahead|date=21 March 2025|access-date=9 July 2025}}</ref>
| owner =
| manager =
| cost = {{INRConvert|8|c}} (February 2025)<ref name="kathuaupdate">{{cite web|url=https://www.kathuaupdate.com/2025/02/transformation-of-kathua-canal-into_6.html|title=Transformation of Kathua Canal into Attractive Waterfront Soon - DC Kathua|work=kathuaupdate.com|date=6 February 2025|access-date=9 July 2025}}</ref>
| buildings =
| size = 1.5 kms<ref name="KNSKashmir">{{cite web|url=https://www.knskashmir.com/lieutenant-governor-inaugurates-kathua-waterfront--dedicates-the-landmark-urban-rejuvenation-initiative-to-the-people-of-kathua-195661|title=Lieutenant Governor inaugurates Kathua Waterfront, dedicates the landmark urban rejuvenation initiative to the People of Kathua|work=Kashmir News Service|date=8 June 2025|access-date=9 July 2025}}</ref>
| gross_leasable_area =
| parking =
| number_of_tenants =
| number_of_residents =
| number_of_workers =
| image2 =
| mapframe-custom =
| map_width =
| mapframe-caption = Interactive map showing location of Kathua waterfront
| website = {{URL|https://kathua.nic.in/}}
}}

'''Kathua Waterfront''' is an [[waterfront (area)|urban canalfront]] located along the Kathua Canal in the town of [[Kathua]], in the [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir]], India. Developed by the Kathua District Administration under a public infrastructure and beautification initiative, the project was officially proposed in February 2025.<ref name="KNSKashmir"/><ref name="kathuaupdate"/> The project was inaugurated by then [[List of lieutenant governors of Jammu and Kashmir|Lieutenant Governor of Jammu and Kashmir]] [[Manoj Sinha]] on 8 June 2025.<ref name="print">{{cite web|url=https://theprint.in/india/j-k-lg-sinha-inaugurates-waterfront-in-kathua-says-it-will-shape-citys-urban-landscape/2651311/|title=J-K: LG Sinha inaugurates waterfront in Kathua, says it will shape city's urban landscape|work=The Print|date=9 June 2025|access-date=9 July 2025}}</ref>

== History and Development ==
The Kathua Waterfront project was proposed in February 2025 under the district administration's urban renewal program. Groundwork commenced shortly after, and the project was completed within four months. It was inaugurated on 8 June 2025. The development was carried out by the District Administration Kathua in collaboration with the Union Territory Administration of Jammu and Kashmir, with funding and logistical support from local infrastructure agencies.<ref name="KNSKashmir"/><ref name="print"/>

== Design and Features ==
Spanning a stretch of approximately 1.2 kilometers, the waterfront includes walking and cycling tracks, landscaped gardens, yoga spaces, food kiosks, lighting, and recreational amenities. The project is intended to serve as a community hub and a model for sustainable urban rejuvenation in the region.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailyexcelsior.com/kathua-waterfront-project-to-transform-citys-landscape-dc/|title=Kathua Waterfront Project to transform city's landscape: DC|work=Daily Excelsior|date=20 March 2025|access-date=9 July 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://risingkashmir.com/lg-inaugurates-kathua-waterfront-dedicates-the-landmark-urban-rejuvenation-initiative-to-the-people-of-kathua/|title=LG inaugurates Kathua waterfront, dedicates the landmark urban rejuvenation initiative to the people of Kathua|work=Rising Kashmir|date=8 June 2025|access-date=9 July 2025}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Waterfronts]]
[[Category:Gardens in India]]
[[Category:Waterfronts in India]]
[[Category:Gardens in Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Kathua district]]

Sudhanva Deshpande

2026-04-21T13:27:24Z

Sherrie7069: started pg!

{{Short description|Indian theatre actor and editor (b. 1967)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2026}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Sudhanva Deshpande
| image = Sudhanva Deshpande.jpg
| caption = Deshpande in 2010
| office1 = Permanent Invitee to [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of India (Marxist)|Central Committee]], [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
| term_start1 = 6 April 2025
| successor =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1967|12|26}}
| birth_place =
| party = [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
| other_party = 
| relations =
| children =
| occupation = Actor, Editor, Politician
| parents =
| spouse =
| birth_name =
}}

'''Sudhanva Deshpande''' (born 26 December 1967) is an Indian theatre actor, director, and editor associated with the radical street theatre group [[Jana Natya Manch]] (Janam).<ref name="Hindu2013">{{cite web |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/theatre/for-the-people/article4534250.ece |title=For the people |last=Kumar |first=Anuj |date=2013-03-21 |website=The Hindu |access-date=2026-04-09}}</ref><ref name="MTG_Interview">{{cite web |url=https://www.mumbaitheatreguide.com/dramas/interviews/15-sudhanva-deshpande-interview.asp |title=Interview with Sudhanva Deshpande |website=Mumbai Theatre Guide |access-date=2026-04-09}}</ref> He is the managing editor of the publishing house [[LeftWord Books]] and has authored a book on the life and death of theatre activist [[Safdar Hashmi]].<ref name="IE2020">{{cite web |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/an-actor-and-activist-sudhanva-deshpande-halla-bol-book-on-safdar-hashmi-6213168/ |title=An actor and activist: Sudhanva Deshpande on his book Halla Bol |last=Goyal |first=Divya |date=2020-01-13 |website=The Indian Express |access-date=2026-04-09}}</ref> In 2025, he was appointed as a permanent invitee to the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of India (Marxist)]].<ref name="HinduCPIMInvitee25">{{Cite web |title=M A Baby elected as General Secretary of CPI(M) at Madurai Party Congress |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/tamil-nadu/m-a-baby-elected-as-general-secretary-of-cpim-in-madurai-party-congress-3480493 |access-date=2026-04-09 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Deshpande was born on 26 December 1967.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sudhanva Deshpande CV: Actor, Director, Editor |url=https://studylib.net/doc/13391010/sudhanva-deshpande-is-an-actor-and-director-with-jana-nat |access-date=2026-04-09 |website=studylib.net |language=en}}</ref> He attended [[Ramjas College]] in [[Delhi]] for his higher education.<ref name="MTG_Interview" /> In 1987, at the age of 19, he joined the theatre collective Jana Natya Manch.<ref name="Hindu2013" /><ref name="IE2020" />

==Career==

===Theatre===
Deshpande’s involvement in street theatre was significantly shaped by his association with Safdar Hashmi. He was present during the 1989 attack on a Janam performance in Jhandapur, which resulted in Hashmi's death.<ref name="Caravan">{{cite web |url=https://caravanmagazine.in/arts/safdar-killing-touched-raw-nerve-in-country |title=Safdar killing touched a raw nerve in the country |website=The Caravan |access-date=2026-04-09}}</ref> Following Hashmi's death, Deshpande continued to work with the troupe as both an actor and a director.<ref name="Hindu2013" />

His directorial work includes plays such as ''Yeh Dil Maange More'' and ''Gurgaon''.<ref name="Hindu2013" /> He has also been involved in creating documentary films and has participated in international theatre festivals and workshops.<ref name="MTG_Interview" /><ref name="Wire2018">{{cite web |url=https://thewire.in/media/filmmaker-sudhanva-deshpande-accuses-times-now-of-spreading-misinformation-against-him |title=Filmmaker Sudhanva Deshpande Accuses Times Now of Spreading Misinformation Against Him |website=The Wire |access-date=2026-04-09}}</ref>

He is also a core team member of Strategic Management in the Art of Theatre (SMART), a theatre management training programme.<ref>{{cite web | title=Sudhanva Deshpande | url=https://www.salzburgglobal.org/people?userID=33785&cHash=d66a994cd99ca3af59e72b36caecdb2e }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Strategic Management in the Art of Theatre : A capacity building programme for theatre makers. Managed by: Junoon & India Foundation for the Arts (IFA) | url=https://www.mumbaitheatreguide.com/dramas/workshop/strategic-management-in-the-art-of-theatre-(smart)/675/7232016/ }}</ref>

===Publishing and writing===
Deshpande serves as the managing editor of LeftWord Books, a publishing house based in [[New Delhi]]. He is also involved in the management of May Day Bookstore and Cafe in Delhi.<ref name="MTG_Interview" />

In 2020, he authored ''Halla Bol: The Death and Life of Safdar Hashmi'', a book that provides a first-hand account of the events surrounding Hashmi's killing and explores the history of Janam and its impact on Indian street theatre.<ref name="IE2020" /><ref name="Caravan" />

In 2024, he made a documentary on [[Habib Tanvir]] titled ''Gaon Ke Naon Theatre, Mor Naon Habib'' ({{translation|My village is my theatre, my name is Habib}}).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Naig |first=Udhav |date=2024-01-26 |title=Recalling legendary theatre personality Habib Tanvir who turned rural folk into actors |url=https://www.thehindu.com/lit-for-life/recalling-legendary-theatre-personality-habib-tanvir-who-turned-rural-folk-into-actors/article67780553.ece |access-date=2026-04-09 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

===Politics===
In April 2025, he was appointed as a permanent invitee to the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of India (Marxist)|Central Committee]] of the [[CPI(M)]].<ref name="HinduCPIMInvitee25" />

==Media dispute==
In 2018, Deshpande was involved in a dispute with the news channel ''[[Times Now]]''. He accused the channel and its then-anchor of disseminating misinformation by labeling him a "Maoist sympathizer" in connection to a video of a lecture he had given at [[IIT Bombay]]. Deshpande denied these allegations, stating that his lecture regarding the history of theatre had been taken out of context.<ref name="Wire2018" />

==Works==
* {{Cite book |title=Halla Bol: The Death and Life of Safdar Hashmi |url=https://archive.org/details/halla-bol/mode/2up |year=2020 |publisher=[[LeftWord Books]] |isbn=978-81-945025-0-0}}<ref name="IE2020" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Deshpande, Sudhanva}}
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian communists]]
[[Category:Communist Party of India (Marxist) politicians]]
[[Category:Indian theatre directors]]
[[Category:Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Indian editors]]
[[Category:People from New Delhi]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian writers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian writers]]

Ramananda Bandyopadhyay

2026-04-15T08:23:25Z

Sherrie7069: adding the stub basic info

{{Short description|Indian artist (born 1936)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2026}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2026}}
'''Ramananda Bandyopadhyay''' (born 1936) is an Indian artist. He is regarded as Bengal's most revered artist who continues to work in the style of the Bengal School. He draws inspiration from folklore, ancient Indian epics, the everyday life of the rural folk and the landscape around him.

== Early life and education ==
Ramananda Bandyopadhyay was born in 1936 in [[Birbhum]], West Bengal, India.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ramananda Bandyopadhyay |url=https://jnaf.org/artist/ramananda-bandyopadhyay/ |website=[[Jehangir Nicholson Art Foundation]] |access-date=21 February 2026}}</ref> In 1953 he was admitted to [[Kala Bhavan]], where he obtained a diploma in Fine arts under the tutelage of [[Nandalal Bose]]. Ramananda Bandyopadhyay came to view drawing as an independent art form, with the same status of an oil or watercolour painting.

== Career ==
In 1959 and 1960 he worked in Phuliya Polytechnic as an art teacher. Between 1960 and 1975 he worked as the Head of the Department of Fine Arts at Ramakrishna Mission Vidyapith, Purulia. He served as the Director, Museum and Art Gallery, Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Kolkata from 1975 to 1996.

== Works ==
[[File:RAMANANDA The Lyrical Modern, author Vinayak Pasricha with Ramananda Bandyopadhyay and Jawhar Sircar.jpg|thumb|Author Vinayak Pasricha with Ramananda Bandyopadhyay and Jawhar Sircar]]
Author Vinayak Pasricha wrote ''RAMANANDA: The Lyrical Modern'' about Bandyopadhyay and his art.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Vinayak Pasricha launches the first volume of his book on artist Ramananda Bandyopadhyay |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/t2/vinayak-pasricha-launches-the-first-volume-of-his-book-on-artist-ramananda-bandyopadhyay-prnt/cid/2129319 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20251208161840/https://www.telegraphindia.com/t2/vinayak-pasricha-launches-the-first-volume-of-his-book-on-artist-ramananda-bandyopadhyay-prnt/cid/2129319 |archive-date=8 December 2025 |access-date=14 February 2026 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bandyopadhyay, Ramananda}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1936 births]]
[[Category:People from Birbhum district]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male artists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male artists]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian painters]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian painters]]
[[Category:Painters from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Visva-Bharati University alumni]]

The Rana Daggubati Show

2026-04-12T22:14:15Z

Sherrie7069:

{{Short description|Indian talk-show}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2024}}
{{Infobox television
| image = The Rana Daggubati Show.jpg
| alt_name =
| genre = [[Talk show]]
| creator = [[Rana Daggubati]]
| developer =
| writer = {{ubl|Faiz Rai|Vineeth Kalegi}}
| director = {{ubl|Sukhvinder Singh Chauhan (Episode 1; 6{{ndash}}7)|Vinod Vijayan Thazvana (Episode 2{{ndash}}3)|Srikanth Prabhala (Episode 4{{ndash}}5)|Pratyusha Jonnalagadda (Episode 8)}}
| presenter = Rana Daggubati
| music = Naren RK Siddhartha
| country = India
| language = Telugu
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes =
| executive_producer = Rana Daggubati
| producer = Rajeev Ranjan
| location = [[Ramanaidu Studios]], Hyderabad
| cinematography = Sukhvinder Singh Chauhan
| editor =
| camera = Multi-camera
| company = Spirit Media
| network = [[Amazon Prime Video]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|2024|11|23|df=y}}
| last_aired = {{End date|2025|1|11|df=y}}
}}

'''''The Rana Daggubati Show''''' is an Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-language [[Variety show|variety]] [[talk show]] created and hosted by [[Rana Daggubati]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hungama |first=Bollywood |date=2024-11-22 |title=The Rana Daggubati Show: Nani gets candid about his marriage with Anjana Yelavarthy; says, "I honestly didn't think our wedding plans would materialize" : Bollywood News - Bollywood Hungama |website=[[Bollywood Hungama]] |url=https://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/south-cinema/rana-daggubati-show-nani-gets-candid-marriage-anjana-yelavarthy-says-honestly-didnt-think-wedding-plans-materialize/ |access-date=2024-11-23 |language=en}}</ref> It premiered on 23 November 2024 on [[Amazon Prime Video]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Rana Daggubati Show: 'Natural Star' Nani Opens Up About His Love Story With Anjana |url=https://zeenews.india.com/regional/the-rana-daggubati-show-natural-star-nani-opens-up-about-his-love-story-with-anjana-yelavarthy-2823728.html |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=Zee News |language=en}}</ref>

== Production==
Rana has previously hosted [[No. 1 Yaari|''No. 1 Yaari with Rana'']] (2017{{Ndash}}2021).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bharat |first=E. T. V. |date=2024-03-19 |title=Rana Daggubati Enters Talk Show Arena With the Rana Connection, KJo Jests on Competition From South |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/en/!entertainment/rana-daggubati-enters-talk-show-arena-with-the-rana-connection-kjo-jests-on-competition-from-south-enn24031904473 |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=en}}</ref> During the "Prime Video Presents" event held in March 2024, the show was announced under the initial title ''The Rana Connection''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=New Talk Show Alert: Rana Daggubati To Host The Rana Connection. Details Here |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/rana-daggubati-announces-his-talk-show-the-rana-connection-5268618 |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=www.ndtv.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sharma |first=Bhavana |date=2024-03-21 |title=Rana Daggubati to host a talk show on OTT yet again |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/ott/rana-daggubati-to-host-a-talk-show-on-ott-yet-again-885992 |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=www.deccanchronicle.com |language=en}}</ref> Rana was the creator and also the executive producer through Spirit Media.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-13 |title=Rana Daggubati's unfiltered celebrity talk show premieres on Prime Video this November 23 |url=https://www.aboutamazon.in/news/entertainment/prime-video-rana-daggubati-talk-show |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=IN About Amazon |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-03-19 |title=Rana Daggubati to collaborate with Prime Video on two projects |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2024/Mar/19/rana-daggubati-to-collaborate-with-prime-video-on-two-projects |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref> Ahead of its premiere, the title was changed to ''The Rana Daggubati Show''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-11-13 |title=The Rana Daggubati Show: Prime Video announces new unscripted Telugu series with Rana Daggubati |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/the-rana-daggubati-show-prime-video-announces-new-unscripted-telugu-series-with-rana-daggubati/article68863246.ece |access-date=2024-11-23 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rana Daggubati Announces His Talk Show {{!}} Filmfare.com |url=https://www.filmfare.com/news/south/rana-daggubati-announces-his-talk-show-69647.html |access-date=2024-11-13 |website=www.filmfare.com |language=en}}</ref>

The first episode premiered at the [[55th International Film Festival of India]] in [[Goa]] on 21 November 2024,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Rana Daggubati Show Premieres At 2024 IFFI; Actor Calls It 'Unimaginable Experience' |url=https://www.news18.com/movies/the-rana-daggubati-show-premieres-at-2024-iffi-actor-calls-it-unimaginable-experience-9128953.html |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=News18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Frater |first=Patrick |date=2024-11-19 |title='The Mehta Boys,' 'The Rana Daggubati' Show to Give Prime Video Prominent Position in Goa |url=https://variety.com/2024/film/news/prime-video-prominent-iffi-mehta-boys-rana-daggubati-1236214041/ |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=Variety |language=en-US}}</ref> and later on Amazon Prime Video on 23 November 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-13 |title=The Rana Daggubati Show: Actor announces new talk show, promises fun and gossip |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/television/reality-tv/story/the-rana-daggubati-show-actor-announces-new-talk-show-promises-fun-and-gossip-2632781-2024-11-13 |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Episodes ==
{{Episode table |airdate= |title= |airdateT=Premiere |background=#771C23 |season= |seasonT=No. |episodes={{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=1
|Title=Normal Is Boring
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|2024|11|23|df=yes}}
|Guests=[[Nani (actor)|Nani]], [[Teja Sajja]], [[Priyanka Mohan]]
|ShortSummary=
|LineColor=000
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=2
|Title=And Just Like That
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|2024|11|30|df=yes}}
|Guests=[[Sreeleela]], [[Siddhu Jonnalagadda]]
|ShortSummary=
|LineColor=000
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=3
|Title=Cousins, Cars and Cinema
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|2024|12|07|df=yes}}
|Guests=[[Naga Chaitanya]], [[Sumanth]], Miheeka Daggubati, Malavika Potluri Daggubati, Prashanth
|ShortSummary=
|LineColor=000
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=4
|Title=Master Influencers
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|2024|12|14|df=yes}}
|Guests=[[S. S. Rajamouli]], [[Ram Gopal Varma]], [[Suma Kanakala]]
|ShortSummary=
|LineColor=000
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=5
|Title=Myth Buster
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|2024|12|21|df=yes}}
|Guests=[[Rishab Shetty]], [[Neha Shetty]], Pragathi Shetty
|ShortSummary=
|LineColor=000
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=6
|Title=When THE GOOD BOY meets BAD BOY
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|2024|12|28|df=yes}}
|Guests=[[Dulquer Salmaan]], [[Meenakshi Chaudhary]]
|ShortSummary=
|LineColor=000
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=7
|Title=Getting Real with the Real Star
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|2025|01|04|df=yes}}
|Guests=[[Upendra (actor)|Upendra]], [[Navdeep]], [[Faria Abdullah]], [[Sharmiela Mandre]]
|ShortSummary=
|LineColor=000
}}
{{Episode list
|EpisodeNumber=8
|Title=V for Victory
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|2025|01|11|df=yes}}
|Guests=[[Venkatesh (actor)|Venkatesh]], [[Aishwarya Rajesh]], [[Meenakshi Chaudhary]], [[Anil Ravipudi]], [[Ramana Gogula]]
|ShortSummary=
|LineColor=000
}} |guests=
}}

== Reception ==
Raisa Nasreen of ''[[Times Now]]'' stated that it "was clean and didn't fall prey to the traditional gossip sessions which shows indulge in".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-23 |title=The Rana Daggubati Show Review: Nani And Rana Give Lessons On Cinema And Life To Teja Sajja |url=https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/tamil/the-rana-daggubati-show-episode-1-review-article-115579083 |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=Times Now |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{Official website|https://www.primevideo.com/region/eu/detail/The-Rana-Daggubati-Show/0SB97UXIRXC1BRDRXZDL9ZM1YQ}}
* {{IMDb title|id=31924772|title=The Rana Daggubati Show}}

{{Rana Daggubati}}
{{Amazon Prime Video original series}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rana Daggubati Show, The}}
[[Category:2024 web series debuts]]
[[Category:2024 Indian television series debuts]]
[[Category:Indian television talk shows]]
[[Category:Telugu-language web series]]
[[Category:2024 Indian television seasons]]
[[Category:Amazon Prime Video original programming]]
[[Category:2025 Indian television seasons]]
[[Category:Web talk shows]]

Tewatia

2026-04-11T23:43:48Z

Sherrie7069: started a data

{{Use Indian English|date=April 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
'''Tewatia''' or '''Teotia''' is an Hindu [[Jats|Jat]] gotra mainly found in the Indian states of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Haryana]] and [[Rajasthan]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pawar |first=Hukam Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRNuAAAAMAAJ&q=tewatia+jats |title=The Jats, Their Origin, Antiquity, and Migrations |date=1993 |publisher=Manthan Publications |isbn=978-81-85235-22-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Kedar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_MEAAAAMAAJ |title=Rural Democratisation X-rayed |date=1974 |publisher=Vimal Prakashan |language=en |quote=Before the entry of Jats of Bhatoniya or Teotia gotra into the village, the village population was dominated by Jats of another gotra viz., Boharay}}</ref> Tewatias originated in the [[Gurgaon district]] of present-day [[Haryana]] where they were revenue collectors during the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal period]]. However, they had to shift to [[Bulandshahr district]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]] after [[Nahar Singh]] of [[Ballabgarh (jagir)|Bhallabhgarh]] opposed the British rule during the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]].<ref name="Brass">{{cite book |last=Brass |first=Paul R. |author-link=Paul Brass |title=An Indian Political Life: Charan Singh and Congress Politics, 1937 to 1961 |year=2011 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications|SAGE Publishing]] |isbn=978-81-321-0686-9 |page=32 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dDKaDwAAQBAJ |quote=The Tewatiya clan originally comprised five villages in Gurgaon district of present-day Haryana, but, ultimately, during the Mughal period expanded as revenue collectors for some 210 villages. One of the clan members rose to some prominence toward the end of Mughal rule, but brought the clan to destruction by supporting Bahadur Shah Zafar against the British in 1857 and was himself hanged. Thereafter, the clan remnants moved across the Yamuna, and established a presence in Bulandshahr district of western UP.}}</ref>

== Notable persons ==
[[File:Charan Singh Portrait.jpg|thumb|150px|upright|[[Charan Singh]], former Prime Minister of India]]
* [[Ajit Singh (politician, born 1939)|Ajit Singh]], founder of the [[Rashtriya Lok Dal]] and son of [[Charan Singh]]
* [[Charan Singh]], peasant leader and former [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister of India]]
*[[Debi Singh Tewatia]] (1930–2017), Indian judge
*[[Harendra Singh Tewatia]], Indian politician
*[[Jayant Chaudhary]], Indian politician and son of [[Ajit Singh (politician, born 1939)|Ajit Singh]]
*[[Rahul Tewatia]], Indian cricketer
*[[Nahar Singh|Raja Nahar Singh Tewatia]], Ruler of [[Ballabgarh (jagir)|Bhallabgarh]]
* [[Kushal Pal Singh]], Chairman DLF

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{surname}}

[[Category:Surnames of Indian origin]]
[[Category:Jat clans of Haryana]]
[[Category:Jat clans of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Jat clans of Rajasthan]]

Rahul Rasgotra

2026-04-11T20:26:47Z

Sherrie7069: adding the pg added tags - done

{{Short description|Indian police officer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Rahul Rasgotra
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1965|09|28|df=y}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=IPS : Query Result(s) |url=https://dtf.in/wp-content/files/Indian_Police_Service_IPS_-_Civil_List_2014.htm |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=dtf.in}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Mumbai]], India
| father =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| other_names =
| occupation = IPS officer
| profession = [[Civil service|Civil servant]]
| awards = [[File:Indian Police Medal for Meritorious Service.png|50px]] [[Indian Police Medal]] awarded by the [[central government]] for Meritorious Service [[File:IND President's Police Medal for Distinguished Service.svg|50px]] [[President's Police Medal]] for Distinguished Service
| alma_mater = [[Delhi University]]
| office = [[Director general of police|Director General]] of [[Indo-Tibetan Border Police]]
| term_start = 1 January 2024
| term_end = 30 September 2025
| predecessor = [[Anish Dayal Singh]]
| successor = [[Praveen Kumar (police officer)|Praveen Kumar]]
}}

'''Rahul Rasgotra''' (born 28 September 1965) is a retired 1989-batch [[Indian Police Service]] (IPS) officer from [[Manipur]] cadre who served as the [[Director general of police|Director General]] of the [[Indo-Tibetan Border Police]] of India from 28 December 2023 till 30 September 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Livemint |date=2023-12-28 |title=Nina Singh is CISF's first woman chief; Anish Dayal Singh appointed CRPF head |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/ips-nina-singh-is-cisfs-first-woman-chief-anish-dayal-singh-appointed-crpf-head-11703781605813.html |access-date=2023-12-29 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://m.economictimes.com/news/defence/rahul-rasgotra-takes-over-as-itbp-dg/articleshow/106459222.cms|title=Rasgotra takes over ITBP DGP|website=economictimes.com}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2024-09-30 |title=ITBP chief Rahul Rasgotra retires, hands over charge to Praveen Kumar |url=https://www.ptinews.com/story/national/itbp-chief-rahul-rasgotra-retires-hands-over-charge-to-praveen-kumar/2964459 |access-date=2025-11-04 |website=Press Trust of India}}</ref>

==Early life and education ==
Rasgotra was born on 28 September 1965 in [[Mumbai]], India.{{citation needed|date=July 2025}}

Rasgotra attended the [[Hindu College, Delhi|Hindu College]] at the [[Delhi University]] and earned a B.A (Hons) in economics. He also obtained a diploma in public administration from [[Harvard University]].<ref>{{Cite web | title=Rahul Rasgotra appointed ITBP chief Neena Singh becomes first woman to head CISF - राहुल रसगोत्रा आईटीबीपी के प्रमुख नियुक्त, नीना सिंह सीआईएसएफ प्रमुख बनने वाली पहली महिला बनीं, नई दिल्ली न्यूज | url=https://www.livehindustan.com/ncr/new-delhi/story-rahul-rasgotra-appointed-itbp-chief-neena-singh-becomes-first-woman-to-head-cisf-9129837.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229022124/https://www.livehindustan.com/ncr/new-delhi/story-rahul-rasgotra-appointed-itbp-chief-neena-singh-becomes-first-woman-to-head-cisf-9129837.html | access-date=2025-07-21 | archive-date=2023-12-29}}</ref>

== Career ==
He spent nearly three decades at the [[Intelligence Bureau (India)|Intelligence Bureau]], working his way up to the rank of Special Director.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Banik |first=Debasweta |date=2023-12-28 |title=No. 6/47/2023-EO(SM-1) |url=https://indianmasterminds.com/news/ips-news/ips-rahul-rasgotra-will-be-the-new-dg-of-itbp/ |access-date=2025-11-04 |website=Government of India}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last= |date=2024-01-01 |title=Rahul Rasgotra takes over as ITBP DG |url=https://theprint.in/india/rahul-rasgotra-takes-over-as-itbp-dg/1907405/ |access-date=2025-11-04 |website=The Print |language=en-US}}</ref> He served as the Director General, [[Indo-Tibetan Border Police]] from 28 December 2023 until his retirement on 30 September 2025.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-28 |title=Nina Singh becomes first woman DG CISF, Rahul Rasgotra appointed ITBP chief |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/nina-singh-becomes-first-woman-dg-cisf-rahul-rasgotra-appointed-itbp-chief-2828401 |access-date=2025-11-04 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rasgotra, Rahul}}
[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian Police Service officers]]

Kali-Santaraṇa Upaniṣad

2026-04-06T10:38:32Z

Sherrie7069:

{{Short description|Sanskrit text}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Infobox Upanishad
| caption =
| Devanagari = कलिसन्तरण
| meaning = To overcome the effects of [[Kali Yuga]]
| composition_date =
| Veda = [[Krishna Yajurveda]]{{Sfn|Deussen|Bedekar|Palsule|1997|pp=556–57}}
| verses = 2
| philosophy = [[Vaishnava]]<ref name= Aiyar/>
|image=}}
The '''''Kali-Santarana Upanishad''''' ({{langx|sa|कलिसन्तरणोपनिषद्}}; {{IAST3|Kali-Santaraṇa Upaniṣad}}), also called {{IAST|Kalisantaraṇopaniṣad}}, is a [[Sanskrit]] text. It is a minor [[Upanishad|late Upanishad]] of [[Hinduism]].

The [[Vaishnava Upanishads|Vaishnava Upanishad]] was likely composed in 16th century CE. According to [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] tradition, this text's central mantra, known as the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna, or ''Mahā'' ("Great"), Mantra]], was given in the 16th century to [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] at his initiation in Gaya (though the Sanskrit mantra is absent from his biographies).{{Sfn|Bryant|2013|pp=42-43}}

This mantra, presented in two lines, contains the words [[Hari|Hare]], [[Rama]], and [[Krishna]]. The word ''Hare'', is the vocative case of "Hari" in Sanskrit. Another meaning given in the [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] tradition is "O Harā" (the feminine counterpart to [[Vishnu]], sometimes known as ''Hara''), is repeated eight times, while the other two names are Hindu gods and are each repeated four times (or two forms of Vishnu, who is then invoked eight times as well). The text asserts that the audible chanting of this mantra is a means to wash away all the tribulations of the current era ([[Kali Yuga]]).

==Nomenclature==
'''<nowiki/>'Kali-Santarana Upanishad'''' means to 'approach or set about crossing over quarrel, discord, and strife':

* '''<nowiki/>'Kali'''' (Sanskrit कलि) means 'quarrel', 'contention', 'discord' or 'strife'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?tran_input=kali&direct=se&script=hk&link=yes&mode=3|title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit|website=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=2019-11-14}}</ref>
** [[Kali Yuga]] is the least-[[Dharma|dharmic]] (e.g. least moral or religious) of the four cyclical [[yuga]]s (ages or epochs) in [[Hindu cosmology]].<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=kali&direction=SE&link=yes&choice=yes kali] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306164335/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=kali&direction=SE&link=yes&choice=yes |date=2016-03-06 }}, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany (2011)</ref>
* '''<nowiki/>'Santarana'''' (Sanskrit सन्तरण) means "conveying over or across".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=Santarana&direct=se&anz=100|title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit|website=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=2019-11-14}}</ref>
* '''<nowiki/>'[[Upanishads|Upanishad]]'''' (Sanskrit उपनिषद्) means 'approach' or 'set about'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spokensanskrit.org/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=upanishad&direct=se&anz=100|title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit|website=spokensanskrit.org|access-date=2019-11-14}}</ref>

==History==

The text is one of the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] Upanishads,{{Sfn|Nair|2008|p=580}} composed before about 1500 CE,{{Sfn|Bryant|2013|p=42}} and includes two verses called the ''Maha-mantra''.<ref name="Aiyar">{{Cite book |last=Narayanasvami Aiyar |first=K. |url=http://archive.org/details/thirtyminorupani00xxxxuoft |title=Thirty minor Upanishads |date=1914 |publisher= |others= |pages=130-131 |chapter=KALISANTARANA UPANISHAD}}</ref> ''Kali-Santarana Upanishad'' is the earliest known Hindu text in which this mantra appears.{{Sfn|Bryant|2013|p=42}} It was popularized by [[Caitanya Mahaprabhu|Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] in the 16th century.<ref>Alanna Kaivalya (2014), Sacred Sound: Discovering the Myth and Meaning of Mantra and Kirtan, New World, {{ISBN|978-1608682430}}, pages 153-154</ref> The mantra later became famous through the Hare Krishna ([[ISKCON]]) movement.{{Sfn|Bryant|2013|pp=42, 35–45 with notes}}

In Vaishnava etymology, the word ''Hare'' refers to ''Hara'' (literally, captivating, carrying away), personifying goddess [[Radha]], who is the [[Shakti]] of [[Krishna]] ("nada shakti", divine energy) and is described as the one who stole the mind of Krishna. The word ''Hare'' is repeated eight times in the Kali-Santaraṇa mantra and, in [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], is associated with Radha and the eight phases of her love for Krishna.{{Sfn|Bryant|2013|p=42}} In Gaudiya Vaishnavism, its devotees assert that the effect of reciting this mantra in the Kali-Santaraṇa text is to imbue the innermost part of one's being with spiritual pleasure, to experience transcendental ecstasy, to revive deep consciousness through emembering the love of God, and to remove the harmful influence of the [[Kali Yuga]].{{Sfn|Bryant|2013|pp=35–36, 42}} The Gaudiya Vaishnava traditionally asserted that the mantra should be recited audibly because the sound liberates the reciter and the listener.{{Sfn|Bryant|2013|pp=42-43}}

In the [[anthology]] of 108 Upanishads of the [[Muktika]] canon, narrated by [[Rama]] to [[Hanuman]], the ''Kali-Santarana Upanishad'' is listed at number 103.The Upanishad is not in the anthology of 52 popular Upanishads in north India by Colebrooke, nor is it found in the ''Bibliotheca Indica'' anthology of popular Upanishads in south India by Narayana.{{Sfn|Deussen|Bedekar|Palsule|1997|pp=561–564}}

==Contents==
{{Vaishnavism}}
At the end of the [[Dvapara Yuga]] (the third out of four [[yugas]] described in Hindu scriptures), sage [[Narada]] approached [[Brahma]] and requested him to enlighten him on the path he should follow to alleviate the detrimental effects of the [[Kali Yuga]]. Brahma said that by way of taking the name of the supreme deity [[Narayana]], all the tribulations of Kali yuga will be washed away. These sixteen names to be chanted are as:<ref name="Aiyar" />{{Poemquote|Hare Rama Hare Rama , Rama Rama Hare Hare Hare Krishna Hare Krishna , Krishna Krishna Hare Hare}}

When [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] promulgated the Mahamantra, it was rendered with Krishna's name's first.{{Sfn|Prabhupada|Prabhupada|p=358}}

{{quote|<poem>
''Hare Kṛṣṇa Hare Kṛṣṇa''
''Kṛṣṇa Kṛṣṇa Hare Hare''
''Hare Rāma Hare Rāma''
''Rāma Rāma Hare Hare''</poem>}}

Chanting of the sixteen words mantra is asserted by the text to be constantly done by sage Narada, who with his musical instrument [[tanpura]] has been doing it for ages.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}}

The Upanishad also states that in the Kali Yuga, Narada was the creator or Kali-Karaka of all conflicts or undesirable acts. However, Narada who is the arbitrator of the laws of [[karma]] (all deeds) himself approaches Brahma seeking redress to all the ills of this epoch. It also states that Narada roamed around the world holding a lute in his hand to adjust the laws of harmony as a result of a curse by [[Daksha]]. The sixteen mantras that Narada was advised to recite by Brahma relate to [[jiva]] the immortal soul which has sixteen [[Kāla (time)|kalas]].<ref name="Aiyar" />

There are no rules and regulations to chant this maha-mantra ('great mantra'). It should be chanted always irrespective of whether one is in a pure or impure condition.<ref name="Aiyar" />

==Influence==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width1 = 240
| width2 = 240
| footer = Devotees singing the Hare-Krishna Maha-mantra, in 19th-century Bengal (top) and modern era Russia.
| image1 = Chaitanya sankirtan.jpg
| image2 = Russian Hare Krishna devotees on Harinam.jpg
}}
The text has been influential on the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] tradition, that grew in [[Gauḍa (region)|Gauda]] region of India in and near modern [[West Bengal]], after it became the seat of [[Muslim]] power and Krishna devotees were forced into the service of Muslim officials.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=410, 433}}

From 16th-century onwards, in Gaudiya Vaishnavism, great importance has been given to public, vocal audible chanting or singing of the maha-mantra with the divine names of Hindu gods Krishna, Rama and goddess Radha (Hare).{{Sfn|Bryant|2013|pp=42, 35–45 with notes}} However, some other groups hold the view that chanting should be done silently or muttered in low-volume and would be equally effective. It was the view of Chaitanya and his disciples that chanting the name God's name (s) loudly would be most effective to obtain salvation and such a practice results in purifying the heart of both reciter and the listener, results in receiving the "love of God". This at least is the interpretation given in [[Rupa Goswami]]'s ''Prathama Chaitanyaashtaka'' which states that Chaitanya himself had chanted this maha-mantra in a loud voice. For the Gaudiya Vaishnavas including [[ISKCON]], the [[Hare Krishna (mantra)|Hare Krishna]] maha-mantra also represents "transcendental sound" as the nature of the mantra is overwhelmingly qualified by Krishna and hence reciting it in "silence or in low volume" may not give the same effective feeling.{{Sfn|Bryant|2013|p=43}}

The 16th-century text ''Harinamarthah-ratna-dipika'' by [[Raghunatha dasa Goswami]], gives the meaning of the maha-mantra where it is said that whenever Radha remembered Krishna and felt like being with him she chanted the maha-mantra; this made her feel closer to Krishna at the utterance of each syllable of the mantra.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|p=572}}

The Maha-mantra of the Upanishad is part of the Gaudiya tradition legends, and the chant that was used to deconvert Muslims and initiate them to Vaishnavism in Bengal.<ref>Rebecca Jane Manring (2005), ''Reconstructing Tradition: Advaita Ācārya and Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavism'', Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231129541}}, pages 168–175</ref>

===Chaitanya Mahaprabhu===
{{main|Chaitanya Mahaprabhu}}
In the biographies of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, a [[Bhakti movement]] saint poet, the mantra he received when he was given [[diksha]] or initiation in [[Gaya, India|Gaya]] was the maha-mantra of the ''Kali-Santarana Upanishad''. In Gaudiya tradition, he is credited to have propagated it to the world along with Krishna [[bhakti]].{{Sfn|Bryant|2013|p=42}}

===Temples===
The three unique words in the maha-mantra found in ''Kali-Santarana Upanishad'' represent the three deities, and paintings of their love filled legends, found in Gaudiya Vaishnavism temples.{{Sfn|Bryant|2007|pp=142–144}}

==See also==
*[[Atmabodha Upanishad]]
*[[Devi Upanishad]]
*[[Maha Upanishad]]
*[[Nirvana Upanishad]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last= Bryant |first=Edwin Francis |title=Krishna: A Sourcebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0z02cZe8PU8C|year= 2007|publisher=Oxford University Press, Incorporated|isbn=978-0-19-803400-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Bryant|first=Edwin Francis, Maria Ekstrand|title=The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC|year = 2013|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-50843-8}}
*{{cite book|last1= Deussen |first1=Paul |last2= Bedekar|first2=V.M. |last3= Palsule |first3=G.B. |title=Sixty Upanishads of the Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC&pg=PA645|year=1997|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1467-7}}
*{{cite book|last= Nair |first=Shantha N. |title=Echoes of Ancient Indian Wisdom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OzFvE0IR7rkC&pg=PT387|year=2008|publisher=Pustak Mahal|isbn=978-81-223-1020-7}}
*{{cite book|last1= Prabhupada |first1=A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami |last2= Prabhupada |first2=Disciples of His Divine Grace A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami |title=Veda: Secrets from the East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vvRhBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT368|publisher=The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust|isbn=978-91-7149-542-6}}

==Further reading==
* [http://freesound.upf.edu/people/Jagadamba/sounds/257044/ A sound recording of the Maha-mantra in Kali Santarana Upanishad], Universitat Pompeu Fabra, (Barcelona, Spain), 18 seconds
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160531061600/http://nitaaiveda.com/SG_Translated_and_Main_Scriptures/Maha_Mantra_Yoga/Ch_1_Shruti_and_Smriti_Scriptures_about_the_Hare_Krishna_Maha_Mantra/Shrutis_-_Vedas,_Upanishads_and_Vedanta/Kali_Santarana_Upanishad.htm Kali Santarana Upanishad,Translation and commentary by Swami Gaurangapada]
* [http://sanskritdocuments.org/telugu/BRH/kalisantarana.BRH Kalisantaranaopanishad, Telugu Rendition]
* [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_upanishhat/kalisantarana_upan.pdf Kalisantaranaopanishad, Sanskrit Rendition]

{{Mukhya Upanishads}}
{{Hindudharma}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kali-Santarana Upanisad}}
[[Category:Upanishads]]
[[Category:Vaishnava texts]]

Bahmani Kingdom

2026-04-03T05:51:23Z

Sherrie7069:

{{Short description|Kingdom in the Deccan (1347–1527)}}
{{Redirect|Bahmani|places in Iran|Bahmani, Iran (disambiguation){{!}}Bahmani, Iran}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox Former Country
| native_name =
| conventional_long_name = Bahmani Kingdom
| common_name = Deccan
| era = [[Medieval India]]
| status = [[Regional Sultanates of India|Regional Sultanate]]
| year_start = 1347
| date_start = 3 August
| year_end = 1527
| p1 = Delhi Sultanate
| s1 = Bijapur Sultanate
| s2 = Golconda Sultanate
| s3 = Ahmadnagar Sultanate
| s4 = Berar Sultanate
| s5 = Bidar Sultanate
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Bahmanis in 1390.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Bahmani Sultanate {{Circa|1390}}|[[File:Map of the Bahmani Sultanate.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Bahmani Sultanate at its greatest extent in 1473 under regent [[Mahmud Gawan]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=147|isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/reference/schwartzberg/query.py?display_type=image_display&object=185#gsc.tab=0}}</ref><ref name="8-17">{{cite book|pages=146–148|title=History of Medieval India 800–1700 A.D|first=Satish|last=Chandra|date=2014 |url=https://archive.org/details/history-of-medieval-india-800-1700_202303/page/147}}</ref>}}
| image_map_caption =
| capital = {{plainlist|
*[[Gulbarga]] (1347–1425)
*[[Bidar]] (1425–1527)}}
| official_languages = [[Persian Language|Persian]]{{sfn|Ansari|1988|pp=494–499}}
| common_languages = [[Kannada language|Kannada]] [[Deccani language|Deccani]] [[Marathi language|Marathi]] [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]<ref name="Khalidi 1990 5">{{cite journal |title=The Shiʿites of the Deccan: An Introduction |first=Umar |last=Khalidi |journal=Rivista degli studi orientali |volume=64, Fasc. 1/2, SGUARDI SULLA CULTURA A SCIITA NEL DECCAN GLANCES ON SHI'ITE DECCAN CULTURE |year=1990 |page=5}}</ref> [[Shia Islam]]<ref name="Khalidi 1990 5"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A2cfZkU5aQgC&dq=were%20bahmanis%20sh&pg=PA435 |title= The History of the World |author= John Morris Roberts, Odd Arne Westad |year= 2013 |publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn= 9780199936762 }}</ref> [[Sufism]]{{sfn|Eaton 1978|page=49}}
| currency = [[Ancient taka|Taka]]
| government_type = [[Monarchy]]
| leader1 = [[Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah]]
| year_leader1 = 1347–1358
| leader2 = [[Mohammed Shah I]]
| year_leader2 = 1358–1375
| leader3 = [[Mujahid Shah]]
| year_leader3 = 1375–1378
| leader4 = [[Daud Shah Bahmani]]
| year_leader4 = 1378
| leader5 = Kalim-Allah Shah
| year_leader5 = 1525–1527
| title_leader = [[Sultan]]
| today = [[India]]
}}

The '''Bahmani Kingdom''', or the '''Bahmani Sultanate''', was a [[late medieval]] [[Persianate]] kingdom that ruled the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan region]]. The first independent Muslim [[Deccan Sultanates|sultanate]] of the Deccan,<ref name="Ansari">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/bahmanid-dynasty-a-dynasty-founded-in-748-1347-in-the-deccan-sanskrit-daksia-lit|last=Ansari|first=N.H.|title=Bahmanid Dynasty|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref> the Bahmani Kingdom came to power in 1347 during the [[rebellion of Ismail Mukh]] against [[Muhammad bin Tughlaq]], the [[Sultan of Delhi]]. Ismail Mukh then abdicated in favour of [[Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah|Zafar Khan]], who established the Bahmani Sultanate.

The Bahmani Kingdom was perpetually at war with its neighbours, including its rival to the south, the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], which outlasted the sultanate.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OIzreCGlHxIC&q=bahmani+vijay&pg=PT597 |title= Dictionary of Wars |author= George C. Kohn |year= 2006 |publisher= Infobase Publishing |isbn= 9781438129167 }}</ref> The [[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa]] was created by [[Mahmud Gawan]], the [[vizier]] regent of the sultanate from 1466 until his execution in 1481, during a conflict between the foreign (Afaqis) and local (Deccanis) nobility. [[Bidar Fort]] was built by [[Ahmad Shah I Wali|Ahmad Shah I]] ({{reign|1422|36}}), who relocated the capital to the city of [[Bidar]]. Ahmad Shah led campaigns against Vijayanagara and the sultanates of [[Malwa Sultanate|Malwa]] and [[Gujarat Sultanate|Gujarat]]. His [[Sixth Bahmani–Vijayanagar War (1423)|campaign against Vijayanagara in 1423]] included a siege of the capital, ending in the expansion of the Sultanate. Mahmud Gawan would later lead campaigns against Malwa, Vijayanagara, and the [[Gajapati Empire|Gajapatis]], and extended the sultanate to its maximum extent.

The sultanate began to decline under [[Mahmood Shah Bahmani II|Mahmood Shah]]. Through a combination of factional strife and the revolt of five provincial governors ([[Bahmani taraf|taraf]]dars), the Bahmani Sultanate split up into five states, known as the [[Deccan Sultanates]]. The initial revolts of [[Yusuf Adil Shah]], [[Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah I]], and [[Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk]] in 1490, and [[Qasim Barid I]] in 1492 saw the end of any real Bahmani power, and the last independent sultanate, [[Sultanate of Golkonda|Golkonda]], in 1518, ended the Bahmanis' 180-year rule over the [[Deccan]]. The last four Bahmani rulers were puppet monarchs under [[Amir Barid I]] of the [[Bidar Sultanate]], and the kingdom formally dissolved in 1527.{{sfn|Haig, 1925|pp=425–426}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PNtjIJmhoIkC&pg=PA16 |title=History of The Deccan |page=15 |publisher=Mittal Publications |date=1990 }}</ref>

==Origin==
{{see also|Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah}}
Abd-al-Malek Esami, a contemporary historian, states that Bahman Shah was born in [[Ghazni]], [[Afghanistan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ḥasan Gāngu |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hasan-gangu|website=Encyclopædia Iranica}}</ref> He was either of [[Afghans|Afghan]] or [[Turkic peoples|Turk]] origin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jenkins|first=Everett|title=The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 1, 570-1500): A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas, Volume 1 |publisher=McFarland |year=2015 |isbn=9781476608884 |pages=257 |language=English|quote=Zafar Khan alias Alauddin Hasan Gangu ('Ala al-Din Hasan Bahman Shah), an Afghan or a Turk soldier, revolted against Delhi and established the Muslim Kingdom of Bahmani on August 3 in the South (Madura) and ruled as Sultan Alauddin Bahman Shah.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=181}}: "The Bahmani sultanate of the Deccan Soon after Muhammad Tughluq left Daulatabad, the city was conquered by Zafar Khan, a Turkish or Afghan officer of unknown descent, had earlier participated in a mutiny of troops in Gujarat."</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kerr|first=Gordon|title=A Short History of India: From the Earliest Civilisations to Today's Economic Powerhouse |publisher=Oldcastle Books Ltd|year=2017|isbn=9781843449232|pages=160|language=English|quote=In the early fourteenth century, the Muslim Bahmani kingdom of the Deccan emerged following Alauddin's conquest of the south. Zafar Khan, an Afghan general and governor appointed by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq, was victorious against the troops of the Delhi Sultanate, establishing the Bahmani kingdom with its capital at Ahsanabad (modern-day Gulbarga).}}</ref> [[Encyclopedia Iranica]] states him to be a [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasani]] adventurer, who claimed descent from [[Bahram Gur]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ḥasan Gāngu |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hasan-gangu|website=Encyclopædia Iranica}}</ref> Ferishta mentions that later poets "who wanted to flatter him" called Bahman Shah a descendant of Bahram Gur, but considers it implausible.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.116007/page/n55/mode/2up?q=bahman|title=The Tabaqat-i-akbari Of Khwajah Nizamuddin Ahmad Vol.iii |page=3 |author= Prashad, Baini|date= 1939 |publisher= Banasthali }}</ref> [[André Wink|Andre Wink]], known for his studies on [[India]], stated that he was an Afghan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wink |first=André |title=The Making of the Indo-Islamic World C.700-1800 CE |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9781108417747 |pages=87 |language=English}}</ref> According to the medieval historian [[Ferishta]], his obscurity makes it difficult to track his origin, but he is nonetheless stated to be of Afghan birth.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wink|first=Andre|title=Indo-Islamic society: 14th - 15th centuries |publisher=BRILL|year=1991|isbn=9781843449232|pages=144|language=English}}</ref>

== History ==
[[Ziauddin Barani]], the court chronicler of Sultan [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq|Firuz Shah]], states that [[Hasan Gangu]], the Bahmani Sultanate's founder, was "born in very humble circumstances" and that "For the first thirty years of his life he was nothing more than a field laborer."<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9PYRAAAAYAAJ&dq=for+the+first+thirty+years+of+his+life+labourer&pg=PA15 |title= A History of the Deccan: Volume 1 |page= 16 |author= Gribble |year= 1896 |publisher= Luzac and Company }}</ref> He was made a commander of a hundred horsemen by the [[Delhi Sultanate|Delhi Sultan]], [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]], who was pleased with his honesty. This sudden rise in the military and socio-economic ladder was common in this era of Muslim India.{{sfn|J.D.E|1990|p=16}} Zafar Khan or Hasan Gangu was among the inhabitants of Delhi who were forced to migrate to the Deccan, to build a large Muslim settlement in the region of [[Daulatabad Fort|Daulatabad]].<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=O_WNqSH4ByQC |page= 34 |title=Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi |date= 1996 |publisher= Popular Prakashan |author1=A. Rā Kulakarṇī |author2=M. A. Nayeem |author3=Teotonio R. De Souza |isbn= 9788171545797 }}</ref> Zafar Khan was a man of ambition and looked forward to the adventure. He had long hoped to employ his body of horsemen in the Deccan as the region was seen as the place of bounty in Muslim imagination at the time. He was rewarded with an [[Iqta'|Iqta]] for taking part in the conquest of [[Kampili kingdom|Kampili]].{{sfn|Eaton 2005|page=41}}

===Rise===
{{main|Rebellion of Ismail Mukh}}

{{South Asia in 1400||The Bahmani Sultanate and main South Asian polities in 1400 CE<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=39, 147 |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=076 |archive-date=6 February 2022 |access-date=5 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206065341/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=076 |url-status=dead }}</ref>|{{Annotation|100|134|[[File:Rectangle (plain).svg|60px]]}}}}
Before the establishment of his kingdom, Hasan Gangu (Zafar Khan) was Governor of Deccan and a commander on behalf of the [[Tughlaq dynasty|Tughlaqs]]. On 3 August 1347, during [[Rebellion of Ismail Mukh|the rebellion by the Amirs of the Deccan]], Ismail Mukh, the leader of the rebellion (whom the rebel ''[[amir]]s'' of the Deccan placed on the throne of Daulatabad in 1345), abdicated in favor of Zafar Khan, resulting in the establishment of the Bahmani Kingdom. The Sultan of Delhi had besieged the rebels at the citadel of Daulatabad. As another rebellion had begun in [[Gujarat]], the Sultan left and installed Shaikh Burhan-ud-din Bilgrami and Malik Jauhar and other nobles in charge of the siege. Meanwhile, as these nobles were unable to stop the Deccani amirs from pursuing the imperial army, Hasan Gangu, a native of Delhi, then being pursued by Governor of [[Vidarbha|Berar]] Imad-ul-Mulk, the leader to whom the Deccani Amirs had re-assembled against, attacked and slew the latter and marched on towards Daulatabad. Here Hasan Gangu and the Deccani amirs put to flight the imperial forces which had been left to besiege. The rebels at Daulatabad had the sense to see Hasan Gangu as the man of the hour, and the proposal to crown Hasan Gangu, entitled Zafar Khan, was accepted without a dissentient voice on 3 August 1347.<ref name="Mahajan, V.D. 1991">Mahajan, V.D. (1991). ''History of Medieval India'', Part I, New Delhi:S. Chand, {{ISBN|81-219-0364-5}}, pp.279–80</ref><ref>Bhattacharya. ''Indian History''. p. 928</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://archive.org/details/historiclandmark00haigrich/page/30/mode/2up?q=bilgrami |title= Historic landmarks of the Deccan |author=Thomas Wolseley Haig |date=1919 |publisher=Pioneer Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmed Farooqui |first=Salma |title=Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century |publisher=Pearson |year=2011 |isbn=9789332500983 |pages=150}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= Anecdotes from Islam |author= Ibrahim Khan |publisher= M. Ashraf |year= 1960 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jaQGAQAAIAAJ&q=native+of+delhi }}</ref> His revolt was successful, and he established an independent state on the Deccan within the Delhi Sultanate's southern provinces with its headquarters at Hasanabad ([[Gulbarga]]), where all his coins were minted.<ref name="Mahajan, V.D. 1991"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=106–108, 117}}</ref>

With the support of the influential Indian [[Chishti]] [[Sufism|Sufi]] [[Shaikhs in South Asia|Shaikhs]], he was crowned "Alauddin Bahman Shah Sultan – Founder of the Bahmani Dynasty".<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hGHpVtQ8eKoC&q=chishti%20sufi%20sheikhs&pg=PA88 |title= Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent |author= Burjor Avari |year= 2013 |page= 88 |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 9780415580618 }}</ref> They bestowed upon him a robe allegedly worn by the prophet [[Muhammad]]. The extension of the Sufi's notion of spiritual sovereignty lent legitimacy to the planting of the sultanate's political authority, where the land, people, and produce of the Deccan were merited state protection, no longer available for plunder with impunity. These Sufis legitimized the transplantation of Indo-Muslim rulership from one region in South Asia to another, converting the land of the Bahmanids into being recognized as [[Divisions of the world in Islam#Dar al-Islam|Dar ul-Islam]], while it was previously considered [[Divisions of the world in Islam#Dar al-harb|Dar ul-Harb]].<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ&dq=muslim+rebel+daulatabad&pg=PP59 |title= India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 |author= Richard M. Eaton |date= 2019 |publisher= Penguin Books Limited |isbn= 9780141966557 }}</ref>

[[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] or Indo-Turkish troops, explorers, saints, and scholars moved from Delhi and North India to the Deccan with the establishment of the Bahmanid sultanate. How many of these were [[Shi'a|Shi'ites]] is unclear. Nonetheless, there is enough evidence to demonstrate that a number of nobility at the Bahmani court identified as Shi'ites or had significant Shi'ite inclinations.{{efn|[[Stephen Dale|Stephen F. Dale]] refers to the Bahmanis as Shi'i Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals |first=Stephen F. |last=Dale |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2009 |page= 31 |quote="...may have contributed to the decision by a group of Shi'i Muslims from the Deccan, the Bahmani, to proclaim the new Muslim Sultanate there." }}</ref>}}<ref name="Khalidi 1990 5">{{cite journal |title=The Shiʿites of the Deccan: An Introduction |first=Umar |last=Khalidi |journal=Rivista degli studi orientali |volume=64, Fasc. 1/2, SGUARDI SULLA CULTURA A SCIITA NEL DECCAN GLANCES ON SHI'ITE DECCAN CULTURE |year=1990 |page=5}}</ref>

===Succeeding rulers (1358–1422)===

Alauddin was succeeded by his son [[Mohammed Shah I]].{{Sfn|Prasad|1933|p=417}} His conflicts with the Vijayanagar empire were singularly savage wars, as according to the historian [[Ferishta]], "the population of the Carnatic was so reduced that it did not recover for several ages."<ref>{{cite book |title= the Age of Wrath:A History of the Delhi Sultanate |author= Abraham Elahy |date= 2015 |publisher= Penguin Books Limited }}</ref> The Bahmanids' aggressive confrontation with the two main Hindu kingdoms of the southern Deccan, [[Kakatiya dynasty|Warangal]] and Vijayanagara in the [[First Bahmani–Vijayanagar War]], made them renowned among Muslims as warriors of the faith.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250–1800|first1= Sheila S. |last1 = Blair |first2=Jonathan M. |last2=Bloom |date= 25 September 1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&dq=warangal+bahmanids&pg=PA156 |page=159| publisher=Yale University Press |isbn= 0300064659 }}</ref>

The Vijayanagara empire and the Bahmanids fought over the control of the Godavari-basin, Tungabadhra Doab, and the [[Marathwada]] country, although they seldom required a pretext for declaring war,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro--tXw_hxMC&dq=warangal+bahmanids&pg=PA1072 |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam |author= E. J. Brill |date=1993 |page=1072 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004097940 }}</ref> as military conflicts were almost a regular feature and lasted as long as these kingdoms continued.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vKxiDwAAQBAJ&dq=warangal+bahmanids&pg=PA183|title= MEDIEVAL INDIA UPSC PREPARATION BOOKS HISTORY SERIES |publisher=Mocktime Publication |date=2011 }}</ref> Military slavery involved captured slaves from Vijayanagara whom were then converted to Islam and integrated into the host society, so they could begin military careers within the Bahmanid empire.{{sfn|Eaton 2005|page=126}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UHoxEAAAQBAJ&dq=deccanis+bahri&pg=PA67 |title=Local States in an Imperial World |page=72 |author=Roy S. Fischel |date=2020 |isbn=9781474436090}}</ref> Mohammad Shah II's reign was noted for its peace and lack of foreign wars.<ref name=":1" /> Strong measures of civil and military organizations were set up by Mohammad Shah I, but they developed only during Mohammad Shah II's rule.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Siddiqi |first=A. M. |date=1941 |title=Mohammad Shah Ii Bahmani, the Pioneer of the Medieval Culture of the Deccan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44304829 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=5 |pages=582–586 |jstor=44304829 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref>

Ghiyasuddin succeeded his father Muhammad II at the age of seventeen in April 1397, but was blinded and imprisoned by a Turkic slave called Taghalchin,<ref name=":1">{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9_48AAAAIAAJ&dq=tughalchin&pg=PA285 |title= The Cambridge Shorter History of India |page= 285 |publisher= CUP Archive }}</ref>{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=129}} who had held a grudge on the Sultan for the latter's refusal to appoint him as a governor. He had lured the Sultan into putting himself in the former's power, using the beauty of his daughter, who was accomplished in music and arts, and had introduced her to the Sultan at a feast.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=03lDAAAAYAAJ&q=infatuated |title= The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Delhi sultanate |author= Ramesh Chandra Majumdar |date= 1951 |publisher= Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan }}</ref>{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|page=93}} He was succeeded by Shamsuddin, who was a puppet king under Taghalchin. [[Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah|Firuz]] and [[Ahmad Shah I Wali|Ahmed]], the sons of the fourth sultan [[Daud Shah Bahmani|Daud]], marched to Gulbarga to avenge Ghiyasuddin. Firuz declared himself the sultan, and defeated Taghalchin's forces. Taghalchin was killed and Shamsuddin was blinded.{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|p=132}}

Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah became the sultan in November 1397.{{Sfn|Prasad|1933|p=423}} Firuz Shah fought against the Vijayanagara Empire on many occasions and the rivalry between the two dynasties continued unabated throughout his reign, with victories [[Bahmani–Vijayanagar War (1398)|in 1398]] and [[War of the Goldsmith's Daughter|in 1406]], but a defeat in 1417. One of his victories resulted in his marriage to the daughter of [[Deva Raya]], the Vijayanagara Emperor.{{sfn|Majumdar|1967|p=255}}

Firuz Shah expanded the nobility by enabling Hindus and granting them high office.<ref>{{cite book |title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture |date=2000 |page= 275 |author=John Stewart Bowman |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9780231110044 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YkqsAgAAQBAJ&dq=Ala-ud-Din+Bahman+Shah&pg=PA274 }}</ref> In his reign, Sufis such as [[Bande Nawaz|Gesudaraz]], a Chishti saint who had immigrated from Dehli to Daulatabad, were prominent in court and daily life.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAT1DwAAQBAJ&dq=gesudaraz&pg=PA168 |title= Islam in South Asia: Revised, Enlarged and Updated Second Edition |page= 168 |author= Jamal Malik |date= 2020 |publisher= Brill |isbn= 9789004422711 }}</ref> He was the first author to write in the [[Deccani language|Dakhni]] dialect of [[Urdu]].<ref>{{cite book |title= Classical Urdu Literature from the Beginning to Iqbāl |author= Annemarie Schimmel |date= 1975 |page= 132 |publisher= Harrassowitz}}</ref> The Dakhni language became widespread, practised by various milieus from the court to the Sufis. It was established as a ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the Muslims of the Deccan, as not only the aspect of a dominant urban elite, but an expression of the regional religious identity.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=UHoxEAAAQBAJ&dq=quli+dakhani&pg=PA74 |title= Local States in an Imperial World:Identity, Society and Politics in the Early Modern Deccan |author= Roy S. Fischel |date=2020 |isbn= 9781474436090 }}</ref>

===Later rulers (1422–1482) ===
Firuz Shah was succeeded by his younger brother [[Ahmad Shah I Wali]]. Following the establishment of [[Bidar]] as capital of the sultanate in 1429,{{sfn|Yazdani, 1947|pp=23}} Ahmad Shah I converted to [[Shi'ism]].<ref name="Khalidi 1990 5"/> Ahmad Shah's reign was marked by relentless military campaigns and expansionism. He imposed destruction and slaughter on Vijayanagara and finally captured the remnants of Warangal.<ref>{{cite book |title= Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture |page= 275 |isbn= 9780231110044 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YkqsAgAAQBAJ&dq=mahmud+shah+bahmani+vijayanagar&pg=PA276 |last1= Bowman |first1= John |last2= Bowman |first2= John Stewart |year= 2000 |publisher= Columbia University Press }}</ref>
[[File:Chand Minar.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Chand Minar at [[Daulatabad fort]] complex]]
[[Alau'd-din Ahmad Shah|Alauddin Ahmad II]] succeeded his father to the throne in 1436.{{sfn|Majumdar|1967|p=259}} The [[Chand Minar]], a [[minaret]] in [[Daulatabad Fort|Daulatabad]], was constructed under his reign, and was commemorated in his honour<ref name="minar"/> in 1445<ref>{{cite book|last1 = Mitchell|first1 = George|first2 = Mark |last2 = Zebrowski|title = Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7)|publisher = Cambridge University Press| year = 1999| location = Cambridge| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ju1XvgAACAAJ| isbn = 0-521-56321-6|pages=64–65}}</ref> for his [[Bahmani–Vijayanagar War (1443)|victory]] against [[Deva Raya II]] of Vijayanagara in 1443,<ref name="minar">{{cite journal |last1=Manohar |first1=Mohit |title=A Victory Tower Built by a Slave: The Chand Minar at Daulatabad in Deccan India |journal=Muqarnas Online |date=2021 |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=57–65 |doi=10.1163/22118993-00381P03}}</ref> the last major conflict between the two powers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allan |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pMSFAAAAIAAJ |title=The Cambridge Shorter History of India |date=1964 |publisher=S. Chand |page=283}}</ref> For the first half-century after the establishment of the Bahmanids, the original North Indian colonists and their sons had administered the empire quite independent of either the non-Muslim Hindus, or the Muslim foreign immigrants. However, the later Bahmani Sultans, mainly starting from his father Ahmad Shah Wali I, began to recruit foreigners from overseas, whether because of depletion among the ranks of the original settlers, or the feelings of dependency upon the Persian courtly model, or both.{{sfn|Eaton 1978|p=42}} This resulted in factional strife that first became acute in the reign of his son Alauddin Ahmad Shah II.<ref>{{cite book |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSdWELuOikMC&dq=Ahmad+Shah+I+Wali+foreigners&pg=PA4 |title= Historic Landmarks of the Deccan |date=1907 |author= Sir Wolseley Haig |publisher= Pioneer Press }}</ref> In 1446, the powerful Dakhani nobles persuaded the Sultan that the Persians were responsible for the failure of the earlier invasion of the [[Konkan]].<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=cYoHOqC7Yx4C&dq=bahmanis+massacre+persian+shias&pg=PA275 |title= Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture |publisher= Columbia University Press |author= John Bowman |date= 2000 |isbn= 9780231500043 }}</ref>

The Sultan, drunk, condoned a large-scale massacre of Persian Shi'a [[Sayyid]]s by the Sunni Dakhani nobles and their Sunni [[Ethiopian|Abyssinian]] slaves.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wfVgEAAAQBAJ&dq=massacre+of+shia+sayyids+bahmanid&pg=PA54 |title=Islam in the Indian Subcontinent |date= 2022 |author= Annemarie Schimmel |publisher= Brill |isbn=9789004492998 }}</ref> A few survivors escaped the massacre dressed in women's clothing and convinced the Sultan of their innocence.<ref>{{cite book |title= The African Dispersal in the Deccan: From Medieval to Modern Times |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-3CPc22nMqIC&dq=chakan+massacre&pg=PA46 |page= 46 |author= Shanti Sadiq Ali |date= 1996 |publisher= Orient Longman | isbn=9788125004851 }}</ref> Ashamed of his own folly, the Sultan punished the Dakhani leaders who were responsible for the massacre, putting them to death or throwing them in prison, and reduced their families to beggary.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Wkg8AAAAMAAJ&q=chakan+survivor |title= Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan: Volumes 2–3, Issues 1–2 |publisher= Research Society of Pakistan |date= 1965 |page= 10 }}</ref> The accounts of the violent events likely included exaggerations as it came from the pen of the chroniclers who were themselves mainly foreigners and products of [[Safavid Persia]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41880628 |author=Muhammad Suleman Siddiqi |title= Sufi-State Relationship Under the Bahmanids (A.d. 1348–1538) |journal= Rivista Degli Studi Orientali |year= 1990 |volume= 64 |issue= 1/2 |page=91 |jstor= 41880628 |quote=Firishta and Tabatabai, presents a very grim picture of the locals and refer to them as permanent enemies of the Sadat. There is some exaggeration in their account but one must not forget that these accounts of unfortunate affairs are all from the pen of the aliens, who are the products of Safavid Persia. }}</ref>

[[File:Complete view of Mahumad Gawan.JPG|thumb|[[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa]], built by [[Mahmud Gawan]] to be the centre of religious as well as secular education{{sfn|Yazdani, 1947|pp=91–98}}]]
The eldest sons of Humayun Shah, [[Nizam-Ud-Din Ahmad III]] and [[Muhammad Shah III Lashkari]] ascended the throne successively, while they were young boys. The vizier [[Mahmud Gawan]] ruled as regent during this period, until Muhammad Shah reached age. Mahmud Gawan is known for setting up the [[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa]], a center of religious as well as secular education,{{sfn|Yazdani, 1947|pp=91–98}} as well as achieving the sultanate's greatest extent during his rule.<ref name="8-17"/> He also increased the administrative divisions of the sultanate from four to eight to ease the administrative burden from previous expansion of the state. Gawan was considered a great statesman, and a poet of repute.{{sfn|Yazdani, 1947|pp=10}}

Mahmud Gawan was caught in a struggle between a rivalry between two groups of nobles, the Dakhanis and the Afaqis. The [[Deccanis|Dakhanis]] made up the indigenous Muslim elite of the Bahmanid dynasty, being descendants of Sunni immigrants from Northern India, while the Afaqis were foreign newcomers from the west such as Gawan, who were mostly Shi'is.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAT1DwAAQBAJ&dq=firoz+afaqi&pg=PA168 |title= Islam in South Asia: Revised, Enlarged and Updated Second Edition |page= 168 |author= Jamal Malik |date= 2020 |publisher= Brill |isbn= 9789004422711 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hGHpVtQ8eKoC&q=deccanis%20gawan&pg=PA89 |title= Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent |author= Burjor Avari |year= 2013 |page= 89 |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 9780415580618 }}</ref> The Dakhanis believed that the privileges, patronage and positions of power in the sultanate should have been reserved solely for them.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&dq=deccanis+looked+upon+empire&pg=RA1-PA137 |title= Indian History |page= 137 |date= 1988 |publisher= Allied Publishers |isbn= 9788184245684 }}</ref>

The divisions included sectarian religious divisions where the Afaqis were looked upon as heretics by the Sunnis as the former were Shi'as.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mHLB4m75pisC&dq=deccanis+looked+upon+empire&pg=PA219 |title= India's Road to Nationhood: A Political History of the Subcontinent |author= Wilhelm von Pochhammer |date= 2005 |publisher= Allied |page= 219 |isbn= 9788177647150 }}</ref> [[Richard M. Eaton|Eaton]] cites a linguistic divide where the Dakhanis spoke Dakhni while the Afaqis favored the Persian language.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NUKGAAAAIAAJ&q=afaqis++merchants |title= Merchant Networks in the Early Modern World |page=75 |publisher= Variorum |date=1996 |author=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |isbn= 9780860785071 }}</ref> Mahmud Gawan had tried to reconcile with the two factions over his fifteen-year prime ministership, but had found it difficult to win their confidence; the party strife could not be stopped.<ref name="8-17"/> His Afaqis opponents, led by [[Nizam-ul-Mulk Bahri]] and motivated by anger over Mahmud's reforms which had curtailed the nobility's power, fabricated a treasonous letter to [[Purushottama Deva]] of Orissa which they purported to be from him.{{sfn|Haig, 1925|pp=418–420}}<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&dq=mahmud+gawan+deccanis&pg=PA187 |title= Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One |page= 187 |author= Satish Chandra |date= 2004 |publisher= Har-Anand Publications |isbn= 9788124110645 }}</ref> Mahmud Gawan was ordered executed by Muhammad Shah III, an act that the latter regretted until his death in 1482.{{sfn|Yazdani, 1947|pp=10}} Upon his death, Nizam-ul-Mulk Bahri, the father of the founder of the [[Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah I|Nizam Shahi dynasty]] became the regent of the Sultan as prime minister.{{sfn|Haig, 1925|pp=421–422}}<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=5C4hBqKdkEsC&dq=nizam+ul+mulk+bahri+regent&pg=PA17 |title= The Kingdom of Ahmadnagar |page= 17 |author=Radhey Shyam |date= 1966 |publisher= Motilal Banarsidass |isbn= 9788120826519 }}</ref>

===Decline===
Muhammad Shah III Lashkari was succeeded by his son [[Mahmood Shah Bahmani II]], the last Bahmani ruler to have real power.{{sfn|Yazdani, 1947|pp=10–11}} The [[Bahmani taraf|tarafdars]] of [[Ahmednagar Sultanate|Ahmednagar]], [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]], and [[Berar Sultanate|Berar]], [[Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah I]], [[Yusuf Adil Shah]], and [[Fathullah Imad-ul-Mulk]] agreed to assert their independence in 1490, and established their own sultanates but maintained loyalty to the Bahmani Sultan. The sultanates of [[Sultanate of Golconda|Golconda]] and [[Bidar Sultanate|Bidar]] would become in practice independent as well.{{sfn|Haig, 1925|pp=425–426}} In 1501, Mahmood Shah Bahmani united his amirs and wazirs in an agreement to wage annual [[Jihad]] against Vijayanagara. The expeditions were financially ruinous.<ref>{{cite book |title= Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture |page= 276 |author= John Bowman |date= 2000 |publisher= Columbia University Press }}</ref>

The last Bahmani Sultans were puppet monarchs under their [[Barid Shahi dynasty|Barid Shahi]] prime ministers, who were the ''de facto'' rulers. After 1518 the sultanate formally broke up into the five states of Ahmednagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, and Golconda. They are collectively known as the [[Deccan Sultanates]].{{sfn|Haig, 1925|pp=425–426}}

== Historiography ==
Modern scholars like [[Haroon Khan Sherwani]] and [[Richard M. Eaton]] have based their accounts of the Bahmani dynasty mainly upon the medieval chronicles of [[Firishta]] and Syed Ali Tabatabai.{{sfn|Eaton 2005|page=2}}{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|pp=10–12}} Other contemporary works were the Sivatattva Chintamani, a [[Kannada]] language encyclopedia on the beliefs and rites of the [[Veerashaiva]] faith, and [[Shri Guru Charitra|Guru Charitra]]. [[Afanasy Nikitin]], a Russian merchant and traveler, traveled through the Bahmani Sultanate in his journeys. He contrasts the huge "wealth of the nobility with the wretchedness of the peasantry and the frugality of the Hindus".<ref>{{cite book |author=P. M. Kemp |title=Bharat-Rus: An Introduction to Indo-Russian Contracts and Travels from Mediaeval Times to the October Revolution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3EDRAAAAMAAJ |year=1958 |publisher=ISCUS |page=20}}</ref>

==Culture==
[[File:Farman Of Feroz Shah Bahmani - 14 -05 -1406 A.D.jpg|thumb|right|120px|Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah of the Bahmani Sultanate's [[Firman]]]]

The Bahmani dynasty patronized Indo-Muslim and Persian culture from Northern India and the Middle East.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x3zaRttYiekC&dq=bahmani+indo-muslim&pg=PA730 |title= Strange Parallels: Volume 2, Mainland Mirrors: Europe, Japan, China, South Asia, and the Islands |page=730 |author= Victor Lieberman |date=2003 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 9780521823524 }}</ref> However, the society of the Bahmnanis was dominated prominently by Iranians, Afghans, and Turks.{{sfn|N.H|1988}} They also had considerable and social influence such as with the celebration of [[Nowruz]] by Bahmani rulers.{{sfn|N.H|1988}} This also comes as [[Mohammed Shah I]] ascended the throne on Nowruz.<ref>{{Cite web |last=N.H |first=Ansari |date=1988 |title=BAHMANID DYNASTY |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/bahmanid-dynasty-a-dynasty-founded-in-748-1347-in-the-deccan-sanskrit-daksia-lit |access-date=8 July 2023 |website=Encyclopædia Iranica}}</ref> According to [[Khafi Khan]] and [[Ferishta]], musicians flocked to the court from [[Lahore]], [[Delhi]], Persia, and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]].<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=FzVuAAAAMAAJ&q=quli+khawas |title= Annual Report |page=138 |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |date=1916}}</ref>

The Bahmani sultans were patrons of the [[Persian language]], [[Culture of Iran|culture]], and [[Persian literature|literature]], and some members of the dynasty became well-versed in the language and composed its literature in the language.<ref name="Ansari"/>

The first sultan, [[Alauddin Bahman Shah]], is noted to have captured 1,000 singing and dancing girls from Hindu temples after he battled the northern [[Carnatic region|Carnatic]] chieftains. The later Bahmanis also enslaved civilian women and children in wars; many of them were converted to Islam in captivity.{{sfn|Haig, 1925|pp=391, 397–398}}<ref>Sewell, Robert. ''A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar)'' pp.57–58.</ref>

===Bidriware===
{{Main|Bidriware}}

Bidriware is a metal [[handicraft]] from the city of [[Bidar]] in [[Karnataka]]. It was developed in the 14th century during the rule of the Bahmani Sultans.<ref name="TOI" /> The term "bidriware" originates from the township of Bidar, which is still the chief center of production.<ref name="art">{{cite news|title=Karnataka tableau to feature Bidriware|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/karnataka-tableau-to-feature-bidriware/article1079557.ece|access-date=6 March 2015|work=The Hindu|date=11 January 2011}}</ref> The craftspersons of Bidar were so famed for their inlay work on copper and silver that it came to be known as Bidri.<ref name="TOI">{{cite news| title=Proving their mettle in metal craft| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Proving-their-mettle-in-metal-craft/articleshow/11332582.cms| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508043800/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-01-02/hyderabad/30580986_1_bidriware-hyderabad-bidar| url-status=live| archive-date=8 May 2013| date=2 January 2012| work=[[The Times of India]]| access-date=2 January 2012}}</ref> The metal used is [[white brass]] that is blackened and inlaid with silver.<ref name="art" /> As a native art form, Bidriware obtained a [[geographical Indications]] (GI) registry on 3 January 2006.<ref>{{cite news|title=Innovative designs help revive Bidriware|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/innovative-designs-help-revive-bidriware/article1226893.ece|access-date=6 March 2015|work=The Hindu|date=26 March 2008}}</ref>

===Architecture===
[[File:Gateway to Bidar fort.jpg|thumb|Gateway to [[Bidar Fort]]]]

The Bahmani Sultans patronized many architectural works, although many have since been destroyed.<ref name="Rangan">{{cite news |last1=Datta |first1=Rangan |title=Bidar Fort in Karnataka: A treasure trove of south Indian heritage |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/places/bidar-fort-in-karnataka-a-grand-architecture-with-a-great-historical-past/cid/1942732 |access-date=11 October 2023 |agency=My Kolkata |publisher=The Telegraph |date=6 June 2023}}</ref> The [[Gulbarga Fort]], [[Haft Gumbaz]], and [[Jama Mosque Gulbarga|Jama Masjid]] in Gulbarga, the [[Bidar Fort]] and [[Mahmud Gawan Madrasa|Madrasa Mahmud Gawan]] in Bidar, and the [[Chand Minar]] in [[Daulatabad Fort|Daulatabad]] are some of their major architectural contributions.{{sfn|Yazdani, 1947|pp=91–98}}

The later Sultans were buried in a [[necropolis]] known as the [[Bahmani Tombs]]. The exterior of one of the tombs is decorated with coloured tiles. Arabic, Persian and Urdu inscriptions are inscribed inside the tombs.{{sfn|Yazdani, 1947|pp=114–142}}<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sara Mondini|title=The Use of Quranic Inscriptions in the Bahmani Royal Mausoleums The Case of Three Tombstones from Ashtur|journal=Eurasiatica |year=2016|volume=4|doi=10.14277/6969-085-3/EUR-4-12}}</ref>

The Bahmani Sultans built many mosques, tombs, and [[madrasa]]s in Bidar and Gulbarga, the two capitals. They also built many forts in [[Daulatabad Fort|Daulatabad]], [[Golconda]] and [[Raichur]]. The architecture was highly influenced by [[Persian architecture]], as they invited architects from Persia, Turkey and Arabia. The Persianate [[Indo-Islamic architecture|Indo-Islamic]] style of architecture developed during this period was later adopted by the [[Deccan Sultanates]] as well.{{sfn|Yazdani, 1947|p=24}}<ref name="Rangan" /> A Sasanian insignia in the shape of two open wings adorned by a [[crescent]] and occasionally a circle is a design found on several early Bahmani constructions in Gulbarga, likely to bolster their claims of Sasanian lineage.{{sfn|Subrahmaniyam|2020|p=78}}

===Turquoise Throne===
{{Main|Takht-i-Firoza}}

The Turquoise Throne was a jeweled royal [[throne]] mentioned by [[Firishta]]. It was the seat of the sultans of the Bahmani Sultanate since [[Mohammed Shah I]] ({{Reign}}1358–1375). It was a gift of [[Musunuri Nayaks|Musunuri Kapaya Nayaka]], a Telugu King in post-Kakateeya era.{{sfn|Sherwani |1946|pages=77–78}} It was mentioned by Firishta that on 23 March 1363,{{efn|Firishta mentioned that Sultan Bahman Shah first sat on the new throne (i.e. the Takht-e-Firoza) on [[Nowruz]], the Persian new year, following the autumnal solstice in 764 [[Hijri year|AH]].{{sfn|Sherwani|1946|page=102}}}} this throne replaced an earlier silver throne that the first Bahmani sultan [[Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah]] used.

== Gunpowder weapons ==
{{See also|History of the firearm#South Asia}}
The Bahmani Sultanate was likely the first state to invent and utilize [[gunpowder artillery]] and [[firearms]] within the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Their firearms were the most advanced of their time, surpassing even those of the [[Yuan Dynasty]] and the [[Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt]]. The first recorded use of firearms in South Asia was at the Battle of Adoni in 1368, where the Bahmani Sultanate led by [[Mohammed Shah I]] used a train of artillery against the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] led by [[Harihara II]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Jagjit|title=Artillery: The Battle-Winning Arm|date=2006|publisher=Lancer Publishers, New Delhi|isbn= 978-8176021807}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Official Home Page of the Indian Army |url=https://indianarmy.nic.in/ |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=indianarmy.nic.in |archive-date=2017-06-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170626223336/https://indianarmy.nic.in/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the initial use of gunpowder weapons in 1368, they became the backbone of the Bahmani army.{{sfn|Khan|1981|p=155}}

The scholar Iqtidar Alam Khan claims, however, that based on a differing translation of a passage of medieval historian [[Firishta]]'s text ''Tarikh-i Firishta'', in which he describes early use of gunpowder weapons in the Indian Subcontinent, it can be inferred that both the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and non-Muslim Indian states had the gunpowder weapons that the Bahmani Sultanate began to use in 1368, and that the Bahmanis had acquired the weapons from the Delhi Sultanate.{{sfn|Khan|1981|p=157}} Contemporary evidence shows the presence of gunpowder for [[pyrotechnics|pyrotechnic]] uses in the Delhi Sultanate,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Kaushik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSVnAwAAQBAJ&dq=bahmani+sultanate+cannons&pg=PA21 |title=Military Transition in Early Modern Asia, 1400–1750: Cavalry, Guns, Government and Ships |date=2014-05-22 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-78093-813-4 |pages=21 |language=en}}</ref> and Alam Khan states that their usage in the Battle of Adoni in 1368 was rather the first military usage of gunpowder-derived objects in the Subcontinent.{{sfn|Khan|1981|p=164}} According to Klaus Rötzer, these early pyrotechnic weapons were used primarily to frighten enemy cavalry and elephants.<ref name="sots">{{cite book |last=Rötzer |first=Klaus |editor-last1=Haidar |editor-first1=Navina Najat |editor-last2=Sardar |editor-first2=Marika |title=Sultans of the South |date=2011 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |chapter=Fortifications and Gunpowder in the Deccan, 1368–1687 |isbn=9781588394385 |page=205 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iWNHYID4WqAC&dq=Gunpowder+weapons+in+the+Bahmani+Sultanate+-wikipedia&pg=PA204}}</ref>

The Bahmani Sultanate used cannons while besieging the Fort of Machal in 1470{{sfn|Khan|1981|p=163}} or January 1471.<ref name="ghow">{{cite book |last1=Roy |first1=Kaushik |title=A Global History of Warfare and Technology |date=2022 |publisher=Springer Nature Singapore |isbn=9789811934780 |page=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k6t_EAAAQBAJ&dq=Gunpowder+weapons+in+the+Bahmani+Sultanate+-wikipedia&pg=PA119}}</ref> This was the first known use of gunpowder in siege weaponry on the [[Deccan Plateau]].<ref name=ghow/>

==List of Bahmani rulers ==
{{Main article|List of Bahmani rulers}}

{| class="wikitable"
! style="background-color:#F0DC82" | Titular Name
! style="background-color:#F0DC82" | Personal Name
! style="background-color:#F0DC82" | Reign
|-
|colspan=4 align="center"| [[Rebellion of Ismail Mukh|Independence]] from [[Sultan of Delhi]], [[Muhammad bin Tughlaq]]
|-
|align="center"|''Shah'' ''Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah''
|align="center"| [[Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah]] I
|align="center"|3 August 1347 – 11 February 1358
|-
|align="center"| ''Shah''
|align="center"| [[Mohammed Shah I|Mohammad Shah I]]
|align="center"|11 February 1358 – 21 April 1375
|-
|align="center"|''Shah'' ''Ala-ud-Din Mujahid Shah''
|align="center"| [[Mujahid Shah]]
|align="center"|21 April 1375 – 16 April 1378
|-
|align="center"| ''Shah''
|align="center"| [[Daud Shah Bahmani]]
|align="center"|16 April 1378 – 21 May 1378
|-
|align="center"|''Shah''
|align="center"| [[Mohammad Shah II]]
|align="center"| 21 May 1378 – 20 April 1397
|-
|align="center"|''Shah''
|align="center"| Ghiyath-ad-din Shah
|align="center"|20 April 1397 – 14 June 1397
|-
|- bgcolor="#D8BFD8"
|align="center"|''Shah''
|align="center"| Shams-ud-Din Shah Puppet King Under Lachin Khan Turk
|align="center"| 14 June 1397 – 15 November 1397
|-
|align="center"|''Shah'' ''Taj-ud-Din Feroze Shah'' 
|align="center"| [[Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah|Feroze Shah]]
|align="center"| 24 November 1397 – 1 October 1422
|-
|align="center"|''Shah''
|align="center"| [[Ahmad Shah I Wali|Ahmed Shah Wali Bahmani]]
|align="center"| 1 October 1422 – 17 April 1436
|-
|align="center"|''Shah'' ''Ala-ud-Din Ahmed Shah''
|align="center"| [[Alau'd-din Ahmad Shah|Ala-ud-Din II Ahmed Shah Bahmani]]
|align="center"| 17 April 1436 – 6 May 1458
|-
|align="center"|''Shah'' ''Ala-ud-Din Humayun Shah''
|align="center"| [[Humayun Shah|Humayun Shah Zalim Bahmani]]
|align="center"| 7 May 1458 – 4 September 1461
|-
|align="center"|''Shah''
|align="center"| [[Nizam Shah Bahmani]]
|align="center"| 4 September 1461 – 30 July 1463
|-
|align="center"|''Shah'' ''Muhammad Shah Lashkari''
|align="center"|[[Muhammad Shah III Lashkari|Muhammad Shah Bahmani III]]
|align="center"| 30 July 1463 – 26 March 1482
|-
|- bgcolor="#A7BFA3"
|align="center"|''Vira Shah''
|align="center"| [[Mahmood Shah Bahmani II]] Puppet under [[Malik Naib]], [[Qasim Barid I]], and [[Amir Barid I]]
|align="center"| 26 March 1482 – 27 December 1518
|-
|- bgcolor="#F5DEB3"
|align="center"|''Shah''
|align="center"| Ahmed Shah Bahmani III Puppet King Under [[Amir Barid I]]
|align="center"| 27 December 1518 – 15 December 1520
|-
|- bgcolor="#F5DEB3"
|align="center"|''Shah''
|align="center"| Ala-ud-Din Shah Bahmani II Puppet King Under Amir Barid I
|align="center"| 28 December 1520 – 5 March 1522
|-
|- bgcolor="#F5DEB3"
|align="center"|''Shah''
|align="center"| Waliullah Shah Bahmani Puppet King Under Amir Barid I
|align="center"| 5 March 1522 – 1526
|-
|- bgcolor="#F5DEB3"
|align="center"|''Shah''
|align="center"| Kaleemullah Shah Bahmani Puppet King Under Amir Barid I
|align="center"| 1525–1527
|-
|colspan=4 align="center"| Dissolution of the sultanate into five kingdoms — [[Bidar Sultanate|Bidar]], [[Ahmednagar Sultanate|Ahmednagar]], [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]], [[Golconda Sultanate|Golconda]], and [[Berar Sultanate|Berar]]
|}

== See also ==
* [[Battle of Talikota]]
* [[Battle of Raichur]]

== References ==
===Notes===
{{notelist}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
* {{citation |last=Avari |first=Burjor |author-link=Burjor Avari |title=Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A history of Muslim power and presence in the Indian subcontinent |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-58061-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hGHpVtQ8eKoC}}
* {{cite encyclopedia | title = Bahmanid dynasty | last = Ansari | first = N. H. | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahmanid-dynasty-a-dynasty-founded-in-748-1347-in-the-deccan-sanskrit-daksia-lit | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 5 | pages = 494–499 | year = 1988}}
* {{citation |last=Chandra |first=Satish |title=Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) – Part One |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&pg=PA177 |year=2004 |publisher=Har-Anand Publications |isbn=978-81-241-1064-5}}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j2F9BgAAQBAJ |title=The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300–1700 : Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India |author=Eaton |first=Richard Maxwell |date=1978 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9781400868155 |ref={{sfnref|Eaton 1978}}}}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGd2huLXEVYC |title=A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives, Part 1, Volume 8 |author=Eaton |first=Richard M. |date=17 November 2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521254847 |ref={{sfnref|Eaton 2005}}}}
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.46989/page/n1|title=The Cambridge History of India (Volume III)|last=Haig|first=Sir Thomas Wolseley|author-link=Wolseley Haig|year=1925|publisher=Cambridge University Press|ref={{sfnref|Haig, 1925}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=J.D.E |first1=Gribble |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PNtjIJmhoIkC |title=History of the Decan |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1990 |language=en}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Iqtidar |date=1981 |title=Early Use of Cannon and Musket in India: A.D. 1442-1526. |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3631993 |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=146–164 |doi=10.2307/3631993 |jstor=3631993 |ref={{sfnref|Khan|1981}}|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Citation |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |year=2004 |title=A History of India |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415329194 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C |edition=Fourth}}
* {{citation |last=Majumdar |first=Ramesh Chandra |title=The Delhi Sultanate |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8IKAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA248 |year=1967 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan}}
*{{cite book | last = Meri | first = Josef W. | title = Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia | isbn = 9781135455965 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC | year = 2005 | publisher = Routledge | pages = 1–1088 }}
*{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.281016/mode/2up|title=History Of Mediaeval India|last=Prasad|first=Ishwari|year=1933|author-link=Ishwari Prasad|publisher=The Indian Press Ltd.|location=Allahabad}}
*{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.68551|title=The Bahmanis of the Deccan – An Objective Study|last=Sherwani|first=Haroon Khan|year=1946|author-link=Haroon Khan Sherwani|publisher=Krishnavas International Printers, Hyderabad Deccan}}
* {{cite book|last=Subrahmaniyam|first=Muzaffar Alam Sanjay|editor-last=Overton|editor-first=Keelan|title=Iran and the Deccan: Persianate Art, Culture, and Talent in Circulation, 1400–1700|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|year=2020|isbn=978-0253048912|chapter=Iran and the Doors to the Deccan, ca. 1400–1650: Some Aspects|pages=77–104|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_yHXDwAAQBAJ}}
*{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279710/page/n1|title=Bidar, Its History and Monuments|last=Yazdani|first=Ghulam|year=1947|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9788120810716|author-link=Ghulam Yazdani|ref={{sfnref|Yazdani, 1947}}}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{EI3|last=Overton|first=Keelan|title=Bahmanī dynasty|year=2016|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/bahmani-dynasty-COM_25147}}
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html#in0015 Library of Congress – A Country Study: India]

{{Coord missing|India}}

{{Bahmani Sultanate}}
{{Maharashtra}}
{{Karnataka}}
{{Telangana}}
{{Andhra Pradesh}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Bahmani Sultanate| ]]
[[Category:1527 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1347]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1527]]
[[Category:1347 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:14th-century establishments in India]]

Baranagar

2026-03-28T18:32:03Z

Sherrie7069: cleanup

{{short description|City in West Bengal, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Baranagar
| other_name =
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = BRkM-6.jpg
| photo2a = Belghoria Expressway - Kolkata 2011-09-09 4949.JPG
| photo2b = Baranagar railway station.jpg
| photo3a = Belur Math-Belur-West Bengal-1.jpg
| photo3b = Joy Mitra Kripamoyee Kalibari -the entrance of the temple compound.jpg
| photo4a = Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata.jpg
| size = 280
| spacing = 1
| color = #FFFFFF
| border = 3
| position = center
| color_border = skyblue
| foot_montage = Clockwise from top: Aerial view of [[Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School|Baranagar Ramakrishna Mission]], Afternoon view of [[Baranagar Road railway station|Baranagar station]], [[Kripamayee Kali Temple]], [[Indian Statistical Institute]], [[Ganges River]], [[Belghoria Expressway]]
| text_background = lightskyblue
}}
| pushpin_map = India Kolkata#India West Bengal#India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kolkata##Location in West Bengal##Location in India
| coordinates = {{coord|22.64|N|88.37|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = {{flagicon image|Emblem of West Bengal (Banglarmukh) before 2018.png}} [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of West Bengal|Division]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Presidency division|Presidency]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[List of districts of West Bengal|District]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[North 24 Parganas]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://north24parganas.nic.in/about_district/history |title=History of ''North 24 Parganas district'' |access-date=21 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/nation/centre-shows-urgency-in-tmc-ruled-west-bengal-clears-projects/783579.html |title=''Centre shows urgency in TMC-ruled West Bengal; clears projects'' |publisher=m.tribuneindia.com |last=Singh |first=Ravi S |date=5 June 2019 |access-date=21 November 2019 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
| established_title = Established
| established_date = {{Start date and age|1869|df=yes}} {{small|(as North Suburban Municipality)}}<hr/>{{Start date and age|1889|df=yes}} {{small|(as Baranagar Municipality)}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://baranagarmunicipality.org/right-to-information-act/ |title=Baranagar Municipality - Right to Information Act |publisher=[[Baranagar Municipality]] |access-date=6 December 2019 |archive-date=3 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103000816/http://baranagarmunicipality.org/right-to-information-act/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| government_type = [[Municipal Corporations in India|Municipality]]
| governing_body = [[Baranagar Municipality]]
| parts_type = [[Ward (electoral subdivision)|Wards]]
| parts = 34<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wbsec.gov.in/results/municipal_election_detailed_result/TURSdUtwTm0xZnowTFFmeDhaRVcrQWJDSVFtMWVPN0N1dDFsNDFYYWR3ZTRiNjcxL1kvaTBKaS95Y1NhMXVNeFh0VWVNTTIrM1hsRkhNdWRFOHFmT01sU0xLWTUrOXljVW5XRUViWXcwTFhSZkFOdUt4b2F6SFdnZXJUTjB0WUhuRkdFVWo0U0Z3eHBYeUlWY0pCd3plb25CWTZ1Zm9VY01KaDVGYWQyRmNuN1gxZGdqVm1NYkM1dnJac3pyS2Q5aHBIdW9UQUwvczFteFVaSFlWclVPNVVFTFA5VGpHUW9ZTHpOUU9qTERrd2k1djhnYkZmQ1dudmJGV0NsS1ZxcWJicWNGWW1QMWtBZTBHVzFnTjZUYjdZNHA5b0t1SWk4WXh4Mk56b2Q5UlB0MGxyQXJUblpKMk1xLzc1VXZPMG9vZHJMQnhwWTZSQ1VzWFY2d25LUzVLOXJJQTBuWHNlNXJRL1B3Zz09 |title=Municipal General Election Results |work=Results of Municipal General Elections 2015 |publisher=[[West Bengal State Election Commission]] |access-date=4 July 2017}}</ref>
| leader_title1 = Municipality Chairman
| leader_name1 = Aparna Moulik<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://north24parganas.nic.in/municipality.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115061456/http://north24parganas.nic.in/municipality.html |url-status=dead |title=Official District Administration site |archive-date=15 January 2007}}</ref><ref name=Municipality>{{cite web |url=http://www.baranagarmunicipality.org/ |title=Welcome to www.baranagarmunicipality.org |access-date=17 May 2015 |archive-date=7 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707020913/http://baranagarmunicipality.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{small|([[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]])}}
| leader_title2 = MLA
| leader_name2 = [[Sayantika Banerjee]] {{small|([[All India Trinamool Congress|TMC]])}}
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 7.12
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 12
| population_total = 2,45,313<ref name=census3-2011/>
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank = 18th {{small|(in West Bengal)}}<ref name=Population/> [[List of cities in India by population#List|187th]] {{small|(in India)}}
| population_density_km2 = 35,220
| population_density_rank = [[List of world cities by population density|5th in the world]]<ref name="CensusOfIndia">[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ Census of India; Population Finder] Population at the 2001-03-01 Census, final results. Retrieved on 13 March 2022.</ref><ref name="DirCenOpWb">[http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/DataTables/02/FrameTable4_1.htm Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal; Population, Decadal Growth Rate, Density and General Sex Ratio by Residence and Sex, West Bengal/ District/ Sub District, 1991 and 2001] Retrieved on 13 March 2022.</ref>
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], English
| demographics1_title2 = Literacy rate
| demographics1_info2 = 91.41%<ref name=census3-2011/>
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = {{hlist|700035<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pincode.india-server.com/postoffice/alambazar-700035/ |title=Pin Code of Alambazar, Baranagar |publisher=pincode.india-server.com |access-date=6 November 2019 |archive-date=14 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714170619/http://pincode.india-server.com/postoffice/alambazar-700035/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>|700036<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pincode.india-server.com/postoffice/baranagar-700036/ |title=Pin Code of Baranagar |publisher=pincode.india-server.com |access-date=6 November 2019 |archive-date=14 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714170618/http://pincode.india-server.com/postoffice/baranagar-700036/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>|700090<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pincode.india-server.com/postoffice/noapara-700090/ |title=Pin Code of Noapara, Baranagar |publisher=pincode.india-server.com |access-date=6 November 2019 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>|700108<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pincode.india-server.com/postoffice/isi-po-700108/ |title=Pin Code of Indian Statistical Institute (ISI), Baranagar |publisher=pincode.india-server.com |access-date=6 November 2019 |archive-date=14 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714170617/http://pincode.india-server.com/postoffice/isi-po-700108/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}
| area_code = +91 33<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://dialcode.org/Asia/India/ |title=India Dial Codes |website=dialcode.org}}</ref>
| area_code_type = Telephone code
| registration_plate = WB-23, WB-24<ref>{{cite web |url=http://transport.wb.gov.in/governance-services/vehicle-registration/ |title=REGISTRATION OF VEHICLE |work=Transport Department, Government of West Bengal |access-date=19 November 2019 |publisher=transport.wb.gov.in}}</ref>
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Dum Dum (Lok Sabha constituency)|Dum Dum]]<ref name=delimitation/>
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Baranagar (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Baranagar]]<ref name=delimitation>{{cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/delim/Final_Publications/WestBengal/FINAL%20ORDER%20NOTIFICATION_English.pdf |title=Delimitation Commission Order No. 18 dated 15 February 2006 |access-date=19 November 2019 |work=West Bengal |publisher=Election Commission of India}}</ref>
| blank1_name_sec2 = [[Indian Railways]] station
| blank1_info_sec2 = {{Bulleted list|[[Dum Dum Junction railway station|Dum Dum Junction]]| [[Baranagar Road railway station|Baranagar Road]]}}
| blank2_name_sec2 = [[Kolkata Metro]] station
| blank2_info_sec2 = {{Bulleted list|[[Baranagar metro station|Baranagar]]|[[Noapara metro station|Noapara]]|[[Dum Dum metro station|Dum Dum]]}}
| blank3_name_sec2 = [[Climate of India|Climate]]
| blank3_info_sec2 = [[Tropical savanna climate|Aw]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]])
| blank4_name_sec2 = [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]]
| blank4_info_sec2 = {{convert|1,770|mm|in}}
| blank5_name_sec2 = Avg. annual temperature
| blank5_info_sec2 =
| blank6_name_sec2 = Avg. summer temperature
| blank6_info_sec2 = {{convert|31.7|°C|°F}}
| blank7_name_sec2 = Avg. winter temperature
| blank7_info_sec2 = {{convert|22.2|°C|°F}}
| blank7_name_sec1 = [[Human sex ratio|Sex ratio]]
| blank7_info_sec1 = 1000/943 (1.06) ([[Male|♂️]]/[[Female|♀️]])
| website = {{URL|baranagarmunicipality.org/ }}
| footnotes = {{center|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.barrackporecitypolice.in/baranagar.php |title=Baranagar Police Station |publisher=barrackporecitypolice.in |access-date=19 November 2019 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="Baranagar Demographics"/>}}
}}
{{Contains special characters|Bengali}}

'''Baranagar''' is a city and a municipality in the [[Kolkata Metropolitan Area]] of [[North 24 Parganas district]] in the [[India]]n [[States and territories of India|state]] of [[West Bengal]]. It is a part of the area covered by [[Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority]] (KMDA).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kmda.wb.gov.in/page/cms/introducing_kmda_011393|title=Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority|publisher=KMDA|access-date=1 January 2025|archive-date=28 January 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250128095658/https://kmda.wb.gov.in/page/cms/introducing_kmda_011393|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kmda.wb.gov.in/page/cms/map_of_kma_c1fed8|title=Kolkata Metropolitan Area Map|publisher=KMDA|access-date=1 January 2025}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

It is home to the [[Indian Statistical Institute]], an institution of national importance devoted to the research, teaching and application of statistics, natural sciences and social sciences.<ref name=ISI/> [[Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School|Baranagar Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School]] is one of the oldest and most renowned schools in Baranagar.<ref name=BRKM>{{cite web |url=https://belurmath.org/ramakrishna-mission-ashrama-baranagar-kolkata/ |title=Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Baranagar, Kolkata |access-date=13 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/madhyamik-hands-city-token-presence-on-merit-list/cid/894957 |title=''MADHYAMIK HANDS CITY TOKEN PRESENCE ON MERIT LIST'' |last=Mukherjee |first=Mita |publisher=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |date=29 June 2000 |access-date=1 December 2019}}</ref>

Baranagar is a major industrial centre for the manufacture of agricultural and industrial machinery, chemicals, [[castor oil]], and matches; Baranagar is also home to numerous cotton-processing companies, offset & digital printing companies and book publishers.

==Etymology==
The word ''Baranagar'' derives from the Bengali term ''Barahanagore'' ([[Bengali language|Bengali]]: বরাহনগর), meaning "City of the Hogs". (বরাহ: hog, নগর: city)
[[Streynsham Master]] who visited the area in 1676 spoke of the hog factory where about 3,000 hogs a year were slaughtered and salted for export.<ref name=Cotton/>

There are several explanations for the etymology of this name:

* [[File:De Barros Map of Bengal.jpg|thumb|317x317px|Map of Bengal by De Barros in 1550 showing "Bernagar" which refers to Baranagar]]{{OSM Location map
| width=300| height=330| zoom=11
| coord={{coord|22|41|47|N|88|24|32|E}}| float=right|caption='''Cities and towns in the southern portion of Barrackpore subdivision in North 24 Parganas district''' M: municipal city/ town, CT: census town, N: neighbourhood/ administrative location Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly
| minimap = file| mini-file = India West Bengal adm location map.svg
| mini-width = 103 | mini-height = 158
| minipog-x = 66 | minipog-y = 120
| scalemark = 110 | minimap-boxwidth=12|nolabels=1
|mark-coord1={{coord|22|46|24|N|88|21|49|E}} | label-pos1=left|label1=Barrackpore| numbered1=M | mark-title1= [[Barrackpore]] (M)|label-color1=#800000 |label-size1=11| mark-size1=12|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1=#800000|shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2
|mark-coord2={{coord|22|45|35|N|88|21|30|E}} | label-pos2=left|label2=Barrackpore |labela2=Cantonment| mark-title2= [[Barrackpur Cantonment|Barrackpore Cantonment]]| numbered2=0| shape-color2=#AA6666|label-offset-y2=-2
|mark-coord3={{coord|22|45|16|N|88|23|24|E}} | label-pos3=right|label3=Chak Kanthalia| numbered3=CT| mark-title3=[[Chak Kanthalia]] (CT)|shape-color3=#A40000
|mark-coord4={{coord|22|44|52|N|88|24|31|E}} | label-pos4=right|label4=Ruiya| numbered4=CT| mark-title4= [[Ruiya]] (CT)|shape-color4=#A40000
|mark-coord5={{coord|22|44|12|N|88|23|38|E}} | label-pos5=right|label5=Patulia| numbered5=CT | mark-title5= [[Patulia]] (CT)|shape-color5=#A40000
|mark-coord6={{coord|22|43|48|N|88|23|38|E}} | label-pos6=right|label6=Bandipur| numbered6=CT| mark-title6= [[Bandipur, North 24 Parganas|Bandipur]] (CT)|shape-color6=#A40000
|mark-coord7={{coord|22|44|14|N|88|22|12|E}} | label-pos7=left|label7=Titagarh| numbered7=M | mark-title7= [[Titagarh]] (M)|shape-color7=#800000
|mark-coord8={{coord|22|43|10|N|88|22|1|E}} | label-pos8=left|label8=Khardaha| numbered8=M| mark-title8= [[Khardaha]] (M)
|mark-coord9={{coord|22|41|31|N|88|22|12|E}} | label-pos9=right|label9=Panihati| numbered9=M| mark-title9= [[Panihati]] (M)
|mark-coord10={{coord|22|41|57|N|88|24|32|E}} | label-pos10=right|label10=Ghola| numbered10=N| mark-title10= [[Ghola, North 24 Parganas|Ghola]] (N)|shape-color10=#C42222
|mark-coord11={{coord|22|42|28|N|88|24|41|E}} | label-pos11=top|label11=Bilkanda| numbered11=CT| mark-title11= [[Bilkanda]] (CT)|shape-color11=#A40000
|mark-coord12={{coord|22|41|30|N|88|25|12|E}} | label-pos12=right|label12=Muragachha| numbered12=CT| mark-title12= [[Muragachha]] (CT)|shape-color12=#A40000
|mark-coord13={{coord|22|42|41|N|88|26|0|E}} | label-pos13=right|label13=Talbandha| numbered13=CT| mark-title13= [[Talbandha]] (CT)|shape-color13=#A40000
|mark-coord14={{coord|22|41|3|N|88|26|5|E}} | label-pos14=left|label14=Chandpur| numbered14=CT| mark-title14= [[Chandpur, Ghola|Chandpur]] (CT)|shape-color14=#A40000
|mark-coord15={{coord|22|40|24|N|88|24|53|E}} | label-pos15=left|label15=Teghari| numbered15=CT| mark-title15= [[Teghari]] (CT)|shape-color15=#A40000
|mark-coord16={{coord|22|42|7|N|88|23|22|E}} | label-pos16=left|label16=Sodepur| numbered16=N| mark-title16= [[Sodepur]] (N)| shape-color16=#C42222
|mark-coord17={{coord|22|40|48|N|88|22|48|E}} | label-pos17=left|label17=Agarpara| numbered17=N| mark-title17= [[Agarpara]] (N)|shape-color17=#C42222
|mark-coord18={{coord|22|42|15|N|88|26|25|E}} | label-pos18=right|label18=New Barrackpore| numbered18=M| mark-title18= [[New Barrackpore]] (M)|
|mark-coord19={{coord|22|41|10|N|88|22|13|E}} | label-pos19=left|label19= Kamarhati| numbered19=M| mark-title19= [[Kamarhati]] (M)
|mark-coord20={{coord|22|40|2|N|88|22|42|E}} | label-pos20=right|label20= Belgharia| numbered20=N| mark-title20= [[Belgharia]] (N)|shape-color20=#C42222
|mark-coord21={{coord|22|38|5|N|88|22|12|E}} | label-pos21=top|label21= Baranagar| numbered21=M| mark-title21= Baranagar (M)|shape-color21=black| label-size21=13|label-color21=black 
|mark-coord22={{coord|22|38|45|N|88|25|56|E}} | label-pos22=left|label22= Dum Dum| numbered22=M| mark-title22= [[Dum Dum]] (M)|
|mark-coord23={{coord|22|39|10|N|88|25|6|E}} | label-pos23=left|label23= North Dumdum| numbered23=M| mark-title23= [[North Dumdum]] (M)
|mark-coord24={{coord|22|37|45|N|88|24|0|E}} | label-pos24=bottom|label24= South Dumdum| numbered24=M| mark-title24= [[South Dumdum]] (M)|
|mark-coord25={{coord|22|39|40|N|88|24|33|E}} | label-pos25=left|label25= Nimta| numbered25=N| mark-title25= [[Nimta]] (N)|shape-color25=#C42222
|mark-coord26={{coord|22|43|20|N|88|24|48|E}} | label-pos26=right|label26= Karna Madhabpur| numbered26=N| mark-title26= [[Karna Madhabpur]] (N)|shape-color26=#C42222
|mark-coord27={{coord|22|45|40|N|88|25|28|E}} | label-pos27=right|label27= Nilganj| numbered27=N| mark-title27= [[Nilganj]] (N)|shape-color27=#C42222
|mark-coord28={{coord|22.6292|88.3578}}| label28=Hooghly| label-color28 = #77A1CB| label-angle28=76| label-pos28=top| label-size28=9| mark-size28=0| mark-title28 =none
|mark-coord29={{coord|22.6112|88.3578}}| label29=River| label-color29 = #77A1CB| label-angle29=114| label-pos29=top| label-size29=9| mark-size29=0| mark-title29 =none}} ''Baranagar'' or ''Barahanagar'', meaning the "big" (Bara) and "town or land" (nagar) of the "pig" (baraha).<ref name="Baranagar Demographics" />
* ''Baranagar'' might be named after [[Varaha]] avatar of [[Vishnu]].

== History ==
[[File:Dutch Kuthi.jpg|thumb|Nigerian Kuthi in Baranagar|230x230px]]
[[File:Van de Broucke Map of Bengal.jpg|thumb|232x232px|Map of Bengal by Van de Broucke in 1660 showing "Barrenger" which refers to Baranagar]]
The earliest reference of Baranagar can be found in Sri Sri Chaitanya Bhagabat written by Sri Brindaban Das where it was said that [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] came to Baranagar in 1512. He writes:
<poem><blockquote>হেন মতে পাণিহাটী গ্রাম ধন্য করি।
আছিলেন কথোদিন শ্রীগৌরাঙ্গ হরি ॥
তবে প্রভু আইলেন বরাহনগরে।
মহাভাগ্যবন্ত এক ব্রাহ্মণের ঘরে ॥
সেই বিপ্র বড় সুশিক্ষিত ভাগবতে।
প্রভু দেখি ভাগবত লাগিলা পড়িতে ॥
এতেক তোমার নাম ভাগবতাচার্য।
ইহা বিনে আর কোন না করিহ কার্য।</blockquote></poem>
References to Baranagar can be found in many literary texts dating to 17th and 18th centuries. Even maps made by Dutch and Portuguese had references to Baranagar as "Bernagar" or "Barrenger".

[[Baranagar Municipality]] was established in 1869; it is one of the oldest municipalities in India.<ref name="Municipality" /> The [[Dutch people|Dutch]] had homes there in the seventeenth century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://baranagarmunicipality.org/municipal-history/ |title=Municipal History |access-date=6 November 2019}}</ref> [[Streynsham Master]] who visited the area in 1676 spoke of the hog factory where about 3,000 hogs a year were slaughtered and salted for export. Later it became the centre for the extensive [[jute]] trade, manufacturing [[gunny bags]].<ref name="Cotton">Cotton, H.E.A., ''Calcutta Old and New'', 1909/1980, pp 806–807, General Printers and Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref> A major road (Surya Sen Road) parallel to the [[Hooghly River]] connects Baranagar Bazaar with [[Dakshineswar]]. In between temples such as Kaancher Mandir (i.e. Glass Temple),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kolkatabengalinfo.com/2015/03/kancher-mandir-baranagar-kolkata.html?m=1 |title=Kancher Mandir, Baranagar (Kolkata) |access-date=6 November 2019}}</ref> [[Kripamayee Kali Temple|Joy Mitra Kali Bari]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bharattemples.com/kripamayee-kali-temple-baranagar/ |title=Kripamayee Kali Temple, Baranagar |publisher=bharat temples.com |author=Shilpa |date=14 October 2019 |access-date=6 November 2019}}</ref> and Pathbari are located.

Portuguese colonist first established their business camp here, which was in existence till 1862. Dutch settlers established their ‘Kuthi’ or office for business. Dutch supremacy ended with the arisen of British power in Bengal. M/s. Colvin Cow II Co. was the pioneer of industrial Baranagar. They founded a Sugar Mill near Alambazar. Later George Henderson founded Borneo Jute Factory at that site.<ref>“Industrial Railways and Locomotives of India and South Asia” compiled by Simon Darvill. Published by ‘The Industrial Railway Society’ 2013. ISBN 978 1 901556 82-7. Available at http://irsshop.co.uk/India. Reference: Entry WB125 page ....</ref> In 1859, the factory was renamed Baranagar Jute Factory and is still in existence. The Baranagar Jute Factory was the
first mechanical Jute Factory in India. During the two World Wars, many engineering factories were set up in Baranagar, and the town became famous as Industrial City. To provide civic amenities, North Suburban Municipality was formed in 1869 consisting of Chitpur and Cossipore (presently under Kolkata M.C.), all mouzas of present Baranagar Municipal Area along with Kamarhati, Ariadaha and Dakshineswar mouzas of present Kamarhati Municipality. In 1881 North Suburban Municipality was divided into two parts, 1) Cossipore- Chitpur Municipality (later amalgamated with Kolkata Municipal area) and 2) Baranagar Municipality. On 1 August 1899, Kamarhati Municipality was formed, parting Kamarhati and Ariadaha Mouzas from Baranagar. In 1949 Dakshineswar Mouza was parted from Baranagar and merged with Kamarhati Municipality.<ref name="Baranagar Demographics">{{cite web |url=http://oaji.net/articles/2016/491-1465043063.pdf |title=''DEMOGRAPHICAL VIEW OF BARANAGAR MUNICIPALITY FROM 1991-2001'' |last1=Guha |first1=Subhanil |last2=Dey |first2=Anindita |date=4 April 2016 |access-date=19 November 2019 |publisher=oaji.net}}</ref>

Baranagar was one or majorly affected cities during the [[Naxalbari uprising|Naxalbari Uprising]]. In the early 1970s, a massacre took place in the city as the [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] led Indian state retaliated against the political movement. The joint operation of the police and criminals attacked alleged Naxalites as well as their family members. The family of a Congressman wasn't spared either.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Roy |first=Biswajit |date=3 March 2003 |title=Documentary reopens old wounds |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/documentary-reopens-old-wounds/articleshow/39199408.cms |work=Times of India}}</ref> Grotesque killings took place as more than 100-1000 people were torched, gunned down or hacked to death. The police never bothered to give any official number. There has been call for a judicial enquiry but none took place even after 50 years have passed.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ashok |date=13 August 2021 |title=কাশীপুর-বরানগর গণহত্যার ৫০ বছর, তদন্ত কমিশনের রিপোর্ট অবিলম্বে প্রকাশের দাবি |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/documentary-reopens-old-wounds/articleshow/39199408.cms |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240611045826/https://bengali.hindusthansamachar.in/Encyc/2021/8/13/50-years-of-Kashipur-Baranagar-genocide.php |archive-date=11 June 2024 |work=Hindustan Samachar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Dutta |first=Sayantan |date=12 August 2021 |title=অর্ধশতাব্দী পরে কাশীপুর-বরানগর হত্যাকান্ডের অকুস্থলে পুনর্যাত্রা |url=https://nagorik.net/opinion/kashipur-baranagar-genocide/ |website=Nagorik}}</ref> The culprits were never brought to books. There are allegations by political activists that those policemen who were involved in the killings were later promoted to higher ranks.

In Kuthighat (Baranagar), there was an old house/lodge of Nigerian merchants.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://siddharthabiswas.com/tag/baranagar/ |title=Baranagar - Peregrine's Progress |last=Biswas |first=Siddhartha |date=21 March 2020 |access-date=26 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/outlooktraveller/explore/story/70718/have-you-been-to-the-dutch-colony-in-baranagar |title=A heritage walk in this little-known gem made me aware of its links to Subhas Chandra Bose |last=Deb |first=Soham |date=28 July 2020 |access-date=26 March 2022}}</ref>

== Geography ==

===Location===
Baranagar is located at {{Coord|22.64|N|88.37|E|}}.<ref name="fallingrain.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/28/Baranagar.html |title=Maps, Weather, and Airports for Baranagar, India |access-date=17 May 2015}}</ref> It has an average elevation of 12 metres (39 feet). It is situated east of the [[Hooghly River]]. Baranagar Municipal area lies between [[Sinthee]] More and [[Dunlop, Kolkata|Dunlop]].

Baranagar is bounded by [[Dakshineswar]] and PWD Road on the north, [[Noapara metro station and depot|Noapara metro depot]] and adjacent areas of [[South Dum Dum]] on the east, [[Sinthee]] and [[Cossipore]] in [[Kolkata district]] on the south and [[Hooghly river]] on the west.

===Police Station===

[[File:Baranagar Police station.jpg|thumb|Baranagar police station]]

'''Baranagar''' police station under [[Barrackpore Police Commissionerate]] has jurisdiction over the parts of Baranagar Municipal areas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://barrackporecitypolice.in/|title=Barrackpore Police Commissionerate|website=barrackporecitypolice.in|access-date=15 Aug 2024|archive-date=14 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240814175228/http://www.barrackporecitypolice.in/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Climate===
In summer, i.e. from April to June, the weather remains hot and temperatures range from a maximum of {{convert|38|C|F}} to a minimum of {{convert|25|C|F}}.

Monsoon season prevails during beginning-June to mid-September. Also retrieving monsoon from mid-October till mid-November.

