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Afghanistan national cricket team

2023-10-11T15:34:29Z

Saumyasingh: /* Records */

{{Short description|none}} 
{{About|the men's team|the women's team|Afghanistan women's national cricket team}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox cricket team
| name = Afghanistan National Cricket Team
| image = Flag of Afghanistan (2013–2021).svg 
| association = [[Afghanistan Cricket Board]]
| test_captain = [[Hashmatullah Shahidi]]
| od_captain = [[Hashmatullah Shahidi]]
| t20i_captain = [[Rashid Khan]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Rashid Khan appointed Afghanistan's T20I captain |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/rashid-khan-afghanistan-cricket-captain-t20i/article66317011.ece |access-date=29 December 2022 |work=[[Sportstar]] |date=29 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rashid Khan replaces Mohammad Nabi as Afghanistan T20I captain |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/rashid-khan-is-afghanistan-t20i-captain-replaces-mohammad-nabi-1351595 |access-date=2022-12-29 |website=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>
| coach = [[Jonathan Trott]]
| test_status_year = 2017
| icc_status = Affiliate Member
| icc_member_year = 2001
| icc_status2 = Associate Member
| icc_member_year2 = 2013
| icc_status3 = [[List of International Cricket Council members#Full Member|Full Member]]
| icc_member_year3 = 2017
| icc_region = [[Asian Cricket Council|Asia]]
| test_rank = 11th
| odi_rank = 9th
| t20i_rank = 9th
| test_rank_best = 9th (1 May 2020)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/icc-rankings-latest-india-lose-no-1-test-spot-pakistan-no-1-t20-spot-australia-1673157-2020-05-01|title=ICC Test Ranking, Afganistan rise to # 9 position |work=India Today|date=1 May 2020|access-date=20 May 2020}}</ref>
| odi_rank_best = 8th (9 July 2023)<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.khaama.com/afghanistan-cricket-secures-place-among-top-10-in-icc-odi-rankings-1876/|title=Afghanistan cricket secures place among top 10 in ICC ODI rankings|work=Khaama Press|date=26 December 2015|access-date=4 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cricket.com.au/news/afghanistan-into-top-10-icc-odi-rankings-zimbabwe-win-ireland/2015-12-28|title=Afghanistan break into ODI top 10|work=cricket.com.au|date=28 December 2015|access-date=10 March 2021}}</ref>
| t20i_rank_best = 7th (5 May 2019)<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bakhtarnews.com.af/eng/sports/item/37847-afghanistan-ranks-7th-in-icc-t20-ranking.html|title=Afganistan ranks 7th in ICC T20I rankings|work=Bakhtar News|date=5 May 2019|access-date=15 March 2020|archive-date=20 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220052158/http://www.bakhtarnews.com.af/eng/sports/item/37847-afghanistan-ranks-7th-in-icc-t20-ranking.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| first_test = v. {{cr|IND}} at [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], [[Bangalore]], [[India]] 14–18 June 2018
| most_recent_test = v. {{cr|BAN}} at [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Model Thana|Mirpur]]; 14–17 June 2023
| num_tests = 7
| num_tests_this_year = 1
| test_record = 3/4 (0 draws)
| test_record_this_year = 0/1 (0 draws)
| first_odi = v. {{cr|SCO}} at [[Willowmoore Park]], [[Benoni, Gauteng|Benoni]]; 19 April 2009
| most_recent_odi = v. {{cr|IND}} at [[Arun Jaitley Cricket Stadium]], [[Delhi]]; 11 October 2023
| num_odis = 154
| num_odis_this_year = 13
| odi_record = 73/76 (1 ties, 4 no results)
| odi_record_this_year = 3/10 (0 ties, 0 no results)
| wc_apps = 3
| wc_first = [[2015 Cricket World Cup|2015]]
| wc_best = Group stage (2015, 2019)
| wcq_apps = 2
| wcq_first = [[2009 Cricket World Cup Qualifier|2009]]
| wcq_best = Champions ([[2018 Cricket World Cup Qualifier|2018]])
| first_t20i = v. {{cr|IRE}} at [[Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium|P. Sara]], [[Colombo]]; 1 February 2010
| most_recent_t20i = v. {{cr|IND}} at [[Zhejiang University of Technology Cricket Field]], [[Hangzhou]]; 7 October 2023
| num_t20is = 118
| num_t20is_this_year = 11
| t20i_record = 74/42 (1 tie, 1 no result)
| t20i_record_this_year = 6/4 (0 ties, 1 no result)
| wt20_apps = 6
| wt20_first = [[2010 ICC World Twenty20|2010]]
| wt20_best = Super 10 ([[2016 ICC World Twenty20|2016]])
| wt20q_apps = 4
| wt20q_first = [[2010 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier|2010]]
| wt20q_best = Champions (2010)
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| asofdate = 11 October 2023
}}

The '''Afghanistan men's national cricket team''' ({{lang-ps|د افغانستان کرکټ ملي لوب‌‌‌‌‌‌ډله}}, {{lang-fa|تیم ملی کریکت افغانستان}}) represents [[Afghanistan]] in [[international cricket]]. Cricket has been played in Afghanistan since the mid-19th century, but it was only in the early 21st century that the national team began to enjoy success. The [[Afghanistan Cricket Board]] was formed in 1995 and became an affiliate member of the [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC) in 2001<ref name="EWC">{{Cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of World Cricket |first=Roy |last=Morgan |location=Cheltenham |quote=Afghanistan cricket team was started to play world cup in 2015|publisher=SportsBooks |year=2007 |page=15 |isbn=978-1-89980-751-2}}</ref> and a member of the cricket confederation, [[Asian Cricket Council]] (ACC) in 2003.<ref name="ACCP">{{cite web |url=http://www.asiancricket.org/index.php/members/afghanistan |title=Afghanistan |website=[[Asian Cricket Council]] |access-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613184154/http://www.asiancricket.org/index.php/members/afghanistan |archive-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> After nearly a decade of playing international cricket, on 22 June 2017, at an ICC meeting in [[London]], full ICC Membership (and therefore [[Test cricket#Test status|Test status]]) was granted to Afghanistan. Alongside [[Ireland cricket team|Ireland]], this took the number of [[Test cricket]] playing nations to twelve. It is the first country to ever achieve Full Member status after holding Affiliate Membership of the [[International Cricket Council|ICC]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci-icc/content/story/1105347.html |title=Afghanistan, Ireland get Test status |website=[[ESPN CricInfo]] |access-date=22 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701215358/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci-icc/content/story/1105347.html |archive-date=1 July 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cricket/2017/06/22/ireland-afghanistan-eligible-play-test-cricket-becoming-11th/ |title=Ireland and Afghanistan granted Test status after becoming 11th and 12th full ICC members |first=Nick |last=Hoult |date=22 June 2017 |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |access-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615053816/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cricket/2017/06/22/ireland-afghanistan-eligible-play-test-cricket-becoming-11th/ |archive-date=15 June 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The team is ranked 10th in [[Twenty20 International]] (T20I) cricket as of February 2023,<ref>{{cite web |date=7 June 2018 |title=Men's T20I Team Rankings |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/rankings/mens/team-rankings/t20i |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106154218/http://www.icc-cricket.com/team-rankings/t20i |archive-date=6 January 2017 |access-date=13 June 2018 |website=[[International Cricket Council]]}}</ref> and holds the world record for the highest ever T20I score, with their score of 278/3 [[Irish cricket team against Afghanistan in India in 2018–19|against Ireland]] at [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium, Dehradun|Dehradun]] on 23 February 2019.

In August 2021, concerns and doubts were raised over the participation of the Afghanistan national cricket team in the future international matches ever since [[2021 Fall of Kabul|Afghanistan was brought under the control of the Taliban]].<ref>{{Cite web|title='Afghanistan Will Play in ICC Men's T20 World Cup 2021'|url=https://www.news18.com/cricketnext/news/afghanistan-will-play-in-icc-mens-t20-world-cup-2021-4091660.html|access-date=2021-08-17|website=www.news18.com|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-16|title=Doubts over Pakistan-Afghanistan cricket series after Taliban takeover|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1641011|access-date=2021-08-20|website=DAWN.COM|language=en}}</ref> Concerns were raised over the safety of Afghan national cricketers and their families who were still in Afghanistan during the Taliban takeover on 15 August 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|date=August 19, 2021|first=Gaurav|last=Gupta|title=Is cricket on safe ground in Afghanistan?|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/is-cricket-on-a-safe-ground-in-afghanistan/articleshow/85447449.cms|access-date=2021-08-20|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2021|08|31}}, three of the [[Afghanistan women's national cricket team]] had evacuated to Canada, while the others were afraid of how they, [[treatment of women by the Taliban|as women, would be treated by the Taliban]].<ref name="Guardian_Afghan_womens_cricketers_abandoned" />

Taliban spokesmen stated that the Taliban would not disrupt the men's cricket team's participation in international matches and that they would allow Afghanistan to play its first ever [[Pakistani cricket team against Afghanistan in Sri Lanka in 2021–22|bilateral series against Pakistan in Sri Lanka which was scheduled to start in September 2021]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Taliban has no objection to Afghanistan's cricket series against Pakistan in Sri Lanka|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/sport/cricket/2021/aug/19/taliban-has-no-objection-toafghanistans-cricket-series-against-pakistan-in-sri-lanka-2346991.html|access-date=2021-08-20|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Afghanistan's series with Pakistan to go ahead despite Taliban's takeover of the country|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/afghanistan-s-series-with-pakistan-to-go-ahead-despite-taliban-s-takeover-of-the-country-1274093|access-date=2021-08-20|website=ESPNcricinfo|language=en}}</ref> The Pakistan Cricket Board announced in August 2021 that the tour would be rescheduled to 2022. This was later moved to 2023 and the tour took place between 24 – 27 March 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pakistan-Afghanistan confirm ODI series postponement |url=https://www.pcb.com.pk/press-release-detail/pakistan-afghanistan-confirm-odi-series-postponement.html |access-date=2022-11-04 |website=www.pcb.com.pk |language=en-US}}</ref>

Despite the political turmoil, Afghanistan cricket team's media manager Hikmat Hassan confirmed that Afghanistan would participate in the [[2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=August 16, 2021|title=Afghanistan will play T20 World Cup, preparations are on: Media manager|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/afghanistan-will-play-t20-world-cup-preparations-are-on-media-manager/articleshow/85366681.cms|access-date=2021-08-17|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

==History==
===Pre-ODI history===
The earliest record of cricket in Afghanistan is of [[British Army|British troops]] playing a match in [[Kabul]] in 1839, though it appears that no long lasting legacy of cricket was left by the British. In the 1990s, cricket became popular amongst the [[Afghans in Pakistan|Afghan refugees]] residing in [[Pakistan]], and the [[Afghanistan Cricket Board]] was formed there in 1995. They continued to play cricket on their return to their home country.<ref name="EWC" /> Like all sports, cricket was initially banned by the [[Taliban]], but cricket became an exception in 2000 (being the only sport in Afghanistan to be approved by the Taliban) and the Afghanistan Cricket Federation was elected as an affiliate member of the ICC the following year.<ref name="TL">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/GENERAL/TIMELINES/afghanistan.shtml |title=A Timeline of Afghanistan Cricket |website=CricketEurope |access-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921043117/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/GENERAL/TIMELINES/afghanistan.shtml |archive-date=21 September 2012}}</ref> The cricketing style, reflecting the background of development in refugee camps in Pakistan, is like the style characteristic of Pakistani cricketing practice generally, the emphasis on fast bowling and wrist spin for example.

The national team was invited to play in the second tier of Pakistani domestic cricket the same year,<ref name="EWC" /> and the tour brought international media attention to Afghan cricket when the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|US-led invasion]] of the country began whilst the team was in [[Pakistan]]. The team lost three and drew two of the five matches on the tour.<ref name="TL" />

Originally the Taliban regime in Afghanistan had banned cricket as they had banned most other sports, but in early 2000 there was a change of heart and the government wrote to the Pakistan Cricket Board asking for the PCB's support for an Afghan application to the ICC{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}. The conflict in Afghanistan shortly afterwards led to a large number of Afghan refugees fleeing to Pakistan, where some learned to play cricket, and the presence of Pakistani peacekeeping troops in Afghanistan later helped this process.

In 2001, the Afghan side took part in a four-match tour of Pakistan, visiting Peshawar and Rawalpindi, and the team also visited in 2003 and 2004. In 2004 Afghanistan played in the Asian Cricket Council Trophy in Kuala Lumpur - the regional qualifying competition for the ICC Trophy - and performed respectably, with the highlight being a surprise win over hosts Malaysia.

They played in two Pakistani tournaments in 2003, winning their first match that year. They began playing in Asian regional tournaments in 2004, finishing sixth in their first ACC Trophy. More success began in 2006 when they were runners-up to [[Bahrain national cricket team|Bahrain]] in the Middle East Cup and beat an [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] side featuring former [[England cricket team|England]] [[Captain (cricket)|captain]] [[Mike Gatting]] by 171 runs in [[Mumbai]]. Gatting was dismissed for a [[Duck (cricket)|duck]].<ref name="TL" />

They toured [[England]] in the summer of 2006, winning six out of seven matches. Three of their wins came against the second XIs of [[Essex County Cricket Club|Essex]], [[Glamorgan County Cricket Club|Glamorgan]] and [[Leicestershire County Cricket Club|Leicestershire]].<ref name="ACCP" /> They finished third in the ACC Trophy that year, beating [[Nepal national cricket team|Nepal]] in a play-off match.<ref name="TL" />

They won their first tournament in 2007, sharing the [[ACC Twenty20 Cup]] with [[Oman national cricket team|Oman]] after the two tied in the final.<ref name="TL" /> They began their qualifying campaign for the [[2011 Cricket World Cup|2011 World Cup]] in [[Jersey]] in 2008, winning [[2008 ICC World Cricket League Division Five|Division Five]] of the World Cricket League.<ref name="WCL508">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2008/TOURNAMENTS/WCL5/index.shtml |title=Afghanistan win a thrilling final |date=31 May 2008 |website=WCL Division Five Official Site |access-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120919230112/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2008/TOURNAMENTS/WCL5/index.shtml |archive-date=19 September 2012}}</ref> They finished third in the ACC Trophy Elite tournament the same year,<ref name="ACCP" /> and won a second consecutive WCL tournament, [[2008 ICC World Cricket League Division Four|Division Four]] in [[Tanzania]] later in the year.<ref name="ACCP" />

In January 2009, [[Afghanistan]] progressed to the 2009 World Cup Qualifier by winning [[2009 ICC World Cricket League Division Three|Division Three]] of the World Cricket League in [[Buenos Aires]], topping the table on net run rate ahead of [[Uganda national cricket team|Uganda]] and [[Papua New Guinea national cricket team|Papua New Guinea]].<ref name="WCL309">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/DATABASE/ARTICLES2/articles/000050/005070.shtml |title=ICC Media Release: Afghanistan and Uganda seal place in ICC Cricket World Cup Qualifier |date=31 January 2009 |website=CricketEurope |access-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208151304/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/DATABASE/ARTICLES2/articles/000050/005070.shtml |archive-date=8 December 2015}}</ref>

===ODI status===

[[File:Afghanistan national cricket team.jpg|thumb|275px|The national team at [[Rotterdam]], [[2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One|2010 ICC WCL Division One]]]]
In the 2011 Cricket World Cup qualifying tournament, Afghanistan failed to progress to the [[2011 Cricket World Cup|World Cup]], but earned ODI status for four years.<ref name="ACCP" /> Their first [[One Day International|ODI]] was against Scotland in the 5th place playoff, having previously beaten the Scots earlier in the tournament; Afghanistan won by 89 runs.<ref name="WCQ09">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/211/211269.html |title=Scorecard: Afghanistan v Scotland, 19 April 2009 |website=CricketArchive |url-access=subscription |access-date=12 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610043617/http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/211/211269.html |archive-date=10 June 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the [[2009-10 ICC Intercontinental Cup|Intercontinental Cup]] Afghanistan played its first first-class match against a Zimbabwe XI in a four-day match in [[Mutare]]. During the match, which was drawn, Afghan batsman [[Noor Ali]] scored centuries in both his innings, making him only the fourth player to do so on their first-class debut. Later, in August 2009, they played the [[Netherlands national cricket team|Netherlands]] in same competition at the [[VRA Cricket Ground]], winning a low-scoring match by one wicket.<ref name="YOA">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/DATABASE/ARTICLES2/articles/000071/007143.shtml |title=2009: The Year of the Afghans |last=Lyall |first=Rod |date=22 December 2009 |website=CricketEurope |access-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100302070132/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/DATABASE/ARTICLES2/articles/000071/007143.shtml |archive-date=2 March 2010}}</ref>

Afghanistan then took part in the [[2009 ACC Twenty20 Cup]] in the [[United Arab Emirates]]. Afghanistan were drawn in Group A, a group which Afghanistan topped at the end of the group stages by winning all five of their matches. In the semi-finals the Afghans defeated [[Kuwait national cricket team|Kuwait]] by 8 wickets.<ref name="ACCT2009">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2009/TOURNAMENTS/ASIAT20/about.shtml |title=ACC Twenty20 Cup |website=CricketEurope |access-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110820055529/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2009/TOURNAMENTS/ASIAT20/about.shtml |archive-date=20 August 2011}}</ref> In the final they met the hosts, the [[United Arab Emirates national cricket team|United Arab Emirates]], whom they defeated by 84 runs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/257/257334.html |title=UAE v Afghanistan, 30 November 2009 |website=CricketArchive |url-access=subscription |access-date=12 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114023033/http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/257/257334.html |archive-date=14 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 1 February 2010, Afghanistan played their first [[Twenty20 International]] against [[Ireland cricket team|Ireland]],<ref>[List of International Twenty20 matches played by Afghanistan] at CricketArchive</ref> which they lost by 5 wickets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/267/267825.html |title=Afghanistan v Ireland, 1 February 2010 |website=CricketArchive |url-access=subscription }}</ref> On 13 February 2010, Afghanistan defeated the United Arab Emirates by 4 wickets to make their way to the 2010 ICC World Twenty20 to be in the West Indies in April 2010. Later the same day they defeated Ireland by 8 wickets in the Final of [[2010 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier]] to win the qualifier.<ref name="WT20Q10">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2010/TOURNAMENTS/T20WCQ/about.shtml |title=World Twenty20 Cup Qualifier |website=CricketEurope |access-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907070052/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2010/TOURNAMENTS/T20WCQ/about.shtml |archive-date=7 September 2011}}</ref> Afghanistan were in [[2010 ICC World Twenty20#Group C|Group C]] of the main tournament, with [[India national cricket team|India]] and [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]]. During their first match against [[India national cricket team|India]], opening batsman [[Noor Ali]] hit 50 runs, helping Afghanistan to a score of 115 in their 20 overs. Despite this they lost the match by 8 wickets.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/250/250744.html |title=Afghanistan v. India |website=CricketArchive |url-access=subscription |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818054434/http://www.cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/250/250744.html |archive-date=18 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> In their second match, the team were reduced to 14/6 at one stage, before a late rally from [[Mirwais Ashraf]] and [[Hamid Hassan]] helped Afghanistan post 88 all out, resulting in a loss by 59 runs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/250/250753.html |title=Afghanistan v. South Africa |website=CricketArchive |access-date=13 July 2016 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818062220/http://www.cricketarchive.com/Archive/Scorecards/250/250753.html |archive-date=18 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The team's Intercontinental Cup campaign continued in 2010, with wins over [[Ireland national cricket team|Ireland]], [[Canada national cricket team|Canada]], [[Scotland national cricket team|Scotland]] and [[Kenya national cricket team|Kenya]] before they beat Scotland by 7 wickets in the final in [[Dubai]].<ref name="ICUP2009-10">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2009/TOURNAMENTS/INTERCONTINENTAL/about.shtml |title=2009–10 Intercontinental Cup |website=CricketEurope |access-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224153614/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2009/TOURNAMENTS/INTERCONTINENTAL/about.shtml |archive-date=24 February 2013}}</ref> Also in 2010, they won the ACC Trophy Elite tournament in [[Kuwait]], beating [[Nepal national cricket team|Nepal]] in the final<ref name="2010ACCT">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/288/288633.html |title=Afghanistan v Nepal, 9 April 2010 |website=CricketArchive |url-access=subscription |access-date=12 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112232703/http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/288/288633.html |archive-date=12 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> and finished third in [[2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One|Division One]] of the [[World Cricket League]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref name="WCL110">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2010/TOURNAMENTS/WCL1/results.shtml |title=2010 WCL Division One |website=CricketEurope |access-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929101423/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2010/TOURNAMENTS/WCL1/results.shtml |archive-date=29 September 2012}}</ref> They took part in the [[Cricket at the 2010 Asian Games|cricket tournament]] at the [[2010 Asian Games]] in [[China]] and won the silver medal, losing to [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]] in the final.<ref name="AG10">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/313/313457.html |title=Afghanistan v Bangladesh, 26 November 2010 |website=CricketArchive |url-access=subscription |access-date=12 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054118/http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/313/313457.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2011, Afghanistan begun the [[2011-13 ICC Intercontinental Cup|2011-13 ICC World Cricket League Championship]]. They beat [[Canada national cricket team|Canada]] and drew with the UAE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2011/TOURNAMENTS/ICUP/results.shtml |title=2011–13 Intercontinental Cup results |website=CricketEurope |access-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619195851/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2011/TOURNAMENTS/ICUP/results.shtml |archive-date=19 June 2012}}</ref> In the parallel one-day league, they won two matches against Canada and lost twice to the [[United Arab Emirates national cricket team|UAE]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2011/TOURNAMENTS/ICUPODL/results.shtml |title=2011–13 Intercontinental Cup One-day results |website=CricketEurope |access-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120729132725/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/CRICKETEUROPE/DATABASE/2011/TOURNAMENTS/ICUPODL/results.shtml |archive-date=29 July 2012}}</ref> In December once again took part in the ACC Twenty20 Cup, this time in [[Nepal]]. They went on to win all of their matches to once again take the Cup.

In 2012 Afghanistan took on new levels of competition. They played their first One Day International against a Full Member of the International Cricket Council in February 2012 when they played a [[Afghan cricket team v Pakistan in the UAE in 2011–12|match against Pakistan at Sharjah]]. They also took on the Australia Cricket Team in an Only ODI at Sharjah in August 2012. They fell short in both matches, but their performance showed they were continuing to make progress. Their 2012 ICC International Cup games were also challenging, resulting in a split with the Netherlands and a loss to Ireland.

2013 brought greater success for Afghanistan. In March, they played two T20 Internationals against Scotland in [[United Arab Emirates national cricket team|UAE]] and prevailed in both matches. They also won two ODIs in the [[World Cricket League|World Cricket League Championship]] against the same opponents.

In the WCL Championship table, as 2013 dawned Afghanistan was level with Scotland in third, trailing Ireland and the Netherlands for the two automatic qualification spots for the 2015 World Cup. However, two convincing wins in spring over Scotland boosted hopes some. Then in July the Netherlands failed to take any points against Ireland, leaving Afghanistan in position to qualify if they could win their final four matches, against poorer performing Namibia and Kenya. Despite the United Arab Emirates and the Netherlands both being able to win their remaining games, keeping the pressure on Afghanistan, Afghanistan handled Namibia, then defeated Kenya by 8 wickets on 2 October. With one final win over Kenya on 4 October by 7 wickets, Afghanistan secured second in the Championship with 19 points, and qualified for World Cup.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/wcl-championship-2011-13/content/story/624163.html |title=Afghanistan hit Scotland World Cup hopes |date=8 March 2013 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105151646/http://www.espncricinfo.com/wcl-championship-2011-13/content/story/624163.html |archive-date=5 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Afghanistan also crushed Scotland in their one-day ICC Intercontinental Cup league in March in Abu Dhabi: Afghanistan (275: Shah 67*, Davey 4–53) beat Scotland (125: Taylor 48*, Dawlatzai 6–57 and 145: Coetzer 57, Dawlatzai 5–37) by an innings and 5 runs. Izatullah Dawlatzai took eleven wickets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/icc-intercontinental-cup-2011-13/content/story/624936.html |title=Dawlatzai stars with eleven wickets |date=14 March 2013 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223134642/http://www.espncricinfo.com/icc-intercontinental-cup-2011-13/content/story/624936.html |archive-date=23 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In July 2014 Afghanistan toured [[Zimbabwe]] to play its 1st full series against a full member. The 4 match ODI series finished 2–2 and the 2 match first class series finished 1–1.

With their victory [[Afghan cricket team against Zimbabwe in the UAE in 2015–16|over Zimbabwe]] on 25 December 2015, Afghanistan entered the top 10 of the [[ICC ODI Championship|ICC's ODI rankings]] for the first time.<ref name="top10">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/955633.html |title=Afghanistan break into top 10 of ODI rankings |date=27 December 2015 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=27 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229171710/http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/955633.html |archive-date=29 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Associate Membership===

Afghanistan had become an Affiliate member of the ICC in 2001. Then in 2009 it had attained one-day status until 2015. They are currently developing their domestic cricket infrastructure, and have signed a two-year deal with the Pakistan board for the development of Afghanistan cricket ahead of the 2015 World Cup.

In 2012, the [[Asian Cricket Council]] decided to nominate Afghanistan for Associate membership with the ICC, with the request being looked into at the ICC's annual conference in June. Becoming an Associate would mean higher funding (the ICC had been paying $700,000 in annual funding to Afghanistan's organization, suggested to rise to $850,000 for Associate status), and also importantly would mean more exposure for the passionate and cricket-starved players from war-torn Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gollapudi |first=Nagraj |date=28 June 2013 |title=Afghanistan get Associate membership |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci-icc/content/story/645971.html?CMP=chrome |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917041201/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci-icc/content/story/645971.html?CMP=chrome |archive-date=17 September 2016 |access-date=13 July 2016 |website=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Farooq |first=Umar |date=18 April 2013 |title=Afghanistan allocated $422,000 by ICC for assistance |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/630786.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119230531/http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/630786.html |archive-date=19 January 2016 |access-date=13 July 2016 |website=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref>

In March 2013, Afghanistan received a further support boost when a two-year Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed between the [[Afghanistan Cricket Board]] (ACB) and [[Pakistan Cricket Board]] (PCB) for the development of Afghanistan cricket ahead of the 2015 World Cup.

The PCB provided technical and professional support, including game-education programmes, coaching courses, skill and performance analysis, and basic umpiring and curator courses. High performance camps for emerging players were also organised. The PCB-regulated [[National Cricket Academy]] (NCA) helped in improving technical, tactical, mental and physical skills, and hosted lectures on doping, anti-corruption and various codes of conduct.<ref>{{cite web |last=Farooq |first=Umar |date=22 March 2013 |title=Afghanistan sign up for Pakistan support |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/626326.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916221132/http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/626326.html |archive-date=16 September 2016 |access-date=13 July 2016 |website=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref>

In April 2013, the Afghanistan Cricket Board (ACB) was also allocated US$422,000 (22,400,000 AFN approx.) from the ICC's targeted assistance and performance programme. The world governing body of cricket approved the grant at its IDI (ICC Development International) board meeting, which concluded in Dubai. The money, to be given over three years, was aimed at developing more competitive teams among ICC Full, Associate and Affiliate members. Previous countries to receive similar funding programmes included the Netherlands, Scotland, the West Indies, Zimbabwe and Ireland. An ICC statement suggested the funding was targeted towards the development of the National Cricket Academy in Kabul.

On 26 June 2013 at the ICC's annual meeting in London, England, Afghanistan received its [[associate membership of the ICC|Associate Membership]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sports.af/afghanistan-cricket-receives-associate-status-2013-06-27/ |title=Afghanistan cricket receives associate status |first=Zabihullah Safi |last=Wadir |date=27 June 2013 |website=Sport.af |access-date=28 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102090613/http://sports.af/afghanistan-cricket-receives-associate-status-2013-06-27/ |archive-date=2 November 2013}}</ref> with the statement:

: "Afghanistan is the only country that receives the Associate Membership in a short period of time in reward to the efforts Afghanistan made for the promotion of cricket," (Dr Noor Muhammad, CEO of the [[Afghanistan Cricket Board]] (ACB), on the ACC website)

===2015 Cricket World Cup===
{{main|Afghanistan at the Cricket World Cup}}

Afghanistan made their World Cup debut in the 50 over format of the game against [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]] at the [[Manuka Oval]] in Canberra, Australia. The match resulted in a 105 run defeat.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/icc-cricket-world-cup-2015/engine/match/656411.html |title=7th Match, Pool A: Afghanistan v Bangladesh at Canberra, Feb 18, 2015 - Cricket Scorecard |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160710093749/http://www.espncricinfo.com/icc-cricket-world-cup-2015/engine/match/656411.html |archive-date=10 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The competition saw the team compete against elite cricketing nations such as Australia, India, Sri Lanka, South Africa, New Zealand and England. Qualification for the tournament was a historic feat for cricket in Afghanistan, one amplified by the fact that the team included many players who picked up the game in refugee camps outside their long-suffering country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2015/02/18/afghanistan-plays-historic-first-match-at-cricket-world-cup |title=Hands on heart, Afghanistan's cricket team makes history by playing 1st match at World Cup |first=Dennis |last=Passa |date=18 February 2015 |website=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816191026/http://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2015/02/18/afghanistan-plays-historic-first-match-at-cricket-world-cup |archive-date=16 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 26 February 2015, Afghanistan won their first World Cup match against Scotland, winning by one wicket. The team however, lost all its remaining games and were knocked out of the tournament in the opening round.

===Post-World Cup tours===
The team visited Zimbabwe for the second time in October where Afghanistan clinched a historic one-day international series over Zimbabwe after a 73-run victory in Bulawayo saw them win 3–2.

Doing so, they became the first non-Test-playing country to win a multi-game bilateral ODI series against a Test side. The Afghanistan cricket team toured the United Arab Emirates to play the United Arab Emirates cricket team in December 2016. The tour consisted of three Twenty20 International (T20I) matches. Afghanistan won the series 3–0. The Afghanistan cricket team toured Bangladesh in September and October 2016 to play three One Day Internationals (ODIs) matches. This was Afghanistan's first full series against a Test-playing side other than Zimbabwe and was the first bilateral series between the two sides.

Ahead of the ODI series there was a fifty-over warm-up game between the Bangladesh Cricket Board XI and Afghanistan in Fatullah. Afghanistan won the warm-up match by 66 runs and Bangladesh won the ODI series 2–1.

In February 2017 the [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC) awarded [[first-class cricket|first-class]] status to Afghanistan's four-day domestic competition.<ref name="FC">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci-icc/content/story/1080868.html |title=Big-Three rollback begins, BCCI opposes |first1=Osman |last1=Samiuddin |first2=Nagraj |last2=Gollapudi |date=4 February 2017 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=4 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205015236/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci-icc/content/story/1080868.html |archive-date=5 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Afghan cricket team toured [[Zimbabwe cricket team|Zimbabwe]] between January and February 2017. The tour consisted of five [[One Day International]](ODI) matches. Prior to the ODI series, the Afghanistan A cricket team played five "unofficial" ODI matches against the Zimbabwe A cricket team. All of those matches had been designated List A status. Afghanistan won the initial List A series 4–1 and the ODI series 3–2.
2017

The [[Ireland cricket team]] toured India during March 2017 to participate in a [[Irish cricket team against Afghanistan in India in 2016–17|series of matches]] against Afghanistan, consisting of three T20 matches, five ODI contests and an [[ICC Intercontinental Cup]] match.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/1039125.html |title=Afghanistan to host Ireland in India in March 2017 |date=25 July 2016 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=25 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160726141336/http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/1039125.html |archive-date=26 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> All the matches took place in [[Greater Noida]]. The Afghan team were highly successful, emerging victorious in both the T20I series 3–0 and the ODI series 3–2. Afghanistan also won the ICC Intercontinental Cup match, by the margin of an innings and 172 runs.

The Afghanistan cricket team completed another [[Afghan cricket team in the West Indies in 2017|tour]] in June 2017, this time facing the [[West Indies national cricket team|West Indies]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/westindies/content/story/1089211.html |title=Afghanistan, West Indies to play three T20Is, three ODIs in June |date=29 March 2017 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=22 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610072338/http://www.espncricinfo.com/westindies/content/story/1089211.html |archive-date=10 June 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> The tour marked Afghanistan's first bilateral tour against a full member nation other than Zimbabwe. (Later that month, Afghanistan itself was awarded that status). The tour was less successful for the Afghans, who were convincingly defeated 3–0 in the T20 series.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/west-indies-v-afghanistan-2017/content/story/1101497.html |title=Samuels' 89* completes West Indies sweep |first=Karthik |last=Krishnaswamy |date=4 June 2017 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=6 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606004412/http://www.espncricinfo.com/west-indies-v-afghanistan-2017/content/story/1101497.html |archive-date=6 June 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> They performed better in the ODI series, seizing a 1–1 draw after the final match was washed out with no result. Afghanistan registered their first win against Sri Lanka in [[2018 Asia Cup|Asia Cup]].

===Towards Test status===
Afghanistan qualified for [[2012 ICC World Twenty20]] held in Sri Lanka as the runner up of the [[ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier]] and joined [[India cricket team|India]] and [[England cricket team|England]] in the group stage. In the first match against India on 19 September, Afghanistan won the toss and elected to field. India posted 159/5 in 20 overs but Afghanistan fell short of that target by scoring 136 in 19.3 overs. In the second match against England on 21 September, Afghanistan won the toss and again elected to field. England set a target of 196/5 (20 overs) but Afghanistan were all out for 80 in 17.2 overs. England and India qualified for the Super Eights and Afghanistan were eliminated as a result of this match.

On 3 October 2013, Afghanistan beat [[Kenya national cricket team|Kenya]] to finish second in the WCL Championship and qualify for the [[2015 Cricket World Cup]], becoming the 20th team to gain entry into the tournament overall. Afghanistan secured their passage to [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]] and [[New Zealand national cricket team|New Zealand]] in 2015 by beating Kenya comprehensively for the second time in succession in Sharjah, sealing their maiden World Cup qualification. They finished second in the World Cricket League Championship — nine wins in 14 matches — and joined [[Ireland national cricket team|Ireland]] as the second Associate team in the 2015 World Cup, while the remaining two spots for Associates will be decided by a qualifying tournament in New Zealand in 2014. Afghanistan will join Pool A at the World Cup along with Australia, Bangladesh, England, New Zealand, Sri Lanka and another qualifier.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/wcl-championship-2011-13/content/story/676633.html |title=Afghanistan secure World Cup berth |date=4 October 2013 |website=ESPN CricInfo |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917042503/http://www.espncricinfo.com/wcl-championship-2011-13/content/story/676633.html |archive-date=17 September 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 24 November 2013, Afghanistan beat Kenya to qualify for the 2014 T20 world cup.

In March 2014, Afghanistan beat [[Hong Kong national cricket team|Hong Kong]] in the [[2014 ICC World Twenty20]] but could not make it to the next stage of super 10 having lost the two matches to [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]] and [[Nepal national cricket team|Nepal]].

On 25 February 2015, Afghanistan won their first [[Afghanistan at the Cricket World Cup|Cricket World Cup]] match beating [[Scotland national cricket team|Scotland]] by one wicket. Afghanistan participated in the [[World Twenty20]] 2016 in India. They were unable to qualify for the Semi-Finals of the International Tournament. They defeated the eventual champions, [[West Indies Cricket Team|West Indies]], during their final group match of the tournament.

Their third match was against the full member test team [[Zimbabwe national cricket team|Zimbabwe]]. They played exceptionally well beating Zimbabwe by 59 runs. Afghanistan qualified for the Super 10 stage of the tournament as a result of this match, while Zimbabwe were eliminated. Afghanistan progressed to the second phase of a World Twenty20 tournament for the first time. On 25 June 2016, [[Lalchand Rajput]] was named as head coach of Afghanistan Cricket Team replacing [[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]]'s [[Inzamam ul Haq]] with his first outings with the team being a tour of [[Scotland national cricket team|Scotland]], [[Ireland national cricket team|Ireland]] and the [[Netherlands national cricket team|Netherlands]] in July and August of that year. He was chosen ahead of [[Mohammad Yousuf (cricketer, born 1974)|Mohammad Yousuf]], [[Herschelle Gibbs]] and [[Corey Collymore]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/1029501.html?CMP=chrome |title=Former India batsman Lalchand Rajput named Afghanistan coach |date=25 June 2016 |website=ESPN CricInfo |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160628145851/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/1029501.html?CMP=chrome |archive-date=28 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Lalchand Rajput|Rajput]] is in line for a two-year contract, but that decision would be finalised after the upcoming tour of Europe.

In July 2016, ACB unveiled a strategic plan and set targets for Afghanistan cricket team to be a top-six ODI team by 2019 and a top-three team in both T20Is and ODIs by 2025.<ref name="ACB Plan">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/video_audio/1033913.html |title=Aim to be in top six in ODIs by 2019 - Afghanistan CEO |date=12 July 2016 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=13 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715015543/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/video_audio/1033913.html |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> In order to achieve this, [[Afghanistan Cricket Board|ACB]] created a proposal to be presented to [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]], to secure annual bilateral matches against India and teams touring India beginning the following year.<ref name="ACB Proposal">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/1033997.html |title=Afghanistan hopeful of bilateral ODIs in India |first=Peter |last=Della Penna |date=13 July 2016 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160714153817/http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/1033997.html |archive-date=14 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Shafiq Stanikzai, Chief Executive of [[Afghanistan Cricket Board|ACB]], said the draft had been presented to BCCI president Anurag Thakur in May and further discussions occurred during the ICC Annual Conference in Edinburgh in June 2016.

On 25 July 2016, Afghanistan confirmed its first full series against [[West Indies Cricket Team|West Indies]] a top-8 ranked Full member.<ref name="Afg Vs WI-2017">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/1039281.html |title=Afghanistan set to play first full series against West Indies |date=25 July 2016 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=25 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160726140106/http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/1039281.html |archive-date=26 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Its earlier full series came against a permanent member of ICC was against [[Zimbabwe national cricket team|Zimbabwe]]. Afghanistan toured the Caribbean islands in mid-June 2017 and played 5 ODIs and 3 T20Is.

On the same day, it was announced that Afghanistan would host a full series against [[Ireland national cricket team|Ireland]] at [[Shahid Vijay Singh Pathik Sports Complex|Greater Noida]].<ref name="Afg Vs Ireland-2017">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/81552/ireland-afghanistan-set-to-play-nine-matches-in-india |title=Ireland, Afghanistan set to play nine matches in India |date=25 July 2016 |website=[[Cricbuzz]] |access-date=25 July 2016}}</ref> Besides a 4-day intercontinental cup match, [[Ireland national cricket team|Ireland]] and Afghanistan would play five ODIs and three T20Is in March 2017. Afghanistan won the T20I series 3-0 and in the process set a new T20I record of 11 consecutive victories.

On 22 June 2017, the [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC) awarded Afghanistan full Test status, along with [[Ireland cricket team|Ireland]].<ref name="Afghanistan Ireland full test status">{{cite web |url=http://www.wionews.com/cricket/icc-votes-for-afghanistan-ireland-as-test-playing-nations-17163 |title=ICC votes for Afghanistan, Ireland as Test playing nations |date=22 June 2017 |website=[[WION (TV channel)|WION TV]] |access-date=22 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628024032/http://www.wionews.com/cricket/icc-votes-for-afghanistan-ireland-as-test-playing-nations-17163 |archive-date=28 June 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> In December 2017, the ICC confirmed that Afghanistan were scheduled to play their first Test [[Afghan cricket team in India in 2018–19|against India]], in late 2018.<ref name="Afg1st">{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/536335 |title=Afghanistan to make Test debut in India |date=11 December 2017 |work=International Cricket Council |access-date=12 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212031822/https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/536335 |archive-date=12 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the [[ICC Future Tours Programme]] for 2019–23, Afghanistan are scheduled to play thirteen Tests.<ref name="AfgFTP">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/21749022/ireland-afghanistan-set-play-consistent-test-cricket |title=Ireland, Afghanistan set to play consistent Test cricket |first=Nagraj |last=Gollapudi |date=12 December 2017 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=12 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213011954/http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/21749022/ireland-afghanistan-set-play-consistent-test-cricket |archive-date=13 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> In January 2018, both the ACB and the BCCI confirmed the Test would be played in June in [[M.Chinnaswamy Stadium|Bengaluru]].<ref name="TOI">{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/historic-india-afghanistan-test-from-june-14-in-bengaluru/articleshow/62527075.cms |title=Historic India-Afghanistan Test from June 14 in Bengaluru |date=16 January 2018 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=16 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117020356/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/historic-india-afghanistan-test-from-june-14-in-bengaluru/articleshow/62527075.cms |archive-date=17 January 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ANI">{{cite web |url=https://www.aninews.in/news/sports/cricket/india-afghanistan-test-in-june201801162027070001/ |title=India, Afghanistan Test in June |date=16 January 2018 |website=[[Asian News International]] |access-date=16 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117012126/https://www.aninews.in/news/sports/cricket/india-afghanistan-test-in-june201801162027070001/ |archive-date=17 January 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In June 2018, Afghanistan lost their maiden Test match to hosts [[India]] by an innings and 262 runs, despite being able to bowl out a strong Indian team in the first innings.

===Rise as a Test team===

In [[Irish cricket team against Afghanistan in India in 2018–19#Only Test|March 2019 against Ireland]], Afghanistan achieved their first Test match victory in their only second Test match, becoming the fourth team after [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]], [[England national cricket team|England]] and [[Pakistani national cricket team|Pakistan]] to win one of their first two Tests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/19052/report/1168120/day/3/afghanistan-vs-ireland-only-test-afg-v-ire-2018-19 |title=Afghanistan chase historic Test win after Rashid Khan's five-for|work=ESPNCricinfo|access-date=16 March 2019|author=Shashank Kishore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/series/19052/report/1168120/day/4/afghanistan-vs-ireland-only-test-afg-v-ire-2018-19 |title=Rahmat Shah, Ihsanullah see Afghanistan through to historic maiden Test win |work=ESPNCricinfo|access-date=16 March 2019|author=Varun Shetty}}</ref>

In September 2019, Afghanistan beat hosts [[Bangladesh]] by 224 runs in a one-off Test tour. Rain almost resulted in the match being drawn, but finally the weather cleared, allowing the spin-unit of Afghanistan to take the final four wickets.

{{Test match
| date = 5 – 9 September 2019
| team1 = {{cr-rt|AFG|2013}}
| team2 = {{cr|BAN}}
| score-team1-inns1 = 342 (117 overs)
| score-team2-inns1 = 205 (70.5 overs)
| score-team1-inns2 = 260 (90.1 overs)
| score-team2-inns2 = 173 (61.4 overs)
| runs-team1-inns1 = [[Rahmat Shah]] 102 (187)
| wickets-team1-inns1 = [[Taijul Islam]] 4/116 (41 overs)
| runs-team2-inns1 = [[Mominul Haque]] 52 (71)
| wickets-team2-inns1 = [[Rashid Khan (cricketer)|Rashid Khan]] 5/55 (19.1 overs)
| runs-team1-inns2 = [[Ibrahim Zadran]] 87 (208)
| wickets-team1-inns2 =
[[Shakib Al Hasan]] 3/58 (19 overs)
| runs-team2-inns2 = [[Shakib Al Hasan]] 44 (54)
| wickets-team2-inns2 = [[Rashid Khan (cricketer)|Rashid Khan]] 6/49 (21.4 overs)
| result = Afghanistan won by 224 runs.
| report = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/19449/scorecard/1197138/bangladesh-vs-afghanistan-only-test-afg-in-bangladesh-2019 Scorecard]
| venue = [[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]], [[Chattogram]]
| umpires = [[Nigel Llong]] (Eng) and [[Paul Wilson (cricketer)|Paul Wilson]] (Aus)
| motm = [[Rashid Khan (cricketer)|Rashid Khan]] (AFG)
| toss = Afghanistan won the toss and elected to bat.
| notes = [[Rahmat Shah]] and [[Rashid Khan (cricketer)|Rashid Khan]] became the first players to score a century and take 10 wickets in a Test for Afghanistan, respectively.
}}

==Grounds==
Afghanistan typically did not play their home matches in Afghanistan due to the [[Afghanistan conflict (1978–present)|ongoing security situation]] and the lack of international standard facilities. Afghanistan played their 'home' [[2009–10 ICC Intercontinental Cup|Intercontinental Cup]] fixture against Ireland at the [[Rangiri Dambulla International Stadium]] in [[Sri Lanka]]. Following Afghanistan's World Twenty20 qualifying campaign they played two One Day Internationals against Canada at the [[Sharjah Cricket Association Stadium]] in the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]], after which the stadium was named the 'home' ground of Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asiancricket.org/index.php/news/february-2010/1582 |title=Afghanistan Has A New Home Ground |date=22 February 2010 |website=Asian Cricket Council |access-date=13 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610015835/http://www.asiancricket.org/index.php/news/february-2010/1582 |archive-date=10 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

As plans to resurrect Afghan cricket developed, at least three international standard cricket stadiums have been built in Afghanistan. In 2016, [[Shahid Vijay Singh Pathik Sports Complex]] in [[Greater Noida]] became the home ground for the Afghanistan national cricket team after they decided to shift their home ground from [[Sharjah]].<ref name="AfgHome">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/950961.html |title=India to host Afghanistan home games |date=10 December 2015 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=11 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151213024328/http://www.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/content/story/950961.html |archive-date=13 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/soon-a-noida-home-for-afghan-cricketers/article7937869.ece |title=Soon a Noida home for Afghan cricketers |first=Vijay |last=Lokapally |date=2 December 2015 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=22 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url-access=subscription |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/14/11121_f.html |title=First-Class Matches played on Greater Noida Sports Complex Ground, Greater Noida (1) |website=CricketArchive |access-date=22 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211061403/http://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/14/11121_f.html |archive-date=11 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2018, after acquiring test status, Afghanistan changed their home base to [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium, Dehradun]], [[India]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/cricket-diplomacy-doon-to-be-afghanistan-teams-new-home/articleshow/64580503.cms |title=Cricket diplomacy: Doon to be Afghanistan team's new home|date=14 June 2018 |website=Times of India |access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref> In May 2019, [[Afghanistan Cricket Board]] requested [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]] for a new home stadium.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/afghanistan-cricket-board-bcci-dehradun-test-match-west-indies-greater-noida-cricket-australia/article27149721.ece |title=ACB asks BCCI for new base with better logistics|date=16 May 2019 |website=Sportstar (The Hindu) |access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref> In August 2019, BCCI approved [[Bharat Ratna Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee Ekana Cricket Stadium|Ekana Cricket Stadium]] in Lucknow, India as the new home stadium for the team.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.news18.com/cricketnext/news/coa-approve-lucknow-as-new-home-ground-for-afghanistan-2263307.html |title=ACB asks BCCI for new base with better logistics|date=8 August 2019 |website=CricketNext (News18) |access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref>

The following are the main cricket stadiums in Afghanistan:
* [[Alokozay Kabul International Cricket Ground]] in [[Kabul]]
* [[Ghazi Amanullah International Cricket Stadium]] in [[Ghazi Amanullah Town]], [[Jalalabad]]
* [[Kandahar International Cricket Stadium]] in [[Kandahar]]
* [[Khost Cricket Stadium]] in [[Khost]]

; Secondary Home Grounds (outside Afghanistan)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=11;filter=advanced;home_or_away=1;home_or_away=3;orderby=start;team=40;template=results;tournament_type=2;type=team;view=ground |title= Statistics / Statsguru / Combined Test, ODI and T20I records / Team records |website=ESPNCricinfo |access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref>
* [[Sharjah Cricket Association Stadium]], [[Sharjah]] (2010–2016)
* [[Shaheed Vijay Singh Pathik Sports Complex]], [[Greater Noida]] (2017)
* [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium, Dehradun|Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dehradun]] (2018–2019)
* [[Bharat Ratna Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee Ekana Cricket Stadium]], [[Lucknow]] (2019)
* [[Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium]], [[Abu Dhabi]] (2021)

==Team colours==
[[File:Flag of Afghanistan (2013–2021).svg|thumb|The Flag of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is still used to represent the team in international competitions.]]
In test matches, Afghanistan wears [[cricket whites]], with optional sweaters and vests for cold weather, with the ACB logo on the right chest of the shirt, the manufacturer logo on the top arm sleeve and the sponsor logo on the center. The fielders wear a red baseball-style [[Cricket cap|cap]], or a white sunhat with the ACB logo, and the batsman helmet is coloured similarly, with the Flag of Afghanistan above the ACB logo. In limited-overs cricket, Afghanistan wears a blue uniform in ODI (grey was previously used from 2012 to 2013), with splashes of green, red, black and occasionally, yellow. The ACB logo is featured on the right breast of the shirt and the sponsor logo on the center, with the inscription "AFGHANISTAN" beneath the sponsor logo and the manufacturer logo on the top arm sleeve. For ICC Tournaments, the sponsor logo goes to the non-leading arm sleeve. The fielders wear a blue baseball-style cap or a red sunhat. The helmets are also red. The current sponsor is Monarch Mart, previously [[Alokozay Group of Companies|Alokozay Group]] and the kit manufacturer was [[TYKA Sports]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cricketnow247.com/official-kit-and-shirt-sponsors-of-top-ten-cricket-teams/|title=Official sponsors of the top ten cricket teams|date=2018-11-06|website=Cricket Now 24/7|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref>

The national team kept using the black-red-green tricolour following the [[Taliban takeover]] of Afghanistan in 2021.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Latifi |first1=Ali M. |last2=Mohmand |first2=Mohsin Khan |title=Flags, tears, anthem: How Afghans celebrated their cricket win |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2021/10/26/cricket-afghanistan-win-over-scotland-cause-for-celebration |access-date=28 October 2021 |work=Al Jazeera |date=26 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

==Current squad==

This lists all the players who have played for Afghanistan in the past 12 months or was named in the most recent Test, ODI or T20I squad. Uncapped players are listed in ''italics''.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#0033EE; color:white; | Name
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#0033EE; color:white; | Age
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#0033EE; color:white; | Batting style
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#0033EE; color:white; | Bowling style
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#0033EE; color:white; | Region
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#0033EE; color:white; | Franchise
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#0033EE; color:white; | Matches played{{efn|Matches played in each format over past year}}
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#0033EE; color:white; | No.
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#0033EE; color:white; | Captain
|-
! style="text-align:center; background:#0033EE; color:white; | Test
! style="text-align:center; background:#0033EE; color:white; | ODI
! style="text-align:center; background:#0033EE; color:white; | T20I
|-
! colspan="11" | Batsman
|-
| [[Abdul Malik (cricketer)|Abdul Malik]] || {{age|1998|3|11}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[off spin|off break]] || Amo || [[Boost Defenders]]
|| 1 || || || ||
|-
| [[Bahir Shah]] || {{age|2000|2|21}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[off spin|off break]] || Speen Ghar || [[Amo Sharks]]
|| 1{{efn|Played as a concussion substitute for Hashmatullah Shahidi}} || || || ||
|-
| [[Hashmatullah Shahidi]] || {{age|1994|11|4}} || [[Batsman|Left-handed]] || Right-arm [[off spin|off break]] || Band-e-Amir || [[Boost Defenders]]
|| 1 || 14 || || 50 || Test, ODI (C)
|-
| [[Hazratullah Zazai]] || {{age|1998|3|23}} || [[Batsman|Left-handed]] || [[Slow left-arm orthodox]] || Band-e-Amir || Hindukush Stars
|| || || 7 || 3 ||
|-
| [[Ibrahim Zadran]] || {{age|2001|12|12}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium-fast]] || Mis Ainak || [[Kabul Eagles]]
|| 1 || 14 || 13 || 18 ||
|-
| [[Najibullah Zadran]] || {{age|1993|02|28}} || [[Batsman|Left-handed]] || Right-arm [[off spin|off break]] || Boost || [[Speenghar Tigers]]
|| || 11 || 13 || 1 || T20I (VC)
|-
| [[Nasir Jamal]] || {{age|1993|12|21}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[leg spin|leg break]] || Amo || [[Amo Sharks]]
|| 1 || || || 33 ||
|-
| [[Riaz Hassan (cricketer)|Riaz Hassan]] || {{age|2002|11|7}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || [[leg spin|leg break]] || Band-e-Amir || [[Mis Ainak Knights]]
|| || 2 || || ||
|-
| [[Sediqullah Atal]] || {{age|2001|8|12}} || [[Batsman|Left-handed]] || Right-arm [[off spin|off break]] || Band-e-Amir || [[Mis Ainak Knights]]
|| || || 1 || 79 ||
|-
| [[Usman Ghani]] || {{age|1996|11|20}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[off spin|off break]] || Speen Ghar || [[Speenghar Tigers]]
|| || || 5 || 87 ||
|-
! colspan="11" | All-rounders
|-
| [[Azmatullah Omarzai]] || {{age|2000|3|24}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium-fast]] || Amo || [[Kabul Eagles]]
|| || 6 || 12 || 15 ||
|-
| [[Gulbadin Naib]] || {{age|1991|3|16}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium-fast]] || Mis Ainak || [[Mis Ainak Knights]]
|| || 7 || 4 || 14 ||
|-
| [[Karim Janat]] || {{age|1998|8|11}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium]] || Band-e-Amir || [[Band-e-Amir Dragons]]
|| 1 || 2 || 10 || 11 ||
|-
| [[Mohammad Nabi]] || {{age|1985|1|1}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[off spin|off break]] || Amo || [[Kabul Eagles]]
|| || 14 || 10 || 7 ||
|-
| [[Rahmat Shah]] || {{age|1993|7|6}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[leg spin|leg break]] || Mis Ainak || Pamir Zalmi
|| 1 || 12 || || 80 || Test, ODI (VC)
|-
| [[Rashid Khan]] || {{age|1998|9|20}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[leg spin|leg break]] || Speen Ghar || [[Band-e-Amir Dragons]]
|| || 11 || 13 || 19 || T20I (C)
|-
| [[Shahidullah (cricketer)|Shahidullah Kamal]] || {{age|1999|2|6}} || [[Batsman|Left-handed]] || [[Slow left-arm orthodox]] || Mis Ainak || [[Kabul Eagles]]
|| || 2 || || ||
|-
! colspan="11" | Wicket-keepers
|-
| [[Afsar Zazai]] || {{age|1993|8|10}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || [[Slow left-arm orthodox]] || Band-e-Amir || [[Boost Defenders]]
|| 1 || || 3 || 78 ||
|-
| [[Ikram Alikhil]] || {{age|2000|09|29}} || [[Batsman|Left-handed]] || [[Slow left-arm orthodox]] || Speen Ghar || [[Band-e-Amir Dragons]]
|| || 2 || || 46 ||
|-
| [[Rahmanullah Gurbaz]] || {{age|2001|11|28}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || [[Slow left-arm orthodox]] || Mis Ainak || [[Kabul Eagles]]
|| || 14 || 13 || 21 ||
|-
! colspan="11" | Spin Bowlers
|-
| [[Mujeeb Ur Rahman]] || {{age|2001|3|28}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[off spin|off break]] || Speen Ghar || Hindukush Stars
|| || 14 || 12 || 88 ||
|-
| [[Noor Ahmad]] || {{age|2005|1|3}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || [[Slow left-arm unorthodox]] || Mis Ainak || [[Band-e-Amir Dragons]]
|| || 3 || || 75 ||
|-
| [[Zahir Khan (Afghan cricketer)|Zahir Khan]] || {{age|1998|12|20}} || [[Batsman|Left-handed]] || [[Slow left-arm unorthodox]] || Mis Ainak || [[Band-e-Amir Dragons]]
|| 1 || || 1 || 99 ||
|-
| [[Zia-ur-Rehman]] || {{age|1997|12|30}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || [[Slow left-arm orthodox]] || Mis Ainak || [[Kabul Eagles]]
|| || 1 || || ||
|-
! colspan="11" | Pace Bowlers
|-
| [[Abdul Rahman (Afghan cricketer, born 2001)|Abdul Rahman]] || {{age|2001|11|22}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium-fast]] || Amo || [[Boost Defenders]] || || 3 || || ||
|-
| [[Fareed Ahmad (cricketer)|Fareed Ahmad]] || {{age|1994|8|10}} || [[Batsman|Left-handed]] || Left-arm [[fast bowling|fast-medium]] || Speen Ghar || [[Speenghar Tigers]]
|| || 4 || 7 || 56 ||
|-
| [[Fazalhaq Farooqi]] || {{age|2000|9|22}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Left-arm [[fast bowling|fast-medium]] || Kabul || [[Boost Defenders]]
|| || 14 || 12 || 5 ||
|-
| [[Mohammad Saleem (cricketer)|Mohammad Saleem]] || {{age|2002|9|9}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[fast bowling|fast]] || Amo || [[Boost Defenders]]
|| || 2 || || ||
|-
| [[Naveen-ul-Haq]] || {{age|1999|9|23}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium-fast]] || Band-e-Amir || [[Kabul Eagles]]
|| || || 8 || 78 ||
|-
| [[Nijat Masood]] || {{age|1998|12|30}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium]] || Mis Ainak || [[Band-e-Amir Dragons]]
|| 1 || || || ||
|-
| [[Wafadar Momand]] || {{age|2000|2|1}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium]] || Band-e-Amir || [[Amo Sharks]]
|| || || 1 || ||
|-
| [[Yamin Ahmadzai]] || {{age|1992|7|25}} || [[Batsman|Right-handed]] || Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium-fast]] || Boost || [[Speenghar Tigers]]
|| 1 || 2 || ||
|}

''Updated as of 5 September 2023''

==Coaching staff==
{| class="wikitable"
! style="background:#0033EE; color:white; text-align:center; | Position
! style="background:#0033EE; color:white; text-align:center; | Name
|-
|Head coach|| [[Jonathan Trott]]
|-
|Assistant coach|| [[Ajay Jadeja]]
|-
|Batting coach|| [[Rais Ahmadzai]]
|-
|Bowling coach|| [[Hamid Hassan]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hamid Hassan appointed Afghanistan's bowling coach |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/afghanistan-cricket-board-appoint-former-pacer-hamid-hassan-as-bowling-coach-1362373 |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|Fielding coach|| Mirza Safi <ref>{{Cite web |title=Afghanistan to look for new head coach after Thorpe illness |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/afghanistan-to-look-for-new-head-coach-after-graham-thorpe-illness-1323762 |access-date=2022-07-09 |website=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>
|}

==Records==

'''International match summary – Afghanistan'''<ref name="Test">{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?class=1;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / Tests / Result summary |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=17 August 2022}}</ref><ref name="ODI">{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?class=2;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / One-Day Internationals / Result summary |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=17 August 2022}}</ref><ref name="T20I">{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?class=3;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / Twenty20 Internationals / Result summary |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=17 August 2022}}</ref>

''Last updated 11 October 2023.''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 500px;"
|-
| colspan="7" style="text-align:center;"| '''Playing record'''
|-
! Format !! M !! W !! L !! T !! D/NR !! Inaugural match
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Tests || 7 || 3 || 4 || 0 || 0 || 14 June 2018
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| One-Day Internationals || 154 || 73 || 76 || 1 || 4 || 19 April 2009
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| Twenty20 Internationals || 118 || 74 || 42 || 1 || 1 || 1 February 2010
|}

===Test matches===
Afghanistan played their first ever test match against [[India national cricket team|India]] on 14 June 2018 at Bengaluru, India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/21737236/afghanistan-make-test-debut-india |title=Afghanistan to make Test debut against India |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=13 June 2018|date=11 December 2017 }}</ref>

* Highest team total: 545/4 v. [[Zimbabwe national cricket team|Zimbabwe]], 11 March 2021 at Sheikh Zayed Stadium<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest_innings_totals.html?class=1;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / Test Cricket / Highest totals |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=11 March 2021 }}</ref>
* Lowest team total: 103 v. India, 14 June 2018 at Bangalore<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest_innings_totals.html?class=2;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / Test Cricket / Lowest totals |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=18 March 2019}}</ref>

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
'''Most Test runs for Afghanistan'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?class=1;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / Test Cricket / Most runs |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Player!!Runs!!Average!!Career span
|-
|[[Asghar Afghan]] || 440 || 44.00 || 2018–2021
|-
|[[Rahmat Shah]] || 424 || 30.28 || 2018–2023
|-
|[[Hashmatullah Shahidi]] || 375 || 53.57 || 2018–2023
|-
|[[Ibrahim Zadran]]|| 362 || 36.20 || 2019–2023
|-
|[[Afsar Zazai]] || 214 || 23.77 || 2018–2023
|}
{{col-break}}
'''Most Test wickets for Afghanistan'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/most_wickets_career.html?class=1;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / Test Cricket / Most wickets |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Player!!Wickets!!Average!!Career span
|-
|[[Rashid Khan (cricketer)|Rashid Khan]] || 34 || 22.35 || 2018–2021
|-
|[[Hamza Hotak|Amir Hamza]] || 18 || 29.72 || 2019–2023
|-
|[[Yamin Ahmadzai]] || 13 || 28.00 || 2018–2023
|-
|[[Zahir Khan (Afghan cricketer)|Zahir Khan]] || 10 || 44.90 || 2018–2023
|-
|[[Mohammad Nabi]] || 8 || 31.75 || 2018–2019
|}
{{col-end}}

'''Highest Test scores for Afghanistan'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_innings.html?class=1;id=40;type=team |title=High scores: Afghanistan – Test Cricket |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Player!!Runs!!Opposition!!Venue!!Year
|-
|[[Hashmatullah Shahidi]]|| '''200[[Not out|*]]'''|| {{cr|ZIM}} || [[Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium]], [[Abu Dhabi]] || 2021
|-
|[[Asghar Afghan]]|| '''164'''|| {{cr|ZIM}} || Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium, Abu Dhabi || 2021
|-
|[[Rahmat Shah]]|| '''102'''|| {{cr|BAN}} || [[Zahur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]], [[Chittagong]] || 2019
|-
|Rahmat Shah|| '''98'''|| {{cr|IRE}} || [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium, Dehradun|Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]], [[Dehradun]] || 2019
|-
|Asghar Afghan|| '''92'''|| {{cr|BAN}} || Zahur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium, Chittagong || 2019
|}

'''Best Test bowling figures for Afghanistan'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/best_figures_innings.html?class=1;id=40;type=team |title=Best bowling figures: Afghanistan – Test Cricket |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Bowler!!Figures!!Opposition!!Venue!!Year
|-
|[[Rashid Khan (cricketer)|Rashid Khan]]|| '''7/137'''|| {{cr|ZIM}} || [[Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium]], [[Abu Dhabi]] || 2021
|-
|[[Rashid Khan (cricketer)|Rashid Khan]]|| '''6/49'''|| {{cr|BAN}} || [[Zahur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]], [[Chittagong]] || 2019
|-
|[[Hamza Hotak|Amir Hamza]]|| '''6/75'''|| {{cr|ZIM}} || Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium, Abu Dhabi || 2021
|-
|[[Rashid Khan (cricketer)|Rashid Khan]]|| '''5/55'''|| {{cr|BAN}} || Zahur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium, Chittagong || 2019
|-
|[[Hamza Hotak|Amir Hamza]]|| '''5/74'''|| {{cr|WIN}} || [[Bharat Ratna Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee Ekana Cricket Stadium]], [[Lucknow]] || 2019
|}

==== Test record versus other nations ====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
!scope="col" |Opponent
!scope="col" |[[Test cricket|Matches]]
!scope="col" |[[Result (cricket)#Win and loss|Won]]
!scope="col" |[[Result (cricket)#Win and loss|Lost]]
!scope="col" |[[Result (cricket)#Draw|Draw]]
!scope="col" |[[Tied Test|Tied]]
!scope="col" |[[Winning percentage|% Won]]
!scope="col" |First
!scope="col" |Last
|-
|| {{cr|BAN}} || {{nts|2}} || {{nts|1}} || {{nts|1}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|50.00}}||2019||2023
|-
|| {{cr|IND}} || {{nts|1}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|1}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|0.00}}||2018||2018
|-
|| {{cr|IRE}} || {{nts|1}} || {{nts|1}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|100.00}}||2019||2019
|-
|| {{cr|WIN}} || {{nts|1}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|1}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|0.00}}||2019||2019
|-
|| {{cr|ZIM}} || {{nts|2}} || {{nts|1}} || {{nts|1}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|0}} || {{nts|50.00}}||2021||2021
|- class="sortbottom"
!scope="row" style="text-align:center" |'''Total'''
|'''7'''||'''3'''||'''4'''||'''0'''||'''0'''||'''42.85'''||'''2018'''||'''2023'''
|-s
|colspan=10|{{small|''Statistics are correct as of Afghanistan v Bangladesh at [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium]], [[Mirpur Model Thana|Mirpur]] Only Test, 14–17 June 2023.''}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sri Lanka Cricket Team Records & Stats {{!}} ESPNcricinfo.com |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?class=1;id=40;type=team |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=Cricinfo}}</ref>
|}

===One-Day Internationals===

* Highest team total: 338 v. [[Ireland cricket team|Ireland]], 17 March 2017 at [[Greater Noida Sports Complex Ground|Greater Noida]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest_innings_totals.html?class=2;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / One-Day Internationals / Highest totals |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref>
* Lowest team total: 58 v. [[Zimbabwe national cricket team|Zimbabwe]], 2 January 2016 at [[Sharjah Cricket Stadium|Sharjah]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest_innings_totals.html?class=2;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / One-Day Internationals / Lowest totals |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref>

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
'''Most ODI runs for Afghanistan'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?class=2;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / One-Day Internationals / Most runs |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Player!!Runs!!Average!!Career span
|-
|[[Rahmat Shah]] || 3,191 || 36.67 || 2013–2023
|-
|[[Mohammad Nabi]] || 3,046 || 27.44 || 2009–2023
|-
|[[Mohammad Shahzad]]|| 2,727 || 33.66 || 2009–2019
|-
|[[Asghar Afghan]] || 2,424 || 24.73 || 2009–2021
|-
|[[Najibullah Zadran]] || 2,013 || 30.04 || 2012–2023
|}
{{col-break}}
'''Most ODI wickets for Afghanistan'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/most_wickets_career.html?class=2;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / One-Day Internationals / Most wickets |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Player!!Wickets!!Average!!Career span
|-
|[[Rashid Khan (cricketer, born 1998)|Rashid Khan]] || 167 || 18.52 || 2015–2023
|-
|[[Mohammad Nabi]] || 150 || 31.94 || 2009–2023
|-
|[[Dawlat Zadran]] || 115 || 29.76 || 2011–2019
|-
|[[Mujeeb Ur Rahman]] || 86 || 25.05 || 2017–2023
|-
|[[Gulbadin Naib]] || 65 || 35.35 || 2011–2023
|}
{{col-end}}

'''Highest ODI scores for Afghanistan'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_innings.html?class=2;id=40;type=team |title=High scores: Afghanistan – One-Day Internationals |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Player!!Runs!!Opposition!!Venue!!Year
|-
|[[Ibrahim Zadran]]|| '''162'''|| {{cr|SL}} || [[Pallekele International Cricket Stadium]], [[Pallekele]] || 2022
|-
|[[Rahmanullah Gurbaz]]|| '''151'''|| {{cr|PAK}} || [[Mahinda Rajapaksa International Cricket Stadium]], [[Sooriyawewa]] || 2023
|-
|[[Rahmanullah Gurbaz]]|| '''145'''|| {{cr|BAN}} || [[Zohur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium]], [[Chittagong]] || 2023
|-
|[[Mohammad Shahzad]]|| '''131*'''|| {{cr|ZIM}} || [[Sharjah Cricket Stadium]], [[Sharjah]] || 2015
|-
|[[Nawroz Mangal]]|| '''129'''|| {{cr|UAE}} || [[ICC Academy Ground]], [[Dubai]] || 2014
|}

'''Best ODI bowling figures for Afghanistan'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/best_figures_innings.html?class=2;id=40;type=team |title=Best bowling figures: Afghanistan – One-Day Internationals |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=11 July 2023}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Bowler!!Figures!!Opposition!!Venue!!Year
|-
|[[Rashid Khan (cricketer, born 1998)|Rashid Khan]]|| '''7/18'''|| {{cr|WIN}} || [[Darren Sammy National Cricket Stadium]], [[Gros Islet]] || 2017
|-
|[[Rashid Khan (cricketer, born 1998)|Rashid Khan]]|| '''6/43'''|| {{cr|IRE}} || [[Greater Noida Sports Complex Ground]], [[Greater Noida]] || 2017
|-
|[[Gulbadin Naib]]|| '''6/43'''|| {{cr|Ireland}} || [[Stormont Cricket Ground]], [[Belfast]] || 2019
|-
|[[Rahmat Shah Zurmatai|Rahmat Shah]]|| '''5/32'''|| {{cr|UAE}} || [[Kinrara Academy Oval]], [[Kuala Lumpur]] || 2014
|-
|[[Hamid Hassan]]|| '''5/45'''|| {{cr|UAE}} || [[ICC Academy Ground]], [[Dubai]] || 2014
|}

====ODI record versus other nations====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
!scope="col" |Opponent
!scope="col" |[[One Day International|Matches]]
!scope="col" |[[Result (cricket)#Win and loss|Won]]
!scope="col" |[[Result (cricket)#Win and loss|Lost]]
!scope="col" |[[Result (cricket)#Tie|Tied]]
!scope="col" |[[Result (cricket)#No result|No Result]]
!scope="col" |[[Winning percentage|% Won]]
!scope="col" |First
!scope="col" |Last
|-
| style="text-align: center;" colspan="9" | '''[[List of International Cricket Council members#Full members|Full Members]]'''
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Australia}}
| 3 || 0 || 3 || 0 || 0 || — || 2012 || 2019
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Bangladesh}}
| 16 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 0 || 37.50 || 2014 || 2023
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|England}}
| 2 || 0 || 2 || 0 || 0 || — || 2015 || 2019
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|India}}
| 4 || 0 || 3 || 1 || 0 || — || 2014 || 2023
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Ireland}}
| 30 || 16 || 13 || 0 || 1 || 55.17 || 2010 || 2021
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|New Zealand}}
| 2 || 0 || 2 || 0 || 0 || — || 2015 || 2019
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Pakistan}}
| 7 || 0 || 7 || 0 || 0 || — || 2012 || 2023
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|South Africa}}
| 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || — || 2019 || 2019
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Sri Lanka}}
| 11 || 3 || 7 || 0 || 1 || 30.00 || 2014 || 2023
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|West Indies}}
| 9 || 3 || 5 || 0 || 1 || 37.50 || 2017 || 2019
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Zimbabwe}}
| 28 || 18 || 10 || 0 || 0 || 64.28 || 2014 || 2022
|-
| colspan="10" style="text-align: center;" | '''[[List of International Cricket Council members#Associate members|Associate Members]]'''
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Canada}}
| 5 || 4 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 80.00 || 2010 || 2011
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Hong Kong}}
| 2 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 50.00 || 2014 || 2018
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Kenya}}
| 6 || 4 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 66.66 || 2010 || 2013
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Netherlands}}
| 9 || 7 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 77.77 || 2009 || 2022
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Scotland}}
| 13 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 1 || 66.66 || 2009 || 2019
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|UAE}}
| 6 || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 || 50.00 || 2014 || 2018
|-
|- class="sortbottom"
!scope="row" style="text-align:center" |'''Total'''
|'''154'''||'''73'''||'''76'''||'''1'''||'''4'''||'''49.66'''||'''2009'''||'''2023'''
|-
|colspan=10|{{small|''Statistics are correct as of Afghanistan v India at [[Arun Jaitley Cricket Stadium]], [[Delhi]], 2023 Cricket World Cup, 11 September, 2023.''}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Records / Afghanistan / ODI matches / Result summary |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?class=2;id=40;type=team |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=5 September 2023}}</ref>
|}

===Twenty20 Internationals===

* 12 consecutive wins, a record in the men's T20Is (5 February 2018 - 15 September 2019).<ref>{{Cite web|title=12 Consecutive Wins In T20 International - A Record By Afghanistan|url=https://www.fantasycrickettip.in/2020/06/12-consecutive-wins-in-t20.html|access-date=2020-06-08|website=FantasyCricketTip}}</ref>
* Highest team total: 278/3 v. [[Ireland cricket team|Ireland]] 23 February 2019, at Dehradun<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/afghanistan/engine/records/team/highest_innings_totals.html?class=3;id=40;type=team|title=Afghanistan cricket records|website=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref>
* Lowest team total: 72 v. [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]], 16 March 2014 at [[Sher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium|Dhaka]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/lowest_innings_totals.html?class=3;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / Twenty20 Internationals / Lowest totals |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=30 November 2015}}</ref>
* Highest individual score: 162*, [[Hazratullah Zazai]] v. [[Ireland cricket team|Ireland]], 23 February 2019, at [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium, Dehradun|Dehradun]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_innings.html?class=3;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / Twenty20 Internationals / High scores |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=30 November 2015}}</ref>
* Best individual bowling figures: 5/3, [[Rashid Khan (Afghan cricketer)|Rashid Khan]] v. [[Ireland cricket team|Ireland]], 10 March 2017 at [[Greater Noida Sports Complex Ground|Greater Noida]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/best_figures_innings.html?class=3;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / Twenty20 Internationals / Best bowling figures in an innings |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=30 November 2015}}</ref>

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
'''Most T20I runs for Afghanistan'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?class=3;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / Twenty20 Internationals / Most runs |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=30 November 2015}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Player!!Runs!!Average!!Career span
|-
|[[Mohammad Shahzad]] || 2,015 || 30.07 || 2010–2021
|-
|[[Mohammad Nabi]] || 1,825 || 22.25 || 2010–2023
|-
|[[Najibullah Zadran]] || 1,712 || 31.70 || 2012–2023
|-
|[[Asghar Afghan]] || 1,382 || 21.93 || 2010–2021
|-
|[[Rahmanullah Gurbaz]] || 1,043 || 24.25 || 2019–2023
|}
{{col-break}}
'''Most T20I wickets for Afghanistan'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/bowling/most_wickets_career.html?class=3;id=40;type=team |title=Records / Afghanistan / Twenty20 Internationals / Most wickets |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=29 November 2015}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Player!!Wickets!!Average!!Career span
|-
|[[Rashid Khan (cricketer, born 1998)|Rashid Khan]] || 128 || 14.66 || 2015–2023
|-
|[[Mohammad Nabi]] || 87 || 27.89 || 2010–2023
|-
|[[Mujeeb Ur Rahman]] || 56 || 17.82 || 2018–2023
|-
|[[Dawlat Zadran]] || 40 || 24.50 || 2012–2017
|-
|[[Shapoor Zadran]] || 37 || 24.51 || 2010–2020
|}
{{col-end}}

====T20I record versus other nations====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
!scope="col" |Opponent
!scope="col" |[[Twenty20 International|Matches]]
!scope="col" |[[Result (cricket)#Win and loss|Won]]
!scope="col" |[[Result (cricket)#Win and loss|Lost]]
!scope="col" |[[Result (cricket)#Tie|Tied]]
!scope="col" |[[Result (cricket)#No result|No Result]]
!scope="col" |[[Winning percentage|% Won]]
!scope="col" |First
!scope="col" |Last
|-
| style="text-align: center;" colspan="9" | '''[[List of International Cricket Council members#Full members|Full Members]]'''
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Australia}}
|1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0.00 || 2022 || 2022
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Bangladesh}}
|11 || 6 || 5 || 0 || 0 || 54.54 || 2014 || 2023
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|England}}
|3 || 0 || 3 || 0 || 0 || 0.00 || 2012 || 2022
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|India}}
|5 || 0 || 4 || 0 || 1 || 0.00 || 2010 || 2023
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Ireland}}
|23 || 16 || 6 || 0 || 1 || 71.73 || 2010 || 2022
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|New Zealand}}
|1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0.00 || 2021 || 2021
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Pakistan}}
|7 || 3 || 4 || 0 || 0 || 42.85 || 2013 || 2023
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|South Africa}}
|2 || 0 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 0.00 || 2010 || 2016
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Sri Lanka}}
|5 || 2 || 3 || 0 || 0 || 40.00 || 2016 || 2023
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|West Indies}}
|7 || 3 || 4 || 0 || 0 || 42.85 || 2016 || 2019
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Zimbabwe}}
|15 || 14 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 93.33 || 2015 || 2022
|-
| colspan="10" style="text-align: center;" | '''[[List of International Cricket Council members#Associate members|Associate Members]]'''
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Canada}}
|2 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 100 || 2010 || 2012
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Bermuda}}
|5 || 3 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 60.00 || 2014 || 2016
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Kenya}}
|3 || 2 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 66.66 || 2013 || 2013
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Namibia}}
|1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 100 || 2021 || 2021
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Nepal}}
|1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0.00 || 2014 || 2014
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Netherlands}}
|4 || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 50.00 || 2010 || 2015
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Oman}}
|5 || 5 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 100 || 2016 || 2022
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|PNG}}
|1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 100 || 2015 || 2015
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|Scotland}}
|7 || 7 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 100 || 2010 || 2021
|-
!scope=row |{{cr|UAE}}
|9 || 7 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 77.77 || 2015 || 2023
|-
|- class="sortbottom"
!scope="row" style="text-align:center" |'''Total'''
|'''118'''||'''74'''||'''42'''||'''1'''||'''1'''||'''63.67'''||'''2010'''||'''2023'''
|-
|colspan=10|{{small|''Statistics are correct as of Afghanistan v India, Asian Games Final, at [[Zhejiang University of Technology Cricket Field]], [[Hangzhou]], 7 October 2023.''}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Records / Afghanistan / T20I matches / Result summary |url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/results_summary.html?class=3;id=40;type=team |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=7 October 2023}}</ref>
|}

==Tournament history==
===ICC Cricket World Cup===
{{main|Afghanistan at the Cricket World Cup}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!Year !!Round !! Played || Won || Tied || Lost || Captain
|-
|{{flagicon|ENG}} [[1975 Cricket World Cup|1975]]||colspan="7" rowspan=7| Not eligible – not an ICC Member
|-
|{{flagicon|ENG}} [[1979 Cricket World Cup|1979]]
|-
|{{flagicon|ENG}} [[1983 Cricket World Cup|1983]]
|-
|{{flagicon|IND}}{{flagicon|PAK}} [[1987 Cricket World Cup|1987]]
|-
|{{flagicon|AUS}}{{flagicon|NZL}} [[1992 Cricket World Cup|1992]]
|-
|{{flagicon|IND}}{{flagicon|PAK}}{{flagicon|LKA}} [[1996 Cricket World Cup|1996]]
|-
|{{flagicon|ENG}}{{flagicon|SCO}}{{flagicon|IRL}}{{flagicon|NLD}} [[1999 Cricket World Cup|1999]]
|-
|{{flagicon|ZAF}}{{flagicon|ZWE}}{{flagicon|KEN}} [[2003 Cricket World Cup|2003]]||colspan="7" rowspan=1| Not an ICC Member at time of qualifying
|-
|{{flagicon|WIN}} [[2007 Cricket World Cup|2007]]||colspan="7" rowspan=2| Did not qualify
|-
|{{flagicon|IND}}{{flagicon|BGD}}{{flagicon|LKA}} [[2011 Cricket World Cup|2011]]
|-
|{{flagicon|AUS}}{{flagicon|NZL}} [[2015 Cricket World Cup|2015]]|| '''Group stage'''||6||1||0||5||[[Mohammad Nabi]]
|-
|{{flagicon|ENG}} [[2019 Cricket World Cup|2019]]||'''Group stage'''||9||0||0||9||[[Gulbadin Naib]]
|-
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[2023 Cricket World Cup|2023]]|| colspan='9'|''Qualified''
|-
! Total ||'''Group stage'''||15|| 1 || 0 || 14 || –
|}

===[[ICC Trophy]]/[[ICC World Cup Qualifier]]===

* [[1979 ICC Trophy|1979]]–[[2001 ICC Trophy|2001]]: Not eligible, not an ICC Member
* [[2005 ICC Trophy|2005]]: Did not qualify<ref name="WC07">{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketeurope4.net/ICCT2005/DATABASE/QUALIFYING/asia.shtml |title=Asian Qualifying Tournaments for the 2005 ICC Trophy |website=CricketEurope |access-date=13 June 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524034137/http://www.cricketeurope4.net/ICCT2005/DATABASE/QUALIFYING/asia.shtml |archive-date=24 May 2011}}</ref>
* [[2009 ICC World Cup Qualifier|2009]]: 5th place<ref name="WCQ09" />
* [[2018 ICC World Cup Qualifier|2018]]: '''Champions'''

===[[ICC T20 World Cup]]===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width=900px;"
|-
!colspan=9|[[ICC T20 World Cup|T20 World Cup record]]
|-
! width=150 |Year
! width=150 |Round
! width=50 |Position
! width=50 |GP
! width=50 |W
! width=50 |L
! width=50 |T
! width=50 |NR
|-
|{{flagicon|South Africa}} [[2007 ICC World Twenty20|2007]]||colspan="7" rowspan=2| Did not qualify
|-
|{{flagicon|England}} [[2009 ICC World Twenty20|2009]]
|-
|{{flagicon|West Indies}} [[2010 ICC World Twenty20|2010]]||rowspan=3|Round 1<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Events/Tables/ICC_World_Twenty20_2010.html |title=Points tables for the 2010 World Twenty20 |website=CricketArchive |url-access=subscription |access-date=12 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104204221/http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Events/Tables/ICC_World_Twenty20_2010.html |archive-date=4 January 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>||12/12||2||0||2||0||0
|-
|{{flagicon|Sri Lanka}} [[2012 ICC World Twenty20|2012]]||11/12||2||0||2||0||0
|-
|{{flagicon|Bangladesh}} [[2014 ICC World Twenty20|2014]]||14/16||3||1||2||0||0
|-
|{{flagicon|India}} [[2016 ICC World Twenty20|2016]]|| Super 10 ||9/16||7||4||3||0||0
|-
| {{flagicon|OMA}}{{flagicon|UAE}} [[2021 ICC World Twenty20|2021]] || Super 12 ||7/16 ||5||2||3||0||0
|-
| |{{flagicon|Australia}} [[2022 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2022]]|| Super 12
|12/16
|5
|0
|3
|0
|2
|-
|{{Flagicon|WIN}}{{Flagicon|USA}} [[2024 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2024]]
| colspan="7" |''Qualified''
|-
|'''Total'''||'''0 Titles'''||'''5/6'''||'''24'''||'''7'''||'''15'''||'''0'''||'''2'''
|}

===[[ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier]]===

* [[2008 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier|2009]]: Not eligible, not an ODI nation at time of tournament<ref name="ACCP" />
* [[2010 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier|2010]]: Winners<ref name="WT20Q10" />
* [[2012 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier|2012]]: Runners-up
* [[2013 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier|2013]]: Runners-up
* [[2015 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier|2015]]: 5th position

===[[ICC Intercontinental Cup]]===

*[[2009-10 ICC Intercontinental Cup|2009–10]]: Winners<ref name="ICUP2009-10" />
*[[2011-13 ICC Intercontinental Cup|2011–13]]: Runners-up
*[[2015-17 ICC Intercontinental Cup|2015-17]]: Winners

===[[ICC World Cricket League]]===

* 2008
**[[2008 ICC World Cricket League Division Five|Division Five]] winners<ref name="WCL508" />
**[[2008 ICC World Cricket League Division Four|Division Four]] winners<ref name="ACCP" />
* 2009
**[[2009 ICC World Cricket League Division Three|Division Three]] winners<ref name="WCL309" />
* 2010
**[[2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One|Division One]] 3rd Place<ref name="WCL110" />
*2011–13
**[[2011-13 ICC World Cricket League Championship|Championship]] Runners Up

===[[Asian Games]]===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width=900px;"
|-
!colspan=9|[[Asian Games|Asian Games record]]<ref name="AG10" />
|-
! width=150 |Year
! width=150 |Round
! width=50 |Position
! width=50 |GP
! width=50 |W
! width=50 |L
! width=50 |T
! width=50 |NR
|- style="background:silver;"
|{{flagicon|China}} [[Cricket at the 2010 Asian Games|2010]]|| Silver Medal ||2/9||3||2||1||0||0
|- style="background:silver;"
|{{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Cricket at the Asian Games|2014]]|| Silver Medal||3/10||3||2||1||0||0
|- style="background:silver;"
|{{flagicon|China}} [[Cricket at the 2022 Asian Games|2022]]|| Silver Medal ||2/9||3||2||||0||1

|-
|'''Total'''|| || ||9||6||2||0||1
|}

===[[Asia Cup]]===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width=900px;"
|-
!colspan=8|[[Asia Cup|Asia Cup record]]<ref name="ACCP" />
|-
! width=150 |Year
! width=150 |Round
! width=50 |Position
! width=50 |GP
! width=50 |W
! width=50 |L
! width=50 |T
! width=50 |NR
|-
|{{flagicon|UAE}} [[1984 Asia Cup|1984]]|| colspan=7; rowspan=7 | Not eligible — Not an [[International Cricket Council|ICC]] Member
|-
|{{flagicon|SRI}} [[1986 Asia Cup|1986]]
|-
|{{flagicon|BAN}} [[1988 Asia Cup|1988]]
|-
|{{flagicon|IND}} [[1990-91 Asia Cup|1990–91]]
|-
|{{flagicon|UAE}} [[1995 Asia Cup|1995]]
|-
|{{flagicon|SRI}} [[1997 Asia Cup|1997]]
|-
|{{flagicon|BAN}} [[2000 Asia Cup|2000]]
|-
|{{flagicon|SRI}} [[2004 Asia Cup|2004]]|| colspan=7; rowspan=4| Did not qualify
|-
|{{flagicon|PAK}} [[2008 Asia Cup|2008]]
|-
||{{flagicon|SRI}} [[2010 Asia Cup|2010]]
|-
||{{flagicon|BAN}} [[2012 Asia Cup|2012]]
|-
|{{flagicon|BAN}} [[2014 Asia Cup|2014]]||Group stage||4/5||4||1||3||0||0
|-
|{{flagicon|BAN}} [[2016 Asia Cup|2016]]|| colspan="7" | Did not qualify
|-
|{{flagicon|UAE}} [[2018 Asia Cup|2018]]|| rowspan="2" | Super Fours || 4/6 ||5|| 2 || 2 || 1 || 0
|-
|{{Flagicon|UAE}} [[2022 Asia Cup|2022]]
|4/6
|5
|2
|3
|0
|0
|-
|{{Flagicon|PAK}}{{Flagicon|SRI}} [[2023 Asia Cup|2023]]||Group Stage || 5/6 ||2|| 0 || 2 || 0 || 0
|-
|'''Total'''|| '''Super Fours (2018, 2022)'''|| ||'''16'''||'''5'''||'''10'''||'''1'''||'''0'''
|}

===[[ACC Premier League]]===
* 2014: Winners

===[[ACC Trophy]]===

* 1996–2002: Not eligible, not an ACC Member.<ref name="ACCP" />
* [[2004 ACC Trophy|2004]]: 6th place<ref name="TL" />
* [[2006 ACC Trophy|2006]]: 3rd place<ref name="TL" />
* [[2008 ACC Trophy Elite|2008]]: 3rd place (Elite)<ref name="ACCP" />
* [[2010 ACC Trophy Elite|2010]]: Winners (Elite)<ref name="ACCP" />

===[[ACC Twenty20 Cup]]===
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! width=150 |Year
! width=150 |Round
! width=50 |Position
! width=50 |GP
! width=50 |W
! width=50 |L
! width=50 |T
! width=50 |NR
|- bgcolor=gold
| {{flagicon|Kuwait}} [[2007 ACC Twenty20 Cup|2007]]<ref name="TL" /> || Joint champion with Oman || 1/10 || 6 || 4 || 1 || 1 || 0
|- bgcolor=gold
| {{flagicon|UAE}} [[2009 ACC Twenty20 Cup|2009]] || Champion <ref name="ACCT2009" /> || 1/12 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 0 || 0
|- bgcolor=gold
| {{flagicon|Nepal}} [[2011 ACC Twenty20 Cup|2011]] || Champion || 1/10 || 6 || 6 || 0 || 0 || 0
|- bgcolor=gold
| {{flagicon|Nepal}} [[2013 ACC Twenty20 Cup|2013]] || Champion || 1/10 || 6 || 5 || 1 || 0 || 0
|-
| {{flagicon|UAE}} [[2015 ACC Twenty20 Cup|2015]] || colspan=7 align=center| Did not participate
|}

===[[ACC Under-19 Cup]]===

* 2014: 4th place
* 2017: Winners

===Desert T20 Challenge===

* [[Desert T20 Challenge|2017]]: Winners

===Middle East Cup===

* 2006: Runners-up<ref name="TL" />

==Honours==
===Others===
*'''[[Cricket at the Asian Games|Asian Games]]'''
** '''Silver Medal (3):''' [[Cricket at the 2010 Asian Games|2010]], [[Cricket at the 2014 Asian Games|2014]], [[Cricket at the 2022 Asian Games|2022]]

==See also==
* [[Cricket in Afghanistan]]
* [[Afghanistan at the Cricket World Cup]]
* [[Afghanistan women's national cricket team]]
* [[List of Afghanistan Test cricketers]]
* [[List of Afghanistan ODI cricketers]]
* [[List of Afghanistan T20I cricketers]]
* [[List of Afghanistan first-class cricketers]]
* [[Afghan national cricket captains]]
* [[List of Afghanistan Twenty20 International cricket records]]
* [[Afghanistan A cricket team]]
* [[Out of the Ashes (2010 film)|''Out of the Ashes'' (2010 film)]], a 2010 documentary film
* [[Afghanistan–Pakistan cricket rivalry]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="Guardian_Afghan_womens_cricketers_abandoned">{{cite news | last1= Aldred | first1= Tanya | title= Afghanistan women's cricketers left feeling abandoned by authorities | date= 2021-08-31 |newspaper= [[The Guardian]] | url= https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/aug/31/afghanistan-womens-cricketers-left-feeling-abandoned-authorities-the-spin |access-date= 2021-09-01 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210831225007/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2021/aug/31/afghanistan-womens-cricketers-left-feeling-abandoned-authorities-the-spin |archive-date= 2021-08-31 |url-status=live }}</ref>

}}

==External links==
*{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/teams/men/17/afghanistan/overview |title=Afghanistan |website=International Cricket Council}}
*{{cite web |url=http://afghanistancricket.net/ |title=Home |website=Afghanistan Cricket news site}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.afgcric.com/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218100036/http://www.afgcric.com/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2010-02-18 |title=Home |website=Afghanistan Cricket Official website (archived)}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.cricket.af/ |title=Home |website=Afghanistan National Cricket Board}}
*{{cite web |url=https://watanchat.com/afghanistan-cricket-team/ |title=Home |website=Afghanistan national cricket team History|date=5 January 2020 }}

{{Afghanistan national cricket team}}
{{Cricket in Afghanistan}}
{{National cricket teams}}
{{National sports teams of Afghanistan}}
{{Laureus Spirit of Sport Award}}

[[Category:Cricket in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:National cricket teams]]
[[Category:National sports teams of Afghanistan|Cricket]]
[[Category:Afghanistan in international cricket]]
[[Category:Cricket teams in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:2001 establishments in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Laureus World Sports Awards winners]]

Olympic Council of Asia

2023-10-06T10:29:54Z

Saumyasingh:

{{Short description|Governing body of sports in Asia}}
{{Coord|29|20|55.0|N|48|05|23.3|E|type:landmark|display=title}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Olympic Council of Asia (OCA)
| image = Olympic Council of Asia Logo.svg
| size = 180px
| mcaption = Countries with one or more members are in green
| motto = ''Ever Onward''
| type = [[Sports governing body|Sports federation]]
| formation = 16 November 1982
| headquarters = [[Kuwait City]], [[Kuwait]]
| membership = 45 [[National Olympic Committees]]
| leader_title = President
| leader_name = Sheikh Talal Fahad Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah
| language = [[English language|English]]
| website = {{URL|www.ocasia.org/|OCAsia.org}}|
}}
The '''Olympic Council of Asia''' ('''OCA''') is a [[sports governing body|governing body of sports]] in [[Asia]], currently with 45 member [[National Olympic Committee]]s. Talal Fahad Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah was elected as President of the OCA on 8 July 2023.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=2023-07-08 |title=Sheikh Talal becomes third from Al Sabah family to head OCA |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/sports/sheikh-talal-becomes-third-al-sabah-family-head-oca-2023-07-08/ |access-date=2023-07-08}}</ref> However, on 30 July 2023, the [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC) asked [[Randhir Singh (sports administrator)|Randhir Singh]], who was previously the acting president, to continue as the Acting President of the OCA, while the IOC investigated the OCA presidential election of 2023.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Chakraborty |first=Amlan |date=2023-07-30 |title=IOC asks Singh to continue as acting head of Olympic Council of Asia |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/sports/ioc-asks-singh-continue-acting-head-olympic-council-asia-2023-07-30/ |access-date=2023-08-01}}</ref>

The [[headquarters]] of the OCA is located at [[Kuwait City]], [[Kuwait]].