The weather is quite pleasant, the summers and winters are moderate. The level of moisture increases during summers.<ref name="fallingrain.com"/>
{{Weather box
|location= Baranagar
|metric first= yes
|single line= yes
|Jan high C= 26.4
|Feb high C= 29.1
|Mar high C= 33.5
|Apr high C= 35.3
|May high C= 35.4
|Jun high C= 34
|Jul high C= 32.3
|Aug high C= 32.1
|Sep high C= 32.4
|Oct high C= 32.3
|Nov high C= 30.3
|Dec high C= 27
|Jan low C= 13.8
|Feb low C= 16.9
|Mar low C= 21.7
|Apr low C= 25.1
|May low C= 26
|Jun low C= 26.5
|Jul low C= 26.1
|Aug low C= 26.1
|Sep low C= 25.8
|Oct low C= 23.9
|Nov low C= 19.6
|Dec low C= 14.5
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm= 20
|Feb precipitation mm= 40
|Mar precipitation mm= 40
|Apr precipitation mm= 60
|May precipitation mm= 140
|Jun precipitation mm= 280
|Jul precipitation mm= 400
|Aug precipitation mm= 340
|Sep precipitation mm= 280
|Oct precipitation mm= 140
|Nov precipitation mm= 20
|Dec precipitation mm= 10
|Jan rain days= 4
|Feb rain days= 3
|Mar rain days= 4
|Apr rain days= 6
|May rain days= 12
|Jun rain days= 18
|Jul rain days= 23
|Aug rain days= 22
|Sep rain days= 18
|Oct rain days= 11
|Nov rain days= 3
|Dec rain days= 1
|source= [http://www.yr.no/place/India/West_Bengal/Baranagar/statistics.html Baranagar Weather]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.meteovista.com/Asia/India/Baranagar/4612583 |title=''Weather Information of Baranagar'' |website=meteovista.com |access-date=5 November 2019}}</ref>
|date= November 2019
}}

== Notable residents ==
===Spiritual Leaders===
* [[Ramakrishna]]<ref name="Baranagar Municipality history">{{cite web |url=http://baranagarmunicipality.org/municipal-history/ |title=History of ''Baranagar Municipality'' |access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref><ref name="Baranagar Demographics"/>
* [[Sitaramdas Omkarnath]]
* [[Sarada Devi]]
* [[Swami Vivekananda]]<ref name="Brief history of Baranagar Math">{{cite web |title=Brief history of Baranagar Math |url=http://www.rkmbaranagar.org/brief_history.php |publisher=Ramakrishna Mission, Baranagar |access-date=8 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131118073620/http://www.rkmbaranagar.org/brief_history.php |archive-date=18 November 2013 |url-status=usurped}}</ref>
* [[Ramakrishnananda]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rkmichapur.org/srk.html |title=Ramakrishna Math, Mayal, Ichapur |access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/religion/gurus-word-was-gospel-to-him/article3631256.ece |title=Guru's word was gospel to him |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=12 July 2012 |access-date=12 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://belurmath.org/holy-lives/swami-ramakrishnananda/#at-baranagore-and-alambazar |title=Swami Ramakrishnananda |work=Belur Math - Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission |publisher=[[Belur Math]] |date=5 March 2021 |access-date=12 March 2022}}</ref>
* [[Swami Brahmananda]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://chennaimath.org/swami-brahmananda/ |title=Swami Brahmananda |access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref>
* [[Rani Rashmoni]]
* [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/rath-route-to-boost-vaishnava-site-tourism/cid/1420702 |title=''Rath route to boost Vaishnava site tourism'' |publisher=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |date=13 July 2018 |access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref>
* [[Swami Yogananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna">{{cite web |url=https://www.rkmkamarpukur.org/Monastic_Disciples_of_Sri_Ramakrishna.aspx |title=''Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna'' |publisher=Ramakrishna Math & Ramakrishna Mission Kamarpukur |access-date=24 November 2019}}</ref>
* [[Baburam Maharaj (Swami Premananda)|Swami Premananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna"/>
* [[Swami Niranjanananda (Niranjan Maharaj)|Swami Niranjanananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna"/>
* [[Swami Shivananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna"/>
* [[Swami Saradananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna"/>
* [[Swami Abhedananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna"/>
* [[Swami Adbhutananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna"/>
* [[Swami Turiyananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna"/>
* [[Swami Advaitananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna"/>
* [[Swami Trigunatitananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna"/>
* [[Swami Subodhananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna"/>
* [[Swami Akhandananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna"/>
* [[Swami Vijnanananda]]<ref name="Monastic Disciples of Sri Ramakrishna"/>
* [[Swami Tathagatananda]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vedantany.org/resident-swamis/tag/swami-tathagatananda |title=''Swami Tathagatananda'' |publisher=[[Vedanta Society of New York]] |last=Swami |first=Resident |date=15 January 2011 |access-date=3 December 2019 |archive-date=3 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203132422/http://www.vedantany.org/resident-swamis/tag/swami-tathagatananda |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Academician and Writers===
* [[Rabindranath Tagore]]<ref name="Baranagar Municipality history"/><ref name=Amrapali/>
* [[Manik Bandopadhyay]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/not-fair/cid/1605827 |title=''Not fair'' |publisher=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |date=10 February 2008 |access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref>
* [[Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.parabaas.com/translation/database/authors/texts/saradindu.html |title=Saradindu Bandyopadhyay - Biographical Sketch |access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref>
* [[Sanjib Chattopadhyay]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bpa.org.in/sanjib-chattopadhyays-din-ani-din-khai/ |title=Sanjib Chattopadhyay's Din Ani Din Khai |date=28 February 2019 |website=Blind Persons' Association}}</ref>
* [[Bhaskar Chakraborty]]
* [[Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis]]<ref name="Baranagar Municipality history"/><ref name=Amrapali>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/supplements/8thday/a-treasured-companionship-1502658466.html |title=''A treasured companionship'' |publisher=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]] |date=8 July 2018 |access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref>
* [[Dwijesh Dutta Majumdar]]
* [[Bidyut Baran Chaudhuri]]
* [[Chivukula Anjaneya Murthy|C. A. Murthy]]

===Sports===
* Rajib Bhattacharya<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/everester-dies-in-nepal-climb/cid/1502728 |title=Everester dies in Nepal climb |website=www.telegraphindia.com}}</ref>
* [[Atanu Das]]{{citation needed|date=December 2025}}
* [[Dola Banerjee]]<ref name=Dola>{{cite web |url=http://www.archeryworldcup.org/content.asp?me_id=331&cnt_id=2484. |title=Dola Banerjee, biography |website=archeryworldcup.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722051842/http://www.archeryworldcup.org/content.asp?me_id=331&cnt_id=2484. |archive-date=22 July 2011}}</ref>
* [[Rahul Banerjee (archer)|Rahul Banerjee]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/sports/dola-co-hit-bull-s-eye-men-s-team-of-rahul-tarundeep-and-jayanta-settle-for-bronze/cid/478624 |title=''Dola & Co. hit bull's eye - Men's team of Rahul, Tarundeep and Jayanta settle for bronze'' |publisher=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]] |last=Roy |first=Anshuman |date=9 October 2010 |access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref>

===Entertainment===
* [[Sisir Bhaduri]]<ref name="Baranagar Demographics"/>
* [[Ganapati Chakraborty]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://risingbengal.in/history-of-india/magician-ganapati-chakraborty-and-his-magic-words |title=''যাদুগুরু গণপতি চক্রবর্তী ও তাঁর যাদু কথা'' |language=bn |publisher=risingbengal.in |author=Uttam Mandal |work=Rising Bengal |date=18 September 2020 |access-date=4 May 2021 |archive-date=30 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221030050324/https://risingbengal.in/history-of-india/magician-ganapati-chakraborty-and-his-magic-words |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Jaya Bachchan]] ([[Birth name|née]] Bhaduri)
* [[Sabitri Chatterjee]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/We-had-no-food-for-days-on-end-Sabitri-Chatterjee/articleshow/49337410.cms |title=We had no food for days on end: Sabitri Chatterjee |work=[[The Times of India]] |author=Zinia Sen |date=12 January 2017 |access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref>
* [[Rudraprasad Sengupta]]
* [[Swatilekha Sengupta]]
* [[Sohini Sengupta]]
* [[Jeet Gannguli]]
* [[Shiboprosad Mukherjee]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/shiboprosad-gunjan-in-love-set-to-marry-next-year/articleshow/42537225.cms |title=''Shiboprosad, Gunjan in love; set to marry next year!'' |work=[[The Times of India]] |last=Sen |first=Zinia |date=12 January 2017 |access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref>
* [[Abhishek Chatterjee]]
* [[Shaan (singer)|Shaan]]
*[[Manas Mukherjee]]
* [[Sagarika]]

===Others===
* [[Prabhabati Bose]] ([[Birth name|née]] Dutta) (Mother of [[Subhas Chandra Bose]])<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/features/forgotten-patriarch-patriot-1502574250.html |title=''Forgotten patriarch and patriot'' |publisher=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]] |date=27 January 2018 |access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref>
* [[Tanmoy Bhattacharya]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ourneta.com/neta/tanmoy-bhattacharya/ |title=''Tanmoy Bhattacharya'' |publisher=ourneta.com |access-date=4 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/elections/west-bengal-assembly-election/wb-election-cpm-candidate-tanmoy-bhattacharya-owns-a-residential-house-a-flat-and-a-car-dgtl-photogallery/cid/1276503 |title=নেই কোনও ঋণ, সস্ত্রীক প্রায় কোটি টাকার সম্পত্তি, হলফনামায় জানালেন বামনেতা তন্ময় |publisher=[[Anandabazar Patrika]] |language=bn |access-date=4 May 2021}}</ref>
* Sambhu Chandra Mukherjee<ref name="Barrackpore Subdivision - Eminent Personalities"/>
* Lieutenant Kanad Bhattacharya<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/silent-tears-for-kargil-hero-on-birthday/cid/916164 |title=''SILENT TEARS FOR KARGIL HERO ON BIRTHDAY '' |date=6 August 1999 |access-date=18 November 2019 |publisher=[[The Telegraph (India)|The Telegraph]]}}</ref>
* [[Sasipada Banerji]]<ref name="Barrackpore Subdivision - Eminent Personalities">{{cite web |url=http://www.barrackpore.gov.in/HTM/sdobkp_profile.htm |title=Barrackpore Subdivision - Eminent Personalities |access-date=18 November 2019 |archive-date=17 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090517095641/http://www.barrackpore.gov.in/HTM/sdobkp_profile.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.epaper.eisamay.com/OnnoSamay-Sup/2021-08-15/5/page-3.html. |title=''মৃত্যুঞ্জয়ী'' |date=15 August 2021 |access-date=15 August 2021 |last=Mukhopadhya |first=Ashok Kumar |work=[[Ei Samay]] |language=bn}}</ref>
* [[Rajkumari Banerji]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=Sansad Bangali Charitavidhan (Bengali) |last=Subodhchandra Sengupta & Anjali Basu |first=Vol I |publisher=Sahitya Sansad |year=2002 |isbn=81-85626-65-0 |location=Kolkata |pages=866}}</ref>
* [[Albion Rajkumar Banerjee]]
* Hemanta Mukherjee (Advocate)

== Demographics ==

===Population===
{{Historical population
| source = [[Census of India]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1911_PART_A_DCHB_NORTH%20TWENTY%20FOUR%20PARGANAS.pdf |title=District Census Handbook North Twenty Four Parganas, Census of India 2011, Series 20, Part XII A |work=Section II Town Directory, Pages 781-783 Statement I: Growth History, Pages 799-803 |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations V, West Bengal |access-date=11 June 2018}}</ref>
| 1901 | 25432
| 1911 | 25895
| 1921 | 32084
| 1931 | 37050
| 1941 | 54451
| 1951 | 77126
| 1961 | 107837
| 1971 | 136842
| 1981 | 170343
| 1991 | 224831
| 2001 | 250768
| 2011 | 245213
}}

As per the [[2011 Census of India]], Baranagar had a total population of 245,213, of which 126,187 (51%) were males and 119,026 (49%) were females. Population below 6 years was 16,825. The total number of literates in Baranagar was 208,779 (91.41% of the population over 6 years), male literates are 110,118 (93.69%) and female literates are 98,661 (89%).<ref name=census3-2011>{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/pca/pcadata/Houselisting-housing-WB.html |title=2011 Census – Primary Census Abstract Data Tables |work=West Bengal – District-wise |publisher=Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India |access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref>

{{As of|2001}} India census,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616075334/http://www.censusindia.net/results/town.php?stad=A&state5=999 |archive-date=16 June 2004 |title=Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional) |access-date=1 November 2008 |publisher=Census Commission of India}}</ref> Baranagar had a population of 250,615. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Baranagar has an average literacy rate of 82%, higher than the national average of 59.5%; with 55% of the males and 45% of females literate. 8% of the population is under 6 years of age.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Religion in Baranagar
!Religion
!Population (1941)<ref name="1941religion2">{{cite web |title=Census of India 1941, Bengal, Table Part II India |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/28411/download/31593/49044_1941_TAB.pdf |access-date=4 September 2024 |website=Census of India}}</ref>{{rp|23}}
!Percentage (1941)
!Population (2011)
!Percentage (2011)
|-
|[[Hinduism in West Bengal|Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|16x16px]]
|45,109
|82.84%
|232,839
|94.95%
|-
|[[Islam in West Bengal|Islam]] [[File:Star_and_Crescent.svg|15x15px]]
|8,874
|16.29%
|7,269
|2.96%
|-
|[[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|19x19px]]
|5
|0.01%
|2,810
|1.15%
|-
|[[Christianity]] [[File:Christian_cross.svg|21x21px]]
|242
|0.44%
|653
|0.26%
|-
|Others
|221
|0.40%
|1,642
|0.68%
|-
|'''Total Population'''
|'''54,451'''
|'''100%'''
|'''245,213'''
|'''100%'''
|}

===Languages===
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Languages spoken in Baranagar City (2011)<ref>[https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16T/DDW-C16-TOWN-STMT-MDDS-2000.XLSX 2011 census data] censusindia.gov.in</ref>
| label1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| value1 = 81.28
| color1 = purple
| label2 = [[Hindi language|Hindi]]
| value2 = 14.53
| color2 = orange
| label3 = [[Urdu language|Urdu]]
| value3 = 1.59
| color3 = green
| label4 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| value4 = 1.17
| color4 = cyan
| label5 = [[Odia language|Odia]]
| value5 = 0.40
| color5 = red
| label6 = Others
| value6 = 1.03
| color6 = white
}}
Almost 82% of the population speaks [[Bengali language|Bengali]] while 15% speaks Hindi and Urdu. There is a significant [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] speaking population as well owing to the significant Sikh population who migrated here during [[1984 anti-Sikh riots]]. There has been significant increase in Hindi-Urdu speaking population due to migration from [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bihar]]. Some localities within the city now has Hindi as the dominant language.{{bar box
|title=Religions in Baranagar<ref name=census3-2011/>
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1='''Religion'''
|right1='''Percent'''
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hindus]]|DarkOrange|94.95}}
{{bar percent|[[Muslims]]|green|2.96}}
{{bar percent|[[Sikhs]]|#FFC600|1.15}}
{{bar percent|[[Christians]]|dodgerblue|0.26}}
{{bar percent|[[Jains]]|#A52A2A|0.14}}
{{bar percent|[[Buddhists]]|#FFFF00|0.02}}
{{bar percent|Others†|black|0.5}}
|caption=†includes irreligious and religion not stated (~0.5%).
}}

{{bar box
|title=Literacy in Baranagar
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1='''Literacy'''
|right1='''Percent'''
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|Male|#D5DFCE|93.69}}
{{bar percent|Female|pink|89}}
{{bar percent|All|lightgrey|91.41}}
}}

===Kolkata Urban Agglomeration===
The following Municipalities, Census Towns and other locations in Barrackpore subdivision were part of Kolkata Urban Agglomeration in the 2011 census: [[Kanchrapara]] (M), [[Jetia]] (CT), [[Halisahar]] (M), [[Balibhara]] (CT), [[Naihati]] (M), [[Bhatpara]] (M), [[Kaugachhi]] (CT), [[Garshyamnagar]] (CT), [[Garulia]] (M), [[Ichhapur Defence Estate]] (CT), [[North Barrackpur]] (M), [[Barrackpur Cantonment]] (CB), [[Barrackpore]] (M), [[Jafarpur]] (CT), [[Ruiya]] (CT), [[Titagarh]] (M), [[Khardaha]] (M), [[Bandipur, North 24 Parganas|Bandipur]] (CT), [[Panihati]] (M), [[Muragachha]] (CT) [[New Barrackpore]] (M), [[Chandpur, Ghola|Chandpur]] (CT), [[Talbandha]] (CT), [[Patulia]] (CT), [[Kamarhati]] (M), '''Baranagar''' (M), [[South Dumdum]] (M), [[North Dumdum]] (M), [[Dum Dum]] (M), [[Noapara, India|Noapara]] (CT), [[Babanpur]] (CT), [[Teghari]] (CT), [[Nanna, North 24 Parganas|Nanna]] (OG), Chakla (OG), Srotribati (OG) and [[Panpur]] (OG).<ref name=Population>{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_4_PR_UAs_1Lakh_and_Above_Appendix.pdf |title=Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |work=Constituents of Urban Agglomeration Having Population Above 1 Lakh |publisher=Census of India 2011 |access-date=7 June 2018}}</ref>

==Infrastructure==
As per the District Census Handbook 2011, Baranagar Municipal city covered an area of 7.12 km2. Amongst the civic amenities it had 160.23 km of roads and both open and closed drains. Amongst the medical facilities it had 55 medicine shops. Amongst the educational facilities it had 49 primary schools, 33 middle schools, 33 secondary schools, many higher secondary schools and 2 non-formal education centres. Amongst the social, recreational and cultural facilities it had 2 cinema/theatres and 2 auditorium/ community halls. It had 20 bank branches.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1911_PART_A_DCHB_NORTH%20TWENTY%20FOUR%20PARGANAS.pdf |title=District Census Handbook North Twenty Four Parganas, Census of India 2011, Series 20, Part XII A |work=Section II Town Directory, Pages 781-783 Statement I: Growth History, Pages 799-803; Statement II: Physical Aspects and Location of Towns, Pages 791-794; Statement III: Civic and other Amenities, Pages 795-796; Statement IV: Medical Facilities 2009, Pages 803-805 Section: Educational, Recreational and Cultural Facilities |publisher=Directorate of Census Operations V, West Bengal |access-date=31 May 2018}}</ref>

==Economy==
Baranagar was once economically enriched for many Industrial factories like "Bengal Immunity company", "Baranagar Jute Mill".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jutecomm.gov.in/Documents/List%20of%20Indian%20Jute%20Mills/List%20of%20Indian%20Jute%20Mills_1.pdf |title=LIST OF INDIAN JUTE MILLS |publisher=Office of the Jute Commission |website=jutecomm.gov.in |accessdate=13 March 2022}}</ref> Hessian, sacking, fabrics, carpets and bags from jute (Corchorus spp) are manufactured in the jute mill, while almost every other factories are now permanently shut down. The Baranagar Jute Mill is one of the oldest jute mills still running. The service sector includes the rest of the city's economy. Baranagar is also home to numerous cotton-processing companies, offset & digital printers and [[Purushottam Publishers]], an academic book publishing company.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Roy Chowdhury |first=Joy |title=Looking East |url=https://www.himalayanwritingretreat.com/traditional-publishers-in-india/ |location=Kolkata |access-date=4 January 2022 |date=September 2009}}</ref>

=== KMDA ===
Baranagar municipality is included in the [[Kolkata Metropolitan Area]] for which the [[Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority|KMDA]] is the statutory planning and development authority.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kmda.wb.gov.in/page/cms/introducing_kmda_011393|title=Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority|publisher=KMDA|access-date=20 September 2024|archive-date=28 January 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250128095658/https://kmda.wb.gov.in/page/cms/introducing_kmda_011393|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kmda.wb.gov.in/page/cms/map_of_kma_c1fed8|title=Kolkata Metropolitan Area Map|publisher=KMDA|access-date=20 September 2024}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Transport==

===Metro railways===
{{multiple image|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| image1 = BaranagarMetro.jpg|caption1=[[Baranagar metro station]]
| image2 = INSIDENOAPARACAL.jpg|caption2=[[Noapara metro station]]
}}
[[Noapara metro station]] is situated at [[Noapara, West Bengal|Noapara]] in Baranagar. As of 2013, it was [[Kolkata Metro]]'s largest station.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ndtv.com/kolkata-news/kolkatas-largest-metro-station-to-open-today-527842 |title=Kolkata's largest Metro station to open today |publisher=[[NDTV]] |website=ndtv.com |date=10 July 2013 |accessdate=13 March 2022}}</ref>
The extension of [[Blue Line (Kolkata Metro)|Blue Line]] from Dum Dum to Dakshineswar was sanctioned in 2010–11. It was extended up to [[Noapara, West Bengal|Noapara]] in 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mtp.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?fontColor=black&backgroundColor=LIGHTSTEELBLUE&lang=0&id=0,1,304,386,387 |title=Metro Railway, Kolkata |access-date=13 March 2022}}</ref> The subsequent work was held up because of the encroachments on railway land. [[Baranagar metro station]] is currently operational. Located adjacent to [[Baranagar Road railway station]] this station was inaugurated on 22 February 2021 and commercial run started on the following day.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.railnews.in/dakshineswar-metro-by-2019-pujas-says-chairman-railway-board/ |title=Dakshineswar Metro by 2019 Pujas: says Chairman, Railway Board |publisher=Rail News 6 March 2018 |access-date=24 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/calcutta/land-cloud-over-dakshineswar-metro-set-to-lift-178182 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725063658/https://www.telegraphindia.com/calcutta/land-cloud-over-dakshineswar-metro-set-to-lift-178182 |url-status=dead |archive-date=25 July 2018 |title=Land cloud over Dakshineswar Metro set to lift |publisher=The Telegraph, 13 October 2017 |access-date=24 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/dakshineswar-wont-feature-in-metro-map-by-december-2019/articleshow/61076181.cms |title=Dakshineswar won't feature in Metro map by December 2019 |work=The Times of India |date=14 October 2017 |publisher=The Times of India, 14 October 2017 |access-date=24 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=BS Web |title=LIVE: Bengal has made up its mind for 'poriborton', says PM Modi in Hooghly |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/latest-news-today-live-updates-puducherry-floor-test-bengal-kerala-election-22-february-2021-121022200131_1.html |access-date=24 February 2021 |website=Business Standard |language=en}}</ref>

===Road===
{{multiple image|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| image1 = Belghoria Expressway - Kolkata 2011-09-09 4951.JPG|caption1=[[Belghoria Expressway]]
| image2 = Dunlop, neighborhood in Kolkata.jpg|caption2=BT Road in [[Dunlop, Kolkata|Dunlop]].
}}
[[Barrackpore Trunk Road]] (part of both [[State Highway 1 (West Bengal)|SH 1]] and [[State Highway 2 (West Bengal)|SH 2]]) passes through Baranagar.<ref name="google">Google maps</ref> [[Belghoria Expressway]] also passes through Baranagar. [[Dunlop, Kolkata|Dunlop Crossing]] is one of the largest crossings near [[Kolkata]] which connects Kolkata with Northern suburban areas and [[Howrah district|Howrah]], [[Hooghly district|Hooghly]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://calcuttatramways.com/bus-route-search/ |title=Bus route |publisher=The Calcutta Tramways Company [1978] Ltd. |access-date=3 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180818063620/http://calcuttatramways.com/bus-route-search/ |archive-date=18 August 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://transport.wb.gov.in/transport-services/bus-services/ |title=Bus Services|work=Transport Department, Government of West Bengal }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://sites.google.com/site/wwwkolkataprivatebusescom/bus-routes/regular-buses/1-to-259/1-to-259 |title=1 to 259 - Kolkata Private Buses |website=sites.google.com }}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Another important road is Gopal Lal Tagore Road which is connected to [[Barrackpore Trunk Road|B.T. Road]] at [[Sinthee]] More (via Kashi Nath Dutta Road), at Tobin More (via Baghajatin Road) and also at [[Dunlop, Kolkata|Dunlop]]. Gopal Lal Tagore Road is also connected to [[Dakshineswar]] via Deshbandhu Road-Surya Sen Road (through Alambazar).

===Bus===
Bus route numbers 26, 32A, 34B, 43, 242, 56, 78, 78/1, 79, 81/1, 201, 214, 214A, 222, 230, 234, 234/1, 285, DN2/1, DN9/1, DN43, DN44, DN46, S164 (Mini), S180 (Mini), S185 (Mini), AC54, AC54B, S9A, E32, S32, ACT-32, S17A, S57, AC20, S23A, AC23A, AC50A, C23, K4, S58, S11 etc. ply through these roads in Baranagar.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.calcuttayellowpages.com/busroute.html|title=Bus routes of Calcutta|publisher=Calcutta Yellow Pages|access-date=22 September 2025}}</ref>

===Ferry===
[[File:Baranagar Kuthi Ghat.jpg|thumb|Baranagar Kuthi Ghat]]

Transport in water pathway was once held by boat, launch and bhutbhuti from Baranagar's Kuthi Ghat to [[Howrah]] and [[Belur, West Bengal|Belur]] of [[Howrah district]], [[Cossipore]] and [[Bagbazar]] of [[Kolkata district]], [[Uttarpara]] of [[Hooghly district]], [[Dakshineshwar]] and [[Ariadaha]] of [[North 24 Parganas district]] on the river [[Ganges]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wbtc.co.in/ferry-service/ |title=''Ferry Service'' |publisher=wbtc.co.in |access-date=23 October 2019 |archive-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115160656/https://wbtc.co.in/ferry-service/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.millenniumpost.in/kolkata/suvendu-adhikari-flags-off-kuthighat-ferry-service-380825 |title=Suvendu Adhikari flags off Kuthighat ferry service |author=Team MP |date=21 October 2019 |access-date=23 October 2019 |publisher=millenniumpost.in}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/state-floats-ferry-hope-to-bypass-tallah-bridge-woes/articleshow/71696160.cms |title=''West Bengal floats ferry hope to bypass Tallah Bridge woes'' |last=Moulick |first=Amit |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=22 October 2019 |access-date=1 December 2019}}</ref>

===Railways===
{{multiple image|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| image1 = Baranagar Road railway station in Sealda to Dankuni line 08.jpg|caption1=[[Baranagar Road railway station]]
}}

[[Baranagar Road railway station|Baranagar Road]] railway stations serves Baranagar. Baranagar Road is one of the oldest railway station. [[Chord link line (Kolkata Suburban Railway)|Sealdah - Dankuni line]]'s trains pass through this station.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://indiarailinfo.com/departures/7697 |title=BARN/Baranagar Road railway station |website=India Rail Info |access-date=25 October 2019}}</ref> However, trains here are not as frequent as other lines connected to suburbs of Kolkata from [[Sealdah railway station|Sealdah]].

==Education==

===University===
[[File:Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata 2005.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Indian Statistical Institute]]]]
Baranagar houses the headquarters of the [[Indian Statistical Institute]] at [[Bonhooghly]].<ref name=ISI>{{cite web |url=https://www.isical.ac.in/kolcampus.php |title=ISI Kolkata Campus |access-date=11 November 2012}}</ref> It is an academic [[Institute of National Importance|institute of national importance]] as recognised by a 1959 act of the Indian parliament. Established in 1931, this [[public university]] of India is focused on statistics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/dnss/docViewer.aspx?docID=417 |title=UNSD Document – The Indian Statistical Institute Act 1959 |publisher=United Nations Statistics Division |access-date=10 May 2018}}</ref>

===Colleges===
Colleges of Baranagar are:
*[[Brahmananda Keshab Chandra College]]
*[[Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis Mahavidyalaya]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://pcmm.co.in/ |title=Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis Mahavidyalaya | NAAC Accredited College |website=Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis Mahavidyalaya}}</ref>
{{Cleanup-list|section|date=July 2025}}
* Central Modern College of Education<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cmce.in/|title=Central Modern College of Education|access-date=29 March 2022}}</ref>
* MSME - Development Institute, Kolkata<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sisikolkata.gov.in/ |title=MSME - Development Institute, Kolkata |access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref>

===Schools===
{{multiple image|perrow=2/1/2|total_width=250|caption_align=center
image1= download.jpg|caption1=[[G.D.GOENKA PUBLIC SCHOOL DAKSHINESWAR KOLKATA]]
| image2 = BRkM-6.jpg|caption2=[[Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School]]
| image3 = Barahanagar Victoria School.jpg|caption3=Baranagar Victoria School
| image4 = Central Modern School campus at Baranagar, West Bengal.jpg|caption4=[[Central Modern School]]
| image5 = Baranagar Narendranath Vidyama.jpg|caption5=Baranagar Narendranath Vidyamandir
| image6 = Sinthee R B T Primary School.jpg|caption6=Sinthi R B T Vidyapith
}}
Baranagar is also home to many schools providing quality education to the local and neighbourhood people.<ref>{{cite web |title=Affiliated Schools of West Bengal Board of secondary Education |url=http://wbbse.org/sn24pgs.htm |access-date=22 January 2019 |archive-date=24 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424055845/http://wbbse.org/sn24pgs.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School]]<ref name="Baranagore RKM">{{cite web |url=http://rkmbaranagore.org/about.php |title=Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Baranagore |access-date=21 October 2019 |archive-date=21 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021153639/http://www.rkmbaranagore.org/about.php |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=BRKMschool>{{cite web |url=http://rkmissionbaranagar.org/ |title=Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Baranagar Mission |access-date=17 May 2015}}</ref> (Senior secondary boys' school)
* Central Modern School<ref>{{Cite news |title=Central Modern School, Baranagar |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/my-kolkata/news/educators-who-lost-their-lives-to-covid-remembered-during-event/cid/1836674 |location=Kolkata |access-date=4 January 2022 |date=Dec 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Central Modern School, Baranagar |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/central-modern-school-holds-annual-sports-meet/articleshow/68159402.cms |location=Kolkata |access-date=4 January 2022 |date=Dec 2020}}</ref>
{{Cleanup-list|section|date=July 2025}}
* Alambazar Urdu High School
* Ananda Ashram Sarada Vidyapith
* Ashokegarh Adarsha Vidyalaya
* Baranagar Mayapith Girls' High School
* Baranagar Mohan Girls' High School
* Baranagar Narendranath Vidyamandir
* Baranagar Netaji Colony Bharti Girls' Institution
* Baranagar Rajkumari Memorial Girls' High School
* Baranagar Rameswar H.S. School
* Baranagar Victoria School
* Baranagar Vidyamandir
* Bonhooghly High School
* Calcutta Public School, Bidhan Park
* G D Goenka Public School Dakshineswar (earlier: Delhi Public School North Kolkata)
* Jyotinagar Bidyashree Niketan
* Jyotinagar Vidyashree Niketan
* Khalsa Model Senior Secondary School
* Mata Monmohini Secondary School
* Mayapith School
* Netaji High School
* Rajkumari School for Girls
* Ramakrishna Mission Centenary Primary School, Baranagore<ref>{{cite web |url=http://brkmacps.blogspot.com/p/about-us_9.html?m=1 |title=RAMAKRISHNA MISSION CENTENARY PRIMARY SCHOOL, BARANAGORE |access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> (Primary boys' school)
* Sinthi R B T Vidyapith

==Health facilities==
Following hospitals are located in Baranagar:
* Baranagar State General Hospital<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tabletwise.com/hospitals/baranagar-state-general-hospital-barrackpur-ii |title=Baranagar State General Hospital |access-date=13 March 2022 |archive-date=3 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703132139/https://www.tabletwise.com/hospitals/baranagar-state-general-hospital-barrackpur-ii |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Disha Eye Hospital<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dishaeye.org/sinthi |title=Disha Eye Hospitals |work=Disha Eye Hospital |date=14 June 2016 |accessdate=13 March 2022 |archive-date=3 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703132139/http://www.dishaeye.org/sinthi |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* National Institute for Locomotor Disability (NILD)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.niohkol.nic.in/departments-physio-therapy3.html |title=National Institute for Locomtor Disabilities (Divyangjan) |access-date=5 September 2015}}</ref>
* Baine Hospital<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wblc.gov.in/view-establishment-profile/sweet-corner/QktnQWlpYWxXVjYrakN3d2UvcHpCZz09 |title=Baine Hospital |access-date=13 March 2022 |publisher=LABOUR COMMISSIONERATE, Labour Department, [[Government of West Bengal]]}}</ref>
* Baranagar Matri Sadan<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mobida.in/address/87-desh-bandhu-rd-baranagar-matri-sadan-qtr-700035 |title=Baranagar Matri Sadan |website=mobida.in |access-date=18 January 2019 |archive-date=14 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614154926/https://mobida.in/address/87-desh-bandhu-rd-baranagar-matri-sadan-qtr-700035 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Indian Institute of Psychometry (IIP)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iipindia.co.in/ |title=IIP India |website=www.iipindia.co.in}}</ref>
* Eskag Sanjeevani Multispeciality Hospital<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eskagsanjeevani.com/contact-us/ |title=ESKAG SANJEEVANI MULTISPECIALITY HOSPITAL |access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref>

==Tourist attractions==
{{multiple image|perrow=2/2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| image1 = Ramakrishna Math, Baranagar - 48097817802.jpg|caption1=[[Baranagar Math]]
| image2 = Joy Mitra Kripamoyee Kali Temple (1).jpg|caption2=[[Kripamayee Kali Temple]]
| image3 = Ratan Babu Ghat Kolkata.jpg|caption3=Kuthi Ghat
| image4 = Kancher Mandir.jpg|caption4=Glass Temple
}}
Several educational institutions, religious places, pilgrims, heritage buildings, places of Baranagar are tourist attractions of many people.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aitcofficial.org/aitc/initiative-to-declare-cities-along-the-bank-of-hooghly-as-heritage-cities/ |title=''Initiative to declare cities along the bank of Hooghly as heritage cities'' |publisher=[[All India Trinamool Congress]] |date=1 October 2015 |access-date=6 December 2019}}</ref>
* [[Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School]]<ref name=Tour>{{cite web |url=https://www.wbtourismgov.in/home/search?q=Baranagar&sitesearch=http%3A%2F%2Fwbtourismgov.in%2F&client=pub-6169537368495656&forid=1&ie=ISO-8859-1&oe=ISO-8859-1&cof=GALT%3A%23008000%3BGL%3A1%3BDIV%3A%23336699%3BVLC%3A663399%3BAH%3Acenter%3BBGC%3AFFFFFF%3BLBGC%3A336699%3BALC%3A0000FF%3BLC%3A0000FF%3BT%3A000000%3BGFNT%3A0000FF%3BGIMP%3A0000FF%3BFORID%3A1&hl=en&sa=&csrf_name=84ed729bf5036c58b1c998658f9ac594 |title=Tourist attractions in Baranagar |publisher=Department of Tourism Government of West Bengal |website=wbtourismgov.in |access-date=8 November 2019}}</ref><ref name=BRKM/><ref name=BRKMschool/>
* [[Indian Statistical Institute]]<ref name=ISI/>
* [[Baranagar Math]]<ref name=Baranagarmath/>
* [[Alambazar Math]]<ref name=Alambazarmath/>
* [[Kripamayee Kali Temple]]
* Pathbari Temple<ref name=Tour/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.barrackpore.gov.in/HTM/sdobkp_Heritage_site.htm |title=Barrackpore Subdivision - Heritage Sites |access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref>
* Mahamilan Math ([[Sitaramdas Omkarnath|Omkarnath]] Math)
* [https://dokrakalimata.org/ Dokra Kali Mata Temple]
* St. James' Church, Baranagar
* Dunlop Gurudwara
* Glass Temple (Kancher Mandir)
* Kuthi Ghat
* Dutch Kuthi

Besides these, many people come in Baranagar every year in [[Durga Puja]] period, in the time of "Ajanta Circus".

== Markets ==

Major markets in the Baranagar area include:

* Baranagar Bazar <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mapsofindia.com/kolkata/baranagar.html|title=Map of Baranagar|publisher=Maps of India|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref>
* Sinthee Bazar
* Banga Lakshmi Bazar
* Gokul Babur Bazar
* Bonorini Market
* Alambazar Market
* RIC Bazar
* Dunlop Market

== Culture ==
{{multiple image|perrow=1/2|total_width=250|caption_align=center
| image1 = Durga Puja in Baranagar (2024).jpg|caption1=[[Durga Puja]] at Baranagar in 2024
| image2 = Saraswati puja at BRKM.jpg|caption2=[[Saraswati Puja]] at [[Baranagore Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama High School|Baranagar Ramakrishna Mission]] in 2019
| image3 = BRKM Kali puja 2013.jpg|caption3=[[Kali Puja]] at Baranagar Ramkrishna Mission in 2013
}}
[[Baranagar Math]] near Pramanick ghat is the place where Swami Vivekananda and a few other disciples of Sri Ramakrishna Dev started their spiritual journey that culminated in forming the monastic order later located at [[Belur Math]], the present headquarters of [[Ramakrishna Mission]].<ref name=Baranagarmath>{{cite web |url=http://www.rkmbaranagar.org/index.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110904031553/http://rkmbaranagar.org/index.php |url-status=usurped |archive-date=4 September 2011 |title=RKM – Index |access-date=17 May 2015}}</ref> Other places worth visiting are [[Kripamayee Kali Temple|Jay Mitra Kalibari]], Pramanick Kalibari, and Kouleswar Mandir. Pathbari Mandir is a place where [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]], the great religious leader, set his foot on his way to Puri nearly five hundred years ago here.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thegaudiyatreasuresofbengal.com/2018/01/11/sri-bhagavatacharyas-residencebaranagar-path-bari/ |title=Sri Bhagavatacharya's residence, Baranagar Path Bari |date=11 November 2018 |access-date=6 November 2019 |publisher=thegaudiyatreasuresofbengal.com}}</ref> In Baranagar a math has been set up very recently, called [[Alambazar Math]] in the heritage building where Swami Vivekananda first put up after coming back from abroad.<ref name=Alambazarmath>{{cite web |title=AlambazarMath |url=http://alambazarmath.com/ |access-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140110085118/http://alambazarmath.com/ |archive-date=10 January 2014}}</ref>
The Annapurna Temple and the newly built [[Sitaramdas Omkarnath|Omkarnath]] Temple are also other two attractions of the "Mahamilan Math".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jaigurusampradaya.org/ |title=Akhil Bharat Jai Guru Sampradaya |access-date=6 November 2019}}</ref> [[Trailanga]] Swami Math is also here in Baranagar at Vidyayatan Sarani. There is also an old kalibari in Baranagar Bazar and one in Kutighat and Pramanicghat.

Baranagar has a gurdwara named "Dunlop Gurudwara" near Dunlop Bridge, a church named "St. James' Church, Baranagar"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cnicalcutta.org/church_st_james_church_baranagar.html |title=St. James' Church – Baranagar |access-date=6 November 2019}}</ref> near Sinthee More along with many mosques.

Baranagar is famous for [[Durga Puja]]. Popular Durga Puja organizations like Netaji Colony Lowland, Bandhudal Sporting club, Noapara Dadabhai Sangha, Karmi Sangha, Kalakar para, Ashokgarh Sarbojanin, Nainan Bandhav Samiti, Mullick Colony, Shibmandir maath, Satin sen Sangsad, Friend's association, Rabindranagar Yubak brinda - all lie in Baranagar. In 2022, The first ever silicon based durga idol was displayed at Baranagar's Noapara Dada Bhai Sangha. The same club later made a signle tree route carved idol in 2023. In 2024, Bandhudal Sporting Club made one of the largest pandal of Kolkata in the respective year.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wb.gov.in/upload/Latest%20News-191011151457388.pdf |title=''Biswa Bangla Sharad Samman 2019, List of Winners'' |publisher=[[Government of West Bengal]] |website=wb.gov.in |access-date=20 November 2019 |language=bn, en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/west-bengal-government-announces-biswa-bangla-sarad-samman-2019/articleshow/71444462.cms |title=West Bengal government announces 'Biswa Bangla Sarad Samman 2019' |last=Gupta |first=Saibal |website=[[The Times of India]] |date=4 October 2019 |access-date=20 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/city-pujas-effort-to-preserve-idols/articleshow/71633115.cms |title=City Pujas' effort to preserve idols |work=[[The Times of India]] |author=Bishwabijoy Mitra |date=17 October 2019 |access-date=1 December 2019}}</ref> In every winter, a circus is organised at 'Sinthi Circus Maidan' named "Ajanta Circus".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kolkatabengalinfo.com/2011/01/famous-circus-kolkata-circus-show.html |title=Famous Circus Kolkata - Circus Show Tickets, Timings, Venue - Sinthee More Circus Maidan |first=S. |last=Kumar}}</ref>
Annual fairs- textile and handloom fair in March–April season and Durga Puja Sharadiya fair in September–October season in Sinthi More Circus and mela ground.

Jhulanbari in Jhulantala and Pathbari are famous for celebrating the festival of Jhulan Jatra and Rash Jatra.

Baranagar also hosts some of the biggest Kali Pujas. Haowa Shokal, Bonhoogly Yubak Sangha, Kalpataru Seva Samiti, Pally Shanti Sangha, Kalitala Maath, Alambazar Naba Jyoti Sangha and Baranagar Boro Ma are among the popular ones.
The annual Saraswati Puja is also widely celebrated in the area.

Christmas celebrations at the Baranagar St. James Church also attracts thousands of visitors.

Kalpataru Utsav held on the New Year's Day, the day on which Sri Ramkrishna Became Kalpataru and fulfilled the wishes of his disciples, also attracts thousands of devotees to Baranagar. Devotees visit the famous Baranagar Math and Ramkrishna Maha Smashan in Baranagar and also the nearby Cossipore Udyanbati and Dakshineshwar Temple.

Recently in 2019, Alambazar [[Barbarika|Shyam]] Mandir has been inaugurated by then Governor of Bengal [[Jagdeep Dhankhar]].

==Sports==
Baranagar is the birthplace of famous sportspersons who have participated in [[Olympic Games]] e.g., archer [[Dola Banerjee]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/archery/former-archers-dola-rahul-to-organise-vaccination-drive-for-states-sportspersons-covid-19-archery-news/article34710279.ece |title=Former archers Dola, Rahul to organise vaccination drive for state's sportspersons |website=|date=2 June 2021 }}</ref> [[Rahul Banerjee (archer)|Rahul Banerjee]], [[Atanu Das]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.news18.com/news/sports/atanu-das-profile-tokyo-olympics-2021-know-your-olympian-archery-stats-photos-recent-results-qualification-3955637.html |title=Tokyo Olympics: Know Your Olympian - Atanu Das, Archery |website=|date=12 July 2021 }}</ref>

Many sport academies and sporting clubs are situated in Baranagar:<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |title=List of All Sports Academy |url=http://www.exametc.com/sprts_list.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124203347/http://www.exametc.com/sprts_list.php |archive-date=24 January 2019 |access-date=24 January 2019}}</ref>
* Bandhudal Sporting Club<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bandhudalsportingclub.com/ |title=Bandhudal Sporting Club | Homepage |website=www.bandhudalsportingclub.com |access-date=24 January 2019 |archive-date=3 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703132138/http://www.bandhudalsportingclub.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Calcutta Archery Club<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/archery-s-hope/701686/ |author=Shamik Chakraborty |title=Archery's Hope |access-date=24 October 2010}}</ref>
* Baranagar Archery Club<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.google.com/search?hl=en-IN&q=Baranagar+Archery+Club&ludocid=10578801124687306991 |title=Baranagar Archery Club - Google Search |website=www.google.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://eisamay.indiatimes.com/sports/other-sports/archery-club-in-baranagar/articleshow/22279663.cms |title=The goal of the goal is to run away |work=Eisamay |access-date=4 September 2013 |publisher=[[Ei Samay]] |archive-date=24 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124205021/https://eisamay.indiatimes.com/sports/other-sports/archery-club-in-baranagar/articleshow/22279663.cms |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Baranagar Sporting Club<ref>{{cite web |url=https://t.justdial.com/Kolkata/Baranagar-Sporting-Club-Baranagar/033PXX33-XX33-180326160605-P2C2_BZDET |title=Team info |website=t.justdial.com |access-date=4 June 2020 |archive-date=3 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703132138/https://t.justdial.com/Kolkata/Baranagar-Sporting-Club-Baranagar/033PXX33-XX33-180326160605-P2C2_BZDET |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Baranagar Narayani Sporting Club
* Baranagar Agragami Sporting Club

== See also ==

* [[North Kolkata]]
* [[Cossipore]]
* [[Dakshineswar]]
* [[South Dum Dum]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Wikivoyage inline|Kolkata/Northern fringes}}
{{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=Category:Baranagar|b=no|n=no|q=no|s=no|v=no|voy=Baranagar|species=no|d=y}}
* [http://baranagarmunicipality.org/ Official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617114156/https://baranagarmunicipality.org/ |date=17 June 2019 }}
* [https://www.britannica.com/place/Baranagar Baranagar] at [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
* [https://dokrakalimata.org/ Dokra Kali Mata Temple website]

{{Portal bar|India}}

{{Navboxes
|title = Articles and topics related to Baranagar
|list =
{{Baranagar}}
{{North 24 Parganas District}}
{{North 24 Parganas topics}}
{{Kolkata neighbourhoods}}
{{Municipalities of West Bengal}}
{{Temple towns in West Bengal}}
}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Baranagar| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in North 24 Parganas district]]
[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Kolkata]]
[[Category:Kolkata Metropolitan Area]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1869]]
[[Category:1869 establishments in British India]]
[[Category:Cities in West Bengal]]

Welcomhotel by ITC Hotels, Cathedral Road, Chennai

2026-03-27T03:06:07Z

Sherrie7069: started new data

{{short description|Luxury hotel in Chennai, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox hotel
| name = WelcomHotel Chennai
| logo =
| logo_size = 225px
| image =
| caption =
| location = [[India]]
| address = 10, Cathedral Road, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 086, India
| hotel_chain = [[ITC Welcomgroup Hotels, Palaces and Resorts]]
| coordinates =
| opening_date = 18 October 1975
| developer =
| architect =
| operator = [[ITC Welcomgroup Hotels, Palaces and Resorts|ITC Welcomgroup]]
| owner =
| number_of_rooms = 90
| number_of_suites =
| number_of_restaurants =
| floor_area =
| floor_count = 10
| height = {{convert|39.75|m|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web | title = Chola Sheraton | publisher = Emporis.com | url = http://www.emporis.com/building/cholasheraton-chennai-india | archive-url = https://archive.today/20130409081102/http://www.emporis.com/building/cholasheraton-chennai-india | url-status = usurped | archive-date = 9 April 2013 | access-date = 20 Nov 2011}}</ref>
| parking =
| website =
| footnotes = <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.emporis.com/buildings/104426 |title=Emporis building ID 104426 |work=[[Emporis]]}}{{dead link|date=August 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
}}

The '''Welcomhotel by ITC Hotels, Cathedral Road, Chennai''' is a [[Hotel rating|five-star]] [[hotel]] located in [[Chennai]], [[India]]. Opened in 1975, it was one of the first five-star hotels in the city, known as Madras at the time.<ref name="Muthiah_2014"/> The hotel closed on 1 March 2023 for major renovations.

==History==
===The site===
The hotel is built on the site of a historic guest house named ''Tilak Bhavan'' owned by Kasturi Ranga Iyengar.<ref name="Muthiah_2014"/> During [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s visit to Madras in 1919, the house was occupied by [[C. Rajagopalachari]], and Gandhi chose to stay in this house from where he learnt about the infamous [[Rowlatt Act|Rowlatt Bill]].<ref name="Muthiah_2014"/> It was from here that Gandhi announced the launching of [[Satyagraha]] in protest against the draconian Act that the [[British Raj|British Government]] proposed to implement.<ref name="Muthiah_2014"/> This incident, which virtually started Gandhi's freedom struggle, is commemorated in a squat pillar of the house, which is still ''in situ'' in front of the hotel.<ref name="Muthiah_2014">{{cite book | last = Muthiah| first = S. | author-link = S. Muthiah | title = Madras Rediscovered| publisher = EastWest | date = 2014 | location = Chennai | pages = 245 | isbn = 978-93-84030-28-5}}</ref>

===The hotel===
The '''Chola Hotel''' opened on 18 October 1975, marking the entry of ITC Limited into the hotel business.<ref>{{cite web
| title = About us
| publisher = ITC Hotels
| date = nd
| url = http://www.itcwelcomgroup.in/Others/OthersABT.aspx
| access-date = 4 Dec 2011
| archive-date = 8 January 2011
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110108121435/http://www.itcwelcomgroup.in/Others/OthersABT.aspx
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> In 1978, [[Sheraton Hotels]] signed a marketing agreement with ITC to represent the properties of their WelcomHotels division, located across India.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/economy/story/19790415-10-year-old-link-between-oberoi-hotel-group-and-sheraton-hotels-snaps-821942-2014-03-03|title = 10-year-old link between Oberoi hotel group and Sheraton hotels snaps}}</ref> The hotel was rebranded the '''Chola Sheraton''' in 1980 and then the '''Welcomgroup Chola Sheraton''' in 1991.

On 15 October 2011, the hotel was re-branded the '''My Fortune, Chennai''', the first hotel in the Fortune Park Hotels line, a wholly owned subsidiary of ITC Ltd.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Chandramouly
| first = Anjana
| title = ITC Hotels to focus on premium luxury segment
| newspaper = Business Line
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Hindu
| date = 11 January 2012
| url = http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/marketing/article2792818.ece
| access-date = 12 Jan 2012}}</ref><ref name="HotelGetsFortuneTag">{{Cite news
| last = Ravikumar
| first = R.
| title = WelcomeHotel Sheraton Chola in Chennai gets Fortune tag
| newspaper = The Hindu Business Line
| location = Chennai
| publisher = The Hindu
| date = 20 October 2011
| url = http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-corporate/article2552912.ece
| access-date = 20 Nov 2011}}</ref> The hotel was again rebranded as '''WelcomHotel Chennai''' on 15 October 2017, and later as '''Welcomhotel by ITC Hotels, Cathedral Road, Chennai'''.

==The hotel==
The hotel is 10 stories high and has 90 rooms, including 48 Fortune Club exclusive rooms (with an area of 650 sq ft), 26 Fortune Club rooms (with an area of 440 sq ft), and 16 standard rooms (220 sq ft). Food and beverages include Earthen Oven, a North Indian specialty restaurant, WelcomCafe Marina, 24-hour multi-cuisine restaurant, My Deli, serving light snacks and confectioneries, and Durrant's Bar.

There are three meeting halls in the hotel—Mandapam banquet hall, with an area of 1,880 sq ft to accommodate 200 persons, Sagari with an area of 1,400 sq ft to accommodate 60 persons, and Mandapam board room with an area of 480 sq ft. accommodating 18 persons. There are also Business Center Board Room with an area of 238 sq ft accommodating 8 persons and Business Centre Office with an area of 156 sq ft accommodating 4 persons. The poolside can accommodate about 50 persons.<ref>{{cite web
| title = My Fortune, Chennai—Factsheet
| publisher = Fortune Hotels
| url = http://www.fortunehotels.in/FactSheet/My_Fortune_Chennai_Fact_Sheet20111111649.pdf
| access-date = 20 Nov 2011
| archive-date = 13 January 2012
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120113035907/http://www.fortunehotels.in/FactSheet/My_Fortune_Chennai_Fact_Sheet20111111649.pdf
| url-status = dead
}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|India}}
* [[Hotels in Chennai]]
* [[List of tallest buildings in Chennai]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.facebook.com/welcomhotel.chennai.cthdrlrd/ Official Facebook page]

{{ITC}}
{{Hotels in Chennai}}
{{Chennai Topics}}
{{coord|13.045752|80.25679|display=title}}

[[Category:Hotels in Chennai]]
[[Category:Hotels established in 1975]]
[[Category:Hotel buildings completed in 1975]]
[[Category:1975 establishments in Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:ITC Limited]]
[[Category:20th-century architecture in India]]

Karnataka Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prohibition of Transfer of Certain Lands) Act, 1978

2026-03-25T18:37:35Z

Sherrie7069: made a pg

{{Short description|Statute of Karnataka, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Cleanup rewrite|date=June 2023}}
The '''Karnataka Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prohibition of Transfer of Certain Lands) Act, 1978'''<ref>The citation of this Act by this [[short title]] is authorised by section 1(i) of this Act.</ref> (Karnataka Act 2 of 1979) or '''PTCL''' is a statute of [[Karnataka]].

This law which was introduced in 1978 is retrospective in nature and is considered an [[ex post facto law]]. Currently over 10000 cases are pending before the office of the Deputy Commissioners across the State Karnataka.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://bangaloreurban.nic.in/ |title=New Page 2 |access-date=13 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116153217/http://bangaloreurban.nic.in/ |archive-date=16 November 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This law was created as a social welfare Act aiming to protect and provide land for the poor members of the scheduled Tribes and castes. But due to a lack of clarity and understanding between the judiciary and the administration there exists this large number of cases still hanging in the balance.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://indiankanoon.org/search/?formInput=ptcl%20act | title=PTCL%20act }}</ref>

The preamble of the Act reads:
{{blockquote|An Act to provide for the prohibition of transfer of certain lands granted by the government, to persons belonging to the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the state, which means any land granted to the landless agricultural labourers belonging to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, cannot be purchased. Anyone who purchases such a property, will not get clear and marketable title; such property will be eventually acquired by Government and returned to the original owner without any compensation to the purchaser.}}

The problem lies in the fact that when the grantee goes to sell the land which he is not supposed to the government does not refuse to register this Sale but officially accepts it as a legal sale. Later the grantee goes back to the government and claims this land back. The law then says the land has to be returned to the grantee without any compensation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://freelegaladvisors.blogspot.in/2013/06/ptcl-act-effect.html|title = PTCL Act – Effect|date = 5 June 2013}}{{User-generated source|date=August 2022}}</ref> 

==Limitations of the Act==
* Land cannot be sold without permission from government within 15 years
* Most grantees sell the land immediately on receiving the granted land. This is officially registered as a Sale of Property by the government of Karnataka.[[The Transfer of Property Act 1882]]
* The original grantee or his heirs can claim the land back after 100 years even if land has changed hands officially through Registered Sale Deeds a number of times. Strangely The Limitation Act Does not apply to this law.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1600698/ | title=R. Rudrappa vs Deputy Commissioner, ... On 4 November, 1998 }}</ref> Supreme Court has since ordered reasonable Limitation as referered in ''Nekkanti Rama Lakshmi vs State Of Karnataka'' on 26 October 2017 <ref>{{cite web | url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/112442753/ | title=Nekkanti Rama Lakshmi vs State of Karnataka on 26 October, 2017 }}</ref> and other cases.
* This law is retrospective in nature[[Ex post facto law#India]]
* The current owner should handover possession including building, trees etc. without any compensation even if taxes are paid and land has been registered in the purchasers name by the government of Karnataka.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://schedulecastescheduletribes.blogspot.com/|title=Strange laws and justice stranger still|first=Dann|last=Thomas|date=14 October 2011}}</ref>
* The current owner may have purchased it from another party and may be the third or fourth in line in which the property has changed hands. But only the current owner is expected to bear the loss of all accumulated purchases and sales <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://legallyyour.wordpress.com/2013/07/20/land-caste-taking-advantage-of-bad-drafting/ |title=Land & Caste: Taking advantage of Bad Drafting | Yours Legally |access-date=14 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013082730/https://legallyyour.wordpress.com/2013/07/20/land-caste-taking-advantage-of-bad-drafting/ |archive-date=13 October 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* International Real Estate Companies have warned about investing in Bangalore because this law does not have a Limited time period and other laws which lack clarity and need to be altered by the State Government of Karnataka for clarity and justice.,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/11-problems-bangalore-real-estate-ashwinder-raj-singh|title=11 Problems with Bangalore Real Estate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://window2india.com/cms/admin/article.jsp?aid=4833 |title=Beware of land scams in Bangalore |access-date=18 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819190017/http://window2india.com/cms/admin/article.jsp?aid=4833 |archive-date=19 August 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:1978 in Indian law]]
[[Category:Indian caste legislation]]
[[Category:Karnataka state legislation]]

Singhasan Battisi

2026-03-25T15:43:31Z

Sherrie7069: started new bio!

{{Short description|Indian collection of folk tales}}
{{redirect|Sinhasan Battisi|the Indian television series|Sinhasan Battisi (TV series)}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Singhasan Battisi
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| title_orig = Simhasana Dvatrimsika
| orig_lang_code = sa
| country = [[India]]
| language = [[Sanskrit]]
| subject =
| genre = [[Fantasy]]
| set_in =
| wikisource =
| notes =
}}
'''''Singhasan Battisi''''' is a collection of Indian folk tales. The title literally means "thirty-two (tales) of the throne". In the [[frame story]], the 11th century king [[Bhoja]] discovers the throne of the legendary ancient king [[Vikramāditya|Vikramaditya]]. The throne has 32 statues, who are actually [[apsara]]s that had been turned into stone due to a curse. Each of the apsaras tells Bhoja a story about the life and adventures of Vikramaditya, in order to convince him that he is not deserving of Vikramaditya's throne.

[[File:1. Vikramaditya Memorial, Ujjain.jpg|thumb|Singhasan Battisi folk tale]]

The original collection, written in [[Sanskrit]], was known as '''''Siṃhāsana Dvātriṃśikā'''''. Other titles for the collection include ''Dvātriṃśat Puttalikā'' ("Thirty-two Statue Stories"), ''Vikrāmaditya Simhāsana Dvātriṃśika'' ("Thirty-two Tales of the Throne of Vikramaditya"), and ''Vikrama Charita'' ("Deeds or Adventures of Vikrama").<ref>{{cite book | title=Simhāsana Dvātriṃśikā: Thirty-Two Tales of the Throne of Vikramaditya | year=1998 |author=A. N. D. Haksar |author-link=A. N. D. Haksar | publisher=Penguin | isbn=978-0-140-45517-5 |page=xiii }}</ref> In modern vernaculars, the collection is known as ''Singhasan Battisi''; other transliterations of the title include ''Sinhasan Battisi'' and ''Simhasan Battisi''.

== Plot ==

King Bhoja walks past a field of a [[Brahmin]] with the royal entourage who from a seat on a high mound overlooking his whole field invites the King to have a taste of the fresh produce of his field. On the King's approach to the Brahmin's field, he leaves his seat to shoo off the birds, following which he miserly opposes King's entry on his field and charges him with grave intrusion and violation of civilian rights which prompts the King to leave the field immediately. After shooing off the birds, the Brahmin returns to sit on the mound. He then again beseeches King Bhoja to return to the field and taste the produce. Again the same process is repeated which intrigues Bhoja as to how the behavior of the Brahmin changes whilst on the mound and on the plain.

He learns that by just stepping on it, one's heart has all the magnanimous traits boosted and filled with love and justice. Bhoja's soldiers dig the mound to find a throne. The throne is identified as that of the ancient Emperor Vikramaditya, who was well-known and respected for being just. Bhoja's advisers tell him that he will also be able to pass the best judgements, once he sits on the throne.

The throne is supported by 32 statues of [[Apsara]]s. When Bhoja sits on the throne, one of the statues comes to life, and explains to the king that simply sitting on the throne will not make him a great judge: there are other qualities that he lacks. The Apsara tells him one story related to one quality that a good judge must possess and flies away. In the same manner, one after another, the Apsaras tell a story related to a quality and fly away. Bhoja realizes that he does not possess the qualities that would make one eligible to sit on the throne. Some of these qualities are selflessness, complete honesty, lack of bias or favouritism and a true urge to give justice.

== Authorship and date ==

The author and date of the original work is unknown. Since the story mentions [[Bhoja]] (died 1055 CE), it must have been composed in or after the 11th century.<ref>[http://www.ignca.nic.in/coilnet/snbts.htm द्वात्रींशत्पुत्तलिका: Sinhasan Battisi]</ref>

Five primary recensions of the Sanskrit version ''Simhasana-dvatrimsika'' are dated to 13th and 14th centuries.<ref name="DGW_2010">{{cite book |author=David Gordon White |title=Sinister Yogis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IsSpbyjw5DMC&pg=PA6 |year=2010 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-89515-4 |page=6 }}</ref>

''[[Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh]]'' (1695 CE) by Sujan Rai claims that the work had been authored by Pandit Braj, the ''wazir'' (prime minister) of Bhoja.<ref name="MA_2011">{{cite book |author1=Muzaffar Alam |author2=Sanjay Subrahmanyam |title=Writing the Mughal World: Studies on Culture and Politics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YWYWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT414 |year=2011 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-52790-3 |pages=414–419}}</ref>

== Translations ==

[[`Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni]] translated the stories into Persian for the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor [[Akbar]], as ''Nama - Khirad Afza'' ("Wisdom-enhancing book"). The translation was completed in 1581 CE.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hadi |first=Nabi |title=Dictionary of Indo-Persian Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qjJmzdJFOHwC&pg=PA110 |accessdate=6 September 2015 |year=1995 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=9788170173113|pages=110 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Aniruddha Ray |title=The Varied Facets of History: Essays in Honour of Aniruddha Ray |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5qSbjBTDC-UC&pg=PA116 |year=2011 |publisher=Primus Books |isbn=978-93-80607-16-0 |page=116 }}</ref> Other titles for the Persian translation include ''Gul Afshan''<ref name="MA_2011"/> and ''Senguehassen Battisi''.<ref name="DGW_2010"/>

[[Lallu Lal]] and Kazim Ali Javan translated it into Hindi.<ref>{{cite book |author=Thomas Grahame Bailey |title=A history of Urdu literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jT8qAQAAIAAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547518-0 |page=80 }}</ref> During 1814–15, [[William Carey (missionary)|William Carey]] published the Marathi translation under the title ''Simhasana Battisi'', along with ''[[Panchatantra]]'' and ''[[Hitopadesha]]''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Thomas Welbourne Clark |title=The Novel in India: Its Birth and Development |url=https://archive.org/details/novelinindia00icis |url-access=registration |year=1970 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-01725-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/novelinindia00icis/page/78 78] }}</ref> The 17th century poet [[Shamal Bhatt]] had adapted these stories as narrative poetry.

[[Franklin Edgerton]] translated it as "The Adventures of [[Vikrama]]" in four of its popular rescensions. It is sometimes published along with the [[Baital Pachisi]].

Koravi Goparaju translated it into Telugu language in 15th century as ''Simhasana Dwitrimsika''. It was published by Andhra Sahitya Parishad, Kakinana in 1936 under the editorship of Vemparala Suryanarayana Sastry.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Koravi Gopa Raju |title=Simsana Dwatrimsika |date=1936 |publisher=Andhra Sahitya Parishad |location=Kakinada |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.371474/mode/2up |accessdate=22 August 2020 |language=Telugu}}</ref> Subsequently, Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Akademi, Hyderabad published in one volume in 1982. The editor [[Gadiyaram Ramakrishna Sarma]] has written a detailed Foreword.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Koravi Gopa Raju |title=Simhasana Dwatrimsika |date=1982 |publisher=Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Akademi |location=Hyderabad |edition=First |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.392346/2015.392346.SIMHASANA-DWA#mode/2up |accessdate=22 August 2020 |language=Telugu}}</ref>

== TV adaptations ==

A television adaptation of ''Singhasan Battisi'' was aired on [[Doordarshan]] in 1985. In 2014, [[Sinhasan Battisi (TV series)|another adaptation]] was aired on [[Sony Pal]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/screen/fantasy-world/ |title=Fantasy World |newspaper=Indian Express |author=Priyanka Bhadani |date=12 December 2014 }}</ref> An [[List of Indian animated television series|Indian animated television series]], ''Singhasan Battisi'', produced by Shethia Audio and Video aired on [[Pogo (TV channel)|Pogo]] from 2011 to 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 August 2010|title='Singhasan Battisi' on Pogo|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/singhasan-battisi-on-pogo/654528/|website=The Financial Express}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://archive.org/stream/1001Nights_201703/Vikram%20%26%20Vetaal#page/n101/mode/2up Vikram & Vetaal] - containing the Singhasan Battisi and the Baital Pachisi (Annotated)
* [https://www.kidsgen.com/stories/folk_tales/singhasan-battisi/ All the 32 Stories of Singhasan Battisi, along with illustrations]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:11th-century Sanskrit literature]]
[[Category:Indian legends]]
[[Category:Fantasy anthologies]]
[[Category:Collections of fairy tales]]
[[Category:Indian folklore]]
[[Category:Indian literature]]
[[Category:Indian fairy tales]]
[[Category:11th-century Indian books]]
[[Category:12th-century Indian books]]
[[Category:Indian short story collections]]
[[Category:Panchatantra]]

Slovenian Parliament

2026-03-24T00:23:38Z

Sherrie7069:

{{Short description|Bicameral legislature of Slovenia}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Slovenian Parliament
| native_name = {{lang|sl|Slovenski parlament}}
| native_name_lang =
| transcription_name =
| legislature =
| coa_pic = Coat of arms of Slovenia.svg
| coa_res = 100px
| coa_alt =
| foundation = {{Start date and age|1991|06|25}}
| preceded_by = [[Parliament of Yugoslavia]]
| house_type = Bicameral
| body =
| houses = • [[National Assembly (Slovenia)|National Assembly]] • [[National Council (Slovenia)|National Council]]
| leader1_type = President of the National Council
| leader1 = [[Marko Lotrič]]
| party1 =
| election1 =
| leader2_type = Speaker of the National Assembly
| leader2 = [[Urška Klakočar Zupančič]]
| party2 =
| election2 =
| leader3_type =
| leader3 =
| party3 =
| election3 =
| seats = '''National Assembly''': 90 '''National Council''': 40
| house1 = [[National Assembly (Slovenia)|National Assembly]]
| house2 = ''[[National Council (Slovenia)|National Council]]''
| structure1 =
| structure1_res =
| structure1_alt =
| structure2 =
| structure2_res =
| structure2_alt =
| political_groups1 =
| political_groups2 =
| committees1 =
| committees2 =
| joint_committees =
| voting_system1 =
| voting_system2 =
| last_election1 = [[2026 Slovenian parliamentary election|22 March 2026]]
| last_election2 =
| previous_election2 =
| session_room = Zgradba Državnega zbora.jpg
| session_res =
| session_alt =
| meeting_place = [[National Assembly Building of the Republic of Slovenia|National Assembly Building]], [[Ljubljana]]
| website = {{URL|www.dz-rs.si}}
| footnotes =
| motto =
}}
{{Politics of Slovenia}}

The '''Slovenian Parliament''' ({{langx|sl|Slovenski parlament}}) is the informal designation of the general [[representative democracy|representative]] body of the [[Slovenia]]n nation and the [[legislature|legislative body]] of the Republic of Slovenia.

According to the [[Constitution of Slovenia]], the general representative body of the Slovenian nation is the [[National Assembly (Slovenia)|National Assembly]]. The general public in Slovenia often refer to the National Assembly alone as the Slovenian Parliament.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rtvslo.si/slovenija/drzavni-svet-pogosto-jabolko-spora/96108 |title=Državni svet: pogosto jabolko spora |trans-title=National Council: A Frequent Apple of Discord |date=14 January 2009 |access-date=16 December 2010 |language=sl |publisher=MMC RTV Slovenija}}</ref> However, the [[National Council (Slovenia)|National Council]], the representative body of basic social groups, also performs a further, if minor, part of the legislative function.<ref name="Celje">{{cite book |url=http://www.knjiznica-celje.si/raziskovalne/4200607533.pdf |title=Državni svet - del slovenskega parlamenta? |trans-title=National Council - a Part of Slovenian Parliament? |language=sl, en|year=2006 |first=Božidar |last=Veljković |author2=Melita Stiplošek |author3=Natalija Ulaga |author4=Monika Koražija |access-date=16 December 2010}}</ref>

The opinions of experts and of the general Slovenian public on whether the Slovenian Parliament is [[bicameral]] or [[unicameral]] differ, although most consider it to be incompletely bicameral.<ref name="Lakota">{{cite book |url=http://dk.fdv.uni-lj.si/dela/Lakota-Igor.PDF |title=Sistem nepopolne dvodomnosti v slovenskem parlamentu (diplomska naloga) |trans-title=The system of incomplete bicameralism in the Slovenian Parliament (diploma thesis) |page=62 |first=Igor |last=Lakota |year=2006 |access-date=16 December 2010 |publisher=Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana |language=sl}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Slovenia: From Yugoslavia to the European Union|year=2004|publisher=World Bank Publications|isbn=9780821357187|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sloveniafromyugo0000mrak/page/56 56]–57|url=https://archive.org/details/sloveniafromyugo0000mrak|url-access=registration|quote=slovenia incomplete bicameral.|author=Mojmir Mrak|author2=Matija Rojec |author3=Carlos Silva-Jáuregui |author4=World Bank |access-date=16 December 2010|chapter=The Legislative Branch}}</ref> In 2008, the [[Constitutional Court of Slovenia]] recognized the Slovenian Parliament as incompletely bicameral.<ref name="US2008">{{cite news |url=http://odlocitve.us-rs.si/usrs/us-odl.nsf/o/91B69BBC50349012C12574F2004123EB |title=U-I-295/07-8 |date=22 October 2008 |access-date=16 December 2010 |language=sl |publisher=Constitutional Court of the Republic of Slovenia |quote=S tega vidika lahko govorimo o nepopolni dvodomnosti slovenskega parlamenta, kajti po ustavnopravni teoriji se šteje za dvodomno vsaka ureditev, v kateri delujeta na področju zakonodajne funkcije dva organa, ne glede na to, kakšno razmerje je med njima.}}</ref>

== History ==
The first Slovenian legislature was the ''[[Landtag]]'' or Diet of the Duchy of Carniola, the most predominantly Slovene-populated (95% in 1910) region of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]. Established as part of the reforms that attended the [[Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867|Dual Compromise]] of 1867, the devolved legislature sat until the end of the empire in 1918. It consisted of a single chamber of thirty-seven delegates, whose competencies extended solely to local matters.

The interwar [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] was a [[Vidovdan Constitution|centralist regime]], with a national parliament but no regional assemblies. The legal continuity of the present Slovenian Parliament can therefore be traced to the Constituent Assembly of the [[People's Republic of Slovenia]], a unicameral body with 120 delegates elected on 27 October 1946.

The Assembly had been convened to draft a constitution; having done so, it began functioning as a legislature, and was renamed to the People's Assembly of the People's Republic of Slovenia on 17 January 1947.

In 1953, the Assembly was made bicameral, encompassing two houses ("''zbor''", usually also translated as "assembly".) The generally-representative Assembly of the Republic was supplemented with an Assembly of Producers, intended for representatives of state-owned industries.

In 1963, a new constitution renamed the polity the Socialist Republic of Slovenia. The new Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia was made a rare quintocameral legislature, comprising an:

* Assembly of the Republic
* Economic Assembly
* Educational and Cultural Assembly
* Socio-Medical Assembly
* Organisational and Political Assembly

This was found to be unwieldy, and a 1968 amendment combined the middle three ''zbors'' into a single Assembly of Labor Associations, and renamed the final one to the Socio-Political Assembly.

A more radical reform followed soon afterward, when the devolutionary [[1974 Yugoslav Constitution]] abolished the Assembly of the Republic altogether and transferred its competencies to the Socio-Political Assembly. Unlike the Assembly of the Republic - which had been de-facto dominated by the [[League of Communists of Slovenia]] (ZKS), but was nominally a representative legislature elected by universal suffrage - the Socio-Political Assembly was legally a single-party body. Its fifty seats were formally allocated (ten each) to the ZKS and four of its subsidiary organizations:

* the League of Socialist Youth of Slovenia (ZSMS)
* the Socialist League of the Working People of Slovenia (SZDLS)
* the League of Trade Unions, and
* the Association of Veterans of the Slovenian National Liberation War

Delegates were elected indirectly, in [[Elections in the Soviet Union|Soviet-style]] single-candidate approval votes held by similar socio-political assemblies established at the municipal level.

Despite this fundamental change, the 1974 Constitution retained the tricameral structure established in 1968. The Socio-Political Assembly was supplemented with a new Municipalities' Assembly (150 delegates) and an Assembly of United Labor (60-65 delegates). The latter ''zbor'' was a continuation of the 1968 Assembly of Labor Associations, and was (like it) geared toward the representation of economic and occupational interests (though it also contained representatives from state agencies, and a single delegate from the [[Yugoslav People's Army|federal armed forces]].)

[[Revolutions of 1989|Legislative reforms in 1990]] saw the word "Socialist" dropped from the republic's name and the ZKS surrendering its privileged status. In the multi-party elections of the same year, the three ''zbors'' were retained, though their number of deputies was equalized at 80 each, for a total of 240. The Socio-Political Assembly was converted into a general representative body, while the other two ''zbors'' retained their specialized representation, but now on a contested basis. The basic structure of the 1974 constitution therefore endured until the first elections under the [[Constitution of Slovenia|1991 constitution]] could be held in December of 1992.

The new constitution abolished all three ''zbors''. The Socio-Political Assembly was replaced by the [[National Assembly (Slovenia)|National Assembly]], a democratically-elected general representative body with ninety delegates. The functions of the Municipalities' Assembly and Assembly of United Labor were informally combined in the new 40-seat [[National Council (Slovenia)|National Council]], with 18 seats allotted to local interests and the remaining 22 to basic social groups such as employers, students, and workers.

==Seat==
{{main|National Assembly Building of the Republic of Slovenia}}
The National Assembly and the National Council convene in a [[modernist]] palace known as the "Slovenian Parliament" and sited in [[Republic Square, Ljubljana]]. It was built between 1954 and 1959 by the architect {{interlanguage link|Vinko Glanz|sl}}. An [[Plečnik Parliament|unrealized project]] for a Slovenian Parliament building, designed by the architect [[Jože Plečnik]] in the late 1940s, features on the [[Slovenian euro coins]].

==See also==
*[[Politics of Slovenia]]
*[[List of legislatures by country]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Parliament of Slovenia|Slovenian Parliament}}
* [http://www.dz-rs.si/ National Assembly]
* [http://www.ds-rs.si/ National Council]

{{Slovenia topics}}
{{National bicameral legislatures}}
{{Parliaments in Europe}}

{{coord|46|03|06|N|14|30|04|E|display=title}}

[[Category:Slovenian Parliament| ]]
[[Category:Parliaments by country|Slovenia]]
[[Category:Politics of Slovenia]]
[[Category:Government of Slovenia]]
[[Category:Bicameral legislatures|Slovenia]]
[[Category:National legislatures|Slovenia]]

{{slovenia-poli-stub}}

Department of Parliamentary Affairs (Jharkhand)

2026-03-22T22:14:13Z

Sherrie7069: put up

{{Short description|Government Department of Jharkhand}}
{{Infobox government agency
| name = Department of Parliamentary Affairs, Jharkhand
| native_name = संसदीय कार्य विभाग, झारखण्ड
| seal = Jharkhand Rajakiya Chihna.svg
| seal_size = 170
| logo =
| formed =
| jurisdiction = [[Government of Jharkhand]]
| headquarters = [[Ranchi]], [[Jharkhand]], [[India]]
| minister1_name = [[Radha Krishna Kishore]]
| minister1_pfo = Minister of Parliamentary Affairs
| chief1_name =
| chief1_position =
| website = {{Official website|https://www.jharkhand.gov.in}}
}}

The '''Department of Parliamentary Affairs''' is a department of [[Government of Jharkhand]] that oversees matters related to the state legislature and ensures coordination between the government and the [[Jharkhand Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministers & Portfolio - Government of Jharkhand |url=https://cm.jharkhand.gov.in/ministers-portfolio |access-date=25 October 2025 |website=cm.jharkhand.gov.in}}</ref> It assists in conducting legislative sessions and managing official business in the House.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |last2= |first2= |date=2025-07-30 |title=झारखंड विधानसभा का मानसून सत्र 1 अगस्त से होगा शुरू, संसदीय कार्य मंत्री ने दी ये जानकारी |url=https://www.indiatv.in/jharkhand/jharkhand-speaker-rabindra-nath-mahato-holds-discussions-with-officials-ahead-of-monsoon-session-2025-07-30-1152894 |access-date=2025-10-25 |website=India TV Hindi |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bharat |first=E. T. V. |date=2025-07-30 |title=झारखंड विधानसभा का यह मानसून सत्र होगा अहम, खास विधेयक को लाने की तैयारी में सरकार |url=https://www.etvbharat.com/hi/!state/speaker-rabindranath-mahto-high-level-meeting-with-officials-regarding-monsoon-session-of-jharkhand-assembly-jharkhand-news-jhs25073003267 |access-date=2025-10-25 |website=ETV Bharat News |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bhelari |first=Amit |date=2025-08-26 |title=Jharkhand Assembly ruckus as ruling MLAs protest over SIR, House adjourned twice |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jharkhand/ruling-mlas-create-ruckus-in-jharkhand-assembly-over-sir-house-adjourned-twice/article69978284.ece |access-date=2025-10-25 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Resolution in Jharkhand Assembly against SIR of electoral rolls |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/jharkhand/resolution-in-jharkhand-assembly-against-sir-of-electoral-rolls-3697888 |access-date=2025-10-25 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> Since December 2024, the minister for Jharkhand's Parliamentary Affairs is [[Radha Krishna Kishore]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=PTI |date=2024-12-09 |title=Chief Minister Hemant Soren, Ministers take oath as members of Jharkhand Assembly |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jharkhand/chief-minister-hemant-soren-ministers-take-oath-as-members-of-jharkhand-assembly/article68964468.ece |access-date=2025-10-25 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2024-12-06 |title=Jharkhand portfolio allocation: CM Hemant Soren keeps home, Radha Krishna Kishore gets Finance, Irfan Ansari given Health |url=https://avenuemail.in/jharkhand-portfolio-allocation-cm-hemant-soren-keeps-home-radha-krishna-kishore-gets-finance-irfan-ansari-given-health/ |access-date=2025-10-25 |website=The Avenue Mail |language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Government departments of Jharkhand]]

{{Jharkhand-stub}}

Javed Iqbal (admiral)

2026-03-19T06:55:53Z

Sherrie7069: minor edit

{{Short description|Pakistani admiral}}
{{BLP sources|date=March 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix = [[Vice admiral (Pakistan)|Vice Admiral]]
| name = Jawaid Iqbal
| honorific-suffix = [[Hilal-i-Imtiaz|HI(M)]] [[Sitara-e-Basalat|SBt]]
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| order =
| office = [[:Category:Ambassadors of Pakistan to Tunisia|Pakistan Ambassador to Tunisia]]
| term_start = 1998
| term_end = 2004
| president = [[Rafiq Tarar]]
| primeminister = [[Nawaz Sharif]]
| predecessor = [[Shamoon Alam Khan|Shamoon Allam]]
| successor = [[Masood Khan]]
| birth_name = Jawaid Iqbal
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1942|03|31}}
| birth_place = {{nobr|[[Jullundhar]], [[Punjab, British India|Punjab]], [[British Indian Empire|British India]]}} (now [[Jalandhar]], [[Punjab, India]])
| death_date =
| death_place =
| death_cause =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates =
| citizenship = {{PAK}}
| nationality =
| party = [[Pakistan Movement for Justice|Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf]] {{resize|(1999–2011)}}
| otherparty =
| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| residence = [[Lahore, Pakistan]]
| education =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = {{hlist|Activist|politician}}
| profession = {{hlist|Naval officer|political analyst}}
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| website = [https://www.facebook.com/pg/Admiraljawaidiqbal/about/ Facebook page]

| allegiance = {{PAK}}
| branch = {{navy|Pakistan}}
| branch_label = Branch
| serviceyears = 1961–1998
| serviceyears_label = Service years
| rank = [[File:14-Pakistan Navy-VADM.svg|20px]] [[Vice admiral (Pakistan)|Vice Admiral]]
| unit = [[Pakistan Navy#Branches|Executive Branch]]
| commands = [[Pakistan Navy#Naval Commands in Field and Commanders|Pakistan Fleet]] {{small|(COMPAK)}} [[Pakistan Navy#Naval Commands in Field and Commanders|Commander Karachi]] {{small|(COMKAR)}} [[Director-General|DG]] [[Joint warfare|Joint Trig]] at [[JS HQ (Pakistan)|JS HQ]] DCNS (Personnel) [[Director-General|DG]] [[Naval Intelligence (Pakistan)|Naval Intelligence]] (DGNI) [[Special Service Group (Navy)]]
| battles = [[India–Pakistan war of 1965]] [[India–Pakistan war of 1971]]
| battles_label = Conflicts
| mawards = [[File:Crescent of Excellence Hilal-e-Imtiaz.png|50px]] [[Hilal-i-Imtiaz]] [[File:Star of Good Conduct Sitara-e-Basalat.png|50px]] [[Sitara-e-Basalat]]
}}
'''Jawaid Iqbal''' ([[Urdu]]: {{Nq|جاويد اقبال}}; born 31 March 1942) is a retired [[Three-star rank|three-star]]-[[admiral]] of the [[Pakistan Navy]], politician, and [[Pakistani diplomatic missions|diplomat]] who served as the [[Ambassadors|Ambassador]] of Pakistan to [[Tunisia]] from 1998 to 2004. The [[Government of Pakistan]] conferred the [[Sitara-e-Basalat]] and [[Hilal-i-Imtiaz]] awards on Iqbal for his contributions to the nation.

He is known for his support for [[Civilian control of the military|civilian control]] of the army and opposition to the [[1999 Pakistani coup d'état|military takeover]] of the civilian government in 1999. He actively supports [[anti-corruption]] activities, and has served as the Vice-Chairman of the [[Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf]] for this cause. However, he later resigned amid inter-party conflict, especially with views on [[Pervez Musharraf|former President Musharraf.]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/south-asia-braces-for-covid-19-lockdown/|title=South Asia Braces for COVID-19 Lockdown|date=2020-03-24|website=Geopolitical Monitor|language=en|access-date=2020-03-26}}</ref><ref name="The Wire, DA Khan, S A Khan, Raj, 2017" />

==Early life and education==
Javaid Iqbal was born on 31 March 1942 in [[Jalandhar]], [[Punjab, British India|Punjab]], in [[British raj|British Indian]].<ref name="Jhang Tv">{{cite web |title=Admiral javed Iqbal - Jhang Tv |url=https://jhangtv.com/admiral-javed-iqbal/ |website=Jhang Tv |accessdate=26 July 2018 |date=23 December 2013 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726135032/https://jhangtv.com/admiral-javed-iqbal/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> He belongs to a [[Muslim Rajputs|Rajput family]]. After the [[partition of India]] in 1947, Iqbal [[Immigration to Pakistan|emigrated]] to Pakistan and settled in [[Lahore]], [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]].<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012">{{cite news |date=30 March 2012 |title=Admiral Javed Iqbal |url=https://www.pakistantimes.com/topics/admiral-javed-iqbal/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250621202806/https://www.pakistantimes.com/admiral-javed-iqbal/ |archive-date=21 June 2025 |accessdate= |work=Trending Topics in Pakistan |publisher=Pakistan Times |agency=Pakistan Times}}</ref>

After he did his [[Matriculation in Pakistan|matriculation]] in 1961 from a local high school in Lahore, Iqbal joined the [[Pakistan Navy]] and was directed to join the [[Pakistan Military Academy]]. He received training at the [[Royal Naval Academy]] in [[England]] and the [[Royal Navy]] as a [[Surface warfare|surface officer]].<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" />

== Military career ==
He was [[Commissioned officer|commissioned]] in 1964 and was appointed in the Pakistan Navy as a [[Sub lieutenant|Sub-Lieutenant]] posted at the [[Pakistan Navy|Executive Branch]] of the Navy.<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" /> He participated in the [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1965|Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] as an officer on a surface warship.<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" />

In 1966, he entered the elite [[Special Service Group (Navy)|Navy Special Service Group]] and was selected to be trained with the [[United States Navy SEALs|U.S. Navy SEALs]] in the [[United States]] as a [[frogman]], where he learned [[High-altitude military parachuting|high-altitude parachuting]] and [[scuba diving]].<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" /> In 1971, Iqbal served in the western front of the [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971|third war]] with [[India]].<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" />

After the 1971 war, Iqbal attended the [[National Defence University, Islamabad|National Defence University]] in [[Islamabad]], where he obtained an [[Master of Science|MSc.]] in [[Strategic studies|Strategic Studies]].<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" /> He later went to the United States and graduated from the [[Naval War College]].<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" /> Upon returning, he served on the faculty of the [[Pakistan Naval War College|Naval War College]] in Lahore.<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" />

===War and command appointments in the Navy===
From 1983 to 1986, Iqbal was posted with the [[Pakistan Armed Forces deployments|Pakistan Armed Forces–Middle East]], where he served as a naval adviser to the [[Qatari Emiri Navy]] and, later, as [[military adviser]] to the [[Qatari government]].<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" /> In 1989, [[Captain (naval)|Captain]] Iqbal assumed the command of the [[USS Julius A. Furer (FFG-6)|PNS Badr]], where he served as a commanding officer until the warship was returned to the United States.<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" /> In 1990–1991, Iqbal was posted with the [[Ministry of Defence (Pakistan)|Ministry of Defence]] (MoD) and was selected to serve as a [[naval adviser]] at the [[High Commission of Pakistan, New Delhi|High Commission of Pakistan]] in [[New Delhi]].<ref name="Partridge Publishing, Koul, 2014">{{cite book |last1=Koul |first1=Major General (Retd) Pran |title=The Silence Speaks |date=2014 |publisher=Partridge Publishing |isbn=9781482815948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0C8AgAAQBAJ&dq=javed+iqbal+captain&pg=PT246 |accessdate=26 July 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

In 1992, he was promoted as [[One-star rank|one-star]] admiral, [[Commodore (rank)|Cdre]]. He served as a commanding officer of the elite [[Special Services Group Navy]] until he was appointed as the director naval intelligence in 1992.<ref name="Jhang Tv" />

====Director Naval Intelligence and Agosta scandal====
{{Main|Karachi affair}}
In 1992, [[Rear-Admiral]] Iqbal was appointed as Director-General of the [[Naval Intelligence (Pakistan)|Naval Intelligence]] (DGNI). He was among the officers who investigated the rumors surrounding a[[Karachi affair|controversial arms deal signed]] with [[France]] as early as 1994 to 1995.<ref name="tune pk, Batiatus, 2014">{{cite web |last1=Batiatus |first1=Dominus |title=Pak Navy's Vice Admiral (retd) Javed Iqbal on Agosta Submarine Scandal - Part 2 |url=https://tune.pk/video/3508393/pak-navy-vice-admiral-retd-javed-iqbal-on-agosta-submarine-scandal-part-2 |website=www.tune.pk |publisher=tune pk |accessdate=27 July 2018 |language=en |date=28 May 2014 |archive-date=27 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727085102/https://tune.pk/video/3508393/pak-navy-vice-admiral-retd-javed-iqbal-on-agosta-submarine-scandal-part-2 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Based on an accidental tip and reference received in sting intelligence, Iqbal eventually met with Zafar Iqbal in Karachi and arrested him to reveal information about the parties that were being paid among public and military officials. Iqbal briefed his findings to [[Shahid Ashraf|Cdre. Shahid Ashraf]].<ref name="Arshad Sharif, anchor of Reporter, Dawn, 2010">{{cite news|last1=Sharif|first1=Arshad|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubVETuXmrXU|title=Reporter - Agosta Submarine Corruption More revelations! - Ep80 - Part 1|date=30 November 2010|work=Arshad Sharif, Reporters, Dawn|accessdate=27 July 2018|publisher=Arshad Sharif, anchor of Reporter, Dawn|agency=Dawn TV|location=Islamabad|language=ur|format=watch.tv}}</ref>

While commenting on his service-promotion, Iqbal, after retiring from his military service, reportedly said to news reporters: "Adm. Saeed Khan was the real person to take away big chunk of the deal because the deal was implemented in his tenure."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sehri |first1=Inam |title=Judges and Generals in Pakistan |date=2013 |publisher=Grosvenor House Publishing |isbn=9781781482346 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgRnAgAAQBAJ&dq=javed+iqbal+DGNI&pg=PT407 |accessdate=27 July 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

===Staff appointment and ambassadorship to Tunisia===
Iqbal was appointed as the [[Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff (Pakistan)|DCNS (Personnel)]] at the [[NHQ (Pakistan Navy)|Navy NHQ]] and was later posted as the director of the [[Joint warfare|Joint Training]] (DG Trig.) at the [[JS HQ (Pakistan)|JS HQ]] in [[Rawalpindi]].<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" /> Apart from serving as the commander of the [[Pakistan Navy|Karachi Coastal Command]] and [[Pakistan Navy|Pakistan Fleet Command]] from 1994 to 1998, Iqbal also served on a command level.<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" />

In 1998, Iqbal decided to retire from the Navy, and was eventually appointed as the Ambassador of Pakistan to Tunisia until 2004.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Concept |date=2003 |publisher=Raja Afsar Khan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8a1tAAAAMAAJ&q=admiral+javed+iqbal+ambassador |accessdate=30 July 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

He continued serving in the [[Foreign Service of Pakistan|Foreign Service]] despite opposing the [[Musharraf Coup|military takeover]] of the [[Government of Pakistan|civilian government]].<ref name="DawnNews, Sharif, part 2, 2010">{{cite news |last1=Sharif |first1=Arshad |title=Reporter - Agosta Submarine Corruption More revelations! - Ep80 - Part 2 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZRUhcvOGfVQ |accessdate=30 July 2018 |work=Arshad Sharif at DawnNews |agency=DawnNews |publisher=DawnNews |date=30 November 2010}}</ref>

== Political career ==

===Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (2004–2012)===
In 2004, Iqbal returned to Lahore where he joined the [[Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf]] (PTI).<ref name="DawnNews, Sharif, part 2, 2010" /> Through the party platform, he supported the civilian control of the military and writ of the [[Constitution of Pakistan|constitution]] in the country.<ref name="Pakistan Times, 2012" />

In 2011, he criticised the [[Pakistan Military|Pakistan military]]'s failure to realize the nature of the [[Osama bin Laden's compound in Abbottabad|compound in Abbottabad]] where the United States eventually [[Death of Osama bin Laden|conducted an operation to find]] [[Osama bin Laden]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Reporter - Agosta Submarine Corruption More revelations! - Ep80 - Part 2 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZRUhcvOGfVQ |date=30 November 2010}}</ref>

While serving as Vice-Chairman of Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI), he resigned from his position and left the party in an effort to oppose [[Khurshid Kasuri]]'s support for [[Pervez Musharraf]].<ref name="The Wire, DA Khan, S A Khan, Raj, 2017">{{cite news |last1=Khan |first1=Daniel Adam |last2=Khan |first2=Sher Ali |last3=Raj |first3=Ali |title=How Imran Khan Is Hurting His Own Politics |url=https://thewire.in/south-asia/imran-khan-hurting-politics |accessdate=30 July 2018 |work=The Wire |agency=The Wire |publisher=The Wire |date=27 November 2017}}</ref>

He is currently residing in Lahore, and has raised his concerns about the trials of Pervez Musharraf for illegally taking over the civilian government in 1999.<ref name="Arshad Sharif, anchor of Reporter, Dawn, 2010" /><ref>{{cite news |title=The Newshour Debate: Truth behind Kargil incursion (Part 1 of 2) - Video Dailymotion |url=https://www.dailymotion.com/video/xx6spv |accessdate=30 July 2018 |work=Dailymotion |date=1 February 2013 |language=en}}</ref>

== Writings ==
In addition to his naval career, Admiral Javed Iqbal has contributed to written discourse on maritime affairs, national security, leadership, and strategic studies. His writings primarily focus on issues related to naval strategy, maritime security in the Indian Ocean region, civil–military relations, and Pakistan’s geostrategic environment. Iqbal has written articles and opinion pieces for Pakistani English-language newspapers and defence-oriented publications, including ''[[The Nation (Pakistan)|The Nation]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Rear Admiral Javaid Iqbal |url=https://www.nation.com.pk/columnist/rear-admiral-javaid-iqbal |access-date=2026-01-03 |website=The Nation |language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Agosta 90B class submarines scandal}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Iqbal, Javed}}
[[Category:1942 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Lahore]]
[[Category:Pakistan Military Academy alumni]]
[[Category:Special Service Group (Navy) personnel]]
[[Category:Pakistani military personnel of the India–Pakistan war of 1971]]
[[Category:National Defence University (Pakistan) alumni]]
[[Category:Naval War College alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Pakistan Naval War College]]
[[Category:Pakistan Navy vice admirals]]
[[Category:Pakistani expatriates in Qatar]]
[[Category:Pakistani spies]]
[[Category:Pakistani anti-corruption activists]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of Pakistan to Tunisia]]
[[Category:Pakistani democracy activists]]
[[Category:Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf politicians]]
[[Category:People from Jalandhar]]

Bhanu Athaiya

2026-03-18T16:47:02Z

Sherrie7069: brief enhanced intro for consistency and cleaned formatting

{{Short description|Indian costume designer and painter (1929–2020)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Bhanu Athaiya
| image = Bhanu Athaiya (nee Rajopadhye).jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Athaiya at the [[Academy Awards]], 1983
| birthname = Bhanumati Annasaheb Rajopadhye
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1929|04|28}}
| birth_place = [[Kolhapur]], [[Kolhapur State]], [[British Raj|British India]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|2020|10|15|1929|4|28}}
| death_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| education = [[Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art]]
| yearsactive = 1947–2015
| occupation = [[Costume designer]] and [[Painter]]
| movement = [[Bombay Progressive Artists' Group]]
| spouse = Satyendra Athaiya
| awards = {{ulist|Usha Deshmukh Gold Medal - JJ School of Art (1951) for ''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bhanu_Athaiya_-_Lady_in_Repose_(1951).tif Lady In Repose]''
|[[Academy Award for Costume Design]] (1983) for ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]''
|Nominated for [[BAFTA Award for Best Costume Design]] (1983) for ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]''
|[[National Film Award for Best Costume Design]] (1991) for 1991: ''[[Lekin...]]''|[[National Film Award for Best Costume Design]] (2002) for ''[[Lagaan]]''}}
}}

'''Bhanu Athaiya''' (née '''Rajopadhye'''; 28 April 1929{{spnd}}15 October 2020) was an Indian costume designer and painter.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-10-15 |title=Bhanu Athaiya: Costume designer who won India's first Oscar dies |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-54560058 |access-date=2023-01-14}}</ref> She was the first Indian to win an [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gates |first=Anita |date=2021-04-22 |title=Overlooked No More: Bhanu Athaiya, Who Won India Its First Oscar |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/22/obituaries/bhanu-athaiya-overlooked.html |access-date=2023-01-14 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramachandran |first=Naman |date=2020-10-15 |title=Bhanu Athaiya, India's First Oscar Winner for 'Gandhi,' Dies at 91 |url=https://variety.com/2020/film/news/bhanu-athaiya-india-oscar-winner-gandhi-dead-1234806093/ |access-date=2023-01-14 |website=Variety |language=en-US}}</ref> Alongside being Bollywood's most iconic costume designer, she had a historically important early career as an artist with contemporaries like [[M. F. Husain]], [[F. N. Souza]] and [[Vasudeo S. Gaitonde]].<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/44563664/Bhanu_Rajopadhye_Athaiya_The_Legacy_of_a_Long_hidden_Sun_Ranjit_Hoskote Ranjit Hoskote, Bhanu Rajopadhye Athaiya:The Legacy of a Long-hidden Sun, Academia, December 2020]</ref> She was the only woman member of the [[Bombay Progressive Artists' Group]].<ref>[https://scroll.in/magazine/886646/before-bhanu-athaiya-the-oscar-winning-designer-there-was-bhanu-athaiya-the-modernist-painter Before Bhanu Athaiya, the Oscar-winning designer, there was Bhanu Athaiya, the modernist painter. Scroll. Jul 31, 2018]</ref> Two of Bhanu Rajopadhye's artworks were included in the 1953 Progressive Artists' Group show in Bombay.<ref name="static.prinseps.com">[https://static.prinseps.com/media/uploads/1950s-progressive-artists-group-bhanu-athaiya.pdf 1953 Progressive Artists' Group Exhibition Catalogue]</ref>

After her switch from art to cinema, Bhanu went on to become one of the leading creators of the aesthetic of a young India through her work on costumes for Bollywood films. She worked on over 100 films, with Indian filmmakers such as [[Guru Dutt]], [[Yash Chopra]], [[B.R. Chopra]], [[Raj Kapoor]], [[Vijay Anand (filmmaker)|Vijay Anand]], [[Raj Khosla]], and [[Ashutosh Gowariker]], notably in films like ''[[C.I.D. (1956 film)|C.I.D.]]'' (1956), ''[[Pyaasa]]'' (1957), ''[[Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam]]'' (1962), ''[[Guide (film)|Guide]]'' (1965), ''[[Amrapali (film)|Amrapali]]'' (1966), ''[[Teesri Manzil]]'' (1966), ''[[Satyam Shivam Sundaram]]'' (1979), ''[[Razia Sultan (film)|Razia Sultan]]'' (1983), ''[[Chandni (1989 film)|Chandni]]'' (1989), ''[[Lekin...]]'' (1990), ''[[1942: A Love Story]]'' (1993), ''[[Lagaan]]'' (2001),<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thomas |first=Kevin |date=2002-05-10 |title=Cricket in the Face of Colonialism |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-may-10-et-thomas10-story.html |access-date=2023-01-14 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> and [[Swades]] (2004). She also worked on international projects with directors such [[Conrad Rooks]] in ''[[Siddhartha (1972 film)|Siddhartha]]'' (1972) and [[Richard Attenborough]] in ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'' (1982).

For ''Gandhi'', Bhanu won the [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] for [[Academy Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Harmetz |first=Aljean |date=1983-04-12 |title='GANDHI' IS WINNER OF EIGHT ACADEMY AWARDS |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/04/12/movies/gandhi-is-winner-of-eight-academy-awards.html |access-date=2023-01-14 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> and was nominated for a [[British Academy Film Awards|BAFTA Award]] for [[BAFTA Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=BAFTA Awards |url=https://awards.bafta.org/award/1983/film/costume-design |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114154135/https://awards.bafta.org/award/1983/film/costume-design |archive-date=Jan 14, 2023 |access-date=2023-01-14 |website=awards.bafta.org}}</ref>

She was honored in the 'In memoriam' segment of the [[93rd Academy Awards]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Gittins |first=William |date=April 24, 2021 |title=In Memoriam Oscars 2021: directors, actors and writers who died in 2020 |url=https://en.as.com/en/2021/04/25/latest_news/1619317219_989708.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425142051/https://en.as.com/en/2021/04/25/latest_news/1619317219_989708.html |archive-date=April 25, 2021 |access-date=April 27, 2021 |work=[[Diario AS]]}}</ref>

==Early life and background==
Bhanu was born into a [[Marathi people|Marathi]] [[Marathi Brahmin|Brahmin]] family<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kolhapur residents mourn daughter who put town on world map By Nikhil Deshmukh|url=https://www.theweek.in/wire-updates/national/2020/10/15/bom38-mh-bhanu-athaiya-memories.html|access-date=2022-01-10|website=The Week|language=en}}</ref> in [[Kolhapur]] (in present-day [[Maharashtra]]). She was the third of seven children born to Annasaheb and Shantabai Rajopadhye. Athaiya's father, Annasaheb was a self-taught artist and photographer who worked in the films of [[Baburao Painter]]. He died when Athaiya was 11 years old.<ref>{{cite news |first=Smita|last=Lala|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080507/jsp/telekids/story_9233599.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525221923/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080507/jsp/telekids/story_9233599.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 May 2011|title=My Fundays: Bhanu Athaiya|date=7 May 2008|access-date= 3 May 2013|work=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url =https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-54560058|title= Bhanu Athaiya: Costume designer who won India's first Oscar dies|website=BBC News|date=15 October 2020}}</ref>

She studied at [[Sir J J School of Art]], Mumbai, where she won the Usha Deshmukh Gold medal in 1951 for the artwork titled 'Lady In Repose'.<ref name=arch>{{cite web|url = https://www.architecturaldigest.in/content/prinsepss-bhanu-athaiya-estate-sale-sets-give-ace-designer-due-artist/|title= Prinseps's 'Bhanu Athaiya Estate Sale' sets out to give the late designer her due as an artist|website= Architectural Digest|date=1 December 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url =https://prinseps.com/auctions/lots/lady-in-repose-bhanu-rajopadhye-athaiya-28-16/|title= Bhanu Athaiya's Lady In Repose|website=Prinseps|date=December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url =https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HCLhyoLWHQ4|title= Discussion With Bhanu Athaiya's Daughter|website= [[YouTube]]|date=June 2022}}</ref> [[File:Bhanu-athaiya-j-j-school-gold-medal-2.jpg|thumb|Gold Medal Awarded by JJ School of Art in 1951 - Verso]] [[File:Bhanu-athaiya-j-j-school-gold-medal-1.jpg|thumb|Gold Medal Awarded by JJ School of Art in 1951 - Recto]]

==Career==
Bhanu started her career as an artist in Mumbai while still studying at JJ School of Art. Later she became a member of the [[Bombay Progressive Artists' Group|Progressive Artists' Group]] and exhibited with them.<ref name="static.prinseps.com"/><ref>[https://static.prinseps.com/catalogue/Bhanu%20Athaiya%20December%202020%20Auction.pdf Bhanu Athaiya Estate Sale Catalogue December 2020]</ref> She continued her part-time stint as a freelance fashion illustrator for women's magazine like "Eve's Weekly" and "Fashion & Beauty". while at the JJ School of Art.<ref>[https://prinseps.com/auctions/lots/eves-weekly-spread-pages-bhanu-rajopadhye-athaiya-30-16/ Bhanu's Eve's Weekly Spread Pages, Bhanu Athaiya Estate Auction December 2020]</ref> Later when the Eve's Weekly editor opened a boutique, she asked Athaiya to try designing dresses, hereupon she discovered her flair for designing clothes. Her success as a designer soon led to her switching career paths. Her costume designing career began by designing clothes for [[Guru Dutt]]'s films, starting with ''[[C.I.D. (1956 film)|C.I.D.]]'' (1956). She soon became a part of the [[Guru Dutt team]].<ref name=guru>''Guru Dutt: A Life in Cinema'', by Nasreen Munni Kabir. Published by Oxford University Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-19-563849-2}}. ''pp 117-118''.</ref>

She made her debut as a film costume designer with the film ''[[C.I.D. (1956 film)|C.I.D.]]'' in 1956,<ref name="cid">{{cite news|first=Madhusree |last=Chatterjee |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/archive/Bhanu-Athaiya-India-s-first-Oscar-winner-walks-down-memory-lane/Article1-381412.aspx |title=Bhanu Athaiya - India's first Oscar winner walks down memory lane |date=20 February 2009 |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227010346/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/archive/Bhanu-Athaiya-India-s-first-Oscar-winner-walks-down-memory-lane/Article1-381412.aspx |archive-date=27 December 2013 }}</ref> and followed it up with other [[Guru Dutt]] films such as ''[[Pyaasa]]'' (1957), ''[[Chaudhvin Ka Chand]]'' (1960) and ''[[Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam]]'' (1962). In her career spanning 50 years she has received numerous awards. She won the [[Academy Award for Best Costume Design]] (shared with [[John Mollo]]) for her work in the 1982 film, ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'' and became the first Indian to win an [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]].<ref name="cid" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/From-dandy-to-Dandi-it-was-a-long-journey/articleshow/35344377.cms|title= From dandy to Dandi, it was a long journey |access-date= 3 May 2013|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|date= 25 March 2001 }}</ref> She also won two [[National Film Awards]], in [[38th National Film Awards|1991]]<ref name="38th National" /> and [[49th National Film Awards|2002]].<ref name="49th National" />

In a career spanning over 100 films, she worked with Indian filmmakers such as [[Guru Dutt]], [[Yash Chopra]], [[B.R. Chopra]], [[Raj Kapoor]], [[Vijay Anand (filmmaker)|Vijay Anand]], [[Raj Khosla]], and [[Ashutosh Gowariker]], and international directors such [[Conrad Rooks]] and [[Richard Attenborough]].<ref>{{Cite web|first1=Oscar|last1=Holland|first2=Manveena|last2=Suri|first3=Mitra|last3=Esha|title=Bhanu Athaiya, India's first Oscar winner, dies age 91|url=https://www.cnn.com/style/article/bhanu-athaiya-death/index.html|access-date=17 October 2020|website=CNN|date=16 October 2020 |language=en|archive-date=17 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017133029/https://www.cnn.com/style/article/bhanu-athaiya-death/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Ramachandran|first1=Naman|date=15 October 2020|title=Bhanu Athaiya, India's First Oscar Winner for 'Gandhi,' Dies at 91|url=https://variety.com/2020/film/news/bhanu-athaiya-india-oscar-winner-gandhi-dead-1234806093/|access-date=17 October 2020|website=Variety|language=en|archive-date=17 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017133025/https://variety.com/2020/film/news/bhanu-athaiya-india-oscar-winner-gandhi-dead-1234806093/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Veteran costume designer Bhanu Athaiya, India's first Oscar winner, dies at 91|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-veteran-costume-designer-bhanu-athaiya-india-s-first-oscar-winner-dies-at-91-2850050/amp|access-date=17 October 2020|website=www.dnaindia.com|archive-date=17 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017133025/https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-veteran-costume-designer-bhanu-athaiya-india-s-first-oscar-winner-dies-at-91-2850050/amp|url-status=live}}</ref>

In March 2010, Athaiya released her book ''The Art of Costume Design'', published by [[HarperCollins]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.harpercollins.co.in/BookDetail.asp?Book_Code=2514 |title=The Art of Costume Design, by Bhanu Rajopadhye Athaiya |access-date=3 May 2013 |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304224854/http://www.harpercollins.co.in/BookDetail.asp?Book_Code=2514 |archive-date=4 March 2012 }}</ref> On 13 January 2013, Athaiya presented a copy of the book to the [[14th Dalai Lama|Dalai Lama]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=28919&t=1 |title=No one will fight China to make a stand for Tibet |access-date=3 May 2013 |publisher=[[Phayul.com]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502031725/http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=28919&t=1 |archive-date=2 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://mobilepaper.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=yes&pageid=13&sectid=edid=&edlabel=TOIM&mydateHid=21-04-2010&pubname=Times+of+India+-+Mumbai&edname=&articleid=Ar01307&publabel=TOI |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616000600/http://mobilepaper.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=yes&pageid=13&sectid=edid=&edlabel=TOIM&mydateHid=21-04-2010&pubname=Times+of+India+-+Mumbai&edname=&articleid=Ar01307&publabel=TOI |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 June 2013 |title=Athaiya meets Dalai Lama |access-date=3 May 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref>

On 23 February 2012, it was reported that Athaiya wished to return her Academy Award to the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] because she felt that her family will not be able to take care of the trophy after her demise.<ref>{{cite news|first=Lada|last=Singh|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/oscars-2012/story/first-indian-to-win-an-oscar-bhanu-athaiya-wants-to-return-her-award-94000-2012-02-22|title=First Indian to win an Oscar, Bhanu Athaiya wants to return her award|date=23 February 2012|access-date=3 May 2013|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|archive-date=17 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017133036/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/oscars-2012/story/first-indian-to-win-an-oscar-bhanu-athaiya-wants-to-return-her-award-94000-2012-02-23|url-status=live}}</ref> On 15 December 2012, it was confirmed that the trophy had been returned to The Academy.<ref>{{cite news |first=Avijit|last=Ghosh|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-15/india/35836042_1_finest-motion-picture-museum-bhanu-athaiya-costume-designer|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130616000540/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-15/india/35836042_1_finest-motion-picture-museum-bhanu-athaiya-costume-designer|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 June 2013|title= Bhanu Athaiya returns Oscar fearing theft|date=15 December 2012|access-date= 3 May 2013|work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

In April 2021, as part of the ''New York Times'' "Overlooked" series of obituaries that were not written at the time of the person's death (in this case, October 2020), Anita Gates wrote an obituary of Athaiya. In it, Athaiya is quoted about her work on ''Gandhi'': "[[Richard Attenborough]] was making a complex film and needed someone who knew India inside out," Athaiya told ''Eastern Eye'', a British weekly newspaper, in an interview published last year. "So much had to be contributed, and I was ready for it."<ref name=NYT>{{Cite news|last=Gates|first=Anita|date=2021-04-22|title=Overlooked No More: Bhanu Athaiya, Who Won India Its First Oscar|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/22/obituaries/bhanu-athaiya-overlooked.html|access-date=2021-04-22|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

An exhibition titled "People of Mumbai", at the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (CSMV), Mumbai, showcases Bhanu Athaiya’s contributions to Modern Art and Indian cinema through a display of both her art and costume designs. Among the exhibits is the famous orange saree-dress worn by actress Mumtaz in ''Brahmachari'' (1968), a look that became emblematic of 1960s Bollywood style. The display included a rare work on Canvas from her [[Bombay Progressive Artists' Group|Progressive Artists' Group]] days, loaned by Prinseps.[https://www.cntraveller.in/story/this-brand-new-gallery-at-csmvs-is-a-tribute-to-mumbai-and-its-people/]

==Personal life==

Bhanu married a lyricist and poet, Satyendra Athaiya, in the 1950s. Subsequently in 1959, she changed her name from Bhanumati to Bhanu Athaiya. Satyendra died in 2004.<ref name=NYT/>

In 2012, Bhanu was diagnosed with a brain tumour, which eventually lead to her suffering paralysis on one side of the body and was bed-ridden for the last three years of her life. She died on October 15, 2020, in Mumbai at the age of 91, at a medical centre in [[South Mumbai]]. She is survived by her daughter Radhika Gupta.<ref name="ex">{{Cite web|date=15 October 2020|title=Oscar-winning costume designer Bhanu Athaiya passes away|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/bollywood/costume-designer-bhanu-athaiya-passes-away-6740971/|access-date=15 October 2020|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref><ref name="arch" />

==Awards and nominations==
{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
!scope="col" | Year
!scope="col" | Award
!scope="col" | Film/Artwork
!scope="col" | Result
!scope="col" class="unsortable" style="text-align:center;" | Ref.
|-
|style="text-align:center;" |1951
|Usha Deshmukh Gold Medal - JJ School of Art
|''[[c:File:Bhanu Athaiya - Lady in Repose (1951).tif|Lady In Repose]]''
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{WP:Image citation/template|creator= |file=Bhanu-athaiya-j-j-school-gold-medal-2.jpg|medium= |title=Usha Deshmukh Gold Medal|date= 1951|repository= JJ School of Art|url= https://upload.wikimedia.org/Bharatpedia/commons/7/7d/Bhanu-athaiya-j-j-school-gold-medal-2.jpg|id= }}</ref>
|-
|style="text-align:center;" |[[55th Academy Awards|1983 {{small|(55th)}}]]
|[[Academy Award for Best Costume Design]]
|''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]''
|{{won}}
|<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2023-01-14 |title=Academy Awards Database Search {{!}} Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences |url=https://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/search/getresults?query=%7B%22FilmTitle%22%3A%22Gandhi%22%2C%22Sort%22%3A%222-Film%20Title-Alpha%22%2C%22AwardShowNumberFrom%22%3A0%2C%22AwardShowNumberTo%22%3A0%2C%22Search%22%3A30%7D |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114153313/https://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/search/getresults?query=%7B%22FilmTitle%22%3A%22Gandhi%22%2C%22Sort%22%3A%222-Film%20Title-Alpha%22%2C%22AwardShowNumberFrom%22%3A0%2C%22AwardShowNumberTo%22%3A0%2C%22Search%22%3A30%7D |archive-date=Jan 14, 2023 |access-date=2023-01-14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1983|title=The 55th Academy Awards (1983) Nominees and Winners|access-date=2 May 2013|publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]]|archive-date=5 September 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120905/http://www.oscars.org/awards/academyawards/legacy/ceremony/55th-winners.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|style="text-align:center;" |[[36th British Academy Film Awards|1983 {{small|(36th)}}]]
|[[BAFTA Award for Best Costume Design]]
|''Gandhi''
|{{nom}}
|<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://awards.bafta.org/award/1983/film|title=Film in 1983 - BAFTA Awards|access-date=2 May 2013|publisher=[[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]]|archive-date=5 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905053950/http://awards.bafta.org/award/1983/film|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|style="text-align:center;" |[[38th National Film Awards|1991 {{small|(38th)}}]]
|[[National Film Award for Best Costume Design]]
|''[[Lekin...]]''
|{{won}}
|<ref name="38th National">{{cite web|url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm38thNFAAward.aspx|title=38th National Film Awards|access-date=3 May 2013|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105174944/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm38thNFAAward.aspx|archive-date=5 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|style="text-align:center;" |[[49th National Film Awards|2002 {{small|(49th)}}]]
|[[National Film Award for Best Costume Design]]
|''[[Lagaan]]''
|{{won}}
|<ref name="49th National">{{cite web|url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm49NFAAward.aspx|title=49th National Film Awards|access-date=3 May 2013|publisher=[[Directorate of Film Festivals]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224105444/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm49NFAAward.aspx|archive-date=24 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|style="text-align:center;" |[[54th Filmfare Awards|2009 {{small|(54th)}}]]
|[[Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award]]
|
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/specials/filmfare/Filmfare-Jodha--bags-5-Priyanka-Hrithik-shine/articleshow/4205152.cms|title=Filmfare: 'Jodha...' bags 5, Priyanka, Hrithik shine|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=[[The Times Group]]|date=1 March 2009|access-date=11 July 2013|archive-date=23 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023085344/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com//home/specials/filmfare/Filmfare-Jodha--bags-5-Priyanka-Hrithik-shine/articleshow/4205152.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|style="text-align:center;" |2013 {{small|(4th)}}
|Laadli Lifetime Achievement Award
|
|{{won}}
|<ref>{{cite news | url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-21/news-interviews/36461870_1_special-award-bhanu-athaiya-gender-sensitivity | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130527105726/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-01-21/news-interviews/36461870_1_special-award-bhanu-athaiya-gender-sensitivity | url-status= dead | archive-date= 27 May 2013 |title= NGO to honour Bhanu Athaiya with Lifetime Achievement award |work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=[[The Times Group]]|date=21 January 2013|access-date=11 July 2013}}</ref>
|}

==Filmography==
Source(s):<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bhanu Athaiya movies and filmography - Cinestaan.com|url=https://www.cinestaan.com/people/bhanu-athaiya-3344/filmography|access-date=15 October 2020|website=Cinestaan|archive-date=17 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017133030/https://www.cinestaan.com/people/bhanu-athaiya-3344/filmography|url-status=live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title
|-
|2015
|''[[Nagrik]]''
|-
|2008
|''[[Phir Kabhi]]''
|-
|2004|| ''[[Swades]]''
|-
|2001|| ''[[Lagaan: Once Upon a Time in India]]''
|-
|2001|| ''[[Dhyaas Parva]]''
|-
|2000|| ''[[Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar (film)|Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar]]''
|-
|1995|| ''[[Prem (film)|Prem]]''
|-
|1995|| '' [[The Cloud Door|The Cloud Door (Himmelspforte, Die)]]''
|-
|1995|| ''[[Oh Darling! Yeh Hai India]]''
|-
|1993|| ''[[1942: A Love Story]]''
|-
|1993 || ''[[Sahibaan]]''
|-
|1992 || ''[[Parampara (1993 film)|Parampara]]''
|-
|1991|| ''[[Henna (film)|Henna]]''
|-
|1991|| ''[[Ajooba]]''
|-
| 1990|| ''[[Lekin...]]''
|-
|1990 || ''[[Agneepath (1990 film)|Agneepath]]''
|-
|1989|| ''[[Chandni (1989 film)|Chandni]]''
|-
|1988 || ''[[Hero Hiralal]]''
|-
|1987 || ''[[Kaash]]''
|-
|1986|| ''[[Sultanat (1986 film)|Sultanat]]''
|-
|1985|| ''[[Ram Teri Ganga Maili]]''
|-
|1985|| ''[[Faasle]]''
|-
|1985 || ''[[Salma (1985 film)|Salma]]''
|-
|1985|| ''[[Yaadon Ki Kasam]]''
|-
|1984|| ''[[Tarang (film)|Tarang]]''
|-
|1983|| ''[[Razia Sultan (film)|Razia Sultan]]''
|-
|1983 || ''[[Pukar (1983 film)|Pukar]]''
|-
|1982|| ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]''
|-
|1982 || ''[[Prem Rog]]''
|-
|1982 || ''[[Nikaah]]''
|-
|1981 || ''[[Biwi-O-Biwi: The Fun-Film]]''
|-
|1981 || ''[[Hotel (1981 film)|Hotel]]''
|-
|1981 || ''[[Rocky (1981 film)|Rocky]]''
|-
|1980|| ''[[Insaaf Ka Tarazu]]''
|-
|1980|| ''[[Agreement (film)|Agreement]]''
|-
|1980|| ''[[The Burning Train]]''
|-
|1980|| ''[[Karz (film)|Karz]]''
|-
|1980 || ''[[Abdullah (film)|Abdullah]]''
|-
|1979|| ''[[Meera (1979 film)|Meera]]''
|-
|1979|| ''[[Mr. Natwarlal]]''
|-
|1979 || ''[[Suhaag (1979 film)|Suhaag]]''
|-
|1979 || ''[[Jaani Dushman]]''
|-
|1978|| ''[[Satyam Shivam Sundaram|Satyam Shivam Sundaram: Love Sublime]]''
|-
|1978|| ''[[Karmayogi (1978 film)|Karmayogi]]''
|-
|1978|| ''[[Shalimar (1978 film)|Shalimar]]''
|-
|1978 || ''[[Ghar (1978 film)|Ghar]]''
|-
|1978 || ''[[Ganga Ki Saugandh]]''
|-
|1977 || ''[[Alaap]]''
|-
|1977 || ''[[Aaina (1977 film)|Aaina]]''
|-
|1977 || ''[[Ab Kya Hoga]]''
|-
|1976|| ''[[Udhar Ka Sindur]]''
|-
|1976|| ''[[Hera Pheri (1976 film)|Hera Pheri]]''
|-
|1976 || ''[[Mehbooba (1976 film)|Mehbooba]]''
|-
|1976 || ''[[Nagin (filn)|Nagin]]''
|-
|1976 || ''[[Aaj Ka Mahaatma]]''
|-
|1976 || ''[[Chalte Chalte (1976 film)|Chalte Chalte]]''
|-
|1976 || ''[[Do Anjaane]]''
|-
|1975|| ''[[Aakraman]]''
|-
|1975|| ''[[Kala Sona]]''
|-
|1975 || ''[[Dharam Karam]]''
|-
|1975 || ''[[Prem Kahani (1975 film)|Prem Kahani]]''
|-
|1974 || ''[[Chor Machaye Shor]]''
|-
|1974 || ''[[Bidaai (1974 film)|Bidaai]]''
|-
|1973|| ''[[Dhund (1973 film)|Dhund]]''
|-
|1973|| ''[[Aaj Ki Taaza Khabar]]''
|-
|1973|| ''[[Keemat (1973 film)|Keemat]]''
|-
|1973 || ''[[Anamika (1973 film)|Anamika]]''
|-
|1973 || ''[[Bandhe Haath]]''
|-
|1972 || ''[[Siddhartha (1972 film)|Siddhartha]]''
|-
|1972|| ''[[Dastaan (1972 film)|Dastaan]]''
|-
|1972|| ''[[Raaste Kaa Patthar]]''
|-
|1972 || ''[[Roop Tera Mastana]]''
|-
|1972 || ''[[Apna Desh]]''
|-
|1972 || ''[[Mere Jeevan Saathi (1972 film)|Mere Jeevan Saathi]]''
|-
|1971|| ''[[Tere Mere Sapne (1971 film)|Tere Mere Sapne]]''
|-
|1971|| ''[[Pyar Ki Kahani]]''
|-
|1971 || ''[[Aap Aye Bahaar Ayee]]''
|-
|1971 || ''[[Maryada (1971 film)|Maryada]]''
|-
|1970 || ''[[Johny Mera Naam]]''
|-
|1970 || ''[[Himmat (1970 film)|Himmat]]''
|-
|1970 || ''[[Khilona (1970 film)|Khilona]]''
|-
|1970 || ''[[Mera Naam Joker]]''
|-
|1970 || ''[[Maa Aur Mamta]]''
|-
|1969|| ''[[Jeene Ki Raah]]''
|-
|1969 || ''[[Intaquam]]''
|-
|1968|| ''[[Brahmachari (Hindi film)|Brahmachari]]''
|-
|1967|| ''[[Anita (1967 film)|Anita]]''
|-
|1967|| ''[[Patthar Ke Sanam]]''
|-
|1967 || ''[[Hare Kanch Ki Chooriyan]]''
|-
|1966 || ''[[Amrapali (film)|Amrapali]]''
|-
|1966 || ''[[Baharen Phir Bhi Aayengi]]''
|-
|1966|| ''[[Mera Saaya]]''
|-
|1966|| ''[[Teesri Manzil]]''
|-
|1966 || ''[[Budtameez]]''
|-
|1965 || ''[[Guide (film)|Guide]]''
|-
|1965 || ''[[Janwar (1965 film)|Janwar]]''
|-
|1965 || ''[[Kaajal]]''
|-
|1965|| ''[[Waqt (1965 film)|Waqt]]''
|-
|1965 || ''[[Mere Sanam]]''
|-
|1964 || ''[[Dulha Dulhan]]''
|-
|1964 || ''[[Leader (1964 film)|Leader]]''
|-
|1962 || ''[[Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam]]''
|-
|1961|| ''[[Ganga Jamuna]]''
|-
|1960 || ''[[Chaudhvin Ka Chand]]''
|-
|1959 || ''[[Dil Deke Dekho]]''
|-
|1959 || ''[[Kaagaz Ke Phool]]''
|-
|1959 || ''[[Kavi Kalidas]]''
|-
|1957 || ''[[Pyaasa]]''
|-
|1956 || ''[[C.I.D. (1956 film)|C.I.D.]]''
|}

==See also==
*[[List of Indian winners and nominees of the Academy Awards]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Bhanu Athaiya}}
* {{IMDb name|0040390}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110520040526/http://movies.nytimes.com/person/173640/Bhanu-Athaiya Filmography] at ''[[The New York Times]]''

{{AcademyAwardBestCostumeDesign 1981–2000}}
{{FilmfareLifetimeAchievementAward}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Athaiya, Bhanu}}
[[Category:1929 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian designers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women artists]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian designers]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women artists]]
[[Category:Artists from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Best Costume Design Academy Award winners]]
[[Category:Best Costume Design National Film Award winners]]
[[Category:Deaths from brain cancer in India]]
[[Category:Indian Academy Award winners]]
[[Category:Indian costume designers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian illustrators]]
[[Category:Indian women fashion designers]]
[[Category:Indian fashion designers]]
[[Category:People from Kolhapur]]
[[Category:Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art alumni]]
[[Category:Women artists from Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Indian women costume designers]]
[[Category:Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award winners]]

Harsh Chhaya

2026-03-18T08:34:08Z

Sherrie7069: expanded content

{{Short description|Indian actor}}
{{use Indian English|date=May 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Harsh Chhaya
| birthname =
| image = Harsh Chhaya.jpg
| caption =
| birth_place = [[Bhavnagar]], [[Gujarat]], [[India]]
| alma_mater = [[Jamia Millia Islamia]]
| occupation = [[Actor]]
| other names =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1966|12|02}}
| yearsactive = 1991–present
| spouse(s) = {{marriage|[[Shefali Shah]]|1994|2000|end=divorced}} {{marriage|Suneeta Sengupta|2003}}
}}

'''Harsh Chhaya''' (born 2 December 1966)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Harsh Chhaya Awards: Achievements & Honors |url=https://indianexpress.com/about/harsh-chhaya/awards/ |access-date=2025-05-25 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> is an Indian actor.<ref>{{cite news|title=Harsh Chhaya interview|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/talking-point-with--harsh--chhaya/482612|access-date=16 March 2013|newspaper=Indian express|archive-date=30 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930162421/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/talking-point-with--harsh--chhaya/482612|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Harsh Chhaya actor|url=https://www.google.com/search?q=harsh+chhaya&hl=en|access-date=16 March 2013|archive-date=16 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716132332/https://www.google.com/search?q=harsh+chhaya&hl=en|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=This is no comedy, Harsh Chhaya|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-11-24/tv/28108266_1_tina-dutta-comedy-circus-harsh-chhaya |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110220338/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-11-24/tv/28108266_1_tina-dutta-comedy-circus-harsh-chhaya |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 November 2013 |date=24 November 2009 |work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=17 March 2013}}</ref> He debuted in a minor role as "Jijo" in the early 1990s [[Zee TV]] series ''[[Tara (TV series)|Tara]]'', but first came into prominence in the role of Krishnakant Trivedi (KT) in mid 1990s TV series ''[[Hasratein]]'',<ref>{{cite news|title=Hasratein|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/women-then-and-now/1019402|access-date=16 March 2013|newspaper=indian express|archive-date=12 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112065024/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/women-then-and-now/1019402|url-status=live}}</ref> where he portrayed the character of a wealthy boss who exploited his married employee (Savi) into an extramarital affair with him. Harsh Chhaya has acted in various films and television series in various character and negative roles as available. He also starred with Rani Mukharji in the 2007 [[Bollywood]] film ''[[Laaga Chunari Mein Daag]]''.<ref>{{cite news|title=Rani Slapped Harsh|url=http://www.glamsham.com/movies/scoops/07/may/08_rani_mukherjee_harsh_chhaya_laga_chunari_daag.asp|access-date=16 March 2013|newspaper=glamsham|archive-date=29 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029194000/http://www.glamsham.com/movies/scoops/07/may/08_rani_mukherjee_harsh_chhaya_laga_chunari_daag.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Career==
His first appearance was in the serial Aarohan (by [[Pallavi Joshi]]) in 1993 as Ankit Malik, and then his major breakthrough was the role of Karan in ''[[Swabhimaan]]'', directed by [[Mahesh Bhatt]] in 1995. In 2002, Harsh acted in the serial ''[[Justajoo]]'', directed by Ajay Sinha. ''[[Justajoo]]'' was a serial on [[Zee TV]] in 2002, which also starred [[Pallavi Joshi]] and Arpita Pandey.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020609/spectrum/tv.htm|title=Never say die|publisher=Tribune India|access-date=9 June 2002|archive-date=10 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180710092529/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020609/spectrum/tv.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad-times/Woman-on-the-prowl/articleshow/384098305.cms|title=Woman on the prowl|work=The Times of India|date=3 February 2002 |access-date=3 February 2002|archive-date=7 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130107045211/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad-times/Woman-on-the-prowl/articleshow/384098305.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Television/Man-uninterrupted/Article1-387067.aspx | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715184106/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/Television/Man-uninterrupted/Article1-387067.aspx | url-status=dead | archive-date=15 July 2015 | title=Hindustan Times - Archive News}}</ref> In 2006, he was seen as the CEO Naveen Shroff in [[Madhur Bhandarkar]]'s ''[[Corporate (2006 film)|Corporate]]''. In 2007, he played a businessman named Kapoor in [[Sagar Ballary]]'s ''[[Bheja Fry (film)|Bheja Fry]]''. All but two of his scenes were edited out in the final released version of this film. His performance as Vinay Khosla, a gay dress designer, was notable in [[Madhur Bhandarkar]]'s 2008 critically acclaimed ''[[Fashion (2008 film)|Fashion]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=From serious to a 'gay' role |url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/09/stories/2008010950200200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112171315/http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/09/stories/2008010950200200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 January 2008 |date=9 January 2008 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=17 March 2013}}</ref> Harsh Chhaya also played the role of [[Sanjay Gandhi]] in [[Shekhar Kapur]]'s ''[[Pradhanmantri (TV Series)|Pradhanmantri]]'' on ABP News.He also worked in 24:India Season 2, as an ATU Chief Siddhant Sehgal. Also, he is well known for his role as Papaji in [[Undekhi]] a [[SonyLIV]] web series.