==History==

[[File:OCA Hymn.ogg|thumb|The Olympic Council of Asia Hymn]]

In 1948, during the [[1948 Summer Olympics]], Asian [[National Olympic Committees]] (NOCs) decided to organize the [[Asian Games]], under the auspices of [[Asian Games Federation]]. The following year the Asian Games Federation was organized. Decades later this would be reorganized and the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) was established in [[New Delhi]] on 16 November 1982. The [[International Olympic Committee]] recognized the OCA within the same year.<ref>{{cite news|title=Olympic Council of Asia - About Us|url=http://ashgabat2017.com/oca|access-date=18 February 2018|work=Ashgabat 2017}}</ref>

The Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) together with the Asian Electronic Sports Federation (AESF) announced a new campaign for the upcoming 2022 Asian Games. The campaign, ‘Road to Asian Games’ will be officially organized by the AESF and aims to bring the Olympic spirit to eSports and introduce an education program for participating eSports athletes.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mumbai|first=Prashasti Awasthi|date=2 March 2021|title='Road to Asian Games' campaign introduced for 2022 Asian Games|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/sports/road-to-asian-games-campaign-introduced-for-2022-asian-games/article33971916.ece}}</ref>

On 8 July 2023, Talal Fahad Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah was elected as President of the OCA.<ref name=":1" /> However, the IOC refused to recognise the election and on 30 July 2023, the IOC in a letter asked [[Randhir Singh (sports administrator)|Randhir Singh]], who was previously the Acting President of the OCA, to continue as acting president while the IOC investigated the 2023 OCA presidential election.<ref name=":2" />

== Member nations ==
In the following table, the year in which the NOC was recognized by the [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC) is also given if it is different from the year in which the NOC was created. The NOC for [[Macau]] is recognized by the OCA, but is not recognized by the IOC and does not compete in the Olympic Games. The OCA also includes the NOCs of [[Chinese Taipei]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[State of Palestine|Palestine]]. East Timor is the newest member, joining in 2003.

{| class="wikitable sortable" width=100%
|-
! Nation !! Code !! National Olympic Committee !! President !! Created !! OCA Member
![[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] [[National Olympic Committee|member]]!! Ref.
|-x
! colspan="9" |[[Western Asia|West Asia Zone]]
|-
| {{flag|Bahrain}}
| BRN
| [[Bahrain Olympic Committee]]
| Sheikh [[Khalid bin Hamad Al Khalifa]]
|align=center| 1978 ||align=center| 1979
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=BRN |title=Bahrain | Bahrain Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Iran}}
| IRI
| [[National Olympic Committee of the Islamic Republic of Iran]]
| [[Mahmoud Khosravivafa]]
|colspan=2 align=center| 1947
|{{Yes}}
| <ref name="olympic2">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=IRI|title=Olympic Games Medals, Results, Sports, Athletes | Medailles, Resultats, Sports et Athletes des Jeux Olympiques|publisher=olympic.org|access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Iraq}}
| IRQ
| [[National Olympic Committee of Iraq]]
| [[Raad Hammoudi]]
|colspan=2 align=center| 1948
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=IRQ |title=Iraq | National Olympic Committee of Iraq | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Jordan}}
| JOR
| [[Jordan Olympic Committee]]
| [[Prince Faisal bin Al Hussein]]
|align=center| 1957 ||align=center| 1963
|{{Yes}}
| <ref name="olympic3">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=JOR|title=Olympic Games Medals, Results, Sports, Athletes | Medailles, Resultats, Sports et Athletes des Jeux Olympiques|publisher=olympic.org|access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Kuwait}}
| KUW
| [[Kuwait Olympic Committee]]
| Sheikh Fahad Nasser Sabah Al-Ahmed Al-Sabah
|align=center| 1957 ||align=center| 1966
|{{Yes}}
| <ref name="olympic4">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=KUW|title=Olympic Games Medals, Results, Sports, Athletes | Medailles, Resultats, Sports et Athletes des Jeux Olympiques|publisher=olympic.org|access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Lebanon}}
| LBN
| [[Lebanese Olympic Committee]]
| Jean Hammam
|align=center| 1947 ||align=center| 1948
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=LIB |title=Lebanon | Lebanese Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org |date=8 August 2008 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Oman}}
| OMA
| [[Oman Olympic Committee]]
| [[Sayyid Khalid bin Hamad Al Busaidi]]
|colspan=2 align=center| 1982
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=OMA |title=Oman | Oman Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org |date=8 August 2008 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Palestine}}
| PLE
| [[Palestine Olympic Committee]]
| [[Jibril Rajoub]]
|align=center| 1931 ||align=center| 1995
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=PLE |title=Palestine | Palestine Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org |date=8 August 2008 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Qatar}}
| QAT
| [[Qatar Olympic Committee]]
| [[Joaan bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani|Joaan bin Hamad]]
|align=center| 1979 ||align=center| 1980
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=QAT |title=Qatar | Qatar Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
| KSA
| [[Saudi Arabian Olympic Committee]]
| [[Turki Al-Sheikh]]
|align=center| 1964 ||align=center| 1965
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=KSA |title=Saudi Arabia | Saudi Arabian Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Syria}}
| SYR
| [[Syrian Olympic Committee]]
| Feras Mouala
|colspan=2 align=center| 1948
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=SYR |title=Syrian Arab Republic | Syrian Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
| UAE
| [[United Arab Emirates National Olympic Committee]]
| Sheikh Ahmed bin Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum
|align=center| 1979 ||align=center| 1980
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=UAE |title=United Arab Emirates | United Arab Emirates National Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Yemen}}
| YEM
| [[Yemen Olympic Committee]]
| Abdulrahman Alakwaa
|align=center| 1971 ||align=center| 1981
|{{Yes}}
| <ref name="olympic12">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=YEM|title=Olympic Games Medals, Results, Sports, Athletes | Medailles, Resultats, Sports et Athletes des Jeux Olympiques|publisher=olympic.org|access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
! colspan="9" |[[Central Asia|Central Asia Zone]]
|-
| {{flag|Afghanistan|2013}}
| AFG
| [[Afghanistan National Olympic Committee]]
| [[Hafizullah Wali Rahimi]]
|align=center| 1935 ||align=center| 1936
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=AFG |title=Afghanistan | Afghanistan National Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Kazakhstan}}
| KAZ
| [[National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan]]
| [[Timur Kulibayev]]
|align=center| 1990 ||align=center| 1993
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=KAZ |title=Kazakhstan | National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
| KGZ
| [[National Olympic Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic]]
| Sadyr Mamytov
|align=center| 1991 ||align=center| 1993
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=KGZ |title=Kyrgyzstan | National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Tajikistan}}
| TJK
| [[National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Tajikistan]]
| [[Emomalii Rahmon]]
|align=center| 1992 ||align=center| 1993
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=TJK |title=Tadjikistan | National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Tajikistan | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Turkmenistan}}
| TKM
| [[National Olympic Committee of Turkmenistan]]
| [[Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow]]
|align=center| 1990 ||align=center| 1993
|{{Yes}}
| <ref name="olympic11">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=TKM|title=Olympic Games Medals, Results, Sports, Athletes | Medailles, Resultats, Sports et Athletes des Jeux Olympiques|publisher=olympic.org|access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Uzbekistan}}
| UZB
| [[National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan]]
| Umid Akhmatdjanov
|align=center| 1992 ||align=center| 1993
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=UZB |title=Uzbekistan | National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
! colspan="9" |[[South Asia|South Asia Zone]]
|-
| {{flag|Bangladesh}}
| BAN
| [[Bangladesh Olympic Association]]
| [[Abu Belal Muhammad Shafiul Huq]]
|align=center| 1979 ||align=center| 1980
|{{Yes}}
| <ref name="olympic">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=BAN|title=Olympic Games Medals, Results, Sports, Athletes | Medailles, Resultats, Sports et Athletes des Jeux Olympiques|publisher=olympic.org|access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Bhutan}}
| BHU
| [[Bhutan Olympic Committee]]
| Prince ''Dasho'' [[Jigyel Ugyen Wangchuck]]
|colspan=2 align=center|1983
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=BHU |title=Bhutan | Bhutan Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org |date=8 August 2008 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|India}}
| IND
| [[Indian Olympic Association]]
| [[P. T. Usha]]
|colspan=2 align=center| 1927
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=IND |title=India | Indian Olympic Association | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Maldives}}
| MDV
| [[Maldives Olympic Committee]]
| Mohamed Shaweed
|colspan=2 align=center| 1985
|{{Yes}}
| <ref name="olympic5">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=MDV|title=Olympic Games Medals, Results, Sports, Athletes | Medailles, Resultats, Sports et Athletes des Jeux Olympiques|publisher=olympic.org|access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Nepal}}
| NEP
| [[Nepal Olympic Committee]]
| [[Jeevan Ram Shrestha]]
|align=center| 1962 ||align=center| 1963
|{{Yes}}
| <ref name="olympic7">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=NEP|title=Olympic Games Medals, Results, Sports, Athletes | Medailles, Resultats, Sports et Athletes des Jeux Olympiques|publisher=olympic.org|access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Pakistan}}
| PAK
| [[Pakistan Olympic Association]]
| [[Syed Arif Hasan]]
|colspan=2 align=center| 1948
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=PAK |title=Pakistan | Pakistan Olympic Association | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Sri Lanka}}
| SRI
| [[National Olympic Committee of Sri Lanka]]
| [[Suresh Subramaniam]]
|colspan=2 align=center| 1937
|{{Yes}}
| <ref name="olympic9">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=SRI|title=Olympic Games Medals, Results, Sports, Athletes | Medailles, Resultats, Sports et Athletes des Jeux Olympiques|publisher=olympic.org|access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
! colspan="9" |[[East Asia|East Asia Zone]]
|-
| {{flag|China}}
| CHN
| [[Chinese Olympic Committee]]
| [[Gao Zhidan]]
|align=center| 1910 ||align=center| 1979
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=CHN |title=People's Republic of China | Chinese Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Hong Kong}}
| HKG
| [[Sports Federation and Olympic Committee of Hong Kong, China]]
| [[Timothy Fok]]
|align=center| 1950 ||align=center| 1951
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=HKG |title=Hong Kong, China | Sports Federation and Olympic Committee of Hong Kong, China | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Macau}}
| MAC
| [[Sports and Olympic Committee of Macau, China]]
| Lo Keng Siu
|colspan=2 align=center| 1989
|{{No}}
| <ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ocasia.org/NOCs/NocCountries.aspx?9c0yxKv9OKE=| title=Member NOCs - Macau, China| publisher=Olympic Council of Asia| access-date=16 November 2013| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103000136/http://www.ocasia.org/NOCs/NocCountries.aspx?9c0yxKv9OKE=| archive-date=3 January 2014| url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| JPN
| [[Japanese Olympic Committee]]
| [[Yasuhiro Yamashita]]
|align=center| 1911 ||align=center| 1912
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=JPN |title=Japan | Japanese Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|North Korea}}
| PRK
| [[Olympic Committee of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea]]
| Kim Il-guk
|align=center| 1953 ||align=center| 1957
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=PRK |title=Democratic People's Republic of Korea | Olympic Committee of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|South Korea}}
| KOR
| [[Korean Sport & Olympic Committee]]
| Lee Kee-heung
|align=center| 1946 ||align=center| 1947
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=KOR |title=Republic of Korea | Korean Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Chinese Taipei}}
| TPE
| [[Chinese Taipei Olympic Committee]]
| Hong-dow Lin
|colspan=2 align=center| 1960
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=TPE |title=Chinese Taipei | Chinese Taipei Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Mongolia}}
| MGL
| [[Mongolian National Olympic Committee]]
| [[Battushig Batbold]]
|align=center| 1956 ||align=center| 1962
|{{Yes}}
| <ref name="olympic6">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=MGL|title=Olympic Games Medals, Results, Sports, Athletes | Medailles, Resultats, Sports et Athletes des Jeux Olympiques|publisher=olympic.org|access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
! colspan="9" |[[Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia Zone]]
|-
| {{flag|Brunei}}
| BRU
| [[Brunei Darussalam National Olympic Council]]
| Prince Haji Sufri Bolkiah
|colspan=2 align=center| 1984
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=BRU |title=Brunei Darussalam | Brunei Darussalam National Olympic Council | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Cambodia}}
| CAM
| [[National Olympic Committee of Cambodia]]
|Thong Khon
|align=center| 1983 ||align=center| 1994
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=CAM |title=Cambodia | National Olympic Committee of Cambodia | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org |date=8 August 2008 }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Indonesia}}
| INA
| [[Indonesian Olympic Committee]]
| Raja Sapta Oktohari
|align=center| 1946 ||align=center| 1952
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=INA |title=Indonesia | Komite Olimpiade Indonesia | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Laos}}
| LAO
| [[National Olympic Committee of Laos]]
| Phouthone Seung-Akhom
|align=center| 1975 ||align=center| 1979
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=LAO |title=Lao People's Democratic Republic | National Olympic Committee of Lao | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Malaysia}}
| MAS
| [[Olympic Council of Malaysia]]
| [[Mohamad Norza Zakaria]]
|align=center| 1953 ||align=center| 1954
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=MAS |title=Malaysia | Olympic Council of Malaysia | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Myanmar}}
| MYA
| [[Myanmar Olympic Committee]]
| Thet Khaing Win (Minister for the Ministry of Health and Sports)
|colspan=2 align=center| 1947
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=MYA |title=Myanmar (ex Burma until 1989) | Myanmar Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Philippines}}
| PHI
| [[Philippine Olympic Committee]]{{refn|From 1911 to 1975, Philippines was represented by the [[Philippine Amateur Athletic Federation]] (PAAF). In 1975, the Philippine Olympic Committee was established and replaced the PAAF.|group="note"|name="PHI"}}
| [[Abraham Tolentino]]
|align=center| 1911 ||align=center| 1929
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=PHI |title=Philippines | Philippine Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Singapore}}
| SGP
| [[Singapore National Olympic Council]]
| [[Jessie Phua (acting)]]
|align=center| 1947 ||align=center| 1948
|{{Yes}}
| <ref name="olympic8">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=SIN|title=Olympic Games Medals, Results, Sports, Athletes | Medailles, Resultats, Sports et Athletes des Jeux Olympiques|publisher=olympic.org|access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Thailand}}
| THA
| [[National Olympic Committee of Thailand]]
| [[Prawit Wongsuwan]]
|align=center| 1948 ||align=center| 1950
|{{Yes}}
| <ref name="olympic10">{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=THA|title=Olympic Games Medals, Results, Sports, Athletes | Medailles, Resultats, Sports et Athletes des Jeux Olympiques|publisher=olympic.org|access-date=11 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Timor-Leste}}
| TLS
| [[National Olympic Committee of Timor-Leste]]
| Francisco Kalbuadi Lay
|colspan=2 align=center| 2003
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=TLS |title=Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste | Comitê Olímpico Nacional de Timor-Leste | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Vietnam}}
| VIE
| [[Vietnam Olympic Committee]]
| Nguyễn Văn Hùng
|align=center| 1976 ||align=center| 1979
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=VIE |title=Vietnam | Vietnam Olympic Committee | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|}

The OCA includes the [[list of transcontinental countries|transcontinental country]] of [[Kazakhstan]], but does not include [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Cyprus]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Turkey]], and [[Russia]], although they are located wholly or mostly in Asia. [[Israel]], however, was excluded after the [[Munich Massacre]], upon the claim that their delegation security at the Asian Games would be a problem.<ref>{{cite web |title=Palestine politics at the Olympics |url=https://www.jpost.com/blogs/the-warped-mirror/palestine-politics-at-the-olympics-365521 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com}}</ref> The [[South Caucasus|South Caucasian]] countries opted to join the [[European Olympic Committees]] after the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]].

===Former members===
{| class="wikitable" width=100%
|-
! Nation !! Code !! National Olympic Committee !! President !! Created !! OCA Member
![[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] [[National Olympic Committee|member]]!! Ref.
|-
| {{flag|Israel}}
| ISR
| [[Olympic Committee of Israel]]
| Yael Arad
|align=center| 1933 ||align=center| 1952
|{{Yes}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/noc/noc_uk.asp?noc_initials=ISR |title=Israel | The Olympic Committee of Israel | National Olympic Committee |publisher=Olympic.org }}</ref>
|}

Israel was a member of the [[Asian Games Federation]], but was excluded from the Olympic Council of Asia upon its re-incorporation in 1981. Since 1994, Israel is a member of the [[European Olympic Committees]] (EOC) instead.

===OCA Regional Zones===
====OCA Zone 1 (West Asia)====
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
*{{flag|Bahrain}}
*{{flag|Iran}}
*{{flag|Iraq}}
*{{flag|Jordan}}
*{{flag|Kuwait}}
*{{flag|Lebanon}}
*{{flag|Oman}}
*{{flag|Palestine}}
*{{flag|Qatar}}
*{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
*{{flag|Syria}}
*{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
*{{flag|Yemen}}
{{div col end}}

====OCA Zone 2 (Central Asia)====
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
*{{flag|Afghanistan|2013}}
*{{flag|Kazakhstan}}
*{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
*{{flag|Tajikistan}}
*{{flag|Turkmenistan}}
*{{flag|Uzbekistan}}
{{div col end}}

====OCA Zone 3 (South Asia)====
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
*{{flag|Bangladesh}}
*{{flag|Bhutan}}
*{{flag|India}}
*{{flag|Maldives}}
*{{flag|Nepal}}
*{{flag|Pakistan}}
*{{flag|Sri Lanka}}
{{div col end}}

====OCA Zone 4 (East Asia)====
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
*{{flag|China}}
*{{flag|Hong Kong}}
*{{flag|Macau}}
*{{flag|Japan}}
*{{flag|North Korea}}
*{{flag|South Korea}}
*{{flag|Chinese Taipei}}
*{{flag|Mongolia}}
{{div col end}}

====OCA Zone 5 (Southeast Asia)====
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
*{{flag|Brunei}}
*{{flag|Cambodia}}
*{{flag|Indonesia}}
*{{flag|Laos}}
*{{flag|Malaysia}}
*{{flag|Myanmar}}
*{{flag|Philippines}}
*{{flag|Singapore}}
*{{flag|Thailand}}
*{{flag|Timor-Leste}}
*{{flag|Vietnam}}
{{div col end}}

==Administration==
===List of presidents===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!No. !! Name !! NOC !! Term !! Duration
|-
|1. || [[Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah]] || {{KUW}} || 16 November 1982 – 2 August 1990 || {{age in years and days|1982|11|16|1990|8|2|sep=,|duration=on}}
|-
|''Acting'' || [[Roy de Silva]] || {{SRI}} || 2 August 1990 – 1 July 1991 || {{age in years and days|1990|8|2|1991|7|1|sep=,|duration=on}}
|-
|2.|| [[Ahmed Al-Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Sabah]] || {{KUW}} || 1 July 1991 – 10 September 2021 || {{age in years and days|1991|7|1|2021|9|11|sep=,|duration=on}}
|-
|''Acting''
|[[Randhir Singh (sports administrator)|Randhir Singh]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2021-09-11|title=Singh appointed acting Olympic Council of Asia president|url=https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/sports/singh-appointed-acting-olympic-council-asia-president-2021-09-11/|access-date=2021-09-12|website=Reuters|language=en}}</ref>
|{{IND}}
|12 September 2021 – present<ref name=":2" /> || {{age in years and days|2021|9|12|sep=,|duration=on}}
|}

===Executive board===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Designation !! Name !! NOC !! Entry !! Note
|-
|'''President'''
| Talal Fahad Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah<ref name=":0" />|| {{KUW}} ||2015 ||Coordination Committee
|-
| '''Honorary Life Vice-Presidents''' || [[Wei Jizhong]] || {{CHN}} ||1991 ||Ethics Committee
|-
| rowspan="14" | '''Vice-Presidents''' || [[Charouck Arirachakaran]] || {{THA}} ||1995 ||South East Asia
|-
| [[Timothy Fok]] || {{flagicon|HKG}} [[Hong Kong]] ||1999 ||East Asia
|-
| [[Tsunekazu Takeda]] || {{JPN}} ||1999 ||2026 Asian Games
|-
| [[Syed Arif Hasan]] || {{PAK}} ||2007 ||South Asia
|-
| [[Yu Zaiqing]] || {{CHN}} ||2015 ||ANOC
|-
| [[Song Luzeng]] || {{CHN}} ||2015 ||2020 Asian Beach Games and 2022 Asian Games
|-
| [[Timur Kulibayev]] || {{KAZ}} ||2016 ||Central Asia
|-
| [[Thani Abdulrahman Al Kuwari]] || {{QAT}} ||2019 ||West Asia
|-
| [[Dato Seri Chaiyapak Siriwat]] || {{THA}} ||2020 ||6th AIMAG Bangkok
|-
| [[Otabek Umarov]] || {{UZB}} ||2020 ||4th AYG Tashkent
|-
| [[Chey Tae Won]] || {{KOR}} ||2020 ||IF/AF Liaison
|-
| [[Jassim Rashid Al Buenain]] || {{QAT}} ||2021 ||2023 Asian Games
|-
| [[Abdulaziz Bin Turki Al-Faisal Al Saud]] || {{KSA}} ||2021 ||2034 Asian Games
|-
| [[Gordon Tang (sports administrator)|Gordon Tang]] || {{KHM}} ||2021 ||2029 AYG Cambodia
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''Honorary Vice-Presidents''' || [[Hemasiri Fernando]] || {{SRI}} ||2003 ||
|-
| [[Rita Subowo|Rita Sri Wahyusih Subowo]] || {{INA}} ||2015 ||
|-
| rowspan="11" | '''Honorary Members''' || [[Natalya Sipovich]] || {{KAZ}} ||2007
|-
| [[Hoàng Vĩnh Giang]] || {{VIE}} ||2007 ||
|-
| [[Souhail Khoury]] || {{LBN}} ||2007 ||
|-
| [[Moon Dae-sung]] || {{KOR}} ||2011 ||
|-
| [[Jefri Bolkiah, Prince of Brunei|Jefri Bolkiah]] || {{BRU}} ||2015 ||
|-
| [[Raad Hammoudi|Raad Hammoudi Salman al-Dulaimi]] || {{IRQ}} ||2015 ||
|-
| [[Azat Muradov]] || {{TKM}} ||2019 ||
|-
| [[Rustam Emomali]] || {{TJK}} ||2019 ||
|-
| [[Taha Al Kishry]] || {{OMA}} ||2019 ||
|-
| [[Ajmal Ghani]] || {{Flag|Afghanistan|2013}} ||2019 ||
|-
| [[Seyed Reza Salehi Amiri]] || {{IRN}} ||2019 ||
|-
| '''Director General & Technical Director''' || [[Husain Al-Musallam]] || {{KUW}} ||1982 ||
|}
Source:<ref>[https://ocasia.org/council/executive-board/ Executive Board Members]</ref>

===Standing Committee-Chair===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Committee !! Chairperson !! NOC
|-
| '''OCA Rules Committee''' || [[Talal Fahad Ahmed Al-Sabah]] || {{KUW}}
|-
| '''OCA Advisory Committee''' || [[Ng Ser Miang]] || {{SIN}}
|-
| '''OCA Peace Through Sport Committee''' || [[Prince Faisal bin Hussein|Faisal bin Hussein]] || {{JOR}}
|-
| '''OCA Athletes Committee''' || [[Mikako Kotani]] || {{JPN}}
|-
| '''OCA Sports Environment Committee''' || [[Yu Kyung-sun]] || {{KOR}}
|-
| '''OCA Medical Committee''' || [[Sultan Ya'rub Qahtan Al Busaidi]] || {{OMN}}
|-
| '''OCA Sports for All Committee''' || [[Mowaffak Joumaa]] || {{SYR}}
|-
| '''OCA Media Committee''' || [[Charles King Chiu Lo]] || {{flag|Macau, China}}
|-
| '''OCA Finance Committee''' || [[Kevin Kuo-I Chen]] || {{TPE}}
|-
| '''OCA Culture Committee''' || [[Khunying Patama Leeswadtrakul]] || {{THA}}
|-
| '''OCA Entourage Committee''' || [[Seung Min Ryu]] || {{KOR}}
|-
| '''OCA Education Committee''' || [[Abdullah bin Musa'ed bin Abdulaziz Al Saud]] || {{KSA}}
|-
| '''OCA Coordination Committee''' || [[Raja Randhir Singh]] || {{IND}}
|-
| '''OCA Ethics Committee''' || [[Wei Jizhong]] || {{CHN}}
|-
| '''OCA Information and Statistics Committee''' || [[Demchigjav Zagdsuren]] || {{MGL}}
|-
| '''OCA International Relations Committee''' || [[Jigyel Ugyen Wangchuck]] || {{BHU}}
|-
| '''OCA Sports Committee''' || [[Song Luzeng]] || {{CHN}}
|-
| '''OCA Gender Equity Committee''' || [[Hayat Abdulaziz Al-Khalifa]] || {{BHR}}
|}

===Honorary Life Members===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Designation !! Name !! Country
|-
| rowspan="11" | '''Honorary Life President''' || HH Maharadhiraj [[Yadavindra Singh]] || {{IND}}
|-
| [[Jorge B. Vargas]] || {{PHI}}
|-
| HH Sultan [[Hamengkubuwono IX]] || {{INA}}
|-
| General [[Praphas Charusathien]] || {{THA}}
|-
| [[Chang Key-yong]]|| {{KOR}}
|-
| Air Chief Marshal [[Dawee Chullasapya]] || {{THA}}
|-
| [[Malik Meraj Khalid]] || {{PAK}}
|-
| Raja [[Bhalindra Singh]] || {{IND}}
|-
| Sheikh [[Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah]] || {{KUW}}
|-
| [[Ryotaro Azuma]] || {{JPN}}
|-
| Prince [[Gholamreza Pahlavi]] || {{Flag|Iran|1964}}
|-
| rowspan="3" | '''Honorary Life Vice-President''' || [[Chang Feng-hsu]] || {{TPE}}
|-
| A. De O. SA.ES || {{flagicon|HKG}} [[Hong Kong|Hong Kong, China]]
|-
| Dr. [[Yoshio Kuroda]]|| {{JPN}}
|}

==OCA General Assembly (GA)==
{{main|List of OCA meetings}}
{{see|Bids for the Asian Games}}
{{see|List of IOC meetings|Olympic Congress}}
Source:<ref>https://ocasia.org/council/general-assembly/</ref><ref>https://ocasia.org/media/oca_files/OCA_CONSTITUTION_AND_RULES__19052022_new_gTkELZw_UF20vN2_yDjwveH_tan6oWe.pdf</ref>

In '''General Assembly (GA)''' (OCA Annual General Assembly) hosts of various competitions are introduced and important decisions are made about the countries and sports that covered by OCA.

# 1st: 1982 in [[New Delhi]], [[India]].<ref>https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1057699/about-oca</ref>
# 2nd: 1983 in [[]], [[]].
# 3rd: 1984 in [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]].
# 4th: 1985 in [[]], [[]].
# 5th: 1986 in [[]], [[]].
# 6th: 1987 in [[]], [[]].
# 7th: 1988 in [[]], [[]].
# 8th: 1989 in [[]], [[]].
# 9th: 1990 in [[Beijing]], [[China]].
# 10th: 1991 in [[]], [[]].
# 11st: 1992 in [[]], [[]].
# 12nd: 1993 in [[]], [[]].
# 13rd: 1994 in [[]], [[]].
# 14th: 23 May 1995 in [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]].
# 15th: 1996 in [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]].
# 16th: 1997 in [[]], [[]].
# 17th: 1998 in [[]], [[]].
# 18th: 1999 in [[Kuwait City]], [[Kuwait]].
# 19th: 12 November 2000 in [[Busan]], [[South Korea]].
# 20th: 2001 in [[Amori]], [[Japan]].<ref>https://www.joc.or.jp/english/aboutjoc/history.html</ref>
# 21st: 2002 in [[Busan]], [[South Korea]].
# 22nd: 24 Jan 2003 in [[Kuwait City]], [[Kuwait]].<ref>http://www.abf-online.org/results/2ndmaig.htm</ref>
# 23rd: 2004 in [[Doha]], [[Qatar]].<ref>https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-07/02/content_344751.htm</ref>
# 24th: 2005 in [[Guangzhou]], [[China]]. <ref>https://ocasia.org/council/anti-doping-commission/</ref><ref>https://ocasia.org/news/4264-asian-kickboxing-confederation-celebrates-asian-kickboxing-day.html</ref>
# 25th: 2006 in [[Doha]], [[Qatar]].
# 26th: 16 April 2007 in [[Kuwait City]], [[Kuwait]].
# 27th: 2008 in [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]].
# 28th: 3 July 2009 in [[Singapore]].<ref>https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-olympics-host-mideast-idUKKBN0HD0J920140918</ref>
# 29th: 2010 in [[Guangzhou]], [[China]].
# 30th: 2011 in [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]].<ref>https://www.nipponnews.net/tag/30th-oca-general-assembly/</ref>
# 31st: 2012 in [[Macau]]. On 8 November 2012, the OCA decided at its 31st General Assembly in Macau to create a special multi-sport event called Asian Games Centennial Festival.
# 32nd: 18 January 2013 in [[Manila]], [[Philippines]]. (After 64th OCA Executive Board meeting)<ref>https://bhutanolympiccommittee.org/32nd-oca-general-assembly/</ref>
# 33rd: 2014 in [[Songdo]], [[South Korea]].
# 34th: 16 September 2015 in [[Ashgabat]], [[Turkmenistan]].<ref>https://wako.sport/articles/34th-olympic-council-of-asia-oca-general-assembly/</ref>
# 35th: 25 September 2016 in [[Danang]], [[Vietnam]].
# 36th: 21 September 2017 in [[Ashgabat]], [[Turkmenistan]].
# 37th: 19 August 2018 in [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]].<ref>http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-08/19/c_137402683_4.htm</ref>
# 38th: 3 March 2019 in [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]].<ref>https://www.anocolympic.org/anoc-new/anoc-secretary-general-presents-update-to-38th-oca-general-assembly/</ref>
# 39th: 16 December 2020 in [[Muscat]], [[Oman]].
# 40th: 21 November 2021 in [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates]]. <ref>https://ocasia.org/news/2503-oca-press-release-oca-confirms-two-host-cities-during-40th-general-assembly.html</ref>
# 41st: 4 October 2022 in [[Phnom Penh]], [[Cambodia]].<ref>https://ocasia.org/news/3387-cambodia-ready-to-host-41st-oca-general-assembly.html</ref>
# 42nd: 8 July 2023 in [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]].<ref>https://ocasia.org/news/4105-oca-general-assembly-elects-sheikh-talal-fahad-al-sabah-as-new-president.html</ref>
# 43rd: Feb 2024 n [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]].

==OCA Executive Board Meeting (EBM)==
64th : January 2013 in Manila, Philippines.

==OCA Recognized Sports==
90 Sports in 1 January 2024. The OCA provides recognition in order for a sport to grow and develop.<ref>https://ocasia.org/sports</ref>

# [[Air sports]] - [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale|Airsport Federation of Asia]] (AFA)
# [[Aquatic sports]] - [[Asia Swimming Federation]] (ASF)
# [[Archery]] - [[Asian Archery Federation]] (AAF)
# [[Sport of athletics|Athletics]] - [[Asian Athletics Association]] (AAA)
# [[Badminton]] - [[Badminton Asia Confederation]] (BAC)
# [[Baseball]] - [[Baseball Federation of Asia]] (BFA)
# [[Basketball]] - [[FIBA Asia]] (FIBA)
# [[Biathlon]] - [[International Biathlon Union]] (IBU)
# [[Cue sports|Billiards Sports]] - [[Asian Confederation of Billiards Sports]] (ACBS)
# [[Bobsleigh]] - [[International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation|International Bobsleigh and Tobogganing]] (FIBT)
# [[Bodybuilding]] - [[Asian Federation of Bodybuilding & Fitness]] (AFBF)
# [[Bowling]] - [[Asian Bowling Federation]] (ABF)
# [[Boxing]] - [[Asian Boxing Confederation]] (ASBC)
# [[Contract bridge|Bridge]] - [[Pacific Asia Bridge Federation]] (PABF)
# [[Canoeing]] - [[Asian Canoe Confederation]] (ACC)
# [[Chess]] - [[Asian Chess Federation]] (ACF)
# [[Chinlone]] - [[Asian Chinlone Federation]] (ACF)
# [[Cricket]] - [[Asian Cricket Council]] (ACC)
# [[Curling]] - [[World Curling Federation]] (WCF)
# [[Cycle sport|Cycling]] - [[Asian Cycling Confederation]] (ACC)
# [[Dancesport|Dance Sports]] - [[Dance Sport Asia]] (DSA)
# [[Dance in China|Dragon & Lion Dance]] - [[Dragon & Lion Dances Federation of Asia]] (DLFA)
# [[Dragon Boat]] - [[Asian Dragon Boat Federation]] (ADBF)
# [[Electronic Sports]] - [[Asian Electronic Sports Federation]] (AESF)
# [[Equestrian Sports]] - [[Asian Equestrian Federation]] (AEF)
# [[Extreme Sports]] - [[Asian Extreme Sports Federation]] (AXC)
# [[Fencing]] - [[Fencing Confederation of Asia]] (FCA)
# [[Finswimming]] - [[Asia Underwater Federation]] (AUF)
# [[Flag Football]] - [[International Federation of American Football]] (IFAF)
# [[Floorball]] - [[International Floorball Federation]] (AFF)
# [[Association football|Football]] - [[Asian Football Confederation]] (AFC)
# [[Footvolley]] - [[Asian Footvolley Federation]] (AFF)
# [[Golf]] - [[Asian Pacific Golf Confederation]] (APGC)
# [[Gymnastics]] - [[Asian Gymnastics Union]] (AGU)
# [[Handball]] - [[Asian Handball Federation]] (AHF)
# [[Field hockey|Hockey]] - [[Asian Hockey Federation]] (AHF)
# [[Ice Hockey]] - [[Asian Ice Hockey Federation]] (AIHF)
# [[Ju-Jitsu]] - [[Ju-Jitsu Asian Union]] (JJAU)
# [[Judo]] - [[Judo Union of Asia]] (JUA)
# [[Kabaddi]] - [[Asian Kabaddi Federation]] (AKF)
# [[Karate]] - [[Asian Karatedo Federation]] (AKF)
# [[Kickboxing]] - [[Asian Kickboxing Confederation]] (WAKO Asia)
# [[Korfball]] - [[International Korfball Federation]] (IKF)
# [[Kurash]] - [[Kurash Confederation of Asia]] (KCA)
# [[Lawn Bowls]] - [[World Bowls]] (WB)
# [[Life saving|Life Saving]] - [[International Life Saving Federation]] (ILSF)
# [[Luge]] - [[International Luge Federation]] (ILF)
# [[Modern Pentathlon]] - [[Asian Modern Pentathlon Confederation]] (AMPC)
# [[Motorsport|Motor Sports]] - [[Union Internationale Motonautique]] (UIM)
# [[Muay]] - [[Federation of Asian Muaythai Associations]] (FAMA)
# [[Netball]] - [[International Federation of Netball Associations]] (World Netball)
# [[Pencak Silat]] - [[Asian Pencak Silat Federation]] (APSF)
# [[Petanque]] - [[Asian Petanque and Sports Boules Confederation]] (APSBC)
# [[Polo]] - [[Federation of International Polo]] (FIP)
# [[Motorboat|Power Boating]] - [[Union Internationale Motonautique]] (UIM)
# [[Racquetball]] - [[Asia Racquetball Federation]] (ARF)
# [[Roller Sports]] - [[World Skate Asia]] (WSA)
# [[Rowing]] - [[Asian Rowing Federation]] (ARF)
# [[Rugby union|Rugby]] - [[Asia Rugby]] (AR)
# [[Sailing]] - [[Asian Sailing Federation]] (ASAF)
# [[Sambo (martial art)|Sambo]] - [[SAMBO Union of Asia and Oceania]] (SUAO)
# [[Sepaktakraw]] - [[Asian Sepaktakraw Federation]] (ASF)
# [[Shooting]] - [[Asian Shooting Confederation]] (ASC)
# [[Jianzi|Shuttle Cock]] - [[International Shuttlecock Federation]] (ISF)
# [[Ice skating|Skating]] - [[Asian Skating Union]] (ASU)
# [[Skiing]] - [[Asian Ski Federation]] (ASF)
# [[Soft Tennis]] - [[Asian Soft Tennis Federation]] (ASFF)
# [[Softball]] - [[Softball Asia]] (SA)
# [[Sport climbing|Sports Climbing]] - [[International Federation of Sport Climbing]] - Asia (IFSC Asia)
# [[Squash (sport)|Squash]] - [[Asian Squash Federation]] (ASF)
# [[Sumo]] - [[Asian Sumo Federation]] (ASF)
# [[Surfing]] - [[International Surfing Association]] (ISA)
# [[Table Tennis]] - [[Asian Table Tennis Union]] (ATTU)
# [[Taekwondo]] - [[Asian Taekwondo Union|World Taekwondo Asia]] (WTA)
# [[Tennis]] - [[Asian Tennis Federation]] (ATF)
# [[Teqball]] - [[Fédération Internationale de Teqball]] (FITEQ)
# [[Traditional Boat Race]] - [[International Dragon Boat Federation]] (IDBF)
# Traditional [[Wrestling]] - [[United World Wrestling]] (UWW)
# [[Triathlon]] - [[Asian Triathlon Confederation]] (ASTC)
# [[Vietnamese martial arts|Vocotruyen]] - [[World Federation of Vietnam Vocotruyen]] (WFVV)
# [[Volleyball]] - [[Asian Volleyball Confederation]] (AVC)
# [[Vovinam]] - [[Asian Vovinam Federation]] (AVF)
# [[Waterski]] - [[Asian Waterski & Wakeboard Confederation]] (IWWF Asia)
# [[Weightlifting]] - [[Asian Weightlifting Federation]] (AWF)
# [[Woodball]] - [[Asian Woodball Federation]] (AWBF)
# [[Wrestling]] - [[United World Wrestling]] Asia (UWW Asia)
# [[Wushu (sport)|Wushu]] - [[Wushu Federation of Asia]] (WFA)
# [[Yachting]] - [[Asian Yachting Federation]] (AYF)

2 New sports was added in 2023:<ref>https://ocasia.org/news/4104-oca-accepts-two-new-sports-jump-rope-and-dodgeball-while-withdrawing-recognition-for-kho-kho.html</ref>

# [[Dodgeball]] - [[Asian Dodgeball Federation]] (ADF)
# [[Jump Rope]] - [[Asian Jump Rope Union]] (AJRU)

==Events==
* 1949–1982: [[Asian Games Federation]]
* Since 1982: Olympic Council of Asia (OCA)
*[[Asian Games]]
*[[Asian Winter Games]]
*[[Asian Beach Games]]
*[[Asian Youth Games]]
*[[Asian Indoor Games]] (merged into [[Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games]])<ref name="OCA to consider calendar changes">{{cite web |url=http://www.ocasia.org/News/IndexNewsRM.aspx?redirect=395 |title=OCA to consider calendar changes |publisher=OCA's official website |date=29 June 2009 |access-date=29 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224034450/http://www.ocasia.org/News/IndexNewsRM.aspx?redirect=395 |archive-date=24 February 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[Asian Martial Arts Games]] (merged into [[Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games]])<ref name="OCA to consider calendar changes"/>
*[[Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games]]<ref name="OCA to consider calendar changes"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ocasia.org/Game/GamesL1.aspx?9QoyD9QEWPdst5Hhk+WoCw==|title=Asian Indoor & Martial Arts Games|publisher=Olympic Council of Asia|access-date=21 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130630201108/http://www.ocasia.org/game/GamesL1.aspx?9QoyD9QEWPdst5Hhk+WoCw==|archive-date=30 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*Children of Asia International Games (Summer:1996,2000,2004,2008,2012,2016,2022,2024 - Winter: 2019,2023)([[:ru:Дети Азии]])<ref>[https://sakhalin2019.org/about-us.html 1st Winter Children of Asia International Sports Games]</ref>

Related Events:
* [[Far Eastern Championship Games]] - [[Western Asiatic Games]]
* [[FESPIC Games]] - [[Asian Para Games]]

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Competition
| width="1%" rowspan=1 style="background-color:#ffffff;"|
! Edition
! Top rank
! Title
! Runners-up
| width="1%" rowspan=1 style="background-color:#ffffff;"|
! Most successful
| width="1%" rowspan=1 style="background-color:#ffffff;"|
! Next edition
|-
| [[Asian Games]]
| width="1%" rowspan=5 style="background-color:#ffffff;"|
| [[2018 Asian Games|Jakarta-Palembang 2018]]
| {{CHN}}
| 10th
| {{JPN}}
| width="1%" rowspan=5 style="background-color:#ffffff;"|
| {{CHN}} (10)
| width="1%" rowspan=5 style="background-color:#ffffff;"|
| [[2022 Asian Games|Hangzhou 2022]]
|-
| [[Asian Winter Games]]
| [[2017 Asian Winter Games|Sapporo 2017]]
| {{JPN}}
| 4th
| {{KOR}}
| {{JPN}} (4)
| [[2025 Asian Winter Games|Harbin 2025]]
|-
| [[Asian Beach Games]]
| [[2016 Asian Beach Games|Da Nang 2016]]
| {{VIE}}
| 1st
| {{THA}}
| {{THA}} (2)
| [[2020 Asian Beach Games|Sanya 2023]]
|-
| [[Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games]]
| [[2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games|Ashgabat 2017]]
| {{TKM}}
| 1st
| {{CHN}}
| {{CHN}} (4)
| [[2021 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games|Bangkok-Chonburi 2022]]
|-
| [[Asian Youth Games]]
| [[2013 Asian Youth Games|Nanjing 2013]]
| {{CHN}}
| 2nd
| {{KOR}}
| {{CHN}} (2)
| [[2025 Asian Youth Games|Tashkent 2025]]
|}

==Events Summary==

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center; font-size:80%;"
|-
!#||Games||Host||Nations||Competitors||Sports||Events||Champion
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|1||align=left|[[1951 Asian Games]] (1)||align=left|{{IND}}||11||489||6||57||align=left|{{JPN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|2||align=left|[[1954 Asian Games]] (2)||align=left|{{PHI}}||18||970||8||76||align=left|{{JPN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|3||align=left|[[1958 Asian Games]] (3)||align=left|{{JPN}}||16||1,820||13||97||align=left|{{JPN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|4||align=left|[[1962 Asian Games]] (4)||align=left|{{INA}}||12||1,460||13||88||align=left|{{JPN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|5||align=left|[[1966 Asian Games]] (5)||align=left|{{THA}}||16||1,945||14||143||align=left|{{JPN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|6||align=left|[[1970 Asian Games]] (6)||align=left|{{THA}}||16||2,400||13||135||align=left|{{JPN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|7||align=left|[[1974 Asian Games]] (7)||align=left|{{IRI}}||19||3,010||16||202||align=left|{{JPN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|8||align=left|[[1978 Asian Games]] (8)||align=left|{{THA}}||19||3,842||19||201||align=left|{{JPN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|9||align=left|[[1982 Asian Games]] (9)||align=left|{{IND}}||23||3,411||21||147||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCEEFF
|10||align=left|[[1986 Asian Winter Games]] (1)||align=left|{{JPN}}||7||293||7||35||align=left|{{JPN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|11||align=left|[[1986 Asian Games]] (10)||align=left|{{KOR}}||22||4,839||25||270||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCEEFF
|12||align=left|[[1990 Asian Winter Games]] (2)||align=left|{{JPN}}||9||310||6||33||align=left|{{JPN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|13||align=left|[[1990 Asian Games]] (11)||align=left|{{CHN}}||36||6,122||27||310||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|14||align=left|[[1994 Asian Games]] (12)||align=left|{{JPN}}||42||6,828||34||338||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCEEFF
|15||align=left|[[1996 Asian Winter Games]] (3)||align=left|{{CHN}}||17||453||8||43||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|16||align=left|[[1998 Asian Games]] (13)||align=left|{{THA}}||41||6,554||36||377||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCEEFF
|17||align=left|[[1999 Asian Winter Games]] (4)||align=left|{{KOR}}||14||798||7||43||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|18||align=left|[[2002 Asian Games]] (14)||align=left|{{KOR}}||44||7,711||38||419||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCEEFF
|19||align=left|[[2003 Asian Winter Games]] (5)||align=left|{{JPN}}||17||641||11||51||align=left|{{JPN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCCCFF
|20||align=left|[[2005 Asian Indoor Games]] (1)||align=left|{{THA}}||45||2,343||9||120||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|21||align=left|[[2006 Asian Games]] (15)||align=left|{{QAT}}||45||9,520||39||424||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCEEFF
|22||align=left|[[2007 Asian Winter Games]] (6)||align=left|{{CHN}}||25||796||10||47||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCCCFF
|23||align=left|[[2007 Asian Indoor Games]] (2)||align=left|{{MAC}}||44||2,476||17||171||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#FFFFCC
|24||align=left|[[2008 Asian Beach Games]] (1)||align=left|{{INA}}||41||1,665||17||59||align=left|{{INA}}
|-bgcolor=#FFCCCC
|25||align=left|[[2009 Asian Youth Games]] (1)||align=left|{{SIN}}||43||1,237||9||90||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCCCFF
|26||align=left|[[2009 Asian Martial Arts Games]] (1)(-)||align=left|{{THA}}||40||810||9||109||align=left|{{THA}}
|-bgcolor=#CCCCFF
|27||align=left|[[2009 Asian Indoor Games]] (3)||align=left|{{VIE}}||43||2,396||15||242||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|28||align=left|[[2010 Asian Games]] (16)||align=left|{{CHN}}||45||9,704||42||476||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#FFFFCC
|29||align=left|[[2010 Asian Beach Games]] (2)||align=left|{{OMA}}||43||1,131||14||52||align=left|{{THA}}
|-bgcolor=#CCEEFF
|30||align=left|[[2011 Asian Winter Games]] (7)||align=left|{{KAZ}}||26||843||11||69||align=left|{{KAZ}}
|-bgcolor=#FFFFCC
|31||align=left|[[2012 Asian Beach Games]] (3)||align=left|{{CHN}}||43||1,336||13||49||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCCCFF
|32||align=left|[[2013 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games]] (4)||align=left|{{KOR}}||43||1,652||12||100||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#FFCCCC
|33||align=left|[[2013 Asian Youth Games]] (2)||align=left|{{CHN}}||45||2,404||16||122||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|34||align=left|[[2014 Asian Games]] (17)||align=left|{{KOR}}||45||9,501||37||439||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#FFFFCC
|35||align=left|[[2014 Asian Beach Games]] (4)||align=left|{{THA}}||42||2,335||26||168||align=left|{{THA}}
|-bgcolor=#FFFFCC
|36||align=left|[[2016 Asian Beach Games]] (5)||align=left|{{VIE}}||41||2,197||14||172||align=left|{{VIE}}
|-bgcolor=#CCEEFF
|37||align=left|[[2017 Asian Winter Games]] (8)||align=left|{{JPN}}||32||1,147||11||64||align=left|{{JPN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCCCFF
|38||align=left|[[2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games]] (5)||align=left|{{TKM}}||63||4,012||21||341||align=left|{{TKM}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|39||align=left|[[2018 Asian Games]] (18)||align=left|{{INA}}||45||11,300||46||465||align=left|{{CHN}}
|-bgcolor=#CCFFCC
|40||align=left|[[2022 Asian Games]] (19)||align=left|{{CHN}}||45||12,000||40||481||align=left|{{CHN}}
|}

* {{Color box|#CCFFCC| |border=darkgray}} [[Asian Summer Games]] (1951-2022) (19) 5,232 Events
* {{Color box|#CCEEFF| |border=darkgray}} [[Asian Winter Games]] (1986-2017) (8) 387 Events
* {{Color box|#CCCCFF| |border=darkgray}} [[Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games]] (2005-2017) (5+1) 1,042 Events
* {{Color box|#FFFFCC| |border=darkgray}} [[Asian Beach Games]] (2008-2016) (5) 509 Events
* {{Color box|#FFCCCC| |border=darkgray}} [[Asian Youth Games]] (2009-2013) (2) 212 Events
* Total : 40 Games (1951-2022): 7,382 Events

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{Col-1-of-4}}
*Other continental governing body (major multi-sport events)
**[[Association of National Olympic Committees of Africa]] ([[African Games]])
**[[European Olympic Committees]] ([[European Games]])
**[[Oceania National Olympic Committees]] ([[Pacific Games]])
**[[Pan American Sports Organization]] ([[Pan American Games]])
{{Col-2-of-4}}
*Events of the OCA (Subregional)
**[[Central Asian Games]]
**[[East Asian Games]] (now defunct)
**[[East Asian Youth Games]]
**[[South Asian Games]]
**[[Southeast Asian Games]]
**[[West Asian Games]]
{{Col-3-of-4}}
*Events of the [[Asian Paralympic Committee|APC]] (Continental)
**[[Asian Para Games]]
**[[Asian Youth Para Games]]
{{Col-4-of-4}}
*Events of the [[Asian Paralympic Committee|APC]] (Subregional)
**[[ASEAN Para Games]]
{{col-end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ocasia.org/ Olympic Council of Asia official Website]
*[http://www.asianparalympic.org/ Asian Paralympic Committee official Website]
*[https://ocasia.org/media/oca_files/OCA_CONSTITUTION_AND_RULE.pdf OCA Constitution And Rule]
*[https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1057699/about-oca About OCA]
*[https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1057701/projects OCA Projects]

{{ANOC}}
{{Asian Games}}
{{Asian Games bids}}
{{Asian Sports Federations}}
{{EventsOCA}}
{{OCA}}

[[Category:Olympic Council of Asia| ]]
[[Category:National Olympic Committees|*Asia]]
[[Category:Sports governing bodies in Asia]]
[[Category:Olympic organizations]]
[[Category:Sports organizations established in 1982]]
[[Category:1982 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Organizations based in Kuwait City]]
[[Category:1982 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:Sports organizations of Kuwait]]

Olympic Council of Asia

2023-10-06T10:29:54Z

Saumyasingh:

Haskhari

2023-09-15T09:07:46Z

Saumyasingh: Published a captivating reference.

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Haskhari
| native_name = 
| native_name_lang =
| other_name = Hanskhari
| nickname =
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| pushpin_map = India West Bengal # India
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in West Bengal, India
| coordinates = {{coord|26|23|26|N|88|19|58|E|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 ={{flagicon image|..West Bengal Flag(INDIA).png}} [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of districts of West Bengal|District]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Uttar Dinajpur district|Uttar Dinajpur]]
| subdivision_type3 =
| subdivision_name3 =
| subdivision_type4 = [[Tehsil]]
| subdivision_name4 = Haskhari
| established_title = 
| established_date =
| founder =
| named_for =
| government_type =
| governing_body =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes =
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 22634 (according to Census data)
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_demonym =
| population_footnotes =
| demographics_type1 = Languages
| demographics1_title1 = Official
| demographics1_info1 = [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Hindi language |Hindi]], [[English language|English]]
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +5:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|PIN]]
| postal_code = 733207 (Haskhari)
| area_code_type = Telephone/[[Subscriber trunk dialing|STD]] code
| area_code = 03526
| registration_plate =
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[Lok Sabha]] constituency
| blank1_info_sec1 = [[Darjeeling (Lok Sabha constituency)|Darjeeling]]
| blank2_name_sec1 = [[Vidhan Sabha]] constituency
| blank2_info_sec1 = [[Chopra (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Chopra]]
| website = {{URL|uttardinajpur.nic.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Haskhari''' (previously '''Hanskhari''') is a town in the [[Chopra (community development block)|Chopra]] [[Community development blocks in India|CD block]] in the [[Islampur subdivision]] of the [[Uttar Dinajpur district]] in the [[India|Indian state]] of [[West Bengal]].

==Geography==
{{OSM Location map
| width=400| height=300| zoom=6
| coord={{coord|26.39|N|88.33|E}}| float=left|caption='''Cities and towns in Islampur subdivision of Uttar Dinajpur district''' M: municipal town/ city/notified area, CT: census town, R: rural/ urban centre. Owing to space constraints in the small map, the actual locations in a larger map may vary slightly
|mark-coord1={{coord|26.3904|N|88.3323|E}} | label-pos1=left|label1=Haskhari | numbered1=CT| mark-title1= [[Haskhari]] (CT)|label-color1=#800000 |label-size1=11| mark-size1=12|shape1=l-circle|shape-color1=#A40000|shape-outline1=white|label-offset-x1=2
|mark-coord2={{coord|26.4791|N|88.4346|E}} | label-pos2=bottom|label2=Dahuk Bridge | numbered2=CT| mark-title2= [[Dahuk Bridge]] (CT)
|mark-coord3={{coord|26.3316|N|88.3293|E}} | label-pos3=left|label3= Sanpnikla Forest | numbered3=CT| mark-title3= [[Sanpnikla Forest]] (CT)
|mark-coord4={{coord|26.2130|N|88.1836|E}} | label-pos4=right|label4= Krishi Vigyan Kendra| numbered4=CT| mark-title4= [[Krishi Vigyan Kendra]] (CT)
|mark-coord5={{coord|23.6849|N|88.3254|E}} | label-pos5=left|label5= Bagdogra | numbered5=CT| mark-title5= [[Bagdogra Airport]] (CT)
|mark-coord6={{coord|23.2691|N|88.1853|E}} | label-pos6=right|label6= Aluabari Station| numbered6=R| mark-title6= [[Aluabari Railway Station]] (R)
|mark-coord7={{coord|23.3871|N|88.3237|E}} | label-pos7=right|label7= Tea Factory | numbered7=CT| mark-title7= [[Dinajpur Agrofood pvt]] (CT)
|mark-coord8={{coord|23.3691|N|88.9906|E}} | label-pos8=left|label8= Chopra Bridge| numbered8=CT| mark-title8= [[Chopra Bridge]] (CT)
|mark-coord9={{coord|23.3636|N|88.3078|E}} | label-pos9=right|label9= Forest Rest House| numbered9=CT| mark-title9= [[Forest Rest House]] (CT)
|mark-coord10={{coord|23.3886|N|88.3170|E}} | label-pos10=right|label10= Water Supply| numbered10=CT| mark-title10= [[Water Supply]] (CT)
|mark-coord11={{coord|23.4163|N|88.3764|E}} | label-pos11=left|label11= Power House | numbered11=CT| mark-title11= [[Bholagachh Power House]] (CT)
|mark-coord12={{coord|23.3827|N|88.4136|E}} | label-pos12=right|label12= Kalagachh | numbered12=CT| mark-title12= [[Kalagachh]] (CT) }}

===Location===
Haskhari is directly connected to [[Chopra, Uttar Dinajpur|Chopra]], [[Islampur, Uttar Dinajpur|Islampur]], [[Kishanganj]], [[Raiganj]] in the south & [[Sonapur, Alipurduar|Sonapur]], Bidhannagar, [[Bagdogra|Bakdogra]], [[Siliguri]] in the north by bus.
{{clear}}

==Demographics==
{{As of|2011}} India [[census]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Census of India 2011: Data from the 2011 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional) |url=https://www.census2011.co.in/census/district/4-uttar-dinajpur.html |publisher=Census Commission of India}}</ref> Haskhari had a population of 22,634. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Haskhari has an average literacy rate of 69%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 73%, and female literacy is 64%. In Haskhari, 16% of the population is under 6 years of age.

{{bar box
|title=Religions in Haskhari
|titlebar=#Fcd116
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Muslims]]|green|87}}
{{bar percent|[[Hindus]]|orange|11}}
{{bar percent|[[Jainism|Jains]]|pink|0.2}}
{{bar percent|Others†|black|0.7}}
|caption=Distribution of religions 
†Includes [[Sikh]]s (0.2%), [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] (<0.2%).
}}

==Transport==
===Bus===
Travelling by road is easier from Haskhari as it has [[NH 34|National Highway NH34]], lots of Government buses, Private buses, Cars, Rickshaws etc are available for travelling by road.
===Train===
[[Aluabari Road Junction railway station|Aluabari Station]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aluabari Road Railway Station Map/Atlas NFR/Northeast Frontier Zone - Railway Enquiry |url=https://indiarailinfo.com/station/map/aluabari-road-junction-aub/2200 |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=indiarailinfo.com}}</ref> is the main railway station for travelling by train.
===Air===
[[Bagdogra Airport|Bagdogra airport]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=All About Bagdogra International Airport Of West Bengal |url=https://timesproperty.com/news/post/bagdogra-international-airport-details-blid5461 |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=timesproperty.com}}</ref> is the nearby airport for travelling by aeroplane.

==Education==
*Haskhari High School
*Haskhari Public School
*St. Xavier English Medium School Haskhari<ref>{{Cite web |title=KALAGACHH ST. XAVIER SCHOOL - - Stack Schools |url=https://stackschools.com/schools/19040612005/kalagachh-st-xavier-school |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=stackschools.com}}</ref>
*Dhamorgachh Primary School Haskhari
*Dhamorgachh SSK School Haskhari

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External link==
{{URL|uttardinajpur.nic.in|Uttar Dinajpur official website}}

{{Geographic location
|Centre = Uttar Dinajpur district
|North = [[Darjeeling district]]
|Northeast =
|East = ''[[Bangladesh]]''
|Southeast = [[South Dinajpur district]]
|South = [[Malda district]]
|Southwest =
|West = [[Katihar district]], [[Bihar]]
|Northwest = [[Kishanganj district]], [[Bihar]]
}}

{{Uttar Dinajpur District}}
{{West Bengal}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Uttar Dinajpur district]]
[[Category:Cities in West Bengal]]

{{UttarDinajpur-geo-stub}}

Flag Officer Commanding Tamil Nadu & Puducherry Naval Area

2023-09-08T13:08:26Z

Saumyasingh: Just published an enlightening work.

{{Infobox official post
| post = Flag Officer Commanding Tamil Nadu & Puducherry Naval Area (FOTNA)
| body =
| native_name =
| insignia =
| insigniasize =
| insigniacaption =
| flag = File:Rear_Admiral_ensign_of_Indian_Navy.svg
| flagsize = 150
| flagborder = yes
| flagcaption = Flag of the FOK (Rear Admiral's flag)
| image = File:RAdm RK Dhingra.jpg
| imagesize = 150
| alt =
| imagecaption =
| incumbent = [[Rear admiral (India)|Rear Admiral]] [[Ravi Kumar Dhingra]], [[Vishisht Seva Medal|VSM]]
| acting =
| incumbentsince = 25 April 2023
| department = [[Indian Navy]]
| style =
| type =
| status =
| abbreviation = FOTNA
| member_of =
| reports_to = Flag Officer Commanding-in-Chief (FOC-in-C) [[Eastern Naval Command]]
| residence =
| seat = [[Chennai]]
| nominator =
| appointer =
| appointer_qualified =
| termlength =
| termlength_qualified =
| constituting_instrument =
| precursor =
| formation =
| first = [[Rear admiral (India)|Rear Admiral]] Alok Bhatnagar (as FOTNA)
| last =
| abolished =
| succession =
| unofficial_names =
| deputy =
| salary =
| website =
}}
'''Flag Officer Commanding Tamil Nadu & Puducherry Naval Area (FOTNA)''' is a senior appointment in the [[Indian Navy]]. The FOTNA is a [[Two-star rank|two star]] admiral holding the rank of [[Rear admiral (India)|Rear Admiral]]. The FOTNA is responsible for the operations and administration of all units and establishments in the state of [[Tamil Nadu]] and the [[union territory]] of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]. The Current FOTNA is [[Rear admiral (India)|Rear Admiral]] [[Ravi Kumar Dhingra]], [[Vishisht Seva Medal|VSM]], who assumed office on 25 April 2023.

==History==
A Naval office was set up in Chennai in the early 1940s. The first Naval Officer-in-Charge (NOIC) was Captain R. A. Malhuish. In 1946, the NOIC was re-designated Resident Naval Officer (RNO). With INS Adyar being recommissioned in 1954, the strength of the naval base grew and in 1968, the RNO was designated NOIC (Madras), and was responsible to the [[Flag Officer Commanding-in-Chief Eastern Naval Command]]. The NOIC (Madras) also discharged the duties of Commanding Officer INS Adyar.<ref>{{cite web |title=INS Adyar {{!}} Indian Navy |url=https://www.indiannavy.nic.in/content/ins-adyar |website=www.indiannavy.nic.in |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref>

With increasing responsibilities, a new appointment of NOIC (Tuticorin) was created in December 1994. The Commanding Officer [[INS Kattabomman]] dual-hatted as the NOIC(T) with the responsibility of local naval defence along the coast from the [[Gulf of Mannar]] up to Kerala. The units and installations along the coast in the [[Bay of Bengal]] up to the [[Pamban Bridge|Pamban Pass]] was under the NOIC (Madras). The two appointments were merged again after a few years and the new appointment of NOIC (Tamil Nadu & Pondicherry) was created.{{sfn|Hiranandani|2013|p=234}}

In November 2015, the billet was upgraded to [[two-star rank]] and rechristened ''Flag Officer Commanding Tamil Nadu & Puducherry Naval Area'' (FOTNA). [[Commodore (India)|Commodore]] Alok Bhatnagar, the NOIC (TN&P) was promoted to the rank of [[Rear admiral (India)|Rear Admiral]] and took over as the first FOTNA.{{sfn|Doraibabu|Godbole|2023|p=474}}<ref>{{cite web |title=New NOIC (TN & P) Takes Command |url=https://www.indiannavy.nic.in/content/new-noic-tn-p-takes-command |website=indiannavy.nic.in |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Alok Bhatnagar new Naval Officer-in-charge of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/alok-bhatnagar-new-naval-officer-in-charge-of-tamil-nadu-puducherry/articleshow/47882753.cms?from=mdr |website=The Economic Times |access-date=8 September 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Alok Bhatnagar becomes first Flag Officer, TN & Puducherry |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/pti-feed/story/alok-bhatnagar-becomes-first-flag-officer-tn-andamp-puducherry-515238-2015-11-18 |website=India Today |access-date=8 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

==Organisation==
The FOTNA is assisted by the NOIC (TN&P), a [[one-star rank|one-star]] appointment. The NOIC (TN&P) also serves as the Chief Staff Officer at Headquarters Tamil Nadu & Puducherry Naval Area (HQTN&P). The FOTNA is responsible to the [[Flag Officer Commanding-in-Chief Eastern Naval Command]] for the operations and administration of all units and establishments in [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]. This includes all ships and submarines based at the Karwar Naval Base as well. The establishments under the FOTNA include:<ref>{{cite web |title=Units |url=https://indiannavy.nic.in/node/1435 |website=indiannavy.nic.in |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref>
* The Naval Base INS Adyar
* The [[naval air station]] [[INS Parundu]]
* The [[naval air station]] [[INS Rajali]]
* The naval helicopter training school [[INAS 561]]
* The VLF-transmission facility [[INS Kattabomman]]
* Naval Coast Battery, Chennai
* Forward Operating Base, Tuticorin
* [[Sagar Prahari Bal]], Chennai

==List of Commanders==
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|- style="background:#cccccc"
! scope="col" style="width: 20px;"|S.No.
! scope="col" style="width: 350px;" | Name
! scope="col" style="width: 150px;" | Assumed office
! scope="col" style="width: 150px;" | Left office
! scope="col" style="width: 500px;" | Notes
|-
|1
|[[Rear Admiral]] Alok Bhatnagar {{small|{{post-nominals|country=IND|sep=,|NM}}}}
|30 June 2015
|31 March 2019
|First FOTNA. Later Additional Director General, [[National Cadet Corps (India)|NCC]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Chief of the Naval Staff visits INS Parundu |url=https://www.indiannavy.nic.in/content/chief-naval-staff-visits-ins-parundu |website=indiannavy.nic.in |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Naval Helicopter Pilots Awarded Wings |url=https://www.indiannavy.nic.in/content/naval-helicopter-pilots-awarded-wings |website=indiannavy.nic.in |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref>
|-
|2
|[[Rear Admiral]] K. J. Kumar {{small|{{post-nominals|country=IND|sep=,|VSM}}}}
|1 April 2019
|30 June 2020
|Earlier [[Flag Officer Commanding Karnataka Naval Area]].<ref>{{cite web |title=UNI Photo |url=http://www.uniindia.com/photoes/311808.html |website=uniindia.com |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Navy Commissions Dornier Squadron INAS 313 at Chennai |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=1579765 |website=pib.gov.in |access-date=8 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|3
|[[Rear Admiral]] [[Puneet Chadha]] {{small|{{post-nominals|country=IND|sep=,|NM}}}}
|30 June 2020
|20 May 2022
|Current Additional Director General, [[National Cadet Corps (India)|NCC]].<ref name="TOI - FOTNA">{{cite web |last1=Jun 30 |first1=V. Ayyappan / TNN / |title=Rear Admiral Puneet Chadha takes charge as flag officer commanding of Tamil Nadu & Puducherry Naval Area {{!}} Chennai News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/rear-admiral-puneet-chadha-takes-charge-as-flag-officer-commanding-of-tamil-nadu-puducherry-naval-area/articleshow/76714758.cms |website=The Times of India |access-date=10 May 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|4
|[[Rear Admiral]] [[S. Venkat Raman]] {{small|{{post-nominals|country=IND|sep=,|VSM}}}}
|20 May 2022
|25 April 2023
|Earlier [[Naval War College, Goa#Commandants|Commandant, Naval War College]].<ref name="IN-FOTNA">{{cite web |title=Rear Admiral S Venkat Raman Assumes Charge as The FOTNA {{!}} Indian Navy |url=https://www.indiannavy.nic.in/content/rear-admiral-s-venkat-raman-assumes-charge-fotna |website=www.indiannavy.nic.in |access-date=17 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Correspondent |first1=Special |title=New Flag Officer Commanding for T.N. Puducherry area |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/new-flag-officer-commanding-for-tn-puducherry-area/article65439977.ece |website=The Hindu |access-date=17 March 2023 |language=en-IN }}</ref>
|-
|5
|[[Rear Admiral]] [[Ravi Kumar Dhingra]] {{small|{{post-nominals|country=IND|sep=,|VSM}}}}
|25 April 2023
|Present
|Current FOTNA.<ref>{{cite web |title=Change of Command - Flag Officer Commanding TN and P Naval Area |url=https://indiannavy.nic.in/content/change-command-flag-officer-commanding-tn-and-p-naval-area |website=indiannavy.nic.in |access-date=8 September 2023}}</ref>
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{citation |last1=Doraibabu |first1=M |last2=Godbole|first2=Amrut| year=2023 |title=A Decade of Transformation: The Indian Navy 2011-2021 |publisher=Harper Collins Publishers India|isbn=9789394407909}}
* {{citation |last=Hiranandani |first=Vice Admiral GM |title=Transition to Guardianship: The Indian Navy 1991–2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w2snz5Cfb0gC&pg=RA1-PA1963-IA2 |publisher=Lancer Publishers LLC |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-935501-66-4}}

[[Category:Indian Navy]]
[[Category:Indian military appointments]]
[[Category:Indian Navy appointments]]

Perry Bhandal

2023-08-20T02:07:15Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with '{{Infobox person |name = Perry Bhandal |image = Feature Film Director Perry Bhandal.jpg |caption = Perry Bhandal, Feature Film Director, Writer, Producer. |birth...'

{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use British English}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Perry Bhandal
| image = Perry Bhandal Feature Film Director.png
| image size =
| caption = Perry Bhandal in 2019
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1968|1|12}}
| birth_place = [[Taplow]], [[UK]]
| years_active = 2009–present
| alma_mater = [[University of Manchester]]
| nationality = British
}}

'''Perry Bhandal''' (born 12 January 1968) is a British film director, screenwriter, and producer of the films ''[[Interview with a Hitman]]'' and ''The Last Boy'' and author of ''_prelude'', a collection of short stories and artwork, and ''The Winter Man'' a crime thriller.

==Early life==
{{BLP unreferenced section|date=August 2020}}
Bhandal was born in [[Taplow]], England and is of [[Sikh]] heritage. He received a [[BSc]] from the [[University of Manchester]] and two [[Master of Arts|M.A.]]s from the [[University of Brunel]]: one in film and one in creative writing.

==Career==
In May 2009 Bhandal set up the [[Feature Film|film]] production company Kirlian Pictures and set about developing the feature film ''Interview with a Hitman''.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media-network/media-network-blog/2012/aug/31/making-feature-film-art-business/|title=Perry Bhandal – The Guardian | location=London | date=31 August 2012}}</ref>

Bhandal shot ''Interview with a Hitman'' in 18 days in August 2011 on location in Newcastle and Bucharest. The film had its market premiere at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] in May 2012 and has gone on to sell in Major territories worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2061712/companycredits|title=International Distributors – Interview with a Hitman IMDB|website=[[IMDb]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/well-go-strippers-werewolves-hitman-kaleidoscope-295969/|title=Hollywood Reporter – Interview with a Hitman International Sales | work=The Hollywood Reporter | first=Stuart|last=Kemp}}</ref>

''Interview with a Hitman'' was released theatrically in the UK on 20 July 2012. It was released in the US on 5 March 2013.

Bhandal shot his second feature, the [[Rumi]] inspired sci fi, fantasy, thriller ''The Last Boy'' <ref>{{Citation|last=Bhandal|first=Perry|title=The Last Boy|date=2018|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4157728/|others=Luke Goss, Anna Wilson-Jones, Peter Guinness|accessdate=2018-03-02}}</ref>' in 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.screendaily.com/news/luke-goss-joins-the-last-boy/5107216.article?referrer=RSS|title=Luke Goss joins 'The Last Boy'|work=Screen|access-date=2018-03-02|language=en}}</ref> The film is due to be released in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.screendaily.com/news/spotlight-pictures-brings-the-last-boy-to-afm-exclusive/5123352.article|title=Spotlight Pictures brings 'The Last Boy' to AFM (exclusive)|work=Screen|access-date=2018-03-02|language=en}}</ref>

==Filmography==

===Feature films===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin-right:auto; margin-right:auto"
! rowspan="2" width="33"|Year
! rowspan="2"|Title
! colspan="3"|Credited as
|-
! width=65 | Director
! width=65 | Screenwriter
! width=65 |Producer
|-
| 2012
| align="left" | ''[[Interview with a Hitman]]''
| {{yes}}
| {{yes}}
| {{yes}}
|-
| 2019
| ''The Last Boy''
| {{yes}}
| {{yes}}
| {{yes}}
|}

==References==

===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb name|4678690|Perry Bhandal}}
* [http://www.kirlianpictures.com ''Director Perry Bhandal'']

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhandal, Perry}}
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:British film producers]]
[[Category:British male screenwriters]]
[[Category:British film directors]]
[[Category:English Sikhs]]

Charu Chandra Bhandari

2023-07-17T05:01:07Z

Saumyasingh: Authored a unique article.