==Personal life==
Harsh was married to [[Shefali Shah]].<ref>{{Cite web |first1= |date=August 25, 1997 |title=Harsh Chhaya's wife Shefali to replace Seema Kapoor in Hasratein |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-the-arts/story/19970825-harsh-chhayas-wife-shefali-to-replace-seema-kapoor-in-hasratein-831980-1997-08-25 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310185052/https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/society-the-arts/story/19970825-harsh-chhayas-wife-shefali-to-replace-seema-kapoor-in-hasratein-831980-1997-08-25 |archive-date=10 March 2022 |access-date=12 September 2019 |website=India Today}}</ref> After a divorce from Shah, Harsh married actress Sunita Sengupta.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.mid-day.com/entertainment/2013/apr/250413-the-bong-brigade-on-sets-of-paoli-dams-next.htm|title=The Bong brigade on sets of Paoli Dam's next|website=archive.mid-day.com}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/14-fellow-travellers/cid/580537|title=14 fellow travellers|website=www.telegraphindia.com|access-date=12 September 2019|archive-date=23 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523021837/https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/14-fellow-travellers/cid/580537|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/SexAndRelationships/I-get-on-with-life-quickly/Article1-214107.aspx | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023134101/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Entertainment/SexAndRelationships/I-get-on-with-life-quickly/Article1-214107.aspx | url-status=dead | archive-date=23 October 2013 | title=Hindustan Times - Archive News}}</ref> He completed his Education at Delhi's [[Jamia Millia Islamia]], where he pursued Mass Communication at the university's [[A.J.K. Mass Communication Research Centre]].

==Discography==

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|+
!Year
!Album
!Song
!Credit
|-
| rowspan=3|{{centre|2018}}
! scope=row rowspan="3" | {{centre|''[[Khajoor Pe Atke]]''}}
| "Aao Na Dekha"
| rowspan=2|Lyricist
|-
| "Duniya"
|-
| "Dhokha"
| Lyricist; singer
|}

==Filmography==
===Films===
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Notes
|-
|2000
|''[[Dil Pe Mat Le Yaar!!]]''
|Ali
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2002
|[[Company (2002 film)|''Company'']]
|Insp. Sawant
|
|-
|''Hathyar: Face to Face with Reality''
|Gauri's first husband
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2003
|''[[Dum (2003 Hindi film)|Dum]]''
|Siddhant
|
|-
|[[Saaya (2003 film)|''Saaya'']]
|Dr. Goenka
|
|-
|''[[Janasheen]]''
|Virendra Kapoor
|
|-
|2004
|''[[Stop! (film)|Stop!]]''
|Vivek Malhotra
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2005
|''Dhadkanein''
|
|
|-
|''[[Ramji Londonwaley]]''
|Guru
|
|-
|2006
|''Corporate''
|Corporate
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |2007
|''Aevdhese Aabhal''
| Dr. Shirish
|[[Marathi film]]
|-
|[[Bheja Fry (film)|''Bheja Fry'']]
|Kapoor
|
|-
|''[[Red Swastik]]''
|D.C.P. Chaudhary
|
|-
|''[[It's Breaking News]]''
|SP Prabhakar Gupta
|
|-
|''[[Laaga Chunari Mein Daag]]''
|Rani's employer
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2008
|''[[Mithya (film)|Mithya]]''
|Mannu Sahay
|
|-
|''My Friend Ganesha 2''
|Vashu's Father
|
|-
|[[Fashion (2008 film)|''Fashion'']]
|Vinay Khosla
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2009
|''[[Oh My God (2009 film)|Oh, My God!!]]''
|Shekhar
|
|-
|''Coffee House''
|Vikas
|
|-
|''[[Blue Oranges]]''
|Anurag Dixit
|
|-
|2011
|''[[Nobel Chor]]''
|Raj
|Bengali film
|-
|2012
|''[[Seal Team Six: The Raid on Osama Bin Laden]]''
|Dr Shakil Afridi
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2013
|''[[Club 60]]''
|Doctor
|
|-
|''[[Jolly LLB]]''
|Albert Pinto
|
|-
|''[[Super Model (film)|Super Model]]''
|
|
|-
|2014
|''[[A Rainy Day in New York|A Rainy Day]]''
|
|Marathi film
|-
|2015
|''[[Har Har Byomkesh]]''
|Inspector Purandar Pandey
|Bengali film
|-
|2016
|''[[Ghayal: Once Again|Ghayal Once Again]]''
|Aditya Rajguru
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2017
|''Umeed''
|
|
|-
|''Shubh Aarambh''
|
|Gujarati film
|-
|2018
|''[[Byomkesh Gotro]]''
|Inspector Purandar Pandey
|Bengali film
|-
| rowspan="2" |2020
|''Darbaan''
|
|
|-
|''[[Satyameva Jayate 2]]''
|Chief Minister Chandra Prakash Sinha
|
|-
|2022
|''[[An Action Hero]]''
|Roshan - Manav's assistant
|
|-
|2024
|''[[Kill (film)|Kill]]''
|Baldeo Singh Thakur
|Hindi Film <ref>{{cite web |title=Kill Movie (2024): Cast, Trailer, OTT, Songs, Release Date {{!}} किल {{!}} Exclusive 2024 - Gheun Taak |url=https://gheuntaak.in/kill-movie/ |website=Gheun Taak |access-date=6 July 2024 |date=6 July 2024}}</ref>
|-
|{{TBA}}
|''[[Uma (unreleased film)|Uma]]''
|
|
|}

=== Writer/Director ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Title
!Notes
|-
|2018
|''[[Khajoor Pe Atke]]''
|
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Notes
|-
|1991
|''Khaali Haath''
|Vishwas
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1993
|''Dillagi''
|
|
|-
|''Tara''
|Jijo
|
|-
|1994
|''[[Tehkikaat]]''
|Rakesh Oberoi
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |1995
|''Aahat''
|Rajat Saxena
|
|-
|''Swabhimaan''
|Karan
|
|-
|''[[Aarohan (The Ascent)]]''
|Lt. Rohit Sharma
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1996
|''[[Hasratein]]''
|Krishnakant Trivedi
|
|-
|''Rishtey''
|
|4 episodes
|-
|1998
|[[Saaya (1989 film)|''Saaya'']]
|Bhaskar Sir
|
|-
|1999
|[[Star Bestsellers]]
|Episodic
|-
| rowspan="5" |1999
|''Gubbare''
|
|
|-
|''Nyaay''
|Advocate Tarun
|
|-
|''Chhoti Si Asha''
|Gurugena
|
|-
|''Rishtey''
|Captain Rahul Khanna
|
|-
|''Rishtey''
|
|
|-
|2001
|''Rishtey''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2002
|''[[Justujoo]]''
|Lalit Sharma
|
|-
|[[Astitva...Ek Prem Kahani|''Astitva..Ek Prem Kahani'']]
|Dr Manas
|
|-
|2003
|[[Karishma – The Miracles of Destiny|''Karishma- The Miracles of Destiny'']]
|Sameer
|
|-
|2004
|''[[Kahaani Ghar Ghar Kii]]''
|Sandeep
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2007
|[[Ghar Ek Sapnaa|''Ghar ek Sapna'']]
|Dr Rishabh Choudhary
|
|-
|''[[Love Story (2007 film)|Love Story]]''
|Rohit Sehgal
|
|-
|2008
|[[Sukh by Chance|''Sukh By Chance'']]
|Girl's Father
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2009
|''[[Comedy Circus|Comedy Circus 3]]''
|as a Contestant
|
|-
|''[[Ladies Special]]''
|Karan Singh
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2011
|''Hum''
|Doctor
|
|-
|''[[Surya The Super Cop|Surya: The Super Cop]]''
|Surya
|
|-
|2012
|''[[Hum Ne Li Hai- Shapath]]''
|ACP Jairaj
|
|-
|2013
|''[[Pradhanmantri]]''
|Sanjay Gandhi
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2014
|''[[Balika Vadhu|Balikha Vadhu]]''
|Palash
|
|-
|''[[Ajeeb Daastaan Hai Ye|Ajeeb Dastaan Hai Yeh]]''
|Samarth Sachdev
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |2016
|''Tamanna''
|Coach
|
|-
|''24 (Season2)''
|ATU Chief
|
|-
|''Karam Yudh''
|
|
|-
|2020
|[[Undekhi]]
|Papaji
|
|}

=== Web series ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Platform
!Notes
|-
|2019
|[[Rangbaaz (web series)|''Rangbaaz'']]
|Sundar Singh Chauhan
|[[List of ZEE5 original web series|ZEE5 originals]]
|Season 2
|-
|2020–present
|''[[Undekhi]]''
|"Papaji" Atwal
|[[SonyLIV]]
|
|-
|2020
|''[[Forbidden Love (2020 web series)|Forbidden Love]]''
|Anamika's Husband
|[[ZEE5]]
|
|-
|2019–present
|''[[Out of Love (Indian TV series)|Out of Love]]''
| Kartik Kashyap (Alia's Dad)
| [[Hotstar]]
|
|-
|2022
|''[[Mukhbir - The Story of a Spy]]''
|General Agha Khan
|[[ZEE5]]
|Season 1
|-
|2023
|''[[P I Meena]]''
|Pritam Sen
|[[Amazon Prime Video]]
|
|-
|2024
|''[[Gyaarah Gyaarah]]''
|Sameer Bhatiya
|[[Zee5]]
|Season 1
|}

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{Bollywood Hungama person}}

{{Navboxes
| title = Awards for Harsh Chhaya
| list =
{{Indian Television Academy Award Best Lead Actor}}
}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chhaya, Harsh}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Indian male television actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Mumbai]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Jamia Millia Islamia alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Gujarati actors]]
[[Category:1970 births]]

Priya Prakash Varrier

2026-03-17T08:47:37Z

Sherrie7069: basic add section to improve readability also and updated info for consistency

{{Short description|Indian actress (born 1999)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Priya Prakash Varrier
| image = Priya Prakash Varrier at PCJ Outlook Social Media Awards 2018.jpg
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1999|10|28|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Punkunnam]], [[Kerala]], India
| caption = Varrier in 2018
| other names =
| alma_mater = [[Vimala College]] ([[Bachelor of Commerce|B Com]])
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2018–present
}}
'''Priya Prakash Varrier''' (born 28 October 1999) is an Indian actress who works in [[Malayalam]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]] and [[Hindi language|Hindi]] films.<ref>{{cite news |title=Priya Prakash Varrier Went Viral With A Wink. 'Can't Believe It,' She Tweets |publisher=NDTV |url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/priya-prakash-varrier-went-viral-with-a-wink-cant-believe-it-she-tweets-1811672 |url-status=live |access-date=12 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213080154/https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/priya-prakash-varrier-went-viral-with-a-wink-cant-believe-it-she-tweets-1811672 |archive-date=13 February 2018}}</ref> Her wink in the Malayalam film ''[[Oru Adaar Love]]'' (2019) went [[Viral video|viral]], making her the most searched-for personality through [[Google]] in [[India]] in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://trends.google.com/trends/yis/2018/IN/ |title=Year in Search 2018 |publisher=Google Trends |access-date=1 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181213151234/https://trends.google.com/trends/yis/2018/IN/ |archive-date=13 December 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/entertainment/who-is-priya-prakash-varrier-beats-sunny-leone-katrina-kaif-deepika-padukone-alia-bhatt-google-search-trend-2018-oru-adaar-love/1064341/ |title=Priya Prakash Varrier beats Sunny Leone, Katrina Kaif, Deepika Padukone, Alia Bhatt on Google search trends |date=13 February 2018 |work=The Financial Express |language=en-US |access-date=13 February 2018 |archive-date=19 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319095006/http://www.financialexpress.com/entertainment/who-is-priya-prakash-varrier-beats-sunny-leone-katrina-kaif-deepika-padukone-alia-bhatt-google-search-trend-2018-oru-adaar-love/1064341/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/fyi/story/priya-prakash-varrier-garners-1-million-followers-on-instagram-co-actor-crosses-just-a-lakh-1167751-2018-02-12 |title=Priya Prakash Varrier garners 1 million followers on Instagram, co-actor crosses just a lakh |author=Vivek Surendran |date=8 February 2018 |work=India Today |access-date=12 February 2018 |archive-date=12 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212144703/https://www.indiatoday.in/fyi/story/priya-prakash-varrier-garners-1-million-followers-on-instagram-co-actor-crosses-just-a-lakh-1167751-2018-02-12 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/who-is-internet-s-latest-sensation-priya-prakash-varrier/story-TQ9KO5gSm4YD97Mnco8YcP.html |title=Who is internet's latest sensation Priya Prakash Varrier? |work=Hindustan Times |access-date=12 February 2018 |archive-date=12 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212124633/https://www.hindustantimes.com/regional-movies/who-is-internet-s-latest-sensation-priya-prakash-varrier/story-TQ9KO5gSm4YD97Mnco8YcP.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2025, she made an appearance in the Tamil action-comedy film ''[[Good Bad Ugly]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/priya-prakash-varrier-viral-wink-thottu-thottu-pesum-sultana-good-bad-ugly-2707983-2025-04-12|title=Beyond the wink: Priya Prakash Varrier's second viral wave with Good Bad Ugly}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Varrier was born on 28 October 1999<ref name="Personal" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/happy-birthday-priya-prakash-varrier-interesting-facts-about-the-sensational-actress-you-may-not-know/photostory/78063501.cms |title=Happy Birthday Priya Prakash Varrier: Interesting facts about the sensational actress you may not know |date=28 October 2020 |access-date=17 December 2021 |work=The Times of India |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217052935/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/happy-birthday-priya-prakash-varrier-interesting-facts-about-the-sensational-actress-you-may-not-know/photostory/78063501.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> to Prakash Varrier, a [[Central Excise]] Department employee, and Preetha, a homemaker in [[Punkunnam]], [[Thrissur district|Thrissur]], in [[Kerala]].<ref name="Personal">{{cite news |title=Who is the wink sensation Priya Prakash Varrier's father? Ashish Vidyarthi? |url=https://newsable.asianetnews.com/entertainment/who-is-the-wink-sensation-priya-prakash-varriers-father-ashish-vidyarthi |work=Asianet News |access-date=26 March 2021 |archive-date=23 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623163130/https://newsable.asianetnews.com/entertainment/who-is-the-wink-sensation-priya-prakash-varriers-father-ashish-vidyarthi |url-status=live }}</ref>

She did her schooling from Sandeepani Vidya Nikethan, [[Thrissur]].<ref name="TIMES">{{cite news |author= |title=Who is Priya Prakash Varrier? Know all about the girl who took over the internet with her killer 'wink' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/who-is-priya-prakash-varrier-know-all-about-the-girl-who-took-over-the-internet-with-her-killer-wink/articleshow/62942972.cms |work=The Times of India |location=Mumbai |date=19 February 2018 |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224235513/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/who-is-priya-prakash-varrier-know-all-about-the-girl-who-took-over-the-internet-with-her-killer-wink/articleshow/62942972.cms |archive-date=24 February 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="IEWF">{{cite news |last=Dutta |first=Amrita |date=11 March 2018 |title=Priya Prakash Varrier: World Famous in Thrissur |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/express-sunday-eye/priya-prakash-varrier-world-famous-in-thrissur-5092857/ |work=The Indian Express |access-date=21 May 2020 |archive-date=26 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926182528/https://indianexpress.com/article/express-sunday-eye/priya-prakash-varrier-world-famous-in-thrissur-5092857/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2018, she enrolled in a [[Bachelor of Commerce]] course at [[Vimala College|Vimala College, Thrissur]].<ref name="TIMES" />

==Career==
Her first appearance in cinema came with ''[[Oru Adaar Love]]'', a romantic drama set in a school. She played the role of Priya alongside several newcomers.<ref name="TIMESD">{{cite news |last=George |first=Anjana |title=Oru Adaar Love Movie Review |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/oru-adaar-love/movie-review/67991076.cms |work=The Times of India |location=Mumbai |date=14 February 2019 |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526025635/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/oru-adaar-love/movie-review/67991076.cms |archive-date=26 May 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> The song from the film "Maanikya Malaraya Poovi" was released on [[YouTube]] and included Varrier [[wink]]ing. Her wink went [[Viral video|viral]] and became an overnight sensation.<ref name="BBC">{{cite AV media |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/world-asia-india-43327082 |title=The wink that stopped India |date=11 March 2018 |medium= |publisher=BBC |time=00:01:26 |access-date=2 February 2020 |quote=Some Muslim groups filed cases against Priya and the filmmakers |people=}}</ref>

In 2019, she sang a song "Nee Mazhavillu Polen", with [[Naresh Iyer]] for the film ''[[Finals (film)|Finals]]''.<ref name="TIMESNPP" /> She was cast in the [[Hindi cinema|Hindi]] film ''Sridevi Bungalow'' alongside [[Arbaaz Khan]], which was languishing in post-production as of January 2020, due to criticism and lawsuits filed by late actress [[Sridevi]]'s family. The film has not been released yet.<ref name="TIMESE">{{cite news |author= |title=Wink queen Priya Prakash Varrier meets Navya Nair; clicks a selfie together |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/wink-queen-priya-prakash-varrier-meets-navya-nair-clicks-a-selfie-together/articleshow/73667120.cms |work=The Times of India |location=Mumbai |date=27 January 2020 |access-date=2 February 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308224844/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/wink-queen-priya-prakash-varrier-meets-navya-nair-clicks-a-selfie-together/articleshow/73667120.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>

She made her [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]] debut with ''[[Check (film)|Check]]'' (2021) in which she played a [[Honey trapping|honey trapper]] opposite [[Nithin]] and [[Rakul Preet Singh]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/180221/i-like-to-identity-myself-as-a-performer-priya-prakash.html |work=Deccan Chronicle |title=I like to identify myself as a performer : Priya Prakash |access-date=29 July 2021 |date=18 February 2021 |first=Sashidhar |last=Adivi |archive-date=29 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729010431/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/180221/i-like-to-identity-myself-as-a-performer-priya-prakash.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Her first [[Kannada]] film ''[[Vishnupriya]]'' released in the year 2025.

In 2025, Varrier made her [[Tamil language|Tamil]] debut with ''[[Nilavuku En Mel Ennadi Kobam]]''. Directed by [[Dhanush]], she played the role Preethi. This was followed by her standout role as Nithya in [[Ajith Kumar]]'s ''[[Good Bad Ugly]]'', earning a significant career boost, marked by positive reception and renewed attention. Her recreation of the iconic song "''[[Ethirum Puthirum#Soundtrack|Thottu Thottu Pesum Sultana]]''" went viral and her portrayal has resonated well with audiences.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/movies/priya-prakash-varrier-shares-sweet-note-for-ajith-kumars-good-bad-ugly-calls-herself-ardent-fan-girl-ws-l-9296083.html|title=Priya Prakash Varrier Shares Sweet Note For Ajith Kumar's Good Bad Ugly, Calls Herself 'Ardent Fan Girl'}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/priya-prakash-varrier-from-viral-wink-girl-to-tamil-cinemas-rising-star-in-good-bad-ugly/photostory/120275046.cms|title=Priya Prakash Varrier: From viral ‘Wink Girl’ to Tamil cinema’s rising star in ‘Good Bad Ugly’}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
=== Films ===
{{Pending films key}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Language !! clas="unsortable" | Notes !! class="unsortable" | Ref.
|-
| 2018 || ''Thanaha'' || Girl at bus station || rowspan="2" | [[Malayalam]] || Cameo appearance in the song "Mele Shoonyagasham" ||<ref>{{Citation|title=Thanaha Movie Review {2.5/5}: Critic Review of Thanaha by Times of India|newspaper=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movie-reviews/thanaha/movie-review/66473968.cms|access-date=28 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/thanaha-song-catch-a-glimpse-of-priya-prakash-varrier-in-mele-shoonyagasham/articleshow/66498334.cms |title='Thanaha' song: Catch a glimpse of Priya Prakash Varrier in 'Mele Shoonyagasham' |work=The Times of India |date=4 November 2018 |access-date=3 December 2021 |archive-date=3 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203081856/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/music/thanaha-song-catch-a-glimpse-of-priya-prakash-varrier-in-mele-shoonyagasham/articleshow/66498334.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| 2019 || ''[[Oru Adaar Love]]'' || Priya Varrier || ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Priya Prakash Varrier film Oru Adaar Love now has a new climax. This is why |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/priya-prakash-varrier-film-oru-adaar-love-now-has-a-new-climax-this-is-why-1459399-2019-02-19 |access-date=2023-04-16 |website=India Today |date=19 February 2019 |language=en |archive-date=16 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416202420/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/priya-prakash-varrier-film-oru-adaar-love-now-has-a-new-climax-this-is-why-1459399-2019-02-19 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2021 || ''[[Check (film)|Check]]'' || Yatra / Isabel || rowspan="2" |[[Telugu language|Telugu]] || || <ref>{{cite web |date=1 October 2020 |first=Janani |last=K. |title=Check first look poster out: Nithiin, Rakul Preet and Priya Prakash Varrier film gets a title |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/check-first-look-poster-out-nithiin-rakul-preet-and-priya-prakash-varrier-film-gets-a-title-1727372-2020-10-01 |access-date=24 January 2021 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=24 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024152828/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/check-first-look-poster-out-nithiin-rakul-preet-and-priya-prakash-varrier-film-gets-a-title-1727372-2020-10-01 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| [[Ishq (2021 film)|''Ishq: Not A Love Story'']] || Anasuya "Anu" || ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wink Girl Priya Prakash Varrier and Teja Sajja's Ishq first look poster out |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/wink-girl-priya-prakash-varrier-and-teja-sajja-s-ishq-first-look-poster-out-1775852-2021-03-05 |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=India Today |date=5 March 2021 |language=en |archive-date=7 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307034714/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/wink-girl-priya-prakash-varrier-and-teja-sajja-s-ishq-first-look-poster-out-1775852-2021-03-05 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| 2022 || ''[[4 Years (film)|4 Years]]'' || Gayathri Arunkumar || rowspan="3" | Malayalam || ||<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/priya-prakash-varrier-to-play-gayathri-in-ranjith-sankars-4-years/articleshow/93705549.cms |title=Priya Prakash Varrier to play Gayathri in Ranjith Sankar's '4 Years' |work=The Times of India |date=22 August 2022 |access-date=21 September 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921140947/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/priya-prakash-varrier-to-play-gayathri-in-ranjith-sankars-4-years/articleshow/93705549.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" |2023 || ''[[Live (2023 film)|Live]]'' || Anna || ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=First look of VK Prakash's Live out |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2023/mar/16/first-look-of-vk-prakashs-live-out-2556365.html |access-date=23 March 2023 |website=The New Indian Express |date=16 March 2023 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323061610/https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2023/mar/16/first-look-of-vk-prakashs-live-out-2556365.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Kolla (2023 film)|Kolla]]''|| Shilpa
|||<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/rajisha-vijayan-vinay-forrt-and-priya-prakash-varrier-to-headline-kolla/articleshow/91516267.cms |title=Rajisha Vijayan, Vinay Forrt, and Priya Prakash Varrier to headline 'Kolla' |work=The Times of India |date=12 May 2022 |access-date=21 September 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921141101/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/rajisha-vijayan-vinay-forrt-and-priya-prakash-varrier-to-headline-kolla/articleshow/91516267.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Bro_(2023_film)|Bro]]'' || Veena
|Telugu|| ||<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-03-24 |title='PKSDT' set to hit theatres: Pawan Kalyan and Sai Dharam Tej fans rejoice |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/pksdt-set-to-hit-theatres-pawan-kalyan-and-sai-dharam-tej-fans-rejoice/articleshow/98972351.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-05-16 |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=12 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512171519/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/movies/news/pksdt-set-to-hit-theatres-pawan-kalyan-and-sai-dharam-tej-fans-rejoice/articleshow/98972351.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Yaariyan 2]]'' || Devi || [[Hindi]]|| rowspan="2" | Cameo appearance||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yaariyan 2 new poster out: Pearl V Puri, Meezan Jafri first look from film revealed |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/yaariyan-2-pearl-v-puri-meezan-jafri-first-look-poster-teaser-release-date-divya-khosla-kumar-2418482-2023-08-09 |access-date=2023-10-21 |website=India Today |date=9 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2024 || ''[[Mandakini (2024 film)|Mandakini]]'' || Akhila || Malayalam || <ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-04-29 |title='Mandakini' trailer: Althaf and Anarkali starrer is a fun entertainer |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/mandakini-trailer-althaf-and-anarkali-starrer-fun-entertainer/articleshow/109690092.cms |access-date=2024-05-24 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=5 | 2025 || ''[[Vishnu Priya]]'' || Priya || [[Kannada]] || ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 March 2021 |title=Watch: Sneak peek promo of Priya Varrier, Shreyas Manju starrer 'Vishnu Priya' |url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/watch-sneak-peek-promo-priya-varrier-shreyas-manju-starrer-vishnu-priya-146056 |access-date=28 March 2021 |website=The News Minute |language=en |archive-date=27 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210327120441/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/watch-sneak-peek-promo-priya-varrier-shreyas-manju-starrer-vishnu-priya-146056 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Nilavuku En Mel Ennadi Kobam]]''|| Preethi || rowspan="2" | [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]]|| ||<ref>{{Cite web |last=Features |first=C. E. |date=2024-08-30 |title='Golden Sparrow' song from Dhanush's Nilavukku En Mel Ennadi Kobam is here |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/tamil/news/2024/Aug/30/golden-sparrow-song-from-dhanushs-nilavukku-en-mel-ennadi-kobam-is-here |access-date=2024-09-20 |website=Cinema Express |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Good Bad Ugly]]'' || Nithya
| ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-05 |title=Good Bad Ugly: Release date, plot, certification, cast and all about Ajith Kumar, Trisha Krishnan starrer |url=https://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/good-bad-ugly-release-date-plot-certification-cast-and-all-about-ajith-kumar-trisha-krishnan-starrer-1380896 |access-date=2025-04-05 |website=PINKVILLA |language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Param Sundari (film)|Param Sundari]]'' || Girl in crowd ||Hindi
|Uncredited Cameo ||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-05 |title=Priya Varrier's unexpected cameo in Param Sundari surprises fans, wonder why she said yes: 'Should've cast her instead of Janhvi' |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/priya-varriers-unexpected-cameo-in-param-sundari-surprises-fans-wonder-why-she-said-yes-shouldve-cast-her-instead-of-janhvi/articleshow/123661003.cms |access-date=2025-11-14 |website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| ''[[Sarvam Maya]]'' || Delulu on "flight mode"|| Malayalam || Cameo Appearance||<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-25 |title=സർവം നിവിൻ മയം; 'സർവം മായ' റിവ്യൂ|url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/movies/movie-reviews/2025/12/25/sarvam-maya-review.html |access-date=2025-12-26 |website=Manorama Online|language=ml}}</ref>
|-
| {{TBA}} || {{Pending film| [[3 Monkeys (upcoming film)|3 Monkeys]]}} || {{TBA}}||rowspan=2|Hindi || ||<ref>{{Cite web |title=Three Monkeys: Abbas-Mustan's desi version of Money Heist to star television actor Anil Bishnoi |url=https://www.ottplay.com/news/three-monkeys-abbas-mustans-desi-version-of-money-heist-to-star-television-actor-anil-bishnoi/9c5d955bd0809 |access-date=4 August 2022 |website=OTTPlay |language=en |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008130459/https://www.ottplay.com/news/three-monkeys-abbas-mustans-desi-version-of-money-heist-to-star-television-actor-anil-bishnoi/9c5d955bd0809 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| {{TBA}} || {{Pending film| Love Hackers}} || {{TBA}} || ||<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/priya-prakash-varrier-plays-a-cybercrime-survivor-in-love-hackers/articleshow/85170458.cms |title=Priya Prakash Varrier plays a cybercrime survivor in 'Love Hackers' |work=The Times of India |date=9 August 2021 |access-date=21 September 2022 |archive-date=21 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921141415/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/priya-prakash-varrier-plays-a-cybercrime-survivor-in-love-hackers/articleshow/85170458.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|}

=== Web series ===
{{Pending series key}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Language !! clas="unsortable" | Platform !! class="unsortable" | Ref.
|-
| 2026 || {{Pending series|Cousins and Kalyanams}} || {{TBA}} || Malayalam ||[[JioHotstar]]||<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/malayalam/2025/Dec/10/malayalamnews2025dec10jiohotstar-south-unbound-six-malayalam-web-shows-among-streamers-25-new-south-titles |title=JioHotstar South Unbound: Six Malayalam web shows among streamer’s 25 new South titles |work=The New Indian Express|date=10 December 2025 |access-date=22 December 2025}}</ref>
|}

=== Short films ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Language !! clas="unsortable" | Notes !! class="unsortable" | Ref.
|-
| 2024 || ''Subhadraharanam'' || Subhadra || Malayalam || ||
|}

==Discography==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! Song !! Album !! Language !! Notes !! {{Abbr|Ref.|Reference}}
|-
|2019
|"Nee Mazhavillu Polen"
|[[Finals (film)|''Finals'']]
|[[Malayalam]]
|
|<ref name="TIMESNPP">{{cite news |author= |title='Nee Mazhavillu Polen' song sung by Priya Prakash Varrier is making her fans go gaga |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/nee-mazhavillu-polen-song-sung-by-priya-prakash-varrier-is-making-her-fans-go-gaga/articleshow/69923434.cms |work=The Times of India |location=Mumbai |date=19 February 2018 |access-date=24 June 2019 |archive-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626052428/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/malayalam/movies/news/nee-mazhavillu-polen-song-sung-by-priya-prakash-varrier-is-making-her-fans-go-gaga/articleshow/69923434.cms |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|2021
|"Ladi Ladi"
|''Ladi Ladi''
|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|Music video
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 January 2021 |title=మాస్‌ డ్యాన్స్‌తో ఆకట్టుకుంటున్న ప్రియా ప్రకాష్‌ |url=https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/priya-prakash-varrier-song-ladi-ladi-garned-1m-views-1338294 |access-date=15 April 2021 |website=Sakshi |language=te |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415050526/https://www.sakshi.com/telugu-news/movies/priya-prakash-varrier-song-ladi-ladi-garned-1m-views-1338294 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|2022
|"Pennu"
|''Pennu''
|Malayalam
|One minute music video
|
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|d=Q48459207|Category:Priya Prakash Varrier|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|q=no|species=no}}
* {{IMDb name|9623758}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Varrier, Priya Prakash}}
[[Category:21st-century Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1999 births]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Malayali people]]
[[Category:Actors from Thrissur district]]
[[Category:Actresses from Kerala]]
[[Category:Actresses in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Actresses from Thrissur]]

J. V. Somayajulu

2026-03-16T21:08:35Z

Sherrie7069: page fix

{{Short description|Indian actor (d. 2004)}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| name = J. V. Somayajulu
| image = J.V.Somayajulu-pic.jpg
| birth_name = Jonnalagadda Venkata Somayajulu
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1920|7|30|df=yes}} or {{circa|1928}}
| birth_place = [[Srikakulam district]], [[Madras Presidency]], [[British India]]
| death_date = {{Death-date|24 April 2004}}
| death_place = [[Hyderabad]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], India
| yearsactive =
| occupation = Actor
| notable works = {{indented plainlist| Sankara Sastry in ''[[Sankarabharanam (1980 film)|Sankarabharanam]]'', [[Tyagaraja]] in ''[[Tyagayya (1981 film)|Tyagayya]]''}}
| spouse =
| relatives = [[J. V. Ramana Murthy]] (brother)
}}
'''Jonnalagadda Venkata Somayajulu''' (30 July 1920<ref name=":0" /> or {{Circa|1928}}<ref name=":1" /> – 24 April 2004) was an Indian actor known for his works in [[Telugu cinema]] and a few Tamil, Kannada, Hindi and Malayalam films. In 1981, he received the [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu]] for his work in the classic ''[[Sankarabharanam (1980 film)|Sankarabharanam]]''. On the centenary of Indian cinema, ''[[Forbes (India)|Forbes]]'' included his performance in the film among the ''25 Greatest Acting Performances of Indian Cinema''.

Some of the other films that earned Somayajulu a good reputation as an actor were ''Allari Pillalu'', ''Nelavanka'', ''[[Rowdy Alludu]]'', ''[[Swathi Muthyam]]'', ''Tyagayya'', [[Saptapadi (1981 film)|''Saptapadi'']], [[Vijeta (1982 film)|''Vijeta'']], ''[[Appula Appa Rao]],'' ''[[Vamsa Vruksham]]'' and the Hindi film ''[[Jaag Utha Insan (1984 film)|Jaag Utha Insan]]''. He portrayed the guru character of [[Sri Raghavendra]] in the Tamil film ''[[Sri Raghavendrar]]. ''He made a 13-episode television serial based on the play ''[[Kanyasulkam]]''. He also portrayed A.C. [[Bhaktivedanta Swami]] Prabhupada, in the biographical series ''Abhay Charan''.

==Personal life and career==
Jonnalagadda Venkata Somayajulu was born in Lukalam Agraharam in [[Srikakulam district]] of present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=P. |first=Jyosthna Kumari |date=7 May 2011 |title=శంకరాభరణం శంకరశాస్త్రిగా పేరుగాంచిన జె.వి.సోమయాజులు |url=http://www.visalaandhra.com/movieworld/article-46827|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304204218/http://www.visalaandhra.com/movieworld/article-46827|archive-date=4 March 2016|access-date=29 July 2021 |website=[[Visalaandhra]]}}</ref> His father worked as an Inspector in the Prohibition and Excise department in [[Gudivada]] and other towns. He spent his childhood in [[Vizianagaram]] and also participated in stage dramas there. He was a government official and worked as a Deputy collector for [[Mahabub Nagar district]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name="hinduonnet.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2004/04/28/stories/2004042806930600.htm |title=The Hindu : Andhra Pradesh News : Somayajulu passes away |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=22 January 2007|archive-date=12 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612030337/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2004/04/28/stories/2004042806930600.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

His career spanned five decades in stage dramas, films and television. His passion for [[Gurazada Apparao]]'s play, ''[[Kanyasulkam]]'', was such that he, along with his actor brother [[J. V. Ramana Murthy|J V Ramana Murthy]], played it about 500 times in 45 years. His exposition of the delightfully notorious character, "Ramappanthulu" in the play, has become legendary. The woman behind the success of Somayajulu was his mother Saradamma. Somayajulu had two sons and a daughter.<ref name="hinduonnet.com"/>

== Other works ==
For the development of Telugu theatre in the twin cities [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] and [[Secunderabad]], Somayajulu established 'Rasaranjani' along with his contemporaries, Chatla Sriramulu, Garimella Rama Murthy and [[Rallapalli (actor)|Rallapalli]].<ref name="hinduonnet.com" /> Somayajulu worked in the Directorate of Cultural Affairs before retiring from government service.

== Death ==
Somayajulu died of heart attack in [[Hyderabad]] in 2004 at a reported age of 76.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=24 April 2004 |title=Actor Somayajulu passes away |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/actor-somayajulu-passes-away/articleshow/643968.cms|access-date=2021-06-21 |website=The Times of India |language=en|archive-date=26 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626225020/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/actor-somayajulu-passes-away/articleshow/643968.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="hinduonnet.com" />

== Filmography ==
===Telugu films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+List of Telugu films and roles
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role(s) !! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|1976
|''[[Jyothi (1976 film)|Jyoti]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1980
|''[[Sankarabharanam (1980 film)|Sankarabharanam]]''
|Shankara Sastry
| [[Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu]]
|-
|''[[Vamsa Vruksham]]''
|
|
|-
|rowspan="2"|1981
|''[[Tyagayya (1981 film)|Tyagayya]]''
|Tyagayya
|
|-
|''[[Saptapadi (1981 film)|Saptapadi]]''
|Yajulu
|
|-
|1982
|''[[Pelleedu Pillalu]]''
| P V Rao
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1983
|''[[Nelavanka (film)|Nelavanka]]''
|Raheem
|
|-
|''[[Sitaara]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |1985
|''Devalayam''
|
|
|-
|''Aalapaana''
|
|
|-
|''[[Vijetha (1985 film)|Vijetha]]''
|Narasimham
|
|-
| rowspan="8" |1986
|''[[Tandra Paparayudu (film)|Tandra Paparayudu]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Sri Shirdi Saibaba Mahathyam]]''
|Nana Chandorkar
|
|-
|''Kalyana Tambulam''
|
|
|-
|''[[Naa Pilupe Prabhanjanam]]''<ref>{{Citation |title=Naa Pilupe Prabhanjanam Full Length Movie {{!}}{{!}} Super Star Krishna, Keerthi |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QIlQzaweMiE |work=Shalimar Telugu & Hindi Movies |date=9 December 2014 |access-date=2023-09-18 |language=en |via=YouTube |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002122209/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QIlQzaweMiE |url-status=live }}</ref>
|Janakiramaiah
|
|-
|''[[Ugra Narasimham]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Swathi Muthyam]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Magadheerudu]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Kaliyuga Pandavulu]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="6" |1987
|''[[Madana Gopaludu]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Sankeertana]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Majnu (1987 film)|Majnu]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Chakravarthy (1987 film)|Chakravarthy]]''
|Swamiji
|
|-
|''[[Swayam Krushi]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Viswanatha Nayakudu]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |1988
|''[[Abhinandana]]''
|
|-
|''[[Neerajanam]]''
|
|
|-
|''[[Raktabhishekam]]''
|
|
|-
|1989
|''[[Swara Kalpana]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1990
|''[[Jayasimha (1990 film)|Jayasimha]]''<ref>{{Cite AV media |title=JAI SIMHA {{!}} FULL MOVIE {{!}} SUMAN {{!}} BHANUPRIYA |work=Telugu Cinema Club |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6HGBbI5DMhI |date=6 November 2018 |access-date=2023-10-13 |language=en |via=YouTube |archive-date=15 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015044511/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6HGBbI5DMhI |url-status=live }}</ref>
|Mukunda Rao, DFO
|
|-
|''[[Magaadu (1990 film)|Magaadu]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |1991
|''[[Aditya 369]]''
|Mahamantri Thimmarusu
|
|-
|''Tharaka Prabhuni Deeksha Mahimalu''
|
|
|-
|''[[Rowdy Alludu]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1992
|''[[Appula Appa Rao]]''
|Sankara Sastri
|
|-
|''[[Allari Mogudu]]''
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |1993
|''[[Mutha Mestri]]''
|MLA Raghavayya
|
|-
|''Adivaram Amavasya''
|
|
|-
|''[[Govinda Govinda (1994 film)|Govinda Govinda]]''
|TTD Chief Priest
|
|-
|1994
|''[[Sarigamalu]]'' || ||
|-
|1995
|''[[Khaidi Inspector]]''<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=shared&v=a0NjRSKKYTU |title=Khaidi Inspector Full Length Telugu Movie {{!}}{{!}} Suman, Rambha, Maheshwari {{!}}{{!}} Ganesh Videos |date=2014-11-05 |last=Ganesh Videos |access-date=2024-11-24 |via=YouTube}}</ref>
|Sivaramakrishnaiah
|
|-
|1996
|''Puttinti Gowravam''
|
|
|-
|1997
|''Super Heroes''
|
|
|-
|1998
|''Subbaraju Gari Kutumbam''
|
|
|-
|2003 ||''Kabirdas'' || ||
|-
|}

===Tamil films===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+List of Tamil films and roles
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role(s)
|-
|1984
|''[[Neengal Kettavai]]''|| Music teacher
|-
|rowspan="2"|1985
|''[[Sri Raghavendrar]]''
|Saint Sudheendra
|-
|''[[Yaar? (film)|Yaar?]]''
|Swamiji
|-
|1988
|''[[Idhu Namma Aalu (1988 film)|Idhu Namma Aalu]]''
|Srinivasa Sastry
|-
|1989
|''[[Thiruppu Munai]]''
|Sathyamoorthy
|-
|1990
|''[[Pagalil Pournami]]''
| Monk
|-
|1997
|''[[Mannava (film)|Mannava]]''
|Astrologer
|-
|}
=== Kannada films ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+List of Kannada films and roles
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role(s)
|-
| 1983 ||''[[Gandharvagiri]]''
| Narasimha Joshi
|-
|1988
|''Sri Venkateshwara Mahime''
|
|-
|1995
|''[[Mutthinantha Hendathi]]''
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |2003
|''[[Raktha Kanneeru]]''
|Chandhra's father
|-
|''[[Ondagona Baa]]''
|Raghavayya (Ajja)
|-
|}

=== Hindi films ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+List of films and roles
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role(s)
|-
|1984
|''[[Jaag Utha Insan (1984 film)|Jaag Utha Insan]]''
|Panditji
|-
|1990
|''[[Pratibandh]]''
|Chief Minister Satyendra
|-
|2005
|''[[Bhagmati (2005 film)|Bhagmati]]''
|
|-
|}

===Malayalam films ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+List of Malayalam films and roles
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role(s)
|-
|1994
|''[[Sopanam (film)|Sopanam]]''
|Raja Raja Varma Thamburan
|-
|1997
|''[[Itha Oru Snehagatha]]''
| Hema's Grandfather
|-
|2001||''[[Naranathu Thampuran]]''||Guruji
|-
|}

=== Television ===
* [[Abhay Charan (TV series)|''Abhay Charan'']] as [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami]] (1996)
* [[Nagamma (TV series)|''Nagamma'']] as Rayudu (2002–2004)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|0004468}}

{{Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Telugu}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Somayajulu, J. V.}}
[[Category:1920s births|Somayajulu, J.V]]
[[Category:2004 deaths|Somayajulu, J.V]]
[[Category:Telugu male actors|Somayajulu, J.V]]
[[Category:Male actors from Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian male stage actors]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:People from Srikakulam district]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Telugu cinema]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Malayalam cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Kannada cinema]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:People from Uttarandhra]]

Jagdambika Pal

2026-03-14T13:59:46Z

Sherrie7069: cleanup article for consistency as per guidelines

{{short description|Indian politician (born 1950)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Jagdambika Pal
| image =
| caption = Pal in 2024
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1950|10|21}}
| birth_place = [[Basti district|Bharvaliya]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], India
| office = [[Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha|Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]
| term_start = 16 May 2009
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Mohammed Muqueem]]
| successor =
| constituency = [[Domariyaganj (Lok Sabha constituency)|Domariyaganj, Uttar Pradesh]]
| office3 = [[President (corporate title)|President]] of [[Uttar Pradesh Congress Committee]]
| term3 = 30 May 2003 {{endash}} 7 November 2004
| predecessor3 = Arun Kumar Singh Munna
| successor3 = [[Salman Khurshid]]
| office4 = [[Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh]]
| term_label4 = Acting
| term4 = 21 February 1998 {{endash}} 23 February 1998{{efn|This government contained no ministers due to its short-tenure and thereafter being declared unconstitutional by the High Court.}}
| governor4 = [[Romesh Bhandari]]
| predecessor4 = [[Kalyan Singh]]
| successor4 = Kalyan Singh
| office5 = [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Member]] of [[Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly]]
| term5 = 1993{{endash}}2007
| constituency5 = [[Basti Assembly constituency|Basti]]
| predecessor5 = Lakshameshwar Singh
| successor5 = Jeetender Kumar
| party = [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (since 2014)
| otherparty = [[Indian National Congress]] (till 1996; 2002–2014) [[All India Indira Congress (Tiwari)]] (1996–1997) [[Akhil Bharatiya Loktantrik Congress]] (1997–2002)
| education = [[Master of Arts|MA]] & [[LLB]]
| spouse = {{marriage|Sneh Lata Pal|1975}}
| children = 3
| website =
| alma_mater = [[Awadh University]] [[Gorakhpur University]]
| footnotes =
| date =
| year =
| source =
| signature =
}}

'''Jagdambika Pal''' (born 21 October 1950) is an Indian politician belonging to the [[Bharatiya Janata Party|Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)]]. He was the [[List of chief ministers of Uttar Pradesh|Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh]] for 31 hours in 1998. He is also currently a member of the Lok Sabha since 2009. In the [[15th Lok Sabha]] he represented the [[Indian National Congress]], until he resigned on 7 March 2014. He joined the BJP in 2014 and re-entered the [[Lok Sabha]].

==Political career==
He is a member of Bharatiya Janata Party. He parted from the [[Indian National Congress]] to join [[All India Indira Congress (Tiwari)]] of [[N. D. Tiwari]] but in 1997, he formed [[Akhil Bharatiya Loktantrik Congress]] along with [[Naresh Agarwal]], [[Rajeev Shukla]] and [[Shyam Sunder Sharma]] and [[Bacha Pathak]] and became Minister of Transport in [[Kalyan Singh]] government.

Later, Jagdambika Pal became the president of the [[Uttar Pradesh Congress Committee|Uttar Pradesh state unit]] of the [[Indian National Congress]].

In 2009 he was elected to the [[15th Lok Sabha]] from [[Domariyaganj (Lok Sabha constituency)|Domariyaganj Lok Sabha constituency]] in [[Siddharthnagar district]], [[Uttar Pradesh]].

On 3 July 2011, Jagdambika Pal and other members of [[Lok Sabha]], [[lower house|Lower House]] of the [[Parliament of India]], opened [[Commemorative plaque]] at [[Mahua Dabar]], where the [[British Raj|British]] [[War crime|massacred]] 5,000 people during the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]].<ref>[http://mahuadabar.blogspot.ca/2011/07/shri-jagdambika-pal-members-of.html Mahua Dabar commemorative plaque]</ref>

==Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh==
When the [[Government of Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh state government]] led by [[Kalyan Singh]] was dismissed on 21 February 1998 by [[Governors of Uttar Pradesh|Governor of Uttar Pradesh]] [[Romesh Bhandari]], he became the acting [[Chief minister (India)|Chief Minister]]. Kalyan Singh moved to [[Allahabad High Court]] which termed the dismissal of government unconstitutional on 23 February 1998, thereby reinstating the [[Kalyan Singh ministry|Kalyan Singh]] government.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

==Positions held==
* 1982-93 Member, Uttar Pradesh Legislative Council (two terms)
* 1988-1999 Minister of State, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh
* 1998 [[Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/national/national-politics/jagadambika-pal-holds-record-of-cm-with-shortest-tenure-780070.html|title= Jagadambika Pal holds record of CM with shortest tenure|website= Deccan Herald|language=en |access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jagran.com/politics/state-in-up-jagdambika-pal-was-cm-for-just-24-hours-19791208.html|title= उत्तर प्रदेश में 1998 में सिर्फ 24 घंटा ही मुख्यमंत्री रह सके थे जगदंबिका पाल|website= Jagran|language=hi |access-date=2019-11-26}}</ref>
* 1993-2007 Member, Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly (three terms)
* 2002 Cabinet Minister, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh
* 2009 Elected to 15th Lok Sabha (INC) from [[Domariyaganj (Lok Sabha constituency)|Domariyaganj]] Member, Committee on Energy; Member, Committee on Petitions; Member, Committee on Members of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADs); Member, Committee on Chemical and Fertilizers; Member, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation and Ministry of Tourism
* 2014 Resigned from 15th Lok Sabha and Indian national Congress party
* 2014 Elected to 16th Lok Sabha (BJP) from [[Domariyaganj (Lok Sabha constituency)|Domariyaganj]].
*2019 Elected to [[17th Lok Sabha]] from [[Domariyaganj (Lok Sabha constituency)|Domariyaganj]].
*2024 Elected to [[18th Lok Sabha]] from [[Domariyaganj (Lok Sabha constituency)|Domariyaganj]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{notelist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140721050934/http://uplegisassembly.gov.in/CHIEF%20MINISTERS.HTM Chief Ministers of Uttar Pradesh]
* [http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19980222/05350084.html Unconstitutional dismissal of Kalyan Singh Govt]
* [http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/ie/daily/19980224/05550074.html Allahabad High Court reinstates Kalyan Singh Govt]

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box
| before= [[Kalyan Singh]]
| title = [[Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh]] ([[de facto]])
| years = 21 February 1998 – 23 February 1998
| after = [[Kalyan Singh]]
}}
{{s-end}}
{{17th LS members from Uttar Pradesh}}{{16th LS members from Uttar Pradesh |state=expanded}}
{{Chief Ministers of Uttar Pradesh}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pal, Jagdambika}}
[[Category:Indian businesspeople in the real estate industry]]
[[Category:Financial advisors]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:India MPs 2009–2014]]
[[Category:India MPs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:India MPs 2019–2024]]
[[Category:Chief ministers of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:All India Indira Congress (Tiwari) politicians]]
[[Category:Akhil Bharatiya Loktantrik Congress politicians]]
[[Category:India MPs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Chief ministers from Indian National Congress]]
[[Category:Presidents of Uttar Pradesh Congress Committee]]

Gajarathapur

2026-03-13T23:01:08Z

Sherrie7069: data

{{Short description|Capital of mediaeval Mithila Kingdom}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Gajarathapur
| official_name = Siwaisinghpur
| native_name = गजरथपुर
| native_name_lang = Mai
| other_name = Shivasinghpur
| settlement_type = Historical village
| mapframe-coordinates = {{Coord|26.0676093|N|85.9184634|E}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = Bihar
| subdivision_type2 = Region
| subdivision_name2 = Mithila
| subdivision_type3 = District
| subdivision_name3 = Darbhanga
| subdivision_type4 = Block
| subdivision_name4 = Hayaghat
| founder = King Shivasimha
| population_demonym = [[Maithil]]
| footnotes = Capital of Mithila during the period of King Shivasimha ([[Oiniwar Dynasty]])
}}
'''Gajarathapur''' ([[Maithili language|Maithili]]: गजरथपुर) is a historical village in the [[Mithila (region)|Mithila region]] of [[Bihar]] in [[India]]. It was established as the capital of the mediaeval [[Videha|Mithila Kingdom]] by the [[Shiva Simha Singh|King Shivasimha]] of the [[Oiniwar dynasty|Oiniwar Dynasty]]. It is presently located in the [[Darbhanga district]] of Bihar.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mishra |first=Vijayakanta |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Cultural_Heritage_of_Mithila.html?id=8FBuAAAAMAAJ#gajarathapur |title=Cultural Heritage of Mithila |date=1979 |publisher=Mithila Prakasana |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sinha |first=Bindeshwari Prasad |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Comprehensive_History_of_Bihar.html?id=MmpDAAAAYAAJ#gajarathapur |title=Comprehensive History of Bihar |date=1983 |publisher=Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Indian_Antiquary.html?id=F2xDAAAAYAAJ#gajarathapur |title=Indian Antiquary |date=1985 |publisher=Swati Publications |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Shree Rambriksh |first=Benipuri |url=https://ia902904.us.archive.org/25/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.345844/2015.345844.Vidhyapati-Ki_text.pdf |title=विद्यापति की पदावली |publisher=Pustak Bhandar |location=Laheriasarai (Darbhanga)}}</ref> According to historians, during the period of the king Amritkar, the son of the famous king Chandrakar, he shifted his capital from Gajarathapur to [[Padma Village|Padma]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=राजा पद्म सिंह के धरहरबा डीह का नहीं हो सका विकास - Raja Padma Singh's Dharbaba could not be developed for development |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/madhubani-raja-padma-singhs-dharbaba-could-not-be-developed-for-development-19164584.html |access-date=2026-01-13 |website=Jagran |language=hi}}</ref>

== History ==
Gajarathapur was established on the bank of the [[Bagmati River]]. The fort of the capital was built near the river bank. The river bank where the fort was built, is still known as ''Kilaghat''. The literal meaning of the Indic term kila is fort.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Śarmmā |first=Rāmaprakāśa |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Mithila_ka_itihasa.html?id=TZAJAQAAIAAJ#%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0 |title=Mithila ka itihasa |date=1979 |publisher=Kamesvarasimhadarabhangasamskrtavisvavidyalaya |language=hi}}</ref> According to the book ''Mithila-Tatva-Vimarsh'' written by ''Mahamahopadhyaya Parmeshwar Jha'', the village is also known ''Siwaisinghpur''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tripāṭhī |first=Havaladāra |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Bihara_ki_Nadiyam.html?id=gwEKAQAAIAAJ#%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0 |title=Bihara ki Nadiyam |date=1977 |publisher=Bihar Hindi Granth Academi |language=hi}}</ref> It was also called as Shivasinghpur after the name of King Shivasimha.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Sharma |first=Govind Ram |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Vidy%C4%81pati_k%C4%AB_k%C4%81vya_pratibh%C4%81.html?id=gLVHAAAAMAAJ#%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0 |title=Vidyāpati kī kāvya-pratibhā |date=1965 |publisher=Navayuga-Prakāśana |language=hi}}</ref>

Later, the capital was attacked by [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] and a war was erupted between the King Shivasimha and the Mughals. It is said that the King Shivasimha either lost his life or got missing after the war. After this defeat, the capital of Gajarathapur was devastated, and anarchy prevailed in the region for some time. The queen [[Lakhimadevi]] and her ''Rajpandit'' [[Vidyapati]] along with some relatives of the royal family went to the court of ''Dronwar Puraditya'' in [[Raj Banauli]] ([[Banauli Vidyapati Dih]]) for asylum.<ref name=":0" />

== Demographics ==
The village is presently known as Siwaisinghpur in the Hayaghat block of the Darbhanga district in Bihar. As of 2011, the number of families residing in this village is 316. The total population of the village is 1490, of which 796 are male while 694 are females.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population Finder 2011 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/data/population-finder |website=Census India}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Villages in Darbhanga district]]
[[Category:Capitals of Mithila]]
[[Category:Former capitals in India]]

{{Darbhanga-geo-stub}}

JSTOR

2026-03-13T08:12:15Z

Sherrie7069: added references

{{Short description|Non-profit digital library}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox website
| name = JSTOR
| logo = JSTOR vector logo.svg
| logo_size = 150px
| url = {{URL|jstor.org}}
| type = [[Digital library]]
| language = English (includes content in other languages)
| registration = Yes
| owner = [[Ithaka Harbors|Ithaka Harbors, Inc.]]<ref name="About Ithaka"/>
| founder = [[William G. Bowen]]
| author = [[Andrew W. Mellon Foundation]]
| launch_date = {{start date and age|1994}}
| current_status = Active
| oclc = 46609535
| footnotes = {{Infobox bibliographic database |child=yes |title=
| web = {{official URL}}
| titles = {{URL|https://support.jstor.org/hc/en-us/articles/115007466248-JSTOR-Title-Lists}}
}}
}}

'''JSTOR''' ({{IPAc-en|'|dʒ|eɪ|s|t|ɔːr}} {{respell|JAY|stor}}; short for '''''Journal Storage''''')<ref>{{cite book|title=New Public Leadership: Making a Difference from Where We Sit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=109tDwAAQBAJ|author1=Douglas F. Morgan|author2=Marcus D. Ingle|author3=Craig W. Shinn |publisher=Routledge |date=September 3, 2018|page=82|isbn=9780429832918|quote=JSTOR means journal storage, which is an online service created in 1994 to provide electronic access to an extensive array of academic journals.|access-date=June 3, 2020|archive-date=August 3, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803224243/https://books.google.com/books?id=109tDwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> is a [[digital library]] of academic journals, books, and primary sources founded in 1994. Originally containing [[digitized]] back issues of academic journals, it now encompasses books and other primary sources as well as current issues of journals in the humanities and social sciences.<ref name="JSTOR glance"/> It provides [[full-text search]]es of almost 2,000 journals. Most access is [[Subscription business model|by subscription]] but some of the site is [[public domain]], and [[open access]] content is available free of charge.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://about.jstor.org/download/file/fid/1423|title=Register and read beta|access-date=January 14, 2013|archive-date=October 1, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001004448/http://about.jstor.org/download/file/fid/1423|url-status=dead}}</ref>
JSTOR is part of the [[nonprofit organization|nonprofit]] US [[Academic publishing|academic digital library]] and [[Learning management system|learning platform]] provider, [[Ithaka Harbors, Inc.]]<ref name="history">{{cite web |title=About: Mission and history |url= https://about.jstor.org/mission-history/ |publisher=JSTOR |access-date= 29 December 2022 |archive-date= December 29, 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221229223421/https://about.jstor.org/mission-history/ |url-status= live }}</ref>

==History==
[[William G. Bowen]], president of [[Princeton University]] from 1972 to 1988,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Leitch |first=Alexander |date=1978 |title=Bowen, William Gordon |url=http://etcweb.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/bowen_william_gordon.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011224203/http://etcweb.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/bowen_william_gordon.html |archive-date=11 October 2017 |website=A Princeton Companion}}</ref> founded JSTOR in 1994. JSTOR was originally conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially [[Research library|research and university libraries]], due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a comprehensive collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term. Online access and full-text searchability improved access dramatically.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About: Mission and history |url=https://about.jstor.org/mission-history/ |access-date=2023-12-12 |publisher=JSTOR |language=en}}</ref>

Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schonfeld |first=Roger C. |url=https://archive.org/details/jstorhistory00scho |title=JSTOR: A History |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-691-11531-3 |location=Princeton, NJ |doi=10.2307/j.ctt7s6z3 |jstor=j.ctt7s6z3 |url-access=registration}}</ref> However, [[Ira Fuchs]], Princeton University's vice president for Computing and Information Technology, convinced Bowen that CD-ROM was becoming an increasingly outdated technology and that network distribution could eliminate redundancy and increase accessibility (for example, all Princeton's administrative and academic buildings were networked by 1989; the student dormitory network was completed in 1994; and campus networks like the one at Princeton were, in turn, linked to larger networks such as [[BITNET]] and the [[Internet]]). JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its initial sites, and it became a fully searchable index accessible from any ordinary [[web browser]]. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear and readable.<ref name="Taylor"/>

With the success of this limited project, Bowen, Fuchs, and Kevin Guthrie, the then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the [[Royal Society|Royal Society of London]] and an agreement was made to digitize the ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]'' dating from its beginning in 1665. The work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000.<ref name = "Taylor" /> In 1999 JSTOR started a partnership with [[Jisc|Joint Information Systems Committee]] and created a mirror website at the [[University of Manchester]] to make the JSTOR database available to over 20 higher education institutions in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guthrie |first1=Kevin M. |year=1999 |title=JSTOR: Large Scale Digitization of Journals in the United States |url=https://liberquarterly.eu/article/view/10146/10595 |format=pdf |journal=LIBER Quarterly |volume=9 |issue=3 |page=291 |doi=10.18352/lq.7546 |issn=1435-5205 |via= |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The [[Andrew W. Mellon Foundation]] funded JSTOR initially. Until January 2009, JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining [[nonprofit organization]] with offices in [[New York City]] and in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]. Then JSTOR merged with the nonprofit [[Ithaka Harbors, Inc.]]<ref name="history">{{cite web |title=About: Mission and history |url= https://about.jstor.org/mission-history/ |publisher=JSTOR |access-date= 29 December 2022 |archive-date= December 29, 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221229223421/https://about.jstor.org/mission-history/ |url-status= live }}</ref>—a nonprofit organization founded in 2003 and "dedicated to helping the [[academic community]] take full advantage of rapidly advancing information and networking technologies".<ref name = "About Ithaka" />

In 2019, JSTOR's revenue was $79 million.<ref name=NonProfitExplorer>{{Cite web|url=https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/display_990/133857105/03_2021_prefixes_11-16%2F133857105_201912_990_2021030217777098|title=Form 990 for period ending December 2019|department=Nonprofit Explorer |publisher=[[ProPublica]]|format=pdf}}</ref>

==Content==
JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers.<ref name="Annual Summary"/> The [[bibliographic database|database]] contains more than 12 million journal articles, in more than 75 disciplines.<ref name="history"/> Each object is uniquely identified by an integer value, starting at <code>1</code>, which is used to create a stable [[URL]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Citation Management: Permanently Linking to Content on JSTOR |url=https://support.jstor.org/hc/en-us/articles/115004872507-Citation-Management-Permanently-Linking-to-Content-on-JSTOR|access-date=2021-10-09 |publisher=JSTOR |department=Support |language=en-US|archive-date=October 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009115838/https://support.jstor.org/hc/en-us/articles/115004872507-Citation-Management-Permanently-Linking-to-Content-on-JSTOR|url-status=live}}</ref>

In addition to the main site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of [[Text corpus|corpus]] analysis at its ''Data for Research'' service.<ref>[http://dfr.jstor.org/ Data for Research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902085548/http://dfr.jstor.org/ |date=September 2, 2011 }}. JSTOR.</ref> This site offers a search facility with graphical indication of the article coverage and loose integration into the main JSTOR site. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and [[n-gram|{{var|n}}-gram]] frequencies and basic metadata. They are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either [[XML]] or [[Comma-separated values|CSV]] formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, subject to a non-disclosure agreement.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

JSTOR Plant Science<ref>[http://plants.jstor.org/ JSTOR Plant Science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101226153319/http://plants.jstor.org/ |date=December 26, 2010 }}. JSTOR.</ref> is available in addition to the main site. JSTOR Plant Science provides access to content such as plant type specimens, taxonomic structures, scientific literature, and related materials and aimed at those researching, teaching, or studying botany, biology, ecology, environmental, and conservation studies. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative (GPI)<ref>[http://about.jstor.org/content/global-plants#partnerships Global Plants Initiative] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208135858/http://about.jstor.org/content/global-plants#partnerships |date=December 8, 2015 }}. JSTOR.</ref> and are accessible only to JSTOR and GPI members. Two partner networks are contributing to this: the African Plants Initiative, which focuses on plants from Africa, and the Latin American Plants Initiative, which contributes plants from Latin America.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Plants Initiative (GPI) {{!}} Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=https://www.kew.org/science/our-science/projects/global-plants-initiative |access-date=2024-06-02 |website=www.kew.org |language=en}}</ref>

JSTOR launched its Books at JSTOR program in November 2012, adding 15,000 current and backlist books to its site. The books are linked with reviews and from citations in journal articles.<ref>{{cite web |title=A New Chapter Begins: Books at JSTOR Launches |url=http://about.jstor.org/news/new-chapter-begins-books-jstor-launches |publisher=JSTOR |access-date=June 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201005524/http://about.jstor.org/news/new-chapter-begins-books-jstor-launches |archive-date=December 1, 2012 |date=November 12, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In September 2014, JSTOR launched ''JSTOR Daily'', an online magazine meant to bring academic research to a broader audience. Posted articles are generally based on JSTOR entries, and some entries provide the backstory to current events.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lichterman |first=Joseph |url=http://www.niemanlab.org/2014/10/opening-up-the-archives-jstor-wants-to-tie-a-library-to-the-news/ |title=Opening up the archives: JSTOR wants to tie a library to the news |work=[[Nieman Lab]] |access-date=September 18, 2017 |archive-date=October 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011224203/http://www.niemanlab.org/2014/10/opening-up-the-archives-jstor-wants-to-tie-a-library-to-the-news/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{Anchor|Reveal Digital}}Reveal Digital is a JSTOR-hosted collection of documents produced by or about underground, marginalized and dissenting 20th century communities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Reveal Digital |url=https://about.jstor.org/revealdigital/ |access-date=2023-04-27 |publisher=About JSTOR |language=en |archive-date=April 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427234947/https://about.jstor.org/revealdigital/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Reveal Digital's [[open access]] content includes zines, prison newspapers, AIDS art, student-movement documents, black civil rights materials, and a white supremacy archive.<ref name=":0" />

==Access==
JSTOR is licensed mainly to academic institutions, public libraries, research institutions, museums, and schools. More than 7,000 institutions in more than 150 countries have access.<ref name="JSTOR glance" /> JSTOR has been running a pilot program of allowing subscribing institutions to provide access to their alumni, in addition to current students and staff. The Alumni Access Program officially launched in January 2013.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://about.jstor.org/alumni | title= Access for alumni | publisher= JSTOR | access-date= December 1, 2012 | archive-date= November 30, 2012 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121130231346/http://about.jstor.org/alumni | url-status= live}}</ref> Individual subscriptions also are available to certain journal titles through the journal publisher.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://about.jstor.org/content/individual-subscriptions | title= Individual subscriptions | publisher= JSTOR | access-date= December 1, 2012 | archive-date= September 8, 2012 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120908073528/http://about.jstor.org/content/individual-subscriptions | url-status= dead}}</ref> Every year, JSTOR blocks 150 million attempts by non-subscribers to read articles.<ref>[https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/01/every-year-jstor-turns-away-150-million-attempts-to-read-journal-articles/251382/ Every Year, JSTOR Turns Away 150 Million Attempts to Read Journal Articles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116212025/http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/01/every-year-jstor-turns-away-150-million-attempts-to-read-journal-articles/251382/ |date=November 16, 2016 }}. ''The Atlantic''. Retrieved January 29, 2013.</ref>

Inquiries have been made about the possibility of making JSTOR [[open access]]. According to Harvard Law professor [[Lawrence Lessig]], JSTOR had been asked, "How much would it cost to make this available to the whole world? What would we have to pay you?", reportedly responding with a figure of $250 million.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9HAw1i4gOU4#t=44m39 Lessig on "Aaron's Laws—Law and Justice in a Digital Age"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324010436/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9HAw1i4gOU4#t=44m39 |date=March 24, 2013 }}. YouTube (February 20, 2013). Retrieved on 2025-04-07.</ref>

===Aaron Swartz incident===
{{Main|United States v. Swartz}}
{{See also|Aaron Swartz#United States v. Aaron Swartz case}}

In late 2010 and early 2011, [[Aaron Swartz]], an American computer programmer, writer, political organizer and Internet activist, used [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s data network to bulk-download a substantial portion of JSTOR's collection of academic journal articles.<ref name="JSTORstatement" /><ref name="HuffPost" /> When the bulk-download was discovered, a video camera was placed in the room to film Swartz while the relevant computer was left untouched. Once video was captured of him, the download was stopped and he was identified. Rather than pursue a civil lawsuit against him, in June 2011 JSTOR reached a settlement wherein Swartz surrendered the downloaded data.<ref name="JSTORstatement" /><ref name="HuffPost" />

The following month, federal authorities charged Swartz with several [[data theft]]–related crimes, including [[wire fraud]], computer fraud, unlawfully obtaining information from a [[Computer security|protected computer]], and recklessly damaging a protected computer.<ref name="Bilton"/><ref name="open-access-adv" /> Prosecutors in the case claimed that Swartz acted with the intention of making the papers available on [[Peer-to-peer file sharing|P2P file-sharing sites]].<ref name=HuffPost /><ref name="Feds: Harvard fellow hacked millions of papers"/>

Swartz surrendered to authorities, pleaded not guilty to all counts, and was released on $100,000 bail. In September 2012, U.S. attorneys increased the number of charges against Swartz from four to thirteen, with a possible penalty of 35 years in prison and $1 million in fines.<ref name = JusticeGov /><ref name =Wired/> The case still was pending when Swartz died by suicide in January 2013.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-21001452 "Aaron Swartz, internet freedom activist, dies aged 26"] ([https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-21001452]), [[BBC News]].</ref>

===Limitations===
The availability of most journals on JSTOR is controlled by a "[[Embargo (academic publishing)|moving wall]]", which is an agreed-upon delay between the current volume of the journal and the latest volume available on JSTOR. This time period is specified by agreement between JSTOR and the publisher of the journal, which usually is three to five years. Publishers may request that the period of a "moving wall" be changed or request discontinuation of coverage. Formerly, publishers also could request that the "moving wall" be changed to a "fixed wall"—a specified date after which JSTOR would not add new volumes to its database. {{As of |2010|11}}, "fixed wall" agreements were still in effect with three publishers of 29 journals made available{{Update inline|date=March 2021|reason=This information is over a decade old.}} online through sites controlled by the publishers.<ref name="Wall" />

In 2010, JSTOR started adding current issues of certain journals through its Current Scholarship Program.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://about.jstor.org/content/about-current-journals |title=About current journals |publisher=JSTOR |access-date=December 1, 2012 |archive-date=November 26, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121126060006/http://about.jstor.org/content/about-current-journals |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Increasing public access===
Beginning September 6, 2011, JSTOR made public domain content available at no charge to the public.<ref name="JSTOR_EJC_announcement"/><ref name = LibraryJournal /> This "Early Journal Content" program constitutes about 6% of JSTOR's total content, and includes over 500,000 documents from more than 200 journals that were published before 1923 in the United States, and before 1870 in other countries.<ref name="JSTOR_EJC_announcement"/><ref name = LibraryJournal /><ref name=JSTOR_EJC_about/> JSTOR stated that it had been working on making this material free for some time. The Swartz controversy and Greg Maxwell's protest [[torrent file|torrent]] of the same content led JSTOR to "press ahead" with the initiative.<ref name = "JSTOR_EJC_announcement" /><ref name=LibraryJournal/> {{as of|2017}}, JSTOR does not have plans to extend it to other public domain content, stating that "We do not believe that just because something is in the public domain, it can always be provided for free".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://about.jstor.org/individuals-faq#Do_you_have_plans_to_make_other_content_in_the_public_domain_freely_available|title=About JSTOR: Frequently Asked Questions|publisher=JSTOR|access-date=May 18, 2017|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511080512/http://about.jstor.org/individuals-faq#Do_you_have_plans_to_make_other_content_in_the_public_domain_freely_available|archive-date=May 11, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In January 2012, JSTOR started a pilot program, "Register & Read", offering limited no-cost access (not [[open access]]) to archived articles for individuals who register for the service. At the conclusion of the pilot, in January 2013, JSTOR expanded Register & Read from an initial 76 publishers to include about 1,200 journals from over 700 publishers.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Tilsley|first1=Alexandra|title=Journal Archive Opens Up (Some)|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/01/09/jstor-offer-limited-free-access-content-1200-journals|access-date=January 6, 2015|work=[[Inside Higher Ed]]|date=January 9, 2013|archive-date=January 6, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150106093939/https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/01/09/jstor-offer-limited-free-access-content-1200-journals|url-status=live}}</ref> Registered readers may read up to six articles online every calendar month, but may not print or download PDFs.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://support.jstor.org/hc/en-us/articles/360000585347-NEW-MyJSTOR-Read-Online-Free | title = My JSTOR Read Online Free | publisher = JSTOR | access-date = March 26, 2018 | archive-date = March 26, 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180326142153/https://support.jstor.org/hc/en-us/articles/360000585347-NEW-MyJSTOR-Read-Online-Free | url-status = live }}</ref>

In 2013, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries had access to JSTOR.<ref name="Annual Summary">{{cite web|title=Annual Summary|url=http://about.jstor.org/sites/default/files/misc/JSTOR-Annual-Summary_2012_v6.pdf|work=JSTOR|access-date=April 13, 2013|date=March 19, 2013|archive-date=November 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111020127/http://about.jstor.org/sites/default/files/misc/JSTOR-Annual-Summary_2012_v6.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

As of 2014, JSTOR is conducting a [[Wikipedia:JSTOR|pilot program with Wikipedia]], whereby established editors are given reading privileges through the [[Wikipedia Library]], as with a university library.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Orlowitz|first1=Jake|last2=Earley|first2=Patrick|title=Librarypedia: The Future of Libraries and Wikipedia|url=http://www.thedigitalshift.com/2014/01/discovery/librarypedia-future-libraries-wikipedia/|department=The Digital Shift|work=[[Library Journal]]|access-date=December 20, 2014|date=January 25, 2014|archive-date=December 20, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220040150/http://www.thedigitalshift.com/2014/01/discovery/librarypedia-future-libraries-wikipedia/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Price|first1=Gary|title=Wikipedia Library Program Expands With More Accounts from JSTOR, Credo, and Other Database Providers|url=http://www.infodocket.com/2014/06/22/wikipedia-library-programs-expands-with-new-accounts-from-database-providers/|department=INFOdocket|work=[[Library Journal]]|access-date=December 20, 2014|date=June 22, 2014|archive-date=December 20, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220035814/http://www.infodocket.com/2014/06/22/wikipedia-library-programs-expands-with-new-accounts-from-database-providers/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Usage==
In 2012, JSTOR users performed nearly 152 million searches, with more than 113 million article views and 73.5 million article downloads.<ref name="Annual Summary"/> JSTOR has been used as a resource for linguistics research to investigate trends in language use over time and also to analyze gender differences and inequities in scholarly publishing, revealing that in certain fields, men predominate in the prestigious first and last author positions and that women are significantly underrepresented as authors of single-authored papers.<ref name="Lexicology"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Robin|title=Scholarly Publishing's Gender Gap|url=http://chronicle.com/article/The-Hard-Numbers-Behind/135236/|journal=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]|access-date=January 6, 2015|date=October 22, 2012|archive-date=January 6, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150106104720/http://chronicle.com/article/The-Hard-Numbers-Behind/135236/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=West|first1=Jevin D.|last2=Jacquet|first2=Jennifer|last3=King|first3=Molly M.|last4=Correll|first4=Shelley J.|last5=Bergstrom|first5=Carl T.|date=July 22, 2013|title=The Role of Gender in Scholarly Authorship|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=8|issue=7|article-number=e66212|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0066212|pmc=3718784|pmid=23894278|bibcode=2013PLoSO...866212W|arxiv=1211.1759|doi-access=free}}</ref>

JSTOR metadata is available through [[CrossRef]] and the [[Unpaywall]] dump,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Heather|access-date=April 25, 2020|title=It's time to insist on #openinfrastructure for #openscience|url=https://blog.ourresearch.org/openinfra/|date=September 14, 2018|website=[[OurResearch]] blog|archive-date=June 30, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630201122/https://blog.ourresearch.org/openinfra/|url-status=live}}</ref> which as of 2020 identifies nearly 3 million works hosted by JSTOR as [[toll access]], as opposed to over 200,000 available in [[open access]] (mainly through third party [[open access repositories]]).{{citation needed|date=April 2023}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Literature|Internet|New York City
}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Aluka]]
* [[Anna's Archive]]
* [[Artstor]]
* [[ArXiv]]
* [[Digital preservation]]
* [[HAL (open archive)]]
* [[Ithaka Harbors]]
* [[Japanese Historical Text Initiative]]
* [[JHOVE]]
* [[J-STAGE]]
* [[List of academic databases and search engines]]
* [[Project Muse]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist
|refs =
<ref name="About Ithaka">{{cite web |url = http://www.ithaka.org/about-ithaka |title = About |publisher = Ithaka |access-date = October 25, 2009 |archive-date = April 30, 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120430202320/http://www.ithaka.org/about-ithaka |url-status = dead }}</ref>

<ref name="Feds: Harvard fellow hacked millions of papers">{{cite news |title = Feds: Harvard fellow hacked millions of papers |last = Lindsay |first = Jay |url = https://news.yahoo.com/feds-harvard-fellow-hacked-millions-papers-203301454.html |agency = Associated Press |date = July 19, 2011 |access-date = July 20, 2011 |archive-date = January 16, 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130116122908/http://news.yahoo.com/feds-harvard-fellow-hacked-millions-papers-203301454.html |url-status = live}}</ref>

<ref name="Bilton">{{cite news |last= Bilton |first= Nick |url= http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/07/19/reddit-co-founder-charged-with-data-theft/ |title= Internet activist charged in M.I.T. data theft |website= Bits Blog, The New York Times website |date= July 19, 2011 |access-date= December 1, 2012 |archive-date= July 21, 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030413/http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/07/19/reddit-co-founder-charged-with-data-theft/ |url-status= live }}</ref>

<ref name="JSTOR glance">{{cite journal |jstor= 20120213 |title= At a glance |journal= Études Rurales |issue= 45 |pages= 131–133 | type = PDF |date=February 13, 2012 |last = Genicot |first = Léopold }}</ref>

<ref name="Lexicology">{{cite journal
| doi = 10.2307/455826
| volume = 73
| issue = 3
| pages = 279–296
| last = Shapiro
| first = Fred R.
| title = A Study in Computer-Assisted Lexicology: Evidence on the Emergence of ''Hopefully'' as a Sentence Adverb from the JSTOR Journal Archive and Other Electronic Resources
| journal = American Speech
| year = 1998
| jstor = 455826
}}</ref>

<ref name="Taylor">{{cite journal | last =Taylor | first = John| title=JSTOR: An Electronic Archive from 1665| journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London| year=2001| volume=55| issue=1| pages=179–81| doi=10.1098/rsnr.2001.0135| jstor=532157| s2cid = 72658238}}</ref>

<ref name="Wall">{{cite web |url=http://about.jstor.org/content-collections/moving-wall |title=Moving wall |publisher=JSTOR |access-date=October 19, 2010 |archive-date=June 25, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625060858/http://about.jstor.org/content-collections/moving-wall |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="JSTOR_EJC_announcement">{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=Laura |title=JSTOR–Free Access to Early Journal Content and Serving 'Unaffiliated' Users |url=http://about.jstor.org/news/jstor%E2%80%93free-access-early-journal-content-and-serving-%E2%80%9Cunaffiliated%E2%80%9D-users |website=JSTOR |access-date=June 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121128013415/http://about.jstor.org/news/jstor%E2%80%93free-access-early-journal-content-and-serving-%E2%80%9Cunaffiliated%E2%80%9D-users |archive-date=November 28, 2012 |date=September 7, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name=JSTOR_EJC_about>{{cite web |url= http://about.jstor.org/service/early-journal-content |title= Early journal content |publisher= JSTOR |access-date= December 1, 2012 |archive-date= August 6, 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120806074517/http://about.jstor.org/participate-jstor/individuals/early-journal-content |url-status= dead}}</ref>

<ref name=LibraryJournal>{{cite web|url=http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2011/09/academic-libraries/jstor-announces-free-access-to-500k-public-domain-journal-articles/|title=JSTOR Announces Free Access to 500K Public Domain Journal Articles|last=Rapp|first=David|date=September 7, 2011|work=Library Journal|access-date=October 21, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924141814/http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2011/09/academic-libraries/jstor-announces-free-access-to-500k-public-domain-journal-articles|archive-date=September 24, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="open-access-adv">{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/20/us/20compute.html | title=Open-Access Advocate Is Arrested for Huge Download | work=New York Times | date=July 19, 2011 | access-date=July 19, 2011 | last=Schwartz | first=John | archive-date=July 22, 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722043918/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/20/us/20compute.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=JSTORstatement>{{cite web|url=http://about.jstor.org/news/jstor-statement-misuse-incident-and-criminal-case|title=JSTOR Statement: Misuse Incident and Criminal Case|date=July 19, 2011|publisher=JSTOR|access-date=January 14, 2013|archive-date=January 12, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112202533/http://about.jstor.org/news/jstor-statement-misuse-incident-and-criminal-case|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=HuffPost>{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/12/aaron-swartz_n_2463726.html|title=Aaron Swartz, Internet Pioneer, Found Dead Amid Prosecutor 'Bullying' In Unconventional Case|date=January 12, 2013|newspaper=Huffington Post|last1=Carter|first1=Zach|last2=Grim|first2=Ryan|last3=Reilly|first3=Ryan J.|access-date=January 13, 2013|archive-date=January 20, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120102938/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/12/aaron-swartz_n_2463726.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Wired>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2012/09/aaron-swartz-felony/all/ |title=Feds Charge Activist with 13 Felonies for Rogue Downloading of Academic Articles |magazine=Wired |last=Kravets |first=David |date=September 18, 2012 |access-date=March 7, 2017 |archive-date=February 19, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219020910/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2012/09/aaron-swartz-felony/all/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=JusticeGov>{{Cite press release |title=Alleged Hacker Charged with Stealing over Four Million Documents from MIT Network |url=http://www.justice.gov/archive/usao/ma/news/2011/July/SwartzAaronPR.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724043722/http://www.justice.gov/usao/ma/news/2011/July/SwartzAaronPR.html |archive-date=July 24, 2011 |url-status=dead |publisher=The United States Attorney's Office |date=July 19, 2011 }}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal
|last1=Gauger |first1=Barbara J.
|last2=Kacena |first2=Carolyn
|year=2006
|title=JSTOR Usage Data and What It Can Tell Us About Ourselves: Is There Predictability Based on Historical Use by Libraries of Similar Size?
|journal=OCLC Systems & Services: International Digital Library Perspectives
|volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=43–55
|doi=10.1108/10650750610640801
}}
* {{Cite journal
|last=Seeds |first=Robert S.
|date=November 2002
|title=Impact of a Digital Archive (JSTOR) on Print Collection Use
|journal=Collection Building
|volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=120–22
|doi=10.1108/01604950210434551
}}
* {{Cite journal
|last=Spinella |first=Michael P.
|year=2007
|title=JSTOR: Past, Present, and Future
|journal=[[Journal of Library Administration]]
|volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=55–78
|doi=10.1300/J111v46n02_05
|s2cid=216117863
}}
* {{Cite journal
|last1=Spinella |first1=Michael
|year=2008
|title=JSTOR and the Changing Digital Landscape
|journal=Interlending & Document Supply
|volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=79–85
|doi=10.1108/02641610810878549
}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* {{Official website}}
* [https://about.jstor.org/jstor-institutions Libraries and institutions offering access (JSTOR)]—Searchable database, includes many public libraries offering free access to library card holders
* [https://support.jstor.org/hc/en-us/articles/115004760028-MyJSTOR-How-to-Register-Get-Free-Access-to-Content How to Register & Get Free Access to Content (JSTOR)]—Free individual registration, offering free read-only access (no printing or saving) to three articles every two weeks (seventy-eight per year)
* [https://archive.org/details/jstor_ejc JSTOR Early Journal Content : Free Texts : Download & Streaming] at the [[Internet Archive]]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:JSTOR}}
[[Category:1995 establishments in New York City]]
[[Category:Academic publishing]]
[[Category:American digital libraries]]
[[Category:Andrew W. Mellon Foundation]]
[[Category:Commercial digital libraries]]
[[Category:Databases in the United States]]

[[Category:Educational organizations established in 1995]]
[[Category:Educational publishing companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Full-text scholarly online databases]]
[[Category:Non-profit organizations based in New York City]]
[[Category:Online archives]]
[[Category:Organizations based in Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1995]]

Economy of India

2026-03-11T18:00:57Z

Sherrie7069:

{{Short description|none}}
{{protection padlock|reason=Persistent [[WP:Disruptive editing|disruptive editing]]; restoring previous semiprotection|small=yes}}
{{use Indian English|date=January 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{AI-generated|partial=y|date=January 2026|reason=Tag applies ONLY to edits made in May 2025 [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_India&diff=1290522180&oldid=1290176780 here]. Note [[WP:AISIGNS]] in these edits in promotional tone, superficial analyses, vocab distribution typical of 2025 LLMs, etc.}}
{{Infobox economy
| country = India
| image = R16f3ncq53gc1.jpg
| image_size = 350px
| alt = Economy
| caption = [[Mumbai]], the financial capital of India<ref name="ibef.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibef.org/states/maharashtra.aspx|title=Information About Maharashtra, Industries, Economy, Exports of Maharashtra|publisher=[[India Brand Equity Foundation]]|access-date=12 April 2014|archive-date=4 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804173208/http://www.ibef.org/states/maharashtra.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="books.google.co.in">{{cite book|title=Logistics Management for International Business: Text and Cases|last1=Sudalaimuthu|first1=S.|last2=Raj|first2=S. A.|year=2009|publisher=PHI Learning|isbn=9788120337923|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NG2TjfQF6zEC}}</ref>
| currency = [[Indian rupee]] (INR, ₹)
| fixed exchange =
| organs = [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[South Asian Free Trade Area|SAFTA]], [[BIMSTEC]], [[BRICS]], [[G-20 major economies|G-20]], [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank|AIIB]], [[Asian Development Bank|ADB]] and others
| group = {{plainlist|
* [[Developing country|Developing]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2020/01/weodata/groups.htm|title=World Economic and Financial Surveys World Economic Outlook Database—WEO Groups and Aggregates Information April 2020|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date=2 September 2020|archive-date=22 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222001529/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2200&sg=All+countries+%2f+Emerging+market+and+developing+economies|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[List of countries by GNI (nominal) per capita|Lower-middle income economy]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups|title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=29 September 2019|archive-date=28 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028223324/https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Newly industrialized country]]
}}
| population = {{increaseNeutral}} 1,428,627,663 ([[List of countries and dependencies by population|1st; 2024 est]].)<ref>{{Cite web|title=World Population Prospects – Population Division – United Nations|url=https://population.un.org/wpp/|access-date=2 July 2023|publisher=United Nations|archive-date=20 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520064106/https://population.un.org/wpp/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| gdp = {{plainlist|
* {{increase}} $4.505 trillion ([[GDP (nominal)|nominal]]; 2026 est.)<ref name="ID">{{cite web |title=India Datasets |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/IND |website=[[International Monetary Fund]] |access-date=15 Oct 2025}}</ref>
* {{increase}} $19.143 trillion ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]; 2026 est.)<ref name="ID" />
}}
| gdp rank = {{plainlist|
* [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|4th (nominal; 2026)]]
* [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|3rd (PPP; 2026)]]
}}
| growth = {{plainlist|
* {{increase}} 6.5% &nbsp;(FY2024)<ref name="IMF24">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=534,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=Global growth broadly unchanged amid persistent services inflation|website=imf.org}}</ref>
* {{increase}} 7.4%&nbsp;(FY2025)<ref>https://avenuemail.in/indias-economy-remains-robust/</ref>
* {{increase}} 8.2%&nbsp;(Q2 FY2025)<ref>https://new.mospi.gov.in/uploads/latestReleases/latest_release_1764326214920_fc47e094-3e61-42c3-a494-b4dc5f9dc5fd_GDP_Press_Note_on_Q2_2025-26N.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=November 2025}}</ref>
* {{increase}} 7.3%&nbsp;(FY2026)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://m.economictimes.com/news/economy/indicators/imf-raised-indias-fy26-growth-forecast-to-7-3/articleshow/126676458.cms|title=IMF raises India's FY26 growth forecast to 7.3%|publisher=The Economic Times|date=19 January 2026
}}</ref>
}}
| per capita = {{plainlist|
* {{increase}} $3,051 (nominal; 2026 est.)<ref name="IMF24" />
* {{increase}} $12,964 (PPP; 2026 est.)<ref name="IMF24" />
}}
| per capita rank = {{plainlist|
* [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|136th (nominal; 2026)]]{{efn|name=fn1|Excluded territories}}
* [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|119th (PPP; 2026)]]{{efn|name=fn1}}
}}
| components = {{plainlist|
* [[Consumption (economics)|Private final consumption]]: 56.3%
* Government final consumption: 9.3%
* [[Gross fixed capital formation]]: 33.5%
* Exports of goods and services: 22.6%
* Imports of goods and services: -23.2%
* Other source: 2.5%
* (FY 2024–25)<ref name="GDP mospi">{{cite web|title=Press note on the First Advanced Estimates for the year 2024–25|url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/press_release/PR_NAD_07012025_0.pdf|website=MoSPI|page=4|access-date=20 January 2025}}</ref>
}}
| inflation = {{plainlist|
* {{DecreasePositive}} 0.25% (October 2025)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/themes/product/9-consumer-price-index-cpi|title=Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation &#124; Government Of India|website=www.mospi.gov.in}}</ref>
}}
| poverty = {{plainlist|
* {{DecreasePositive}} 23.9% (2022)<ref name="auto4">{{cite web | title=World Development Indicators &#124; the World Bank | url=https://wdi.worldbank.org/table/1.2 }}</ref>
* {{DecreasePositive}} 5.3% living in [[extreme poverty]] (2022)<ref name="auto4"/>
}}
| gini = {{plainlist|
* 25.5 {{color|green|low}} (2025)<ref name="GINI index">{{cite web|title=India becomes fourth 'most equal' country globally|work=The Hindu |date=6 July 2025 |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-becomes-fourth-most-equal-country-globally/article69777979.ece}}</ref>}}
| cpi = {{decrease}} 38 out of 100 points (2024)<ref name="ti_2023">{{cite web|date=2024-01-30|title=CPI 2023: Highlights and insights - News |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/news/cpi-2023-highlights-insights-corruption-injustice |access-date=2025-02-15|website=[[Transparency International]]|language=en}}</ref> ([[Corruption Perceptions Index#Ranking over Time|rank 96th]])
| hdi = {{plainlist|
* {{Increase}} 0.685 {{color|orange|medium}} (2023, [[List of countries by Human Development Index|HDI 130th]])<ref name="ushdi">{{Cite web|title=Human Development Report 2025|url=https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/IND|access-date=11 May 2025|website=UNDP|language=en}}</ref>
* {{increase}} 0.475 {{color|brown|low}} (2023, [[List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI|IHDI 120th]])<ref name="ushdi" />
}}
| labor = {{plainlist|
* {{increase}} ~610 million (2025)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2136692 |title=Press Release |publisher=Press Information Bureau, Government of India |access-date=20 June 2025}}</ref> {{increase}} 42.1% employment rate
}}
| occupations = {{plainlist|
* [[Transport in India|Infrastructure]]: 13%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.investindia.gov.in/blogs/indias-push-infrastructure-development|title=India's Push for Infrastructure Development|website=investindia.gov.in}}</ref><ref name="MG">{{Cite web|url=https://www.business-standard.com/economy/news/over-80-million-people-worked-under-mgnrega-in-fy24-shows-data-124040101035_1.html|title=Over 80 million people worked under MGNREGA in FY24, shows data|website=Business Standard}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/construction/indias-construction-sector-second-largest-employment-generator-report/articleshow/102399804.cms?from=mdr|title=India's construction sector second largest employment generator: Report|newspaper=The Economic Times|date=3 August 2023}}</ref>
* [[Primary sector of the economy|Agriculture]]: 44%<ref>{{cite web|title=Employment in agriculture (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate) – India {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS?locations=IN|publisher=World Bank|access-date=15 February 2025|archive-date=7 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607054517/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS?locations=IN|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Secondary sector of the economy|Industry]]: 28%<ref>{{cite web|title=Employment in industry (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate) – India {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.IND.EMPL.ZS?locations=IN|publisher=World Bank|access-date=15 February 2025|archive-date=26 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126033620/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.IND.EMPL.ZS%3Flocations%3DIN|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Tertiary sector of the economy|Services]]: 34%<ref>{{cite web|title=Employment in services (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate) – India {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.SRV.EMPL.ZS?locations=IN|publisher=World Bank|access-date=15 February 2025|archive-date=26 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126033559/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.SRV.EMPL.ZS%3Flocations%3DIN|url-status=live}}</ref>
* (2023)
}}
| consumption = {{decrease}} 70.7% of GDP (2023)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.TOTL.ZS?locations=IN|title=World Bank Open Data|website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref>
| gfcf = {{increase}} 31% of GDP (2023)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.GDI.FTOT.ZS?locations=IN|title=World Bank Open Data|website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref>
| pmi = {{plainlist|
* {{increase}} 58.3 Manufacturing (June 2024)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy/story/indias-manufacturing-pmi-rises-to-583-due-to-improvement-in-biz-conditions-increased-hiring-435262-2024-07-01|title=India's manufacturing PMI rises to 58.3 due to improvement in biz conditions, increased hiring|date=July 2024}}</ref>
* {{increase}} 61.2 Services (June 2024)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy/story/indias-services-pmi-in-march-one-of-the-strongest-in-over-13-and-half-years-at-612-424270-2024-04-04|title=India's services PMI in March one of the strongest in over 13-and-half years at 61.2|date=4 April 2024}}</ref>
}}
| industries = {{hlist|item_style=white-space: | [[Mining in India|Mining]] and ore processing (including [[Coal]], [[Iron ore]], [[Aluminium]] and other metals); [[Steel]] and other base metals; [[Petrochemical]]s; [[Cement]]; capital goods and heavy machinery; infrastructure; transportation equipment (including [[Automobile]]s and EV components); [[Electronics and semiconductor manufacturing industry in India|electronics]] and semiconductors; consumer electronics and home appliances; [[Textile industry in India|textiles]] and apparel; [[Information technology in India|software and IT]]; [[financial technology]] and [[Artificial intelligence]]; agribusiness and food processing; [[Pharmaceutical industry in India|pharmaceuticals]] and [[Biotechnology in India|biotechnology]]; [[Medical device|medical devices]]; [[Renewable energy in India|renewable energy]]; [[Defence industry of India|defense manufacturing]]; [[Space industry of India|aerospace and space technology]] (satellites, launch vehicles) }}
| exports = {{increase}} $824.9&nbsp;billion (FY 2024–25)<ref>{{cite web|title=India's Total Exports Grow by 6.01% to Reach Record $824.9 Billion in 2024–25, Up from $778.1 Billion in 2023–24:RBI Report|url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2126119|publisher=Press Information Bureau: Government of India|access-date=30 May 2025}}</ref>
| export-goods = {{ublist|[[Manufacturers]] 70.7% |[[Fuels]] and mining products 14.7%| Agricultural products 14.1%| Others 0.5%<ref name="wto_stat">{{cite web|title=India – WTO Statistics Database|url=https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/daily_update_e/trade_profiles/IN_e.pdf|work=[[World Trade Organization]]|access-date=29 March 2022|archive-date=31 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131051943/https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/daily_update_e/trade_profiles/IN_e.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> (2022)}}
| export-partners = {{Tree list}}
* {{flag|United States}} 17.7%
* {{flag|European Union}} 17.4%
* {{flag|United Arab Emirates}} 8.2%
* {{nowrap|{{flag|China}} 5.7%}}
** {{flag|Hong Kong}} 1.9%
* {{flag|Singapore}} 2.9%
* {{flag|United Kingdom}} 2.6%
* {{flag|Saudi Arabia}} 2.6%
* {{flag|Bangladesh}} 2.5%
* {{flag|South Africa}} 2.0%
* {{flag|Australia}} 1.8%
* (2023–24)<ref name="EI">{{Cite web|title=Export Import Data Bank|url=https://tradestat.commerce.gov.in/eidb/ecomq.asp|access-date=5 June 2024|website=Ministry of Commerce and Industry}}</ref>
{{Tree list/end}}
| imports = {{increase}} $915.19&nbsp;billion (FY 2024–25)<ref name="auto3">{{cite web|title=The cumulative exports (merchandise & services) during FY 2024-25 (April-March) is estimated to grow by 5.50% at US$ 820.93 Billion, as compared to US$ 778.13 Billion in FY 2023-24 (April–March).|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2122016|publisher=Press Information Bureau: Government of India|access-date=16 April 2025}}</ref>
| import-goods = {{ublist|Agricultural products 7%| [[Fuels]] and mining products 33.2% | [[Manufacturers]] 52.1%| Other 7.7 %<ref name="wto_stat" /> (2022)}}
| import-partners = {{Tree list}}
* {{nowrap|{{flag|China}} 18.1%}}
** {{flag|Hong Kong}} 3.0%
* {{flag|Russia}} 9.1%
* {{flag|European Union}} 8.8%
* {{flag|United Arab Emirates}} 7.1%
* {{flag|United States}} 6.0%
* {{flag|Saudi Arabia}} 4.7%
* {{flag|Iraq}} 4.4%
* {{flag|Indonesia}} 3.5%
* {{flag|Switzerland}} 3.1%
* {{flag|Singapore}} 3.1%
* (2023–24)<ref name="EI" />
{{Tree list/end}}
| FDI = {{plainlist|
* {{increase}} $514 billion (2021–22)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Foreign investment in India – Santandertrade.com|url=https://santandertrade.com/en/portal/establish-overseas/india/foreign-investment|access-date=24 July 2023|website=santandertrade.com|archive-date=24 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724060012/https://santandertrade.com/en/portal/establish-overseas/india/foreign-investment|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Invest in India|url=https://international.groupecreditagricole.com/en/international-support/india/investing|access-date=24 July 2023|website=international.groupecreditagricole.com|archive-date=24 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724060012/https://international.groupecreditagricole.com/en/international-support/india/investing|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}
| current account = {{plainlist|
* {{IncreaseNegative}} –$44.563&nbsp;billion (2024)<ref name="imf-go" /><ref>{{cite web|title=IMF World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=534,&s=BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|access-date=31 January 2025|website=imf.org}}</ref>
* {{IncreaseNegative}} –1.146% of GDP (2024)<ref name="imf-go" />
}}
| gross external debt = {{plainlist|
* {{IncreaseNegative}} $663.8&nbsp;billion (March 2024)<ref>{{cite web|title=Reserve Bank of India – Press Releases|url=http://m.rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=58156|access-date=26 June 2024}}</ref>
* {{small|({{DecreasePositive}} 18.7% of GDP)}}
}}
| NIIP = {{Decrease}} –$379.7&nbsp;billion (June 2023)<ref>{{cite web|title=Reserve Bank of India – Press Releases|url=https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=56461|access-date=10 October 2023|website=rbi.org.in|archive-date=13 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013153201/https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=56461|url-status=live}}</ref>
| debt = {{plainlist|
* {{decreasePositive}} {{INRConvert|320.782|t|lk=on}}<ref name="imf-go">{{cite web|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/April/weo-report?c=534,&s=NID_NGDP,NGSD_NGDP,PCPI,PCPIPCH,PCPIE,PCPIEPCH,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|access-date=10 October 2023|website=IMF|language=en|archive-date=13 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013153207/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=534,&s=GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,&sy=2021&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{decreasePositive}} 80.4% of GDP (2025)<ref name="imf-go" />
}}
| balance = –6.4% of GDP (2022–23)<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/indian-budget-likely-push-spending-support-growth-while-lowering-deficit-2023-02-01/|title=India hikes spending, shuns 'outright populism' in last pre-election budget|first1=Shubham|last1=Batra|first2=Nikunj|last2=Ohri|first3=Shivangi|last3=Acharya|agency=Reuters|date=1 February 2023|work=Reuters.com|access-date=1 February 2023|archive-date=1 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201152750/https://www.reuters.com/world/india/indian-budget-likely-push-spending-support-growth-while-lowering-deficit-2023-02-01/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| revenue = {{plainlist|
* {{INRConvert|34.96|t|lk=on}}
* (2025–26)<ref name="auto1">{{cite web |url=https://www.india.gov.in/spotlight/union-budget-2025-2026 |title=Union Budget 2025-2026 |website=india.gov.in |publisher=Government of India |access-date=2025-05-28}}</ref>
}}
| expenses = {{plainlist|
* {{INRConvert|50.65|t|lk=on}}
* (2025–26)<ref name="auto1"/>
}}
| aid = :Donor: {{increase}} $4.234&nbsp;billion (2021) ($30.59&nbsp;billions Line of Credit in total)<ref name="Line of Credit for Development Project">{{cite web|title=Lines of Credit for Development Projects|url=https://mea.gov.in/Lines-of-Credit-for-Development-Projects.htm#:~:text=Development%20assistance%20in%20the%20form,been%20extended%20to%2064%20countries.|website=Wristband.com|date=1 April 2017|access-date=14 February 2022|archive-date=19 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119130728/https://mea.gov.in/Lines-of-Credit-for-Development-Projects.htm#:~:text=Development%20assistance%20in%20the%20form,been%20extended%20to%2064%20countries.|url-status=live}}</ref>
| credit = {{plainlist|
* [[Standard & Poor's]]:<ref>{{Cite web
| title = India sovereign rating upgraded by S&P: What it means for bonds, currency, rates, RBI, markets
| url = https://www.cnbctv18.com/economy/india-sovereign-rating-upgraded-by-snp-outlook-bonds-currency-rates-rbi-markets-19654052.htm
| website = CNBCTV18
| date = 14 August 2025
| access-date = August 17, 2025
}}</ref>
* BBB
* Outlook: Stable
----
* [[Moody's]]:<ref>{{cite news
|title=No immediate upgrade of India's sovereign rating: Moody's
|url=https://m.economictimes.com/news/economy/indicators/no-immediate-upgrade-of-indias-sovereign-rating-moodys/articleshow/117830938.cms
|publisher=The Economic Times
|date=February 1, 2025
|access-date=August 17, 2025
}}</ref>
* Baa3
* Outlook: Stable
----
* [[Fitch Group|Fitch]]:<ref>{{Cite web
| title = India's rating upgrade challenge as debt woes trump fiscal prudence: Fitch
| url = https://www.business-standard.com/economy/news/india-s-rating-upgrade-challenge-as-debt-woes-trump-fiscal-prudence-fitch-125020300507_1.html
| website = Business Standard
| date = 2025-02-03
| access-date = 2025-08-17
}}</ref>
* BBB−
* Outlook: Stable
----
* [[DBRS]]:<ref name="dbrs-list">{{Cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/economy/indias-sovereign-credit-rating-upgraded-to-bbb-with-stable-outlook-by-morningstar-dbrs-11746791496302.html|title=India's sovereign credit rating upgraded to 'BBB' with stable outlook by Morningstar DBRS|date=9 May 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515044830/https://www.dbrs.com/research/285128/dbrs-sovereign-ratings.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2019}}</ref>
* BBB
* Outlook: Stable}}
| reserves = {{increase}} $725.727&nbsp;billion{{efn|Indian reports are released on a weekly basis rather than the traditional monthly basis with the figures being of the previous week, by [[Reserve Bank of India]].}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-06-13 |title=Reserve Bank of India - Weekly Statistical Supplement|url=https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/WSSViewDetail.aspx?TYPE=Section&PARAM1=2 |access-date=2025-11-29 |work= Reserve Bank of India |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> ([[List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves|5th]]) {{small|(as of 06 February 2026)}}
| savings = 31.781% of GDP (2023)<ref name="imf-go" />
| sectors = {{plainlist|
* [[Primary sector of the economy|Agriculture]]: 17.7%
* [[Secondary sector of the economy|Industry]]: 27.6%
* [[Tertiary sector of the economy|Services]]: 54.7%
* (FY 2023–24)<ref name="SI">{{cite web|title=GDP by Sector– India FY2020-21|url=https://m.statisticstimes.com/economy/country/india-gdp-sectorwise.php|access-date=3 October 2021|website=statisticstimes.com|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003095604/https://m.statisticstimes.com/economy/country/india-gdp-sectorwise.php|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}
| unemployment = {{plainlist|
* {{Decreasepositive}} 4.9% (March 2025)<ref name="ID" /> }}
| year = 1 April – 31 March
| yield curve = 10-year bond 7.190% (Jan 2023)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.marketwatch.com/investing/bond/ldbmkin-10y?countrycode=bx|title=LDBMKIN-10Y {{pipe}} India 10 Year Government Bond Overview|website=MarketWatch|date=19 September 2023|access-date=1 February 2023|archive-date=1 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201152750/https://www.marketwatch.com/investing/bond/ldbmkin-10y?countrycode=bx|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_ViewBulletin.aspx?Id=21066|title=What is the Yield Curve Telling Us About the Economy?|date=16 June 2022|website=rbi.org|access-date=1 February 2023|archive-date=1 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201152753/https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_ViewBulletin.aspx?Id=21066|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

The '''economy of India''' is a [[Developing country|developing]] [[mixed economy]] with a notable public sector in strategic sectors.<ref name="Eco_info">
* {{Cite news|title=Indian Economic policy: View: India needn't worry about the 'middle-income trap'|newspaper=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/view-india-neednt-worry-about-a-middle-income-trap/articleshow/70283084.cms?from=mdr|access-date=5 December 2020|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405072853/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/view-india-neednt-worry-about-a-middle-income-trap/articleshow/70283084.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Alamgir|first=Jalal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gj6UAgAAQBAJ&q=India+a+market+economy|title=India's Open-Economy Policy: Globalism, Rivalry, Continuity|date=2008|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-135-97056-7|page=176|author-link=Jalal Alamgir|access-date=10 November 2020|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109222926/https://books.google.com/books?id=gj6UAgAAQBAJ&q=India+a+market+economy#v=snippet&q=India%20a%20market%20economy&f=false|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last1=Kanungo|first1=Rama P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aMlaDwAAQBAJq|title=Changing the Indian Economy: Renewal, Reform and Revival|last2=Rowley|first2=Chris|last3=Banerjee|first3=Anurag N.|date=2018|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|isbn=978-0-08-102014-2|page=24}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Kaushik|first1=Surendra K.|title=India's Evolving Economic Model: A Perspective on Economic and Financial Reforms|journal=The American Journal of Economics and Sociology|year=1997|volume=56|issue=1|pages=69–84|doi=10.1111/j.1536-7150.1997.tb03452.x|jstor=3487351|issn=0002-9246}}</ref> It is the world's fourth-largest economy by [[gross domestic product|nominal GDP]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Symeonidis |first=Petros |date=2025-12-16 |title=The Top 10 Largest Economies in the World in 2026 |url=https://www.focus-economics.com/blog/the-largest-economies-in-the-world/ |access-date=2025-12-18 |website=FocusEconomics |language=en-US}}</ref> and the third-largest by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP); on a [[per capita income]] basis, [[India]] ranked [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|136th by nominal GDP]] and [[List of countries by GDP per capita (PPP)|119th by PPP-adjusted GDP]].<ref name="IMF2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD?year=2022|title=IMF DataMapper / Datasets / World Economic Outlook (October 2022) / GDP per capita, current prices / List (2022) – Analytical group: European Union, World|date=11 October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date=17 November 2022|archive-date=14 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114210550/https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD?year=2022|url-status=live}}</ref> From [[Independence of India|independence in 1947]] until 1991, successive promoted [[Protectionism|protectionist]] economic policies, with extensive [[state intervention]], [[demand-side economics]], natural resources, bureaucrat-driven enterprises and [[economic regulation]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Economic Reform and Development|last1=Sharma|first1=Anju|last2=Dhindsa|first2=K. S.|year=2005|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-8-180-69273-4}}</ref><ref name="PE">{{Citation|last=Chandrasekhar|first=C. P.|title=From Dirigisme to Neoliberalism: Aspects of the Political Economy of the Transition in India|year=2012|work=Developmental Politics in Transition: The Neoliberal Era and Beyond|pages=140–165|editor-last=Kyung-Sup|editor-first=Chang|series=International Political Economy Series|place=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|language=en|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29360/1/10731455.pdf|doi=10.1057/9781137028303_8|isbn=978-1-137-02830-3|access-date=4 September 2020|editor2-last=Fine|editor2-first=Ben|editor3-last=Weiss|editor3-first=Linda|archive-date=15 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715134718/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29360/1/10731455.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BB">{{cite web|last=Mazumdar|first=Surajit|year=2012|title=Industrialization, Dirigisme and Capitalists: Indian Big Business from Independence to Liberalization|url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/93158/|access-date=4 September 2020|website=mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de|language=en|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418101506/https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/93158/|url-status=live}}</ref> The end of the [[Cold War]] and an acute [[1991 Indian economic crisis|balance of payments crisis]] in 1991 led to the adoption of a broad economic liberalisation in India and [[Dirigisme|indicative planning]].<ref name="oecd" /><ref name="nyt" /> India has about 1,900 public sector companies,<ref>{{cite web|author1=Shirish Sankhe|author2=Anu Madgavkar|author3=Gautam Kumra|author4=Jonathan Woetzel|author5=Sven Smit|author6=Kanmani Chockalingam|title=India's turning point|url=https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Featured%20Insights/India/Indias%20turning%20point%20An%20economic%20agenda%20to%20spur%20growth%20and%20jobs/MGI-Indias-turning-point-Executive-summary-August-2020-vFinal.pdf|publisher=McKinsey Global Institute|access-date=19 August 2024|date=August 2020}}{{Self-published source|date=August 2024}}</ref> with the Indian state having complete control and ownership of railways. While the Indian government retains ownership through the [[National Highways Authority of India]] (NHAI), a large share of new national highway projects are now built and maintained under [[Public–private partnership]] (PPP) models rather than being fully government‑funded.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Public Private Participation (PPP) {{!}} Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Government of India |url=https://morth.nic.in/en/public-private-participation-ppp |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=morth.nic.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-09-30 |title=Government to offer most NH projects on PPP mode |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/government-to-offer-most-nh-projects-on-ppp-mode/articleshow/104055241.cms |access-date=2025-11-17 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> The government plays a major role in sectors like [[Supercomputing in India|supercomputing]], [[Space industry of India|space]] and shipping but private participation is growing, especially in space, telecom, and satellite communications.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ramreiphy |date=2024-02-20 |title=Enhancing Connectivity: Key developments in the telecom infrastructure space - |url=https://tele.net.in/enhancing-connectivity-key-developments-in-the-telecom-infrastructure-space/ |access-date=2025-11-17 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Nearly 70% of India's GDP is driven by domestic consumption;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.TOTL.ZS?most_recent_value_desc=true&locations=IN|title=Final consumption expenditure (% of GDP) – India|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=11 March 2022|archive-date=18 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220518055752/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.TOTL.ZS?most_recent_value_desc=true&locations=IN|url-status=live}}</ref> the country remains the world's [[List of largest consumer markets|third-largest consumer market]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.PRVT.CD?end=2023&locations=IN&most_recent_value_desc=2023&start=1960 | title=World Bank Open Data }}</ref> Aside from private consumption, India's GDP is also fueled by government spending, investments, and exports.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/is-your-debt-dragging-the-economy-down/articleshow/71082520.cms|title=Is your debt dragging the economy down?|work=The Times of India|date=11 September 2019|access-date=11 September 2019|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708155130/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/is-your-debt-dragging-the-economy-down/articleshow/71082520.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2025, India is the world's [[List of countries by imports|7th-largest importer]] and the [[List of countries by exports|10th-largest exporter]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exports Comparison - The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/exports/country-comparison/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108024730/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/exports/country-comparison/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 January 2021 |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=www.cia.gov}}</ref> India is often described as the “pharmacy of the world,” supplying around one-fifth of global demand for generic medicines and exporting pharmaceuticals to over 200 countries in 2023–24, with approximately 70% of exports destined for highly regulated markets such as North America and Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.ETManufacturing.in |title=India's pharma exports continue to grow at brisk pace |url=https://manufacturing.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/life-sciences/indias-pharma-exports-continue-to-grow-at-brisk-pace/112569278 |access-date=2025-11-18 |website=ETManufacturing.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-27 |title=Indian pharma rises to global prominence led by export boom and better compliance rates, McKinsey report reveals |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/business/healthcare-indian-pharma-rises-to-global-prominence-led-by-export-boom-and-better-compliance-rates-mckinsey-report-reveals-3762058/ |access-date=2025-11-18 |website=The Financial Express |language=en}}</ref> In the United States, Indian pharmaceutical companies supply nearly half of all generic prescriptions by volume.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-26 |title=India’s pharma sees limited risk as US slaps 100% tariff on branded and patented drug imports - BusinessToday |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/industry/pharma/story/indias-pharma-sees-limited-risk-as-us-slaps-100-tariff-on-branded-and-patented-drug-imports-495959-2025-09-26 |access-date=2026-01-20 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Indian pharmaceutical firms supplied 47% of all generic prescriptions in US in 2022 {{!}} IBEF |url=https://www.ibef.org/news/indian-pharmaceutical-firms-supplied-47-of-all-generic-prescriptions-in-us-in-2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251116161106/https://www.ibef.org/news/indian-pharmaceutical-firms-supplied-47-of-all-generic-prescriptions-in-us-in-2022 |archive-date=16 November 2025 |access-date=2026-01-20 |website=India Brand Equity Foundation |language=en-US |url-status=live }}</ref> India is also the largest vaccine manufacturer globally by volume, accounting for over 60% of the world’s vaccine production.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India’s vaccine manufacturing prowess |url=https://www.investindia.gov.in/team-india-blogs/indias-vaccine-manufacturing-prowess |access-date=2026-01-20 |website=www.investindia.gov.in |language=en}}</ref> India has been a member of the [[World Trade Organization]] since 1 January 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/india_e.htm|publisher=WTO|title=India – Member information|access-date=5 September 2019|archive-date=21 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521070029/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/india_e.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> It ranks 41st on the [[WEF Global Competitiveness Report|Global Competitiveness Index]] and 39th in [[Global Innovation Index]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en|url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en|website=GII 2025 Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer|access-date=2026-01-29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=World Competitiveness Ranking 2025: Switzerland Retains First Spot, India Is At...|url=https://www.ndtv.com/feature/world-competitiveness-ranking-2025-switzerland-retains-first-spot-india-is-at-9129183|work=www.ndtv.com|access-date=2026-01-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250903200233/https://www.ndtv.com/feature/world-competitiveness-ranking-2025-switzerland-retains-first-spot-india-is-at-9129183|archive-date=3 September 2025|language=en|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2025, India ranks third in the world in [[List of countries by number of billionaires|total number of billionaires]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Peterson-Withorn |first=Chase |title=Forbes Billionaires List 2025: World's Wealthiest Now Worth More Than Nearly All Nations' GDPs |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/chasewithorn/2025/04/01/forbes-39th-annual-worlds-billionaires-list-more-than-3000-worth-16-trillion/ |access-date=2025-11-17 |work=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> According to the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]], India's Gini index fell to 25.5 in 2022‑23, making it the fourth-most equal country globally, suggesting significant progress in income equality.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gini Index coefficient - distribution of family income Comparison - The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204222738/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 February 2021 |access-date=2025-11-18 |website=www.cia.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-05 |title=India ranks as the world's 4th most equal society, says World Bank report - BusinessToday |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy/story/india-ranks-as-the-worlds-4th-most-equal-society-says-world-bank-report-483243-2025-07-05 |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=Business Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-07-06 |title=India ranks 4th globally in income equality, shows World Bank data |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-ranks-4th-globally-in-income-equality-shows-world-bank-data/articleshow/122272852.cms |access-date=2025-11-18 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=PTI |date=2025-07-06 |title=India becomes fourth 'most equal' country globally, says World Bank report |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-becomes-fourth-most-equal-country-globally/article69777979.ece |access-date=2025-11-18 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Economists and social scientists often consider India a [[welfare state]].<ref name="India_kapur">Kapur, D. and Nangia, P. (2015) 'Social Protection in India: A Welfare State Sans Public Goods?', India Review, 14(1), pp. 73–90. {{doi|10.1080/14736489.2015.1001275}}.</ref><ref name="India_aspalter">Aspalter, Christian, The State and the Making of the Welfare System in India (14 December 2010). Journal of National Development, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 149-79, 2003, Available at {{SSRN|1725132}}</ref><ref name="India_jayal">Jayal, Niraja Gopal. "The Gentle Leviathan: Welfare and the Indian State." Social Scientist, vol. 22, no. 9/12, 1994, pp. 18–26. JSTOR, {{doi|10.2307/3517911}}. Retrieved 5 June 2024.</ref><ref name="India_bava">Bava, N. (1996). The Welfare State and Liberalisation in India. Indian Journal of Public Administration, 42(3), 334-346. {{doi|10.1177/0019556119960312}}</ref> India's overall [[Social security in India|social welfare spending]] stood at 8.6% of GDP in 2021-22.<ref>[https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1793817 Government's spending on Social Services increased significantly during the pandemic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107064604/https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1793817 |date=7 November 2022 }} Press Information Bureau. Government of India, Ministry of Finance 31 January 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2022.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/economicsurvey/ebook_es2022/files/basic-html/page377.html|title=Page 377 – economic_survey_2021-2022|website=indiabudget.gov.in|access-date=7 November 2022|archive-date=7 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221107070110/https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/economicsurvey/ebook_es2022/files/basic-html/page377.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

As of 2025, the service sector accounts for around 55% of GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Briefing |first=India |date=2025-11-11 |title=Services Sector in India: Investment Guide FY 2025-26 |url=https://www.india-briefing.com/news/india-services-sector-growth-trends-2025-40683.html/ |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=India Briefing News |language=en-US}}</ref> India has two of the world's ten [[largest stock exchanges]] (both by [[Volume (finance)|trade volume]] and [[Market capitalization|market capitalisation]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Market Statistics - Focus {{!}} The World Federation of Exchanges |url=https://focus.world-exchanges.org/issue/february-2025/market-statistics |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=focus.world-exchanges.org}}</ref> According to [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization]] (UNIDO) India is the world's [[Manufacturing#List of countries by manufacturing output|fifth-largest manufacturer]], representing 3.2% of global manufacturing output.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref> India’s digital economy was estimated at US$402 billion in 2022–23, equal to about 11.74% of GDP, and is projected to rise to around 13.4% by 2024–25 and nearly 20% of GDP by 2029–30, with its total value expected to surpass US$1 trillion by 2029.<ref>{{Cite web|title=India's digital economy to contribute one-fifth of national income by 2029-30: MeitY|url=https://retail.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/industry/indias-digital-economy-to-contribute-one-fifth-of-national-income-by-2029-30-meity/117671663|website=ETRetail.com|access-date=2025-11-28|language=en|last=www.ETRetail.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=MeitY Releases "Estimation and Measurement of India's Digital Economy" Report – GKToday|url=https://www.gktoday.in/meity-releases-estimation-and-measurement-of-indias-digital-economy-report/|website=www.gktoday.in|access-date=2025-11-28}}</ref> Nearly 63% of India's population is rural,<ref name="auto2"/> and contributes about 46% of India's GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Primed to soar |url=https://www.theweek.in/theweek/business/2025/01/17/capitalise-on-the-growth-potential-of-indias-rural-economy-sreenath-prabhu-dhanasree-wealth-financial-services.html |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=The Week |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lenka |first=Trinath |date=2025-01-20 |title=Investing In Rural India's Evolving Growth Story |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/hub4business/investing-in-rural-indias-evolving-growth-story |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=Outlook India |language=en}}</ref> India's unemployment rate remained at 3.2% in 2023–24.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news |date=2024-09-24 |title=Rate of unemployment unchanged at 3.2% in year ending June 2024: Govt data |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/rate-of-unemployment-unchanged-at-3-2-in-year-ending-june-2024-govt-data/articleshow/113610811.cms |access-date=2025-11-17 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> In 2025, the IMF gave Indian GDP a 'C' grade, and mentioned that Indian national accounts and inflation data is not accurately recording the informal sector and people’s spending patterns.<ref name="d952"/>

== History ==
{{Main|Economic history of India|Timeline of the economy of the Indian subcontinent}}
[[File:Aurangzeb-portrait.jpg|thumb|[[Aurangzeb]] expanded the [[Mughal Empire]] and made it the region with largest GDP in the 17th century.]]
[[Indus Valley Civilisation]], the early civilisation of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], developed the economy of agriculture and craft which later spread into central India.<ref name="u759">{{cite book | last=Mokyr | first=Joel | title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History | publisher=Oxford University Press | date=2003 | isbn=978-0-19-510507-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ssNMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA23 | access-date=2025-10-22 | page=23}}</ref> [[Angus Maddison]] estimates that from 1-1000 AD, the regions making up the present-day India contributed roughly 30% of the world's population and GDP.<ref name="maddison2612">[[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2003): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA261 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics]'', [[OECD Publishing]], {{ISBN|9264104143}}, p. 261</ref>

India experienced per-capita [[GDP growth]] in the [[Medieval India|high medieval]] era.<ref>{{cite web | title=
Economic History of Delhi Sultanate | url=https://ia600603.us.archive.org/30/items/ECONOMICHISTORYOFTHEDELHISULTANATE/ECONOMIC_HISTORY_OF_THE_DELHI_SULTANATE.pdf | author=[[Irfan Habib]]|access-date=2025-10-22}}</ref> By the late 17th century, most of the Indian subcontinent had been united under the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal Emperor]] [[Aurangzeb]], which for a time Maddison estimates became the largest economy and manufacturing power in the world, producing about a quarter of global GDP, before fragmenting and being conquered over the next century.<ref name="Maddisson World GDP">{{cite book|last1=Maddison |first1=Angus |title=The World Economy (GDP) : Historical Statistics by Professor Angus Maddison|series=Development Centre Studies |date=2006 |url=http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf|publisher=World Economy|doi=10.1787/9789264022621-en |isbn=978-92-64-02261-4 |access-date=21 May 2013}}</ref> The combination of [[protectionist]], [[import-substitution]], [[Fabian Society|Fabian socialism]], and [[Social democracy|social democratic]]-inspired policies governed India for sometime after the end of [[British Raj|British rule]]. The economy was then characterised as [[Dirigisme|Dirigism]],<ref name="PE" /><ref name="BB" /> due to extensive regulation, [[protectionism]], and [[public ownership]] of large monopolies.<ref name="oecd" /><ref name="nyt" /><ref name="potential">{{cite web|url=http://www.usindiafriendship.net/viewpoints1/Indias_Rising_Growth_Potential.pdf|title=India's Rising Growth Potential|publisher=Goldman Sachs|year=2007|access-date=21 June 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724120152/http://www.usindiafriendship.net/viewpoints1/Indias_Rising_Growth_Potential.pdf|archive-date=24 July 2011}}</ref> Since 1991, [[Economic liberalisation in India|continuing economic liberalisation]] has moved the country towards a [[market economy|market-based economy]].<ref name="oecd">{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/52/39452196.pdf|title=Economic survey of India 2007: Policy Brief|publisher=[[OECD]]|access-date=21 June 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606112149/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/52/39452196.pdf|archive-date=6 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="nyt">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/08/15/world/india-stumbles-in-rush-to-a-free-market-economy.html|title=India Stumbles in Rush to a Free Market Economy|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=15 August 1992|author=Edward A. Gargan|access-date=17 January 2011|archive-date=8 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208134134/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/08/15/world/india-stumbles-in-rush-to-a-free-market-economy.html|url-status=live}}</ref> By 2008, India had established itself as one of the world's faster-growing economies.