{{short description|Indian Independence activist and politician (1896-1985)}}
{{EngvarB}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Charuchandra Bhandari
| image = Charu_Bhandari.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = A bust statue of Charuchandra Bhandari in Diamond Harbour municipality
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth_date |df=yes|1896|10|19}}
| birth_place = [[Diamond Harbour]], [[24 Parganas]] , [[British India]]
| death_date = {{death_date and age|df=yes|1985|06|24|1896|10|19}}
| death_place = [[Diamond Harbour]], [[South 24 Parganas]]
| occupation = Lawyer, Independence activist, Politician
| years_active =
| height =
| spouse = Prabhanalini Bhandari
| children =
| parents =
| website =
}}
'''Charu Chandra Bhandari''' (19 October 1896 – 24 June 1985) was a staunch independence activist, [[Gandhians|Gandhian]] and Sarvodaya leader. He was the chief propagator of the Sarvodaya movement in Bengal as a close associate of Acharya [[Vinoba Bhave]] and took an active part in the [[Bhoodan movement]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Sengupta |first=Subodh |title=Samsad Bangali Charitabhidhan |publisher=Sahitya Samsad |year=2016 |location=Kolkata |pages=218, 267 |language=Bengali}}</ref>

==Birth and early life==
Charu Chandra Bhandari was born on 19 October, 1896 in Shyampurchak village under Kulpi police station in Diamond Harbor subdivision of South Twenty-four Parganas, British India (present day [[West Bengal]], India). He was a lawyer by profession.<ref name=":1" />

==Activities==
When the [[Salt Satyagraha]] movement started across the country in 1930, Charuchandra Bhandari led the movement in [[South Bengal]] and the [[Sundarbans settlements|Sundarbans]] under the instructions of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] . He left his profession of lawyer and completely joined the freedom struggle. Charuchandra was even caught by the police for participating in the salt satyagraha. After his release from jail, ''Khadi'' temples were built in various places of Sundarbans including Hatugunj, Diamond Harbour, Kulpi, Karanjali, Harinavi in South 24 Parganas. Freedom fighter Bishwaranjan Sen was one of his collaborators in the establishment of the ''Khadi Mandir'' in Diamond Harbour. Clothes by spinning wheels were manufactured here and were distributed in 24 Parganas and neighbouring districts for sale.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />

Charuchandra was closely associated with the organizational and service work of Mahatma Gandhi's movement. He was also associated with the Abhay Ashram, which was inspired by Gandhian ideals and was founded in [[Comilla District|Comilla]], [[Bengal]] (present-day [[Bangladesh]]).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

Charuchandra Bhandari was a notable disciple of Acharya Vinoba Bhave. Charuchandra was one of the main promoters of his Sarvodaya movement in West Bengal. According to him, co-operation is the basic principle of the village donation and land donation movement (''Bhoodan'' movement). Charuchandra Bhandari tried his best to make the principles of Vinoba Bhave a reality. He along with many others took a life vow at the Sarvodaya conference held in [[Gaya (India)|Gaya]]. He founded the West Bengal ''Bhudajajna Mandal'' at Diamond Harbour.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=সংবাদদাতা |first=নিজস্ব |title=Charuchandra Bhandari: ধ্বংসের পথে স্বাধীনতা সংগ্রামী চারুচন্দ্রের খাদি মন্দির, সংস্কার চায় হটুগঞ্জ |url=https://www.anandabazar.com/west-bengal/24-parganas/demand-for-renovation-of-khadi-temple-built-by-charuchandra-bhandari-in-sundarbans-area-dgtld/cid/1363215 |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=www.anandabazar.com |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Bikram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jhNfZ4DtbEC&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Land Reforms in India, Theory and Practice: A Study of Legal Aspects of Land Reforms Measures in West Bengal |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=978-81-7024-260-4 |pages=98, 102,104 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Narayan |first=Shriman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNXt00vBew0C&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Vinoba: His Life and Work |last2=Vinobā |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7154-483-7 |pages=226 |language=en}}</ref>

Charuchandra Bhandari was a member of the Bengal Legislative Assembly. <ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Bikram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jhNfZ4DtbEC&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Land Reforms in India, Theory and Practice: A Study of Legal Aspects of Land Reforms Measures in West Bengal |publisher=APH Publishing |isbn=978-81-7024-260-4 |pages=49 |language=en}}</ref> On June 20, 1947, he advocated for the establishment of West Bengal. In the first general election of independent India in 1951, Charuchandra Bhandari was elected from the [[Diamond Harbour Assembly constituency]] as a member of the [[Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party]](KMPP). He became the first minister of food and civil supplies in [[Prafulla Chandra Ghosh]]'s cabinet.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=এক সময়ের অর্থনীতির পীঠ স্থান আজ আগাছায় ভর্তি, উঠল সংস্কারের দাবি |url=https://bengali.news18.com/news/south-24-parganas/on-the-death-anniversary-of-freedom-fighter-charuchandra-bhandari-the-demand-for-renovation-of-khadi-temple-was-raised-l18-1159758.html |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=News18 Bengali |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bandyopadhyay |first=Sekhar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Qd5AgAAQBAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Decolonization in South Asia: Meanings of Freedom in Post-independence West Bengal, 1947–52 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-01824-6 |pages=19,26,83 |language=en}}</ref>

==Books written==

* ''Bhūdānajajña ki ō kēna'' (1955)(What and Why Land donation movement)
* ''Āmādēra jātīẏa śikṣā'' (1962)(Our National Education)
* ''Kōra-āna sāra'' (Essence of Quran)
* Āsāmēra aśānti prasaṅgē (1961)
* Thoughts on Assam Disturbances (1961)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rajan |first=S. Irudaya |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=9DZbEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT59&dq=charu+chandra+bhandari&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7mbaIgo6AAxVa-DgGHSgVBC8Q6AF6BAgNEAM#v=onepage&q=charu%20chandra%20bhandari&f=false |title=The Routledge Handbook of Refugees in India |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-50976-2 |language=en}}</ref>

==Death and legacy==
Charuchandra Bhandari passed away on June 24, 1985. After his death, the Charuchandra Memorial Committee was formed in his memory at Diamond Harbour. The 'Girls School Road' in ward number 13 of [[Diamond Harbour]] city has been named 'Charuchandra Bhandari Sarani' by the municipality and a bust statue of Charuchandra Bhandari has been installed at the intersection of Diamond Harbor Main Road and Charuchandra Bhandari Sarani.<ref name=":0" />
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bhandari, Charu Chandra}}

[[Category:1896 births]]
[[Category:1985 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian independence activists from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Indian independence activists]]
[[Category:Nonviolence advocates]]
[[Category:Gandhians]]
[[Category:Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Writers from West Bengal]]
[[Category:Indian political writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:West Bengal MLAs 1951–1957]]

Siberian sand plover

2023-07-17T01:39:41Z

Saumyasingh: Created a captivating write-up.

{{short description|Species of bird}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Charadrius mongolus - Laem Phak Bia.jpg
| image_caption = Laem Phak Bia, Ban Laem, Phetchaburi, Thailand
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Charadrius mongolus'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T22693855A93427510 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22693855A93427510.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| taxon = Charadrius mongolus
| authority = [[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], 1776
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision =
* ''C. m. mongolus''
* ''C. m. stegmanni''
}}
[[File:Mongolian Plover95.ogv|thumb|250px|Scarborough, SE Queensland, Australia]]
[[File:Charadrius mongolus - Laem Pak Bia.jpg|thumb|250px]]
[[File:Lesser sand Plover AMSM5062 2 LSPL.jpg|thumb|250 px|In [[Jamnagar]], [[Gujarat]], [[India]]]]
[[File:Lesser Sand Plovers with Sanderling I2 IMG 9382.jpg|thumb|250 px| Lesser sand plovers with sanderlings in [[Chilika]], [[Odisha]], India]]

The '''Siberian sand plover''' or '''lesser sand plover''' ('''''Charadrius mongolus''''') is a small [[wader]] in the [[plover]] family of [[bird]]s. The spelling was commonly given as lesser sand-plover, but the official [[British Ornithologists' Union]] spelling is "lesser sand plover". The [[International Ornithologists' Union]] split the [[Tibetan sand plover]] from it and changed its vernacular name to "Siberian sand plover".<ref name=IOC>{{cite book|editor-last1=Gill |editor-first1=F |editor-first2=D |editor-last2=Donsker |editor-first3=P |editor-last3=Rasmussen |year=2023 |title=IOC World Bird List (v 13.2) |doi=10.14344/IOC.ML.13.2 |url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/}}</ref> The genus name ''Charadrius'' is a [[Late Latin]] word for a yellowish bird mentioned in the fourth-century [[Vulgate]]. It derives from [[Ancient Greek]] ''kharadrios'' (χἄραδριός), a bird found in ravines and river valleys (''kharadra'', "ravine"); a [[curlew]] according to [[Liddell and Scott]]. The specific ''mongolus'' is [[Latin]] and refers to [[Mongolia]], which at the time of naming referred to a larger area than the present country.<ref name=job>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | url= https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling | publisher=Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling/page/n99 99], 259}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
The Siberian sand plover and the [[Tibetan sand plover]] were previously considered conspecific, having five races in the species complex. A study published in 2022 proposed that both the "''mongolus''" and the "''atrifrons''" groups of the lesser sand plover are sister groups of the [[greater sand plover]]. Therefore a taxonomic split of the lesser sand plover was needed. The authors suggested new [[Binomial nomenclature|scientific]] and common English names for them.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wei |first=Chentao |last2=Schweizer |first2=Manuel |last3=Tomkovich |first3=Pavel S |last4=Arkhipov |first4=Vladimir Yu |last5=Romanov |first5=Michael |last6=Martinez |first6=Jonathan |last7=Lin |first7=Xin |last8=Halimubieke |first8=Naerhulan |last9=Que |first9=Pinjia |last10=Mu |first10=Tong |last11=Huang |first11=Qin |title=Genome-wide data reveal paraphyly in the sand plover complex ( Charadrius mongolus/leschenaultii ) |url=https://academic.oup.com/auk/article/doi/10.1093/ornithology/ukab085/6527443 |journal=Ornithology |language=en |volume=139 |issue=2 |pages=ukab085 |doi=10.1093/ornithology/ukab085 |issn=0004-8038|doi-access=free }}</ref> The large East Asian forms ''mongolus'' and ''stegmanni'' are currently defined as races of the Siberian sand plover, ''Charadrius mongolus''; and the [[Tibetan Plateau]] form is now known as the Tibetan sand plover, ''Charadrius atrifrons'', which includes the three races ''atrifrons'', ''pamirensis'' and ''schaeferi''.

* Siberian sand plover (''Charadrius mongolus''): ''C. m. mongolus'' and ''C. m. stegmanni''
* Tibetan sand plover (''Charadrius atrifrons''): ''C. a. atrifrons'', ''C. a. pamirensis'' and ''C. a. schaeferi''
* Desert sand plover (''Charadrius leschenaultii''), currently greater sand plover

[[International Ornithologists' Union|IOC]] accepted the split and renaming of the lesser sand plover in 2023, while the greater sand plover retains its common name.<ref name=IOC>{{cite book|editor-last1=Gill |editor-first1=F |editor-first2=D |editor-last2=Donsker |editor-first3=P |editor-last3=Rasmussen |year=2023 |title=IOC World Bird List (v 13.2) |doi=10.14344/IOC.ML.13.2 |url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/}}</ref>

==Distribution==
It breeds discontinuously across bare coastal plains in north-eastern [[Siberia]], with the Mongolian plover in the eastern part of the range; it has also bred in Alaska. It nests in a [[bird nest#Scrape|bare ground scrape]], laying three [[bird egg|eggs]]. This species is strongly [[bird migration|migratory]], wintering on sandy beaches in east and southeast Asia.<ref name=IOC>{{cite book|editor-last1=Gill |editor-first1=F |editor-first2=D |editor-last2=Donsker |editor-first3=P |editor-last3=Rasmussen |year=2023 |title=IOC World Bird List (v 13.2) |doi=10.14344/IOC.ML.13.2 |url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/}}</ref>

==Description==
This chunky plover is long-legged and long-billed. Breeding males have grey backs and white underparts. The breast, forehead and nape are chestnut, and there is a black eye mask. The [[sexual dimorphism|female is duller]], and winter and juvenile birds lack the chestnut, apart from a hint of [[rufous]] on the head. Legs are dark and the [[beak|bill]] black.

In all [[plumage]]s, this species is very similar to the [[greater sand plover]], ''Charadrius leschenaultii''. Separating the species may be straightforward in mixed wintering flocks on an Indian beach, where the difference in size and structure is obvious; it is more difficult to identify a lone vagrant to western Europe, where both species are very rare. The problem is compounded in that the Middle Eastern race of greater sand plover is the most similar to the lesser. The lesser usually has darker legs, a white forehead, and a more even white wing bar than the greater.

==Ecology==
The Siberian sand plover feeds on [[insect]]s, [[crustacean]]s and [[annelid]] worms, which are obtained by a run-and-pause technique, rather than the steady probing of some other wader groups. This species takes fewer steps and shorter pauses than the greater sand plover when feeding.

The flight call is a hard trill.

The Siberian sand plover is one of the species to which the [[Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds]] (AEWA) applies.

==Identification==
Size is one of the factors distinguishing a lesser sand plover from a [[greater sand plover]], with the lesser being slightly smaller. However, it is not easy to rely on size alone especially when seen individually. The length of the bill is another distinguishing feature, with the lesser generally having a shorter bill compared to a greater. The colour of the legs in a lesser sand plover is generally darker, ranging from black to grey, while in a greater sand plover it is much paler, ranging from grey to yellowish.{{needs update}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Taylor, P.B. (1987) Field identification of Greater and Lesser Sandplovers, pp. 15–20 in ''International Bird Identification: Proceedings of the 4th International Identification Meeting, Eilat, 1st - 8th November 1986'' International Birdwatching Centre Eilat

==External links==

{{Taxonbar|from=Q305255}}

[[Category:Charadrius|Siberian sand plover]]
[[Category:Birds of Asia]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1776|Siberian sand plover]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas]]

Polly Umrigar

2023-05-24T13:06:38Z

Saumyasingh: minor: corrected hyphen to en-dash

{{short description|Indian cricketer}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Polly Umrigar
| image = Pollyumrigar.jpg
| caption =
| fullname = Pahlan Ratanji Umrigar
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1926|3|28|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Mumbai|Bombay]] or [[Solapur]], [[Maharashtra]] (see <ref name="pob" />)
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2006|11|7|1926|3|28|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], India
| batting = Right-handed
| bowling = Right-arm offbreak
| role = [[All-rounder]]
| international = true
| country = India
| testcap = 47
| testdebutagainst = West Indies
| testdebutdate = 9 December
| testdebutyear = 1948
| lasttestdate = 13 April
| lasttestfor = India
| lasttestagainst = West Indies
| lasttestyear = 1962
| columns = 2
| column1 = [[Test cricket|Test]]
| matches1 = 59
| runs1 = 3,631
| bat avg1 = 42.22
| 100s/50s1 = 12/14
| top score1 = 223
| deliveries1 = 4,725
| wickets1 = 35
| bowl avg1 = 42.08
| fivefor1 = 2
| tenfor1 = 0
| best bowling1 = 6/74
| catches/stumpings1= 33/–
| column2 = [[First-class cricket|First-class]]
| matches2 = 243
| runs2 = 16,155
| bat avg2 = 52.28
| 100s/50s2 = 49/80
| top score2 = 252[[not out|*]]
| deliveries2 = 25,297
| wickets2 = 325
| bowl avg2 = 25.68
| fivefor2 = 14
| tenfor2 = 2
| best bowling2 = 7/32
| catches/stumpings2= 217/–
| source = http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/ci/content/player/35577.html CricInfo
| date = 31 October
| year = 2021
}}

'''Pahlan Ratanji''' "'''Polly'''" '''Umrigar''' {{audio|Polly Umrigar.ogg|pronunciation}} (28 March 1926 – 7 November 2006) was an Indian [[cricket]]er. He played in the [[Indian cricket team]] (1948 – 1962) and played [[first-class cricket]] for [[Mumbai cricket team|Bombay]] and [[Gujarat cricket team|Gujarat]]. Umrigar played mainly as a middle-order batsman but also bowled occasional medium pace and [[off spin]]. He captained India in eight Test matches from 1955 to 1958. When he retired in 1962, he had played in the most Tests (59), scored the most Test runs (3,631), and recorded the most Test centuries (12) of any Indian player. He scored the first double century by an Indian in Test cricket against [[New Zealand national cricket team|New Zealand]] in [[Hyderabad]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=2021-05-09 |title=In pictures {{!}} Parsi cricketers who have played for India |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/in-pictures-parsi-cricketers-who-have-played-for-india/article34519324.ece |access-date=2023-04-25 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In 1998, he received the [[C. K. Nayudu Lifetime Achievement Award]], the highest honour the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|Indian cricket board]] can bestow on a former player.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Mukherjee |first=Abhishek |date=7 June 2018 |title=Full list of CK Nayudu Lifetime Achievement Awards |url=https://www.cricketcountry.com/articles/facts-and-figures/sunil-gavaskar-kapil-dev-and-other-ck-nayudu-lifetime-achievement-awards-winners-718766 |access-date=25 April 2023 |website=[[Cricket Country]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life==
Polly Umrigar was probably born in [[Mumbai|Bombay]] but his place of birth is often cited as [[Solapur]], [[Maharashtra]].<ref name="pob">A majority of the references cite S(h)olapur as Umrigar's place of birth. But in the interview ''A chat with midwicket explorer'' in Sportstar, 14 October 1989, p.49, Umrigar said : "Let me correct the notion that I was born in Sholapur and not in Bombay. The fact is I was born in Bombay, but learnt my cricket in Sholapur till pre-metric days". Another dissenter is Richard Cashman, Patrons, Players and the Crowd, p.76 : "For years Polly Umrigar was listed as 'born in Sholapur' whereas it is now known that he was born in Bombay". Umrigar's family and study details are from the Sportstar interview.</ref> His father ran a clothing company. He grew up in Solapur and his family moved to Bombay when he was at school.<ref name=pob/>

He was a [[Parsi people|Parsi]] (from the Zoroastrian community in India), the community that dominated [[Mumbai cricket team|Bombay cricket]] in the early decades of the twentieth century.<ref>Cashman, Patrons, Players and the Crowd, p.81. Of the early Test cricketers from Bombay, [[Dattaram Hindlekar]] and [[Janardan Navle]] were the only Marathi speakers. Others – [[Sorabji Colah]], [[Jenni Irani]], [[Rustomji Jamshedji]], [[Khershed Meherhomji]], [[Rusi Modi]], [[Phiroze Palia]], [[Vijay Merchant]], [[L. P. Jai]] and [[Buck Divecha|Ramesh Divecha]] – were all Gujarati Parsees or Gujarati Hindus.</ref><ref name=":0" /> He made his first class debut for Parsis at the age of 18 in the [[Bombay Pentangular]] in 1944, and studied for a BSc at [[St Xavier's College]]. He captained the Bombay University team. He also played [[Field hockey|hockey]] and [[Association football|football]] competitively.<ref name=pob/>

== Career ==

===Early Test career===
He scored 115* for Combined Universities<ref>Partab Ramchand, ''Great Indian batsmen'', p.63</ref> against the touring [[West Indies cricket team|West Indians]] in October 1948. This performance brought him to national attention, and earned him a single appearance in the 2nd Test against the same team in Bombay seven weeks later.

By the time two [[Commonwealth XI cricket team|Commonwealth teams]] visited India [[Commonwealth XI cricket team in India in 1949-50|in 1949–50]] and [[Commonwealth XI cricket team in India in 1950–51|1950–51]], Umrigar had become a regular in the team. He scored 276 runs in the unofficial Tests against the first team and 562 runs against the second. In the [[M. A. Chidambaram Stadium|Madras]] Test, he moved from 90 to 102 with two successive sixes off [[Frank Worrell]].<ref>Great Indian batsmen, p. 104. [[Vijay Hazare]], in his autobiography ''My story'' states that the sixes took Umrigar from 88 to 100.</ref>

He scored only 113 runs in the first four Tests against a weak [[English cricket team|England side]] at home a year later. He was dropped from the fifth Test but was included in the last minute due to an injury to [[Hemu Adhikari]]. Going in at No.7, he made 130 not out as India won their first ever Test match. Though the bowling was not of a very high quality, Umrigar considered it the best innings of his life.<ref>Polly Umrigar, "Oh, the first sight of clear skies", [[Outlook (Indian magazine)|''Outlook'']] Special issue on the 75 years of Indian cricket (2005), p.69 : "This innings ranks as the best of my life, though the 170-odd that I got in the Caribbean in 1961–62 was perhaps my best in terms of quality."</ref><ref>In its December 2004 issue, [[Wisden Asia Cricket]] conducted a poll among cricketers and cricket writers to select the best innings by an Indian. The 130* was ranked 29th while Umrigar's 172* at Port of Spain in 1961–62 came 45th</ref>

===England in 1952===
In England in 1952, Umrigar scored heavily outside Test matches, but in Tests he was a complete failure. His aggregate of 1,688 was the highest in the season for the Indian team. He made more than 800 runs in May and double hundreds against [[Oxford University Cricket Club|Oxford University]], [[Lancashire County Cricket Club|Lancashire]] and [[Kent County Cricket Club|Kent]], but seemed to struggle against the fast bowler [[Cuan McCarthy]]<ref>Partab Ramchand, Great Feats of Indian Cricket, p.102</ref> of [[Cambridge University Cricket Club|Cambridge]]. However, he made only 43 runs in seven Test innings, at an average of 6.14. But more than the lack of runs, it was the way that he batted that was disturbing. While facing [[Fred Trueman]], time and again he backed away towards square leg and "(held) the bat out to each ball, missing it like a beginner".<ref>Great Feats of Indian Cricket, p.101, quoting [[S. K. Gurunathan]]'s report from [[Old Trafford (cricket ground)|Manchester]]</ref> Bedser dismissed him twice; Trueman dismissed him four times, and on three occasions he was bowled backing away.<ref>[[John Arlott]] in his biography of [[Fred Trueman]] tells of Umrigar "who at one point retreated so far back that [[Tony Lock|(Tony) Lock]], at backward short-leg, said "I say, Polly, do you mind going back. I can't see the bowler when you stand there" ".</ref>

More has perhaps been written about this series than any other phase of Umrigar's career.<ref>Some writers have gone further on the impact of Umrigar's failures and attributed the bad reputation that Indian batsmen once had against fast bowlers to it : " .. but it was the deeper wound that Trueman had inflicted on Indian cricket that could never be healed. Trueman became an ogre India could not cope with and a whole generation of Indian batsmen were branded as cowards, men who ran away to square-leg at the first sight of a fast bowler. Not all Indian batsman ran away from Trueman and it is a canard to suggest that. However, one man did. " etc. (Mihir Bose, A History of Indian Cricket, p.181)</ref> Umrigar had far more success in his other encounters with fast bowlers. He scored a hundred at [[Old Trafford (cricket ground)|Manchester]] in his next meeting with Trueman in 1959; he topped the aggregate for India in all his three series against West Indies who at various times had [[Frank King (West Indian cricketer)|Frank King]], [[Wes Hall]], [[Roy Gilchrist]] and [[Charlie Stayers]]. It was off the bowling of Hall and Stayers that he played one of the finest innings of his career.

He returned to form against Pakistan at home in 1952–53, and scored 560 runs in West Indies in early 1953 with two hundreds and four fifties.<ref>
Umrigar's 560 runs in the 1952–53 series equalled [[Rusi Modi]]'s identical tally against West Indies at home in 1948–49. This stood as an Indian record till [[Vijay Manjrekar]] scored 586 runs against England in 1961–62, and the highest abroad till [[Dilip Sardesai]] and [[Sunil Gavaskar]] made 642 and 774 runs in West Indies in 1970–71.</ref> He reached his hundred at [[Queen's Park Oval|Port of Spain]] with a six off [[Sonny Ramadhin]].<ref>Umrigar was the first Indian batsman to reach a century with a six, a feat that has since been emulated by [[Kapil Dev]], [[Sachin Tendulkar]], [[Mohammad Azharuddin]], [[Rahul Dravid]] and [[Virender Sehwag]].</ref> His innings of 223 against [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] at [[Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium, Hyderabad|Hyderabad]] in 1955–56 was the first double century scored for India.<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 March 2017|title=The first Indian to hit a double century: 'Polly' Umrigar was born on this day almost a century ago|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/polly-umrigar-first-indian-double-century-968094-2017-03-28|access-date=2020-09-24|website=India Today|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Full Scorecard of India vs New Zealand 1st Test 1955|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/17421/scorecard/62802/india-vs-new-zealand-1st-test-new-zealand-tour-of-india-1955-56|access-date=2020-09-24|website=espncricinfo.com|language=en}}</ref>

===Test captain===
Umrigar had led India in two unofficial Tests against the [[Commonwealth XI cricket team|Commonwealth XI]] in 1953–54 winning one of them. From the second Test match against New Zealand in 1955–56 till the first Test against the West Indies three years later, he captained the side in eight successive Test matches. India won two of the New Zealand Tests by an innings.

After one Test against the West Indies in 1958–59, he was replaced as captain by [[Ghulam Ahmed (cricketer)|Ghulam Ahmed]] who then announced his retirement from Test cricket after two successive defeats. Umrigar was again picked as captain for the fourth Test at Madras, but a confusion developed about the replacements for Ghulam Ahmed and [[Vijay Manjrekar]], who was injured. Umrigar wanted another batsman, [[Manohar Hardikar]], to replace Manjrekar, but [[Ratibhai Patel]], the President of [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]] insisted on the off-spinner [[Jasu Patel]] to play in his place.<ref>While the BCCI President certainly went beyond his brief in insisting for Patel, Rajan Bala in ''The Covers are Off'' places some part of the blame in Umrigar's insistence on a Bombay man (Hardikar) as the replacement for Manjrekar.</ref> Umrigar resigned the captaincy on the night before the Test.<ref>Most sources agree that Umrigar resigned that night but Rajan Bala quotes Umrigar (The Covers are Off, p.71) as saying that he does not remember whether the decision to quit was taken during the night or in the morning after discussion with the selection committee chairman [[Lala Amarnath]].</ref> He represented India for three more years but never again captained the country. His 337 runs in the five Tests of the series was the highest for India.

===Late Test career===
During the tour of England in 1959, he again scored heavily outside Test matches, but struggled in the Tests again Trueman and [[Brian Statham]] until the fourth Test. He scored three double hundreds in tour matches, the 252* against Cambridge University was then the highest by an Indian abroad.<ref>Excepting [[Duleepsinhji]] and [[Ranjitsinhji]] who are English for cricketing purposes. Duleep scored 333 for [[Sussex County Cricket Club|Sussex]] against [[Northamptonshire County Cricket Club|Northamptonshire]] in 1930 while Ranji's highest was 285* for Sussex v [[Somerset County Cricket Club|Somerset]] in 1901. Umrigar's score was the highest by an Indian abroad till [[Navjot Sidhu]] made 286 against Jamaica at Kingston in 1988–89. As of 2015, it is still the highest by an Indian in England.</ref> He made 230 runs in four Test matches, including 118 in the Old Trafford Test in his last meeting with Trueman.

Umrigar's off-spin played a significant supporting role to [[Jasu Patel]] in India's first win over Australia at [[Green Park Stadium|Kanpur]] in 1959–60, but his batting remained below par, and he missed the last two Tests in the series with a back injury. He scored three hundreds in the series against [[Pakistan cricket team|Pakistan]] in 1960–61 and another against England at home in 1961–62 (his third century in as many Test innings).

[[File:Polly Umrigar graph.png|left|thumb|350px|Polly Umrigar's career performance graph.]]A few weeks later, India lost every match in a five Test series in West Indies. In the fourth Test at Port of Spain, Umrigar scored 56 and 172 not out and took 5 for 107 in the West Indian first innings.<ref>The only other Indian cricketer to score a century and take five wickets in an innings was [[Vinoo Mankad]] who scored 72 & 184 and took 5 for 196 against [[English cricket team|England]] at [[Lord's]] in 1952. In 2011/12 v West Indies at Mumbai, [[Ravichandran Ashwin]] scored 103 and took 5/156 to become the third.</ref> His fifty in the first innings came after India had lost their first five wickets for 30. India followed on and Umrigar reached his hundred in 156 minutes and 150 in 203. When [[Wes Hall]] took the second new ball, Umrigar hit him for four fours in an over.<ref>Great Feats of Indian Cricket, p.117</ref> The last two Indian wickets added 144. Umrigar's 172* in 248 minutes were scored off India's last 230 runs. He finished the series with 445 runs and nine wickets. His chronic back trouble made him announce his retirement from Test cricket after he returned home.

Umrigar continued to play first-class cricket for Bombay for another season and played his last first class match in 1967–68.

===Analysis of cricket career===
Umrigar was a powerfully built man who stood just under six feet.<ref>Cashman, p.84, quotes ''[[The Sunday Times (India)|The Sunday Times]]'', 30 April 1978, which in turn quotes Umrigar as stating that he was 5' 11½" but six feet in cricket boots</ref> An attacking player especially strong in front of the wicket, he was capable of destroying anything short of extreme pace.<ref>The opinion of [[Christopher Martin-Jenkins]], ''Who's who of Test Cricketers'' (1986), p.481.</ref> In this attitude towards the bowling, he was different from most of his contemporaries. "He was a link between two generations", wrote [[K. N. Prabhu]]. "Theoretically he belonged to that assembly of cricketers of the thirties, but in practice his cricket was conditioned by the hard, professional approach of the immediate post-independence years".<ref>[[K. N. Prabhu]], in ''Mid-day''.</ref> From the early 1940s, Indian cricket had been dominated by the [[Vijay Merchant|Merchant]]-[[Vijay Hazare|Hazare]] school of batsmanship which put stress on preserving one's wicket. Umrigar's batting combined the tall scores of this era with the adventurous spirit of the thirties.

Umrigar's bowling improved over the course of his career. He bowled off-cutters, hardly flighted the ball and moved it in off the seam.<ref>Sujit Mukherjee, Playing for India, p.156</ref> Occasionally he used to bowl medium pace and open the bowling, as at Bahawalpur in 1954–55 when he took his career-best 6 for 74 against Pakistan. Umrigar rarely bowled for long spells at medium pace. At [[Bahawal Stadium|Bahawalpur]] he only bowled about six overs "at the maximum pace that he was capable of, which would be about Ramchand's" (the wickets were taken in later spells), according to [[Sujit Mukherjee]]. (See the article on [[Gulabrai Ramchand#Playing_style|G. S. Ramchand]] for Mukherjee's opinion about Ramchand's bowling.)

Umrigar's aggregate of 3,631 Test runs and 12 Test centuries were India's best until bettered by [[Sunil Gavaskar]] in the late seventies. He led the victorious Bombay sides in [[Ranji Trophy]] in 1959–60, 1960–61 and 1962–63. In 59 Ranji matches, for Bombay and [[Gujarat cricket team|Gujarat]], he scored 4102 runs with fifteen hundreds at an average of 70.72 and 140 wickets.<ref>140 wickets as per [[Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket 2004]] p.461 and 138 according to [[Christopher Martin-Jenkins]], Who's Who of Test Cricketers (1986) p.482, but a manual count of his wickets shows the Indian Cricket's tally to be correct. 134 of the wickets were for Bombay, 6 for Gujarat.</ref> His highest Ranji score of 245 was made against [[Saurashtra cricket team|Saurashtra]] in 1957–58. He twice scored 1,000 runs in an Indian domestic season. He also spent a few years for Church in the [[Lancashire League (cricket)|Lancashire League]].

==Later life==
Umrigar was the manager of Indian touring sides to New Zealand, [[West Indies]] and Australia in the late 1970s. He was the chairman of the national selection committee between 1978 and 1982, Executive secretary of the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|BCCI]] and the Mumbai Cricket Association Secretary. He wrote a book on cricket coaching and, for a time, he was the curator of the pitch at the [[Wankhede Stadium]]. He was awarded the [[Padma Shri]] in 1962 and the [[C.K. Nayudu Trophy]] in 1998–99 for his contributions to the game. The national Under-15 championship is contested for the Polly Umrigar Trophy.

Umrigar was diagnosed with [[lymph cancer]] and underwent [[chemotherapy]] in mid-2006.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071001091125/http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/01/stories/2006070109231900.htm Hindu report on Umrigar's illness]</ref> He died in Mumbai from the illness on 7 November 2006.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/other_international/india/6126152.stm Former India skipper Umrigar dies] bbc.co.uk, accessed 7 November 2006</ref>

He married his wife, Dinu, in 1951. He was survived by his wife, two sons and a daughter.

== Legacy ==

* BCCI named [[Polly Umrigar Award|Polly Umrigar award]] in his honour.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Partab Ramchand, Great Feats of Indian Cricket, Rupa & Co
* Partab Ramchand, Great Indian Batsmen, Rupa & Co (2005)
* Sujit Mukherjee, Playing for India, Orient Longman (1988)
* Mihir Bose, A History of Indian Cricket (1990)
* Rajan Bala, The Covers are Off, Rupa & Co (2004)
* Richard Cashman, Patrons, Players and the Crowd, Orient Longman(1980)

==External links==
* {{cricinfo|id=35577}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928102301/http://www.chalomumbai.com/sports/national/2006/march/133912.htm Umrigar turns 80], Profile
* [http://www.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/INTERACTIVE/FACE-TO-FACE/UMRIGAR-1.html Interview]
* Raju Bharatan, {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20100810193209/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/06/30/stories/0730028j.htm An account of the events that led to Umrigar's resignation]}}
*[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml;jsessionid=KYUUMELI21PFHQFIQMGCFFOAVCBQUIV0?view=DETAILS&grid=&xml=/news/2006/11/09/db0901.xml Obituary]{{dead link|date=January 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', 9 November 2006
*[https://www.theguardian.com/obituaries/story/0,,1942811,00.html Obituary], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 9 November 2006
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071001000411/http://news.independent.co.uk/people/obituaries/article1962678.ece Obituary], ''[[The Independent]]'', 9 November 2006
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,60-2443961,00.html Obituary], ''[[The Times]]'', 9 November 2006

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Ekal Vidyalaya

2022-11-21T20:41:49Z

Saumyasingh: Contributed a new entry to the website.

{{Short description|One Teacher School Initiative in India}}{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed}}
{{Update}}
}}
{{Use British English}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Ekal Vidyalaya Foundation
| image = Ekal Vidyalaya Logo.png
| image_border =
| size = 
| alt = Ekal Abhiyan
| map = 
| msize = 
| malt = 
| mcaption = 
| abbreviation = EVF
| formation = 1986
| founder = Bhaurao Deoras 
Shyam Gupta
| extinction = 
| location = India, United States
| coords = 
| region_served =
| membership =
| language = 
| leader_title = 
| leader_name = 
| main_organ = 
| num_staff =
| num_staffs =
| num_volunteers =
| num_schools =
| budget =
| website = [http://www.ekal.org www.ekal.org]
| remarks =
}}
'''Ekal Vidyalaya Foundation''' ({{Translation|Singularity School Foundation}}; {{small|abbr.}} '''EVF''') is the principal organisation of the '''Ekal Abhiyan''' project, a one teacher school initiative in India. The foundation operates under the umbrella organisation of '''Ekal Abhiyan Trust''' and has a number of associated organisations called the [[Friends of Tribals Society]] (FTS), Shree Hari Satsang Samiti (SHSS), Arogya Foundation of India (AFI), Grammotham Foundation (GF) and Ekal Sansthan (ES).<ref name="|url=http://www.indoamerican-news.com/?p=1895 |work=Indo-American News |title=Ekal Foundation Reports Higher Donations in 2010 |date=22 April 2011 |access-date=17 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407051030/http://www.indoamerican-news.com/?p=1895 |archive-date=7 April 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref"> owns one of the fastest growing education projects|url=http://www.tehelka.com/story_main49.asp?filename=Ws200411HINDUTVA.asp|access-date=23 August 2011|newspaper=[[Tehelka]]|date=20 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110530143356/http://www.tehelka.com/story_main49.asp?filename=Ws200411HINDUTVA.asp|archive-date=30 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Dhar">{{cite news
|url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/03/18/stories/2004031803181300.htm
|title=Making inroads into the tribal belt
|first=Aarti | last=Dhar
|work=[[The Hindu]]
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204214225/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2004/03/18/stories/2004031803181300.htm
|archive-date=4 February 2009
|access-date=20 March 2012 |location=Chennai, India}}
</ref> The Ekal Vidyalaya schools were assisted by the [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|NDA]] Government from 1999–2000 onwards.<ref name="telegraph">{{cite news
|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050818/asp/jharkhand/story_5121483.asp
|title=Schooling at a different level
|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]
|access-date=20 March 2012
|location=Calcutta, India
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006164336/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050818/asp/jharkhand/story_5121483.asp
|archive-date=6 October 2014
|url-status=dead
}}</ref><ref name="tehelka1">{{cite news|last=Vishnu|first=G|title=Sangh owns one of the fastest growing education projects|url=http://www.tehelka.com/story_main49.asp?filename=Ws200411HINDUTVA.asp|access-date=23 August 2011|newspaper=[[Tehelka]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110530143356/http://www.tehelka.com/story_main49.asp?filename=Ws200411HINDUTVA.asp|archive-date=30 May 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Chaterjee20070719" />

==Establishment and growth==

The Ekal Vidyalaya Foundation was founded in [[Gumla district]], [[Jharkhand]] in 1986. The one teacher schooling initiative was conceptualised by Bhaurao Deoras, the younger brother of the 3rd [[Sarsanghchalak]] of [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS), [[Madhukar Dattatraya Deoras]]. The organisation was developed on Bhaurao's vision by a senior functionary of the RSS named Shyam Gupta.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Bhattacharya|first=Snigdhendu|title=How one-teacher Ekal schools helped the spread of Hindutva in rural West Bengal|url=https://caravanmagazine.in/politics/ekal-vidyalaya-abhiyan-rss-fts-vhp-hindutva-west-bengal-trinamool-bjp|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-21|website=[[The Caravan]]|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012195152/https://caravanmagazine.in/politics/ekal-vidyalaya-abhiyan-rss-fts-vhp-hindutva-west-bengal-trinamool-bjp |archive-date=12 October 2020 }}</ref>

In the 1990s, global support networks were established. The Ekal Vidyalaya Foundation of India was officially registered in 2000 and the EVF-USA was registered soon after.{{sfn|Tukdeo|2011|p=85}}

As of August 2020 , there were more than 102753 schools run by EVF, including 2,100 schools in the [[Northeast India|North Eastern states]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080407/jsp/northeast/story_9103098.jsp | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024110908/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080407/jsp/northeast/story_9103098.jsp | url-status=dead | archive-date=24 October 2012 | title=Urban-rural exchange in Ekal conference | date=7 April 2008 | newspaper=[[The Telegraph (Kolkata)|The Telegraph]]| access-date=13 February 2010 | location=Calcutta, India}}</ref> The number of schools grew to 27,000 in 2010, 34,000 in 2011, 51,717 in 2013 and 1,02,753 by 2020.<ref name="toi-ekal">{{cite news|title=Galveston celebrates 'Enchantment of India'|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-21/art-culture/28618666_1_celebration-mardi-gras-parade-guests|url-status=dead|access-date=9 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926001337/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-21/art-culture/28618666_1_celebration-mardi-gras-parade-guests|archive-date=26 September 2012}}</ref><ref name="rediff-ekal"/> EVF's goal is to reach every child in the rural areas where education and school is a challenge .EVF is targeting to reach 2,00,00 village schools by 2030.

Ekal foundation of Nepal launched the program in 1996 and now the foundation is operating 2,310 primary schools imparting education to 60,995 students in 54 districts of Nepal.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nepal |first=Nribesh |title=Ekal Vidyalaya: A power to change pace of life |url=https://ceotab.com/ekal-vidyalaya/ |access-date=2023-05-15 |website=CEO |language=en-US}}</ref>

EVF is associated with the Hindu nationalist organisations [[Vishva Hindu Parishad]], which is in turn a member of the [[Sangh Parivar]], the family of organisations run by the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS).<ref name=tehelka1/><ref name=Dhar/> The foundation was headed in the past by [[Subhash Chandra]], the Chairman of [[Essel Group]] and the founder of [[Zee TV]].<ref name="essel-ekal">{{cite web|title=Essel Cares: Ekal Vidyalaya|url=http://www.esselgroup.com/ekal-vidyalaya.html|access-date=2011-08-24|publisher=Essel Group}}</ref> [[Hema Malini]], Indian actress and danseuse, has served as the global brand ambassador for the Ekal Vidyalaya movement.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hema to campaign for Ekal schools, BJP|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2003-10-17/news/27547612_1_hema-malini-primary-education-rss|access-date=17 March 2012|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref>

==Activities==
===Education===
The Ekal Vidyalayas provide five years of free, non-formal education to children from the age group 6–14 years. A typical school has 30–40 students taught by a local youth who has passed grades 8 or 9 and has been specifically trained. A local organizer looks after a unit of 10 schools, called a "subcluster". Local people are also involved in higher organization levels like a "cluster" (unit of 30 schools), subarea (unit of 90 schools), and area (unit of 270 schools). The classes take place under a tree or in a hut and use informal modes like storytelling, folk dramas, folk songs, and religious discourses.<ref name="dl-ekal"/> Around half of the students and teachers are females, and about a fifth of the students go on to pursue higher education, some of which return to serve the foundation.

The schools are primarily organized in small villages among India's tribal groups. The local youth who are trained to operate the schools are social workers and teachers, teaching sanitation and health care, literacy, and self-sufficiency.{{sfn|Spring|2008|p=158}}
Each school is run on an annual budget of around 20,000 [[Indian rupee]]s. At the national level, the schools are organized by Ekal Vidyalaya Foundation of India. Regionally, Ekal Vidyalayas are run by the [[Friends of Tribals Society]] (FTS) and [[Bharat Lok Shiksha Parishad]] (BLSP) NGOs and by state-level groups such as Janahitha in [[Andhra Pradesh]] and Bharatiya Janseva Sansthan in [[Gujarat]].<ref name="pk-ekal">{{cite news | last=Correspondent | first=Navada | publisher=[[Prabhat Khabar]] | title=अब आयी एकल विद्यालय की अवधारणा | url=http://www.prabhatkhabar.com/node/31458 | access-date=10 September 2011 | language=hi | trans-title=Here comes the concept of Ekal schools }}{{Dead link|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name=hindu165>{{cite news
|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/07/16/stories/2007071658640400.htm
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071208135317/http://www.hindu.com/2007/07/16/stories/2007071658640400.htm
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=8 December 2007
|title=Ekal Vidyalaya aims at taking the school to the children
|work=[[The Hindu]]
|access-date=2010-02-15
|location=Chennai, India
}}</ref> In addition to teaching children, the schools hold weekly sessions for the village populace to discuss issues like rural development, health and awakening.<ref name="pk-ekal"/>

===Other activities===
Along with literacy, Ekal Vidyalaya schools also impart moral education.<ref name="bhaskarekal">{{cite news|last=Trakull|first=Gaurishankar|title=अ, आ के साथ संस्कार भी सिखाएंगे सरकारी स्कूल|language=hi|trans-title=Schools to teach good morals in addition to the alphabet|work=[[Dainik Bhaskar]]|url=http://www.bhaskar.com/article/HIM-OTH-1859947-2914192.html|access-date=5 March 2012|archive-date=3 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203155923/http://www.bhaskar.com/article/HIM-OTH-1859947-2914192.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="djekal1">{{cite news|last=Fazilka Correspondent|title=एकल विद्यालय में बच्चों को मिलते अच्छे संस्कार|language=hi|trans-title=Good morals imparted to children in Ekal Vidyalayas|work=[[Dainik Jagran]]|url=http://www.jagran.com/punjab/firozpur-8878594.html|access-date=5 March 2012}}</ref> EVF works in tribal areas on health care education with the emphasis on hygiene, treatment of general diseases, maternal and child care. The foundation operates 11,450 health centers in India for people living in rural and tribal India.

The foundation distributes medicines to children for the treatment of various diseases.<ref name="djekal1" /> The schools also run a rural development scheme under which use of organic fertilizers is promoted in place of chemical fertilizers.<ref name="djekal1" /> Professional training in agriculture and vermiculture is provided.<ref name="dl-ekal" /> In May 2011, EVF launched the [[Vermicompost]] Project, a pilot project with an aim to introduce self-sustaining practices in 100 poor villages of [[Orissa, India|Orissa]] and [[Maharashtra]].<ref name="dc-ekal">{{cite news | last = DC Reporter | title = NGO launches programme to help with farming practices | url = http://www.developmentchannel.org/news/2265-ngo-launches-programme-to-help-with-farming-practices | access-date = 10 September 2011 | date = 11 May 2011 | publisher = Development Channel | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120304020834/http://www.developmentchannel.org/news/2265-ngo-launches-programme-to-help-with-farming-practices | archive-date = 4 March 2012 | url-status = dead }}</ref> In December 2011, the Ekal Vidyalaya staff resolved to raise voice against addiction in rural areas.<ref>{{cite news | last=Fazilla Correspondent | title =एकल विद्यालय स्टाफ ने लिया बुराइयों के दमन का प्रण |trans-title=Ekal Vidyalaya staff resolves to fight against evils |work=[[Dainik Jagran]]| url = http://www.jagran.com/punjab/firojpur-8700668.html | access-date = 5 March 2012 | date = 30 December 2011 | language=hi}}</ref>

===International fund raising===
; United States
The Ekal Vidyalaya Foundation of USA (EVF USA) is active in fundraising. In June 2008, the Atlanta chapter entertained guests with a music program at a fundraising event.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.atlantadunia.com/dunia/News/N358.htm
|title=Ekal Vidyalaya Foundation reaffirms peoples' faith
|work=Atlanta Dunia
|access-date=2010-07-24}}</ref>
In May 2009, the Southern California chapter launched its annual fundraising drive.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.indiajournal.com/pages/event.php?id=6730
|title=Ekal Vidyalaya to Hold Fundraising Program
|work=India Journal
|access-date=2010-07-24
}}{{Dead link|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
A benefit concert in Chicago in July 2009 raised $160,000.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.indiapost.com/community-post/4930-Ekal-Vidyalaya-benefit-concert-raises-160000.html
|title=Ekal Vidyalaya benefit concert raises $160,000
|work=IndiaPost
|access-date=2010-07-24
}}{{Dead link|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
In September 2009, the San Diego chapter raised about $14,000 at a cultural event featuring music and dance.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.indiajournal.com/pages/event.php?id=8467
|title=Ekal Vidyalaya Holds Fundraiser in San Diego
|work=India Journal
|access-date=2010-07-24
}}{{Dead link|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
The organisation announced that a similar event in Dallas in November 2009 had been very successful.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://issueswire.com/releases/2009/11/prweb3183804.htm
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227041545/http://issueswire.com/releases/2009/11/prweb3183804.htm
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=27 February 2021
|title=Ekal Dallas Gets One Step Closer to Achieving Mahatma Gandhi's Dream of a Literate India
|work=IssuesWire
|publisher=Ekal Vidyalaya Foundation of USA
|access-date=2010-07-24
}}</ref>
In May 2010, a fundraising concert in Chicago was attended by over 600 people and raised pledges of $82,525.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.triblocal.com/Naperville/detail/181817.html?content_source=&category_id=&search_filter=Ekal+Vidyalaya+charitable+musical+concert&user_id=&event_mode=&event_ts_from=&event_ts_from_week=&list_type=&order_by=&order_sort=&content_class=&sub_type=&town_id=
|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204183819/http://www.triblocal.com/Naperville/detail/181817.html?content_source=&category_id=&search_filter=Ekal+Vidyalaya+charitable+musical+concert&user_id=&event_mode=&event_ts_from=&event_ts_from_week=&list_type=&order_by=&order_sort=&content_class=&sub_type=&town_id=
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=4 February 2013
|title=Faith and philanthropy is all set to get a new meaning with Ekal Vidyalaya charitable musical concert at Chicago
|author=Suresh & Usha Bodiwala
|work=TribLocal
|access-date=2010-07-24
}}</ref>
The same month, Ekal Vidyalaya raised almost $500,000 from five charity shows in the mid-Atlantic region.<ref name="rediff-ekal">{{cite web
|url=http://news.rediff.com/report/2010/jun/11/ekal-collects-money-for-tribal-schools.htm
|work=[[Rediff.com|Rediff News]]
|title=Ekal collects $420,000 for tribal schools
|access-date=2010-07-24}}</ref> As of 2010, EVF USA had 34 active chapters and supported 9,500 out of the 34,343 Ekal Vidyalayas in India. The foundation raised US$3.5 million in 2010. EVF USA organises fundraising programs in 45 cities in the United States, which feature Indian singers or marathons.<ref name="ian-ekal">{{cite web
|url=http://www.indoamerican-news.com/?p=1895
|work=Indo-American News
|title=Ekal Foundation Reports Higher Donations in 2010
|date=22 April 2011
|access-date=17 March 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407051030/http://www.indoamerican-news.com/?p=1895
|archive-date=7 April 2016
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>

; Other countries
EVF Australia was set up in 2004.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.hinducouncil.com.au/publications/Newsletter_Jan06.pdf
|title=The Ekal Vidyalaya Foundation (EVF)
|work=NEWS LETTER Vol.5 Jan – Mar 2006
|publisher=Hindu Council of Australia Ltd
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913183205/http://hinducouncil.com.au/publications/Newsletter_Jan06.pdf
|archive-date=13 September 2009
|access-date=2010-02-15}}</ref>
It received the Tax exemption for donation in 2007. As of June 2015 EVF Australia has sponsored 850 Ekal schools.{{citation needed}}
In 2006, the [[National Hindu Students' Forum]] (UK) selected Ekal Vidyalaya as the main recipient of fundraising during its annual Sewa Week drive.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nhsf.org.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=503&Itemid=186
|title=NHSF National Charity 2006–07 – Saraswati Vidyalaya
|publisher=National Hindu Students Forum (UK)
|access-date=2010-02-15}}</ref> EVF has around 1,000 donors in Hong Kong.<ref name="dl-ekal"/>

==Recognition and awards==
===Recognition===
EVF's single-teacher school concept and their contribution towards literacy and empowerment in the rural and tribal areas have been praised by several state governments and social organisations in India.<ref name="ian-ekal"/> Avinash Kaushik, American entrepreneur and author, wrote that foundations like the [[Smile Train]], [[Médecins Sans Frontières|Doctors Without Borders]] and Ekal Vidyalaya have done "incredible work" and "they make the world a better place".{{sfn|Kaushik|2009|p=9}}
Digital Learning, a magazine on education, described the non-formal education experiment by EVF in Jharkhand from 1986 to 1995–96 as "extraordinary", noting that literacy rate in Jharkhand doubled in this period, and diseases caused by unhygienic practices, witchcraft and alcoholism declined sharply.<ref name="dl-ekal">{{cite journal |title=Ekal Vidyalaya: 'One Teacher, One School, One Village'|journal=Digital Learning|publisher= Elets Technomedia Pvt. Ltd.|location=NOIDA, Uttar Pradesh, India |volume=IV |issue=7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628063501/http://www.digitallearning.in/magazine/July08.pdf|archive-date=2011-06-28 |issn=0973-4139 | url=http://www.digitallearning.in/magazine/July08.pdf|pages=53–54}}</ref> The [[National Rural Health Mission]] (NRHM), a program for health care in rural India run by the [[Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (India)|Ministry of Health and Family Welfare]], approached EVF for imparting healthcare training to women. EVF developed the women-centric "Asha" programme for NRHM in response.<ref name="dl-ekal"/>

According to ''A Factual Response to the Hate Attack on the India Development and Relief Fund (IDRF)'', Yvette Rosser, American author and scholar, wrote that the Ekal Vidyalaya program has done "incredible work" and "brought literacy to millions of India's children who otherwise would not know how to read and write".{{sfn|Rao et al 2003|loc=Appendix K, pp. 160–172}}
[[Raman Singh]], the Chief Minister of [[Chhattisgarh]], praised the work done by Ekal Vidyalayas run by the FTS in 2500 tribal villages of the state in spreading education.<ref>{{cite web | title=वनबंधु परिषद वनांचलों में कर रहा है शिक्षा का प्रचार-प्रसार: डॉ. रमन सिंह | language=hi | trans-title=FTS spreading education in tribal areas: Dr. Raman Singh | url=http://www.dprcg.gov.in/4774-25.01.12 | access-date=17 March 2012 | publisher=Public Relations Department, Government of Chhattisgarh | date=25 January 2012 | quote=मुख्यमंत्री ने समाज सेवी संस्था वनबंधु परिषद द्वारा आदिवासी अंचलों में शिक्षा के प्रचार-प्रसार के लिए किए जा रहे कार्यो की प्रशंसा की। | archive-url=https://archive.today/20120731034140/http://www.dprcg.gov.in/4774-25.01.12 | archive-date=31 July 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2009, Yoga guru [[Ramdev|Swami Ramdev]] said at the Ekal International Conference in Delhi that the Ekal Vidyalayas are a medium for definite service to God.

===Awards===
* 2009. The 7th ''Meri Dilli Award'' (My Delhi Award) in the field of literacy by the NNS Media Group, conferred by Yoganand Shastri, the Speaker of the [[Delhi Legislative Assembly]].<ref name="ian-ekal"/><ref>{{cite web | title = Vijay Maru bags Meri Delhi Award-2009 | url = http://vaishsansar.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=932:vijay-maru-bags-meri-delhi-award-2009&catid=34:pages | access-date = 17 March 2012 | publisher=Vaish Sansar | date=19 December 2009}}</ref>
* 2008–09. ''Best NGO Award'' for transparency and administration.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ekal Vidyalaya NJ chapter raises $320,000 for schools in India's tribal areas |journal=The South Asian Times |location=Hicksville, New York, USA |volume=4 |issue=10 |page=6 |url=http://www.thesouthasiantimes.info/epaper/10_vol4_epaper.pdf }}{{Dead link|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = NJ Chapter of Ekal Vidyalaya raises $320,000 | work = NRI Today | url = http://www.nritoday.net/national-briefs/829-an-evening-to-remember-in-east-meadow | access-date = 17 March 2012 | date = June 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120423163158/http://www.nritoday.net/national-briefs/829-an-evening-to-remember-in-east-meadow | archive-date = 23 April 2012 | url-status = dead }}</ref>
* 2007–08. ''Utkrishtata Samman'' (Highest Award) by Bharat Vikas Parishad (India Development Council), conferred by retired Indian judges "for excellent services towards empowerment of Vanvasis and villagers."<ref name="ian-ekal"/><ref>{{cite web | title = Ekal Vidyalaya Foundation Receives Bharat Vikas Parishad (BVP) Utkrishtata Samman | url = http://www.sewainternational.org/content/sewa-sandesh-117 | access-date = 17 March 2012 | publisher = Sewa Sandesh | archive-url = https://archive.today/20130415195625/http://www.sewainternational.org/content/sewa-sandesh-117 | archive-date = 15 April 2013 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==Controversy and criticism==
===Suspension of government funding===
In 2005, a report prepared by an inquiry committee of the [[Ministry of Human Resource Development (India)|Indian Ministry of Human Resource Development]] found that in some Ekal Vidyalaya schools the names of enrolled students had been copied from registers of government-run schools. The schools did not provide reading and learning material, and used funds to "generate hatred toward minorities, and condition the minds of children". The report said the FTS was "misusing these funds, and using the grants for creating disharmony amongst religious groups and creating a political cadre". In May 2005 the Indian government stopped grants to the schools based on this report.<ref name=hindu1>{{cite news
|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/05/19/stories/2005051907291200.htm
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051221103440/http://www.hindu.com/2005/05/19/stories/2005051907291200.htm
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=21 December 2005
|title=Centre stops grants to 'one-teacher schools'
|work=[[The Hindu]]
|first=Anita | last=Joshua
|access-date=2010-07-24
|location=Chennai, India}}</ref>
Quoting from the report in ''[[The Milli Gazette]]'', [[Mukundan C. Menon]] noted that the English booklet used to teach second year students in Jharkhand omitted six letters of the alphabet. Menon said the reason was names of Hindu Gods beginning with these letters are not common.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.milligazette.com/dailyupdate/2005/20051002-vhp.htm
|title=Another Blow to VHP
|last=Menon | first=Mukundan C
|work=[[The Milli Gazette]]
|date=2 October 2005
|access-date=2010-12-18|quote="... only the names of Hindu Gods [sic] were used to teach English alphabet. ... A for Arjun, B for Brahma, C for Cow, D for Dhruva,.G for Ganesh, H.for Hanuman,.J for Jambavan,.M for Mahadev,.O for Om,.R for Ram,.T for Temple, U for Uma. ... Ironically, the letters 'E', 'F', 'Q', 'W', 'X' and 'Z' simply does [sic] not exist in this booklet. ... Reason? No names of Hindu Gods beginning with these letters are readily available!"}}</ref>

===Criticism===
In 2002, [[Sabrang Communications]] and South Asia Citizens Web published a report named ''The Foreign Exchange of Hate – IDRF and the American Funding of Hindutva'' on utilisation of funds by [[India Development and Relief Fund]]. The report alleged the VHP-run Ekal Vidyalaya schools had the goal of "Hinduizing" tribals and spreading hatred against Indian minorities.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iTk6_HXg5E8C&pg=PA289 |page=289
|title=ASEAN, India, Australia: towards closer engagement in a new Asia
|first1=William T. |last1=Tow |first2=Kin Wah |last2=Chin
|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2009 |isbn=978-981-230-963-1}}</ref><ref name=Kurien2007>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ONMxZc5_saYC&pg=PA151 |pages=151–153
|title=A place at the multicultural table: the development of an American Hinduism
|first=Prema A. |last=Kurien |author-link=Prema Kurien
|publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8135-4056-6}}</ref>
In 2005 [[John Dayal]], then president of the [[All India Catholic Union]] (AICU) and a member of the [[National Integration Council]] expressed concern that the schools were spreading hatred towards members of the Christian minority, in order to "prevent conversions of tribals to Christianity by missionaries."<ref name=Chaterjee20070719>{{cite web
|url=http://in.christiantoday.com/articles/aicu-president-suspects-hindu-charitable-trust-of-forming-antichristian-schools-for-indian-tribals/156.htm
|work=[[Christian Today]]
|title=AICU president suspects Hindu charitable trust of forming anti–Christian schools for Indian tribals
|first=Jacob
|last=Chaterjee
|access-date=5 March 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824032549/http://in.christiantoday.com/articles/aicu-president-suspects-hindu-charitable-trust-of-forming-antichristian-schools-for-indian-tribals/156.htm
|archive-date=24 August 2013
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
In a 2008 article [[Angana Chatterji]], associate professor of anthropology at [[California Institute of Integral Studies]], identified Ekal Vidyalaya Foundation of USA as one of the charities in the US that had allocated money "disproportionately directed to [[Hindutva]]-affiliated groups".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/its-still-religion-stupid/369086/0
|title=It's still religion, stupid
|work=[[The Indian Express]]
|author=Angana Chatterji
|access-date=2010-12-18}}</ref>
In an article in the ''[[Daily Times (Pakistan)|Daily Times]]'' of [[Pakistan]], [[Khalid Hasan]] described the Ekal Vidyalayas as having a "curriculum steeped in instilling hatred against non-Hindu religious minorities".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2008\story_9-11-2008_pg1_5
|title=Yet another controversial Obama appointment
|work=[[Daily Times (Pakistan)]]
|first=Khalid
|last=Hasan
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805232831/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2008%5C11%5C09%5Cstory_9-11-2008_pg1_5
|archive-date=5 August 2011
}}</ref>
Rights activists have claimed that the schools pursue a Hindu-nationalist agenda and generate hatred towards non-Hindu minorities such as Christians.<ref name=tehelka1/>

===Response to criticism===
In response to the 2002 report published by Sabrang Communications, in March 2003 Ramesh Rao, professor of Communication at [[Truman State University]], and others wrote a report named ''A Factual Response to the Hate Attack on the India Development and Relief Fund (IDRF)''.
In this report, they wrote that "there has been a concerted campaign against the Ekal Vidyalayas by a combination of media and academic networks ... try as they might, they really cannot find anything wrong with the schools".{{sfn|Rao et al 2003|loc=Chapter III, Section A, pp. 27–30}}
According to Prakash Sharma, media convener of the Vishwa Hindu Parishad, "The Ekal Vidyalayas are our effort to reach the most deprived areas of the country. Christian missionaries get funds from all over the world: the entire Christian empire backs them. Ours is a completely indigenous effort".<ref name=tehelka1/>
[[François Gautier]], French author and journalist, described the Ekal Vidyalayas as "a harmless programme doing wonderful job for tribal children", and questioned why organisations raising funds for them were attacked.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/mar/11franc.htm
|title=Heed the New Hindu Mood
|work=[[Rediff.com]]
|date=11 March 2003
|access-date=5 March 2012
|first=Gautier | last=François}}</ref>
''A Factual Response to the Hate Attack on the India Development and Relief Fund (IDRF)'' quotes Yvette Rosser as saying that "the ladies and gentlemen in the villages who teach in Ekal Vidyalaya schools are not teaching hate".{{sfn|Rao et al 2003|loc=Appendix K, pp. 160–172}}
''A Factual Response to the Hate Attack on the India Development and Relief Fund (IDRF)'' notes that several other authors have praised the schools' role in providing [[literacy]] to millions of children, and stated that the schools do not teach hate but have themselves been the target of a campaign by media and academic networks.{{sfn|Rao et al 2003|loc=Appendix K, pp. 160–172}}{{sfn|Rao et al 2003|loc=Chapter III, Section A, pp. 27–30}}

==See also==
* [[Akhara]]
* [[Friends_of_Tribals_Society]]
* [[Akshaya Patra Foundation]]
* [[Gurukula]]
* [[Education in India]]
* [[Literacy in India]]
* [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]]
* [[Vanavasi Kalyan Ashram]]
* [[Vidya Bharati]]
* [[Pratap Chandra Sarangi]]

==References==
{{Reflist | colwidth=30em}}

;Sources
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book
| first=Avinash | last=Kaushik | year=2009 | title=Web Analytics 2.0: The Art of Online Accountability & Science of Customer Centricity | publisher=John Wiley and Sons | location = Hoboken, New Jersey, USA | isbn= 978-0-470-52939-3}}
*{{cite web | ref={{harvid|Rao et al 2003}} | url=http://leonardo.spidernet.net/Populus/271/IDRF_Defence_Final.pdf | title=A Factual Response to the Hate Attack on the India Development and Relief Fund (IDRF) | work=Friends of India and Authors of the Report | year=2003 | access-date=5 March 2012 | first1=Ramesh | last1=Rao | author-link1=Ramesh Nagaraj Rao | first2=Komerath | last2=Narayanan | author-link2=Narayanan Komerath | first3=Beloo | last3=Mehra | first4=Chitra | last4=Raman | first5=Sugrutha | last5=Ramaswami | first6=Nagendra | last6=Rao | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222171252/http://leonardo.spidernet.net/Populus/271/IDRF_Defence_Final.pdf | archive-date=22 February 2012 | url-status=dead }}
*{{cite book
|title=Globalization of education: an introduction
|first=Joel H.
|last=Spring
|author-link=Joel Spring
|publisher=Taylor & Francis
|year=2008
|isbn=978-0-415-98946-6
|url-access=registration
|url=https://archive.org/details/globalizationofe0000spri
}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Tukdeo |first=Shivali |title=Transnationalizing Indian education: Diasporic networks, politics and participation |type=PhD |publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign |year=2011 |url=https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/18641 }}
{{refend}}

{{Sangh Parivar}}
{{Gandhi Peace Prize laureates}}

[[Category:Sangh Parivar]]
[[Category:Educational organisations based in India]]
[[Category:Hindu organisations based in India]]
[[Category:Hindu relief organizations]]
[[Category:Volunteer organisations in India]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Gandhi Peace Prize]]
[[Category:1988 establishments in India]]

The BMJ

2022-01-03T06:56:55Z

Saumyasingh: Shared an engaging guide.

{{redirect|BMJ}}
{{short description|Peer-reviewed medical journal published by British Medical Association}}
{{Use British English}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox journal
| title = The BMJ
| image = Recent front cover of The BMJ.jpg
| editor = [[Kamran Abbasi]]
| discipline = Medicine
| formername = Provincial Medical and Surgical Journal, British Medical Journal, BMJ
| abbreviation = BMJ
| publisher = BMA
| country = United Kingdom
| frequency = Weekly
| history = 1840–present
| openaccess = Immediate, research articles only
| license = [[Creative Commons licenses|Creative Commons Attribution Non-commercial License]]
| impact = 96.216
| impact-year = 2021
| website = http://bmj.com
| link1 = http://www.bmj.com/archive
| link1-name = Online archive
| JSTOR = 09598138
| OCLC = 32595642
| LCCN = 97640199
| CODEN = DXRA5
| ISSN = 0959-8138
| eISSN = 1756-1833
}}

'''''The BMJ''''' is a weekly [[Peer review|peer-reviewed]] [[Trade magazine|medical trade journal]], published by the [[trade union]] the [[British Medical Association]] (BMA). ''The BMJ'' has editorial freedom from the BMA.<ref name="Publishing model">{{cite web |title=Publishing model |url=https://www.bmj.com/about-bmj/publishing-model |website=bmj.com|publisher=BMJ |access-date=14 October 2020}}</ref> It is one of the world's oldest general medical journals. Originally called the '''''British Medical Journal''''', the title was officially shortened to ''BMJ'' in 1988, and then changed to ''The BMJ'' in 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Payne|first1=David|last2=Abbasi|first2=Kamran|last3=Godlee|first3=Fiona|last4=Delamothe|first4=Tony|title=The BMJ, the definite article|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g4168|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=348|pages=g4168|doi=10.1136/bmj.g4168|issn=1756-1833|pmid=24982510|doi-access=free}}</ref> The journal is published by [[BMJ (company)|BMJ Publishing Group Ltd]], a [[subsidiary]] of the [[British Medical Association]] (BMA). The [[editor-in-chief]] of ''The BMJ'' is [[Kamran Abbasi]], who was appointed in January 2022.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/375/bmj.n3084 |title=Kamran Abbasi appointed as editor in chief of The BMJ |doi=10.1136/bmj.n3084 |last1=Kmietowicz |first1=Zosia |journal=BMJ |pages=n3084 }}</ref>

== History ==
The journal began publishing on 3 October 1840 as the ''Provincial Medical and Surgical Journal'' and quickly attracted the attention of physicians around the world through its publication of high-impact original research articles and unique case reports.<ref name="MoM">{{cite book |title= Mirror of Medicine: A History of the British Medical Journal | first = P.W.J. | last = Batrip | name-list-style = vanc |year= 1990 |publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford |isbn= 0-19-261844-X }}</ref> The ''BMJ''{{'}}s first editors were [[P. Hennis Green]], lecturer on the diseases of children at the [[Hunterian School of Medicine]], who also was its founder and [[Robert James Nicholl Streeten|Robert Streeten]] of [[Worcester, England|Worcester]], a member of the [[Provincial Medical and Surgical Association]] council.{{citation needed}}

[[File:Bmjfirstcovershop.GIF|thumb|left|alt=Image of the cover of 1st issue of the ''Provincial Medical and Surgical Journal''|Cover of the 1st issue of the ''Provincial Medical and Surgical Journal'']]
The first issue of the ''Provincial Medical and Surgical Journal'' (''PMSJ'') was 16 pages long and contained three simple woodcut illustrations. The longest items were the editors' introductory editorial and a report of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association's Eastern Branch. Other pages included a condensed version of [[Henry Warburton]]'s medical reform bill, book reviews, clinical papers, and case notes. There were {{frac|2|1|2}} columns of advertisements. Inclusive of stamp duty it cost 7d, a price which remained until 1844. In their main article, Green and Streeten noted that they had "received as many advertisements (in proportion to the quantity of letter press) for our first number, as the most popular Medical Journal, (''[[The Lancet]]'') after seventeen years of existence."<ref name="MoM" />

In their introductory editorial and later statements, Green and Streeten defined "the main objects of promotion of which the ''Provincial Medical and Surgical Journal'' is established". Summarised, there were two clear main objectives: the advancement of the profession, especially in the provinces and the dissemination of medical knowledge. Green and Streeten also expressed interest in promoting public well-being as well as maintaining 'medical practitioners, as a class in that rank of society which, by their intellectual acquirements, by their general moral character, and by the importance of the duties entrusted to them, they are justly entitled to hold'.<ref name="MoM" />

In April 1842 the journal was retitled the ''Provincial Medical Journal and Retrospect of the Medical Sciences'', but two years later reverted to the ''PMSJ'' under the sole editorship of Streeten. It was then in 1857 that the ''BMJ'' first appeared when the ''PMSJ'' was merged with the ''Associated Medical Journal'' (Vols. 1 to 4; 1853 to 1856), which had itself evolved from the ''London Medical Journal'' (Vols. 1 to 4; 1849 to 1852) under the editorship of [[John Rose Cormack]].<ref name="US National Library of Medicine">{{cite web |title=Archive of "Provincial Medical and Surgical Journal". |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/journals/535/#brmedj |website=www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |publisher=US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health |access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref>

''The BMJ'' published the first centrally randomised controlled trial.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = ((Medical Research Council)) | title = STREPTOMYCIN treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 4582 | pages = 769–82 | date = October 1948 | pmid = 18890300 | pmc = 2091872 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.4582.769 }}</ref> The journal also carried the seminal papers on the causal effects of smoking on health<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Doll R, Hill AB | title = Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 4682 | pages = 739–48 | date = September 1950 | pmid = 14772469 | pmc = 2038856 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.4682.739 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Doll R, Hill AB | title = The mortality of doctors in relation to their smoking habits; a preliminary report | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 4877 | pages = 1451–5 | date = June 1954 | pmid = 13160495 | pmc = 2085438 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.4877.1451 }}</ref> and lung cancer and other causes of death in relation to smoking.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Doll R, Hill AB | title = Lung cancer and other causes of death in relation to smoking; a second report on the mortality of British doctors | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 5001 | pages = 1071–81 | date = November 1956 | pmid = 13364389 | pmc = 2035864 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.5001.1071 }}</ref>

For a long time, the journal's sole competitor was ''The Lancet'', also based in the UK, but with increasing globalisation, ''The BMJ'' has faced tough competition from other medical journals, particularly ''[[The New England Journal of Medicine]]'' and the ''[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]''.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mayor | first1 = S. | name-list-style = vanc | doi = 10.1136/bmj.329.7466.592-e | title = BMJ and Lancet rank among the most clinically relevant medical journals | journal = BMJ | volume = 329 | issue = 7466 | pages = 592 | year = 2004 | pmc =516693 }}</ref>

== Journal content ==
''The BMJ'' is an advocate of [[evidence-based medicine]]. It publishes research as well as clinical reviews, recent medical advances, editorial perspectives, among others.

A special "Christmas Edition" is published annually on the Friday before Christmas. This edition is known for research articles which apply a serious academic approach to investigating less serious medical questions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/the-best-of-the-british-medical-journals-goofy-christmas-papers-180948177/ |title=The Best of the British Medical Journal's Goofy Christmas Papers |first=Rose |last=Eveleth | name-list-style = vanc |work=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|The Smithsonian]] |access-date=14 January 2016}}</ref><ref name=Tis>{{cite web | url = http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005246.html | title = Language Log: 'Tis the season | work = Language Log | date = 21 December 2007 | last = Liberman | first = Mark | name-list-style = vanc }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bracco P, Debernardi C, Delmastro PF, Moiraghi A | title = [AIDS and pedodontics: the real risk and its prevention] | journal = Minerva Stomatologica | volume = 39 | issue = 12 | pages = 1027–32 | date = December 1990 | pmid = 2151146| pmc = 2151146 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.39430.559375.47 }}</ref> The results are often humorous and widely reported by the mainstream media.<ref name=Tis /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://blog.newsweek.com/blogs/nurtureshock/archive/2009/12/18/santa-s-a-health-menace-media-everywhere-are-falling-for-it-but-the-entire-study-is-a-fake.aspx |title=Santa's a Health Menace? Media Everywhere Are Falling for It—But the Study Was Meant as a Joke |work=Newsweek blog |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106204949/http://blog.newsweek.com/blogs/nurtureshock/archive/2009/12/18/santa-s-a-health-menace-media-everywhere-are-falling-for-it-but-the-entire-study-is-a-fake.aspx |archive-date=6 January 2010 }}</ref>

''The BMJ'' has an [[open peer review]] system, wherein authors are told who reviewed their manuscript. About half the original articles are rejected after review in-house.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://resources.bmj.com/bmj/reviewers |title=BMJ peer reviewers: resources — BMJ resources |publisher=bmj.com |access-date=7 January 2011}}</ref> Manuscripts chosen for peer review are first reviewed by external experts, who comment on the importance and suitability for publication, before the final decision on a manuscript is made by the editorial ("hanging") committee. The acceptance rate is less than 7% for original research articles.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.bmj.com/about-bmj/resources-authors/forms-policies-and-checklists/bmj-right-journal-my-research-article | title=Is The BMJ the right journal for my research article? | publisher=BMJ | access-date=7 September 2015 | quote=Our rejection rate for research is currently around 93%. | archive-date=31 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150831110905/http://www.bmj.com/about-bmj/resources-authors/forms-policies-and-checklists/bmj-right-journal-my-research-article | url-status=dead }}</ref>

At the beginning of February 2021 ''The BMJ'' introduced a charge of £299 for publishing obituaries. This was widely criticised on social media, including by the British Medical Association, due to the large number of medical staff being killed by COVID-19.<ref>{{Cite web|title=British Medical Journal slated over 'disgraceful' obituary charge|url=http://www.theguardian.com/society/2021/feb/22/british-medical-journal-slated-over-disgraceful-obituary-charge|access-date=2021-02-22|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref> The decision was explained, but reversed, by the end of the month.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Reversing our decision to charge for placing a BMJ obituary|last=Godlee |first=Fiona |journal=The BMJ |url= https://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2021/02/23/reversing-our-decision-to-charge-for-placing-a-bmj-obituary/}}</ref>

===Rapid Recommendations===
In response to the many problems with traditional [[medical guideline]]s, the journal introduced ''BMJ Rapid Recommendations'', a series of trustworthy guidelines focused on the most pressing medical issues.<ref name="siemieniuk1">{{cite journal |vauthors=Siemieniuk RA, Agoritsas T, Macdonald H, Guyatt GH, Brandt L, Vandvik PO | year = 2016 | title = Introduction to BMJ Rapid Recommendations | url = http://www.bmj.com/content/354/bmj.i5191.long | journal = BMJ | volume = 354 | pages = i5191 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.i5191 | pmid = 27680768 | s2cid = 32498374 }}</ref>

===Rapid Responses===
''The BMJ'' publishes most e-letters to the journal on its Web site under the heading Rapid Responses,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bmj.com/rapid-responses |title=All Rapid Responses |publisher=The BMJ}} Constantly updated list.</ref> organised as a fully moderated Internet forum. Comments are screened for unacceptable content such as libel or obscenity, and contributors may not remove or edit contributions once published.<ref name="BMJ RR Jan2013"/> As of January 2013, 88,500 rapid responses had been posted on the BMJ website.<ref name="BMJ RR Jan2013">{{cite web |url=http://blogs.bmj.com/bmj/2013/01/31/sharon-davies-why-were-reluctant-to-remove-rapid-responses-from-bmj-com/#more-24165 |title=Sharon Davies: Why we're reluctant to remove rapid responses from bmj.com |publisher=The BMJ |website=blogs.bmj.com |access-date=14 January 2016}}</ref>

== Indexing and citations ==
''The BMJ'' is included in the major indexes [[PubMed]], [[MEDLINE]], [[EBSCO Industries|EBSCO]], and the [[Science Citation Index]]. The journal has long criticised the misuse of the impact factor to award grants and recruit researchers by academic institutions.<ref name="pmid9056804">{{cite journal | vauthors = Seglen PO | title = Why the impact factor of journals should not be used for evaluating research | journal = BMJ | volume = 314 | issue = 7079 | pages = 498–502 | date = February 1997 | pmid = 9056804 | pmc = 2126010 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.314.7079.497 }}</ref>

The five journals that cited ''The BMJ'' most often in 2008 were (in order of descending citation frequency) ''The BMJ'', ''[[Cochrane Collaboration|Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]]'', ''[[The Lancet]]'', ''[[BMC journals|BMC Public Health]]'', and ''[[BMC Health Services Research]]''.<ref name=WoS>{{Cite web | title = Web of Science | url = http://isiwebofknowledge.com/ | access-date = 23 February 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100214003244/http://isiwebofknowledge.com/| archive-date= 14 February 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> In the same year the five journals most frequently cited by articles published in ''The BMJ'' were ''The BMJ'', ''[[The Lancet]]'', ''[[The New England Journal of Medicine]]'', ''[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]'' and ''[[Cochrane Collaboration|Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]]''.<ref name=WoS/>

== Impact ==
In the 2021 ''[[Journal Citation Reports]]'', published in 2022, ''The BMJ's'' [[impact factor]] was 96.216.<ref>{{cite web | title=About BMJ |publisher=bmj.com |url=http://resources.bmj.com/bmj/about-bmj |access-date=22 June 2015 }}</ref> ranking it fourth among general medical journals.<ref name=2012-journal>2015 Journal Citation Report Science Edition, Thompson Reuters, 2016.</ref> However, ''The BMJ'' in 2013 reported that it had become a signatory to the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (commonly known as the [[San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment|Dora Agreement]]), which deprecates the inappropriate use of journal impact factors and urges journal publishers to "greatly reduce the emphasis on the journal impact factor as a promotional tool, ideally by ceasing to promote the impact factor or by presenting it in the context of a variety of journal-based metrics."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mayor|first=Susan|title=BMJ joins campaign to put "science into assessment of research," as its impact factor rises|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f4327|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=347|pages=f4327|doi=10.1136/bmj.f4327|issn=1756-1833|pmid=23824094|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Cello scrotum hoax article ==
In 1974, [[Elaine Murphy, Baroness Murphy|Elaine Murphy]] submitted a brief case report under her husband's name [[John Murphy (branding consultant)|John]] which suggested a condition known as "[[cello scrotum]]," a fictional condition which supposedly affected male cellists. It was originally submitted as a joke in response to 'guitar nipple',<ref>{{cite journal |last=Curtis | first=P. |title=Letter: Guitar nipple |journal=The BMJ|volume=2 |issue=5912 |pages=226 |pmid=4857619 |pmc=1610876 |doi= 10.1136/bmj.2.5912.226-a}}</ref> a condition similar to [[jogger's nipple]] in which some forms of guitar playing causes irritation to the nipple, which Murphy and her husband believed was also a joke. The case report was published in ''The BMJ''<ref name="BMJ, Murphy, 1974" >{{cite journal|journal=The BMJ|last=Murphy |first=John M. |author-link=John Murphy (branding consultant)|title=Letter: Cello scrotum|volume=2|issue=5914|page=335|pmid=4827125|pmc=1610985|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.5914.335-a}}</ref> and although not widely cited, it was cited on some occasions with those doing so expressing scepticism.<ref name="BMC Dermatology, Gambichler, 2004" >{{cite journal|journal=BMC Dermatology |last1=Gambichler |first1=Thilo | last2= Boms| first2=Stefanie |last3= Freitag| first3=Marcus| title=Contact dermatitis and other skin conditions in instrumental musicians |year=2004 |issue=4 |page=3 |doi=10.1186/1471-5945-4-3 |volume=4|pmid=15090069|pmc=416484}}</ref><ref name="J Am Acad Derm, Rimmer, 1990" >{{cite journal |journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|J. Amer. Acad. Dermatology]] |volume=22 |issue=4 |last1=Rimmer |first1=Steve |last2=Spielvogel |first2=Richard L. |title=Dermatologic problems of musicians |pages=657–663 |doi=10.1016/0190-9622(90)70093-W |pmid=2138638}}</ref> The truth of the case was reported on back in 1991.<ref name="J Am Acad Derm, Shapiro, 1991" >{{cite journal|journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|J. Amer. Acad. Dermatology]]|last=Shapiro |first=Philip E.|title='Cello scrotum' questioned|year=1991|volume=24|issue=4|page=665|pmid=1827803|doi=10.1016/s0190-9622(08)80178-8|doi-access=free}} (in reference to {{harvnb|Rimmer|Spielvogel|1990}})</ref>

In 2009, 35 years after the original case report was published, Murphy wrote a letter to ''The BMJ'' revealing that the condition was a hoax.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Murphy |first1= Elaine |last2= Murphy |first2= John |s2cid= 34252130 |title= Murphy's lore |journal=The BMJ |volume= 338 |pages= b288 |pmid= 19174435 |doi= 10.1136/bmj.b288 |url= http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/338/jan27_4/b288?ijkey=d66a81e8bf7a5b950326396c2bf897e38c8b6424&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha }}</ref>

== Website and access policies ==
''The BMJ'' went fully online in 1995 and archived all its issues on the [[World Wide Web]]. In addition to the print content, the site contains supporting material for original research articles, additional news stories, and electronic letters to the editors.

From 1999, all content of ''The BMJ'' was freely available online; however, in 2006 this changed to a subscription model. Original research articles continue to be available freely, but from January 2006 all other 'added value' contents, including clinical reviews and editorials, require a subscription. ''The BMJ'' allows complete free access for visitors from economically disadvantaged countries as part of the [[HINARI]] initiative.{{citation needed}}

In October 2008 ''The BMJ'' announced that it would become an [[Open access (publishing)|open access]] journal for research articles. A subscription continued to be required for access to other articles.<ref name="Suber-OA">{{cite web | url = http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/2008/10/bmj-converts-to-gratis-oa.html | title = BMJ converts to OA | first = Peter | last = Suber | name-list-style = vanc | work = Open Access News | date = 20 October 2008 | access-date = 20 October 2008 | archive-date = 10 November 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121110201218/http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/2008/10/bmj-converts-to-gratis-oa.html | url-status = dead }}</ref>

== Editions ==
''The BMJ'' is principally an online journal, and only the website carries the full text content of every article. However, a number of print editions are produced targeting different groups of readers with selections of content, some of it abridged, and different advertising.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bmj.com/about-bmj/resources-subscribers/bmj-and-student-bmj-issns |title=The BMJ and Student BMJ ISSNs |publisher=The BMJ |access-date=14 January 2016 |archive-date=17 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417053139/http://www.bmj.com/about-bmj/resources-subscribers/bmj-and-student-bmj-issns |url-status=dead }}</ref> The print editions are:
* ''General Practice'' (weekly) for [[general practitioner]]s
* ''Clinical Research'' (weekly) for hospital doctors
* ''Academic'' (monthly) for institutions, researchers and medical academics

In addition, ''The BMJ'' also publishes a number of overseas/ foreign language editions: Argentine (in Spanish), Greek, Romanian, Chinese, and Middle Eastern (in English). There is also ''[[Student BMJ]]'', an online resource for medical students and junior doctors which publishes an annual print edition each September.

=== Other services and information ===
''The BMJ'' offers several alerting services, free on request:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bmj.com/about-bmj/resources-readers/receiving-email-alerts |title=Receiving email alerts |publisher=The BMJ |access-date=14 January 2016}}</ref>
* ''This Week In The BMJ'': Weekly table of contents email, latest research, video, blogs and editorial comment.
* ''Editor's choice'': Kamran Abbasi introduces a selection of the latest research, medical news, comment and education each week.
* ''Today on bmj.com'' Daily alert with links to a short selection of articles published in ''The BMJ'' in the previous 24 hours.

== Editors ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[P. Hennis Green]] and Robert Streeten (1840–1844)
* Robert Streeten (1844–1849)
* [[William Harcourt Ranking|W.H. Ranking]] and J.H. Walsh (1849–1853)
* [[John Rose Cormack]] (1853–1855)
* [[Andrew Wynter]] (1855–1861)
* [[William Orlando Markham]] (1861–1866)
* [[Ernest Abraham Hart|Ernest Hart]] (1866–1869)
* [[Jonathan Hutchinson]] (1869–1871)
* [[Ernest Abraham Hart|Ernest Hart]] (1871–1898)
* Sir [[Dawson Williams]] (1898–1928)
* [[Norman Gerald Horner]] (1928–1946)
* [[Hugh Clegg (doctor)|Hugh Clegg]] (1947–1965)
* [[Martin Ware]] (1966–1975)
* [[Stephen Lock]] (1975–1991)
* [[Richard Smith (editor)|Richard Smith]] (1991–2004)
* [[Kamran Abbasi]] (Acting E-i-C) (2004– 2005 )
* [[Fiona Godlee]] (2005–2021)
* [[Kamran Abbasi]] (2022– )
{{div end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website}}
* [https://www.jstor.org/journal/bmjbritmedj ''BMJ''] at [[JSTOR]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bmj}}
[[Category:1840 establishments in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:BMJ Group academic journals]]
[[Category:Creative Commons Attribution-licensed journals]]
[[Category:English-language journals]]
[[Category:General medical journals]]
[[Category:British medical websites]]
[[Category:Open access journals]]
[[Category:Publications established in 1840]]
[[Category:Weekly journals]]

Brazil

2021-09-12T18:42:44Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{short description|Country in South America}} {{about|the Federative Republic of Brazil}} {{redirect|Brazilian Republic}} {{pp|vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use American English|da..."

{{short description|Country in South America}}
{{about|the Federative Republic of Brazil}}
{{redirect|Brazilian Republic}}
{{pp|vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Coord|10|S|52|W|display=title}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Federative Republic of Brazil
| common_name = Brazil
| native_name = {{native name|pt|República Federativa do Brasil}}
| image_flag = Flag of Brazil.svg
| alt_flag =
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Brazil.svg
| alt_coat =
| symbol_type = Coat of arms
| other_symbol = {{vunblist |''[[National Seal of Brazil|Selo Nacional do Brasil]]'' {{small|National Seal of Brazil}} [[File:National Seal of Brazil (color).svg|100px|link=National Seal of Brazil]]}}
| other_symbol_type = [[Seal (emblem)|National seal]]
| national_motto = {{native name|pt|Ordem e Progresso|north tnolink=yes}} {{small|"Order and Progress"}}
| national_anthem = ''[[Brazilian National Anthem|Hino Nacional Brasileiro]]'' (Portuguese) {{small|"Brazilian National Anthem"}} <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:Hino-Nacional-Brasil-instrumental-mec.ogg]]}}</div>
| flag_anthem=''[[Brazilian Flag Anthem|Hino à Bandeira Nacional]]'' (Portuguese)<ref name="HinoBandeira">{{cite web|url=http://www.eb.mil.br/web/midia-eletronica/hino-a-bandeira-nacional |title=Hino à Bandeira Nacional |author=Exército Brasileiro |language=pt |access-date=29 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222123948/http://www.eb.mil.br/web/midia-eletronica/hino-a-bandeira-nacional |archive-date=22 February 2014 }}</ref> {{small|"National Flag Anthem"}} <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Brazilian Flag Anthem (Brazilian Army).ogg|center]]</div>
| image_map = BRA orthographic.svg
| alt_map =
| capital = [[Brasília]]
| coordinates = {{small|{{Coord|15|47|S|47|52|W|type:city}}}}
| largest_city = [[São Paulo]] {{small|{{coord|23|33|S|46|38|W|display=inline}}}}
| languages_type = Official language {{nobold|and national language}}
| languages = [[Brazilian Portuguese|Portuguese]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Demographics |publisher=Brazilian Government |url=http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/brazil/brazil-in-numbers/demographics |access-date=8 October 2011 |archive-date=17 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117051415/http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/brazil/brazil-in-numbers/demographics}}</ref>
| ethnic_groups = {{vunblist
|47.73% [[White Brazilians|White]]<ref group=nt>includes [[Arab Brazilian]], [[History of the Jews in Brazil|Jewish Brazilian]], and [[Romani people|Romani Brazilian]]</ref>
|{{nowrap|43.13% [[Pardo Brazilians|Mixed]]}}<ref group=nt>includes ''[[Caboclo]]'', ''[[Mulatto]]'', and ''[[Zambo]]''</ref>
|7.61% [[Afro-Brazilians|Black]]
|1.09% [[Asian Brazilians|East Asian]]<ref group=nt>The Brazilian census uses the term ''amarela'' (or ''yellow'' in English) to describe people of East Asian background, and therefore excludes those of other Asian origins, such as West Asians/Arabs and South Asians.</ref>
|0.43% [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Indigenous]]
}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2010
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="raca2010">{{cite web |url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2010/caracteristicas_da_populacao/tabelas_pdf/tab3.pdf |title=Caracteristicas da População e dos Domicílios do Censo Demográfico 2010 – Cor ou raça |access-date=7 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217041601/http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2010/caracteristicas_da_populacao/tabelas_pdf/tab3.pdf |archive-date=17 February 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="CIATONGA">{{cite web|url= https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/|title= South America :: BRAZIL|publisher= CIA The World Factbook|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref>
| demonym = [[Brazilians|Brazilian]]
| government_type = [[Federalism|Federal]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] {{nowrap|[[Constitutionalism|constitutional]] [[republic]]}}
| leader_title1 = [[President of Brazil|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Jair Bolsonaro]]
| leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Brazil|Vice President]]
| leader_name2 = [[Hamilton Mourão]]
| leader_title3 = {{nowrap|[[President of the Chamber of Deputies (Brazil)|President of the Chamber of Deputies]]}}
| leader_name3 = [[Arthur Lira]]
| leader_title4 = [[President of the Federal Senate (Brazil)|President of the Federal Senate]]
| leader_name4 = {{nowrap|[[Rodrigo Pacheco (politician)|Rodrigo Pacheco]]}}
| leader_title5 = {{nowrap|[[Supreme Federal Court#President of the Court|President of the]] [[Supreme Federal Court]]}}
| leader_name5 = [[Luiz Fux]]
| legislature = [[National Congress of Brazil|National Congress]]
| upper_house = [[Brazilian Senate|Federal Senate]]
| lower_house = [[Chamber of Deputies (Brazil)|Chamber of Deputies]]
| sovereignty_type = [[Independence of Brazil|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note = from the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves]]
| established_event1 = [[Independence of Brazil|Declared]]
| established_date1 = 7 September 1822
| established_event2 = [[Treaty of Rio de Janeiro (1825)|Recognized]]
| established_date2 = 29 August 1825
| established_event3 = [[Proclamation of the Republic (Brazil)|Republic]]
| established_date3 = 15 November 1889
| established_event4 = [[Constitution of Brazil|Current constitution]]
| established_date4 = 5 October 1988
| area_km2 = 8515767
| area_label = Total
| area_rank = 5th
| area_sq_mi = 3287597
| percent_water = 0.65
| population_estimate = 210,147,125<ref name="IBGE Official Estimate">{{cite web |last1=Silva |first1=Antonio Carlos Coutinho Gouvea da |title=Projeções da População {{!}} Estatísticas {{!}} IBGE :: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística |url=https://www.ibge.gov.br/estatisticas-novoportal/sociais/populacao/9109-projecao-da-populacao.html?=&t=resultados |website=ibge.gov.br |access-date=30 August 2018 |language=pt-br}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2019
| population_estimate_rank = 6th
| population_density_km2 = 25
| population_density_sq_mi = 63
| population_density_rank = 200th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $3.328 trillion<ref name="IMFWEOBR">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April/weo-report?c=223,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2019&ey=2026&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2021 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=8 April 2021}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2021
| GDP_PPP_rank = 8th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $15,642<ref name="IMFWEOBR" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 84th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $1.491 trillion<ref name="IMFWEOBR" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2021
| GDP_nominal_rank = 13th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $7,010<ref name="IMFWEOBR" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 87th
| Gini = 53.4
| Gini_year = 2019
| Gini_change = decrease 
| Gini_ref =<ref name="WBgini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=BR |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Brazil |publisher= World Bank |access-date=8 April 2021}}</ref>
| Gini_rank = 10th
| HDI = 0.765
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf |title=2019 Human Development Report |year=2019 |access-date=9 December 2019 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme }}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 84th
| currency = [[Brazilian real|Real]] (R$)
| currency_code = BRL
| time_zone = [[Time in Brazil|BRT]]
| utc_offset = −2 to −5
| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy ([[Common Era|CE]])
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Brazil|+55]]
| iso3166code =
|cctld = [[.br]]
| religion = 88.8% [[Christianity]] —64.6% [[Catholic Church in Brazil|Roman Catholic]] —22.2% [[Protestantism in Brazil|Protestant]] —2.0% Other [[Christians|Christian]] 8.0% [[Irreligion in Brazil|No religion]] 2.0% [[Spiritism]] 1.2% Other [[Religion in Brazil|religions]]
| religion_ref = <ref name="census2010">[ftp://ftp.ibge.gov.br/Censos/Censo_Demografico_2010/Caracteristicas_Gerais_Religiao_Deficiencia/tab1_4.pdf IBGE – Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics). 2010 Census]. Retrieved 7 August 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=2010 Population Census – General characteristics of population, religion and persons with disabilities (Portuguese) | website=ibge.gov.br | date=16 November 2012 | url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/noticia_impressao.php?id_noticia=2170 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116103249/http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/noticia_impressao.php?id_noticia=2170 | archive-date=16 November 2012 | url-status=dead | language=pt | access-date=10 August 2019}}</ref>
| religion_year = 2010
|today=|electricity=[[Mains electricity by country|220 V, 60 Hz and 127 V, 60 Hz]]}}
'''Brazil''' ({{lang-pt|Brasil}}; {{IPA-pt|bɾaˈziw|br}}),<ref group="nt">{{IPA-pt|bɾɐˈziɫ|eu}}</ref> officially the '''Federative Republic of Brazil''' (Portuguese: {{Audio|Pt-br-República Federativa do Brasil.ogg|''República Federativa do Brasil''|help=no}}),<ref name="Bello1966v">{{cite book|url=|title=A History of Modern Brazil: 1889–1964|author=José María Bello|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|year=1966|isbn=978-0-8047-0238-6|page=[[iarchive:historyofmodernb0000bell/page/56/mode/1up|56]]}}</ref> is the largest country in both [[South America]] and [[Latin America]]. At 8.5 million square kilometers (3.2 million square miles)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/geociencias/cartografia/default_territ_area.shtm|title=Área Territorial Brasileira|last=|date=|publisher=Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística|language=pt|trans-title=Brazilian Territorial Area|access-date=4 May 2018|quote=Para a superfície do Brasil foi obtido o valor de 8.515.759,090 km2, publicado no DOU nº 124 de 30/06/2017, conforme Resolução Nº 02, de 29 de junho de 2017.|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/64i0P2Lb0?url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/geociencias/cartografia/default_territ_area.shtm|archive-date=15 January 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> and with over 211 million people, Brazil is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|fifth-largest country by area]] and the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|sixth most populous]]. Its capital is [[Brasília]], and [[List of cities in Brazil by population|its most populous city]] is [[São Paulo]]. The federation is composed of the union of the 26 [[States of Brazil|states]] and the [[Federal District (Brazil)|Federal District]]. It is the largest country to have [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] as an [[List of territorial entities where Portuguese is an official language|official language]] and the only one in the [[Americas]];<ref name="Philander2012">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B8VE92tDqEEC&pg=PA148|title=Encyclopedia of Global Warming and Climate Change, Second Edition|last=Philander|first=S. George|publisher=Princeton University|year=2012|isbn=978-1-4129-9261-9|edition=Second|volume=Vol. 1|location=Los Angeles|page=148|oclc=970592418}}</ref><ref name="CrocittiVallance2011">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vP9jHaoL_s4C&pg=PR23|title=Brazil Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic|last=Vallance|first=Monique M.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|others=Contributing editor Monique M. Vallance|year=2012|isbn=978-0-313-34672-9|editor-last=Crocitti|editor-first=John J.|page=xxiii|chapter=Preface and Observations on Contemporary Brazil|oclc=787850982|ref={{harvid|Crocitti|Vallance|2012}} }}</ref> it is also one of the most [[Multiculturalism|multicultural]] and ethnically diverse nations, due to over a century of mass [[Immigration to Brazil|immigration from around the world]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/portuguese/especial/migrantes/migrantes.shtml|title=Os migrantes de hoje|publisher=BBC Brasil |access-date=24 October 2018}}</ref> as well as the most populous [[Catholic Church by country|Roman Catholic-majority country]].

Bounded by the [[Atlantic Ocean]] on the east, Brazil has a [[Coastline of Brazil|coastline]] of {{convert|7491|km|mi|0|sp=us}}.<ref name="CIA Geo" /> It borders all other countries in South America except [[Ecuador]] and [[Chile]] and covers 47.3% of the continent's land area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.int/brazil/brasil/brazil-land.htm|title=Brazil – Land|last=|date=|website=Permanent Missions|publisher=United Nations|at=Geography|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023154830/http://www.un.int/brazil/brasil/brazil-land.htm|archive-date=23 October 2014|access-date=}}</ref> Its [[Amazon basin]] includes a [[Amazon rainforest|vast tropical forest]], home to diverse [[Wildlife of Brazil|wildlife]], a variety of [[Environment of Brazil|ecological systems]], and extensive natural resources spanning numerous [[protected areas of Brazil|protected habitats]].<ref name="CIA Geo">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/|title=Geography of Brazil|last=|date=1 May 2018|website=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|at=Geography > Coastline|access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 [[megadiverse countries]], and is the subject of significant global interest, as environmental degradation through processes like [[Deforestation in Brazil|deforestation]] has direct impacts on global issues like [[Climate change in Brazil|climate change]] and [[biodiversity loss]].

Brazil was inhabited by [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|numerous tribal nations]] prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]], who claimed the area for the [[Portuguese Empire]]. Brazil remained a [[Colonial Brazil|Portuguese colony]] until 1808 when the capital of the empire was [[Transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil|transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro]]. In 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves]]. [[Independence of Brazil|Independence]] was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the [[Empire of Brazil]], a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, now called the [[National Congress of Brazil|National Congress]]. The country [[Proclamation of the Republic (Brazil)|became a presidential republic]] in 1889 following a military [[coup d'état]]. An authoritarian [[Military dictatorship in Brazil|military junta]] came to power [[1964 Brazilian coup d'état|in 1964]] and ruled until 1985, after which civilian governance resumed. Brazil's current [[Constitution of Brazil|constitution]], formulated in 1988, defines it as a [[Democracy|democratic]] [[federal republic]].<ref name="Constituição">{{cite web |title=Brazilian Federal Constitution |publisher=Presidency of the Republic |year=1988 |url=http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Constituicao/Constituiçao.htm |language=pt |access-date=3 June 2008 }} {{cite web |title=Brazilian Federal Constitution |publisher=v-brazil.com |year=2007 |url=http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/titleI.html |quote=Unofficial translate |access-date=3 June 2008 |archive-date=28 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928070506/http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/titleI.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Due to its rich culture and history, the country ranks [[List of World Heritage Sites in Brazil|thirteenth in the world]] by number of [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list |title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre — World Heritage List |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=25 May 2012}}</ref>

Brazil is classified as an upper-middle income economy by the [[World Bank]]<ref name="wb-upper-middle">{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups#Upper_middle_income |title=Country and Lending Groups |publisher=World Bank |access-date=5 March 2011 |quote=Uppermiddle Income defined as a per capita income between $3,976 – $12,275 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110318125456/http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups |archive-date=18 March 2011}}</ref> and a [[newly industrialized country]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2200&sg=All+countries+%2f+Emerging+market+and+developing+economies |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=29 September 2019}}</ref> with [[List of countries by total wealth|the largest share of global wealth]] in South America. It is considered an advanced [[Emerging market|emerging economy]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ftse.com/products/downloads/FTSE-Country-Classification-Update-2018.pdf |title=FTSE Country Classification |publisher=[[FTSE Group]] |date= September 2018 |access-date=20 November 2018}}</ref> having the twelfth largest [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in the world by [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|nominal]], and eighth by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|PPP]] measures.<ref name="IMF, October 2015">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=44&pr.y=11&sy=2018&ey=2018&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C668%2C914%2C672%2C612%2C946%2C614%2C137%2C311%2C546%2C213%2C962%2C911%2C674%2C314%2C676%2C193%2C548%2C122%2C556%2C912%2C678%2C313%2C181%2C419%2C867%2C513%2C682%2C316%2C684%2C913%2C273%2C124%2C868%2C339%2C921%2C638%2C948%2C514%2C943%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C836%2C918%2C558%2C748%2C138%2C618%2C196%2C624%2C278%2C522%2C692%2C622%2C694%2C156%2C142%2C626%2C449%2C628%2C564%2C228%2C565%2C924%2C283%2C233%2C853%2C632%2C288%2C636%2C293%2C634%2C566%2C238%2C964%2C662%2C182%2C960%2C359%2C423%2C453%2C935%2C968%2C128%2C922%2C611%2C714%2C321%2C862%2C243%2C135%2C248%2C716%2C469%2C456%2C253%2C722%2C642%2C942%2C643%2C718%2C939%2C724%2C734%2C576%2C644%2C936%2C819%2C961%2C172%2C813%2C132%2C726%2C646%2C199%2C648%2C733%2C915%2C184%2C134%2C524%2C652%2C361%2C174%2C362%2C328%2C364%2C258%2C732%2C656%2C366%2C654%2C144%2C336%2C146%2C263%2C463%2C268%2C528%2C532%2C923%2C944%2C738%2C176%2C578%2C534%2C537%2C536%2C742%2C429%2C866%2C433%2C369%2C178%2C744%2C436%2C186%2C136%2C925%2C343%2C869%2C158%2C746%2C439%2C926%2C916%2C466%2C664%2C112%2C826%2C111%2C542%2C298%2C967%2C927%2C443%2C846%2C917%2C299%2C544%2C582%2C941%2C474%2C446%2C754%2C666%2C698&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a=#cs120|title=International Monetary Fund|website=imf.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html |title=CIA – The World Factbook – Country Comparisons – GDP (purchasing power parity) |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=25 January 2011}}</ref> It is one of the world's major [[breadbasket]]s, being the largest [[Coffee production in Brazil|producer of coffee]] for the last 150 years.<ref name="Neilson102" /> Brazil is a [[regional power|regional]] and [[middle power]],<ref name="Burges2016" /><ref name="SchaeferPoffenbarger2014">{{cite book|author1=M. Schaefer|author2=J. Poffenbarger|title=The Formation of the BRICS and its Implication for the United States: Emerging Together|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yXdaBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT32|date= 2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-137-38794-3|page=32}}</ref><ref name="Gina" /><ref name="Burges2016">{{cite book|author=Sean W. Burges|title=Latin America and the Shifting Sands of Globalization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tolwCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114|year= 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-69658-2|pages=114–15}}</ref><ref name="Gina">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1111/blar.12417|title = Brazil: What Rise of What Power?|journal = Bulletin of Latin American Research|volume = 35|pages = 5–19|year = 2016|last1 = Gardini|first1 = Gian Luca|doi-access = free}}</ref> and is also classified as an [[emerging power]].<ref name="FRIDE">[http://fride.org/descarga/com_emerging_powers_eng_abr08.pdf FRIDE: The international arena and emerging powers: stabilising or destabilising forces?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615194931/http://fride.org/descarga/com_emerging_powers_eng_abr08.pdf |date=15 June 2016 }}, Susanne Gratius, April 2008</ref><ref name="Collecott">{{cite web|author=Peter Collecott|url=http://www.diplomaticourier.com/2011/10/29/brazil-s-quest-for-superpower-status/|title=Brazil's Quest for Superpower Status|publisher=The Diplomatic Courier|date=29 October 2011|access-date=10 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Clendenning |first=Alan |title=Booming Brazil could be world power soon |page=2 |newspaper=USA Today |agency=The Associated Press |date=17 April 2008 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/money/economy/2008-04-17-310212789_x.htm |access-date=12 December 2008}}</ref><ref name="DominguezKim2013">{{cite book|author1=Jorge Dominguez|author2=Byung Kook Kim|title=Between Compliance and Conflict: East Asia Latin America and the New Pax Americana|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c0I_4JmjFbwC&pg=PA98|year=2013|publisher=Center for International Affairs, Harvard University|isbn=978-1-136-76983-2|pages=98–99}}</ref> However, the country maintains high amounts of [[Corruption in Brazil|corruption]], [[Crime in Brazil|crime]] and [[social inequality]]. Brazil is a founding member of the [[United Nations]], the [[G20]], [[BRICS]], [[Mercosur|Mercosul]], [[Organization of American States]], [[Organization of Ibero-American States]] and the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]].

== Etymology ==
{{Main|Name of Brazil}}
The word "Brazil" likely comes from the Portuguese word for [[Caesalpinia echinata|brazilwood]], a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast.<ref name="Fausto1999">{{cite book|first=Boris|last=Fausto|title=A Concise History of Brazil|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus|url-access=registration|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-56526-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00faus/page/9 9]}}</ref> In Portuguese, brazilwood is called ''pau-brasil'', with the word ''brasil'' commonly given the etymology "red like an [[ember]]," formed from ''brasa'' ("ember") and the suffix ''-il'' (from ''-iculum'' or ''-ilium'').<ref name="Vincent2003">{{cite book|author=Jon S. Vincent.|title=Culture and Customs of Brazil|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof0000vinc|url-access=registration|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-30495-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof0000vinc/page/36 36]}}</ref> As brazilwood produces a deep red dye, it was highly valued by the European textile industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil.<ref name="Tucker2007">{{cite book|author=Richard P. Tucker|title=Insatiable Appetite: The Ecological Degradation of the Tropical World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2V2q30BdEJ8C&pg=PA186|year=2007|publisher=University of Michigan|isbn=978-0-7425-5365-1|page=186}}</ref> Throughout the 16th century, massive amounts of brazilwood were harvested by [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|indigenous peoples]] (mostly [[Tupi people|Tupi]]) along the Brazilian coast, who sold the timber to European traders (mostly Portuguese, but also French) in return for assorted European consumer goods.<ref name="Lee2011">{{cite book|author=Wayne E. Lee|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion, and Warfare in the Early Modern World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xatMrooibacC&pg=PA196|year=2011|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-0-8147-6527-2|page=196}}</ref>

The official Portuguese name of the land, in original Portuguese records, was the "Land of the Holy Cross" (''Terra da Santa Cruz''),<ref name="Corporation1880">{{cite magazine|last1=Daly|first1=Charles P.|title=Maps and Map-making Before Mercator|magazine=The Popular Science Monthly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hiQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA493|year=1880|publisher=Bonnier Corporation|at=473–495, see page 493|issn=0161-7370}}</ref> but European sailors and merchants commonly called it simply the "Land of Brazil" (''Terra do Brasil'') because of the brazilwood trade.<ref name="Léry1990">{{cite book|author=Jean de Léry|title=History of a Voyage to the Land of Brazil, Otherwise Called America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F8qqKoCSWVkC&pg=PA242|year=1990|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-91380-6|page=242}}</ref> The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name. Some early sailors called it the "Land of Parrots."<ref name="Sokolow2003">{{cite book|author=Jayme A. Sokolow.|title=The Great Encounter: Native Peoples and European Settlers in the Americas, 1492–1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ytghV9q6v3cC&pg=PA84|year=2003|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-0982-3|page=84}}</ref>

In the [[Guarani language]], an official language of [[Paraguay]], Brazil is called "Pindorama". This was the name the indigenous population gave to the region, meaning "land of the palm trees."<ref name="Herrera-Sobek2012">{{cite book|author=Maria Herrera-Sobek|title=Celebrating Latino Folklore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lY-tY62V1FIC&pg=PA155|year=2012|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-34340-7|page=155}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Brazil|Timeline of Brazilian history}}

=== Pre-Cabraline era ===
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| caption1 = [[Rock art]] at [[Serra da Capivara National Park]], one of the largest and oldest concentrations of prehistoric sites in the [[Americas]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Discoveries Challenge Beliefs on Humans' Arrival in the Americas|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/28/world/americas/discoveries-challenge-beliefs-on-humans-arrival-in-the-americas.html|website=New York Times|date=27 March 2014|access-date=31 May 2014|first=Simon|last=Romero}}</ref>
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| caption2 = Burial urn, [[Marajoara culture]], [[American Museum of Natural History]]. That culture appeared to flourish between 400 AD and 1400 AD, based on archeological studies.<ref name=Mann />
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Some of the earliest human remains found in the [[Americas]], [[Luzia Woman]], were found in the area of [[Pedro Leopoldo]], [[Minas Gerais]] and provide evidence of human habitation going back at least 11,000 years.<ref>About.com, http://gobrazil.about.com/od/ecotourismadventure/ss/Peter-Lund-Museum.htm</ref><ref name="LevineCrocitti1999">{{cite book|author1=Robert M. Levine|author2=John J. Crocitti|title=The Brazil Reader: History, Culture, Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R28K2JA9PM8C&pg=PA11|access-date=12 December 2012|year=1999|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-2290-0|pages=11–}}</ref>

The earliest [[pottery]] ever found in the Western Hemisphere was excavated in the [[Amazon basin]] of Brazil and [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dated]] to 8,000 years ago (6000 BC). The pottery was found near [[Santarém, Pará|Santarém]] and provides evidence that the tropical forest region supported a complex prehistoric culture.<ref name="Eighth Millennium Pottery from a Prehistoric Shell Midden in the Brazilian Amazon">Science Magazine, 13 December 1991 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/254/5038/1621.abstract</ref> The [[Marajoara culture]] flourished on [[Marajó]] in the Amazon delta from 400 CE to 1400 CE, developing sophisticated pottery, [[social stratification]], large populations, [[mound building]], and complex social formations such as [[chiefdom]]s.<ref name=Mann>{{cite book |last=Mann |first=Charles C. |author-link=Charles C. Mann |title=1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus |orig-year=2005 |year=2006 |publisher=Vintage Books |pages=[https://archive.org/details/149100char/page/326 326–33] |isbn=978-1-4000-3205-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/149100char/page/326 }}</ref>

Around the time of the Portuguese arrival, the territory of current day Brazil had an estimated indigenous population of 7 million people,<ref>{{cite book |last=Levine |first=Robert M. |title=The History of Brazil |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-6255-3 |page=32 }}</ref> mostly semi-nomadic, who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. The indigenous population of Brazil comprised several large indigenous ethnic groups (e.g. the [[Tupí people|Tupis]], [[Guaraní people|Guaranis]], [[Gê peoples|Gês]], and [[Arawak peoples|Arawaks]]). The Tupí people were subdivided into the [[Tupiniquim people|Tupiniquins]] and [[Tupinambá people|Tupinambás]], and there were also many subdivisions of the other groups.{{sfnp|Levine|2003|p=31}}

Before the arrival of the Europeans, the boundaries between these groups and their subgroups were marked by wars that arose from differences in culture, language and moral beliefs.<ref name="Fausto">{{cite book |last=Fausto |first=Carlos |title=Os Índios antes do Brasil |trans-title=The Indians before Brazil |language=pt |editor-first=Jorge |editor-last=Zahar |year=2000 |isbn =978-85-7110-543-0 |pages=45–46, 55 }}</ref> These wars also involved large-scale military actions on land and water, with [[cannibalism|cannibalistic]] rituals on [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]].<ref>Gomes, Mercio P. ''The Indians and Brazil'' University Press of Florida 2000 {{ISBN|0-8130-1720-3}} pp. 28–29</ref>{{sfnp|Fausto|2000|pp=78–80}} While heredity had some weight, leadership status was more subdued over time, than allocated in succession ceremonies and conventions.<ref name="Fausto" /> [[Slavery]] among the Indians had a different meaning than it had for Europeans, since it originated from a diverse socioeconomic organization, in which asymmetries were translated into [[kinship]] relations.{{sfnp|Fausto|2000|p=50}}

=== Portuguese colonization ===
{{Main|Colonial Brazil|War of the Emboabas|Inconfidência Mineira}}
[[File:Desembarque de Pedro Álvares Cabral em Porto Seguro em 1500 by Oscar Pereira da Silva (1865–1939).jpg|thumb|Depiction of [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] landing in [[Porto Seguro]] in 1500, ushering in more than 300 years of [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] rule of [[Colonial Brazil]].]]

Following the 1494 [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], the land now called Brazil was claimed for the [[Portuguese Empire]] on 22 April 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]].<ref name="Boxer, p. 98">Boxer, p. 98.</ref> The Portuguese encountered indigenous peoples divided into several tribes, most of whom spoke languages of the [[Tupi–Guarani]] family and fought among themselves.<ref name="Boxer, p. 100">Boxer, p. 100.</ref> Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, [[colonization]] effectively began in 1534, when King [[John III of Portugal|John III of Portugal]] divided the territory into the fifteen private and autonomous [[Captaincies of Brazil|Captaincy Colonies of Brazil]].<ref>Boxer, pp. 100–101.</ref><ref name="Skidmore, p. 27">Skidmore, p. 27.</ref>

However, the decentralized and unorganized tendencies of the captaincy colonies proved problematic, and in 1549 the Portuguese king restructured them into the [[Governorate General of Brazil]] in the city of [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], which became the capital of a single and centralized Portuguese colony in South America.<ref name="Skidmore, p. 27" /><ref>Boxer, p. 101.</ref> In the first two centuries of colonization, Indigenous and European groups lived in constant war, establishing [[opportunistic]] alliances in order to gain advantages against each other.<ref>Meuwese, Mark "Brothers in Arms, Partners in Trade: Dutch-Indigenous Alliances in the Atlantic World, 1595–1674" Koninklijke Brill NV 2012 {{ISBN|978-90-04-21083-7}} ''Chapter III''</ref><ref>Metcalf, Alida C. "Go-betweens And the Colonization of Brazil: 1500–1600" University of Texas Press 2005, pp. 70, 79, 202 [https://books.google.com/books?id=lWuNIISvBqIC&pg=PA202 View on Google Books]</ref>{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012}}<ref>Minahan, James B. "Ethnic Groups of the Americas" ABC-CLIO 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-61069-163-5}} p. 300, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8jVig0ysnu8C&pg=PA300 View on Google Books]</ref> By the mid-16th century, [[Sugar#Sugarcane|cane sugar]] had become Brazil's most important export,<ref name="Boxer, p. 100" /><ref>Skidmore, p. 36.</ref> while slaves purchased in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] in the [[Slavery in Africa#Atlantic slave trade|slave market of Western Africa]]<ref>Richard Middleton and Anne Lombard "Colonial America: A History to 1763" Wiley-Blackwell Publishing 1st edition 1992 {{ISBN|978-1-4443-9628-7}} Chapter 2, Section 4 (final, last page and half of previous one) [https://books.google.com/books?id=2hexv5SmqLgC&pg=PT54 View on Google Books]</ref> (not only those from Portuguese allies of their colonies in [[Portuguese Angola|Angola]] and [[Portuguese Mozambique|Mozambique]]), had become its largest import,<ref>Boxer, p. 110</ref><ref>Skidmore, p. 34.</ref> to cope with [[Plantation economy|plantations]] of sugarcane, due to increasing international demand for Brazilian sugar.<ref name="Boxer, p. 102">Boxer, p. 102.</ref><ref>Skidmore, pp. 32–33.</ref> Portuguese Brazil received more than 2.8 million slaves from Africa between the years of 1500 to 1800.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=Stuart A. P. |title=The Library An Illustrated History |date=2009 |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-1-60239-706-4 |page=101}}</ref>

[[File:Antônio Parreiras - Prisão de Tiradentes, 1914.jpg|thumb|left|Painting showing the arrest of [[Tiradentes]]; he was sentenced to death for his involvement in the best known [[Inconfidência Mineira|movement for independence]] in Colonial Brazil. Painting of 1914.]]

By the end of the 17th century, sugarcane exports began to decline<ref>Boxer, p. 164.</ref> and the discovery of gold by [[bandeirantes]] in the 1690s would become the new backbone of the colony's economy, fostering a [[Brazilian Gold Rush]]<ref>Boxer, pp. 168, 170.</ref> which attracted thousands of new [[Settler colonialism|settlers]] to Brazil from Portugal and all Portuguese colonies around the world.<ref>Boxer, p. 169.</ref> This increased level of immigration in turn caused [[War of the Emboabas|some conflicts]] between newcomers and old settlers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kohn|first=George C.|title=Dictionary of Wars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OIzreCGlHxIC&pg=PT186|edition=1st|year=1986|publisher=Facts on File, Inc.|isbn=978-1-4381-2916-7|page=174}}</ref>

Portuguese expeditions known as [[Bandeirantes|Bandeiras]] gradually advanced the Portugal colonial [[Treaty of Tordesillas|original frontiers]] in South America to approximately the current Brazilian borders.<ref>{{cite book|author1=George Richard Potter|author2=Henry Clifford Darby|author3=Harold Fullard|title=The New Cambridge Modern History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1BY9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA498|edition=1st|volume=3|year=1957|publisher=CUP Archive|page=498}}</ref><ref>Corrado, Jacopo "The Creole Elite and the Rise of Angolan Protonationalism" [[Cambria Press]] 2008 {{ISBN|978-1-60497-529-1}} pp. 95 (Brazil) and 145, note 5 [https://books.google.com/books?id=BKKf4PYI-IIC&pg=PA145#v=onepage&q=tordesilha%20bandeira%20portugal%20brazil%20advance View on Google Books]</ref> In this era other European powers tried to colonize parts of Brazil, in incursions that the Portuguese had to fight, notably the French [[France Antarctique|in Rio during the 1560s]], [[Equinoctial France|in Maranhão during the 1610s]], and the [[Dutch Brazil|Dutch in Bahia and Pernambuco]], during the [[Dutch–Portuguese War]], after the end of [[Iberian Union]].<ref>Bethell, Leslie "Colonial Brazil" Cambridge University Press 1987 pp. 19, 74, 86, 169–70</ref>

The Portuguese colonial administration in Brazil had two objectives that would ensure colonial order and the [[monopoly]] of Portugal's wealthiest and largest colony: to keep under control and eradicate all forms of [[slave rebellion]] and resistance, such as the [[Palmares (quilombo)|Quilombo of Palmares]],<ref>Schwartz, Stuart B. "Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels" Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois 1992 {{ISBN|0-252-06549-2}} Chapter 4 [https://books.google.com/books?id=YTnY5h0NE3sC&pg=PA103 View on Google Books]</ref> and to repress all movements for [[Autonomous administrative division|autonomy]] or [[independence]], such as the [[Inconfidência Mineira|Minas Conspiracy]].<ref>MacLachlan, Colin M. "A History of Modern Brazil: The Past Against the Future"; Scholarly Resources Inc. 2003 p. 3 [https://books.google.com/books?id=8m3RcnkKwJgC&pg=PA3 View on Google Books]</ref>
{{clear}}

=== United Kingdom with Portugal ===
{{Main|United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves}}
[[File:Aclamação do rei Dom João VI no Rio de Janeiro.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Acclamation of [[John VI of Portugal|King João VI]] of the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]], 6 February 1818]]
In late 1807, Spanish and Napoleonic forces threatened the security of [[continental Portugal]], causing [[John VI of Portugal|Prince Regent João]], in the name of [[Maria I of Portugal|Queen Maria I]], to move the royal court from [[Lisbon]] to [[Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil|Rio de Janeiro]].<ref name="Boxer, p. 213">Boxer, p. 213</ref> There they established some of Brazil's first financial institutions, such as its local [[stock exchange]]s<ref>Marta Barcellos & Simone Azevedo; ''Histórias do Mercado de Capitais no Brasil'' ("Financial Markets' Histories in Brazil") (Portuguese) Campus Elsevier 2011 {{ISBN|85-352-3994-4}} Introduction (by Ney Carvalho), Intro. p. xiv</ref> and its [[Banco do Brasil|National Bank]], additionally ending the Portuguese [[monopoly]] on Brazilian trade and opening Brazil to other nations. In 1809, in retaliation for being forced into exile, the Prince Regent ordered the [[Portuguese conquest of French Guiana]].<ref>Bueno, p. 145.</ref>

With the end of the [[Peninsular War]] in 1814, the courts of Europe demanded that Queen Maria I and Prince Regent João return to Portugal, deeming it unfit for the head of an ancient European monarchy to reside in a [[colony]]. In 1815, to justify continuing to live in Brazil, where the royal court had thrived for six years, the Crown established the [[United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves]], thus creating a [[pluricontinental]] transatlantic monarchic state.<ref name="Mosher2008">{{cite book|author=Jeffrey C. Mosher|title=Political Struggle, Ideology, and State Building: Pernambuco and the Construction of Brazil, 1817–1850|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T_yszWOZUCkC&pg=PA9|year=2008|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-3247-1|page=9}}</ref> However, the leadership in Portugal, resentful of the new status of its larger colony, continued to demand the return of the court to Lisbon (''v.'' [[Liberal Revolution of 1820]]). In 1821, acceding to the demands of revolutionaries who had taken the city of [[Porto]],<ref name="Adelman2006">{{cite book|author=Jeremy Adelman|title=Sovereignty and Revolution in the Iberian Atlantic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvFpURNsBRIC&pg=PA334|year=2006|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12664-7|pages=334–}}</ref> D. João VI departed for Lisbon. There he swore an oath to the new constitution, leaving his son, [[Pedro I of Brazil|Prince Pedro de Alcântara]], as Regent of the [[Kingdom of Brazil]].<ref>Lustosa, pp. 109–110</ref>

=== Independent empire ===
{{Main|Independence of Brazil|Empire of Brazil}}
[[File:Independence of Brazil 1888.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|left|Declaration of the [[War of Independence of Brazil|Brazilian independence]] by Prince Pedro (later Emperor [[Pedro I of Brazil|Pedro I]]) on 7 September 1822.]]
Tensions between Portuguese and Brazilians increased and the [[Portuguese Cortes]], guided by the new political regime imposed by the 1820 Liberal Revolution, tried to re-establish Brazil as a colony.<ref>Lustosa, pp. 117–19</ref> The Brazilians refused to yield, and Prince Pedro decided to stand with them, [[Brazilian Declaration of Independence|declaring the country's independence from Portugal]] on 7 September 1822.<ref>Lustosa, pp. 150–153</ref> A month later, Prince Pedro was declared the first [[Emperor of Brazil]], with the royal title of Dom [[Pedro I of Brazil|Pedro I]], resulting in the foundation of the [[Empire of Brazil]].<ref>Vianna, p. 418</ref>

The [[Brazilian War of Independence]], which had already begun along this process, spread through the northern, northeastern regions and in [[Cisplatina]] province.<ref>Diégues 2004, pp. 168, 164, 178</ref> The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824;<ref>Diégues 2004, pp. 179–80</ref> Portugal officially recognized Brazil on 29 August 1825.<ref>Lustosa, p. 208</ref>

On 7 April 1831, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissent with both liberal and conservative sides of politics, including an attempt of [[Confederation of the Equator|republican secession]]{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|pp=82–83}} and unreconciled to the way that absolutists in Portugal had given in the succession of King John VI, Pedro I went to Portugal to [[Liberal Wars|reclaim his daughter's crown]], abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second monarch, with the royal title of Dom [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]]).<ref>Lyra (v. 1), p. 17</ref>
[[File:Pedro Américo - D. Pedro II na abertura da Assembléia Geral.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]], [[List of monarchs of Brazil|Emperor of Brazil]] between 1831 and 1889.]]

As the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he came of age, a [[Regency (government)|regency]] was set up by the National Assembly.<ref>Carvalho 2007, p. 21</ref> In the absence of a charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, such as the [[Cabanagem]] in [[Grão-Pará Province]], the [[Malê Revolt]] in [[Salvador da Bahia]], the [[Balaiada]] ([[Maranhão]]), the [[Sabinada]] ([[Bahia]]), and the [[Ragamuffin War]], which began in [[Rio Grande do Sul]] and was supported by [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]]. These emerged from the dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar to a vast, slaveholding and newly independent [[nation state]].{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|loc=Chapter 2, 2.1 to 2.3}} This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the [[Praieira revolt]] in [[Pernambuco]], was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the [[Dom Pedro II#Early coronation|premature coronation of Pedro II]] in 1841.{{sfnp|Fausto|1999}}

During the last phase of the monarchy, internal political debate centered on the issue of slavery. The [[Atlantic slave trade]] was abandoned in 1850,<ref>[[Leslie Bethell|Bethell, Leslie]] "The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade" [[Cambridge University Press]] 1970, ''"Cambridge Latin American Studides"'', Chapters 9 to 12. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2LsNTUPI_6sC View on Google Books]</ref> as a result of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[Aberdeen Act]], but only in [[Lei Áurea|May 1888]] after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of [[Slavery in Brazil|slavery in the country]], was the institution formally abolished.<ref>Scott, Rebecca and others, ''The Abolition of Slavery and the Aftermath of Emancipation in Brazil'', Duke University Press 1988 {{ISBN|0-8223-0888-6}} [[Seymour Drescher]], Chap. 2: "Brazilian Abolition in Comparative Perspective"</ref>

The foreign-affairs policies of the monarchy dealt with issues with the countries of the [[Southern Cone]] with whom Brazil had borders. Long after the [[Cisplatine War]] that resulted in independence for [[Uruguay]],<ref>Levine, Robert M. "The history of Brazil" Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. 1999, p. 62, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8RpIxe2utj8C&pg=PA62 View on Google Books]</ref> Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II. These were the [[Platine War]], the [[Uruguayan War]] and the devastating [[Paraguayan War]], the largest [[war effort]] in Brazilian history.<ref>Lyra (v.1), pp. 164, 225, 272</ref>{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|loc=Chapter 2, p. 83, and 2.6 "The Paraguayan War"}}

Although there was no desire among the majority of Brazilians to change the country's [[form of government]],{{sfn|Ermakoff|2006|p=189}} on 15 November 1889, in disagreement with the majority of [[Imperial Brazilian Army|Army]] officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smallman |first=Shawn C. |title=Fear in Memory in the Brazilian Army and Society |publisher=[[University of North Carolina]] Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8078-5359-7 |chapter=The Overthrow of the Empire |pages=16–18 }}</ref> 15 November is now [[Republic Day]], a national holiday.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://brazilian.report/opinion/2017/11/15/brazils-press-republic-day/ |title=Brazil's Proclamation of the Republic through the press |date=15 November 2017 |work=The Brazilian Report |access-date=13 November 2018 |language=en-US }}</ref>

=== Early republic ===
{{Main|First Brazilian Republic|Vargas Era#Estado Novo|Second Brazilian Republic}}
[[File:Proclamação da República by Benedito Calixto 1893.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|left|''[[Proclamation of the Republic (Brazil)|Proclamation of the Republic]]'', 1893, oil on canvas by [[Benedito Calixto]].]]

The early republican government was nothing more than a military dictatorship, with army dominating affairs both in Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power.{{sfnp|Smallman|2002|loc=end of Chapter 1, from p. 18 "Military rule"}} Not until 1894, following [[encilhamento|an economic]] crisis and [[Revolta da Armada|a military one]], did civilians take power, remaining there until October 1930.{{sfnp|Smallman|2002|pp=21–26}}<ref>Triner, Gail D. "Banking and Economic Development: Brazil, 1889–1930" Palgrave 2000, pp. 69–74 {{ISBN|0-312-23399-X}}</ref><ref>Needell, Jeffrey D. "A Tropical Belle Epoque: Elite Culture and Society in Turn-of-the-Century Rio de Janeiro" Cambridge University Press 2010, pp. 10, 12</ref>

If in relation to its foreign policy, the country in this first republican period maintained a relative balance characterized by a success in resolving border disputes with neighboring countries,<ref>David R. Mares; "Violent peace: militarized interstate bargaining in Latin America" [[Columbia University]] Press 2001 Chapter 5 p. 125</ref> only broken by the [[Acre War]] (1899–1902) and [[Brazil during World War I|its involvement]] in [[World War I]] (1914–1918),<ref>Bradford Burns 1993, p. 305</ref><ref>M.Sharp, I. Westwell & J.Westwood; "History of World War I, Volume 1" Marshall Cavendish Corporation 2002, p. 97</ref><ref>{{Citation |title= Uma história diplomática do Brasil, 1531–1945 |pages= 265–69}}</ref> followed by a failed attempt to exert a prominent role in the [[League of Nations]];<ref>Charles Howard Ellis; "The origin, structure & working of the League of Nations" The LawBook Exchange Ltd 2003 pp. 105, 145</ref> Internally, from the ''crisis of Encilhamento''<ref>{{Citation |author= Viscount of Taunay |title= O encilhamento: scenas contemporaneas da bolsa em 1890, 1891 e 1892 |publisher= Melhoramentos |year=1893}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last = Nassif |first = Luís |title= Os cabeças-de-planilha |publisher= Ediouro |year= 2007 | isbn = 978-85-00-02094-0 |pages= 69–107}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |first= Ney O. Ribeiro |last= de Carvalho |title= O Encilhamento: anatomia de uma bolha brasileira |publisher= Bovespa |year= 2004 |isbn = 978-85-904019-1-9}}</ref> and the [[Revolta da Armada|Armada Revolts]],<ref>{{Citation |first = Hélio L |last = Martins |title= A Revolta da Armada |publisher= BibliEx |year= 1997}}</ref> a prolonged cycle of financial, political and social instability began until the 1920s, keeping the country besieged by various rebellions, both civilian<ref>{{Citation |first = Edmundo |last = Moniz |title= Canudos: a luta pela terra |publisher= Global |year= 1984}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last = Sevcenko |first = Nicolau |title= A Revolta da Vacina | publisher= Cosac Naify |year= 2010 | isbn = 978-85-7503-868-0}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |first = Aureliano P |last = de Moura |title= Contestado: a guerra cabocla |publisher= Biblioteca do Exército |year= 2003}}</ref> and military.<ref>{{Citation |first = Arthur |last = Thompson |title= Guerra civil do Brazil de 1893–1895 |publisher= Ravaro |year= 1934}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last = Roland |first = Maria Inês |title= A Revolta da Chibata |publisher= Saraiva |year= 2000 | isbn = 978-85-02-03095-4}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |first = Maria CS |last = Forjaz |title= Tenentismo e politica |publisher= Paz e Terra |year= 1977}}</ref>
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = 50º Aniversário da República Brasileira.png
| caption1 = In half of the first 100 years of republic, the [[Brazilian Army|Army]] ruled directly or through figures like [[Getúlio Vargas|Vargas]] (center).
| image2 = Massarosaw.jpg
| caption2 = Soldiers of the [[Brazilian Expeditionary Force|FEB]], the only [[Latin America]]n military force in [[World War II]], in [[Massarosa]], [[Italy]], 1944.
}}

Little by little, [[Rebellions and revolutions in Brazil#1st Republican period (1889–1930)|a cycle of general instability]] sparked by these crises undermined the regime to such an extent that in the wake of the murder of his running mate, the defeated opposition presidential candidate [[Getúlio Vargas]], supported by most of the military, successfully led the [[Revolution of 1930]].<ref>Levine; Robert M. & Crocitti; John J. ''The Brazil Reader: History, Culture, Politics'', Duke University Press 1999, IV – The Vargas Era</ref><ref>Keen, Benjamin / Haynes, Kate ''A History of Latin America; Volume 2'', Waldsworth Cengage Learning 2004, pp. 356–57</ref> Vargas and the military were supposed to assume power temporarily, but instead closed the Congress, extinguished the Constitution, ruled with emergency powers and replaced the states' governors with their own supporters.<ref>McCann; Frank D. ''Soldiers of the Patria: A History of the Brazilian Army, 1889–1937'', [[Stanford University]] Press 2004, p. 303 {{ISBN|0-8047-3222-1}}</ref><ref>Ibidem Williams 2001</ref>

In the 1930s, three failed attempts to remove Vargas and his supporters from power occurred. The first was the [[Constitutionalist Revolution]] in 1932, led by the [[São Paulo (state)|Paulista]] [[oligarchy]]. The second was a [[Brazilian uprising of 1935|Communist uprising]] in November 1935, and the last one a ''putsch'' attempt by [[Brazilian Integralism|local fascists]] in May 1938.<ref>E. Bradford Burns; ''A History of Brazil'' Columbia University Press 1993 p. 352 {{ISBN|978-0-231-07955-6}}</ref><ref>Dulles, John W.F. ''Anarchists and Communists in Brazil, 1900–1935'' University of Texas Press 2012 {{ISBN|0-292-74076-X}}</ref><ref>Frank M. Colby, Allen L. Churchill, Herbert T. Wade & Frank H. Vizetelly; ''The New international year book'' Dodd, Mead & Co. 1989, p. 102 "The Fascist Revolt"</ref> The 1935 uprising created a security crisis in which the Congress transferred more power to the executive. The 1937 ''coup d'état'' resulted in the cancellation of the 1938 election, formalized Vargas as dictator, beginning the [[Estado Novo (Brazil)|Estado Novo]] era, which was noted for government brutality and censorship of the press.<ref>Bourne, Richard ''Getulio Vargas of Brazil, 1883–1954'' C. Knight 1974, p. 77</ref>

Foreign policy during the Vargas years was marked by the antecedents{{clarify|date=September 2019}} and [[World War II]]. Brazil remained neutral until August 1942, when the country entered on the [[Allies of World War II|allied side]],<ref>Scheina, Robert L. ''Latin America's Wars Vol.II: The Age of the Professional Soldier, 1900–2001''. Potomac Books, 2003 {{ISBN|1-57488-452-2}} Part 9; Ch. 17 – World War II, Brazil, and Mexico, 1942–45</ref><ref>Thomas M. Leonard & John F. Bratzel; ''Latin America during World War II'' Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc. 2007 p. 150</ref> after suffering [[Submarine warfare#Atlantic ocean|retaliation]] by [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Kingdom of Italy#Fascist regime (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]], in a strategic dispute over the South Atlantic.<ref>Mónica Hirst & Andrew Hurrell; ''The United States and Brazil: A Long Road of Unmet Expectations'', Taylor & Francis Books 2005 {{ISBN|0-415-95066-X}} pp. 4–5</ref> In addition to [[Battle of the Atlantic#South Atlantic (May 1942 – September 1943)|its participation in the battle of the Atlantic]], Brazil also sent an [[Brazilian Expeditionary Force|expeditionary force]] to fight in the [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian campaign]].<ref>{{Citation |first1=Celso |last1=Castro |first2=Vitor |last2=Izecksohn |first3=Hendrik |last3=Kraay |pages=13–14 |title=Nova história militar brasileira |publisher=Fundação Getúlio Vargas |year=2004 |isbn=978-85-225-0496-1}}</ref>

With the Allied victory in 1945 and the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position became unsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in another military coup, with democracy "reinstated" by the same army that had ended it 15 years earlier.<ref>McCann 2004, p. 441</ref> Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid a political crisis, after having returned to power by election in 1950.<ref>Roett; Riordan ''Brazil: Politics in a Patrimonial Society'', GreenWood Publishing Group 1999, pp. 106–08 {{ISBN|0-275-95899-X}}</ref><ref>Keen & Haynes 2004, pp. 361–62</ref>

=== Contemporary era ===
{{Main|Military dictatorship in Brazil|History of Brazil since 1985}}
{{Multiple image
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| image1 = Construção do Congresso Nacional Esplanada dos Ministérios 1959-10.jpg
| caption1 = Construction of the building of [[National Congress of Brazil]] in [[Brasília]], the new capital, 1959.
|image2 = Tanques ocupam a Avenida Presidente Vargas, 1968-04-04.jpg
|caption2 =[[M41 Walker Bulldog|M41s]] along the [[Avenida Presidente Vargas]] during the [[Brazilian military government|military government]].
}}

Several brief interim governments followed Vargas's suicide.<ref>Skidmore, p. 201</ref> [[Juscelino Kubitschek]] became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the [[Opposition (politics)|political opposition]] that allowed him to govern without major crises.<ref>Skidmore, pp. 202–203</ref> The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably,<ref>Skidmore, p. 204</ref> but his greatest achievement was the construction of the new capital city of [[Brasília]], inaugurated in 1960.<ref>Skidmore, pp. 204–205</ref>

Kubitschek's successor, [[Jânio Quadros]], resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office.<ref>Skidmore, pp. 209–210</ref> His vice-president, [[João Goulart]], assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition<ref>Skidmore, p. 210</ref> and was [[1964 Brazilian coup d'état|deposed in April 1964]] by a coup that resulted in a [[Brazilian military government|military regime]].<ref>Fausto (2005), p. 397</ref>

The new regime was intended to be transitory<ref>Gaspari, ''A Ditadura Envergonhada'', pp. 141–42.</ref> but gradually closed in on itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the [[AI-5|Fifth Institutional Act]] in 1968.<ref name="Gaspari p.35">Gaspari, ''A Ditadura Envergonhada'', p. 35.</ref> Oppression was not limited to those who resorted to guerrilla tactics to fight the regime, but also reached institutional opponents, artists, journalists and other members of civil society,{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VhkvhllLooUC&pg=PA395 395], last paragraph}}<ref>Richard Young, Odile Cisneros "Historical Dictionary of Latin American Literature and Theater" Scare Crow Press 2011, p. 224, 2nd § [https://books.google.com/books?id=i0ZyleoLY5UC&pg=PA224 View on Google Books]</ref> inside and outside the country through the infamous "[[Operation Condor]]".<ref>Laurence Burgorgue-Larsen & Amaya Úbeda de Torres "The Inter-American Court of Human Rights: Case Law and Commentary" Oxford University Press 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-19-958878-7}} p. 299 [https://books.google.com/books?id=fQpnBsRWNlYC&pg=PA299 View on Google Books]</ref>{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VhkvhllLooUC&pg=PA396 396]}} Despite its brutality, like other [[authoritarianism|authoritarian regimes]], due to an economic boom, known as an "economic miracle", the regime reached a peak in popularity in the early 1970s.{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VhkvhllLooUC&pg=PA395 395–97]}}

Slowly, however, the wear and tear of years of dictatorial power that had not slowed the repression, even after the defeat of the leftist guerrillas,<ref>Bradford Burns 1993, p. 457</ref> plus the inability to deal with the economic crises of the period and popular pressure, made an opening policy inevitable, which from the regime side was led by Generals [[Ernesto Geisel]] and [[Golbery do Couto e Silva]].{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|loc=Chapter 6 "The military government and the transition to democracy (1964–1984)"}} With the enactment of the [[Amnesty law#Brazil|Amnesty Law]] in 1979, Brazil began a slow return to democracy, which was completed during the 1980s.{{sfnp|Fausto|1999}}

Civilians returned to power in 1985 when [[José Sarney]] assumed the presidency. He became unpopular during his tenure through failure to control the economic crisis and [[hyperinflation]] he inherited from the military regime.<ref>Fausto (2005), pp. 464–65.</ref> Sarney's unsuccessful government led to the [[Brazilian presidential election, 1989|election in 1989]] of the almost-unknown [[Fernando Collor de Mello|Fernando Collor]], subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992.<ref>Fausto (2005), pp. 465, 475.</ref>

Collor was succeeded by his vice-president, [[Itamar Franco]], who appointed [[Fernando Henrique Cardoso]] Minister of Finance. In 1994, Cardoso produced a highly successful [[Plano Real]],<ref>Skidmore, p. 311.</ref> that, after decades of failed economic plans made by previous governments attempting to curb hyperinflation, finally stabilized the Brazilian economy.{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|loc=Epilogue}}<ref>Fausto (2005), p. 482.</ref> Cardoso won the [[Brazilian presidential election, 1994|1994 election]], and [[Brazilian presidential election, 1998|again in 1998]].<ref>Fausto (2005), p. 474.</ref>

{{Multiple image
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| image1 = Ulyssesguimaraesconstituicao.jpg
| caption1 = [[Ulysses Guimarães]] holding the [[Constitution of Brazil|Constitution of 1988]] in his hands.
|image2 =1-real-2019-25-anos.png
|caption2 =Coin of [[Brazilian real|1 real]] commemorating 25 years of [[Real Plan]], which brought stability to the [[Economy of Brazil|Brazilian economy]] after [[Hyperinflation in Brazil|years of hyperinflation]].
}}

The [[peaceful transition of power]] from Cardoso to his main opposition leader, [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] ([[Brazilian presidential election, 2002|elected in 2002]] and [[Brazilian presidential election, 2006|re-elected in 2006]]), was seen as proof that Brazil had achieved a long-sought political stability.<ref>Fausto (2005), p. 502.</ref><ref>Zirin, 2014. Chapter 3</ref> However, sparked by indignation and frustrations accumulated over decades from corruption, [[police brutality]], inefficiencies of the political [[The Establishment|establishment]] and [[public service]], [[2013 protests in Brazil|numerous peaceful protests]] erupted in Brazil from the middle of first term of [[Dilma Rousseff]], who had succeeded Lula after winning election [[Brazilian presidential election, 2010|in 2010]] and again [[Brazilian presidential election, 2014|in 2014]] by narrow margins.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/22/urban-protest-changing-global-social-network "Global protest grows as citizens lose faith in politics and the State"] article on "the Guardian"</ref><ref>Zirin, 2014. Chapter 7 & Conclusion.</ref>

Rousseff [[Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff|was impeached]] by the [[Brazilian Congress]] in 2016, halfway into her second term,<ref name="auto1">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/31/dilma-rousseff-impeached-president-brazilian-senate-michel-temer |title=Dilma Rousseff impeached by Brazilian senate |author=Jonathan Watts & Donna Bowater |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=31 August 2016}}</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/01/world/americas/brazil-impeachment-coup.html Article of] New York Times about the denouement of Rousseff's impeachment process.</ref> and replaced by her Vice-President [[Michel Temer]], who assumed full presidential powers after Rousseff's impeachment was accepted on 31 August. Large street [[2015–16 protests in Brazil|protests for and against her]] took place during the impeachment process.<ref>[http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/28879ada-0499-11e6-96e5-f85cb08b0730.html#axzz46ZJ07xgT Article] in ''[[Financial Times]]'' (18 April 2016) about the political ambiance in Brazil on the day vote for the Deputies chamber decision about open an impeachment procedure against President Dilma. 2nd to 4th paragraph.</ref> The charges against her were fueled by political and economic crises along with evidence of involvement with politicians (from all the primary political parties) in several [[bribery]] and [[tax evasion]] schemes.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/20/opinion/dilma-rousseffs-impeachment-isnt-a-coup-its-a-cover-up.html Article] at [[The New York Times]], 19 April 2016, On the Brazilian political context that led to the approval of impeachment proceedings against Dilma Rousseff.</ref><ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-panama-tax-brazil-idUSKCN0X11C1 Article] at [[Reuters]] on the involvement of Brazilian politicians in tax evasion schemes unveiled by the [[Panama Papers]]. 4 April 2016.</ref>

In 2017, the Supreme Court requested the investigation of 71 Brazilian lawmakers and nine ministers of President [[Michel Temer]]'s cabinet who were allegedly linked to the [[Operation Car Wash|Petrobras corruption scandal]].<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/brazil-politics-probes-idUSL1N1HJ1NO? "Brazil supreme court judge orders probe into nine ministers – paper"]. Reuters. 11 April 2017.</ref> President Temer himself was also accused of [[Corruption in Brazil|corruption]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/26/world/americas/brazil-temer-corruption-charge-joesley-batista.html "President Michel Temer of Brazil Is Charged With Corruption"]. ''The New York Times''. 26 June 2017.</ref> According to a 2018 poll, 62% of the population said that corruption was Brazil's biggest problem.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2018/09/20/a-scary-election-in-brazil|title=A scary election in Brazil|work=The Economist|access-date=1 October 2018|language=en}}</ref>

Through the [[Operation Car Wash]], the [[Federal Police of Brazil]] has since acted on the deviations and corruption of the PT and allied parties at that time. In the fiercely disputed [[2018 Brazilian general election|2018 elections]], the controversial conservative candidate [[Jair Bolsonaro]] of the [[Social Liberal Party (Brazil)|Social Liberal Party]] (PSL) was elected president, winning in the second round [[Fernando Haddad]], of the [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|Workers Party]] (PT), with the support of 55.13% of the valid votes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://veja.abril.com.br/politica/jair-bolsonaro-e-eleito-presidente-do-brasil/|title=Jair Bolsonaro é eleito presidente do Brasil|website=veja.abril.com.br}}</ref>

In the early 2020s, Brazil became one of the hardest hit countries during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], receiving the second-highest death toll worldwide after the [[United States]].<ref name="BBCGuerin">{{cite news|last=Guerin|first=Orla|title=Covid-19 pandemic: 'Everything you should not do, Brazil has done'|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-57733540|access-date=2 August 2021|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=9 July 2021|location=[[Brasília]]}}</ref> Experts have largely blamed the situation on the leadership of President Bolsonaro, who throughout the pandemic has repeatedly downplayed the threat of COVID-19 and dissuaded states and cities from enforcing quarantine measures, prioritizing the nation's economy.<ref name="BBCGuerin"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Phillips|first=Tom|title=Bolsonaro's 'genocidal' Covid response has led to Brazilian catastrophe, Dilma Rousseff says|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/apr/10/brazil-bolsonaro-dilma-rousseff-coronavirus-crisis|access-date=2 August 2021|work=[[The Guardian]]|publisher=[[Guardian Media Group|Guardian News & Media Limited]]|date=10 April 2021|location=[[Rio de Janeiro]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Covid: Brazil's Bolsonaro calls governors 'tyrants' over lockdowns|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-56479614|access-date=2 August 2021|work=[[BBC News]]|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=22 March 2021}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Brazil}}
[[File:Brazil topo.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Topographic map of Brazil]]

Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of the continent's interior,<ref name="Encarta 6">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Land and Resources |encyclopedia=Encarta |publisher=MSN |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342/Brazil.html# |access-date=11 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028044617/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342/Brazil.html |archive-date=28 October 2009 |url-status=dead}} {{Dubious|date=January 2010}}</ref> sharing land borders with [[Uruguay]] to the south; [[Argentina]] and [[Paraguay]] to the southwest; [[Bolivia]] and [[Peru]] to the west; [[Colombia]] to the northwest; and [[Venezuela]], [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]] and [[France]] (French overseas region of [[French Guiana]]) to the north. It shares a border with every South American country except [[Ecuador]] and [[Chile]].<ref name="CIA Geo" />

It also encompasses a number of oceanic [[archipelago]]s, such as [[Fernando de Noronha]], [[Rocas Atoll]], [[Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago|Saint Peter and Paul Rocks]], and [[Trindade and Martim Vaz]].<ref name="CIA Geo" /> Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse.<ref name="Encarta 6" /> Including its [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] islands, Brazil lies between latitudes [[6th parallel north|6°N]] and [[34th parallel south|34°S]], and longitudes [[28th meridian west|28°]] and [[74th meridian west|74°W]].<ref name="CIA Geo" />

Brazil is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|fifth largest]] country in the world, and third largest in the Americas, with a total area of {{convert|8515767.049|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}},<ref name="Official Area">[http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/geociencias/cartografia/default_territ_area.shtm Official Area (In Portuguese)] {{Webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/64i0P2Lb0?url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/geociencias/cartografia/default_territ_area.shtm |date=15 January 2012 }} IBGE: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Retrieved 8 January 2010.</ref> including {{convert|55455|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} of water.<ref name="CIA Geo" /> It spans four [[time zone]]s; from [[UTC-05|UTC−5]] comprising the state of [[Acre (state)|Acre]] and the westernmost portion of [[Amazonas (Brazilian state)|Amazonas]], to [[UTC−04|UTC−4]] in the western states, to [[UTC−03|UTC−3]] in the eastern states (the [[Time in Brazil|national time]]) and [[UTC−02|UTC−2]] in the [[List of islands of Brazil|Atlantic islands]].<ref name="timezones">{{cite web |title=Hora Legal Brasileira |publisher=Observatório Nacional |url=http://pcdsh01.on.br/Fusbr.htm |access-date=28 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722173247/http://pcdsh01.on.br/Fusbr.htm |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Brazil is the longest country in the world, spanning 4,395 km (2,731 mi) from north to south. Brazil is also the only country in the world that has the [[equator]] and the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] running through it. Brazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between {{convert|200|m}} and {{convert|800|m}} in elevation.<ref name="Encarta 7">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Natural Regions |encyclopedia=Encarta |publisher=MSN |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342/Brazil.html# |access-date=11 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028044617/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342/Brazil.html |archive-date=28 October 2009 |url-status=dead}} {{Dubious|date=January 2010}}</ref> The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country.<ref name="Encarta 7" /> The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.<ref name="Encarta 7" />
[[File:Amanhecer no Hercules --.jpg|thumb|[[List of rock formations|Rock formations]] and the ''Dedo de Deus'' (God's Finger) peak in the background, [[Serra dos Órgãos National Park]], [[Rio de Janeiro state]]]]

The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to {{convert|1200|m}}.<ref name="Encarta 7" /> These ranges include the [[Mantiqueira Mountains|Mantiqueira]] and [[Espinhaço Mountains|Espinhaço]] mountains and the [[Serra do Mar]].<ref name="Encarta 7" /> In the north, the [[Guiana Shield|Guiana Highlands]] form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the [[Amazon Basin]] from rivers that empty into the [[Orinoco]] River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the [[Pico da Neblina]] at {{convert|2994|m}}, and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.<ref name="CIA Geo" />

Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic.<ref name="Encarta 8">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Rivers and Lakes |encyclopedia=Encarta |publisher=MSN |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342/Brazil.html |access-date=11 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028044617/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342/Brazil.html |archive-date=28 October 2009 |url-status=dead}} {{Dubious|date=January 2010}}</ref> Major rivers include the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the [[Paraná River|Paraná]] and its major tributary the [[Iguazu River|Iguaçu]] (which includes the [[Iguazu Falls]]), the [[Rio Negro (Amazon)|Negro]], [[São Francisco River|São Francisco]], [[Xingu River|Xingu]], [[Madeira River|Madeira]] and [[Tapajós]] rivers.<ref name="Encarta 8" />

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Brazil}}
[[File:Köppen Climate Classification Brazil.tiff|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Brazil map of [[Köppen climate classification]] zones]]

The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large area and varied topography, but most of the country is tropical.<ref name="CIA Geo" /> According to the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen system]], Brazil hosts six major climatic subtypes: [[Desert climate|desert]], [[Tropical rainforest climate|equatorial]], [[tropical climate|tropical]], [[Semi-arid climate|semiarid]], [[Oceanic climate|oceanic]] and [[Humid subtropical climate|subtropical]]. The different climatic conditions produce environments ranging from [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|equatorial rainforests]] in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to [[temperate coniferous forest]]s in the south and [[tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|tropical savannas]] in central Brazil.<ref name="BBC Weather">{{cite web |title=Brazil |website=Country Guide |publisher=BBC Weather |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT005220 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208034235/http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT005220 |archive-date=8 February 2011 |access-date=11 June 2008}}</ref> Many regions have starkly different [[microclimate]]s.<ref name="Encarta 9">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Natural Regions |encyclopedia=Encarta |publisher=MSN |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_2/Brazil.html |access-date=11 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029034943/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_2/Brazil.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 |url-status=dead}} {{Dubious|date=January 2010}}</ref><ref name="BT">{{cite web |title=Temperature in Brazil |publisher=Brazil Travel |url=http://www.v-brazil.com/information/geography/temperature-graphs.html |access-date=11 June 2008 |archive-date=12 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612200827/http://www.v-brazil.com/information/geography/temperature-graphs.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real [[dry season]], but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls.<ref name="BBC Weather" /> Temperatures average {{convert|25|°C}},<ref name="BT" /> with more significant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons.<ref name="Encarta 9" />

Over central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate.<ref name="Encarta 9" /> This region is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south at a higher altitude.<ref name="BBC Weather" /> In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme.<ref name="Rain" />

The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than {{convert|800|mm|1}} of rain,<ref name="Rain">{{cite web|url=http://www.cpatsa.embrapa.br/servicos/dadosmet/cem-anual.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070820215606/http://www.cpatsa.embrapa.br/servicos/dadosmet/cem-anual.html|archive-date=20 August 2007|title=Annual averages of Mandacaru Agro-meteorological station|author=Embrapa|language=pt|access-date=21 October 2008|author-link=Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária}}</ref> most of which generally falls in a period of three to five months of the year<ref>{{cite web|url=http://botany.si.edu/projects/cpd/sa/sa19.htm|title=CPD: South America, Site SA19, Caatinga of North-eastern Brazil, Brazil|publisher=Botany.si.edu|access-date=29 October 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606055642/http://botany.si.edu/projects/cpd/sa/sa19.htm|archive-date=6 June 2009}}</ref> and occasionally less than this, creating long periods of drought.<ref name="Encarta 9" /> Brazil's 1877–78 ''[[Grande Seca]]'' (Great Drought), the worst in Brazil's history,<ref>[http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/15/6/07-1331_article.htm "Drought, Smallpox, and Emergence of Leishmania braziliensis in Northeastern Brazil"]. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).</ref> caused approximately half a million deaths.<ref>[http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s8857.html "Ó Gráda, C.: Famine: A Short History"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112061115/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s8857.html |date=12 January 2016 }}. Princeton University Press.</ref> A similarly devastating drought occurred in 1915.<ref>[http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/W8514E/W8514E29.htm "Inland fishery enhancements"]. FAO.</ref>

South of Bahia, near the coasts, and more southerly most of the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year.<ref name="BBC Weather" /> The south enjoys subtropical conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding {{convert|18|°C|1}};<ref name="BT" /> winter frosts and [[Snow in Brazil|snowfall]] are not rare in the highest areas.<ref name="BBC Weather" /><ref name="Encarta 9" />

=== Biodiversity and environment ===
{{Main|Wildlife of Brazil|Deforestation in Brazil|Conservation in Brazil}}
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Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the [[Amazon rainforest]], recognized as having the greatest [[Biodiversity|biological diversity]] in the world,<ref name="WWF">{{cite web |title=One fifth of the world's freshwater |website=Amazon |publisher=World Wide Fund for Nature |date=6 August 2007 |url=http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/amazon/about_the_amazon/ecosystems_amazon/rivers/ |access-date=12 June 2008}}</ref> with the [[Atlantic Forest]] and the [[Cerrado]], sustaining the greatest biodiversity.<ref name="Encarta 10">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Plant and Animal Life |encyclopedia=Encarta |publisher=MSN |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_2/Brazil.html |access-date=12 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029034943/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_2/Brazil.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In the south, the [[Araucaria]] pine forest grows under temperate conditions.<ref name="Encarta 10" /> The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Scientists estimate that the total number of [[Wildlife of Brazil|plant]] and [[Wildlife of Brazil|animal species]] in Brazil could approach four million, mostly invertebrates.<ref name="Encarta 10" />

Larger mammals include carnivores [[Cougar|pumas]], [[jaguar]]s, [[ocelot]]s, rare [[bush dog]]s, and [[fox]]es, and herbivores [[peccary|peccaries]], [[tapir]]s, [[anteater]]s, [[sloth]]s, [[opossum]]s, and [[armadillo]]s. [[Deer]] are plentiful in the south, and many species of [[New World monkey]]s are found in the northern [[Rainforest|rain forests]].<ref name="Encarta 10" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Atlantic Forest, Brazil |work=Map: Biodiversity hotspots |publisher=BBC News |date=1 October 2004 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3707888.stm#brazil |access-date=12 June 2008}}</ref> Concern for the environment has grown in response to global interest in environmental issues.<ref name="Encarta 11">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Environmental Issues |encyclopedia=Encarta |publisher=MSN |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_2/Brazil.html |access-date=12 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029034943/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_2/Brazil.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Brazil's Amazon Basin is home to an extremely diverse array of fish species, including the [[red-bellied piranha]].
[[File:Amazon CIAT (5).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Amazon rainforest]], the most biodiverse [[rainforest]] in the world]]
By 2013, Brazil's "dramatic policy-driven reduction in Amazon Basin deforestation" was a "global exception in terms of forest change", according to scientific journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]''.<ref name="sciencemag_Hansen_20131115">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1244693| pmid = 24233722 | volume = 342| issue = 6160| pages = 850–853| last1 = Hansen| first1 = M. C.| last2 = Potapov| first2 = P. V.| last3 = Moore| first3 = R.| last4 = Hancher| first4 = M.| last5 = Turubanova| first5 = S. A.| last6 = Tyukavina| first6 = A.| last7 = Thau| first7 = D.| last8 = Stehman| first8 = S. V.| last9 = Goetz| first9 = S. J.| last10 = Loveland| first10 = T. R.| last11 = Kommareddy| first11 = A.| last12 = Egorov| first12 = A.| last13 = Chini| first13 = L.| last14 = Justice| first14 = C. O.| last15 = Townshend| first15 = J. R. G.| title = High-Resolution Global Maps of 21st-Century Forest Cover Change| journal = Science| date = 15 November 2013| bibcode = 2013Sci...342..850H| s2cid = 23541992 }}</ref>{{rp|852}} From 2003 to 2011, compared to all other countries in the world, Brazil had the "largest decline in annual forest loss", as indicated in the study using high-resolution satellite maps showing global forest cover changes.<ref name="sciencemag_Hansen_20131115" />{{rp|850}}
The annual loss of forest cover decreased from a 2003/2004 record high of more than {{convert|40,000|km2|e3ha e6acre mi2}} to a 2010/2011 low of under {{convert|20,000|km2|e3ha e6acre mi2}},<ref name="sciencemag_Hansen_20131115" />{{rp|850}} reversing widespread deforestation<ref name="sciencemag_Hansen_20131115" />{{rp|852}} from the 1970s to 2003.

In 2017, preserved native vegetation occupies 61% of the Brazilian territory. Agriculture occupied only 8% of the national territory and pastures 19.7%. <ref>[https://g1.globo.com/mato-grosso-do-sul/noticia/2017/01/vegetacao-nativa-preservada-ocupa-61-da-area-do-brasil-diz-embrapa.html Preserved native vegetation occupies 61% of Brazil's area, says Embrapa]</ref> In terms of comparison, in 2019, although 43% of the entire European continent has forests, only 3% of the total forest area in Europe is of native forest. <ref>[https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/internacional-50162105 How Europe has multiplied its forests and why this can be a problem]</ref>

In 2020 the government of Brazil pledged to reduce its annual [[greenhouse gas]]es emissions by 43% by 2030. It also set as indicative target of reaching [[carbon neutrality]] by the year 2060 if the country gets 10 billion dollars per year.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Felin |first1=Bruno |title=STATEMENT: Brazil Sets Weak 2030 Emission Reduction Target |url=https://www.wri.org/news/2020/12/statement-brazil-sets-weak-2030-emission-reduction-target |website=World Resources Institute |date=10 December 2020 |access-date=3 January 2021}}</ref>

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Brazil|Federal government of Brazil|Elections in Brazil}}
[[File:Reflexos do Planalto.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Palácio do Planalto]], the official workplace of the [[President of Brazil]].]]
The form of government is a [[Democracy|democratic]] [[Federation|federative]] [[republic]], with a [[presidential system]].<ref name="Constituição" /> The president is both head of state and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term,<ref name="Constituição" /> with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The current president is [[Jair Bolsonaro]]. The previous president, [[Michel Temer]], replaced [[Dilma Rousseff]] after her [[Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff|impeachment]].<ref name="auto">{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/08/31/americas/brazil-rousseff-impeachment-vote/index.html|title=Brazil's Senate ousts Rousseff in impeachment vote|first1=Catherine E. |last1=Shoichet |first2=Euan |last2=McKirdy|website=CNN|access-date=31 August 2016}}</ref> The President appoints the [[Minister of State|Ministers of State]], who assist in government.<ref name="Constituição" /> Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of law in Brazil. The [[National Congress of Brazil|National Congress]] is the Federation's bicameral legislature, consisting of the [[Chamber of Deputies of Brazil|Chamber of Deputies]] and the [[Senate of Brazil|Federal Senate]]. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively. Brazil is a [[democracy]], according to the [[Democracy Index]] 2010.<ref>{{cite web |title=Democracy Index 2010 |url=http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf|website=eiu.com|access-date=12 February 2016}}</ref>

The political-administrative organization of the Federative Republic of Brazil comprises the Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities.<ref name="Constituição" /> The Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities, are the "spheres of government". The [[federation]] is set on five fundamental principles:<ref name="Constituição" /> sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of human beings, the social values of labor and freedom of enterprise, and political [[pluralism (political theory)|pluralism]]. The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative and judicial under a checks and balances system) are formally established by the Constitution.<ref name="Constituição" /> The executive and legislative are organized [[Separation of powers|independently in all three spheres of government]], while the judiciary is organized only at the federal and state and Federal District spheres.

All members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected.<ref name=embassy>{{cite web |url=http://www.brasembottawa.org/en/brazil_in_brief/political_institution.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725100724/http://www.brasembottawa.org/en/brazil_in_brief/political_institution.html |archive-date=25 July 2011 |title=Embassy of Brazil – Ottawa |quote=Political Institutions – The Executive |access-date=19 July 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.citymayors.com/government/brazil_government.html |title=City Mayors |quote=Brazil federal, state and local government |access-date=19 July 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title = Contributions to the Physical Geography of the Mississippi River, and Its Delta|last = Fontaine|first = Edward|journal = Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York|issn = 1536-0407|volume = 3|year = 1872|pages = 343–78|doi = 10.2307/196424|jstor = 196424}}</ref> Judges and other judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams.<ref name=embassy /> For most of its democratic history, Brazil has had a multi-party system, proportional representation. Voting is compulsory for the literate between 18 and 70 years old and optional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 or beyond 70.<ref name="Constituição" />
[[File:Brasilia Congresso Nacional 05 2007 221.jpg|thumb|left|[[National Congress of Brazil|National Congress]], seat of the [[legislative branch]].]]

Together with several smaller parties, four political parties stand out: [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|Workers' Party]] (PT), [[Brazilian Social Democracy Party]] (PSDB), [[Brazilian Democratic Movement]] (MDB) and [[Democrats (Brazil)|Democrats]] (DEM). Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. It is common for politicians to switch parties, and thus the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.southtravels.com/america/brazil/government.html |title=Government – Brazil |publisher=Southtravels.com |date=5 October 1988 |access-date=17 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128075345/http://www.southtravels.com/america/brazil/government.html |archive-date=28 November 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Almost all governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive.

The country has more than 40 active political parties, and only one of them defines itself as a right-wing party ([[Social Liberal Party (Brazil)|PSL]]), with a clear political imbalance. The country has several far-left parties like [[Socialism and Liberty Party|PSOL]], [[Workers' Cause Party|PCO]], [[United Socialist Workers' Party|PSTU]], [[Brazilian Communist Party|PCB]], [[Communist Party of Brazil|PC do B]], left parties like [[Workers' Party (Brazil)|PT]], [[Brazilian Socialist Party|PSB]], [[Democratic Labour Party (Brazil)|PDT]], [[Green Party (Brazil)|PV]], [[Sustainability Network|Rede]] and [[Solidariedade]] and center-left like [[Brazilian Social Democracy Party|PSDB]], [[Democrats (Brazil)|DEM]], [[Party of National Mobilization|PMN]] and [[Cidadania]]. Ten parties declare themselves as the center: [[Brazilian Democratic Movement|MDB]], [[Liberal Party (Brazil, 2006)|PL]], [[Social Democratic Party (Brazil, 2011)|PSD]], [[Christian Labour Party|PTC]], [[Christian Democracy (Brazil)|DC]], [[Republican Party of the Social Order|PROS]], [[Avante (political party)|Avante]], [[Patriota]], [[Podemos (Brazil)|Podemos]] and [[Party of the Brazilian Woman|PMB]]. Five parties declare themselves as center-right: [[Brazilian Labour Party (current)|PTB]], [[Progressistas]], [[Social Christian Party (Brazil)|PSC]], [[Brazilian Labour Renewal Party|PRTB]] and [[Republicans (Brazil)|Republicanos]]. The only party that claims to be purely liberal, without further consideration, is [[New Party (Brazil)|Novo]]. When asked about their ideological spectrum, Brazilian parties tend to give obtuse and non-conclusive answers on the subject.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gazetadopovo.com.br/republica/apenas-um-partido-se-define-como-de-direita-no-brasil-esquerda-tem-sete/|title=Apenas um partido se define como de direita no Brasil; Esquerda tem sete|website=Gazeta do Povo}}</ref>

=== Law ===
{{Main|Law of Brazil|Law enforcement in Brazil|Crime in Brazil}}

[[File:Supremo Brasil.jpg|thumb|left|[[Supreme Federal Court of Brazil]] serves primarily as the Constitutional Court of the country]]

Brazilian law is based on the [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] legal system<ref>[http://www.oas.org/juridico/mla/en/bra/en_bra-int-des-ordrjur.html "The Brazilian Legal System"], Organization of American States. Retrieved 17 May 2007.</ref> and [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] concepts prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are seldom binding on other specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases.

The legal system is based on the [[Constitution of Brazil|Federal Constitution]], promulgated on 5 October 1988, and the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules.<ref>José Afonso da Silva, ''Curso de Direito Constitucional Positivo'' (Malheiros, 2004; {{ISBN|85-7420-559-1}}), p. 46.</ref> {{As of|2007|04}}, there have been 53 amendments. States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution.<ref>Silva, ''Curso de Direito Constitucional Positivo'', p. 592.</ref> Municipalities and the Federal District have "organic laws" ({{lang|pt|leis orgânicas}}), which act in a similar way to constitutions.<ref name="DeffentiBarral2011">{{cite book|author1=Fabiano Deffenti|author2=Welber Oliveira Barral|title=Introduction to Brazilian Law|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Ba2J5eD8wYC&pg=PA20|access-date=6 June 2013|year=2011|publisher=Kluwer Law International|isbn=978-90-411-2506-4|pages=20–}}</ref> Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary and executive bodies may enact legal norms.<ref name="Constituição" /> Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the [[Constitution of Brazil|Federal Constitution]] allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments.<ref name="Constituição" /> There are also specialized military, labor, and electoral courts.<ref name="Constituição" /> The highest court is the [[Supreme Federal Court]].