=== Ancient and medieval eras ===
==== Indus Valley Civilisation ====
The citizens of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]], a permanent settlement that flourished between 2800&nbsp;BCE and 1800&nbsp;BCE, practised agriculture, domesticated animals, used uniform weights and measures, made tools and weapons, and traded with other cities. Evidence of well-planned streets, a drainage system, and [[water supply]] reveals their knowledge of [[urban planning]], which included the first-known urban [[sanitation]] systems and the existence of a form of municipal government.<ref name="Discovery-1">{{cite book|author=Nehru, Jawaharlal|title=The Discovery of India|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1946|isbn=0-14-303103-1|author-link=Jawaharlal Nehru|title-link=The Discovery of India}}</ref>

==== West Coast ====
Maritime trade was carried out extensively between [[South India|southern regions of India]] and [[Southeast Asia]] and West Asia from early times until around the fourteenth century CE. Both the [[Malabar Coast|Malabar]] and [[Coromandel Coast]]s were the sites of important trading centres from as early as the first century BCE, used for import and export as well as transit points between the [[Mediterranean]] region and southeast Asia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Raychaudhuri|Habib|2004|pp=17–18}}</ref> Over time, traders organised themselves into associations which received state patronage. This state patronage for overseas trade came to an end by the thirteenth century CE, when it was largely taken over by the local Parsi, Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim communities, initially on the Malabar and subsequently on the Coromandel coast.<ref>{{Harvnb|Raychaudhuri|Habib|2004|pp=40–41}}</ref>

==== Silk Route ====
Other scholars suggest trading from India to West Asia and Eastern Europe was active between the 14th and 18th centuries.<ref name="hanway1753">{{Citation|title=An Historical Account of the British Trade Over the Caspian Sea|first=Jonas|last=Hanway|year=1753|publisher=Sold by Mr. Dodsley|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etApAAAAYAAJ|quote=''...&nbsp;The Persians have very little maritime strength&nbsp;... their ship carpenters on the Caspian were mostly Indians&nbsp;... there is a little temple, in which the Indians now worship''|access-date=14 November 2015|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109222928/https://books.google.com/books?id=etApAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="dale2002">{{Citation|title=Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade, 1600–1750|author=Stephen Frederic Dale|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-52597-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GqEWw_54uVUC|quote=''...&nbsp;The Russian merchant, F.A. Kotov&nbsp;... saw in Isfahan in 1623, both Hindus and Muslims, as Multanis.''|access-date=14 November 2015|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109222930/https://books.google.com/books?id=GqEWw_54uVUC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="levi2002">{{Citation|title=The Indian diaspora in Central Asia and its trade, 1550–1900|author=Scott Cameron Levi|year=2002|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-12320-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qVkNBge8mIC|quote=''...&nbsp;George Forster&nbsp;... On the 31st of March, I visited the Atashghah or place of fire; and on making myself known to the Hindoo mendicants, who resided there, I was received among these sons of Brihma as a brother''}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> During this period, Indian traders settled in [[Suraxanı raion|Surakhani]], a suburb of greater [[Baku]], Azerbaijan. These traders built a [[Ateshgah of Baku|Hindu temple]], which suggests commerce was active and prosperous for Indians by the 17th century.<ref name="jackson1911">{{Citation|title=From Constantinople to the home of Omar Khayyam: travels in Transcaucasia and northern Persia for historic and literary research|author=Abraham Valentine Williams Jackson|year=1911|publisher=The Macmillan company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4aBAAAAIAAJ|access-date=14 November 2015|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326205033/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4aBAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="forster1798">{{Citation|title=A journey from Bengal to England: through the northern part of India, Kashmire, Afghanistan, and Persia, and into Russia, by the Caspian-Sea|author=George Forster|year=1798|publisher=R. Faulder|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSkQAAAAYAAJ|quote=''...&nbsp;A society of [[Multan|Moultan]] Hindoos, which has long been established in Baku, contributes largely to the circulation of its commerce; and with the Armenians, they may be accounted the principal merchants of Shirwan&nbsp;...''|author-link=George Forster (traveller)|access-date=14 November 2015|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109222928/https://books.google.com/books?id=CSkQAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="morier1818">{{Citation|title=A Second Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor, to Constantinople, between the Years 1810 and 1816|author=James Justinian Morier|year=1818|publisher=A. Strahan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VjdtPAAACAAJ}}</ref><ref name="usgovt1887hd">{{Citation|title=Reports from the consuls of the United States, 1887|author=United States Bureau of Foreign Commerce|year=1887|publisher=United States Government|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KBASAAAAYAAJ|quote=''...&nbsp;Six or 7&nbsp;miles southeast is Surakhani, the location of a very ancient monastery of the fire-worshippers of India&nbsp;...''|access-date=14 November 2015|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109222930/https://books.google.com/books?id=KBASAAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

Further north, the [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] and [[Bengal]] coasts played an important role in maritime trade, and the [[Gangetic plains]] and the [[Indus valley]] housed several centres of river-borne commerce. Most overland trade was carried out via the [[Khyber Pass]] connecting the [[Punjab region]] with Afghanistan and onward to the Middle East and Central Asia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Raychaudhuri|Habib|2004|pp=10–13}}</ref> Although many kingdoms and rulers issued coins, [[barter]] was prevalent. Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue to the rulers, while their craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest time for their services.<ref name="Dutt-1">{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|page=14}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| width = 120
| image1 = MauryanCoin.JPG
| caption1 = Silver coin of the [[Maurya Empire]], 3rd century BCE
| image2 = Silver Coin of Kumaragupta I.jpg
| caption2 = Silver coin of the [[Gupta dynasty]], 5th century CE
}}

=== Mughal, Rajput, and Maratha eras (1526–1820) ===
{{See also|Muslin trade in Bengal|Economy of the Kingdom of Mysore}}

The Indian economy was the largest and most prosperous throughout world history and would continue to be under the [[Mughal Empire]], up until the 18th century.<ref name="schmidt">Karl J. Schmidt (2015), [https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 ''An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History'', page 100] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922034442/https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 |date=22 September 2023 }}, [[Routledge]]</ref> Sean Harkin estimates that China and India may have accounted for 60 to 70 percent of world GDP in the 17th century. The Mughal economy functioned on an elaborate system of [[coin]]ed currency, land revenue and trade. Gold, silver and copper coins were issued by the royal [[mint (coin)|mints]] which functioned on the basis of [[Commodity money|free coinage]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Raychaudhuri|Habib|2004|pp=360–361}}</ref> The political stability and uniform revenue policy resulting from a centralized administration under the Mughals, coupled with a well-developed internal trade network, ensured that India–before the arrival of the British–was to a large extent economically unified, despite having a traditional agrarian economy characterised by a predominance of [[subsistence agriculture]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Kumar|2005|p=3}}</ref> Agricultural production increased under Mughal [[agrarian reform]]s,<ref name="schmidt" /> with Indian agriculture being advanced compared to Europe at the time, such as the widespread use of the [[seed drill]] among Indian peasants before its adoption in European agriculture,<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Irfan Habib]]|author2=[[Dharma Kumar]]|author3=[[Tapan Raychaudhuri]]|title=The Cambridge Economic History of India|volume=1|page=214|year=1987|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|url=http://www.hkrdb.kar.nic.in/documents/Downloads/Good%20Reads/The%20Cambridge%20Economic%20History%20of%20India,%20Volume%201.pdf#page=230|access-date=5 August 2017|archive-date=4 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804231000/http://www.hkrdb.kar.nic.in/documents/Downloads/Good%20Reads/The%20Cambridge%20Economic%20History%20of%20India,%20Volume%201.pdf#page=230|url-status=live}}</ref> and possibly higher per-capita agricultural output and standards of consumption than 17th century Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Vivek Suneja|title=Understanding Business: A Multidimensional Approach to the Market Economy|page=13|publisher=[[Psychology Press]]|year=2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Stw3qadXG0C&pg=PA13|isbn=978-0-415-23857-1|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922034936/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Stw3qadXG0C&pg=PA13|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Mughal Empire had a thriving industrial manufacturing economy, with India producing about 25% of the world's industrial output up until 1750,<ref name="williamson">{{cite web|url=http://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/Istanbul/JGWGEHNIndianDeind.pdf|title=India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries|author=[[Jeffrey G. Williamson]], David Clingingsmith|publisher=[[Harvard University]]|date=August 2005|access-date=18 May 2017|archive-date=13 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213044056/http://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/Istanbul/JGWGEHNIndianDeind.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> making it the most important manufacturing centre in [[international trade]].<ref name="WE">{{Citation|title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850|given=Prasannan|surname=Parthasarathi|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-139-49889-0|page=2}}</ref> Manufactured goods and [[cash crop]]s from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, [[shipbuilding]], and steel, and processed exports included cotton textiles, [[yarn]]s, [[Thread (yarn)|thread]], silk, [[jute]] products, [[metalware]], and foods such as sugar, oils and butter.<ref name="schmidt" /> Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres, higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of [[British India]] in the 19th century.<ref name="eraly">{{cite book|last=Eraly|first=Abraham|author-link=Abraham Eraly|year=2007|title=The Mughal World: Life in India's Last Golden Age|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zpa8gyGW_twC&pg=PA5|publisher=Penguin Books India|page=5|isbn=978-0-14-310262-5}}</ref>

In [[early modern Europe]], there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, [[indigo]], silks, and [[saltpeter]] (for use in [[munitions]]).<ref name="schmidt" /> [[1650–1700 in Western European fashion|European fashion]], for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of [[East India Company|British imports]] from Asia, and the [[Bengal Subah]] province alone accounted for 40% of [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch imports]] from Asia.<ref name="Prakash">[[Om Prakash (historian)|Om Prakash]], "[http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3447600139/WHIC?u=seat24826&xid=6b597320 Empire, Mughal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118051038/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=WHIC&u=seat24826&id=GALE%7B%7B%21%7D%7DCX3447600139&v=2.1&it=r&asid=6b597320 |date=18 November 2022 }}", ''History of World Trade Since 1450'', edited by [[John J. McCusker]], vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2006, pp. 237–240, ''World History in Context''. Retrieved 3 August 2017</ref> In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self-sufficient.<ref name="schmidt" /> Indian goods, especially those from Bengal, were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets, such as [[Indonesia]] and Japan.<ref name="richards95">{{cite book|last=Richards|first=John F.|author-link=John F. Richards|year=1995|title=The Mughal Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA202|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=202|isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}}</ref> At the time, [[Mughal Bengal]] was the most important centre of cotton textile production.<ref>Richard Maxwell Eaton (1996), [https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA202 ''The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760'', page 202] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404212612/https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA202 |date=4 April 2023 }}, [[University of California Press]]</ref>

In the early 18th century the [[Mughal Empire]] declined, as it lost western, central and parts of south and north India to the [[Maratha Empire]], which integrated and continued to administer those regions.<ref name="kumar">{{Harvnb|Kumar|2005|pp=5–8}}</ref> The decline of the Mughal Empire led to decreased agricultural productivity, which in turn negatively affected the textile industry.<ref>{{cite book|title=Trade and Poverty: When the Third World Fell Behind|author=Jeffrey G. Williamson|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|year=2011|page=91|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiDslL0o-hUC&pg=PA91|author-link=Jeffrey G. Williamson|isbn=978-0-262-29518-5|access-date=15 August 2017|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922033919/https://books.google.com/books?id=QiDslL0o-hUC&pg=PA91|url-status=live}}</ref> The subcontinent's dominant economic power in the post-Mughal era was the [[Bengal Subah]] in the east., which continued to maintain thriving textile industries and relatively high [[real wages]].<ref name="Parthasarathi">{{Citation|title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850|given=Prasannan|surname=Parthasarathi|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-139-49889-0}}</ref> However, the former was devastated by the [[Maratha invasions of Bengal]]<ref name="Chaudhuri253">{{cite book|author=Kirti N. Chaudhuri|title=The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company: 1660–1760|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2006|page=253|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xt7Fgzq9e8C&pg=PA253|author-link=Kirti N. Chaudhuri|isbn=978-0-521-03159-2}}</ref><ref name="Marshall73">{{cite book|title=Bengal: The British Bridgehead: Eastern India 1740–1828|author=P. J. Marshall|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2006|page=73|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lIZrfokYSY8C&pg=PA73|author-link=P. J. Marshall|isbn=978-0-521-02822-6}}</ref> and then [[Battle of Plassey|British colonization]] in the mid-18th century.<ref name="Parthasarathi" /> After the loss at the [[Third Battle of Panipat]], the Maratha Empire disintegrated into several confederate states, and the resulting political instability and armed conflict severely affected economic life in several parts of the country – although this was mitigated by localised prosperity in the new provincial kingdoms.<ref name="kumar" /> By the late eighteenth century, the British [[East India Company]] had entered the Indian political theatre and established its dominance over other European powers. This marked a determinative shift in India's trade, and a less-powerful effect on the rest of the economy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kumar|2005|p=26}}</ref>

=== British era (1793–1947) ===
{{Main|Economy of India under Company rule|Economy of India under the British Raj}}

{{quotebox
| quoted = 1
| There is no doubt that our grievances against the British Empire had a sound basis. As the painstaking statistical work of the Cambridge historian Angus Maddison has shown, India's share of world income collapsed from 22.6% in 1700, almost equal to Europe's share of 23.3% at that time, to as low as 3.8% in 1952. Indeed, at the beginning of the 20th century, "the brightest jewel in the British Crown" was the poorest country in the world in terms of per capita income.
| width = 24%
| align = left
| style = padding:8px;
| source = —[[Manmohan Singh]]<ref name="Hindu">{{cite news|title=Of Oxford, economics, empire, and freedom|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/07/10/stories/2005071002301000.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051027013702/http://www.hindu.com/2005/07/10/stories/2005071002301000.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 October 2005|location=Chennai|date=2 October 2005|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=6 December 2010}}</ref>
}}

From the beginning of the 19th century, the British [[East India Company]]'s gradual expansion and consolidation of power brought a major change in taxation and agricultural policies, which tended to promote commercialisation of agriculture with a focus on trade, resulting in decreased production of food crops, mass impoverishment and destitution of farmers, and in the short term, led to [[Famine in India|numerous famines]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Roy|2006|pp=158–160}}</ref> The economic policies of the [[British Raj]] caused a severe decline in the [[handicrafts]] and [[handloom]] sectors, due to reduced demand and dipping employment.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kumar|2005|pp=538–540}}</ref> After the removal of international restrictions by the [[East India Company#Charter Act 1813|Charter of 1813]], Indian trade expanded substantially with steady growth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kumar|2005|pp=826–827}}</ref> The result was a significant transfer of capital from India to Britain, which, due to the colonial policies of the British, led to a massive drain of revenue rather than any systematic effort at modernisation of the domestic economy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kumar|2005|pp=876–877}}</ref> The economy of the [[Indian subcontinent]] was the [[List of regions by past GDP (PPP)|largest in the world for most of recorded history]] up until the onset of [[Colonial India|colonialism]] in early 19th century.<ref name="Maddison379">{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|date=2007|title=Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a-JGGp2suQUC&q=angus+maddison|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=379|isbn=978-0-19-164758-1|author-link=Angus Maddison|access-date=10 November 2020|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109223015/https://books.google.com/books?id=a-JGGp2suQUC&q=angus+maddison#v=snippet&q=angus%20maddison&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="maddison261" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes|author=Paul Bairoch|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=1995|page=[https://archive.org/details/economicsworldhi00bair_0/page/95 95]|url=https://archive.org/details/economicsworldhi00bair_0|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-226-03463-8|author-link=Paul Bairoch}}</ref>

[[File:1700 AD through 1950 AD per capita GDP of United Kingdom and India during the Colonial Era.png|thumb|left|Estimated GDP per capita of India and United Kingdom during 1700–1950 in 1990 US$according to [[Angus Maddison|Maddison]].<ref>Maddison A (2007), Contours of the World Economy I-2030AD, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199227204}}. The data tables from this book are available online here [http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/oriindex.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216033959/http://www.ggdc.net/MADDISON/oriindex.htm|date=16 February 2019}}</ref> However, Maddison's estimates for 18th-century India have been criticized as gross underestimates,<ref>{{cite book|title=Reorienting the 19th Century: Global Economy in the Continuing Asian Age|author=[[Andre Gunder Frank]], Robert A. Denemark|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2015|pages=83–85|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8NXOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|isbn=978-1-317-25293-1}}</ref> [[Paul Bairoch|Bairoch]] estimates India had a higher GDP per capita in the 18th century,<ref>{{cite book|title=Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes|author=Paul Bairoch|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=1995|pages=95–104|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/193124153/Economics-and-World-History-Myths-and-Paradoxes-Paul-Bairoch|author-link=Paul Bairoch|access-date=9 August 2017|archive-date=12 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012060209/https://www.scribd.com/document/193124153/Economics-and-World-History-Myths-and-Paradoxes-Paul-Bairoch|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Chris Jochnick, Fraser A. Preston (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=SpqmITSjgWAC&pg=PA86 ''Sovereign Debt at the Crossroads: Challenges and Proposals for Resolving the Third World Debt Crisis'', pages 86–87] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109222929/https://books.google.com/books?id=SpqmITSjgWAC&pg=PA86#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=9 November 2023 }}, [[Oxford University Press]]</ref> and Parthasarathi's findings show higher [[real wages]] in 18th-century [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]] and [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]].<ref name="Parthasarathi38">{{Citation|title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38|pages=38–45|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-49889-0|given=Prasannan|surname=Parthasarathi|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404212704/https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="williamson" /> But there is consensus that India's per capita GDP and income stagnated during the colonial era, starting in the late 18th century.<ref name="Kumar-3">{{Harvnb|Kumar|2005|page=422}}</ref>]]

Under British rule, India's share of the world economy declined from 24.4% in 1700 down to 4.2% in 1950. India's GDP (PPP) per capita was stagnant during the [[Mughal Empire]] and began to decline prior to the onset of British rule.<ref name="maddison261">[[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2003): ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA261 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics]'', [[OECD Publishing]], {{ISBN|9264104143}}, page 261</ref> India's share of global industrial output declined from 25% in 1750 down to 2% in 1900.<ref name="williamson" /> At the same time, Britain's share of the world economy rose from 2.9% in 1700 up to 9% in 1870. The British East India Company, following their [[Battle of Plassey|conquest of Bengal]] in 1757, had forced open the large Indian market to British goods, which could be sold in India without [[tariff]]s or [[Duty (economics)|duties]], compared to local Indian producers who were heavily taxed, while in Britain [[protectionist]] policies such as bans and high tariffs were implemented to restrict Indian textiles from being sold there, whereas raw cotton was imported from India without tariffs to British factories which manufactured textiles from Indian cotton and sold them back to the Indian market. British economic policies gave them a monopoly over India's large market and cotton resources.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Process of Economic Development|author=James Cypher|year=2014|publisher=[[Routledge]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TxFxAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA97|isbn=978-1-136-16828-4|access-date=26 August 2017|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109223836/https://books.google.com/books?id=TxFxAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA97#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="gupta">{{cite web|last1=Broadberry|first1=Stephen|last2=Gupta|first2=Bishnupriya|title=Cotton textiles and the great divergence: Lancashire, India and shifting competitive advantage, 1600–1850|year=2005|url=http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/papers/broadberry-gupta.pdf|website=International Institute of Social History|publisher=Department of Economics, University of Warwick|access-date=5 December 2016|archive-date=10 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910075425/http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/papers/broadberry-gupta.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes|author=Paul Bairoch|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=1995|page=89|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/193124153/Economics-and-World-History-Myths-and-Paradoxes-Paul-Bairoch|author-link=Paul Bairoch|access-date=9 August 2017|archive-date=12 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012060209/https://www.scribd.com/document/193124153/Economics-and-World-History-Myths-and-Paradoxes-Paul-Bairoch|url-status=dead}}</ref> India served as both a significant supplier of raw goods to British manufacturers and a large [[captive market]] for British manufactured goods.<ref>{{cite book|title=Hobson-Jobson: The Definitive Glossary of British India|author=[[Henry Yule]], [[A. C. Burnell]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2013|page=20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8NXOCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|isbn=978-1-317-25293-1}}</ref>

British territorial expansion in India throughout the 19th century created an institutional environment that, on paper, guaranteed [[property rights]] among the colonisers, encouraged [[free trade]], and created a single currency with [[fixed exchange rates]], standardised weights and measures and [[capital market]]s within the company-held territories. It also established a system of [[Rail transport in India|railways]] and telegraphs, a civil service that aimed to be free from political interference, a common-law, and an adversarial legal system.<ref>{{Harvnb|Roy|2006|pp=291–292}}</ref> This coincided with major changes in the world economy&nbsp;– industrialisation, and significant growth in production and trade. However, at the end of colonial rule, India inherited an economy that was one of the poorest in the developing world,<ref name="roy-2">{{Harvnb|Roy|2006|p = 1}}</ref> with industrial development stalled, agriculture unable to feed a rapidly growing population, a largely illiterate and unskilled labour force, and extremely inadequate infrastructure.<ref name="AtIndependence">{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|p=179}}</ref>

The 1872 census revealed that 91.3% of the population of the region constituting present-day India resided in villages.<ref name="non-urban">{{Harvnb|Kumar|2005|p=519}}</ref> This was a decline from the earlier Mughal era, when 85% of the population resided in villages and 15% in urban centres under [[Akbar]]'s reign in 1600.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Irfan Habib]]|author2=[[Dharma Kumar]]|author3=[[Tapan Raychaudhuri]]|title=The Cambridge Economic History of India|volume=1|page=165|year=1987|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|url=http://www.hkrdb.kar.nic.in/documents/Downloads/Good%20Reads/The%20Cambridge%20Economic%20History%20of%20India,%20Volume%201.pdf#page=185|access-date=5 August 2017|archive-date=4 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804231000/http://www.hkrdb.kar.nic.in/documents/Downloads/Good%20Reads/The%20Cambridge%20Economic%20History%20of%20India,%20Volume%201.pdf#page=185|url-status=live}}</ref> Urbanisation generally remained sluggish in British India until the 1920s, due to the lack of industrialisation and absence of adequate transportation. Subsequently, the policy of discriminating protection (where certain important industries were given financial protection by the state), coupled with the Second World War, saw the development and dispersal of industries, encouraging rural-urban migration, and in particular, the large port cities of [[Bombay]], [[Calcutta]] and [[Madras]] grew rapidly. Despite this, only one-sixth of India's population lived in cities by 1951.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kumar|2005|pp=520–521}}</ref>

The effect of British rule on India's economy is a controversial topic. Leaders of the [[Indian independence movement]] and [[economic history|economic historians]] have blamed colonial rule for India's poor economic performance following independence and argued that the capital required for the Industrial Revolution in Britain came from India. At the same time, other historians have countered that India's poor economic performance was due to various sectors being in a state of growth and decline due to changes brought in by colonialism and a world that was moving towards industrialisation and [[economic integration]].<ref name="roy-1">{{Harvnb|Roy|2006|pp= 22–24}}</ref>

Several economic historians have argued that Indian [[real wage]]s declined in the early 19th century, or possibly beginning in the very late 18th century, largely as a result of British colonial rule. According to Prasannan Parthasarathi and Sashi Sivramkrishna, the grain wages of Indian weavers were likely comparable to that of their British counterparts and their average income was around five times the subsistence level, which was comparable to advanced parts of Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Parthasarathi|first=Prasannan|title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850|year=2011|page=45}}</ref><ref name="AL">{{Cite journal|last=Sivramkrishna|first=Sashi|title=Ascertaining Living Standards in Erstwhile Mysore, Southern India, from Francis Buchanan's Journey of 1800-01: An Empirical Contribution to the Great Divergence|doi=10.1163/002249909X12574071689177|journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History|year=2009|volume=52|issue=4|page=729|issn=0022-4995}}</ref> However they concluded that due to the scarcity of data, it was hard to draw definitive conclusions and that more research was required.<ref name="WE" /><ref name="AL" /> It has also been argued that India went through a period of deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire.<ref name="williamson" />

=== Pre-liberalisation period (1947–1980) ===
{{Main|Five-Year Plans of India|Economic policy of the Indira Gandhi government|Licence Raj}}

Indian [[economic policy]] after independence was influenced by the impact of the colonial experience, which was seen as exploitative by Indian leaders.<ref name="AtIndependence" /> Domestic policy tended towards protectionism, with a strong emphasis on [[import substitution industrialisation]], [[economic interventionism]], a large government-run [[public sector]], [[Regulation (socio-legal concept)|business regulation]], and [[central planning]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Panagariya|2008|pp=31–32}}</ref> while trade and foreign investment policies were relatively liberal.<ref>{{Harvnb|Panagariya|2008|p=24}}</ref> [[Five-Year Plans of India]] resembled central planning in the [[Soviet Union]]. Steel, mining, machine tools, telecommunications, insurance, and power plants, among other industries, were effectively nationalised in the mid-1950s.<ref name="staley">{{cite magazine |last=Staley |first=Sam |year=2006 |title=The Rise and Fall of Indian Socialism: Why India embraced economic reform |url=http://www.reason.com/news/show/36682.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114053740/http://reason.com/news/show/36682.html |archive-date=14 January 2009 |access-date=17 January 2011 |magazine=[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]}}</ref> The Indian economy of this period is characterised as [[Dirigisme|Dirigism]].<ref name="PE" /><ref name="BB" />

[[File:GDP per capita of India (1820 to present).png|thumb|350px|Change in per capita GDP of India, 1820–2015. Figures are inflation-adjusted to 1990 International Geary-Khamis dollars.<ref>Data Source: Tables of Prof. Angus Maddison (2010). The per capita GDP over various years and population data can be downloaded in a spreadsheet from here [http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/oriindex.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190216033959/http://www.ggdc.net/MADDISON/oriindex.htm|date=16 February 2019}}.</ref><ref>The 2015 estimate is retrieved from the [[International Monetary Fund]].</ref>]]
{{Blockquote
| Never talk to me about profit, Jeh, it is a dirty word.
| Nehru, India's Fabian Socialism-inspired first prime minister to industrialist [[J. R. D. Tata]], when Tata suggested state-owned companies should be profitable<ref name="gdas2002">{{cite book|title=India Unbound|first=Gurcharan|last=Das|publisher=Anchor Books|year=2002|isbn=978-0-385-72074-8|pages=167–174}}</ref>
}}
[[Jawaharlal Nehru]], the first [[prime minister of India]], along with the statistician [[Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis]], formulated and oversaw economic policy during the initial years of the country's independence. They expected favourable outcomes from their strategy, involving the rapid development of [[heavy industry]] by both public and [[private sector]]s, and based on direct and indirect state intervention, rather than the more extreme [[Economy of the Soviet Union|Soviet-style]] central command system.<ref>{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|pp=185–187}}</ref><ref name="Cameron-1">{{Cite journal|author1=Cameron, John|author2=Ndhlovu, P Tidings|title=Cultural Influences on Economic Thought in India: Resistance to diffusion of neo-classical economics and the principles of Hinduism|journal=Economic Issues|volume=6|issue=2|date=September 2001|url=http://www.economicissues.org/archive/pdfs/5v6p2.PDF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823161225/http://www.economicissues.org/archive/pdfs/5v6p2.PDF|archive-date=23 August 2006|access-date=17 January 2011}}</ref> The [[Avadi Resolution]], in January 1955, declared that the objective of the Indian National Congress was the establishment of a "socialistic pattern of society" in India. The policy of concentrating simultaneously on capital- and technology-intensive heavy industry and subsidising manual, low-skill [[cottage industries]] was criticised by economist [[Milton Friedman]], who thought it would waste capital and labour, and retard the development of small manufacturers.<ref name="milton-1">{{cite web|title=Milton Friedman on the Nehru/Mahalanobis Plan|url=http://www.indiapolicy.org/debate/Notes/fried_opinion.html|publisher=India Policy Institute|date=22 September 1998|first=Subroto|last=Roy|access-date=16 July 2005|archive-date=31 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331032602/http://indiapolicy.org/debate/Notes/fried_opinion.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Blockquote
| I cannot decide how much to borrow, what shares to issue, at what price, what wages and bonus to pay, and what dividend to give. I even need the government's permission for the salary I pay to a senior executive.
| [[J. R. D. Tata]], on the Indian regulatory system, 1969<ref name="gdas2002" />
}}

Since 1965, the use of [[hybrid seed|high-yielding varieties of seeds]], increased [[fertilisers]] and improved [[irrigation]] facilities collectively contributed to the [[Green Revolution in India]], which improved the condition of agriculture by increasing crop productivity, improving crop patterns and strengthening forward and backward linkages between agriculture and industry.<ref>{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|pp=504–506}}</ref> However, it has also been criticised as an unsustainable effort, resulting in the growth of capitalistic farming, ignoring institutional reforms and widening income disparities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|p=507}}</ref>

===Economic reforms during the 1980s===
[[File:12025 (Pune-SC) Shatabdi Express 02.JPG|thumb|Shatabdi Express predecessor to all modern trains launched in 1980's]]
Indira Gandhi took several liberalization steps after the coming back to power following the [[1980 Indian general election]]. There were several steps taken such as opening of automobile sectors to private sector i.e. [[Maruti Suzuki]],<ref>https://sdmimd.ac.in/SDMRCMS/cases/CIM2012/9.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=September 2025}}</ref> creation of auto component industries through new industrial zones known as [[Manesar|Industrial Model Townships(IMT)]] and [[Gurgaon]], expansion of [[steel]], [[fertilizer]], [[oil]] and [[cement]] sector led to wider participation of private sector.<ref>https://web.iima.ac.in/assets/upload/faculty/vijaypdf4.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Ghosh | first1=Arun | title=Indian Steel Industry: Problems and Prospects | journal=Economic and Political Weekly | date=1994 | volume=29 | issue=33 | pages=2121–2124 | jstor=4401615 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4401615 }}</ref> They also subsequently tried to do urban reforms such as creation of [[Navi Mumbai]] and [[Noida]].

In 1984, The ''New Computer Policy of 1984'' was introduced by [[Rajiv Gandhi]], as it eased import restrictions on technology, encouraged private investments, and provided incentives for software exports. This included computers, airlines, defense, and telecommunications. Gandhi's government also established Software Technology Parks (STPs) to provide infrastructure, tax benefits, and faster data communications, enabling companies to export software services globally.<ref>{{cite web | last1=Yahya | first1=Faizal | title=Software Technology Parks: India's Economic Powerhouse | date=24 January 2022 | url=https://www.academia.edu/69352344 }}</ref>
Rajiv Gandhi's administration also saw setup of new logistics, telecom and transport infrastructure like [[Jawaharlal Nehru Port|Nhava Sheva port]], [[Centre for Development of Advanced Computing]], [[Centre for Development of Telematics]], [[Container Corporation of India|CONCOR]] and creation of highway body [[National Highways Authority of India|NHAI]].<ref>{{cite web | title=NHAI | url=https://morth.gov.in/print/1439#:~:text=National%20Highways%20Authority%20of%20India,by%20the%20Government%20of%20India }}</ref>
These reforms led to the growth rate of 5.6% throughout 1980's instead of 2.9% in 1970's but [[Soviet Union]] was the largest export partner to India, which would lead to 1991 crisis.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Panagariya |first=Arvind |date=March 2004 |title=India in the 1980s and 1990s: A Triumph of Reforms |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2004/wp0443.pdf |website=International Monetary Fund |series=IMF Working Paper WP/04/43}}</ref>

In 1990 [[Rajiv Gandhi]] introduced measures to significantly reduce the [[Licence Raj]] such as allowing private businesses and individuals to purchase capital, consumer goods and import without bureaucratic restrictions.<ref>http://www.princeton.edu/~reddings/pubpapers/ABRZ_AER_Sept2008.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=September 2025}}</ref>

[[Rajiv Gandhi]] subsequently promised full economic liberalization, he made [[V. P. Singh]] the finance minister, who tried to reduce tax evasion and tax receipts rose due to this crackdown although taxes were lowered. This process lost its momentum during the later tenure of Mr. Gandhi as his government was marred by scandals.

=== Post-liberalisation period (since 1991-2021) ===
{{Main|Economic history of India|Economic liberalisation in India|Economic development in India|Economic policy of the Narendra Modi government}}

{{multiple image
| align = left
| image1 = Visit of Narasimha Rao, Indian Minister for Foreign Affairs, to the CEC (cropped)(2).jpg
| width1 = 130
| alt1 = P. V. Narasimha Rao
| caption1 = [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]]
| image2 = Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh in March 2014.jpg
| width2 = 130
| alt2 = Manmohan Singh
| caption2 = [[Manmohan Singh]]
| footer = [[Economic liberalisation in India]] was initiated in 1991 by Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao and his then-Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh.
}}

The collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], which was India's major trading partner, and the [[Gulf War]], which caused a spike in oil prices, resulted in a major balance-of-payments crisis for India, which found itself facing the prospect of defaulting on its loans.<ref name="Ghosh">{{cite web|last=Ghosh|first=Arunabha|title=India's pathway through economic crisis(which makes failer of mixed economy)|work=GEG Working Paper 2004/06|publisher=Global Economic Governance Programme|date=1 June 2004|url=http://www.globaleconomicgovernance.org/wp-content/uploads/Ghosh%20-%20India.pdf|access-date=12 December 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112080531/http://www.globaleconomicgovernance.org/wp-content/uploads/Ghosh%20-%20India.pdf|archive-date=12 November 2011}}</ref> India asked for a $1.8&nbsp;billion bailout loan from the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), which in return demanded de-regulation.{{sfn|Task Force Report|2006|p=7}}

In response, the [[P. V. Narasimha Rao|Narasimha Rao]] government, including Finance Minister [[Manmohan Singh]], initiated [[Economic liberalisation in India|economic reforms]] in 1991. The reforms did away with the [[Licence Raj]], reduced tariffs and interest rates and ended many public monopolies, allowing automatic approval of [[foreign direct investment]] in many sectors.{{sfn|Task Force Report|2006|pp=7–8}} Since then, the overall thrust of liberalisation has remained the same, although no government has tried to take on powerful lobbies such as trade unions and farmers, on contentious issues such as reforming labour laws and reducing [[agricultural subsidy|agricultural subsidies]].<ref name="Gandhi-1">{{cite news|title=That old Gandhi magic|date=27 November 1997|newspaper=The Economist|url=http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=107076|access-date=17 January 2011|archive-date=6 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506203934/http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=107076|url-status=live}}</ref> This has been accompanied by increases in life expectancy, literacy rates, and food security, although urban residents have benefited more than rural residents.{{sfn|Task Force Report|2006|pp=17–20}}

[[File:India's GDP since 1960, OWID chart.png|thumb|upright=1.5|right|GDP grows exponentially, almost doubling every 8-9 years.]]
[[File:Annual GDP growth rate india china 1985 to 2024.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Indian GDP growth rate from 1985 to 2024, compared to that of China]]

From 2010, India has risen from ninth-largest to the fifth-largest economies in the world by nominal GDP in 2019 by surpassing UK, [[France]], [[Italy]] and [[Brazil]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Where does India stand in the list of world's largest economies?|website=[[Times Now]]|date=2 April 2020|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/business-economy/economy/article/where-does-india-stand-in-the-list-of-world-s-largest-economies/573015|access-date=17 June 2022|archive-date=17 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617052035/https://www.timesnownews.com/business-economy/economy/article/where-does-india-stand-in-the-list-of-world-s-largest-economies/573015|url-status=live}}</ref>

India started recovery in 2013–14 when the GDP growth rate accelerated to 6.4% from the previous year's 5.5%. The acceleration continued through 2014–15 and 2015–16 with growth rates of 7.5% and 8.0% respectively. India grew faster than China which registered 6.9% growth in 2015.{{update inline|date=June 2017}} However the growth rate subsequently decelerated, to 7.1% and 6.6% in 2016–17 and 2017–18 respectively,<ref>{{cite web|title=PRESS NOTE ON SECOND ADVANCE ESTIMATES OF NATIONAL INCOME 2017–18|url=http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_release/nad_pr_2eni_28feb18_0.pdf|website=Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation|access-date=26 May 2018|ref=Mospi2018|archive-date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516211929/http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_release/nad_pr_2eni_28feb18_0.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> partly because of the disruptive effects of [[2016 Indian banknote demonetisation]] and the [[Goods and Services Tax (India)]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Demonetisation, GST impact: IMF lowers India's 2017 growth forecast to 6.7%|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/business-news/demonetisation-gst-impact-imf-lowers-india-s-2017-growth-forecast-to-6-7/story-UeJfgfJKPJOvbzo5kRexDM.html|access-date=26 May 2018|work=Hindustan Times|date=10 October 2017|ref=HTgrowth|archive-date=26 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180526191323/https://www.hindustantimes.com/business-news/demonetisation-gst-impact-imf-lowers-india-s-2017-growth-forecast-to-6-7/story-UeJfgfJKPJOvbzo5kRexDM.html|url-status=live}}</ref> But after slowdown due to global disruption caused by [[COVID-19 pandemic]] in 2019, India's economic growth has consistently outperformed China every year by a large margin and stays among fastest growing major economy in the world according to [[World Bank Group|World Bank]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Overview |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india/overview |access-date=2025-11-18 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref>

=== COVID-19 pandemic and new reforms (2021–present) ===
{{Main|Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India}}

During the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19 pandemic]], numerous [[rating agencies]] downgraded India's GDP predictions for FY21 to negative figures,<ref>{{Cite news|date=21 May 2020|title=A Bigger Hit on the Economy?|page=1|work=The Economic Times (ET Graphics)|url=https://epaper.timesgroup.com/|url-access=subscription|access-date=21 May 2020|archive-date=17 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617152043/https://epaper.timesgroup.com/TOI/TimesOfIndia/index.html?a=c%2F|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Noronha|first=Gaurav|date=2 May 2020|title=India's GDP to see 5% contraction in FY21, says Icra|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/indias-gdp-to-see-5-contraction-in-fy21-says-icra/articleshow/75847028.cms|access-date=21 May 2020|archive-date=26 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626043921/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/indias-gdp-to-see-5-contraction-in-fy21-says-icra/articleshow/75847028.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> signalling a recession in India, the most severe since 1979.<ref>{{cite web|title=Goldman Sachs: India's economy will shrink 45% this quarter and suffer a brutal recession this year|url=https://www.businessinsider.in/stock-market/news/goldman-sachs-indias-economy-will-shrink-45-this-quarter-and-suffer-a-brutal-recession-this-year/articleshow/75807045.cms|last=Nagarajan|first=Shalini|date=21 May 2020|website=Business Insider|access-date=21 May 2020|archive-date=3 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603134823/https://www.businessinsider.in/stock-market/news/goldman-sachs-indias-economy-will-shrink-45-this-quarter-and-suffer-a-brutal-recession-this-year/articleshow/75807045.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Goldman report most damning|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/goldman-on-economic-package-for-coronavirus-lockdown-narendra-modis-steps-smaller-than-upas/cid/1774089|date=19 May 2020|website=The Daily Telegraph|language=en|access-date=21 May 2020|archive-date=25 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200525122406/https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/goldman-on-economic-package-for-coronavirus-lockdown-narendra-modis-steps-smaller-than-upas/cid/1774089|url-status=live}}</ref> The Indian Economy contracted by 6.6 percent which was lower than the estimated 7.3 percent decline.<ref>{{cite news|title=Indian economy contracts by 6.6 pc in 2020–21|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/indian-economy-contracts-by-6-6-pc-in-2020-21/articleshow/89248879.cms|access-date=3 September 2022|work=The Economic Times|agency=Press Trust of India|date=31 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131130834/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/indicators/indian-economy-contracts-by-6-6-pc-in-2020-21/articleshow/89248879.cms|archive-date=31 January 2022}}</ref> In 2022, the ratings agency [[Fitch Ratings]] upgraded India's outlook to stable similar to [[S&P Global Ratings]] and [[Moody's Investors Service]]'s outlooks.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dhasmana|first1=Indivjal|last2=Choudhury|first2=Shrimi|title=Moody's upgrades India's rating outlook to 'stable' from 'negative'|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/moody-s-changes-india-s-rating-outlook-to-stable-from-negative-121100501141_1.html|access-date=3 September 2022|work=Business Standard|date=6 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816021754/https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/moody-s-changes-india-s-rating-outlook-to-stable-from-negative-121100501141_1.html|archive-date=16 August 2022}}</ref> In the first quarter of financial year 2022–2023, the Indian economy grew by 13.5%.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Dhoot|first1=Vikas|title=India's GDP grows at 13.5% in April–June quarter|url=https://www.thehindu.com/business/Economy/indias-gdp-grows-at-135-in-april-june-quarter/article65833826.ece|access-date=3 September 2022|work=The Hindu|date=31 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220903054834/https://www.thehindu.com/business/Economy/indias-gdp-grows-at-135-in-april-june-quarter/article65833826.ece|archive-date=3 September 2022}}</ref>

With 607 million workers, India has the [[List of countries by labour force|world's second-largest]] labour force, which is growing rapidly, with 46.6 million added in 2023–24 alone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Labor force Comparison - The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/labor-force/country-comparison/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109162525/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/labor-force/country-comparison/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 January 2021 |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=www.cia.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kochuveedan |first=Benn |date=2024-07-09 |title=India generated 46.7 million jobs in FY24, up 6% |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/business/2024/Jul/09/india-generated-467-million-jobs-in-fy24-up-6 |access-date=2026-01-25 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> India’s fertility rate continues to fall sharply, from about 3.3 in 2000 to around 1.9 in 2025, below the replacement level of 2.1.<ref>{{Cite news|title=India's population touches 1.46 billion, fertility drops below replacement rate: UN|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/indias-population-touches-1-46-billion-fertility-drops-below-replacement-rate-un-repot/articleshow/121747707.cms?from=mdr|work=The Economic Times|date=2025-06-10|access-date=2026-01-29|issn=0013-0389}}</ref> [[Workforce productivity|Labour productivity]] remains lower than in advanced economies but is similar to levels observed in emerging Asian countries such as China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Productivity: output per hour worked |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/labor-productivity-per-hour-pennworldtable |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250926124354/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/labor-productivity-per-hour-pennworldtable |archive-date=26 September 2025 |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=Our World in Data |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> India’s [[Outsourcing|outsourcing industry]] has shifted from traditional call centre [[BPO Industry|BPO]] work, now largely handled by the Philippines and other Southeast Asian countries, to high-value software development, [[Consultant|consultancy]], engineering, and research oriented services.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-11 |title=The Global ER&D Shift: Evolution of Engineering Services and India’s Competitive Edge |url=https://nasscom.in/knowledge-center/publications/global-erd-shift-evolution-engineering-services-and-indias |access-date=2026-01-25 |website=nasscom |language=en}}</ref> India hosts more than half of the world’s [[Global capability center|Global Capability Centres]] (GCCs), which perform product engineering and R&D functions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.ETCIO.com |title=India commands over 50 per cent of GCCs |url=https://cio.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/corporate-news/india-commands-over-50-per-cent-of-gccs/109262122 |access-date=2026-01-25 |website=ETCIO.com |language=en}}</ref> It is home to about 20% of global [[Processor design|semiconductor chip design]] engineers and, as of early 2025, has an estimated 4.3 million software engineers, accounting for roughly 14.7% of the global software engineering workforce.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-09-02 |title=Semiconductor push: India hosts 20% of world’s chip design engineers; consumption set to cross $120 billion by 2030 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/semiconductor-push-india-hosts-20-of-worlds-chip-design-engineers-consumption-set-to-cross-120-billion-by-2030/articleshow/123646878.cms |access-date=2026-01-25 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-07 |title=How Many Software Engineers in India : 2025 Statistics & Trends |url=https://couponsly.in/software-engineer-statistics/ |access-date=2026-01-25 |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2021–22, the [[Foreign direct investment in India|foreign direct investment]] (FDI) in India was $82 billion. The leading sectors for FDI inflows were the Finance, Banking, Insurance and R&D.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dpiit.gov.in/sites/default/files/IPP_ANNUAL_REPORT_ENGLISH.pdf|title=FDI Statistics|work=Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade, MoCI, GoI|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=27 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220727164626/https://dpiit.gov.in/sites/default/files/IPP_ANNUAL_REPORT_ENGLISH.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> India has established [[Free trade agreement|free trade agreements]] and economic‑partnership with several countries and regional blocs, including the [[European Union]], [[ASEAN]], [[South Asian Free Trade Area|SAFTA]], Japan, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand, Oman and the United Arab Emirates, while also concluding agreements with [[European Free Trade Association|EFTA]] (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland) and the United Kingdom. India maintains Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreements (CECA/CEPA) with Singapore, Malaysia, Mauritius, and Japan, and continues to negotiate or review trade agreements with partners such as Chile, Canada, Israel and the [[Eurasian Economic Union]]. Additionally, India has bilateral investment and tax treaties with countries including Bangladesh, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Belarus, and Trinidad & Tobago.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India's International Free Trade Agreements - India Guide {{!}} Doing Business in India |url=https://www.india-briefing.com/doing-business-guide/india/why-india/india-s-international-free-trade-and-tax-agreements |access-date=2025-11-17 |website=www.india-briefing.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-11-24 |title=India-Israel FTA talks: Strategic sectors must take centre stage over merchandise trade, says GTRI |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/india-israel-fta-talks-strategic-sectors-must-take-centre-stage-over-merchandise-trade-says-gtri/articleshow/125537144.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-11-27 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=India, Canada to resume trade talks: Piyush Goyal |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/business/india-canada-to-resume-trade-talks-piyush-goyal/ |access-date=2025-11-27 |website=The Tribune |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Raghavan |first=T. C. A. Sharad |date=2025-12-18 |title=India signs FTA with Oman, receives zero duty access on 99% of its exports |url=https://www.thehindu.com/business/Economy/india-oman-free-trade-agreement/article70411281.ece |access-date=2025-12-18 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Salve |first=Priyanka |date=2025-12-22 |title=India and New Zealand announce trade pact making majority of goods trade duty free |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2025/12/22/india-new-zealand-fta-trade-deal.html |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-27 |title=India-EU FTA: The world’s biggest economies just changed global trade forever |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/india-eu-fta-the-worlds-biggest-economies-just-changed-global-trade-forever/articleshow/127604639.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-27 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

In mid-2025 Indian government claimed to surpassed [[Japan]] to become the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|Fourth Largest Economy]] in the world in terms of GDP(nominal).<ref>https://www.newsonair.gov.in/india-becomes-worlds-4th-largest-economy-surpasses-japan-niti-aayog/&ved=2ahUKEwi4hsuexq-PAxWWwzgGHSeHBmIQFnoECBgQAQ&sqi=2&usg=AOvVaw1ZZqdfXxjeLKSzuUMfxIVY</ref><ref>https://www.livemint.com/economy/india-surpasses-japan-to-become-4th-largest-economy-at-4-trillion-to-overtake-germany-soon-niti-aayog-ceo/amp-11748145853542.html&ved=2ahUKEwjMhNudx6-PAxVHSTABHU0fKBc4ChDIzwEoAHoECAoQAQ&usg=AOvVaw3koWB7O43UMm3iUzxATz83</ref>

In 2025, the IMF gave Indian GDP a 'C' grade, mentioning that Indian national accounts and inflation data is not accurately recording the informal sector and people’s spending patterns.<ref name="d952">{{cite web | last=Raghavan | first=T.C.A. Sharad | title=IMF gives India a 'C' on its GDP and other national accounts data, the second-lowest grade | website=The Hindu | date=2025-11-27 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/business/Economy/imf-gives-india-a-c-on-its-gdp-and-other-national-accounts-data-the-second-lowest-grade/article70330780.ece | access-date=2026-03-03}}</ref>

=== 2026 India EU deal ===
In January 2026, India and the EU have announced they have agreed on what has become known as the "mother of all deals.".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kurniawan |first=Trista |date=2026-01-27 |title=India and EU finalize ‘mother of all deals’ with landmark trade pact |url=https://www.cnn.com/2026/01/27/asia/india-eu-trade-deal-intl-hnk |access-date=2026-01-27 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2026/01/27/eu-inks-mother-of-all-deals-with-india-trade-agreement-amid-global-turmoil? |access-date=2026-01-27 |website=www.euronews.com|title=EU inks 'mother of all deals' with India trade agreement amid global turmoil|date=2026}}</ref> After 20 years of negotiations they have reached an agreement on a long term [[Free trade agreement|Free Trade Agreement (FTA)]]. The final signing will take place once all legal issues are resolved. Both sides hope it will be effective in early 2027.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2026-01-27 |title=India and EU clinch the 'mother of all deals' in a historic free trade agreement |url=https://apnews.com/article/india-eu-modi-trade-wine-auto-74b8744b2ef562d2e820b238e6ce8d38 |access-date=2026-01-27 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2026 |title=India, EU finalise landmark trade deal, PM Modi says |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/india-eu-finalise-landmark-trade-deal-pm-modi-says-2026-01-27/?}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2026 |title=PM Modi Says EU Agreement Signed, Hails ‘Mother Of All Deals’ |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/pm-modi-says-eu-agreement-signed-hails-mother-of-all-deals?}}</ref>

The free trade deal will significantly lower or cancel tariffs on over 90% of goods, improve market access for both entities. India will cut duties on key EU exports like alcohol, food products, machinery, chemicals, aircraft, and medical equipment, while the EU eases access for Indian exports such as textiles and chemicals. The deal will also make it easier for companies to provide services across borders, especially in areas like finance, transport, and professional services.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Client Challenge |url=https://www.ft.com/content/b03b1344-7e92-4d0d-b85e-5ed92fc8f550? |access-date=2026-01-27 |website=www.ft.com}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

The deal faced significant criticism from the Indian opposition parties citing the failure to fulfill the Indian interests. The BJP-led government refused to debate on the deal.<ref name="p110">{{cite web| title=Congress demands Parliament debate on US and EU trade deals, alleges PM Modi 'completely surrendered' to Trump | website=Telegraph India | date=2026-02-03 | url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/congress-demands-parliament-debate-on-us-and-eu-trade-deals-alleges-pm-modi-completely-surrendered-to-trump/cid/2145677 | access-date=2026-03-03}}</ref><ref name="g609">{{cite web | title=Congress Demands EU-US Trade Deals Be Tabled In Parliament | website=Outlook India | date=2026-02-03 | url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/congress-demands-eu-us-trade-deals-be-tabled-in-parliament | access-date=2026-03-03}}</ref><ref name="i496">{{cite web | title=CPI(M) slams India-EU FTA as 'surrender of economic interests' | website=The Hindu | date=2026-01-27 | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/cpim-slams-india-eu-fta-as-surrender-of-economic-interests/article70557263.ece | access-date=2026-03-03}}</ref>

== Data ==
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2024 (with IMF staff estimates in 2025–2029). Inflation below 5% is in green.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=534,&s=NGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PCPIPCH,GGXWDG_NGDP,&sy=1980&ey=2000&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |access-date=2025-01-23 |website=IMF |language=en}}</ref> The annual unemployment rate is extracted from the [[World Bank]], although the [[International Monetary Fund]] finds them unreliable.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate) {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS|access-date=1 March 2022|publisher=World Bank|archive-date=12 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190612090355/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=World Bank Open Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/|access-date=20 May 2024|website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref>{{static row numbers}}{{sticky header}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header" style="text-align:center;"
!Year
!GDP (in Bil. US$PPP)
!GDP per capita (in US$ PPP)
!GDP (in Bil. US$nominal)
!GDP per capita (in US$ nominal)
!GDP growth (real)
!Inflation rate (in Percent)
!Unemployment (in Percent)
!Government debt (in % of GDP)
|-
|1980
|366.4
|526.9
|189.4
|271.0
|{{increase}}6.74%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}11.3%
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1981
|{{increase}}431.5
|{{increase}}603.2
|{{increase}}196.5
|{{increase}}274.7
|{{increase}}6.01%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}12.7%
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1982
|{{increase}}474.1
|{{increase}}647.5
|{{increase}}203.5
|{{increase}}278.0
|{{increase}}3.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7.7%
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1983
|{{increase}}528.6
|{{increase}}705.3
|{{increase}}222.0
|{{increase}}296.3
|{{increase}}7.3%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}12.6%
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1984
|{{increase}}568.6
|{{increase}}741.4
|{{decrease}}215.6
|{{decrease}}281.1
|{{increase}}3.8%
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.2%
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1985
|{{increase}}617.4
|{{increase}}787.1
|{{increase}}237.6
|{{increase}}302.9
|{{increase}}5.3%
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.56%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.officialdata.org/india/inflation/1985|title=Value of 1985 Indian Rupees today &#124; India Inflation Calculator|access-date=16 October 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017175623/https://www.officialdata.org/india/inflation/1985|url-status=live}}</ref>
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1986
|{{increase}}659.9
|{{increase}}822.8
|{{increase}}252.8
|{{increase}}315.2
|{{increase}}4.8%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7.8%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/budget_archive/es1986-87/1%20The%20Economic%20Situation%20in%201986-87.pdf|title=The Economic Situation in 1986-87|access-date=16 October 2023|publisher=Ministry of Finance, Government of India|archive-date=15 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815011409/https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/budget_archive/es1986-87/1%20The%20Economic%20Situation%20in%201986-87.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1987
|{{increase}}703.0
|{{increase}}857.7
|{{increase}}283.8
|{{increase}}346.2
|{{increase}}4.0%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.1%
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1988
|{{increase}}797.9
|{{increase}}952.7
|{{increase}}299.6
|{{increase}}357.8
|{{increase}}10.18%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7.2%
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1989
|{{increase}}878.5
|{{increase}}1,027.0
|{{increase}}301.2
|{{decrease}}352.2
|{{increase}}5.9%
|{{increase}}4.6%
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1990
|{{increase}}961.8
|{{increase}}1,101.3
|{{increase}}326.6
|{{increase}}374.0
|{{increase}}5.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}11.2%
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1991
|{{increase}}1,004.8
|{{increase}}1,127.4
|{{decrease}}274.8
|{{decrease}}308.4
|{{increase}}1.1%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}13.5%
|6.8%
|75.3%
|-
|1992
|{{increase}}1,084.1
|{{increase}}1,192.2
|{{increase}}293.3
|{{increase}}322.5
|{{increase}}5.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.9%
|{{Steady}}6.8%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}77.4%
|-
|1993
|{{increase}}1,162.5
|{{increase}}1,253.5
|{{decrease}}284.2
|{{decrease}}306.4
|{{increase}}4.8%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7.3%
|{{steady}}6.8%
|{{DecreasePositive}}77.0%
|-
|1994
|{{increase}}1,266.4
|{{increase}}1,339.2
|{{increase}}333.0
|{{increase}}352.2
|{{increase}}6.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}10.3%
|{{steady}}6.8%
|{{DecreasePositive}}73.5%
|-
|1995
|{{increase}}1,390.8
|{{increase}}1,442.9
|{{increase}}366.6
|{{increase}}380.3
|{{increase}}7.6%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}10.0%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7%
|{{DecreasePositive}}69.7%
|-
|1996
|{{increase}}1,523.2
|{{increase}}1,550.6
|{{increase}}399.8
|{{increase}}407.0
|{{increase}}7.6%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.4%
|{{Increasenegative}}7.2%
|{{DecreasePositive}}66.0%
|-
|1997
|{{increase}}1,612.3
|{{increase}}1,610.8
|{{increase}}423.2
|{{increase}}422.8
|{{increase}}4.1%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.8%
|{{Increasenegative}}7.3%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}67.8%
|-
|1998
|{{increase}}1,731.2
|{{increase}}1,698.1
|{{increase}}428.8
|{{decrease}}420.6
|{{increase}}6.2%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}13.1%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}68.1%
|-
|1999
|{{increase}}1,904.2
|{{increase}}1,834.4
|{{increase}}466.9
|{{increase}}449.8
|{{increase}}8.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.7%
|{{Increasenegative}}7.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}70.0%
|-
|2000
|{{increase}}2,024.7
|{{increase}}1,916.3
|{{increase}}476.6
|{{increase}}451.1
|{{increase}}4.0%
|{{increase}}3.8%
|{{Increasenegative}}7.8%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}73.6%
|-
|2001
|{{increase}}2,172.7
|{{increase}}2,021.1
|{{increase}}494.0
|{{increase}}459.5
|{{increase}}4.9%
|{{increase}}4.3%
|{{Increasenegative}}8%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}78.7%
|-
|2002
|{{increase}}2,292.8
|{{increase}}2,097.1
|{{increase}}524.0
|{{increase}}479.2
|{{increase}}3.9%
|{{increase}}4.0%
|{{Increasenegative}}8.2%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}82.9%
|-
|2003
|{{increase}}2,523.8
|{{increase}}2,270.6
|{{increase}}618.4
|{{increase}}556.3
|{{increase}}7.9%
|{{increase}}3.9%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}8.4%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}84.4%
|-
|2004
|{{increase}}2,795.0
|{{increase}}2,474.2
|{{increase}}721.6
|{{increase}}638.8
|{{increase}}7.8%
|{{increase}}3.8%
|{{Increasenegative}}8.5%
|{{DecreasePositive}}83.4%
|-
|2005
|{{increase}}3,066.0
|{{increase}}2.655.3
|{{increase}}834.2
|{{increase}}726.9
|{{increase}}9.3%
|{{increase}}4.4%
|{{Increasenegative}}8.7%
|{{DecreasePositive}}81.0%
|-
|2006
|{{increase}}3,415.2
|{{increase}}2,913.1
|{{increase}}949.1
|{{increase}}814.4
|{{increase}}9.3%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.7%
|{{Decreasepositive}}8.6%
|{{DecreasePositive}}77.2%
|-
|2007
|{{increase}}3,776.5
|{{increase}}3,174.3
|{{increase}}1,238.7
|{{increase}}1,046.9
|{{increase}}10.3%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.2%
|{{Decreasepositive}}8.5%
|{{DecreasePositive}}74.1%
|-
|2008
|{{increase}}3,968.1
|{{increase}}3,288.3
|{{decrease}}1,224.1
|{{decrease}}1,019.5
|{{increase}}3.9%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.1%
|{{Steady}}8.5%
|{{DecreasePositive}}72.8%
|-
|2009
|{{increase}}4,306.4
|{{increase}}3,519.4
|{{increase}}1,365.4
|{{increase}}1,121.2
|{{increase}}7.9%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}12.3%
|{{Decreasepositive}}8.4%
|{{DecreasePositive}}71.5%
|-
|2010
|{{increase}}4,729.2
|{{increase}}3,812.0
|{{increase}}1,708.5
|{{increase}}1,384.2
|{{increase}}8.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}10.5%
|{{Decreasepositive}}8.3%
|{{DecreasePositive}}66.4%
|-
|2011
|{{increase}}5,079.8
|{{increase}}4,039.1
|{{increase}}1,823.1
|{{increase}}1,458.1
|{{increase}}6.6%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.5%
|{{DecreasePositive}}8.2%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}68.6%
|-
|2012
|{{increase}}5,456.7
|{{increase}}4,281.4
|{{increase}}1,827.6
|{{decrease}}1,443.9
|{{increase}}5.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}10.0%
|{{Decreasepositive}}8.1%
|{{DecreasePositive}}68.0%
|-
|2013
|{{increase}}5,904.0
|{{increase}}4,572.7
|{{increase}}1,856.7
|{{increase}}1,449.6
|{{increase}}6.4%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.4%
|{{steady}}8.1%
|{{DecreasePositive}}67.7%
|-
|2014
|{{increase}}6,451.9
|{{increase}}4,935.5
|{{increase}}2,039.1
|{{increase}}1,573.9
|{{increase}}7.4%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.8%
|{{Decreasepositive}}8%
|{{DecreasePositive}}67.1%
|-
|2015
|{{increase}}7,032.5
|{{increase}}5,316.1
|{{increase}}2,103.6
|{{increase}}1,605.6
|{{increase}}8.0%
|{{increase}}4.9%
|{{Decreasepositive}}7.9%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}69.0%
|-
|2016
|{{increase}}7,685.5
|{{increase}}5,741.2
|{{increase}}2,294.8
|{{increase}}1,732.6
|{{increase}}8.3%
|{{increase}}4.5%
|{{Decreasepositive}}7.8%
|{{DecreasePositive}}68.9%
|-
|2017
|{{increase}}8,354.7
|{{increase}}6,169.5
|{{increase}}2,702.9
|{{increase}}1,958.0
|{{increase}}6.8%
|{{increase}}3.6%
|{{Decreasepositive}}7.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}69.7%
|-
|2018
|{{increase}}9,230.8
|{{increase}}6,742.7
|{{increase}}2,702.9
|{{increase}}1,974.4
|{{increase}}6.5%
|{{increase}}3.4%
|{{Steady}}7.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}70.4%
|-
|2019
|{{increase}}9,932.8
|{{increase}}7,181.5
|{{increase}}2,835.6
|{{increase}}2,050.2
|{{increase}}4.2%
|{{increase}}4.8%
|{{DecreasePositive}}6.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}75.0%
|-
|2020
|{{decrease}}9,771.0
|{{decrease}}6,997,4
|{{decrease}}2,674.8
|{{decrease}}1,915.6
|{{decrease}}-5.8%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.1%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7.9%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}88.5%
|-
|2021
|{{increase}}11,384.4
|{{increase}}8,088.0
|{{increase}}3,167.3
|{{increase}}2,250.1
|{{increase}}9.7%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2010223|title=SECOND ADVANCE ESTIMATES OF NATIONAL INCOME, 2023-24, QUARTERLY ESTIMATES OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT FOR THE THIRD QUARTER (OCTOBER-DECEMBER), 2023-24 AND FIRST REVISED ESTIMATES OF NATIONAL INCOME, CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE, SAVING AND CAPITAL FORMATION, 2022-23|website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>
|{{Decreasepositive}}5.5%
|{{DecreasePositive}}6.4%
|{{DecreasePositive}}83.7%
|-
|2022
|{{increase}}13,048.1
|{{increase}}9,207.2
|{{increase}}3,389.7
|{{increase}}2,391.9
|{{increase}}7.6%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.7%
|{{Decreasepositive}}4.8%
|{{DecreasePositive}}81.0%
|-
|2023
|{{increase}}14,619.8
|{{increase}}10,233.4
|{{increase}}3,567.5
|{{increase}}2,497.2
|{{increase}}9.2%
|{{Decreasepositive}}5.5%
|{{Decreasepositive}}4.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}81.9%
|-
|2024
|{{increase}}16,020.0
|{{increase}}11,111.7
|{{increase}}3,889.1
|{{increase}}2,697.6
|{{increase}}7.0%
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.6%
|n/a
|{{IncreaseNegative}}83.0%
|-
|2025
|{{increase}}17,364.8
|{{increase}}11,937.8
|{{increase}}4,271.9
|{{increase}}2,936.8
|{{increase}}6.5%
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.1%
|n/a
|{{DecreasePositive}}82.6%
|-
|2026
|{{increase}}18,831.4
|{{increase}}12,834.6
|{{increase}}4,710.4
|{{increase}}3,210.4
|{{increase}}6.5%
|{{increase}}4.1%
|n/a
|{{DecreasePositive}}81.8%
|-
|2027
|{{increase}}20,420.1
|{{increase}}13,801.3
|{{increase}}5,193.5
|{{increase}}3,510.1
|{{increase}}6.5%
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.0%
|n/a
|{{DecreasePositive}}80.7%
|-
|2028
|{{increase}}22,143.7
|{{increase}}14,844.9
|{{increase}}5,723.2
|{{increase}}3,836.8
|{{increase}}6.5%
|{{increase}}4.0%
|n/a
|{{DecreasePositive}}80.0%
|-
|2029
|{{increase}}24,015.1
|{{increase}}15,973.1
|{{increase}}6,307.2
|{{increase}}4,195.1
|{{increase}}6.5%
|{{increase}}4.0%
|n/a
|{{DecreasePositive}}78.4%
|}

=== GDP (nominal) past and forecasts ===
{{Main|List of countries by past and projected GDP (nominal)}}

{{Static row numbers}}{{mw-datatable}}{{sticky header}}{{sort under}}{{Table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-datatable static-row-numbers sticky-header sort-under defaultright col1left col3left col5left col7left col9left"
|-
|+The top 15 largest economies in the world (GDP nominal from 1990 to 2030 in billions [[USD]])<ref>{{Cite web|title=World Economic Outlook Database April 2025|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/April|access-date=2025-04-24|website=www.imf.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=UN data 'Downloads' |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/Downloads |access-date=29 April 2020}}</ref>
!Country
!1990
!Country
!2000
!Country
!2010
!Country
!2020
!Country
!2030
|-
| {{USA}}
|5,963
| {{USA}}
|10,250
| {{USA}}
|15,048
| {{USA}}
|21,354
| {{USA}}
|37,153
|-
| {{JPN}}
|3,185
| {{JPN}}
|4,968
| {{CHN}}
|6,138
| {{CHN}}
|15,103
| {{CHN}}
|25,827
|-
| {{DEU}}
|1,604
| {{DEU}}
|1,967
| {{JPN}}
|5,759
| {{JPN}}
|5,054
| style="background: #90D5FF"| {{IND}}
|6,769
|-
| {{FRA}}
|1,260
| {{nowrap|{{GBR}}}}
|1,668
| {{DEU}}
|3,470
| {{DEU}}
|3,936
| {{DEU}}
|5,575
|-
| {{nowrap|{{GBR}}}}
|1,197
| {{FRA}}
|1,361
| {{FRA}}
|2,648
| {{nowrap|{{GBR}}}}
|2,698
| {{JPN}}
|4,994
|-
| {{ITA}}
|1,164
| {{CHN}}
|1,220
| {{nowrap|{{GBR}}}}
|2,487
| style="background: #90D5FF"| {{IND}}
|2,674
| {{nowrap|{{GBR}}}}
|4,955
|-
| {{CAN}}
|596
| {{ITA}}
|1,150
| {{BRA}}
|2,208
| {{FRA}}
|2,645
| {{FRA}}
|3,754
|-
| {{IRN}}
|581
| {{CAN}}
|744
| {{ITA}}
|2,146
| {{ITA}}
|1,905
| {{CAN}}
|2,792
|-
| {{ESP}}
|536
| {{MEX}}
|742
| style="background: #90D5FF"| {{IND}}
|1,675
| {{KOR}}
|1,744
| {{ITA}}
|2,779
|-
| {{BRA}}
|455
| {{BRA}}
|655
| {{RUS}}
|1,633
| {{CAN}}
|1,655
| {{BRA}}
|2,679
|-
| {{CHN}}
|397
| {{ESP}}
|598
| {{CAN}}
|1,617
| {{RUS}}
|1,488
| {{RUS}}
|2,384
|-
| {{AUS}}
|324
| {{KOR}}
|597
| {{ESP}}
|1,429
| {{BRA}}
|1,476
| {{ESP}}
|2,201
|-
| {{NLD}}
|321
| style="background: #90D5FF"| {{IND}}
|468
| {{AUS}}
|1,254
| {{AUS}}
|1,362
| {{AUS}}
|2,181
|-
| style="background: #90D5FF"| {{IND}}
|320
| {{NLD}}
|417
| {{KOR}}
|1,192
| {{ESP}}
|1,288
| {{MEX}}
|2,151
|-
| {{MEX}}
|307
| {{AUS}}
|400
| {{MEX}}
|1,105
| {{MEX}}
|1,121
| {{KOR}}
|2,149
|-
|}

== Economic sectors ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Sectoral shares % in GDP (at constant basic prices)<ref>{{cite web |title=PRESS NOTE ON SECOND ADVANCE ESTIMATES OF ANNUAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT FOR 2024-25|url=https://www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/press_release/PRESS-NOTE-ON-SAE-2024-25-Q3-2024-25-FRE-2023-24-and-FE-2022-23-M1.pdf |access-date=2024-09-17 |website=mospi}}</ref>
!Sectors
!FY 2011-12
!FY 2012-13
!FY 2013-14
!FY 2014-15
!FY 2015-16
!FY 2016-17
!FY 2017-18
!FY 2018-19
!FY 2019-20
!FY 2020-21
!FY 2021-22
!FY 2022-23
!FY 2023-24
|-
|[[Primary sector of the economy|Primary]]
|{{decrease}} 21.7
|{{decrease}} 21.3
|{{increase}} 21.4
|{{decrease}} 20.9
|{{decrease}} 20.1
|{{increase}} 20.4
|{{decrease}} 20.4
|{{decrease}} 19.8
|{{increase}} 20.3
|{{increase}} 22.1
|{{decrease}} 21.0
|{{decrease}} 20.1
|{{decrease}} 19.7
|-
|[[Secondary sector of the economy|Secondary]]
|{{increase}} 29.3
|{{decrease}} 28.7
|{{decrease}} 27.9
|{{decrease}} 27.3
|{{increase}} 27.6
|{{decrease}} 27.0
|{{increase}} 27.0
|{{decrease}} 26.9
|{{decrease}} 25.0
|{{increase}} 25.6
|{{increase}} 26.8
|{{decrease}} 25.6
|{{increase}} 25.9
|-
|[[Tertiary sector of the economy|Tertiary]]
|{{increase}} 49.0
|{{increase}} 50.0
|{{increase}} 50.6
|{{increase}} 51.8
|{{increase}} 52.3
|{{increase}} 52.6
|{{decrease}} 52.5
|{{increase}} 53.3
|{{increase}} 54.8
|{{decrease}} 52.3
|{{decrease}} 52.2
|{{increase}} 54.3
|{{increase}} 54.4
|}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Percent of share in GDP of India contributing from various sector in 2023-24
|label1 = [[Financial services|Financial]], [[real estate]] & [[professional services]]
|value1 = 22.86
|color1 = Blue
|label2 = [[Trade in services|Trade]], [[hotels]], [[Transport in India|transport]], [[Telecommunications in India|communication]] and [[broadcasting]]
|value2 = 18.30
|color2 = Red
|label3 = [[Manufacturing]]
|value3 = 17.04
|color3 = Orange
|label4 = [[Agriculture in India|Agriculture]], [[forestry]] and [[fishing]]
|value4 = 14.27
|color4 = Green
|label5 = [[Public Administration]], [[arms industry|defence]] and other services
|value5 = 12.52
|color5 = Pink
|label6 = [[Construction]]
|value6 = 8.89
|color6 = Gray
|label7 = [[Electricity]], [[gas]], [[water supply]] & other utility services
|value7 = 2.32
|color7 = Yellow
|label8 = [[Mining]] & [[quarrying]]
|value8 = 2.09
|color8 = black
}}

=== Agriculture, forest, and fishing ===
{{Main|Agriculture in India|Forestry in India|Animal husbandry in India|Fishing in India|Natural resources in India}}
{{see also|Sugar industry in India}}

Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 18.4% of the GDP,<ref name="SI" /> the sector employed 51.2 crore persons or 45.5% of the workforce in India are employed in agriculture.<ref name="agr emp" /><ref>{{cite web|last1=Chand|first1=Ramesh|last2=Singh|first2=Jaspal|title=Workforce Changes and Employment|url=https://www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2023-02/Discussion_Paper_on_Workforce_05042022.pdf|publisher=NITI Aayog, Government of India|access-date=19 August 2024|date=March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102232414/https://www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2023-02/Discussion_Paper_on_Workforce_05042022.pdf|archive-date=2 January 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> India is major agriculture producing country and has the most arable land in the world followed by the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/area/|title=CIA World Factbook-Area|access-date=15 January 2024|archive-date=5 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105164242/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/area|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, agricultural output lags far behind its potential.<ref name="nytagriculture">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/business/22indiafood.html|title=The Food Chain in Fertile India, Growth Outstrips Agriculture|newspaper=The New York Times|date=22 June 2008|first=Somini|last=Sengupta|access-date=29 March 2010|archive-date=12 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512072651/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/22/business/22indiafood.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Agriculture's contribution to GDP has steadily declined from 1951 to 2023, shifting from 52% to 15% of India's GDP<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/india/fao-in-india/india-at-a-glance/en/|title=India at glance|access-date=15 January 2024|archive-date=26 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526143948/https://www.fao.org/india/fao-in-india/india-at-a-glance/en/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=19 December 2023|title=Share of agriculture in India's GDP declined to 15% in FY23: Govt|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/agriculture/share-of-agriculture-in-indias-gdp-declined-to-15-in-fy23-govt/articleshow/106124466.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2 May 2024|work=The Economic Times|issn=0013-0389}}</ref> yet it is still the country's largest employment provider sector .<ref name="agr emp">{{cite news|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-economics/explained-economics-agriculture-and-employment-8480945/|title=What India's labour force and national income data tell us about jobs shifting from agriculture|access-date=15 January 2024|archive-date=15 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115071629/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-economics/explained-economics-agriculture-and-employment-8480945/|url-status=live}}</ref> Crop-yield-per-unit-area of all crops has grown since 1950, due to the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five-year plans and steady improvements in irrigation, technology, application of modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since the Green Revolution in India. However, international comparisons reveal the average yield in India is generally 30% to 50% of the highest average yield in the world.<ref name="Datt-5">{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|pp=499–501}}</ref> The states of [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], Haryana, [[Madhya Pradesh]], Andhra Pradesh, [[Telangana]], Bihar, [[West Bengal]], Gujarat and [[Maharashtra]] are key contributors to Indian agriculture.

India receives an average annual rainfall of {{convert|1208|mm|in}} and a total annual [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] of 4,000 billion cubic metres, with the total utilisable [[Water resources in India|water resources]], including surface and [[groundwater]], amounting to 1,123 billion cubic metres.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cwc.gov.in/main/webpages/statistics.html#2|title=India&nbsp;– Land and Water Resources at a glance|publisher=Central Water Commission, Government of India|access-date=18 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101119200518/http://cwc.gov.in/main/webpages/statistics.html#2|archive-date=19 November 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{convert|546820|km2|mi2}} of the land area, or about 39% of the total cultivated area, is irrigated.<ref name="irrigation">{{cite web|url=http://mowr.gov.in/writereaddata/linkimages/statewiseirrigated2079753822.pdf|title=State-Wise Details of Net Irrigated Area (NIA), Net Sown Area (NSA) And Percentage of NIA To NSA|publisher=Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India|access-date=18 November 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721161906/http://mowr.gov.in/writereaddata/linkimages/statewiseirrigated2079753822.pdf|archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> India's inland water resources and marine resources provide employment to nearly 6 million people in the fisheries sector. In 2023, according to the Ministry of Fisheries, India is the 3rd largest fish producing and 2nd largest aquaculture producing nation in the world.
[[File:Cashew nut packet.jpg|thumb|India exports more than {{convert|100,000|t}} of processed cashew kernels every year. There are more than 600 cashew processing units in [[Kollam]] alone.<ref name="CI">{{cite news|url=http://www.qmak.in/mypics%5C91120154629572.pdf|title=Cashew industry : Challenges and Opportunities|access-date=22 March 2016|archive-date=28 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528021450/http://qmak.in/mypics/91120154629572.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
India is the largest producer of milk, jute and [[legume|pulses]], and has the world's largest cattle population with 303 million animals in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ranking Of Countries With The Most Cattle {{!}} India had the largest|url=https://www.nationalbeefwire.com/ranking-of-countries-with-the-most-cattle|access-date=2 May 2024|website=www.nationalbeefwire.com}}</ref> It is the second-largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane, cotton and [[peanut|groundnuts]], as well as the second-largest fruit and vegetable producer, accounting for 10.9% and 8.6% of the world fruit and vegetable production, respectively, but only for 1% of global fruits and vegetables trade. India is also the second-largest producer and the largest consumer of silk, producing {{convert|77000|t}} in 2005.<ref name="fao-silk">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/es/ess/top/commodity.html?lang=en&item=1185&year=2005|title=Major Food And Agricultural Commodities And Producers&nbsp;– Countries By Commodity|publisher=[[FAO]]|access-date=12 December 2009|archive-date=28 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328071129/http://www.fao.org/es/ess/top/commodity.html?lang=en&item=1185&year=2005|url-status=live}}</ref> India is the second-largest exporter of cashew kernels and cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL). Foreign exchange earned by the country through the export of cashew kernels during FY 2023 reached 356M$. {{convert|76,624|t}} of kernels were exported during 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cashew Nut Industry India: Cashew Manufacturers And Exporters In India{{!}} IBEF|url=https://www.ibef.org/exports/cashew-industry-india|access-date=2 May 2024|website=India Brand Equity Foundation|language=en}}</ref> There are about 600 cashew processing units in [[Kollam]], Kerala.<ref name="CI" />

India's foodgrain production stagnant at approximately {{convert|316|Mt|e6LT e6ST|abbr=off}} during 2020–21.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://agriwelfare.gov.in/Documents/CWWGDATA/Agricultural_Statistics_at_a_Glance_2022_0.pdf|title=Agriculture statistics at a glance|access-date=15 January 2024|archive-date=15 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115133426/https://agriwelfare.gov.in/Documents/CWWGDATA/Agricultural_Statistics_at_a_Glance_2022_0.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> India exports several agriculture products, such as Basmati rice, wheat, cereals, spices, fresh fruits, dry fruits, cotton, tea, coffee, milk products and other cash crops to the Asian, African and other countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://agriwelfare.gov.in/en/AgricultureTrade|title=Department of Agriculture & Farmer Welfare|access-date=15 January 2024|archive-date=15 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115134659/https://agriwelfare.gov.in/en/AgricultureTrade|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Sugarcane weighing at sugarmill.jpg|thumb|right|Sugarcane weighing at a [[Cooperative sugar factories in Maharashtra|Pravara Sahakari Sakhar Karkhana Ltd]] in Maharashtra]]

The low productivity in India is a result of several factors. Over-regulation of agriculture has increased costs, price risks and uncertainty, and governmental intervention in labour, land, and credit are hurting the market. Infrastructure such as rural roads, electricity, ports, food storage, retail markets and services remain inadequate.<ref name="agriculturepriorities">{{cite web|url=http://go.worldbank.org/8EFXZBL3Y0|title=India: Priorities for Agriculture and Rural Development|publisher=World Bank|access-date=8 January 2011}}</ref> The average size of land holdings is very small, with 70% of holdings being less than {{convert|1|ha|spell=in}} in size.<ref>{{Harvnb|Panagariya|2008|p=318}}</ref> Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 46% of the total cultivable land was irrigated {{as of|2016|lc=y|post=,}}<ref name="irrigation" /> resulting in farmers still being dependent on rainfall, specifically the [[Monsoon of India|monsoon season]], which is often inconsistent and unevenly distributed across the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|p=502}}</ref> In an effort to bring an additional {{convert|20000000|ha}} of land under irrigation, various schemes have been attempted, including the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) which was provided {{INRConvert|800|b|year=2016}} in the [[Union budget of India|Union Budget]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/money/report-agriculture-production-to-double-with-rs-80000-crore-irrigation-scheme-others-nitin-gadkari-2223667|title=Agriculture production to double with Rs 80000 crore irrigation scheme, others: Nitin Gadkari|access-date=22 June 2016|newspaper=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|archive-date=7 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507141209/http://www.dnaindia.com/money/report-agriculture-production-to-double-with-rs-80000-crore-irrigation-scheme-others-nitin-gadkari-2223667|url-status=live}}</ref> Farming incomes are also hampered by lack of food storage and distribution infrastructure; a third of India's agricultural production is lost from spoilage.<ref name="India's Food Transportation Ordeal">{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887324907204578187122310400706|title=India's Food Transportation Ordeal|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=11 January 2013|access-date=13 March 2017|archive-date=22 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422213022/https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887324907204578187122310400706|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Automobile industry ===
{{Main|Automotive industry in India}}

[[File:Mahindra BE6 pic 1.jpg|thumb|[[Mahindra BE 6|Mahindra BE6 EV]]]]
The automotive industry in India is one of the largest and fastest-growing globally, contributing significantly to the country's economy, employment, and export performance. As of 2023, India ranked as the [[List of countries by motor vehicle production|fourth-largest automobile producer in the world]], following China, United States and Japan. The sector accounts for approximately 7.1% of India's GDP and employs over 37 million people directly and indirectly.<ref>{{cite web |title=2022 Statistics |url=https://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2022-statistics/ |access-date=2023-09-14 |website=www.oica.net |archive-date=8 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408125523/https://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2022-statistics/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibef.org/industry/india-automobiles.aspx|title=Automobile Industry in India, Indian Automobile Industry, Sector, Trends, Statistics|website=www.ibef.org}}</ref> {{As of|2022|04}}, India's auto industry is worth more than US$100 billion and accounts for 8% of the country's total exports and 7.1% of India's GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Invest in Indian Automobile Industry, Auto Sector Growth Trends |url=https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/automobile |access-date=2022-04-08 |website=www.investindia.gov.in |language=en}}</ref>

India's automotive market comprises both domestic and international manufacturers. Key passenger vehicle producers include [[Maruti Suzuki]], [[Hyundai Motor India]], [[Tata Motors]], [[Mahindra & Mahindra]], [[Kia India]], and [[Toyota Kirloskar Motor]]. In the two-wheeler segment, leading companies are [[Hero MotoCorp]], [[Honda Motorcycle and Scooter India]], [[TVS Motor]], and [[Bajaj Auto]]. The commercial vehicle space is dominated by [[Tata Motors]], [[Ashok Leyland]], and [[Mahindra & Mahindra]].

{| class="wikitable"
|+Production & sale of vehicles in India<ref>{{cite web |title=Performance of Indian Auto Industry in 2023-24 |url=https://www.siam.in/statistics |access-date=2024-09-14 |website=www.siam.in}}</ref>
!Type
!
!2019-20
!2020-21
!2021-22
!2022-23
!2023-24
!2024-25
|-
| rowspan="3" |Passenger Vehicles
!Production
|3,424,564
|3,062,280
|3,650,698
|4,587,116
|4,901,840
|5,061,164
|-
!Domestic Sales
|2,773,519
|2,711,457
|3,069,523
|3,890,114
|4,218,750
|4,301,848
|-
!Export Sales
|662,118
|404,397
|577,875
|662,891
|672,105
|770,364
|-
| rowspan="3" |Commercial Vehicles
!Production
|756,725
|624,939
|805,527
|1,035,626
|1,067,504
|1,032,645
|-
!Domestic Sales
|717,593
|568,559
|716,566
|962,468
|968,770
|956,671
|-
!Export Sales
|60,379
|50,334
|92,297
|78,645
|65,818
|80,986
|-
| rowspan="3" |Three wheelers
!Production
|1,132,982
|614,613
|758,669
|855,696
|996,159
|1,050,020
|-
!Domestic Sales
|637,065
|219,446
|261,385
|488,768
|694,801
|741,420
|-
!Export Sales
|501,651
|393,001
|499,730
|365,549
|299,977
|306,914
|-
| rowspan="3" |Two wheelers
!Production
|21,032,927
|18,349,941
|17,821,111
|19,459,009
|21,468,527
|23,883,857
|-
!Domestic Sales
|17,416,432
|15,120,783
|13,570,008
|15,862,771
|17,974,365
|19,607,332
|-
!Export Sales
|3,519,405
|3,282,786
|4,443,131
|3,652,122
|3,458,416
|4,198,403
|-
|}

=== Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSME) ===
{{See also|Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises}}
India began its first few steps during the years 1978-80 when early conditions for SMEs or entrepreneurship were hostile too. 63 million MSMEs in India which contribute ''35% to the country's GDP'' provides employment to 111.4 million persons and accounts for more than 40% of India's exports and are hailed as the 'growth engines' of the economy. China has been creating 16,000-18,000 new enterprises per day for the last 5 years. When one compares that with India, it is about 1000-1100 per day.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/sme-sector/taking-a-cue-from-china-how-india-can-help-smes-flourish-and-prosper/articleshow/80917708.cms?from=mdr|title=Taking a cue from China: How India can help SMEs flourish and prosper|newspaper=The Economic Times|date=15 February 2021|access-date=15 March 2024|archive-date=15 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315214050/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/sme-sector/taking-a-cue-from-china-how-india-can-help-smes-flourish-and-prosper/articleshow/80917708.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live|last1=Dewan|first1=Neha}}</ref>

Micro and small enterprises have the potential to resolve India's unemployment crisis provided the constraints impeding the growth of the sector are resolved. According to Annual MSME Report 2021-22, over 90 per cent of India's 6.3 crore MSMEs are in the micro-segment. Within the micro sector, 62 per cent firms are self-employments which no workers, another 32 per cent have two or three workers and just 6-7 per cent have four workers or above (up to 19).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/business/sme-msme-eodb-micro-sector-should-become-the-key-employment-generator-in-the-country-report-2954066/|title=Micro sector should become the key employment generator in the country: Report|date=19 January 2023|access-date=15 March 2024|archive-date=15 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315214050/https://www.financialexpress.com/business/sme-msme-eodb-micro-sector-should-become-the-key-employment-generator-in-the-country-report-2954066/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, SME IPOs set a record-breaking year with 179 listings.

In Budget 2023, The government has implemented a number of reforms aimed at boosting MSMEs' growth in India while also improving their international competitiveness.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zeebiz.com/small-business/news-budget-2023-govt-mega-push-for-msme-announces-revamped-credit-guarantee-scheme-worth-rs-9000-crore-220085|title=Budget 2023: Govt's mega push for MSME, announces revamped credit guarantee scheme worth Rs 9,000 crore|date=February 2023|access-date=19 March 2024|archive-date=19 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319200732/https://www.zeebiz.com/small-business/news-budget-2023-govt-mega-push-for-msme-announces-revamped-credit-guarantee-scheme-worth-rs-9000-crore-220085|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Industrial machinery, tools and manufacturing equipment ===
{{see also|List of vehicle plants in India|Tractors in India}}
Machinery and equipment market is expected to grow 8% from 2024 to 2029. India's Industrial Machinery Equipment and Tools market size is expected to be $210 billion in 2023.The rise in R&D and large number of startups has led to increase in investment in tools, industrial equipment, robotics, industrial automation, pharmaceutical machinery, mining & construction equipment.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://equipmenttimes.in/india-construction-equipment-market-current-status-and-outlook-2|title=India Construction Equipment Market: Current Status and Outlook|work=Equipment Times|date=5 January 2024|last1=Times|first1=Equipment}}</ref>

[[Indian Government]] has launched an initiative in promoting electrification of fossil-fuel based equipment hence reducing carbon footprint and leading to new innovations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://equipmenttimes.in/charging-ahead|title=Charging Ahead: The Surging Popularity of Electric Machinery|work=Equipment Times|date=9 February 2024|last1=Times|first1=Equipment}}</ref>

===Pulp and paper industry in India===
{{Main|Pulp and paper industry in India}}

=== Mining, resources, and chemicals ===
==== Mining ====
{{Main|Mining in India}}
{{see also|Coal in India|Diamond mining in India|Stones of India}}

[[File:Mine II, Neyveli NLCIL.jpg|thumb|an [[NLC India Limited|NLC India]] mine]]
India has, in 2022, a reported 1,319 mines of which reporting mines for metallic minerals were estimated at 545 and non-metallic minerals at 775.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Metals & Mining Industry in India: Overview, Market Size & Growth {{!}} IBEF|url=https://www.ibef.org/industry/metals-and-mining|access-date=2 May 2024|website=India Brand Equity Foundation|language=en}}</ref>

Mining contributed to 1.75% of GDP and employed directly or indirectly 11 million people in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 April 2021|title=In new India, leveraging the country's great mineral potential|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/opinion/in-new-india-leveraging-the-country-s-great-mineral-potential-101617803609498.html|access-date=2 May 2024|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref> India's mining industry was the fourth-largest producer of minerals in the world by volume, and eighth-largest producer by value in 2009.<ref name="mospimines">[http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/upload/SYB2014/CH-15-MINING/Mining.pdf Mining] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809003924/http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/upload/SYB2014/CH-15-MINING/Mining.pdf|date=9 August 2014}} Chapter 15, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Govt of India (2011)</ref> In 2013, it mined and processed 89 minerals, of which four were fuel, three were atomic energy minerals, and 80 non-fuel.<ref>[http://www.ey.com/IN/en/Industries/Mining---Metals/EY-emerging-economies-and-Indias-mining-industry Emerging economies and India's mining industry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727161413/http://www.ey.com/IN/en/Industries/Mining---Metals/EY-emerging-economies-and-Indias-mining-industry |date=27 July 2014 }} Ernst & Young (2014)</ref> The public sector accounted for 68% of mineral production by volume in 2011–12.<ref name="ficcimine">[http://www.ficci.com/spdocument/20317/Mining-Industry.pdf Development of Indian Mining Industry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701051056/http://www.ficci.com/spdocument/20317/Mining-Industry.pdf |date=1 July 2014 }} FICCI (2012), pp 12–14</ref> India has the world's fourth-largest [[Natural resources of India|natural resources]], with the [[Mining in India|mining sector]] contributing 11% of the country's industrial GDP and 2.5% of total GDP.

Nearly 50% of India's mining industry, by output value, is concentrated in eight states: [[Odisha]], Rajasthan, [[Chhattisgarh]], Andhra Pradesh, [[Telangana]], Jharkhand, [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Karnataka]]. Another 25% of the output by value comes from offshore oil and gas resources.<ref name="ficcimine" /> India operated about 3,000 mines in 2010, half of which were coal, limestone and iron ore.<ref>[http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/upload/SYB2014/CH-15-MINING/Mining.pdf Mining] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809003924/http://mospi.nic.in/Mospi_New/upload/SYB2014/CH-15-MINING/Mining.pdf|date=9 August 2014}} Chapter 15, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Govt of India (2011), pp 205</ref> On output-value basis, India was one of the five largest producers of mica, chromite, coal, lignite, iron ore, bauxite, barite, zinc and manganese; while being one of the ten largest global producers of many other minerals.<ref name="mospimines" /><ref name="ficcimine" /> India was the fourth-largest producer of steel in 2013,<ref>[https://www.worldsteel.org/dms/internetDocumentList/bookshop/Word-Steel-in-Figures-2013/document/World%20Steel%20in%20Figures%202013.pdf World Steel Figures in 2013] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101150040/http://www.worldsteel.org/dms/internetDocumentList/bookshop/Word-Steel-in-Figures-2013/document/World%20Steel%20in%20Figures%202013.pdf|date=1 November 2013}} World Steel Association (2014), pp 9</ref> and the seventh-largest producer of aluminium.<ref>[https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/aluminum/mcs-2014-alumi.pdf Aluminum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427004808/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/aluminum/mcs-2014-alumi.pdf |date=27 April 2017 }} USGS, U.S. Government (2014)</ref>

India's mineral resources are vast.<ref>[http://business.gov.in/Industry_services/mines.php Mines] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140213140237/http://business.gov.in/Industry_services/mines.php|date=13 February 2014}} Business Knowledge Resources, Government of India (2013)</ref> However, its mining industry has declined&nbsp;– contributing 2.3% of its GDP in 2010 compared to 3% in 2000, and employed 2.9 million people&nbsp;– a decreasing percentage of its total labour. India is a net importer of many minerals including coal. India's mining sector decline is because of complex permit, regulatory and administrative procedures, inadequate infrastructure, shortage of capital resources, and slow adoption of environmentally sustainable technologies.<ref name="ficcimine" /><ref>[http://mines.nic.in/writereaddata%5CContentlinks%5C9eeb6e3b6113423586029ee88e1f4b36.pdf Unlocking the Potential of the Indian Minerals Sector] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418144441/http://mines.nic.in/writereaddata/Contentlinks/9eeb6e3b6113423586029ee88e1f4b36.pdf|date=18 April 2014}} Ministry of Mines, Govt of India (November 2011)</ref>

==== Cement ====
Indian cement industry is the 2nd largest cement producing country in the world, next only to China. At present, the Installed Capacity of Cement in India is 500 MTPA with production of 298 million tonnes per annum. Majority of the cement plants installed capacity (about 35%) is located in the states of south India. In PAT scheme, Total Installed Capacity of Cement in India is 325 MTPA which contributes to 65% coverage of total installed capacity in India.

==== Iron and steel ====
{{Main|Iron and steel industry in India}}
{{see also|History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent}}

[[File:Steel Plant, Bokaro Steel City.jpg|right|thumb|[[Bokaro Steel Plant]] (BSL) alone contributes 45% of [[Steel Authority of India|SAIL]]'s profit and it produces highly diversified steel portfolio]]
India surpassed Japan as the second largest steel producer in January 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://auto.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/auto-components/india-replaces-japan-as-second-top-steel-producer-worldsteel/67725232|title=India replaces Japan as second top steel producer: Worldsteel – ET Auto|access-date=13 April 2023|archive-date=11 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411131644/https://auto.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/auto-components/india-replaces-japan-as-second-top-steel-producer-worldsteel/67725232|url-status=live}}</ref> As per {{proper name|worldsteel}}, India's crude steel production in 2018 was at {{convert|106.5|t}}, 4.9% increase from {{convert|101.5|t}} in 2017, which means that India overtook Japan as the world's second largest steel production country.