This system has been criticized over the last few decades for the slow pace of decision-making. Lawsuits on appeal may take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings.<ref>Miguel Glugoski and Odete Medauar, [http://www.usp.br/jorusp/arquivo/2003/jusp667/pag0304.htm "Nossos direitos nas suas mãos"], [[University of São Paulo|USP]] Journal, 24–30 November 2003. Retrieved 17 May 2007.</ref> Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal was the first court in the world to transmit its sessions on television, and also via [[YouTube]].<ref>Diego Abreu, [http://g1.globo.com/Noticias/Brasil/0,,MUL1326475-5598,00.html "Primeira Corte do mundo a ter canal de vídeo no YouTube é o STF"], [http://g1.globo.com/ G1]. {{in lang|pt}} Accessed 12 October 2009.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110706160609/http://esma.tjpb.jus.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=109%3Astf-primeira-corte-no-mundo-no-youtube&catid=1%3Anoticias&Itemid=20 "STF: Primeira corte do mundo no YouTube"]. [http://esma.tjpb.jus.br/ ESMA-PB]. {{in lang|pt}} Accessed 12 October 2009.</ref> In December 2009, the Supreme Court adopted [[Twitter]] to display items on the day planner of the ministers, to inform the daily actions of the Court and the most important decisions made by them.<ref>[http://www.stf.jus.br/portal/cms/verNoticiaDetalhe.asp?idConteudo=117153 "Página do STF no Twitter está no ar"] (12 January 2009). [http://www.stf.jus.br/ STF Official Website]. {{in lang|pt}} Consulted on 5 December 2009.</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Brazilian Armed Forces}}
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| image1 = 23 10 2020 Comemoração do Dia do Aviador e da Força Aérea Brasileira (50521336872) (cropped).jpg
| caption1 = [[Brazilian Air Force]] [[Saab JAS 39 Gripen#Brazil|Saab Gripen NG]]
| image2 = GLAM MB Chegada do PHM "Atlântico" (29323273127).jpg
| caption2 = [[Brazilian Navy]]'s [[flagship]] [[PHM Atlântico|PHM ''Atlântico'']]
}}
The armed forces of Brazil are the [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|largest]] in Latin America by active personnel and the largest in terms of military equipment.<ref>[http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EMI14439-15273-2,00-UMA+NOVA+AGENDA+MILITAR.html Uma Nova Agenda Militar] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325232014/http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0%2C%2CEMI14439-15273-2%2C00-UMA%2BNOVA%2BAGENDA%2BMILITAR.html |date=25 March 2017 }} Revista Época. Retrieved on 19 February 2009.</ref> It consists of the [[Brazilian Army]] (including the [[Brazilian Army Aviation Command|Army Aviation Command]]), the [[Brazilian Navy]] (including the [[Brazilian Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] and [[Brazilian Naval Aviation|Naval Aviation]]), and the [[Brazilian Air Force]]. Brazil's [[conscription]] policy gives it one of the world's largest military forces, estimated at more than 1.6 million [[Military Reserve|reservists]] annually.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/|title=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA|access-date=26 March 2010}}</ref>

Numbering close to 236,000 active personnel,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2004-2006/2006/Decreto/D5670.htm|title=Decreto Nº 5.670 de 10 de Janeiro de 2006|publisher=Presidência da República|language=pt|access-date=2 October 2010}}</ref> the Brazilian Army has the largest number of armored vehicles in [[South America]], including armored transports and [[battle tank|tanks]].<ref name="militarypower1" /> It is also unique in Latin America for its large, elite forces specializing in unconventional missions, the [[Brazilian Special Operations Command]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bdaopesp.eb.mil.br/ |title=Brigada de Operações Especiais |editor=Exército |access-date=21 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923015650/https://www.bdaopesp.eb.mil.br/ |archive-date=23 September 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defesanet.com.br/sof/cb_bda_opesp_1.htm|title=Defesanet – Brigada de operações especiais|access-date=27 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://tropaselite.t35.com/BRASIL_Brigada_de_Operacoes_Especiais_Parte-1.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028052113/http://tropaselite.t35.com/BRASIL_Brigada_de_Operacoes_Especiais_Parte-1.htm|archive-date=28 October 2010|title=Brigada de Operações Especiais – Bda Op Esp|website=tropaselite.t35.com|access-date=27 June 2010}}</ref> and the versatile Strategic Rapid Action Force, made up of highly mobilized and prepared Special Operations Brigade, [[Parachute Infantry Brigade (Brazil)|Infantry Brigade Parachutist]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.militarypower.com.br/combatentes.htm|title=Military Power|access-date=27 June 2010|place=Brasil}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bdainfpqdt.eb.mil.br/|title=Brigada de Infantaria Pára-quedista|publisher=Exército|access-date=21 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605010004/http://www.bdainfpqdt.eb.mil.br/|archive-date=5 June 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> 1st Jungle Infantry Battalion (Airmobile)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1bis.eb.mil.br/|title=1º Batalhão de Infantaria de Selva (Aeromóvel)|publisher=Exército|access-date=27 June 2010}}</ref> and 12th Brigade Light Infantry (Airmobile)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bdaamv.eb.mil.br/|title=12º Brigada de Infantaria Leve (Aeromóvel)|publisher=Exército|place=Brasil|access-date=27 June 2010}}</ref> able to act anywhere in the country, on short notice, to counter external aggression.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tropaselite.t35.com/BRASIL_FORCA%20DE%20ACAO%20RAPIDA.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018073453/http://tropaselite.t35.com/BRASIL_FORCA%20DE%20ACAO%20RAPIDA.htm|archive-date=18 October 2010|title=Força de Ação Rápida – FAR|website=tropaselite.t35.com|access-date=27 June 2010}}</ref> The states' [[Military Police (Brazil)|Military Police]] and the [[Military Firefighters Corps]] are described as an ancillary forces of the Army by the constitution, but are under the control of each state's governor.<ref name="Constituição" />

Brazil's navy, the second-largest in the Americas, once operated some of the most powerful warships in the world with the two {{Sclass|Minas Geraes|battleship|0}} [[dreadnought]]s, which sparked a [[South American dreadnought race]] between Argentina, Brazil, and Chile.<ref>Scheina (1987), p. 81.</ref> Today, it is a [[green-water navy|green water]] force and has a group of specialized elite in retaking ships and naval facilities, [[GRUMEC]], unit specially trained to protect Brazilian oil platforms along its coast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tropaselite.t35.com/BRASIL_GRUMEC.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327162505/http://tropaselite.t35.com/BRASIL_GRUMEC.htm|archive-date=27 March 2010|title=Grupamento de Mergulhadores de Combate – GruMeC|website=tropaselite.t35.com|access-date=27 June 2010}}</ref> It is the only navy in Latin America that operates an [[aircraft carrier]], [[PHM Atlantico]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mar.mil.br/menu_v/ccsm/perguntas/perguntas_mais_frequentes.htm#44.44 |number=44 |title=More asked questions |publisher=Marinha |access-date=16 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714231056/https://www.mar.mil.br/menu_v/ccsm/perguntas/perguntas_mais_frequentes.htm |archive-date=14 July 2007}}</ref> and one of the ten navies of the world to operate one.<ref name="militarypower1">{{cite web|place=Brasil|url=http://www.militarypower.com.br/mundo.htm|title=Military Power|access-date=27 June 2010}}</ref>

The Air Force is the largest in Latin America and has about 700 manned aircraft in service and effective about 67,000 personnel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fab.mil.br/portal/imprensa/fab_numeros.php |title=Sala de imprensa – FAB em números |publisher=Força Aérea Brasileira |language=pt |access-date=12 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617153748/http://www.fab.mil.br/portal/imprensa/fab_numeros.php |archive-date=17 June 2008}}</ref>

Brazil has not been invaded since 1865 during the [[Paraguayan War]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EMI14439-15273-3,00-UMA+NOVA+AGENDA+MILITAR.html |title=Especial – NOTÍCIAS – Uma nova agenda militar |publisher=Revistaepoca.globo.com |access-date=19 June 2010}}</ref> Additionally, Brazil has no contested territorial disputes with any of its neighbors<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/ |title=CIA – The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=2 October 2013}}</ref> and neither does it have rivalries, like Chile and Bolivia have with each other.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200610/25/eng20061025_315049.html |title=People's Daily Online – Bolivia bans Argentina from reselling gas to Chile |publisher=English.peopledaily.com.cn |date=25 October 2006 |access-date=19 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3632235.stm |work=BBC News |title=Fresh anger over Bolivia gas plan |date=16 April 2004 |access-date=1 April 2010}}</ref> The Brazilian military has also three times intervened militarily to overthrow the [[Government of Brazil|Brazilian government]].<ref name="revistaepoca.globo.com">{{cite web|url=http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/1,,EMI14440-15273,00.html |title=Especial – NOTÍCIAS – Os pés de barro de um gigante |publisher=Revistaepoca.globo.com |access-date=19 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825094407/http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/1%2C%2CEMI14440-15273%2C00.html |archive-date=25 August 2010 }}</ref> It has built a tradition of participating in UN [[peacekeeping]] missions such as in [[Haiti]], [[East Timor]] and [[Central African Republic]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/01/world/brazil-is-leading-a-largely-south-american-mission-to-haiti.html |work=The New York Times |title=Brazil Is Leading a Largely South American Mission to Haiti |first=Larry |last=Rohter |date=1 August 2004 |access-date=1 April 2010}}</ref> Brazil signed the UN [[treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |title=Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection |date=7 July 2017}}</ref>

=== Foreign policy ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Brazil}}
[[File:Brasilia-2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Itamaraty Palace]], the seat of the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Brazil)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]]]]

Brazil's international relations are based on Article 4 of the [[Constitution of Brazil|Federal Constitution]], which establishes [[Non-interventionism|non-intervention]], [[self-determination]], [[Internationalism (politics)|international cooperation]] and the [[Peacebuilding|peaceful settlement of conflicts]] as the guiding principles of Brazil's relationship with other countries and multilateral organizations.<ref>[http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/titleI.html Article 4 of the Federal Constitution of Brazil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928070506/http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/titleI.html |date=28 September 2018 }} V-Brazil. Retrieved on 20 September 2011.</ref> According to the Constitution, the [[President of Brazil|President]] has ultimate authority over foreign policy, while the [[National Congress of Brazil|Congress]] is tasked with reviewing and considering all diplomatic nominations and [[Treaty|international treaties]], as well as legislation relating to Brazilian foreign policy.<ref>[http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/titleIV.html Article 84 of the Federal Constitution of Brazil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190919114914/http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/titleIV.html |date=19 September 2019 }} V-Brazil. Retrieved on 20 September 2011.</ref>

Brazil's foreign policy is a by-product of the country's position as a [[regional power]] in [[Latin America]], a leader among [[developing countries]], and an emerging [[world power]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090710013700/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/news/docs/RL33456.pdf U.S. Congressional Report on Brazil] [[United States Congress]]. Retrieved on 23 June 2009.</ref> Brazilian foreign policy has generally been based on the principles of [[multilateralism]], peaceful dispute settlement, and [[non-interventionism|non-intervention]] in the affairs of other countries.<ref>Georges D. Landau, "The Decision-making Process in Foreign Policy: The Case of Brazil", Center for Strategic and International Studies: Washington DC: March 2003</ref> Brazil is a founding member state of the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of [[Lusophone]] nations across four continents, where [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is an official language.

An increasingly well-developed tool of Brazil's foreign policy is providing aid as a donor to other developing countries.<ref name="ODI1">Cabral and Weinstock 2010. [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5120&title=brazil-election-emerging-donor-aid Brazil: an emerging aid player] ({{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113185641/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5120&title=brazil-election-emerging-donor-aid|date=13 January 2011}}). London: [[Overseas Development Institute]]</ref> Brazil does not just use its growing economic strength to provide financial aid, but it also provides high levels of expertise and most importantly of all, a quiet non-confrontational diplomacy to improve governance levels.<ref name="ODI1" /> Total aid is estimated to be around $1 billion per year, which includes.<ref name="ODI1" /> In addition, Brazil already managed a [[United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti|peacekeeping mission in Haiti]] ($350 million) and makes in-kind contributions to the [[World Food Programme]] ($300 million).<ref name="ODI1" /> This is in addition to humanitarian assistance and contributions to multilateral development agencies. The scale of this aid places it on par with China and India.<ref name=ODI1 /> The Brazilian [[South-South]] aid has been described as a "global model in waiting".<ref>Cabral, Lidia 2010. [http://blogs.odi.org.uk/blogs/main/archive/2010/07/22/brazil_south_south_cooperation.aspx Brazil's development cooperation with the South: a global model in waiting] ({{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430190841/http://blogs.odi.org.uk/blogs/main/archive/2010/07/22/brazil_south_south_cooperation.aspx|date=30 April 2011}}). London: [[Overseas Development Institute]]</ref>

=== Law enforcement and crime ===

{{Main|Law enforcement in Brazil|Crime in Brazil}}
[[File:COT (6883689782).jpg|thumb|left|Field agents of the [[Federal Police of Brazil|Federal Police]]'s [[Comando de Operações Táticas|Tactical Operations Command]].]]
In Brazil, the [[Constitution of Brazil|Constitution]] establishes five different police agencies for law enforcement: [[Federal Police Department]], [[Federal Highway Police (Brazil)|Federal Highway Police]], [[Federal Railroad Police]], [[Military Police (Brazil)|Military Police]] and [[Civil Police (Brazil)|Civil Police]]. Of these, the first three are affiliated with federal authorities and the last two are subordinate to state governments. All police forces are the responsibility of the executive branch of any of the federal or state powers.<ref name="Constituição" /> The [[National Public Security Force]] also can act in public disorder situations arising anywhere in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brasil.gov.br/defesa-e-seguranca/2012/05/ordem-publica-e-prioridade-da-forca-nacional-de-seguranca |title=Ordem pública é prioridade da Força Nacional de Segurança |publisher=Portal Brasil |date=29 April 2012 |access-date=8 February 2015}}</ref>

The country still has above-average levels of violent crime and particularly high levels of gun violence and homicide. In 2012, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimated the number of 32 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the [[List of countries by intentional homicide rate|highest rates of homicide of the world]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://brasil.estadao.com.br/noticias/geral,brasil-tem-maior-numero-absoluto-de-homicidios-do-mundo,1604827|title=Brasil tem maior número absoluto de homicídios do mundo|publisher=[[O Estado de S. Paulo]]|date=10 December 2014}}</ref> The number considered tolerable by the WHO is about 10 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Secretaria de Segurança Pública do Estado de São Paulo |url=http://www.ssp.sp.gov.br/estatistica/dados.aspx?id=E |title=Taxa de delito por 100 mil habitantes |date=31 January 2011 |access-date=14 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811121142/http://www.ssp.sp.gov.br/estatistica/dados.aspx?id=E |archive-date=11 August 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2018, Brazil had a record 63,880 murders.<ref>{{cite news |title=A Year of Violence Sees Brazil's Murder Rate Hit Record High |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/10/world/americas/brazil-murder-rate-record.html |work=The New York Times |date=10 August 2018}}</ref> However, there are differences between the crime rates in the [[States of Brazil|Brazilian states]]. While in [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] the homicide rate registered in 2013 was 10.8 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, in [[Alagoas]] it was 64.7 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://exame.abril.com.br/brasil/noticias/uma-pessoa-e-assassinada-a-cada-dez-minutos-no-brasil|title=Os estados com mais homicídios no Brasil|magazine=[[Exame]]|date=11 November 2014|access-date=5 February 2015}}</ref>

Brazil also has high levels of incarceration and the third largest prison population in the world (behind only [[China]] and the [[United States]]), with an estimated total of approximately 700,000 prisoners around the country (June 2014), an increase of about 300% compared to the index registered in 1992.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/cotidiano/2014/06/1465527-brasil-passa-a-russia-e-tem-a-terceira-maior-populacao-carceraria-do-mundo.shtml|title=Brasil passa a Rússia e tem a terceira maior população carcerária do mundo|newspaper=[[Folha de S.Paulo]]|date=5 June 2014}}</ref> The high number of prisoners eventually overloaded the Brazilian prison system, leading to a shortfall of about 200,000 accommodations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/brasil/noticia/2014/01/brasil-tem-hoje-deficit-de-200-mil-vagas-no-sistema-prisional.html|title=Brasil tem hoje deficit de 200 mil vagas no sistema prisional|publisher=G1|date=15 January 2014|access-date=21 March 2014}}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{| class="infobox"
|style="text-align: center;"|{{Brazil Labelled Map}}[[States of Brazil]] and [[Regions of Brazil]]
|}
{{Main|States of Brazil|Municipalities of Brazil}}
{{See also|Regions of Brazil}}
Brazil is a federation composed of 26 [[Federated state|states]], one [[federal district]], and the 5570 [[Municipality|municipalities]].<ref name="Constituição" /> States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite this, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can be voted by only the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.<ref name="Constituição" />

The states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: [[Northern Region, Brazil|Northern]], [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast]], [[Central-West Region, Brazil|Central-West]], [[Southeast Region, Brazil|Southeast]] and [[Southern Region, Brazil|Southern]]. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and they do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and also to define the distribution of federal funds in development projects.

Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government.<ref name="Constituição" /> Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called ''[[comarca]]'' (county).

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Brazil}}
[[File:Brazil Product Exports (2019).svg|upright=1.3|thumb|left|A proportional representation of Brazil exports, 2019]]
{{See also|Brazilian real|Agriculture in Brazil|Mining in Brazil|Industry in Brazil}}

Brazil is the largest national economy in [[Latin America]], the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|world's ninth largest economy]] and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|eighth largest]] in [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) according to 2018 estimates. Brazil has a [[mixed economy]] with abundant natural resources. After rapid growth in preceding decades, the country [[2014–2016 Brazilian economic recession|entered an ongoing recession in 2014]] amid a political corruption scandal and nationwide protests.

Its [[Gross domestic product]] (PPP) per capita was $15,919 in 2017<ref name="imf">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2015&ey=2020&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=54&pr1.y=7&c=223&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=Brazil |publisher=International Monetary Fund (IMF) |access-date=1 April 2016}}</ref> putting Brazil in the 77th position according to IMF data. Active in [[agriculture|agricultural]], mining, manufacturing and [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service sectors]] Brazil has a labor force of over 107 million (ranking 6th worldwide) and unemployment of 6.2% (ranking 64th worldwide).<ref name="CIA Econ">{{cite web |title=Economy of Brazil |website=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |year=2008 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/ |access-date=3 June 2008}}</ref>

The country has been expanding its presence in international financial and [[commodity market|commodities markets]], and is one of a group of four emerging economies called the [[BRIC]] countries.<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Neill |first=Jim |author-link=Jim O'Neill (economist) |title=BRICs |publisher=Goldman Sachs |url=http://www.goldmansachs.com/our-thinking/ |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref> Brazil has been the world's largest [[Coffee production in Brazil|producer of coffee]] for the last 150 years.<ref name="Neilson102">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wokuHhx1AOUC&pg=PA1834|page=102|title=Value Chain Struggles|author1=Jeff Neilson |author2=Bill Pritchard |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4443-5544-4}}</ref> The country is a major exporter of soy, iron ore, pulp (cellulose), maize, beef, chicken meat, soybean meal, sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, orange juice, footwear, airplanes, cars, vehicle parts, gold, ethanol, semi-finished iron, among other products.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fazcomex.com.br/|title=Fazcomex Tecnologia para Comércio Exterior – Soluções para Comex|website=Fazcomex | Tecnologia para Comércio Exterior}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aviculturaindustrial.com.br/imprensa/agronegocio-tem-oito-entre-dez-produtos-líderes-das-exportacoes-brasileiras/20200102-130051-c255|title=Agronegócio tem oito entre os dez produtos líderes das exportações brasileiras em 2019|website=Avicultura Industrial}}</ref>
{{multiple image
|direction = vertical
|align = right
|width = 220
|image1 = Sao Paulo Stock Exchange.jpg
| caption1 = Quotes panel in the interior of [[B3 (stock exchange)|B3]], in [[São Paulo]], one of the [[List of stock exchanges|top 20 stock exchanges by market capitalization]].
|image2 = Ronodonópolis colheita soja (Roosevelt Pinheiro) 28mar09.jpg
|caption2 = [[Soybean]] crop in [[Rondonópolis]], [[Mato Grosso]].<ref name="exportaçãoagrícola">{{cite news|title=Brasil será maior exportador agrícola mundial em 2024|publisher=EXAME|date=1 July 2015|url=https://exame.abril.com.br/economia/brasil-sera-maior-exportador-agricola-mundial-em-2024/|access-date=9 May 2018|language=pt|archive-date=9 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509220949/https://exame.abril.com.br/economia/brasil-sera-maior-exportador-agricola-mundial-em-2024/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|image3 = KC-390 - RIAT 2018 (41847171670).jpg
| caption3 = The [[KC-390]], developed by [[Embraer]], the third largest producer of [[civil aircraft]], after [[Boeing]] and [[Airbus]].<ref>{{cite web|title = Embraer vê clientes mais dispostos à compra de aviões |publisher = Exame Magazine |url = http://exame.abril.com.br/negocios/empresas/noticias/embraer-ve-clientes-mais-dispostos-compra-avioes-554715 |access-date = 8 February 2014|date = 10 October 2010 }}</ref>
|image4 = Oil platform P-51 (Brazil).jpg
|caption4 = P-51, an [[oil platform]] of [[Petrobras]], one of the largest public companies in the world.<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.forbes.com/companies/petrobras/?sh=4a2b30dd2dea | title= Forbes Global 2000 | access-date = 31 October 2020}}</ref>
|image5=Perdigão Agroindustrial.jpg
|caption5=Industry of [[BRF S.A.]] in [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]]. Brazil is a major meat exporter.
}}

Brazil's diversified economy includes agriculture, industry, and a wide range of services.<ref name="BansalPhatak2009">{{cite book|author1=Alok Bansal|author2=Yogeshwari Phatak|author3=I C Gupta|author4=Rajendra Jain|title=Transcending Horizons Through Innovative Global Practices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wm4IWvB4rEUC&pg=PA29|year= 2009|publisher=Excel Books |isbn=978-81-7446-708-9|page=29}}</ref> [[Agriculture in Brazil|Agriculture]] and allied sectors like [[forestry]], [[logging]] and fishing accounted for 5.1% of the [[gross domestic product|GDP]] in 2007.<ref name="CIA GDP">{{cite web |title=Field Listing – GDP – composition by sector |website=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |year=2008 |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2012.html |access-date=9 June 2008}}</ref> Brazil is the [[List of largest producing countries of agricultural commodities|largest producer of various agricultural commodities]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/|title=FAOSTAT|website=www.fao.org}}</ref> and also has a large [[cooperative]] sector that provides 50% of the food in the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ica.coop/en/media/news/how-are-agricultural-co-operatives-making-difference-brazil|title=How are agricultural co-operatives making a difference in Brazil? {{pipe}} ICA|website=ica.coop}}</ref> The world's largest healthcare cooperative [[Unimed (organization)|Unimed]] is also located in Brazil, and accounts for 32% of the healthcare insurance market in the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenews.coop/97242/sector/health/20-million-brazilians-rely-co-operative-healthcare/|title=Why 20 million Brazilians rely on a co-operative for healthcare|date=20 August 2015}}</ref>

Brazil is one of the largest producers of animal proteins in the world. In 2019, the country was the world's largest exporter of chicken meat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aviculturaindustrial.com.br/imprensa/conheca-os-3-paises-que-desafiam-o-brasil-nas-exportacoes-de-frango/20200122-093443-o532|title=Conheça os 3 países que desafiam o Brasil nas exportações de frango|website=Avicultura Industrial}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.farmnews.com.br/mercado/maiores-exportadores-de-carne-de-frango/|title=Maiores exportadores de carne de frango entre 2015 e 2019|first=Ivan|last=Formigoni|date=30 May 2019}}</ref> It was also the world's second largest producer of beef,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.beefpoint.com.br/ibge-rebanho-de-bovinos-tinha-21823-milhoes-de-cabecas-em-2016/|title=IBGE: rebanho de bovinos tinha 218,23 milhões de cabeças em 2016 {{pipe}} BeefPoint|website=beefpoint.com.br}}</ref> third largest producer of milk,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://agronewsbrazil.com.br/brasil-e-o-3o-maior-produtor-de-leite-do-mundo-superando-o-padrao-europeu-em-alguns-municipios/|title=Brasil é o 3º maior produtor de leite do mundo, superando o padrão Europeu em alguns municípios|date=8 February 2020|access-date=15 August 2020|archive-date=17 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917042822/https://agronewsbrazil.com.br/brasil-e-o-3o-maior-produtor-de-leite-do-mundo-superando-o-padrao-europeu-em-alguns-municipios/|url-status=dead}}</ref> fourth largest producer of pork<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.farmnews.com.br/mercado/principais-paises-produtores-de-carne-suina/|title=Principais países produtores de carne suína entre 2017 e 2019|date=23 July 2019}}</ref> and seventh largest producer of eggs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aviculturaindustrial.com.br/imprensa/brasil-e-setimo-maior-produtor-mundial-de-ovos/20171113-144114-a215|title=Brasil é sétimo maior produtor mundial de ovos|website=Avicultura Industrial}}</ref>

In the [[Mining in Brazil|mining sector]], Brazil stands out in the extraction of [[iron ore]] (the second highest world exporter), copper, gold,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://noticias.r7.com/brasil/brasil-extrai-cerca-de-2-gramas-de-ouro-por-habitante-em-5-anos-29062019|title=Brasil extrai cerca de 2 gramas de ouro por habitante em 5 anos|date=29 June 2019|website=R7.com}}</ref> [[bauxite]] (one of the five largest producers in the world), [[manganese]] (one of the five largest producers in the world), [[tin]] (one of the largest producers in the world), [[niobium]] (concentrates 98% of reserves known to the world)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://g1.globo.com/economia/noticia/2019/12/12/niobio-g1-visita-em-mg-complexo-industrial-do-maior-produtor-do-mundo.ghtml|title=Nióbio: G1 visita em MG complexo industrial do maior produtor do mundo|website=G1}}</ref> and [[nickel]]. In terms of precious stones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of [[amethyst]], [[topaz]], [[agate]] and one of the main producers of [[tourmaline]], [[emerald]], [[aquamarine (gemstone)|aquamarine]] and [[garnet]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cprm.gov.br/publique/Redes-Institucionais/Rede-de-Bibliotecas---Rede-Ametista/Algumas-Gemas-Classicas-1104.html|title=Serviço Geológico do Brasil|website=cprm.gov.br}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://noticias.band.uol.com.br/noticias/100000911432/rio-grande-do-sul-o-maior-exportador-de-pedras-preciosas-do-brasil.html|title=Rio Grande do Sul: o maior exportador de pedras preciosas do Brasil|website=Band.com.br}}</ref>

[[Industry in Brazil]] - from automobiles, steel and [[petrochemical]]s to computers, aircraft and [[durable good|consumer durables]] - accounted for 30.8% of the gross domestic product.<ref name="CIA GDP" /> Industry is highly concentrated in metropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, [[Campinas]], [[Porto Alegre]], and [[Belo Horizonte]].<ref name="GiordanoLanzafame2005">{{cite book|author1=Paolo Maria Giordano|author2=Francesco Lanzafame|author3=Jörg Meyer-Stamer|title=Asymmetries in Regional Integration And Local Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HZoGDAc_y0C&pg=PA129|year=2005|publisher=IDB|isbn=978-1-59782-004-2|page=129}}</ref> Brazil has become the fourth largest car market in the world.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gasnier |first=Mat|date=15 January 2012|title=The 20 biggest car markets in the world: Russia on the up! |publisher=Best Selling Cars |url=http://bestsellingcarsblog.com/2012/01/15/the-20-biggest-car-markets-in-the-world-russia-on-the-up/ |access-date=17 November 2014}}</ref> Major export products include aircraft, electrical equipment, automobiles, [[ethanol fuel|ethanol]], textiles, footwear, iron ore, steel, coffee, orange juice, soybeans and [[corned beef]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The economy of heat |newspaper=The Economist |date=12 April 2007 |url=https://www.economist.com/node/8952496?story_id=8952496 |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref> In total, Brazil ranks 23rd worldwide in [[List of countries by exports|value of exports]]. In the [[food industry]], in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://alimentosprocessados.com.br/industria-na-sociedade-brasileira.php|title=Alimentos Processados {{pipe}} A indústria de alimentos e bebidas na sociedade brasileira atual|website=alimentosprocessados.com.br}}</ref> In 2016, the country was the 2nd largest producer of [[Pulp (paper)|pulp]] in the world and the 8th producer of paper.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://valor.globo.com/empresas/noticia/2020/02/21/producao-nacional-de-celulose-cai-66percent-em-2019-aponta-iba.ghtml|title=Produção nacional de celulose cai 6,6% em 2019, aponta Ibá|website=Valor Econômico}}</ref> In the [[footwear industry]], in 2019, Brazil ranked 4th among world producers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://g1.globo.com/sp/ribeirao-preto-franca/noticia/2019/07/14/industrias-calcadistas-em-franca-sp-registram-queda-de-40percent-nas-vagas-de-trabalho-em-6-anos.ghtml|title=Indústrias calçadistas em Franca, SP registram queda de 40% nas vagas de trabalho em 6 anos|website=G1}}</ref> In 2019, the country was the 8th producer of vehicles and the 9th producer of steel in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://diariodocomercio.com.br/livre/minas-gerais-produz-323-do-aco-nacional-em-2019/|title=Minas Gerais produz 32,3% do aço nacional em 2019|first=Diário do|last=Comércio|date=24 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.istoedinheiro.com.br/o-novo-mapa-das-montadoras/|title=O novo mapa das montadoras, que agora rumam para o interior do País|date=8 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://g1.globo.com/rj/sul-do-rio-costa-verde/noticia/industria-automobilistica-do-sul-do-rio-impulsiona-superavit-na-economia.ghtml|title=Indústria automobilística do Sul do Rio impulsiona superavit na economia|website=G1}}</ref> In 2018, the [[chemical industry]] of Brazil was the 8th in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pwc.com.br/pt/publicacoes/setores-atividade/assets/quimico-petroquimico/2013/pwc-chemicals-port-13.pdf|title=Indústria Química no Brasil}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/br/Documents/energy-resources/Deloitte-Abiquim-Setor-Quimico-Relatorio.pdf|title=Estudo de 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://economia.uol.com.br/noticias/estadao-conteudo/2020/02/03/producao-nacional-da-industria-de-quimicos-cai-57-em-2019-diz-abiquim.htm|title=Produção nacional da indústria de químicos cai 5,7% em 2019, diz Abiquim|website=economia.uol.com.br}}</ref> Although it was among the five largest world producers in 2013, Brazil's textile industry is very little integrated into world trade.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bnb.gov.br/documents/80223/2509338/textil_16_2017%28V2%29.pdf/063d7521-342f-e81e-232a-e251964fa1c3|title=Industria Textil no Brasil}}</ref>

The tertiary sector (trade and services) represented 75.8% of the country's GDP in 2018, according to the IBGE. The service sector was responsible for 60% of GDP and trade for 13%. It covers a wide range of activities: commerce, accommodation and catering, transport, communications, financial services, real estate activities and services provided to businesses, public administration (urban cleaning, sanitation, etc.) and other services such as education, social and health services, research and development, sports activities, etc., since it consists of activities complementary to other sectors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://veja.abril.com.br/economia/setor-de-servicos-sustenta-o-crescimento-do-pib-de-2018/|title=Setor de serviços sustenta o crescimento do PIB de 2018|website=VEJA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.br/produtividade-e-comercio-exterior/pt-br/index|title=Produtividade e Comércio Exterior|website=SECINT e SEPEC}}</ref> Micro and small businesses represent 30% of the country's GDP. In the commercial sector, for example, they represent 53% of the GDP within the activities of the sector.<ref>[https://revistapegn.globo.com/Negocios/noticia/2020/04/pequenos-negocios-ja-representam-30-do-produto-interno-bruto-do-pais.html Pequenos negócios já representam 30% do Produto Interno Bruto do país]</ref>

Brazil pegged its currency, the [[Brazilian real|real]], to the U.S. dollar in 1994. However, after the [[1997 Asian financial crisis|East Asian financial crisis]], the [[1998 Russian financial crisis|Russian default]] in 1998<ref>{{cite conference |first1=Taimur |last1=Baig |first2=Ilan |last2=Goldfajn |title=The Russian default and the contagion to Brazil |book-title=IMF Working Paper |publisher=International Monetary Fund |year=2000 |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2000/wp00160.pdf |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref> and the series of adverse financial events that followed it, the [[Central Bank of Brazil]] temporarily changed its [[monetary policy]] to a [[managed float regime]]<ref>{{cite conference |title=Os impasses da política econômica brasileira nos anos 90 |book-title=Revista FAAP |year=2010 |url=http://www.faap.br/revista_faap/rel_internacionais/rel_04/garcia.htm |access-date=4 February 2015}}</ref> scheme while undergoing a [[currency crisis]], until definitively changing the exchange regime to [[free-float]] in January 1999.<ref>{{cite conference |first=Arminio |last=Fraga |title=Monetary Policy During the Transition to a Floating Exchange Rate: Brazil's Recent Experience |publisher=International Monetary Fund |year=2000 |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2000/03/fraga.htm |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref>

Brazil received an [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) rescue package in mid-2002 of $30.4 billion,<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Wheatley |first=Jonathan |title=Brazil: When an IMF Bailout Is Not Enough |magazine=Business Week |date=2 September 2002 |url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/02_35/b3797071.htm |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref> a record sum at the time. Brazil's central bank repaid the IMF loan in 2005, although it was not due to be repaid until 2006.<ref>{{cite news |title=Brazil to pay off IMF debts early |work=BBC News |date=14 December 2005 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4527438.stm |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref> One of the issues the [[Central Bank of Brazil]] recently dealt with was an excess of [[speculation|speculative]] short-term capital inflows to the country, which may have contributed to a fall in the value of the U.S. dollar against the real during that period.<ref>{{cite conference |title=Economic Quarterly |page=171 |publisher=Institute of Applied Economic Research |date=1 March 2007 |url=http://www.ipea.gov.br/sites/000/2/publicacoes/eqb/ieq11.pdf |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527193112/http://www.ipea.gov.br/sites/000/2/publicacoes/eqb/ieq11.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Nonetheless, [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI), related to long-term, less speculative investment in production, is estimated to be $193.8 billion for 2007.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Capital Flows to Emerging Markets Set at Close to Record Levels |publisher=The Institute of International Finance |date=31 May 2007 |url=http://www.iif.com/press/press+32.php |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713005259/http://www.iif.com/press/press+32.php |archive-date=13 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Inflation]] monitoring and control currently plays a major part in the Central bank's role in setting short-term [[interest rate]]s as a [[monetary policy]] measure.<ref>{{cite conference |title=IPCA, IPC-FIPE and IPC-BR: Methodological and Empirical Differences |publisher=Central Bank of Brazil |year=2004 |url=http://www.bcb.gov.br/htms/relinf/ing/2004/06/ri200406b2i.pdf |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref>

[[Corruption in Brazil|Corruption]] costs Brazil almost $41 billion a year alone in 2010, with 69.9% of the country's firms identifying the issue as a major constraint in successfully penetrating the global market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/app/article.aspx?id=4550 |title=Brazil: Corruption Costs $41 Billion |publisher=Latin Business Chronicle |access-date=22 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321110632/http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/app/article.aspx?id=4550 |archive-date=21 March 2013}}</ref> Local government corruption is so prevalent that voters perceive it as a problem only if it surpasses certain levels, and only if a local media e.g. a radio station is present to divulge the findings of corruption charges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://emlab.berkeley.edu/~ffinan/Finan_Audit.pdf |title=Exposing corrupt politicians? the effect of Brazil's publicly released audits on electoral outcomes|publisher=Quarterly Journal of Economics|date= May 2008 |access-date=22 March 2013}}</ref> Initiatives, like this exposure, strengthen awareness which is indicated by the Transparency International's [[Corruption Perceptions Index]]; ranking Brazil 69th out of 178 countries in 2012.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/ |title=Corruption perceptions index |publisher=Transparency International |access-date=22 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121207220737/http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2012/ |archive-date=7 December 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The [[purchasing power]] in Brazil is eroded by the so-called [[Brazil cost]].<ref name="brcost">{{cite web|url=http://mobile.bloomberg.com/news/2011-09-27/rousseff-crisis-spurred-by-lula-debts-as-brazil-boom-diminishes |title=Rousseff Crisis Spurred by Lula Debts as Brazil Boom Diminishes|publisher=Mobile.bloomberg.com |date=27 September 2011 |access-date=7 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508113727/http://mobile.bloomberg.com/news/2011-09-27/rousseff-crisis-spurred-by-lula-debts-as-brazil-boom-diminishes |archive-date=8 May 2012}}</ref>

=== Energy ===
{{Main|Energy in Brazil}}
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| align = left
| width = 220
| image1 = Itaipu geral.jpg
| caption1 = The [[Itaipu Dam]] on the [[Paraná River]], the second largest of the world. [[Energy policy of Brazil|Brazilian energy matrix]] is one of the [[Clean energy|cleanest]] in the world.
| image2 = Energia Eolica.jpg
| caption2 = [[Wind farm]] in [[Parnaíba]], [[Piauí]]. Brazil is one of the 10 largest producers of wind energy in the world
}}

Brazil is the world's [[List of countries by total primary energy consumption and production|tenth largest]] energy consumer with much of its energy coming from [[Renewable energy|renewable sources]], particularly [[hydroelectricity]] and [[ethanol]]; the [[Itaipu Dam]] is the world's largest [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric plant]] by energy generation,<ref name="SchmidtOnyango2011">{{cite book|author1=Michael Schmidt|author2=Vincent Onyango|author3=Dmytro Palekhov|title=Implementing Environmental and Resource Management|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=67bRqegVVcwC&pg=PA42|year=2011|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-540-77568-3|page=42}}</ref> and the country has other large plants like [[Belo Monte Dam|Belo Monte]] and [[Tucuruí Dam|Tucuruí]]. The first car with an ethanol engine was produced in 1978 and the first airplane engine running on ethanol in 2005.<ref name="OECDDevelopment2001">{{cite book|author1=OECD|author2=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|author3=Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Staff|title=OECD Economic Surveys: Brazil 2001|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T6U8AUm1ef4C&pg=PA193|year=2001|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-19141-9|page=193}}</ref>

In total electricity generation, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric plants).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aneel.gov.br/sala-de-imprensa-exibicao/-/asset_publisher/XGPXSqdMFHrE/content/brasil-alcanca-170-mil-megawatts-de-capacidade-instalada-em-2019/656877?inheritRedirect=false|title=Brasil alcança 170 mil megawatts de capacidade instalada em 2019 – Sala de Imprensa – ANEEL|website=www.aneel.gov.br}}</ref> In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cbie.com.br/artigos/quantas-usinas-geradoras-de-energia-temos-no-brasil/ |title=How many power generating plants do we have in Brazil?}}</ref> Brazil is one of the 5 largest hydroelectric energy producers in the world (2nd place in 2017).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abrapch.org.br/2017/03/brasil-desponta-como-terceiro-maior-produtor-de-eletricidade-das-americas/|title=Brasil desponta como terceiro maior produtor de eletricidade das Américas • Abrapch|date=24 March 2017}}</ref>

{{As of|2021|6|url=http://www.ons.org.br/paginas/conhecimento/acervo-digital/documentos-e-publicacoes|post=,}} according to ONS, total installed capacity of [[wind power]] was 18.7 GW, with average [[capacity factor]] of 58%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.org.br/AcervoDigitalDocumentosEPublicacoes/Boletim%20Mensal%20de%20Gera%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20E%C3%B3lica%202021-06.pdf|title=Boletim Mensal de Geração Eólica Junho/2021|language=pt|date=1 July 2021|publisher=Operador Nacional do Sistema Elétrico – ONS|pages=6, 14|access-date=3 August 2021}}</ref> While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%;<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.brasil.gov.br/noticias/infraestrutura/2014/12/brasil-e-o-pais-com-melhor-fator-de-aproveitamento-da-energia-eolica|title=Brasil é o país com melhor fator de aproveitamento da energia eólica|work=Governo do Brasil|access-date=7 October 2018|language=pt-BR|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007223102/http://www.brasil.gov.br/noticias/infraestrutura/2014/12/brasil-e-o-pais-com-melhor-fator-de-aproveitamento-da-energia-eolica|archive-date=7 October 2018}}</ref> the average capacity factor in the [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast Region]] is 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.epe.gov.br/sites-pt/publicacoes-dados-abertos/publicacoes/PublicacoesArquivos/publicacao-233/topico-520/Boletim_2020_Q1.pdf|title=Boletim Trimestral de Energia Eólica – Junho de 2020|language=pt-BR|publisher=[[Empresa de Pesquisa Energética]]|date=23 June 2020|page=4|access-date=24 October 2020}}</ref>

In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=https://cbie.com.br/artigos/quantas-usinas-geradoras-de-energia-temos-no-brasil/|title=Quantas usinas geradoras de energia temos no Brasil?|date=5 April 2019|website=CBIE}}</ref> In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://revistapesquisa.fapesp.br/ventos-promissores-a-caminho/|title=Ventos promissores a caminho|website=revistapesquisa.fapesp.br}}</ref><ref>[http://www2.ctee.com.br/brazilwindpower/2016/zpublisher/materia/?url=potencial-eolico-onshore-brasileiro-pode-ser-de-880-gw-indica-estudo-20161026 Brazilian onshore wind potential could be 880 GW, study indicates]</ref> Brazil is one of the 10 largest wind energy producers in the world (8th place in 2019, with 2.4% of world production).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://gwec.net/global-wind-report-2019/ |title=GWEC Global Wind Report 2019 |date=25 March 2020 |publisher=[[Global Wind Energy Council]]|pages=25, 28|access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://gwec.net/global-wind-report-2019/ |title=Global Wind Report 2019 |date=25 March 2020 |publisher=[[Global Wind Energy Council]]|page=10|access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref>

{{As of|2021|6|url=http://www.ons.org.br/paginas/conhecimento/acervo-digital/documentos-e-publicacoes|post=,}} according to ONS, total installed capacity of [[photovoltaic solar]] was 9.7 GW, with average [[capacity factor]] of 23%. Some of the most [[Solar irradiance|irradiated]] Brazilian States are Minas Gerais, Bahia and Goiás.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://sharenergy.com.br/quais-melhores-regioes-brasil-para-geracao-de-energia-fotovoltaica/|title=Quais as melhores regiões do Brasil para geração de energia fotovoltaica? – Sharenergy|date=3 February 2017|work=Sharenergy|access-date=7 October 2018|language=pt-BR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.org.br/AcervoDigitalDocumentosEPublicacoes/Boletim%20Mensal%20de%20Gera%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20Solar%202021-06.pdf|title=Boletim Mensal de Geração Solar Fotovoltaica Junho/2021|language=pt|date=1 July 2021|publisher=Operador Nacional do Sistema Elétrico – ONS|pages=6, 13|access-date=3 August 2021}}</ref> In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country.<ref name="auto2" /> In 2020, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (7.8 GW). <ref>[https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Apr/IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2021.pdf RENEWABLE CAPACITY STATISTICS 2021]</ref>

In 2020, Brazil was the 2nd largest country in the world in the production of energy through [[biomass]] (energy production from solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15,2 GW installed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Apr/IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2021.pdf |title=RENEWABLE CAPACITY STATISTICS 2021 page 41 | access-date = 24 May 2021}}</ref>

Recent oil discoveries in the [[pre-salt layer]] have opened the door for a large increase in oil production.<ref name="BrainardMartinez-Diaz2009">{{cite book|author1=Lael Brainard|author2=Leonardo Martinez-Diaz|title=Brazil As an Economic Superpower?: Understanding Brazil's Changing Role in the Global Economy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gG3EhGct-z0C&pg=PA45|year=2009|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|isbn=978-0-8157-0365-5|page=45}}</ref> The governmental agencies responsible for the energy policy are the Ministry of Mines and Energy, the National Council for Energy Policy, the [[National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels (Brazil)|National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels]], and the [[Brazilian Electricity Regulatory Agency|National Agency of Electricity]].<ref name="OECD2005">{{cite book|author=OECD|title=Economic Surveys: Brazil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kdYCwdYoyX4C&pg=PA105|year=2005|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-00749-9|page=105}}</ref> In the beginning of 2020, in the production of [[Petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas]], the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.anp.gov.br/noticias/5628-producao-de-petroleo-e-gas-no-brasil-ultrapassa-4-milhoes-de-boe-d-pela-primeira-vez|title=Produção de petróleo e gás no Brasil ultrapassa 4 milhões de boe/d pela primeira vez|website=anp.gov.br}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Brazil}}
{{multiple image
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| width = 220
| image1 = PE_-_Parque_Nacional_Marinho_de_Fernando_de_Noronha_-_Baía_do_Sancho_-_Praia_do_Sancho.jpg
| caption1 = Sancho Bay, [[Fernando de Noronha]], elected the most beautiful beach in the world by [[TripAdvisor]].<ref name="praias">{{cite web|url=http://oglobo.globo.com/boa-viagem/praia-de-fernando-de-noronha-eleita-mais-bonita-do-mundo-11916584|title=Praia de Fernando de Noronha é eleita a mais bonita do mundo|author=O Globo|date=18 March 2014|access-date=4 January 2018|author-link=O Globo}}</ref>
| image2 = Historical Centre.jpg
| caption2 = The [[Colonial Brazil|colonial city]] of [[Ouro Preto]], a [[World Heritage Site]], is one of the most popular destinations in [[Minas Gerais]].
}}

Tourism in Brazil is a growing sector and key to the economy of several regions of the country. The country had 6.36 million visitors in 2015, ranking in terms of the international tourist arrivals as the main destination in South America and second in [[Latin America]] after Mexico.<ref>{{cite book |title=UNWTO Tourism Highlights |year=2016 |isbn=978-92-844-1814-5|doi = 10.18111/9789284418145}}</ref> Revenues from international tourists reached {{USD|6}} billion in 2010, showing a recovery from the [[Late-2000s recession|2008–2009 economic crisis]].<ref name="UNWTO2011">{{cite web|url=http://mkt.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtohighlights11enhr_1.pdf|title=UNWTO Tourism Highlights – 2011 Edition|publisher=World Tourism Organization|date=June 2011|access-date=29 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105081502/http://mkt.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtohighlights11enhr_1.pdf|archive-date=5 January 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Historical records of 5.4 million visitors and {{USD|6.8}} billion in receipts were reached in 2011.<ref name="MT1_2011">{{cite web|url=http://www.dadosefatos.turismo.gov.br/dadosefatos/home.html|title=Estatisticas e Indicadores: Receita Cambial|publisher=Ministério do Turismo|year=2012|access-date=13 February 2012|language=pt}}</ref><ref name="MT2_2011">{{cite web|url=http://www.nopatio.com.br/o-que-acontece/turismo-brasileiro-com-novo-recorde-em-2011/|title=Turismo Brasileiro com novo recorde em 2011|author=Ministério do Turismo|publisher=No Pátio|date=13 January 2012|access-date=13 February 2012|language=pt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130822074421/http://www.nopatio.com.br/o-que-acontece/turismo-brasileiro-com-novo-recorde-em-2011/|archive-date=22 August 2013}}</ref> In the list of world tourist destinations, in 2018, Brazil was the 48th most visited country, with 6.6 million tourists (and revenues of 5.9 billion dollars).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284421152 |title=Highlights of international tourism|year=2019|doi=10.18111/9789284421152|isbn=9789284421152}}{{Dead link|date=May 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Natural areas are its most popular tourism product, a combination of [[ecotourism]] with leisure and recreation, mainly sun and beach, and adventure travel, as well as cultural tourism. Among the most popular destinations are the [[Amazon Rainforest]], beaches and dunes in the [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast Region]], the [[Pantanal]] in the [[Center-West Region, Brazil|Center-West Region]], beaches at [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]] and [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]], cultural tourism in [[Minas Gerais]] and business trips to [[São Paulo]].<ref name="Palhares2012">{{cite book|author=Guilherme Lohmann Palhares|title=Tourism in Brazil: Environment, Management and Segments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O91SVF9nH8gC&pg=PA126|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-67432-4|page=126}}</ref>

In terms of the 2015 [[Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report|Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index]] (TTCI), which is a measurement of the factors that make it attractive to develop business in the travel and tourism industry of individual countries, Brazil ranked in the 28st place at the world's level, third in the [[Americas]], after Canada and United States.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015 |publisher=World Economic Forum |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/TT15/WEF_Global_Travel&Tourism_Report_2015.pdf |date=May 2015}}</ref><ref name="TTCI2013">{{cite web|url =http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TT_Competitiveness_Report_2013.pdf|editor1=Jennifer Blanke |editor2=Thea Chiesa |year = 2013 |title = Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2013 |publisher = [[World Economic Forum]], Geneva, Switzerland|access-date=14 April 2013}} ''See Table 4, pp. 18–19 and Country/Economy Profile: Brazil, pp. 116–17.''</ref>

Brazil's main competitive advantages are its natural resources, which ranked 1st on this criteria out of all countries considered, and ranked 23rd for its cultural resources, due to its many [[World Heritage site]]s. The TTCI report notes Brazil's main weaknesses: its ground transport infrastructure remains underdeveloped (ranked 116th), with the quality of roads ranking in 105th place; and the country continues to suffer from a lack of price competitiveness (ranked 114th), due in part to high ticket taxes and airport charges, as well as high prices and high taxation. Safety and security have improved significantly: 75th in 2011, up from 128th in 2008.<ref name="TTCI2013" />

== Infrastructure ==

=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Science and technology in Brazil}}
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Vls1-mockup-test.jpg
| caption1 = [[VLS-1]] at the [[Alcântara Launch Center]] of the [[Brazilian Space Agency]].
| image2 = Ministro participa da inauguração do acelerador de partículas Sirius. (30970744907).jpg
| caption2 = [[Sirius (synchrotron light source)|Sirius]], a [[diffraction-limited storage ring]] [[Synchrotron radiation|synchrotron light source]] at the [[Laboratório Nacional de Luz Síncrotron]], in the municipality of [[Campinas]], [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]].
}}

Technological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities and research institutes, with the majority of funding for basic research coming from various government agencies.<ref name="DevelopmentStaff2006v">{{cite book|author1=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|author2=Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Staff|title=OECD Economic Surveys: Brazil 2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lI8pqyWIluYC&pg=PA94|year=2006|publisher=OECD Publishing|isbn=978-92-64-02999-6|page=94}}</ref> Brazil's most esteemed technological hubs are the [[Fundação Oswaldo Cruz|Oswaldo Cruz Institute]], the [[Instituto Butantan|Butantan Institute]], the Air Force's [[Brazilian General Command for Aerospace Technology|Aerospace Technical Center]], the [[Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária|Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation]] and the [[National Institute for Space Research]].<ref name="Scientific2010f">{{cite book|author=United Nations Educational, Scientific|title=UNESCO Science Report 2010: The Current Status of Science Around the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZTLCOe_fqwC&pg=PA110|year=2010|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-104132-7|pages=110–18}}</ref><ref name="HarveySmid2010">{{cite book|author1=Brian Harvey|author2=Henk H.F. Smid|author3=Thâeo Pirard|title=Emerging Space Powers: The New Space Programs of Asia, the Middle East and South-America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XD1ZaYbiWwMC&pg=PA324|year=2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4419-0874-2|page=324}}</ref>

The [[Brazilian Space Agency]] has the most advanced space program in Latin America, with significant resources to launch vehicles, and manufacture of [[artificial satellite|satellites]].{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vP9jHaoL_s4C&pg=PA628 628]}} Owner of relative technological sophistication, the country develops [[submarine]]s, aircraft, as well as being involved in space research, having a Vehicle Launch Center Light and being the only country in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] the integrate team building [[International Space Station]] (ISS).<ref name="NASA">[http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/news/releases/1996_1998/h97-233.html NASA Signs International Space Station Agreement With Brazil] [[NASA]].</ref>

The country is also a pioneer in the search for oil in deep water, from where it extracts 73% of its reserves.
[[Uranium]] is enriched at the [[Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory]], mostly for research purposes (as Brazil obtains 88% of its electricity from [[hydroelectricity]]<ref>{{cite web |title=O Sistema Elétrico Brasileiro |url=http://www.ecen.com/eee32/sistelet.htm |author=O.C. Ferreira |access-date=21 March 2013}}</ref>) and the country's first nuclear submarine was delivered in 2015 (by France).<ref>{{cite news|title=Confirmed: Agreement with France Includes the Brazilian Nuclear Submarine |url=http://npsglobal.org/eng/news/139-peaceful-uses/490-confirmed-agreement-with-france-includes-the-brazilian-nuclear-submarine.html|work=[[Nonproliferation for Global Security Foundation]] |date=23 December 2008 |access-date=23 December 2008}}</ref>

Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-elsa.physik.uni-bonn.de/accelerator_list.html |title=Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität |publisher=Elsa.physik.uni-bonn.de |date=18 August 2008 |access-date=30 October 2010}}</ref> with an operational [[Synchrotron]] Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material science and life sciences, and Brazil is the only Latin American country to have a [[semiconductor]] company with its own [[Semiconductor fabrication plant|fabrication plant]], the [[CEITEC]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/science-and-technology/the-digital-electronics-industry/ceitec/br_model1?set_language=en |url-status=dead |title=CEITEC |website=Portal Brasil |publisher=Brasil.gov.br |access-date=8 August 2011 |archive-date=17 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117055936/http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/science-and-technology/the-digital-electronics-industry/ceitec/br_model1?set_language=en}}</ref> According to the Global Information Technology Report 2009–2010 of the World Economic Forum, Brazil is the world's 61st largest developer of information technology.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/fsp/dinheiro/fi2603201010.htm|title=Brasil cai duas posições em ranking mundial|newspaper=[[Folha de S.Paulo]]|date=26 March 2010|access-date=26 March 2010}}</ref> Brazil was ranked 62nd in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2020, up from 66th in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation?|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=RTD - Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2021-09-02|website=ec.europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en}}</ref>

Among the most renowned Brazilian inventors are priests [[Bartolomeu de Gusmão]], [[Landell de Moura]] and Francisco João de Azevedo, besides [[Alberto Santos-Dumont]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/10/20/106920457.pdf |title=M. Santos Dumont Rounds Eiffel Tower |newspaper=The New York Times |date=20 October 1901 |access-date=29 December 2010}}</ref> [[Evaristo Conrado Engelberg]],<ref name="patentbritish">{{cite web|url=http://vintagemachinery.org/mfgindex/detail.aspx?id=294 |title=Engelberg, Inc|access-date=17 July 2011|publisher=Vintage Machinery|year=2011}}</ref> [[Manuel Dias de Abreu]],<ref>Abreu, Manuel de, pag. 17 – Grande Enciclopédia Universal – edição de 1980 – Ed.Amazonas</ref> [[Andreas Pavel]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/16/news/profile.php |access-date=16 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309065937/http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/16/news/profile.php |archive-date= 9 March 2009 |title=Portable stereo's creator got his due, eventually }}</ref> and Nélio José Nicolai.<ref>[http://www.cefetmg.br/noticias/2010/11/noticia0014.html Exposição destaca centenário do CEFET-MG] Sítio do Cefet-MG, acessado em 13 de novembro de 2010 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813115503/http://www.cefetmg.br/noticias/2010/11/noticia0014.html |date=13 August 2014 }}</ref>

Brazilian science is represented by the likes of [[César Lattes]] (Brazilian [[physicist]] Pathfinder of ''[[Pion|Pi Meson]]''),<ref name="Lattes">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbpf.br/meson/meson.html|author=Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação|title=50 anos do Méson-Pi|access-date=29 December 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526200502/http://www.cbpf.br/meson/meson.html|archive-date=26 May 2011}}</ref> [[Mário Schenberg]] (considered the greatest theoretical physicist of Brazil),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cbpfindex.cbpf.br/publication_pdfs/dh00186.2011_08_16_15_20_32.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331194248/http://cbpfindex.cbpf.br/publication_pdfs/dh00186.2011_08_16_15_20_32.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=31 March 2013|title=Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas – Coleção Galileo: Textos de Física|access-date=21 October 2014}}</ref> [[José Leite Lopes]] (only Brazilian physicist holder of the ''UNESCO Science Prize''),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/bpi/science/content/news/upress/99-147e.htm|title=Atta-Ur-Rahman, José Leite Lopes and Juan Martín Maldacena receive UNESCO science prizes|publisher=UNESCOPRESS|access-date=21 October 2014}}</ref> [[Artur Ávila]] (the first Latin American winner of the [[Fields Medal]])<ref>[http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/ciencia/2014/08/1499290-brasileiro-ganha-a-medalha-fields-considerada-o-nobel-da-matematica.shtml Brasileiro ganha a Medalha Fields, considerada o "Nobel da Matemática"].</ref> and [[Fritz Müller]] (pioneer in factual support of the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin).<ref name="West, David A 2003">West, David A. 2003. Fritz Müller: a naturalist in Brazil. Blacksburg: Pocahontas Press</ref>

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Brazil}}

{{multiple image
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| image1 = Saopaulo aerea aeroportocumbica.jpg
| caption1 = Aerial view of the [[São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport]], the [[List of the busiest airports in South America|busiest airport in South America]].
|image2 = Rodovia Rio-Teresópolis (BR-116) - panoramio (cropped).jpg
| caption2 = [[BR-116]] in [[Guapimirim]], [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], the longest [[Brazilian Highway System|highway]] in the country, with {{convert|4385|km|mi|abbr=on}} of extension.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://turismo.ig.com.br/destinos-nacionais/as-11-estradas-mais-incriveis-do-brasil/n1597216427845.html |title=As 11 estradas mais incríveis do Brasil |author=Fernanda Castello Branco |publisher=[[Internet Group|iG]] |access-date=22 September 2014 |archive-date=11 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180411040044/http://turismo.ig.com.br/destinos-nacionais/as-11-estradas-mais-incriveis-do-brasil/n1597216427845.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}

Brazilian roads are the primary carriers of freight and passenger traffic. The road system totaled 1.98 million km (1.23 million mi) in 2002. The total of paved roads increased from {{convert|35496|km|0|abbr=on}} in 1967 to {{convert|215000|km|0|abbr=on}} in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Americas/Brazil-TRANSPORTATION.html|title=Road system in Brazil |publisher=Nationsencyclopedia.com |access-date=30 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://anuariodotransporte.cnt.org.br/2018/#|title=Anuário CNT do Transporte|website=anuariodotransporte.cnt.org.br}}</ref> The country has about {{convert|14000|km|0|abbr=on}} of [[divided highways]], {{convert|5000|km|0|abbr=on}} only in the [[São Paulo (state)|State of São Paulo]]. Currently it's possible to travel from [[Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul|Rio Grande]], in the extreme south of the country, to [[Brasília]] ({{convert|2580|km|0|abbr=on}}) or [[Casimiro de Abreu, Rio de Janeiro|Casimiro de Abreu]], in the state of [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]] ({{convert|2045|km|0|abbr=on}}), only on divided highways. The first investments in road infrastructure have given up in the 1920s, the government of [[Washington Luís]], being pursued in the governments of [[Getúlio Vargas]] and [[Eurico Gaspar Dutra]].<ref>{{Citation|last1=Pereira|first1=L.A.G|last2=Lessa|first2=S.N.|last3=Cardoso|first3=A.D.|title=Planejamento e Transporte Rodoviário no Brasil}}</ref> President [[Juscelino Kubitschek]] (1956–61), who designed and built the capital Brasília, was another supporter of highways.<ref>Sydney Alberto Latini; "A Implantação da Indústria Automobilística no Brasil"; Editora Alaúde 2007 {{ISBN|978-85-98497-55-6}}</ref>

Brazil's [[Rail transport|railway]] system has been declining since 1945, when emphasis shifted to highway construction. The total length of railway track was {{convert|30875|km|0|abbr=on}} in 2002, as compared with {{convert|31848|km|0|abbr=on}} in 1970. Most of the railway system belonged to the Federal Railroad Corporation RFFSA, which was privatized in 2007.<ref>[http://www2.transportes.gov.br/bit/03-ferro/princ-ferro.html "OPrincipais ferrovias"]. Ministerio dos Transportes {{in lang|pt}} {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329092636/http://www2.transportes.gov.br/bit/03-ferro/princ-ferro.html |date=29 March 2013 }}</ref> The [[São Paulo Metro]] was the first underground transit system in Brazil. The other metro systems are in [[Rio de Janeiro Metro|Rio de Janeiro]], [[Porto Alegre Metro|Porto Alegre]], [[Recife Metro|Recife]], [[Belo Horizonte Metro|Belo Horizonte]], [[Brasília Metro|Brasília]], [[Salvador Metro|Salvador]] and [[Fortaleza Metro|Fortaleza]]. The country has an extensive rail network of {{convert|28538|km|abbr=off}} in length, the tenth largest network in the world.<ref name="2012ciagini">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html Country Comparison to the World: Gini Index – Brazil] [[The World Factbook]]. Retrieved on 3 April 2012.</ref> Currently, the Brazilian government, unlike the past, seeks to encourage this mode of transport; an example of this incentive is the project of the [[Rio–São Paulo high-speed rail]], that will connect the two main cities of the country to carry passengers.

There are about 2,500 airports in Brazil, including landing fields: the second largest number in the world, after the United States.<ref>[http://g1.globo.com/Noticias/Brasil/0,,MUL86760-5598,00.html "Ociosidade atinge 70% dos principais aeroportos"]. ''O Globo'', 12 August 2007. {{in lang|pt}}</ref> [[São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport]], near São Paulo, is the largest and busiest airport with nearly 20 million passengers annually, while handling the vast majority of commercial traffic for the country.<ref name="Palhares2012x">{{cite book|author=Guilherme Lohmann Palhares|title=Tourism in Brazil: Environment, Management and Segments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O91SVF9nH8gC&pg=PA48|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-67432-4|page=48}}</ref>

For freight transport [[waterways]] are of importance, e.g. the [[Free Economic Zone of Manaus|industrial zones of Manaus]] can be reached only by means of the Solimões–Amazonas waterway ({{convert|3250|km|mi|disp=or|abbr=off}} in length, with a minimum depth of {{convert|6|m|ft|0|disp=or|abbr=off|spell=in}}). The country also has {{convert|50000|km|abbr=off}} of waterways.<ref name="2012ciagini" /> Coastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Bolivia and Paraguay have been given free ports at [[Santos, São Paulo|Santos]]. Of the 36 deep-water ports, Santos, Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba, Vitória, Suape, Manaus and São Francisco do Sul are the most important.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081227224101/http://www.mzweb.com.br/santosbrasil/web/conteudo_pt.asp?idioma=0&tipo=3958&conta=28 "Mercado Brasileiro Terminais de Contêineres"], Santos Brasil. {{in lang|pt}}</ref> Bulk carriers have to wait up to 18 days before being serviced, container ships 36.3 hours on average.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://g1.globo.com/economia/noticia/2013/03/navios-esperam-ate-16-dias-para-atracar-em-porto-do-pais-diz-mdic.html|title=Navios esperam até 16 dias para atracar em porto do país, diz MDIC|first1=Fábio AmatoDo|last1=G1|first2=em|last2=Brasília|date=24 March 2013|website=Economia}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in Brazil|Sistema Único de Saúde}}
[[File:SUS_apenas_preenchimento.svg|thumb|left|[[Sistema Único de Saúde|SUS]] official symbol, the Brazilian [[public health]] system]]

The Brazilian [[public health]] system, the [[Sistema Único de Saúde|Unified Health System]] (''Sistema Único de Saúde'' – SUS), is managed and provided by all levels of government,<ref name="ForgiaCouttolenc2008">{{cite book|author1=Gerard Martin La Forgia|author2=Bernard F. Couttolenc|title=Hospital Performance in Brazil: The Search for Excellence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3R43xW5KqcC&pg=PA17|year=2008|publisher=World Bank Publications|isbn=978-0-8213-7359-0|page=17}}</ref> being the largest system of this type in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conselho.saude.gov.br/web_sus20anos/index.html|title=20 Anos do SUS|publisher=Conselho Nacional de Saúde|access-date=13 April 2012}}</ref> On the other hand, private healthcare systems play a complementary role.<ref name="Wolper2004">{{cite book|author=Lawrence F. Wolper|title=Health Care Administration: Planning, Implementing, and Managing Organized Delivery Systems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zts-QdpDiWUC&pg=PA33|year=2004|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=978-0-7637-3144-1|page=33}}</ref>

Public health services are universal and offered to all citizens of the country for free. However, the construction and maintenance of health centers and hospitals are financed by taxes, and the country spends about 9% of its GDP on expenditures in the area. In 2012, Brazil had 1.85 doctors and 2.3 hospital beds for every 1,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.PHYS.ZS?locations=BR|title=Physicians (per 1,000 people)|website=World Health Organization's Global Health Workforce Statistics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.BEDS.ZS|title=Hospital beds (per 1,000 people)|website=World Health Organization The World Bank}}</ref>

Despite all the progress made since the creation of the [[universal health care]] system in 1988, there are still several public health problems in Brazil. In 2006, the main points to be solved were the high [[List of countries by infant mortality rate|infant]] (2.51%) and maternal mortality rates (73.1 deaths per 1000 births).<ref name="Radar social" />

The number of deaths from noncommunicable diseases, such as [[cardiovascular diseases]] (151.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants) and [[cancer]] (72.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants), also has a considerable impact on the health of the Brazilian population. Finally, external but preventable factors such as car accidents, violence and suicide caused 14.9% of all deaths in the country.<ref name="Radar social">{{Cite web|title=Saúde|website=Radar social|publisher=Ministério do Planejamento|url=http://www.planejamento.gov.br/secretarias/upload/Arquivos/spi/programas_projeto/radar_social/2006_PRP_Radar_radarSocial.pdf|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081216074831/http://www.planejamento.gov.br/secretarias/upload/Arquivos/spi/programas_projeto/radar_social/2006_PRP_Radar_radarSocial.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 December 2008|access-date=10 June 2008}}</ref> The Brazilian health system was ranked 125th among the 191 countries evaluated by the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/paper30.pdf |title=Measuring overall health system performance for 191 countries|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|date=2000|access-date=30 April 2014}}</ref>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Brazil}}

The [[Constitution|Federal Constitution]] and the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education determine that the [[Federal government of Brazil|Union]], the [[States of Brazil|states]], the [[Federal District (Brazil)|Federal District]], and the [[Municipalities of Brazil|municipalities]] must manage and organize their respective education systems. Each of these public educational systems is responsible for its own maintenance, which manages funds as well as the mechanisms and funding sources. The constitution reserves 25% of the state budget and 18% of federal taxes and municipal taxes for education.<ref name="Usa2005">{{cite book|author=Usa Ibp Usa|title=Brazil: Tax Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dzhWjfK8CswC&pg=PA42|year=2005|publisher=Int'l Business Publications|isbn=978-0-7397-3279-3|page=42}}</ref>
[[File:Arquitetura_Prédio_Histórico_da_Universidade_Federal_do_Paraná.jpg|thumb|Historical building of the [[Federal University of Paraná]], one of the oldest universities in Brazil, located in [[Curitiba]].]]

According to the [[Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics|IBGE]], in 2019, the literacy rate of the population was 93.4%, meaning that 11,3 million (6,6% of population) people are still illiterate in the country, with some states like [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]] and [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]] reaching around 97% of literacy rate;<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=IBGE: Analfabetismo cai no país, mas fica estagnado no Nordeste|url=https://valor.globo.com/brasil/noticia/2020/07/15/ibge-analfabetismo-cai-no-pas-mas-fica-estagnado-no-nordeste.ghtml|website=Globo.com|language=pt}}</ref> functional illiteracy has reached 21.6% of the population.<ref name="Agency2010">{{cite book|author=The Central Intelligence Agency|title=The World Factbook 2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-9eSrZtYAAC&pg=PA143|year=2010|publisher=Potomac Books, Inc.|isbn=978-1-59797-541-4|page=143|edition=CIA 2009}}</ref> Illiteracy is higher in the [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast]], where 13.87% of the population is illiterate, while the [[South Region, Brazil|South]], has 3.3% of its population illiterate.<ref name="Bank2001">{{cite book|author=World Bank|title=Rural Poverty Alleviation in Brazil: Towards an Integrated Strategy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YttV-Ggq90UC&pg=PA40|year=2001|publisher=World Bank Publications|isbn=978-0-8213-5206-9|page=40}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

Brazil's private institutions tend to be more exclusive and offer better quality education, so many high-income families send their children there. The result is a segregated educational system that reflects extreme income disparities and reinforces social inequality. However, efforts to change this are making impacts.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Laplane|first1=Mario|title=Efforts towards inclusion|url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/impact-public-and-private-education-social-inequality-brazil|website=D + C, Development and cooperation}}</ref>

The [[University of São Paulo]] is the second best [[university]] in [[Latin America]], according to recent 2019 [[QS World University Rankings]]. Of the top 20 Latin American universities, eight are Brazilian. Most of them are [[Public university|public]].
Attending an institution of higher education is required by Law of Guidelines and Bases of Education. [[Kindergarten]], [[elementary school|elementary]] and medium education are required of all students.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/latin-american-university-rankings/2019|title=QS University Rankings Latin America|publisher=[[QS World University Rankings]]|access-date=11 November 2018}}</ref>

=== Media and communication{{anchor|Media}} ===
{{Main|Telecommunications in Brazil|Television in Brazil}}
{{See also|Concentration of media ownership#Brazil}}
[[File:Jornal Nacional 3.jpg|thumb|left|Former President [[Dilma Rousseff]] at ''[[Jornal Nacional]]'' news program. [[Rede Globo]] is the world's second-largest commercial television network.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rede Globo se torna a 2ª maior emissora do mundo|url=http://ofuxico.terra.com.br/noticias-sobre-famosos/rede-globo-se-torna-a-2-maior-emissora-do-mundo/2012/05/11-139187.html|publisher=O Fuxico|access-date=22 May 2012|language=pt}}</ref>]]

The Brazilian press was officially born in [[Rio de Janeiro]] on 13 May 1808 with the creation of the Royal Printing National Press by the [[Prince Regent]] [[João VI of Portugal|Dom João]].<ref name="EchevarríaPupo-Walker1996">{{cite book|author1=Roberto Gonzalez Echevarría|author2=Enrique Pupo-Walker|title=The Cambridge History of Latin American Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=97NoYRx96ZAC&pg=PA13|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-41035-9|page=13}}</ref>

The ''Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro'', the first newspaper published in the country, began to circulate on 10 September 1808.<ref name="Johnston2003">{{cite book|author=Donald H. Johnston|title=Encyclopedia of international media and communications|volume=3|year=2003|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-387671-3|page=130}}</ref> The largest newspapers nowadays are ''[[Folha de S.Paulo]],'' ''Super Notícia'', ''[[O Globo]]'' and ''[[O Estado de S. Paulo]]''.<ref name="Vincent2003B">{{cite book|author=Jon S. Vincent|title=Culture and Customs of Brazil|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof0000vinc|url-access=registration|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-30495-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof0000vinc/page/97 97]–100}}</ref>

Radio broadcasting began on 7 September 1922, with a speech by then President Pessoa, and was formalized on 20 April 1923 with the creation of "Radio Society of Rio de Janeiro".<ref name="McCann2004">{{cite book|author=Bryan McCann|title=Hello, Hello Brazil: Popular Music in the Making of Modern Brazil|url=https://archive.org/details/hellohellobrazil00mcca|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-3273-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/hellohellobrazil00mcca/page/22 22]}}</ref>

Television in Brazil began officially on 18 September 1950, with the founding of [[TV Tupi]] by [[Assis Chateaubriand]].<ref name="Ward2007">{{cite book|author=David Ward|title=Television and Public Policy: Change and Continuity in an Era of Global Liberalization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdEs1Av1CvAC&pg=PA28|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-87728-9|page=28}}</ref> Since then television has grown in the country, creating large commercial broadcast networks such as [[Rede Globo|Globo]], [[Sistema Brasileiro de Televisão|SBT]], [[RecordTV]], [[Rede Bandeirantes|Bandeirantes]] and [[RedeTV!|RedeTV]]. Today it is the most important factor in popular culture of Brazilian society, indicated by research showing that as much as 67%<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ibope.com.br/pt-br/relacionamento/duvidas-frequentes/Paginas/Audiencia-de-televisao.aspx |title=Um ponto de IBOPE equivale a quantas pessoas? E domicílios? |publisher=IBOPE |access-date=23 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522190248/http://www.ibope.com.br/pt-br/relacionamento/duvidas-frequentes/Paginas/Audiencia-de-televisao.aspx |archive-date=22 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://entretenimento.br.msn.com/famosos/top-10-das-novelas?page=0px |title=Top 10 das novelas |publisher=MSN Brasil |access-date=23 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507101650/http://entretenimento.br.msn.com/famosos/top-10-das-novelas?page=0px |archive-date=7 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> of the general population follow the same daily [[soap opera]] broadcast. Digital Television, using the [[SBTVD]] standard (based on the Japanese standard [[ISDB-T]]), was adopted on 29 June 2006 and launched on 2 November 2007.<ref name="Alencar2009">{{cite book|author=Marcelo S. Alencar|title=Digital Television Systems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M96rKRAqHFgC&pg=PA179|year=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-89602-3|pages=179–81}}</ref> In May 2010, the Brazilian government launched [[TV Brasil Internacional]], an international [[television station]], initially broadcasting to 49 countries.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10152301 |title=Brazil launches international TV station for Africa |work=BBC News |date=25 May 2010 |access-date=30 October 2010}}</ref> Commercial television channels broadcast internationally include [[Globo Internacional]], [[RecordTV Internacional]] and [[Band Internacional]].
{{clear}}

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Brazil|Brazilians}}
{{See also|Immigration to Brazil|List of Brazilian states by population density}}
[[File:ARCHELLA E THERY Img 05.png|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Population density of Brazilian municipalities]]

The population of Brazil, as recorded by the 2008 PNAD, was approximately 190 million<ref>2008 PNAD, IBGE. [http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/protabl.asp?c=261&i=P&nome=on&notarodape=on&tab=261&unit=0&pov=1&opc1=1&poc2=1&OpcTipoNivt=1&opn1=2&nivt=0&poc1=1&sec58=0&orp=6&qtu3=27&opv=1&sec1=0&opc2=1&pop=1&opn2=2&orv=2&orc2=4&opc58=1&qtu2=5&sev=93&sec2=0&opp=1&opn3=0&orc1=3&poc58=1&qtu1=1&cabec=on&orc58=5&opn7=0&decm=99&ascendente=on&sep=43343&orn=1&qtu7=9&pon=2&OpcCara=44&proc=1 "População residente por situação, sexo e grupos de idade"]</ref> ({{convert|22.31|PD/km2|disp=or|abbr=out}}), with a ratio of men to women of 0.95:1<ref>2008 PNAD, IBGE. [http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/protabl.asp?c=261&i=P&nome=on&notarodape=on&tab=261&unit=0&pov=1&opc1=1&poc2=3&OpcTipoNivt=1&opn1=2&nivt=0&poc1=1&sec58=0&orp=6&qtu3=27&opv=1&sec1=0&opc2=1&pop=1&opn2=2&orv=2&orc2=4&opc58=1&qtu2=5&sev=93&sec2=0&sec2=92956&sec2=92957&opp=1&opn3=0&orc1=3&poc58=1&qtu1=1&cabec=on&orc58=5&opn7=0&decm=99&ascendente=on&sep=43343&orn=1&qtu7=9&pon=2&OpcCara=44&proc=1 "População residente por situação, sexo e grupos de idade"]</ref> and 83.75% of the population defined as urban.<ref>2008 PNAD, IBGE. [http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/protabl.asp?c=261&i=P&nome=on&notarodape=on&tab=261&unit=0&pov=3&opc1=1&poc2=1&OpcTipoNivt=1&opn1=2&nivt=0&poc1=2&sec58=0&orp=6&qtu3=27&opv=1&sec1=0&sec1=1&sec1=2&opc2=1&pop=1&opn2=2&orv=2&orc2=4&opc58=1&qtu2=5&sev=93&sev=1000093&sec2=0&opp=1&opn3=0&orc1=3&poc58=1&qtu1=1&cabec=on&orc58=5&opn7=0&decm=99&ascendente=on&sep=43343&orn=1&qtu7=9&pon=2&OpcCara=44&proc=1 "População residente por situação, sexo e grupos de idade"].</ref> The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeastern (79.8 million inhabitants) and Northeastern (53.5 million inhabitants) regions, while the two most extensive regions, the Center-West and the North, which together make up 64.12% of the Brazilian territory, have a total of only 29.1 million inhabitants.

The first census in Brazil was carried out in 1872 and recorded a population of 9,930,478.<ref>[http://www.brasil.gov.br/news/history/2011/04-1/29/brazil-population-reaches-190.8-million/newsitem_view?set_language=en "Brazil population reaches 190.8 million"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809205237/http://www.brasil.gov.br/news/history/2011/04-1/29/brazil-population-reaches-190.8-million/newsitem_view?set_language=en |date=9 August 2013 }}. Brasil.gov.br.</ref> From 1880 to 1930, 4 million Europeans arrived.<ref>[http://www.migrationinformation.org/profiles/display.cfm?id=311 "Shaping Brazil: The Role of International Migration"]. Migration Policy Institute.</ref> Brazil's population increased significantly between 1940 and 1970, because of a decline in the [[mortality rate]], even though the [[birth rate]] underwent a slight decline. In the 1940s the annual [[population growth]] rate was 2.4%, rising to 3.0% in the 1950s and remaining at 2.9% in the 1960s, as life expectancy rose from 44 to 54 years<ref>José Alberto Magno de Carvalho, [http://cedeplar.face.ufmg.br/pesquisas/td/TD%20227.pdf "Crescimento populacional e estrutura demográfica no Brasil"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019004601/http://cedeplar.face.ufmg.br/pesquisas/td/TD%20227.pdf |date=19 October 2016 }} Belo Horizonte: UFMG/Cedeplar, 2004 (PDF file), p. 5.</ref> and to 72.6 years in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/noticia_visualiza.php?id_noticia=1275&id_pagina=1 |title=Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística |publisher=IBGE |date=29 November 1999 |access-date=25 January 2010}}</ref>
It has been steadily falling since the 1960s, from 3.04% per year between 1950 and 1960 to 1.05% in 2008 and is expected to fall to a negative value of –0.29% by 2050<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/noticia_impressao.php?id_noticia=1272 |title=Projeção da População do Brasil – Brazil's populational projection |publisher=IBGE |access-date=25 January 2010}}</ref> thus completing the [[demographic transition]].<ref>Magno de Carvalho, [http://www.observasaude.sp.gov.br/BibliotecaPortal/Acervo/Estrutura_Demogr%C3%A1fica_Brasil.pdf "Crescimento populacional e estrutura demográfica no Brasil"]{{dead link|date=May 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, pp. 7–8.</ref>

In 2008, the illiteracy rate was 11.48%<ref>PNAD 2008, IBGE. [http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/protabl.asp?c=271&i=P&sec59=93024&sec59=1023&sec59=1024&nome=on&notarodape=on&tab=271&unit=0&pov=3&opc1=1&poc2=1&orc59=5&OpcTipoNivt=1&opn1=2&nivt=0&poc1=1&sec58=0&orp=7&qtu3=27&opv=1&sec1=0&opc2=1&pop=1&opn2=0&orv=2&orc2=4&opc58=1&qtu2=5&sev=121&sev=1000121&sec2=0&poc59=2&opp=1&opn3=0&orc1=3&poc58=1&qtu1=1&cabec=on&opc59=1&ascendente=on&sep=43345&orn=1&qtu7=9&orc58=6&opn7=0&decm=99&pon=1&OpcCara=44&proc=1 "Pessoas de 5 anos ou mais de idade por situação, sexo, alfabetização e grupos de idade e grupos de idade"].</ref> and among the [[youth in Brazil|youth]] (ages 15–19) 1.74%. It was highest (20.30%) in the Northeast, which had a large proportion of rural poor.<ref>PNAD 2008, IBGE. [http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/protabl.asp?c=271&i=P&sec59=93024&sec59=1023&sec59=1024&nome=on&notarodape=on&tab=271&unit=0&pov=3&opc1=1&poc2=1&orc59=5&OpcTipoNivt=1&opn1=2&nivt=0&poc1=1&sec58=0&orp=7&qtu3=27&opv=1&sec1=0&opc2=1&pop=1&opn2=2&orv=2&orc2=4&opc58=1&qtu2=5&sev=121&sev=1000121&sec2=0&poc59=3&opp=1&opn3=0&orc1=3&poc58=1&qtu1=1&cabec=on&opc59=1&ascendente=on&sep=43345&orn=1&qtu7=9&orc58=6&opn7=0&decm=99&pon=2&OpcCara=44&proc=1 "Pessoas de 5 anos ou mais de idade por situação, sexo, alfabetização e grupos de idade"]</ref> Illiteracy was high (24.18%) among the rural population and lower (9.05%) among the urban population.<ref>PNAD 2008, IBGE. [http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/protabl.asp?c=2858&i=P&sec59=0&sec59=1023&sec59=1024&sec59=3318&nome=on&notarodape=on&tab=2858&unit=0&pov=1&opc1=1&poc2=1&orc59=5&OpcTipoNivt=1&opn1=2&nivt=0&poc1=2&orp=6&qtu3=27&opv=1&sec1=0&sec1=1&sec1=2&opc2=1&pop=1&opn2=0&orv=2&orc2=4&qtu2=5&sev=121&sec2=0&poc59=3&opp=1&opn3=0&orc1=3&qtu1=1&cabec=on&opc59=1&ascendente=on&sep=43435&orn=1&qtu7=9&pon=1&OpcCara=44&proc=1&opn7=0&decm=99 "Pessoas de 5 anos ou mais de idade por situação, sexo e alfabetização"].</ref>

=== Race and ethnicity ===
{{Main|Race and ethnicity in Brazil}}
[[File:Fachada do Museu da Imigração de São Paulo.JPG|thumb|left|[[Immigration Museum of the State of São Paulo]] in the neighborhood of [[Mooca (district of São Paulo)|Mooca]], in [[São Paulo city]]. The [[Italian Brazilians]] are 15% of the population and the largest Italian community outside [[Italy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itamaraty.gov.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=5270&Itemid=478&cod_pais=ITA&tipo=ficha_pais&lang=pt-BR|title=República Italiana|website=itamaraty.gov.br}}</ref>]]

According to the [[Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics|National Research by Household Sample]] (PNAD) of 2008, 48.43% of the population (about 92 million) described themselves as [[White Brazilian|White]]; 43.80% (about 83 million) as [[Pardo Brazilians|Pardo]] ([[brown people|brown]]), 6.84% (about 13 million) as [[Black Brazilian|Black]]; 0.58% (about 1.1 million) as [[Asian Brazilian|East Asian]] (officially called ''amarela'' or ''yellow''); and 0.28% (about 536 thousand) as [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Amerindian]] (officially called ''indígena'', Indigenous), while 0.07% (about 130 thousand) did not declare their race.<ref name="PNADIBGE">2008 PNAD, IBGE. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110614225239/http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/protabl.asp?c=262&i=P&nome=on&notarodape=on&tab=262&unit=0&pov=3&opc1=1&poc2=1&OpcTipoNivt=1&opn1=2&nivt=0&orc86=3&poc1=1&orp=6&qtu3=27&opv=1&poc86=2&sec1=0&opc2=1&pop=1&opn2=0&orv=2&orc2=5&qtu2=5&sev=93&sev=1000093&opc86=1&sec2=0&opp=1&opn3=0&sec86=0&sec86=2776&sec86=2777&sec86=2779&sec86=2778&sec86=2780&sec86=2781&ascendente=on&sep=43344&orn=1&qtu7=9&orc1=4&qtu1=1&cabec=on&pon=1&OpcCara=44&proc=1&opn7=0&decm=99 "População residente por cor ou raça, situação e sexo"].</ref>

In 2007, the [[Fundação Nacional do Índio|National Indian Foundation]] estimated that Brazil has 67 different uncontacted tribes, up from their estimate of 40 in 2005. Brazil is believed to have the largest number of [[uncontacted peoples]] in the world.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/07/AR2007070701312.html "In Amazonia, Defending the Hidden Tribes"], ''The Washington Post'' (8 July 2007).</ref>

Since the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500, considerable genetic mixing between Amerindians, Europeans, and Africans has taken place in all regions of the country (with European ancestry being dominant nationwide according to the vast majority of all autosomal studies undertaken covering the entire population, accounting for between 65% to 77%).<ref name="alvaro.com.br">{{cite journal|url=http://www.alvaro.com.br/pdf/trabalhoCientifico/ARTIGO_BRASIL_LILIAN.pdf |title=Allele frequencies of 15 STRs in a representative sample of the Brazilian population |doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2009.05.006 |year=2010 |last1=De Assis Poiares |first1=Lilian |last2=De Sá Osorio |first2=Paulo |last3=Spanhol |first3=Fábio Alexandre |last4=Coltre |first4=Sidnei César |last5=Rodenbusch |first5=Rodrigo |last6=Gusmão |first6=Leonor |last7=Largura |first7=Alvaro |last8=Sandrini |first8=Fabiano |last9=Da Silva |first9=Cláudia Maria Dornelles |journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e61–63 |pmid=20129458 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5xmleMZgv?url=http://www.alvaro.com.br/pdf/trabalhoCientifico/ARTIGO_BRASIL_LILIAN.pdf |archive-date= 8 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="www1.folha.uol.com.br">[http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/folha/ciencia/ult306u633465.shtml Brazilian DNA is nearly 80% European, indicates study].</ref><ref name="bdtd.bce.unb.br">NMO Godinho [http://bdtd.bce.unb.br/tedesimplificado/tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=3873 O impacto das migrações na constituição genética de populações latino-americanas] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162240/http://bdtd.bce.unb.br/tedesimplificado/tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=3873 |date=6 July 2011 }}. PhD Thesis, Universidade de Brasília (2008).</ref><ref name="plosone.org">{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0017063 |title=The Genomic Ancestry of Individuals from Different Geographical Regions of Brazil Is More Uniform Than Expected |year=2011 |last1=Pena |first1=Sérgio D. J. |last2=Di Pietro |first2=Giuliano |last3=Fuchshuber-Moraes |first3=Mateus |last4=Genro |first4=Julia Pasqualini |last5=Hutz |first5=Mara H. |last6=Kehdy Fde |first6=Fernanda de Souza Gomes |last7=Kohlrausch |first7=Fabiana |last8=Magno |first8=Luiz Alexandre Viana |last9=Montenegro |first9=Raquel Carvalho|journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=2 |page=e17063 |pmid=21359226 |pmc=3040205|editor1-last=Harpending|editor1-first=Henry|last10=Moraes|first10=MO|last11=De Moraes|first11=ME|last12=De Moraes|first12=MR|last13=Ojopi|first13=EB|last14=Perini|first14=JA|last15=Racciopi|first15=C|last16=Ribeiro-Dos-Santos|first16=AK|last17=Rios-Santos|first17=F|last18=Romano-Silva|first18=MA|last19=Sortica|first19=VA|last20=Suarez-Kurtz|first20=G|display-authors=9|bibcode=2011PLoSO...617063P|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Brazilian society is more [[Social issues in Brazil|markedly divided by social class lines]], although a high [[Income inequality in Brazil|income disparity]] is found [[Social apartheid in Brazil|between race groups]], so [[racism]] and [[Class discrimination|classism]] can be conflated. Socially significant closeness to one racial group [[Race in Brazil|is taken in account]] more in the basis of appearance ([[phenotype]]s) rather than ancestry, to the extent that full [[sibling]]s can pertain to different "racial" groups.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Color and genomic ancestry in Brazilians|first1=Flavia C.|last1=Parra|first2=Roberto C.|last2=Amado|first3=José R.|last3=Lambertucci|first4=Jorge|last4=Rocha|first5=Carlos M.|last5=Antunes|first6=Sérgio D. J.|last6=Pena|date=7 January 2003|journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A|volume=100|issue=1|pages=177–82|doi=10.1073/pnas.0126614100|pmc=140919|pmid=12509516|bibcode=2003PNAS..100..177P|doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = [[Race and ethnicity in Brazil]]<ref name="IBGE Censo de 2000">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/tendencia_demografica/analise_populacao/1940_2000/default.shtm |title=Tendências Demográficas: Uma análise da população com base nos resultados dos Censos Demográficos 1940 e 2000 |publisher=Ibge.gov.br |access-date=7 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Etnias Censo 2010">{{cite web|date=5 April 2011|url=http://port.pravda.ru/sociedade/curiosas/04-05-2011/31548-censo_demografico-0/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607201813/http://port.pravda.ru/sociedade/curiosas/04-05-2011/31548-censo_demografico-0/ |archive-date=7 June 2011 |title=Demographical census reveals Brazil as older and less white |publisher=Port.pravda.ru |access-date=7 April 2012|author=Antonio Carlos Lacerda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fatimanews.com.br/noticias/populacao-que-se-declara-branca-diminui-diz-ibge_116224/ |title=Self-declared White Brazilians decrease in number, says IBGE |publisher=Fatimanews.com.br |access-date=7 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116212707/http://www.fatimanews.com.br/noticias/populacao-que-se-declara-branca-diminui-diz-ibge_116224/ |archive-date=16 January 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|other =
|label1 =[[White Brazilian|White]]
|value1 =47.7
|color1 =LightBlue
|label2 =[[Pardo Brazilian|Pardo]] ([[Multiracial#Brazil|Multiracial]])
|value2 =43.1
|color2 =#9966CC
|label3 =[[Black Brazilian|Black]]
|value3 =7.6
|color3 =MediumAquamarine
|label4 =[[Asian Brazilian|East Asian]]
|value4 =1.1
|color4 =#FFE135
|label5 =[[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Natives]]
|value5 =0.4
|color5 =Red
}}

[[Socioeconomic status|Socioeconomic]] factors are also significant, because a minority of [[Pardo Brazilians|''pardos'']] are likely to start declaring themselves White or Black if socially upward.<ref>RIBEIRO, Darcy. O Povo Brasileiro, Companhia de Bolso, fourth reprint, 2008 (2008).</ref> Skin color and facial features do not line quite well with ancestry (usually, Afro-Brazilians are evenly mixed and European ancestry is dominant in Whites and ''pardos'' with a significant non-European contribution, but the individual variation is great).<ref name="plosone.org" /><ref name="afrobras">[https://web.archive.org/web/20101124105905/http://www.afrobras.org.br/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2112&Itemid=2 Negros de origem européia]. afrobras.org.br</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Genetic signatures of parental contribution in black and white populations in Brazil |doi=10.1590/S1415-47572009005000001|year=2009|last1=Guerreiro-Junior|first1=Vanderlei|last2=Bisso-Machado|first2=Rafael|last3=Marrero|first3=Andrea|last4=Hünemeier|first4=Tábita|last5=Salzano|first5=Francisco M.|last6=Bortolini|first6=Maria Cátira|journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology|volume=32|pages=1–11|pmid=21637639|issue=1|pmc=3032968}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Genetic heritage variability of Brazilians in even regional averages, 2009 study |doi=10.1590/S0100-879X2009005000026|year=2009|last1=Pena|first1=S.D.J.|last2=Bastos-Rodrigues|first2=L.|last3=Pimenta|first3=J.R.|last4=Bydlowski|first4=S.P.|journal=Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research|volume=42|issue=10|pages=870–76|pmid=19738982|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The brown population (officially called [[Pardo Brazilians|''pardo'']] in Portuguese, also colloquially ''[[wikt:moreno|moreno]]'')<ref name="Coelho 1996, p. 268">Coelho (1996), p. 268.</ref><ref name="Vesentini 1988, p. 117">Vesentini (1988), p. 117.</ref> is a broad category that includes ''[[caboclo]]s'' (assimilated Amerindians in general, and descendants of Whites and Natives), ''[[Mulatto|mulatos]]'' (descendants of primarily Whites and Afro-Brazilians) and ''[[Zambo|cafuzos]]'' (descendants of Afro-Brazilians and Natives).<ref name="Coelho 1996, p. 268" /><ref name="Vesentini 1988, p. 117" /><ref>Adas, Melhem ''Panorama geográfico do Brasil'', 4th ed (São Paulo: Moderna, 2004), p. 268 {{ISBN|85-16-04336-3}}</ref><ref>Azevedo (1971), pp. 2–3.</ref><ref name="Moreira 1981, p. 108">Moreira (1981), p. 108.</ref> People of considerable Amerindian ancestry form the majority of the population in the Northern, Northeastern and Center-Western regions.<ref>''Enciclopédia Barsa,'' vol. 4, pp. 254–55, 258, 265.</ref>

Higher percents of Blacks, mulattoes and tri-racials can be found in the eastern coast of the Northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba<ref name="Moreira 1981, p. 108" /><ref>Azevedo (1971), pp. 74–75.</ref> and also in northern Maranhão,<ref>''Enciclopédia Barsa'', vol. 10 (Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil, 1987), p. 355.</ref><ref>Azevedo (1971), p. 74.</ref> southern Minas Gerais<ref name="Azevedo 1971, p. 161">Azevedo (1971), p. 161.</ref> and in eastern Rio de Janeiro.<ref name="Moreira 1981, p. 108" /><ref name="Azevedo 1971, p. 161" /> From the 19th century, Brazil opened its borders to [[Immigration to Brazil|immigration]]. About five million people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil between 1808 and 1972, most of them of [[Portuguese Brazilian|Portuguese]], [[Italian Brazilian|Italian]], [[Brazilians of Spanish descent|Spanish]], [[German Brazilian|German]], [[Ukrainian Brazilian|Ukrainian]], [[Polish Brazilian|Polish]], [[Jewish Brazilian|Jewish]], [[Russians in Brazil|Russian]], [[Chinese Brazilian|Chinese]], [[Japanese Brazilian|Japanese]], and [[Arab Brazilian|Arab]] origin.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Maria Stella Ferreira-Levy|title=O papel da migração internacional na evolução da população brasileira (1872 a 1972)|journal=Revista de Saúde Pública|volume =8 |issue=supl |pages=49–90|year= 1974|doi=10.1590/S0034-89101974000500003|doi-access=free}}, Table 2, p. 74. {{in lang|pt}}</ref><ref>Zirin, 2014. Chapter 2, Section ''"The Beginning of the 'Mosaic' ''".</ref> Brazil has the second largest Jewish community in Latin America making up 0.06% of its population.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bh.org.il/jewish-community-brazil/|title=The Jewish Community in Brazil|website=Beit Hatfutsot}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Brazil}}
{{Further|Catholic Church in Brazil|Protestantism in Brazil}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = left
|caption = [[Religion in Brazil]] (2010 Census)
|label1 = [[Catholic Church in Brazil|Catholicism]]
|value1 = 64.6
|color1 = Gold
|label2 = [[Protestantism in Brazil|Protestantism]]
|value2 = 22.2
|color2 = Indigo
|label3 = [[Spiritism]]
|value3 = 2.0
|color3 = Pink
|label4 = Other
|value4 = 3.2
|color4 = Chartreuse
|label5 = No religion
|value5 = 8.0
|color5 = WhiteSmoke
}}
[[Roman Catholicism]] is the country's predominant faith. Brazil has the [[Catholic Church by country|world's largest Catholic population]].<ref name="PEWCATHOLIC">{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2013/02/13/the-global-catholic-population/|title=The Global Catholic Population|date=13 February 2013|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|access-date=10 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="USDS">{{cite conference |title=Brazil |book-title=International Religious Freedom Report |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=8 November 2005 |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2005/51629.htm |access-date=8 June 2008}}</ref> According to the 2010 Demographic Census (the PNAD survey does not inquire about religion), 64.63% of the population followed [[Roman Catholicism in Brazil|Roman Catholicism]]; 22.2% [[Protestantism in Brazil|Protestantism]]; 2.0% Kardecist spiritism; 3.2% other religions, undeclared or undetermined; while 8.0% have no religion.<ref name="census2010"/>

Religion in Brazil was formed from the meeting of the Catholic Church with the religious traditions of enslaved African peoples and indigenous peoples.<ref name="BoyleSheen2013">{{cite book|author1=Kevin Boyle|author2=Juliet Sheen|title=Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JxgFWwK8dXwC&pg=PT211|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-72229-7|page=211}}</ref> This confluence of faiths during the Portuguese colonization of Brazil led to the development of a diverse array of syncretistic practices within the overarching umbrella of Brazilian Catholic Church, characterized by traditional Portuguese festivities,<ref name="georgetown1">{{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/brazil |title=Brazil |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |access-date=7 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825203019/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/brazil |archive-date=25 August 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Religious pluralism increased during the 20th century,<ref name="Morris2006a">{{cite book|author=Brian Morris|title=Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA223|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85241-8|page=223}}</ref> and the Protestant community has grown to include over 22% of the population.<ref name="JeynesRobinson2012">{{cite book|author1=William Jeynes|author2=David W. Robinson|title=International Handbook of Protestant Education|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NIBlry_2oLQC&pg=PA405|year=2012|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-007-2386-3|page=405}}</ref> The most common Protestant denominations are [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] ones. Other Protestant branches with a notable presence in the country include the [[Baptists]], [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]], [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] and the [[Calvinism|Reformed tradition]].<ref>[ftp://ftp.ibge.gov.br/Censos/Censo_Demografico_2010/Caracteristicas_Gerais_Religiao_Deficiencia/tab1_4.pdf 2010 census results]</ref>

However, in the last ten years Protestantism, particularly in forms of Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism, has spread in Brazil, while the proportion of Catholics has dropped significantly.<ref name="georgetown2">{{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/brazil |title=Brazil |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |access-date=7 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825203019/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/brazil |archive-date=25 August 2011 |url-status=dead}} See drop-down essay on "The Growth of Religious Pluralism"</ref> After Protestantism, individuals professing no religion are also a significant group, exceeding 8% of the population as of the 2010 census. The cities of [[Boa Vista, Roraima|Boa Vista]], [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], and [[Porto Velho]] have the greatest proportion of [[Irreligion|Irreligious]] residents in Brazil. [[Teresina]], [[Fortaleza]], and [[Florianópolis]] were the most Roman Catholic in the country.<ref name="FGV no G1">{{cite web|author=Do G1, em São Paulo |url=http://g1.globo.com/brasil/noticia/2011/08/pais-tem-menor-nivel-de-adeptos-do-catolicismo-desde-1872-diz-estudo.html |title=G1 – País tem menor nível de adeptos do catolicismo desde 1872, diz estudo – notícias em Brasil |publisher=G1.globo.com |date=23 August 2011 |access-date=7 April 2012}}</ref> [[Greater Rio de Janeiro]], not including the [[Rio de Janeiro|city proper]], is the most irreligious and least Roman Catholic Brazilian periphery, while [[Greater Porto Alegre]] and Greater [[Fortaleza]] are on the opposite sides of the lists, respectively.<ref name="FGV no G1" />
[[File:Christ_on_Corcovado_mountain.JPG|thumb|The ''[[Christ the Redeemer (statue)|Christ the Redeemer]]'' statue in [[Rio de Janeiro]] is one of the most famous religious statues worldwide<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/2014/newsspec_7141/index.html "Arms wide open" BBC], Retrieved 29 April 2017.</ref><ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2014/12/08/travel/most-impressive-religious-statues/ "Religious statues: 10 of the world's most impressive" CNN], Retrieved 29 April 2017.</ref>]]
In October 2009, the Brazilian Senate approved and enacted by the President of Brazil in February 2010, an agreement with the [[Holy See|Vatican]], in which the Legal Statute of the Catholic Church in Brazil is recognized. The agreement confirmed norms that were normally complied with regarding religious education in public elementary schools (which also ensures the teaching of other beliefs), marriage and spiritual assistance in prisons and hospitals. The project was criticized by parliamentarians who understood the end of the secular state with the approval of the agreement.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[O Globo]]|year=2009|title=Senado aprova acordo com o Vaticano|url=https://oglobo.globo.com/economia/senado-aprova-acordo-com-vaticano-3161783|access-date=28 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=28 June 2020|publisher=Casa Civil da Presidência da República|title=Decreto nº 7.107, de 11 de fevereiro de 2010.|url=http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2007-2010/2010/Decreto/D7107.htm}}</ref>

=== Urbanization ===
{{Main|List of largest cities in Brazil|Municipalities of Brazil}}
According to IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) urban areas already concentrate 84.35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|title=IDBGE|publisher=IBGE|year=2011|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2010/default.shtm|access-date=8 October 2011|language=pt}}</ref>
The largest urban agglomerations in Brazil are [[São Paulo]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], and [[Belo Horizonte]] – all in the Southeastern Region – with 21.1, 12.3, and 5.1 million inhabitants respectively.<ref name="concentrações_urbanas" /><ref>{{cite web|url=ftp://geoftp.ibge.gov.br/organizacao_do_territorio/divisao_regional/arranjos_populacionais/arranjos_populacionais.pdf|title=Arranjos Populacionais e Concentrações Urbanas do Brasil|page=148|language=pt|publisher=Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics|access-date=16 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=ftp://ftp.ibge.gov.br/Estimativas_de_Populacao/Estimativas_2016/estimativa_dou_2016.pdf|title=Estimativas da população residente no Brasil e Unidades da Federação com data de referência em 1º de julho de 2016|language=pt|publisher=Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics|access-date=16 March 2017}}</ref> The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for [[Vitória, Brazil|Vitória]], the capital of [[Espírito Santo]], and [[Florianópolis]], the capital of Santa Catarina.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Principal Cities |encyclopedia=Encarta |publisher=MSN |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_3/Brazil.html |access-date=10 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029034959/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_3/Brazil.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 |url-status=dead}} {{Dubious|date=January 2010}}</ref>
{{Largest urban agglomerations in Brazil}}

=== Language ===
{{Main|Languages of Brazil|Portuguese language|Brazilian Portuguese|List of endangered languages in Brazil}}
[[File:Interior do Museu da Língua Portuguesa em São Paulo, Brasil.jpg|thumb|left|[[Museum of the Portuguese Language]] in [[São Paulo]] city, [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]].]]
[[File:Parque Indígena do Xingu.jpg|thumb|left|[[Oca (structure)|Ocas]] of the [[Kuikuro people]], [[Xingu Indigenous Park]], [[Mato Grosso]]]]

The official language of Brazil is Portuguese<ref name="CIA People">{{cite web |title=People of Brazil |website=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |year=2008 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/ |access-date=3 June 2008}}</ref> (Article 13 of the [[Constitution of Brazil|Constitution of the Federal Republic of Brazil]]), which almost all of the population speaks and is virtually the only language used in newspapers, radio, television, and for business and administrative purposes. Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian national identity and giving it a national culture distinct from those of its Spanish-speaking neighbors.<ref name="language2">{{Cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/brazil/39.htm|title=Brazil – Language|website=countrystudies.us}}</ref>

[[Brazilian Portuguese]] has had its own development, mostly similar to 16th-century Central and Southern dialects of European Portuguese<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sibila.com.br/index.php/world-map-of-portuguese/424 |title=Learn About Portuguese Language |publisher=Sibila.com.br |access-date=7 April 2012}}</ref> (despite a very substantial number of Portuguese colonial settlers, and [[Portuguese Brazilian|more recent immigrants]], coming from [[Northern Portugal|Northern regions]], and in minor degree Portuguese [[Macaronesia]]), with a few influences from the [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Amerindian]] and [[Languages of Africa|African languages]], especially [[West Africa]]n and [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] restricted to the vocabulary only.<ref name="Portuguese" /> As a result,{{citation needed|date=April 2015}} the language is somewhat different, mostly in phonology, from the language of Portugal and other [[Portuguese-speaking countries]] (the dialects of the other countries, partly because of the more recent end of [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese colonialism]] in these regions, have a closer connection to contemporary [[European Portuguese]]). These differences are comparable to those between [[American English|American]] and [[British English]].<ref name="Portuguese">{{cite web |title=Languages of Brazil |publisher=Ethnologue |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=br |access-date=9 June 2008}}</ref>

In 1990, the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]] (CPLP), which included representatives from all countries with Portuguese as the official language, reached an [[Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990|agreement on the reform of the Portuguese orthography]] to unify the two standards then in use by Brazil on one side and the remaining lusophone countries on the other. This spelling reform went into effect in Brazil on 1 January 2009. In Portugal, the reform was signed into law by the President on 21 July 2008 allowing for a six-year adaptation period, during which both orthographies will co-exist. The remaining CPLP countries are free to establish their own transition timetables.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nash |first=Elizabeth |title=Portugal pays lip service to Brazil's supremacy |newspaper=The Independent |date=2 May 2008 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/portugal-pays-lip-service-to-brazils-supremacy-819728.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624131043/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/portugal-pays-lip-service-to-brazils-supremacy-819728.html |archive-date=24 June 2011 |access-date=9 June 2008 |location=London}}</ref>

The [[recognition of sign languages|sign language law]] legally recognized in 2002,<ref name="Libras 2002">[https://web.archive.org/web/20100910070529/http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/LEIS/2002/L10436.htm LEI Nº 10.436, DE 24 DE ABRIL DE 2002]. Presidência da República, Casa Civil, Subchefia para Assuntos Jurídicos. Retrieved on 19 May 2012.</ref> (the law was [[regulation|regulated]] in 2005)<ref name="Libras 2005">[http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2004-2006/2005/decreto/d5626.htm Brazilian decree nº 5626, 22 December 2005]. Planalto.gov.br (23 December 2005). Retrieved on 19 May 2012.</ref> the use of the [[Brazilian Sign Language]], more commonly known by its Portuguese [[acronym]] LIBRAS, in education and government services. The language must be taught as a part of the [[school of education|education]] and [[speech and language pathology]] curricula. LIBRAS teachers, instructors and translators are recognized professionals. Schools and health services must provide access ("[[inclusion (education)|inclusion]]") to [[Deaf community|deaf people]].<ref name="Russo2011">{{cite book|author=Charles J. Russo|title=The Legal Rights of Students with Disabilities: International Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JuV1cZ7NJHIC&pg=PA45|year=2011|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-1085-1|page=45}}</ref>

[[File:Portal de Pomerode.jpg|thumb|[[Pomerode]], [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]], is one of the municipalities with a cooficial language. In this region, [[Hunsrückisch dialect|Hunsrückisch]] and [[East Pomeranian dialect|East Pomeranian]], German dialects, are two of the minor languages (see [[Brazilian German]]).]]

Minority languages are spoken throughout the nation. One hundred and eighty [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Amerindian languages]] are spoken in remote areas and a significant number of other languages are spoken by immigrants and their descendants.<ref name="Portuguese" /> In the municipality of [[São Gabriel da Cachoeira]], [[Nheengatu language|Nheengatu]] (a currently endangered South American [[creole language]] – or an 'anti-creole', according to some linguists – with mostly Indigenous Brazilian languages lexicon and Portuguese-based grammar that, together with its southern relative [[língua geral paulista]], once was a major [[lingua franca]] in Brazil,<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Campbell|first1=Lyle|title=The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide|last2=Grondona|first2=Verónica|last3=Muysken|first3=Peter|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=2012|isbn=978-3-11-025803-5|pages=247|chapter=Contacts between indigenous languages in South America|quote=Nheengatú (also called língua geral of Amazonia, or lingua Brasilica) originated in the 17th century in what are now the states of Pará Maranhão, as lingua franca on the basis of Tupinambá lexicon but with strong grammatical influence from Portuguese, also due to intervention by Jesuit missionaries [...] Around 1700 it was spoken in a large area in Brazil, as a contact language between whites and indians, but it lost some support with the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1758 [...] Its sister language in the colonial period was Língua Geral Paulista (in the state of São Paolo) a lingua franca which is now extinct.}}</ref> being replaced by Portuguese only after governmental prohibition led by [[Suppression of the Society of Jesus#Portugal|major political changes]]){{overly detailed inline|date=July 2015}}, [[Baniwa of Içana|Baniwa]] and Tucano languages had been granted co-official status with Portuguese.<ref name="nyt-language">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/28/international/americas/28amazon.html|title=Language Born of Colonialism Thrives Again in Amazon|newspaper=New York Times|access-date=14 July 2008 |first=Larry |last=Rohter |date=28 August 2005}}</ref>

There are significant communities of German (mostly the [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch|Brazilian Hunsrückisch]], a High German language dialect) and Italian (mostly the [[Talian dialect|Talian]], a [[Venetian language|Venetian]] dialect) origins in the Southern and Southeastern regions, whose ancestors' native languages were carried along to Brazil, and which, still alive there, are influenced by the Portuguese language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.de/dw/article/0,,1174391,00.html|title=O alemão lusitano do Sul do Brasil|publisher=DW-World.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.labeurb.unicamp.br/elb/europeias/talian.htm|title=ELB|website=labeurb.unicamp.br}}</ref> Talian is officially a historic patrimony of [[Rio Grande do Sul]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Approvato il progetto che dichiara il 'Talian' come patrimonio del Rio Grande del Sud – Brasile|url=http://www.sitoveneto.org/talian_patrimonio_de_rio_grando_do_sul.html|publisher=Sitoveneto|access-date=9 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304160633/http://www.sitoveneto.org/talian_patrimonio_de_rio_grando_do_sul.html|archive-date=4 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> and two German dialects possess co-official status in a few municipalities.<ref name="Stevenson1997">{{cite book|author=Patrick Stevenson|title=The German Language and the Real World: Sociolinguistic, Cultural, and Pragmatic Perspectives on Contemporary German|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AviTvt-cPaUC&pg=PA39|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-823738-9|page=39}}</ref> Italian is also recognized as ''ethnic language'' in the [[Microregions of Brazil|Santa Teresa]] microregion and [[Vila Velha]] (Espirito Santo state), and is taught as mandatory second language at school.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{Cite web|url=https://pt.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitui%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_1988_da_Rep%C3%BAblica_Federativa_do_Brasil/T%C3%ADtulo_II#Artigo_13|title=Constituição de 1988 da República Federativa do Brasil/Título II – Wikisource|website=pt.m.wikisource.org}}</ref>

Learning at least one second language (generally English or Spanish) is mandatory for all the 12 grades of the mandatory [[Education in Brazil|education system]] ([[primary education|primary]] and [[secondary education]], there called ''ensino fundamental'' and ''ensino médio'' respectively). Brazil is the first country in South America to offer [[Esperanto]] to secondary students.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pagef30.com/2009/09/15-september-2009-esperanto-approved-by.html |title=Esperanto approved by Brazilian government as optional high school subject, mandatory if justified by demand |page= F30 |date=19 September 2009 |access-date=30 October 2010}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Brazil}}
[[File:Puro ouro.jpg|thumb|left|[[Church and Convent of São Francisco, Salvador|Church and Convent of São Francisco]] in [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], one of the richest expressions of [[Baroque in Brazil|Baroque]].]]
The core culture of Brazil is derived from [[Culture of Portugal|Portuguese culture]], because of its strong colonial ties with the Portuguese Empire.<ref name="Meade2009">{{cite book|author=Teresa A. Meade|title=A Brief History of Brazil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e6Jw-KNq2QUC&pg=PA146|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7788-5|page=146}}</ref> Among other influences, the Portuguese introduced the [[Portuguese language]], [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] and [[Manueline|colonial architectural styles]]. The culture was, however, also strongly influenced by [[Ethnic groups of Africa|African]], [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|indigenous]] and non-Portuguese European cultures and traditions.<ref name="Levinson1998">{{cite book|author=David Levinson|title=Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwi-rv3VV6cC&pg=PA325|year=1998|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-57356-019-1|page=325}}</ref>

Some aspects of Brazilian culture were influenced by the contributions of [[Italian Brazilian|Italian]], [[German Brazilian|German]] and other European as well as [[Japanese Brazilian|Japanese]], [[Jewish Brazilian|Jewish]] and [[Arab Brazilian|Arab]] immigrants who arrived in large numbers in the South and Southeast of Brazil during the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref name="Lesser2013a">{{cite book|author=Jeffrey Lesser|title=Immigration, Ethnicity, and National Identity in Brazil, 1808 to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HJW029DYOZoC&pg=PA150|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-19362-7|pages=150–55}}</ref> The indigenous Amerindians influenced Brazil's language and [[Brazilian cuisine|cuisine]]; and the Africans influenced language, cuisine, [[Music of Brazil|music]], dance and religion.<ref>{{cite news |last=Freyre |first=Gilberto |title=The Afro-Brazilian experiment: African influence on Brazilian culture |publisher=UNESCO |year=1986 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1986_May-June/ai_4375022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120530050909/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1986_May-June/ai_4375022 |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 May 2012 |access-date=8 June 2008}}</ref>

[[Brazilian art]] has developed since the 16th century into different styles that range from [[Baroque in Brazil|Baroque]] (the dominant style in Brazil until the early 19th century)<ref>Leandro Karnal, ''Teatro da fé: Formas de representação religiosa no Brasil e no México do século XVI'', São Paulo, Editora Hucitec, 1998; available on [http://www.fflch.usp.br/dh/ceveh/public_html/biblioteca/livros/teatro_fe/index.htm fflch.usp.br] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724010418/http://www.fflch.usp.br/dh/ceveh/public_html/biblioteca/livros/teatro_fe/index.htm |date=24 July 2013 }}</ref><ref name="itaucultural.org.br">[http://www.itaucultural.org.br/aplicExternas/enciclopedia_IC/index.cfm?fuseaction=termos_texto_ing&cd_verbete=3738&lst_palavras=&cd_idioma=28556&cd_item=8 "The Brazilian Baroque"], ''Encyclopaedia Itaú Cultural'' {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430001754/http://www.itaucultural.org.br/aplicExternas/enciclopedia_IC/index.cfm?fuseaction=termos_texto_ing&cd_verbete=3738&lst_palavras=&cd_idioma=28556&cd_item=8 |date=30 April 2011 }}</ref> to [[Brazilian academic art|Romanticism]], [[Modern art|Modernism]], [[Expressionism]], [[Cubism]], [[Surrealism]] and [[Abstract art|Abstractionism]]. [[Cinema of Brazil|Brazilian cinema]] dates back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century and has gained a new level of international acclaim since the 1960s.<ref name="Marsh2012">{{cite book|author=Leslie Marsh|title=Brazilian Women's Filmmaking: From Dictatorship to Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I5F7E6BQ5ukC&pg=PA3|year=2012|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-09437-8|page=3}}</ref>

=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Architecture of Brazil}}
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| caption1 = The [[Museum of the Inconfidência]] in [[Minas Gerais]], an example of [[Portuguese colonial architecture]].
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The architecture of Brazil is influenced by Europe, especially Portugal. It has a history that goes back 500 years to the time when [[Pedro Álvares Cabral|Pedro Cabral]] discovered Brazil in 1500. [[Portuguese colonial architecture]] was the first wave of architecture to go to Brazil.<ref>Hue, Jorge de Souza (1999). Uma visão da arquitectura colonial no Brasil [A vision of Colonial Architecture in Brazil] (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro.</ref> It is the basis for all Brazilian architecture of later centuries.<ref>Boxer, Charles Ralph (1962). The Golden Age of Brazil, 1695–1750: Growing Pains of a Colonial Society. University of California Press.</ref> In the 19th century during the time of the [[Empire of Brazil]], Brazil followed European trends and adopted [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] and [[Gothic Revival architecture]]. Then in the 20th century especially in Brasilia, Brazil experimented with [[Modernist architecture]].

The colonial architecture of Brazil dates to the early 16th century when Brazil was first explored, conquered and settled by the Portuguese. The Portuguese built architecture familiar to them in Europe in their aim to colonize Brazil. They built Portuguese colonial architecture which included churches, civic architecture including houses and forts in Brazilian cities and the countryside. During 19th century Brazilian architecture saw the introduction of more European styles to Brazil such as Neoclassical and Gothic Revival architecture. This was usually mixed with Brazilian influences from their own heritage which produced a unique form of Brazilian architecture. In the 1950s the [[modernist architecture]] was introduced when [[Brasilia]] was built as new federal capital in the interior of Brazil to help develop the interior. The architect [[Oscar Niemeyer]] idealized and built government buildings, churches and civic buildings in the modernist style.<ref name="Guimaraens">Guimaraens, Cêça de. [http://www.mre.gov.br/cdbrasil/itamaraty/web/port/artecult/arqurb/arquitet/index.htm ''Arquitetura''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081215103814/http://www2.mre.gov.br/cdbrasil/itamaraty/web/port/artecult/arqurb/arquitet/index.htm |date=15 December 2008 }}. Portal do Ministério das Relações Exteriores.</ref><ref name="Claro">Claro, Mauro. [http://www.vitruvius.com.br/revistas/read/drops/09.025/1775 "Ambientes modernos. A casa modernista da Rua Santa Cruz, de Gregori Warchavchik, e outras casas da modernidade"]. In: ''Drops'', 2008; 09 (025.03)</ref>

=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of Brazil}}
[[Image:Tom Jobim e Chico Buarque no Festival Internacional da Canção (FIC).tif|left|thumb|[[Tom Jobim]], one of the creators of ''[[bossa nova]]'', and [[Chico Buarque]], one of the leading names of [[Música popular brasileira|MPB]].]]

The music of Brazil was formed mainly from the fusion of European and African elements.<ref name="FonsecaWeiner1991">{{cite book|author1=Duduka Da Fonseca|author2=Bob Weiner|title=Brazilian Rhythms for Drumset|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HuZQUm_hhygC&pg=PA7|year=1991|publisher=Alfred Music Publishing|isbn=978-0-7692-0987-6|page=7}}</ref> Until the nineteenth century, Portugal was the gateway to most of the influences that built Brazilian music, although many of these elements were not of Portuguese origin, but generally European. The first was José Maurício Nunes Garcia, author of sacred pieces with influence of Viennese classicism.<ref name="Grazia2013">{{cite book|author=Donna M. Di Grazia |authorlink=Donna Di Grazia|title=Nineteenth-Century Choral Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qyPz1PUFxW8C&pg=PA457|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-29409-9|page=457}}</ref> The major contribution of the African element was the rhythmic diversity and some dances and instruments that had a bigger role in the development of popular music and folk, flourishing especially in the twentieth century.<ref name="FonsecaWeiner1991" />

Popular music since the late eighteenth century began to show signs of forming a characteristically Brazilian sound, with [[Samba (music)|samba]] considered the most typical and on the UNESCO cultural heritage list.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?RL=00101 |title=UNESCO Culture Sector – Intangible Heritage – 2003 Convention |publisher=Unesco.org |access-date=4 June 2013}}</ref> [[Maracatu]] and [[Afoxê]] are two [[Afro-Brazilian]] music traditions that have been popularized by their appearance in the annual [[Brazilian Carnival]]s.<ref name="Crook2009">{{cite book|author=Larry Crook|title=Focus: Music of Northeast Brazil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Skjwor64MXwC&pg=PA78|year=2009|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-96066-3|page=78}}</ref> The sport of [[capoeira]] is usually played with its own music referred to as [[capoeira music]], which is usually considered to be a call-and-response type of folk music.<ref name="Fryer2000">{{cite book|author=Peter Fryer|title=Rhythms of Resistance: African Musical Heritage in Brazil|url=https://archive.org/details/rhythmsofresista0000frye|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=Pluto Press|isbn=978-0-7453-0731-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/rhythmsofresista0000frye/page/39 39]}}</ref> [[Forró]] is a type of folk music prominent during the [[Festa Junina]] in [[Northeast Region, Brazil|northeastern Brazil]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://brazilianexperience.com/brazil-from-a-to-z-forro/|title=Brazil From A TO Z: FORRÓ|last=|first=|date=25 December 2015|website=Brazilian Experience|access-date=}}</ref> Jack A. Draper III, a professor of Portuguese at the [[University of Missouri]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://romancelanguages.missouri.edu/people/draper|title=Jack A. Draper III|last=|first=|date=|website=Romance Languages and Literatures: University of Missouri|access-date=}}</ref> argues that Forró was used as a way to subdue feelings of nostalgia for a rural lifestyle.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Forró and redemptive regionalism from the Brazilian northeast: popular music in a culture of migration|title-link=Forró and Redemptive Regionalism from the Brazilian Northeast |last=Draper |first=Jack A., III |year=2010 |publisher=Lang|isbn=978-1-4331-1076-4|location=New York|oclc=643568832}}</ref>

[[Choro]] is a very popular music instrumental style. Its origins are in 19th-century Rio de Janeiro. In spite of the name, the style often has a fast and happy rhythm, characterized by virtuosity, improvisation, subtle [[Modulation (music)|modulations]] and full of [[syncopation]] and [[counterpoint]].<ref name="MacGowanPessanha1998">{{cite book|first1=Chris|last1=MacGowan|first2=Ricardo|last2=Pessanha|title=The Brazilian Sound: Samba, Bossa Nova, and the Popular Music of Brazil|url=https://archive.org/details/braziliansoundsa00mcgowa|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=Temple University Press|isbn=978-1-56639-545-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/braziliansoundsa00mcgowa/page/159 159]–61}}</ref> [[Bossa nova]] is also a well-known style of Brazilian music developed and popularized in the 1950s and 1960s.{{sfnp|MacGowan|Pessanha|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7MFD-EoTR7MC&pg=PA6 6]}} The phrase "bossa nova" means literally "new trend".<ref name="Kassing2007">{{cite book|author=Gayle Kassing|title=History of Dance: An Interactive Arts Approach|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofdancein00kass|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=Human Kinetics 10%|isbn=978-0-7360-6035-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofdancein00kass/page/236 236]}}</ref> A lyrical fusion of samba and [[jazz]], bossa nova acquired a large following starting in the 1960s.<ref name="Campbell2011b">{{cite book|author=Michael Campbell|title=Popular Music in America: The Beat Goes on|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rK5DMAZsuAgC&pg=PT299|year=2011|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-8400-2976-8|page=299}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Brazilian literature}}
[[Image:Machado de Assis 1907 aos 67 anos Estúdio Luiz Musso & Cia.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Machado de Assis]], poet and novelist, founder of the [[Academia Brasileira de Letras|Brazilian Academy of Letters]].]]

[[Brazilian literature]] dates back to the 16th century, to the writings of the first Portuguese explorers in Brazil, such as [[Pêro Vaz de Caminha]], filled with descriptions of [[fauna]], [[flora]] and commentary about the indigenous population that fascinated European readers.{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VhkvhllLooUC&pg=PA360 360]}}

Brazil produced significant works in [[Romanticism]] – novelists like [[Joaquim Manuel de Macedo]] and [[José de Alencar]] wrote novels about love and pain. Alencar, in his long career, also treated indigenous people as heroes in the [[Indianism (arts)|Indigenist]] novels ''[[The Guarani|O Guarani]]'', ''[[Iracema]]'' and ''[[Ubirajara]]''.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110725100730/http://www.brasembottawa.org/en/culture_academic/literature.html "Brazilian Literature: An Introduction"]. [http://ottawa.itamaraty.gov.br/pt-br/ Embassy of Brasil – Ottawa]. Visited on 2 November 2009.</ref> [[Machado de Assis]], one of his contemporaries, wrote in virtually all genres and continues to gain international prestige from critics worldwide.<ref>[[Antonio Candido|Candido; Antonio.]] (1970) ''Vários escritos''. São Paulo: Duas Cidades. p. 18</ref><ref>Caldwell, Helen (1970) ''Machado de Assis: The Brazilian Master and his Novels''. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, University of California Press.</ref><ref>Fernandez, Oscar Machado de Assis: The Brazilian Master and His Novels The ''Modern Language Journal'', Vol. 55, No. 4 (Apr. 1971), pp. 255–56</ref>

[[Brazilian literature#Modernism|Brazilian Modernism]], evidenced by the [[Week of Modern Art]] in 1922, was concerned with a nationalist avant-garde literature,<ref>Beatriz Mugayar Kühl, ''Arquitetura do ferro e arquitetura ferroviária em São Paulo: reflexões sobre a sua preservação'', p. 202. Atelie Editorial, 1998.</ref> while [[Brazilian literature#Post-Modernism|Post-Modernism]] brought a generation of distinct poets like [[João Cabral de Melo Neto]], [[Carlos Drummond de Andrade]], [[Vinicius de Moraes]], [[Cora Coralina]], [[Graciliano Ramos]], [[Cecília Meireles]], and internationally known writers dealing with universal and regional subjects like [[Jorge Amado]], [[João Guimarães Rosa]], [[Clarice Lispector]] and [[Manuel Bandeira]].<ref>Daniel Balderston and Mike Gonzalez, ''Encyclopedia of Latin American and Caribbean Literature, 1900–2003'', p. 288. Routledge, 2004.</ref><ref>Sayers, ''Portugal and Brazil in Transitn'', "Literature". U of Minnesota Press, 1 January 1999.</ref><ref>Marshall C. Eakin and Paulo Roberto de Almeida, ''Envisioning Brazil: A Guide to Brazilian Studies in the United States'': "Literature, Culture and Civilization". University of Wisconsin Press, 31 October 2005.</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Brazilian cuisine}}
{{See also|List of Brazilian dishes}}

{{multiple image
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| caption2 = [[Pão de queijo]] with [[Brazilian coffee|coffee]] and a small [[cachaça]] bottle, examples of the cuisine from the interior of Brazil.
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Brazilian cuisine varies greatly by region, reflecting the country's varying mix of indigenous and immigrant populations. This has created a national cuisine marked by the preservation of regional differences.<ref name="Encarta 4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Way of Life |encyclopedia=Encarta |publisher=MSN |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_4/Brazil.html |access-date=8 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091029035059/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_4/Brazil.html |archive-date=29 October 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Examples are [[Feijoada]], considered the country's national dish;<ref>Roger, [http://www.braziltravelguide.com/feijoada-the-brazilian-national-dish.html "Feijoada: The Brazilian national dish"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091129154026/http://www.braziltravelguide.com/feijoada-the-brazilian-national-dish.html |date=29 November 2009 }} braziltravelguide.com.</ref> and regional foods such as beiju, feijão tropeiro, [[vatapá]], [[moqueca]], [[polenta]] (from Italian cuisine) and [[acarajé]] (from African cuisine).<ref>Cascudo, Luis da Câmara. História da Alimentação no Brasil. São Paulo/Belo Horizonte: Editora USP/Itatiaia, 1983.</ref>

The national beverage is [[coffee]] and [[cachaça]] is Brazil's native [[Distilled beverage|liquor]]. Cachaça is distilled from [[Sugarcane|sugar cane]] and is the main ingredient in the national cocktail, [[Caipirinha]].<ref name="Bayor2011">{{cite book|first=Ronald H. |last=Bayor|title=Multicultural America: An Encyclopedia of the Newest Americans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJW79Rlu-igC&pg=PA181|year=2011|publisher=Georgia Institute of Technology|isbn=978-0-313-35786-2|page=181}}</ref>

A typical meal consists mostly of [[rice and beans]] with [[beef]], [[salad]], [[french fries]] and a [[fried egg]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Barbosa, Lívia|title= Feijão com arroz e arroz com feijão: o Brasil no prato dos brasileiros|doi=10.1590/S0104-71832007000200005|year=2007|journal=Horizontes Antropológicos|volume=13|issue=28|pages= 87–116|doi-access=free}}</ref> Often, it is mixed with cassava flour ([[farofa]]). Fried potatoes, fried cassava, fried banana, fried meat and fried cheese are very often eaten in lunch and served in most typical restaurants.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Ferraccioli, Patrícia |author2=Silveira, Eliane Augusta da |year=2010|title= Cultural feeding influence on palative memories in the usual brazilian cuisine|journal= Rev. Enferm. UERJ|volume=18|issue=2|pages=198–203|url=http://bases.bireme.br/cgi-bin/wxislind.exe/iah/online/?IsisScript=iah/iah.xis&base=BDENF&lang=p&nextAction=lnk&exprSearch=18716&indexSearch=ID}}</ref> Popular snacks are [[pastel (food)|pastel]] (a fried pastry); [[coxinha]] (a variation of chicken croquete); [[pão de queijo]] (cheese bread and cassava flour / [[tapioca]]); [[pamonha]] (corn and milk paste); [[sfiha|esfirra]] (a variation of Lebanese pastry); [[kibbeh]] (from Arabic cuisine); [[empanada]] (pastry) and [[empada]], little salt pies filled with shrimps or heart of palm.

Brazil has a variety of desserts such as [[brigadeiro]]s (chocolate fudge balls), [[bolo de rolo]] (roll cake with [[goiabada]]), [[cocada]] (a coconut sweet), [[beijinho]]s (coconut truffles and clove) and romeu e julieta (cheese with goiabada). Peanuts are used to make [[paçoca]], [[rapadura]] and [[pé-de-moleque]]. Local common fruits like [[açaí]], [[cupuaçu]], [[mango]], [[papaya]], [[cocoa bean|cocoa]], [[cashew]], [[guava]], [[orange (fruit)|orange]], [[Lime (fruit)|lime]], [[passionfruit]], [[pineapple]], and [[Spondias|hog plum]] are turned in [[juice]]s and used to make [[chocolate]]s, [[ice pop]]s and [[ice cream]].<ref>Freyre, Gilberto. Açúcar. Uma Sociologia do Doce, com Receitas de Bolos e Doces do Nordeste do Brasil. São Paulo, Companhia das Letras, 1997.</ref>

=== Cinema ===
{{Main|Cinema of Brazil}}
[[Image:Palacio festivais.jpg|thumb|[[Festival de Gramado]], the biggest [[film festival]] in the country]]
The Brazilian film industry began in the late 19th century, during the early days of the [[Belle Époque]]. While there were national film productions during the early 20th century, American films such as ''Rio the Magnificent'' were made in [[Rio de Janeiro]] to promote tourism in the city.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rio the Magnificent (1932)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a7Q1kITY168|website=[[YouTube]]|access-date=19 October 2015}}</ref> The films ''[[Limite]]'' (1931) and ''[[Ganga Bruta]]'' (1933), the latter being produced by [[Adhemar Gonzaga]] through the prolific studio Cinédia, were poorly received at release and failed at the box office, but are acclaimed nowadays and placed among the finest Brazilian films of all time.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/10/movies/10cinema.html |title=Brazil's Best, Restored and Ready for a 21st-Century Audience |last1=Larry |first1=Rohter |last2= |first2= |date=9 November 2010 |work=[[The New York Times]] |publisher= |access-date=3 November 2010}}</ref> The 1941 unfinished film ''[[It's All True (film)|It's All True]]'' was divided in four segments, two of which were filmed in Brazil and directed by [[Orson Welles]]; it was originally produced as part of the United States' [[Good Neighbor Policy]] during Getúlio Vargas' Estado Novo government.

During the 1960s, the [[Cinema Novo]] movement rose to prominence with directors such as [[Glauber Rocha]], [[Nelson Pereira dos Santos]], [[Paulo Cesar Saraceni]] and [[Arnaldo Jabor]]. Rocha's films ''[[Deus e o Diabo na Terra do Sol]]'' (1964) and ''[[Terra em Transe]]'' (1967) are considered to be some of the greatest and most influential in Brazilian film history.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tose|first1=Juliano|title=Editorial|url=http://www.contracampo.com.br/27/frames.htm|website=Contracampo – revista de cinema|publisher=Revista Contracampo|access-date=19 October 2015}}</ref>

During the 1990s, Brazil saw a surge of critical and commercial success with films such as ''[[O Quatrilho]]'' ([[Fábio Barreto]], 1995), ''[[O Que É Isso, Companheiro?]]'' ([[Bruno Barreto]], 1997) and ''[[Central Station (film)|Central do Brasil]]'' ([[Walter Salles]], 1998), all of which were nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film]], the latter receiving a [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] nomination for [[Fernanda Montenegro]]. The 2002 crime film ''[[City of God (2002 film)|City of God]]'', directed by [[Fernando Meirelles]], was critically acclaimed, scoring 90% on [[Rotten Tomatoes]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Cidade de Deus (City of God) (2003) – Rotten Tomatoes|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/city_of_god/#top-critics-numbers|website=[[Rotten Tomatoes]]|publisher=[[Flixter]]|access-date=19 October 2015}}</ref> being placed in [[Roger Ebert]]'s Best Films of the Decade list<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ebert|first1=Roger|title=The best films of the decade|url=https://www.rogerebert.com/rogers-journal/the-best-films-of-the-decade|website=RogerEbert.com|access-date=19 October 2015}}</ref> and receiving four [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] nominations in 2004, including [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]]. Notable film festivals in Brazil include the [[São Paulo International Film Festival|São Paulo]] and [[Rio de Janeiro International Film Festival]]s and the [[Festival de Gramado|Gramado Festival]].

=== Theatre ===
[[Image:Teatro Municipal de São Paulo 8.jpg|thumb|left|[[Theatro Municipal (São Paulo)|São Paulo Municipal Theater]], significant both for its architectural value as well as for its [[Modern Art Week|historical importance]].]]

The theatre in Brazil has its origins in the period of Jesuit expansion when theater was used for the dissemination of Catholic doctrine in the 16th century. in the 17th and 18th centuries the first dramatists who appeared on the scene of European derivation was for court or private performances.<ref>[http://brasilescola.uol.com.br/biografia/padre-anchieta.htm Padre Anchieta] ''Brasil Escola''.</ref> During the 19th century, dramatic theater gained importance and thickness, whose first representative was [[Luis Carlos Martins Pena]] (1813–1848), capable of describing contemporary reality. Always in this period the comedy of costume and comic production was imposed. Significant, also in the nineteenth century, was also the playwright [[Antônio Gonçalves Dias]].<ref name=teatro>{{cite web|url=http://www.brasembottawa.org/en/culture_academic/theater.html |title=Brazilian Theatre: An Introduction |publisher=Ambasciata brasiliana a Ottawa |language=english |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205061026/http://www.brasembottawa.org/en/culture_academic/theater.html |archive-date= 5 February 2012 }}</ref> There were also numerous operas and orchestras. The Brazilian conductor [[Antônio Carlos Gomes]] became internationally known with operas like ''[[Il Guarany]]''. At the end of the 19th century orchestrated dramaturgias became very popular and were accompanied with songs of famous artists like the conductress [[Chiquinha Gonzaga]].<ref>[http://www.arte.seed.pr.gov.br/modules/conteudo/conteudo.php?conteudo=196 O Teatro no Brasil] ''Secretaria da Educação do Paraná''.</ref>

Already in the early 20th century there was the presence of theaters, entrepreneurs and actor companies, but paradoxically the quality of the products staggered, and only in 1940 the Brazilian theater received a boost of renewal thanks to the action of Paschoal Carlos Magno and his student's theater, the comedians group and the Italian actors [[Adolfo Celi]], Ruggero Jacobbi and Aldo Calvo, founders of the ''Teatro Brasileiro de Comedia''. From the 1960s it was attended by a theater dedicated to social and religious issues and to the flourishing of schools of dramatic art. The most prominent authors at this stage were [[Jorge Andrade]] and [[Ariano Suassuna]].<ref name=teatro />

=== Visual arts ===
{{Main|Brazilian painting}}
[[Image:Americo-noite.jpg|thumb|upright|''The Night escorted by the geniuses of Love and Study'', by [[Pedro Américo]]]]

Brazilian painting emerged in the late 16th century,<ref>Louzada, Maria Alice & Louzada, Julio. [http://www.juliolouzada.com.br/primeirosmomentos.asp ''Os Primeiros Momentos da Arte Brasileira''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706153216/http://www.juliolouzada.com.br/primeirosmomentos.asp |date=6 July 2011 }}. Júlio Louzada Artes Plásticas Brasil. Acesso 5 out 2010</ref> influenced by [[Baroque]], [[Rococo]], [[Neoclassicism]], [[Romanticism]], [[Realism (arts)|Realism]], [[Modernism]], [[Expressionism]], [[Surrealism]], [[Cubism]] and [[Abstract art|Abstracionism]] making it a major [[Style (visual arts)|art style]] called [[Brazilian academic art]].<ref>Leite, José Roberto Teixeira & Lemos, Carlos A.C. ''Os Primeiros Cem Anos'', in Civita, Victor. ''Arte no Brasil''. São Paulo: Abril Cultural, 1979</ref><ref name="Biscardi" /> The [[Missão Artística Francesa]] (French Artistic Mission) arrived in Brazil in 1816 proposing the creation of an art academy modeled after the respected Académie des Beaux-Arts, with graduation courses both for artists and craftsmen for activities such as modeling, decorating, carpentry and others and bringing artists like [[Jean-Baptiste Debret]].<ref name="Biscardi">{{harvnb|Biscardi|Rocha|2006}}</ref>

Upon the creation of the [[Academia Imperial de Belas Artes|Imperial Academy of Fine Arts]], new artistic movements spread across the country during the 19th century and later the event called [[Week of Modern Art]] broke definitely with academic tradition in 1922 and started a nationalist trend which was influenced by modernist arts. Among the best-known Brazilian painters are [[Ricardo do Pilar]] and [[Manuel da Costa Ataíde]] (baroque and rococo), [[Victor Meirelles]], [[Pedro Américo]] and [[Almeida Junior]] (romanticism and realism), [[Anita Malfatti]], [[Ismael Nery]], [[Lasar Segall]], [[Emiliano di Cavalcanti]], [[Vicente do Rego Monteiro]], and [[Tarsila do Amaral]] (expressionism, surrealism and cubism), [[Aldo Bonadei]], [[José Pancetti]] and [[Cândido Portinari]] (modernism).<ref>Sevcenko, Nicolau. Pindorama revisitada: cultura e sociedade em tempos de virada. Série Brasil cidadão. Editora Peirópolis, 2000. pp. 39–47</ref>

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Brazil}}

[[Image:Brasil conquista primeiro ouro olímpico nos penaltis 1039264-20082016- mg 4348.jpg|thumb|left|layers at the podium with the first [[Olympic medal|Olympic Gold]] of the [[Brazil national football team]], won in the [[Football at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament|2016 Summer Olympics]]. [[Association football|Football]] is the most popular sport in the country.]]

The most popular sport in Brazil is [[association football|football]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://justica-federal.jusbrasil.com.br/noticias/74894/futebol-o-esporte-mais-popular-do-brasil-e-destaque-no-via-legal |title=Futebol, o esporte mais popular do Brasil, é destaque no Via Legal :: Notícias|publisher=Jusbrasil.com.br |access-date=16 April 2011}}</ref> The [[Brazil national football team|Brazilian men's national team]] is ranked among the best in the world according to the [[FIFA World Rankings]], and has won the [[FIFA World Cup|World Cup]] tournament a record five times.<ref>{{cite web |title=Football in Brazil |website=Goal Programme |publisher=International Federation of Association Football |date=15 April 2008 |url=https://www.fifa.com/associations/association=bra/goalprogramme/index.html |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref><ref>Zirin, 2014. Chapter 4 ''"Futebol: The Journey from Daring to Fear"''</ref>

[[Volleyball]], [[basketball]], [[auto racing]], and [[martial arts]] also attract large audiences. The [[Brazil men's national volleyball team]], for example, currently holds the titles of the [[FIVB Volleyball World League|World League]], [[FIVB Volleyball World Grand Champions Cup|World Grand Champions Cup]], [[FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship|World Championship]] and the [[FIVB Volleyball Men's World Cup|World Cup]]. In auto racing, three Brazilian drivers have won the [[Formula One]] world championship eight times.<ref>{{cite web |last=Donaldson |first=Gerald |title=Emerson Fittipaldi |website=Hall of Fame |publisher=The Official Formula 1 Website |url=http://www.formula1.com/teams_and_drivers/hall_of_fame/282/ |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Donaldson |first=Gerald |title=Nelson Piquet |website=Hall of Fame |publisher=The Official Formula 1 Website |url=http://www.formula1.com/teams_and_drivers/hall_of_fame/181/ |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Donaldson |first=Gerald |title=Ayrton Senna |website=Hall of Fame |publisher=The Official Formula 1 Website |url=http://www.formula1.com/teams_and_drivers/hall_of_fame/45/ |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref>

Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil: [[beach soccer|beach football]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Beach Soccer |publisher=International Federation of Association Football |url=https://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/developing/beachsoccer/index.html |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref> [[futsal]] (indoor football)<ref>{{cite web |title=Futsal |publisher=International Federation of Association Football |url=https://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/developing/futsal/index.html |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref> and [[footvolley]] emerged in Brazil as variations of football. In martial arts, Brazilians developed [[Capoeira]],<ref>{{cite web |title=The art of capoeira |publisher=BBC |date=20 September 2006 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/northyorkshire/content/articles/2005/09/13/capoeira_feature.shtml |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref> [[Vale tudo]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Brazilian Vale Tudo |publisher=I.V.C |url=http://valetudo.com.br/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980530081959/http://www.valetudo.com.br/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 May 1998 |access-date=6 June 2008 }}</ref> and [[Brazilian jiu-jitsu]].<ref>{{cite web |title=International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation |publisher=[[International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation]] |url=http://www.ibjjf.org/index.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=6 June 2008 |archive-date=20 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420155232/http://www.ibjjf.org/index.htm}}</ref>

Brazil has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, like the [[1950 FIFA World Cup]]<ref>{{cite web |title=1950 FIFA World Cup Brazil |website=Previous FIFA World Cups |publisher=International Federation of Association Football |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/edition=7/index.html |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref> and recently has hosted the [[2014 FIFA World Cup]], [[2019 Copa América]] and [[2021 Copa América]] .<ref>{{cite web|title=2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil |publisher=International Federation of Association Football |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/preliminarydraw/index.html |access-date=6 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080609044247/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/preliminarydraw/index.html |archive-date=9 June 2008}}</ref> The [[São Paulo]] circuit, [[Autódromo José Carlos Pace]], hosts the annual [[Brazilian Grand Prix|Grand Prix of Brazil]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Official Formula 1 Website |publisher=[[Formula One Administration]] |url=http://www.formula1.com/races/in_detail/brazil_804/circuit_diagram.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080604141640/http://www.formula1.com/races/in_detail/brazil_804/circuit_diagram.html |access-date=6 June 2008}}</ref> São Paulo organized the [[1963 Pan American Games|IV Pan American Games]] in 1963, and Rio de Janeiro hosted the [[2007 Pan American Games|XV Pan American Games]] in 2007.<ref name="LiMacIntosh2011">{{cite book|author1=Ming Li|author2=Eric W. MacIntosh|author3=Gonzalo A. Bravo|title=International Sport Management|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=udBgtzFSlBIC&pg=PA129|year=2011|publisher=Human Kinetics – College of Business at Ohio University|isbn=978-1-4504-2241-3|page=129}}</ref> On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeiro was selected to host the [[2016 Summer Olympics|2016 Olympic Games]] and [[2016 Summer Paralympics|2016 Paralympic Games]], making it the first South American city to host the games<ref name="guardian_olympics">[https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2009/oct/02/olympics-2016-games-rio-pele "Olympics 2016: Tearful Pele and weeping Lula greet historic win for Rio"], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 2 October 2009.</ref> and second in Latin America, after [[Mexico City]]. Furthermore, the country hosted the [[FIBA Basketball World Cup]]s in [[1954 FIBA World Championship|1954]] and [[1963 FIBA World Championship|1963]]. At the 1963 event, the [[Brazil national basketball team]] won one of its two world championship titles.<ref name="FIBA History">{{cite web|url=http://www.fiba.com/downloads/v3_abouFiba/mp/FIBA_world_championships_history.pdf|title=FIBA World Championship History (pdf)|publisher=[[FIBA]]|date=1 January 2007 |access-date=24 February 2012}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Brazil|South America}}
* [[Index of Brazil-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Brazil]]{{clear right}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=nt}}
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* Azevedo, Aroldo. ''O Brasil e suas regiões''. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1971
* Barman, Roderick J. ''Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–1891''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-8047-3510-7}}
* {{citation|last1=Biscardi|first1=Afrânio|last2=Rocha|first2=Frederico Almeida|title=O Mecenato Artístico de D. Pedro II e o Projeto Imperial|periodical=19&20 – A revista eletrônica de DezenoveVinte|url=http://www.dezenovevinte.net/ensino_artistico/mecenato_dpedro.htm|volume=I|issue=1|date=May 2006}}
* [[C. R. Boxer|Boxer, Charles R.]]. ''The Portuguese Seaborne Empire'' (1969)
** ''O império marítimo português 1415–1825''. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. {{ISBN|85-359-0292-9}}
* Bueno, Eduardo. ''Brasil: uma História''. São Paulo: Ática, 2003. {{ISBN|85-08-08213-4}}
* Calmon, Pedro. ''História da Civilização Brasileira''. Brasília: Senado Federal, 2002
* Carvalho, José Murilo de. ''D. Pedro II''. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007
* Coelho, Marcos Amorim. ''Geografia do Brasil''. 4th ed. São Paulo: Moderna, 1996
* Diégues, Fernando. ''A revolução brasílica''. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2004
* ''[[Barsa (encyclopedia)|Enciclopédia Barsa]]''. Volume 4: Batráquio – Camarão, Filipe. Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil, 1987
* {{cite book
| last1 = Ermakoff
| first1 = George
| year = 2006
| language = pt
| title = Rio de Janeiro – 1840–1900 – Uma crônica fotográfica
| publisher = G. Ermakoff Casa Editorial
| location = Rio de Janeiro
| isbn = 978-85-98815-05-3
}}
* Fausto, Boris and Devoto, Fernando J. ''Brasil e Argentina: Um ensaio de história comparada (1850–2002)'', 2nd ed. São Paulo: Editoria 34, 2005. {{ISBN|85-7326-308-3}}
* [[Elio Gaspari|Gaspari, Elio]]. ''A ditadura envergonhada''. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. {{ISBN|85-359-0277-5}}
* Janotti, Aldo. ''O Marquês de Paraná: inícios de uma carreira política num momento crítico da história da nacionalidade''. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1990
* Lyra, Heitor. ''História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Ascenção (1825–1870). v. 1''. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977
* Lyra, Heitor. ''História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Declínio (1880–1891). v. 3''. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977
* Lustosa, Isabel. ''D. Pedro I: um herói sem nenhum caráter''. São Paulo: Companhia das letras, 2006. {{ISBN|85-359-0807-2}}
* Moreira, Igor A. G. ''O Espaço Geográfico, geografia geral e do Brasil''. 18. Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1981
* Munro, Dana Gardner. ''The Latin American Republics; A History''. New York: D. Appleton, 1942.
* Peres, Damião (1949) ''O Descobrimento do Brasil por Pedro Álvares Cabral: antecedentes e intencionalidade'' Porto: Portucalense.
* Scheina, Robert L. ''Latin America: A Naval History, 1810–1987''. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1987. {{ISBN|0-87021-295-8}}
* {{Cite Q|Q18238040|ref={{harvid|Schwarcz|1998}}}}
* [[Stuart B. Schwartz]] ''Sovereignty and Society in Colonial Brazil'' (1973)
** ''Early Latin America'' (1983)
** ''Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society'' (1985)
* [[Thomas Skidmore|Skidmore, Thomas E]]. ''Brazil: Five Centuries of Change'' (Oxford University Press, 1999)
** ''Uma História do Brasil''. 4th ed. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2003. {{ISBN|85-219-0313-8}}
* Souza, Adriana Barreto de. ''Duque de Caxias: o homem por trás do monumento''. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2008. {{ISBN|978-85-200-0864-5}}.
* {{wikicite|ref={{harvid|Wright|1992}}|reference=Wright, Simon. 1992. ''Villa-Lobos''. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-315475-7}}}}
* Vainfas, Ronaldo. ''Dicionário do Brasil Imperial''. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002. {{ISBN|85-7302-441-0}}
* Vesentini, José William. ''Brasil, sociedade e espaço – Geografia do Brasil''. 7th Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1988
* Vianna, Hélio. ''História do Brasil: período colonial, monarquia e república'', 15th ed. São Paulo: Melhoramentos, 1994
* Zirin, Dave. ''Brazil's Dance with the Devil: The World Cup, The Olympics, and the Fight for Democracy'' Haymarket Books 2014. {{ISBN|978-1-60846-360-2}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* Alencastro Felipe, Luiz Felipe de. ''The Trade in the Living: The Formation of Brazil in the South Atlantic, Sixteenth to Seventeenth Centuries'' (SUNY Press, 2019) [https://amazon.com/Fernand-Braudel-Studies-Historical-Science/dp/1438469306/ excerpt]
* {{cite book |author=Alves, Maria Helena Moreira |title=State and Opposition in Military Brazil |location=Austin, TX |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=1985}}
* {{cite book |author=Amann, Edmund |title=The Illusion of Stability: The Brazilian Economy under Cardoso |publisher=World Development (pp. 1805–19) |year=1990}}
* {{cite web |title=Background Note: Brazil |publisher=US Department of State |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35640.htm |access-date=16 June 2011}}
* {{cite book |author=Bellos, Alex |title=Futebol: The Brazilian Way of Life |url=https://archive.org/details/futebolbrazilian0000bell |url-access=registration |location=London |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing plc |year=2003}}
* {{cite book |author=Bethell, Leslie |title=Colonial Brazil |location=Cambridge |publisher=CUP |year=1991}}
* {{cite book |author=Costa, João Cruz |title=A History of Ideas in Brazil |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofideasin0000cost |url-access=registration |location=Los Angeles, CA |publisher=University of California Press |year=1964}}
* {{cite book |author=Fausto, Boris |title=A Concise History of Brazil |location=Cambridge |publisher=CUP |year=1999 }}
* {{cite book |author=Furtado, Celso |title=The Economic Growth of Brazil: A Survey from Colonial to Modern Times |year=1963 |url=https://archive.org/details/economicgrowthof0000furt |url-access=registration |location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=University of California Press}}
* {{cite book |author=Leal, Victor Nunes |title=Coronelismo: The Municipality and Representative Government in Brazil |location=Cambridge |publisher=CUP |year=1977}}
* Levine, Robert M. ''Historical Dictionary of Brazil'' (2019)
* {{cite book |author=Malathronas, John |title=Brazil: Life, Blood, Soul |location=Chichester |publisher=Summersdale |year=2003}}
* {{cite book |author=Martinez-Lara, Javier |title=Building Democracy in Brazil: The Politics of Constitutional Change |publisher=Macmillan |year=1995}}
* {{cite book |author=Prado Júnior, Caio |title=The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil |location=Los Angeles, CA |publisher=University of California Press |year=1967}}
* {{cite book |author=Schneider, Ronald |title=Brazil: Culture and Politics in a New Economic Powerhouse |publisher=Boulder Westview |year=1995}}
* {{cite book |author=Skidmore, Thomas E. |title=Black into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/blackintowhitera0000skid |url-access=registration |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1974|isbn=978-0-19-501776-2 }}
* {{cite book |author=Wagley, Charles |title=An Introduction to Brazil |location=New York, New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1963}}
{{Refend}}
== External links ==

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'''Government'''
* [https://www.gov.br/ Brazilian Federal Government]
* [http://www.visitbrasil.com/en/ Official Tourist Guide of Brazil]
* [http://www.ibge.gov.br/english/ Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics]
* {{Wikiatlas|Brazil}}
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Dan James Clarke

2021-09-12T18:35:04Z

Saumyasingh: Removed promotional content

{{Infobox person
| name =Dan James Clarke
| image =Dan_James_Clarke.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| birth_date =March 25, 2001
| nationality =London, United Kingdom
| occupation =Entrepreneur
| years_active =2010-present
}}

'''Dan James Clarke''' is a British entrepreneur who specializes in branding. He has conducted branding for major social media platforms such as TikTok as well as providing expert advice in social media growth to brands, influencers, music artists, models and celebrities. He now invests in future innovative technologies and sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uk.style.yahoo.com/style/following-success-dan-james-clarke-103837151.html|title=Following the Success of Dan James Clarke, One of the UK’s Most Successful Social Media Entrepreneurs|website=Yahoo}}</ref>
[[Category:Entrepreneur]]

==Early life==
Clarke grew up in London, UK where he lived with his mother, Kerstine Clarke. He had a passion for Psychology and studies of nonverbal communication, as well as having a strong love for travel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/amp/lifestyle/culture/article/what-makes-dan-james-clarke-an-outstanding-social-media-entrepreneur-at-just-20-23165768|title=What makes Dan James Clarke an outstanding social media entrepreneur at just 20?|website=Midday}}</ref>

==Career==
Clarke initially started his ventures in 2015, at just 14 years old. He grew multiple theme pages on Instagram. In 2019 he started marketing for popular applications and social media platforms including TikTok, Yubo and calm app.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.usejournal.com/social-media-the-modern-day-drug-5999231e97b3?gi=5fcc901c262|title=Social Media: The Modern Day Drug|website=Use Journal}}</ref>
He eventually found a passion for writing, initially publishing his first article on medium called “Social media: the modern day drug”. Since then he has published his best selling Amazon book: “I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?! In 2020, Clarke started providing social media services to multiple well known clients including Bryce Monkivitch, Tms Tystar, Chris Mark Featherstone, Scotty Chickens and many more. Dan James Clarke’s estimated net worth is $1.5m <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://businessdeccan.com/meet-dan-james-clarke-author-of-im-way-too-sober-for-this-sht-and-popular-social-media-entrepreneur/|title=Meet Dan James Clarke, Author of ‘I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?!’ and Popular Social Media Entrepreneur|website=Business Deccan}}</ref>

==Awards==
Jack Petchey Award (2014)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/brandspot/pr-spot/dan-james-clarke-s-journey-from-being-bullied-at-school-to-being-the-best-social-media-entrepreneur-966270.html|title=Dan James Clarke has made his name in field of social media|website=Deccan Herald}}</ref>

==Social Media==
Dan James Clarke on Facebook<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/danjamesclarke|title=Dan James}}</ref>

Dan James Clarke on Instagram<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://instagram.com/dan_clrk|title=Dan James Clarke}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{cat improve|date=August 2021}}

Indiana

2021-09-12T17:41:20Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{Short description|State of the United States}} {{about|the State of Indiana}} {{redirect|Hoosier State|the passenger train|Hoosier State (train)}} {{pp-pc1|small=yes}} {{use..."

{{Short description|State of the United States}}
{{about|the State of Indiana}}
{{redirect|Hoosier State|the passenger train|Hoosier State (train)}}
{{pp-pc1|small=yes}}
{{use American English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox U.S. state
| name = Indiana
| official_name = State of Indiana
|ElectoralVotes = 11<ref>{{cite web|title=Electoral College Information|url=http://www.in.gov/sos/elections/2979.htm|website=in.gov|access-date=January 12, 2016}}</ref>
| image_flag = Flag of Indiana.svg
| flag_link = Flag of Indiana
| anthem = [[On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away]]
| image_seal = Indiana-StateSeal.svg
| image_map = Indiana in United States.svg
| nickname = The [[Hoosier]] State
|Former = Indiana Territory
| population_demonym = [[Hoosier]]
| motto = [[The Crossroads of America]]
| seat = [[Indianapolis]]
|LargestCity = capital
|LargestMetro = [[Indianapolis metropolitan area|Greater Indianapolis]]
|Governor = [[Eric Holcomb]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]])
|Lieutenant Governor = [[Suzanne Crouch]] (R)
|Legislature = [[Indiana General Assembly|General Assembly]]
|Upperhouse = [[Indiana Senate]]
|Lowerhouse = [[Indiana House of Representatives]]
|Judiciary = [[Indiana Supreme Court]]
|Senators = {{ubl|{{nowrap|[[Todd Young]] (R)}}|{{nowrap|[[Mike Braun]] (R)}}}}
|Representative = {{ubl|7 Republicans|2 Democrats}}
| postal_code = IN
|TradAbbreviation = Ind.
|OfficialLang = [[English language|English]]
| area_rank = 38th
| area_total_sq_mi = 36,418
| area_total_km2 = 94,321
| area_land_sq_mi = 35,868
| area_land_km2 = 92,897
| area_water_sq_mi = 550
| area_water_km2 = 1,424
| area_water_percent = 1.5
| population_as_of = 2020
| population_rank = 17th
| 2010Pop = 6,785,528<ref name="2020 U.S. Census">{{cite web |url=https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/data/apportionment/apportionment-2020-table02.pdf |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |author=Resident Population Data |title=Resident Population Data – 2020 Census}}</ref>
|2000DensityUS = 183
|2000Density = 70.7
|MedianHouseholdIncome = $54,181 (2017)<ref name=kff>{{cite web |url=http://kff.org/other/state-indicator/median-annual-income/?currentTimeframe=0 |website=The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation |title=Median Annual Household Income |access-date=April 8, 2019}}</ref>
|IncomeRank = 35th
|Total GDP Rank = 16th
|Total GDP = 352,273 (2017)<ref name=kff />
|Per Capita GDP Rank = 33rd
|Per capita GDP = 38,037 (2005)
|AdmittanceOrder = 19th
|AdmittanceDate = December 11, 1816
| timezone1 = [[Eastern Time Zone|Eastern]]
| utc_offset1 = −05:00
| timezone1_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
| utc_offset1_DST = −04:00
| timezone1_location = 80 counties
| timezone2 = [[Central Time Zone (North America)|Central]]
| utc_offset2 = −06:00
| timezone2_DST = [[Central Daylight Time|CDT]]
| utc_offset2_DST = −05:00
| timezone2_location = 12 counties
|Latitude = 37° 46′ N to 41° 46′ N
|Longitude = 84° 47′ W to 88° 6′ W
| width_mi = 140
| width_km = 225
| length_mi = 270
| length_km = 435
| elevation_max_point = [[Hoosier Hill]]<ref name=USGS>{{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/Elevations-Distances/elvadist.html |title=Elevations and Distances in the United States |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |year=2001 |access-date=October 21, 2011}}</ref><ref name=NAVD88>Elevation adjusted to [[North American Vertical Datum of 1988]].</ref>
| elevation_max_ft = 1,257
| elevation_max_m = 383
| elevation_ft = 700
| elevation_m = 210
| elevation_min_point = Confluence of [[Ohio River]] and [[Wabash River]]<ref name=USGS/><ref name=NAVD88/>
| elevation_min_ft = 320
| elevation_min_m = 97
| iso_code = US-IN
| website = www.in.gov
}}
{{Infobox U.S. state symbols
|Name = Indiana
|Flag = Flag of Indiana.svg
|Seal = Indiana-StateSeal.svg
|Amphibian =
|Bird= [[Northern cardinal|Cardinal]]
|Butterfly =
|Crustacean =
|Fish =
|Flower = [[Peony]]
|Grass =
|Insect = Say's [[Firefly]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wthr.com/article/lightning-bug-becomes-indianas-official-state-insect |title=Lightning bug becomes Indiana's official state insect |date=February 27, 2018 |website=13 WTHR Indianapolis}}</ref>
|Mammal =
|Reptile =
|Tree = [[Liriodendron tulipifera|Tulip tree]]
|Beverage =
|Colors = [[Blue (color)|Blue]] and [[Gold (color)|gold]]
|Dance =
|Dinosaur =
|Firearm = [[Grouseland|Grouseland Rifle]]
|Food = [[Sugar cream pie]]
|Fossil =
|Gemstone =
|Instrument =
|Mineral =
|Poem = "Indiana"
|Rock = [[Indiana Limestone|Salem Limestone]]
|Shell =
|Ships = [[USS Indianapolis]] (4), [[USS Indiana]] (4)
|Slogan = ''Honest to Goodness Indiana''
|Soil = [[Miami (soil)|Miami]]
|Sport = [[Basketball]]
|Tartan =
|Toy =
|Other = River: [[Wabash River|Wabash]]
|Route Marker = Indiana 13.svg
|Quarter = 2002 IN Proof.png
|QuarterReleaseDate = 2002
}}
'''Indiana''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Indiana.ogg|ˌ|ɪ|n|d|i|ˈ|æ|n|ə}}) is a [[U.S. state]] in the [[Midwestern United States|Midwestern]] [[United States]]. It is the [[List of U.S. states and territories by area|38th-largest by area]] and the [[List of U.S. states and territories by population|17th-most populous]] of the [[List of states and territories of the United States|50 United States]]. Its capital and largest city is [[Indianapolis]]. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th state on December 11, 1816. It is bordered by [[Lake Michigan]] to the northwest, [[Michigan]] to the north, [[Ohio]] to the east, the [[Ohio River]] and [[Kentucky]] to the south and southeast, and the [[Wabash River]] and [[Illinois]] to the west.

Various [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous peoples]] inhabited Indiana for thousands of years, some of whom the U.S. government expelled between 1800 and 1836. Indiana received its name because the state was largely possessed by native tribes even after it was granted statehood. Since then, settlement patterns in Indiana have reflected regional cultural segmentation present in the [[Eastern United States]]; the state's northernmost tier was settled primarily by people from [[New England]] and [[New York (state)|New York]], Central Indiana by migrants from the [[Mid-Atlantic (United States)|Mid-Atlantic]] states and adjacent Ohio, and [[Southern Indiana]] by settlers from the [[Upland South]], particularly Kentucky and [[Tennessee]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286017/Indiana/279873/Settlement-patterns-and-demographic-trends |title=Indiana – Settlement patterns and demographic trends |publisher=eb.com |author1=William Vincent D'Antonio |author2=Robert L. Beck |access-date=January 3, 2012}}</ref>

Indiana has [[Economy of Indiana|a diverse economy]] with a gross state product of $377.1{{nbs}}billion in 2019.<ref name="bea.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/248023/us-gross-domestic-product-gdp-by-state/ |title=Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the United States in 2019, by state (in billion current U.S. dollars) |publisher=[[Statista]] |year=2019 |access-date=January 24, 2021 }}</ref> It has several metropolitan areas with populations greater than 100,000 and a number of smaller cities and towns. Indiana is home to professional sports teams, including the [[National Football League|NFL]]'s [[Indianapolis Colts]] and the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]]'s [[Indiana Pacers]], and hosts several notable competitive events, including the [[Indianapolis 500]].

==Etymology==

[[File:Welcome to Indiana, Crossroads of America.jpg|thumb]]

Indiana's name means "Land of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]]", or simply "Indian Land".<ref>An earlier use of the name dates to the 1760s, when it referenced a tract of land under control of the Commonwealth of Virginia, but the area's name was discarded when it became a part of that state. See {{cite journal |last=Hodgin |first=Cyrus |year=1903 |title=The Naming of Indiana |journal=Papers of the Wayne County, Indiana, Historical Society |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3–11 |format=PDF transcription |url=http://www.in.gov/history/2805.htm |access-date=January 23, 2014}}</ref> It also stems from Indiana's territorial history. On May 7, 1800, the [[United States Congress]] passed legislation to divide the [[Northwest Territory]] into two areas and named the western section the [[Indiana Territory]]. In 1816, when Congress passed an Enabling Act to begin the process of establishing statehood for Indiana, a part of this territorial land became the geographic area for the new state.<ref>A portion of the Northwest Territory's eastern section became the state of [[Ohio]] in 1803. The [[Michigan Territory]] was established in 1805 from part of the Indiana Territory's northern lands and four years later, in 1809, the Illinois counties were separated from the Indiana Territory to create the [[Illinois Territory]]. See {{cite book |author1=John D. Barnhart |author2=Dorothy L. Riker |title=Indiana to 1816: The Colonial Period |publisher=Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society |series=The History of Indiana |volume=I |year=1971 |location=Indianapolis |pages=311–13, 337, 353, 355, 432 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Stewart |first=George R. |author-link=George R. Stewart |title=Names on the Land: A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/namesonlandhisto0000stew |url-access=registration |orig-year=1945 |edition=Sentry edition (3rd) |year=1967 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/namesonlandhisto0000stew/page/191 191]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hodgin |first=Cyrus |year=1903 |url=http://www.in.gov/history/2805.htm |title=The Naming of Indiana |journal=Papers of the Wayne County, Indiana, Historical Society |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3–11 |format=PDF transcription |access-date=January 16, 2014}}</ref>

Formal use of the word ''Indiana'' dates from 1768, when a [[Philadelphia]]-based trading company gave its land claim in present-day [[West Virginia]] the name "Indiana" in honor of its previous owners, the Iroquois. Later, ownership of the claim was transferred to the [[Indiana Land Company]], the first recorded use of the word ''Indiana''. But the [[Virginia]] colony argued that it was the rightful owner of the land because it fell within its geographic boundaries. The [[United States Supreme Court|U.S. Supreme Court]] denied the land company's right to the claim in 1798.<ref name="IHBNI">Cyrus Hodgin, "The Naming of Indiana" in {{cite journal|url=http://www.in.gov/history/2805.htm |title=Papers of the Wayne County, Indiana, Historical Society
| volume =1 |issue=1 | year =1903 | pages =3–11
|access-date=July 23, 2018}}</ref>

A resident of Indiana is officially known as a [[Hoosier]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Maureen |last=Groppe |title=Finally, the federal government agrees: We're Hoosiers |website=[[The Indianapolis Star]] |url=http://www.indystar.com/story/news/politics/2017/01/12/finally-federal-government-agrees-were-hoosiers/96461534/ |access-date=January 12, 2016}}</ref> The etymology of this word is disputed, but the leading theory, advanced by the Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society, has its origin in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Tennessee (the [[Upland South]]) as a term for a backwoodsman, a rough countryman, or a country bumpkin.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Haller |first=Steve |date=Fall 2008 |title=The Meanings of Hoosier: 175 Years and Counting |journal=Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=5, 6 |issn=1040-788X |url=http://www.indianahistory.org/our-collections/reference/Hoosier.pdf |access-date=January 23, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Word Hoosier |author=Graf, Jeffery |publisher=[[Indiana University Bloomington]] |url=http://www.indiana.edu/~librcsd/internet/extra/hoosier.html |access-date=February 27, 2012}}</ref>

==History==

{{Main|History of Indiana}}
{{See also|Outline of Indiana#History}}

===Indigenous inhabitants===

[[File:Angel mound with turret HRoe 2008.jpg|thumb|[[Angel Mounds State Historic Site]] was one of the northernmost [[Mississippian culture]] settlements, occupied from 1100 to 1450.]]