According to data presented by PIB(FY2021-22), there are more than 900 steel plants in India that produce crude steel. These are owned by PSUs, large-scale companies as well as small and medium enterprises (SMEs). In the year 2021–22, the total capacity of these plants stood at 154.06 million tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1907151|title=Production of Steel|access-date=16 October 2023|archive-date=1 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601212943/https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1907151|url-status=live}}</ref>

The total market value of the Indian steel sector stood at US$57.8 billion in 2011 and is predicted to touch US$95.3 billion by 2016.Growth of crude steel production in India has not kept pace with the growth in capacity of production, according to the report. As per this report, steel sector contributes 2 per cent to India's GDP and employs half a million people directly and 2 million people indirectly. The Indian steel sector has been vibrant, growing at a compounded rate of 6% year-on-year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy/story/steel-industry-can-steer-india-towards-5-tn-economy-by-2025-ey-cii-report-314240-2021-12-02|title=Steel industry can steer India towards $5 tn economy by 2025: EY-CII report|first=Mehak|last=Agarwal|website=businesstoday.in|date=2 December 2021|access-date=6 July 2023|archive-date=7 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230707162504/https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/economy/story/steel-industry-can-steer-india-towards-5-tn-economy-by-2025-ey-cii-report-314240-2021-12-02|url-status=live}}</ref> Multiple integrated steel plants both state-owned and private are using automated AI-based systems for production.<ref>{{cite web | title=Bokaro Steel Plant Begins Trial of Its AI Based Predictive Monitoring System | date=15 November 2021 | url=https://analyticsindiamag.com/ai-news-updates/bokaro-steel-plant-begins-trial-of-its-ai-based-predictive-monitoring-system/ }}</ref>

==== Petroleum ====
{{Main|Oil and gas industry in India}}

[[File:MRPL Refinery.jpg|thumb|[[Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Limited|MRPL Refinery]] in [[Mangalore]]]]
Petroleum products and chemicals are a major contributor to India's industrial GDP, and together they contribute over 34% of its export earnings. India hosts [[List of oil refineries in India|many oil refinery]] and petrochemical operations developed with help of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] technology such as [[Barauni Refinery]] and [[Gujarat Refinery]], it also includes the world's largest refinery complex in [[Jamnagar]] that processes 1.24 million barrels of crude per day.<ref>[http://www.hydrocarbons-technology.com/features/feature-top-ten-largest-oil-refineries-world/ Top ten large oil refineries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140711121138/http://www.hydrocarbons-technology.com/features/feature-top-ten-largest-oil-refineries-world |date=11 July 2014 }} Hydrocarbon Technologies (September 2013)</ref> By volume, the Indian chemical industry was the third-largest producer in Asia, and contributed 5% of the country's GDP. India is one of the five-largest producers of agrochemicals, polymers and plastics, dyes and various organic and inorganic chemicals.<ref>[http://www.ibef.org/download/Chemicals-March-220313.pdf Indian Chemical Industry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727012832/http://www.ibef.org/download/Chemicals-March-220313.pdf |date=27 July 2014 }} IBEF, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India (March 2014)</ref> Despite being a large producer and exporter, India is a net importer of chemicals due to domestic demands.<ref>[http://www.ibef.org/download/chemicals-august-2013.pdf Indian Chemical Industry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102061430/http://www.ibef.org/download/chemicals-august-2013.pdf |date=2 November 2013 }} IBEF, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India (August 2013)</ref> India's [[Chemical industry in India|chemical industry]] is extremely diversified and estimated at $178 billion.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ibef.org/industry/chemical-industry-india.aspx|website=ibef.org|title=Chemicals Industry and Exports|access-date=22 June 2020|archive-date=13 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113142222/https://www.ibef.org/industry/chemical-industry-india.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Chemicals and fertilizer ====
{{Main|Chemical industry in India}}

The chemical industry contributed $163 billion to the economy in FY18 and is expected to reach $300–400 billion by 2025.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pro-growth environment pays off for Indian chemical companies {{!}} KPMG Belgium|url=https://home.kpmg/be/en/home/insights/2018/02/pro-growth-environment-pays-off-for-indian-chemical-companies.html|publisher=KPMG|access-date=15 August 2019|date=13 March 2018|archive-date=15 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815070003/https://home.kpmg/be/en/home/insights/2018/02/pro-growth-environment-pays-off-for-indian-chemical-companies.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Chemical industry may reach USD 304 billion by FY25: Report|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/chem-/-fertilisers/chemical-industry-may-reach-usd-304-billion-by-fy25-report/articleshow/66106551.cms|website=The Economic Times|access-date=15 August 2019|date=7 October 2018|archive-date=15 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815070003/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/chem-/-fertilisers/chemical-industry-may-reach-usd-304-billion-by-fy25-report/articleshow/66106551.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> The industry employed 17.33 million people (4% of the workforce) in 2016.<ref name="WTTCBenchmark">{{cite web|title=BENCHMARK REPORT 2017 – INDI|url=https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/benchmark-reports/country-reports-2017/india.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412082953/https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/benchmark-reports/country-reports-2017/india.pdf|archive-date=12 April 2018|access-date=11 April 2018|website=World Travel and Tourism Council}}</ref>

At present, 57 large fertilizer units are manufacturing a wide number of nitrogen fertilizers. These include 29 urea-producing units and 9 ammonia sulfate-producing units as a by-product. Besides, there are 64 small-scale producing units of single super phosphate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofagriculture.in/top-fertilizer-companies-in-india/|title=Top 15 Fertilizer Companies in India: Nurturing Agricultural Growth|date=8 June 2023|access-date=17 August 2023|archive-date=17 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817065434/https://timesofagriculture.in/top-fertilizer-companies-in-india/|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the latest data released by the WTO, India has emerged as the second largest exporter of agrochemicals in the world. The rank was sixth, 10 years ago. The Indian agrochemical industry fetches valuable trade surplus every year. The trade surplus sharply increased from Rs. 8,030 crores in 2017–18 to Rs. 28,908 crores in the last fiscal.
India's agrochemicals export has doubled in the last 6 years from $2.6 bn in 2017–18 to $5.4 bn in the last financial year according to the data recently released by Ministry of Commerce. It has grown at an impressive CAGR of 13% which is among the highest in the manufacturing sector.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://sundayguardianlive.com/news/india-gains-global-prominence-in-agrochemicals-export|title=India gains global prominence in agrochemicals export|date=28 May 2023|website=sundayguardianlive.com|access-date=28 July 2023|archive-date=28 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728060720/https://sundayguardianlive.com/news/india-gains-global-prominence-in-agrochemicals-export|url-status=live}}</ref>

Millions of farmers in over 130 countries trust Indian agrochemicals for their high quality and affordable prices, said an industry observer. With the global agrochemicals market estimated at $78 billion, predominantly comprising post-patent products, India is rapidly becoming a preferred global hub for sourcing such agrochemicals. To bolster domestic production and reduce imports, the Crop Care Federation of India (CCFI) has recommended specific measures to the Government of India.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://krishijagran.com/news/india-emerges-as-global-powerhouse-in-agrochemical-exports-setting-new-industry-standards/|title=India Emerges as Global Powerhouse in Agrochemical Exports, Setting New Industry Standards|first=P.|last=S. Saini|website=krishijagran.com|access-date=28 July 2023|archive-date=28 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728055920/https://krishijagran.com/news/india-emerges-as-global-powerhouse-in-agrochemical-exports-setting-new-industry-standards/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Textile ===
{{Main|Textile industry in India}}
{{excerpt|Textile industry in India}}

=== Pharmaceuticals ===
{{Main|Pharmaceutical industry in India}}
{{excerpt|Pharmaceutical industry in India}}

=== Transportation ===
{{Main|Transport in India}}

==== Railways and Logistics ====
{{See also|List of railway lines in India|Civil aviation in India|Roads in India}}

[[File:Kalaburagi - SMVT Bengaluru Vande Bharat Express.jpg|thumb| [[Vande Bharat (trainset)|Vande Bharat]] train]]
The [[Indian Railways]] contributes to ~3% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) and has social obligations pegged at $5.3 billion annually.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://metrorailtoday.com/article/rolling-stock-systems-emerging-business-opportunities-in-india|title=Rolling Stock & Systems - Emerging Business Opportunities in India &#124; Metro Rail Today|access-date=12 March 2024|archive-date=24 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324095640/https://metrorailtoday.com/article/rolling-stock-systems-emerging-business-opportunities-in-india|url-status=live}}</ref> Indian Railways revenue has grown at 5% CAGR in the past 5 years but profitability has reduced drastically in the past 4 years, due to growing infrastructure and modernization expenses. With a workforce of 1.31 million people, the IR is also one of the country's largest employers. The railways is a major contributor to jobs, GDP, and mobility.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/business/railways-railways-passenger-revenues-stagnate-over-the-last-decade-growth-below-nominal-gdpnbsp-3388672/|title=Railways' passenger revenues stagnate over the last decade, growth below nominal GDP|date=9 February 2024|access-date=12 March 2024|archive-date=12 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240312122044/https://www.financialexpress.com/business/railways-railways-passenger-revenues-stagnate-over-the-last-decade-growth-below-nominal-gdpnbsp-3388672/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Indian Railways has decided to revise its 2022–23 rolling stock production plan upwards. The Ministry's new plan targets the production of 8,429 units for the coming financial year. Production for 2022–23 has been raised by 878 units from the earlier planned 7,551, according to the revised targets.<ref>{{Cite web|last=News Desk|first=RailPost|date=22 February 2022|title=Indian Railways Revises FY23 Rolling Stock Production Plan, Will Boost Output To 8,000+ Coaches|url=https://www.railpost.in/indian-railways-revises-fy23-rolling-stock-production-plan-will-boost-output-to-8000-coaches/|access-date=11 July 2023|website=RailPost.in|archive-date=11 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711073050/https://www.railpost.in/indian-railways-revises-fy23-rolling-stock-production-plan-will-boost-output-to-8000-coaches/|url-status=live}}</ref> Indian Railways has targeted to manufacture 475 new [[Vande Bharat (trainset)|Vande Bharat]] trainsets for the next four years as a part of its modernization plan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fortuneindia.com/long-reads/race-on-to-meet-vande-bharat-targets/111842|title=Race on to Meet Vande Bharat Targets|date=10 March 2023|access-date=23 June 2023|archive-date=23 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623081959/https://www.fortuneindia.com/long-reads/race-on-to-meet-vande-bharat-targets/111842|url-status=live}}</ref> It is about Rs 40,000 crore($5 billion) business opportunity that would also create 15,000 jobs and several spin-off benefits.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/railways/400-vande-bharat-trains-rs-40000-crore-business-opportunity-and-jobs/articleshow/89318126.cms?from=mdr|title=Vande bharat: 400 Vande Bharat trains: Rs 40,000 crore business opportunity and jobs - the Economic Times|newspaper=The Economic Times|date=3 February 2022|access-date=25 September 2023|archive-date=29 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929003107/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/railways/400-vande-bharat-trains-rs-40000-crore-business-opportunity-and-jobs/articleshow/89318126.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Central Organisation for Railway Electrification|Indian Railway's CORE]] aims to electrify all of its broad gauge network by 31 March 2024.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mission Electrification to save railways power bill by Rs 10K crore|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2016/nov/04/mission-electrification-to-save-railways-power-bill-by-rs-10k-crore-1534699.html|work=[[The New Indian Express]]|date=4 November 2016|access-date=18 April 2023|archive-date=11 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411114300/https://www.newindianexpress.com/nation/2016/nov/04/mission-electrification-to-save-railways-power-bill-by-rs-10k-crore-1534699.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The entire electrified mainline rail network in India uses [[25 kV AC railway electrification|25 kV AC]]; DC is used only for [[Urban rail transit in India|metros]]. As of July 2023, India currently has 90% of total train tracks fully electrified.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/railways-on-track-to-meet-target-of-100-electrification-by-dec-11690543908598.html|title=Railways on track to meet target of 100% electrification by Dec|work=mint |date=28 July 2023|access-date=4 October 2023|archive-date=6 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006060956/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/railways-on-track-to-meet-target-of-100-electrification-by-dec-11690543908598.html|url-status=live |last1=Narayan |first1=Subhash }}</ref>

Under the eleventh Five Year Plan of India (2007–12), the [[Ministry of Railways (India)|Ministry of Railways]] started constructing a new [[Dedicated freight corridors in India|Dedicated Freight Corridor]] (DFC) in two long routes, namely the [[Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor|Eastern]] and [[Western Dedicated Freight Corridor|Western]] freight corridors.<ref>{{cite web|title=DFC – as revolutionary as the Golden Quadrilateral|url=http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/Railways%20report%20-%208%20Jan%202016.pdf|website=Indian Railways|access-date=13 September 2016|archive-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306090559/http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/Railways%20report%20-%208%20Jan%202016.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The two routes cover a total length of {{Convert|3260|km|mi}}, with the ''Eastern Dedicated Freight Corridor'' stretching from [[Ludhiana]] in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] to [[Dankuni railway station|Dankuni]] in [[West Bengal]] and the ''Western Dedicated Freight Corridor'' from [[Jawaharlal Nehru Port]] in [[Mumbai]] ([[Maharashtra]]) to [[Dadri]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="dfc">{{cite web|title=Dedicated Freight Corridors: Paradigm Shift Coming in Indian Railways' Freight Operations|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/efeatures.aspx?relid=134359|website=Press Information Bureau|access-date=13 September 2016|archive-date=3 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103085626/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/efeatures.aspx?relid=134359|url-status=live}}</ref> The DFC will generate around 42,000 jobs and provide long term employment to many people in public sector and private sector.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

==== Rapid Transit ====
{{Main|Urban rail transit in India}}

[[File:Mumbai Metro at Gundavali Station.jpg|thumb|As of 2024, India is having [[List of metro systems#List of countries by system length|third largest metro system in the world]]]]
India is developing modern [[public transport|mass rapid transit]] systems to meet present and future urban requirements. A modern metro rail system is already in place in the cities of [[Navi Mumbai Metro|Navi Mumbai]], [[Delhi Metro|Delhi]], [[Mumbai Metro|Mumbai]], [[Bangalore Metro|Bangalore]], [[Kolkata Metro|Kolkata]], [[Hyderabad Metro|Hyderabad]], [[Kochi Metro|Kochi]], [[Rapid Metro Gurgaon|Gurgaon]], [[Jaipur Metro|Jaipur]], [[Noida Metro|Noida]], [[Pune Metro|Pune]], [[Nagpur Metro|Nagpur]], [[Kanpur Metro|Kanpur]], [[Ahmedabad Metro|Ahmedabad]] and [[Lucknow Metro|Lucknow]]. Similar mass transit systems are intended for [[Agra]], [[Bhopal]], [[Indore]], [[Surat]], [[Patna]], [[Bhubaneswar|Bhubaneswar Tri-city]], [[Chandigarh|Chandigarh Tri-city]], Gwalior, [[Mysore]], [[Nashik Metro|Nashik]], [[Allahabad Metro|Prayagraj]], [[Varanasi Metro|Varanasi]], [[Ranchi]], [[Thane]] and [[Trivandrum]].
Former Prime Minister [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] has been credited with success of the metro systems in India and every metro has followed [[Delhi Metro]] model generating lot of real estate wealth in India specially in smaller cities like [[Gurgaon]] and [[Noida]]. For Elevated corridor, there is no need for land acquisition as pillars are built above [[Median strip]] of a road.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.factchecker.in/fact-check/did-atal-bihari-vajpayee-first-launch-the-delhi-metro--708421|title=Did Atal Bihari Vajpayee First Launch The Delhi Metro ?|first=Nidhi|last=Jacob|date=31 December 2020|website=factchecker.in|access-date=3 July 2023|archive-date=3 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703161535/https://www.factchecker.in/fact-check/did-atal-bihari-vajpayee-first-launch-the-delhi-metro--708421|url-status=live}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Land prices in tier-II cities such as Lucknow, Patna, Jaipur, Ahmedabad, Pune, Kochi, and Coimbatore have gone up by almost 8-10 percent following the introduction of a metro corridor in these cities, an assessment by JLL has said.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/real-estate/metro-corridors-in-tier-ii-cities-led-to-8-10-increase-in-land-prices-jll-8745311.html|title=Metro corridors in tier-II cities led to 8-10% increase in land prices: JLL|date=27 June 2022|access-date=23 June 2023|archive-date=16 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416110559/https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/real-estate/metro-corridors-in-tier-ii-cities-led-to-8-10-increase-in-land-prices-jll-8745311.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

India is also developing modern [[Delhi–Meerut Regional Rapid Transit System|RRTS]] system to replace the old [[Chennai Mass Rapid Transit System|MRTS]] system which will provide connectivity in [[National Capital Region (India)|Delhi Metropolitan Area]] and [[Mumbai Metropolitan Region]] which will serve the suburbs of these big cities at 80–100&nbsp;km of distance from city centre.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

==== Aviation ====
{{see also|List of airlines of India}}

India is the fourth-largest civil aviation market in the world recording an air traffic of 158 million passengers in 2017.<ref>{{cite web|title=India becomes fourth largest aviation market in the world|url=https://mediaindia.eu/news-aibm/india-becomes-fourth-largest-aviation-market-in-the-world/|website=Media India Group|access-date=14 October 2017|date=21 April 2017|archive-date=15 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015044733/https://mediaindia.eu/news-aibm/india-becomes-fourth-largest-aviation-market-in-the-world/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="IATA">{{cite web|title=Potential and Challenges of Indian Aviation|url=https://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2018-09-04-02.aspx|website=IATA|access-date=26 November 2018|archive-date=26 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126134816/https://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2018-09-04-02.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> The market is estimated to have 800 aircraft by 2020, which would account for 4.3% of global volumes,<ref>{{citation|title=Aviation|url=http://www.makeinindia.com/sector/aviation|publisher=[[Make in India]]|access-date=18 November 2016|archive-date=1 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151101015320/http://www.makeinindia.com/sector/aviation|url-status=live}}</ref> and is expected to record annual passenger traffic of 520 million by 2037.<ref name="IATA" /> [[IATA]] estimated that aviation contributed $30&nbsp;billion to India's GDP in 2017, and supported 7.5 million jobs – 390,000 directly, 570,000 in the value chain, and 6.2 million through tourism.<ref name="IATA" />

As of 2024, There are 75 new airports have been built in the last ten years, taking the total count to 149 airports (include helipads and aerodromes). Government vision is to take this milestone 149 to 220 airports in the next 5 to 7 years and [[Government of India]] has a Rs 1 lakh crore capex plan to spend on Airport infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/airlines-/-aviation/civil-aviation-sector-on-upswing-75-airports-built-in-10-years-says-jyotiraditya-scindia/articleshow/106776362.cms|title=Civil aviation sector on upswing, 75 airports built in 10 years, says Jyotiraditya Scindia|newspaper=The Economic Times|date=12 January 2024|access-date=19 March 2024|archive-date=19 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319201742/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/airlines-/-aviation/civil-aviation-sector-on-upswing-75-airports-built-in-10-years-says-jyotiraditya-scindia/articleshow/106776362.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Shipbuilding ====
{{Main|List of Indian shipbuilders and shipyards}}

[[File:Path_to_caves,_Gharapuri,_Maharashtra_400094,_India_-_panoramio_(14).jpg|thumb|''Maharishi Parshuram'' built in 2002 by Cochin Shipyard for SCI]]
The Shipbuilding Financial Assistance Policy (SBFAP) was introduced in 2016, provides financial assistance to Indian shipyards for shipbuilding contracts. According to the ministry of ports, shipping and waterways, under SBFAP, a total of 313 domestic and export vessel orders were procured by 39 shipyards since the inception of the scheme, with the total value standing at about ₹10,500 crore($1.26 billion).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Narayan |first1=Subhash |last2=Kundu |first2=Rhik |title=New shipbuilding scheme likely after 2026, with higher incentives |url=https://www.livemint.com/industry/ship-building-financial-assistance-policy-sbfap-2-0-incentives-ship-manufacturing-hub-maritime-sector-11725875357200.html |website=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |access-date=16 November 2024 |date=9 September 2024}}</ref>

India has multiple ship building companies such as [[Cochin Shipyard]], [[Hindustan Shipyard]] and [[Swan Defence and Heavy Industries Limited|Swan Defence and Heavy Industries]], mainly produces ships for European, South American and African shipping companies. Cochin shipyard is the pioneer in autonomous electric propulsion ships.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seatrade-maritime.com/maritime-technology/cochin-shipyard-to-build-autonomous-electric-vessels-for-asko-maritime|title=Cochin Shipyard to build autonomous electric vessels for ASKO Maritime|website=seatrade-maritime.com}}</ref>

=== IT and telecommunications ===
{{Main|Information technology in India}}

==== Datacentre and cloud ====
{{Main|Data centre industry in India}}

India has emerged as the leading data centre hub in the Asia-Pacific region (excluding China), surpassing established players like Singapore, Australia, South Korea, Japan, and Hong Kong in installed capacity. This reflects the escalating demand for data services in one of the world's fastest-growing major economies.
With a current installed capacity of 950 MW and projections indicating an additional 850 MW by 2026, India is poised to solidify its position as a key player in the Asia-Pacific data centre landscape.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/tech/india-overtakes-apac-countries-australia-japan-singapore-hong-kong-in-data-centre-capacity-13771478.html|title=India overtakes APAC countries Australia, Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong in data centre capacity|date=16 May 2024}}</ref>

In Hyderabad, The largest datacentre is spread over 1. 31 lakh square feet, the proposed rated-4 (tier-4) data centre will be equipped with 1,600 racks and powered by 18MW of electricity.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/ctrls-to-set-up-its-third-largest-data-centre-in-hyderabad/articleshow/90367512.cms|title=CTRLS to set up its third & largest data centre in Hyderabad|newspaper=The Times of India|date=22 March 2022}}</ref>

India's overall public cloud services market is projected to hit US $13 billion by 2026, expanding at a CAGR of 23.1% in 2021-26. The market's revenue totaled US $2.8 billion for the first half of 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thetechpanda.com/indian-cloud-sector-generates-startup-as-well-as-big-tech-interest/39028/|title=Indian cloud sector generates startup as well as big tech interest|date=11 July 2023}}</ref>

==== Electronics and semiconductors ====
{{Main|Electronics and semiconductor manufacturing industry in India}}
{{excerpt|Electronics and semiconductor manufacturing industry in India}}

==== Telecommunications ====
{{Main|Telecommunications in India}}
{{see also|List of telecom companies in India|Internet in India}}

[[File:STS008-44-611.jpg|thumb|right|[[INSAT-1B]] [[satellite]]: broadcasting sector in India is highly dependent on [[INSAT]] system.]]
The telecommunication sector generated {{INRConvert|2.20|t}} in revenue in 2014–15, accounting for 1.94% of total GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/money/report-telecom-sector-share-in-gdp-marginally-up-at-194-in-fy15-2158878|title=Telecom sector share in GDP marginally up at 1.94% in FY15 & Updates at Daily News & Analysis|date=23 December 2015|website=Daily News and Analysis|access-date=2 November 2017|archive-date=11 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311130037/http://www.dnaindia.com/money/report-telecom-sector-share-in-gdp-marginally-up-at-194-in-fy15-2158878|url-status=live}}</ref> Telecom equipment manufacturing and exports are becoming a new success story following the success of smartphone exports. In the financial year 2024, the telecom equipment production exceeded the milestone of Rs 45,000 crore with exports totaling approximately Rs 10,500 crore.<ref>{{cite web |title=New success story after smartphone exports! Telecom equipment production crosses Rs 45,000 crore milestone |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/new-success-story-after-smartphone-exports-telecom-equipment-production-crosses-rs-45000-crore-milestone/articleshow/109724260.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=16 February 2025 |date=2 May 2024}}</ref> India is the second-largest market in the world by number of telephone users (both fixed and mobile phones) with 1.053 billion subscribers {{as of|2016|August|31|lc=y|post=.}} It has one of the lowest call-tariffs in the world, due to fierce competition among telecom operators. India has the world's third-largest Internet user-base. {{As of|2016|March|31|post=,}} there were 342.65 million Internet subscribers in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/PIRReport/Documents/Indicator_Report_05_August_2016.pdf|title=The Indian Telecom Services Performance Indicators January – March, 2016|website=Telecom Regulatory Authority of India|access-date=29 November 2016|date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161130132013/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/PIRReport/Documents/Indicator_Report_05_August_2016.pdf|archive-date=30 November 2016}}</ref> India's [[Telecommunications in India|telecommunication industry]] is the world's second largest by the number of mobile phone, smartphone, and internet users.

Industry estimates indicate that there are over 554 million TV consumers in India {{as of|2012|lc=y|post=.}}<ref name="mruc">{{cite web|url=http://mruc.net/irs2012q1-topline-findings.pdf|title=Indian Readership Survey 2012 Q1 : Topline Findings|at=Growth: Literacy & Media Consumption|publisher=Media Research Users Council|access-date=12 September 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407092737/http://mruc.net/irs2012q1-topline-findings.pdf|archive-date=7 April 2014}}</ref> India is the largest [[direct-to-home]] (DTH) television market in the world by number of subscribers. {{As of|2016|May|post=,}} there were 84.80 million [[Satellite television|DTH]] subscribers in the country.<ref name="TRAI">{{cite press release|url=http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/PIRReport/Documents/QPIR_Oct_to_Dec-15.pdf|title=Telecom Subscription data, May 2016|publisher=TRAI|date=18 May 2016|access-date=14 July 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615054203/http://www.trai.gov.in/WriteReadData/PIRReport/Documents/QPIR_Oct_to_Dec-15.pdf|archive-date=15 June 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

=== Defence and energy ===

==== Defence ====
{{Main|Defence industry of India}}
{{see also|Space industry of India}}

[[File:DRDO AIP (Air Independent Propulsion) model for Kalvari-class submarine.jpg|thumb|PAFC AIP fuel-cell module developed by the [[Defence Research and Development Organisation|DRDO]] of [[India]] to power marine transport]]
With over 1.3 million active personnel, the [[Indian Army]] is the [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|third-largest military force and the largest volunteer army]]. Defence expenditure was pegged at US$70.12&nbsp;billion for fiscal year 2022–23 and, increased 9.8% than previous fiscal year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sumsbe.pdf|title=Ministry wise Summary of Budget Provisions, 2022–23|access-date=3 February 2022|website=Ministry of Finance, Government of India|archive-date=2 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202221425/https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/doc/eb/sumsbe.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> India is the world's second largest arms importer; between 2016 and 2020, it accounted for 9.5% of the total [[Arms industry|global arms imports]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Pandit|first=Rajat|date=16 March 2021|title=India's weapon imports fell by 33% in last five years but remains world's second-largest arms importer|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/indias-weapon-imports-fell-by-33-in-last-five-years-but-remains-worlds-second-largest-arms-importer/articleshow/81516403.cms|access-date=26 April 2022|website=The Times of India|language=en|archive-date=7 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607130254/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/indias-weapon-imports-fell-by-33-in-last-five-years-but-remains-worlds-second-largest-arms-importer/articleshow/81516403.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> India exported military hardware worth {{INRConvert|159.2|b}} in the financial year 2022–23, the highest ever and a notable tenfold increase since 2016–17.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/indias-defence-exports-hit-record-high-of-rs-15-920-crore-in-fy-2022-23-a-tenfold-increase-since-2016-17-thanks-to-make-in-india-reforms-101680344018909.html|title=India's defence exports reach ₹15,920 cr in 2022–23, tenfold jump in 6 years|work=Hindustan Times |date=April 2023|access-date=13 April 2023|archive-date=12 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412145943/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/indias-defence-exports-hit-record-high-of-rs-15-920-crore-in-fy-2022-23-a-tenfold-increase-since-2016-17-thanks-to-make-in-india-reforms-101680344018909.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Diversified Energy sector ====
{{Main|Energy in India|Electricity sector in India|Energy policy of India}}
{{see also|Renewable energy in India|Power sector in India}}

[[File:PHWR under Construction at Kakrapar Gujarat India.jpg|thumb|An [[IPHWR-700]] reactor undergoing construction in [[Kakrapar Atomic Power Station|Kakrapar Nuclear Plant]] started in 1984]]
[[Primary energy]] consumption of India is the third-largest after China and US with 5.3% global share in the year 2015.<ref name="srwew">{{cite web|url=http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/energy-economics/statistical-review-2016/bp-statistical-review-of-world-energy-2016-india-insights.pdf|title=BP Statistical Review 2016|access-date=29 May 2016|archive-date=20 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020034026/http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/energy-economics/statistical-review-2016/bp-statistical-review-of-world-energy-2016-india-insights.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Coal and crude oil together account for 85% of the primary energy consumption of India. India's [[oil reserves]] meet 25% of the country's domestic oil demand.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|title=CIA&nbsp;– The World Factbook&nbsp;– India|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|date=20 September 2007|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/|access-date=2 October 2007|archive-date=18 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318202107/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Datt-1">{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|p=104}}</ref> {{As of|2015|April|post=,}} India's total proven crude oil reserves are {{convert|763.476|Mt|e6LT e6ST|abbr=off}}, while gas reserves stood at {{convert|1490|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=off}}.<ref name="png">{{cite web|title=Indian Petroleum & Natural Gas Statistics, 2014–15|url=http://petroleum.nic.in/docs/pngstat.pdf|access-date=19 January 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205032742/http://petroleum.nic.in/docs/pngstat.pdf|archive-date=5 December 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Oil and natural gas fields are located offshore at [[Ashoknagar Oil Field]], [[Bombay High]], [[Krishna Godavari Basin]], [[Mangala Area]] and the [[Cauvery Delta]], and onshore mainly in the states of [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]], Gujarat and [[Rajasthan]]. India is the fourth-largest consumer of oil and net oil imports were nearly {{INRConvert|8.2|t}} in 2014–15,<ref name="png" /> which had an adverse effect on the country's [[current account deficit]]. The petroleum industry in India mostly consists of public sector companies such as [[Oil and Natural Gas Corporation]] (ONGC), [[Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited]] (HPCL), [[Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited]] (BPCL) and Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL). There are some major private Indian companies in the oil sector such as [[Reliance Industries Limited]] (RIL) which operates the world's largest oil refining complex.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-01-27/reliance-net-beats-estimate-after-boosting-natural-gas-sales.html|title=Reliance Net Beats Estimate After Boosting Natural Gas Sales|work=Bloomberg BusinessWeek|date=27 January 2010|access-date=5 April 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915194809/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-01-27/reliance-net-beats-estimate-after-boosting-natural-gas-sales.html|archive-date=15 September 2011}}</ref> In 2026, fuel costs rose after the [[2026 Iran war|Iran war]] disrupted Middle Eastern energy supplies, leading to higher LPG prices in India.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026 |title=India raises cooking gas prices as Iran war hits supply |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/india-raises-cooking-gas-prices-iran-war-hits-supply-2026-03-07}}</ref>

India became the world's third-largest producer of electricity in 2013 with a 4.8% global share in electricity generation, surpassing Japan and Russia.<ref name="srwe">{{cite web|url=http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/energy-economics/statistical-review-2015/bp-statistical-review-of-world-energy-2015-electricity-section.pdf|title=BP Statistical Review of world electric energy, 2015|access-date=17 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704145824/http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/Energy-economics/statistical-review-2015/bp-statistical-review-of-world-energy-2015-electricity-section.pdf|archive-date=4 July 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> By the end of calendar year 2015, India had an electricity surplus with many power stations idling for want of demand.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vidyutpravah.in/|title=Vidyut Pravah – See FAQ section for more information|access-date=3 June 2016|archive-date=13 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013060025/http://www.vidyutpravah.in/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The utility electricity sector had an installed capacity of 303 [[Gigawatt|GW]] {{as of|2016|May|lc=y}} of which [[thermal power]] contributed 69.8%, [[hydroelectricity]] 15.2%, other sources of [[renewable energy]] 13.0%, and [[nuclear power]] 2.1%.<ref name="capacity">{{cite web|url=http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/monthly/installedcapacity/2016/installed_capacity-05.pdf|title=All India Installed Capacity (In MW) Of Power Stations|access-date=9 June 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705063841/http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/monthly/installedcapacity/2016/installed_capacity-05.pdf|archive-date=5 July 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> India meets most of its domestic electricity demand through its {{convert|106|Gt|e9LT e9ST|abbr=off}} of proven coal reserves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coal.nic.in/reserve2.htm|title=Inventory of Coal Resources of India|publisher=Ministry of Coal, Government of India|access-date=18 November 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100419020324/http://www.coal.nic.in/reserve2.htm|archive-date=19 April 2010}}</ref> India is also rich in certain alternative [[Energy policy of India|sources of energy]] with significant future potential such as [[Solar power in India|solar]], [[Wind power in India|wind]] and [[Biofuel in India|biofuels]] ([[jatropha]], sugarcane). India's dwindling uranium reserves stagnated the growth of nuclear energy in the country for many years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.livemint.com/2008/06/30222448/Uranium-shortage-holding-back.html|title=Uranium shortage holding back India's nuclear power drive|newspaper=Mint|date=30 June 2008|access-date=5 April 2010|archive-date=3 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203021707/http://www.livemint.com/2008/06/30222448/Uranium-shortage-holding-back.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Recent discoveries in the [[Tummalapalle uranium mine|Tummalapalle]] belt may be among the top 20 natural uranium reserves worldwide,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/andhra-pradesh/article1554078.ece|location=Chennai, India|work=The Hindu|first=T. S.|last=Subramanian|title=Massive uranium deposits found in Andhra Pradesh|date=20 March 2011|access-date=19 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024220949/http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/andhra-pradesh/article1554078.ece|archive-date=24 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/massive-uranium-deposit-found-andhra-pradesh-india-299977|location=US|work=International Business Times|first=Monami|last=Thakur|title=Massive uranium deposits found in Andhra Pradesh|date=19 July 2011|access-date=19 February 2014|archive-date=18 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018072600/http://www.ibtimes.com/massive-uranium-deposit-found-andhra-pradesh-india-299977|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/8647745/Largest-uranium-reserves-found-in-India.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/8647745/Largest-uranium-reserves-found-in-India.html|archive-date=10 January 2022|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|location=New Delhi, India|work=The Telegraph|first=Rahul|last=Bedi|title=Largest uranium reserves found in India|date=19 July 2011}}{{cbignore}}</ref>{{update inline|date=June 2017|reason=2011 speculative data, should have better information by now}} and an estimated reserve of {{convert|846477|t}} of [[thorium]]<ref name="pib">{{cite news|title=Availability of Thorium|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=74293|publisher=Press Information Bureau, Government of India|access-date=27 March 2012|date=10 August 2011|archive-date=10 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910065608/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=74293|url-status=live}}</ref>&nbsp;– about 25% of world's reserves&nbsp;– are expected to fuel the country's ambitious [[nuclear power in India|nuclear energy programme]] in the long run. The [[India–United States Civil Nuclear Agreement|Indo-US nuclear deal]] has also paved the way for India to import uranium from other countries.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.livemint.com/2008/10/09005930/Bush-signs-IndiaUS-nuclear-de.html|title=Bush signs India-US nuclear deal into law|newspaper=Mint|date=9 October 2008|access-date=5 April 2010|archive-date=20 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720040118/https://www.livemint.com/2008/10/09005930/bush-signs-indiaus-nuclear-de.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Infrastructure sector ===
{{Main|Roads in India|Indian Railways|Ports in India|List of airports in India|Category:Infrastructure in India}}

[[File:MSC Claude at Vizhinjam.jpg|left|thumb|[[Vizhinjam International Seaport Thiruvananthapuram]], the first ''Mother Port'' in the world, with harbour depth of 24 metres]]

India's infrastructure and transport sector contributes around 5% to the country's gross domestic product (GDP).<ref>{{cite web |title=The infrastructure imperative: Driving India's economic growth |url=https://infra.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/urban-infrastructure/the-infrastructure-imperative-driving-indias-economic-growth/116392333 |website=ET Infra via Economic Times |date=17 December 2024 |access-date=21 August 2025}}</ref>

==== Roads ====
India's total [[road network]] is over 6.6 million km, making it the [[List of countries by road network size|second largest in the world]] as of early 2025. This expansive network comprises [[National highways of India|national highways]], [[State highways in India|state highways]], and other roads and is crucial for transportation, with roads carrying over 85% of passenger traffic and more than 70% of freight.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 July 2025 |title=Road Infrastructure in India |url=https://www.ibef.org/industry/roads-india#:~:text=Introduction,growing%20at%20a%20rapid%20rate. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250721110058/https://www.ibef.org/industry/roads-india |archive-date=21 July 2025 |access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref>

India has rapidly expanded its network of expressways and national highways. {{As of|2024}}, more than {{convert|45,000|km}} of 4-lane and above highways have been built, including flagship projects such as the [[Delhi–Mumbai Expressway]], [[Surat–Chennai Expressway]], [[Ganga Expressway]], [[Dwarka Expressway]], and [[Delhi–Meerut Expressway]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Bharatmala Pariyojana |url=https://morth.nic.in/bharatmala |publisher=Ministry of Road Transport & Highways |access-date=21 August 2025}}</ref>

[[File:Delhi-Meerut-Express-Highway-India.png|right|thumb|[[Delhi–Meerut Expressway]] is among the widest expressways in India]]

==== Ports ====
India has a coastline of {{convert|11,098.81|km}}, with 13 major ports and more than 200 non-major and private ports.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 January 2025 |title=MHA: India's recalculated coastline up 48% in 53 years |website=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/mha-indias-recalculated-coastline-up-48-in-53-years/articleshow/116927468.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250103232413/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/mha-indias-recalculated-coastline-up-48-in-53-years/articleshow/116927468.cms |archive-date=3 January 2025 |access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MAJOR AND MINOR PORTS ON PPP MODEL |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2110322 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250725053718/https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2110322#:~:text=These%20are%20Deendayal%20Port%2C%20Mumbai,and%20Syama%20Prasad%20Mookerjee%20Port. |archive-date=25 July 2025 |access-date=25 August 2025 }}</ref> These handle around 95% of India's external trade by volume and about 70% by value. [[Kandla Port|Kandla (Deendayal) Port]] in Gujarat is the largest public port, while [[Mundra Port]] (operated by Adani Ports) is the largest private port in India. Under the [[Sagarmala project]], port-led development and modernization of coastal infrastructure are being accelerated.

==== Aviation ====
India currently has around 153 operational airports managed by the [[Airports Authority of India|Airport Authority of India]] (AAI), including 29 [[international airport]]s, 10 [[customs airport]]s, and 114 [[domestic airport]]s, along with 23 civil enclaves at defence [[airfields]]. This number reflects significant growth, as it was 74 in 2014 and has more than doubled, a result of government initiatives [[UDAN]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 July 2025 |title=Airports in India — List of Domestic & International Airports in India |url=https://verandarace.com/blog/airports-in-india |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250713021740/https://verandarace.com/blog/airports-in-india |archive-date=13 July 2025 |access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref>

==== Companies ====
India hosts multiple global-scale infrastructure and transport companies such as [[Afcons Infrastructure]], [[Adani Ports & SEZ]], [[JSW Infrastructure]], and [[Larsen & Toubro]], which operate across roads, ports, metro systems, and international projects.

=== Construction and Real Estate ===
{{Main|Construction industry in India|List of megaprojects in India|Housing in India}}

The construction sector—including infrastructure and real estate services—now accounts for approximately '''18 % of India's total economic output''', reflecting a decade-long compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of about '''11 %'''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Skilled Employment in Construction Sector in India |url=https://content.knightfrank.com/research/2729/documents/en/skilled-employment-in-construction-sector-in-india-2023-10450.pdf |publisher=Knight Frank Research; World Bank |access-date=21 August 2025}}</ref> It remains the '''second-largest employment generator''' in the economy, currently employing roughly '''71 million people''' and forecasted to exceed '''100 million jobs by 2030'''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Employment in construction sector likely to grow to 100 million by 2030 |url=https://www.livemint.com/industry/infrastructure/indias-construction-sector-real-estate-jobs-employment-gdp-economy-civil-engineers-11691047850783.html |work=Mint |date=3 August 2023 |access-date=21 August 2025}}</ref>

In Q4 2024–25, real gross value added (GVA) from construction reached '''₹4.64 lakh crore''', a year-on-year growth of '''10.8 %''', contributing strongly to GDP growth.<ref>{{cite web |title=India GVA from Construction – Q4 2024–25 |date=20 June 2025 |url=https://chartforest.com/india-gdp-from-construction/ |publisher=Trading Economics / MOSPI |access-date=21 August 2025}}</ref> For the full fiscal year 2024–25, construction GVA at constant (real) prices stood at '''₹15.72 lakh crore''', showing a '''9.4 %''' increase over the previous year; nominal GVA rose to '''₹26.27 lakh crore''', also up '''9.4 %''' year-on-year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Annual GVA from Construction 2024–25 |date=20 June 2025 |url=https://chartforest.com/india-gdp-from-construction/ |publisher=Trading Economics / MOSPI |access-date=21 August 2025}}</ref>

In 2016, the construction industry contributed US$288 billion (13% of GDP) and employed 60.4 million people (14% of the workforce).<ref name="WTTCBenchmark" /> Today, the sector's share has grown significantly, underscoring its expanding economic and employment contributions.

The real estate segment is set to generate substantial opportunities in business, employment, and the startup ecosystem. The [[2023 Union budget of India]] allocated nearly '''₹10 trillion''' toward infrastructure, further bolstering this growth trajectory.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.livemint.com/economy/india-to-become-3rd-largest-construction-market-in-3-years-11681575402097.html |website=Mint |title=India to become 3rd largest construction market in 3 years |date=15 April 2023 |access-date=21 August 2025}}</ref>

The [[MGNREGA]] scheme continues to play a dual role in rural employment and infrastructure development:
- In '''FY24''', approximately '''83.2 million people''' were provided work, generating over '''312 crore person-days'''—a post-pandemic high.<ref>{{cite news |title=187.5 crore person-days generated under MGNREGS in FY 2024-25 |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/business/187-5-crore-person-days-generated-under-mgnregs-in-fy-2024-25-govt-1503370463.html |work=The Statesman |date=29 November 2024 |access-date=23 August 2025}}</ref>
- In '''FY25''', despite slight declines, the scheme still delivered over '''288 crore person-days'''—well above pre-pandemic levels.<ref>{{cite news |title=Work generated under NREGS in '24-25 less than '23-24 numbers |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/work-generated-under-nregs-in-24-25-less-than-23-24-numbers/articleshow/120044817.cms |work=The Times of India |date=7 April 2025 |access-date=21 August 2025}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Summary indicators: Construction sector (FY 2024–25)'''
|-
! Indicator !! Value
|-
| Construction sector real GVA || ₹15.72&nbsp;lakh crore (↑ 9.4% YoY)
|-
| Construction sector nominal GVA || ₹26.27&nbsp;lakh crore (↑ 9.4% YoY)
|-
| Estimated employment in construction || ~71 million (projected 100 million by 2030)
|-
| MGNREGA person-days generated || >312 crore (FY24); >288 crore (FY25)
|}

India is massively privatizing [[airports]], ports, [[Inter-State Bus Terminals|bus stands]], [[railway stations]], [[dams]], [[wind park|dam wind park]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.power-technology.com/data-insights/power-plant-profile-kseb-kerala-dam-wind-farm-india/ |title=Power plant profile: KSEB- Kerala Dam Wind Farm, India |work=Power Technology |date=27 April 2023 |author1=Kgi-Admin |access-date=10 November 2024 |archive-date=10 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241110143223/https://www.power-technology.com/data-insights/power-plant-profile-kseb-kerala-dam-wind-farm-india/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Photovoltaic power station|solar parks]], [[Floating solar|floating solar plants]], [[power transmission]], [[highways]], [[thermal power]] and other utilizes.

=== Finance and trade ===
==== Banking and financial services ====
{{Main|Banking in India|Finance in India}}
{{see also|List of banks in India|Insurance in India|Money market in India|Financial regulation in India}}

[[File:BKC - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Bank of India]] HQ in [[Bandra Kurla Complex|BKC]]]]
[[File:India bonds.webp|thumb|India bonds
{{legend-line|#FF9933 solid 3px|30 year }}
{{legend-line|#138808 solid 3px|10 year }}
{{legend-line|#000080 solid 3px|2 year }}
{{legend-line|#F8BA00 solid 3px|1 year }}
{{legend-line|#FF2600 solid 3px|3 month }}]]
The financial services industry contributed $809&nbsp;billion (37% of GDP) and employed 14.17 million people (3% of the workforce) in 2016, and the banking sector contributed $407&nbsp;billion (19% of GDP) and employed 5.5 million people (1% of the workforce) in 2016.<ref name="WTTCBenchmark" /> The Indian [[money market]] is classified into the organised sector, comprising private, public and foreign-owned [[commercial bank]]s and [[cooperative]] banks, together known as 'scheduled banks'; and the unorganised sector, which includes individual or family-owned indigenous bankers or [[Money lending|money lenders]] and [[non-banking financial company|non-banking financial companies]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|p=858}}</ref> The unorganised sector and [[microcredit]] are preferred over traditional banks in rural and sub-urban areas, especially for non-productive purposes such as short-term loans for ceremonies.<ref name="Datt-6">{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|pp=838–839}}</ref>

Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] nationalised 14 banks in 1969, followed by six others in 1980, and made it mandatory for banks to provide 40% of their net credit to priority sectors including agriculture, small-scale industry, retail trade and small business, to ensure that the banks fulfilled their social and developmental goals. Since then, the number of bank branches has increased from 8,260 in 1969 to 72,170 in 2007 and the population covered by a branch decreased from 63,800 to 15,000 during the same period. The total [[bank deposit]]s increased from {{INRConvert|59.1|b|year=1971}} in 1970–71 to {{INRConvert|38.31|t|year=2009}} in 2008–09. Despite an increase of rural branches – from 1,860 or 22% of the total in 1969 to 30,590 or 42% in 2007 – only 32,270 of 500,000 villages are served by a scheduled bank.<ref name="ghosh">{{cite web|title=Bank Nationalisation: The Record|work=Macroscan|url=http://www.macroscan.com/cur/jul05/cur210705Bank_Nationalisation.htm|publisher=Economic Research Foundation|date=21 July 2005|first=Jayati|last=Ghosh|access-date=11 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051023070928/http://www.macroscan.com/cur/jul05/cur210705Bank_Nationalisation.htm|archive-date=23 October 2005}}</ref><ref name="Datt-7">{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|pp=839–842}}</ref>

India's gross domestic [[saving]]s in 2006–07 as a percentage of GDP stood at a high 32.8%.<ref>{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|pp=334–335}}</ref> More than half of personal savings are invested in physical assets such as land, houses, cattle, and gold.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN028982.pdf|title=Reforming India's Financial System|first=Diana|last=Farrell|author2=Susan Lund|publisher=United Nations Public Administration Network|access-date=11 January 2011|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223047/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN028982.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The government-owned public-sector banks hold over 75% of total assets of the banking industry, with the private and foreign banks holding 18.2% and 6.5% respectively.<ref name="factual">{{cite news|url=http://www.livemint.com/2007/09/01001100/India-growth-story-is-attracti.html|title=India growth story is attracting talent from govt establishments|newspaper=Mint|date=1 September 2007|first=Jeetha|last=D'Silva|access-date=11 January 2011|archive-date=28 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228082124/http://www.livemint.com/2007/09/01001100/India-growth-story-is-attracti.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Since liberalisation, the government has approved significant banking reforms. While some of these relate to nationalised banks – such as reforms encouraging mergers, reducing government interference and increasing profitability and competitiveness – other reforms have opened the banking and insurance sectors to private and foreign companies.<ref name="CIA" /><ref name="Datt-8">{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|pp=854–855}}</ref>

==== Retail ====
{{Main|Retailing in India}}

[[File:Surat Diamond Bourse Aerial View 1.jpg|thumb|Surat Diamond City Aerial View]]
The retail industry, excluding wholesale, contributed $793&nbsp;billion (10% of GDP) and employed 35 million people (8% of the workforce) in 2020. The industry is the second largest employer in India, after agriculture.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Uneasy Compromise – Indian Retail|last=Dikshit|first=Anand|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=12 August 2011|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424053111903461104576461540616622966|access-date=30 April 2022|archive-date=30 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430204532/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424053111903461104576461540616622966|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/retail-e-commerce#:~:text=The%20Indian%20retail%20market%20is%20largely%20unorganized.,to%20reach%2018%25%20by%202025.|title=Retail Industry in India – Indian Retail Sector, Market Size|access-date=30 April 2022|archive-date=9 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220509125326/https://www.investindia.gov.in/sector/retail-e-commerce#:~:text=The%20Indian%20retail%20market%20is%20largely%20unorganized.,to%20reach%2018%25%20by%202025.|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[https://nasscom.in/sites/default/files/media_pdf/NASSCOM_Press_Release_NASSCOM_RETAIL_4_REPORT%20.pdf NASSCOM press release] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430210254/https://nasscom.in/sites/default/files/media_pdf/NASSCOM_Press_Release_NASSCOM_RETAIL_4_REPORT%20.pdf |date=30 April 2022 }} NASSCOM. 8 March 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2022</ref> The Indian retail market is estimated to be US$600&nbsp;billion and one of the top-five retail markets in the world by economic value. India has one of the fastest-growing retail markets in the world,<ref>{{cite web|title=Winning the Indian consumer|publisher=McKinsey & Company|year=2005|url=http://www.mckinseyquarterly.com/Marketing/Sectors_Regions/Winning_the_Indian_consumer_1659?gp=1|access-date=28 June 2012|archive-date=26 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126161914/http://www.mckinseyquarterly.com/Marketing/Sectors_Regions/Winning_the_Indian_consumer_1659?gp=1|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-15885055|first=Sanjoy|last=Majumder|title=Changing the way Indians shop|work=BBC News|date=25 November 2011|access-date=22 June 2018|archive-date=1 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101094039/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-15885055|url-status=live}}</ref> and is projected to reach $1.3&nbsp;trillion by 2020.<ref name="pwc12tik">[http://www.pwc.in/en_IN/in/assets/pdfs/industries/retail-and-consumer/retail-report-300812.pdf The Indian Kaleidoscope – Emerging trends in retail] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228033058/http://www.pwc.in/en_IN/in/assets/pdfs/industries/retail-and-consumer/retail-report-300812.pdf |date=28 February 2013 }} PWC (2012)</ref><ref>[http://www.strategyand.pwc.com/media/file/RAI_Strategyand_Successful-Innovations-in-Indian-Retail.pdf Successful Innovations in Indian Retail] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808025059/http://www.strategyand.pwc.com/media/file/RAI_Strategyand_Successful-Innovations-in-Indian-Retail.pdf |date= 8 August 2014 }} Booz Allen & PwC (February 2013)</ref> India has [[Retailing in India|retail market]] worth $1.17&nbsp;trillion, which contributes over 10% of India's GDP. It also has one of the world's fastest growing [[e-commerce]] markets.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.ibef.org/industry/retail-india.aspx|website=ibef.org|title=Retail industry in India|access-date=22 June 2019|archive-date=21 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210221032409/https://www.ibef.org/industry/retail-india.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> The e-commerce retail market in India was valued at $32.7&nbsp;billion in 2018, and is expected to reach $71.9&nbsp;billion by 2022.<ref>{{cite web|title=Market Realist|url=https://marketrealist.com/2019/01/what-next-for-amazon-in-india-amid-new-retail-rules|website=marketrealist.com|date=7 January 2019|access-date=27 January 2019|archive-date=28 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128030300/https://marketrealist.com/2019/01/what-next-for-amazon-in-india-amid-new-retail-rules|url-status=live}}</ref>

India's retail industry mostly consists of local [[Small business|mom-and-pop stores]], owner-staffed shops and street vendors. Retail supermarkets are expanding, with a market share of 4% in 2008.<ref name="chainstores">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=11465586|title=Retailing in India: Unshackling the chain stores|newspaper=The Economist|date=29 May 2008|access-date=10 January 2010|archive-date=6 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006022549/http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=11465586|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2012, the government permitted 51% FDI in multi-brand retail and 100% FDI in single-brand retail. However, a lack of back-end warehouse infrastructure and state-level permits and red tape continue to limit growth of organised retail.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sharma|first1=Amol|last2=Mukherji|first2=Biman|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323622904578129294224588914|title=Bad Roads, Red Tape, Burly Thugs Slow Wal-Mart's Passage in India|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=12 January 2013|access-date=13 March 2017|archive-date=23 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423062452/https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323622904578129294224588914|url-status=live}}</ref> Compliance with over thirty regulations such as "signboard licences" and "anti-hoarding measures" must be made before a store can open for business. There are taxes for moving goods from state to state, and even within states.<ref name="chainstores" />
[[File:Harangi Elephant Camp and Tree Park.jpg|thumb| Scenic view from [[Harangi Dam#Amenities|Harangi Elephant Camp & Tree Park]] in [[Kodagu|Coorg]]]]

=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Science and technology in India}}
{{excerpt|Science and technology in India}}

=== Services ===
==== Education ====
{{Main|Education in India}}
{{excerpt|Education in India}}

==== Healthcare ====
{{Main|Healthcare in India}}
{{excerpt|Healthcare in India}}

==== Tourism ====
{{Main|Tourism in India}}

{{Other uses|List of tourist attractions in Delhi}}
[[File:Sarayu River night view, Ayodhya 001.jpg|thumb|[[Ayodhya]] became the top destination of [[Uttar Pradesh]] in 2024]]
The [[World Travel and Tourism Council|World Travel & Tourism Council]] calculated that tourism generated {{INRConvert|15.24|t}} or 9.4% of the nation's GDP in 2017 and supported 41.622 million jobs, 8% of its total employment. The sector is predicted to grow at an annual rate of 6.9% to {{INRConvert|32.05|t}} by 2028 (9.9% of GDP).<ref>{{cite web|title=Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2018 India|url=https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries-2018/india2018.pdf|publisher=[[World Travel and Tourism Council]]|access-date=22 March 2017|archive-date=22 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180322143152/https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries-2018/india2018.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Over 10 million foreign tourists arrived in India in 2017 compared to 8.89 million in 2016, recording a growth of 15.6%.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Team|first1=BS Web|title=India attracted 10 mn foreign tourists in 2017, sports to bring more|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/india-attracted-10-mn-foreigners-in-2017-sports-to-bring-more-alphons-118011700293_1.html|website=Business Standard India|access-date=11 February 2018|date=17 January 2018|archive-date=15 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215003052/http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/india-attracted-10-mn-foreigners-in-2017-sports-to-bring-more-alphons-118011700293_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Tourism in India|tourism industry]] contributes about 9.2% of India's GDP and employs over 42 million people.<ref>{{cite web|title=2019 ANNUAL RESEARCH: KEY HIGHLIGHTS|url=https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries-2019/india2019.pdf|publisher=WTTC|access-date=15 March 2019|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230065707/https://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/economic-impact-research/countries-2019/india2019.pdf|archive-date=30 December 2019}}</ref> India earned $21.07&nbsp;billion in foreign exchange from tourism receipts in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tourism.gov.in/sites/default/files/Other/India%20Tourism%20Book%20English.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910140217/http://tourism.gov.in/sites/default/files/Other/India%20Tourism%20Book%20English.pdf|archive-date=10 September 2016|title=India Tourism Statistics at a Glance 2015|website=Ministry of Tourism}}</ref> International tourism to India has seen a steady growth from 2.37 million arrivals in 1997 to 8.03 million arrivals in 2015. [[Bangladesh]] is the largest source of international tourists to India, while European Union nations and Japan are other major sources of international tourists.<ref name="unwtoitp">[https://tourism.gov.in/sites/default/files/2021-09/English%20Tourisum%202021.pdf India's tourism performance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808043955/http://asiapacific.unwto.org/sites/all/files/pdf/cap-csa-24-5b_ref_indias_report.pdf |date=8 August 2014 }} United Nations World Tourism Organization (2013)</ref><ref>[http://www2.unwto.org/publication/yearbook-tourism-statistics-data-2008-2012-2014-edition Yearbook of Tourism Statistics, Data 2008&nbsp;– 2012, 2014 Edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201132717/http://www2.unwto.org/publication/yearbook-tourism-statistics-data-2008-2012-2014-edition |date=1 December 2018 }} United Nations World Tourism Organization (2014)</ref> In 2024, [[Ayodhya]], particularly with the [[Ram Mandir|Ram Temple]] became Uttar Pradesh's top tourist destination, attracting more domestic and international visitors.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ayodhya's Ram Mandir becomes UP's most visited attraction of 2024; outshines the Taj Mahal |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/travel/ayodhyas-ram-mandir-becomes-ups-most-visited-attraction-of-2024-outshines-the-taj-mahal/articleshow/116851743.cms |website=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=20 March 2025 |date=2 January 2025}}</ref> [[Kodagu district|Coorg]] became the top fastest growing destination and hill station in 2024.<ref>{{cite web | title=Karnataka: Kodagu is the 7th most searched travel destination of the year | work=The Times of India | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/travel-news/karnataka-kodagu-is-the-7th-most-searched-travel-destination-of-the-year/articleshow/106371768.cms }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Is Coorg the New Travel Hotspot? 28x Booking Increase This New Year! | url=https://travel.india.com/guide/destination/is-coorg-the-new-travel-hotspot-28x-booking-increase-this-new-year-7510120/ }}</ref> Less than 10% of international tourists visit the [[Taj Mahal]], with the majority visiting other cultural, thematic and holiday circuits.<ref>RN Pandey, [http://statistics.unwto.org/sites/all/files/pdf/india_inbound_0.pdf Inbound Tourism Statistics of India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528064125/http://statistics.unwto.org/sites/all/files/pdf/india_inbound_0.pdf |date=28 May 2016 }} Ministry of Tourism, Govt of India (2012)</ref> Over 12 million Indian citizens take international trips each year for tourism, while domestic tourism within India adds about 740 million Indian travellers.<ref name="unwtoitp" />
India has a fast-growing [[Medical tourism in India|medical tourism sector]] of its health care economy, offering low-cost health services and long-term care.<ref name="BMJ">{{cite journal|last=Mudur|first=Ganapati|date=June 2004|title=Hospitals in India woo foreign patients|journal=[[British Medical Journal]]|volume=328|issue=7452|page=1338|doi=10.1136/bmj.328.7452.1338|pmid=15178611|pmc=420282}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://communities.washingtontimes.com/neighborhood/travelers-notebook/2013/aug/18/medical-tourism-draws-americans-india/|title=Medical Tourism draws Americans to India|work=The Washington Times|date=18 August 2013|access-date=30 July 2014|archive-date=11 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811054014/http://communities.washingtontimes.com/neighborhood/travelers-notebook/2013/aug/18/medical-tourism-draws-americans-india/|url-status=live}}</ref> In October 2015, the medical tourism sector was estimated to be worth US$3&nbsp;billion. It is projected to grow to $7–8&nbsp;billion by 2020.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/healthcare/biotech/healthcare/indian-medical-tourism-industry-to-touch-8-billion-by-2020-grant-thornton/articleshow/49615898.cms|title=Indian medical tourism industry to touch $8 billion by 2020: Grant Thornton – The Economic Times|website=The Economic Times|access-date=16 April 2016|archive-date=18 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318195634/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/healthcare/biotech/healthcare/indian-medical-tourism-industry-to-touch-8-billion-by-2020-grant-thornton/articleshow/49615898.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2014, 184,298 foreign patients traveled to India to seek medical treatment.<ref>{{cite web|title=Promotion of Medical Tourism|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/pmreleases.aspx?mincode=36|website=Press Information Bureau|access-date=28 April 2016|archive-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011232253/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/pmreleases.aspx?mincode=36|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Call centre industry ====
{{Main|Call centre industry in India}}

==== Wedding Industry ====
{{Main|Weddings in India}}

India's wedding industry has a size of $75 billion, second largest after China. It is the fourth largest industry in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fortuneindia.com/enterprise/decoding-the-indian-wedding-business/117305|title=Decoding the Indian wedding business|date=9 June 2024}}</ref> The wedding industry saw significant growth in 2023 as weddings became larger and more extravagant post the pandemic blues. Average guest size grew by nearly 15%, from 270 guests in 2022 to 310 in 2023. Celebrations also expanded, with couples now hosting an average of 4.2 functions, up from 3.2.A significant 27 lakh weddings fall in the ₹10-25 lakh range, reflecting the popularity of mid-range wedding budgets. Smaller budgets like ₹3 lakh and ₹6 lakh account for 10 lakh weddings each, while high-end weddings costing ₹1 crore or more make up 50,000 weddings.

India hosts the highest number of weddings in the world each year, as per investment banking and capital market firm Jefferies. However, in terms of market size, the Indian wedding industry is still smaller than China's but almost twice as big as the US's.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.outlookbusiness.com/economy-and-policy/story-in-numbers-big-fat-indian-wedding|title=Story in Numbers: Big Fat Indian Wedding|date=9 November 2024}}</ref>

==== Films, entertainment and music industry ====
{{Main|Cinema of India|Media of India|Music of India|Animation industry in India}}

The Indian cinema industry is expected to garner a revenue of around Rs 16,198 crore by 2026, of which Rs 15,849 would be Box office revenue and the rest Rs 349 crore from advertising, the report added.<ref name="cinema">{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbctv18.com/business/companies/pwc-report-says-indian-media-and-entertainment-industry-could-be-worth-over-r-lakh-crore-rupees-13915872.htm|title=Streaming will rake in Rs 21,000 crore by 2026, more than Indian film industry: Report|agency=Press Trust of India|date=23 June 2022|website=cnbctv18.com|access-date=3 July 2023|archive-date=3 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703091730/https://www.cnbctv18.com/business/companies/pwc-report-says-indian-media-and-entertainment-industry-could-be-worth-over-r-lakh-crore-rupees-13915872.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
India's Recorded Music industry (which is a key sub-segment) is making steady progress at a CAGR of 13.6 percent, thanks to streaming models.<ref name="cinema" />

== Regional economies ==
{{Further|List of Indian states and union territories by GDP}}

India's regional economies vary significantly in terms of output, industrial composition, and development levels. [[Maharashtra]] has the largest state economy, contributing over 13% to the national GDP, followed by [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], [[Gujarat]], and [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Logistics Management for International Business: Text and Cases|author1=SUDALAIMUTHU, S.|author2=RAJ, S.A.|year=2009|publisher=PHI Learning|isbn=9788120337923|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NG2TjfQF6zEC|access-date=15 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514103308/https://books.google.com/books?id=NG2TjfQF6zEC|archive-date=14 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> These five states collectively account for nearly half of India's economic output. [[South India|Southern states]] such as Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and [[Telangana]] are known for strong performance in services and manufacturing, while western states like Gujarat and Maharashtra are industrial powerhouses. In contrast, eastern and central states such as [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], and [[Chhattisgarh]] exhibit lower GDPs, reflecting ongoing challenges in industrialisation and infrastructure. Union Territories like [[Delhi]] and [[Chandigarh]], though smaller in size, have high per capita incomes due to urban-centric service-driven economies. This economic landscape highlights both growth opportunities and regional disparities, underscoring the need for tailored economic strategies across states.
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Percent of share of states in GDP of India in 2024-25
|label1 = [[Maharashtra]]
|value1 = 13.17
|color1 = Purple
|label2 = [[Tamil Nadu]]
|value2 = 9.56
|color2 = Red
|label3 = [[Karnataka]]
|value3 = 8.68
|color3 = Blue
|label4 = [[Gujarat]]
|value4 = 8.64
|color4 = Orange
|label5 = [[Uttar Pradesh]]
|value5 = 8.22
|color5 = Yellow
|label6 = [[West Bengal]]
|value6 = 5.79
|color6 = Green
|label7 = [[Rajasthan]]
|value7 = 5.29
|color7 = Pink
|label8 = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|value8 = 4.66
|color8 = dark blue
|label9 = [[Telangana]]
|value9 = 4.71
|color9 = maroon
|label10 = [[Madhya Pradesh]]
|value10 = 4.67
|color10 = sky blue
|label11 = [[Kerala]]
|value11 = 3.80
|color11 = violet
|label12 = Others
|value12 = 22.81
|color12 = gray
}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of Indian States and UTs for 2024–25 (Nominal)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indian states by GDP|url=https://www.statisticstimes.com/economy/india/indian-states-gdp.php|access-date=2025-04-24|website=www.imf.org}}</ref>
! S.No !! State/UT !! GSDP (₹ Lakh Crore) !! GSDP (Billion USD) !! Share % !! Equivalent Country (Nominal GDP)
|-
| 1 || [[Economy of Maharashtra|Maharashtra]] || 42.67 || 497.86 || 13.17% || {{flag|Austria}}
|-
| 2 || [[Economy of Tamil Nadu|Tamil Nadu]] || 30.97 || 361.45 || 9.56% || {{flag|Denmark}}
|-
| 3 || [[Economy of Karnataka|Karnataka]] || 28.13 || 328.17 || 8.68% || {{flag|Malaysia}}
|-
| 4 || [[Economy of Gujarat|Gujarat]] || 27.99 || 326.54 || 8.64% || {{flag|Singapore}}
|-
| 5 || [[Economy of Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh]] || 26.63 || 310.88 || 8.22% || {{flag|Philippines}}
|-
| 6 || [[Economy of West Bengal|West Bengal]] || 18.76 || 219.01 || 5.79% || {{flag|New Zealand}}
|-
| 7 || [[Economy of Rajasthan|Rajasthan]] || 17.13 || 199.79 || 5.29% || {{flag|Hungary}}
|-
| 8 || [[Economy of Andhra Pradesh|Andhra Pradesh]] || 15.81 || 184.53 || 4.88% || {{flag|Romania}}
|-
| 9 || [[Economy of Telangana|Telangana]] || 15.26 || 178.00 || 4.71% || {{flag|Ukraine}}
|-
|10 || [[Economy of Madhya Pradesh|Madhya Pradesh]] || 15.12 || 176.37 || 4.67% || {{flag|Ukraine}}
|-
|11 || [[Economy of Kerala|Kerala]] || 12.31 || 143.64 || 3.80% || {{flag|Slovakia}}
|-
|12 || [[Economy of Haryana|Haryana]] || 12.19 || 142.24 || 3.76% || {{flag|Ecuador}}
|-
|13 || [[Economy of Delhi|Delhi]] || 11.33 || 132.23 || 3.50% || {{flag|Kenya}}
|-
|14 || [[Economy of Bihar|Bihar]] || 9.76 || 113.96 || 3.01% || {{flag|Sri Lanka}}
|-
|15 || [[Economy of Odisha|Odisha]] || 9.42 || 109.94 || 2.91% || {{flag|Croatia}}
|-
|16 || [[Economy of Punjab, India|Punjab]] || 8.91 || 104.00 || 2.75% || {{flag|Luxembourg}}
|-
|17 || [[Economy of Assam|Assam]] || 6.46 || 75.39 || 2.00% || {{flag|Bulgaria}}
|-
|18 || [[Economy of Chhattisgarh|Chhattisgarh]] || 5.80 || 67.68 || 1.59% || {{flag|Serbia}}
|-
|19 || [[Economy of Jharkhand|Jharkhand]] || 4.82 || 56.25 || 1.32% || {{flag|Ethiopia}}
|-
|20 || [[Economy of Uttarakhand|Uttarakhand]] || 3.80 || 44.34 || 1.05% || {{flag|Latvia}}
|-
|21 || [[Economy of Jammu and Kashmir|Jammu & Kashmir]] || 2.63 || 30.69 || 0.70% || {{flag|Nepal}}
|-
|22 || [[Economy of Himachal Pradesh|Himachal Pradesh]] || 2.45 || 28.59 || 0.65% || {{flag|Georgia}}
|-
|23 || [[Economy of Goa|Goa]] || 1.14 || 13.30 || 0.35% || {{flag|Mali}}
|-
|24 || [[Economy of Andaman and Nicobar Islands|Andaman & Nicobar Islands]] || 1.02 || 11.90 || 0.31% || {{flag|Malawi}}
|-
|25 || [[Economy of Chandigarh|Chandigarh]] || 0.56 || 6.54 || 0.17% || {{flag|Fiji}}
|-
|26 || [[Economy of Sikkim|Sikkim]] || 0.54 || 6.30 || 0.17% || {{flag|Montenegro}}
|-
|27 || [[Economy of Meghalaya|Meghalaya]] || 0.54 || 6.30 || 0.17% || {{flag|Montenegro}}
|-
|28 || [[Economy of Manipur|Manipur]] || 0.52 || 6.07 || 0.16% || {{flag|Liberia}}
|-
|29 || [[Economy of Puducherry|Puducherry]] || 0.45 || 5.25 || 0.14% || {{flag|Lesotho}}
|-
|30 || [[Economy of Arunachal Pradesh|Arunachal Pradesh]] || 0.44 || 5.13 || 0.14% || {{flag|Lesotho}}
|-
|31 || [[Economy of Nagaland|Nagaland]] || 0.43 || 5.02 || 0.13% || {{flag|Belize}}
|-
|32 || [[Economy of Mizoram|Mizoram]] || 0.42 || 4.90 || 0.13% || {{flag|Belize}}
|-
|33 || [[Economy of Tripura|Tripura]] || 0.31 || 3.62 || 0.10% || {{flag|Bhutan}}
|-
! colspan="2"|'''Total India (2024–25)''' || '''324.11''' || '''3780.00''' || '''100%''' || '''India'''
|}

== Employment ==
{{See also|Labour in India|Indian labour law|Child labour in India|Unemployment in India}}

[[File:Share-of- indian-population-in-extreme-poverty.png|thumb|India: extreme poverty rates from 1977 to 2022<ref>{{Cite web|title=Share of population living in extreme poverty|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-in-extreme-poverty?tab=chart&country=~IND|access-date=10 September 2024|website=Our World in Data}}</ref>|340x340px]]
As of 2022–23, around 46% of India's workforce was employed in the agricultural sector. This share, which had declined before the pandemic, has risen again in recent years, reaching 46.1% in 2023–24. During the same period, the services sector (excluding agriculture) accounted for about 28.9 percent of employment in 2022–23. The share of manufacturing employment has been more modest 11.4% in 2023–24.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rampal |first=Nikhil |date=2024-03-30 |title=Only half of India's working-age population works, most still in agriculture, shows ILO report |url=https://theprint.in/economy/only-half-of-indias-working-age-population-works-most-still-in-agriculture-shows-ilo-report/2020831/ |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bhagirath |date=2025-01-31 |title=Economic Survey 2025: Employment increased in agriculture sector, decreased in manufacturing and services |url=https://www.downtoearth.org.in/agriculture/economic-survey-2025-employment-increased-in-agriculture-sector-decreased-in-manufacturing-and-services |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=Down To Earth |language=en}}</ref> In 2021–22 and 2022–23, [[Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation|MoSPI]] reported that the unorganised non-farm sector employed about 19 % of India's workforce while contributing only 6 % of GDP. Other labour-market estimates indicate that the organised sector accounts for roughly 7% of the total workforce, with the remaining 93% in various forms of unorganised employment.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-27 |title=India's Workforce Composition: The Role of the Organised and Unorganised Sectors - Socio.Health |url=https://socio.health/women-in-economy/india-workforce-organised-unorganised-sectors/ |access-date=2025-11-19 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rampal |first=Nikhil |date=2024-06-19 |title=Unorganised, non-farm sector employs 19% of workforce but accounts for 6% of GDP, shows MoSPI data |url=https://theprint.in/economy/unorganised-non-farm-sector-employs-19-of-workforce-but-accounts-for-6-of-gdp-shows-mospi-data/2136966/ |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref> Although India's labour productivity is lower than advanced economies, it aligns with levels observed in many emerging Asian countries like China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Productivity: output per hour worked |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/labor-productivity-per-hour-pennworldtable |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250926124354/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/labor-productivity-per-hour-pennworldtable |archive-date=2025-09-26 |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=Our World in Data |language=en}}</ref> As of 2023–24, there remains a significant gender gap in employment. In rural areas, 73.5% of working women were self-employed, compared to 59.4% of rural men. In urban areas, 42.3% of women were self-employed versus 39.8% of men. The share of women in regular wage or salaried jobs was only 15.9%. Female labour force participation was 30.5% in rural areas and 20.2% in urban areas, compared to 55.5% and 58.3% for men, respectively. Gender earnings gaps persist: rural female casual labourers earned ₹259 per day, compared to ₹437 per day for rural male casual labourers, although much of this difference may reflect the types of jobs and occupations they engage in rather than direct pay discrimination.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://ruralindiaonline.org/en/library/resource/periodic-labour-force-survey-plfs-annual-report-july-2023-june-2024/ |title=Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) Annual Report: July 2023-June 2024 |date=2024-09-23 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) Report 2023-24 |url=https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/periodic-labour-force-survey-plfs-report-2023-24 |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=Drishti IAS |language=en}}</ref>

=== Unemployment ===
{{Main|Unemployment in India}}

Unemployment in India remains a complex challenge despite signs of modest improvement. According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) for 2024, the joblessness rate for persons aged 15 and above dipped slightly to 4.9%, down from 5.0% in 2023, while the [[Labour force participation rate]] (LFPR) remained broadly stable at about 56.2%. In April 2025, India's first monthly labour-force survey showed an unemployment rate of 5.1%, with an LFPR of 55.6%. However, urban unemployment continues to be more pronounced, reaching around 6.4% in the October–December 2024 quarter, with notably higher rates among women (8.1%) than men (5.8%).<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-05-15 |title=India's first monthly job survey shows 5.1% unemployment rate in April 2025 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/indias-first-monthly-job-survey-shows-5-1-unemployment-rate-in-april-2025/articleshow/121193348.cms |access-date=2025-11-19 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-04-09 |title=India's unemployment rate dips slightly to 4.9% in 2024; mixed trends seen across regions and genders |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/indias-unemployment-rate-dips-slightly-to-4-9-in-2024-mixed-trends-seen-across-regions-and-genders/articleshow/120129382.cms |access-date=2025-11-19 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kundu |first=Rhik |date=2025-02-18 |title=Urban unemployment eases to 6.4% in Q3 FY2025: NSSO |url=https://www.livemint.com/economy/urban-unemployment-eases-to-6-4-in-q3-fy2025-nsso-ministry-of-statistics-and-programme-implementation-11739885389128.html |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref>

Structural issues still persist. A large share of India's workforce is self-employed (57.3%) and many are unpaid helpers in household enterprises (18.3%), which suggests [[Underemployment|under-employment]] and [[Disguised unemployment|disguised employment]] remain widespread.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Economic survey 2024: Economic survey 2024: India has 18.3% unpaid workers, 57.3% of total workforce self-employed - The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/budget-2024/economic-survey-2024/economic-survey-2024-57-3-per-cent-of-the-total-workforce-self-employed-18-3-per-cent-working-as-unpaid-workers/articleshow/111920479.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=m.economictimes.com | date=22 July 2024 }}</ref> Critics also point to limitations in how unemployment is measured. For example, some argue that definitions used by the PLFS count even minimal economic activity (such as one hour of work per week) as “employed,” potentially understating the real scale of joblessness.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-07-24 |title=Amit Mitra slams Centre over 'misleading' unemployment data |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/amit-mitra-slams-centre-over-misleading-unemployment-data/articleshow/122867080.cms |access-date=2025-11-19 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

In response to these challenges, the government has recently approved an Employment-Linked Incentive (ELI) scheme worth ₹1 trillion (≈ $11.7 billion) designed to generate up to 35 million new jobs over two years (2025–2027), by offering wage subsidies to first-time employees and monthly support to employers.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-07-01 |title=Union Cabinet approves Employment Linked Incentive Scheme to create jobs in manufacturing sector |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/union-cabinet-approves-various-schemes-on-july-1-2025/article69759265.ece |access-date=2025-11-19 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Alongside labour-market reforms, India's [[Production Linked Incentive schemes in India|Production-Linked Incentive]] (PLI) programme, launched in 2020 across 14 sectors with an outlay of ₹1.97 lakh crore (≈ USD 24 billion), has become a major policy tool for employment generation. By March 2025, the schemes had attracted ₹1.76 lakh crore (≈ USD 21 billion) in committed investment and created over 12 lakh (1.2 million) jobs, with government disbursals crossing ₹21,500 crore (≈ USD 2.6 billion).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Suneja |first=Kirtika |date=2025-06-25 |title=PLI schemes attract Rs 1.76 lakh cr investment, create 12 lakh jobs: Govt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/pli-schemes-attract-rs-1-76-lakh-cr-investment-create-12-lakh-jobs-govt/articleshow/122070850.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-11-19 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref name=":2"/> Key sectors such as [[Electronics manufacturing in India|electronics and components]], [[Major appliance|white goods]] and [[Automotive industry|automobile & auto-components]] have driven much of this expansion.<ref name=":2" />

In March 2025, the Indian Cabinet approved a ₹22,919 crore (≈ USD 2.75 billion) [[Production Linked Incentive schemes in India|Production-Linked Incentive]] (PLI) scheme for non-semiconductor electronics components, targeting critical items such as multi-layer PCBs, display and camera modules, lithium-ion cells, resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Over its six-year tenure, it is expected to attract ₹59,350 crore (≈ USD 7.1 billion) in investment, generate ₹4.56 lakh crore (≈ USD 54 billion) in production, and create 91,600 direct jobs with additional indirect employment.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.ETTelecom.com |title=India approves Rs 22,919 crore PLI scheme to boost electronics components manufacturing |url=https://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/policy/india-approves-rs-22919-crore-pli-scheme-to-boost-electronics-components-manufacturing/119654756 |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=ETTelecom.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-03-28 |title=Cabinet gives nod to electronics component PLI scheme worth Rs 22,919 cr |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/cabinet-gives-nod-to-electronics-component-pli-scheme/articleshow/119646866.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2025-11-19 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref> By October 2025, electronics-parts makers had committed more than ₹1.15 lakh crore (≈ USD 13.6 billion) across 249 applications, reflecting strong industry response.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-02 |title=Centre gets Rs 1.15 lakh crore in investment commitment from electronics parts makers |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/business/centre-receives-rs-1-15-lakh-crore-in-investment-commitment-from-electronics-parts-makers-10284153/ |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> By January 2026, the Government of India approved 22 proposals under ECMS with a projected investment of ₹41,863 crore (≈ $5.0 billion), estimated production worth ₹2.58 lakh crore (≈ $31 billion), and creation of about 33,791 direct jobs. The approved projects are spread across Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-02 |title=Centre clears 22 projects under electronics components PLI scheme; Rs 41,863 crore investment expected |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/electronics/centre-clears-22-projects-under-electronics-components-pli-scheme/articleshow/126300752.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2026-01-02 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref>

India launched India Semiconductor Mission (ISM), in December 2021 with an outlay of ₹76,000 crore (~US$ 9.2 billion), to support semiconductor fabrication, advanced packaging, and chip design. Under this policy, the government expects approximately 85,000 skilled jobs over the long term. It has already secured ₹1.52 lakh crore (~US$ 18.4 billion) in committed investments, with projections of ~25,000 direct advanced-technology jobs and 60,000 indirect jobs.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Briefing |first=India |date=2025-08-06 |title=India's Semiconductor Sector Outlook 2025 |url=https://www.india-briefing.com/news/india-semiconductor-sector-outlook-2025-39067.html/ |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=India Briefing News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Briefing |first=India |date=2025-11-19 |title=Semiconductor Industry in India: Incentives and Key Players |url=https://www.india-briefing.com/news/setting-up-a-semiconductor-fabrication-plant-in-india-what-foreign-investors-should-know-22009.html/ |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=India Briefing News |language=en-US}}</ref> This reflects a policy shift toward incentivising [[formal employment]] and reducing dependence on hidden or precarious labour. Nevertheless, persistent gender gaps in participation and employment, especially in urban areas, underline the need for sustained reforms in both educational access and labour regulations.

=== Child labour ===
{{Main|Child labour in India}}

Child labour is a complex problem that is rooted in poverty. Since the 1990s, the government has implemented a variety of programs to eliminate child labour. These have included setting up schools, launching free school lunch programs, creating special investigation cells, etc.<ref name="chilab">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianembassy.org/policy/Child_Labor/childlabor.htm#intro|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023064701/http://www.indianembassy.org/policy/Child_Labor/childlabor.htm|archive-date=23 October 2007|title=Child Labour and India|publisher=Embassy of India|access-date=13 March 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Drèze|Sen|1996|pp=130–131}}</ref> Author Sonalde Desai stated that recent studies on child labour in India have found some pockets of industries in which children are employed, but overall, relatively few Indian children are employed. Child labour below the age of 10 is now rare. In the 10–14 age group, the latest surveys find only 2% of children working for wage, while another 9% work within their home or rural farms assisting their parents in times of high work demand such as sowing and harvesting of crops.<ref>Desai, Sonalde, Amaresh Dubey, B.L. Joshi, Mitali Sen, Abusaleh Shariff and Reeve Vanneman (201) [http://ihds.umd.edu/IHDS_files/04HDinIndia.pdf India Human Development in India: Challenges for a Society in Transition] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208092634/http://ihds.umd.edu/IHDS_files/04HDinIndia.pdf |date=8 February 2016 }}, Oxford University Press, page 131</ref>

According to a July 2024 [[Unicef]]-Innocenti study, child labour in India has declined substantially over the past decade as school enrollment has expanded nationwide. The report finds that most children now attend school full-time, and child labour is increasingly limited to specific vulnerable groups such as seasonal migrant families. While instances of hazardous or exploitative work still exist, UNICEF notes that these cases are far less common than in previous decades, reflecting the impact of education access, midday-meal schemes, and rural livelihood programmes. The study emphasizes that continued policy attention is needed, but the long-term trend shows steady reductions in children's involvement in labour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-31 |title=Child Labour and Schooling in India {{!}} Innocenti Global Office of Research and Foresight |url=https://www.unicef.org/innocenti/reports/child-labour-and-schooling-india |access-date=2025-11-19 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref>

=== Diaspora remittance ===
India has the largest diaspora around the world, an estimated 32 million people according to the [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Population of Overseas Indians|url=https://www.mea.gov.in/population-of-overseas-indians.htm|website=mea.gov.in|access-date=7 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007174555/https://www.mea.gov.in/population-of-overseas-indians.htm|archive-date=7 October 2023|language=english}}</ref> many of whom work overseas and remit funds back to their families. The Middle East region is the largest source of employment for expat Indians. The crude oil production and infrastructure industry of Saudi Arabia employs over 2 million expat Indians. Cities such as [[Dubai]] and [[Abu Dhabi]] in United Arab Emirates have employed another 2 million Indians during the construction boom in recent decades.<ref>Leone Lakhani, [https://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/15/business/dubai-indians-expats-elections/ Dubai's expat Indians: The world's most productive foreign workers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324225631/http://edition.cnn.com/2014/05/15/business/dubai-indians-expats-elections/ |date=24 March 2017 }} CNN (19 May 2014)</ref> In 2009–10, [[Remittances to India|remittances]] from Indian migrants overseas stood at {{INRConvert|2.5|t|lk=on|year=2010}}, the highest in the world, but their share in FDI remained low at around 1%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2011/20110110/main1.htm|title=NRIs don't invest as much as they remit, says Montek|work=The Tribune|location=India|date=9 January 2011|first=Ajay|last=Banerjee|access-date=13 January 2011|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080943/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2011/20110110/main1.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Trade unions ===
{{Main|Trade unions in India}}

In India, the Trade Union movement is generally divided on political lines. According to provisional statistics from the [[Ministry of Labour and Employment (India)|Ministry of Labour]], trade unions had a combined membership of 24,601,589 in 2002. As of 2008, there are 12 Central Trade Union Organisations (CTUO) recognized by the Ministry of Labour.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.labourfile.org/superAdmin/Document/113/table%201.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003061752/http://www.labourfile.org/superAdmin/Document/113/table%201.pdf|archive-date=3 October 2011|title=Table 1: Aggregate data on membership of CTUOs 1989 to 2002 (Provisional)|website=labourfile.org}}</ref> The forming of these unions was a big deal in India. It led to a big push for more regulatory laws which gave workers a lot more power.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Sengupta|first1=Meghna|title=Trade Unions in India|url=http://www.pocketlawyer.com/blog/trade-unions-india/|website=Pocket Lawyer|access-date=15 November 2017|archive-date=16 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116131308/http://www.pocketlawyer.com/blog/trade-unions-india/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[AITUC]] is the oldest trade union in India. It is a left supported organization.
A trade union with nearly 2,000,000 members is the Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) which protects the rights of Indian women working in the informal economy. In addition to the protection of rights, SEWA educates, mobilizes, finances, and exalts their members' trades.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Datta|first=Rekah|title=From Development to Empowerment: The Self-Employed Women's Association in India|journal=International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society}}</ref> Multiple other organizations represent workers. These organizations are formed upon different political groups. These different groups allow different groups of people with different political views to join a Union.<ref>{{cite web|last=Chand|first=Smriti|title=6 Major Central Trade Unions of India|url=http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/trade-unions/6-major-central-trade-unions-of-india-trade-unions/26113|website=Your Article Library|access-date=15 November 2017|date=17 February 2014|archive-date=29 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220629101329/https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/trade-unions/6-major-central-trade-unions-of-india-trade-unions/26113|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Income and consumption ==
{{Main|Income in India}}

[[File:India GDP per capital PPP compared to other countries in 2025.png|400px|thumb|India vs world by GDP per capita adjusted for PPP in 2026{{legend|#00A2E8|India}}{{legend|#EB3324|Less than India}}{{legend|#22B14C|More than India}}]]
[[File:India's GDP per capital nominal compared to other countries in 2025.png|thumb|India vs world by nominal GDP per capita in 2025<ref>{{cite web |date=22 October 2024 |title=IMF DataMapper / Datasets / World Economic Outlook (October 2024) / GDP per capita, current prices / List (2024)–Analytical group: European Union, World |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD |access-date=6 March 2025 |website=IMF.org |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]}}</ref>|400px]]

[[File:GINI index World Bank up to 2018.png|alt=|thumb|280x280px|[[Gini coefficient|Gini index]] of India compared to other countries per [[World Bank]] data tables {{as of|2018||lc=y|post=}}<ref>{{cite web|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?view=map|access-date=23 July 2020|publisher=World Bank|archive-date=12 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712173327/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?view=map|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
India's [[gross national income]] per capita had experienced high growth rates since 2002. It has increased from [[Indian rupee sign|₹]]19,040 in 2002–03 to [[₹]]1,88,892 in 2024, This translates to approximately [[Dollar sign|$]]2,268.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Real GDP Growth Rate of 9.2 % for 2023‑24 is the highest in the previous 12 years except for 2021‑22
| publisher = Press Information Bureau, Government of India
| url = https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2106921
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = Homes become more affordable in last 10 years
| author = Mayur Shetty / TNN
| website = The Times of India
| publisher = Times of India Group
| date = 2 May 2012
| access-date = 
| url = https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Homes-become-more-affordable-in-last-10-years/articleshow/12958960.cms
}}</ref> India's GNI per capita has seen considerable growth in the last 10 years. While specific average growth rates are not consistently reported, the available data indicates a positive trend. For example, India's GNI per capita increased by 6.72% in 2023, reaching $2,540. In comparison, the per capita income at constant (2011–12) prices increased by 35.12% between 2014–15 and 2022-23. This indicates a positive trend in both nominal and real terms.<ref>{{cite web
| title = India GNI per Capita
| website = MacroTrends
| publisher = MacroTrends LLC
| url = https://www.macrotrends.net/global-metrics/countries/ind/india/gni-per-capita
| access-date = 17 August 2025
}}</ref> The estimated GNI per capita for India in 2025 is $2,878 (nominal) at current prices, according to the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] World Economic Outlook.<ref>{{cite web
| title = IMF Data Mapper — India
| website = IMF Data Mapper
| publisher = International Monetary Fund
| access-date = 17 August 2025
| url = https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/IND
}}</ref>

According to 2011 census data, India has about 330 million houses and 247 million households. The household size in India has dropped in recent years, the 2011 census reporting 50% of households have four or fewer members, with an average of 4.8 members per household including surviving grandparents.<ref name="hhc">{{cite web|title=Final Figures of Houselisting & Housing Census, 2011 Released|publisher=Census 2011, Government of India|date=13 March 2012|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=80811|access-date=10 July 2012|archive-date=12 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012151338/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=80811|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Median household size drops below 4 in cities|date=25 March 2012|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Median-household-size-drops-below-4-in-cities/articleshow/12397117.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906214655/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-03-25/india/31236370_1_household-family-size-census|url-status=live|work=[[The Times of India]]|archive-date=6 September 2012}}</ref> These households produced a GDP of about $1.7&nbsp;trillion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Country Report&nbsp;– India (2010)|publisher=The World Bank|year=2011|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india|access-date=10 July 2012|archive-date=29 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120629050630/http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india|url-status=live}}</ref> Consumption patterns note: approximately 67% of households use firewood, crop residue, or cow-dung cakes for cooking purposes; 53% do not have sanitation or drainage facilities on premises; 83% have water supply within their premises or {{convert|100|m}} from their house in urban areas and {{convert|500|m}} from the house in rural areas; 67% of the households have access to electricity; 63% of households have landline or mobile telephone service; 43% have a television; 26% have either a two- or four-wheel motor vehicle. Compared to 2001, these income and consumption trends represent moderate to significant improvements.<ref name="hhc" /> One report in 2010 claimed that high-income households outnumber low-income households.<ref>{{cite news|first=Prabhakar|last=Sinha|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-has-more-rich-people-than-poor-now/articleshow/6242324.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612045150/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-08-01/india/28285817_1_households-middle-class-slowdown|url-status=live|archive-date=12 June 2013|title=India has more rich people than poor now|date=1 August 2010|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=15 November 2010}}</ref>

[[File:Countries by GNI (nominal) per capita in 2018.png|right|thumb|upright=1.8|Countries by nominal GNI per capita according to the Atlas method (2018)|350px]]

=== Poverty ===
{{Main|Poverty in India}}
{{see also|Income inequality in India}}

[[File:2012 Poverty distribution map in India by its states and union territories.svg|left|thumb|Poverty rate map of India by prevalence in 2012, among its states and union territories]]
In May 2014, the World Bank reviewed and proposed revisions to its poverty calculation methodology of 2005 and purchasing-power-parity basis for measuring poverty. According to the revised methodology, the world had 872.3 million people below the new poverty line, of which 179.6 million lived in India. With 17.5% of the total world's population, India had a 20.6% share of the world's poorest in 2013.<ref name="sdcnk">Note: 24.6% rate is based on '''2005 PPP''' at $1.25 per day, International dollar basis, {{cite book|last1=The World Bank|title=A measured approach to ending poverty and boosting shared prosperity|date=2015|publisher=World Bank Group|isbn=978-1-4648-0361-1|page=50|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/20384/9781464803611.pdf|access-date=1 February 2015|archive-date=9 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009183315/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/20384/9781464803611.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> According to a 2005–2006 survey,<ref>[http://www.unicef.org/india/nutrition.html Nutrition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220054556/http://www.unicef.org/india/nutrition.html |date=20 December 2014 }}, Fast Facts, UNICEF (2009)</ref> India had about 61 million children under the age of 5 who were chronically malnourished. A 2011 UNICEF report stated that between 1990 and 2010, India achieved a 45 percent reduction in mortality rates under the age of 5, and now ranks 46th of 188 countries on this metric.<ref>{{cite web|title=India Statistics|publisher=UNICEF, United Nations|year=2011|url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/india_statistics.html|access-date=10 July 2012|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225050318/https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/india_statistics.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Since the early 1960s, successive governments have implemented various schemes to alleviate poverty, under central planning, that have met with partial success.<ref name="survey">{{cite web|title=Economic Survey 2004–2005|url=http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2004-05/esmain.htm|access-date=15 July 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071216142417/http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2004-05/esmain.htm|archive-date=16 December 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2005, the government enacted the [[Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act]] (MGNREGA), guaranteeing 100&nbsp;days of minimum wage employment to every rural household in all the districts of India.<ref name="Panagariya 2008 146">{{Harvnb|Panagariya|2008|p=146}}</ref> In 2011, it was widely criticised and beset with controversy for corrupt officials, deficit financing as the source of funds, poor quality of infrastructure built under the programme, and unintended destructive effects.<ref name="wsj1">{{cite news|title=India's Boom Bypasses Rural Poor|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=29 April 2011|author1=Tom Wright|author2=Harsh Gupta|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704081604576143671902043578|access-date=3 August 2017|archive-date=16 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170716054442/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704081604576143671902043578|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="econ1">{{cite news|title=India rural welfare&nbsp;– Digging holes|newspaper=The Economist|date=5 November 2011|url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2011/11/05/digging-holes|access-date=18 August 2012|archive-date=9 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609205426/http://www.economist.com/node/21536642|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Rural India enjoys consumption boom|work=Financial Times|date=29 February 2012|author1=James Fontanella-Khan|author2=James Lamont|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/04473296-5865-11e1-9f28-00144feabdc0.html|access-date=18 August 2012|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109223444/https://www.ft.com/content/04473296-5865-11e1-9f28-00144feabdc0|url-status=live}}</ref> Other studies suggest that the programme has helped reduce rural poverty in some cases.<ref>Sarkar & Kumar (2011), [http://purl.umn.edu/119395 Impact of MGNREGA on Reducing Rural Poverty and Improving Socio-economic Status of Rural Poor: A Study in Burdwan District of West Bengal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109223450/https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/119395 |date=9 November 2023 }}, Agricultural Economics Research Review, Vol 24</ref><ref>Swain & Ray (2013), Social welfare through guaranteed wage employment: experience of National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme in an Indian state, Journal of International and Comparative Social Policy, 29(1), 79–90</ref> Yet other studies report that India's economic growth has been the driver of sustainable employment and poverty reduction, though a sizeable population remains in poverty.<ref>Aggarwal & Kumar (November 2012), [http://sswa.unescap.org/pdf/sswa_development_paper_1206_nov2012.pdf Structural change, industrialization and poverty reduction: the case of India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127021556/http://sswa.unescap.org/pdf/SSWA_Development_Paper_1206_Nov2012.pdf |date=27 November 2013 }}, in United Nation's UNIDO workshop "The Untold Story: Structural Change for Poverty Reduction–The Case of the BRICS", Vienna, 16–17 August (pp 1–68)</ref><ref>Kotwal, Ramaswami & Wadhwa (2011), Economic liberalization and Indian economic growth: What's the evidence?, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 49, No. 4, 1152–1199</ref> India lifted 271 million people out of poverty between 2006 and 2016, recording the fastest reductions in the multidimensional poverty index values during the period with strong improvements in areas such as assets, cooking fuel, sanitation, and nutrition.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-lifted-271-million-people-out-of-poverty-in-10-years-un/article28397694.ece|title=India lifted 271 million people out of poverty in 10 years: UN|newspaper=The Hindu|access-date=14 July 2019|archive-date=14 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714191602/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-lifted-271-million-people-out-of-poverty-in-10-years-un/article28397694.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

On the 2019 [[Global Hunger Index]] India [[Global Hunger Index#Country rankings|ranked 102nd]] (out of 117 countries) with a score of 30.3, being categorized as 'serious' in severity.<ref>{{cite web |title=2019 Global Hunger Index: The Challenge of Hunger and Climate Change |url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/pdf/en/2019.pdf |website=[[Global Hunger Index]] |access-date=31 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102071754/https://www.globalhungerindex.org/pdf/en/2019.pdf |archive-date=2 January 2020 |pages=17, 56 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2024, India ranked 105 (out of 127 countries) with a score of 27.3, indicating an improvement in its hunger situation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India |url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/india.html |access-date=2025-01-31 |website=Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Ghosh |first=Saptaparno |date=2024-10-17 |title=What does the Global Hunger Index 2024 state about India? {{!}} Explained |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/what-does-the-global-hunger-index-2024-state-about-india/article68762149.ece#:~:text=The%20story%20so%20far:%20The,and%20above%2050%20extremely%20alarming. |access-date=2025-01-31 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

According to the [[World Bank]]’s Spring [https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099722104222534584/pdf/IDU-25f34333-d3a3-44ae-8268-86830e3bc5a5.pdf 2025 Poverty and Equity Brief], approximately 171 million people in India moved out of extreme poverty between 2011 and 2023. During this period, the country's poverty rate declined significantly from 16.2% to 2.3%, based on the international poverty line of $2.15 per day.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2025-07-05 |title=World Bank: India ranks 4th in income equality, ahead of US and China; 171 million lifted out of extreme poverty |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/world-bank-india-ranks-4th-in-income-equality-ahead-of-us-and-china-171-million-lifted-out-of-extreme-poverty/articleshow/122268140.cms |access-date=2025-07-07 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== Budget, fiscal policy and Taxation==
{{Main|Union budget of India|Taxation in India}}
{{see also|Subsidies in India|Inflation in India|Foreign aid to India|Social security in India|List of schemes of the government of India}}

{{excerpt|Taxation in India}}

== Currency ==
{{Main|Indian rupee|Reserve Bank of India}}

[[File:RBI-Tower.jpg|thumb|The [[Reserve Bank of India]]'s headquarters in [[Mumbai]], India]]

=== Foreign reserves ===
{{Main|Foreign-exchange reserves of India|External debt of India}}

=== Exchange rates ===
[[File:GBP-TO-INR rate graph.jpg|thumb|Graph of GBP's value against INR (1947 to 2025)]]
{| class="wikitable floatleft" style="text-align: center; "
|-
! Year !! INR{{INR}} per US$ (''annual average'')<ref>RBI Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy</ref>!!INR{{INR}} per [[Pound sterling|Pound]](£) (''annual average'')<ref>{{cite web|date=28 December 2018|title=1 GBP to INR in 1947 till Now, Historical Exchange Rates Explained|url=https://www.bookmyforex.com/blog/1-gbp-inr-1947-till-now/|access-date=28 October 2021|website=Blog-Best Foreign Exchange|language=en-US|archive-date=28 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028092128/https://www.bookmyforex.com/blog/1-gbp-inr-1947-till-now/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| 1947||{{color|red|3.31}}||{{color|red|13.33}}
|-
| 1950||{{color|red|4.76}}||{{NA}}
|-
| 1967||{{color|red|7.50}}||{{color|red|17.76}}
|-
| 1975 || {{color|red|9.4058}} || {{NA}}
|-
| 1980 || {{color|green|7.88}}|| {{NA}}
|-
| 1985 || {{color|red|12.364}}||{{NA}}
|-
|1987||{{NA}}||{{color|red|21.18}}
|-
| 1990 || {{color|red|17.4992}}||{{color|red|31.07}}
|-
| 1995 || {{color|red|32.4198}}||{{color|red|51.17}}
|-
| 2000 || {{color|red|44.9401}}||{{color|red|67.99}}
|-
| 2005 ||{{color|green|44.1000}}||{{color|red|80.15}}
|-
| 2010 || {{color|red|45.7393}}||{{color|green|70.65}}
|-
| 2015 || {{color|red|64.05}}||{{color|red|98.0101}}
|-
|2016 || {{color|red|67.09}}||{{color|green|90.72}}
|-
|2017 || {{color|green|64.14}}||{{color|green|87.56}}
|-
|2018
|{{color|red|69.71}}||{{color|red|98.51}}
|-
|2019
|{{color|red|70.394}}||{{color|green|95.06}}
|-
|2020
|{{color|red|72.97}}||{{color|red|100.05}}
|-<ref>{{cite web|title=Yearly Average Currency Exchange Rates {{!}} Internal Revenue Service|url=https://www.irs.gov/individuals/international-taxpayers/yearly-average-currency-exchange-rates|access-date=11 September 2020|website=www.irs.gov|language=en|archive-date=21 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521112855/https://www.irs.gov/individuals/international-taxpayers/yearly-average-currency-exchange-rates|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|2021
|{{color|red|74.98}}||{{color|red|101.56}}
|-
|2022
|{{color|red|81.35}}||{{color|green|96.23}}
|-
|2023
|{{color|red|82.58}}||{{color|red|100.95}}
|-
|2024
|83.20
|104.41
|-
|2025
|86.46
|107.38
|-
|}

===Overview===
The [[Indian rupee]] ({{INR}}) is the only [[legal tender]] in India, and is also accepted as legal tender in neighbouring Nepal and Bhutan, both of which peg their currency to that of the Indian rupee. The rupee previously was divided into 100 paise, which no longer exist for public use. The highest-denomination banknote was the {{INR}}2,000 note until 30 September 2023 after which it was scrapped and ₹500 note became the highest denomination; the lowest-denomination coin in circulation is the ₹1 coin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/FAqs.html|title=Your Guide to Money Matters|publisher=Reserve Bank of India|access-date=11 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110116022151/http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/faqs.html|archive-date=16 January 2011}}</ref> In 2017, demonetisation was announced in which ₹500 and ₹1000 notes were withdrawn and new ₹500 notes were issued. India's monetary system is managed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), the country's [[central bank]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|p=812}}</ref> Established on 1 April 1935 and nationalised in 1949, the RBI serves as the nation's monetary authority, regulator and supervisor of the monetary system, banker to the government, custodian of foreign exchange reserves, and as an issuer of currency. It is governed by a central board of directors, headed by a governor who is appointed by the Government of India.<ref>{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|pp=887–888}}</ref> The benchmark [[interest rates]] are set by the [[Monetary Policy Committee of India|Monetary Policy Committee]].

The rupee was linked to the [[British pound]] from 1927 to 1946, and then to US dollar until 1975 through a [[fixed exchange rate]]. It was devalued in September 1975 and the system of fixed par rate was replaced with a basket of four major international currencies: the British pound, US dollar, the [[Japanese yen]] and the [[Deutsche Mark]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|p=822}}</ref> In 1991, after the collapse of its largest trading partner, the Soviet Union, India faced the major foreign exchange crisis and the rupee was devalued by around 19% in two stages on 1 and 2 July. In 1992, a Liberalized Exchange Rate Mechanism (LERMS) was introduced. Under LERMS, exporters had to surrender 40 percent of their foreign exchange earnings to the RBI at the RBI-determined exchange rate; the remaining 60% could be converted at the market-determined exchange rate. In 1994, the rupee was convertible on the current account, with some capital controls.<ref>International Monetary Fund (1996), {{Google books|a0IuF5RmrbEC|1996 Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements & Exchange Restrictions}}, pages 224–226</ref>

After the sharp devaluation in 1991 and transition to current account convertibility in 1994, the value of the rupee has been largely determined by market forces. The rupee has been fairly stable during the decade 2000–2010. In October 2022, rupee touched an all-time low 83.29 to US dollar.<ref>[https://finance.yahoo.com/echarts?s=USDINR%3DX+Interactive#symbol=USDINR=X;range=2y USD INR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711192414/http://finance.yahoo.com/echarts?s=USDINR%3DX+Interactive#symbol=USDINR=X;range=2y |date=11 July 2016 }} Currency Conversion Rates, Yahoo</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Vora|first1=Nimesh|title=With Indian rupee near record low, cenbank steps up NDF intervention|url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/currencies/with-indian-rupee-near-record-low-cenbank-steps-up-ndf-intervention-2023-09-07/|access-date=7 October 2023|work=Reuters|date=7 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231007173754/https://www.reuters.com/markets/currencies/with-indian-rupee-near-record-low-cenbank-steps-up-ndf-intervention-2023-09-07/|archive-date=7 October 2023|language=en}}</ref>

== Security markets ==
{{see also|List of stock exchanges in India|List of Indian exchange-traded funds|Mutual funds in India|Securities and Exchange Board of India}}

[[File:IT7A2275 copy (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[National Stock Exchange of India]] (NSE) is the biggest [[stock exchange]] in India by trading volume as 96% trading occurs in NSE]]
The development of Indian security markets began with the launch of the [[Bombay Stock Exchange]] (BSE) in July 1875 and the [[Ahmedabad Stock Exchange]] in 1894. Since then, 22 other exchanges have traded in Indian cities. In 2014, India's stock exchange market became the 10th largest in the world by market capitalisation, just above those of South Korea and Australia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/fa07a946-e1a1-11e3-b7c4-00144feabdc0.html|title='Modi Mania' propels India's stock market into world's top 10|work=Financial Times|date=22 May 2014|access-date=28 July 2014|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109223843/https://www.ft.com/content/fa07a946-e1a1-11e3-b7c4-00144feabdc0|url-status=live}}</ref> India's two major stock exchanges, BSE and the [[National Stock Exchange of India]], had a market capitalisation of US$1.71&nbsp;trillion and US$1.68&nbsp;trillion {{as of|2015|February|lc=y|post=,}} according to the [[World Federation of Exchanges]], which grew to $3.36 trillion and $3.31 trillion respectively by September 2021.<ref name="bseindia.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.bseindia.com/|title=BSE Ltd. (Bombay Stock Exchange) – Live Stock Market Updates for S&P BSE SENSEX, Stock Quotes & Corporate Information|website=BSEIndia.com|access-date=2 November 2017|archive-date=28 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128034956/http://www.bseindia.com/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-exchanges.org/statistics/monthly-reports|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817220823/http://www.world-exchanges.org/statistics/monthly-reports|url-status=dead|title=WFE|archive-date=17 August 2014}}</ref>

The initial public offering (IPO) market in India has been small compared to NYSE and NASDAQ, raising US$300&nbsp;million in 2013 and US$1.4&nbsp;billion in 2012. [[Ernst & Young]] stated<ref name="eygipo">[http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/EY_-_Global_IPO_Trends_Q4_2013/$FILE/EY-Global-IPO-Trends-Q4-2013.pdf EY Global IPO Trends Global IPO Trends Q4 2013] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924040938/http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/EY_-_Global_IPO_Trends_Q4_2013/$FILE/EY-Global-IPO-Trends-Q4-2013.pdf |date=24 September 2015 }} Ernst & Young (2014)</ref> that the low IPO activity reflects market conditions, slow government approval processes, and complex regulations. Before 2013, Indian companies were not allowed to list their securities internationally without first completing an IPO in India. In 2013, these security laws were reformed and Indian companies can now choose where they want to list first: overseas, domestically, or both concurrently.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/listing-abroad-sans-domestic-ipo-set-to-be-a-reality-soon-113122000712_1.html|title=Listing abroad sans domestic IPO set to be a reality soon|work=Business Standard|date=28 July 2013|access-date=28 July 2014|archive-date=1 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801152809/http://www.business-standard.com/article/markets/listing-abroad-sans-domestic-ipo-set-to-be-a-reality-soon-113122000712_1.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Further, security laws have been revised to ease overseas listings of already-listed companies, to increase liquidity for private equity and international investors in Indian companies.<ref name="eygipo" />

== Foreign trade and investment ==
{{Main|Foreign trade of India|List of exports of India|Free trade agreements of India}}
{{see also|Globalisation in India}}

[[File:2006Indian exports.PNG|thumb|350px|A map showing the global distribution of Indian exports in 2006 as a percentage of the top market (US at $20.9&nbsp;billion)]]

=== Major Trade Partners ===
{{see also|List of largest trading partners of India}}

The following table shows the largest trading partners for India in 2024–25 by total trade value in billions of [[USD]].<ref name="auto3"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Country
!Export Value
!Import Value
!Total Trade Value
!Balance
|-
|{{flagcountry|United States}}
|88.02
|43.01
!130.3
| style="color:green;" |45.01
|-
|{{flagcountry|China}}
|16.66
|101.75
!118.41
|style="color:red;" | -85.09
|-
| {{flagcountry|United Arab Emirates}}
|35.63
|48.02
!83.65
| style="color:red;" | -12.39
|-
| {{flagcountry|Russia}}
|4.26
|61.43
!65.69
|style="color:red;" | -57.17
|-
| {{flagcountry|Saudi Arabia}}
|11.56
|31.81
!43.37
| style="color:red;" | -20.25
|-
| {{flagcountry|Singapore}}
|14.41
|21.20
!35.61
| style="color:red;" | -6.79
|-
|{{flagcountry|Iraq}}
|3.35
|30.00
!33.35
| style="color:red;" | -26.65
|-
|{{flagcountry|Indonesia}}
|5.99
|23.41
!29.40
| style="color:red;" | -17.42
|-
|{{flagcountry|Hong Kong}}
|8.24
|20.45
!28.69
| style="color:red;" | -12.21
|-
|{{flagcountry|South Korea}}
|6.42
|21.14
!27.56
| style="color:red;" | -14.72
|-
|}

=== Foreign trade ===
[[File:India s Largest Trading partners in FY-2024 25.png|thumb|450px|India's main trading partners in FY 2024-25<ref name="auto3"/>]]
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| align = right
| width = 280
| footer = India's exports (top) and imports (bottom), by value, in 2013–14
| image1 = April 2013 to March 2014 Export commodities from India, by percent value in US$.png
| image2 = April 2013 to March 2014 Import commodities from India, by percent value in US$.png
}}

==== India's foreign trade by year ====
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Total Trade (in USD billion)
!Exports (in USD billion)
!Imports (in USD billion)
!Trade Deficit (in USD billion)
|-
|2024
!1,631.48
|776.68
|854.80
| style="color:red;"| -78.12
|-
|2023
!1,662.36
|770.18
|892.18
| style="color:red;"| -122.00
|-
|2022<ref>{{Cite web|title=World Bank Open Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/|access-date=23 January 2024|website=World Bank Open Data|archive-date=26 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526025607/https://data.worldbank.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>
!1,436.59
|676.53
|760.06
| style="color:red;"| -83.53
|-
|2021
!1,032
|420
|612
| style="color:red;"| -192.00
|-
|2020
!781.5
|314.31
|467.19
| style="color:red;"| -158.88
|-
|2019
!844.14
|330.07
|514.07
| style="color:red;"| -184
|-
|2018
!769.1
|303.52
|465.58
| style="color:red;"| -162.05
|-
|2017
!660.1
|275.8
|384.3
| style="color:red;"| -108.5
|-
|2016
!643.3
|262.3
|381
| style="color:red;"| -118.7
|-
|2015
!758.2
|310.3
|447.9
| style="color:red;"| -137.6
|-
|2014
!781.1
|318.2
|462.9
| style="color:red;"| -144.7
|-
|2013
!780.7
|313.2
|467.5
| style="color:red;"| -154.3
|-
|2012
!798.8
|298.4
|500.4
| style="color:red;"| -202.0
|-
|2011
!760.8
|299.4
|461.4
| style="color:red;"| -162.0
|-
|2010
!528.1
|201.1
|327.0
| style="color:red;"| -125.9
|-
|2009
!442.5
|168.2
|274.3
| style="color:red;"| -106.1
|-
|2008
!481.9
|176.4
|305.5
| style="color:red;"| -129.1
|-
|2007
!212.9
|112.0
|100.9
| style="color:green;"|11.1
|-
|2006
!189.33
|76.23
|113.1
| style="color:red;"| -36.87
|-
|2005
!158.51
|69.18
|89.33
| style="color:red;"| -20.15
|-
|2004
!131.39
|57.24
|74.15
| style="color:red;"| -16.91
|-
|2003
!109.9
|48.3
|61.6
| style="color:red;"| -13.3
|-
|2002
!98.3
|44.5
|53.8
| style="color:red;"| -9.3
|-
|2001
!97
|42.5
|54.5
| style="color:red;"| -12.0
|-
|2000
!103.9
|43.1
|60.8
| style="color:red;"| -17.7
|-
|1999
!86.5
|36.3
|50.2
| style="color:red;"| -13.9
|}
Until the liberalisation of 1991, India was largely and intentionally isolated from world markets, to protect its economy and to achieve self-reliance. Foreign trade was subject to import tariffs, export taxes and quantitative restrictions, while [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI) was restricted by upper-limit equity participation, restrictions on technology transfer, export obligations and government approvals; these approvals were needed for nearly 60% of new FDI in the industrial sector. The restrictions ensured that FDI averaged only around $200&nbsp;million annually between 1985 and 1991; a large percentage of the capital flows consisted of foreign aid, commercial borrowing and deposits of [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|non-resident Indians]].<ref name="tn-srinivasan">{{cite web|author=Srinivasan, T.N.|title=Economic Reforms and Global Integration|year=2002|version=17 January 2002|url=http://www.econ.yale.edu/%7Esrinivas/ec_reforms.pdf|website=Economic Growth Center, Yale University|access-date=21 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326211644/http://www.econ.yale.edu/%7Esrinivas/ec_reforms.pdf|archive-date=26 March 2009}}</ref> India's exports were stagnant for the first 15&nbsp;years after independence, due to general neglect of trade policy by the government of that period; imports in the same period, with early industrialisation, consisted predominantly of machinery, raw materials and consumer goods.<ref>{{Harvnb|Panagariya|2008|pp=27–29}}</ref>
Since liberalisation, the value of India's international trade has increased sharply,<ref>{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|pp=747–748}}</ref> with the contribution of total trade in goods and services to the GDP rising from 16% in 1990–91 to 47% in 2009–10.<ref name="Trade">{{Harvnb|Panagariya|2008|p=109}}</ref><ref name="WTO profile">{{cite web|url=http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/WSDBCountryPFView.aspx?Language=E&Country=IN|title=Trade profiles-India|publisher=[[World Trade Organization]]|access-date=7 February 2012|archive-date=20 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520195000/http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/WSDBCountryPFView.aspx?Country=IN&Language=E|url-status=dead}}</ref> Foreign trade accounted for 48.8% of India's GDP in 2015.<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/indicators/137506|title=Human Development Index (HDI)|website=hdr.undp.org|publisher=[[Human Development Report|HDRO (Human Development Report Office)]] [[United Nations Development Programme]]|access-date=11 December 2019|archive-date=15 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215174637/http://hdr.undp.org/en/indicators/137506|url-status=live}}</ref> Globally, India accounts for 1.44% of exports and 2.12% of imports for merchandise trade and 3.34% of exports and 3.31% of imports for commercial services trade.<ref name="WTO profile" /> India's major trading partners are the European Union, China, United States and [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref name="Datt-14">{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|p=757}}</ref> In 2006–07, major export commodities included engineering goods, petroleum products, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, gems and jewellery, textiles and garments, agricultural products, iron ore and other minerals. Major import commodities included crude oil and related products, machinery, electronic goods, gold and silver.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/default.asp|title=Imports and Exports Databank|publisher=Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India|access-date=5 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122004154/http://commerce.nic.in/eidb/default.asp|archive-date=22 November 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> In November 2010, exports increased 22.3% year-on-year to {{INRConvert|851|b|year=2010}}, while imports were up 7.5% at {{INRConvert|1.25|t|year=2010}}. The trade deficit for the same month dropped from {{INRConvert|469|b|year=2009}} in 2009 to {{INRConvert|401|b|year=2010}} in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://commerce.nic.in/tradestats/Indiastrade_press.pdf|title=India's Foreign Trade: November 2010|work=Press Release|publisher=Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India|date=3 January 2011|access-date=11 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124192815/http://commerce.nic.in/tradestats/Indiastrade_press.pdf|archive-date=24 January 2011}}</ref>

India is a founding-member of [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (GATT) and its successor, the WTO. While participating actively in its general council meetings, India has been crucial in voicing the concerns of the [[developing country|developing world]]. For instance, India has continued its opposition to the inclusion of labour, environmental issues and other [[non-tariff barriers to trade]] in WTO policies.<ref name="wto">{{cite web|title=India & the World Trade Organization|url=http://www.indianembassy.org/policy/WTO/overview.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050613080223/http://www.indianembassy.org/policy/WTO/overview.html|publisher=Embassy of India|archive-date=13 June 2005|access-date=9 July 2005}}</ref>

In 2019, India secured 43rd place in competitiveness.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/india/india-moves-up-to-43rd-place-on-competitiveness-singapore-reaches-top-4033901.html|title=India moves up to 43rd place on competitiveness; Singapore reaches top|website=Moneycontrol|date=29 May 2019|access-date=29 May 2019|archive-date=29 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529054655/https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/india/india-moves-up-to-43rd-place-on-competitiveness-singapore-reaches-top-4033901.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Balance of payments ===

[[File:Cumulative Current Account Balance.png|thumb|[[Cumulativity|Cumulative]] current account balance 1980–2008 based on IMF data]]
Since independence, India's [[balance of payments]] on its [[Current account (balance of payments)|current account]] has been negative. Since economic liberalisation in the 1990s, precipitated by a balance-of-payment crisis, India's exports rose consistently, covering 80.3% of its imports in 2002–03, up from 66.2% in 1990–91.<ref>{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|pp=763–765}}</ref> However, the global economic slump followed by a general deceleration in world trade saw the exports as a percentage of imports drop to 61.4% in 2008–09.{{sfn|Economic Survey|2010|pp=127–129}} India's growing oil import bill is seen as the main driver behind the large current account deficit,<ref name="RupeeOil" /> which rose to $118.7&nbsp;billion, or 11.11% of GDP, in 2008–09.{{sfn|Economic Survey|2010|p=127}} Between January and October 2010, India imported $82.1&nbsp;billion worth of crude oil.<ref name="RupeeOil">{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-12-07/rupee-rally-falters-as-oil-rises-to-two-year-high-india-credit.html|title=Rupee Rally Falters as Oil Rises to Two-Year High|work=Bloomberg BusinessWeek|date=7 December 2010|author=V. Ramakrishnan|access-date=11 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110111083311/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-12-07/rupee-rally-falters-as-oil-rises-to-two-year-high-india-credit.html|archive-date=11 January 2011}}</ref> The Indian economy has run a trade deficit every year from 2002 to 2012, with a merchandise trade deficit of US$189&nbsp;billion in 2011–12.<ref>[http://commerce.gov.in/publications/pdf/annualreport_overview-2012-13.pdf 2013 Annual Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810031400/http://commerce.gov.in/publications/pdf/annualreport_overview-2012-13.pdf |date=10 August 2014 }} Ministry of Commerce, Govt of India (2013)</ref> Its trade with China has the largest deficit, about $31&nbsp;billion in 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-01-10/news/46066593_1_trade-deficit-indian-it-trade-data|title=India's trade deficit with China mounts to $ 31.42 bn|work=The Economic Times|date=10 January 2014|access-date=1 August 2014|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305144404/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-01-10/news/46066593_1_trade-deficit-indian-it-trade-data|url-status=dead}}</ref>

India's reliance on external assistance and concessional debt has decreased since liberalisation of the economy, and the [[debt service ratio]] decreased from 35.3% in 1990–91 to 4.4% in 2008–09.{{sfn|Economic Survey|2010|pp=142–144}} In India, [[External commercial borrowing (India)|external commercial borrowings]] (ECBs), or commercial loans from non-resident lenders, are being permitted by the government for providing an additional source of funds to Indian corporates. The [[Finance Minister of India|Ministry of Finance]] monitors and regulates them through ECB policy guidelines issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) under the [[Foreign Exchange Management Act]] of 1999.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/Notification/PDFs/27ECB010709_F.pdf|title=Master Circular on External Commercial Borrowings and Trade Credits|publisher=Reserve Bank of India|access-date=11 January 2011|archive-date=17 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120917004422/http://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/notification/PDFs/27ECB010709_F.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> India's [[foreign exchange reserve]]s have steadily risen from $5.8&nbsp;billion in March 1991 to ₹38,832.21&nbsp;billion (US$540&nbsp;billion) in July 2020.<ref name="RBI_reserves">{{cite web|title=Weekly statistical supplement|url=https://m.rbi.org.in/scripts/WSSViewDetail.aspx?TYPE=Section&PARAM1=2|work=[[Reserve Bank of India]]|access-date=2 December 2022|archive-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329172637/https://m.rbi.org.in/scripts/WSSViewDetail.aspx?TYPE=Section&PARAM1=2|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Economic Survey|2010|p=132}} In 2012, United Kingdom announced an end to all financial aid to India, citing the growth and robustness of Indian economy.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/30203e68-2a55-11e2-99bb-00144feabdc0.html|title=UK to end financial aid to India|work=Financial Times|date=9 November 2012|access-date=1 August 2014|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109223843/https://www.ft.com/content/30203e68-2a55-11e2-99bb-00144feabdc0|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/india-cenbank-forex-reserves-idINS8N0QH02M20140905|title=TABLE-India's forex reserves rise to $318.64 bln as of Aug 29 – cbank|work=Reuters|date=5 September 2014|access-date=3 March 2015|archive-date=10 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210215231/http://in.reuters.com/article/india-cenbank-forex-reserves-idINS8N0QH02M20140905|url-status=dead}}</ref>

India's current account deficit reached an all-time high in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Nag|first1=Anirban|title=Foreigners to the rescue as inflows rise to bridge India's current account deficit|url=http://www.livemint.com/Money/6XJ5pjEUBlu9eRBgwEypaM/Foreigners-to-the-rescue-as-inflows-rise-to-bridge-Indias-c.html|website=Mint|access-date=4 April 2017|date=27 March 2017|archive-date=5 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405170637/http://www.livemint.com/Money/6XJ5pjEUBlu9eRBgwEypaM/Foreigners-to-the-rescue-as-inflows-rise-to-bridge-Indias-c.html|url-status=live}}</ref> India has historically funded its current account deficit through borrowings by companies in the overseas markets or remittances by non-resident Indians and portfolio inflows. From April 2016 to January 2017, RBI data showed that, for the first time since 1991, India was funding its deficit through foreign direct investment inflows. ''[[The Economic Times]]'' noted that the development was "a sign of rising confidence among long-term investors in Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]]'s ability to strengthen the country's economic foundation for sustained growth".<ref>{{cite news|title=In a first since 1991, FDI flow takes care of CAD|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/in-a-first-since-1991-fdi-flow-takes-care-of-cad/articleshow/58000640.cms|website=The Economic Times|access-date=4 April 2017|last1=Nayak|first1=Gayatri|archive-date=5 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405165843/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/in-a-first-since-1991-fdi-flow-takes-care-of-cad/articleshow/58000640.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Foreign direct investment ===
{{Main|Foreign direct investment in India}}

{| style="margin:1em; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%; float:right;"
|+'''Share of top five investing countries in FDI inflows (2000–2010)'''<ref name="fdi-1">{{cite web|title=FDI in India Statistics|url=http://dipp.nic.in/fdi_statistics/india_FDI_August2010.pdf|publisher=[[Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India]]|access-date=22 November 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122103911/http://www.dipp.nic.in/fdi_statistics/india_FDI_August2010.pdf|archive-date=22 November 2010}}</ref>
|- style="background:lightblue;"
! Rank !! Country !! Inflows (million US$) !! Inflows (%)
|-
|1 || Mauritius || 50,164 || 42.00
|-
|2 || Singapore || 11,275 || 9.00
|-
|3 || US || 8,914 || 7.00
|-
|4 || UK || 6,158 || 5.00
|-
|5 || Netherlands || 4,968 || 4.00
|}
As the third-largest economy in the world in PPP terms, India has attracted [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI).<ref name="financialexpress1">{{cite news|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/India-2nd-best-country-for-biz-investment-Survey/343344/|title=India 2nd best country for biz investment: Survey|newspaper=[[The Financial Express (India)|The Financial Express]]|access-date=3 November 2008|archive-date=5 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705004920/http://www.financialexpress.com/news/India-2nd-best-country-for-biz-investment-Survey/343344/|url-status=live}}</ref> During the year 2011, FDI inflow into India stood at $36.5&nbsp;billion, 51.1% higher than the 2010 figure of $24.15&nbsp;billion. India has strengths in telecommunication, information technology and other significant areas such as auto components, chemicals, apparels, pharmaceuticals, and jewellery. Despite a surge in foreign investments, rigid FDI policies<ref name="news.indiamart.com">{{cite news|url=http://news.indiamart.com/story/finmin-considers-three-single-brand-retail-fdi-proposals-169557.html|title=FinMin considers three single-brand retail FDI proposals|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021202322/http://news.indiamart.com/story/finmin-considers-three-single-brand-retail-fdi-proposals-169557.html|archive-date=21 October 2012}}</ref> were a significant hindrance. Over time, India has adopted a number of FDI reforms.<ref name="financialexpress1" /> India has a large pool of skilled managerial and technical expertise. The size of the [[Standard of living in India|middle-class]] population stands at 300 million and represents a growing consumer market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mckinsey.com/mgi/mginews/bigspenders.asp|title=Next Big Spenders: India's Middle Class|publisher=[[McKinsey & Company]]|access-date=5 April 2010|archive-date=16 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116211914/http://www.mckinsey.com/mgi/mginews/bigspenders.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref>

India liberalised its FDI policy in 2005, allowing up to a 100% FDI stake in ventures. Industrial policy reforms have substantially reduced industrial licensing requirements, removed restrictions on expansion and facilitated easy access to foreign technology and investment. The upward growth curve of the real-estate sector owes some credit to a booming economy and liberalised FDI regime. In March 2005, the government amended the rules to allow 100% FDI in the construction sector, including built-up infrastructure and construction development projects comprising housing, commercial premises, hospitals, educational institutions, recreational facilities, and city- and regional-level infrastructure.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/02/25/stories/2005022506990100.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050405032727/http://www.hindu.com/2005/02/25/stories/2005022506990100.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 April 2005|title=100 per cent FDI in construction industry automatic route|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=25 February 2005|first=Sushma|last=Ramachandran|access-date=17 December 2010|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Between 2012 and 2014, India extended these reforms to defence, telecom, oil, retail, aviation, and other sectors.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Govt-unleashes-big-bang-FDI-reforms-opens-up-defence/articleshow/21110866.cms|title=Govt unleashes big-bang FDI reforms, opens up defence|work=The Times of India|date=17 July 2014|access-date=1 August 2014|archive-date=6 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180106104913/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Govt-unleashes-big-bang-FDI-reforms-opens-up-defence/articleshow/21110866.cms|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/india-economy-retail-fdi-reform-idINDEE88D08M20120914|title=Govt allows FDI multi-brand retail, aviation in bold reform push|work=Reuters|date=14 September 2012|access-date=6 July 2021|archive-date=10 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610124354/https://in.reuters.com/article/india-economy-retail-fdi-reform-idINDEE88D08M20120914|url-status=dead}}</ref>

From 2000 to 2010, the country attracted $178&nbsp;billion as FDI.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dipp.nic.in/fdi_statistics/india_fdi_index.htm|title=India FDI Fact sheet&nbsp;– September 2010|publisher=Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion, Ministry of Commerce and Industry|access-date=21 December 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216063528/http://www.dipp.nic.in/fdi_statistics/india_fdi_index.htm|archive-date=16 December 2010}}</ref> The inordinately high investment from [[Mauritius]] is due to routing of international funds through the country given significant tax advantages – double taxation is avoided due to a [[Double taxation#Double taxation avoidance agreement signed by India|tax treaty]] between India and Mauritius, and Mauritius is a capital gains [[tax haven]], effectively creating a zero-taxation FDI channel.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/jaimini-bhagwati-rationalising-fdi-taxes/418512/|title=Rationalising FDI taxes|newspaper=[[Business Standard]]|date=17 December 2010|first=Jaimini|last=Bhagwati|access-date=21 December 2010|archive-date=9 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109223445/https://www.business-standard.com/search?q=news|url-status=live}}</ref> FDI accounted for 2.1% of India's GDP in 2015.<ref name="HDI" />

As the government has eased 87 foreign investment direct rules across 21 sectors in the last three years, FDI inflows hit $60.1&nbsp;billion between 2016 and 2017 in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/business-news/india-s-fdi-inflows-at-a-record-60-1-billion-in-2016-17/story-7a8pt2u7e8IJttptDQcwhO.html|title=India's FDI inflows at a record $60.1 billion in 2016–17|date=19 May 2017|website=Hindustan Times|access-date=2 November 2017|archive-date=21 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021213125/http://www.hindustantimes.com/business-news/india-s-fdi-inflows-at-a-record-60-1-billion-in-2016-17/story-7a8pt2u7e8IJttptDQcwhO.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/finance/fdi-jumps-37-to-10-4-billion-during-april-june-2017/articleshow/60163515.cms|title=FDI jumps 37% to $10.4 billion during April–June 2017|date=21 August 2017|access-date=2 November 2017|newspaper=The Economic Times|archive-date=27 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170927072848/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/finance/fdi-jumps-37-to-10-4-billion-during-april-june-2017/articleshow/60163515.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Outflows ====
Since 2000, Indian companies have expanded overseas, investing FDI and creating jobs outside India. From 2006 to 2010, FDI by Indian companies outside India amounted to 1.34 per cent of its GDP.<ref>Shah and Patnaik, [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2011/wp1107.pdf India's financial globalisation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054858/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2011/wp1107.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }} IMF (2012)</ref> Indian companies have deployed FDI and started operations in United States,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304655304579552181391629024|title=Mahindra Expands Effort to Counter Global Rivals with U.S. Engineering|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=9 May 2014|access-date=13 March 2017|archive-date=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315084129/http://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304655304579552181391629024|url-status=live}}</ref> Europe and Africa.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://businesstoday.intoday.in/story/bt-500-indian-inc-goes-global/1/189144.html|title=A Slice of World Action|work=Business Today|date=11 November 2012|access-date=1 August 2014|archive-date=8 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808052716/http://businesstoday.intoday.in/story/bt-500-indian-inc-goes-global/1/189144.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Indian conglomerate [[Tata Group]] is United Kingdom's largest manufacturer and private-sector employer.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/britain/2011/09/10/tata-for-now|title=India's industrial outpost Tata for now|newspaper=The Economist|date=10 September 2011|access-date=1 August 2014|archive-date=28 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170528051431/http://www.economist.com/node/21528653|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/9722673/JLRs-Ratan-Tata-warns-on-UK-competitiveness.html|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/9722673/JLRs-Ratan-Tata-warns-on-UK-competitiveness.html|archive-date=10 January 2022|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|title=JLR's Ratan Tata warns on UK competitiveness|work=The Telegraph|date=5 December 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

=== Remittances ===
{{Main|Remittances to India}}

In 2015, a total of US$68.91&nbsp;billion was made in remittances to India from other countries, and a total of US$8.476&nbsp;billion was made in remittances by foreign workers in India to their home countries. [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]], US, and [[Saudi Arabia]] were the top sources of remittances to India, while Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Nepal were the top recipients of remittances from India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/interactives/remittance-map/|title=Remittance Flows Worldwide in 2015|date=31 August 2016|website=PewGlobal.org|access-date=2 November 2017|archive-date=25 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425103928/http://www.pewglobal.org/interactives/remittance-map/|url-status=live}}</ref> Remittances to India accounted for 3.32% of the country's GDP in 2015.<ref name="HDI" />

=== Mergers and acquisitions ===
Between 1985 and 2018 20,846 deals have been announced in, into (inbound) and out of (outbound) India. This cumulates to a value of US$618&nbsp;billion. In terms of value, 2010 has been the most active year with deals worth almost 60 bil. USD. Most deals have been conducted in 2007 (1,510).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://imaa-institute.org/m-and-a-statistics-countries/|title=M&A Statistics by Countries|work=Institute for Mergers, Acquisitions and Alliances (IMAA)|access-date=26 February 2018|language=en|archive-date=27 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127222829/https://imaa-institute.org/m-and-a-statistics-countries/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Here is a list of the top 10 deals with Indian companies participating:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Acquiror Name'''
|'''Acquiror Mid Industry'''
|'''Acquiror Nation'''
|'''Target Name'''
|'''Target Mid Industry'''
|'''Target Nation'''
|'''Value of Transaction ($mil)'''
|-
|Petrol Complex Pte Ltd
|Oil & Gas
|Singapore
|Essar Oil Ltd
|Oil & Gas
|India
|12,907.25
|-
|Vodafone Grp Plc
|Wireless
|United Kingdom
|Hutchison Essar Ltd
|Telecommunications Services
|India
|12,748.00
|-
|Vodafone Grp PLC-Vodafone Asts
|Wireless
|India
|Idea Cellular Ltd-Mobile Bus
|Wireless
|India
|11,627.32
|-
|Bharti Airtel Ltd
|Wireless
|India
|MTN Group Ltd
|Wireless
|South Africa
|11,387.52
|-
|Bharti Airtel Ltd
|Wireless
|India
|Zain Africa BV
|Wireless
|Nigeria
|10,700.00
|-
|BP PLC
|Oil & Gas
|United Kingdom
|Reliance Industries Ltd-21 Oil
|Oil & Gas
|India
|9,000.00
|-
|MTN Group Ltd
|Wireless
|South Africa
|Bharti Airtel Ltd
|Wireless
|India
|8,775.09
|-
|Shareholders
|Other Financials
|India
|Reliance Inds Ltd-Telecom Bus
|Telecommunications Services
|India
|8,063.01
|-
|Oil & Natural Gas Corp Ltd
|Oil & Gas
|India
|Hindustan Petro Corp Ltd
|Petrochemicals
|India
|5,784.20
|-
|Reliance Commun Ventures Ltd
|Telecommunications Services
|India
|Reliance Infocomm Ltd
|Telecommunications Services
|India
|5,577.18
|}

== Economic issues ==
=== Corruption ===
{{Main|Corruption in India|Indian black money}}

[[File:Countries by Corruption Perceptions Index (2023).svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|A map depicting [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] in other countries as compared to India in 2023; a higher score indicates lower levels of corruption
{{Legend|#008000|100 – 90}}
{{Legend|#00bf00|89 – 80}}
{{Legend|#00ff00|79 – 70}}
{{Legend|#80ff00|69 – 60}}
{{Legend|#ffff00|59 – 50}}
{{Legend|#ffbf00|49 – 40}}
{{Legend|#ff8000|39 – 30}}
{{Legend|#ff4000|29 – 20}}
{{Legend|#ff0000|19 – 10}}
{{Legend|#bf0000|9 – 0}}
{{Legend|#c0c0c0|No data}}]]
Corruption has been a pervasive problem in India.<ref>[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2993646 India: Potential for a Parliamentary Budget Office] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603144231/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2993646 |date=3 June 2018 }}. Social Science Research Network (SSRN). Retrieved 18 July 2017.</ref> A 2005 study by [[Transparency International]] (TI) found that more than half of those surveyed had first-hand experience of paying a bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office in the previous year.<ref name="2005-TI-study" /> A follow-up study in 2008 found this rate to be 40 percent.<ref>{{cite web|title=India Corruption Study&nbsp;– 2008|publisher=Transparency International|year=2008|url=http://www.transparencyindia.org/resource/survey_study/India%20Corruptino%20Study%202008.pdf|access-date=15 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619212155/http://www.transparencyindia.org/resource/survey_study/India%20Corruptino%20Study%202008.pdf|archive-date=19 June 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2011, TI ranked India at 95th place amongst 183 countries in perceived levels of public sector corruption.<ref name="transparency1">{{cite web|url=http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2011/interactive2/|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2011|publisher=Transparency International|access-date=9 July 2012|archive-date=20 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120045916/http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2011/interactive2/|url-status=dead}}</ref> By 2016, India saw a reduction in corruption, and its ranking improved to 79th place.<ref>{{cite web|last1=e.V.|first1=Transparency International|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2016|url=https://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016|website=transparency.org|date=25 January 2017|access-date=18 February 2018|archive-date=25 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125081958/https://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1996, [[red tape]], bureaucracy, and the [[Licence Raj]] were suggested as a cause for institutionalised corruption and inefficiency.<ref>{{Harvnb|Drèze|Sen|1996|p=180}}</ref> More recent reports<ref name="kpmg2011">{{cite web|title=Survey on Bribery and Corruption&nbsp;– Impact on Economy and Business Environment|publisher=KPMG|year=2011|url=http://www.kpmg.com/IN/en/IssuesAndInsights/ThoughtLeadership/KPMG_Bribery_Survey_Report_new.pdf|access-date=15 July 2012|archive-date=6 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506184127/http://www.kpmg.com/IN/en/IssuesAndInsights/ThoughtLeadership/KPMG_Bribery_Survey_Report_new.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="WFR2011">{{cite web|title=Corruption in India|publisher=The World Finance Review|author=Debroy and Bhandari|year=2011|url=http://www.worldfinancialreview.com/?p=1575|access-date=15 July 2012|archive-date=1 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501135424/http://www.worldfinancialreview.com/?p=1575|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Corruption in India&nbsp;– A rotten state|newspaper=The Economist|date=10 March 2011|url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2011/03/10/a-rotten-state|access-date=15 July 2012|archive-date=18 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818134512/http://www.economist.com/node/18332796|url-status=live}}</ref> suggest the causes of corruption include excessive regulations and approval requirements, mandated spending programs, monopoly of certain goods and service providers by government-controlled institutions, bureaucracy with discretionary powers, and lack of transparent laws and processes.

Computerisation of services, various central and state vigilance commissions, and the 2005 [[Right to Information Act]] – which requires government officials to furnish information requested by citizens or face punitive action – have considerably reduced corruption and opened avenues to redress grievances.<ref name="2005-TI-study">{{cite web|url=http://www.cmsindia.org/cms/events/corruption.pdf|title=India Corruption Study 2005|author=Transparency International India|publisher=Centre for Media Studies|access-date=14 March 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415110720/http://www.cmsindia.org/cms/events/corruption.pdf|archive-date=15 April 2007}}</ref>

In 2011, the Indian government concluded that most spending fails to reach its intended recipients, as the large and inefficient bureaucracy consumes budgets.<ref name="bajuraj">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10804248|title=India's civil service: Battling the babu raj|newspaper=The Economist|date=6 March 2008|access-date=8 January 2011|archive-date=30 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080530044857/http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=10804248|url-status=live}}</ref> India's absence rates are among the worst in the world; one study found that 25% of public sector teachers and 40% of government-owned public-sector medical workers could not be found at the workplace.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://econ.ucsd.edu/~kamurali/teachers%20and%20medical%20worker%20incentives%20in%20india.pdf|title=Teachers and Medical Worker Incentives in India|first=Karthik|last=Muralidharan|publisher=University of California|access-date=21 June 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326211644/http://econ.ucsd.edu/~kamurali/teachers%20and%20medical%20worker%20incentives%20in%20india.pdf|archive-date=26 March 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4051353.stm|title=Combating India's truant teachers|publisher=BBC|date=29 November 2004|first=Kaushik|last=Basu|access-date=9 January 2011|archive-date=15 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215104757/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4051353.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, many issues are facing Indian scientists, with demands for transparency, a [[meritocratic]] system, and an overhaul of the bureaucratic agencies that oversee science and technology.<ref name="Nature">{{cite journal|last=Jayaraman|first=K.S.|title=Report row ousts top Indian scientist|volume=462|issue=7270|page=152|journal=Nature|date=9 November 2009|pmid=19907467|doi=10.1038/462152a|doi-access=free}}</ref>

India has an [[underground economy]], with a 2006 report alleging that India topped the worldwide list for [[Indian black money|black money]] with almost $1,456&nbsp;billion stashed in Swiss banks. This would amount to 13 times the country's total external debt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/134580/laundering-black-money.html|title=Laundering black money|work=Deccan Herald|location=India|date=4 February 2011|author=Kuldip Nayar|access-date=6 February 2011|author-link=Kuldip Nayar|archive-date=23 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923224835/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/134580/laundering-black-money.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2010/08/13/stories/2010081350370900.htm|title=Black, bold and bountiful|newspaper=Business Line|date=13 August 2010|author=V. Venkateswara Rao|access-date=6 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918110326/http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2010/08/13/stories/2010081350370900.htm|archive-date=18 September 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> These allegations have been denied by the [[Swiss Banking Association]]. James Nason, the Head of International Communications for the Swiss Banking Association, suggested "The (black money) figures were rapidly picked up in the Indian media and in Indian opposition circles, and circulated as gospel truth. However, this story was a complete fabrication. The Swiss Bankers Association never published such a report. Anyone claiming to have such figures (for India) should be forced to identify their source and explain the methodology used to produce them."<ref>{{cite news|title=No 'black money' statistics exist: Swiss banks|date=13 September 2009|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/No-black-money-statistics-exist-Swiss-banks/articleshow/5005874.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912101749/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-09-13/india/28092452_1_james-nason-swiss-bankers-association-sba-s-head|url-status=live|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|archive-date=12 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Banking secrecy spices up Indian elections|publisher=SWISSINFO&nbsp;– A member of Swiss Broadcasting Corporation|date=14 May 2009|url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/politics/foreign_affairs/Banking_secrecy_spices_up_Indian_elections.html?cid=7396340|access-date=28 June 2012|archive-date=26 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926182809/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/politics/foreign_affairs/Banking_secrecy_spices_up_Indian_elections.html?cid=7396340|url-status=live}}</ref>
A Step was taken by Prime Minister Modi, on 8 November 2016, involved the demonetization of all 500 and 1000 rupee bank notes (replaced by new 500 and 2000 rupee notes) to return black money into the economy followed by criticism that the measure was deemed ineffective by economists and negatively affected the poorest people of India. This [[2016 Indian banknote demonetisation|demonetisation]] together with the introduction of the [[Goods and Services Tax (India)|goods and services tax(GST)]] is believed to be responsible for the slowdown in growth.<ref>{{Cite web|date=20 January 2020|title=Understanding India's Economic Slowdown|url=https://www.theindiaforum.in/article/understanding-india-s-economic-slowdown|access-date=14 June 2022|website=The India Forum|language=en|archive-date=11 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611212419/https://www.theindiaforum.in/article/understanding-india-s-economic-slowdown|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in India|Literacy in India}}

[[File:Calcutta university 1870.jpg|left|thumb|[[University of Calcutta]], established in 1857, was the first multidisciplinary and secular Western-style institution in Asia.]]
India has made progress in increasing the primary education attendance rate and expanding [[Literacy in India|literacy]] to approximately three-fourths of the population.<ref name="wbie">{{cite web|url=http://go.worldbank.org/OSFVRGA240|title=Education in India|publisher=World Bank|access-date=13 January 2011}}</ref> India's literacy rate had grown from 52.2% in 1991 to 74.04% in 2011. The right to education at the elementary level has been made one of the fundamental rights under the Eighty-Sixth Amendment of 2002, and legislation has been enacted to further the objective of providing free education to all children.{{sfn|Economic Survey|2010|pp=280–281}} However, the literacy rate of 74% is lower than the worldwide average, and the country suffers from a high drop-out rate.<ref name="elephant">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/specialreports/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12749735|title=A special report on India: An elephant, not a tiger|date=11 December 2008|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=17 January 2011|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225053405/https://www.economist.com/special-report/2008/12/11/an-elephant-not-a-tiger|url-status=live}}</ref> Literacy rates and educational opportunities vary by region, gender, urban and rural areas, and among different social groups.<ref>{{Harvnb|Drèze|Sen|1996|pp=114–115}}</ref><ref>[http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter6.pdf Ranking of states and union territories by lireacy rate: 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706191931/http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/Final_PPT_2011_chapter6.pdf |date=6 July 2015 }} Census of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India (2013)</ref>

=== Economic disparities ===
{{Main|Economic disparities in India|Poverty in India|Standard of living in India}}

[[File:NSDP Per Capita of Indian States and UT's, 2018-19.png|thumb|Economic disparities among the states and union territories of India, on GDP per capita, [[Purchasing power parity|PPP basis]], and GDP per capita basis in 2011]]
{{Blockquote
| Poverty rates in India's poorest states are three to four times higher than those in the more advanced states. While India's average annual per capita income was $1,410 in 2011&nbsp;– placing it among the poorest of the world's middle-income countries&nbsp;– it was just $436 in Uttar Pradesh (which has more people than Brazil) and only $294 in Bihar, one of India's poorest states.
| World Bank: India Country Overview 2013<ref name="wboverview">{{cite news|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india/overview|title=India Country Overview 2013|year=2014|publisher=World Bank|access-date=28 July 2014|archive-date=2 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170502113421/http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india/overview|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}

A critical problem facing India's economy is the sharp and growing regional variations among India's different states and territories in terms of poverty, availability of infrastructure, and socio-economic development.<ref name="Datt-13">{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|pp=474–475}}</ref> Six low-income states&nbsp;– [[Assam]], Chhattisgarh, [[Nagaland]], Madhya Pradesh, [[Odisha]], and [[Uttar Pradesh]]&nbsp;– are home to more than one-third of India's population.<ref name="wbstrategy">{{cite web|url=http://www.ukibc.com/ukindia2/files/India60.pdf|title=Country Strategy for India (CAS) 2009–2012|publisher=World Bank|access-date=21 June 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114195859/http://www.ukibc.com/ukindia2/files/India60.pdf|archive-date=14 January 2009}}</ref> Severe disparities exist among states in terms of income, literacy rates, life expectancy, and living conditions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Drèze|Sen|1996|pp=45–46}}</ref> The four states of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Karnataka alone are projected to account for almost 50% of India's GDP by 2030; the five [[South India|South Indian states]] are projected to contribute 35% of India's GDP by 2030 despite currently having 20% of India's population.<ref>{{Cite news|date=9 June 2023|title=Southern states to contribute 35% of India's $7 trillion economy by 2030|work=The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/southern-states-to-contribute-35-of-indias-7tn-economy-by-2030/articleshow/100862819.cms?from=mdr|access-date=6 September 2023|issn=0971-8257|archive-date=6 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906030550/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/southern-states-to-contribute-35-of-indias-7tn-economy-by-2030/articleshow/100862819.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref>

The five-year plans, especially in the pre-liberalisation era, attempted to reduce regional disparities by encouraging industrial development in the interior regions and distributing industries across states. The results have been discouraging as these measures increased inefficiency and hampered effective industrial growth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Panagariya|2008|pp=164–165}}</ref> The more advanced states have been better placed to benefit from liberalisation, with well-developed infrastructure and an educated and skilled workforce, which attract the manufacturing and service sectors. Governments of less-advanced states have tried to reduce disparities by offering tax holidays and cheap land and focused on sectors like tourism, which can develop faster than other sectors.<ref name="understanding-2">{{cite web|author1=Sachs, D. Jeffrey|author2=Bajpai, Nirupam|author3=Ramiah, Ananthi|title=Understanding Regional Economic Growth in India|year=2002|work=Working paper 88|url=http://www2.cid.harvard.edu/cidwp/088.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701042205/http://www2.cid.harvard.edu/cidwp/088.pdf|publisher=Harvard University|archive-date=1 July 2007}}</ref><ref name="planning-2">{{cite web|author=Kurian, N.J.|title=Regional disparities in india|url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/vision2025/regdsprty.doc|publisher=Planning Commission of India|access-date=6 August 2005|archive-date=5 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105050844/http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/vision2025/regdsprty.doc|url-status=dead}}</ref> India's income [[Gini coefficient]] is 33.9, according to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), indicating overall income distribution to be more uniform than East Asia, Latin America, and Africa.<ref name="GINI index" /> According to a 2021 report by the [[Pew Research Center]], India has roughly 1.2 billion lower-income individuals, 66 million middle-income individuals, 16 million upper-middle-income individuals, and 2 million in the high-income group.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 March 2021 |title=In the pandemic, India's middle class shrinks and poverty spreads while China sees smaller changes |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2021/03/18/in-the-pandemic-indias-middle-class-shrinks-and-poverty-spreads-while-china-sees-smaller-changes/ |access-date=18 March 2021 |work=[[Pew Research Center]] |quote=The poor live on $2 or less daily, low income on $2.01-$10, middle income on $10.01-$20, upper-middle income on $20.01-$50 and high income on more than $50. All dollar figures are expressed in 2011 prices and [[purchasing power parity]] dollars, currency exchange rates adjusted for differences in the prices of goods and services across countries.}}</ref> As per ''[[The Economist]]'', 78 million of India's population are considered middle class as of 2017, if defined using the cutoff of those making more than $10 per day, a standard used by the India's [[National Council of Applied Economic Research]].<ref name="teindia2">{{cite news |date=11 January 2018 |title=India's missing middle class |url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2018/01/11/indias-missing-middle-class |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810213840/https://www.economist.com/briefing/2018/01/11/indias-missing-middle-class |archive-date=10 August 2019 |access-date=10 August 2019 |newspaper=The Economist}}</ref>

India has achieved significant reductions in both monetary and multidimensional poverty in recent years. According to the World Bank's 2025 Poverty & Equity Brief, India's extreme poverty rate, measured at the international poverty line of $2.15 per day (2017 PPP), declined from 16.2% in 2011–12 to 2.3% in 2022–23, lifting approximately 171 million people out of extreme poverty.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-04-26 |title=India lifted 171 million people from extreme poverty between 2011-12 and 2022-23: World Bank |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/india-lifts-171-million-people-from-extreme-poverty-between-2011-12-and-2022-23-world-bank/articleshow/120647955.cms?hl=en-US |access-date=2026-01-26 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> In terms of [[Multidimensional Poverty Index|multidimensional poverty]], a [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) report found that India was among 25 countries that halved their global [[Multidimensional Poverty Index]] (MPI) values within 15 years (2005–06 to 2019–21), with an estimated 415 million people exiting multidimensional poverty during that period.<ref>{{Cite web |title=25 Countries Halved Multidimensional Poverty Within 15 Years, but 1.1 Billion Remain Poor |url=https://www.undp.org/press-releases/25-countries-halved-multidimensional-poverty-within-15-years-11-billion-remain-poor |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251205185352/https://www.undp.org/press-releases/25-countries-halved-multidimensional-poverty-within-15-years-11-billion-remain-poor |archive-date=5 December 2025 |access-date=2026-01-26 |website=UNDP |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Climate change ===
{{Main|Climate change in India}}
Several banks including State Bank of India, Axis Bank, ICICI Bank and HDFC Bank have taken the lead in funding green projects even as the Reserve Bank of India comes up with norms for lenders to disclose their actions on climate risk. RBI in an earlier report in 2022, had said that climate change would require "intensive capital mobilisation" for that India needs $17.77 trillion.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/lenders-push-to-stay-ahead-of-the-curve-in-climate-financing/articleshow/108120889.cms|title=Lenders push to stay ahead of the curve in climate financing|newspaper=The Economic Times|date=March 2024|last1=Sinha|first1=Shilpy}}</ref>

The RBI recommends that regulated entities rely upon the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD) framework, the most prominent climate disclosure framework globally, at least at the initial stage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/PublicationsView.aspx?id=21071#C2|title=Reserve Bank of India - Publications|website=rbi.org.in}}</ref>

India is home to 75 per cent of the world's wild tiger population. The big cats like lion, tiger, leopard, cheetah, snow leopard, jaguar and puma were on the brink of extinction. With hunting and encroachment, their numbers dropped to a mere 20. Efforts to save the lion started before Independence but it was in 1965 that the Indian Forest Service stepped in to set up a conservation programme. Researchers believe a combination of factors is driving the unprecedented migration in tigers. Rising temperatures due to climate change are making the lower foothills less hospitable.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://weather.com/en-IN/india/biodiversity/news/2024-02-07-climate-change-habitat-loss-push-bengal-tigers-to-higher|title=Tigers on the Move: Climate Change, Habitat Loss Push India's Big Cats to Higher Altitudes &#124; Weather.com|website=The Weather Channel}}</ref>

== See also ==

{{Portal|India|Business and economics}}
* [[Economic Advisory Council]]
* [[Economic development in India]]
* [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP]]
* [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP per capita]]
* [[Make in India]], a government programme to encourage manufacturing in India
* [[Mumbai Consensus]]
* [[List of industrial cities in India]]
* [[List of megaprojects in India]]
* [[NITI Aayog]] is a state-led public think tank economic policy agency of the Government of India
* [[Public Sector Undertakings]] are state-owned entities of India
* [[Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956|The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956]] were industrial policies adopted by the Government of India
* [[Taxation in medieval India|Medieval India Taxation]]
* [[Political funding in India]]
* [[Economically Weaker Section]]

'''Events:'''
* [[Great Recession]]
* [[Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic]]
* [[World oil market chronology from 2003]]
* [[2016 Indian banknote demonetisation|Demonetization]]
* [[Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in India]]

'''Lists:'''
* [[List of companies of India]]
* [[List of largest companies in India]]
* [[List of the largest trading partners of India]]
* [[List of megaprojects in India]]
* [[Trade unions in India]]
* [[Natural resources of India]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
;Books
* {{cite book|title=Indian Economy|last1=Datt|first1=Ruddar|last2=Sundharam|first2=K.P.M.|year=2009|publisher=[[S. Chand Group]]|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-219-0298-4|page=976}}
* {{cite book|last1=Drèze|first1=John|author-link1=Jean Drèze|last2=Sen|first2=Amartya|author-link2=Amartya Sen|title=India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-19-564082-3|page=292}}
* {{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Dharma|title=The Cambridge Economic History of India, Volume II : c. 1757–2003|publisher=Orient Longman|location=New Delhi|year=2005|isbn=978-81-250-2710-2|page=1115}}
* {{cite book|author=Nehru, Jawaharlal|author-link=Jawaharlal Nehru|title=The Discovery of India|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1946|isbn=0-14-303103-1|title-link=The Discovery of India}}
* {{cite book|last=Panagariya|first=Arvind|author-link=Arvind Panagariya|title=India: The Emerging Giant|url=https://archive.org/details/indiaemerginggia00pana_483|url-access=limited|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-19-531503-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/indiaemerginggia00pana_483/page/n544 514]}}
* {{cite book|title=The Cambridge Economic History of India, Volume I : c. 1200&nbsp;– c. 1750|last1=Raychaudhuri|first1=Tapan|last2=Habib|first2=Irfan|author-link2=Irfan Habib|year=2004|publisher=[[Orient Longman]]|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-250-2709-6|page=543}}
* {{cite book|last=Roy|first=Tirthankar|title=The Economic History of India 1857–1947|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-19-568430-8|page=385}}
* {{cite book|last=Alamgir|first=Jalal|title=India's Open-Economy Policy|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-415-77684-4|title-link=India's Open-Economy Policy}}
* {{cite book|last=Bharadwaj|first=Krishna|year=1991|chapter=Regional differentiation in India|editor=Sathyamurthy, T.V|title=Industry & agriculture in India since independence|pages=189–199|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-564394-1}}
* Malone, David M., C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan, eds. ''The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy'' (2015) [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Indian-Foreign-Policy/dp/0198799063/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915060518/https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Indian-Foreign-Policy/dp/0198799063 |date=15 September 2021 }} pp 609–649.

;Papers and reports
* Bahl, R., Heredia-Ortiz, E., Martinez-Vazquez, J., & Rider, M. (2005). ''[https://ideas.repec.org/p/ays/ispwps/paper05141.html India: Fiscal Condition of the States, International Experience, and Options for Reform: Volume 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201221108/https://ideas.repec.org/p/ays/ispwps/paper05141.html |date=1 December 2016 }}'' (No. paper05141). International Center for Public Policy, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University.
* {{cite web|url=http://harrisschool.uchicago.edu/News/press-releases/IPP%20Economic%20Reform%20in%20India.pdf|publisher=University of Chicago|page=32|title=Economic reforms in India: Task force report|ref={{harvid|Task Force Report|2006}}|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207125338/http://harrisschool.uchicago.edu/News/press-releases/IPP%20Economic%20Reform%20in%20India.pdf|archive-date=7 February 2009}}
* {{cite web|url=http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2009-10/chapt2010/chapter.zip|title=Economic Survey 2009–10|publisher=Ministry of Finance, Government of India|page=294|ref={{harvid|Economic Survey|2010}}|access-date=22 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205025143/http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2009-10/chapt2010/chapter.zip|archive-date=5 December 2010|url-status=dead}}

;Articles
* {{cite web|title=Growth of India|url=http://www.janderie.live.haverford.edu/wiki/index.php?title=India_growth|access-date=10 August 2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615234241/http://www.janderie.live.haverford.edu/wiki/index.php?title=India_growth|archive-date=15 June 2013}}
* {{cite web|title=Milton Friedman on the Nehru/Mahalanobis Plan|url=http://www.indiapolicy.org/debate/Notes/fried_opinion.html|access-date=16 July 2005|archive-date=31 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331032602/http://indiapolicy.org/debate/Notes/fried_opinion.html|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|title=Infrastructure in India: Requirements and favourable climate for foreign investment|url=http://www.asiatradehub.com/india/intro.asp|access-date=14 August 2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050713073856/http://www.asiatradehub.com/india/intro.asp|archive-date=13 July 2005}}
* {{Cite journal|author1=Bernardi, Luigi|author2=Fraschini, Angela|title=Tax System And Tax Reforms in India|year=2005|version=Working paper n. 51|url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/uca/ucapdv/45.html|journal=Polis Working Papers|access-date=14 November 2015|archive-date=29 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629132746/https://ideas.repec.org/p/uca/ucapdv/45.html|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite report|author=Centre for Media Studies|title=India Corruption Study 2005: To Improve Governance Volume&nbsp;– I: Key Highlights|work=Transparenty International India|publisher=Transparency International India|year=2005|url=http://www.prajanet.org/newsroom/internal/tii/ICS2k5_Vol1.pdf|access-date=21 June 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326211644/http://www.prajanet.org/newsroom/internal/tii/ICS2k5_Vol1.pdf|archive-date=26 March 2009|via=PrajaNet}}
* {{cite web|author=Ghosh, Jayati|title=Bank Nationalisation: The Record|work=Macroscan|url=http://www.macroscan.com/cur/jul05/cur210705Bank_Nationalisation.htm|access-date=5 August 2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051023070928/http://www.macroscan.com/cur/jul05/cur210705Bank_Nationalisation.htm|archive-date=23 October 2005}}
* {{Cite conference|author1=Gordon, Jim|author2=Gupta, Poonam|title=Understanding India's Services Revolution|book-title=A Tale of Two Giants: India's and China's Experience with Reform and Growth|year=2003|url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/apd/seminars/2003/newdelhi/gordon.pdf|access-date=21 June 2009|archive-date=26 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326211643/http://www.imf.org/external/np/apd/seminars/2003/newdelhi/gordon.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|author=Panagariya, Arvind|title=India in the 1980s and 1990s: A Triumph of Reforms|journal=International Trade|year=2004|url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/wpa/wuwpit/0403005.html|access-date=14 November 2015|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304133045/https://ideas.repec.org/p/wpa/wuwpit/0403005.html|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|author1=Sachs, D. Jeffrey|author2=Bajpai, Nirupam|author3=Ramiah, Ananthi|title=Understanding Regional Economic Growth in India|website=Center for International Development at Harvard University|year=2002|version=Working paper 88|url=http://www2.cid.harvard.edu/cidwp/088.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701042206/http://www.ksg.harvard.edu/CID/cidwp/088.pdf|archive-date=1 July 2007}}
* {{cite web|author=Kurian, N.J.|title=Regional disparities in india|url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/vision2025/regdsprty.doc|access-date=6 August 2005|archive-date=5 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105050844/http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/vision2025/regdsprty.doc|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/3347336|title=India Inc. and its Moral Discontent|first=Ravinder|last=Kaur|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|year=2012|access-date=10 May 2015|archive-date=27 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327062412/https://www.academia.edu/3347336|url-status=live}}
* {{cite web|url=http://static-curis.ku.dk/portal/files/137464936/Good_Times_Brand_Modi_TVNM.pdf|title=Good Times, Brought to you by Brand Modi|first=Ravinder|last=Kaur|year=2015|access-date=20 February 2018|archive-date=20 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180220212720/http://static-curis.ku.dk/portal/files/137464936/Good_Times_Brand_Modi_TVNM.pdf|url-status=live}}
* {{citation|date=December 2004|title=Country Profile: India|edition=5th|work=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]|publisher=[[Library of Congress]] [[Federal Research Division]]|url=https://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927131058/https://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf|archive-date=27 September 2011|access-date=30 September 2011|url-status=dead|ref={{sfnRef|Library of Congress|2004}}}}

;News
* {{cite news|title=India, the Goliath, Falls with a Thud|author=Ravi S Jha|url=http://www.khaleejtimes.com/kt-article-display-1.asp?section=business&xfile=data/business/2008/october/business_october347.xml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509214520/http://www.khaleejtimes.com/kt-article-display-1.asp?section=business&xfile=data%2Fbusiness%2F2008%2Foctober%2Fbusiness_october347.xml|archive-date=9 May 2013}}
* {{cite news|title=India says 21 of 29 states to launch new tax|date=25 March 2005|newspaper=Daily Times|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_25-3-2005_pg5_13|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116065316/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_25-3-2005_pg5_13|archive-date=16 January 2009}}
* {{cite news|title=Economic structure|date=6 October 2003|newspaper=The Economist|url=http://www.economist.com/countries/India/profile.cfm?folder=Profile%2DEconomic%20Structure|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080406030423/http://www.economist.com/countries/india/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Economic%20Structure|archive-date=6 April 2008}}a
* {{cite web|title=Regional stock exchanges&nbsp;– Bulldozed by the Big Two|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/businessline/2001/07/20/stories/0420.62&nbsp;billion.htm|access-date=10 August 2005}}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite news|url=http://news.indiamart.com/story/finmin-considers-three-single-brand-retail-fdi-proposals-169557.html|title=FinMin considers three single-brand retail FDI proposals|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021202322/http://news.indiamart.com/story/finmin-considers-three-single-brand-retail-fdi-proposals-169557.html|archive-date=21 October 2012}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}

* [http://finmin.nic.in/ Ministry of Finance]
* [https://commerce.gov.in/ Ministry of Commerce and Industry]
* [http://www.mospi.gov.in/ Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation]
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/ India profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318202107/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india |date=18 March 2021 }} at the [[CIA World Factbook]]
* [http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/india India profile] at [[The World Bank]]
* [http://www.oecd.org/india/ India – OECD]

{{Economy of India}}
{{Navboxes
| list1 =
{{Asia in topic|Economy of}}
{{Indian currency}}
{{Life in India}}
{{Social issues in India}}
{{SAFTA}}
{{World Trade Organization}}
}}
{{Portal bar|India|Economics|Business and economics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Economy of India| ]]
[[Category:World Trade Organization member economies|India]]

Seethamma Andalu Ramayya Sitralu

2026-03-03T17:55:01Z

Sherrie7069: started new pg!

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Seethamma Andalu Ramayya Sitralu
| image = Seethamma_Andalu_Ramayya_Sitralu.jpg
| writer = Srinivas Gavireddy
| starring = [[Raj Tarun]] [[Arthana Binu|Arthana]] [[Ranadhir Reddy|Ranadheer]]
| caption =
| director = Srinivas Gavireddy
| cinematography = Vishwa Devabattula
| producer = S Sailendra Babu Sridhar Reddy Harish Duggishetti
| editing = [[Karthika Srinivas]]
| country = [[India]]
| studio =
| distributor =
| released = {{film date|df=y|2016|01|29}}<ref>[https://www.indiaglitz.com/seethamma-andalu-ramayya-sitralu-release-date-telugu-news-149821.html Seethamma Andalu Ramayya Sitralu release date]</ref>
| runtime = 133 min
| language = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| music = [[Gopi Sunder]]
| budget =
| gross =
}}
'''''Seethamma Andalu Ramayya Sitralu''''' is a 2016 Indian [[Telugu language|Telugu]] [[romantic comedy]] film written and directed by Gavireddy Srinivas Reddy. Produced by S Sailendra Babu, Sridhar Reddy, Harish Duggishetti . It features [[Raj Tarun]] and [[Arthana Binu|Arthana]]<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/Debutante-Arthana-in-a-comfort-zone/article13995947.ece|title=Debutante Arthana in a comfort zone|journal=Metroplus|accessdate=25 May 2021|date=12 January 2016|first=Y. Sunita|last=Chowdhary|publisher=[[The Hindu]]|language=en}}</ref> in the lead roles and Ranadheer and Raja Ravindra in the supporting roles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/regional/raj-tarun-made-seethamma-andalua-memorable-arthana-binu/|title=Raj Tarun made 'Seethamma Andalua' memorable: Arthana Binu|date=27 January 2016}}</ref> The film was released worldwide on 29 January 2016.<ref>[http://www.123telugu.com/reviews/seethamma-andalu-ramayya-sitralu-telugu-movie-review.html Seethamma Andalu Ramayya Sitralu – Routine Village Drama]</ref>

==Plot==
Sri Ram ([[Raj Tarun]]) starts loving Seetha mahalakshmi ([[Arthana Binu|Arthana]]) from young age. Sri Ram remains in the village, Seetha goes to the city for higher education and keeps coming to the village for holidays. Sri Ram and Seetha become good friends after a couple of positive incidents.

Sri Ram tries to impress her in many ways and tries to express his love throughout the first half of the movie. Seetha rejects his proposal when she gets to know that Ram loves her. The Second half is more of how Ram wins her love and impresses Seetha's Family with his determination and overcoming some challenges.

==Cast==
{{Colbegin}}
* [[Raj Tarun]] as Sri Ram
* [[Arthana Binu|Arthana]] as Seetha Mahalakshmi
* [[Ranadhir Reddy|Ranadheer Reddy]] as Seetha's brother
* [[N. Shankar]] as Sri Ram's father
* [[Raja Ravindra]] as Seetha's father
* [[Aadarsh Balakrishna]] as Seetha's suitor
* [[Shakalaka Shankar]] as Sri Ram's friend
* Surekha Vani as Sri Ram's mother
* [[Sri Lakshmi (actress)|Sri Lakshmi]] as Sri Ram's grandmother
* [[Ananth Babu|Ananth]] as Temple priest
* Ratnasagar as Seetha's grandmother
* Sangeetha Reddy as Sruthi
* Mithuna Waliya as Lavanya
* [[Rajitha]] as Ranadheer's wife
* [[Hema (actress)|Hema]]
* Joginaidu
{{Colend}}

==Soundtrack==
The Song Paravasame was a re-used tune by [[Gopi Sunder]]'' From the Malayalam film [[10:30 am Local Call]] composed by himself and sung by [[Sachin Warrier]].''
{{Infobox album
| name = Seethamma Andalu Ramayya Sitralu
| type = soundtrack
| longtype = To Seethamma Andalu Ramayya Sitralu
| artist = [[Gopi Sunder]]
| cover =
| released = 10 January 2016
| recorded = 2015
| venue =
| studio =
| genre = [[Film soundtrack|Feature film soundtrack]]
| length = 21
| language = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| label = [[Aditya Music]]
| producer = [[S Sailendra Babu]], [[Sridhar Reddy]], [[Harish Duggishetti]]
}}

{{Track listing
| collapsed =
| headline = Tracklist
| extra_column = Artist(s)
| total_length = 21:20
| title1 = Seethamalakshmi
| lyrics1 = [[Krishna Chaitanya (lyricist)|Krishna Chaitanya]]
| extra1 = [[Yazin Nizar]]
| length1 = 03:55
| title2 = Paravasame
| lyrics2 = [[Ramajogayya Sastry]]
| extra2 = [[Sachin Warrier]], [[Divya S. Menon]]
| length2 = 03:55
| title3 = Tarajuvvaki
| lyrics3 = Bhaskara Bhatla
| extra3 = [[Suchith Suresan]]
| length3 = 04:03
| title4 = Nuvvena
| lyrics4 = [[Vanamali]]
| extra4 = [[Haricharan]]
| length4 = 02:36
| title5 = Okko Nakshatram
| lyrics5 = [[Sri Mani]]
| extra5 = [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], [[Divya S. Menon]]
| length5 = 03:34
| title6 = Manishi
| lyrics6 = [[Suddala Ashok Teja]]
| extra6 = [[Ranjith (singer)|Ranjith]]
| length6 = 02:39
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:2016 Telugu-language films]]
[[Category:2016 films]]
[[Category:Indian romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:2016 romantic comedy films]]

Kai Vandha Kalai

2026-03-03T04:36:03Z

Sherrie7069: made a details

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Kai Vandha Kalai
| image = Kai Vandha Kalai.jpg
| caption = DVD cover
| director = [[Pandiarajan]]
| writer = Pandiarajan
| producer = [[G. Venkateswaran]]
| starring = [[Prithvi Rajan]] Shruthi [[Pandiarajan]] [[Manivannan]]
| music = [[Dhina]]
| studio = [[GV Films]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2006|06|15}}
| country = India
| language = Tamil
}}

'''''Kai Vandha Kalai''''' ({{Translation|Handcrafted Art}}) is a 2006 Indian [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language [[comedy film]] written and directed by [[Pandiarajan]]. The film stars his son [[Prithvi Rajan]], whereas Sruthi, [[Manivannan]], and the director himself play other important roles. The film, released on 15 June 2006, is a sequel to ''[[Aan Paavam]]'' (1985).<ref name=hindu>{{Cite news |last=Rangarajan |first=Malathi |date=9 June 2006 |title=A fairly enjoyable sequel -- Kai Vandha Kalai |work=[[The Hindu]] |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/a-fairly-enjoyable-sequel-kai-vandha-kalai/article3218418.ece |url-status=live |access-date=14 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623092503/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-fridayreview/a-fairly-enjoyable-sequel-kai-vandha-kalai/article3218418.ece |archive-date=23 June 2023}}</ref><ref name=ind>{{Cite web |date=13 June 2006 |title=Kai Vandha Kalai Review |url=https://www.indiaglitz.com/kai-vandha-kalai-review-tamil-movie-8114 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711215835/https://www.indiaglitz.com/kai-vandha-kalai-review-tamil-movie-8114 |archive-date=11 July 2022 |access-date=11 July 2022 |website=IndiaGlitz}}</ref>

== Plot ==
Kannan is in league with his father in duping the people in his village. He comes across Kausalya (Sruthi), a timid, schoolgoing girl and falls for her immediately. From his grandfather, he learns that Kausalya's mother is his father's sister and becomes even more determined to wed her. Kausalya begins to like him too but asks him to mend his ways before they can get married.

== Cast ==
{{cast listing|
* [[Prithvi Rajan|Prithvi]] as Kannan
* Sruthi as Kausalya
* [[Pandiarajan]] as "Potti" Ganesan
* [[Manivannan]] as Kannan's father
* [[Seetha (actress)|Seetha]] as Kausalya's mother
* [[Revathi]] as Mahalakshmi
* [[Rohini (actress)|Rohini]] as Emcee
* [[Malavika (actress)|Malavika]] in a guest appearance
* [[Pandiyan (actor)|Pandiyan]] as Kausalya's father
* [[Vinu Chakravarthy]] as Village Elder
* [[Janagaraj]] as Villager
* [[Senthil]] as "Potti" Ganesan's friend
* [[Vennira Aadai Moorthy]] as Villager
* [[G. Gnanasambandam]] as Villager
* [[Pandu (actor)|Pandu]] as Villager
* [[King Kong (actor)|King Kong]] as Office Assistant
* [[Nellai Siva]] as Villager
* [[Bava Lakshmanan]] as Villager
* [[Suruli Manohar]] as Villager
* [[Chelladurai]] as Villager
* [[Bonda Mani]] as Grieving grandson
* [[Kovai Senthil]] as Villager
* [[Balu Anand]] as Villager
* [[Siva Narayana Murthy]] as Inspector Soundarrajan
* [[Benjamin (actor)|Benjamin]] as Villager
* [[Bayilvan Ranganathan]] as Villager
* [[Thideer Kannaiah]] as Office Assistant
* Thadi Balaji as Villager
* [[Theni Kunjarammal]] as Office Assistant (uncredited)
}}

== Soundtrack ==
Music is composed by [[Dhina]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kaivantha Kalai (2006) |url=https://www.raaga.com/tamil/movie/kaivantha-kalai-songs-T0000807 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230818045813/https://www.raaga.com/tamil/movie/kaivantha-kalai-songs-T0000807 |archive-date=18 August 2023 |access-date=28 May 2019 |website=[[Raaga.com]]}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Song !! Singers !! Lyrics
|-
| "Suttipoove" || [[Karthik (singer)|Karthik]], [[Sadhana Sargam]] || rowspan=5|[[Vairamuthu]]
|-
| "Veluthukattungada" || [[Jassie Gift]]
|-
| "Yakka Yakka" || Pallavarajan, [[Malathy Lakshman|Malathy]]
|-
| "Kadhal Inikuthappa" || [[Harish Raghavendra]]
|-
| "Thavalai Theme" || Prema Rajan
|}

== Reception ==
Malini Mannath of ''Chennai Online'' opined that "With scenes and situations a little different from the routine ones, 'Kai Vantha Kalai' is a fairly engaging and a neatly packaged wholesome family entertainer".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mannath |first=Malini |title=Kai Vantha Kalai |url=http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Moviereviews/2006/06kvk.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014120233/http://www.chennaionline.com/film/Moviereviews/2006/06kvk.asp |archive-date=14 October 2006 |access-date=14 March 2022 |website=Chennai Online}}</ref> On the contrary, S. Sudha of ''[[Rediff.com]]'' wrote that "In short, far from a comeback or launch pad, this is just a big bore".<ref>{{Cite web |last=S. Sudha |date=12 June 2006 |title=Kai Vanda Kalai: Boring |url=https://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/jun/12kai.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823070721/https://www.rediff.com/movies/2006/jun/12kai.htm |archive-date=23 August 2022 |access-date=23 August 2022 |website=[[Rediff.com]]}}</ref> ''The Hindu'' wrote "Compared to the films of today, `Kai ... ' is so decently made that at points you feel Pandiarajan is caught in a time warp. But that's also where the success of the maker lies; you wonder why he was in hibernation for so many years".<ref name=hindu /> ''Indiaglitz'' wrote "Supposedly a sequel to his yesteryear hit Aan Pavam, Pandiarajan has thrown out a simple and a straight forward film without many twists and turns that's worth a watch. Amidst all action-packed films of the day, Kai Vandhai Kalai is a movie with a simple narration and little characters".<ref name=ind /> A critic from ''Cine South'' wrote that "Pandiarajan has proved again that we are old hands at making a comedy of the screenplay".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://cinesouth.com/scopes/reviews/new/kaivandakalai.shtml | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060826050120/http://cinesouth.com/scopes/reviews/new/kaivandakalai.shtml | archive-date=26 August 2006 | title=Tamil Cinema Review - Kai Vandha Kalai }}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{IMDb title}}

{{Pandiarajan}}

[[Category:2006 Tamil-language films]]
[[Category:2006 Indian films]]
[[Category:2006 comedy films]]
[[Category:2006 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Pandiarajan]]
[[Category:Indian comedy films]]
[[Category:Indian sequel films]]
[[Category:Tamil-language Indian films]]

Baroda Agency

2026-02-28T15:30:20Z

Sherrie7069: Redirect page

#REDIRECT [[Baroda and Gujarat States Agency]]

{{R with possibilities}}

Delhi Public School, Patna

2026-02-22T16:19:03Z

Sherrie7069: page edit

{{Short description|Public co-educational school in Bihar, India}}
{{COI|date=September 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Delhi Public School, Patna
| image = Dpspatna.jpg
| caption = DPS, Patna (senior wing) in Danapur
| motto = "Service before self"
| principal = Mr. B. Vinod
| coordinates = {{coord|25|37|45|N|85|01|01|E|display=inline,title|type:edu_region:IN-BR}}
| address = Chandmari, [[Danapur]]
| city = [[Patna]]
| state = [[Bihar]]
| type = [[Public school (privately funded)|Public]], co-educational
| established = 1998
| classes = Nursery–XII
| colours = White and green
| website = [https://www.dpspatna.com/ dpspatna.com]
| affiliation = [[Central Board of Secondary Education|CBSE]]
}}

'''Delhi Public School, Patna''' or '''DPS Patna''' is a school in [[Patna]], Bihar, India. It was established in the year 1998 in collaboration with [[Delhi Public School Society|DPS Society]] and the Takshila Education Society. DPS, Patna is affiliated with the [[Central Board of Secondary Education]], New Delhi. The motto of the school is "Service Before Self." DPS Patna features in the top 10 CBSE Schools of Patna.

==Location==

The school has 2 campuses in the city, the junior wing in Priyadarshi Nagar, Bailey Road, [[Patna]], and the senior wing in Chandmari Village, [[Danapur Cantonment]]. The path to the school (Senior Wing) was recently closed due to protests from local farmers. It is selectively open for school Buses only.

==Cultural events organised by School ==

The school hosts many cultural events under another organization called "Spic Macay". These include the National School Intensive in December 2010,<ref>{{cite news | url = http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-12-29/patna/28228297_1_classical-music-gharana-music-today | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120707171042/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-12-29/patna/28228297_1_classical-music-gharana-music-today | url-status = dead | archive-date = 7 July 2012 | title = National School Intensive |date = 29 December 2010 | work = [[The Times of India]] | access-date = 7 April 2012 }}</ref> and "Ninad" in October 2011.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-10-23/patna/30312796_1_tabla-classical-artistes | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120707034112/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-10-23/patna/30312796_1_tabla-classical-artistes | url-status = dead | archive-date = 7 July 2012 | title = Ninad | date = 23 October 2011 | work = [[The Times of India]] | access-date = 7 April 2012 }}</ref> The School also conducted seminars with well-known experts under the name "Beyond Boundaries" during the time of COVID-19 lockdown. It has been uploaded on YouTube.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Youtube Channel for Beyond Boundaries|via=YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCSCQval2fcIfKEY1KGxuLpg}}</ref>

== Important events at school ==
'''Source:'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate Chnage |url=https://www.dpspatna.com/images/Almanac-Patna.pdf |publisher=DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL}}</ref>

=== Interschool events ===
* Slam Dunk (Basketball Championship)
* Kick Off (Football Championship)
* Master Stroke (Chess Championship)
* Takshila Music and Dance Competition
* Top Spin (Table Tennis Championship)
* Takshila Hockey Championship
* Robofest (A championship in which children from different schools come and create robots)
* Take Off (Athletics Championship)
* CBSE Cluster

=== Intraschool Events ===
* Annual Athletic Meet ( For class IV-XII ) (Annual Sports Tournament)
* Get Set Go ( For class Nursery-X) (Annual Sports Tournament)
* Annual Activities ( For class Nursery-III )
* Bal Sangham ( For class Nursery-V ) (Takes place on the occasion of Children's Day)
* Khoj – An event for students of class V, in which they spend one night at school with their friends and teachers.
* Rural Immersion Programme – An event for students of class XI. The students are taken to Bhatkan, Siwan, Bihar where the school has a living accommodation. The students spend one week with their friends and teachers there.

The school conducted "Open Mic" contest which was based on oratory skills. Children from DPS Ludhiana,DPS Coimbatore,DPS Pune participated along with students of DPS Patna.

==Games and sports==
Delhi Public School has many provisions for sports and games. It has a half Olympic-size swimming pool, a badminton arena, a lawn tennis court, a football pitch, a hockey ground, a table tennis room, and a basketball court. The School Has various sports clubs such as Football, Basketball etc. Although the school has so many arrangements for almost all kinds of sports, it lacks resources for one of the most evergreen sports which is [[cricket]].

==Online classes during pandemic==
The school conducted online classes using its student portal and [[Google Meet]] during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. The school held admission tests and took various direct admission on the basis of [[Board Examination]]. Thus, a healthy migration of students from various schools was observed. The school conducted co-curricular periods like Health and Physical Education(H&PE) and Student Leadership and Life Skills program (SL&LSP), Music and Resource Center classes online too. The school conducted Pre-Midterm, Midterm as well as the Annual exams too using its own testing software and it was MCQ based. Physical classes were resumed during later half of 2021.

==Notable alumni==

* [[Ishan Kishan]]-Indian cricketer

== Board exam results ==
=== Class 10 ===
'''Sources:'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=RESULT HIGHLIGHTS AISSE : MARCH 2020 [CLASS X] SCHOOL TOPPERS |url=https://www.dpspatna.com/upload/pdf/Annexure-18J%20-Class%20X-Res-Highlights-2019-2020_Patna.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=RESULT HIGHLIGHTS AISSE : 2018-19 [CLASS X] SCHOOL TOPPERS |url=https://www.dpspatna.com/upload/pdf/Class%20X%20Result%20Highlights%20%202019%20(Web%20Version)-Patna.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=RESULT HIGHLIGHTS AISSE : 2017-18 [CLASS X] SCHOOL TOPPERS |url=https://www.dpspatna.com/upload/pdf/Class%20X%20Result%20Highlights%20%202018%20(Web%20Version)-%20Patna.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Class X – 2020–21|url=https://www.dpspatna.com/upload/pdf/Annexure-18J%20-Class%20X%20Res%20Highlights-%202020-2021-PATNA.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803141323/https://www.dpspatna.com/upload/pdf/Annexure-18J%20-Class%20X%20Res%20Highlights-%202020-2021-PATNA.pdf |archive-date=3 August 2021 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Session
!Topper Percentile
!Aggregate Mean
(Including 6th subject)
!English Mean
!Hindi Mean
!Science Mean
!Social Science Mean
!Maths Mean
!Sanskrit Mean
!Computer Application/FIT Mean
|-
|2017–18
|98
|84.6
|86.6
|84.6
|81.8
|86.9
|80.2
|91.5
|92.1
|-
|2018–19
|97.5
|83.8
|86.2
|83.5
|82.3
|84.5
|81.5
|91.5
|90.3
|-
|2019–20
|98
|88.1
|91.9
|87.2
|81.4
|86.9
|84.1
|92.2
|95.8
|-
|2020–21
|98.8
|87.4
|90.4
|86.9
|81.4
|87.3
|84.4
|92.1
|93.4
|}

=== Class 12 ===
'''Sources:'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=RESULT HIGHLIGHTS AISSCE : MARCH 2020 [CLASS XII] |url=https://www.dpspatna.com/page.php?PAGE=78}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=RESULT HIGHLIGHTS AISSCE : 2018-19 [CLASS XII] |url=https://www.dpspatna.com/upload/pdf/Class%20XII%20Result%20Highlights%20%202019%20(Web%20Version)_Patna.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=RESULT HIGHLIGHTS AISSCE : 2017-18 [CLASS XII] |url=https://www.dpspatna.com/upload/attach/Class%20XII%20Result%20Highlights%20%202018_Patna.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=2020–21 XII Result|url=https://www.dpspatna.com/upload/pdf/Annexure-18i%20-Class%20XII%20Res%20Highlights%202020-21-patna.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801050308/https://www.dpspatna.com/upload/pdf/Annexure-18i%20-Class%20XII%20Res%20Highlights%202020-21-patna.pdf |archive-date=1 August 2021 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
(Note:The Mean has been mentioned in the table, below subjects. Please don't take it as individual marks obtained by students)
!Session
!Science Stream Topper Percentile
!Commerce Stream Topper Percentile
!Humanities Stream Topper Percentile
!School Average
!English
!Physics
!Chemistry
!Mathematics
!Biology
!Economics
!Informatics Practices
!Computer Science
!ENTREPRENEURSHIP
−
|-
|2017–18
|98.2
|95.6
|95.4
|86.3
|90.7
|80.8
|87.6
|83.3
|83.4
|89.2
|88.6
|82.7
|93.4
|-
|2018–19
|96.8
|97.4
|96.6
|84.5
|87
|80.1
|84.8
|80.6
|89.4
|84.6
|89.6
|83.4
|84.8
|-
|2019–20
|97.2
|96.6
|96.8
|88.1
|88.9
|88.1
|85.7
|86.7
|90.9
|87.9
|91
|91.2
|92.8
|-
|2020–21
|97.6
|98.2
|97.0
|89.8
|89.5
|90.5
|90.9
|89.8
|92.0
|89.4
|91
|91.3
|91.2
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Continued from previous table
!Session
!Accountacy
!Business Studies
!History
!Political Science
!Sociology
!Psychology
!Legal Studies
|-
|2017–18
|75.2
|93
|87.9
|84.8
|84.1
|87.4
|86.8
|-
|2018–19
|75
|91.3
|88.6
|91.7
|92.7
|77.1
|54
|-
|2019–20
|82.5
|89.7
|89.3
|87.1
|90.2
|87.4
|83.6
|-
|2020–21
|84.8
|89.9
|90.8
|89.5
|90.3
|91.4
|85.7
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DPS Society aegis}}
{{Schools in Patna}}

[[Category:1998 establishments in Bihar]]
[[Category:Delhi Public School Society]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1998]]
[[Category:Schools in Patna]]

Sudhauwala

2026-02-19T22:17:29Z

Sherrie7069: Redirect page

#REDIRECT [[Dehradun district]]
{{R from merge}}{{R from alternative transliteration}}

Rishi Rich

2026-02-18T23:49:12Z

Sherrie7069:

{{Short description|British record producer}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = {{ubl|Rishpal Rekhi|ਰਿਸ਼ਪਾਲ ਰੈਖੀ}}
| background = non_performing_personnel
| image = Rishi Rich at The Asian Awards.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Rich in 2015
| birth_name = Rishpal Singh Rekhi
| alias = {{hlist|Rishi Rekhi|The Rishi Rich Project}}
| birth_place = [[Croydon]], London, England
| genre = {{hlist||[[Bhangra (music)|Bhangra]]|[[Music of Punjab|Punjabi]]|[[filmi]]|[[Hindi pop]]|[[alternative hip-hop]]|[[trip hop]]|[[UK garage]]|[[Contemporary R&B|R&B]]}}
| years_active = 1992–present
| label = {{hlist|Moviebox Records|Rishi Rich Productions Ltd. (RRP)|[[2Point9 Records]]}}
| website = {{URL|www.rishirich.com}}
}}
'''Rishpal Singh Rekhi''' ([[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]: ਰਿਸ਼ਪਾਲ ਸਿੰਘ ਰੈਖੀ) better known by his stage name '''Rishi Rich''', is a [[British-Indian]] music producer based in London. He began his career in the [[Asian Underground]] scene and later became internationally known for his [[Bhangra (music)|bhangra]] tracks, his [[Hindi]] [[remix]]es, and as a pioneer of [[Asian Underground|Asian-R&B fusion music]].

Through the Rishi Rich Project, he was responsible for launching [[British Asian]] talents who would later gain mainstream success, such as [[Jay Sean]], [[Juggy D]], [[Veronica Mehta]], and [[Mumzy Stranger]]. In addition, Rich launched the singing career of Canadian artist, Jasmine K Kara, as the two collaborated in 2022 to release "The Ishq (Rishi Rich Remix)".<ref>{{cite web |last1=Patel |first1=Akshay |title=Urban Star Interviews |url=https://www.sabrasradio.com/player/podcasts/urban-star-interviews-with-akshay/ |website=Sabras Radio |access-date=9 November 2022}}</ref> Jasmine K Kara has mentioned being a "huge fan" of the Rishi Rich Project's debut single, "Dance with You" (Nachna Tere Naal),<ref name="2005brlaunch">{{cite web|title=BRITISH ASIAN MUSIC AWARDS 2004 LAUNCHED|url=http://www.redhotcurry.com/entertainment/music/brama_launch.htm|access-date=24 August 2010|date=7 October 2004|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100210200827/http://www.redhotcurry.com/entertainment/music/brama_launch.htm|archive-date=10 February 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and refers to the experience of working with Rich as a "dream come true".<ref>{{cite web |title=The Ishq – Jasmine Kara & Sabrina Sapal – Remix by Rishi Rich |url=https://desivibe.com/2022/10/24/the-ishq-jasmine-kara-sabrina-sapal-remix-by-rishi-rich/ |website=DESIVIBE |access-date=9 November 2022}}</ref>

Rich has also released his own solo albums, ''Simply Rich'' in 2002 with Ishq Records and ''[[The Project (Rishi Rich album)|The Project]]'' in 2006 with [[2Point9 Records]] and his produced songs have appeared in a number of Bollywood films.{{Which|date=October 2025}} He runs Rishi Rich Productions and has contracts with a number of British Asian artists including [[H-Dhami]], Mumzy Stranger, Veronica Mehta, Tasha Tah and [[Abbas Hasan]].

==The Rishi Rich Project==
Rishi Rich worked in the UK with a number of [[South Asian people|Asian]] artists and co-produced a number of Asian music albums. In January 2003, he signed a management contract with 2Point9 Records. Soon after, he formed the Rishi Rich Project; the objective of which was to showcase up-and-coming talent. The Rishi Rich releases quickly became famous in the [[Asian Underground]] scene, being pioneers of [[contemporary R&B]]-[[Bhangra (music)|bhangra]] fusion. They subsequently found success in India and helped popularise Asian-R&B [[Fusion (music)|fusion]] sounds in both the Asian underground scene and in [[Indian pop]] music.<ref name=AsianID>{{YouTube|6ZG_y_UlrZg|Jay Sean- Interview part 1/3}}</ref>

"[[Dance with You (Nachna Tere Naal)]]", released on 8 September 2003, was the debut single by the Rishi Rich Project and was produced by Rich and featured Jay Sean (singing in English) and Juggy D (in [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]). It was an [[Asian Underground]] song with the music video set at a [[block party]] in a London neighbourhood. The song peaked at No. 12 on the [[UK Singles Chart]] and No. 2 on the [[Dutch Top 40]]. It also won "Best Single R&B" at the 2003 [[UK Asian Music Awards]].<ref name="2005brlaunch"/> It is considered Jay Sean's first successful single and was later included on his debut album ''[[Me Against Myself]]'' (2004), produced by Rishi Rich himself, as well as on Rich's album, ''Rishi Rich Project''. The song was also included on the soundtrack for the 2003 [[Bollywood]] film ''[[Boom (2003 film)|Boom]]''.<ref>{{IMDb name|id=1915047|name=Jay Sean}}</ref>

On 27 April 2007, Rich announced that he was parting with his record company 2Point9 Records,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/asiannetworkmusic/2007/04/new_project_for_rishi_rich.shtml|title=BBC - Asian Network Music - Blog|author=BBC|access-date=4 July 2015}}</ref> marking the end of the Rishi Rich Project. After their departures from the project, [[Jay Sean]] went on to become a successful international Asian artist (topping the US Hot 100 in 2009),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bluesandsoul.com/feature/509/jay_sean__on_top_of_the_world/|title=Jay Sean: On top of the world|author=Stephen Clark - Design|access-date=4 July 2015}}</ref> while [[Juggy D]] became one of the most successful British artists in the mainstream Indian market.<ref>{{cite web|title=Juggy D, Rishi Rich back together|author=Nikhil Taneja|work=[[Hindustan Times]]|date=9 December 2009|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/music/Juggy-D-Rishi-Rich-back-together/Article1-484685.aspx|access-date=15 December 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091215231435/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/music/Juggy-D-Rishi-Rich-back-together/Article1-484685.aspx|archive-date=15 December 2009|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

In 2015, Rich, Jay Sean and Juggy D reunited as the Rishi Rich Project and released the single "Freak".

==Solo career==
Rich released his first solo album ''Simply Rich'' fuses urban music and bhangra. The album was successful in the Asian pop charts, and resulted in a number of singles, including "Nahin Jeena" with vocals by Don D and Juggy D, and "Nahin Tere Jeha Hor Disda" with vocals by Pakistani [[Qawwali]] singer [[Javed Bashir]] (based on [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]'s "Kiven Mukhre Ton Nazran Hatawan") with the music video featuring cameo appearances by [[Bally Sagoo]], Juggy D, Jay Sean and [[Veronica Mehta]].

His second solo release, ''[[The Project (Rishi Rich album)|The Project]]'', in 2006 included the single "Push It Up (Aaja Kuriye)" featuring Juggy D and Jay Sean,<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qGM8fw5_g4 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/1qGM8fw5_g4 |archive-date=2021-12-13 |url-status=live|title=Rishi Rich Feat. Jay Sean & Juggy D - Push It Up (Aaja Kurie|date=25 September 2007|work=YouTube|access-date=4 July 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> peaking at No 1 on the [[BBC Asian Network]] Chart.

Rishi released his third album, ''The Lost Beats'', in 2014.

==Rishi Rich Productions==
In 2007, Rich started Rishi Rich Productions (RRP), a joint partnership with entertainment entrepreneur, [[Waleed Jahangir]].<ref>{{Cite web
|url = http://www.rishirichproductions.com/about.htm
|title = About RRP – Rishi Rich Productions
|work = rishirichproductions.com
|access-date = 24 August 2010
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://archive.today/20080311003255/http://www.rishirichproductions.com/about.htm
|archive-date = 11 March 2008
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref> The artists signed to the company are Rich himself,<ref name=rrp>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rishirichproductions.com/artists.aspx |title=Artists |work=rishirichproductions.com |access-date=24 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20090412214852/http://www.rishirichproductions.com/artists.aspx |archive-date=12 April 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[H-Dhami]],<ref name=rrp/> [[Mumzy]],<ref name=rrp/> [[Veronica Mehta]] (aka Veronica),<ref name=rrp/> Tasha Tah,<ref name=rrp/><ref>{{cite web|title=Tash Tah Interview with Besharam.co.uk|url=http://www.besharam.co.uk/tasha-tah-talks-music-life-bosoms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507214341/http://www.besharam.co.uk/tasha-tah-talks-music-life-bosoms/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-05-07}}</ref> [[Juggy D]],{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}} and [[Abbas Hasan]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}

Rich won "Best Producer" at the [[UK Asian Music Awards]] in 2003<ref name="2005brlaunch"/> and also in 2009 for producing [[H-Dhami]]'s debut album ''Sadke Java''.<ref name=2009AMA>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.desihits.com/news/view/uk-ama-award-winners-20090306
|title=2009 UK AMA Award Winners - on desihits.com
|work=desihits.com
|access-date=24 August 2010
|date=6 March 2009
}}</ref> At the 2009 event he also won a special "Commitment to the Scene" award.<ref name=2009AMA/>

==Filmography==
Rich expanded also into Indian film and many of his productions appeared in various Bollywood films:

*''[[Boom (2003 film)|Boom]]'' (2003): The track [[Eyes on You (Jay Sean song)|"Eyes on You"]] which was performed by [[Jay Sean]] was featured in the [[Bollywood]] film ''Boom''. The song reached the UK top 10 in 2004 and was featured on Jay Sean's debut album ''[[Me Against Myself]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bluesandsoul.com/feature/269/jay_sean_prince_charming/|title=JAY SEAN: PRINCE CHARMING|author=Stephen Clark - Design|access-date=4 July 2015}}</ref>
*''[[Hum Tum (film)|Hum Tum]]'' (2004): Rich produced a track U'n'I for the first ever release from the Yash Raj music label, which featured in the film.
*''[[Kyaa Kool Hai Hum]]'' (2005): The track "One Night", produced by Rich and sung by [[Jay Sean]], was taken from Jay Sean's album ''Me Against Myself'' and was included in the 2005 film ''Kyaa Kool Hai Hum''. However, the version on this soundtrack was entitled "Dil Mera (One Night)" and included vocals by [[Veronica Mehta|Veronica]] as well as Jay Sean.
*''[[Jackpot (2013 film)|Jackpot]]'' (2013): Rich produced the track "[[Kabhi Jo Baadal Barse]]" (Remix).
*''[[Love Yoou Soniye]]'' (2013): Composed and sang "Love Yoou Soniye", the title track for the film with [[Juggy D]]
*''[[Behen Hogi Teri]]'' (2017): He recreated the [[R.D. Burman]]'s song ''Jaanu'' which was sung by [[Raftaar (rapper)|Raftaar]].
*''[[Half Girlfriend (film)|Half Girlfriend]]'' (2017): Rich composed his first official Hindi song, "Mere Dil Mein", which has music notes astoundingly similar to the song U 'n' I.
*''[[Poster Boys (2017 film)|Poster Boys]]'' (2017): He composed "Kehende Menu" sung by [[Ikka Singh|Ikka]], [[Yash Narvekar]] and [[Sukriti Kakar]]
*''[[Mubarakan]]'' (2017): Rich composed the title track with Yash Anand. He also sang it with [[Badshah (rapper)|Badshah]] and Yash Anand
*''[[Namaste England]]'' (2018): Rich composed a song titled "Bhaare Bazaar" with Badshah. [[Vishal Dadlani]], [[Payal Dev]], B Praak and Badshah sang the song.
*''[[Gully Boy]]'' (2019): He composed "Doori", sung by [[Ranveer Singh]].
*''[[Bhangra Paa Le]]'' (2020): Along with [[JAM8]] and [[Yash Narvekar]] He composed "Ho Ja Rangeela Re" which is sung by Shashwat Singh and "Sun Sajna" which is sung by [[Navraj Hans]], [[Jonita Gandhi]], Yash Narvekar and Kiranee
*''[[Bad Boy Billionaires: India]]'' (2020) - [[Netflix]] documentary, composed the title track
*''[[Sandeep Aur Pinky Faraar]]'' (2020): He composed song for the film

==Personal life==
[[File:Manrina Rhode Rekhi and Rishi Rich at The Asian Awards.jpg|thumb|Rich (right), and wife, Manrina Rekhi, at [[The Asian Awards]] in 2015]]
In September 2011, he married Manrina Rhode, a dentist. They are now divorced as of 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.desi-box.com/media/bhangra/rishi-richs-a-list-wedding-of-the-year.html|title=Rishi Rich's A-List Wedding Of The Year! - Desi-Box.com - News, Music Videos, Interviews, Bollywood, Bhangra, Urban|work=Desi-Box.com - News, Music Videos, Interviews, Bollywood, Bhangra, Urban|access-date=4 July 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513102820/http://www.desi-box.com/media/bhangra/rishi-richs-a-list-wedding-of-the-year.html|archive-date=13 May 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

In February 2014, Rich signed to TRMG Teddy Riley Music group and moved to Atlanta in April 2014 to work alongside [[Teddy Riley]] after acquiring OnlyChild Records from Manchester-based producer, SP.

==Discography==

===Rishi Rich solo albums===
* ''Simply Rich'' (2002) (Ishq Records)
* ''[[The Project (Rishi Rich album)|The Project]]'' (2006) (2point9 Records)
* ''The Lost Beats'' (2014) (Musicbyrr)
* ''The Lost Beats Vol 2'' (2020) (Musicbyrr)

===Singles===
* "Nahin Tere Jeha Hor Disda" (2002), featuring Javeed Bashir
* "Nahin Jeena" (2002), featuring [[Juggy D]] and Don D
* "[[Dance with You (Nachna Tere Naal)]]" (2003), featuring [[Jay Sean]] and Juggy D [UK#12]
* "U 'n' I (Mere Dil Vich Hum Tum)" (2004), Rishi Rich featuring Juggy D and [[Veronica Mehta|Veronica]]
* "Push It Up (Aaja Kuriye)" (2006), featuring Jay Sean and Juggy D
* "Fade Away (Yaad Naal Jeena)" (2009), [[Navin Kundra]] featuring Rishi Rich and Jay Sean
* "Drain" (2014), featuring Ray J and Sahyba
* "Freak" (2015), featuring Jay Sean and Juggy D
* "Ik Tera Pyar" (2016), [[Master Saleem]] featuring Rishi Rich
* "Dil Kya Kare (Did I Love You?)" (2016), featuring Amrit Dasu
* "Zindagi" (2016), with [[H-Dhami]]
* "[[Diamond Jewel (song)|Diamond Jewel]]" (Rishi Rich Remix) (2016), featuring [[Mumzy Stranger]], Lyan Roze and [[Yash Narvekar]]
* "Maula" (2018), [[Farhan Saeed]] featuring Rishi Rich
* "Get Down" (2018), Juggy D featuring Rishi Rich and Ikka
* "Kanipatu" (2020), Rishi Rich and Yashraj
* "Nakhre" (2020), Jay Sean and Rishi Rich
* "The Ishq (Rishi Rich Remix)" (2022), Jasmine K Kara and Rishi Rich <ref>{{cite news |last1=Patel |first1=Akshay |title=Urban Star Interviews |url=https://www.sabrasradio.com/player/podcasts/urban-star-interviews-with-akshay/ |access-date=9 November 2022 |issue=Jasmine K Kara |publisher=Sabras Radio |date=October 29, 2022}}</ref>

===Compilations and remix albums===
* ''King of Hearts Queen of Hearts Vol. 1''
* ''King of Hearts Queen of Hearts Vol. 2''
* ''Love 2 Love 2000 – Chapter 6''
* ''Playback''
* ''Pure Garage – Chapter 1''
* ''Pure Garage – Chapter 2''
* ''Pure Garage – Chapter 3''
* ''Playback 2''
* ''Gift 2 U''
* ''Let the Music Play'' – "2005"
* ''Bombay Mix'' – CD 1

==Awards and nominations==
*2017: Nominated, [[Filmfare Award for Best Music Director]] for ''[[Half Girlfriend (film)|Half Girlfriend]]'' along with [[Mithoon]], [[Tanishk Bagchi]], [[Farhan Saeed]], [[Ami Mishra]] & [[Rahul Mishra]].
*2018: Won, Best Soundtrack at the [[UK Asian Film Festival]] for ''[[Boogie Man (2018 film)|Boogie Man]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.medianews4u.com/rishi-rich-bags-the-award-for-best-soundtrack-at-the-uk-asian-film-festival-2018-for-the-film-boogie-man/|title=Rishi Rich bags the award for Best Soundtrack at the UK Asian Film Festival 2018 for the film Boogie Man|date=April 2, 2018}}</ref>
*2025: Won, Special Award for Contribution to Music at the [https://asianachieversawards.com/asian-achievers-awards-2025-neerja-birla-rishi-rich-taj-foods/ Asian Achievers Awards]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=Entrepreneur |date=2025-09-29 |title=Neerja Birla, Music Producer Rishi Rich and Taj Foods win big at Asian Achievers Awards in London |url=https://www.entrepreneur.com/en-au/news-and-trends/neerja-birla-music-producer-rishi-rich-and-taj-foods-win/497674 |access-date=2025-12-30 |website=Entrepreneur |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[List of British Sikhs]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://www.rishirich.com/}}
* {{IMDb name|1961809}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rishi Rich}}
[[Category:Bhangra (music)]]
[[Category:English people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:English record producers]]
[[Category:English Sikhs]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Musicians from London]]
[[Category:People from Southall]]
[[Category:English people of Punjabi descent]]
[[Category:2Point9 Records artists]]
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:Desi musicians]]

Charles Baron Clarke

2026-02-18T08:45:10Z

Sherrie7069: entry

{{Short description|British botanist (1832–1906)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2012}}

{{Infobox scientist
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRS}}
| image = Charles Baron Clarke CdV.jpg
| caption = Carte-de-Visite at the Royal Society, probably at the time of becoming a Fellow in 1882.
| birth_date = 17 June 1832
| birth_place = [[Andover, Hampshire|Andover]], [[England]]
| death_date = 25 August 1906
| death_place = [[London]], England
| resting_place = [[Richmond Cemetery]]
| workplaces = [[Calcutta Botanical Garden]]
| alma_mater = [[Cambridge University]]
| author_abbrev_bot = C.B.Clarke
}}

'''Charles Baron Clarke''' (17 June 1832 – 25 August 1906) was a British [[botanist]]. He worked in as a civil servant in British India in the Bengal education department. He was also keenly interested in botany and held the position of superintendent of the [[Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden|Calcutta Botanical Gardens]] from 1869 to 1871. During this period he became a specialist on the [[Cyperaceae]] and based on their distributions developed an influential phytogeographical classification of British India.

== Life and work ==
Clarke was born at [[Andover, Hampshire|Andover]], the eldest son of Turner Poulter Clarke [[Justice of the peace|JP]] and Elizabeth née Parker. He was introduced into botanical tastes by his paternal grandmother Elizabeth Baron who was the sister of a founder of the Agricultural Society of Saffron Walden. He was educated at [[King's College School]], [[London]], and at [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity]] and [[Queens' College, Cambridge|Queens']] Colleges, [[Cambridge]]. He took a special interest in economics and was part of a group that included [[Henry Fawcett]], [[Leslie Stephen]], and [[John Rigby (politician)|John Rigby]]. He took an interest in climbing and travel and together with Leslie Stephen climbed [[Pillar (Lake District)]] and in the [[Swiss Alps]]. He was bracketed third wrangler in 1856. He began the study of law at [[Lincoln's Inn]] in 1856 and was called to the bar in 1860.<ref>{{cite Men-at-the-Bar|name=Clarke, Charles Baron|page=87}}</ref>

=== India ===
[[File:Clarke India 1898.jpg|left|thumb|Clarke's 1898 phytogeographical classification based on the Cyperaceae (1) West Himalaya (2) India Deserta (3) Malabaria (4) Ceylon (5) Coromandelia (6) Gangetic Plain (7) East Himalaya (8) Assam (9) Ava (10) Pegu (11) Malay Peninsula]]
Clarke lectured in mathematics at [[Presidency University, Kolkata|Presidency College]], [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], from 1857 to 1865. Clarke joined the uncovenanted civil service in 1865 and became Inspector of Schools in [[East Bengal|Eastern Bengal]] and later of [[India]], and superintendent of the [[Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden|Calcutta Botanical Garden]] from 1869 to 1871 in the place of [[Thomas Anderson (botanist)|Thomas Anderson (1832–1870)]]. He travelled widely and by 1877, his botanical collections made for Kew included about 25000 specimens of nearly 5000 species. In 1879 he was put on special duty which included four years at Kew to assist Sir [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] with work on the Flora of British India. He became director of public instruction in Bengal in 1884 and was transferred to Shillong (then in Assam) the next year. He utilized this period to explore the northeast of India.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clarke |first=Charles Baron |date=1889 |title=On the Plants of Kohima and Muneypore. |url=https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.1889.tb00793.x |journal=Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Botany |language=en |volume=25 |issue=165-169 |pages=1–107 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1889.tb00793.x|url-access=subscription }}</ref> He retired from the [[Indian Civil Service]] in 1887 and lived near Kew along with his brother Poulter Clarke so that he could continue to work as a volunteer at the [[Kew Gardens|Royal Botanic Gardens Kew]] for the next nineteen years, right until his death.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vines |first=S. H. |date=1906 |title=Charles Baron Clarke, F.R.S. |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/074495a0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=74 |issue=1924 |pages=495–495 |doi=10.1038/074495a0 |issn=0028-0836}}</ref> He also took an interest in music,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Clark, C.B. |year=1874 |title=Bengali Music |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_calcutta-review_1874_58_116/page/243/mode/1up |journal=Calcutta Review |volume=58 |issue=116 |pages=243–266}}</ref> mathematics, ethnography, geology and economics.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |author=Boulger |first=George Simonds |title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1912 |chapter=Clarke, Charles Baron (1832–1906) |doi=10.1093/odnb/9780192683120.013.32425}}</ref>[[File:Richmond Cemetery, grave of Charles Baron Clarke.jpg|thumb|Richmond Cemetery]]
Clarke was president of the [[Linnean Society]] from 1894 to 1896, and was elected a fellow of the [[Royal Society]] in 1882. He died from internal inflammation caused by excessive bicycling and is buried in [[Richmond Cemetery]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite book | last=Burkhardt | first=Lotte | title=Eine Enzyklopädie zu eponymischen Pflanzennamen |trans-title=Encyclopedia of eponymic plant names | publisher=Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum, Freie Universität Berlin | year=2022 | isbn=978-3-946292-41-8 | url=https://doi.org/10.3372/epolist2022 |language=German |location=Berlin | doi=10.3372/epolist2022 | s2cid=246307410 |access-date=27 January 2022}}</ref>

{{Botanist|C.B.Clarke|Clarke, Charles Baron|border=0}}

There are number of plants named from his specimens with the [[specific name (botany)|specific name]] ''clarkei'', including ''[[Iris clarkei]]'',<ref>{{cite journal |title=Type of Iris clarkei Baker [family IRIDACEAE] |url=http://plants.jstor.org/stable/10.5555/al.ap.specimen.k000098496 |journal=Global Plants |accessdate=19 December 2014}}</ref> ''[[Clarkella]]'', which is a [[genus]] of [[flowering plant]]s in the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Rubiaceae]].<ref>[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/455642#page/50/mode/1up Hooker, Joseph Dalton. 1880. Flora of British India 3(7): 46.]</ref> and also ''[[Clarkeinda]]'', which is a genus of [[fungi]] in the family [[Agaricaceae]].<ref>{{cite web |title=''Clarkeinda'' Kuntze 1891 |url=http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?Table=Mycobank&Rec=94342&Fields=All |publisher=[[MycoBank]]. International Mycological Association |accessdate=2012-11-04}}</ref>

== Bibliography ==
Clarke wrote several books and papers, including:
* ''The Cyperaceae of Costa Rica''
* ''On the Indian species of Cyperus: with remarks on some others that specially illustrate the sub-divisions of the genus''
* ''Illustrations of Cyperaceae''
* ''Cyperaceae of the Philippines: a list of the species in the Kew Herbarium''
* ''Philippine Acanthaceae''
* ''The Subsubareas of British India''
* ''[[iarchive:speculationsfrom08436gut|Speculations From Political Economy]]'' (1886)
* ''A list of the flowering plants, ferns, and mosses collected in the immediate neighbourhood of Andover''
* [[iarchive:classbookofgeogr00claruoft|''A class-book of geography'']] (1889)
* ''The stone monuments of the Khasi hills'' (1874)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clarke |first=C. B. |date=1874 |title=The Stone Monuments of the Khasi Hills. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2840920 |journal=The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=3 |pages=481–493 |doi=10.2307/2840920 |issn=0959-5295|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
One of the most influential contributions was his biogeographical classification of British India which was based on his studies of the Cyperaceae. This was developed from Hooker's earlier biogeographical classification.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clarke |first=C. B. |date=1898 |title=On the Subsubareas of British India, illustrated by the detailed Distribution of the Cyperaceae in that Empire. |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/264038 |journal=Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Botany |language=en |volume=34 |issue=235 |pages=1–146 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1898.tb00555.x}}</ref> He extended the work to a world biogeography in 1892 which agreed largely with the zoological distribution regions indicated by [[Alfred Russel Wallace|A. R. Wallace]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clarke |first=C. B. |date=1892 |title=On Biologic Regions and Tabulation Areas |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/91752 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B |volume=183 |pages=371–387 |issn=0264-3839}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{wikisource}}

==External links==
* {{Gutenberg author | id=2745| name=Charles Clarke}}
* [https://search.amphilsoc.org/collections/view?docId=ead/Mss.B.C555-ead.xml Archives at American Philosophical Society]
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Charles Baron Clarke |sopt=t}}

{{Presidents of the Linnean Society of London}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clarke, Charles Baron}}
[[Category:1832 births]]
[[Category:1906 deaths]]
[[Category:British botanists]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Linnean Society of London]]
[[Category:Fellows of Queens' College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Alumni of Queens' College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:Burials at Richmond Cemetery]]
[[Category:British fellows of the Royal Society]]

Company rule in India

2026-02-17T07:27:32Z

Sherrie7069: quick fix

{{short description|Period of Indian history (1757–1858)}}
{{About|the rule of the East India Company on the Indian subcontinent from 1757 to 1858|rule by the British Crown from 1858 to 1947|British Raj|the history of the East India Company until 1756|East India Company}}
{{Redirect|Company rule|Rhodesia|Company rule in Rhodesia|the East Indies|Company rule in the Dutch East Indies}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2014}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name =
| conventional_long_name = India
| common_name =
| iso3166code = omit
| status = [[East India Company Act|Chartered Territory]] of [[East India Company]]
| status_text =
| era = Early modern
| event_start = [[Battle of Plassey]]
| date_start = 23 June
| life_span = 1757–1858
| year_start = 1757
| event1 = [[Treaty of Allahabad]]
| date_event1 = 16 August 1765
| event2 = [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]
| date_event2 = 1767–1799
| event3 = [[Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Maratha Wars]]
| date_event3 = 1772–1818
| event4 = [[Anglo-Sikh wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Sikh Wars]]
| date_event4 = 1845–1846, 1848–1849
| event_end = {{nowrap|[[Government of India Act 1858|Government of India Act]]}}
| date_end = 2 August
| year_end = 1858
| event_post = Nationalisation of the Company and assumption of direct administration by the [[The Crown|British crown]]
| date_post = 1 November 1858
| image_flag =
| flag_type =
| flag_caption =
| image_flag2 =
| image_coat =
| symbol_type =
| image_map = India british expansion 1805a.jpg
| image_map_alt = Located in South Asia
| image_map_caption = Areas of South Asia under Company rule (a) 1774–1804 and (b) 1805–1858 shown in two shades of pink
| national_motto =
| government_type = Unitary parliamentary [[Constitutional monarchy]]
*Under Corporate [[Oligarchy]] ''(de facto)''
| empire = British Empire
| p1 = Maratha Empire
| p2 = Mughal Empire
| p3 = Sikh Empire
| p4 = Ahom kingdom
| p6 = Bengal Subah
| p7 = Oudh State
| p8 = Carnatic Sultanate
| p9 = Kingdom of Mysore
| p10 = Doctrine of lapse#Princely states annexed under the doctrine{{!}}''See list of other states''
| s1 = British Raj
| flag_s1 =
| today = [[India]] [[Pakistan]] [[Bangladesh]]
| capital = [[Calcutta]]
| official_languages = [[English Language|English]] [[Persian language|Persian]] (until 1837) [[Urdu]] (from 1837)<ref name="Garcia2020">{{citation |last=Garcia |first=Humberto |title=England Re-Oriented: How Central and South Asian Travelers Imagined the West, 1750–1857 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9sCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT128 |year=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-49564-6 |page=128 |quote="Hindoostanee" was instrumental for Company rule in that Gilchrist's grammar books, dictionaries, and translations helped to standardize Urdu as an official language for lower level judicial courts and revenue administration in 1837, replacing Persian.}}</ref><ref name="Schiffman2011">{{citation |last=Schiffman |first=Harold |title=Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors: The Changing Politics of Language Choice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=52aicl9l7rwC&pg=PA11 |year=2011 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-20145-3 |page=11 |quote=In 1837 Urdu was formally adopted by the British, in place of Persian, as the language of interaction between the Government (which from then on conducted its affairs in English) and the local population.}}</ref> <ref name=everaert>{{citation |last=Everaert |first=Christine |title=Tracing the Boundaries between Hindi and Urdu: Lost and Added in Translation between 20th Century Short Stories |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_J5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA253 |year=2009 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-18223-3 |pages=253– |quote=It was only in 1837 that Persian lost its position as official language of India to Urdu and to English in the higher levels of administration.}}</ref><ref name="BaylyBayly1999">{{citation |last=Bayly |first=Christopher Alan |author-link=Christopher Bayly |title=Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8bqEzPPp8xIC&pg=PA286 |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-66360-1 |page=286 |quote=Paradoxically, many British also clung to Persian. Indeed, the so-called Urdu that replaced Persian as the court language after 1837 was recognisably Persian as far as its nouns were concerned. The courtly heritage of Persian was also to exercise a constraint on the British cultivation of Hindustani/Urdu.}}</ref><ref name=lelyveld-hindustani>{{cite journal |last=Lelyveld |first=David |title=Colonial Knowledge and the Fate of Hindustani |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=35 |issue=4 |year=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=665–682;674 |doi=10.1017/S0010417500018661 |quote=The earlier grammars and dictionaries made it possible for the British government to replace Persian with vernacular languages at the lower levels of judicial and revenue administration in 1837, that is, to standardize and index terminology for official use and provide for its translation to the language of the ultimate ruling authority, English. For such purposes Hindustani was equated with Urdu, as opposed to any geographically defined dialect of Hindi and was given official status through large parts of north India. Written in the Persian script with a largely Persian and, via Persian, an Arabic vocabulary, Urdu stood at the shortest distance from the previous situation and was easily attainable by the same personnel.}}</ref>
| currency = [[History of the rupee|Rupee]]
| representative1 = [[Warren Hastings]]
| year_representative1 = 1774–1785 (first [[Bengal Presidency|Fort William]])
| representative2 = [[Lord William Bentinck]]
| year_representative3 = 1857–1858 (last)
| representative3 = [[Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning|Charles Canning]]
| year_representative2 = 1834–1835 (first India)
| title_representative = [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]]
| stat_year1 = 1858
| stat_area1 = {{convert|750,000|mi2|km2|-4|disp=number}}
| ref_area1 = <ref>{{cite book |author=John Barnhill |editor=R. W. McColl |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA115 |date=14 May 2014 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7229-3 |page=115 }}</ref>
}}

'''Company rule in India''' (sometimes also '''Company Raj''',<ref>{{Harvnb|Robb|2002|pp=116–147}} "Chapter 5: Early Modern India II: Company Raj", {{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp=56–91}} "Chapter 3: The East India Company Raj, 1857–1850," {{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|pp=53–59}} "Chapter 7: The First Century of British Rule, 1757 to 1857: State and Economy."</ref> from [[Hindi]] {{lang|hi|rāj}}, {{lit|rule}}<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1989: [[Hindi]], ''rāj'', from [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] ''rāj'': to reign, rule; cognate with [[Latin|L.]] ''rēx'', ''rēg-is'', [[Old Irish|OIr.]] ''rī'', ''rīg'' king (see RICH).</ref>) was the rule of the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] on the [[Indian subcontinent]]. This is variously taken to have commenced in 1757, after the [[Battle of Plassey]], when the [[Nawab of Bengal]] [[Siraj ud-Daulah]] was defeated and replaced with [[Mir Jafar]], who had the support of the East India Company;<ref>{{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|pp=47, 53}}</ref> or in 1765, when the Company was granted the [[Dewan#Diwani in British India|''diwani'']], or the right to collect revenue, in [[Bengal]] and [[Bihar]];<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=46}}, {{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=30}}</ref> or in 1773, when the Company abolished local rule (Nizamat) in Bengal and established a capital in [[Calcutta]], appointed its first [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]] of [[Bengal Presidency|Fort William]], [[Warren Hastings]], and became directly involved in governance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=56}}</ref>

The Company's rule lasted until 1858, when, after the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] and the [[Government of India Act 1858]], the [[India Office]] of the [[British government]] assumed the task of directly administering India in the new [[British Raj]].

==Expansion and territory==
The [[English East India Company]] ("the Company") was founded in 1600, as ''The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies''. It gained a foothold in India with the establishment of a [[Factory (trading post)|factory]] in [[Masulipatnam]] on the Eastern coast of India in 1611 and the grant of the rights to establish a factory in [[Surat]] in 1612 by the Mughal Emperor [[Jahangir]]. In 1640, after receiving similar permission from the [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara ruler]] further south, a second factory was established in [[Madras]] on the southeastern coast. [[Bombay]] island, not far from Surat, a former [[Portuguese possessions|Portuguese outpost]] gifted to [[Kingdom of England|England]] as [[dowry]] in the marriage of [[Catherine of Braganza]] to [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], was leased by the Company in 1668. Following the [[Anglo-Mughal War (1686–1690)|Anglo-Mughal War]], the Company was allowed by [[Emperor Aurangzeb]] to establish a presence on the eastern coast as well; far up that coast, in the [[Ganges Delta]], a factory was set up in Calcutta. Since, during this time other ''companies''—established by the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]], [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]], [[Louis XIV's East India Company|French]], and [[Danish East India Company|Danish]]—were similarly expanding in the region, the English Company's unremarkable beginnings on [[coastal India]] offered no clues to what would become a lengthy presence on the [[Indian subcontinent]].

The company's victory under [[Robert Clive]] in the 1757 Battle of Plassey and another victory in the 1764 [[Battle of Buxar]] (in Bihar) consolidated the company's power and forced emperor [[Shah Alam II]] to appoint it the ''[[Diwan (title)|diwan]]'', or revenue collector, of [[Bengal]], Bihar, and [[Odisha|Orissa]]. The Company thus became the de facto ruler of large areas of the [[Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests|lower Gangetic plain]] by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions around Bombay and Madras. The [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] (1766–1799) and the [[Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Maratha Wars]] (1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of the [[Sutlej River]]. With the defeat of the [[Maratha Confederacy|Marathas]], no native power represented a threat for the Company any longer.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C&dq=1818+british+india+maratha&pg=PA271|title = A History of Modern India, 1480-1950|isbn = 9781843310044|last1 = Markovits|first1 = Claude|date = February 2004| publisher=Anthem Press }}</ref>

The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions, which collectively came to comprise [[British India]]. The annexed regions included the [[North-Western Provinces]] (comprising [[Rohilkhand]], [[Gorakhpur]], and the [[Doab]]) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam ([[Ahom Kingdom]] 1828), and [[Sindh]] (1843). [[Punjab region|Punjab]], [[North-West Frontier Province]], and [[Kashmir]], were annexed after the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|Anglo-Sikh Wars]] in 1849-1856 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General); however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the [[Treaty of Amritsar (1846)|Treaty of Amritsar]] (1850) to the [[Dogra dynasty]] of [[Jammu]], and thereby became a princely state. In 1854 [[Berar Province|Berar]] was annexed, and the state of [[Awadh|Oudh]] two years later.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company's [[hegemony]] in return for limited internal [[autonomy]]. Since the Company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up ''political'' underpinnings for its rule.<ref name="brown-p67">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=67}}</ref> The most important such support came from the ''[[subsidiary alliance]]s'' with Indian princes during the first 75 years of Company rule.<ref name="brown-p67"/> In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-third of India.<ref name="brown-p67"/> When an Indian ruler, who was able to secure his territory, wanted to enter such an alliance, the Company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule, which did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.<ref name=brown-68>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=68}}</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=240 |height=180|File:India1765and1805b.jpg|India in 1765 and 1805 showing East India Company Territories in pink.
|File:India1837to1857.jpg|India in 1837 and 1857, showing East India Company-governed territories in pink.
}}
In return, the Company undertook the "defence of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor."<ref name="brown-68" /> Subsidiary alliances created the [[Princely States|princely states]], of the Hindu [[maharaja]]s and the Muslim [[nawab]]s. Prominent among the princely states were: [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] (1791), [[Jaipur State|Jaipur]] (1794), [[Travancore]] (1795), [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] (1798), [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] (1799), [[Cis-Sutlej states|Cis-Sutlej Hill States]] (1815), [[Central India Agency]] (1819), [[Cutch State|Cutch]] and [[Baroda State|Gujarat Gaikwad territories]] (1807–1820), [[Rajputana]] (1818),<ref name="ludden-expansion">{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=133}}</ref> and [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]] (1833).


==The Governors-General==
{{Gallery
|title=Coins issued by the East India Company 1787 to 1840 CE
|align=center
|width=180 |File:East India Company Silver Half Rupee 1787 Bengal Presidency Murshidabad Mint in the name of Shah Alam II Mughal Emperor.jpg| Silver Half-Rupee 1787 Bengal Presidency, Murshidabad Mint, issued in the name of Shah Alam II, Mughal Emperor
|File:East India Company Silver Rupee 1835 William IV King.jpg|Silver Rupee 1835, William IV, King
|File:East India Company Copper Half Anna 1835 William IV King.jpg|Copper Half-Anna 1835, William IV, King
|File:East India Company Silver Rupee 1840 Victoria Queen.jpg|Silver Rupee 1840, Victoria, Queen
}}

The Governors-General ([[locum tenens]]) are not included in this table unless a major event occurred during their tenure.

=== Governors-Generals of Fort William (Bengal) (1773–1834) ===
{| class="wikitable"
|- valign="bottom"
! Governor-General !! Period of Tenure!! Events
|-
| [[Warren Hastings]]|| 20 October 1773 – 1 February 1785|| [[Great Bengal famine of 1770]] (1769–73) [[Rohilla War]] (1773–74) [[First Anglo-Maratha War]] (1777–83) [[Chalisa famine|''Chalisa'' famine]] (1783–84) [[Second Anglo-Mysore War]] (1780–1784)
|-
| [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]]|| 12 September 1786 – 28 October 1793 || [[Cornwallis Code]] (1793) [[Permanent Settlement]] [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] become semi-protected States under British (1791) [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]] (1789–92) [[Doji bara famine|''Doji bara'' famine]] (1791–92)
|-
| [[John Shore, 1st Baron Teignmouth|John Shore]] || 28 October 1793 – March 1798|| [[#Army and civil service|East India Company Army]] re-organised and down-sized. First [[Pazhassi Raja|Pazhassi Revolt]] in [[Zamorin|Malabar]](1793–97) [[Jaipur]] (1794) & [[Travancore]] (1795) come under British protection. [[Andaman Islands]] occupied (1796) Company took control of coastal region [[Ceylon]] from [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] (1796).
|-
| [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Richard Wellesley]]|| 18 May 1798 – 30 July 1805|| [[Nizam]] of [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] becomes first State to sign [[Subsidiary alliance]] introduced by Wellesley (1798). [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] (1798–99) Second [[Pazhassi Raja|Pazhassi Revolt]] in [[Malabar region|Malabar]] (1800–05) [[Nawab of Oudh]] cedes [[Gorakhpur division|Gorakhpur]] and [[Bareilly division|Rohilkhand]] divisions; [[Allahabad district|Allahabad]], [[Fatehpur district|Fatehpur]], [[Kanpur|Cawnpore]], [[Etawah district|Etawah]], [[Mainpuri district|Mainpuri]], [[Etah district|Etah]] districts; part of [[Mirzapur district|Mirzapur]]; and ''terai'' of [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaun]] (''Ceded Provinces'', 1801) [[Treaty of Bassein (1802)|Treaty of Bassein]] signed by [[Peshwa]] [[Baji Rao II]] accepting [[Subsidiary Alliance]] [[Battle of Delhi, 1803|Battle of Delhi]] (1803). [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]] (1803–05) Remainder of [[Doab]], [[Delhi]] and [[Agra division]], parts of [[Bundelkhand]] annexed from [[Maratha Empire]] (1805). [[Ceded and Conquered Provinces]] established (1805) Subsidiary alliances created the [[princely states]], of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs.
|-
| [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]] (second term) || 30 July 1805 – 5 October 1805 || Financial strain in East India Company after costly campaigns. Cornwallis reappointed to bring peace, but dies in [[Ghazipur]].
|-
| [[George Hilario Barlow]] ([[locum tenens]]) || 10 October 1805 – 31 July 1807 || [[Vellore mutiny]] (10 July 1806)
|-
| [[Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 1st Earl of Minto|Lord Minto]] || 31 July 1807 – 4 October 1813|| [[Stamford Raffles#Java Island|Invasion of Java]] [[History of Mauritius#British rule (1810–1968)|Occupation of Mauritius]]
|-
| [[Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings|Marquess of Hastings]] ||4 October 1813 – 9 January 1823 || [[Anglo-Nepal War of 1814]] Annexation of [[Kumaon division|Kumaon]], [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]], and east [[Sikkim]]. [[Cis-Sutlej states]] (1815). [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]] (1817–18) [[Rajputana Agency|States of Rajputana]] accept British [[suzerainty]] (1817). [[Founding years of modern Singapore|Singapore]] was founded (1818). [[Princely State of Cutch|Cutch]] accepts British suzerainty (1818). [[Baroda State|Gaikwads of Baroda]] accept British suzerainty (1819). [[Central India Agency]] (1819).
|-
| [[William Pitt Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst|Lord Amherst]]|| 1 August 1823 – 13 March 1828|| [[First Anglo–Burmese War]] (1823–26) Annexation of [[Assam]], Manipur, [[Rakhine State|Arakan]], and [[Mon State|Tenasserim]] from Burma
|-
| [[Lord William Bentinck|William Bentinck]] || 4 July 1828 – 22 April 1834|| [[Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829]] [[Thuggee and Dacoity Suppression Acts, 1836–48]] [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore State]] goes under British administration (1831–81) [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]] accepts British Suzerainty (1833)
[[Government of India Act 1833|Government of India Act (1833)]]
|}

=== Governors-Generals of India (1834–1858) ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Governor-General
!Period of Tenure
!Events
|-
| [[Lord William Bentinck|William Bentinck]] || 22 April 1834 – 20 March 1835|| [[Coorg]] annexed (1834).
|-
| [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]]||4 March 1836 – 28 February 1842 || [[North-Western Provinces]] established (1836) Post Offices were established (1837) [[Agra famine of 1837–1838]] [[Aden]] is captured by Company (1839)<ref>{{cite web |title=British East India Company captures Aden |url=http://www.wolframalpha.com/entities/historical_events/british_east_india_company_caputres_aden/cc/t4/n7/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501082716/https://www.wolframalpha.com/entities/historical_events/british_east_india_company_caputres_aden/cc/t4/n7/ |archive-date=1 May 2021 |access-date=15 January 2011 |website=Wolfram Alpha}}</ref> [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] (1839–1842) [[Massacre of Elphinstone's army]] (1842).
|-
| [[Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough|Lord Ellenborough]]|| 28 February 1842 – June 1844 || [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] (1839–42) [[History of Sindh#Modern era|Annexation of Sindh]] (1843) [[Indian Slavery Act, 1843]]
|-
| [[Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge|Henry Hardinge]] || 23 July 1844 – 12 January 1848 || [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] (1845–46) Sikhs cede [[Jullundur Doab]], [[Hazara region|Hazara]], and [[Kashmir]] to the British under [[Treaty of Lahore]] (1846) Sale of [[Kashmir]] to [[Gulab Singh]] of [[Jammu]] under [[Treaty of Amritsar, 1846|Treaty of Amritsar]] (1846).
|-
| [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Marquess of Dalhousie]]|| 12 January 1848 – 28 February 1856 ||[[Second Anglo-Sikh War]] (1848–1849) Annexation of Punjab and [[North-West Frontier Province]] (1849–56) Construction begins on [[Indian Railways]] (1850) [[Caste Disabilities Removal Act, 1850]] First [[Communications in India#Introduction of the telegraph|telegraph line]] laid in India (1851) [[Second Anglo-Burmese War]] (1852–53) Annexation of [[Lower Burma]] [[Ganges Canal]] opened (1854) Annexation of [[Satara State|Satara]] (1848), [[Jaipur]] and [[Sambalpur]] (1849), [[Nagpur]] and [[Jhansi]] (1854) under [[Doctrine of lapse|Doctrine of Lapse]]. Annexation of [[Berar Province|Berar]] (1853) and [[Awadh]] (1856). [[Postage stamps and postal history of India|Postage Stamps for India]] were introduced. (1854). Public Telegram services starts operation (1855).
|-
| [[Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning|Charles Canning]]||28 February 1856 – 1 November 1858 ||[[Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856|Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act]] (25 July 1856) First [[Education in India|Indian universities]] founded (January–September 1857) [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] (10 May 1857 – 20 June 1858) largely in [[North-Western Provinces]] and [[Oudh]] Liquidation of the [[English East India Company]] under [[Government of India Act 1858]]<ref name="WDL">{{cite web |date=1890–1923 |title=Official, India |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/393/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219213715/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/393/ |archive-date=19 December 2019 |access-date=30 May 2013 |website=[[World Digital Library]]}}</ref>
|}

==Regulation of Company rule==

Until Clive's victory at [[Battle of Plassey|Plassey]], the East India Company territories in India, which consisted largely of the [[presidency]] towns of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, were governed by the mostly autonomous—and sporadically unmanageable—''town councils'', all composed of merchants.<ref name="igi-bandyo-post-clive"/> The councils barely had enough powers for the effective management of their local affairs, and the ensuing lack of oversight of the overall Company operations in India led to some grave abuses by Company officers or their allies.<ref name="igi-bandyo-post-clive">{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=76}}, {{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=14}}</ref> Clive's victory, and the award of the ''diwani'' of the rich region of Bengal, brought India into the public spotlight in Britain.<ref name="igi-bandyo-post-clive"/> The company's money management practices came to be questioned, especially as it began to post net losses even as some Company servants, the "Nabobs", returned to Britain with large fortunes, which—according to rumours then current—were acquired unscrupulously.<ref>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=14}}, {{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=35}}, {{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=76}}</ref> By 1772, the Company needed British government loans to stay afloat, and there was fear in London that the company's corrupt practices could soon seep into British business and public life.<ref name="Peers 2006 35">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=35}}</ref> The rights and duties of the British government with regards the company's new territories also came to be examined.<ref name="marshall-207">{{Harvnb|Marshall|2007|p=207}}</ref> The British parliament then held several inquiries and in 1773, during the premiership of [[Frederick North, Lord North|Lord North]], enacted the [[Regulating Act 1773]], which established regulations, its long title stated, "for the better Management of the Affairs of the ''East India Company'', as well in ''India'' as in ''Europe''".<ref name="igi-14">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=14}}</ref>

Although [[Lord North]] himself wanted the company's territories to be taken over by the British state,<ref name="marshall-207"/> he faced determined political opposition from many quarters, including some in the [[City of London]] and the [[Parliament of Great Britain]].<ref name="Peers 2006 35"/> The result was a compromise in which the Regulating Act—although implying the ultimate sovereignty of the [[The Crown|British Crown]] over these new territories—asserted that the company could act as a sovereign power on behalf of the Crown.<ref name="marshall-197"/> It could do this while concurrently being subject to oversight and regulation by the British government and parliament.<ref name="marshall-197">{{Harvnb|Marshall|2007|p=197}}</ref> The Court of Directors of the company were required under the act to submit all communications regarding civil, military, and revenue matters in India for scrutiny by the British government.<ref name="bandyo-77">{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=77}}</ref> For the governance of the Indian territories, the act asserted the supremacy of the [[Bengal Presidency|Presidency of Fort William (Bengal)]] over those of [[Madras Presidency|Fort St. George (Madras)]] and [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]].<ref name="igi-iv-p14"/> It also nominated a Governor-General (Warren Hastings) and four councillors for administering the Bengal Presidency (and for overseeing the company's operations in India).<ref name="igi-iv-p14">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=14}}, {{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=77}}</ref> "The subordinate Presidencies were forbidden to wage war or make treaties without the previous consent of the Governor-General of Bengal in Council,<ref>"in Council", i.e. in concert with the advice of the Council.</ref> except in case of imminent necessity. The Governors of these Presidencies were directed in general terms to obey the orders of the Governor-General-in-Council, and to transmit to him intelligence of all important matters."<ref name="igi-14"/> However, the imprecise wording of the Act left it open to be variously interpreted; consequently, the administration in India continued to be hobbled by disunity between the provincial governors, between members of the council, and between the Governor-General himself and his Council.<ref name="bandyo-77"/> The ''Regulating Act'' also attempted to address the prevalent corruption in India: Company servants were henceforth forbidden to engage in private trade in India or to receive "presents" from Indian nationals.<ref name="igi-14"/>

In 1783, the [[Fox–North coalition]] tried to reform colonial policy again with a bill introduced by [[Edmund Burke]] which would have transferred political power over India from the East India Company to a parliamentary commission. The bill passed the [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]] with the enthusiastic support of Foreign Secretary [[Charles James Fox]], but was vetoed by the [[House of Lords]] under pressure from King [[George III]], who then dismissed the government and formed a [[First Pitt ministry|new ministry]] under Fox's rival [[William Pitt the Younger]]. [[Pitt's India Act]] left the East India Company in political control of India but established a [[India Board|Board of Control]] in England both to supervise the East India Company's affairs and to prevent the company's shareholders from interfering in the governance of India.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=http://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=23–34}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Travers|2007|p=211}}</ref> The Board of Control consisted of six members, which included one Secretary of State from the British cabinet, as well as the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]].<ref name="bandyo-77"/> Around this time, there was also extensive debate in the British Parliament on the issue of landed rights in Bengal, with a consensus developing in support of the view advocated by [[Philip Francis (English politician)|Philip Francis]], a member of the Bengal council and political adversary of Warren Hastings, that all lands in Bengal should be considered the "estate and inheritance of native land-holders and families".<ref name="travers-213">Quoted in {{Harvnb|Travers|2007|p=213}}</ref>

Mindful of the reports of abuse and corruption in Bengal by Company servants, the India Act itself noted numerous complaints that {{"'}}divers Rajahs, Zamindars, Talukdars, and landholders' had been unjustly deprived of 'their lands, jurisdictions, rights, and privileges{{'"}}.<ref name="travers-213"/> At the same time the company's directors were now leaning towards Francis's view that the land-tax in Bengal should be made fixed and permanent, setting the stage for the [[Permanent Settlement]] (see section [[#Revenue collection|Revenue collection]] below).<ref>{{Harvnb|Guha|1995|p=161}}</ref> The India Act also created in each of the three presidencies a number of administrative and military posts, which included: a Governor and three Councilors, one of which was the Commander in Chief of the Presidency army.<ref name="bandyo-78">{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=78}}</ref> Although the supervisory powers of the Governor-General-in-Council in Bengal (over Madras and Bombay) were extended—as they were again in the [[Charter Act 1793]]—the subordinate presidencies continued to exercise some autonomy until both the extension of British territories into becoming contiguous and the advent of faster communications in the next century.<ref name="igi-15">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=15}}</ref>

Still, the new Governor-General appointed in 1786, [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]], not only had more power than Hastings, but also had the support of a powerful British cabinet minister, [[Henry Dundas]], who, as Secretary of State for the [[Home Office]], was in charge of the overall India policy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Travers|2007|p=213}}</ref> From 1784 onwards, the British government had the final word on all major appointments in India; a candidate's suitability for a senior position was often decided by the strength of his political connections rather than that of his administrative ability.<ref name="peers-36">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=36}}</ref> Although this practice resulted in many Governor-General nominees being chosen from Britain's conservative [[landed gentry]], there were some liberals as well, such as [[Lord William Bentinck]] and [[George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]].<ref name="peers-36"/>

British political opinion was also shaped by the attempted [[Impeachment of Warren Hastings]]; the trial, whose proceedings began in 1788, ended with Hastings' acquittal, in 1795.<ref name="peers-36-37">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|pp=36–37}}</ref> Although the effort was chiefly coordinated by Edmund Burke, it also drew support from within the British government.<ref name="peers-36-37"/> Burke accused Hastings not only of corruption, but—appealing to universal standards of justice—also of acting solely upon his own discretion, without concern for law, and of wilfully causing distress to others in India. Hastings' defenders countered that his actions were consistent with Indian customs and traditions.<ref name="peers-36-37"/> Although Burke's speeches at the trial drew applause and focused attention on India, Hastings was eventually acquitted, due in part to the revival of [[British nationalism|nationalism in Britain]] in the wake of the [[French Revolution]]. Nonetheless, Burke's effort had the effect of creating a sense of responsibility in British public life for the company's dominion in India.<ref name="peers-36-37"/>

Soon rumblings appeared amongst merchants in London that the monopoly granted to the East India Company in 1600, intended to facilitate its competition against [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] and [[French colonial empire|French]] in a distant region, was no longer needed.<ref name="igi-15"/> In response, in the [[Charter Act 1813]], the British Parliament renewed the company's charter but terminated its monopoly except with regard to tea and trade with China, opening India both to private investment and missionaries.<ref name="ludden-134">{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=134}}</ref> With increased British power in India, supervision of Indian affairs by the [[British Crown]] and [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] increased as well. By the 1820s British nationals could transact business or engage in missionary work under the protection of the Crown in the three presidencies.<ref name="ludden-134"/> Finally, under the terms of the [[Saint Helena Act 1833]], the British Parliament revoked the company's monopoly in the China trade and made it an agent for the administration of British India.<ref name="ludden-134"/> The [[Governor-General of Bengal]] was redesignated as the [[Governor-General of India]]. The Governor-General and his executive council were given exclusive legislative powers for the whole of British India.<ref name="igi-15"/> Since the British territories in north India had now extended up to Delhi, the act also sanctioned the creation of a [[Presidency of Agra]].<ref name="igi-15"/> With the annexation of [[Awadh|Oudh]] in 1856, this territory was extended and eventually became the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh]].<ref name="igi-15"/> In addition, in 1854, a lieutenant-governor was appointed for the region of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha, leaving the Governor-General to concentrate on the governance of India as a whole.<ref name="igi-15"/>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=130 |File:Company rule calcutta from ftwilliam.jpg|A view of Calcutta from Fort William, 1807.
|File:Company rule government hse fort stgeorge2.jpg|Government House, Fort St. George, Madras, the headquarters of the [[Madras Presidency]].
|File:Warren_Hastings_greyscale.jpg|[[Warren Hastings]], the first Governor-General of [[Bengal Presidency|Fort William (Bengal)]] who oversaw the Company's territories in India.
|File:Company rule trial warren hastings2.jpg|The trial of Warren Hastings in the Court of Westminster Hall, 1789.
}}

==Revenue collection==
{{main|Permanent Settlement|Zamindar|Ryotwari|Economy of India under Company rule}}
In the remnant of the [[Mughal Empire]] revenue system existing in pre-1765 Bengal, [[zamindar]]s, or "land holders", collected revenue on behalf of the Mughal emperor, whose representative, or ''[[diwan (title)|diwan]]'', supervised their activities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=20}}</ref> In this system, the assortment of rights associated with land were not possessed by a "land owner", but rather shared by the several parties with stake in the land, including the peasant cultivator, the ''zamindar'', and the state.<ref name="metcalf-78">{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=78}}</ref> The ''zamindar'' served as an intermediary who procured rent from the cultivator, and after withholding a percentage for his own expenses, made available the rest, as [[revenue]] to the state.<ref name="metcalf-78"/> Under the Mughal system, the land itself belonged to the state and not to the ''zamindar'', who could transfer only his right to collect rent.<ref name="metcalf-78"/> On being awarded the ''diwani'' or overlordship of Bengal following the [[Battle of Buxar]] in 1764, the [[Honourable East India Company|East India Company]] found itself short of trained administrators, especially those familiar with local custom and law; tax collection was consequently farmed out. This uncertain foray into land taxation by the company, may have gravely worsened the impact of a [[Bengal famine of 1770|famine that struck Bengal in 1769–70]], in which between seven and ten million people—or between a quarter and third of the presidency's population—may have died.<ref name="peers-metcalf-famine">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=47}}, {{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=78}}</ref> However, the company provided little relief either through reduced taxation or by relief efforts,<ref name="peers-47">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=47}}</ref> and the economic and cultural impact of the famine was felt decades later, even becoming, a century later, the subject of [[Bankim Chandra Chatterjee]]'s novel ''[[Anandamath]]''.<ref name="peers-metcalf-famine"/>

In 1772, under Warren Hastings, the East India Company took over revenue collection directly in the [[Bengal Presidency]] (then Bengal and Bihar), establishing a Board of Revenue with offices in Calcutta and [[Patna]], and moving the pre-existing Mughal revenue records from [[Murshidabad]] to Calcutta.<ref name="robb-revenue">{{Harvnb|Robb|2002|pp=126–129}}</ref>
In 1773, after [[Awadh|Oudh]] ceded the tributary state of [[Benaras]], the revenue collection system was extended to the territory with a Company [[Resident (title)#Residents in (British) Asia|Resident]] in charge.<ref name="robb-revenue"/> The following year—with a view to preventing corruption—Company ''district collectors'', who were then responsible for revenue collection for an entire district, were replaced with provincial councils at Patna, Murshidabad, and Calcutta, and with Indian collectors working within each district.<ref name="robb-revenue"/> The title, "collector", reflected "the centrality of land revenue collection to government in India: it was the government's primary function and it moulded the institutions and patterns of administration".<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=55}}</ref>

The Company inherited a revenue collection system from the Mughals in which the heaviest proportion of the tax burden fell on the cultivators, with one-third of the production reserved for imperial entitlement; this pre-colonial system became the Company revenue policy's baseline.<ref name = peers-p45-47>{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|pp=45–47}}</ref> However, there was vast variation across India in the methods by which the revenues were collected; with this complication in mind, a Committee of Circuit toured the districts of expanded Bengal Presidency in order to make a five-year settlement, consisting of five-yearly inspections and temporary [[tax farming]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|pp=45–47}}, {{Harvnb|Robb|2002|pp=126–129}}</ref> In their overall approach to revenue policy, Company officials were guided by two goals: first, preserving as much as possible the balance of rights and obligations that were traditionally claimed by the farmers who cultivated the land and the various intermediaries who collected tax on the state's behalf and who reserved a cut for themselves; and second, identifying those sectors of the rural economy that would maximise both revenue and security.<ref name = peers-p45-47/> Although their first revenue settlement turned out to be essentially the same as the more informal pre-existing Mughal one, the company had created a foundation for the growth of both information and bureaucracy.<ref name="peers-p45-47"/>

In 1793, the new Governor-General, [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]], promulgated the permanent settlement of land revenues in the presidency, the first socio-economic regulation in colonial India.<ref name="robb-revenue" /> By the terms of the settlement rajas and taluqdars were recognised as zamindars and they were asked to collect the rent from the peasants and pay revenue to the company. It was named ''permanent'' because it fixed the land tax in perpetuity in return for landed property rights for [[zamindars]]; it simultaneously defined the nature of land ownership in the presidency, and gave individuals and families separate property rights in occupied land. Since the revenue was fixed in perpetuity, it was fixed at a high level, which in Bengal amounted to £3 million at 1789–90 prices. According to the [[Permanent Settlement]] if the zamindars failed to pay the revenue on time, the zamindari right would be taken from them.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=82}}</ref> According to one estimate, this was 20% higher than the revenue demand before 1757.<ref>{{Harvnb|Marshall|1987|pp=141, 144}}</ref> Over the next century, partly as a result of land surveys, court rulings, and property sales, the change was given practical dimension.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robb|2002|p=127}}</ref> An influence on the development of this revenue policy were the economic theories then current, which regarded agriculture as the engine of economic development, and consequently stressed the fixing of revenue demands in order to encourage growth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guha|1995}}</ref> The expectation behind the permanent settlement was that knowledge of a fixed government demand would encourage the zamindars to increase both their average outcrop and the land under cultivation, since they would be able to retain the profits from the increased output; in addition, it was envisaged that land itself would become a marketable form of property that could be purchased, sold, or mortgaged.<ref name="peers-p45-47" /> A feature of this economic rationale was the additional expectation that the zamindars, recognising their own best interest, would not make unreasonable demands on the peasantry.<ref name="bose-ps">{{Harvnb|Bose|1993}}</ref>

However, these expectations were not realised in practice, and in many regions of Bengal, the peasants bore the brunt of the increased demand, there being little protection for their traditional rights in the new legislation.<ref name="bose-ps" /> [[Forced labour]] of the peasants by the zamindars became more prevalent as cash crops were cultivated to meet the Company revenue demands.<ref name="peers-p45-47" /> Although commercialised cultivation was not new to the region, it had now penetrated deeper into village society and made it more vulnerable to market forces.<ref name="peers-p45-47" /> The zamindars themselves were often unable to meet the increased demands that the company had placed on them;<ref>{{Harvnb|Tomlinson|1993|p=43}}</ref> consequently, many defaulted, and by one estimate, up to one-third of their lands were auctioned during the first two decades following the permanent settlement. The new owners were often [[Brahmin]] and [[Kayastha]] employees of the Company who had a good grasp of the new system, and, in many cases, some had prospered under it.<ref name="metcalf-revenue">{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp=78–79}}</ref>

Since the zamindars were never able to undertake costly improvements to the land envisaged under the Permanent Settlement, some of which required the removal of the existing farmers, they soon became rentiers who lived off the rent from their tenant farmers.<ref name="metcalf-revenue"/> In many areas, especially northern Bengal, they had to increasingly share the revenue with intermediate tenure holders, called ''jotedars'', who supervised farming in the villages.<ref name="metcalf-revenue"/> Consequently, unlike the contemporaneous [[Enclosure movement]] in Britain, agriculture in Bengal remained the province of the subsistence farming of innumerable small [[paddy field]]s.<ref name="metcalf-revenue"/>

The zamindari system was one of two principal revenue settlements undertaken by the Company in India.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Tirthankar |author-link=Tirthankar Roy |year=2000 |title=The Economic History of India, 1857–1947 |edition=1st |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=37–42 |isbn=978-0-19-565154-6}}</ref> In [[South India|southern India]], [[Sir Thomas Munro, 1st Baronet|Thomas Munro]], who would later become Governor of Madras, promoted the ''[[ryotwari]]'' system or the Munro system, in which the government settled land-revenue directly with the peasant farmers, or ''ryots''.<ref name="peers-47" /> It was first tried in small scale by Captain Alexander Read in the areas that were taken over from the wars with Tipu Sultan. Subsequently, developed by Thomas Munro, this system was gradually extended all over South India. This was, in part, a consequence of the turmoil of the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]], which had prevented the emergence of a class of large landowners; in addition, Munro and others felt that ''ryotwari'' was closer to traditional practice in the region and ideologically more progressive, allowing the benefits of Company rule to reach the lowest levels of rural society.<ref name="peers-47" /> At the heart of the ''ryotwari'' system was a particular theory of [[economic rent]]—and based on [[David Ricardo]]'s [[Law of Rent]]—promoted by [[utilitarian]] [[James Mill]] who formulated the Indian revenue policy between 1819 and 1830. "He believed that the government was the ultimate lord of the soil and should not renounce its right to 'rent', i.e. the profit left over on richer soil when wages and other working expenses had been settled."<ref name="brown-p66">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=66}}</ref> Another keystone of the new system of temporary settlements was the classification of agricultural fields according to soil type and produce, with average rent rates fixed for the period of the settlement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Robb|2002|p=128}}</ref> According to Mill, taxation of land rent would promote efficient agriculture and simultaneously prevent the emergence of a "parasitic landlord class".<ref name="brown-p66" /> Mill advocated ''ryotwari'' settlements which consisted of government measurement and assessment of each plot (valid for 20 or 30 years) and subsequent taxation which was dependent on the fertility of the soil.<ref name="brown-p66" /> The taxed amount was nine-tenths of the "rent" in the early 19th century and gradually fell afterwards.<ref name="brown-p66" /> However, in spite of the appeal of the ''ryotwari'' system's abstract principles, class hierarchies in southern Indian villages had not entirely disappeared—for example village headmen continued to hold sway—and peasant cultivators sometimes came to experience revenue demands they could not meet.<ref>{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=47}}, {{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=65}}</ref> In the 1850s, a scandal erupted when it was discovered that some Indian revenue agents of the company were using torture to meet the company's revenue demands.<ref name="peers-47" />

Land revenue settlements constituted a major administrative activity of the various governments in India under Company rule.<ref name="brown-p67"/> In all areas other than the Bengal Presidency, land settlement work involved a continually repetitive process of surveying and measuring plots, assessing their quality, and recording landed rights, and constituted a large proportion of the work of [[Indian Civil Service]] officers working for the government.<ref name="brown-p67"/> After the Company lost its trading rights, it became the single most important source of government revenue, roughly half of overall revenue in the middle of the 19th century;<ref name="brown-p67"/> even so, between the years 1814 and 1859, the government of India ran debts in 33 years.<ref name="brown-p67"/> With expanded dominion, even during non-deficit years, there was just enough money to pay the salaries of a threadbare administration, a skeleton police force, and the army.<ref name="brown-p67"/>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:Company rule riverside scene2 bengal1860.jpg|A riverside scene in rural east Bengal (present-day [[Bangladesh]]), 1860
|File:Lord Cornwallis.jpg|Charles Cornwallis, the Governor-General of India when Permanent Settlement was introduced
|File:Company rule kochh mandai2 woman1860.jpg|A Kochh Mandai woman of east Bengal with an agricultural knife and a freshly harvested [[jackfruit]] (1860)
|File:Company rule paddy fields madras2.jpg|Paddy fields in the [[Madras Presidency]], c. 1880. Two-thirds of the presidency fell under the ''[[Ryotwari]]'' system.
}}

==Army and civil service==
{{Main|Presidency armies}}
In 1772, when Hastings became the first Governor-General one of his first undertakings was the rapid expansion of the Presidency's army. Since the available soldiers, or ''[[Sepoy]]s'', from Bengal—many of whom had fought against the British in the Battle of Plassey{{spaced ndash}}were now suspect in British eyes, Hastings recruited farther west from the "major breeding ground" of India's infantry in eastern [[Awadh]] and the lands around [[Varanasi|Banaras]] including [[Bihar]].<ref name="bayly-84-86">{{Harvnb|Bayly|1987|pp=84–86}}</ref> The [[Caste system in India|high caste]] rural Hindu [[Rajput]]s and [[Brahmins]] of this region, known as ''[[Purbiya]]s'' (Hindi, lit. "easterners"), had been recruited by Mughal Empire armies for two hundred years;<ref name="bayly-84-86"/> the East India Company continued this practice for the next 75 years, with these soldiers comprising up to eighty per cent of the Bengal army. However, in order to avoid any friction within the ranks, the company also took pains to adapt its military practices to their religious requirements. Consequently, these soldiers dined in separate facilities; in addition, overseas service, considered polluting to their caste, was not required of them, and the army soon came to recognise Hindu festivals officially. "This encouragement of high caste ritual status, however, left the government vulnerable to protest, even mutiny, whenever the sepoys detected infringement of their prerogatives."<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=61}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto;"
! style="background:#ddd;" colspan="4"| East India Company armies after the Re-organisation of 1796<ref name="igi-333">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=333}}</ref>
|-
! British troops !! colspan="3" | Indian troops
|-
! !! Bengal Presidency !! Madras Presidency !! Bombay Presidency
|-
| || style="text-align:center;"| 24,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 24,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 9,000
|-
! 13,000 !! colspan="3" | Total Indian troops: 57,000
|-
! colspan="4" | Grand total, British and Indian troops: 70,000
|}

The [[Bengal Army]] was used in military campaigns in other parts of India and abroad: to provide crucial support to a weak Madras army in the [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]] in 1791, and also in [[Java]] and [[Ceylon]].<ref name="bayly-84-86"/> In contrast to the soldiers in the armies of Indian rulers, the Bengal sepoys not only received high pay, but also received it reliably, thanks in great measure to the company's access to the vast land-revenue reserves of Bengal.<ref name="bayly-84-86"/> Soon, bolstered both by the new musket technology and naval support, the Bengal army came to be widely well-regarded.<ref name="bayly-84-86"/> The well-disciplined sepoys attired in red-coats and their British officers began to arouse "a kind of awe in their adversaries. In Maharashtra and in Java, the sepoys were regarded as the embodiment of demonic forces, sometimes of antique warrior heroes. Indian rulers adopted red serge jackets for their own forces and retainers as if to capture their magical qualities."<ref name="bayly-84-86"/>

In 1796, under pressure from the company's board of directors in London, the Indian troops were re-organised and reduced during the tenure of [[John Shore, 1st Baron Teignmouth|John Shore]] as Governor-General.<ref name="igi-333"/> However, the closing years of the 18th century saw, with Wellesley's campaigns, a new increase in the army strength. Thus in 1806, at the time of the [[Vellore Mutiny]], the combined strength of the three presidencies' armies stood at 154,500, making them one of the largest [[Standing army|standing armies]] in the world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=61}}, {{Harvnb|Bayly|1987|pp=84–86}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto;"
! style="background:#ddd;" colspan="4"| East India Company armies on the eve of the [[Vellore Mutiny]] of 1806<ref>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=335}}</ref>
|-
! Presidencies !! British troops !! Indian troops !! Total
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Bengal || style="text-align:center;"| 7,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 57,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 64,000
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Madras || style="text-align:center;"| 11,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 53,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 64,000
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Bombay || style="text-align:center;"| 6,500 || style="text-align:center;"| 20,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 26,500
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Total || style="text-align:center;"| 24,500 || style="text-align:center;"| 130,000 || style="text-align:center;"| 154,500
|}

As the East India Company expanded its territories, it added irregular "local corps", which were not as well trained as the army.<ref name="igi-337">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=337}}</ref> In 1846, after the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]], a frontier brigade was raised in the [[Cis-Sutlej states|Cis-Sutlej Hill States]] mainly for police work; in addition, in 1849, the "[[Punjab Irregular Force]]" was added on the frontier.<ref name="igi-337"/> Two years later, this force consisted of "3 light field batteries, 5 regiments of cavalry, and 5 of infantry".<ref name="igi-337"/> The following year, "a garrison company was added, ... a sixth infantry regiment (formed from the Sind Camel Corps) in 1853, and one mountain battery in 1856".<ref name="igi-337"/> Similarly, a local force was raised after the annexation of Nagpur in 1854, and the "Oudh Irregular Force" was added after Oudh was annexed in 1856.<ref name="igi-337"/> Earlier, as a result of the treaty of 1800, the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] had begun to maintain a contingent force of 9,000 horse and 6,000-foot which was commanded by Company officers; in 1853, after a new treaty was negotiated, this force was assigned to [[Berar Province|Berar]] and stopped being a part of the Nizam's army.<ref name="igi-337"/>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto;"
! style="background:#ddd;" colspan="10"| East India Company armies on the eve of the [[Indian rebellion of 1857]]<ref name="igi-338">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=338}}</ref>
|-
! Presidencies !! colspan="4" | British troops !! colspan="5" | Indian troops
|-
! !! Cavalry !! Artillery !! Infantry !! Total !! Cavalry !! Artillery !! Sappers & Miners !! Infantry !! Total
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Bengal || style="text-align:center;"| 1,366 || style="text-align:center;"| 3,063 || style="text-align:center;"| 17,003 || style="text-align:center;"| 21,432 || style="text-align:center;"| 19,288 || style="text-align:center;"| 4,734 || style="text-align:center;"| 1,497 || style="text-align:center;"| 112,052 || style="text-align:center;"| 137,571
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Madras || style="text-align:center;"| 639 || style="text-align:center;"| 2,128 || style="text-align:center;"| 5,941 || style="text-align:center;"| 8,708 || style="text-align:center;"| 3,202 || style="text-align:center;"| 2,407 || style="text-align:center;"| 1,270 || style="text-align:center;"| 42,373 || style="text-align:center;"| 49,252
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| Bombay || style="text-align:center;"| 681 || style="text-align:center;"| 1,578 || style="text-align:center;"| 7,101 || style="text-align:center;"| 9,360 || style="text-align:center;"| 8,433 || style="text-align:center;"| 1,997 || style="text-align:center;"| 637 || style="text-align:center;"| 33,861 || style="text-align:center;"| 44,928
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Local forces and contingents || || || || || style="text-align:center;"| 6,796 || style="text-align:center;"| 2,118 || || style="text-align:center;"| 23,640 || style="text-align:center;"| 32,554
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| " " (unclassified) || || || || || || || || || style="text-align:center;"| 7,756
|-
|Military police || || || || || || || || || style="text-align:center;"| 38,977
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| '''Total''' || style="text-align:center;"| 2,686 || style="text-align:center;"| 6,769 || style="text-align:center;"| 30,045 || style="text-align:center;"| 39,500 || style="text-align:center;"| 37,719 || style="text-align:center;"| 11,256 || style="text-align:center;"| 3,404 || style="text-align:center;"| 211,926 || style="text-align:center;"| 311,038
|-
! colspan="9" | '''Grand Total, British and Indian troops''' !! 350,538
|}
In the Indian rebellion of 1857 almost the entire Bengal army, both regular and irregular, revolted.<ref name="igi-338"/> It has been suggested that after the annexation of Oudh by the East India Company in 1856, many sepoys were disquieted both from losing their perquisites, as landed gentry, in the Oudh courts and from the anticipation of any increased land-revenue payments that the annexation might augur.<ref name=brownp88>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=88}}</ref> With British victories in wars or with annexation, as the extent of British jurisdiction expanded, the soldiers were now not only expected to serve in less familiar regions (such as in Burma in the [[Anglo-Burmese Wars]] in 1856), but also make do without the "foreign service", remuneration that had previously been their due, and this caused resentment in the ranks.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=171}}, {{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|pp=70–72}}</ref> The Bombay and Madras armies, and the Hyderabad contingent, however, remained loyal. The Punjab Irregular Force not only did not revolt, it played an active role in suppressing the mutiny.<ref name="igi-338"/> The rebellion led to a complete re-organisation of the Indian army in 1858 in the new [[British Raj]].