The first inhabitants in what is now Indiana were the [[Paleo-Indians]], who arrived about 8000 BCE after the melting of the glaciers at the end of the [[Ice Age]]. Divided into small groups, the Paleo-Indians were [[nomad]]s who hunted large [[Game (food)|game]] such as [[mastodons]]. They created stone tools made out of [[chert]] by chipping, [[knapping]] and [[Lithic reduction|flaking]].<ref name="HIS">{{cite web| title =Prehistoric Indians of Indiana| publisher =State of Indiana| url =http://in.gov/dnr/historic/files/prehisindians.pdf| access-date =July 5, 2009| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20130117084154/http://in.gov/dnr/historic/files/prehisindians.pdf| archive-date =January 17, 2013| url-status =dead}}</ref>

The [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic period]], which began between 5000 and 4000 BC, covered the next phase of indigenous culture. The people developed new tools as well as techniques to cook food, an important step in civilization. These new tools included different types of spear points and knives, with various forms of [[Nock (arrow)|notches]]. They made ground-stone tools such as stone axes, woodworking tools and grinding stones. During the latter part of the period, they built earthwork [[mound]]s and [[midden]]s, which showed settlements were becoming more permanent. The Archaic period ended at about 1500 BC, although some Archaic people lived until 700 BC.<ref name="HIS"/>

The [[Woodland period]] began around 1500 BC when new cultural attributes appeared. The people created ceramics and pottery and extended their cultivation of plants. An early Woodland period group named the [[Adena culture|Adena people]] had elegant burial rituals, featuring log tombs beneath earth mounds. In the middle of the Woodland period, the [[Hopewell tradition|Hopewell people]] began to develop long-range trade of [[Good (economics)|goods]]. Nearing the end of the stage, the people developed highly productive cultivation and adaptation of agriculture, growing such crops as [[Maize|corn]] and [[Squash (plant)|squash]]. The Woodland period ended around 1000 AD.<ref name="HIS"/>

The [[Mississippian culture]] emerged, lasting from 1000 AD until the 15th century, shortly before the arrival of Europeans. During this stage, the people created large urban settlements designed according to their cosmology, with large mounds and plazas defining ceremonial and public spaces. The concentrated settlements depended on the agricultural surpluses. One such complex was the [[Angel Mounds]]. They had large public areas such as plazas and platform mounds, where leaders lived or conducted rituals. Mississippian civilization collapsed in Indiana during the mid-15th century for reasons that remain unclear.<ref name="HIS"/>

The historic Native American tribes in the area at the time of European encounter spoke different languages of the [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] family. They included the [[Shawnee]], [[Miami people|Miami]], and [[Illiniwek|Illini]]. Refugee tribes from eastern regions, including the Delaware who settled in the White and Whitewater River Valleys, later joined them.

===European exploration and sovereignty===

{{See also|New France|Louisiana (New France)|Illinois Country|Province of Quebec (1763–1791)}}
[[File:Natives guiding french explorers through indiana.jpg|thumb|Native Americans guide French explorers through Indiana, as depicted by [[Maurice Thompson]] in ''Stories of Indiana''.]]

In 1679, French explorer [[René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle]] was the first European to cross into Indiana after reaching present-day [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]] at the [[St. Joseph River (Lake Michigan)|Saint Joseph River]].<ref>Allison, p. 17.</ref> He returned the following year to learn about the region. French-Canadian [[fur trade]]rs soon arrived, bringing blankets, jewelry, tools, whiskey and weapons to trade for skins with the Native Americans.

By 1702, [[Louis Juchereau de St. Denis|Sieur Juchereau]] established the first trading post near [[Vincennes, Indiana|Vincennes]]. In 1715, [[Jean Baptiste Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes|Sieur de Vincennes]] built [[Fort Miami (Indiana)|Fort Miami]] at [[Kekionga]], now [[Fort Wayne]]. In 1717, another Canadian, [[Picote de Beletre]], built [[Fort Ouiatenon]] on the [[Wabash River]], to try to control Native American trade routes from [[Lake Erie]] to the [[Mississippi River]].

In 1732, Sieur de Vincennes built a second fur trading post at Vincennes. French Canadian settlers, who had left the earlier post because of hostilities, returned in larger numbers. In a period of a few years, British colonists arrived from the East and contended against the Canadians for control of the lucrative fur trade. Fighting between the French and British colonists occurred throughout the 1750s as a result.

The Native American tribes of Indiana sided with the French Canadians during the [[French and Indian War]] (also known as the [[Seven Years' War]]). With British victory in 1763, the French were forced to cede to the British crown all their lands in North America east of the Mississippi River and north and west of the [[Thirteen Colonies|colonies]].

The tribes in Indiana did not give up: they captured [[Fort Ouiatenon]] and [[Forts of Fort Wayne, Indiana#Fort Miami|Fort Miami]] during [[Pontiac's Rebellion]]. The British royal proclamation of 1763 designated the land west of the Appalachians for Native American use, and excluded British colonists from the area, which the Crown called "Indian Territory".

In 1775, the [[American Revolutionary War]] began as the colonists sought self-government and independence from the British. The majority of the fighting took place near the East Coast, but the Patriot military officer [[George Rogers Clark]] called for an army to help fight the British in the west.<ref>Brill, p. 31–32.</ref> Clark's army won significant battles and took over [[Vincennes, Indiana|Vincennes]] and [[Fort Sackville]] on February 25, 1779.<ref name="NO">{{cite web| title =Northwest Ordinance of 1787 | publisher=State of Indiana| url =http://www.in.gov/history/2695.htm#events| access-date =July 24, 2009 }}</ref>

During the war, Clark managed to cut off British troops, who were attacking the eastern colonists from the west. His success is often credited for changing the course of the American Revolutionary War.<ref>Brill, p. 33.</ref> At the end of the war, through the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]], the British crown ceded their claims to the land south of the Great Lakes to the newly formed United States, including Native American lands.

===The frontier===

{{Main|Northwest Ordinance|Northwest Territory|Organic act#List of organic acts|Indiana Territory}}
{{multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 210
|image1=Indiana Indian treaties.svg
|alt1=A colorful map of Indiana with treaty names
|image2=Indiana, 1817.jpg
|alt2=A crude map of Indiana with only a handful of southern counties delineated
|caption2=Above: a map showing extent of the treaty lands. Below: one of the first maps of Indiana (made 1816, published 1817) showing territories prior to the Treaty of St. Mary's which greatly expanded the region. Note the inaccurate placement of [[Lake Michigan]].
}}

In 1787, the US defined the [[Northwest Territory]] which included the area of present-day Indiana. In 1800, Congress separated [[Ohio]] from the Northwest Territory, designating the rest of the land as the [[Indiana Territory]].<ref name="GAC"/> President [[Thomas Jefferson]] chose [[William Henry Harrison]] as the governor of the territory, and [[Vincennes, Indiana|Vincennes]] was established as the capital.<ref>Brill, p. 35.</ref> After the [[Michigan Territory]] was separated and the [[Illinois Territory]] was formed, Indiana was reduced to its current size and geography.<ref name="GAC">{{cite web| title =Government at Crossroads: An Indiana chronology|website=[[The Herald Bulletin]]| date =January 5, 2008| url =http://www.heraldbulletin.com/news/local_news/government-at-crossroads-an-indiana-chronology/article_3a07aa44-1cd4-5028-82e7-96b907121b31.html?mode=jqm| access-date =July 22, 2009 }}</ref>

Starting with the [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]] in 1794 and the [[Treaty of Greenville]] in 1795, Native American titles to Indiana lands were extinguished by usurpation, purchase, or war and treaty. About half the state was acquired in the [[Treaty of St. Mary's]] from the Miami in 1818. Purchases were not complete until the [[Treaty of Mississinewas]] in 1826 acquired the last of the reserved Native American lands in the northeast.

A portrait of the Indiana frontier about 1810: The frontier was defined by the [[Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809)|Treaty of Fort Wayne]] in 1809, adding much of the southwestern lands around Vincennes and southeastern lands adjacent to Cincinnati, to areas along the Ohio River as part of U.S. territory. Settlements were military outposts such as Fort Ouiatenon in the northwest and Fort Miami (later Fort Wayne) in the northeast, Fort Knox and Vincennes settlement on the lower Wabash. Other settlements included Clarksville (across from Louisville), Vevay, and Corydon along the Ohio River, the Quaker Colony in Richmond on the eastern border, and Conner's Post (later Connersville) on the east central frontier. Indianapolis would not be populated for 15 more years, and central and northern Indiana Territory remained wilderness populated primarily by Indigenous communities. Only two counties in the extreme southeast, Clark and Dearborn, had been organized by European settlers. Land titles issued out of Cincinnati were sparse. Settler migration was chiefly via flatboat on the Ohio River westerly, and by wagon trails up the Wabash/White River Valleys (west) and Whitewater River Valleys (east).

In 1810, the [[Shawnee]] tribal chief [[Tecumseh]] and his brother [[Tenskwatawa]] encouraged other indigenous tribes in the territory to resist European settlement. Tensions rose and the US authorized Harrison to launch a preemptive expedition against [[Tecumseh's Confederacy]]; the US gained victory at the [[Battle of Tippecanoe]] on November 7, 1811. Tecumseh was killed in 1813 during the [[Battle of Thames]]. After his death, armed resistance to United States control ended in the region. Most Native American tribes in the state were later [[Indian removals in Indiana|removed]] to west of the [[Mississippi River]] in the 1820s and 1830s after US negotiations and the purchase of their lands.<ref>Brill, pp. 36–37.</ref>

===Statehood and settlement===

[[File:Historic American Buildings Survey Lester Jones, Photographer May 24, 1940. VIEW FROM SOUTHWEST - First State Capitol, Corydon, Harrison County, IN HABS IND,31-CORY,1-2.tif|thumb|Indiana's Capitol Building in [[Corydon, Indiana|Corydon]] served as the state's seat of government from 1816 until 1825.<ref>{{cite web|title=Corydon Capitol State Historic Site|publisher=Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites|url=https://www.indianamuseum.org/corydon-capitol-state-historic-site|access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref>]]

[[Corydon, Indiana|Corydon]], a town in the far southern part of Indiana, was named the second capital of the Indiana Territory in May 1813 in order to decrease the threat of Native American raids following the Battle of Tippecanoe.<ref name="GAC"/> Two years later, a petition for statehood was approved by the territorial general assembly and sent to Congress. An [[Enabling Act]] was passed to provide an election of delegates to write a [[constitution of Indiana|constitution for Indiana]]. On June 10, 1816, delegates assembled at Corydon to write the constitution, which was completed in 19 days. [[Jonathan Jennings]] was elected the fledgling state's first governor in August 1816. President [[James Madison]] approved Indiana's [[Admission to the Union|admission into the union]] as the [[List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union|nineteenth state]] on December 11, 1816.<ref name="NO"/> In 1825, the state capital was moved from Corydon to [[Indianapolis]].<ref name="GAC"/>

Many European [[immigrants]] went west to settle in Indiana in the early 19th century. The largest immigrant group to settle in Indiana were [[German-American|Germans]], as well as many immigrants from Ireland and England. Americans who were primarily [[English American|ethnically English]] migrated from the Northern Tier of New York and New England, as well as from the mid-Atlantic state of Pennsylvania.<ref name="The History of Indiana">{{cite web| title =The History of Indiana| publisher=[[History (U.S. TV channel)|History]]| url =http://www.history.com/topics/us-states/indiana| access-date =July 26, 2009 }}</ref><ref>[http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache%3AWJGw9z2RkkYJ%3Awww.uen.org%2FLessonplan%2FdownloadFile.cgi%3Ffile%3D1041-6-15955-AF_Census_Data.pdf%26filename%3DAF_Census_Data.pdf+49%2C598%2C035&gl=uk&pid=bl]{{dead link|date=July 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The arrival of steamboats on the Ohio River in 1811, and the [[National Road]] at Richmond in 1829, greatly facilitated settlement of northern and western Indiana.

Following statehood, the new government worked to transform Indiana from a [[American frontier|frontier]] into a developed, well-populated, and thriving state, beginning significant demographic and economic changes. In 1836, the state's founders initiated a program, the [[Indiana Mammoth Internal Improvement Act]], that led to the construction of roads, [[canal]]s, railroads and state-funded public schools. The plans bankrupted the state and were a financial disaster, but increased land and produce value more than fourfold.<ref>{{cite web| last =Vanderstel| first =David G| title =The 1851 Indiana Constitution by David G. Vanderstel| publisher=State of Indiana| url =http://www.in.gov/history/2689.htm| access-date =July 24, 2009 }}</ref> In response to the crisis and in order to avert another, in 1851, a second constitution was adopted. Among its provisions were a prohibition on public debt, as well as the extension of [[suffrage]] to African-Americans.

===Civil War and late 19th century industry===

{{Main|Indiana in the American Civil War}}

During the [[American Civil War]], Indiana became politically influential and played an important role in the affairs of the nation. Indiana was the first western state to mobilize for the United States in the war, and soldiers from Indiana participated in all the war's major engagements. The state provided 126 infantry regiments, 26 batteries of artillery and 13 regiments of cavalry to the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]].<ref>Funk, pp. 23–24, 163.</ref>

In 1861, Indiana was assigned a [[American Civil War#Mobilization|quota]] of 7,500 men to join the [[Union Army]].<ref>Gray 1995, p. 156.</ref> So many volunteered in the first call that thousands had to be turned away. Before the war ended, Indiana had contributed 208,367 men. Casualties were over 35% among these men: 24,416 lost their lives and over 50,000 more were wounded.<ref>Funk, pp. 3–4.</ref> The only Civil War conflicts fought in Indiana were the [[Newburgh Raid]], a bloodless capture of the city; and the [[Battle of Corydon]], which occurred during [[Morgan's Raid]] leaving 15 dead, 40 wounded, and 355 captured.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Civil War; a Narrative, Red River to Appomattox|author=Foote, Shelby|publisher=Random House|year=1974|pages =343–344}}</ref>

After the war, Indiana remained a largely agricultural state. Post-war industries included mining, including limestone extraction; meatpacking; food processing, such as milling grain, distilling it into alcohol; and the building of wagons, buggies, farm machinery, and hardware.<ref name="INdustry">{{cite web |url=http://www.centerforhistory.org/indiana_history_main8.html |title=Indiana History Part 8 – Indiana Industrialization |website=centerforhistory.org |access-date=April 20, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707154815/http://www.centerforhistory.org/indiana_history_main8.html
|archive-date=July 7, 2010}}</ref> However, the [[Indiana gas boom|discovery of natural gas]] in the 1880s in northern Indiana led to an economic boom: the abundant and cheap fuel attracted [[heavy industry]]; the availability of jobs, in turn, attracted new settlers from other parts of the country as well as from Europe.<ref name="Gray 1995, p. 202">Gray 1995, p. 202.</ref> This led to the rapid expansion of cities such as [[South Bend]], [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]], Indianapolis, and [[Fort Wayne]].<ref name="INdustry"/>

===Early 20th century===

[[File:Midnight at the glassworks2b.jpg|left|thumb|Child laborers in glassworks, by [[Lewis Hine]]. Indiana, August 1908.]]

With the onset of the [[industrial revolution]], Indiana's industry began to grow at an accelerated rate across the northern part of the state. With industrialization, workers developed labor unions and suffrage movements arose in relation to the progress of women.<ref name="Gray 1995, p. 202"/> In the early 20th century, Indiana developed into a strong [[Rust Belt|manufacturing state]] with ties to the new auto industry.<ref name="The History of Indiana"/> [[Haynes-Apperson]], the nation's first commercially successful auto company, operated in [[Kokomo, Indiana|Kokomo]] until 1925. The construction of the [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]] and the start of auto-related industries were also related to the auto industry boom.<ref>Brill, p. 47.</ref>

During the 1930s, Indiana, like the rest of the nation, was affected by the [[Great Depression]]. The economic downturn had a wide-ranging negative impact on Indiana, such as the decline of urbanization. The [[Dust Bowl]] further to the west led many migrants to flee to the more industrialized Midwest. Governor [[Paul V. McNutt]]'s administration struggled to build a state-funded welfare system to help overwhelmed private charities. During his administration, spending and taxes were both cut drastically in response to the Depression, and the state government was completely reorganized. McNutt ended [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]] in the state and enacted the state's first income tax. On several occasions, he declared martial law to put an end to worker strikes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.countyhistory.com/doc.gov/037.htm |title=Paul V. McNutt |publisher=County History Preservation Society |last=Branson |first=Ronald |access-date=July 26, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204172820/http://www.countyhistory.com/doc.gov/037.htm |archive-date=December 4, 2008 }}</ref> [[World War II]] helped lift the economy in Indiana, as the war required steel, food and other goods that were produced in the state.<ref name="TO">Pell, p. 31.</ref> Roughly ten percent of Indiana's population joined the armed forces, while hundreds of industries earned war production contracts and began making war material.<ref>Gray 1995, p. 350.</ref> Indiana manufactured 4.5 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War{{nbs}}II, ranking eighth among the 48 states.<ref>[[Whiz Kids (Department of Defense)|Peck, Merton J.]] & [[Frederic M. Scherer|Scherer, Frederic M.]] ''The Weapons Acquisition Process: An Economic Analysis'' (1962) [[Harvard Business School]] p.111</ref> The expansion of industry to meet war demands helped end the Great Depression.<ref name="TO"/>

===Modern era===

With the conclusion of World War{{nbs}}II, Indiana rebounded to pre-Depression levels of production. Industry became the primary employer, a trend that continued into the 1960s. Urbanization during the 1950s and 1960s led to substantial growth in the state's cities. The auto, steel and pharmaceutical industries topped Indiana's major businesses. Indiana's population continued to grow after the war, exceeding five million by the 1970 census.<ref>{{cite book|title=Economic Geography|author1=Haynes, Kingsley E. |author2=Machunda, Zachary B|year=1987|pages =319–333}}</ref> In the 1960s the administration of [[Matthew E. Welsh]] adopted its first sales tax of two percent.<ref>Gray 1995, p. 382.</ref> Indiana schools were [[desegregated]] in 1949. In 1950, the Census Bureau reported Indiana's population as 95.5% white and 4.4% black.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indiana – Race and Hispanic Origin: 1800 to 1990 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725044857/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 25, 2008 |access-date=December 28, 2012 }}</ref> Governor Welsh also worked with the General Assembly to pass the Indiana [[Civil Rights]] Bill, granting equal protection to minorities in seeking employment.<ref>Gray 1995, pp. 391–392.</ref>

On December 8, 1964, a [[Convair B-58]] carrying [[nuclear weapon]]s slid off an icy runway on [[Grissom Air Reserve Base|Bunker Hill Air Force Base]] in [[Bunker Hill, Indiana]] and caught fire during a training drill. The five nuclear weapons on board were burned, including one 9-megaton [[thermonuclear weapon]], causing [[radioactive contamination]] of the crash area.<ref>{{cite news |title=Indiana's 'broken arrow' – that time 5 nuclear bombs caught on fire |url=https://eu.indystar.com/story/entertainment/2018/12/13/indianas-broken-arrow-time-5-nuclear-bombs-caught-fire/1831690002/ |work=[[The Indianapolis Star]] |date=December 13, 2018}}</ref>

Beginning in 1970, a series of amendments to the state constitution were proposed. With adoption, the [[Indiana Court of Appeals]] was created and the procedure of appointing justices on the courts was adjusted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.in.gov/judiciary/supreme/2366.htm|title=History and Origins|author=Indiana Historical Bureau| publisher=Indiana Historical Bureau|access-date=July 28, 2009}}</ref>

The [[1973 oil crisis]] created a recession that hurt the automotive industry in Indiana. Companies such as [[Delco Electronics]] and [[Delphi (auto parts)|Delphi]] began a long series of downsizing that contributed to high unemployment rates in manufacturing in [[Anderson, Indiana|Anderson]], [[Muncie, Indiana|Muncie]], and [[Kokomo, Indiana|Kokomo]]. The restructuring and deindustrialization trend continued until the 1980s when the national and state economy began to diversify and recover.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1992/02/art2full.pdf|title=Auto industry jobs in the 1980s: a decade of transition|last=Singleton|first=Christopher J.|publisher=United States Bureau of Labor Statistics|access-date=July 28, 2009}}</ref>

==Geography==

{{Main|Geography of Indiana}}
[[File:National-atlas-indiana.PNG|thumb]]

With a total area (land and water) of {{convert|36418|sqmi|km2}}, Indiana ranks as the 38th largest state in size.<ref name="NatAtlasProfile">{{cite web|title=Profile of the People and Land of the United States|publisher=[[National Atlas of the United States]]|url=http://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/mapping/a_general.html|access-date=August 17, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915153709/http://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/mapping/a_general.html|archive-date=September 15, 2012}}</ref> The state has a maximum dimension north to south of {{convert|250|mi|km}} and a maximum east to west dimension of {{convert|145|mi|km}}.<ref>Moore, p. 11.</ref> The state's geographic center (39° 53.7'N, 86° 16.0W) is in [[Marion County, Indiana|Marion County]].<ref name=Netstate/>

Located in the [[Midwestern United States]], Indiana is one of eight states that make up the [[Great Lakes region (North America)|Great Lakes Region]].<ref>{{cite web|title =NOAA's Great Lakes Region|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|date=April 25, 2007|url=http://www.regions.noaa.gov/great-lakes/|access-date=September 29, 2009}}</ref> Indiana is bordered on the north by [[Michigan]], on the east by [[Ohio]], and on the west by [[Illinois]], partially separated by the [[Wabash River]].<ref name="FW"/> [[Lake Michigan]] borders Indiana on the northwest and the [[Ohio River]] separates Indiana from [[Kentucky]] on the south.<ref name=Netstate>{{cite web|title=The Geography of Indiana|publisher=Netstate|url=http://www.netstate.com/states/geography/in_geography.htm|access-date=August 13, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Meredith|first=Robyn|title=Big-Shouldered River Swamps Indiana Town|work=The New York Times|date=March 7, 1997|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/07/us/big-shouldered-river-swamps-indiana-town.html|access-date=August 19, 2009}}</ref>

===Geology and terrain===

{{See also|Paleontology in Indiana|List of ecoregions in Indiana|List of wildflowers in Indiana}}
[[File:HickoryRidgeTower-NW.jpg|thumb|left|Rolling hills in the [[Charles C. Deam Wilderness Area]] of [[Hoosier National Forest]], in the [[Indiana Uplands]]]]

The average altitude of Indiana is about {{convert|760|ft|m}} above sea level.<ref>Logan, Cumings, Malott, Visher, Tucker & Reeves, p. 82</ref> The highest point in the state is [[Hoosier Hill]] in [[Wayne County, Indiana|Wayne County]] at {{convert|1257|ft|m}} above sea level.<ref name=NatAtlasProfile/><ref>Pell, p. 56.</ref> The lowest point at {{convert|320|ft|m}} above sea level is in [[Posey County, Indiana|Posey County]], where the [[Wabash River]] meets the [[Ohio River]].<ref name= NatAtlasProfile/><ref name=Netstate/> The resulting [[List of U.S. states and territories by elevation|elevation span]], {{convert|937|ft|m}}, is the narrowest of any non-coastal US state. Only {{convert|2850|sqmi|km2}} have an altitude greater than {{convert|1000|ft|m}} and this area is enclosed within 14 counties. About {{convert|4700|sqmi|km2}} have an elevation of less than {{convert|500|ft|m}}, mostly concentrated along the Ohio and lower Wabash Valleys, from [[Tell City, Indiana|Tell City]] and [[Terre Haute, Indiana|Terre Haute]] to [[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]] and [[Mount Vernon, Indiana|Mount Vernon]].<ref>Moore, p. 13.</ref>

The state includes two natural regions of the United States: the Central Lowlands and the [[Interior Low Plateaus]].<ref>Logan, Cumings, Malott, Visher, Tucker & Reeves, p. 70</ref>
The [[till plain]]s make up the northern and central regions of Indiana. Much of its appearance is a result of elements left behind by [[glacier]]s. Central Indiana is mainly flat with some low rolling hills (except where rivers cut deep valleys through the plain, like at the Wabash River and Sugar Creek) and soil composed of glacial sands, gravel and clay, which results in exceptional farmland.<ref name="FW"/> Northern Indiana is similar, except for the presence of higher and hillier [[terminal moraine]]s and hundreds of [[kettle lake]]s. In [[northwest Indiana]] there are various sand ridges and dunes, some reaching nearly 200 feet in height; most of them are at [[Indiana Dunes National Park]]. These are along the Lake Michigan shoreline and also inland to the [[Kankakee Outwash Plain]].

Southern Indiana is characterized by valleys and rugged, hilly terrain, contrasting with much of the state. Here, bedrock is exposed at the surface. Because of the prevalent [[Indiana limestone]], the area has many caves, caverns, and quarries.

===Hydrology===

{{See also|List of Indiana rivers|List of dams and reservoirs in Indiana|List of lakes in Indiana|Watersheds of Indiana}}
[[File:Floods Recede around the Wabash-Ohio Confluence.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Wabash River]] converges with the [[Ohio River]] at [[Posey County, Indiana|Posey County]].]]

Major river systems in Indiana include the Whitewater, White, Blue, Wabash, St. Joseph, and Maumee rivers.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of Indiana Geology|last=Logan|first=William N.|author2=Edgar Roscoe Cumings|author3=Clyde Arnett Malott|author4=Stephen Sargent Visher|year=1922|publisher=Indiana Department of Conservation|page=257|display-authors=etal}}</ref> According to the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, there were 65 rivers, streams, and creeks of environmental interest or scenic beauty, which included only a portion of an estimated 24,000 total river miles within the state.<ref>{{cite web|title=Information Bulletin #4 (Second Amendment), Outstanding Rivers List for Indiana|publisher=Natural Resources Commission|date=May 30, 2007|url=http://www.in.gov/legislative/register/20070530-IR-312070287NRA.xml.pdf|access-date=August 15, 2012}}</ref>

The [[Wabash River]], which is the longest free-flowing river east of the [[Mississippi River]], is the official river of Indiana.<ref>{{cite news|first=Brian|last=Boyce|title=Terre Haute's Top 40: From a trickle in Ohio to the Valley's signature waterway, the Wabash River is forever a part of Terre Haute|work=Tribune-Star|date=August 29, 2009|access-date=September 24, 2009|url=http://www.tribstar.com/local/x46868269/Terre-Hautes-Top-40-From-a-trickle-in-Ohio-to-the-Valley-s-signature-waterway-the-Wabash-River-is-forever-a-part-of-Terre-Haute}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Jerse|first=Dorothy|title=Looking Back: Gov. Bayh signs bill making Wabash the official state river in 1996|website=Tribune-Star|date=March 4, 2006|url=http://www.tribstar.com/history/x681765834/Looking-Back-Gov-Bayh-signs-bill-making-Wabash-the-official-state-river-in-1996|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140504130549/http://www.tribstar.com/history/x681765834/Looking-Back-Gov-Bayh-signs-bill-making-Wabash-the-official-state-river-in-1996|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 4, 2014|access-date=September 7, 2009}}</ref> At {{convert|475|mi|abbr=off|sp=us}} in length, the river bisects the state from northeast to southwest, forming part of the state's border with Illinois, before converging with the [[Ohio River]]. The river has been the subject of several songs, such as [[On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away|''On the Banks of the Wabash'']], [[Wabash Cannonball|''The Wabash Cannonball'']] and [[Back Home Again in Indiana|''Back Home Again, In Indiana'']].<ref>{{cite news|first=Cynthia|last=Ozick|title=Miracle on Grub street; Stockholm|work=The New York Times|date=November 9, 1986}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Hans|last=Fantel|title=Sound; CDs make their mark on the Wabash Valley|work=The New York Times|date=October 14, 1984}}</ref>

There are about 900 lakes listed by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources.<ref>{{cite web|title=INDIANA LAKES LISTING|url=http://www.in.gov/dnr/fishwild/files/Indiana_Lakes_Listing_By_County_March_2007.pdf|access-date=January 26, 2015}}</ref> To the northwest, Indiana borders [[Lake Michigan]], one of five lakes comprising the [[Great Lakes]], the largest group of freshwater lakes in the world. [[Tippecanoe Lake]], the deepest lake in the state, reaches depths at nearly {{convert|120|ft|m}}, while [[Lake Wawasee]] is the largest natural lake in Indiana.<ref>{{cite web |last=Leider |first=Polly |title=A Town With Backbone: Warsaw, Ind |publisher=CBS News |date=January 26, 2006 |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/a-town-with-backbone-warsaw-ind/ |access-date=September 29, 2009}}</ref> At 10,750 acres (summer pool level), [[Lake Monroe (Indiana)|Lake Monroe]] is the largest lake in Indiana.

===Climate===

[[File:Indiana Köppen.svg|thumb|upright|Indiana map of [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] climate classification, now showing half the state as humid subtropical]]

In the past, almost all of Indiana had a [[humid continental climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Dfb]]), with cold winters and hot, wet summers;<ref>{{cite news|last=Bridges |first=David |title=Life in Indiana – Telegraph Mentor |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |date=November 28, 2007 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/mentorsforexpats/4211551/Life-in-Indiana---Telegraph-Mentor.html |access-date=July 4, 2009}}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> only the extreme southern portion of the state lay within the [[humid subtropical climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Cfb]]), which receives more precipitation than other parts of Indiana.<ref name="FW">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Indiana |encyclopedia=Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Funk & Wagnalls]]}}</ref> But as of the 2016 update, about half the state is now classified as humid subtropical. Temperatures generally diverge from the north and south sections of the state. In midwinter, average high/low temperatures range from around 30{{nbs}}°F/15{{nbs}}°F (−1{{nbs}}°C/−10{{nbs}}°C) in the far north to 41{{nbs}}°F/24{{nbs}}°F (5{{nbs}}°C/−4{{nbs}}°C) in the far south.<ref name="weather.gov">{{cite web |title=NWS Climate Data |publisher=NWS |url=http://www.weather.gov/climate/ |access-date=December 23, 2010}}</ref>

In midsummer there is generally a little less variation across the state, as average high/low temperatures range from around 84{{nbs}}°F/64{{nbs}}°F (29{{nbs}}°C/18{{nbs}}°C) in the far north to 90{{nbs}}°F/69{{nbs}}°F (32{{nbs}}°C/21{{nbs}}°C) in the far south.<ref name="weather.gov"/> Indiana's record high temperature was 116{{nbs}}°F (47{{nbs}}°C) set on July 14, 1936, at [[Collegeville, Indiana|Collegeville]]. The record low was −36{{nbs}}°F (−38{{nbs}}°C) on [[1994 North American cold wave|January 19, 1994]] at [[New Whiteland, Indiana|New Whiteland]]. The [[growing season]] typically spans from 155 days in the north to 185 days in the south.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}

While droughts occasionally occur in the state, rainfall totals are distributed relatively equally throughout the year. Precipitation totals range from {{convert|35|in|cm}} near Lake Michigan in northwest Indiana to {{convert|45|in|cm}} along the Ohio River in the south, while the state's average is {{convert|40|in|cm}}. Annual snowfall in Indiana varies widely across the state, ranging from {{convert|80|in|cm}} in the northwest along Lake Michigan to {{convert|14|in|cm}} in the far south. [[Lake effect snow]] accounts for roughly half the snowfall in northwest and north central Indiana due to the effects of the moisture and relative warmth of Lake Michigan upwind. The mean wind speed is {{convert|8|mph|km/h}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indiana – Climate |publisher=City-Data.com |url=http://www.city-data.com/states/Indiana-Climate.html |access-date=July 4, 2009}}</ref>

In a 2012 report, Indiana was ranked eighth in a list of the top 20 tornado-prone states based on [[National Weather Service]] data from 1950 through 2011.<ref>{{cite web |author=Engineering Analysis Inc. |title=Mississippi Remains #1 Among Top Twenty Tornado-Prone States |publisher=mindspring.com |date=April 12, 2012 |url=http://eai.home.mindspring.com/EAIprs94.html |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117084151/http://eai.home.mindspring.com/EAIprs94.html |archive-date=January 17, 2013}}</ref> A 2011 report ranked [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]] 15th among the top 20 tornado-prone U.S. cities,<ref>{{cite web|author=Engineering Analysis Inc. |title=Six States Contain Twelve of the Top Twenty Tornado-Prone Cities (revised version) |publisher=mindspring.com |date=October 28, 2011 |url=http://www.mindspring.com/~eai/EAIprs01.html |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117084146/http://www.mindspring.com/~eai/EAIprs01.html |archive-date=January 17, 2013}}</ref> while another report from 2011 ranked [[Indianapolis]] eighth.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kellogg |first=Becky |title=Tornado Expert Ranks Top Tornado Cities |publisher=The Weather Channel |date=March 8, 2011 |url=http://www.weather.com/outlook/weather-news/severe-weather/articles/top-tornado-cities_2011-03-08?page=2 |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108002946/http://www.weather.com/outlook/weather-news/severe-weather/articles/top-tornado-cities_2011-03-08?page=2 |archive-date=November 8, 2012}}</ref><ref>In a 2008 report, Indiana was listed as one of the most tornado-prone states, ranking sixth, while South Bend was ranked the 14th most tornado-prone U.S. city, ahead of cities such as [[Houston]], Texas, and [[Wichita, Kansas]]. See {{cite web |last=Mecklenburg |first=Rick |title=Is Indiana the new Tornado Alley? |publisher=SouthBendTribune.com |date=May 1, 2008 |url=http://articles.southbendtribune.com/2008-05-01/news/26911876_1_tornado-track-damaging-winds-and-tornadoes-indiana |access-date=August 13, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117084147/http://articles.southbendtribune.com/2008-05-01/news/26911876_1_tornado-track-damaging-winds-and-tornadoes-indiana |archive-date=January 17, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>In a published list of the most tornado-prone states and cities in April 2008, Indiana came in first and South Bend ranked 16th. See {{cite web |last=Henderson |first=Mark |title=Top 20 Tornado Prone Cities and States Announced |publisher=[[WIFR]] |date=May 2, 2008 |url=http://www.wifr.com/weather/headlines/17036536.html |access-date=August 17, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081109034652/http://www.wifr.com/weather/headlines/17036536.html |archive-date=November 9, 2008}}</ref> Despite its vulnerability, Indiana is not part of [[tornado alley]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Henderson |first=Mark |title=Top 20 Tornado Prone Cities and States Announced |publisher=[[WIFR]] |date=May 2, 2008 |url=http://www.wifr.com/weather/headlines/17036536.html |access-date=August 17, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081109034652/http://www.wifr.com/weather/headlines/17036536.html |archive-date=November 9, 2008}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" "text-align:center;font-size:90%;"|
| colspan="13" style="text-align:center;font-size:120%;"|Average Precipitation in Indiana<ref name="Indiana Climate Norms">{{cite web |url=http://www.agry.purdue.edu/climate/facts.aspgif |publisher=Indiana State Climate Office |title=Climate Facts |access-date=May 29, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609122559/http://www.agry.purdue.edu/climate/facts.aspgif |archive-date=June 9, 2011 }}</ref>
|-
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| Jan
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| Feb
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| Mar
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| Apr
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| May
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| Jun
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| Jul
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| Aug
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| Sep
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| Oct
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| Nov
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| Dec
! style="background:#efefef; color:#000;"| Annum
|-
| 2.48
| 2.27
| 3.36
| 3.89
| 4.46
| 4.19
| 4.22
| 3.91
| 3.12
| 3.02
| 3.44
| 3.13
|41.49
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:auto;"
|+Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected cities in Indiana<ref name="Indiana climate averages">{{cite web |url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/city.php3?c=US&s=IN&statename=Indiana-United-States-of-America |title=Indiana climate averages |publisher=Weatherbase |access-date=November 12, 2015}}</ref>
|-
!Location
!July (°F)
!July (°C)
!January (°F)
!January (°C)
|-
|[[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] || 85/66 || 29/19 || 35/20 || 2/−6
|-
|[[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]] || 84/62 || 29/17 || 32/17 || 0/−8
|-
|[[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]] || 88/67 || 31/19 || 41/24 || 5/−4
|-
|[[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]] || 83/63 || 28/17 || 32/18 || 0/−8
|-
|[[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]] || 87/65 || 30/18 || 39/21 || 4/−6
|-
|[[Lafayette, Indiana|Lafayette]] || 84/62 || 29/17 || 31/14 || 0/−10
|-
|[[Muncie, Indiana|Muncie]] || 85/64 || 29/18 || 34/19 || 1/−7
|}

===Time zones===

{{Main|Time in Indiana}}

Indiana is one of 13 U.S. states that are divided into more than one time zone. Indiana's [[time zone]]s have fluctuated over the past century. At present most of the state observes [[Eastern Time Zone|Eastern Time]]; six counties near Chicago and six near Evansville observe [[Central Time Zone (North America)|Central Time]]. Debate continues on the matter.

Before 2006, most of Indiana did not observe [[daylight saving time]] (DST). Some counties within this area, particularly [[Floyd County, Indiana|Floyd]], [[Clark County, Indiana|Clark]], and [[Harrison County, Indiana|Harrison]] counties near [[Louisville, Kentucky]], and [[Ohio County, Indiana|Ohio]] and [[Dearborn County, Indiana|Dearborn]] counties near [[Cincinnati]], Ohio, unofficially observed DST by local custom. Since April 2006 the entire state observes DST.

==Indiana counties and statistical areas==

{{See also|List of counties in Indiana|Indiana statistical areas}}

Indiana is divided into 92 [[List of counties in Indiana|counties]]. {{as of|2010}}, the state includes 16 [[metropolitan statistical area|metropolitan]] and 25 [[micropolitan statistical area]]s, 117 incorporated cities, 450 towns, and several other smaller divisions and statistical areas.<ref name=GeoCensus/><ref>A 2008 news report indicated there were 13 metropolitan areas in Indiana. See {{cite web| last =Dresang| first =Joel| title =Automaking down, unemployment up|website=[[Milwaukee Journal Sentinel]]| date =July 30, 2008| url =http://www.jsonline.com/blogs/business/52021282.html| access-date =August 14, 2009 }}</ref> [[Marion County, Indiana|Marion County]] and Indianapolis have a [[Unigov|consolidated city-county government]].<ref name=GeoCensus/>

===Major cities===

{{See also|List of cities in Indiana|List of towns in Indiana}}

Indianapolis is the capital of Indiana and its largest city.<ref name=GeoCensus>{{cite web|title=Guide to 2010 Census State and Local Geography – Indiana | publisher=U.S. Census Bureau | date =April 21, 2014 | url=https://www.census.gov/geo/reference/guidestloc/st18_in.html | access-date=August 13, 2012}}</ref><ref>Indiana's territorial capitals were [[Vincennes, Indiana|Vincennes]] and later [[Corydon, Indiana|Corydon]], which also became Indiana's first [[list of current and former capital cities within U.S. states|state capital]] when it became a state.</ref> Indiana's four largest metropolitan areas are [[Indianapolis]], [[Fort Wayne]], [[Evansville]], and [[South Bend]].<ref name=STATSIN>{{cite web|title=Indiana | publisher = Indiana Business Research Center, Indiana University, Kelley School of Business | url = http://www.stats.indiana.edu/profiles/profiles.asp?scope_choice=a&county_changer=18000&button1=Get+Profile&id=2&page_path=Area+Profiles&path_id=11&panel_number=1 | access-date=August 14, 2012}}</ref> The table below lists the state's twenty largest municipalities based on the 2019 United States Census Estimate.<ref name="census.gov">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov|title=U.S. Census website|website=census.gov|access-date=September 22, 2019}}</ref>

{{Largest cities
| name = Indiana's largest cities
| country = Indiana
| stat_ref = Source:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/usa/indiana/ |title=City Population – Indiana |date=July 28, 2020 |publisher=Indiana – 2019 Populations |access-date=July 28, 2020}}</ref>
| list_by_pop =
| class = nav
| div_name =
| div_link = Counties of Indiana{{!}}County
| city_1 = Indianapolis, Indiana{{!}}Indianapolis
| div_1 = Marion County, Indiana{{!}}Marion
| pop_1 = 876,384
| img_1 = Indianapolis-1872528.jpg
| city_2 = Fort Wayne, Indiana{{!}}Fort Wayne
| div_2 = Allen County, Indiana{{!}}Allen
| pop_2 = 270,402
| img_2 = Downtown Fort Wayne, Indiana Skyline from Old Fort, May 2014.jpg
| city_3 = Evansville, Indiana{{!}}Evansville
| div_3 = Vanderburgh County, Indiana{{!}}Vanderburgh
| pop_3 = 117,979
| img_3 = Evilleriverfront.jpg
| city_4 = South Bend, Indiana{{!}}South Bend
| div_4 = St. Joseph County, Indiana{{!}}St. Joseph
| pop_4 = 102,026
| img_4 = South-bend-indiana-courthouse.jpg
| city_5 = Carmel, Indiana{{!}}Carmel
| div_5 = Hamilton County, Indiana{{!}}Hamilton
| pop_5 = 101,068
| img_5 =
| city_6 = Fishers, Indiana{{!}}Fishers
| div_6 = Hamilton County, Indiana{{!}}Hamilton
| pop_6 = 95,310
| img_6 =
| city_7 = Bloomington, Indiana{{!}}Bloomington
| div_7 = Monroe County, Indiana{{!}}Monroe
| pop_7 = 85,755
| img_7 =
| city_8 = Hammond, Indiana{{!}}Hammond
| div_8 = Lake County, Indiana{{!}}Lake
| pop_8 = 75,522
| img_8 =
| city_9 = Gary, Indiana{{!}}Gary
| div_9 = Lake County, Indiana{{!}}Lake
| pop_9 = 74,879
| img_9 =
| city_10 = Lafayette, Indiana{{!}}Lafayette
| div_10 = Tippecanoe County, Indiana{{!}}Tippecanoe
| pop_10 = 71,721
| img_10 =
| city_11 = Muncie, Indiana{{!}}Muncie
| div_11 = Delaware County, Indiana{{!}}Delaware
| pop_11 = 67,999
| img_11 =
| city_12 = Noblesville, Indiana{{!}}Noblesville
| div_12 = Hamilton County, Indiana{{!}}Hamilton
| pop_12 = 64,668
| img_12 =
| city_13 = Terre Haute, Indiana{{!}}Terre Haute
| div_13 = Vigo County, Indiana{{!}}Vigo
| pop_13 = 60,622
| img_13 =
| city_14 = Greenwood, Indiana{{!}}Greenwood
| div_14 = Johnson County, Indiana{{!}}Johnson
| pop_14 = 59,458
| img_14 =
| city_15 = Kokomo, Indiana{{!}}Kokomo
| div_15 = Howard County, Indiana{{!}}Howard
| pop_15 = 58,020
| img_15 =
| city_16 = Anderson, Indiana{{!}}Anderson
| div_16 = Madison County, Indiana{{!}}Madison
| pop_16 = 54,765
| img_16 =
| city_17 = Elkhart, Indiana{{!}}Elkhart
| div_17 = Elkhart County, Indiana{{!}}Elkhart
| pop_17 = 52,358
| img_17 =
| city_18 = West Lafayette, Indiana{{!}}West Lafayette
| div_18 = Tippecanoe County, Indiana{{!}}Tippecanoe
| pop_18 = 50,996
| img_18 =
| city_19 = Mishawaka, Indiana{{!}}Mishawaka
| div_19 = St. Joseph County, Indiana{{!}}St. Joseph
| pop_19 = 50,363
| img_19 =
| city_20 = Lawrence, Indiana{{!}}Lawrence
| div_20 = Marion County, Indiana{{!}}Marion
| pop_20 = 49,462
| img_20 =
}}

==Demographics==
===Population===

{{US Census population
|1800= 2632
|1810= 24520
|1820= 147178
|1830= 343031
|1840= 685866
|1850= 988416
|1860= 1350428
|1870= 1680637
|1880= 1978301
|1890= 2192404
|1900= 2516462
|1910= 2700876
|1920= 2930390
|1930= 3238503
|1940= 3427796
|1950= 3934224
|1960= 4662498
|1970= 5193669
|1980= 5490224
|1990= 5544159
|2000= 6080485
|2010= 6483802
|2020= 6785528
|align-fn=center
|footnote=Source: 1910–2020<ref>{{cite web |title=Historical Population Change Data (1910–2020) |url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/dec/popchange-data-text.html |website=Census.gov |publisher=United States Census Bureau |access-date=May 1, 2021 |archive-date=April 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429012609/https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/dec/popchange-data-text.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
}}

Indiana recorded a population of 6,785,528 in the [[2020 United States census]], a 4.65% increase since the [[2010 United States Census]].<ref name="2020 U.S. Census"/>

The state's population density was 181.0 persons per square mile, the 16th-highest in the United States.<ref name="GeoCensus"/> As of the 2010 U.S. Census, Indiana's population center is northwest of Sheridan, in [[Hamilton County, Indiana|Hamilton County]] (+40.149246, −086.259514).<ref name=GeoCensus/><ref>{{cite web |title=2010 Census Centers of Population by state |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |url=https://www.census.gov/geo/www/2010census/centerpop2010/CenPop2010_Mean_ST.txt |access-date=August 15, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429025307/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/2010census/centerpop2010/CenPop2010_Mean_ST.txt |archive-date=April 29, 2011}}</ref><ref>Over the previous decade, Indiana's population center has shifted slightly to the northwest. In the 2000 U.S. Census, Indiana's [[center of population]] was located in [[Hamilton County, Indiana|Hamilton County]], in the town of [[Sheridan, Indiana|Sheridan]]. See {{cite web |title=Population and Population Centers by State |publisher=United States Census Bureau |url=https://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt |access-date=November 21, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508041813/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/cenpop/statecenters.txt |archive-date=May 8, 2013}}</ref>

In 2005, 77.7% of Indiana residents lived in metropolitan counties, 16.5% lived in micropolitan counties and 5.9% lived in non-core counties.<ref>{{cite web |title=Metro and Nonmetro Counties in Indiana |publisher=Rural Policy Research Institute |url=http://www.rupri.org/Forms/Indiana.pdf |access-date=October 10, 2009 |archive-date=March 4, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304144932/http://www.rupri.org/Forms/Indiana.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Ancestry===

The racial makeup of the state (based on the 2019 population estimate) was:
* 84.8% [[White (U.S. Census)|White American]] (78.4% [[non-Hispanic white]])
* 9.9% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black or African American]]
* 2.6% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]]
* 2.2% biracial or multi-racial
* 0.4% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]
* 0.1% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders.<ref name="CAT"/>

[[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race made up 7.3% of the population.<ref name="CAT">{{cite web |title=Indiana QuickFacts from the US Census Bureau |publisher=United States Census Bureau |url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/18000.html |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423094054/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/18000.html |archive-date=April 23, 2012 }}</ref> The Hispanic population is Indiana's fastest-growing ethnic minority.<ref name="POP">{{cite web |last=Greninger |first=Howard |title=Vigo County's population on the rise |website=Tribune-Star |date=May 19, 2007 |url=http://www.tribstar.com/local/local_story_139235811.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121208231449/http://www.tribstar.com/local/local_story_139235811.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 8, 2012 |access-date=October 10, 2009}}</ref> 28.2% of Indiana's children under the age of{{nbs}}1 belonged to minority groups (note: children born to [[white hispanic]]s are counted as minority group).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/index.ssf/2012/06/americas_under_age_1_populatio.html |title=Americans under age 1 now mostly minorities, but not in Ohio: Statistical Snapshot |last=Exner |first=Rich |date=June 3, 2012 |work=[[The Plain Dealer]]}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" style="font-size: 90%;"
|+ '''Indiana Racial Breakdown of Population'''
|-
! Racial composition !! 1990<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |title=Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States |date=July 25, 2008 |access-date=September 2, 2017 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725044857/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056/twps0056.html |archive-date=July 25, 2008}}</ref> !! 2000<ref>{{cite web |url=http://censusviewer.com/state/IN |title=Population of Indiana – Census 2010 and 2000 Interactive Map, Demographics, Statistics, Quick Facts – CensusViewer |website=censusviewer.com |access-date=September 2, 2017}}</ref>!! 2010<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade.2010.html|title=2010 Census Data |website=census.gov |access-date=February 24, 2015}}</ref>
|-
| [[White American|White]] || 90.6% || 87.5% || 84.3%
|-
| [[African American|Black]] || 7.8% || 8.4% || 9.1%
|-
| [[Asian American|Asian]] || 0.7% || 1.0% || 1.6%
|-
| [[Native Americans in the United States|Native]] || 0.2% || 0.3% || 0.3%
|-
| [[Native Hawaiian]] and{{break}}[[Pacific Islander|other Pacific Islander]] || – || – || –
|-
| [[Race and ethnicity in the United States Census|Other race]] || 0.7% || 1.6% || 2.7%
|-
| [[Multiracial American|Two or more races]] || – || 1.2% || 2.0%
|}

[[German-American|German]] is the largest ancestry reported in Indiana, with 22.7% of the population reporting that ancestry in the Census. Persons citing [[American ancestry|American]] (12.0%) and [[English-American|English]] ancestry (8.9%) are also numerous, as are [[Irish American|Irish]] (10.8%) and [[Poland|Polish]] (3.0%).<ref>{{cite web |title=DP-2. Profile of Selected Social Characteristics: 2000 |publisher=United States Census Bureau |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US18&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_DP2&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&-redoLog=false |access-date=October 17, 2009 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200212042132/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US18&-qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_DP2&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&-redoLog=false |archive-date=February 12, 2020 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Most of those citing American ancestry are actually of [[English-American|English]] descent, but have family that has been in North America for so long, in many cases since the early [[British America|colonial era]], that they identify simply as American.<ref>{{cite book |url={{Google books|SVoAXh-dNuYC|page=PA57|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Sharing the Dream: White Males in a Multicultural America |first=Dominic J. |last=Pulera |year=2004 |location=New York |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-1643-8 |page=57}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Reynolds |last=Farley |title=The New Census Question about Ancestry: What Did It Tell Us? |journal=Demography |volume=28 |issue=3 |year=1991 |pages=411–429 |doi=10.2307/2061465 |pmid=1936376 |jstor=2061465|s2cid=41503995 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Stanley |last1=Lieberson |first2=Lawrence |last2=Santi |title=The Use of Nativity Data to Estimate Ethnic Characteristics and Patterns |journal=Social Science Research |volume=14 |issue=1 |year=1985 |pages=31–56 [pp. 44–46] |doi=10.1016/0049-089X(85)90011-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Stanley |last1=Lieberson |first2=Mary C. |last2=Waters |title=Ethnic Groups in Flux: The Changing Ethnic Responses of American Whites |journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=487 |issue=79 |year=1986 |pages=79–91 [pp. 82–86] |doi=10.1177/0002716286487001004|s2cid=60711423 }}</ref> In the 1980 census 1,776,144 people claimed German ancestry, 1,356,135 claimed English ancestry and 1,017,944 claimed Irish ancestry out of a total population of 4,241,975 making the state 42% German, 32% English and 24% Irish.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/censusdata/files/pc80-s1-10/tab03.pdf |title=Ancestry of the Population by State: 1980 – Table 3 |access-date=December 10, 2011}}</ref>

===Population growth===

[[File:Indiana population map.png|thumb]]

Population growth since 1990 has been concentrated in the counties surrounding Indianapolis, with four of the five fastest-growing counties in that area: [[Hamilton County, Indiana|Hamilton]], [[Hendricks County, Indiana|Hendricks]], [[Johnson County, Indiana|Johnson]], and [[Hancock County, Indiana|Hancock]]. The other county is [[Dearborn County, Indiana|Dearborn County]], which is near [[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio]]. Hamilton County has also grown faster than any county in the states bordering Indiana ([[Illinois]], [[Michigan]], [[Ohio]] and [[Kentucky]]), and is the 20th-fastest growing county in the country.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rainey |first=Joan P |title=Hamilton and Other Suburban Counties Lead the State in Population Growth |publisher=Indiana University |year=2000 |url=http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/ibr/2000/summer00/01.pdf |access-date=October 17, 2009}}</ref>

With a population of 829,817, [[Indianapolis]] is the largest city in Indiana and the 12th-largest in the United States, according to the 2010 Census. Three other cities in Indiana have a population greater than 100,000: [[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]] (253,617), [[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]] (117,429) and [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]] (101,168).<ref>{{cite web |title=IU Kelley School: Indiana's largest cities continue to see strong population growth |url=http://news.iu.edu/releases/iu/2015/05/indiana-city-populations-2014.shtml |website=IU Newsroom |access-date=January 9, 2016 }}</ref> Since 2000, [[Fishers, Indiana|Fishers]] has seen the largest population rise amongst the state's twenty largest cities with an increase of 100 percent.<ref name="Nevers">{{cite web |last=Nevers |first=Kevin |title=Duneland population growth rate slows a bit in 2007 Census estimates |website=[[Chesterton Tribune]] |date=July 11, 2008 |url=http://chestertontribune.com/Duneland%20Community%20News/7112%20duneland_population_growth_rate.htm |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> Other cities that have seen extensive growth since 2000 are [[Greenwood, Indiana|Greenwood]] (81 percent), [[Noblesville, Indiana|Noblesville]] (39.4 percent), [[Carmel, Indiana|Carmel]] (21.4 percent), [[Columbus, Indiana|Columbus]]<ref name ="wwwcensusgov">{{cite web|title=U.S. Census website|url=https://www.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=January 21, 2021}}</ref> (12.8%) and [[Lawrence, Indiana|Lawrence]] (9.3 percent).

[[Gary, Indiana|Gary]] and [[Hammond, Indiana|Hammond]] have seen the largest population declines regarding the twenty largest cities since 2000, with a decrease of 21.0 and 6.8 percent respectively.<ref name="Nevers"/> [[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]] (−4.2 percent), [[Anderson, Indiana|Anderson]] (−4.0 percent) and [[Muncie, Indiana|Muncie]] (−3.9 percent) have also seen their populations decline.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Indiana sees big gains in population among certain cities and towns |publisher=Indiana University |date=July 10, 2008 |url=http://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/8512.html |access-date=August 15, 2009}}</ref>

Indianapolis has the largest population of the state's [[metropolitan area]]s and the [[Table of United States Metropolitan Statistical Areas|33rd-largest]] in the country.<ref>{{cite web |title=Annual Estimates of the Population of Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas |publisher=[[United States Census]] |url=https://www.census.gov/popest/metro/tables/2007/CBSA-EST2007-01.csv |access-date=August 14, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100709020951/http://www.census.gov/popest/metro/tables/2007/CBSA-EST2007-01.csv |archive-date=July 9, 2010}}</ref> The [[Indianapolis metropolitan area]] encompasses [[Marion County, Indiana|Marion County]] and nine surrounding counties in central Indiana.

''Note: Births in table don't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.''
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Live births by Single Race/Ethnicity of Mother
|-
! [[Race and ethnicity in the United States Census|Race]]
! 2013<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr64/nvsr64_01.pdf|title=Births: Final Data for 2013|website=Cdc.gov|access-date=September 2, 2017}}</ref>
! 2014<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr64/nvsr64_12.pdf|title=Births: Final Data for 2014|website=Cdc.gov|access-date=September 2, 2017}}</ref>
! 2015<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr66/nvsr66_01.pdf|title=Births: Final Data for 2015|website=Cdc.gov|access-date=September 2, 2017}}</ref>
! 2016<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr67_01.pdf|title=Births: Final Data for 2016|website=Cdc.gov|access-date=August 9, 2021}}</ref>
! 2017<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr67/nvsr67_08-508.pdf|title=Births: Final Data for 2017|website=Cdc.gov|access-date=August 9, 2021}}</ref>
! 2018<ref>
{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr68/nvsr68_13-508.pdf |title=Data |website=www.cdc.gov |access-date=December 2, 2019}}</ref>
! 2019<ref>
{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr70/nvsr70-02-508.pdf |title=Data |website=www.cdc.gov |access-date=March 29, 2021}}</ref>
|-
| [[White Americans|White]]:
| 70,166 (84.4%)
| 70,967 (84.4%)
| 70,741 (84.1%)
| ...
| ...
| ...
| ...
|-
| > [[Non-Hispanic whites|Non-Hispanic White]]
| 63,820 (76.8%)
| 64,076 (76.2%)
| 63,472 (75.5%)
| 62,039 (74.7%)
| 60,515 (73.6%)
| 59,520 (72.9%)
| 58,211 (72.0%)
|-
| [[African Americans|Black]]
| 10,445 (12.6%)
| 10,666 (12.7%)
| 10,656 (12.7%)
| 9,768 (11.8%)
| 9,971 (12.1%)
| 10,242 (12.5%)
| 10,249 (12.7%)
|-
| [[Asian Americans|Asian]]
| 2,364 (2.8%)
| 2,322 (2.8%)
| 2,523 (3.0%)
| 2,426 (2.9%)
| 2,535 (3.1%)
| 2,382 (2.9%)
| 2,285 (2.8%)
|-
| [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]]
| 127 (0.1%)
| 125 (0.1%)
| 120 (0.1%)
| 85 (0.1%)
| 124 (0.2%)
| 132 (0.2%)
| 117 (0.1%)
|-
| ''[[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic]]'' (of any race)
| ''6,837'' (8.2%)
| ''7,239'' (8.6%)
| ''7,634'' (9.1%)
| ''7,442'' (8.9%)
| ''7,669'' (9.3%)
| ''7,867'' (9.6%)
| ''8,420'' (10.4%)
|-
| '''Total Indiana'''
| '''83,102''' (100%)
| '''84,080''' (100%)
| '''84,040''' (100%)
| '''83,091''' (100%)
| '''82,170''' (100%)
| '''81,646''' (100%)
| '''80,859''' (100%)
|}
* Since 2016, data for births of [[White Hispanic and Latino Americans|White Hispanic]] origin are not collected, but included in one ''Hispanic'' group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Based on population estimates for 2011, 6.6% of the state's population is under the age of five, 24.5% is under the age of 18, and 13.2% is 65 years of age or older.<ref name="CAT"/> From the 2010 U.S. Census demographic data for Indiana, the median age is 37.<ref name=AmFacts>{{cite web|title=Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2010; 2010 Demographic Profile Data (DP-1) for Indiana |publisher=United States Census Bureau |url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/18000.html |access-date=August 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423094054/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/18000.html |archive-date=April 23, 2012 }}</ref>

===Median income===

{{See also|Indiana locations by per capita income}}
[[File:Geo Map of Median Income by County in Indiana.png|thumb]]

As of the [[2010 United States Census|2010 census]], Indiana's median household income was $44,616, ranking it 36th among the United States and the District of Columbia.<ref>{{cite web |title = Overview for Indiana | publisher=Indiana Business Research Center, Indiana University Kelley School of Business |date =August 1, 2012 |url = http://www.stats.indiana.edu/uspr/a/us_profile_frame.html |access-date =August 14, 2012}}</ref> In 2005, the median household income for Indiana residents was $43,993. Nearly 498,700 Indiana households had incomes between $50,000 and $75,000, accounting for 20% of all households.<ref name="Justis 2006">{{cite web| last =Justis| first =Rachel M| title =Household Income Varies by Region and Race| publisher=Indiana University| year =2006| url =http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/ibr/2006/fall/article2.html| access-date =October 29, 2009 }}</ref>

Hamilton County's median household income is nearly $35,000 higher than the Indiana average. At $78,932, it ranks seventh in the country among counties with fewer than 250,000 people. The next highest median incomes in Indiana are also found in the Indianapolis suburbs; Hendricks County has a median of $57,538, followed by Johnson County at $56,251.<ref name="Justis 2006"/>
{{clear}}

===Religion===

[[File:Shipshewana-indiana-amish-buggy.jpg|thumb|left|Indiana is home to the [[List of U.S. states by Amish population|third largest population]] of [[Amish]] in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://groups.etown.edu/amishstudies/files/2017/08/Population_Change_2012-2017.pdf|website=Young Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies, Elizabethtown College|title=Amish Population Change 2012-2017|type=PDF|access-date=September 2, 2017}}</ref>]]

Although the largest single religious denomination in the state is Catholic (747,706 members), most of the population are members of various Protestant denominations. The largest Protestant denomination by number of adherents in 2010 was the [[United Methodist Church]] with 355,043.<ref name="www.thearda.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.thearda.com/rcms2010/r/s/18/rcms2010_18_state_adh_2010.asp |title=The Association of Religion Data Archives | State Membership Report |publisher=www.thearda.com |access-date=November 12, 2013}}</ref> A study by the Graduate Center at the [[City University of New York]] found 20 percent are Catholic, 14 percent belong to different [[Baptist]] churches, 10 percent are other Christians, 9{{nbs}}percent are [[Methodist]], and 6{{nbs}}percent are [[Lutheran]]. The study found 16 percent of Indiana is affiliated with [[Irreligion|no religion]].<ref>{{cite web|title=American Religious Identification Survey |publisher=[[City University of New York]] |url=http://www.gc.cuny.edu/faculty/research_briefs/aris/key_findings.htm |access-date=December 25, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061219030815/http://www.gc.cuny.edu/faculty/research_briefs/aris/key_findings.htm |archive-date=December 19, 2006 }}</ref>

Indiana is home to the [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictine]] [[St. Meinrad Archabbey]], one of two Catholic [[archabbey]]s in the United States and one of 11 in the world. The [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]] has one of its two seminaries in [[Concordia Theological Seminary|Fort Wayne]]. Two conservative denominations, the [[Free Methodist Church]] and the [[Wesleyan Church]], have their headquarters in Indianapolis as does the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)|Christian Church]].<ref>Bodenhamer, Barrows and Vanderstel, p. 696</ref><ref>Bodenhamer, Barrows and Vanderstel, p. 416.</ref>

The [[Fellowship of Grace Brethren Churches]] maintains offices and publishing work in [[Winona Lake, Indiana|Winona Lake]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=LC&p_theme=lc&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=10307DEBAC918D95&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D|title=Forever Young: Lititz pastor retires after 33 years at Grace Brethren|date=June 4, 2004|publisher=[[Lancaster Newspapers, Inc|Lancaster New Era]]|access-date=August 15, 2009}} (Registration needed)</ref> [[Huntington, Indiana|Huntington]] serves as the home to the [[Church of the United Brethren in Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=FW&s_site=fortwayne&p_multi=FW&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=10547EC7A86111BF&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D|title=Future of the faith, Area church weighs merger as a way to aid denomination|date=September 22, 2004|website=[[The News-Sentinel]]|access-date=August 15, 2009}} (Registration needed)</ref> [[Anderson, Indiana|Anderson]] is home to the headquarters of the [[Church of God (Anderson, Indiana)|Church of God]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Neff|first=David|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2006/marchweb-only/113-12.0.html|title=Holiness Without the Legalism|date=March 27, 2006|website=[[Christianity Today]]|access-date=August 15, 2009}}</ref> The headquarters of the [[Missionary Church]] is in Fort Wayne.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=FW&s_site=fortwayne&p_multi=FW&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0FE07B25E8E7E2E5&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D|title=Volunteers add to church, They construct buildings for the Missionary Church|date=October 6, 2003|website=The News-Sentinel|access-date=August 15, 2009}} (Registration needed)</ref>

The [[Friends United Meeting]] of the [[Religious Society of Friends]], the largest branch of American Quakerism, is based in [[Richmond, Indiana|Richmond]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earlham.edu/Q/brochure1/#did_you_know|title=Quakers of Richmond and Wayne County, Indiana|publisher=[[Earlham College]]|access-date=August 15, 2009|archive-date=April 3, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403160459/http://www.earlham.edu/Q/brochure1/#did_you_know|url-status=dead}}</ref> which also houses the oldest Quaker seminary in the United States, the [[Earlham School of Religion]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Wilson|first=Amy Lyles|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7780491|title=The Guts to Keep Going|publisher=[[National Public Radio]]|access-date=August 15, 2009}}</ref> The [[Islamic Society of North America]] is headquartered in [[Plainfield, Indiana|Plainfield]].<ref>{{cite news|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2009-02-02-muslims-obama_N.htm|title=Are American Muslims 'under more scrutiny' with Obama?|work=USA Today|date=February 2, 2009|access-date=August 15, 2009}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable collapsible" style="text-align:right;"
|+ class="nowrap" style="font-size:100%" | Religious affiliation in Indiana (2014)<ref>{{cite web |author = USA |url = https://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/state/indiana/ |title = Religion in America: U.S. Religious Data, Demographics and Statistics | Pew Research Center |publisher = Pewforum.org |access-date = May 29, 2021 }}</ref>
|-
! scope="col"| Affiliation
! scope="col" colspan="2"|% of Indiana population
|-
! scope="row"| [[Christianity]]
| {{bartable|72||2||background:darkblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent:1em;"| [[Protestant]]
| {{bartable|52||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent:2em;"| [[Evangelical Protestant]]
| {{bartable|31||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent:2em;"| [[Mainline Protestant]]
| {{bartable|16||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent:2em;"| [[Black church|Black Protestant]]
| {{bartable|5||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent:1em;"| [[Catholic]]
| {{bartable|18||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent:1em;"| [[Mormon]]
| {{bartable|1||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent:1em;"| [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]
| {{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent:1em;;"| [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox]]
| {{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row" style="text-indent:1em;"| Other Christianity
| {{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row"| [[Judaism]]
| {{bartable|1||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row"| [[Buddhism]]
| {{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row"| [[Islam]]
| {{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row"| [[Hinduism]]
| {{bartable|0.5||2||background:mediumblue}}
|-
! scope="row"| Other faiths
| {{bartable|1||2||background:darkgreen}}
|-
! scope="row"| [[Irreligion|Unaffiliated]]
| {{bartable|26||2||background:purple}}
|-
! scope="row"| Don't know / No answer
| {{bartable|0.5||2||background:darkorange}}
|}
{{clear}}

==Law and government==

{{Main|Government of Indiana}}
{{See also|United States congressional delegations from Indiana|Indiana's congressional districts}}
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Indiana has a constitutional democratic republican form of government with three branches: the executive, including an elected governor and lieutenant governor; the legislative, consisting of an elected [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] General Assembly; and the judicial, the Supreme Court of Indiana, the Indiana Court of Appeals and circuit courts.

The [[Governor of Indiana]] serves as the state's chief executive and has the authority to manage the government as established in the Constitution of Indiana. The governor and the [[Lieutenant Governor of Indiana|lieutenant governor]] are jointly elected to four-year terms, with gubernatorial elections running concurrently with United States presidential elections (1996, 2000, 2004, 2008, etc.).<ref name="ST"/> The governor may not serve more than two consecutive terms.<ref name="ST"/> The governor works with the [[Indiana General Assembly]] and the [[Indiana Supreme Court]] to govern the state and has the authority to adjust the other branches. The governor can call special sessions of the General Assembly and select and remove leaders of nearly all state departments, boards and commissions. Other notable powers include calling out the [[Indiana Guard Reserve]] or the [[Indiana National Guard]] in times of emergency or disaster, issuing pardons or commuting the sentence of any criminal offenders except in cases of treason or impeachment and possessing an abundant amount of statutory authority.<ref name="ST">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.in.us/portal/files/WebPageFactsBooklet.pdf|title=Indiana Facts|publisher=State of Indiana|access-date=August 3, 2009|archive-date=March 18, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318110223/http://www.state.in.us/portal/files/WebPageFactsBooklet.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Indiana State Chamber of Commerce (2007), p. 10.</ref><ref>{{cite web| title =Indiana Constitution Article 5| date =February 25, 1999| publisher =Indiana University| url =http://www.law.indiana.edu/uslawdocs/inconst/art-5.html| access-date =August 3, 2009| archive-date =March 10, 2009| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090310200401/http://www.law.indiana.edu/uslawdocs/inconst/art-5.html| url-status =dead}}</ref>

The lieutenant governor serves as the President of the Senate and ensures the senate rules are acted in accordance with by its constituents. The lieutenant governor votes only when needed to break ties. If the governor dies in office, becomes permanently incapacitated, resigns or is impeached, the lieutenant governor becomes governor. If both the governor and lieutenant governor positions are unoccupied, the Senate President pro tempore becomes governor.<ref>Indiana State Chamber of Commerce (2007), p. 13.</ref>

The Indiana General Assembly is composed of a 50-member [[Indiana Senate|Senate]] and 100-member [[Indiana House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. The Senate is the [[upper house]] of the General Assembly and the House of Representatives is the [[lower house]].<ref name="ST" /> The General Assembly has exclusive legislative authority within the state government. Both the Senate and the House can introduce legislation, with the exception that the Senate is not authorized to initiate legislation that will affect revenue. Bills are debated and passed separately in each house, but both houses must pass them before they can be submitted to the Governor.<ref name="For">{{cite web| title =Indiana Constitution Article 4| date =February 25, 1999| publisher =Indiana University| url =http://www.law.indiana.edu/uslawdocs/inconst/art-4.html| access-date =August 3, 2009| archive-date =August 1, 2018| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20180801103208/http://www.law.indiana.edu/uslawdocs/inconst/art-4.html| url-status =dead}}</ref> The legislature can nullify a veto from the governor with a majority vote of full membership in the Senate and House of Representatives.<ref name="ST" /> Each law passed by the General Assembly must apply without exception to the entire state. The General Assembly has no authority to create legislation that targets a particular community.<ref name="For" /><ref>Indiana State Chamber of Commerce (2005), p. 11</ref> The General Assembly can manage the state's judiciary system by arranging the size of the courts and the bounds of their districts. It also can oversee the activities of the executive branch of the state government, has restricted power to regulate the county governments within the state, and has exclusive power to initiate the method to alter the Indiana Constitution.<ref name="For" /><ref>Indiana State Chamber of Commerce (2005), p. 14.</ref>

The [[Indiana Supreme Court]] is made up of five judges with a [[Indiana Court of Appeals|Court of Appeals]] composed of 15 judges. The governor selects judges for the supreme and appeals courts from a group of applicants chosen by a special commission. After serving for two years, the judges must acquire the support of the electorate to serve for a 10-year term.<ref name="ST" /> In nearly all cases, the Supreme Court does not have [[original jurisdiction]] and can hear only cases petitioned to it after being heard in lower courts. Local circuit courts are where most cases begin with a trial and the consequence is decided by the jury. The Supreme Court has original and sole jurisdiction in certain areas including the practice of law, discipline or disbarment of Judges appointed to the lower state courts, and supervision over the exercise of jurisdiction by the other lower courts of the State.<ref name="Fur">{{cite web| title =Indiana Constitution Article 7| date =February 25, 1999| publisher =Indiana University| url =http://www.law.indiana.edu/uslawdocs/inconst/art-7.html| access-date =August 3, 2009| archive-date =August 2, 2009| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090802221214/http://www.law.indiana.edu/uslawdocs/inconst/art-7.html| url-status =dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.in.gov/judiciary/supreme/appellate.html |title=Appellate Process |publisher=State of Indiana |date=February 4, 2009 |access-date=August 3, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723101408/http://www.in.gov/judiciary/supreme/appellate.html |archive-date=July 23, 2009 }}</ref>

The state is divided into 92 [[County (United States)|counties]], which are led by a board of county commissioners. 90 counties in Indiana have their own [[circuit court]] with a judge elected for a six-year term. The remaining two counties, Dearborn and Ohio, are combined into one circuit. Many counties operate [[superior court]]s in addition to the circuit court. In densely populated counties where the caseload is traditionally greater, separate courts have been established to solely hear either juvenile, criminal, probate or small claims cases. The establishment, frequency and jurisdiction of these additional courts vary greatly from county to county. There are 85 city and town courts in Indiana municipalities, created by local ordinance, typically handling minor offenses and not considered [[courts of record]]. County officials elected to four-year terms include an auditor, recorder, treasurer, sheriff, coroner and clerk of the circuit court. All incorporated cities in Indiana have a mayor and council form of municipal government. Towns are governed by a town council and townships are governed by a township trustee and advisory board.<ref name="ST" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.in.gov/judiciary/2674.htm|title=Indiana Trial Courts: Types of Courts|publisher=State of Indiana|access-date=May 4, 2014}}</ref>

''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' ranked Indiana first in the publication's inaugural 2017 Best States for Government listing. Among individual categories, Indiana ranked above average in budget transparency (#1), government digitization (#6), and fiscal stability (#8), and ranked average in state integrity (#25).<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/rankings/government|title=Best States for Government|magazine=U.S. News & World Report|access-date=September 11, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911112135/https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/rankings/government|archive-date=September 11, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Politics===

{{Main|Politics of Indiana}}
{{See also|Political party strength in Indiana|United States presidential elections in Indiana}}
[[File:130410-Z-9531S-013.jpg|thumb|[[Mike Pence]] at the Indiana State Fair, 2014|alt=An older man in a tan suit reaches across a table to shake a woman's hand.]]

From 1880 to 1924, a resident of Indiana was included in all but one presidential election. Indiana Representative [[William Hayden English]] was nominated for vice president and ran with Winfield Scott Hancock in the [[1880 United States presidential election|1880 election]].<ref>Gray 1977, p. 23.</ref> Former Indiana Governor [[Thomas A. Hendricks]] was elected vice president in 1884. He served until his death on November 25, 1885, under President [[Grover Cleveland]].<ref>Gray 1977, p. 82.</ref> In 1888, former Senator from Indiana [[Benjamin Harrison]] was elected president and served one term. He remains the only President from Indiana. Indiana Senator [[Charles W. Fairbanks]] was elected vice president in 1904, serving under President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] until 1909.<ref>Gray 1977, p. 118.</ref> Fairbanks made another run for vice president with [[Charles Evans Hughes]] in 1916, but they both lost to [[Woodrow Wilson]] and former Indiana Governor [[Thomas R. Marshall]], who served as vice president from 1913 until 1921.<ref>Gray 1977, p. 162.</ref> Not until 1988 did another presidential election involve a native of Indiana when Senator [[Dan Quayle]] was elected vice president and served one term with [[George H. W. Bush]].<ref name="FW"/> Governor [[Mike Pence]] was elected vice president in 2016, to serve with [[Donald Trump]].

Indiana has long been considered a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] stronghold,<ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title=Indiana poll shows tight race with McCain, Obama |publisher=Fox News Channel |url=http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2008Oct01/0,4670,Poll2008Indiana,00.html |date=October 1, 2008 |access-date=August 10, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Purnick |first=Joyce |title=The 2006 Campaign: Struggle for the House; In a G.O.P. Stronghold, 3 Districts in Indiana Are Now Battlegrounds |work=The New York Times |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CEFDA163FF932A15753C1A9609C8B63 |date=October 21, 2006 |access-date=August 10, 2009}}</ref> particularly in Presidential races. The [[Cook Partisan Voting Index]] (CPVI) now rates Indiana as R+9. Indiana was one of only ten states to support Republican [[Wendell Willkie]] in 1940.<ref name="FW"/> On 14 occasions the Republican candidate has defeated the Democrat by a double-digit margin in the state, including six times where a Republican won the state by more than twenty percentage points.<ref name="Atlas"/> In 2000 and 2004 [[George W. Bush]] won the state by a wide margin while the election was much closer overall. The state has supported a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] for president only five times since 1900. In 1912, [[Woodrow Wilson]] became the first Democrat to win the state in the twentieth century, with 43% of the vote. Twenty years later, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] won the state with 55% of the vote over incumbent Republican [[Herbert Hoover]]. Roosevelt won the state again in 1936. In 1964, 56% of voters supported Democrat [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] over Republican [[Barry Goldwater]]. Forty-four years later, Democrat [[Barack Obama]] narrowly won the state against [[John McCain]] 50% to 49%.<ref>{{cite web |last=McPhee |first=Laura |title=Indiana's historic vote for Obama |website=[[NUVO (newspaper)|NUVO]] |url=http://www.nuvo.net/indianapolis/indianas-historic-vote-for-obama/Content?oid=1263801 |date=November 12, 2008 |access-date=August 10, 2009}}</ref> In the [[2012 US presidential election|following election]], Republican [[Mitt Romney]] won back the state for the Republican Party with 54% of the vote over the incumbent President Obama who won 43%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.in.gov/apps/sos/election/general/general2012?page=office&countyID=-1&officeID=36&districtID=-1&candidate= |title=Election Results: Indiana General Election, November 6, 2012 |publisher=State of Indiana |access-date=April 21, 2014}}</ref>

While only five Democratic presidential nominees have carried Indiana since 1900, 11 Democrats [[List of Governors of Indiana|were elected governor]] during that time. Before [[Mitch Daniels]] became governor in 2005, Democrats had held the office for 16 consecutive years. Indiana elects two senators and nine representatives to Congress. The state has 11 electoral votes in presidential elections.<ref name="Atlas"/> Seven of the [[Indiana's congressional districts|districts]] favor the Republican Party according to the CPVI rankings; there are seven Republicans serving as representatives and two Democrats. Historically, Republicans have been strongest in the eastern and central portions of the state, while Democrats have been strongest in the northwestern part of the state. Occasionally, certain counties in the southern part of the state will vote Democratic. Marion County, Indiana's most populous county, supported the Republican candidates from 1968 to 2000, before backing the Democrats in the 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016 and 2020 elections. Indiana's second-most populous county, Lake County, strongly supports the Democratic party and has not voted for a Republican since 1972.<ref name="Atlas">{{cite web |title=Presidential General Election Map Comparison |website=uselectionatlas.org |url=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/comparemaps.php?year=2008&fips=18&f=1&off=0&elect=0 |access-date=August 11, 2009}}</ref> In 2005, the Bay Area Center for Voting Research rated the most liberal and conservative cities in the United States on voting statistics in the 2004 presidential election, based on 237 cities with populations of more than 100,000. Five Indiana cities were mentioned in the study. On the liberal side, [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]] was ranked second and [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]] came in at 83. Among conservative cities, [[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]] was 44th, [[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]] was 60th and [[Indianapolis]] was 82nd on the list.<ref>{{cite web |last=Modie |first=Neil |title=Where have Seattle's lefties gone? |website=[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]] |url=http://www.seattlepi.com/local/236320_liberal12.html |date=August 12, 2005 |access-date=August 11, 2009}}</ref>

===Military installations===

[[File:Defense.gov photo essay 090826-D-8719J-45.jpg|thumb|Members of the [[Indiana National Guard]] at the [[Muscatatuck Urban Training Center]] near [[Butlerville, Indiana|Butlerville]]]]

Indiana is home to several current and former [[Military base|military installations]]. The largest of these is the [[Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane Division]], approximately 25 miles southwest of [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]], which is the third-largest naval installation in the world, comprising approximately 108 square miles of territory.

Other active installations include [[Air National Guard]] fighter units at [[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]], and [[Terre Haute]] airports (to be consolidated at Fort Wayne under the [[Base Realignment and Closure, 2005|2005 BRAC proposal]], with the Terre Haute facility remaining open as a non-flying installation). The [[Army National Guard]] conducts operations at [[Camp Atterbury]] in [[Edinburgh, Indiana]], helicopter operations out of [[Shelbyville, Indiana|Shelbyville]] Airport and urban training at [[Muscatatuck Urban Training Center]]. The Army's [[Newport Chemical Depot]], which is now closed and turning into a coal purifier plant.

Indiana was formerly home to two major military installations; [[Grissom Air Force Base]] near Peru (realigned to an [[Air Force Reserve]] installation in 1994) and [[Fort Benjamin Harrison]] near Indianapolis, now closed, though the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] continues to operate a large finance center there ([[Defense Finance and Accounting Service]]).

==Culture==
===Arts===
{{See also|Golden Age of Indiana Literature}}
The last decades of the 19th century began what is known as the "golden age of Indiana literature", a period that lasted until the 1920s.<ref name = artsummary/> [[Edward Eggleston]] wrote ''The Hoosier Schoolmaster'' (1871), the first best-seller to originate in the state. Many more followed, including [[Maurice Thompson]]'s ''Hoosier Mosaics'' (1875) and [[Lew Wallace]]'s ''[[Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ|Ben-Hur]]'' (1880). Indiana developed a reputation as the "American heartland" after the publication of several widely read novels, beginning with [[Booth Tarkington]]'s ''The Gentleman from Indiana'' (1899), [[Meredith Nicholson]]'s The Hoosiers (1900), and Thompson's ''Alice of Old Vincennes'' (1900).<ref name = artsummary/> [[James Whitcomb Riley]], known as the "Hoosier Poet" and the most popular poet of his age, wrote hundreds of poems with Hoosier themes, including ''[[Little Orphant Annie]]''. A unique art culture also began to develop in the late 19th century, beginning the [[Hoosier Group|Hoosier School]] of landscape painting and the [[Richmond Group]] of impressionist painters. The painters, including [[T. C. Steele]], whose work was influenced by southern Indiana's colorful hills, were known for their use of vivid colors.<ref name = artsummary>{{cite encyclopedia|title=INDIANA|year=2000|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the United States in the Nineteenth Century|editor= Farmington, Gale|author=Furlong, Patrick J.|location=Michigan}}</ref> Prominent musicians and composers from Indiana also reached national acclaim, including [[Paul Dresser]], whose most popular song, "[[On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away]]", was later adopted as the official state song.<ref name=ihspauldresser>{{cite web|last=Henderson|first=Clayton W|url=http://www.indianahistory.org/our-collections/library-and-archives/notable-hoosiers/paul-dresser/|title=Paul Dresser|publisher=[[Indiana Historical Society]]|access-date=2010-03-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828223523/http://www.indianahistory.org/our-collections/library-and-archives/notable-hoosiers/paul-dresser|archive-date=August 28, 2010|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> [[Bob Ross]] was from Indiana and [[Muncie]] has a thriving art community.

===Sports===

{{Main|Sports in Indiana}}

====Motorsports====

[[File:Dallara DW12 (Fernando Alonso) 2017 Indianapolis 500.jpg|thumb|Indianapolis is home to the annual [[Indianapolis 500]] race.]]