===Civil service===
The reforms initiated after 1784 were designed to create an elite civil service where very talented young Britons would spend their entire careers. Advanced training was promoted especially at the [[East India Company College]] (until 1853).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Puri |first1=B. N. |year=1967 |title=The Training of Civil Servants under the Company |url= |journal=Journal of Indian History |volume=45 |issue=135 |pages=749–771}}</ref> Haileybury emphasised the [[Anglicanism|Anglican religion]] and morality and trained students in the classical [[Languages of India|Indian languages.]] Many students held to [[Whiggism|Whiggish]], [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]], and [[Utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] convictions of their duty to represent their nation and to modernise India. At most there were about 600 of these men who managed the Raj's customs service, taxes, justice system, and its general administration.<ref>David Gilmour, ''The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj'' (2005)</ref>{{failed verification|date=December 2022}}<ref>Colin Newbury, "Patronage and Professionalism: Manning a Transitional Empire, 1760–1870". ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' (2013) 42#2 pp: 193–213.</ref>{{failed verification|date=December 2022}} The company's original policy was one of "[[Orientalism]]", that is of adjusting to the way of life and customs of the Indian people and not trying to reform them. That changed after 1813, as the forces of reform in the home country, especially evangelical religion, Whiggish political outlook, and Utilitarian philosophy worked together to make the company an agent of Anglicization and modernisation. Christian missionaries became active, but made few converts. The Raj set out to outlaw [[Sati (practice)|sati]] (widow-burning) and [[thuggee]] (ritual banditry) and upgrade the status of women. Schools would be established in which they would teach the English language. The 1830s and 1840s, however, were not times of prosperity: After its heavy spending on the military, the company had little money to engage in large-scale public works projects or modernisation programs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Philip Lawson |title=The East India Company: A History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PQOtAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |pages=149–54 |isbn=9781317897651}}</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:Royal artillery encampment arcot1804.jpg|A Royal Artillery encampment at [[Arcot]], [[Madras Presidency]], 1804.
|File:North Entrance Of Tippoo's Palace At Bangalore (1804).jpg|[[East India Company]] ''[[Sepoy]]s'' (Indian infantrymen) in [[Red coat (British army)|red coats]] outside [[Tipu Sultan]]'s former summer palace in [[Bangalore]], 1804
|File:Military orphan school calcutta1794.jpg|Military Orphan School for private soldiers of the East India Company, [[Howrah]], [[Bengal Presidency]], 1794.
|File:Prinsep new writerEICservice1822.jpg|A new "writer" in the East India Company Civil Service arrives in Calcutta. A [[palanquin]] transport awaits him.
}}

==Trade==
{{main|Economy of India under Company rule}}

After gaining the right to collect revenue in Bengal in 1765, the Company largely ceased importing [[Bullion#Bullion|gold and silver]], which it had hitherto used to pay for goods shipped back to Britain.<ref name="robb-131-134">{{Harvnb|Robb|2002|pp=131–134}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Export of bullion to India, by EIC (1708–1810)<ref name="Sivramkrishna2016">{{cite book|author=Sashi Sivramkrishna|title=In Search of Stability: Economics of Money, History of the Rupee|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IDElDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA91|date=13 September 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-99749-2|pages=91–}}</ref>
|-
! Years
!Bullion (£)
!Average per annum
|-
|1708/9-1733/4 || 12,189,147 || 420,315
|-
|1734/5-1759/60 || 15,239,115 || 586,119
|-
|1760/1-1765/6 || 842,381 || 140,396
|-
|1766/7-1771/2 || 968,289 || 161,381
|-
|1772/3-1775/6 || 72,911 || 18,227
|-
|1776/7-1784/5 || 156,106 || 17,345
|-
|1785/6-1792/3 || 4,476,207 || 559,525
|-
|1793/4-1809/10 || 8,988,165 || 528,715
|}
In addition, as under Mughal Empire rule, land revenue collected in the Bengal Presidency helped finance the company's wars in other parts of India.<ref name="robb-131-134"/> Consequently, in the period 1760–1800, Bengal's [[money supply]] was greatly diminished; furthermore, the closing of some local mints and close supervision of the rest, the fixing of [[exchange rate]]s, and the standardisation of [[coin]]age, paradoxically, added to the economic downturn.<ref name="robb-131-134"/> During the period, 1780–1860, India changed from being an exporter of processed goods for which it received payment in [[bullion]], to being an exporter of [[raw materials]] and a buyer of [[manufactured goods]].<ref name="robb-131-134"/> More specifically, in the 1750s, mostly fine cotton and silk was exported from India to markets in Europe, Asia, and Africa; by the second quarter of the 19th century, raw materials, which chiefly consisted of raw cotton, opium, and indigo, accounted for most of India's exports.<ref name="peers-48-49">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|pp=48–49}}</ref> Also, from the late 18th century British cotton mill industry began to lobby the government to both tax Indian imports and allow them access to markets in India.<ref name="peers-48-49"/> Starting in the 1830s, British textiles began to appear in—and soon to inundate—the Indian markets, with the value of the textile imports growing from £5.2 million 1850 to £18.4 million in 1896.<ref>{{Harvnb|Farnie|1979|p=33}}</ref> The [[American Civil War]] too would have a major impact on India's cotton economy: with the outbreak of the war, [[Cotton production in the United States|American cotton]] was no longer available to [[Manufacturing in the United Kingdom|British manufacturers]]; consequently, demand for Indian cotton soared, and the prices soon quadrupled.<ref>{{Harvnb|Misra|1999|p=18}}</ref> This led many farmers in India to switch to cultivating cotton as a quick cash crop; however, with the end of the war in 1865, the demand plummeted again, creating another downturn in the agricultural economy.<ref name="peers-48-49"/>

At this time, the East India Company's trade with China began to grow as well. In the early 19th century, demand for [[Chinese tea]] had greatly increased in Britain; since the money supply in India was restricted and the company was indisposed to shipping bullion from Britain, it decided upon [[opium]], which had a large underground market in [[Qing dynasty|Qing China]] and which was grown in many parts of India, as the most profitable form of payment.<ref name="peers-49">{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=49}}</ref> However, since the Chinese authorities had banned the importation and consumption of opium, the Company engaged them in the [[First Opium War]], and at its conclusion, under the [[Treaty of Nanjing]], gained access to five Chinese ports, [[Guangzhou]], [[Xiamen]], [[Fuzhou]], Shanghai, and [[Ningbo]]; in addition, Hong Kong was ceded to the British Crown.<ref name="peers-49"/> Towards the end of the second quarter of the 19th century, opium export constituted 40% of India's exports.<ref>{{Harvnb|Washbrook|2001|p=403}}</ref>

Another major, though erratic, export item was [[indigo dye]], which was extracted from [[Indigofera tinctoria|natural indigo]], and which came to be grown in Bengal and northern Bihar.<ref name="metcalf-metcalf-76">{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=76}}</ref> In 1788, the East India Company offered advances to ten British planters to grow indigo; however, since the new (landed) property rights defined in the Permanent Settlement, did not allow them, as Europeans, to buy agricultural land, they had to in turn offer cash advances to local peasants, and sometimes coerce them, to grow the crop.<ref name="bando-125">{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=125}}</ref> In early 19th century Europe, blue clothing was favoured as a fashion, and blue uniforms were common in the military; consequently, the demand for the dye was high.<ref name="bose-jalal-57">{{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|p=57}}</ref> The European demand for the dye, however, proved to be unstable, and both creditors and cultivators bore the risk of the market crashes in 1827 and 1847.<ref name="metcalf-metcalf-76"/> The peasant discontent in Bengal eventually led to the ''[[Indigo rebellion]]'' in 1859–60 and to the end of indigo production there.<ref name="bando-125"/><ref name=bose-jalal-57 /> In Bihar, however, indigo production continued well into the 20th century; a centre of indigo production there, [[Champaran]] district, became an early testing ground, in 1917, for [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]]'s strategy of [[non-violent resistance]] against the [[British Raj]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|pp=57, 110}}</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:East india company factory sonargaon2.jpg|Photograph of East India Company factory in Painam, [[Sonargaon]], a major producer of the celebrated [[Dhaka]] [[muslin]]s.
|File:West view mellor muslin mill2.jpg|"Mellor Mill" in [[Marple, Greater Manchester|Marple]], Greater Manchester, England, was constructed in 1790–1793 for manufacturing muslin cloth.
|File:Opium godown store patna2.jpg|Opium ''Godown'' (Storehouse) in [[Patna]], Bihar (c. 1814). Patna was the centre of the Company opium industry.
|File:Indigo factory bengal2.jpg|[[Indigo dye]] factory in [[Bengal]]. Bengal was the world's largest producer of [[Indigofera tinctoria|natural indigo]] in the 19th century.
}}

==Justice system==

Until the British gained control of Bengal in later part of 18th century, the system of justice there was presided over by the Nawab of Bengal himself, who, as the chief law officer, ''Nawāb Nāzim'', attended to cases qualifying for capital punishment in his headquarters, [[Murshidabad]]. His deputy, the ''Naib Nāzim'', attended to the slightly less important cases. The ordinary lawsuits belonged to the jurisdiction of a hierarchy of court officials consisting of ''faujdārs'', ''muhtasils'', and ''kotwāls''. In the rural areas, or the ''Mofussil'', the ''[[zamindar]]s''—the rural overlords with the hereditary right to collect rent from peasant farmers—also had the power to administer justice. This they did with little routine oversight, being required to report only their judgments in capital punishment cases to the ''Nawāb''.

By the mid-18th century, the East India Company had completed a century and a half presence in India as a trading company, and had a burgeoning presence in the three ''presidency'' towns of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta. During this time the successive [[Royal Charter]]s had gradually given the East India Company more power to administer justice in these towns. In the charter granted by [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in 1683, the company was given the power to establish "courts of judicature" in locations of its choice, each court consisting of a lawyer and two merchants. This right was renewed in the subsequent charters granted by [[James II of England|James II]] and [[William III of England|William III]] in 1686 and 1698 respectively. In 1726, however, the Court of Directors of the Company felt that more customary justice was necessary for European residents in the presidency towns, and petitioned the King to establish ''Mayor's Courts''. The petition was approved and Mayor's courts, each consisting of a Mayor and nine aldermen, and each having the jurisdiction in lawsuits ''between'' Europeans, were created in Fort William (Calcutta), Madras, and Bombay. Judgments handed down by a Mayor's Court could be disputed with an appeal to the respective Presidency government and, when the amount disputed was greater than [[Rs.]] 4,000, with a further appeal to the [[King-in-Council]]. In 1753, the Mayor's courts were renewed under a revised [[letters patent]]; in addition, [[Court of Requests|Courts of Requests]] for lawsuits involving amounts less than Rs. 20 were introduced. Both types of courts were regulated by the Court of Directors of the East India Company.

After its victory in the [[Battle of Buxar]], the Company obtained in 1765 the ''Diwāni'' of Bengal, the right not only to collect revenue, but also to administer civil justice in Bengal. The administration of criminal justice, the ''Nizāmat'' or ''Faujdāri'', however, remained with the ''Nawāb'', and for criminal cases the prevailing [[Sharia|Islamic law]] remained in place. However, the company's new duties associated with the ''Diwāni'' were leased out to the Indian officials who had formerly performed them. This makeshift arrangement continued—with much accompanying disarray—until 1771, when the Court of Directors of the Company decided to obtain for the company the jurisdiction of both criminal and civil cases.

Soon afterwards Warren Hastings arrived in Calcutta as the first Governor-General of the company's Indian dominions and resolved to overhaul the company's organisation and in particular its judicial affairs. In the interior, or ''Mofussil'', ''diwāni adālats'', or a [[Trial court|civil courts of first instance]], were constituted in each district; these courts were presided over by European ''Zilā'' judges employed by the company, who were assisted in the interpretation of customary Indian law by Hindu ''[[pundit (India)|pandits]]'' and Muslim ''[[Qadi|qazi]]s''. For small claims, however, Registrars and Indian commissioners, known as ''Sadr Amīns'' and ''Munsifs'', were appointed. These in their turn were supervised by provincial [[appellate court|civil courts of appeal]] constituted for such purpose, each consisting of four British judges. All these were under the authority of the ''Sadr Diwāni Adālat'', or the [[Supreme court|Chief Civil Court of Appeals]], consisting of the Governor of the Presidency and his Council, assisted by Indian officers.

Similarly for criminal cases, Mofussil ''nizāmat adālats'', or Provincial [[Criminal law|courts of criminal judicature]], were created in the interior; these again consisted of Indian court officers (''pandits'' and ''qazis''), who were supervised by officials of the company. Also constituted were [[Circuit court|courts of circuit]] with [[appellate jurisdiction]] in criminal cases, which were usually presided over by the judges of the civil appellate courts. All these too were under a ''Sadr Nizāmat Adālat'' or a Chief Court of Criminal Appeal.

Around this time the business affairs of the East India Company began to draw increased scrutiny in the [[House of Commons of Great Britain|House of Commons]]. After receiving a report by a committee, which condemned the Mayor's Courts, [[the Crown]] issued a charter for a new judicial system in the [[Bengal Presidency]]. The [[British Parliament]] consequently enacted the [[Regulating Act 1773]] under which the King-in-Council created a [[Supreme court|Supreme Court]] in the ''Presidency town'', i.e. [[Calcutta|Fort William]]. The tribunal consisted of one Chief Justice and three [[puisne judge]]s; all four judges were to be chosen from [[barrister]]s. The Supreme Court supplanted the Mayor's Court; however, it left the Court of Requests in place. Under the charter, the Supreme Court, moreover, had the authority to exercise all types of jurisdiction in the region of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, with the only caveat that in situations where the disputed amount was in excess of Rs. 4,000, their judgment could be appealed to the [[Privy Council]]. Both the Act and the charter said nothing about the relation between the [[judiciary]] (Supreme Court) and the [[executive branch]] (Governor-General); equally, they were silent on the ''Adālats'' (both ''Diwāni'' and ''Nizāmat'') created by Warren Hastings just the year before. In the new Supreme Court, the civil and criminal cases alike were interpreted and prosecuted accorded to [[English law]]; in the ''Sadr Adālats'', however, the judges and law-officers had no knowledge of English law, and were required only, by the Governor-General's order, "to proceed according to equity, justice, and good conscience, unless [[Hindu law|Hindu]] or [[Sharia|Muhammadan law]] was in point, or some Regulation expressly applied".

There was a good likelihood, therefore, that the Supreme Court and the ''Sadr Adālats'' would act in opposition to each other and, predictably, many disputes resulted. Hastings' premature attempt to appoint the Chief Justice, [[Elijah Impey|Sir Elijah Impey]], an old schoolmate from [[Winchester College|Winchester]], to the bench of the ''Sadr Diwāni Adālat'', only complicated the situation further. The appointment had to be annulled in 1781 by a parliamentary intervention with the enactment of the [[Declaration Act 1781]]. The act exempted the Executive Branch from the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. It recognised the independent existence of the ''Sadr Adālats'' and all subsidiary courts of the company. Furthermore, it headed off future legal turf wars by prohibiting the Supreme Court any jurisdiction in matters of revenue (''Diwāni'') or Regulations of the Government enacted by the British Parliament. This state of affairs continued until 1797, when the [[East India Act 1797]] (37 Geo. 3. c. 142) extended the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court to the province of [[Benares]] (which had since been added to the company's dominions) and "all places for the time being included in Bengal". With the creation of the [[Ceded and Conquered Provinces]] in 1805, the jurisdiction would extend as far west as Delhi.

In the other two presidencies, [[Madras Presidency|Madras]] and [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]], a similar course of legal changes unfolded; there, however, the Mayor's Courts were first strengthened to [[Recorder's Court]]s by adding a legal president to the bench. The Supreme Courts in Madras and Bombay were finally established in 1801 and 1823, respectively. Madras Presidency was also unusual in being the first to rely on village headmen and ''[[Panchayati raj in India|panchāyats]]'' for cases involving small claims. This judicial system in the three presidencies was to survive the company's rule, the next major change coming only in 1861.

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:Thomas strange house madras1811.jpg|The house of [[Thomas Andrew Lumisden Strange|Sir Thomas Strange]], who in 1800 became the first Chief Justice of the Fort of St. George (Madras) and wrote ''Elements of Hindu Law'' (1825).
|File:Chowringheeroad adalat1833.jpg|An 1833 Lithograph of the ''Sadr Diwāni Adālat'', the Chief Civil Court for Indians, on Chowringhee Road, Calcutta.
|File:The Native Judges.jpg|Coloured engraving of the judges and officers of Hindu (top row) and Muslim (bottom row) law in the Recorder Court in Bombay, 1805.
|File:Bombay courthouse1850.jpg|The Court-House Building on Apollo Street, Bombay (third building on left, just beyond the domed Ice House) shown in 1850.
}}

==Education==
{{Further|History of education in the Indian subcontinent}}
Education of Indians had become a topic of interest among East India Company officials from the outset of the company's rule in Bengal.<ref name="robb-p137">{{Harvnb|Robb|2002|p=137}}</ref> In the last two decades of the 18th century and the first decade of the nineteenth, Company officials pursued a policy of conciliation towards the native culture of its new dominion, especially in relation to education policy.<ref name="robb-p137"/> During the 19th century, the Indian literacy rates were rumoured to be less than half of post independence levels which were 18.33% in 1951. The policy was pursued in the aid of three goals: "to sponsor Indians in their own culture, to advance knowledge of India, and to employ that knowledge in government".<ref name="robb-p137"/>

The first goal was supported by some administrators, such as Warren Hastings, who envisaged the company as the successor of a great Empire, and saw the support of vernacular learning as only befitting that role. In 1781, Hastings founded the ''[[Madrasa 'Aliya]]'', an institution in Calcutta for the study of Arabic and [[Persian language|Persian]] languages, and [[Islamic law]]. A few decades later a related perspective appeared among the governed population, one that was expressed by the conservative Bengali reformer Radhakanta Deb as the "duty of the Rulers of Countries to preserve and Customs and the religions of their subjects".

The second goal was motivated by the concerns among some Company officials about being seen as foreign rulers. They argued that the company should try to win over its subjects by outdoing the region's previous rulers in the support of indigenous learning. Guided by this belief, the [[Government Sanskrit College|Benares Sanskrit College]] was founded in [[Varanasi]] in 1791 during the administration of Lord Cornwallis. The promotion of knowledge of Asia had attracted scholars as well to the company's service. Earlier, in 1784, the [[Asiatic Society|Asiatick Society]] had been founded in Calcutta by [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]], a [[puisne judge]] in the newly established Supreme Court of Bengal. Soon, Jones was to advance his [[William Jones (philologist)#Scholarly contributions|famous thesis]] on the common origin of [[Indo-European languages]].

The third related goal grew out of the philosophy then current among some Company officials that they would themselves become better administrators if they were better versed in the languages and cultures of India. It led in 1800 to the founding of the [[College of Fort William]], in Calcutta by [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Lord Wellesley]], the then Governor-General. The college was later to play an important role both in the development of [[Languages of India|modern Indian languages]] and in the [[Bengal Renaissance]]. Advocates of these related goals were termed, "[[oriental studies|Orientalists]]". The Orientalist group was led by [[Horace Hayman Wilson]]. Many leading Company officials, such as [[Sir Thomas Munro, 1st Baronet|Thomas Munro]] and [[Montstuart Elphinstone]], were influenced by the Orientalist ethos and felt that the company's government in India should be responsive to Indian expectations. The Orientalist ethos would prevail in education policy well into the 1820s, and was reflected in the founding of the [[Deccan College (Pune)|Poona Sanskrit College]] in [[Pune]] in 1821 and the [[Sanskrit College|Calcutta Sanskrit College]] in 1824.

The Orientalists were, however, soon opposed by advocates of an approach that has been termed ''[[Anglicist]]''. The Anglicists supported instruction in the English language in order to impart to Indians what they considered modern Western knowledge. Prominent among them were [[evangelicalism|evangelicals]] who, after 1813—when the company's territories were opened to [[mission (Christian)|Christian missionaries]]—were interested in spreading Christian belief; they also believed in using theology to promote liberal social reform, such as the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolition of slavery]]. Among them was [[Charles Grant (British East India Company)|Charles Grant]], the Chairman of the East India Company. Grant supported state-sponsored education in India 20 years before a similar system was set up in Britain. Among Grant's close evangelical friends were [[William Wilberforce]], a prominent [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionist]] and member of the British Parliament, and [[John Shore, 1st Baron Teignmouth|Sir John Shore]], the Governor-General of India from 1793 to 1797. During this period, many Scottish Presbyterian missionaries also supported the British rulers in their efforts to spread English education and established many reputed colleges like [[Scottish Church College]] (1830), [[Wilson College, Mumbai|Wilson College]] (1832), [[Madras Christian College]] (1837), and [[Elphinstone College]] (1856).

However, the Anglicists also included [[utilitarians]], led by [[James Mill]], who had begun to play an important role in fashioning Company policy. The utilitarians believed in the moral worth of an education that aided the good of society and promoted instruction in ''useful knowledge''. Such ''useful'' instruction to Indians had the added consequence of making them more suitable for the company's burgeoning bureaucracy. By the early 1830s, the Anglicists had the upper hand in devising education policy in India. Many utilitarian ideas were employed in [[Thomas Babbington Macaulay]]'s ''[[English Education Act 1835#Macaulay's "Minute Upon Indian Education"|Minute on Indian Education]]'' of 1835. The ''Minute'', which later aroused great controversy, was to influence education policy in India well into the next century.

Since English was increasingly being employed as the language of instruction, Persian was abolished as the official language of the company's administration and courts by 1837. However, bilingual educations was proving to be popular as well, and some institutions such as the Poona Sanskrit College commenced teaching both Sanskrit and English. Charles Grant's son, [[Robert Grant (MP)|Sir Robert Grant]], who in 1834 was appointed Governor of the [[Bombay Presidency]], played an influential role in the planning of the first medical college in Bombay, which after his unexpected death was named [[Grant Medical College]] when it was established in 1845. During 1852–1853 some citizens of Bombay sent petitions to the British Parliament in support of both establishing and adequately funding university education in India. The petitions resulted in the [[Wood's dispatch|Education Dispatch of 1854]] sent by [[Charles Wood, 1st Viscount Halifax|Sir Charles Wood]], the [[President of the Board of Control]] of the East India Company, the chief official on Indian affairs in the British government, to [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]], the then Governor-General of India. The dispatch outlined a broad plan of state-sponsored education for India, which included:<ref>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=413}}</ref>

# Establishing a Department of Public Instruction in each [[Provinces of British India|presidency or province of British India]].
# Establishing universities modelled on the [[University of London]] (as primarily examining institutions for students studying in affiliated colleges) in each of the ''Presidency towns'' (i.e. [[Chennai|Madras]], [[Mumbai|Bombay]], and Calcutta)
# Establishing teachers-training schools for all levels of instruction
# Maintaining existing Government colleges and high-schools and increasing their number when necessary.
# Vastly increasing vernacular schools for elementary education in villages.
# Introducing a system of [[Grant-in-aid|grants-in-aid]] for private schools.

The Department of Public Instruction was in place by 1855. In January 1857, the [[University of Calcutta]] was established, followed by the [[University of Bombay]] in June 1857, and the [[University of Madras]] in September 1857. The University of Bombay, for example, consisted of three affiliated institutions: the [[Elphinstone College|Elphinstone Institution]], the [[Grant Medical College]], and the [[Deccan College (Pune)|Poona Sanskrit College]]. The company's administration also founded high-schools ''en masse'' in the different provinces and presidencies, and the policy was continued during [[British Raj|Crown rule]] which commenced in 1858. By 1861, 230,000 students were attending public educational institutions in the four provinces (the three Presidencies and [[North-Western Provinces]]), of whom 200,000 were in primary schools.<ref name="igi-iv-p414">{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909|p=414}}</ref> Over 5,000 primary schools and 142 secondary schools had been established in these provinces.<ref name="igi-iv-p414"/> Earlier, during the Indian rebellion of 1857, some civilian leaders, such as Khan Bhadur Khan of [[Bareilly]], had stressed the threat posed to the populace's religions by the new education programmes begun by the company; however, historical statistics have shown that this was not generally the case. For example, in [[Etawah]] district in the then North-Western Provinces (present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]]), where during the period 1855–1857, nearly 200 primary, middle-, and high-schools had been opened by the company and tax levied on the population, relative calm prevailed and the schools remained open during the rebellion.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stokes|1986}}, {{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=91}}</ref>

{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:Hindu college calcutta1851.jpg|A coloured-in photograph (1851) of Hindu College, Calcutta, which had been founded in 1817 by a committee headed by [[Raja Ram Mohun Roy]]. In 1855, the Government of the [[Bengal Presidency]] renamed it ''[[Presidency College, Kolkata|Presidency College]]'' and opened it to all students.
|File:Student hindoo college calcutta1844.jpg|An engraving (1844) of a youth, who according to the engraver, Emily Eden, was "a favourite and successful young student at the [[Presidency College, Kolkata|Hindu College]] in Calcutta, where scholars acquire a very perfect knowledge of English, and have a familiarity with the best English writers".
|File:Grant medical college1844.jpg|An 1844 engraving of [[Grant Medical College]] (left) and [[Grant Medical College and Sir Jamshedjee Jeejeebhoy Group of Hospitals|Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy Hospital]] (right background) in Bombay made by G. R. Sargeant the year before the medical college was formally opened.
|File:Grant med college jjhospital1855.jpg|An 1855 photograph of the same two institutions. In 1857, Grant Medical College became one of three institutions affiliated with the newly established [[University of Bombay]]. The college was funded partly by the Jeejeebhoy family and partly by the East India Company.
}}

==Social reform==
In the first half of the 19th century, the British legislated reforms against what they considered were iniquitous Indian practices. In most cases, the legislation alone was unable to change Indian society sufficiently for it to absorb both the ideal and the ethic underpinning the reform. For example, upper-caste Hindu society in the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan speaking]] regions of India had long looked askance at the remarriage of widows in order to protect both what it considered was family honour and family property. Even adolescent widows were expected to live a life of austerity and denial.<ref name="Dyson2018-20">{{citation |last=Dyson |first=Tim |title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |year=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-882905-8 |page=20 |quote=Therefore, by the time of the Mauryan Empire the position of women in mainstream Indo-Aryan society seems to have deteriorated. Customs such as child marriage and dowry were becoming entrenched; and a young women's purpose in life was to provide sons for the male lineage into which she married. To quote the Arthashāstra: 'wives are there for having sons'. Practices such as female infanticide and the neglect of young girls were also developing at this time. Further, due to the increasingly hierarchical nature of the society, marriage was becoming a mere institution for childbearing and the formalization of relationships between groups. In turn, this may have contributed to the growth of increasingly instrumental attitudes towards women and girls (who moved home at marriage). It is important to note that, in all likelihood, these developments did not affect people living in large parts of the subcontinent—such as those in the south, and tribal communities inhabiting the forested hill and plateau areas of central and eastern India. That said, these deleterious features have continued to blight Indo-Aryan speaking areas of the subcontinent until the present day}}</ref><ref name="Stein2010-90">{{Harvnb|Stein|2010|p=90}}</ref><ref name="RamusackSievers1999">{{citation |last=Ramusack |first=Barbara N. |editor=Barbara N. Ramusack, Sharon L. Sievers |title=Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PA27 |year=1999 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=0-253-21267-7 |pages=27–29 |chapter=Women in South Asia |quote=The legal rights, as well as the ideal images, of women were increasingly circumscribed during the Gupta era. The Laws of Manu, compiled from about 200 to 400 C.E., came to be the most prominent evidence that this era was not necessarily a golden age for women. Through a combination of legal injunctions and moral prescriptions, women were firmly tied to the patriarchal family, ... Thus the Laws of Manu severely reduced the property rights of women, recommended a significant difference in ages between husband and wife and the relatively early marriage of women, and banned widow remarriage. Manu's preoccupation with chastity reflected possibly a growing concern for the maintenance of inheritance rights in the male line, a fear of women undermining the increasingly rigid caste divisions, and a growing emphasis on male asceticism as a higher spiritual calling.}}</ref> The [[Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856]], enacted in the waning years of Company rule, provided legal safeguards against loss of certain forms of inheritance for a remarrying Hindu widow, though not of the inheritance due her from her deceased husband. However, very few widows actually remarried. Some Indian reformers, such as [[Raja Ram Mohan Roy]], [[Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar]], even offered money to men who would take widows as brides, but these men often deserted their new wives.

==Post and telegraph==
===Postal services===
{{Further|Postal history of India}}
Before 1837, the East India Company's dominions in India had no universal public [[Postal administration|postal service]], one that was shared by all regions. Although [[courier service]]s did exist, connecting the more important towns with their respective seats of provincial government (i.e. the ''Presidency towns'' of Fort William ([[Calcutta]]), [[Fort St. George]] (Madras), and [[Bombay]]), private individuals were, upon payment, only sparingly allowed their use. That situation changed in 1837, when, by Act XVII of that year, a public post, run by the company's Government, was established in the company's territory in India. Post offices were established in the principal towns and postmasters appointed. The postmasters of the Presidency towns oversaw a few provincial post offices in addition to being responsible for the main postal services between the provinces. By contrast, the [[District collector]]s (originally, collectors of land-tax) directed the District post offices, including their local postal services. Postal services required payment in cash, to be made in advance, with the amount charged usually varying with weight and distance. For example, the charge of sending a letter from Calcutta to Bombay was one [[rupee]]; however, that from Calcutta to [[Agra]] was 12 [[Anna (monetary subunit)|annas]] (or three-quarter of a rupee) for each [[Tola (mass)|tola]] (three-eighths of an ounce).<ref>Majumdar, Mohini Lal. ''The imperial post offices of British India, 1837–1914'' (Phila Publications, 1990)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Headrick |first=Daniel |date=2010 |title=A double-edged sword: Communications and imperial control in British India |url= |journal=Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=51–65 |doi= |jstor=20762428}}</ref>

After the recommendations of the commission appointed in 1850 to evaluate the Indian postal system were received, Act XVII of 1837 was superseded by the Indian Postal Act of 1854. Under its provisions, the entire postal department was headed by a ''Director-General'', and the duties of a ''Postmaster-General'' were set apart from those of a Presidency Postmaster; the former administered the postal system of the larger provinces (such as the [[Bombay Presidency]] or the [[North-Western Provinces]]), whereas the latter attended to the less important Provinces (such as [[Ajmer-Merwara]] and the major Political Agencies such as [[Rajputana Agency|Rajputana]]). Postage stamps were introduced at this time and the postal rates fixed by weight, dependent no longer also on the distance travelled in the delivery. The lowest inland letter rate was half anna for {{frac|1|4}} tola, followed by one anna for {{frac|1|2}} tola, and 2 annas for a tola, a great reduction from the rates of 17 years before. The [[Indian Post Office]] delivered letters, newspapers, postcards, book packets, and parcels. These deliveries grew steadily in number; by 1861 (three years after the end of Company rule), a total of 889 post offices had been opened, and almost 43 million letters and over four and a half million newspapers were being delivered annually.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rahman | first1 = Siddique Mahmudur | year = 2002 | title = Postal Services During The East India Company's Rule In Bengal | url = | journal = Bangladesh Historical Studies | volume = 19 | issue = | page = 43 }}</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:General postoffice calcutta1833.jpg|Lithograph of the General Post Office on Chowringhee Street, Calcutta, 1833, four years before the India-wide postal service was established under the Indian Postal Act of 1837.
|File:India fouranna blueandred1854.jpg|Two four [[Anna (monetary subunit)|anna]] stamps issued in 1854. Stamps were issued for the first time for all of British India in 1854. The lowest denomination was {{frac|1|2}} anna blue, followed by 1 anna red, and 4 annas blue and red. The stamps were printed from lithographic stones at the Surveyor-General's Office in Calcutta.
|File:India fouranna blueandred inverted1854.jpg|Since the four anna stamps were composed of two colours, they required two different printings, one for Queen Victoria's head in blue, and the other for the surrounding red frame. In these, rare stamps, shown on a letter mailed from Bombay to [[Venice]], the head was accidentally oriented upside-down in relation to the frame.
|File:Semaphore telegraph bihar1823.jpg|A [[Semaphore line|semaphore]] "telegraph" signalling tower in Silwar (Bihar), 13 February 1823, thirty years before electric telegraphy was rapidly introduced into India by the East India Company.
}}

===Telegraphy===
Before the advent of [[Electrical telegraph|electric telegraphy]], the word "telegraph" had been used for [[Semaphore line|semaphore]] signalling. During the period 1820–1830, the East India Company's Government in India seriously considered constructing signalling towers ("telegraph" towers), each a hundred feet high and separated from the next by eight miles, along the entire distance from Calcutta to Bombay. Although such towers were built in Bengal and Bihar, the India-wide semaphore network never took off. By mid-century, electric telegraphy had become viable, and hand signalling obsolete.

[[William Brooke O'Shaughnessy|W. B. O'Shaughnessy]], a professor of chemistry in the [[Medical College Kolkata|Calcutta Medical College]], received permission in 1851 to conduct a trial run for a telegraph service from Calcutta to [[Diamond Harbour]] along the river [[Hooghly River|Hooghly]]. Four telegraph offices, mainly for shipping-related business, were also opened along the river that year. The telegraph receiver used in the trial was a [[galvanometer|galvanoscope]] of O'Shaughnessy's design and manufactured in India. When the experiment was deemed to be a success a year later, the Governor-General of India, [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]], sought permission from the Court of Directors of the company for the construction of [[telegraph line]]s from "Calcutta to Agra, Agra to Bombay, Agra to Peshawar, and Bombay to Madras, extending in all over 3,050 miles and including forty-one offices". The permission was soon granted; by February 1855 all the proposed telegraph lines had been constructed and were being used to send paid messages. O'Shaughnessy's instrument was used all over India until early 1857, when it was supplanted by the [[Morse code|Morse instrument]]. By 1857, the telegraph network had expanded to 4,555 miles of lines and sixty two offices, and had reached as far as the [[hill station]] of [[Ootacamund]] in the [[Nilgiri Hills]] and the port of [[Kozhikode|Calicut]] on the southwest coast of India. During the Indian rebellion of 1857, more than seven hundred miles of telegraph lines were destroyed by the rebel forces, mainly in the [[North-Western Provinces]]. The East India Company was nevertheless able to use the remaining intact lines to warn many outposts of impending disturbances. The political value of the new technology was, thus, driven home to the company, and, in the following year, not only were the destroyed lines rebuilt, but the network was expanded further by 2,000 miles.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gorman |first=Mel |author-link1= |date=October 1971 |title=Sir William O'Shaughnessy, Lord Dalhousie, and the Establishment of the Telegraph System in India |url= |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=581–601 |doi= 10.2307/3102572|jstor=3102572|s2cid=111443299 }}</ref>

O'Shaughnessy's experimental set-up of 1851–52 consisted of both overhead and underground lines; the latter included underwater ones that crossed two rivers, the [[Hooghly river|Hooghly]] and the [[Haldi River|Haldi]]. The overhead line was constructed by welding uninsulated iron rods, {{frac|13|1|2}} feet long and 3/8 inch wide, end to end. These lines, which weighed 1,250 pounds per mile, were held aloft by fifteen-foot lengths of bamboo, planted into the ground at equal intervals—200 to the mile—and covered with a layer each of coal tar and [[pitch (resin)|pitch]] for insulation. The underwater cables had been manufactured in England and consisted of [[copper wire]] covered with [[gutta-percha]]. Furthermore, in order to protect the cables from dragging [[anchor|ship anchors]], the cables were attached to the links of a {{convert|7/8|in|mm|adj=mid|-thick}} chain cable. An underwater cable of length 2,070 yards was laid across the Hooghly river at [[Diamond Harbour]], and another, 1,400 yards long, was laid across the Haldi at [[Khejuri II#Khijri|Kedgeree]].

Work on the long lines from Calcutta to [[Peshawar]] (through Agra), Agra to Bombay, and Bombay to Madras began in 1853. The conducting material chosen for these lines was now lighter, and the support stronger. The wood used for the support consisted of teak, sal, [[fir]], [[ironwood]], or blackwood (''Terminalia elata''), and was either fashioned into whole posts, or used in attachments to iron ''screw-piles'' or [[masonry]] columns. Some sections had uniformly strong support; one such was the 322-mile Bombay-Madras line, which was supported by [[granite]] [[obelisks]] sixteen feet high. Other sections had less secure support, consisting, in some cases, of sections of [[Borassus flabellifer|toddy palm]], insulated with pieces of sal wood fastened to their tops. Some of the conducting wires or rods were insulated, the insulating material being manufactured in either India or England; other stretches of wire remained uninsulated. By 1856, iron tubes had begun to be employed to provide support, and would see increased use in the second half of the 19th century all over India.

The first Telegraph Act for India was Parliament's Act XXXIV of 1854. When the public telegramme service was first set up in 1855, the charge was fixed at one rupee for every sixteen words (including the address) for every 400 miles of transmission. The charges were doubled for telegrammes sent between 6PM and 6AM. These rates would remain fixed until 1882. In the year 1860–61, two years after the end of Company rule, India had 11,093 miles of telegraph lines and 145 telegraph offices. That year telegrams totalling [[Indian Rupees|Rs.]] 500,000 in value were sent by the public, the working expense of the ''Indian Telegraph Department'' was Rs. 1.4 million, and the [[capital expenditure]] until the end of the year totalled Rs. 6.5 million.

==Railways==
{{Further|Rail transport in India#History}}
The first [[inter-city rail]]way service in England, the [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]], had been established in 1825;<ref>[[Stockton and Darlington Railway]]</ref> in the following decade other inter-city railways were rapidly constructed between cities in England. In 1845, the Court of Directors of the East India Company, forwarded to the Governor-General of India, [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]], a number of applications they had received from private contractors in England for the construction of a wide-ranging railway network in India, and requested a feasibility report. They added that, in their view, the enterprise would be profitable only if large sums of money could be raised for the construction. The Court was concerned that in addition to the usual difficulties encountered in the construction of this new form of transportation, India might present some unique problems, among which they counted floods, tropical storms in coastal areas, damage by "insects and luxuriant tropical vegetation", and the difficulty of finding qualified technicians at a reasonable cost. It was suggested, therefore, that three experimental lines be constructed and their performance evaluated.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Macpherson | first1 = W. J. | year = 1955 | title = Investment in Indian railways, 1845–1875 | journal = Economic History Review | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 177–186 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.1955.tb01558.x}}</ref>

Contracts were awarded in 1849 to the [[East Indian Railway Company]] to construct a 120-mile railway from [[Howrah]]-Calcutta to [[Raniganj]]; to the [[Great Indian Peninsular Railway|Great Indian Peninsular Railway Company]] for a service from Bombay to [[Kalyan, India|Kalyan]], thirty miles away; and to the ''Madras Railway Company'' for a line from [[Chennai|Madras city]] to [[Arakkonam|Arkonam]], a distance of some thirty nine miles. Although construction began first, in 1849, on the East Indian Railways line, with an outlay of £1 million, it was the first-leg of the Bombay-Kalyan line—a 21-mile stretch from Bombay to [[Thane]]—that, in 1853, was the first to be completed (see picture below).

[[File:IndianRailways1871b.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Map of the completed and planned railway lines in India in 1871, thirteen years after the end of Company rule.]]
The feasibility of a train network in India was comprehensively discussed by Lord Dalhousie in his ''Railway minute of 1853''. The Governor-General vigorously advocated the quick and widespread introduction of railways in India, pointing to their political, social, and economic advantages. He recommended that a network of ''trunk lines'' be first constructed connecting the inland regions of each presidency with its chief port as well as each presidency with several others. His recommended trunk lines included the following ones: (i) from Calcutta, in the [[Bengal Presidency]], on the eastern coast to [[Lahore]] in the north-western region of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], annexed just three years before; (ii) from [[Agra]] in north-central India (in, what was still being called [[North-Western Provinces]]) to [[Bombay|Bombay city]] on the western coast; (iii) from Bombay to [[Chennai|Madras city]] on the southeastern coast; and (iv) from Madras to the southwestern Malabar coast (see map above). The proposal was soon accepted by the Court of Directors.

During this time work had been proceeding on the experimental lines as well. The first leg of the East Indian Railway line, a [[broad gauge]] railway, from Howrah to [[Pandua, Hooghly|Pandua]], was opened in 1854 (see picture of locomotive below), and the entire line up to Raniganj would become functional by the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857. The Great Indian Peninsular Railway was permitted to extend its experimental line to [[Poona]]. This extension required planning for the steep rise in the ''Bor Ghat'' valley in the [[Western Ghats]], a section {{frac|15|3|4}} miles long with an ascent of 1,831 feet. Construction began in 1856 and was completed in 1863, and, in the end, the line required a total of twenty five tunnels and fifteen miles of gradients (inclines) of 1 in 50 or steeper, the most extreme being the ''Bor Ghat Incline'', a distance of {{frac|1|3|4}} miles at a gradient of 1 in 37 (see picture above).

Each of the three companies (and later five others that were given contracts in 1859) was a [[joint stock]] company [[Domicile (law)|domiciled]] in England with its [[financial capital]] raised in [[pounds sterling]]. Each company was guaranteed a 5 per cent return on its capital outlay and, in addition, a share of half the profits. Although the Government of India had no [[capital expenditure]] other than the provision of the underlying land free of charge, it had the onus of continuing to provide the 5 percent return in the event of net loss, and soon all anticipation of profits would fall by the wayside as the outlays would mount.

The technology of railway construction was still new and there was no [[railway engineering]] expertise in India; consequently, all engineers had to be brought in from England. These engineers were unfamiliar not only with the language and culture of India, but also with the physical aspect of the land itself and its concomitant engineering requirements. Moreover, never before had such a large and complex construction project been undertaken in India, and no pool of semi-skilled labour was already organised to aid the engineers. The work, therefore, proceeded in fits and starts—many practical trials followed by a final construction that was undertaken with great caution and care—producing an outcome that was later criticised as being "built to a standard which was far in excess of the needs to the time". The Government of India's administrators, moreover, made up in their attention to the fine details of expenditure and management what they lacked in professional expertise. The resulting delays soon led to the appointment of a Committee of the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] in 1857–58 to investigate the matter. However, by the time the Committee concluded that all parties needed to honour the spirit rather than the letter of the contracts, Company rule in India had ended.

Although, railway construction had barely begun in the last years of this rule, its foundations had been laid, and it would proceed apace for much of the next half century. By the turn of the 20th century, India would have over 28,000 miles of railways connecting most interior regions to the ports of Karachi, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, [[Chittagong]], and [[Rangoon]], and together they would constitute the fourth-largest railway network in the world.<ref>Thorner, Daniel. "Great Britain and the development of India's railways". ''Journal of Economic History'' 1951; 11(4): 389–402. [http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0022050700085120 online]</ref>
{{Gallery|align=center
|width=180 |File:Railway bridge bhor ghaut incline1855.jpg|Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay.
|File:Dapoorie viaduct, Poona, 1858.jpg|Photograph (1858) of the Dapoorie viaduct over the Mula River near Poona in Bombay Presidency.<ref name="Chatterjee2019">{{citation|last=Chatterjee|first=Arup|title=The Great Indian Railways: A Cultural Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LGiDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT318|year=2019|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-93-88414-23-4|pages=318–}}</ref>
|File:First locomotive india1854 photo1894.jpg|Photograph (1897) of the first locomotive, shown on the right and christened "[[List of Latin phrases (M-O)|multum in parvo]]" (barely visible on the wheel casing), which was used by the [[East Indian Railway Company]] in 1854 on its 23-mile line from [[Howrah]] to [[Pandua, Hooghly|Pandua]].
|File:India railways trunklines 1853.jpg|The trunk lines proposed by the Governor-General of India, [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] in his ''Railway minute of 1853'' (shown in red on a 1908 railway map of India).
}}

==Canals==

The first irrigation works undertaken during the East India Company's rule began in 1817. Consisting chiefly of extensions or reinforcements of previous Indian works, these projects were limited to the plains north of Delhi and to the river deltas of the [[Madras Presidency]].<ref name="stone2002-p13">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=13}}</ref>

In plains above Delhi, the mid-14th century [[Sultan of Delhi]], [[Firoz Shah Tughlaq]], had constructed the 150-mile-long ''Western Jamna Canal''. Taking off from the right bank of the [[Yamuna river|Jamna river]] early in its course, the canal irrigated the Sultan's territories in the [[Hisar District|Hissar]] region of [[Punjab, India|Eastern Punjab]]. By the mid-16th century, however, the fine sediment carried by the [[Himalaya]]n river had gradually choked the canal. Desilted and reopened several decades later by [[Akbar the Great]], the ''Western Jamna Canal'' was itself tapped by Akbar's grandson [[Shah Jahan]], and some of its water was diverted to Delhi. During this time, another canal was cut off the river. The 129-mile ''Eastern Jamna Canal'' or ''Doab Canal'', which took off from the left bank of the Jamna, also high in its course, presented a qualitatively different difficulty. Since it was routed through steeply sloped land, its flow was difficult to control, and it never operated efficiently. With the decline of the Mughal Empire's power in the 18th century, both canals fell into disrepair.<ref name="stone2002-p14-15">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|pp=14–15}}</ref> The Western Jamna Canal was repaired by [[British Army]] engineers, and it reopened in 1820. The Doab Canal was reopened in 1830; its considerable renovation involved raising the embankment by an average height of 9 ft for some 40 miles.<ref name="stone2002-p15">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=15}}</ref>

[[File:GangesCanal2.jpg|right|thumb|The Ganges Canal highlighted in red stretching between its headworks off the [[Ganges river]] in [[Haridwar district|Hardwar]] and its confluence with the [[Yamuna River|Jumna river]] below [[Cawnpore]] (now Kanpur).]]
Farther west in the [[Punjab region]], the 130-mile long ''Hasli Canal'', had been constructed by previous rulers.<ref name="stone2002-p13" /> Taking off from the [[Ravi river]] and supplying water to the cities of [[Lahore]] and [[Amritsar]], this left-bank canal was extended by the British in the ''[[Bari Doab]] Canal'' works during 1850–1857. The Punjab region, moreover, had much rudimentary irrigation by "inundation canals". Consisting of open cuts along the sides of rivers and unregulated, the inundation canals had been used in both the Punjab and [[Sindh]] for many centuries. Many such canals in [[Multan]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan]], and [[Muzaffargarh]] were still working efficiently at the time of the British [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|annexation of the Punjab]] in 1849.<ref name="stone2002-pp13-14">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|pp=13–14}}</ref>

The first new British work—with no Indian antecedents—was the [[Ganges Canal]] built between 1842 and 1854.<ref name="stone2002-p16">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=16}}</ref>
Contemplated first by Col. [[John Russell Colvin]] in 1836, it did not at first elicit much enthusiasm from its eventual architect, Sir [[Proby Thomas Cautley]], who baulked at the idea of cutting a canal through extensive low-lying land to reach the drier upland destination. However, after the [[Agra famine of 1837–38]], during which the East India Company's administration spent [[Rs.]] 2,300,000 on famine relief, the idea of a canal became more attractive to the company's Court of Directors.<ref name="stone2002-pp16-17"/> In 1839, the [[Governor General of India]], [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]], with the Court's assent, granted funds to Cautley for a complete survey of the swath of land that underlay and fringed the projected course of the canal. The Court of Directors, moreover, considerably enlarged the scope of the projected canal, which, in consequence of the severity and geographical extent of the famine, they now deemed to be the entire [[Doab]] region.<ref name="stone2002-pp16-17">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|pp=16–17}}</ref>

The enthusiasm, however, proved to be short-lived. Auckland's successor as Governor General, [[Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough|Lord Ellenborough]], appeared less receptive to large-scale public works, and during his tenure withheld major funds for the project.<ref name="stone2002-p17">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=17}}</ref> Only in 1844, when a new Governor-General, [[Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge|Lord Hardinge]], was appointed, did official enthusiasm and funds return to the Ganges canal project. Although the intervening impasse had seemingly affected Cautely's health and required him to return to Britain in 1845 for recuperation, his European sojourn allowed him to study contemporary hydraulic works in Great Britain and Italy. By the time of his return to India even more supportive men were at the helm, both in the [[North-Western Provinces]], with [[James Thomason (British colonial governor)|James Thomason]] as Lt. Governor, and in [[British India]] with [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] as Governor-General.<ref name="stone2002-p17-18">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|pp=17–18}}</ref> Canal construction, under Cautley's supervision, now went into high activity. A 350-mile long canal, with another 300 miles of branch lines, eventually stretched between the headworks in [[Haridwar district|Hardwar]] and—after splitting into two branches at Nanau near [[Aligarh]]—the confluence with the Ganges at [[Cawnpore]] (now Kanpur) and with the Jumna (now [[Yamuna]]) [[Mainstem (hydrology)|mainstem]] at [[Etawah]]. The Ganges Canal, which required a total capital outlay of £2.15 million, was officially opened in 1854 and became fully operational in 1857.<ref name="stone2002-18">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|pp=18}}</ref> According to historian Ian Stone:

{{blockquote|It was the largest canal ever attempted in the world, five times greater in its length than all the main irrigating lines of [[Lombardy]] and Egypt put together, and longer by a third than even the largest USA navigation canal, the [[Pennsylvania Canal]].<ref name="stone2002-p18">{{Harvnb|Stone|2002|p=18}}</ref>}}

{{Gallery
|align=center
|width=180 |File:Ganges canal roorkee1860.jpg|Watercolor (1863) titled "The [[Ganges Canal]], [[Roorkee]], [[Saharanpur District]] ([[Uttar Pradesh|U.P.]])". The canal was the brainchild of [[Proby Cautley|Sir Proby Cautley]]; construction began in 1840, and the canal was opened by Governor-General Lord Dalhousie in April 1854
|File:GangesCanalRoorkee2008.jpg|Photograph (2008) of an East India Company-era (1854) bridge on the [[Ganges Canal]] near [[Roorkee]], Uttar Pradesh, India.
|File:Headworks ganges canal haridwar1860.jpg|Photograph (1860) of the head works of the Ganges Canal in [[Haridwar]] taken by [[Samuel Bourne]]
|File:Headworks ganges canal haridwar2008a.jpg|Photograph (2008) of the head works of the Ganges Canal in Haridwar, viewed from the opposite side.
}}

==See also==
{{Colonial India}}
{{Div col|rules=yes}}
* [[British Raj]]
* [[Presidencies and provinces of British India]]
* [[Economic deindustrialisation of India]]
* [[Glossary of the British Raj]] (Urdu words)
* [[Government of India Act 1858]]
* [[Governor-General of India]]
* [[History of Bangladesh]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Pakistan]]
* [[Opium Trading in Mumbai]]
* [[Secretary of State for India]]
* ''[[The History of British India]]''
{{Div col end}}
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==

===General histories===
* {{cite book |last=Bandyopadhyay |first=Sekhara |year=2004 |title=From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0oVra0ulQ3QC |location=New Delhi |publisher=Orient Longman |isbn=978-81-250-2596-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bayly |first1=C. A. |author-link1=Christopher Alan Bayly |year=1987 |title=Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire |series=The New Cambridge History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fX2zMfWqIzMC |volume=II.1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-38650-0}}.
* Bayly, C.A. ''The Raj: India and the British 1600–1947'' (1990)
* {{cite book |last1=Bose |first1=Sugata |author1-link=Sugata Bose |last2=Jalal |first2=Ayesha |author2-link=Ayesha Jalal |year=2004 |orig-year=First published 1997 |title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy |url=https://archive.org/details/modernsouthasiah00bose |edition=2nd |location=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-30786-4}}
* {{cite book |last= Brown |first= Judith Margaret|year= 1994 |title= Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq7tAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-19-873112-2}}
* {{Cite book |last= Dalrymple |first= William |year= 2019 |title= The Anarchy: The Relentless Rise of the East India Company |location= New York |publisher= Bloomsbury publishing |type= Hardcover |isbn= 978-1-63557-395-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Judd|first=Denis|title=The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600–1947|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlf9u1asHTAC|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280579-9}}
* Lawson, Philip (1993). ''The East India Company: A History'' (Routledge) [https://books.google.com/books?id=PQOtAgAAQBAJ excerpt and text search]
* {{cite book |last= Ludden |first= David |year= 2002 |title= India and South Asia: A Short History |publisher= Oneworld |isbn= 978-1-85168-237-9 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wQJuAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Markovits |first=Claude |year= 2004 |title= A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C&pg=PA271 |access-date=5 November 2011 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-152-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Metcalf|first1=Barbara Daly|author-link1=Barbara D. Metcalf|last2=Metcalf|first2=Thomas R.|author-link2=Thomas R. Metcalf |year= 2006 |title= A Concise History of Modern India |publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-0-521-86362-9 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C}}
* {{cite book |last=Moon |first= Penderel| author-link = Penderel Moon | year= 1989 |title= The British Conquest and Dominion of India |publisher= Duckworth Publishing |type= Hardcover |isbn= 978-0715621691}}
* {{cite book |last=Peers|first=Douglas M.|title= India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6iNuAAAAMAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Pearson Education|isbn=978-0-582-31738-3}}
* Riddick, John F. (2006). ''The History of British India: A Chronology'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=Es6x4u_g19UC excerpt and text search], covers 1599–1947
* Riddick, John F. (1998). ''Who Was Who in British India'', Covers 1599–1947.
* {{cite book |last=Robb |first=Peter |year=2002 |title=A History of India |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=s2OklwEACAAJ}} |edition=1st |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-333-69129-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Robb |first=Peter |year=2011 |orig-year=First published 2002 |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC |edition=2nd |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-34549-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Spear|first=Percival|author-link = Percival Spear|title=A History of India |volume=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CDwwAQAAIAAJ|year=1990 |orig-year=First published 1965|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-013836-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stein |first1=Burton |author-link=Burton Stein |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=David |editor-link=David Arnold (historian) |year=2010 |orig-year=First published 1998 |title=A History of India |url=https://archive.org/details/a-history-of-india-second-edition-2010 |edition=2nd |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Wolpert|first=Stanley|title=A New History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JT0wAQAAIAAJ|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533756-3}}

===Monographs and collections===
* {{citation|last=Ambirajan|first=S.|title=Classical Political Economy and British Policy in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lxkjJAAACAAJ|access-date=20 February 2012|year=2007|orig-year = 1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-05282-5}}
* {{citation
|last=Anderson|first=Clare|title=The Indian Uprising of 1857–8: prisons, prisoners, and rebellion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGJQKg4Tja0C|access-date=5 November 2011|year=2007|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-295-6}}
* {{Citation| last=Bayly| first=C. A. | author-link1=Christopher Alan Bayly
| year=2000| title=Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870 (Cambridge Studies in Indian History and Society)| publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-66360-1}}
* Chakrabarti, D.K. 2003. The Archaeology of European Expansion in India, Gujarat, c. 16th–18th Centuries (2003) Delhi: Aryan Books International
* Chaudhuri, Kirti N. ''The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company: 1660–1760'' (Cambridge University Press, 1978)
* {{Citation| last=Bose| first=Sumit | year=1993
| title=Peasant Labour and Colonial Capital: Rural Bengal since 1770 (New Cambridge History of India)| publisher=Cambridge University Press}}.
* {{Citation| last=Chandavarkar| first=Rajnarayan | year=1998| title=Imperial Power and Popular Politics: Class, Resistance and the State in India, 1850–1950| publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn=978-0-521-59692-3}}.
* Das, Amita; Das, Aditya. ''Defending British India against Napoleon: The Foreign Policy of Governor-General Lord Minto, 1807–13'' ( Rochester: Boydell Press, 2016) {{ISBN|978-1-78327-129-0}}. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.php?id=52886 online review]
* Erikson, Emily. ''Between Monopoly and Free Trade: The English East India Company, 1600–1757'' (Princeton University Press, 2014)
* {{Citation| last = Farnie| first = D. A.| year = 1979
| title = The English Cotton Industry and the World Market, 1815–1896| publisher = Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Pp. 414
| isbn = 978-0-19-822478-5}}
* Gilmour, David. ''The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj'' (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005).
* {{Citation| last=Guha| first=R. | year=1995| title=A Rule of Property for Bengal: An Essay on the Idea of the Permanent Settlement| publisher=Durham, NC: Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-521-59692-3}}.
* Hossain, Hameeda. ''The Company weavers of Bengal: the East India Company and the organization of textile production in Bengal, 1750–1813'' (Oxford University Press, 1988)
* {{Citation| last = Marshall| first = P. J.| year = 1987| title = Bengal: The British Bridgehead, Eastern India, 1740–1828
| publisher =Cambridge University Press}}
* {{Citation| last = Marshall| first = P. J.| year = 2007
| title = The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and America c. 1750–1783 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-922666-5}}
* {{Citation| last=Metcalf | first=Thomas R.| year=1991
| title=The Aftermath of Revolt: India, 1857–1870| publisher=Riverdale Co. Pub. Pp. 352 | isbn=978-81-85054-99-5}}
* {{Citation | last = Metcalf | first = Thomas R. | year = 1997 | title = Ideologies of the Raj | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-58937-6}}
* {{Citation| last = Misra| first = Maria| year = 1999
| title = Business, Race, and Politics in British India, c. 1850–1860| publisher = Delhi: Oxford University Press. Pp. 264
| isbn = 978-0-19-820711-5}}
* {{Citation | editor-last = Porter | editor-first = Andrew | year = 2001 | title = Oxford History of the British Empire: Nineteenth Century | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-924678-6 }}
* {{citation|last=Roy|first=Tirthankar|title=Economic History of India, 1857–1947|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cE8Y_gAACAAJ|access-date=19 February 2012|year=2011|orig-year=First published 2000|edition=3rd|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-807417-5}}
* {{Citation | last=Stokes | first=Eric | editor-last = Bayly |editor-first = C.A. | year = 1986 | title = The Peasant Armed: The Indian Revolt of 1857 | location=Oxford | publisher=Clarendon Press | page=280 | isbn = 978-0-19-821570-7}}.
* {{Citation| last=Stone | first=Ian | title=Canal Irrigation in British India: Perspectives on Technological Change in a Peasant Economy | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WLUWxIcyogC | publisher=Cambridge University Press | series=Cambridge South Asian Studies | year=2002 | orig-year=First published 1984 | isbn=978-0-521-52663-0}}
* {{Citation| last=Tomlinson| first=B. R. | year=1993
| title=The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970 (The New Cambridge History of India, III.3)| publisher=Cambridge University Press | title-link=The New Cambridge History of India }}.
* {{Citation| last = Travers| first = Robert| year = 2007
| title = Ideology and Empire in Eighteenth Century India: The British in Bengal (Cambridge Studies in Indian History and Society)
| publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-05003-6}}

===Articles in journals or collections===
* {{Citation
| last1 = Banthia | first1 = Jayant | last2 = Dyson | first2 = Tim
| date = December 1999
| title = Smallpox in Nineteenth-Century India
| journal = Population and Development Review
| volume = 25 | issue = 4 | pages = 649–689
| doi = 10.1111/j.1728-4457.1999.00649.x
| pmid = 22053410 | jstor = 172481
}}
* {{Citation|last1=Broadberry|first1=Stephen|last2=Gupta|first2=Bishnupriya|title= Lancashire, India, and shifting competitive advantage in cotton textiles, 1700–1850: the neglected role of factor prices|journal=Economic History Review|volume=62|issue=2|pages=279–305|year=2009|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2008.00438.x|s2cid=54975143|doi-access=free}}
* {{Citation
| last = Caldwell | first = John C.
| date = December 1998
| title = Malthus and the Less Developed World: The Pivotal Role of India
| journal = Population and Development Review
| volume = 24 | issue = 4 | pages = 675–696
| url =
| doi=10.2307/2808021
| jstor=2808021
}}
* {{Citation|last1=Clingingsmith|first1=David|last2=Williamson|first2=Jeffrey G.|title=Deindustrialization in 18th and 19th century India: Mughal decline, climate shocks and British industrial ascent|journal=Explorations in Economic History|volume=45|issue=3|year = 2008|pages=209–234|doi=10.1016/j.eeh.2007.11.002|url=http://osf.io/jy7u8/|url-access=subscription}}
* {{Citation
| last=Drayton | first=Richard
| chapter=Science, Medicine, and the British Empire
| pages = 264–276
| year=2001
| editor1-last=Winks | editor1-first=Robin
| title=Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| isbn=978-0-19-924680-9
}}
* {{Citation
| last=Frykenberg | first=Robert E.
| chapter=India to 1858
| pages = 194–213
| year=2001
| editor1-last=Winks | editor1-first=Robin
| title=Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| isbn=978-0-19-924680-9
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Harnetty | first = Peter
| author-link=Peter Harnetty
| date = July 1991
| title = 'Deindustrialization' Revisited: The Handloom Weavers of the Central Provinces of India, c. 1800–1947
| journal = Modern Asian Studies
| volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 455–510
| doi=10.1017/S0026749X00013901
| jstor = 312614
| s2cid = 144468476
}}
* {{Citation
| last=Heuman | first=Gad
| chapter=Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Abolition
| pages = 315–326
| year=2001
| editor1-last=Winks | editor1-first=Robin
| title=Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| isbn=978-0-19-924680-9
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Klein | first = Ira
| year = 1988
| title = Plague, Policy and Popular Unrest in British India
| journal = Modern Asian Studies
| volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 723–755
| doi = 10.1017/S0026749X00015729
| pmid = 11617732
| jstor = 312523
| s2cid = 42173746
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Klein | first = Ira
| date = July 2000
| title = Materialism, Mutiny and Modernisation in British India
| journal = Modern Asian Studies
| volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 545–580
| jstor = 313141
| doi = 10.1017/S0026749X00003656
| s2cid = 143348610
}}
* {{Citation
| last=Kubicek | first=Robert
| chapter=British Expansion, Empire, and Technological Change
| pages = 247–269
| year=2001
| editor1-last=Porter | editor1-first=Andrew
| title=Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| isbn=978-0-19-924678-6
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Raj | first = Kapil
| year = 2000
| title = Colonial Encounters and the Forging of New Knowledge and National Identities: Great Britain and India, 1760–1850
| journal = Osiris |series=2nd Series
| volume = 15
| issue = Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise
| pages = 119–134
| doi=10.1086/649322
| jstor = 301944
| s2cid = 143243650
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Ray | first = Rajat Kanta
| date = July 1995
| title = Asian Capital in the Age of European Domination: The Rise of the Bazaar, 1800–1914
| journal = Modern Asian Studies
| volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 449–554
| doi=10.1017/S0026749X00013986
| jstor = 312868
| s2cid = 145744242
}}
* {{Citation
| last = Roy | first = Tirthankar
| date = Summer 2002
| title = Economic History and Modern India: Redefining the Link
| journal = The Journal of Economic Perspectives
| volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 109–130
| doi=10.1257/089533002760278749
| jstor = 3216953| doi-access = free
}}
* {{Citation
| last=Tomlinson | first=B. R.
| chapter=Economics and Empire: The Periphery and the Imperial Economy
| pages = 53–74
| year=2001
| editor1-last=Porter | editor1-first=Andrew
| title=Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| isbn=978-0-19-924678-6
}}
* {{Citation
| last=Washbrook | first=D. A.
| chapter=India, 1818–1860: The Two Faces of Colonialism
| pages = 395–421
| year=2001
| editor1-last=Porter | editor1-first=Andrew
| title=Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| isbn=978-0-19-924678-6
}}
* {{Citation
| last=Wylie | first=Diana
| chapter=Disease, Diet, and Gender: Late Twentieth Century Perspectives on Empire
| pages = 277–289
| year=2001
| editor1-last=Winks | editor1-first=Robin
| title=Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography
| publisher=Oxford University Press
| isbn=978-0-19-924680-9
}}

===Classic histories and gazetteers===
* Allan, J., and Sir T. Wolseley Haig. ''The Cambridge shorter history of India'' (edited by Henry Dodwell. 1934) pp 399–589
* {{cite book |last= |first= |year=1909 |title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India |volume=IV: The Indian Empire, Administrative |url=http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs20/Imperial_Gazetteer_of_India-Vol.04-1909-orig-tu-bal.pdf |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |ref={{harvid|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1909}} }}
* {{Citation
| last1=Majumdar | first1=R. C. | last2=Raychaudhuri | first2=H. C.
| last3=Datta | first3=Kalikinkar
| year=1950
| title=An Advanced History of India
| location=London
| publisher=Macmillan and Company Limited
| edition=2nd
| title-link=An Advanced History of India }}
* {{Citation
| last=Wilson | first=Horace H
| author-link=Horace Hayman Wilson
| year=1845
| title=The History of British India from 1805 to 1835
| publisher=London: James Madden and Co.
| oclc=63943320
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlQBAAAAQAAJ&q=%22employed+the+arm+of+political+injustice%22
}}
* {{Citation
| last=Smith | first=Vincent A.
| year=1921
| title=India in the British Period: Being Part III of the Oxford History of India
| location=Oxford
| publisher=Clarendon Press
| edition=2nd
}}
* Thompson, Edward, and G. T. Garratt. ''Rise and fulfilment of British rule in India'' (Macmillan and Company, 1934.) 699pp; from 1599 to 1933
* {{Citation
|last= Unknown
|year= 1829
|title= Historical and Ecclesiastical Sketches of Bengal; From the Earliest Settlement, Until the Virtual Conquest of that Country by the English, in 1757
|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaleccles00calciala
|publisher= Calcutta
}}
* {{Citation
|last= Bruce | first= John
|year= 1810
|title= Annals of the Honorable East-India Company: from their establishment by the charter of queen Elizabeth, 1600 to the Union of the London and the English East India Companies 1707–8, Vol-I
|url=https://archive.org/details/annalshonorable00brucgoog
| publisher= Black, Parry, and Kingsbury
}}
* {{Citation
|last= Bruce | first= John
|year= 1810
|title= Annals of the Honorable East-India Company: from their establishment by the charter of queen Elizabeth, 1600 to the Union of the London and the English East India Companies 1707–8, Vol-II
|url=https://archive.org/details/annalshonorable01brucgoog
| publisher= London, Black, Parry, and Kingsbury
}}
* {{Citation
|last= Marshman |first= John Clark
|year= 1867
|title= The History of India From the Earliest Period to the Close of Lord Dalhousie's Administration – 1867, Vol-I
|url=https://archive.org/details/historyindiafro02marsgoog
|publisher= Longmans, Green
}}

===Further reading===
* {{cite book| last = Carson | first = Penelope | title = The East India Company and Religion, 1698–1858 | publisher = The Boydell Press | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-1-84383-732-9}}
* {{cite book | editor1-last = Damodaran | editor1-first = Vinita | editor2-last = Winterbottom | editor2-first = Anna | editor3-last = Lester | editor3-first = Alan | title = The East India Company and the Natural World | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-349-49109-4}}
* {{cite book | last = Erikson | first = Emily | title = Between Monopoly and Free Trade: The English East India Company, 1600–1757 | publisher = Princeton University Press | series = Princeton Analytical Sociology Series | year = 2014 |isbn=978-0-691-15906-5 | lccn = 2014933831}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Gardner | first1 = Leigh | last2 = Roy | first2 = Tirthankar | title = The Economic History of Colonialism | publisher = Bristol University Press | year = 2020 | isbn = 978-1-5292-0763-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Nierstrasz|first=Chris|title=Rivalry for Trade in Tea and Textiles: The English and Dutch East Indian Companies (1700–1800)|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan| year = 2015|isbn = 978-1-349-57156-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kulke|first1=Hermann|last2=Rothermund|first2=Dietmar|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC|year=2004|orig-year=First published 1986|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0}}
* {{cite book | last = Ogborn | first = Miles | title = Indian Ink: Script and Print in the Making of the English East India Company | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-226-62041-1}}
* {{cite book | last = Roy | first = Tirthankar | title = Monsoon Economies: India's History in a Changing Climate | series = History for a Sustainable Future series | publisher = The MIT Press | isbn = 9780262543583| lccn = 2021033921 | year = 2022}}
* {{cite book | last = Roy | first = Tirthankar | title = An Economic History of Early Modern India | publisher = Routledge | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-0-415-69063-8}}
* {{cite book | last = Roy | first = Tirthankar | title = India in the World Economy: From Antiquity to the Present | publisher = Cambridge University Press | series = New Approaches to Asian History series| year = 2012 | isbn = 978-1-107-00910-3}}
* {{ cite book | last = Vaughn | first = James M. | title = The Politics of Empire at the Accession of George III: The East India Company and the Crisis and Transformation of Britain's Imperial State | publisher = Yale University Press | series = The Lewis Walpole Series in Eighteenth-Century Culture and History | year = 2019 | isbn = 978-0-300-20826-9}}
* {{cite book | last = Winterbottom | first = Anna | title = Hybrid Knowledge in the Early East India Company World | series = Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | year = 2016 | isbn = 978-1-349-56318-0}}

==External links==
* {{Country study}}
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html India] from Congress
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pktoc.html Pakistan] from Congress

{{Wikiquote}}

{{South Asian topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Company Rule in India}}
[[Category:1757 establishments in British India]]
[[Category:1858 disestablishments in British India|Company rule]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1757|India]]
[[Category:British East India Company]]
[[Category:Former countries in South Asia|India]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1858]]

Auroshikha Dey

2026-01-28T18:23:03Z

Sherrie7069: Put Up A Article More To Come!

{{short description|Indian film actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Auroshikha Dey
| image = Auroshikha Dey (cropped).jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Auroshikha Dey at the screening of Charlie Kay Chakkar Mein
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Tezpur]], [[Assam]]
| occupation = {{hlist|Actress|Model}}
| years_active = 2011–present
| height =
}}
'''Auroshikha Dey''' is an Indian actress who primarily works in Hindi cinema. She is best known for playing [[Jhalkaribai|Jhalkari Bai]] in the British [[period drama]] [[The Warrior Queen of Jhansi|''The Warrior Queen of Jhans''i]] (2019).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Actor Auroshikha Dey to portray Jhalkari Bai in The Warrior Queen of Jhansi |url=https://www.indulgexpress.com/entertainment/celebs/2019/nov/15/actor-auroshikha-dey-to-portray-jhalkari-bai-in-the-warrior-queen-of-jhansi-19853.html |access-date=2023-06-14 |website=www.indulgexpress.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-12-24 |title='I want to do commercial films' |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/metrolife/metrolife-lifestyle/i-want-to-do-commercial-films-788370.html |access-date=2023-06-14 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Auroshikha Dey was born to a Bengali family in [[Tezpur]], [[Assam]], and settled in [[Bangalore]]. She moved to Bangalore during her high school years, as her father was in the army and therefore moved to many cities in India. She studied at Mount College, Bangalore, Karnataka. She learned Kathak at an early age and when in college, also took part in theatric plays.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=Digital |date=2019-11-25 |title='मुझे भुनाना नहीं आता': औरोशिखा दे |url=https://www.sarita.in/bollywood/interview-with-auroshikha-dey |access-date=2023-06-14 |website=Sarita Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> She then joined the [[Film and Television Institute of India]], [[Pune]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2018-03-12 |title=Auroshikha Dey : In Conversation With An Actor |url=http://www.ftiipeople.com/aurishikha-dey-conversation-actor/ |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=FTII People |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Career ==
During her time at the [[Film and Television Institute of India]], [[Pune]], [[Chandraprakash Dwivedi]] selected her for the TV series ''Upanishad Ganga.'' She played different characters in the 25-episode series. She then auditioned for [[Nagesh Kukunoor]]'s ''Yeh Hausla.'' <ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2018-03-12 |title=Auroshikha Dey : In Conversation With An Actor |url=http://www.ftiipeople.com/aurishikha-dey-conversation-actor/ |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=FTII People |language=en-US}}</ref> The film found no production houses for its release, has been lying in cans for years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lakshmi brings luck to Nagesh |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/lakshmi-nagesh-kukunoors-yeh-honsla-toplining-sameera-reddy/articleshow/33556081.cms}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-04-29 |title=Movie-making is a long, solo fight: Nagesh Kukunoor (Interview) |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/movie-making-is-a-long-solo-fight-nagesh-kukunoor-interview-113042900167_1.html |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=Business Standard |language=en-US}}</ref>

She appeared in the critically acclaimed drama ''Haat – The Weekly Bazaar'' (2011) directed by Seema Kapoor, along with [[Divya Dutta]] and Meenal Kapoor, which has been screened at several film festivals in India and abroad.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maitreyi Foundation felicitates "Women with a Difference" |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/business/companies/301018/maitreyi-foundation-felicitates-women-with-a-difference.html}}</ref> Her independent film, ''Handover'' (2011), was screened at film festivals but didn't get a theatrical release. The film was streamed on the [[MX Player]] OTT, nine years later.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zore |first=Suyog |title=Handover review: A poignant take on the never-ending struggle of the have-nots |url=https://www.cinestaan.com/reviews/handover-46107 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514091013/https://www.cinestaan.com/reviews/handover-46107 |url-status=live |archive-date=14 May 2021 |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.cinestaan.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Vikas Kumar On His Recent Release Handover: 'It Was Made 10 Years Back And Was My First Film'- Exclusive |url=https://www.spotboye.com/just-binge/binge-news/vikas-kumar-on-his-recent-release-handover-it-was-made-10-years-back-and-was-my-first-film-exclusive/60b4c410e5c49b0e58cae319 |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=www.spotboye.com}}</ref> Her first theatrically released film was ''Myoho'' (2012). She then appeared in ''[[Charlie Kay Chakkar Mein]]'' (2015) ''and [[NH-8: Road to Nidhivan]]'' (2015).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-05-25 |title=Auroshikha Dey to Act with Naseeruddin Shah in Manish Srivastav's 'Charlie Ke Chakkar Mein' |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/entertainment/auroshikha-dey-to-act-with-naseeruddin-shah-in-manish-srivastavs-charlie-ke-chakkar-mein/75969/ |access-date=2023-06-14 |website=Financialexpress |language=en}}</ref>

Her most significant role came in 2019 with the release of ''[[The Warrior Queen of Jhansi]]'', directed by [[Swati Bhise]]. She played the role of [[Jhalkaribai|Jhalkari Bai]], with [[Devika Bhise]], who played the titular role, receiving mixed reviews. The film was screened at the British Film Festival and won the Impact Award at the Vancouver International Women in Film Festival 2019. The film was also a recipient of the [[ReFrame]] stamp for gender parity. She learned Sword fighting, archery, and horse riding to portray her role.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-10-19 |title=Auroshikha Dey: 1857 was executed by a woman warrior |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/1857-was-executed-by-a-woman-warrior-6076659/ |access-date=2023-06-14 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

She starred in Pragya Kapoor's ''Maali – the gardener'' (2022), which was screened at the Chicago South Asian Film Festival 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MAAALI THE GARDENER |url=https://queensworldfilmfestival.org/films/maali-gardener/}}</ref> She appeared in ''Lomad'' (2023), touted to be the world's first one shot black and white feature film, winning accolades across the globe at various film festivals.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-08 |title=No cuts or edits, one-shot film achieves technological and artistic landmark |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/no-cuts-or-edits-single-shot-film-achieves-artistic-landmark-7394707/ |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kaushal |first=Sweta |title=Indian Filmmaker Sold His Bike To Make World's First Black And White One-Shot Film 'Lomad' |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/swetakaushal/2020/12/14/indian-filmmaker-sold-his-bike-to-make-worlds-first-black-and-white-one-shot-film-lomad/ |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> She will be next seen in [[Gajendra Ahire]]'s Hindi Marathi bilingual ''Bidi Bakda'' (2023),<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-04-07 |title='I always wanted to tell my stories to the audience' says Gajendra Ahire on completing 50 films |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/i-always-wanted-to-tell-my-stories-to-the-audience-says-gajendra-ahire-on-completing-50-films/articleshow/75025186.cms |access-date=2023-06-15 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> and Konstantin Bojanov's ''The Shameless'' (2023).

== Filmography ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Language
!Notes
! class="unsortable" |Ref
|-
|2010
|''De Nova – The Road Less Trodden''
|Zainab
|Malayalam
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-05-25 |title=Auroshikha Dey to Act with Naseeruddin Shah in Manish Srivastav's 'Charlie Ke Chakkar Mein' |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/entertainment/auroshikha-dey-to-act-with-naseeruddin-shah-in-manish-srivastavs-charlie-ke-chakkar-mein/75969/ |access-date=2023-06-14 |website=Financialexpress |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2011
|''Haat – The Weekly Bazaar''
|Ambalika
|Hindi, Rajasthani
|
|
|-
|2011
|''Handover''
|
|Hindi, Magahi
|
|
|-
|2012-2013
|''[[Upanishad Ganga]]''
|
|Hindi
|TV series
|
|-
|2012
|''Myoho''
|Nandita
|Hindi
|
|
|-
|2012
|''[[Prem Mayee]]''
|Megha
|Hindi
|
|
|-
|2014
|''[[Myth of Kleopatra]]''
|
|Hindi, English
|
|
|-
|2014
|''Points of Origin''
|Anjali
|English
|Short
|
|-
|2014
|''Salaam : An ode to friendship''
|The girl
|Hindi
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-11-05 |title=Salaam: An ode to friendship |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/bollywood/salaam-an-ode-to-friendship/story-gjFz3Ojx2VfM9WLeCaOolO.html |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|2015
|''[[Charlie Kay Chakkar Mein]]''
|Sameera
|Hindi
|
|
|-
|2015
|''[[NH-8: Road to Nidhivan]]''
|Radha
|Hindi
|
|
|-
|2016
|''[[Darr Sabko Lagta Hai]]''
|
|Hindi
|TV series
|
|-
|2018-2019
|''[[Damaged (TV series)|Damaged]]''
|Pallavi
|Hindi
|Web series
|
|-
|2019
|''[[The Warrior Queen of Jhansi]]''
|[[Jhalkaribai|Jhalkari Bai]]
|English
|
|
|-
|2019
|''Trial Of Satyam Kaushik''
|Sara Rizvi
|Hindi
|TV movie
|
|-
|2019
|''Surajya Sanhita''
|Draupadi
|Hindi
|TV series
|
|-
|2020
|[[Flesh (web series)|''Flesh'']]
|Manda
|Hindi
|Web series
|
|-
|2022
|''Maali – the gardener''
|
|Hindi
|
|
|-
|2023
|[[Chatrapathi (2023 film)|''Chatrapathi'']]
|
|Hindi
|
|
|-
|2023
|''Lomad''
|
|Hindi
|
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-01-31 |title=Gurgaon filmmaker creates first black-&-white one-shot feature film |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/gurgaon/gurgaon-filmmaker-creates-first-black-white-one-shot-feature-film/articleshow/67724995.cms |access-date=2023-06-16 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>
|-
|TBA
|''Bidi Bakda''
|
|Hindi, Marathi
|
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Auroshikha Dey Reveals Bellamkonda Sai Sreenivas Starrer Chatrapathi Will Be 'Full On Action Dhamaka' {{!}} Exclusive |url=https://www.msn.com/en-in/entertainment/other/auroshikha-dey-reveals-bellamkonda-sai-sreenivas-starrer-chatrapathi-will-be-full-on-action-dhamaka-exclusive/ar-AA1aMvix |access-date=2023-06-14 |website=MSN |language=en-IN}}</ref>
|-
|TBA
|''Rongpencil – The colour of Innocence''
|
|Bengali
|
|
|-
|TBA
|''The Shameless''
|
|English
|
|
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{IMDb name|id=4427677}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dey, Auroshikha}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian film actresses]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Indian actresses]]

Ajay Bhatt

2026-01-28T17:51:37Z

Sherrie7069: improve citations for consistency for clarity

{{Short description|Indian-American computer engineer}}
{{for|the politician|Ajay Bhatt (politician)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Ajay V. Bhatt
| image = Ajay Bhatt at Intel ISEF.jpg
| caption = Bhatt at the 2010 [[Intel ISEF|Intel International Science and Engineering Fair]] in [[San Jose, California]]
| birth_date = 6 September 1957<ref name=OB2159>{{cite web|url=http://www.oregonbusiness.com/articles/69-september-2009/2159-on-the-edge|title=On the edge|publisher=Oregon Business|first=Ben|last=Jacklet|date=September 2009|accessdate=September 23, 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016071215/http://www.oregonbusiness.com//articles//69-september-2009//2159-on-the-edge|archivedate=16 October 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| occupation = Chief Client Platform Architect at [[Intel]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/bios/abhatt.htm|accessdate=September 23, 2009|title=Intel Fellow – Ajay V. Bhatt|date=July 22, 2009| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20091104041719/http://www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/bios/abhatt.htm| archivedate= 4 November 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>
| education = [[Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda]], [[City College of New York]]<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/co-inventor-usb-ajay-bhatt-952941-2017-01-03|title=The producer of USB is an Indian and he didn't do it for money|work=India Today|date=3 January 2017 }}</ref>
| spouse =
| children =
| known for = [[Universal Serial Bus]]
| alma_mater =
| website =
}}
'''Ajay V. Bhatt'''<ref>[http://www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/bios/abhatt.htm Ajay Bhatt: Fellow] at [[Intel Corporation|Intel]]</ref> is an [[Indian-American]] computer architect who produced several widely used technologies, including [[Universal Serial Bus|USB (Universal Serial Bus)]], Platform Power Management architecture, and various other chipsets.

In January 2025, he was honored with the [[Padma Shri]], India's fourth-highest civilian award, by the [[Government of India]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Padma Award Winners 2025 Full List: Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri |url=https://www.brutimes.com/news/social/padma-awards-2025-arijit-singh-ajith-kumar-shekhar-kapur-and-late-pankaj-udhas-honored-for-excellence |website=Bru Times News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Padma Awards 2025 announced |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2096285 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Bhatt completed his Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical) in 1980 from the [[Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda]], India and received his master's degree from the [[City College of New York]], United States.<ref>[https://thehindi.in/the-indian-connection-silicon-valley/ "The Indian Connection Silicon Valley"], ''The Hindi Magazine'', 3 June 2019. Retrieved 14 August 2023.</ref>

== Career ==
Bhatt joined Intel in 1990 as a senior staff architect on the chipset architecture team in [[Folsom, California|Folsom]]. He holds one hundred and thirty-two U.S. and international [[patents]], and several others are in various stages of filing. In 1998, 2003 and 2004, Bhatt was nominated to take part in a Distinguished Lecture Series at leading universities in the United States and Asia. Ajay received an Achievement in Excellence Award for his contribution in PCI Express specification development in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Asian Awards {{!}} Honouring Asian Excellence {{!}} VIP Asian Awards {{!}} Business Awards {{!}} Asian Business Awards |url=https://www.theasianawards.com/ajay_bhatt.html |access-date=2024-05-13 |website=The Asian Awards}}</ref>

Intel's Chief I/O architect responsible for the platform and I/O interconnects directions, Bhatt also leads definition and development of the next-generation Client Platform architecture.<ref name=":0" />

The October 9, 2009 episode of the late night variety/talk show ''[[The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien]]'' included a comedy sketch featuring him that parodied Intel's "Rockstar" commercials.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.engadget.com/2009/10/10/conan-obrien-talks-to-the-co-creator-of-usb-on-the-tonight-show/|title=Conan O'Brien talks to the co-creator of USB on The Tonight Show|website=[[Engadget]]|date=10 October 2009 |language=en|access-date=2019-10-23}}</ref>

Bhatt was brought greater attention by a 2009 Intel television [[advertisement]] in which he was portrayed by actor [[Sunil Narkar (actor)|Sunil Narkar]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oregonlive.com/business/index.ssf/2009/05/intel_ad_campaign_remakes_rese.html|title=Intel ad campaign remakes researchers into rock stars |first=Mark|last= Graves|publisher=[[The Oregonian]]|date=May 9, 2009|accessdate=September 23, 2009}}</ref>

== Recognition ==
* Featured in [[GQ India|GQ India's]] July 2010 issue as one of "The 50 Most Influential Global Indians."
* Recipient of The Light of India Award in 2012 for contributions to the advancement of science and technology.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Transforming the PC with new computing experiences (Ajay V Bhatt, Intel Architect Group) |url=https://www.imperial.ac.uk/events/108628/transforming-the-pc-with-new-computing-experiences-ajay-v-bhatt-intel-architect-group/ |access-date=2025-01-25 |website=Imperial College London |language=en-GB}}</ref>
* Winner of the 2013 [[European Inventor Award]] in the Non-European Countries category.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Office |first1=European Patent |title=A truly universal connection |url=http://www.epo.org/learning-events/european-inventor/finalists/2013/bhatt/feature.html |accessdate=4 July 2020 |website=www.epo.org |language=en}}</ref>
* Recipient of the Outstanding Achievement in Science & Technology Award at [[The Asian Awards]], London, April 2013.<ref>[http://bollyspice.com/57703/asian-awards-winners-night-event Winners at the Asian Awards]</ref>
* Awarded the [[Padma Shri]] by the Government of India in 2025.<ref name="Full list of Padma Awards 2025">{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/full-list-of-padma-awards-2025/article69141094.ece|title=Full list of Padma Awards 2025|date=25 January 2025|access-date=25 January 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125180026/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/full-list-of-padma-awards-2025/article69141094.ece|archive-date=25 January 2025|work=The Hindu|language=en-IN}}</ref>

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite web |last=Sutter |first=John D. |date=2010-02-04 |title=USB inventor is tech's unlikely 'rock star' |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2010/TECH/02/04/ajay.bhatt.usb.inventor/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206162944/https://edition.cnn.com/2010/TECH/02/04/ajay.bhatt.usb.inventor/index.html |archive-date=2010-02-06 |access-date=2025-10-22 |website=[[CNN.com]]}}
* {{Cite web |last=Glass |first=Nick |last2=Knight |first2=Matthew |date=2013-04-26 |title=How humble USB turned engineer into tech ‘rock star’ |url=https://www.cnn.com/2013/04/26/tech/innovation/usb-intel-billion-seller |access-date=2025-10-22 |website=CNN |language=en}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
*{{YouTube|q-8GVi2Fdi4|Intel commercial – Ajay Bhatt}}
*[https://www.engadget.com/2009/10/10/conan-obrien-talks-to-the-co-creator-of-usb-on-the-tonight-show/ Ajay Bhatt Interview with Conan O'Brien]
*[https://www.flickr.com/photos/gaspar/3520583135/ Photo] at [[Flickr]]
*[http://www.epo.org/learning-events/european-inventor/finalists/2013/bhatt/feature.html Ajay V.Bhatt winner of the European Inventor Award]
*{{IMDb name|2357497|Sunil Narkar}}
{{2000s Padma Shri Award Recipients in Science & Engineering}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhatt, Ajay}}
[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian engineers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian inventors]]
[[Category:21st-century American engineers]]
[[Category:21st-century American inventors]]
[[Category:City College of New York alumni]]
[[Category:Indian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Intel people]]
[[Category:Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda alumni]]
[[Category:USB]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in science & engineering]]

M. K. Raghavan

2026-01-28T06:28:49Z

Sherrie7069:

{{Short description|Indian politician (born 1952)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = M.K. Raghavan
| image = Mkr3521.jpg
| caption = [[Member of Parliament]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1952|4|21|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Payyannur]], [[Kannur]]
| residence = Ashoka, Madhuravanam Road, [[Kozhikode]], [[Kerala]]
| nationality = {{Flag icon|India}} [[India]]n
| death_date =
| death_place =
| office = Secretary Congress Parliamentary Party
| term_start = 10 September 2024
| term_end =
| office2 = [[Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]
| primeminister =
| term_start2 = 31 May 2009
| term_end2 =
| predecessor2 = [[M. P. Veerendra Kumar]]
| successor2 =
| constituency2 = [[Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency|Kozhikode]], [[Kerala]]
| party = [[Indian National Congress]]
| spouse = Usha Kumari
| children = 2
| website = {{URL|https://mkraghavan.in/}}
| date =
| year =
| source =
| term_start3 =
}}

'''M. K. Raghavan''' (born 21 April 1952) is an Indian politician. He is a Member of [[Lok Sabha]] and a Secretary of Congress Parliamentary Party.

Representing the [[Kozhikode (Lok Sabha constituency)|Kozhikode Lok Sabha]] constituency of [[Kerala]], he is a member of the [[Indian National Congress|INC]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/05/17/stories/2009051759360800.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521061309/http://www.hindu.com/2009/05/17/stories/2009051759360800.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 May 2009|title=Kerala: UDF registers thumping win |date=17 May 2009|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|accessdate=23 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/03/21/stories/2009032152690300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325182802/http://www.hindu.com/2009/03/21/stories/2009032152690300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 March 2009|title=Congress ticket for Shashi Tharoor|date=21 March 2009|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|accessdate=23 January 2010}}</ref> A former General Secretary of the [[Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee|KPCC]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/04/stories/2007100452080300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107050859/http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/04/stories/2007100452080300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 November 2012|title=Move against Agreenco is political vendetta |date=4 October 2007|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|accessdate=23 January 2010}}</ref> He was born to Krishnan Nambiar and Janaki Amma on 21 April 1952 at [[Payyannur]], [[Kerala]].

Fielded as a strong candidate by the UDF in the LDF bastion of Kozhikode in the 2009 Lok Sabha election, M. K. Raghavan managed to wrangle victory by defeating then DYFI National President [[P. A. Mohammed Riyas|P. A. Muhammad Riyas]]. He won the 2009 election by a meagre 838 vote margin.

However, he cemented his victory with much better margins in the 2014 Lok Sabha with 16,883 votes by defeating former CPIM State Secretary & Polit Bureau Member [[A. Vijayaraghavan]]. For the third term, M K Raghavan was fielded again from Kozhikode Lok Sabha constituency in 2019 and won by record lead with 85,225 votes by defeating CPIM's strong candidate and sitting MLA [[A. Pradeepkumar]]. It is noted that he retained this seat under extreme conditions, even facing some false allegations during the election period.

In his fourth term, he won from the Kozhikode constituency with a lead of 1,42,087 votes, defeating the strong candidate [[Elamaram Kareem]], former Minister of Kerala, then Rajya Sabha MP, floor leader of CPIM in Rajya Sabha and CPIM's Trade Union (CITU) leader. This was a historical victory of M K Raghavan and historical defeat of CPIM in the constituency since its inception.

Currently he is serving as a Secretary of Congress Parliamentary Party, which is a Parliamentary board of [[Indian National Congress]] Headed by [[Sonia Gandhi]]. He is also a Member of Political Affairs Committee of [[Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee]], the apex body of [[Indian National Congress]] in the state Kerala.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef | before = [[M.P. Veerendra Kumar]]}}
{{s-ttl | title = [[Member of Parliament#India|MP]] of [[Kozhikode]] | years = 2009 – present}}
{{s-inc | }}
{{end}}
{{17th LS members from Kerala}}
{{16th LS members from Kerala}}

==External links==
* [http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/Members/Biography.aspx?mpsno=4560 Lok Sabha Member Profile: M. K. Raghavan]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Raghavan, M. K.}}
[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:India MPs 2009–2014]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Kerala]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Kerala]]
[[Category:India MPs 2014–2019]]
[[Category:Politicians from Kozhikode]]
[[Category:India MPs 2019–2024]]
[[Category:India MPs 2024–2029]]
[[Category:Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance candidates in 2024 Indian general election]]

{{Kerala-INC-politician-stub}}

Alex Saji

2026-01-25T07:49:38Z

Sherrie7069:

{{Short description|Indian footballer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox football biography
| name = Alex Saji
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2000|5|9|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Wayanad]], [[Kerala]], India
| height = 1.87 m
| currentclub = [[SC Delhi]]
| clubnumber = 4
| position = [[Defender (association football)#Centre-back|Centre-back]]
| youthyears1 =
| youthclubs1 = Redstar Football Academy
| youthyears2 =
| youthclubs2 = [[Kerala Blasters FC Reserves and Academy|Kerala Blasters B]]
| years1 = 2017–2019
| clubs1 = [[Kerala Blasters FC Reserves and Academy|Kerala Blasters B]]
| caps1 = 1
| goals1 = 0
| years2 = 2019–2022
| clubs2 = [[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam Kerala]]
| caps2 = 16
| goals2 = 0
| years3 = 2022–2025
| clubs3 = [[Hyderabad FC|Hyderabad]]
| caps3 = 31
| goals3 = 0
| years4 = 2023
| clubs4 = → [[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]] (loan)
| caps4 = 7
| goals4 = 0
| years5 = 2025–
| clubs5 = [[SC Delhi]]
| caps5 = 0
| goals5 = 0
| nationalyears1 = 2021–2023
| nationalteam1 = [[India national under-23 football team|India U23]]
| nationalcaps1 = 0
| nationalgoals1 = 0
| club-update = 20:21, 12 March 2025 (UTC)
| nationalteam-update =
}}

'''Alex Saji''' (born 9 May 2000) is an Indian professional [[Association football|footballer]] who plays as a [[Defender (association football)#Centre-back|defender]] for [[Indian Super League]] club [[SC Delhi]].

==Club career==
===Gokulam Kerala===
In July 2019 Saji joined [[I-League]] club [[Gokulam Kerala FC]] on a season-long contract.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cms.newindianexpress.com/sport/football/2021/feb/06/nine-footballers-from-malabar-region-form-backbone-of-gokulam-kerala-2260471.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017103141/http://cms.newindianexpress.com/sport/football/2021/feb/06/nine-footballers-from-malabar-region-form-backbone-of-gokulam-kerala-2260471.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 October 2021|title = Nine footballers from Malabar region form backbone of Gokulam Kerala- the New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Match Details {{!}} Hero I-League |url=https://i-league.org/match-details/ |access-date=2021-01-09 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=9 Keralites in Gokulam Kerala FC squad for Durand Cup |url=https://english.mathrubhumi.com/sports/football/9-keralites-in-gokulam-kerala-fc-squad-for-durand-cup-1.4022340 |access-date=2021-01-09 |website=Mathrubhumi |language=en}}</ref>

He then promoted to the main team which goes to [[kolkata]] for [[2020–21 I-League]] season.

===Hyderabad===
On 15 July 2022, [[Hyderabad FC|Hyderabad]] completed the signing of Saji on a three-year deal.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hyderabad FC sign defender Alex Saji on a long-term deal|url=https://hyderabadfc.co.in/2022/announcement/hyderabad-fc-sign-defender-alex-saji-on-a-long-term-deal/|access-date=15 July 2022|date=18 July 2022|website=hyderabadfc.co.in}}</ref>

===Northeast United===

==International career==
On 2 October 2021, Saji was selected for [[2022 AFC U-23 Asian Cup qualification|2022 AFC U-23 Asian Cup Qualification]] matches which were scheduled to be played between 23 and 31 October 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.the-afc.com/documents/afc-competitions-calendar-2021|title=AFC Competitions Calendar 2021|publisher=AFC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.the-afc.com/documents/afc-u23-asian-cup-2022-competition-regulations|title=AFC U23 Asian Cup 2022 competition regulations|publisher=AFC}}</ref>

== Career statistics ==
=== Club ===
{{updated|26 October 2024}}<ref>{{soccerway|alex-saji/644512}}</ref>

{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|-
!rowspan="2"|Club
!rowspan="2"|Season
!colspan="3"|League
!colspan="2"|Cup
!colspan="2"|[[Asian Football Confederation|AFC]]
!colspan="2"|Total
|-
!Division!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals!!Apps!!Goals
|-
| rowspan="1" |[[Kerala Blasters FC Reserves and Academy|Kerala Blasters B]]
|[[2017–18 I-League 2nd Division|2017–18]]
| rowspan="1" |[[I-League 2|I-League 2nd Division]]
|1||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||1||0
|-
| rowspan="3" |[[Gokulam Kerala FC|Gokulam Kerala]]
|[[2020–21 I-League|2020–21]]
| rowspan="2" |[[I-League]]
|5||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||5||0
|-
|[[2021–22 I-League|2021–22]]
|11||0||8{{efn|name=DurandCup|Appearance(s) in [[Durand Cup]]}}{{efn|name=IFAS|Appearance(s) in [[IFA Shield]]}}||0||3{{efn|name=statsAFCC|Appearance(s) in [[AFC Cup]]}}||0||22||0
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
!16!!0!!8!!0!!3!!0!!27!!0
|-
| rowspan="4" |[[Hyderabad FC|Hyderabad]]
|{{nowrap|[[2022–23 Indian Super League|2022–23]]}}
| rowspan="3" |[[Indian Super League]]
|0||0||2{{efn|name=DurandCup}}||0|| colspan="2" |—||2||0
|-
|[[2023–24 Indian Super League|2023–24]]
|10||0||6{{efn|name=DurandCup}}{{efn|name=SuperCup|Appearance(s) in [[Super Cup (India)|Super Cup]]}}||0|| colspan="2" |—||16||0
|-
|[[2024–25 Indian Super League|2024–25]]
|5||0||0||0|| colspan="2" |—||5||0
|-
! colspan="2" |Total
!15!!0!!8!!0!!0!!0!!23!!0
|-
| rowspan="1" |[[NorthEast United FC|NorthEast United]] (loan)
|[[2022–23 Indian Super League|2022–23]]
| rowspan="1" |Indian Super League
|7||0||4{{efn|name=SuperCup}}||0|| colspan="2" |—||11||0
|-
! colspan="3" |Career total
!39!!0!!20!!0!!3!!0!!62!!0
|}
{{notelist}}

==Honours==
'''Gokulam Kerala'''
* [[I-League]]: [[2020–21 I-League|2020–21]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Gokulam Kerala FC Stage Sensational Comeback To Win Maiden I-League Title vs TRAU|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/sports-news-gokulam-kerala-fc-stage-sensational-comeback-to-win-maiden-i-league-title-vs-trau/378463|website=Outlook India|access-date=27 March 2021}}</ref> [[2021–22 I-League|2021–22]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/indian-football/gokulam-kerala-vs-mohammedan-sc-i-league-final-live-gkfc-vs-mdsc-live-score-indian-football/article38490975.ece|title=Gokulam Kerala 2-1 Mohammedan SC Highlights: GKFC becomes 1st club in 15 years to defend the I-League|website=sportstar.thehindu.com|publisher=[[Sportstar]]|date=14 May 2022|access-date=14 May 2022|last=TEAM SPORTSTAR|first=21:22 IST|location=[[Kolkata]], West Bengal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514160659/https://sportstar.thehindu.com/football/indian-football/gokulam-kerala-vs-mohammedan-sc-i-league-final-live-gkfc-vs-mdsc-live-score-indian-football/article38490975.ece|archive-date=14 May 2022}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Gokulam Kerala FC squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Saji, Alex}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:2000 births]]
[[Category:People from Wayanad district]]
[[Category:Indian men's footballers]]
[[Category:India men's youth international footballers]]
[[Category:Footballers from Kerala]]
[[Category:Men's association football central defenders]]
[[Category:I-League 2 players]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian sportsmen]]
[[Category:Gokulam Kerala FC players]]
[[Category:I-League players]]
[[Category:Kerala Blasters FC Reserves and Academy players]]

{{India-footy-defender-stub}}

Competition

2026-01-24T18:07:13Z

Sherrie7069: typo fix

{{Short description|Rivalry where multiple parties strive for a goal which cannot be shared}}
{{Other uses|Competition (disambiguation)|Compete (disambiguation)|Competitor (ship)}}{{Redirect|Oneupmanship|Mal Waldron & Steve Lacy album|One-Upmanship (album)}}[[File:Athletics competitions.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Competition in [[Sport|sports]]. One selection of images showing some of the sporting events that are classed as [[sport of athletics|athletics]] competitions.]]

'''Competition''' is a [[rivalry]] where two or more parties strive for a common [[goal]] which cannot be shared: where one's gain is the other's loss (an example of which is a [[zero-sum game]]).<ref>{{Citation |last1=Smith |first1=Ken G. |title=Competitive Dynamics Research: Critique and Future Directions |date=2017-11-26 |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/b.9780631218616.2006.00012.x |work=The Blackwell Handbook of Strategic Management |pages=309–354 |editor-last=Hitt |editor-first=Michael A. |place=Oxford, UK |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd |language=en |doi=10.1111/b.9780631218616.2006.00012.x |isbn=978-1-4051-6402-3 |access-date=2022-09-11 |last2=Ferrier |first2=Walter J. |last3=Ndofor |first3=Hermann |editor2-last=Freeman |editor2-first=R. Edward |editor3-last=Harrison |editor3-first=Jeffrey S.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Competition can arise between entities such as organisms, individuals, economic and social groups, etc. The rivalry can be over attainment of any exclusive goal, including [[Recognition (sociology)|recognition]].

Competition occurs in nature, between living organisms which co-exist in the same [[natural environment|environment]]. Animals compete over water supplies, food, mates, and other [[resource (biology)|biological resources]]. [[Human]]s usually [[Survival of the fittest|compete for food and mates]], though when these needs are met deep rivalries often arise over the pursuit of [[wealth]], power, prestige, and [[celebrity|fame]] when in a static, repetitive, or unchanging environment.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Cabral |first1=J. Centurion |last2=Garcia |first2=Calebe Mattos |last3=Solano |first3=Maiara |last4=de Almeida |first4=Rosa Maria Martins |date=2022-12-29 |title=More than a feeling: Effects of competitive asymmetry on human emotions |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00221309.2022.2160427 |journal=The Journal of General Psychology |volume=150 |issue=4 |language=fr
|pages=485–511 |doi=10.1080/00221309.2022.2160427 |pmid=36579926 |s2cid=255292057 |issn=0022-1309|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Competition is a major tenet of [[market economy|market economies]] and business, often associated with business competition as companies are in competition with at least one other firm over the same group of customers. Competition inside a company is usually stimulated with the larger purpose of meeting and reaching higher quality of services or improved products that the company may produce or develop.

Competition is often considered to be the opposite of [[cooperation]]; however, in the real world, mixtures of cooperation and competition are the norm.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Competition |url=https://www.sociologyguide.com/basic-concepts/Competition.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317221907/https://www.sociologyguide.com/basic-concepts/Competition.php |archive-date=17 March 2022 |access-date=2022-09-11 |website=Sociology Guide}}</ref> In economies, as the philosopher R. G. Collingwood argued "the presence of these two opposites together is essential to an economic system. The parties to an economic action co-operate in competing, like two chess players".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Collingwood|first=Robin, George|date=1926|title=Economics as a Philosophical Science|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/intejethi.36.2.2377247?journalCode=intejethi|journal=The International Journal of Ethics|volume=36|issue=2|pages=162–185 at. p. 177|doi=10.1086/intejethi.36.2.2377247|s2cid=143530850|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Optimal strategies to achieve goals are studied in the branch of mathematics known as [[game theory]].

Competition has been studied in several fields, including [[psychology]], [[sociology]] and [[anthropology]]. Social [[psychologist]]s, for instance, study the nature of competition. They investigate the natural urge of competition and its circumstances. They also study [[group dynamics]], to detect how competition emerges and what its effects are. [[Sociologist]]s, meanwhile, study the effects of competition on society as a whole. Additionally, [[anthropologist]]s study the [[history]] and prehistory of competition in various cultures. They also investigate how competition manifested itself in various [[culture|cultural]] settings in the past, and how competition has developed over time.

== Biology and ecology ==

{{Main|Competition (biology)}}
Competition within, between, and among species is one of the most important forces in biology, especially in the field of [[ecology]].<ref name="Keddy, P.A 2001">{{Cite book |last=Keddy |first=Paul A. |title=Competition |date=2001 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-010-0694-1 |edition=2nd |location=Dordrecht |oclc=840307667}}</ref>

Competition between members of a species ("intraspecific") for resources such as [[food]], [[water]], [[Territory (animal)|territory]], and [[sunlight]] may result in an increase in the frequency of a variant of the species best suited for survival and reproduction until its fixation within a population. However, competition among resources also has a strong tendency for diversification between members of the same species, resulting in coexistence of competitive and non-competitive strategies or cycles between low and high competitiveness. Third parties within a species often favour highly competitive strategies leading to species extinction when environmental conditions are harsh ([[evolutionary suicide]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Baldauf|first1=Sebastian A.|last2=Engqvist|first2=Leif|last3=Weissing|first3=Franz J.|title=Diversifying evolution of competitiveness|journal=Nature Communications|date=29 October 2014|volume=5|article-number=5233|doi=10.1038/ncomms6233|pmid=25351604|bibcode=2014NatCo...5.5233B|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Competition is also present between species ("interspecific"). When resources are limited, several species may depend on these resources. Thus, each of the species competes with the others to gain access to the resources. As a result, species less suited to compete for the resources may [[extinction|die out]] unless they [[adaptation|adapt]] by character dislocation, for instance. According to [[evolutionary theory]], this competition within and between species for resources plays a significant role in [[natural selection]]. At shorter time scales, competition is also one of the most important factors controlling diversity in ecological communities, but at larger scales expansion and contraction of ecological space is a much larger factor than competition.<ref name="SahneyBentonFerry2010">{{cite journal|author1=Sahney, S. |author2=Benton, M.J. |author3=Ferry, P.A.|year=2010|title=Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land|journal=Biology Letters|volume=6|issue=4|pages=544–47|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024|pmc=2936204|pmid=20106856}}</ref> This is illustrated by living plant communities where asymmetric competition and competitive dominance frequently occur.<ref name="Keddy, P.A 2001" /> Multiple examples of symmetric and asymmetric competition also exist for animals.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Borzée|first1=Amaël|last2=Kim|first2=Jun Young|last3=Jang|first3=Yikweon|title=Asymmetric competition over calling sites in two closely related treefrog species|journal=Scientific Reports|date=7 Sep 2016|volume=6|article-number=32569|doi=10.1038/srep32569|pmc=5013533|pmid=27599461|bibcode=2016NatSR...632569B}}</ref>

== Consumer competitions – games of luck or skill ==
{{Further|Game of chance}}
In Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, competitions or lotto are the equivalent of what are commonly known as [[sweepstakes]] in the United States. The correct technical name for Australian consumer competitions is a trade promotion lottery or lotto.<ref>{{cite web |title=Trade promotion lotteries |url=http://www.olgr.nsw.gov.au/promos_trade_promos.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729002216/http://www.olgr.nsw.gov.au/promos_trade_promos.asp |archive-date=2013-07-29 |access-date=2013-08-02 |website=Trade & Investment |publisher=NSW Government Office of Liquor, Gaming & Racing}}</ref>

People that enjoy entering competitions are known as compers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sear |first=Cynthia |date=2022-08-25 |title=On Becoming Unstuck: Teleoaffective Tactics, Thrills, and the Serial Entrants of Promotional Competitions in Australia |journal=Ethnos |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=573–592 |doi=10.1080/00141844.2022.2114517 |s2cid=251873459 |issn=0014-1844|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sear |first=Cynthia |date=2022-11-20 |title=It's such a rush: the secret lives of compers |website=[[TheGuardian.com]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2022/nov/20/its-such-a-rush-the-secret-lives-of-compers}}</ref>

==Competitiveness==
Many [[philosopher]]s and [[psychologist]]s have identified a trait in most living organisms which can drive the particular organism to compete. This trait, called competitiveness, is viewed as having a high [[adaptive value]], which coexists along with the urge for survival.<ref name=":1" /> Competitiveness, or the inclination to compete, though, has become synonymous with aggressiveness and ambition in the [[English language]]. More advanced [[civilization]]s integrate aggressiveness and competitiveness into their [[Social interaction|interactions]],{{Citation needed|reason=How are we defining an advanced civilization and at what point in history do we define a civilization as "more advanced"?|date=January 2026}} as a way to distribute resources and adapt. Many plants compete with neighboring ones for sunlight.

The term also applies to [[econometrics]]. Here, it is a comparative measure of the ability and performance of a firm or sub-sector to sell and produce/supply goods and/or services in a given market. The two academic bodies of thought on the assessment of competitiveness are the '''Structure Conduct Performance Paradigm''' and the more contemporary '''New Empirical Industrial Organisation''' model. Predicting changes in the competitiveness of business sectors is becoming an integral and explicit step in public policymaking. Within capitalist economic systems, the drive of enterprises is to maintain and improve their own competitiveness.

{{Short description|Type of competitive behavior}}
'''One-upmanship''', also called "one-upsmanship",<ref name="Merriam-Webster one-upmanship">{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/one-upmanship |title=One-upmanship |publisher=Merriam-Webster |accessdate=2021-04-26 }}</ref> is the art or practice of successively outdoing a [[competitor]]. The term was first used in the title of a book by [[Stephen Potter]], published in 1952<ref>In full, ''One-Upmanship: Being Some Account of the Activities and Teachings of the Lifemanship Correspondence College of One-Upness and Games Lifemastery''.</ref> as a follow-up to ''The Theory and Practice of [[Gamesmanship]] (or the Art of Winning Games without Actually Cheating)'' (1947), and ''Lifemanship'' titles in his series of [[tongue-in-cheek]] [[self-help book]]s, and film and television derivatives, that teach various ploys to achieve this. This comic [[satire]] of [[self-help]] style guides manipulates traditional British conventions for the gamester, all life being a game, who understands that ''if you're not one-up, you're one-down.'' Potter's unprincipled principles apply to almost any possession, experience or situation, deriving maximum undeserved rewards and discomfitting the opposition. The 1960 film [[School for Scoundrels (1960 film)|''School for Scoundrels'']] and its [[School for Scoundrels (2006 film)|2006 remake]] were satiric portrayals of how to use Potter's ideas.

In that context, the term refers to a satiric course in the [[gambit]]s required for the systematic and conscious practice of "creative intimidation", making one's associates feel inferior and thereby gaining the status of being "one-up" on them. Viewed seriously, it is a phenomenon of [[group dynamics]] that can have significant effects in the [[management]] field: for instance, manifesting in [[office politics]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Wiley CIAexcel Exam Review 2015 |first1=S. Rao |last1=Vallabhaneni |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-119-09431-9 |page=326 |chapter=Organizational Politics}}</ref>
==Social==
Social competition is the competition for [[social status]] or [[Power (social and political)|social power]], examples include [[keeping up with the Joneses]], [[female intrasexual competition]] or [[male intrasexual competition]]. Social competition can contribute to [[social stress]].<ref name="f716">{{cite journal |last=Gilbert |first=Paul |date=2001 |title=Evolution and Social Anxiety |journal=Psychiatric Clinics of North America |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=723–751 |doi=10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70260-4 |pmid=11723630}}</ref>

== Education ==
{{Main|Competition-based learning}}

Competition is a major factor in education. On a global scale, national education systems, intending to bring out the best in the next generation, encourage competitiveness among students through [[scholarships]]. Countries such as England and Singapore have [[special education]] programmes which cater for specialist students, prompting charges of [[academic elitism]]. Upon receipt of their academic results, students tend to compare their grades to see who is better. In severe cases, the pressure to perform in some countries is so high that it can result in stigmatization of intellectually deficient students, or even suicide as a consequence of failing the exams. Critics of competition as a motivating factor in education systems, such as [[Alfie Kohn]], assert that competition actually has a net negative influence on the achievement levels of students, and that it "turns all of us into losers".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kohn |first=Alfie |title=No contest : the case against competition |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-395-63125-6 |location=Boston |oclc=1007073234}} {{Page needed|date=September 2022}}</ref> Economist [[Richard Layard]] has commented on the harmful effects, stating "people feel that they are under a great deal of pressure. They feel that their main objective in life is to do better than other people. That is certainly what young people are being taught in school every day. And it's not a good basis for a society."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Salitto |first=David |date=12 April 2011 |title=What really makes us happy? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-13052639 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302213504/https://www.bbc.com/news/av/uk-13052639 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |access-date=2022-09-11 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

However, other studies such as the [[Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking]] show that the effect of competition on students depends on each individual's level of [[Agency (philosophy)|agency]]. Students with a high level of agency thrive on competition, are self-motivated, and are willing to risk failure. Compared to their counterparts who are low in agency, these students are more likely to be flexible, adaptable and creative as adults.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Conti |first1=Regina |last2=Picariello |first2=Martha |last3=Collins |first3=Mary |date=December 2001 |title=The impact of competition on intrinsic motivation and creativity: Considering gender, gender segregation and gender role orientation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223760263 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=31 |issue=8 |pages=1273–1289 |doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00217-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eisenberg |first1=Jacob |last2=Thompson |first2=William Forde |date=16 April 2012 |title=The Effects of Competition on Improvisers' Motivation, Stress, and Creative Performance |journal=Creativity Research Journal |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=129–136 |doi=10.1080/10400419.2011.571185 |issn=1040-0419 |s2cid=144893872}}</ref>

==Economics==
{{Main|Competition (economics)}}

Merriam-Webster gives as one definition of competition (relating to [[business sector|business]]) as "[...] rivalry: such as [...] the effort of two or more parties acting independently to secure the business of a third party by offering the most favorable terms".<ref>Compare: [http://m-w.com/dictionary/competition Definition of competition] - "competition [...] 1 : the act or process of competing : rivalry: such as [...] a : the effort of two or more parties acting independently to secure the business of a third party by offering the most favorable terms "</ref> [[Adam Smith]] in his 1776 book ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' and later economists described competition in general as allocating productive [[resource]]s to their most highly valued uses and encouraging [[X-inefficiency|efficiency]].<ref>[[George J. Stigler]] ([[The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics|[1987]]] 2008). "competition," ''[[The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics]]''. [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000261&q=competition&topicid=&result_number=6 Abstract.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215032134/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000261&q=competition&topicid=&result_number=6|date=2015-02-15}}</ref>{{request quotation|date=March 2020}} Later [[microeconomic theory]] distinguished between [[perfect competition]] and [[imperfect competition]], concluding that no system of resource allocation is more efficient than [[perfect competition]].{{citation needed|date=March 2020}} Competition, according to the theory, causes commercial firms to develop new products, services and technologies, which would give consumers greater selection and better products. The greater selection typically causes lower prices for the products, compared to what the price would be if there was no competition ([[monopoly]]) or little competition ([[oligopoly]]).{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

However, competition may also lead to wasted (duplicated) effort and to increased [[cost]]s (and prices) in some circumstances. For example, the intense competition for the small number of [[superstar|top jobs in music and movie-acting]] leads many aspiring musicians and actors to make substantial investments in training which are not recouped, because only a fraction become successful. Critics{{which|date=March 2020}} have also argued that competition can be destabilizing, particularly competition between certain financial institutions.

Experts have also questioned the constructiveness of competition in profitability. It has been argued that competition-oriented objectives are counterproductive to raising revenues and profitability because they limit the options of strategies for firms as well as their ability to offer innovative responses to changes in the market.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=J. Scott Armstrong |author2=Fred Collopy |year=1994 |title=The Profitability of Winning |url=http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/documents/research/CompOrientPDF%2011-27%20%282%29.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Chief Executive |pages=61–63 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622023252/http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/documents/research/CompOrientPDF%2011-27%20(2).pdf |archive-date=2010-06-22 |access-date=2011-12-06 |quote=A 1996 review of the evidence, summarized in this paper, found that competitor-oriented objectives reduced profitability. We describe new evidence from 12 studies, one of which is introduced in this paper. The new evidence supports the conclusion that competitor-oriented objectives are harmful, especially when managers receive information about competitors' market shares.}}</ref> In addition, the strong desire to defeat rival firms with competitive prices has the strong possibility of causing [[price war]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=J. Scott Armstrong |author2=Kesten C. Greene |year=2007 |title=Competitor-oriented Objectives: The Myth of Market Share |url=https://ijb.cyut.edu.tw/var/file/10/1010/img/853/V121-6.pdf |url-status=live |journal=International Journal of Business |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=116–34 |issn=1083-4346 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911045115/https://ijb.cyut.edu.tw/var/file/10/1010/img/853/V121-6.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2022}}</ref>

Another distinction appearing in economics is that between competition as an end-state – as in the case of both perfect and imperfect competition – and competition as a ''process.'' It is a process of rivalry between firms (or consumers) intensifying selective pressures for improvements. One can restate this as a process of discovery.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blaug |first=Mark |date=2001 |title=Is Competition Such a Good Thing? Static Efficiency versus Dynamic Efficiency |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1011160622792 |journal=Review of Industrial Organization |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=37–48 |doi=10.1023/a:1011160622792 |issn=0889-938X |s2cid=154441911 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Three levels of end-state economic competition have been classified:{{by whom|date=March 2020}}
* The most narrow form is '''direct competition''' (also called "category competition" or "brand competition"), where [[product (business)|products]] which perform the same function compete against each other. For example, one brand of pick-up trucks competes with several other brands of pick-up trucks. Sometimes, two companies are rivals and one adds new products to their line, which leads to the other company distributing the same new things, and in this manner they compete.
* The next form is '''substitute''' or '''indirect competition''', where products which are close substitutes for one another compete. For example, butter competes with margarine, with mayonnaise and with other various sauces and spreads.
* The broadest form of competition is typically called '''budget competition'''. Included in this category is anything on which the [[consumer]] might want to spend their available [[income|money]]. For example, a family which has $20,000 available may choose to spend it on many different items, which can all be seen as competing with each other for the family's expenditure. This form of competition is also sometimes described as a competition of "share of wallet".

In addition, companies compete for [[finance|financing]] on the capital markets (equity or debt) in order to generate the necessary cash for their operations. [[Investor]] typically consider alternative investment opportunities given their risk profile, and not only look at companies just competing on product ('''direct competitors'''). Enlarging the investment universe to include '''indirect competitors''' leads to a broader peer universe of comparable, indirectly competing companies.

Competition does not necessarily have to be between companies. For example, [[business writer]]s sometimes refer to '''internal competition'''. This is competition within companies. The idea was first introduced by [[Alfred Sloan]] at [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] in the 1920s. Sloan deliberately created areas of overlap between [[Division (organization)|division]]s of the company so that each division would compete with the other divisions. For example, the [[Chevrolet]] division would compete with the [[Pontiac (automobile)|Pontiac]] division for some [[market segment]]s. The competing brands by the same company allowed parts to be designed by one division and shared by several divisions, for example parts designed by Chevrolet would also be used by Pontiac. In 1931 [[Procter & Gamble]] initiated a deliberate system of internal brand-versus-brand rivalry. The company was organized{{by whom|date=March 2020}} around different [[brand]]s, with each brand allocated resources, including a dedicated group of employees willing to champion the brand. Each [[brand manager]] was given responsibility for the success or failure of the brand, and compensated accordingly.

Most businesses also encourage competition between individual employees. An example of this is a contest between sales representatives. The sales representative with the highest sales (or the best improvement in sales) over a period of time would gain benefits from the employer. This is also known as '''intra-brand competition'''.

Shalev and Asbjornsen found that success (i.e. the saving resulted) of [[reverse auction]]s correlated most closely with competition. The literature widely supported the importance of competition as the primary driver of reverse auctions success.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Shalev |first1=Moshe Eitan |last2=Asbjornsen |first2=Stee |date=2010-03-30 |title=Electronic Reverse Auctions and the Public Sector – Factors of Success |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1727409 |journal=Journal of Public Procurement |language=en |location=Rochester, NY |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=428–452 |ssrn=1727409}}</ref> Their findings appear to support that argument, as competition correlated strongly with the reverse auction success, as well as with the number of bidders.<ref name=":0" />

Business and economic competition in most [[country|countries]] is often{{quantify|date=March 2020}} limited or restricted. Competition often is subject to legal restrictions. For example, competition may be legally prohibited, as in the cases of a [[government monopoly]] or of a [[government-granted monopoly]]. Governments may institute [[tariffs]], [[subsidies]] or other [[protectionist]] measures in order to prevent or reduce competition. Depending on the respective economic policy, pure competition is to a greater or lesser extent regulated by [[competition policy]] and [[competition law]]. Another component of these activities is the [[discovery process]], with instances of higher [[government regulation]]s typically leading to less competitive businesses being launched.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kirzner |first=Israel M. |date=30 September 1982 |title=Competition, Regulation, and the Market Process: An "Austrian" Perspective |url=https://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/pa018.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cato Institute Policy Analysis |publisher=Cato Institute |issue=18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802170609/https://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/pa018.pdf |archive-date=2 August 2019}}</ref>

Nicholas Gruen has referred to ''The Competition Delusion'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gruen |first=Nicholas |date=February 2020 |title=Trust and the competition delusion |url=https://www.griffithreview.com/articles/trust-competition-delusion-gruen/ |journal=Griffith Review |volume=67 |isbn=9781925773804}}</ref> in which competition is taken to be unambiguously good, even where that competition leaks into the rules of the game. He claims this drives financialisation (the approximate doubling of proportion of economic resources dedicated to finance and to 'rule making and administering' professions such as law, accountancy and auditing.

===Law===
{{Main|Competition law}}

[[File:U.S. Department of Justice headquarters, August 12, 2006.jpg|thumb|right |The [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] building in [[Washington, D.C.]] houses the influential [[United States antitrust law|antitrust]] enforcers of U.S. competition laws.]]
Competition [[law]], known in the [[United States]] as antitrust law, has three main functions:
* First, it prohibits agreements aimed to restrict free trading between business entities and their customers. For example, a [[cartel]] of sports shops who together fix football-jersey prices higher than normal is illegal.<ref>{{Cite court|litigants=JJB Sports PLC v Office of Fair Trading|opinion=1022/1/1/03|court=CAT|date=1 October 2003|url=https://www.catribunal.org.uk/cases/10221103-jjb-sports-plc}}</ref>
* Second, competition law can ban the existence or abusive behaviour of a firm dominating the market. One case in point could be a software company who through its [[monopoly]] on computer platforms makes consumers use its media player.<ref>In the E.U. side of the saga, see [https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2009-02/cp070063en.pdf Case T-201/04] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210183724/https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2009-02/cp070063en.pdf|date=2022-02-10}} ''Microsoft v. Commission'' Order, [revised] 17 September 2007</ref>
* Third, to preserve competitive markets, the law supervises the [[mergers and acquisitions]] of very large corporations. Competition authorities could for instance require that a large packaging company give plastic bottle [[license]]s to competitors before taking over a major [[Polyethylene terephthalate|PET]] producer.<ref>{{Cite court|litigants=Commission of the European Communities v Tetra Laval BV|reporter=European Court Reports|opinion=Case C-12/03 P|court=EU Court of Justice|date=15 February 2005|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A62003CJ0012}}</ref>

In all three cases, competition law aims to protect the [[consumer welfare|welfare of consumers]] by ensuring that each business must compete for its share of the [[market economy]].{{cn|date=April 2025}}

==Game theory==
{{main|Game theory}}

Game theory is "the study of [[mathematical model]]s of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers."<ref name="Myerson">{{Cite book |last=Myerson |first=Roger B. |title=Game Theory: Analysis of Conflict |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1997 |isbn=9780674341166}} p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=E8WQFRCsNr0C&pg=PA1 1]. Chapter-preview links, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=E8WQFRCsNr0C&pg=PR7 vii–xi].</ref> Game theory is mainly used in [[economics]], [[political science]], and [[psychology]], as well as [[logic]], [[computer science]], [[biology]] and [[poker]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Chabris |first=Christopher |date=26 July 2013 |title=The Science of Winning Poker |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323610704578625812355516182 |url-access=subscription |access-date=11 September 2022 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> Originally, it mainly addressed [[zero-sum game]]s, in which one person's gains result in losses for the other participants.

Game theory is a major method used in [[mathematical economics]] and business for [[Economic model|modeling]] competing behaviors of interacting [[Agent (economics)|agent]]s.<ref name=r1>• At [[JEL classification codes#Mathematical and quantitative methods JEL: C Subcategories|JEL:C7]] of the ''[[Journal of Economic Literature]]'' classification codes.    • [[Robert Aumann|R.J. Aumann]] (2008). "game theory," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_G000007&edition=current&q=game%20theory&topicid=&result_number=4 Abstract.]    • [[Martin Shubik]] (1981). "Game Theory Models and Methods in Political Economy," in [[Kenneth Arrow]] and Michael Intriligator, ed., ''Handbook of Mathematical Economics'', v. 1, pp. 285–330 {{doi|10.1016/S1573-4382(81)01011-4}}.    • [[Carl Shapiro]] (1989). "The Theory of Business Strategy," ''RAND Journal of Economics'', 20(1), pp. 125–37 {{JSTOR|2555656}}.</ref> Applications include a wide array of economic phenomena and approaches, such as [[auction]]s, [[bargaining]], [[mergers & acquisitions]] pricing,<ref name="GT-A-E-00">N. Agarwal and P. Zeephongsekul. [http://www.mssanz.org.au/modsim2011/D6/agarwal.pdf Psychological Pricing in Mergers & Acquisitions using Game Theory], School of Mathematics and Geospatial Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne. 19th International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, 12–16 December 2011</ref> [[fair division]], [[Duopoly|duopolies]], [[Oligopoly|oligopolies]], [[social network]] formation, [[agent-based computational economics]],<ref name=r2>• [[Leigh Tesfatsion]] (2006). "Agent-Based Computational Economics: A Constructive Approach to Economic Theory," ch. 16, ''Handbook of Computational Economics'', v. 2, pp. 831–80 {{doi|10.1016/S1574-0021(05)02016-2}}.    • [[Joseph Y. Halpern]] (2008). "computer science and game theory," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000566&edition=current&q=&topicid=&result_number=1 Abstract].</ref> [[general equilibrium]], [[mechanism design]],<ref name=r3>• From ''[[The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics]]'' (2008), 2nd Edition:      [[Roger B. Myerson]]. "mechanism design." [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_M000132&edition=current&q=mechanism%20design&topicid=&result_number=3 Abstract] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123042038/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_M000132&edition=current&q=mechanism%20design&topicid=&result_number=3 |date=November 23, 2011 }}.      _____. "revelation principle." [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_R000137&edition=current&q=moral&topicid=&result_number=1 Abstract].    • Tuomas Sandholm. "computing in mechanism design." [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000563&edition=&field=keyword&q=algorithmic%20mechanism%20design&topicid=&result_number=1 Abstract.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123042038/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000563&edition=&field=keyword&q=algorithmic%20mechanism%20design&topicid=&result_number=1 |date=November 23, 2011 }}    • [[Noam Nisan]] and Amir Ronen (2001). "Algorithmic Mechanism Design," ''Games and Economic Behavior'', 35(1–2), pp. [https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sandholm/cs15-892F09/Algorithmic%20mechanism%20design.pdf 166–96].    • [[Noam Nisan]] ''et al''., ed. (2007). ''Algorithmic Game Theory'', Cambridge University Press. [http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk/asia/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521872829 Description] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505140924/http://www.cup.cam.ac.uk/asia/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521872829 |date=2012-05-05 }}.</ref> and [[voting system]]s;<ref name=r4>Aumann, R. and Hart, S. (eds.) (1994). ''Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications'', v. 2, ch. 30: [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574000505800621 "Voting Procedures"] and ch. 31: [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574000505800633 "Social Choice."]</ref> and across such broad areas as [[experimental economics]],<ref name=r5>• [[Vernon L. Smith]], 1992. "Game Theory and Experimental Economics: Beginnings and Early Influences," in E. R. Weintraub, ed., ''Towards a History of Game Theory'', pp. [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=9CHY2Gozh1MC&oi=fnd&pg=PA241 241–82].    • _____, 2001. "Experimental Economics," ''[[International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences]]'', pp. 5100–08. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767022324 Abstract] per sect. 1.1 & 2.1.    • [[Charles R. Plott]] and Vernon L. Smith, ed., 2008. ''Handbook of Experimental Economics Results'', v. 1, Elsevier, Part 4, Games, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/handbooks/15740722 ch. 45–66].    • Vincent P. Crawford (1997). "Theory and Experiment in the Analysis of Strategic Interaction," in ''Advances in Economics and Econometrics: Theory and Applications'', pp. [http://weber.ucsd.edu/~vcrawfor/CrawfordThExp97.pdf 206–42]. Cambridge. Reprinted in Colin F. Camerer ''et al''., ed. (2003). ''Advances in Behavioral Economics'', Princeton. 1986–2003 papers. [http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8437.html Description], [https://books.google.com/books?id=sA4jJOjwCW4C&pg=PR7 preview], Princeton, ch. 12.    • Martin Shubik, 2002. "Game Theory and Experimental Gaming," in R. Aumann and S. Hart, ed., ''Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications'', Elsevier, v. 3, pp. 2327–51. {{doi|10.1016/S1574-0005(02)03025-4}}.</ref> [[Behavioral game theory|behavioral economics]],<ref name=r6>From ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'' (2008), 2nd Edition:    • [[Faruk Gul]]. "behavioural economics and game theory." [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_G000210&q=Behavioral%20economics%20&topicid=&result_number=2 Abstract.]    • [[Colin F. Camerer]]. "behavioral game theory." [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_B000302&q=Behavioral%20economics%20&topicid=&result_number=13 Abstract.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123034346/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_B000302&q=Behavioral%20economics%20&topicid=&result_number=13 |date=November 23, 2011 }}    • _____ (1997). "Progress in Behavioral Game Theory," ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', 11(4), p. 172, pp. [http://authors.library.caltech.edu/22122/1/2138470%5B1%5D.pdf 167–88].    • _____ (2003). ''Behavioral Game Theory'', Princeton. [http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7517.html Description], [https://books.google.com/books?id=cr_Xg7cRvdcC&pg=PR7 preview] ([ctrl]+), and ch. 1 [http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7517.pdf link].    • _____, [[George Loewenstein]], and [[Matthew Rabin]], ed. (2003). ''Advances in Behavioral Economics'', Princeton. 1986–2003 papers. [http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8437.html Description], [https://books.google.com/books?id=sA4jJOjwCW4C&pg=PR7 contents], and [https://books.google.com/books?id=sA4jJOjwCW4C&pg=PR7 preview].    • [[Drew Fudenberg]] (2006). "Advancing Beyond ''Advances in Behavioral Economics''," ''Journal of Economic Literature'', 44(3), pp. 694–711 {{JSTOR|30032349}}.</ref> [[information economics]],<ref name=r7>• Eric Rasmusen (2007). ''Games and Information'', 4th ed. [http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-EHEP001009.html Description] and [https://books.google.com/books?id=5XEMuJwnBmUC&pg=PR5 chapter-preview.]    • [[David M. Kreps]] (1990). ''Game Theory and Economic Modelling''. [http://econpapers.repec.org/bookchap/oxpobooks/9780198283812.htm Description.]    • R. Aumann and S. Hart, ed. (1992, 2002). ''Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications'' v. 1, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/handbooks/15740005/1 ch. 3–6] and v. 3, [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574000502030060 ch. 43].</ref> [[industrial organization]],<ref name=r8>• [[Jean Tirole]] (1988). ''The Theory of Industrial Organization'', MIT Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HIjsF0XONF8C Description] and chapter-preview links, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HIjsF0XONF8C&pg=PR7 vii–ix], "General Organization," pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HIjsF0XONF8C&dq=find&pg=PA5 5–6], and "Non-Cooperative Game Theory: A User's Guide Manual,' " ch. 11, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HIjsF0XONF8C&dq=find&pg=PA423 423–59].    • Kyle Bagwell and Asher Wolinsky (2002). "Game theory and Industrial Organization," ch. 49, ''Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications'',
v. 3, pp. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574000502030126 1851–1895].    • Martin Shubik (1959). ''Strategy and Market Structure: Competition, Oligopoly, and the Theory of Games'', Wiley. [http://devirevues.demo.inist.fr/handle/2042/29380 Description] and review [https://www.jstor.org/pss/40434883 extract].    • _____ with Richard Levitan (1980). ''Market Structure and Behavior'', Harvard University Press. Review [https://www.jstor.org/pss/2232276 extract]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315131945/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=8224 |date=15 March 2010 }}</ref> and [[political economy]].<ref name=r9>• Martin Shubik (1981). "Game Theory Models and Methods in Political Economy," in ''Handbook of Mathematical Economics'', v. 1, pp. 285–330 {{doi|10.1016/S1573-4382(81)01011-4}}.    •_____ (1987). ''A Game-Theoretic Approach to Political Economy''. MIT Press. [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?tid=5086&ttype=2 Description]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629151809/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?tid=5086&ttype=2 |date=29 June 2011 }}</ref><ref name=r10>• Martin Shubik (1978). "Game Theory: Economic Applications," in W. Kruskal and J.M. Tanur, ed., ''International Encyclopedia of Statistics'', v. 2, pp. 372–78.    • Robert Aumann and [[Sergiu Hart]], ed. ''Handbook of Game Theory with Economic Applications'' (scrollable to chapter-outline or abstract links):
:1992. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/handbooks/15740005/1 v. 1]; 1994. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/handbooks/15740005/2 v. 2]; 2002. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/handbooks/15740005/3 v. 3.]</ref>

This research usually focuses on particular sets of strategies known as [[Solution concept|"solution concepts" or "equilibria"]]. A common assumption is that players act rationally. In non-cooperative games, the most famous of these is the [[Nash equilibrium]]. A set of strategies is a Nash equilibrium if each represents a best response to the other strategies. If all the players are playing the strategies in a Nash equilibrium, they have no unilateral incentive to deviate, since their strategy is the best they can do given what others are doing.<ref name="GT-F-R-09">[http://www.insead.edu/facultyresearch/research/doc.cfm?did=46503 Game-theoretic model to examine the two tradeoffs in the acquisition of information for a careful balancing act] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524231021/http://www.insead.edu/facultyresearch/research/doc.cfm?did=46503|date=2013-05-24}} Research paper [[INSEAD]]</ref><ref name="GT-F-R-10">{{Cite news |last1=Chevalier-Roignant |first1=Benoît |last2=Trigeorgis |first2=Lenos |date=15 February 2012 |title=Options Games: Balancing the trade-off between flexibility and commitment |url=http://www.europeanfinancialreview.com/?p=4645 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620053305/http://www.europeanfinancialreview.com/?p=4645 |archive-date=20 June 2013 |access-date=3 January 2013 |work=European Financial Review}}</ref>

==Philosophy==
[[Margaret Heffernan]]'s study, ''A Bigger Prize'',<ref>
{{cite book |last1=Heffernan |first1=Margaret |author-link1=Margaret Heffernan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kc3HAQAAQBAJ |title=A Bigger Prize: Why Competition Isn't Everything and How We Do Better |date=2014 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=9781471100772 |location=London |access-date=2014-03-16}}
</ref>
examines the perils and disadvantages of competition in (for example) biology, families, sport, education, commerce and the Soviet Union.<ref>
{{cite news |last1=Morris |first1=Iain |date=2014-03-10 |title=A Bigger Prize review – the price we pay for competition |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/mar/10/bigger-prize-review-competition-margaret-heffernan |access-date=2014-03-16 |newspaper=The Guardian |department=Books |publisher=Guardian News and Media Limited |edition=UK |issn=0261-3077 |quote=Margaret Heffernan's brave study shows how the competitive instinct can be bad for us in all walks of life, from sport to finance}}
</ref>

===Marx===
[[Karl Marx]] insisted that "the capitalist system fosters competition and egoism in all its members and thoroughly undermines all genuine forms of community".<ref>
{{cite book |last1=Buchanan |first1=Allen E. |author-link1=Allen Buchanan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y2UEAQAAIAAJ |title=Marx and Justice: The Radical Critique of Liberalism |date=1982 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Incorporated |isbn=9780847670390 |series=Philosophy and Society Series |page=95 |quote=This problem is greatly exacerbated by Marx's insistence that the capitalist system fosters competition and egoism in all its members and thoroughly undermines all genuine forms of community. |access-date=2014-03-16}}
</ref>
It promotes a "climate of competitive egoism and individualism", with competition for jobs and competition between employees; Marx said competition between workers exceeds that demonstrated by company owners.<ref name="allenb">
{{Cite book |last=Buchanan |first=Allen E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j1AOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Marx and Justice: The Radical Critique of Liberalism |date=1982-01-01 |publisher=Methuen |isbn=978-0-416-33450-0 |language=en}}
</ref> He also points out that competition separates individuals from one another and while concentration of workers and development of better communication alleviate this, they are not a decision.<ref name="allenb" />

===Mahatma Gandhi===
[[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]] speaks of egoistic competition.<ref name="Gandhi">
{{Cite book |last=Dayal |first=Parmeshwari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FemHmw5fGQUC&pg=PP1 |title=Gandhian Theory of Social Reconstruction |date=2006 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist |isbn=978-81-269-0603-1 |language=en}}</ref> For him, such qualities glorified and/or left unbridled, can lead to violence, conflict, discord and destructiveness. For Gandhi, competition comes from the ego, and therefore society must be based on mutual love, cooperation and sacrifice for the well-being of humanity.<ref name="Gandhi" /> In the society desired by Gandhi, each individual will cooperate and serve for the welfare of others and people will share each other's joys, sorrows and achievements as a norm of a social life. For him, in a non-violent society, competition does not have a place and this should become realized with more people making the personal choice to have fewer tendencies toward egoism and selfishness.<ref name="Gandhi" />

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=10em}}
* [[Academic achievement]]
* [[Asymmetric competition]]
* [[Arms race]]
* [[Brinkmanship]]
* [[Competition regulator]]
* [[Competitor analysis]]
* [[Conflict theories]]
* [[Cooperation]]
* [[Dozens (game)]]
* [[Ecological model of competition]]
* [[Economic mobility]]
* [[Free market]]
* [[Gaming the system]]
* [[Identity performance]]
* [[Monopolistic competition]]
* [[Non-zero-sum game]]
* [[Opportunism]]
* [[Prisoner's dilemma]]
* [[Security dilemma]]
* [[Student competitions]]
* [[Social mobility]]
* [[Winning streak]]
* [[Win-win game]]
* [[Zero-sum]]{{Div col end}}{{Wiktionary|competition|competitor}}
{{Wikiquote}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{wiktionary|one-upmanship}}

{{Narcissism}}
* {{commonscat-inline| Competitions}}
[[Category:Competition]]
[[Category:Group processes]]
[[Category:Human behavior]]
[[Category:Human activities]]

Surajpur district

2026-01-22T18:04:53Z

Sherrie7069: Revised and enhanced article content

{{short description|District In Chhattisgarh, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2009}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Surajpur district
| settlement_type = [[List of districts of Chhattisgarh|District]] of [[Chhattisgarh]]
| total_type = Total
| native_name =
| image_map = Surajpur in Chhattisgarh (India).svg
| image_map1 = {{maplink |frame=yes
|frame-width=225 |frame-height=225 |frame-align=center
|text= '''Surajpur district'''
|type=shape |id=Q16938031
|stroke-colour=#C60C30
|stroke-width=2
|title= Surajpur district of Chhattisgarh
|type2=line|id2=Q1168|stroke-width2=1|stroke-colour2=#0000ff|title2=Chhattisgarh
}}
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location in Chhattisgarh
| coordinates =
| coor_pinpoint = Surajpur
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[India]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Chhattisgarh]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Administrative divisions of India|Division]]
| subdivision_name2 = District
| established_title = Established
| established_date =
| seat_type = Headquarters
| seat = [[Surajpur, Chhattisgarh|Surajpur]]
| parts_type = [[Tehsils of India|Tehsils]]
| parts_style = para
| p1 = 8
| area_total_km2 = 2786.76
| area_footnotes =
| population_as_of =
| population_total = 789043
| population_footnotes =
| population_urban =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| demographics_type1 =
| demographics1_title1 = [[Literacy in India|Literacy]]
| demographics1_info1 =
| demographics1_title2 = Sex ratio
| demographics1_info2 =
| leader_title = [[District Magistrate]]
| leader_name = S Jayavardhan (IAS)
| leader_title1 =
| leader_name1 =
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| registration_plate = CG-29
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Roads in India|Major highways]]
| blank_info_sec1 = NH 43
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 497xxx (Surajpur)<ref>[https://indiapincodes.net/Chhattisgarh/Surajpur/ Surajpur]</ref>
| website = {{URL|http://surajpur.gov.in/}}
| official_name =
| image_skyline =
}}

'''Surajpur district''' is a district in the state of [[Chhattisgarh]] in [[central India]], with its administrative headquarters at [[Surajpur, Chhattisgarh|Surajpur]].Surajpur is located in northern part of the state. National Highway 43 passes through Surajpur district. Surajpur was declared a district on 15 August 2012 along with eight other new districts. Surajpur is the first district to receive National Satyan Maitra Literacy Award. The district is known for its market (economical and quality product) and other major tourist places of Chhattisgarh with [[Tamor Pingla Wildlife Sanctuary]].<ref name="Surajpur2012">{{cite web |publisher=Surajpur.gov.in |title=Surajpur District |url=http://surajpur.gov.in/ |date=2012 |accessdate=2017-03-01}}</ref>

== History ==
The district was originally known as "Daandbulla", which was then changed to "Suryapur" and then "Surajpur".

Due to its mountainous topography, the district largely escaped the turmoil of the surrounding plains. The earliest inhabitants are said to be the Kols and Gonds, but there is evidence of more widespread civilization in the region. The rulers of Surguja State were [[Raksel dynasty|Raksel Rajputs]], and were said to have originally ruled Palamu. However, in 1613 CE, while Man Singh was in Surguja to celebrate his son's wedding with the daughter of the local ruler, the [[Chero dynasty|Cheros]], led by Bhagwant Rai, killed the then-ruler Man Singh's family and took over Palamu. Man Singh subsequently killed the chief of Surguja and took over his state. Other sources state that the Raksel dynasty gained overlordship over the various petty chieftaincies of the region and exercised hegemony over the other states including [[Korea State|Koriya]] and [[Changbhakar]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=District Census Handbook - Surguja|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/22/2202_PART_A_DCHB_SURGUJA.pdf|website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India}}</ref>

In 1758, Surguja State was attacked by the Marathas and its raja was forced to submit to them. However the Marathas only demanded tribute and left the state largely alone. In 1792, Surguja gained the ire of the British government when it annexed a pargana of Palamu and aided a rebellion against British rule there. The British led an expedition to Surguja that ended due to a treaty between them and the Marathas in Nagpur. In 1818, after the end of the Third Anglo-Maratha War, the Marathas under [[Mudhoji II Bhonsle|Appa Sahib Bhonsle]] ceded the three feudatory states of Surguja, Koriya and Changbhakar to the British government. Amar Singh was declared Raja of Surguja. In 1951, the three feudatory states were dissolved and annexed to the newly formed state of Madhya Pradesh. In 2000, it was made part of the present state of Chhattisgarh.<ref name="districtcensus">{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=District Census Handbook: Surguja |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/358/download/1080/DH_2011_2202_PART_A_DCHB_SURGUJA.pdf |website=censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref> In 2012, the six western tehsils of Surguja district were split off to form Surajpur district.

== Geography ==
Surajpur district is located in northern Chhattisgarh, in the Surguja region. The district is bordered by [[Koriya district]] to the west, [[Singrauli district]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]] to the north, [[Balrampur district, Chhattisgarh|Balrampur district]] to the northeast, [[Surguja district]] to the southeast and [[Korba district]] to the south.

The district consists mainly of the Surguja plateau. In the north are a belt of forested mountains around 75 km long and 30 km wide. In these mountains is located the valley of the [[Rihand River]] which is a tributary of the Son. It flows into Surajpur district from the southeast and out through the north. In the district it is joined by smaller tributaries such as the Mahan.

== Administration ==
Tehsil is the basic unit for purposes of general administration, treasury, land revenue, land records and other items of work. It has the closest and widest contact with the rural population. The officer-in-charge of the tehsil is the tehsildar who belongs to the state civil services. He is the principal official in the district administration responsible for revenue collector. Nayab tehsildar are there to assist tehsildars. In the absence of the tehsildars, Nayab tehsildars take charge.

Surajpur district has 8 tehsils:<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sub Division & Tehsil {{!}} District Surajpur, Government of Chhattisgarh {{!}} India|url=https://surajpur.nic.in/subdivision-blocks/|access-date=2020-08-18|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite tweet |access-date=25 July 2023 |url-access=limited |title=Register |number=1522936528267137025 |user=chhattisgarhcmo |url=https://twitter.com/chhattisgarhcmo/status/1522936528267137025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pioneer |first=The |title=CM inaugurates 23 new tehsils to make life easier |url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2020/state-editions/cm-inaugurates-23-new-tehsils-to-make-life-easier.html |access-date=2024-08-09 |website=The Pioneer |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=CM Virtually Inaugurated 13 New Subdivisions and 18 New Tehsils |url=https://www.drishtiias.com/state-pcs-current-affairs/cm-virtually-inaugurated-13-new-subdivisions-and-18-new-tehsils |access-date=2024-08-09 |website=Drishti IAS |language=en}}</ref>

* [[Surajpur, Chhattisgarh|Surajpur]]
* [[Ramanuj Nagar]]
* [[Prem Nagar, Chhattisgarh|Prem Nagar]]
* [[Bhaiyathan]]
* [[Odagi]]
* [[Pratappur, Chhattisgarh|Pratappur]]
* [[Bhatgaon, Chhattisgarh|Bhatgaon]]
* Latori

== Demographics ==
According to the Census 2011, total population of 789,043, dwelling in 547 villages. The Population density of the District is noted as 283 persons/km2. as per the census. The literacy rate according to the census is 60.95%, the sex ratio corresponds to 980 females per 1000 males. 71,536 (9.07%) live in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 5.43% and 45.58% of the population respectively.<ref name="Surajpur2012" />

{{bar box
|title=Religions in Surajpur district (2011)<ref name="religion">{{Cite web|date=2011|title=Table C-01 Population by Religion: Chhattisgarh|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11368/download/14481/DDW22C-01%20MDDS.XLS|website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>
|titlebar=#FCD116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|darkorange|94.61}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|green|2.81}}
{{bar percent|Other (tribal religion)|chartreuse|1.25}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity in Chhattisgarh|Christianity]]|dodgerblue|1.07}}
{{bar percent|Other or not stated|black|0.26}}
}}

{{Pie chart
|caption = Languages of Surajpur district (2011)
|label1 = [[Surgujia language|Surgujia]] |value1 = 81.26 |color1 = moccasin
|label2 = [[Hindi]] |value2 = 6.18 |color2 = orange
|label3 = 'Other' Hindi |value3 = 3.21 |color3 = coral
|label4 = [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]] |value4 = 2.53 |color4 = peachpuff
|label5 = [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]] |value5 = 1.88 |color5 = mediumseagreen
|label6 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] |value6 = 1.03 |color6 = orchid
|label7 = [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] |value7 = 0.97 |color7 = gold
|label8 = Others |value8 = 2.94 |color8 = grey
}}
According to the 2011 census, 81.26% of the population spoke [[Surgujia dialect|Surgujia]], 6.18% [[Hindi]], 2.53% [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]], 1.88% [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]], 1.03% [[Bengali language|Bengali]] and 0.97% [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] as their first language. 3.21% of the population recorded their language as 'Others' under Hindi.<ref name="languages">{{Cite web |title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue: Chhattisgarh |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10198/download/13310/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-2200.XLSX |website=www.censusindia.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref>

== Places of interest ==
There are famous temples at:
* Deogarh in the Surajpur district
* [[Kudargarh]] (Bagheshwari Devi Temple)
* [[Bhaiyathan]] (Patal Bhairav Mandir)
* [[Prem Nagar, Chhattisgarh|Prem nagar]] (mahesri mandir)
*[[Sarasor]] (Shiv Temple), Surajpur
* Khatu Shyam Baba Temple, Surajpur
* Gauri Shankar mandir, [[Basdei]], Surajpur

== See also ==
*[[Telgaon]]
*[[Bishrampur, Chhattisgarh|Bishrampur]]
*[[Pratappur, Chhattisgarh|Pratappur]]
*[[Prem Nagar, Chhattisgarh|Prem Nagar]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://surajpur.nic.in/ Official website]

{{Surajpur district}}
{{Chhattisgarh}}

[[Category:Surajpur district| ]]
[[Category:Districts of Chhattisgarh]]

Miss Diva 2016

2026-01-17T18:46:44Z

Sherrie7069: created first data with sources.

{{Short description|4th edition of Miss Diva}}
{{Infobox beauty pageant
| image = Roshmita Harimurthy at the launch of Miss Diva 2017 calender (cropped).jpg
| represented =
| photo =
| caption = [[Roshmitha Harimurthy]]
| photogenic = [[Srinidhi Ramesh Shetty]]
| congeniality = Aayushi Arora
| date = September 1, 2016
| presenters = [[Vir Das]], [[Lara Dutta]]
| winner = '''• [[Roshmitha Harimurthy]]''' '''• [[Srinidhi Ramesh Shetty]]'''
| venue = Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Indoor Stadium, [[Mumbai]], [[India]]
| broadcaster = [[Colors Infinity]]
| entrants = 15
| placements = 6
| before = [[Miss Diva - 2015|2015]]
| next = [[Miss Diva - 2017|2017]]
}}
The 4th edition of '''[[Miss Diva]]''' took place in 2016. 16 contestants competed in the pageant.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://beautypageants.indiatimes.com/miss-diva/contestants/miss-diva-finalists-2016/contestantslist/53412916.cms|title=2016 - Miss Diva Contestants - Miss Diva - Beauty Pageants - Indiatimes|website=Femina Miss India}}</ref> Miss Diva 2016 featured a television reality series which was telecast on [[Colors Infinity]]. The 16 contestants, who were mentored by former [[Femina Miss India]] Universe 2000 and [[Miss Universe 2000]] [[Lara Dutta]] through the series, were based in a "Diva Villa" at [[Madh Island]] and judged based on their performances by celebrity judges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/television/lara-dutta-joins-hunt-for-miss-universe-india-2016-2835840/|title=Lara Dutta joins hunt for Miss Universe India 2016|date=2016-06-05|publisher=The Indian Express|access-date=2017-06-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/miss-diva-2016-top-16-contestants-miss-india-universe-unveiled-688633|title=Miss Diva 2016: Top 16 contestants of Miss India Universe unveiled|date=2016-08-02|publisher=Ibtimes.co.in|access-date=2017-06-12}}</ref>

At the finale held on September 1, 2016, Roshmitha Harimurthy won the pageant and was crowned Miss Diva India Universe 2016 by the previous winner [[Urvashi Rautela]], [[Srinidhi Shetty]] was crowned Miss Diva Supranational 2016 by Natasha Assadi and Stephania Stegman and Aradhana Buragohain was crowned Miss Diva Runner Up 2016 by Naveli Deshmukh.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/fashion/miss-diva-2016-roshmitha-harimurthy-to-represent-india-at-miss-universe-2017-3026624/|title=Miss Diva 2016: Roshmitha Harimurthy to represent India at Miss Universe 2017|date=12 September 2016|publisher=}}</ref>

Roshmitha Harimurthy represented India at the [[Miss Universe 2016]] pageant held in the [[Philippines]] where she is unplaced.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/lifestyle/miss-universe-2016-indias-roshmitha-harimurthy-fails-to-advance-to-top-13-1342409.html|title=Miss Universe 2016: India's Roshmitha Harimurthy Fails To Advance To Top 13|website=News18}}</ref> [[Srinidhi Shetty]], representing India, was crowned [[Miss Supranational 2016]] on December 2, 2016 in [[Poland]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/Mangaluru-girl-crowned-Miss-Supranational-2016/articleshow/55783127.cms|title=Mangaluru girl crowned Miss Supranational 2016 - Times of India ►|website=The Times of India}}</ref>

== Placements ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:95%;"
|-
! Final results
! Contestant
|-
| '''Miss Planet 2017'''
|
* '''{{flag|Philippines}}''' – '''Charmaine Elima'''
|-
| '''1st Runner Up '''
|
* '''{{flag|Japan}}''' – Ayaka Koshiba
|-
| '''2nd Runner Up '''
|
* '''{{flag|India}}''' – Aradhana Buragohain

|-
| '''3rd Runner Up '''
|
* '''{{flag|France}}''' – Lena Stachurski

|-
| '''4th Runner Up '''
|
* '''{{flag|Indonesia}}''' – Ivhanrel Eltrisna Sumerah

|-
| '''Top 12'''
|
* '''{{flag|Brazil}}''' – Gabrielle Vilela
* '''{{flag|Hungary}}''' – Marta Molnar
* '''{{flag|Jamaica}}''' – Solange Sinclair
* '''{{flag|Mauritius}}''' – Ambika Callychurn
* '''{{flag|New Zealand}}''' – Deborah Lambie
* '''{{flag|South Africa}}''' – Priyeshka Lutchman
* '''{{flag|Vietnam}}''' – Nguyen Thi Thanh
|-
| '''Top 24'''
|
* '''{{flag|Bahamas}}''' – Candisha Rolle
* '''{{flag|Canada}}''' – Kesiah Papasin
* '''{{flag|Czech Republic}}''' – Petra Kaprhalova
* '''{{flag|Egypt}}''' – Kholoud Ezra
* '''{{flag|Guatemala}}''' – Maria Jose Larranaga
* '''{{flag|Iceland}}''' – Hildur Maria
* '''{{flag|Nigeria}}''' – Susan Adeyeni
* '''{{flag|Pakistan}}''' – Anzhelika Tahir
* '''{{flag|Slovakia}}''' – Lenka Tekeljakova
* '''{{flag|Spain}}''' – Carla Font
* '''{{flag|Thailand}}''' – Paweensuda Drouin
* '''{{flag|Ukraine}}''' – Natalia Varchenko
|}

==Contestants==

{| class="sortable wikitable"
! Name !! Age !! Height !! From !! Placement
!Notes
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Aayushi Arora || 20 (Born: 1996)|| {{height|m=1.75}} || [[Chandigarh]] ||
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Heena Bhalla || 26 (Born: 1990) || {{height|m=1.73}} || [[Delhi]] ||
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Natasha Bharadwaj || 18 (Born: 1998) || {{height|m=1.70}} || [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]] ||
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | [[Alankrita Bora]] || 18 (Born: 1998) || {{height|m=1.68}} || [[Guwahati]], [[Assam]] ||
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Aradhana Buragohain || 24 (Born: 1992) || {{height|m=1.73}} || [[Dibrugarh]], [[Assam]] || '''Runner Up'''
|Top 10, [[Femina Miss India 2016]]
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Richa Chaturvedi || 22 (Born: 1994) || {{height|m=1.70}} || [[Delhi]] ||
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Muskan Deria || 23 (Born: 1993) || {{height|m=1.80}} || [[Indore]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] ||
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Roshmitha Harimurthy || 22 (Born: 1994) || {{height|m=1.74}} || [[Bengaluru]], [[Karnataka]] || '''Miss Diva India Universe'''
|Top 5, [[Femina Miss India 2016]]
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Avantika Masand || 18 (Born: 1998) || {{height|m=1.76}} || [[Noida]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] ||
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Monisha Ramesh || 23 (Born: 1993) || {{height|m=1.70}} || [[Bengaluru]], [[Karnataka]] ||
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Ishita Sachdeva || 18 (Born: 1998) || {{height|m=1.73}} || [[Delhi]] ||
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Tanishq Sharma || 24 (Born: 1992) || {{height|m=1.68}} || [[Oman]] ||
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | [[Srinidhi Shetty]] || 24 (Born: 1992) || {{height|m=1.73}} || [[Mangaluru]], [[Karnataka]] || '''Miss Diva Supranational India'''
|Miss Supranational 2016
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Sophiya Singh || 22 (Born: 1994) || {{height|m=1.68}} || [[Noida]], [[Uttar Pradesh]] ||
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Sakshma Srivastav || 18 (Born: 1998) || {{height|m=1.75}} || [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]] ||
|
|-
|style="text-align:center;" | Srishti Vyakaranam || 24 (Born: 1992) || {{height|m=1.75}} || [[Hyderabad]] ||
|
|}

==Crossovers==
'''[[Femina Miss India]]'''
*[[Femina Miss India 2016|2016]]: [[Roshmitha Harimurthy]] (Top 5)
*[[Femina Miss India 2016|2016]]: Aradhana Buragohain (Top 10)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://beautypageants.indiatimes.com/miss-diva/articlelist/51396973.cms Official site]

{{Miss Diva}}

[[Category:2016 beauty pageants]]
[[Category:Miss Diva]]
[[Category:September 2016 in India]]

Vazhappady K. Ramamurthy

2026-01-15T10:31:35Z

Sherrie7069:

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2015}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Vazhapadi Ramamoorthy
| office = [[Member of Parliament]], [[Lok Sabha]]
| image = Vazhappady K. Ramamurthy.jpg
| caption =
| imagesize =
| country = India
| source =
| state =
| children =
| party = [[Tamizhaga Rajiv Congress]] (1998–2002)
| parents = Father : Kootha Padaiyatchi Mother : Palaniyammal
| occupation = [[Politician]] [[Lawyer]]
| termstart = 1998
| termend = 1999
| predecessor =
| successor =
| constituency = [[Salem Lok Sabha constituency|Salem, Tamil Nadu]]
| termstart1 = 1980
| termend1 = 1996
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| constituency1 = [[Krishnagiri Lok Sabha constituency|Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu]]
| termstart2 = 1977
| termend2 = 1980
| constituency2 = [[Dharmapuri Lok Sabha constituency|Dharmapuri, Tamil Nadu]]
| office4 = President of the [[Tamil Nadu Congress Committee]]
| termstart4 = 1989
| termend4 = 1995
| constituency4 =
| office3 = [[Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas|Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas]], [[Government of India]]
| primeminister3 = [[A. B. Vajpayee]]
| termstart3 = 19 March 1998
| termend3 = 13 October 1999
| constituency3 =
| successor4 = [[Kumari Anandan]]
| predecessor4 = [[G. K. Moopanar]]
|otherparty ={{bulleted list|[[Dravidar Kazhagam]] (1950–1960)|[[Tamil National Party]] (1961–1964)|[[Indian National Congress]] (1967–1996)|[[All India Indira Congress (Tiwari)|Tiwari Congress]] (1996–1998)}}
| birth_date = 18 January 1940
| birth_place =
| residence =
| death_date = 27 October 2002
| death_place =
}}
'''Vazhapadi Kootha padayatchi Ramamoorthy''' or '''Vazhapadiyar''' (Short Name) (18 January 1940 – 27 October 2002) was an Indian trade unionist and politician.<ref>{{cite news |last1=PTI |title=Former Union minister Vazhapadi dead|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Former-Union-minister-Vazhapadi-dead/articleshow/26487766.cms |work=The Times of India |date=27 October 2002 |language=en}}</ref>

==Political career==
He was an ardent follower of the late [[K Kamaraj]] and [[E. V. K. Sampath]] owne political party [[Tamil National Party]] Jointed He belonged to the [[Vanniyar]] community.<ref>{{cite book|author= P. Radhakrishnan| title=India, the Perfidies of Power: A Social Critique| year=2002| publisher=Radhakrishnan| isbn=9788179360033|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DTmVbBoYb0YC&pg=PA15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Madras, Chennai: A 400-year Record of the First City of Modern India, Volume 1|isbn = 9788183794688|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbR_LLkqdI8C&pg=PA382|last1 = Muthiah|first1 = S.|year = 2008| publisher=Palaniappa Brothers }}</ref>

He served as the President of [[Tamil Nadu Congress Committee]]. From 1989 to 1995, he was the Youth Congress President of [[Salem, Tamil Nadu]].

Ramamurthy was elected as a member of the Lok Sabha six times and was defeated twice, in 1996 and 1999. He was involved with the [[International Labour Organization]] and for a brief period in 1991 served as minister of state for Labour with independent charge in the Congress government led by [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]]. He quit his ministerial post on the Cauvery issue.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrint_TOI&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOIBG/2010/11/16&ID=Ar01100 | title=POWER INTERRUPTED - Raja Gone But Parliament Simmers | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821174558/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Repository/getFiles.asp?Style=OliveXLib:LowLevelEntityToPrint_TOI&Type=text/html&Locale=english-skin-custom&Path=TOIBG/2010/11/16&ID=Ar01100 | archive-date=2016-08-21}}</ref>

He was president of the TNCC for six years before being replaced in 1996 when he formed the [[Tamil Nadu]] unit of the Tiwari Congress. Ramamurthy went back to the Congress but left that party again to form [[Tamizhaga Rajiv Congress]] (TRC).<ref name=a>{{cite book|title=Asian Recorder|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3IxtAAAAMAAJ|year=1998|publisher=K. K. Thomas at Recorder Press}}</ref> He was part of [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|NDA]] and become [[Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas]] in 1998-1999. With the creation of the TRC, he subsequently announced that it would have an alliance with [[AIADMK]] in the upcoming [[Lok Sabha]] election.<ref name=a/> A few days later, [[J. Jayalalithaa]] announced that the TRC was entering the AIADMK-led front, although she denied having engineered the split in the Congress.<ref>''Business Standard''. ''[https://www.business-standard.com/article/specials/no-hitch-in-seat-sharing-talks-says-jayalalitha-197122501094_1.html No Hitch In Seat Sharing Talks, Says Jayalalitha]''</ref> In January 2002, after eight years, Ramamurthy merged the TRC with Congress.<ref>''[https://web.archive.org/web/20160818043128/http://www.sify.com/itihaas/fullstory.php?id=13421329 TRC merges with Congress]''</ref>

==Trade Union==

Ramamurthy was associated with various trade unions and workers' organizations, serving as honorary president of INTUC Tamil Nadu, Founder-President of the International Institute for Non-aligned Studies, Vice-President of INTUC, Tamil Nadu, and founding member and president of Indian National Rural Labour Federation INRLF, a labour union formed for agricultural and unorganized rural workers.

== Tamizhaga Rajiv Congress==
[[Tamizhaga Rajiv Congress]] was a regional [[political party]] in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. TRC was formed when Vazhapadi Ramamurthy split from the [[Indian National Congress]]. TRC merged with Congress in 2002.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/former-union-minister-vazhapadi-dead/articleshow/26487766.cms|title=Former Union minister Vazhapadi dead|work=The Times of India |date=27 October 2002|via=The Economic Times - The Times of India}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20041116085003/http://sify.com/itihaas/fullstory.php?id=13418954 Tamizhaga Rajiv Congress (TRC) quit the National Democratic Alliance]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2001/12/03/stories/2001120300840400.htm|title=TRC chief returns Congress property|website=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref>

==Electoral records==
He was [[Parliament of India|Member of Parliament]] elected from [[Tamil Nadu]]. He was elected to the [[Lok Sabha]] as an [[Indian National Congress]] candidate from [[Dharmapuri (Lok Sabha constituency)|Dharmapuri constituency]] in the [[Indian general election in Tamil Nadu, 1977|1977]] election and from [[Krishnagiri (Lok Sabha constituency)|Krishnagiri constituency]] in the [[Indian general election in Tamil Nadu, 1980|1980]] [[Indian general election in Tamil Nadu, 1984|1984]], [[Indian general election in Tamil Nadu, 1989|1989]] and [[Indian general election in Tamil Nadu, 1991|1991]] elections.<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1977/Vol_I_LS_77.pdf Volume I, 1977 Indian general election, 6th Lok Sabha]</ref><ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1984/Vol_I_LS_84.pdf Volume I, 1984 Indian general election, 8th Lok Sabha]</ref><ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1989/Vol_I_LS_89.pdf Volume I, 1989 Indian general election, 9th Lok Sabha]</ref><ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1991/VOL_I_91.pdf Volume I, 1991 Indian general election, 10th Lok Sabha]</ref> He was elected from [[Krishnagiri (Lok Sabha constituency)|Krishnagiri constituency]] as an [[Indian National Congress (Indira)]] candidate in the [[Indian general election in Tamil Nadu, 1980|1980]] election.<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1980/Vol_I_LS_80.pdf Volume I, 1980 Indian general election, 7th Lok Sabha]</ref> He was elected from [[Salem (Lok Sabha constituency)|Salem constituency]] as an Independent candidate in the [[Indian general election in Tamil Nadu, 1998|1998]] election.<ref>[http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/LS_1998/Vol_I_LS_98.pdf Volume I, 1998 Indian general election, 12th Lok Sabha]</ref>

==Parliament Committees==
1977-79 Member, Committee on Papers Laid on the Table; Member, Business Advisory Committee; Member, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Labour; Deputy Chief Whip, Congress Parliamentary Party, (Indira) [C.P.P.(I)]

1980 Member, Committee on Public Undertakings; Member, Business Advisory Committee; Member, Committee on Privileges; Member, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Labour

1985-87 Chairman, Committee on Public Undertakings;[[Committee on Public Undertakings]]

1986-89 Member, Committee on Public Accounts; Member, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Labor

1990 Member, Committee of Privileges, Member, Consultative Committee, Ministry of Labor and Welfare<ref name="parliamentofindia.nic.in">{{cite web| url=http://www.parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/lok12/biodata/12TN16.htm | title=Biographical Sketch - RAMAMURTHY, SHRI VAZHAPPADY KOOTHAPPADAYACHI | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010005030/http://www.parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/lok12/biodata/12TN16.htm | archive-date=2007-10-10}}</ref>

==Personal life==
His wife, R Kalaimani, was a retired teacher, and they shared two sons and a daughter. His eldest son, Vazhapadi Rama Suganthan, is an AICC member, INRLF National General Secretary and Tamilnadu State President.He is also Chairman of Rajiv Gandhi Vazhapadi K Ramamurthy Charitable trust, while his younger son, Vazhapadi R Karnan, is General Secretary of INRLF Tamil Nadu state.
Ramamurthy died in Chennai on 27 October 2002.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2002/10/30/stories/2002103005970400.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105051245/http://www.hindu.com/2002/10/30/stories/2002103005970400.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 November 2012|title=Ramamurthy laid to rest at Vazhapadi |date=30 October 2002|work=[[The Hindu]]|location=Chennai, India}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Indian National Congress breakaway parties]]
*[[Politics of Tamil Nadu]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [http://www.expressindia.com/ie/daily/19971222/politics.html Express India – TN Cong crippled as Ramamurthy allies with AIADMK-led front]

{{Energy Ministries and Departments of India}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ramamurthy, Vazhapadi}}
[[Category:Indian National Congress politicians from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:Union ministers from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:India MPs 1977–1979]]
[[Category:India MPs 1980–1984]]
[[Category:India MPs 1984–1989]]
[[Category:India MPs 1989–1991]]
[[Category:India MPs 1991–1996]]
[[Category:India MPs 1998–1999]]
[[Category:2002 deaths]]
[[Category:Lok Sabha members from Tamil Nadu]]
[[Category:People from Dharmapuri district]]
[[Category:All India Indira Congress (Tiwari) politicians]]
[[Category:People from Krishnagiri district]]
[[Category:People from Salem district]]
[[Category:1940 births]]
[[Category:Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi]]
[[Category:Presidents of Tamil Nadu Congress Committee]]

Lakshmi (1962 film)

2026-01-09T04:27:09Z

Sherrie7069: cleanup structure for clarity based on references

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Lakshmi
| image =
| caption =
| director = SP Naik under the technical supervision of [[Binoy Banerjee]]
| writer =
| starring = [[Chandana Banerjee]], [[Gaura Ghosh]] and [[Sahu Samuel]]
| producer = [[Gour Ghose]] & [[Parbati Ghose]]
| cinematography =
| released = {{Film date|1962}}
| country = India
| runtime =
| language = [[Odia language|Odia]]
| music = [[Balakrishna Das]]
}}

'''''Lakshmi''''' (1962) is an [[Oriya cinema|Ollywood / Oriya film]] directed by SP Naik, under the technical supervision of [[Binoy Banerjee]]<ref>{{ cite web |url=https://www.gourparbati.com/filmography.php|title= GourParbati|publisher=GPGenterprise.com}}</ref>

==Cast==
* [[Gour Prasad Ghose]]
* [[Parbati Ghose]]
* Dayanidhi Das

==Awards==
'''[[National Film Awards]]'''
* [[10th National Film Awards|1962]]: [[National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Oriya|Certificate of Merit for Second Best Feature Film in Oriya]]<ref name="10thaward">{{cite web|url=http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm10thNFAAward.aspx|title=10th National Film Awards|publisher=[[International Film Festival of India]]|accessdate=9 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929062243/http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm10thNFAAward.aspx|archive-date=29 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb title|1402511}}

[[Category:1962 films]]
[[Category:1960s Odia-language films]]
[[Category:1962 Indian films]]

{{Odia-film-stub}}

Diet in Hinduism

2026-01-08T01:19:53Z

Sherrie7069: creating new bio

{{Short description|none}}
[[File:Maharashtrian Thali.jpg|thumb|right|A lacto-vegetarian [[thali]] from Indian state of Maharashtra]]
{{hinduism}}
'''Diet in Hinduism''' signifies the diverse traditions found across the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Hindu scriptures promote a [[Vegetarianism|vegetarian]] dietary ideal based on the concept of ''[[ahimsa]]''—non-violence and compassion towards all beings.{{sfn|Sen|2019|p=1527}} According to a [[Pew Research Center]] survey, 44% of [[Hindu]]s say they are vegetarian.{{sfn|Corichi|2021}}

==History==
By mid-1st millennium BCE, all three major Indian religions – Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism – were championing non-violence as an ethical value, and something that affected one's rebirth. By about 200 CE, food and feasting on animal slaughter were widely considered as a form of violence against life forms, and became a religious and social taboo.<ref name="Kemmerer2011p59">{{cite book|author=Lisa Kemmerer|title=Animals and World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fidwAgAAQBAJ|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-979076-0|pages=59–68 (Hinduism), pp. 100–110 (Buddhism)}}</ref><ref name=harris201>Marvin Harris (1990), [http://academic.regis.edu/rlumpp/PDF%20files/RT%20201%20India%27s%20Sacred%20Cow.pdf India's sacred cow] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329091317/http://academic.regis.edu/rlumpp/PDF%20files/RT%20201%20India%27s%20Sacred%20Cow.pdf |date=2017-03-29 }}, Anthropology: contemporary perspectives, 6th edition, Editors: Phillip Whitten & David Hunter, Scott Foresman, {{ISBN|0-673-52074-9}}, pages 201–204</ref>

[[Ralph Fitch]], a [[merchant]] from London and one of the earliest English travellers to India, wrote a letter home in 1580 stating:
{{Blockquote| They have a very strange order among them ... They eat no flesh, but live by roots and rice and milk.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fg_LWnZyKCIC |title = Liberty or Death: India's Journey to Independence and Division|last=French|first=Patrick|date=8 September 2011|publisher=Penguin UK|chapter=Part I|isbn = 9780241950418|accessdate=13 November 2013}}</ref>}}

==Diet in Hindu scriptures and texts==

===The Vedas===
Evidence from the [[Vedas]] suggests the diet of the Vedic people consisted of cereals, initially barley but later dominated by rice, pulses such as ''māsha'' ([[urad (bean)|urad]]), ''mudga'' ([[moong]]), and masūra ([[masoor]]), vegetables such as lotus roots, lotus stem, bottle gourd and milk products, mainly of cows, but also of buffaloes and goats.{{sfn|Achaya|1994|p=31–35}} The Vedas describe animals including bulls, horses, rams and goats being sacrificed and eaten.{{sfn|Achaya|1994|p=53–55}} Although cows held an elevated position in the Vedas,{{sfn|Staples|2020|p=38–40}} barren cows were also sacrificed. Even then, the word ''aghnyā'' ('not to be eaten', 'inviolable') is used for cows multiple times, with some Rigvedic composers considering the whole bovine species, both cows and bulls, inviolable.{{sfn|Achaya|1994|p=53–55}}

[[Steven J. Rosen]] suggests that flesh might have been eaten only as part of ritual sacrifices and not otherwise.{{sfn|Rosen|2020|pp=409–410}} Acts of animal sacrifice were not fully accepted since there were signs of unease and tension owing to the 'gory brutality of sacrificial butchery' dating back to as early as the older Vedas.{{sfn|Bryant|2006|pp=195–196}} The earliest reference to the idea of [[ahimsa]] or [[non-violence]] to animals (''pashu-ahimsa'') in any literature, apparently in a moral sense, is found in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the [[Yajurveda]] (KapS 31.11), written about the 8th century BCE.<ref>{{cite book | last = Tähtinen | first = Unto | title = Ahimsa. Non-Violence in Indian Tradition | date = 1976 | location = London | pages = 2–3 (English translation: Schmidt p. 631) | isbn = 0-09-123340-2 }}</ref> The [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] contains one of the earliest statements against eating flesh, and the [[Chāndogya Upaniṣad]], has an injunction against killing 'all living entities'. Injunctions against flesh-eating also appear in the [[Dharmaśāstra#The Dharmasutras|Dharmasutras]].{{sfn|Bryant|2006|p=196–197}}

{{Quote box
|quote = '''Vegetarianism in ancient India''' In that country they do not keep pigs and fowls, and do not sell live cattle; in the markets there are no butchers' shops and no dealers in intoxicating drink.
|source = — [[Faxian]], Chinese pilgrim to India (4th/5th century CE){{sfn|Sen|2019|p=1524}}
|align = right
|bgcolor=#FFE0BB
|width = 30%
}}

===Dharmaśāstras===
According to Kane, one who is about to eat food should greet the food when it is served to him, should honour it, never speak ill, and never find fault in it.<ref name=olivelle20>{{cite book |author=Patrick Olivelle |year=1991 |chapter=From feast to fast: food and the Indian Ascetic |title=Medical Literature from India, Sri Lanka, and Tibet |editor1=Gerrit Jan Meulenbeld |editor2=Julia Leslie |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004095229 |pages=17–36}}</ref><ref>Kane, ''History of the Dharmaśāstras'' Vol. 2, p. 762</ref>

The Dharmasastra literature, states [[Patrick Olivelle]], admonishes "people not to cook for themselves alone", offer it to the gods, to forefathers, to fellow human beings as hospitality and as alms to the monks and needy.<ref name=olivelle20/> Olivelle claims all living beings are interdependent in matters of food and thus food must be respected, worshipped and taken with care.<ref name=olivelle20/> Olivelle states that the Shastras recommend that when a person sees food, he should fold his hands, bow to it, and say a prayer of thanks.<ref name=olivelle20/>

The reverence for food reaches a state of extreme in the renouncer or monk traditions in Hinduism.<ref name=olivelle20/> The Hindu tradition views procurement and preparation of food as necessarily a violent process, where other life forms and nature are disturbed, in part destroyed, changed and reformulated into something edible and palatable. The mendicants ([[sannyasa|sannyasin]], ascetics) avoid being the initiator of this process, and therefore depend entirely on begging for food that is left over of householders.<ref name=olivelle20/> In pursuit of their spiritual beliefs, states Olivelle, the "mendicants eat other people's left overs".<ref name=olivelle20/> If they cannot find left overs, they seek fallen fruit or seeds left in field after harvest.<ref name=olivelle20/>

The forest [[hermit]]s of Hinduism, on the other hand, do not beg for left overs.<ref name=olivelle20/> Their food is wild and uncultivated. Their diet would consist mainly of fruits, roots, leaves, and anything that grows naturally in the forest.<ref name=olivelle20/> They avoided stepping on plowed land, lest they hurt a seedling. They attempted to live a life that minimizes, preferably eliminates, the possibility of harm to any life form.<ref name=olivelle20/>

===''Manusmriti''===
{{Blockquote|
One can never obtain meat without causing injury to living beings... he should, therefore, abstain from meat. Reflecting on how meat is obtained and on how embodied creatures are tied up and killed, he should quit eating any kind of meat... The man who authorises, the man who butchers, the man who slaughters, the man who buys or sells, the man who cooks, the man who serves, and the man who eats – these are all killers. There is no greater sinner than a man who, outside of an offering to gods or ancestors, wants to make his own flesh thrive at the expense of someone else's.
|''Manusmriti''|5.48-5.52, translated by [[Patrick Olivelle]]<ref name="olivelle139">{{Cite book |last1=Manu |title=Manu's code of law: a critical edition and translation of the Mānava-Dharmásāstra |last2=Olivelle |first2=Suman |last3=Manu |last4=Manu |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-19-517146-4 |editor-last=Olivelle |editor-first=Patrick |series=South Asia research |location=Oxford |pages=139–141}}</ref>}}

The [[Manusmriti]]'s discussion on flesh-eating contains 25 verses condemning the consumption of flesh, bracketed by 3 verses defending the practice in the context of Vedic sacrifices.{{sfn|Sen|2019|pp=1523–1524}} Commentators starting with [[Medhātithi]] interpret the verses to mean that flesh-eating is prohibited generally, and only permitted in the presence of mitigating circumstances, such as danger to life.{{sfn|Framarin|2014|p=203}}

=== ''Mahabharata'' ===
The ''[[Mahabharata]]'' contains numerous stories glorifying non-violence towards animals and has some of the strongest statements against slaughter of animals—three chapters of the epic are dedicated to the evils of flesh-eating. [[Bhisma|Bhishma]] declares compassion to be the highest religious principle, and compares eating of animal flesh to eating the flesh of one's son. Nominally acknowledging Manu's authorisation of flesh-eating in sacrificial context, Bhisma explains to [[Yudhiṣṭhira|Yudhishthira]] that "one who abstains from doing so acquires the same merit as that accrued from the performance of even a horse sacrifice" and that "those desirous of heaven perform sacrifice with seeds instead of animals". It is stated in Mahabharata that animal sacrifices were introduced only when people began to resort to violence in the ''[[treta yuga]]'', a less pure and compassionate age, and were not present in the ''[[Sat Yuga|satya yuga]]'', 'the golden age'.{{sfn|Bryant|2006|p=198–199}}

===''Tirukkuṛaḷ''===
The ''[[Tirukkuṛaḷ]]'', another ancient Indian text of Hindu or Jain origin, emphasizes ahimsa and insists on [[moral vegetarianism]] or [[veganism]].<ref>{{cite journal| last =Dharani| first =D.| title = Medicine in Thirukkural, The Universal Veda of Tamil Literature | journal = Proceedings of the Indian History Congress | volume = 79 | issue = 2018–19 | pages = 101–108| year =2018 | jstor =26906235}}</ref>{{Rp|101}} Originally written in the South Indian language of [[Tamil language|Tamil]], the text states moderate diet as a virtuous lifestyle and criticizes "non-vegetarianism" in its ''Pulaan Maruthal'' (abstinence from flesh or meat) chapter, through verses 251 through 260.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kamil Zvelebil|title=The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=degUAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-03591-5|pages=156–157}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Krishna | first = Nanditha | title = Hinduism and Nature | publisher = Penguin Random House | series = | volume = | edition = | date = 2017 | location = New Delhi | pages = 264 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gp1IDwAAQBAJ&dq=ahimsa+and+Tirukkural&pg=PT131 | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-93-8732-654-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://ivu.org/congress/wvc57/souvenir/tamil.html | title = Vegetarianism in Tamil Literature | last = Meenakshi Sundaram | first = T. P. | date = 1957 | website = 15th World Vegetarian Congress 1957 | publisher = International Vegetarian Union (IVU) | access-date = 17 April 2022}}</ref> Verse 251, for instance, questions "how can one be possessed of kindness, who, to increase his own flesh, eats the flesh of other creatures." It also says that "the wise, who are devoid of mental delusions, do not eat the severed body of other creatures" (verse 258), suggesting that "flesh is nothing but the despicable wound of a mangled body" (verse 257). It continues to say that not eating flesh is a practice more sacred than the most sacred religious practices ever known (verse 259) and that only those who refrain from killing and eating the kill are worthy of veneration (verse 260). This text, written before 400 CE, and sometimes called the Tamil [[Veda]], discusses eating habits and its role in a healthy life (Mitahara), dedicating Chapter 95 of [[Porul (Kural book)|Book II]] to it.<ref name=gutenberg/> The ''Tirukkuṛaḷ'' states in verses 943 through 945, "eat in moderation, when you feel hungry, foods that are agreeable to your body, refraining from foods that your body finds disagreeable". [[Valluvar]] also emphasizes overeating has ill effects on health, in verse 946, as "the pleasures of health abide in the man who eats moderately. The pains of disease dwell with him who eats excessively."<ref name=gutenberg>[http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/HimalayanAcademy/SacredHinduLiterature/weaver/eng_95.htm Tirukkuṛaḷ] see Chapter 95, Book 7</ref><ref>[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/777453934 Tirukkuṛaḷ] Translated by V.V.R. Aiyar, Tirupparaithurai: Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam (1998)</ref><ref name="Sundaram_Kural">{{cite book | last = Sundaram | first = P. S. | title = Tiruvalluvar Kural| publisher = Penguin | date = 1990 | location = Gurgaon | pages = 115 | isbn = 978-0-14-400009-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://integralyogamagazine.org/russell-simmons-on-his-vegan-diet-obama-and-yoga/ | title = Russell Simmons on his vegan diet, Obama and Yoga | last = | first = | date = n.d. | website = Integral Yoga Magazine | access-date = 23 August 2021 }}</ref>

=== Puranas ===
The [[Puranas|Puranic texts]] fiercely oppose violence against animals in many places "despite following the pattern of being constrained by the Vedic imperative to nominally accept it in sacrificial contexts". The most important Puranic text, the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' goes farthest in repudiating animal sacrifice—refraining from harming all living beings is considered the highest ''[[dharma]]''. The text states that the sin of harming animals cannot be washed away by performing "sham sacrifices", just as "mud cannot be washed away by mud". It graphically presents the horrific karmic reactions accrued from the performance of animal sacrifices—those who mercilessly cook animals and birds go to ''kumbhipaka'' and are fried in boiling oil and those who perform sham sacrifices are themselves cut to pieces in ''viśasana'' hell. The ''[[Skanda Purana]]'' states that the sages were dismayed by animal sacrifice and considered it against ''dharma'', claiming that sacrifice is supposed to be performed with grains and milk. It narrates that animal sacrifice was only permitted to feed the population during a famine, yet the sages did not slaughter animals even as they died of starvation. The ''[[Matsya Purana]]'' contains a dialogue between sages who disapprove of violence against animals, preferring rites involving oblations of fruits and vegetables. The text states that the negative karma accrued from violence against animals far outweighs any benefits.{{sfn|Bryant|2006|p=199–202}}

==Diet and caste ==
A distinction traditionally exists between vegetarian and non-vegetarian castes. [[Brahmin]]s and merchant castes were usually vegetarian, and a vegetarian diet was considered ritually purer. Dominant castes that held a monopoly on power, such as [[Rajput]]s, tended to be non-vegetarian, and a non-vegetarian diet was seen as necessary for the exercise of power through force.{{sfn|Tambs-Lyche|2018}}

===Sanskritisation===
[[M. N. Srinivas]] and other subsequent authors developed the idea of [[Sanskritisation]], arguing that marginalised individuals and communities adopt vegetarianism in order to gain prestige or improve their status in the caste hierarchy.{{sfn|Desai|2008|p=96}} Amit Desai criticises this framework as a "misreading of the significance of vegetarianism", arguing that the practice of vegetarianism by subaltern groups is "not necessarily derivative of an elite worldview", but rather has power rooted in subaltern experience itself and addresses problems meaningful within their own lived worlds.{{sfn|Desai|2008|p=97–98}}

==Modern Hindu diet==
According to a 2021 [[Pew Research Center]] survey, 44% of Hindus say they are vegetarian, and another 39% restrict their consumption of flesh in some way.{{sfn|Corichi|2021}}

===Lacto-vegetarian diet===
{{Main|Lacto vegetarianism}}
[[File:India - Colours of India - 006 - Wedding Meal.jpg|thumb|A Hindu, lacto-vegetarian meal served on a banana leaf]]
Vegetarianism is a dietary ideal among many Hindus, based on the concept of ''[[ahimsa]]''—non-violence and compassion towards all beings.{{sfn|Sen|2019|p=1527}} It is also considered ''[[sattva|sattvic]]'', associated with qualities such as goodness, balance, and serenity that are conducive to spiritual progress.<ref name=nlepes/><ref name="ISBN 1843032953">{{Citation | author=Michael Keene | title=Religion in Life and Society | publisher=Folens Limited | year=2002 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I4AVbUIIygQC&pg=PA122 | isbn=978-1-84303-295-3 | page=122 |access-date=May 18, 2009}}</ref>

Lacto-[[vegetarianism]] is favoured by many Hindus; the diet includes milk-based foods and all non-animal derived foods, but excludes meat and eggs.<ref>Paul Insel (2013), Discovering Nutrition, Jones & Bartlett Publishers, {{ISBN|978-1284021165}}, page 231</ref> Reasons for adopting such a diet include the principle of nonviolence ([[ahimsa]]) applied to animals,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tähtinen |first=Unto |title=Ahiṃsā: non-violence in Indian tradition |date=1976 |publisher=Rider |isbn=978-0-09-123340-2 |location=London |pages=107–109}}</ref> the intention to offer only vegetarian food to a Hindu's preferred deity and then to receive it back as [[prasāda]], and the conviction that non-vegetarian food is detrimental for the mind and for spiritual development.<ref name="nlepes">{{Cite book |last=Lepes |first=Naina |title=The Bhagavad Gita and inner transformation |date=2007 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ |isbn=978-81-208-3186-5 |edition=1 |location=Delhi |pages=352–353}}</ref><ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b092.htm Mahabharata 12.257] (note that Mahabharata 12.257 is 12.265 according to another count); Bhagavad Gita 9.26; Bhagavata Purana 7.15.7.</ref>

A typical modern urban Hindu lacto-vegetarian meal is based on a combination of grains such as [[rice]] and [[wheat]], [[legumes]], green vegetables, and [[dairy]] products.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sanford |first=A. Whitney |date=2013-04-03 |title=Gandhi's Agrarian Legacy: Practicing Food, Justice, and Sustainability in India |url=https://journal.equinoxpub.com/JSRNC/article/view/4648 |journal=Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=65–87 |doi=10.1558/jsrnc.v7i1.65 |issn=1749-4915|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Depending on the geographical region, the staples may also include [[millet]]-based flatbreads. Fat derived from slaughtered animals is avoided.<ref name="nesbitt25">{{Cite book |last=Nesbitt |first=Eleanor M. |title=Intercultural education: ethnographic and religious approaches |date=2004 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-84519-033-0 |series=The Sussex library of religious beliefs & practices |location=Brighton; Portland |pages=25–27}}</ref>

A number of Hindus, particularly those following the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] tradition, refrain from eating [[onion]]s and [[garlic]], either totally or during the [[Chaturmasya]] period (roughly July to November of the [[Gregorian calendar]]).<ref name="Melton2011">{{cite book |author=J. Gordon Melton |title=Religious Celebrations: L-Z |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDU30Ae4S4cC&pg=PP2 |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-205-0 |pages=172–173}}</ref> In [[Maharashtra]], some Hindu families do not eat any [[eggplant]] preparations during this period either.<ref name="Bhanu2004">{{cite book|author=B. V. Bhanu|title=People of India: Maharashtra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BsBEgVa804IC&pg=PA1029|year=2004|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7991-101-3|page=851}}</ref> Followers of the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON, colloquially known as the Hare Krishnas) abstain from meat, fish, and fowl. Members of the related ''[[Pushtimarg]]i'' sect also avoid certain vegetables such as onion, mushrooms, and garlic out of the belief that these are [[tamas (philosophy)|tamasic]] (producing dullness, lethargy, and inertia).<ref name=nesbitt25/><ref name=Vasudha>Narayanan, Vasudha. “The Hindu Tradition”. In A Concise Introduction to World Religions, ed. Willard G. Oxtoby and Alan F. Segal. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007</ref> The mainly Gujarati [[Swaminarayan]] movement staunchly adheres to a diet devoid of meat, eggs, seafood, onions, and garlic.<ref>Williams, Raymond. An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. 1st. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. 159</ref>

===Non-vegetarian diet===
{{Main|Non-vegetarian}}
{{further|Jhatka}}
[[File:Boyal Macher Jhol.jpg|thumb|[[Machher Jhol]] is a spicy fish stew, notably in [[Bengali cuisine|Bengali]] and [[Odia cuisine|Odia]] cuisines in the eastern part of the [[Indian subcontinent]].]]

A significant portion of Hindus are non-vegetarians,{{sfn|Staples|2020|p=26}} although even those who identify as non-vegetarian eat very little meat. India has significantly lower meat consumption than other regions of the world.{{sfn|Jain|2011|pp=120–121}} Non-vegetarian Indians mostly prefer [[poultry]], fish, other [[seafood]], goat, and sheep as their sources of meat.<ref>Ridgwell and Ridgway (1987), Food Around the World, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0198327288}}, page 67 [https://books.google.com/books?id=tHL_m9zwtS0C&dq=Ridgwell+and+Ridgway+(1987),+Food+Around+the+World,+Oxford+University+Press&pg=PA4]</ref> In Eastern and coastal south-western regions of India, fish and seafood are the staple of most of the local communities.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Puskar-Pasewicz|editor-first=Margaret |title=Cultural encyclopedia of vegetarianism|date=2010|publisher=Greenwood|location=Santa Barbara, CA|isbn= 978-0313375569|page= 40[coastal south-western ] | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3-braqoek0AC |access-date=14 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Speedy |first=Andrew W. |date=November 2003 |title=Global Production and Consumption of Animal Source Foods |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022316623025750 |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |language=en |volume=133 |issue=11 |pages=4048S–4053S |doi=10.1093/jn/133.11.4048S|pmid=14672310 |doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref> As cows [[cows in Hinduism|are considered sacred]], many Hindus avoid eating the flesh of cows, and view this restriction as essential; in the Pew Research Center survey, 72% of Hindus said that those who do not follow this restriction cannot be Hindu.{{sfn|Corichi|2021}}

=== Diet for religious observations and festivals ===
[[File:Ekadashi Lunch.jpg|right|thumb|Hindu fasting day lunch menu]]
The Hindu calendar has many festivals and religious observations, and dishes specific to that festival are prepared.<ref>Ferro-Luzzi, G. Eichinger. “Food for the Gods in South India: An Exposition of Data.” Zeitschrift Für Ethnologie 103, no. 1 (1978): 86–108. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25841633.</ref><ref>Babb, L. A. (1975). The divine hierarchy: Popular Hinduism in central India. Columbia University Press.pages=137-139 [https://books.google.com/books?id=KsJKNbszQ7MC&q=goat+prasad&pg=PR9]</ref>

====Prasāda and Naivedya====
[[File:Lakshmi Puja prasad 03.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Prasada offered during [[Puja (Hinduism)|Puja]] ceremony at a home in West Bengal, India]]
A material offering to a deity is called {{langx|sa-latn|naivedya|lit=offering of food|label=none}}, it is tasted by the deity and becomes {{langx|sa-latn|bhoga|lit=tasted|label=none}}, and the food is then returned as a gift and distributed among the devotees as ''[[prasāda]]''; these terms are often used interchangeably.{{sfn|Pinkney|2018|loc=Material ''Prasāda'' in Hindu Ritual}} Vaiṣṇava and [[Śaiva]] offerings are typically vegetarian, whereas some [[Śākta]] practices include non-vegetarian offerings, [[animal sacrifice in Hinduism|involving animal sacrifices]].{{sfn|Pinkney|2018|loc=''Prasāda'' in Śākta Contexts}}

====Festival dishes====
Hindus prepare special dishes for different festivals. Kheer and Halwa are two desserts popular for Diwali. [[Puran poli]] and [[Gujia]] are prepared for [[Holi]] in different parts of India.<ref>{{cite book
|last= Engfer
|first=L
|author-link=
|date=2004
|title=Desserts around the world
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O8bLtgjnRysC&pg=PA7
|location=
|publisher= Lerner Publications
|page= 12
|isbn=9780822541653

}}</ref><ref name="Taylor Sen 2014 p. 105">Taylor Sen, Colleen (2014). Feasts and Fasts A History of Indian Food. London: Reaktion Books. p. 105. {{ISBN|978-1-78023-352-9}}. Retrieved 10 June 2016.</ref>

==== Diet on fasting days ====

Hindu people fast on certain days such as [[Ekadashi]], in honour of [[Vishnu]] or his [[avatar]]s: [[Chaturthi]] in honour of [[Ganesh]]a, [[Pradosha]] in honour of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]], [[Monday]] in honour of Shiva, [[Saturday]] in honour of [[Hanuman]] or [[Shani]], [[Tuesday]] in honour of Hanuman, as well as [[Kali]], [[Parvati]], [[Kartikeya]], and [[Ganesha]], [[Sunday]] in honour of [[Surya]], [[Thursday]] in honour of Vishnu or his [[avatar]]s, [[Dattatreya]], and [[Brihaspati]], [[Wednesday]] in honour of [[Krishna]], [[Vithoba]], Ganesha and [[Budha]] and [[Friday]] in honour of [[Mahadevi]], [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Mariamman]], [[Lakshmi]], [[Sita]], [[Radha]], [[Rukmini]], [[Saraswati]], and [[Santoshi Mata]].{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=6}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://pujayagna.com/blogs/hindu-fasting-days/fasting-in-hinduism | title=Hindu Fasting }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.learnreligions.com/hindu-deities-rituals-for-week-1770073 | title=Weekly Rituals in the Practice of Hinduism }}</ref> Only certain kinds of food are allowed to be eaten during the fasting period. These include milk and other dairy products such as [[Dahi (curd)|curd]], fruit and starchy Western food items such as ''[[sago]]'',<ref>{{cite book|last1=Arnott|first1=Margaret L.|title=Gastronomy : the anthropology of food and food habitys|date=1975|publisher=Mouton|location=The Hague|isbn=978-9027977397|page=319|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=8mT_aCfrE0UC|page=315}}|access-date=31 October 2016}}</ref> [[potato]]es,<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Walker|editor-first1=Harlan|title=Food on the move : proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 1996, [held in September 1996 at Saint Antony's College, Oxford]|date=1997|publisher=Prospect Books|location=Devon, England|isbn=978-0-907325-79-6|page=291|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=uYqTiD7SbcQC}}|access-date=31 October 2016}}</ref> purple-red [[sweet potato]]es, [[amaranth]] seeds,<ref>{{cite book|title=Amaranth: Modern Prospects for an Ancient Crop|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0D4rAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1|year=1984|publisher=National Academies|page=6|isbn = 9780309324458|id=NAP:14295}}</ref> [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]] and [[shama millet]].{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=7}} Popular fasting dishes include Farari chevdo, ''[[Sabudana Khichadi]]'' or [[peanut soup]].{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=63}}

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=18em|
* [[Buddhist cuisine]]
* [[Buddhist vegetarianism]]
* [[Christian dietary laws]]
* [[Diet in Sikhism]]
* [[Etiquette of Indian dining]]
* [[Indian vegetarian cuisine]]
* [[Islamic dietary laws]]
* [[Kashrut]] (Jewish Dietary Laws)
* [[List of diets]]
* [[Vegetarian cuisine]]
* [[Vegetarian Diet Pyramid]]
* [[Vegetarianism and religion]]
}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|2}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Achaya |first=K. T. |title=Indian Food: A Historical Companion |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-19-562845-4 |oclc=31901247}}
* {{cite book |last=Bryant |first=Edwin |title=A Communion of Subjects: Animals in Religion, Science, and Ethics |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-231-50997-8 |editor-last=Waldau |editor-first=Paul |chapter=Strategies of Vedic Subversion: The Emergence of Vegetarianism in Post-Vedic India |oclc=144569913 |editor-last2=Patton |editor-first2=Kimberly Christine}}
* {{cite web|title=Eight-in-ten Indians limit meat in their diets, and four-in-ten consider themselves vegetarian|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/07/08/eight-in-ten-indians-limit-meat-in-their-diets-and-four-in-ten-consider-themselves-vegetarian/|last=Corichi|first=Manolo|date=8 July 2021|website=Pew Research Center}}
* {{cite book |last=Dalal |first=Tarla |title=Faraal Foods for fasting days |year=2010 |publisher=Sanjay and Co |location=Mumbai |isbn=9789380392028 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=-C1ZO3BopZUC |page=8}}}}
* {{cite journal |last=Desai |first=Amit |date=April 2008 |title=Subaltern Vegetarianism: Witchcraft, Embodiment and Sociality in Central India |journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies |language=en |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=96–117 |doi=10.1080/00856400701874734}}
* {{cite journal|last=Framarin |first=Christopher G. |title=The Moral Standing of Animals and Plants in the ''Manusmṛti'' |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=64 |issue=1 |year=2014 |pages=192–217 |doi=10.1353/pew.2014.0006}}
* {{cite book |last=Jain |first=Pankaj |title=Dharma and Ecology of Hindu Communities: Sustenance and Sustainability |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate]] |year=2011 |author-link=Pankaj Jain |isbn=978-1-4094-0592-4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Pinkney |first=Andrea Marion |entry=Prasāda |encyclopedia=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Online |year=2018 |publisher=Brill |chapter-url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/ENHI/COM-000342.xml |chapter-url-access=subscription |doi=10.1163/2212-5019_BEH_COM_000342}}
* {{cite book |last=Rosen |first=Steven J. |title=The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Religion and Materiality |publisher=Wiley |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-118-68832-8 |editor-last=Narayanan |editor-first=Vasudha |edition=First|chapter=Vaishnav Vegetarianism: Scriptural and Theological Perspectives on the Diet of Devotion |oclc=1158591615}}
* {{cite book |last=Sen |first=Colleen Taylor |title=Encyclopedia of Food and Agricultural Ethics |publisher=Springer |year=2019 |orig-year=2014 |edition=2 |isbn=978-94-024-1179-9 |editor-last=Thompson |editor-first=Paul B. |chapter=Hinduism and Food |editor-last2=Kaplan |editor-first2=David M.}}
* {{cite book |last=Staples |first=James |title=Sacred Cows and Chicken Manchurian |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-295-74789-7 |oclc=1145911567}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Tambs-Lyche |first=Harald |entry=Caste |encyclopedia=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Online |year=2018 |publisher=Brill |chapter-url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/ENHI/COM-9000000005.xml |chapter-url-access=subscription |doi=10.1163/2212-5019_BEH_COM_9000000005}}
{{refend}}

{{Diets}}
{{cuisines}}
{{Vegetarianism}}
{{Hindudharma}}

[[Category:Hindu traditions]]
[[Category:Hindu law]]
[[Category:Ancient Indian law]]
[[Category:Indian cuisine]]
[[Category:Food law]]
[[Category:Vegetarianism and religion]]
[[Category:Hindu cuisine]]

Cucumber cake

2025-12-27T09:23:13Z

Sherrie7069: corrected article to improve readability

{{Short description|Indian dessert}}{{Infobox food
| name = Cumber cake
| image =
| type = [[Cake]]
| course = [[Dessert]]
| place_of_origin = [[Goa]]
}}

'''Cucumber cake''' is a [[cake]] prepared using [[cucumber]] as a primary ingredient. Additional ingredients may include typical cake ingredients such as flour, sugar, eggs and leavening.<ref name="Shenoy 2016"/> It may be served as a dessert cake,<ref name="mid-day 2016"/> and some versions are topped with an [[Icing (food)|icing]].<ref name="Shenoy 2016"/>

==Tavsoli==
Cucumber cake may be referred to as '''tavsoli''' or '''tausali''', and is a dish in [[Goan cuisine]].<ref name="Awchat 2009"/><ref name="Monteiro 2015"/> ''Tavsoli'' is prepared using cucumber, and additional ingredients may include rice, coconut, [[jaggery]], [[ghee]], cashews and [[cardamom]].<ref name="Awchat 2009"/><ref name="Monteiro 2015"/> [[Turmeric]] leaves may be placed atop the cake prior to baking, which adds flavor.<ref name="Awchat 2009"/> It may be served as a breakfast dish,<ref name="Aayis 2006"/> and may be prepared in the style of a [[dhokla]]<ref name="Food and Health"/> and [[steaming|steamed]].<ref name="Amit 2016"/>

==See also==
{{portal|Food}}
* [[Cucumber sandwich]]
* [[List of cakes]]
*[[Zucchini bread]]

==References==
<references>

<ref name="Awchat 2009">{{cite book | last=Awchat | first=D.S. | title=The Goa Portuguesa Cookbook | publisher=Popular Prakashan | year=2009 | isbn=978-81-7991-482-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IGeoulo2EBsC&pg=PA121 | page=121}}</ref>
<ref name="mid-day 2016">{{cite web | title=Meher Marfatia Column: Crosses, a square and Blue Circle | website=[[Mid-Day]] | date=January 10, 2016 | url=http://www.mid-day.com/articles/meher-marfatia-column-crosses-a-square-and-blue-circle/16848156 | access-date=January 29, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name="Shenoy 2016">{{cite web | last=Shenoy | first=Sonali | title=Cucumber Concoctions | website=[[The New Indian Express]] | date=January 29, 2016 | url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Cucumber-Concoctions/2015/05/14/article2812645.ece | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151205202306/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/Cucumber-Concoctions/2015/05/14/article2812645.ece | url-status=dead | archive-date=December 5, 2015 | access-date=January 29, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name="Monteiro 2015">{{cite web | last=Monteiro | first=Lisa | title=Youngsters prefer eating non-vegetarian food, finds survey | website=The Times of India | date=April 6, 2015 | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Youngsters-prefer-eating-non-vegetarian-food-finds-survey/articleshow/46817539.cms | access-date=January 29, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name="Aayis 2006">{{cite web | title=Cucumber cake (Tausalli) | website=Aayis Recipes | date=September 7, 2006 | url=http://www.aayisrecipes.com/breakfast-or-snacks/cucumber-cake-tausalli/ | access-date=January 29, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name="Food and Health">{{cite web | title=Tavsoli (cucumber cake) | website=Food and Health | url=http://www.strfri.com/foods/view/Tavsoli+(cucumber+cake).jsp | access-date=January 29, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name="Amit 2016">{{cite web | last=Amit | first=Dassana | title=Cucumber cake recipe, eggless steamed cucumber cake | website=Veg recipes of India | date=January 11, 2016 | url=http://www.vegrecipesofindia.com/cucumber-cake-recipe-tavsali-recipe/ | access-date=January 29, 2016}}</ref>

</references>

==Further reading==
* {{cite web | last= | first= | title=Local cooks hold the torch of Indian cuisine: Vikas Khanna | website=[[The Times of India]] | date=January 18, 2014 | url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Local-cooks-hold-the-torch-of-Indian-cuisine-Vikas-Khanna/articleshow/29007848.cms | access-date=January 29, 2016}}

[[Category:Cakes]]
[[Category:Goan cuisine]]
[[Category:Cucumber dishes|Cake]]

List of deputy chief ministers of Goa

2025-12-21T15:34:53Z

Sherrie7069: small refine layout for accuracy also and added references for clarity

{{Short description|Goa's third most important office}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{more citations needed|date=June 2015}}
{{Infobox political post
| insignia =
| insigniasize = 120px
| insigniacaption = Seal of Goa
| native_name =
| post = Deputy Chief Minister of Goa
| image =
| imagesize =
| incumbent = "Vacant"
| incumbentsince = 15 March 2022
| department = Deputy Chief Minister's Office (Goa)
| appointer = [[Governor of Goa]]
| nominator = [[Chief Minister of Goa]]
| appointer_qualified =
| style = [[The Honourable]]
| status = Deputy Head of Government
| abbreviation = DCM
| member_of = *[[Goa Legislative Assembly]] 
*[[Government of Goa|Cabinet]]
| termlength = At the confidence of the assembly
| termlength_qualified = 5 years and is subject to no [[term limit]]s.<ref name="term1">[[Durga Das Basu]]. ''Introduction to the Constitution of India''. 1960. 20th Edition, 2011 Reprint. pp. 241, 245. LexisNexis Butterworths Wadhwa Nagpur. {{ISBN|978-81-8038-559-9}}. Note: although the text talks about Indian state governments in general, it applies for the specific case of Maharashtra as well.</ref>
| inaugural = [[Wilfred de Souza]]
| formation = {{start date and age|df=y|p=y|br=y|1980|01|16}}
| residence =
| seat =
| precursor =
| salary =
| website =
}}
The '''deputy chief minister of Goa''' is a position of the Cabinet in the [[Government of Goa]]. The post is currently vacant.

==Deputy chief ministers==
The list of deputy [[chief minister]]s in the [[India]]n state of [[Goa]] include:

'''Keys:'''
{{legend2|#FF9933|[[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#353982|[[Goa Forward Party|GPF]] |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#00BFFF|[[Indian National Congress|INC]] |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#9933cc|[[Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party|MGP]] |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#00b2b2|[[Nationalist Congress Party|NCP]] |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#FA1635|[[Goa People's Congress|GPC]] |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}
{{legend2|#757575|[[Independent politician|IND]] |border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}

{|class="wikitable" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|-
!Sr. No.
!Name
! colspan=3|Term of office
!colspan=2|Political party
![[List of chief ministers of Goa|Chief Minister]]
|-
!1
| Dr.[[Wilfred de Souza]]
| 16 January 1980
| 18 September 1983
|{{age in years and days|1981|01|16|1983|09|18}}
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress (Urs)}}"|
|[[Indian National Congress (Urs)]]
|[[Pratapsingh Rane]]
|-

!rowspan=2|1
|rowspan=2|[[Ramakant Khalap]]
|27 March 1990
|14 April 1990
|rowspan=2|{{age in years and days|1990|03|27|1990|12|14}}
|rowspan=2 bgcolor="{{party color|Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party}}"|
|rowspan=2|[[Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party]]
|[[Churchill Alemao]]
|-
|14 April 1990
|14 December 1990
|[[Luis Proto Barbosa]]
|-
!2
| Dr.[[Wilfred de Souza]]
| 25 January 1991
| 18 May 1993
|{{age in years and days|1991|01|25|1993|05|18}}
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|[[Ravi S. Naik]]
|-
!3
| Dr.[[Wilfred de Souza]]
| 16 December 1994
| 29 July 1998
|{{age in years and days|1994|12|16|1998|07|29}}
|bgcolor="{{party color|Indian National Congress}}"|
|[[Indian National Congress]]
|[[Pratapsingh Rane]]
|-

!4
|[[Dayanand Narvekar]]
|24 November 1999
|23 October 2000
|{{age in years and days|1999|11|24|2000|10|23}}
| bgcolor=#FA1635|
|[[Goa People's Congress]]
|[[Francisco Sardinha]]
|-
!5
|[[Ravi S. Naik]]
|24 October 2000
|3 June 2002
|{{age in years and days|2000|10|24|2002|06|03}}
|bgcolor="{{party color|Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party}}"|
|[[Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party]]
|[[Manohar Parrikar]]
|-
!6
|[[Filipe Nery Rodrigues]]
|3 February 2005
|4 March 2005
|{{age in years and days|2005|02|03|2005|03|04}}
|bgcolor=white|
|[[Independent politician|Independent]]
|rowspan=2|[[Pratapsingh Rane]]
|-
!7
|[[Wilfred de Souza]]
|7 June 2005
|7 June 2007
|{{age in years and days|2005|06|07|2007|06|07}}
|bgcolor="{{party color|Nationalist Congress Party}}"|
|[[Nationalist Congress Party]]
|-
!rowspan=2|6
|rowspan=2|[[Francis D'Souza (politician)|Francis D'Souza]]
| 9 March 2012
| 8 November 2014
|rowspan=2|{{age in years and days|2012|03|09|2017|03|14}}
|rowspan=2 bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
|rowspan=2|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|[[Manohar Parrikar]]
|-
| 8 November 2014
| 14 March 2017
| [[Laxmikant Parsekar]]
|-
!8
|[[Sudin Dhavalikar]]
|19 March 2019
|27 March 2019
|{{age in years and days|2019|03|19|2019|03|27}}
|bgcolor="{{party color|Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party}}"|
|[[Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party]]
|rowspan=4|[[Pramod Sawant]]
|-
!8
|[[Vijai Sardesai]]
|19 March 2019
|13 July 2019
|{{age in years and days|2019|03|19|2019|07|13}}
|bgcolor="{{party color|Goa Forward Party}}"|
|[[Goa Forward Party]]
|-
!9
|[[Manohar Ajgaonkar]]
|28 March 2019
|rowspan=2|15 March 2022
|rowspan=2|{{age in years and days|2019|07|13|2022|03|15}}
|rowspan=2 bgcolor="{{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}}"|
|rowspan=2|[[Bharatiya Janata Party]]
|-
!10
|[[Chandrakant Kavlekar]]
|13 July 2019
|}
== Statistics ==
{{empty section|date=December 2025}}
==References==
<references />

{{Deputy Chief Ministers of Indian states}}

[[Category:Deputy chief ministers of Goa]]
[[Category:Lists of deputy chief ministers of Indian states|Goa]]
[[Category:Lists of people from Goa|Deputy Chief]]

Shaiju Mathew

2025-12-17T19:39:17Z

Sherrie7069: started new post

{{Short description|Indian–Canadian author}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2016}}
{{Infobox writer 
| image = Shaiju_Mathew.jpg
| caption = Mathew at a book release function of ''Knocked Up'' at Reliance Timeout Store Pune on 26 September 2010
|name = Shaiju Mathew
|birth_place = [[Anchal]]
|occupation = Novelist, screenplay writer, director
|nationality = Canadian
|alma_mater = [[St. Josephs Boys' High School|St. Joseph's Boys' High School, Pune]] [[Pune University]]
|genre = Fiction, romance, humour
|notableworks = ''Knocked Up'', ''[[Alfie The Elf]]'',''A Pocketful Of Sunshine''
|language = English
|website = {{URL|www.alfietheelf.com}}
}}

'''Shaiju Mathew''' is an [[Indo-Canadians|Indian–Canadian]] author, screenplay writer, [[movie reviewer]] and director, known for his 2010 book ''Knocked Up''.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://previous.jagrancityplus.com/genxdetail.aspx?cityid=9&articleid=32186&editionid=164&catgid=21 |title=Looking back with nostalgia |publisher=Previous.jagrancityplus.com |accessdate=2013-12-06 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20131206102308/http://previous.jagrancityplus.com/genxdetail.aspx?cityid=9&articleid=32186&editionid=164&catgid=21 |archivedate=6 December 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Hindu11262010" />

==Personal life==
Mathew is an alumnus of [[St. Josephs Boys' High School]] Khadki, Pune. He studied human resource management at [[Pune University]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shaijumathew.com/about.htm|title=About Me|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104085216/http://shaijumathew.com/about.htm|archivedate=4 January 2014}}</ref>

==Career==
After working as a singer and a screenplay writer Mathew, who moved to Bangalore after university, wrote ''Knocked Up'', a coming of age novel.<ref name="Hindu11262010">{{cite news
|first=Sravasti
|last=Datta
|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/writer-in-fastforward-mode/article913773.ece
|title=Writer in fast-forward mode
|work=[[The Hindu]]
|date=17 January 2011
|accessdate=26 November 2010
}}</ref> The book took Mathew 20 days to write and the author drew inspiration from his childhood experiences with his friends.<ref>{{cite web|title=These Growing Years|url=http://lite.epaper.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=yes&pageid=35&edlabel=BGMIR&mydateHid=02-11-2010&pubname=&edname=&articleid=Ar03501&format=&publabel=MM|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210181749/http://lite.epaper.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=yes&pageid=35&edlabel=BGMIR&mydateHid=02-11-2010&pubname=&edname=&articleid=Ar03501&format=&publabel=MM|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 December 2013|work=The Times of India|accessdate=16 December 2013}}</ref> The author also heavily used social media networks such as Facebook and Twitter to design the book's artwork as well as publicize and market the book.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/lifestyle/report-the-social-network-helped-him-sell-his-book-1467913|title= The social network helped him sell his book|work=Daily News and Analysis|accessdate=2013-12-06}}</ref> ''Knocked Up'' is set to become a feature film in Hindi, with Mathew co-producing. A Marathi movie ''[[Timepass (2014 Marathi film)|Timepass]]'' loosely based on ''Knocked Up'' released in February 2014. The film was the highest grossing Marathi film until the release of [[Lai Bhaari]] in the same year, which broke its record.<ref>{{cite news|last=Pitale|first=Sonali J.|title='Timepass' breaks a record at the box office|url=http://www.mid-day.com/entertainment/2014/jan/060114-marathi-movie-timepass-breaks-a-record-at-the-box-office-rs-5-crore-opening.htm|accessdate=17 January 2014|newspaper=Mid-Day|date=6 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Kulkarni|first=Pooja|title='Timepass' breaks records, earns Rs 10.25 crore at the BO within five days|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news-interviews/Timepass-breaks-records-earns-Rs-10-25-crore-at-the-BO-within-five-days/articleshow/28549570.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112182255/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2014-01-08/news-interviews/45989994_1_ravi-jadhav-10-25-crore-bo|url-status=live|archive-date=12 January 2014|access-date=17 January 2014|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=8 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Jayaraman|first=Gayatri|title=Son of the Soil Rising|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/movies/regional-cinema/story/20140210-marathi-cinema-movies-bollywood-players-riteish-deshmukh-800046-1999-11-29|access-date=13 February 2014|work=India Today|date=31 January 2014}}</ref> [[Andhra Pori]] starring Puri Akash son of [[Puri Jagannadh]] is also based on Mathew's novel ''Knocked Up''.<ref name=Kavirayani>{{cite web |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/141009/entertainment-tollywood/article/puri-akash-act-teenage-love-drama |title=Puri Akash to act in a teenage love drama |work=Deccan Chronicle |author=SURESH KAVIRAYANI |date=10 October 2014 |access-date=10 October 2014}}</ref>

In an interview to a popular news paper Mathew said that he is influenced by the works of [[RK Narayan]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Enid Blyton]] and [[Ruskin Bond]]. He prefers to write simpler stories that common man can identify with.<ref name=mitra>{{cite web |url=http://www.sakaaltimes.com/NewsDetails.aspx?NewsId=4869125394477908499&SectionId=5131376722999570563&SectionName=Features&NewsDate=20101011&NewsTitle=Three%20friends%20and%20a%20story |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224143207/http://www.sakaaltimes.com/NewsDetails.aspx?NewsId=4869125394477908499&SectionId=5131376722999570563&SectionName=Features&NewsDate=20101011&NewsTitle=Three%20friends%20and%20a%20story |url-status=usurped |archive-date=24 December 2014 |title=Three friends and a story |work=Sakal Times |author=Biswadip Mitra |date=11 October 2010 |accessdate=13 January 2014}}</ref> Mathew's next novel is a period drama titled ''A Pocketful Of Sunshine''.<ref name=toi>{{cite news |url=http://lite.epaper.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=yes&pageid=20&edlabel=BGMIR&mydateHid=25-04-2012&pubname=&edname=&articleid=Ar02001&format=&publabel=MM |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210020806/http://lite.epaper.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=yes&pageid=20&edlabel=BGMIR&mydateHid=25-04-2012&pubname=&edname=&articleid=Ar02001&format=&publabel=MM |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 December 2013 |title= Chinwag with... shaiju mathew|publisher=Lite.epaper.timesofindia.com|accessdate=2013-12-06}}</ref> Mathew's second book as an author, Alfie The Elf released in 2016. This Christmas release took Mathew 9 days to write.<ref name=dixit>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindu.com/books/books-authors/Believe-in-your-dreams/article16969706.ece |title=Believe in your dreams |work=The Hindu |author=Mrigakshi Dixit |date=31 December 2016 |accessdate=1 January 2017}}</ref> Mathew is also associated with Citadel Cinemas a [[Bangalore]] based production house that produced [[Bangles (film)|''Bangles'']] a [[malayalam]] feature film and a short film [[Aju Varghese|''Oru Thundu Padam'']] starring [[Aju Varghese]]. Mathew is also a well known movie critic and writes extensively for various newspapers and magazines apart from his blog {{URL|http://www.chaiwithshai.com}}.

==Bibliography==
*''Knocked Up'' (2010)
*''Alfie The Elf'' (2016)<ref name="dixit"/>
*''A Pocketful Of Sunshine'' (2022)<ref name="toi"/>

===Scriptwriting===
*''Pal Do Pal''
*''Planchette'' (short film)
*''Knocked Up'' (film)
*''Anuradha'' (Malayalam film)
*''Actress'' (Malayalam film)
*''Badaltey Rang'' (Short film)
*''Chakkar Sanjivan Lal's Next'' (feature film)

==Filmography==
*''Planchette'' (2013) short film – Director
*''Oru Thundu Padam'' (2013) short film – produced under Citadel Cinemas
*[[Bangles (film)|''Bangles'']] (2013) feature film – produced under Citadel Cinemas
*''Maafinaama'' (2014) short film – Associate Director
*''The Other Side'' (2014) short film – Co-producer
*''Badaltey Rang'' (2014) short film – writer
*''Love Ke Liye'' (TBA) feature film – writer<ref name=toi/>
*''Chakkar'' (TBA) feature film – co-writer

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website|http://www.chaiwithshai.com/}}
* [http://www.whackk.com/november-2010/author-talk-shaiju-mathew/ Interview]
* [http://www.bookchums.com/blog-detail/author-interviews/knocked-out-by-shaiju-mathew/MTEy.html/ Interview]

{{authority control}}
{{Malayalam Literature |state=collapsed}}
{{Portal bar|Biography|India|Canada|Literature|Filmmaking}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mathew, Shaiju}}
[[Category:1980 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian novelists]]
[[Category:Indian male novelists]]
[[Category:Writers from Kollam]]
[[Category:Savitribai Phule Pune University alumni]]
[[Category:Malayalam screenwriters]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Novelists from Kerala]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Kerala]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian screenwriters]]

2017 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards

2025-11-26T13:51:24Z

Sherrie7069: Put Up New Data With Sources!

{{Short description|Indian literary awards}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox award
| name = Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award
| awarded_for = Outstanding books of literary merit
| presenter = [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]]
| year = 1958
| website =
| holder =
| image =
| caption =
| host =
| date = 23 January 2019
| location = [[Trichur]]
| country = [[India]]
| year2 =
| network =
| runtime =
| ratings =
| previous = [[2016 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2016]]
| main = [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award]]
| next = [[2018 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards|2018]]
}}
The '''2017 [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award]]''' was announced on 23 January 2019.<ref>{{cite press release |author= |title=2017 Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards |url=http://www.keralasahityaakademi.org/pdf/07-01-2018/Award_2016_new.pdf |location=[[Trichur]] |publisher=[[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]] |date=23 January 2019 |access-date=3 March 2019}}</ref><ref name="കേരള സാഹിത്യ അക്കാദമി അവാർഡുകൾ പ്രഖ്യാപിച്ചു; വി.ജെ.ജയിംസിന്റെ ‘നിരീശ്വരൻ’ മികച്ച നോവൽ">{{Cite news |url=https://www.manoramaonline.com/news/latest-news/2019/01/23/kerala-sahitya-akademi-award-nireeswaran-best-novel.html |title=കേരള സാഹിത്യ അക്കാദമി അവാർഡുകൾ പ്രഖ്യാപിച്ചു; വി.ജെ.ജയിംസിന്റെ 'നിരീശ്വരൻ' മികച്ച നോവൽ |date=23 January 2019 |newspaper=[[Malayala Manorama]] |access-date=23 January 2019}}</ref> The award is given each year, since 1958, by the [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi]] (Kerala Literary Academy), to [[Malayalam]] writers for their outstanding books of literary merit.

==Winners==
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Category !! Recipient !! Work !! Image
|-
| [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Poetry|Poetry]]
| [[Veerankutty]]
| ''Mindaprani''
| [[File:Veerankutty kavi.jpg|80px]]
|-
| [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Novel|Novel]]
| [[V. J. James]]
| ''Nireeshwaran''
| [[File:Vj james.jpg|80px]]
|-
| [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Story|Story]]
| [[Aymanam John]]
| ''Ithara Characharangalude Charitrapusthakam''
|
|-
| [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Drama|Drama]]
| [[S. V. Venugopan Nair]]
| ''Swadeshabhimani''
|
|-
| [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Literary Criticism|Literary Criticism]]
| [[Kalpatta Narayanan]]
| ''Kavithayude Jeevacharithram''
| [[File:Kalpetta Narayanan1.JPG|80px]]
|-
| [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Biography and Autobiography|Biography and Autobiography]]
| Jayachandran Mokeri
| ''Thakkijja, Ente Jayil Jeevitham''
|
|-
| [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Travelogue|Travelogue]]
| [[C. V. Balakrishnan]]
| ''Ethetho Saranikalil''
| [[File:C.V. Balakrishnan.jpg|80px]]
|-
| [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Humour|Humour]]
| [[Chowallur Krishnankutty]]
| ''Ezhuthanukaranam Anuranangalum''
|
|-
| [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Children's Literature|Children's Literature]]
| [[V. R. Sudheesh]]
|''Kurukkan Mashinte School''
| [[File:Vr sudheesh.jpg|80px]]
|-
| [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Scholarly Literature|Scholarly Literature]]
| N. J. K. Nair
|''Nadivijnaneeyam''
|
|-
| [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Translation|Translation]]
| Rama Menon
| ''Parvathangalum Mattolikollunnu''
|
|-
| [[Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Overall Contributions|Overall Contributions]]
|
* [[Pazhavila Rameshan]]
* [[M. P. Parameswaran]]
* Kunjappa Pattanur
* [[K. G. Paulose]]
* [[K. Ajitha]]
* [[C. L. Jose]]
| {{-}}
| {{-}}
|}

==References==
<references />

{{Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award}}
[[Category:2017 literary awards|Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards]]
[[Category:Kerala Sahitya Akademi Awards]]

{{lit-award-stub}}