Indiana has an extensive history with [[auto racing]]. Indianapolis hosts the [[Indianapolis 500]] mile race over [[Memorial Day]] weekend at the [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]] every May. The name of the race is usually shortened to "Indy 500" and also goes by the nickname "The Greatest Spectacle in Racing". The race attracts more than 250,000 people every year, making it the largest single-day sporting event in the world. The track also hosts the [[Brickyard 400]] ([[NASCAR]]) and the [[Red Bull Indianapolis Grand Prix]]. From 2000 to 2007, it hosted the [[United States Grand Prix]] ([[Formula One]]). Indiana features the world's largest and most prestigious [[drag race]], the [[NHRA U.S. Nationals|NHRA Mac Tools U.S. Nationals]], held each [[Labor Day]] weekend at [[Lucas Oil Raceway at Indianapolis]] in [[Clermont, Indiana]]. Indiana is also host to a major [[hydroplane racing|unlimited hydroplane racing]] power boat race circuits in the major [[H1 Unlimited]] league, the [[Madison Regatta]] ([[Madison, Indiana]]).

====Professional sports====

[[File:Andrew Luck 2013.jpg|thumb|The [[Indianapolis Colts]] of the [[National Football League]] have been based in the state since 1984.]]

{{asof|2013}} Indiana has produced more [[National Basketball Association]] (NBA) players per capita than any other state. Muncie has produced the most per capita of any American city, with two other Indiana cities in the top ten.<ref name="deadspin20130617">{{cite web | url=http://deadspin.com/infographics-where-do-pro-basketball-players-come-from-513261549 | title=Infographics: Where Do Pro Basketball Players Come From? | website=Deadspin | date=June 17, 2013 | access-date=June 18, 2013 | author=Fischer-Baum, Reuben}}</ref> It has a rich basketball heritage that reaches back to the sport's formative years. The NBA's [[Indiana Pacers]] play their home games at [[Bankers Life Fieldhouse]]; they began play in 1967 in the [[American Basketball Association]] (ABA) and joined the NBA when the leagues [[ABA-NBA merger|merged]] in 1976. Although [[James Naismith]] developed basketball in [[Springfield, Massachusetts|Springfield]], [[Massachusetts]] in 1891, high school basketball was born in Indiana. In 1925, Naismith visited an Indiana basketball state finals game along with 15,000 screaming fans and later wrote "Basketball really had its origin in Indiana, which remains the center of the sport." The 1986 film ''[[Hoosiers (film)|Hoosiers]]'' is inspired by the story of the 1954 Indiana state champions [[1954 Milan High School basketball team|Milan High School]]. Professional basketball player [[Larry Bird]] was born in [[West Baden Springs, Indiana|West Baden Springs]] and was raised in [[French Lick, Indiana|French Lick]]. He went on to lead the [[Boston Celtics]] to the NBA championship in 1981, 1984, and 1986.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biography.com/people/larry-bird-9213087|title=Larry Bird|website=Biography}}</ref>

Indianapolis is home to the [[Indianapolis Colts]]. The Colts are members of the [[AFC South|South Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]]. The Colts have roots back to 1913 as the [[Dayton Triangles]]. They became an official team after moving to [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland|MD]], in 1953. In 1984, the [[History of the Baltimore Colts|Colts]] [[Baltimore Colts relocation controversy|relocated]] to Indianapolis, leading to an eventual rivalry with the [[Baltimore Ravens]]. After calling the [[RCA Dome]] home for 25 years, the Colts play their home games at [[Lucas Oil Stadium]] in Indianapolis. While in Baltimore, the Colts won the [[Super Bowl V|1970 Super Bowl]]. In Indianapolis, the Colts won [[Super Bowl XLI]], bringing the franchise total to two. In recent years the Colts have regularly competed in the NFL playoffs.

Indiana was home to two charter members of the [[National Football League]] teams, the [[Hammond Pros]] and the [[Muncie Flyers]]. Another early NFL franchise, the [[Evansville Crimson Giants]] spent two seasons in the league before folding.

====Professional teams====

The following table shows the professional sports teams in Indiana. Teams in italic are in [[Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada|major professional leagues]].
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Club
!Sport
!League
!Venue (capacity)
|-
|''[[Indianapolis Colts]]''
|American football
|[[National Football League]]
| [[Lucas Oil Stadium]] (62,400)
|-
|''[[Indiana Pacers]]''
|Basketball
|[[National Basketball Association]]
| [[Bankers Life Fieldhouse]] (18,165)
|-
|[[Evansville Otters]]
|Baseball
|[[Frontier League]]
| [[Bosse Field]] (5,181)
|-
|[[Evansville Thunderbolts]]
|Ice hockey
|[[Southern Professional Hockey League]]
| [[Ford Center (Evansville)|Ford Center]] (9,000)
|-
|[[Fort Wayne Komets]]
|Ice hockey
|[[ECHL]]
| [[Allen County War Memorial Coliseum]] (10,480)
|-
|[[Fort Wayne Mad Ants]]
|Basketball
|[[NBA G League]]
| [[Allen County War Memorial Coliseum|War Memorial Coliseum]] (13,000)
|-
|[[Fort Wayne TinCaps]]
|Baseball
|[[High-A Central]]
| [[Parkview Field]] (8,100)
|-
|[[Gary SouthShore RailCats]]
|Baseball
|[[American Association of Professional Baseball|American Association]]
| [[U.S. Steel Yard]] (6,139)
|-
|[[Indy Eleven]]
|Soccer
|[[United Soccer League]]
| [[Lucas Oil Stadium]] (62,400)
|-
|[[Indiana Fever]]
|Basketball
|[[Women's National Basketball Association]]
| [[Bankers Life Fieldhouse]] (18,165)
|-
|[[Indy Fuel]]
|Ice hockey
|[[ECHL]]
| [[Indiana Farmers Coliseum]] (6,300)
|-
|[[Indianapolis Indians]]
|Baseball
|[[Triple-A East]]
| [[Victory Field]] (14,230)
|-
|[[Indianapolis Enforcers]]
|Arena Football
|[[American Arena League|AAL]]
|[[Indiana Farmers Coliseum]]
|-
|[[South Bend Cubs]]
|Baseball
|[[High-A Central]]
| [[Four Winds Field]] (5,000)
|}
The following is a table of sports venues in Indiana having a capacity in excess of 30,000:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Facility
!Capacity
!Municipality
!Tenants
|-
|[[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]]
|257,325
|[[Speedway, Indiana|Speedway]]
|{{ubl|[[Indianapolis 500]]|[[Grand Prix of Indianapolis]]|[[Brantley Gilbert Big Machine Brickyard 400]]|[[Lilly Diabetes 250]]}}
|-
|[[Notre Dame Stadium]]
|84,000
|[[Notre Dame, Indiana|Notre Dame]]
|[[Notre Dame Fighting Irish football]]
|-
|[[Lucas Oil Stadium]]
|62,421
|[[Indianapolis]]
|{{ubl|[[Indianapolis Colts]]|[[Indy Eleven]]}}
|-
|[[Ross–Ade Stadium]]
|57,236
|[[West Lafayette, Indiana|West Lafayette]]
|[[Purdue Boilermakers football]]
|-
|[[Memorial Stadium (Indiana)|Memorial Stadium]]
|52,929
|[[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]]
|[[Indiana Hoosiers football]]
|}

====College athletics====

{{See also|Hoosier Hysteria}}
[[File:Indiana Assembly Hall interior (16100187018).jpg|thumb|[[Simon Skjodt Assembly Hall]], home to [[Indiana Hoosiers men's basketball]]]]
[[File:Fans and players gather for a football game Sept. 6, 2014, at Notre Dame Stadium in South Bend, Ind 140906-D-KC128-220.jpg|thumb|[[Notre Dame Stadium]], home to the [[Notre Dame Fighting Irish football|Fighting Irish]]]]

Indiana has had great sports success at the collegiate level.

In men's basketball, the [[Indiana Hoosiers men's basketball|Indiana Hoosiers]] have won five NCAA national championships and 22 [[Big Ten Conference]] championships. The [[Purdue Boilermakers]] were selected as the national champions in 1932 before the creation of the tournament, and have won 23 Big Ten championships. The Boilermakers along with the Notre Dame Fighting Irish have both won a national championship in women's basketball.

In college football, the [[Notre Dame Fighting Irish]] have won 11 consensus national championships, as well as the [[Rose Bowl Game]], [[Cotton Bowl Classic]], [[Orange Bowl]] and [[Sugar Bowl]]. Meanwhile, the Purdue Boilermakers have won 10 Big Ten championships and have won the Rose Bowl and [[Peach Bowl]].

Schools fielding [[NCAA Division I]] athletic programs include:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Program
!Division
!Conference
!City
|-
|[[Ball State Cardinals]]
|[[Division I-FBS]]
|[[Mid-American Conference]]
|[[Muncie, Indiana|Muncie]]
|-
|[[Butler Bulldogs]]
|[[Division I-FCS]]
|[[Big East Conference]]
[[Pioneer Football League]]
|[[Indianapolis]]
|-
|[[Evansville Purple Aces]]
|[[NCAA Division I|Division I (non-football)]]
|[[Missouri Valley Conference]]
|[[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]]
|-
|[[Indiana Hoosiers]]
|[[Division I-FBS]]
|[[Big Ten Conference]]
|[[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]]
|-
|[[Indiana State Sycamores]]
|[[Division I-FCS]]
|[[Missouri Valley Conference]]
[[Missouri Valley Football Conference]]
|[[Terre Haute, Indiana|Terre Haute]]
|-
|[[IUPUI Jaguars]]
|[[NCAA Division I|Division I (non-football)]]
|[[Horizon League]]
|[[Indianapolis]]
|-
|[[Notre Dame Fighting Irish]]
|[[Division I-FBS]]
|[[Atlantic Coast Conference]]
[[Big Ten Conference]] (men's ice hockey)

[[NCAA Division I FBS independent schools|Independent]] (football)
|[[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]]
|-
|[[Purdue Boilermakers]]
|[[Division I-FBS]]
|[[Big Ten Conference]]
|[[West Lafayette, Indiana|West Lafayette]]
|-
|[[Purdue Fort Wayne Mastodons]]
|[[NCAA Division I|Division I (non-football)]]
|[[Horizon League]]
|[[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]]
|-
|[[Valparaiso Beacons]]
|[[Division I-FCS]]
|[[Missouri Valley Conference]]
[[Pioneer Football League]]

[[Summit League]] (men's swimming, men's tennis)

[[Southland Bowling League]] (women's bowling)
|[[Valparaiso, Indiana|Valparaiso]]
|}

==Economy and infrastructure==

{{Main|Economy of Indiana}}
[[File:Indiana Dunes State Park, on the southern tip of Lake Michigan.jpg|thumb|[[Lake Michigan]]'s beaches, popular with tourists, are juxtaposed with heavy industry.]]
[[File:Campo de maiz, Walker, Indiana, Estados Unidos, 2012-10-20, DD 03.jpg|thumb|Indiana is the fifth largest corn-producing state in the U.S., with over a billion bushels harvested in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Top 10 Indiana Agriculture Products|publisher=Journal Communications, Inc.|url=http://www.farmflavor.com/indiana/indiana-agribusiness/top-10-indiana-agriculture-products/|access-date=August 21, 2017}}</ref>]]

In 2017, Indiana had a civilian labor force of nearly 3.4{{nbs}}million, the 15th largest in the U.S. Indiana has an unemployment rate of 3.4 percent, lower than the national average.<ref>{{cite web|title=Labor Force Overview (NSA): STATS Indiana|publisher=STATS Indiana|url=http://www.stats.indiana.edu/laus/laus_view1.html|access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref> The total gross state product in 2016 was $347.2{{nbs}}billion.<ref>[https://www.bea.gov/iTable/iTable.cfm?reqid=70&step=10&isuri=1&7003=200&7035=-1&7004=sic&7005=1&7006=xx&7036=-1&7001=1200&7002=1&7090=70&7007=-1&7093=levels#reqid=70&step=10&isuri=1&7003=200&7035=-1&7004=naics&7005=1&7006=xx&7036=-1&7001=1200&7002=1&7090=70&7007=-1&7093=levels]</ref> A high percentage of Indiana's income is from manufacturing.<ref>{{cite web | title=Indiana Economy at a Glance | publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics | url=http://stats.bls.gov/eag/eag.in.htm | access-date=January 11, 2007}}</ref> According to the [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]], nearly 17 percent of the state's non-farm workforce is employed in manufacturing, the highest of any state in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|title=The States Leading the U.S. Manufacturing Resurgence|first=Mark|last=Crawford|publisher=AreaDevelopment|url=http://www.areadevelopment.com/RegionalReports/Q1-2013/states-leading-US-manufacturing-resurgence-2665542.shtml?Page=2|date=Winter 2013|access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref> The state's five leading exports were motor vehicles and auto parts, pharmaceutical products, industrial machinery, optical and medical equipment, and electric machinery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Global Positioning, 2015: Indiana's Export Activity|publisher=STATS Indiana|url=http://www.stats.indiana.edu/exports/2015.asp|access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref>

Despite its reliance on manufacturing, Indiana has been less affected by declines in traditional [[Rust Belt]] manufacturers than many of its neighbors. The explanation appears to be certain factors in the labor market. First, much of the heavy manufacturing, such as industrial machinery and steel, requires highly skilled labor, and firms are often willing to locate where hard-to-train skills already exist. Second, Indiana's labor force is primarily in medium-sized and smaller cities rather than in very large and expensive metropolises. This makes it possible for firms to offer somewhat lower wages for these skills than would normally be paid. Firms often see in Indiana a chance to obtain higher than average skills at lower than average wages.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Manufacturers in Indiana | publisher=Purdue University Center for Rural Development | date=July 19, 1998}}</ref>

===Business===

In 2016, Indiana was home to seven [[Fortune 500]] companies with a combined $142.5{{nbs}}billion in revenue.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indiana Businesses Shuffle on Fortune 500|first=Dan|last=McGowan|publisher=Inside Indiana Business|url=http://www.insideindianabusiness.com/story/32221981/indiana-businesses-shuffle-around-on-fortune-500|date=June 14, 2016|access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref> [[Columbus, Indiana|Columbus]]-based [[Cummins, Inc.]] and Indianapolis-based [[Eli Lilly and Company]] and [[Simon Property Group]] were recognized in ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'' publication's "2017 World's Most Admired Companies List", ranking in each of their respective industries.<ref>{{cite news|title=3 Indiana companies make Fortune's 2017 World's Most Admired Companies List|first=Allison|last=Carter|newspaper=The Indianapolis Star|url=http://www.indystar.com/story/news/2017/02/20/3-indiana-companies-make-fortunes-2017-worlds-most-admired-companies-list/98149374/|date=February 20, 2017|access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref>

[[Northwest Indiana]] has been the largest steel producing center in the U.S. since 1975 and accounted for 27 percent of American-made steel in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indiana leads nation in steel production|first=Joseph|last=Pete|publisher=Northwest Indiana Times|url=http://www.nwitimes.com/business/steel/indiana-leads-nation-in-steel-production/article_def40810-528e-5a98-acc2-ebab79de08a2.html|date=May 31, 2017|access-date=September 1, 2017}}</ref>

Indiana is home to the international headquarters and research facilities of pharmaceutical company [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] in Indianapolis, the state's largest corporation, as well as the world headquarters of Mead Johnson Nutritionals in Evansville.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wndu.com/news/112005/news_46007.php|title=WNDU-TV: News Story: Bayer is leaving Elkhart – November 16, 2005}}{{Dead link|date=February 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Overall, Indiana ranks fifth among all U.S. states in total sales and shipments of pharmaceutical products and second highest in the number of biopharmaceutical related jobs.<ref>{{cite web | title=Economy & Demographics | publisher=Terre Haute Economic Development Co. | url=http://www.terrehauteareaedc.com/econ_industry.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060716101025/http://www.terrehauteareaedc.com/econ_industry.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date=July 16, 2006 | access-date=January 30, 2007 }}</ref>

Indiana is within the U.S. [[Corn Belt]] and [[Grain Belt]]. The state has a feedlot-style system raising corn to fatten hogs and cattle. Along with corn, [[soybeans]] are also a major cash crop. Its proximity to large urban centers, such as [[Indianapolis]] and Chicago, assure dairying, egg production, and specialty horticulture occur.
Other crops include melons, tomatoes, grapes, mint, popping corn, and tobacco in the southern counties.<ref>{{cite web | title=USDA Crop Profiles | publisher=United States Department of Agriculture | url=http://cipm.ncsu.edu/cropprofiles/cplist.cfm?org=state | access-date=November 20, 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070223130933/http://cipm.ncsu.edu/cropprofiles/cplist.cfm?org=state  |archive-date = February 23, 2007}}</ref> Most of the original land was not prairie and had to be cleared of deciduous trees. Many parcels of woodland remain and support a furniture-making sector in the southern portion of the state.

In 2011 Indiana was ranked first in the Midwest and sixth in the country for best places to do business according to CEO magazine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chiefexecutive.net/best-worst-states-for-business |title=Best/Worst States for Business | ChiefExecutive.net | Chief Executive Magazine |publisher=ChiefExecutive.net |date=May 3, 2011 |access-date=December 10, 2011}}</ref>

===Taxation===

{{See also|Taxation in Indiana}}

Tax is collected by the [[Indiana Department of Revenue]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=DOR: Home|url=https://www.in.gov/dor/|access-date=2020-06-04|website=www.in.gov}}</ref>

Indiana has a flat state [[income tax]] rate of 3.23%. Many of the state's counties also collect income tax. The state [[sales tax]] rate is 7% with exemptions for food, prescription medications and over-the-counter medications.<ref>{{cite web|title=State Sales Tax Rates|url=http://www.money-zine.com/Financial-Planning/Tax-Shelter/State-Sales-Tax-Rates/|publisher=Money-Zine.com|access-date=January 26, 2012}}</ref> In some jurisdictions, an additional Food and Beverage Tax is charged, at a rate of 1% (Marion County's rate is 2%), on sales of prepared meals and beverages.<ref>{{cite web|title=INDIANA Retail Sales Tax & Use Tax |url=http://www.in.gov/dor/files/brochure3.pdf |website=Indiana Department of Revenue |publisher=State of Indiana |access-date=January 26, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125021729/http://www.in.gov/dor/files/brochure3.pdf |archive-date=November 25, 2011 }}</ref>

[[Property tax]]es are imposed on both real and personal property in Indiana and are administered by the Department of Local Government Finance. Property is subject to taxation by a variety of taxing units (schools, counties, townships, municipalities, and libraries), making the total tax rate the sum of the tax rates imposed by all taxing units in which a property is located. However, a "circuit breaker" law enacted on March 19, 2008, limits [[property tax]]es to 1% of assessed value for homeowners, 2% for rental properties and farmland, and 3% for businesses.

===State budget===

Indiana does not have a legal requirement to balance the state budget either in law or its constitution. Instead, it has a constitutional ban on assuming debt. The state has a [[Rainy Day Fund]] and for healthy reserves proportional to spending. Indiana is one of six US states to not allow a [[Line-item veto in the United States|line-item veto]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/budget-tax/gubernatorial-veto-authority-with-respect-to-major.aspx|title=Gubernatorial Veto Authority with Respect to Major Budget Bill(s)|publisher=National Conference of State Legislatures|access-date=September 11, 2017}}</ref>

Since 2010, Indiana has been one of a few states to hold [[Bond credit rating#Credit rating tiers|AAA bond credit ratings]] with the [[Big Three (credit rating agencies)|Big Three]] credit rating agencies, the highest possible rating.<ref>{{cite web|title=S&P Reaffirms State's Credit Rating|first=Alex|last=Brown|publisher=Inside Indiana Business|url=http://www.insideindianabusiness.com/story/31621461/sp-reaffirms-states-credit-rating|date=April 1, 2016|access-date=September 11, 2017}}</ref>

===Energy===

{{Further|List of Generating Stations in Indiana}}
[[File:Clifty Creek Power Plant Complex.jpg|thumb|[[fossil fuel power station|Coal-fired electric plants]], like [[Clifty Creek Power Plant]] in [[Madison, Indiana|Madison]], produce about 85 percent of Indiana's energy supply.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/state/state_one_pager/Indiana.pdf|title=2014 EIA reports and publications – Indiana|website=U.S. Energy Information Administration|access-date=September 3, 2017}}</ref>]]

Indiana's power production chiefly consists of the consumption of fossil fuels, mainly coal. It has 24 coal power plants, including the country's largest coal power plant, [[Gibson Generating Station]], across the Wabash River from [[Mount Carmel, Illinois]]. Indiana is also home to the coal-fired plant with the highest sulfur dioxide emissions in the United States, the [[R. Gallagher Generating Station|Gallagher]] power plant, just west of New Albany.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jul2007/2007-07-26-05.asp|title=50 Dirtiest U.S. Power Plants Named|last=staff|website=Ens-newswire.com|access-date=September 2, 2017|archive-date=May 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525200756/http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jul2007/2007-07-26-05.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2010, Indiana had estimated coal reserves of 57 billion tons, and state mining operations produced 35 million tons of coal annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://igs.indiana.edu/coal/index.cfm|title=Coal in Indiana|author=Indiana Geological Survey|publisher=[[Purdue University]]|access-date=October 19, 2010}}</ref> Indiana also has at least 900 million barrels of petroleum reserves in the [[Trenton Gas Field|Trenton Field]], though they are not easily recoverable. While Indiana has made commitments to increasing the use of renewable resources such as wind, hydroelectric, biomass, or solar power, progress has been very slow, mainly because of the continued abundance of coal in southern Indiana. Most of the new plants in the state have been [[coal gasification]] plants. Another source is hydroelectric power.

[[Wind power in Indiana|Wind power]] has been developed. Estimates in 2006 raised Indiana's wind capacity from 30 MW at 50 m turbine height to 40,000 MW at 70 m, and to 130,000 MW at 100 m, in 2010, the height of newer turbines.<ref>[http://www.indianacleanpower.org/renewableresources.html Indiana's Renewable Energy Resources] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209233955/http://www.indianacleanpower.org/renewableresources.html |date=February 9, 2014 }} Retrieved August 20, 2008</ref> By the end of 2011, Indiana had installed 1,340 MW of wind turbines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/wind_installed_capacity.asp |title=WINDExchange: U.S. Installed Wind Capacity |website=windpoweringamerica.gov |access-date=February 24, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314233108/http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/wind_installed_capacity.asp |archive-date=March 14, 2014 }}</ref>

===Transportation===
====Airports====

{{See also|List of airports in Indiana}}

[[Indianapolis International Airport]] serves the greater Indianapolis area. It opened in November 2008 and offers a midfield passenger terminal, concourses, air traffic control tower, parking garage, and airfield and apron improvements.<ref>{{cite web | title=New Indianapolis Airport | publisher=Indianapolis Airport Authority | url=http://www.indianapolisairport.com | access-date=January 6, 2007}}</ref>

Other major airports include [[Evansville Regional Airport]], [[Fort Wayne International Airport]] (which houses the [[122d Fighter Wing]] of the [[Air National Guard]]), and [[South Bend International Airport]]. A long-standing proposal to turn [[Gary Chicago International Airport]] into Chicago's third major airport received a boost in early 2006 with the approval of $48{{nbs}}million in federal funding over the next ten years.<ref>{{cite web|title=Gary Airpport Gets Millions in Federal Funding |publisher=CBS Channel 2 |url=http://cbs2chicago.com/topstories/local_story_016180843.html |access-date=October 18, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060218014515/http://cbs2chicago.com/topstories/local_story_016180843.html |archive-date=February 18, 2006 }}</ref>

No airlines operate out of [[Terre Haute Regional Airport]] but it is used for private planes. Since 1954, the [[181st Fighter Wing]] of the Indiana [[Air National Guard]] was stationed there, but the [[Base Realignment and Closure]] (BRAC) Proposal of 2005 stated the 181st would lose its fighter mission and [[F-16]] aircraft, leaving the Terre Haute facility a general-aviation-only facility.

[[Louisville International Airport]], across the Ohio River in [[Louisville, Kentucky]], serves southern Indiana, as does [[Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport]] in [[Hebron, Kentucky]]. Many residents of [[Northwest Indiana]], which is primarily in the [[Chicago Metropolitan Area]], use Chicago's airports, [[O'Hare International Airport]] and [[Chicago Midway International Airport]].{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

====Highways====

[[File:I-69 Construction Indiana.jpg|thumb|The [[Interstate 69 in Indiana|Interstate 69]] extension project in [[Monroe County, Indiana|Monroe County]]]]

The major U.S. [[List of Interstate Highways in Indiana|Interstate highways in Indiana]] are [[Interstate 64 in Indiana|I-64]], [[Interstate 65 in Indiana|I-65]], [[Interstate 265 in Indiana|I-265]], [[Interstate 465|I-465]], [[Interstate 865|I-865]], [[Interstate 69 in Indiana|I-69]], [[Interstate 469|I-469]], [[Interstate 70 in Indiana|I-70]], [[Interstate 74 in Indiana|I-74]], [[Interstate 80 in Indiana|I-80]], [[Interstate 90 in Indiana|I-90]], [[Interstate 94 in Indiana|I-94]], and [[Interstate 275 (Ohio–Indiana–Kentucky)|I-275]]. The various highways intersecting in and around [[Indianapolis]], along with its historical status as a major railroad hub, and the canals that once crossed Indiana, are the source of the state's motto, the Crossroads of America. There are also many [[List of U.S. Routes in Indiana|U.S. routes]] and [[List of State Roads in Indiana|state highways]] maintained by the [[Indiana Department of Transportation]]. These are numbered according to the same convention as [[U.S. Highways]]. Indiana allows highways of different classifications to have the same number. For example, I-64 and [[Indiana State Road 64]] both exist (rather close to each other) in Indiana, but are two distinct roads with no relation to one another.

A $3 billion project extending I-69 is underway. The project was divided into six sections, with the first five sections (linking [[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]] to [[Martinsville, Indiana|Martinsville]]) now complete. The sixth and final phase from Martinsville to Indianapolis is under construction. When complete, I-69 will traverse an additional {{convert|142|mi|km|}} through the state.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lange|first=Kaitlin|title=I-69 completion date pushed back|url=http://www.indystar.com/story/news/politics/2017/02/13/-69-completion-date-pushed-back/97850844/|access-date=September 3, 2017|work=The Indianapolis Star|date=February 13, 2017}}</ref>

====County roads====

Most Indiana counties use a grid-based system to identify county roads; this system replaced the older arbitrary system of road numbers and names, and (among other things) makes it much easier to identify the sources of calls placed to the [[9-1-1]] system. Such systems are easier to implement in the glacially flattened northern and central portions of the state. Rural counties in the southern third of the state are less likely to have grids and more likely to rely on unsystematic road names (for example, Crawford, Harrison, Perry, Scott, and Washington Counties).

There are also counties in the northern portions of the state that have never implemented a grid or have only partially implemented one. Some counties are also laid out in an almost diamond-like grid system (e.g., Clark, Floyd, Gibson, and Knox Counties). Such a system is also almost useless in those situations as well. Knox County once operated two different grid systems for county roads because the county was laid out using two different survey grids, but has since decided to use road names and combine roads instead.

Notably, the county road grid system of St. Joseph County, whose major city is South Bend, uses perennial (tree) names (i.e. Ash, Hickory, Ironwood, etc.) in alphabetical order for north–south roads and presidential and other noteworthy names (i.e., Adams, Edison, Lincoln Way, etc.) in alphabetical order for east–west roads. There are exceptions to this rule in downtown South Bend and Mishawaka. Hamilton County's east–west roads continue Indianapolis's numbered street system from 96th Street at the Marion County line to 296th street at the Tipton County line.

====Rail====

[[File:07 21 09 006xRP - Flickr - drewj1946.jpg|thumb|A [[South Shore Line|South Shore]] commuter train in [[Michigan City, Indiana|Michigan City]]]]

Indiana has more than {{convert|4,255|mi||adj=pre|railroad route }}, of which 91 percent are operated by [[Class I railroad]]s, principally [[CSX Transportation]] and the [[Norfolk Southern Railway]]. Other Class{{nbs}}I railroads in Indiana include the [[Canadian National Railway]] and [[Soo Line Railroad]], a [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] subsidiary, as well as [[Amtrak]]. The remaining miles are operated by 37 regional, local, and switching and terminal railroads. The [[South Shore Line (NICTD)|South Shore Line]] is one of the country's most notable commuter rail systems, extending from Chicago to [[South Bend]]. Indiana is implementing an extensive rail plan prepared in 2002 by the [[Parsons Corporation]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Indiana Rail Plan | publisher=Indiana Department of Transportation | url=http://www.in.gov/indot/3065.htm}}</ref> Many recreational trails, such as the [[Monon Trail]] and [[Cardinal Greenway]], have been created from [[rails-to-trails|abandoned rails routes]].

====Ports====

[[File:Towboat Ben McCool upbound on Ohio River with two tank barges (1 of 6) 87j082.jpg|thumb|Barges are a common sight along the [[Ohio River]]. Ports of Indiana manages three maritime ports in the state, two located on the Ohio.]]

Indiana annually ships more than 70 million tons of cargo by water each year, which ranks 14th among all U.S. states.{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}} More than half of Indiana's border is water, which includes {{convert|400|mi|km|-1}} of direct access to two major freight transportation arteries: the Great Lakes/St. Lawrence Seaway (via Lake Michigan) and the Inland Waterway System (via the Ohio River). The [[Port of Indiana|Ports of Indiana]] manages three major ports which include [[Burns Harbor, Indiana|Burns Harbor]], [[Jeffersonville, Indiana|Jeffersonville]], and [[Mount Vernon, Indiana|Mount Vernon]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Ports of Indiana Website | url=http://www.portsofindiana.com | access-date=January 7, 2007}}</ref>

In [[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]], three public and several private port facilities receive year-round service from five major barge lines operating on the [[Ohio River]]. Evansville has been a [[United States Customs|U.S. Customs Port of Entry]] for more than 125 years. Because of this, it is possible to have international cargo shipped to Evansville in bond. The international cargo can then clear Customs in Evansville rather than a coastal port.{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}}

==Education==

{{See also|List of colleges and universities in Indiana}}

Indiana's 1816 constitution was the first in the country to implement a state-funded [[public school (government funded)|public school]] system. It also allotted one township for a public university.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Indiana History: Indiana, the Nineteenth State (1816)
|publisher=Center for History
|url=http://centerforhistory.org/learn-history/indiana-history/indiana-the-nineteenth-state-1816
|access-date=August 26, 2009
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027053723/http://centerforhistory.org/learn-history/indiana-history/indiana-the-nineteenth-state-1816
|archive-date=October 27, 2012
}}</ref> However, the plan turned out to be far too idealistic for a pioneer society, as tax money was not accessible for its organization. In the 1840s, [[Caleb Mills]] pressed the need for tax-supported schools, and in 1851 his advice was included in the new state constitution. In 1843 the Legislature ruled that African Americans could not attend the public schools, leading to the foundation of [[Union Literary Institute]] and other schools for them, funded by donations or the students themselves.

Although the growth of the public school system was held up by legal entanglements, many public elementary schools were in use by 1870. Most children in Indiana attend public schools, but nearly ten percent attend private schools and [[parochial school]]s. About half of all college students in Indiana are enrolled in state-supported four-year schools.

Indiana public schools have gone through several changes throughout Indiana's history. Modern, public school standards, have been implemented all throughout the state. These new standards were adopted in April 2014. The overall goal of these new state standards is to ensure Indiana students have the necessary skills and requirements needed to enter college or the workforce upon high school graduation.<ref>{{cite web |title=Indiana Academic Standards |url=https://www.doe.in.gov/standards |website=Indiana Department of Education |publisher=Indiana Department of Education |access-date=November 4, 2018}}</ref> State standards can be found for nearly every major subject taught in Indiana public schools. Mathematics, English/Language Arts, Science, and Social Studies are among the top, prioritized standards. In 2017, the Indiana Department of Education reported that the state's overall graduation rates were 87.19% for waivered graduations and 80.10% for non-waiver graduations.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Baker |first1=Adam |title=Indiana Department of Education Releases 2017 Graduation Rates |url=https://www.doe.in.gov/news/indiana-department-education-releases-2017-graduation-rates |website=Indiana Department of Education |publisher=Indiana Department of Education |access-date=November 4, 2018}}</ref>

The largest educational institution is [[Indiana University]], the [[Indiana University Bloomington|flagship campus]] of which was endorsed as Indiana Seminary in 1820. [[Indiana State University]] was established as the state's [[Normal School]] in 1865; [[Purdue University]] was chartered as a [[Land-grant university|land-grant college]] in 1869. The three other independent state universities are [[Vincennes University]] (founded in 1801 by the Indiana Territory), [[Ball State University]] (1918) and [[University of Southern Indiana]] (1965 as ISU – Evansville).

Many of Indiana's private colleges and universities are affiliated with religious groups. The [[University of Notre Dame]], [[Marian University (Indiana)|Marian University]], and the [[University of Saint Francis (Indiana)|University of Saint Francis]] are popular [[Roman Catholic school]]s. Universities affiliated with Protestant denominations include [[Anderson University (Indiana)|Anderson University]], [[Butler University]], [[Huntington University (United States)|Huntington University]], [[Manchester University (Indiana)|Manchester University]], [[Indiana Wesleyan University]], [[Taylor University]], [[Franklin College (Indiana)|Franklin College]], [[Hanover College]], [[DePauw University]], [[Earlham College]], [[Valparaiso University]], [[University of Indianapolis]],<ref name="ST"/> and [[University of Evansville]].<ref>{{cite web|title=About UE |publisher=[[University of Evansville]] |url=http://www.evansville.edu/aboutue/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106123440/http://www.evansville.edu/aboutue/ |archive-date=January 6, 2010 }}</ref>

The state's community college system, [[Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana]], serves nearly 200,000 students annually, making it the state's largest public post-secondary educational institution and the nation's largest singly accredited statewide community college system.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ivy Tech Reports Record Enrollment |url=http://www.insideindianabusiness.com/newsitem.asp?id=49433 |website=Insideindianabusiness.com |access-date=July 23, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017093819/http://www.insideindianabusiness.com/newsitem.asp?id=49433 |archive-date=October 17, 2014 }}</ref> In 2008, the Indiana University system agreed to shift most of its associate (2-year) degrees to the Ivy Tech Community College System.<ref>{{cite web | title = Hoosier State Gets Coordinated | date = May 16, 2008 | website = Inside Higher Ed | url = http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2008/05/16/indiana| access-date = March 21, 2014}}</ref>

The state has several universities ranked among the best in 2013 rankings of the ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]''. The University of Notre Dame is ranked among the top 20, with [[Indiana University Bloomington]] and [[Purdue University]] ranking in the top 100. [[Indiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis]] (IUPUI) has recently made it into the top 200 ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' rankings. [[Butler University|Butler]], [[Valparaiso University|Valparaiso]], and the [[University of Evansville]] are ranked among the top ten in the Regional University Midwest Rankings. Purdue's engineering programs are ranked eighth in the country. In addition, [[Taylor University]] is ranked first in the Regional College Midwest Rankings and [[Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology]] has been considered the top Undergraduate Engineering school (where a doctorate is not offered) for 15 consecutive years.<ref>[http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities National University Ranking|Top National Universities|US News Best Colleges] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521210513/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities |date=May 21, 2011 }}, [[U.S. News & World Report]], retrieved 2013-Aug-13</ref><ref>[http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/regional-universities-midwest Regional University Midwest Rankings|Top Regional Universities Midwest|US News Best Colleges] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029062714/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/regional-universities-midwest |date=October 29, 2015 }}, [[U.S. News & World Report]], retrieved 2013-Aug-13</ref><ref>[http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/regional-colleges-midwest Regional College Midwest Rankings|Top Regional Colleges Midwest|US News Best Colleges] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130182816/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/regional-colleges-midwest |date=January 30, 2013 }}, [[U.S. News & World Report]], retrieved 2013-Aug-13</ref><ref>[http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/engineering-no-doctorate Best Undergraduate Engineering Programs|Rankings|UsNews] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930205000/http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/engineering-no-doctorate |date=September 30, 2016 }}, [[U.S. News & World Report]], retrieved 2013-Sept-17</ref>

{{multiple image
| align = center
| direction = horizontal
| width = 300
| image1 = Sample Gates, Indiana University Bloomington, 2010.jpg
| width1 =
| alt1 =
| caption1 = [[Indiana University Bloomington]]. The public Indiana University system enrolls 114,160 students.<ref>{{cite press release|title=Indiana University enrollment remains strong; minority numbers up|publisher=Indiana University Newsroom|url=http://archive.news.iu.edu/releases/iu/2016/08/university-census-enrollment.shtml|date=August 31, 2016|access-date=September 2, 2017}}</ref>
| image2 = Cary Quad and Spitzer Court, Purdue University.png
| width2 =
| alt2 =
| caption2 = [[Purdue University]]. The public Purdue University system enrolls 67,596 students.<ref>{{cite press release|title=Purdue University sets record for largest enrollment and highest graduation rates ever|publisher=Purdue University|url=https://www.purdue.edu/newsroom/releases/2016/Q3/purdue-university-sets-records-for-largest-enrollment-and-highest-graduation-rates-ever.html|date=September 12, 2016|access-date=September 2, 2017}}</ref>
| image3 = Main Building at the University of Notre Dame.jpg
| caption3 = The [[University of Notre Dame]] holds an endowment of $11.8{{nbs}}billion, the largest in Indiana.
| header =
| header_align =
| header_background =
| footer =
| footer_align =
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}}

==See also==
{{portal|Indiana|United States}}
* [[Index of Indiana-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Indiana]]
* [[List of people from Indiana]]
{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of Indianapolis|author=Bodenhamer, David J.|author2=Barrows, Robert Graham|author3=Vanderstel, David Gordon|year=1994|publisher=[[Indiana University]] Press|isbn=978-0-253-31222-8}}
* {{Cite book|title=Indiana|author=Brill, Marlene Targ|year=2005|publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]]|isbn=978-0-7614-2020-0}}
* {{Cite book| last =Carmony| first =Donald F.| title =Indiana, 1816 to 1850: The Pioneer Era| publisher =[[Indiana Historical Society]]| year =1998| location =Indianapolis| isbn =978-0-87195-124-3}}
* {{Cite book|title=Hoosiers in the Civil War|author=Funk, Arville L|year=1967|isbn=978-0-9623292-5-8|publisher=Adams Press}}
* {{Cite book|author=Gray, Ralph D|title=Gentlemen from Indiana: National Party Candidates,1836–1940| year=1977 |publisher=[[Indiana Historical Bureau]]|isbn=978-1-885323-29-3}}
* {{Cite book|title=Indiana History: A Book of Readings|author=Gray, Ralph D|year=1995|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-32629-4}}
* {{Cite book|title=Here is Your Indiana Government|year=2005|author=Indiana State Chamber of Commerce}}
* {{Cite book|title=Here is Your Indiana Government|year=2007|author=Indiana State Chamber of Commerce}}
* {{Cite book| author =Indiana Writer's Project| title =Indiana: A Guide To The Hoosier State|series=American Guide Series| date=1973 |orig-year =1937}}
* {{Cite book| last =Jackson| first =Marion T., ed.| title =The Natural Heritage of Indiana| publisher=Indiana University Press| year =1997| location =Bloomington| isbn =978-0-253-33074-1}}
* {{Cite book|title=Handbook of Indiana Geology|author=Logan, William Newton|author2=Cumings, Edgar Roscoe|author3=Malott, Clyde Arnett|author4=Visher, Stephen Sargent|author5=Tucker, William Motier|author6=Reeves, John Robert|year=1922|publisher=William B. Burford}}
* Madison, James H. ''Hoosiers: A New History of Indiana.'' Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2014.
* {{Cite book| last = Madison| first =James H.| title =The Indiana Way: A State History| publisher=Indiana University Press and Indiana Historical Society| year =1990| location =Bloomington and Indianapolis| isbn =978-0-253-20609-1}}
* {{Cite book|title=A Century of Indiana|author=Moore, Edward E|year=1910|publisher=American Book Company}}
* {{Cite book|title=Indiana|author=Pell, Ed|year=2003|publisher=Capstone Press|isbn=978-0-7368-1582-6|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/indianapell00pell}}
* {{Cite book | last =Skertic | first = Mark |author2=John J. Watkins | title=A Native's Guide to Northwest Indiana| year = 2003}}
* {{Cite book| last =Taylor| first =Robert M., ed.| title =Indiana: A New Historical Guide| publisher=Indiana Historical Society| year = 1990| location =Indianapolis| isbn=978-0-87195-048-2}}
* {{Cite book| last = Taylor| first = Robert M., ed.| title =The State of Indiana History 2000: Papers Presented at the Indiana Historical Society's Grand Opening| publisher =Indiana Historical Society| year =2001| location = Indianapolis}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==

{{Sister project links|Indiana|voy=Indiana}}
* {{official website|http://www.in.gov}}
* [http://iga.in.gov/legislative/laws/const/articles/001/ Indiana Constitution]
* [http://www.visitindiana.com/ Indiana Travel and Tourism Information]
* [http://www.in.gov/dnr/2329.htm Indiana State Parks]
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/indiana/index.html Indiana State Guide, from the Library of Congress]
* {{OSM relation|161816}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Louisiana]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union]]|years=Admitted on December 11, 1816 (19th)}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Mississippi]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Geographic location
| Northwest = [[Lake Michigan]]
| North = {{flag|Michigan}}
| Northeast =
| West = {{flag|Illinois}}
| Centre = '' Indiana'': [[Outline of Indiana|Outline]] • [[Index of Indiana-related articles|Index]]
| East = {{flag|Ohio}}
| Southwest =
| South = {{flag|Kentucky}}
| Southeast =
}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Topics related to Indiana{{break}}''The Hoosier State''
|list =
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|state=expanded}}

{{Authority control}}
{{coord|39.8942|-86.2816|dim:300000_region:US-IN_type:adm1st|name=State of Indiana|display=title}}

[[Category:Indiana| ]]
[[Category:Midwestern United States]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1816]]
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Telangana State

2021-09-12T17:40:54Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{Short description|State in southern India}} {{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}} {{Infobox settlement | name..."

{{Short description|State in southern India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Telangana
| type = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| image_skyline = [[File:Montage of Telangana State.jpg|275px]]
| image_caption = Montage of Telangana sidewise from left: [[Charminar]], [[Warangal Fort]], [[Hyderabad city]], [[Nizamabad Railway Station]], [[Kuntala Waterfalls]], [[Falaknuma Palace]]
| image_blank_emblem = Government of Telangana Logo.png
| blank_emblem_type = [[Emblem of Telangana|Emblem]]
| blank_emblem_size = 100px
| anthem = [[Jaya Jaya He Telangana]]
| image_map = IN-TG.svg
| map_caption = Location of Telangana in India
| coordinates = {{coord|17.366|78.475|region:IN_type:adm1st|display=inline,title}}
| coor_pinpoint = Telangana
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| established_title = Formation
| established_date = 2 June 2014{{ref|cap|^}} {{nowrap|([[Telangana Day]])}}
| parts_type = [[List of Indian districts|Districts]]
| parts_style = para
| p1 = [[List of districts in Telangana|33]]
| seat_type = Capital and largest city
| seat = [[Hyderabad]]{{ref|cap|}}
| governing_body = [[Government of Telangana]]
| leader_title = [[Governor of Telangana|Governor]]
| leader_name = [[Tamilisai Soundararajan]]<ref>{{cite news |title=New Governors Appointed in 5 States, Tamil Nadu BJP Chief Gets Telangana |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/new-governors-appointed-in-5-states-tamil-nadu-bjp-chief-gets-telangana-2093798 |access-date=1 September 2019 |work=NDTV.com |date=1 September 2019|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010083104/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/new-governors-appointed-in-5-states-tamil-nadu-bjp-chief-gets-telangana-2093798 |archive-date=10 October 2020 }}</ref>
| leader_title1 = [[Chief Minister of Telangana|Chief Minister]]
| leader_name1 = [[K. Chandrashekar Rao]] ([[Telangana Rashtra Samithi|TRS]])
| leader_title2 = [[Legislature of Telangana|Legislature]]
| leader_name2 = [[Bicameral]] (119 + 40 seats)
| leader_title3 = [[16th Lok Sabha|Parliamentary constituency]]
| leader_name3 = [[Rajya Sabha]] 7 [[Lok Sabha]] 17
| leader_title4 = [[High Courts of India|High Court]]
| leader_name4 = [[Telangana High Court]]
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref name=stats>{{cite web|title=Telangana Statistics|url=http://www.telangana.gov.in/About/State-Profile|website=Telangana state portal|access-date=14 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151205000643/http://www.telangana.gov.in/about/state-profile|archive-date=5 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
| area_total_km2 = 112077
| area_rank = [[List of states and territories of India by area|11th]]
| population_footnotes = <ref name=stats />
| population_total = 35193978
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_rank = [[List of states and union territories of India by population|12th]]
| population_density_km2 = 307
| population_demonym = {{hlist|[[Telugu people|Telugu]]|Telanganite}}
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| iso_code = [[ISO 3166-2:IN|IN-TG]]
| demographics_type1 = GDP {{nobold|(2020–21)}}
| demographics1_footnotes = <ref name="MOSPI">{{cite web|url=http://mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_15_03_2021.xls|title=MOSPI State Domestic Product, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India|date=15 March 2021|accessdate=28 March 2021}}</ref>
| demographics1_title1 = [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP|Total]]
| demographics1_info1 = {{INRConvert|9.78|t|lk=r}}
| demographics1_title2 = [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP per capita|Per capita]]
| demographics1_info2 = {{INRConvert|227145|lk=r}}
| demographics_type2 = Languages
| demographics2_title1 = Official
| demographics2_info1 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]]<ref name="language_Telangana" />
| demographics2_title2 = Additional official
| demographics2_info2 = [[Urdu]]<ref name="language_Telangana">{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/urdu-is-telanganas-second-official-language-4940595/|title=Urdu is Telangana's second official language|date=16 November 2017|work=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=27 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227094158/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/urdu-is-telanganas-second-official-language-4940595/|archive-date=27 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="The News Minute">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/urdu-second-official-language-telangana-state-passes-bill-71742|title=Urdu is second official language in Telangana as state passes Bill|date=17 November 2017|work=The News Minute|access-date=27 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603023251/https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/urdu-second-official-language-telangana-state-passes-bill-71742|archive-date=3 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Human Development Index|HDI]] {{nobold|(2018)}}
| blank_info_sec1 = {{increase}} 0.669<ref name="snhdi-gdl">{{cite web |title=Sub-national HDI – Area Database |url=https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |website=Global Data Lab |publisher=Institute for Management Research, Radboud University |access-date=25 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923120638/https://hdi.globaldatalab.org/areadata/shdi/ |archive-date=23 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> medium · [[List of Indian states and territories by Human Development Index|22nd]]
| blank_name_sec2 = [[Literacy in India|Literacy]] {{nobold|(2017-18)}}
| blank_info_sec2 = 72.80%<ref name="IE_literacy"/>
| blank1_name_sec2 =
| blank1_info_sec2 =
| blank2_name_sec2 =
| blank2_info_sec2 =
| area_code_type = [[UN/LOCODE]]
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India#TS—Telangana|TS]]-
| footnotes = {{note|cap|†}}Temporary Joint Capital with [[Andhra Pradesh]] not more than 10 years
| module = {{Infobox place symbols
| embedded = yes
| region = Telangana
| country = India
| emblem = [[Emblem of Telangana]], [[Kakatiya Kala Thoranam]], [[Charminar]]<ref name="State Emblem">{{Cite news|url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/140530/nation-current-affairs/article/kakatiya-arch-charminar-telangana-state-logo|title= Kakatiya arch, Charminar in Telangana state logo|access-date=17 April 2021|date= 30 May 2014|publisher=The Deccan Chronicle}}</ref>
| language =
| song = [[Jaya Jaya He Telangana]] 
| mammal = [[File:Chital in Telangana.jpg|50px|left|Chital]] [[Spotted deer]]<ref name="State Symbols 1">{{cite web|title=Telangana State Symbols|url=http://www.telangana.gov.in/About/State-Symbols|publisher=Telangana State Portal|access-date=15 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519180957/http://www.telangana.gov.in/About/State-Symbols|archive-date=19 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
| bird = [[File:Pala Pitta.jpg|50px|left|Pala Pitta]] [[Indian Roller]]<ref name="State Symbols 1" />
| flower = [[File:Tangedu Puvvu.jpg|50px|left|Tangedu Puvvu]] [[Senna auriculata]]<ref name="State Symbols 1" />
| tree = [[File:Vanni maram branch.jpg|50px|left|Jammi Chettu]] [[Prosopis cineraria]]<ref name="State Symbols 1" />
| sport = 
| river = 
| fruit = 
}}
| official_name =
}}

'''Telangana''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|t|ɛ|l|ə|n|'|g|ɑː|n|ə|audio=Telanganapronunciation.ogg}}, {{IPA-te|ˈtelanɡaːɳa|lang}}, {{IPA-ur|ˈtɪlanɡaːna|lang}}) is a [[States and union territories of India|state]] in [[India]] situated on the south-central stretch of the [[Indian subcontinent|Indian peninsula]] on the high [[Deccan Plateau]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Telangana {{!}} History, Map, Population, Capital, & Government |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Telengana |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=11 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref> It is the [[List of states and union territories of India by area|eleventh-largest state]] and the [[List of states and union territories of India by population|twelfth-most populated state in India]] with a geographical area of {{convert|112077|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} and 35,193,978 residents as per [[2011 Census of India|2011 census]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Population| url=http://www.telangana.gov.in/| publisher=Government of Telangana| access-date=12 December 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151209033754/http://www.telangana.gov.in/| archive-date=9 December 2015| url-status=live| df=dmy-all}}</ref> On 2 June 2014, the area was separated from the northwestern part of [[Andhra Pradesh]] as the newly formed [[States and union territories of India|state]] with [[Hyderabad]] as its capital. Its other major cities include [[Warangal]], [[Nizamabad, Telangana|Nizamabad]], [[Khammam]], [[Karimnagar]] and [[Ramagundam]]. Telangana is bordered by the states of [[Maharashtra]] to the north, [[Chhattisgarh]] to the northeast, [[Karnataka]] to the west, and [[Andhra Pradesh]] to the east and south.<ref name="State profile">{{cite web|title=Administrative and Geographical Profile|url=http://www.telangana.gov.in/About/State-Profile|publisher=Telangana State Portal|access-date=14 July 2014|format=PDF|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214053810/http://www.telangana.gov.in/About/State-Profile|archive-date=14 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The terrain of Telangana region consists mostly of hills, mountain ranges, and thick dense forests covering an area of {{cvt|27,292|sqkm}}. As of 2019, the state of Telangana is divided into 33 districts.

Throughout antiquity and the Middle Ages, the region now known as Telangana was ruled by multiple major Hindustani powers such as the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryans]], [[Satavahana dynasty|Satavahanas]], [[Vishnukundina dynasty|Vishnukundinas]], [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas]], [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]], [[Rashtrakuta dynasty|Rashtrakutas]], [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiyas]], [[Delhi Sultanate]], [[Bahmani Sultanate]], [[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Golconda Sultanate]]. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the region was ruled by the Mughals of India.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.telangana.gov.in/about/language-culture| title=Telangana State Portal Language & Culture| website=telangana.gov.in| access-date=23 February 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214192358/http://www.telangana.gov.in/About/Language-Culture| archive-date=14 February 2015 |url-status=live| df=dmy-all}}</ref> The region is known for its ''[[Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb]]'' culture.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/kcr-vows-to-get-ganga-jamuni-tehzeeb-back/article7416305.ece| title=KCR vows to get 'Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb' back| date=13 July 2015 |newspaper=The Hindu |publisher=The Hindu Group |access-date=23 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223171805/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/kcr-vows-to-get-ganga-jamuni-tehzeeb-back/article7416305.ece| archive-date=23 February 2018| url-status=live| df=dmy-all}}</ref> During the 18th century and the [[British Raj]], Telangana was ruled by the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]].<ref name="Anderson2013">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiAEvKgVOmAC&pg=PA173|title=Federal Solutions to Ethnic Problems: Accommodating Diversity|author=Liam D. Anderson|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-0-415-78161-9|pages=173–|access-date=15 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108223042/https://books.google.com/books?id=BiAEvKgVOmAC&pg=PA173|archive-date=8 January 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1823, the Nizams lost control over [[Northern Circars]] ([[Coastal Andhra]]) and [[Ceded Districts]] ([[Rayalaseema|Rayalseema]]), which were handed over to the [[East India Company]]. The annexation by the British of the Northern Circars deprived [[Hyderabad State]], the [[Nizam]]'s dominion, of the considerable coastline it formerly had, to that of a landlocked princely state with territories in the central Deccan, bounded on all sides by [[British India]]. Thereafter, the Northern Circars were governed as part of [[Madras Presidency]] until India's independence in 1947, after which the presidency became India's Madras state.<ref>P. N. Chopra, B.N. Puri & M.N. Das, ''A Comprehensive History of India,'' Volume 3. pg. 298</ref>

The Hyderabad state joined the [[Dominion of India|Union of India]] in 1948 after an [[Indian annexation of Hyderabad|Indian military invasion]]. In 1956, the Hyderabad State was dissolved as part of the [[States Reorganisation Act, 1956|linguistic reorganisation of states]] and Telangana was merged with the [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-speaking [[Andhra State]] (part of the [[Madras Presidency]] during the British Raj) to form [[Andhra Pradesh]]. A peasant-driven [[Telangana movement|movement]] began to advocate for separation from Andhra Pradesh starting in the early 1950s, and continued until Telangana was granted statehood on 2 June 2014 under the leadership of [[K. Chandrashekar Rao]].<ref name="Notification">{{cite web|url=http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2014/158365.pdf|title=Notification|date=4 March 2014|work=The Gazette of India|publisher=Government of India|access-date=4 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327091502/http://www.egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2014/158365.pdf|archive-date=27 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[economy of Telangana]] is the [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP|seventh-largest]] in India, with a gross state domestic product (GSDP) of {{INRConvert|9.78|t|lk=r}} and has the country's [[List of Indian states and union territories by GDP per capita|6th-highest GSDP per capita]] of {{INRConvert|227|k}}.<ref name="MOSPI" /> Telangana ranks [[List of Indian states and territories by Human Development Index|22nd]] among Indian states in [[human development index]].<ref name="snhdi-gdl" /> The state has emerged as a major focus for robust [[Information technology|IT software]], [[Industrial sector|industry]] and [[Tertiary sector of the economy|services sector]]. The state is also the main administrative centre of many [[Defence industry of India|Indian defence]] aerospace and research labs like [[Bharat Dynamics Limited]], [[Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory]], [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]] and [[Defence Research and Development Laboratory]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/efforts-on-to-transform-hyderabad-into-a-hub-for-defence-electronics/article9801016.ece|title=Efforts on to transform Hyderabad into a hub for defence electronics|work=Business Line|publisher=The Hindu Group|date=3 August 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130081509/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/efforts-on-to-transform-hyderabad-into-a-hub-for-defence-electronics/article9801016.ece|archive-date=30 November 2020}}</ref>

The cultural centers of Telangana, Hyderabad and Warangal, are noted for their wealth and renowned historical structures – [[Ramappa Temple]] ([[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]]), [[Charminar]], [[Qutb Shahi Tombs]], [[Falaknuma Palace]], [[Chowmahalla Palace]], [[Warangal Fort]], [[Kakatiya Kala Thoranam]], [[Thousand Pillar Temple]] and the [[Bhongir Fort]] in Yadadri Bhuvanagiri district. The historic city [[Golconda]] in Hyderabad established itself as a diamond trading centre and, until the end of the 19th century, the Golconda market was the primary source of the finest and largest diamonds in the world. Thus, the legendary name [[Golconda Diamonds]] became synonymous with Golconda itself. Religious edifices like the [[Lakshmi Narasimha Temple, Yadadri|Lakshmi Narasimha Temple]] in [[Yadadri Bhuvanagiri district]], [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Makkah Masjid]] in Hyderabad, the ancient [[Bhadrakali Temple]] and [[Govinda Rajula Gutta]] in Warangal, [[Alampur Jogulamba Temple]] in [[Jogulamba Gadwal district]] and [[Medak Cathedral]], Lord Shiva temple in Vemulawada of Rajanna-Siricilla district are several of its most famous places of worship.

== Etymology ==
A popular etymology derives the word "Telangana" from ''[[Trilinga Kshetras|Trilinga desa]]'' ("land of three [[lingam|lingas]]"), a region so-called because three important [[Shaivite]] shrines were located here: [[Kaleshwaram]], [[Srisailam]] and [[Draksharama]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Phillip B. Wagoner |title=Mode and meaning in the architecture of early medieval Telangana (C. 1000–1300) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3wKAQAAMAAJ |year=1986 |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison}}</ref> According to Jayadhir Thirumala Rao, a former director of Andhra Pradesh Oriental Manuscripts Library and Research Centre, the name Telangana is of [[Gondi language|Gondi]] origin. Rao asserts that it is derived from "Telangadh", which according to him, means "south" in Gondi and has been referred to in "Gond script dating back to about 2000 years".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/earliest-reference-to-telangana-found-not-in-telugu-but-gond-language/articleshow/62046296.cms|title=Earliest reference to Telangana found not in Telugu, but Gond language|access-date=13 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171213235534/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/earliest-reference-to-telangana-found-not-in-telugu-but-gond-language/articleshow/62046296.cms|archive-date=13 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

One of the earliest uses of a word similar to Telangana can also be seen in a name of [[Malik Maqbul]] (14th century CE), who was called the ''Tilangani'', which implies that he was from Telangana. He was the commander of the [[Warangal Fort]] (''Kataka Pāludu'').<ref>Sri Marana Markandeya Puranamu, ed. {{clarify|date=June 2014}} G. V. Subrahmanyam, 1984, Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Academy, Hyderabad.</ref>

A 16th-century travel writer, [[Firishta]], recorded in his book:
<blockquote>During the just reign of [[Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah Wali|Ibrahim Kootb Shah]], ''Tulingana'', like [[Egypt]], became the mart of the whole world. Merchants from Toorkistan, Arabia, and Persia resorted to it; and they met with such encouragement that they found in it inducements to return frequently. The greatest luxuries from foreign parts daily abounded at the king's hospitable board.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Shia of India|url=https://insideismailism.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/shia-of-india-1953-john-norman-hollister_txt.pdf|page=123|author=John Norman Holister|year=1953|access-date=10 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010135146/https://insideismailism.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/shia-of-india-1953-john-norman-hollister_txt.pdf|archive-date=10 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref></blockquote>

The word "Telinga" changed over time to "Telangana" and the name "Telangana" was designated to distinguish the predominantly Telugu-speaking region of the erstwhile [[Hyderabad State]] from its predominantly [[Marathi language|Marathi]]-speaking one, [[Marathwada]]. After Asaf Jahis ceded the Seemandhra region to the British, the rest of the [[Telugu people|Telugu]] region retained the name Telangana and the other parts were called Madras Presidency's Circars and Ceded.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wWDnTWrz4O8C&pg=PA684 "India Today • An encyclopedia of life in the Republic" • Vol. 1. Arnold P. Kaminsky and Roger D. Long, editors.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108223042/https://books.google.com/books?id=wWDnTWrz4O8C&pg=PA684 |date=8 January 2016}} {{abbr|ABC|American Bibliographical Center}} ‑ CLIO.</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Telangana}}
Telangana was governed by many rulers, including the [[Maurya Empire]] (320 BCE–180 BCE), [[Satavahana dynasty]] (180 BCE–220 CE), [[Vakataka dynasty]] (250 CE–500 CE), [[Vishnukundina dynasty]] (420 CE–624 CE), [[Chalukya dynasty]] (543 CE–753 CE), [[Rashtrakuta dynasty]] (753 CE–982 CE), the [[Kakatiya dynasty]] (1083 CE–1323 CE), the [[Delhi Sultanate]] (1323 CE–1326 CE) , the [[Musunuri Nayaks]] (1326 CE–1356 CE), the [[Recherla Nayaks]] (1356 CE–1424 CE), the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] (1347 CE–1512 CE), [[Vijayanagara Empire]] (1336 CE–1646 CE), [[Qutb Shahi dynasty]] (1512 CE–1687 CE), [[Mughal Empire]] (1687 CE–1724 CE) and [[Asaf Jahi Dynasty]] (1724 CE–1948 CE).

=== Early history ===
{{Main|Maurya Empire|Satavahana dynasty}}The [[Satavahana dynasty]] (230 BCE–220 CE) became the dominant power in this region. It originated from the lands between the Godavari and Krishna rivers and was based at Amaravathi and Dharanikota.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Rough Guide to India|publisher=Penguin|year=2011|at=Rise of the south section}}</ref> After the decline of the Satavahanas, various dynasties, such as the [[Vakataka dynasty|Vakataka]], [[Vishnukundina]], [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukya]], [[Rashtrakuta Dynasty|Rashtrakuta]] and [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukya]], ruled the area.<ref name="brief">{{cite news|title=A brief history of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh|publisher=DNA|author=Ratnakar Sadasyula|date=4 March 2014|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/standpoint-a-brief-history-of-telangana-and-andhra-pradesh-1966737|access-date=2 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307172449/http://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/standpoint-a-brief-history-of-telangana-and-andhra-pradesh-1966737|archive-date=7 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Kakatiya Dynasty ===
{{Main|Kakatiya dynasty}}
[[File:Ramagiri Fort.jpg|thumb|[[Ramagiri Fort]] ruins at [[Kalvacherla]] in [[Peddapalli district]] is an ancient fort initially built by the Sathavahanas and modified many times by other dynasties till the 16th century.]]
[[File:Shiva Temple Warangal.JPG|thumb|[[Kota Gullu]], temple ruins built in the 12th century by [[Kakatiyas]] at Ghanpur, Mulug in Warangal district.]]

The Telangana area experienced its golden age during the reign of the [[Kakatiya dynasty]], which ruled most parts of the present-day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana from 1083 to 1323 CE.<ref name="brief" /> [[Rudrama Devi]] and [[Prataparudra II]] were prominent rulers from the Kakatiya dynasty. The dynasty weakened with the attack of [[Malik Kafur]] in 1309 and was dissolved after the defeat of Prataparudra by the forces of [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] in 1323.<ref>A Social History of the Deccan: 1300–1761, R. M. Eaton, 2005, Cambridge University Press, pp. 15–26, {{ISBN|0-521-25484-1}}</ref><ref>''Telugu Vignana Sarvaswamu'', volume 2, History, Telugu University, Hyderabad</ref>

=== Qutab Shahi and Asaf Jahi's ===
[[File:Golconda Fort 013.jpg|thumb|[[Golconda Fort]]]]
The area came under the rule of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in the 14th century, followed by the [[Bahmani Sultanate]]. [[Quli Qutb Mulk]], a governor of Golconda, revolted against the Bahmani Sultanate and established the [[Qutb Shahi dynasty]] in 1518. On 21 September 1687, the Golconda Sultanate came under the rule of the Mughal emperor [[Aurangzeb]] after a [[Siege of Golconda|year-long siege]] of the Golconda fort.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Hyderabad Karnatik, 1687–1707|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|first=J. F.|last=Richards|year=1975|journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]]|pages=241–260|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00004996|volume=9|issue=2}}</ref>

During the early seventeenth century a strong cotton-weaving industry existed in Telangana. Large quantities of cotton were produced for domestic and exports consumption. High quality plain and patterned cloth made of muslin and calico was produced.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Moreland|first=T.H.|title=Relation of Golconda in the Early Seventeenth Century|publisher=Halyukt Society|year=1931|pages=XVIII, XIX, XX}}</ref>

In 1712, [[Qamar-ud-din Khan, Asif Jah I|Qamar-ud-din Khan]] was appointed by emperor [[Farrukhsiyar]] as the viceroy of Deccan with the title ''Nizam-ul-Mulk'' (meaning "Administrator of the Realm"). He was later recalled to Delhi, with Mubariz Khan appointed as the viceroy. In 1724, Qamar-ud-din Khan defeated Mubariz Khan to reclaim the ''Deccan suba,'' establishing it as an autonomous province of the Mughal empire. He took the name ''Asif Jah'', starting what came to be known as the [[Asaf Jahi dynasty]].<ref name="brief" /> He named the area [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad Deccan]]. Subsequent rulers retained the title ''Nizam ul-Mulk'' and were called Asif Jahi Nizams or [[Nizam of Hyderabad|nizams of Hyderabad]]. The [[Medak Gulshanabad Division|Medak]] and [[Warangal Division|Warangal]] divisions of Telangana were part of their realm.<ref name="Nizam">{{cite web|title=Asif Jahi Dynasty (1724–1948)|url=http://mahabubnagar.tripod.com/Nizam_Dynasty.htm|publisher=mahabubnagar.tripod.com|access-date=2 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606212820/http://mahabubnagar.tripod.com/Nizam_Dynasty.htm|archive-date=6 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=200|caption_align=center
| image1 = India Palace .jpg|caption1=Telangana was the seat of numerous dynasties. The [[Chowmahalla Palace]] was home to the [[Nizam of Hyderabad|Nizams of Hyderabad]].
| image2 = Hyderabad state from the Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909.jpg|caption2=[[Hyderabad State]] in 1909.
}}
When Asif Jah I died in 1748, there was political unrest due to contention for the throne among his sons, who were aided by opportunistic neighbouring states and colonial foreign forces. In 1769, Hyderabad city became the formal capital of the Nizams. The Nizam [[Nasir-ud-dawlah, Asaf Jah IV]] signed the [[subsidiary alliance]] with the British in 1799 and lost its control over the state's defence and foreign affairs. Hyderabad State became a [[princely state]] among the [[presidencies and provinces of British India]].<ref name="Nizam" />


In 1787, heavy flooding killed over 20,000 causing a plague which killed about 10,656,000 Telugus again in Telangana.<ref>{{cite book|title=Hyderabad, 400 Glorious Years|page=116|quote=While the floods drowned 20000 people in hours, plague killed another 10,656,000 of the total population of the State.}}</ref>

=== Post-independence ===
When [[Independence of India|India became independent]] from the British Empire in 1947, the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] did not want to merge with the Indian Union and wanted to remain independent. The [[Government of India]] annexed Hyderabad State on 17 September 1948 after a military operation called [[Operation Polo]].<ref name="brief" /> It appointed a civil servant, [[M. K. Vellodi]], as first chief minister of [[Hyderabad State]] on 26 January 1950.<ref>{{cite news|title=Post-Independence Era|agency=Associated Press|url=http://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/hist-cult/history_post.html|access-date=2 June 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220113947/http://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/hist-cult/history_post.html|archive-date=20 December 2013}}</ref> He administered the state with the help of English-educated bureaucrats from the [[Madras State|Madras]] and [[Bombay State|Bombay]] states, who were familiar with British systems of administration unlike the bureaucrats of Hyderabad State who used a completely different administrative system. The official language of the state was switched from [[Urdu]] to English.

In 1952, [[Burgula Ramakrishna Rao|Dr. Burgula Ramakrishna Rao]] was elected chief minister of the Hyderabad State in its first democratic election. During this time, there were violent agitations by some Telanganites to send the Madras state bureaucrats back and implement a rule by the natives (''mulkis'') of Hyderabad (Syed Alam Sharjil) was elected chief minister of Hyderabad after (Dr. Burgula Ramakrishana Rao) for one year after he resigned from the post.<ref>{{cite news|title=1952: Hyderabad incidents|url=http://hindu.com/2002/09/06/stories/2002090603210900.htm|access-date=14 July 2014|date=6 September 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716212854/http://hindu.com/2002/09/06/stories/2002090603210900.htm|archive-date=16 July 2014|work=[[The Hindu]]|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Telangana Rebellion ===
{{Main|Telangana Rebellion}}
The [[Telangana Rebellion]] was a [[List of peasant revolts|peasant revolt]] supported by the [[communist]]s. It originated in the Telangana regions of the [[Hyderabad State]] between 1946 and 1951, led by the [[Communist Party of India]] (CPI).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elliot |first=Carolyn M. |title=Decline of a Patrimonial Regime: The Telangana Rebellion in India, 1946–51 |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=24–47 |date=November 1974 |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/15377979/Decline-of-a-Patrimonial-Regime-The-Telengana-Rebellion-in-India-194651 |doi=10.2307/2052408 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023090101/http://www.scribd.com/doc/15377979/Decline-of-a-Patrimonial-Regime-The-Telengana-Rebellion-in-India-194651 |archive-date=23 October 2012 |jstor=2052408 }}</ref>

The revolt began in the [[Nalgonda district]] against the [[feudalism|feudal]] lords of [[Reddy]] and [[Velama (caste)|Velama]] castes. It quickly spread to the [[Warangal district|Warangal]] and [[Bidar district|Bidar]] districts. Peasant farmers and labourers revolted against the local feudal landlords (''[[jagir]]dars'' and ''[[deshmukh]]s'') and later against [[Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII|the Nizam Osman Ali Khan]]. The violent phase of the movement ended after the government of India's [[Operation Polo]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://swaminomics.org/declassify-report-on-the-1948-hyderabad-massacre/|title= Declassify report on the 1948 Hyderabad massacre|access-date= 25 September 2013|date= 25 November 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140202234418/http://swaminomics.org/declassify-report-on-the-1948-hyderabad-massacre/|archive-date= 2 February 2014|url-status= live|df= dmy-all}}</ref> Starting in 1951, the CPI shifted to a more moderate strategy of seeking to bring communism to India within the framework of Indian democracy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/india/114.htm |title=India • Communist Parties |publisher=Country Studies, USA |access-date=3 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629134923/http://countrystudies.us/india/114.htm |archive-date=29 June 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== States Reorganisation Commission ===
In December 1953, the [[States Reorganisation Commission]] (SRC) was appointed to form states on a linguistic basis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indiansaga.com/history/postindependence/reorganization.html |title=History of India |publisher=Indian Saga |access-date=3 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140604184400/http://indiansaga.com/history/postindependence/reorganization.html |archive-date=4 June 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> An agreement was reached between Telangana leaders and Andhra leaders on 20 February 1956 to merge Telangana and Andhra with promises to safeguard Telangana's interests.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19560201&printsec=frontpage |title=SRC sub-committee said no decision on Visalandhra taken |work=The Indian Express |date=1 February 1956 |access-date=3 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117041552/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19560201&printsec=frontpage |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> After reorganisation in 1956, the region of Telangana was merged with [[Andhra State]] to form Andhra Pradesh.

Following this [[Gentlemen's agreement of Andhra Pradesh (1956)|Gentlemen's agreement]], the central government established the unified state of Andhra Pradesh on 1 November 1956.<ref name="aponline1">{{cite web |url=http://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/hist-cult/history_post.html |title=Post-Independence Era |publisher=Government of Andhra Pradesh |access-date=14 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220113947/http://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/hist-cult/history_post.html |archive-date=20 December 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/03/07/stories/2006030704410900.htm |title=Andhra Pradesh to be formed with safeguards to Telangana |date=7 March 2006 |access-date=3 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906172226/http://www.hindu.com/2006/03/07/stories/2006030704410900.htm |archive-date=6 September 2013 |work=[[The Hindu]] |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/11/02/stories/2006110200140901.htm |title=Andhra Pradesh formed |date=2 November 2006 |access-date=3 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906173849/http://www.hindu.com/2006/11/02/stories/2006110200140901.htm |archive-date=6 September 2013 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |url-status=dead }}</ref> G.O 553 of 1959 from the united Andhra Pradesh state moved two revenue divisions of [[Bhadrachalam]] from [[East Godavari]] and [[Aswaraopeta]] from West Godavari to [[Khammam district|Khammam]] for administrative convenience.

=== Telangana movement ===
{{Main|Telangana movement}}
There have been several movements to revoke the merger of Telangana and Andhra, major ones occurring in 1969, 1972, and 2009. The movement for a new state of Telangana gained momentum in the 21st century by an initiative of [[Telangana Joint Action Committee|Telangana Political Joint Action Committee, TJAC]] including political leadership representing the Telangana area.<ref>{{cite news |title=How Telangana movement has sparked political turf war in Andhra |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/report/how-telangana-movement-has-sparked-political-turf-war-in-andhra/20111005.htm |newspaper=Rediff |date=5 October 2011 |access-date=4 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123122405/http://www.rediff.com/news/report/how-telangana-movement-has-sparked-political-turf-war-in-andhra/20111005.htm |archive-date=23 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 9 December 2009 the government of India announced the process of formation of the Telangana state. Violent protests led by people in the [[Coastal Andhra]] and [[Rayalseema]] regions occurred immediately after the announcement, and the decision was put on hold on 23 December 2009.

The movement continued in Hyderabad and other districts of Telangana.<ref>{{cite news|title=Pro-Telangana AP govt employees threaten agitation|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-02-10/news/31046433_1_pro-telangana-telangana-employees-separate-statehood-demand|newspaper=The Economic Times|date=10 February 2012|access-date=18 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202095651/http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-02-10/news/31046433_1_pro-telangana-telangana-employees-separate-statehood-demand|archive-date=2 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> There have been hundreds of claimed suicides,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.politicsdaily.com/2010/02/25/telangana-protests-student-suicides-increase-in-hyderabad-durin/|title=Telangana Protests, Student Suicides Increase in Hyderabad During Budget Sessions|work=Politics Daily|access-date=16 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222152602/http://www.politicsdaily.com/2010/02/25/telangana-protests-student-suicides-increase-in-hyderabad-durin/|archive-date=22 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> strikes, protests and disturbances to public life demanding separate statehood.

=== Formation of Telangana state in 2014 ===
{{See also|Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014}}
On 30 July 2013, the Congress Working Committee unanimously passed a resolution to recommend the formation of a separate Telangana state. After various stages the bill was placed in the [[Parliament of India]] in February 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=Telangana bill passed in Lok Sabha; Congress, BJP come together in favour of new state |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/telanganathetroubledstate/parliament-adjourned-till-noon-over-telangana-issue/article1-1185194.aspx |work=Hindustan Times |access-date=18 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218081502/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/telanganathetroubledstate/parliament-adjourned-till-noon-over-telangana-issue/article1-1185194.aspx |archive-date=18 February 2014 }}</ref> In February 2014, [[Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014]] bill was passed by the [[Parliament of India]] for the formation of Telangana state comprising ten districts from north-western Andhra Pradesh.<ref name="TOI">{{cite web|title=Telangana bill passed by upper house|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/telangana-bill-in-rajya-sabha/liveblog/30712218.cms|work=The Times of India|access-date=20 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220103407/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/telangana-bill-in-rajya-sabha/liveblog/30712218.cms|archive-date=20 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The bill received the assent of the [[President of India|president]] and published in the Gazette on 1 March 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Andhra Pradesh reorganisation act, 2014|url=http://www.mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/APRegACT2014_0.pdf|publisher=Ministry of law and justice, government of India|access-date=3 March 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108223043/http://www.mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/APRegACT2014_0.pdf|archive-date=8 January 2016}}</ref>

The state of Telangana was officially formed on 2 June 2014. [[Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao]] was elected as the first chief minister of Telangana, following elections in which the [[Telangana Rashtra Samithi]] party secured majority.<ref name="new state">{{cite news|author1=Amarnath K Menon |title=Telangana is born, KCR to take oath as its first CM |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/telangana-braces-to-celebrate-its-birthday-celebrations-kcr/1/364724.html |access-date=14 July 2014 |work=THE INDIA TODAY GROUP |date=1 June 2014 |location=Hyderabad |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111151025/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/telangana-braces-to-celebrate-its-birthday-celebrations-kcr/1/364724.html |archive-date=11 November 2014 }}</ref> [[Hyderabad]] will remain as the joint capital of both Telangana and Andhra Pradesh for a period, not more than ten years after that period Hyderabad shall be the capital of the state of Telangana and there shall be a new capital for the state of Andhra Pradesh.<ref>[http://www.ndtv.com/article/cheat-sheet/amid-chaos-and-slogans-rajya-sabha-clears-telangana-bill-485953 Amid chaos and slogans, Rajya Sabha clears Telangana bill] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306024335/http://www.ndtv.com/article/cheat-sheet/amid-chaos-and-slogans-rajya-sabha-clears-telangana-bill-485953 |date=6 March 2014 }} – NDTV, 20 February 2014</ref> Andhra Pradesh picked [[Amaravati]] as its capital and moved its secretariat in 2016 and legislature in March 2017 to its new capital.<ref>{{cite web|title=Andhra Pradesh Secretariat starts functioning from interim government complex at Amaravati|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-andhra-pradesh-secretariat-starts-functioning-from-interim-government-complex-at-amaravati-2260970|access-date=23 June 2017|date=3 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802182034/http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-andhra-pradesh-secretariat-starts-functioning-from-interim-government-complex-at-amaravati-2260970|archive-date=2 August 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Chief Minister Chandrababu Naidu inaugurates new Andhra Pradesh Assembly|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/new-andhra-pradesh-assembly-chandrababu-naidu-velagapudi-guntur-district/1/895448.html|access-date=23 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619230346/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/new-andhra-pradesh-assembly-chandrababu-naidu-velagapudi-guntur-district/1/895448.html|archive-date=19 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{See also|List of cities in Telangana}}
[[File:Telangana State English Map.svg|thumb|Telangana and its neighbours]]
Telangana is situated on the [[Deccan Plateau]], in the central stretch of the eastern seaboard of the Indian Peninsula. It covers {{convert|112077|km2}}.<ref name=stats /> The region is drained by two major rivers, with about 79% of the [[Godavari River]] catchment area and about 69% of the [[Krishna River]] catchment area, but most of the land is arid.<ref name="State profile" /> Telangana is also drained by several minor rivers such as the [[Bhima River|Bhima]], the [[Maner River|Maner]], the [[Manjira River|Manjira]] and the [[Musi River (India)|Musi]].

The annual rainfall is between 900 and 1500 mm in northern Telangana and 700 to 900 mm in southern Telangana, from the southwest [[monsoon]]s. Telangana contains various soil types, some of which are red sandy loams (Chalaka), Red loamy sands (Dubba), lateritic soils, salt-affected soils, alluvial soils, shallow to medium black soils and very deep black cotton soils. These soil types allow the planting of a variety of fruits and vegetable crops such as mangoes, oranges, coconut, sugarcane, paddy, banana and flower crops.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.slideshare.net/sireeshasudharani/soils-of-telangana-and-water-management|title=Soils of telangana and water management|date=16 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://telangana.pscnotes.com/telangana-geography/soil-of-telangana/|title=Soil of Telangana for Telangana PSC|date=24 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Characterization and Classification of Soils of Northern Telangana|url=http://www.jtropag.in/index.php/ojs/article/viewFile/102/97|publisher=Journal of Tropical Agriculture|access-date=14 July 2014|page=24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311061934/http://www.jtropag.in/index.php/ojs/article/viewFile/102/97|archive-date=11 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Climate ===
Telangana is a semi-arid area and has a predominantly hot and dry climate. Summers start in March, and peak in May with average high temperatures in the {{convert|42|C|F}} range. The [[monsoon]] arrives in June and lasts until September with about 755 mm (29.7 inches) of precipitation. A dry, mild winter starts in late November and lasts until early February with little humidity and average temperatures<ref>{{cite web |title=Hyderabad Weather |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/tags/weather-today |website=The Hans India}}</ref> in the {{convert|22|-|23|C|F}} range.

==== Ecology ====
The [[Central Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests]] ecoregion covers much of the state, including Hyderabad. The characteristic vegetation is woodlands of ''[[Hardwickia binata]]'' and ''[[Albizia amara]]''. Over 80% of the original forest cover has been cleared for agriculture, timber harvesting, or cattle grazing, but large blocks of forest can be found in [[Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve]] and elsewhere.<ref>Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002). ''Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment.'' Island Press; [[Washington, DC]]. pp. 324-326</ref> The more humid [[Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests]] cover the [[Eastern Ghats]] in the eastern part of the state.

==== National parks and sanctuaries ====
Telangana has three [[List of national parks of India|National Parks]]: [[Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park]] in [[Hyderabad District, India|Hyderabad district]], and [[Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park]] and [[Mrugavani National Park]] in [[Ranga Reddy district]].

[[File:Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) near Hyderabad W IMG 4818.jpg|thumb|Indian peafowl (''[[Pavo cristatus]]'') near Hyderabad|alt=|left]]
Wildlife Sanctuaries in Telangana include [[Eturunagaram Wildlife Sanctuary]] and [[Pakhal Lake|Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary]] in [[Warangal District]], [[Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary|Kawal Tiger Reserve]] and [[Pranahita Wildlife Sanctuary]] in [[Adilabad district]], [[Kinnerasani Wildlife Sanctuary]] in Khammam district, [[Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary]] in [[Medak district]], [[Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve]] in [[Nalgonda District|Nalgonda]] and [[Mahbubnagar district]]s, [[Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary]] in Medak and Nizamabad districts, [[Shivaram Wildlife Sanctuary]] in [[Karimnagar district]].

[[Sacred groves of India|Sacred groves]] are small areas of forest preserved by local people. Sacred groves provide sanctuary to the local flora and fauna. Some are included within other protected areas, like Kadalivanam in Nagarjunsagar–Srisailam Tiger Reserve, but most stand alone. There are 65 sacred groves in Telangana—two in Adilabad district, thirteen in Hyderabad district, four in Karimnagar district, four in [[Khammam district]], nine in Mahbubnagar district, four in [[Medak district]], nine in Nalgonda district, ten in [[Ranga Reddy district]], and three in Warangal district.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Kailash C. Malhotra |author2=Yogesh Gokhale |author3=Sudipto Chatterjee |author4=Sanjeev Srivastava |year=2001 |title=Cultural and Ecological Dimensions of Sacred Groves in India |publisher=Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, and Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya, Bhopal. |url=http://himalayanconnections.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Malhotra_2001_CultureEcologySacredGrovesIndia_IAS.pdf |access-date=20 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808033418/http://himalayanconnections.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Malhotra_2001_CultureEcologySacredGrovesIndia_IAS.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2014 }}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{See also|List of cities and towns in Telangana|Demographics of Telangana|List of districts of Telangana}}

=== Language ===
{{See also|Telangana Telugu}}
{{Pie chart
|label1=[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|label2=[[Urdu]]
|label3=[[Lambadi]]
|label4=[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|label5=[[Hindi]]
|label6=Others
|color1=skyblue
|color2=green
|color3=gold
|color4=maroon
|color5=Orange
|color6=Grey
|value1=74.97
|value2=12.11
|value3=5.74
|value4=1.76
|value5=1.61
|value6=3.81
|caption=Languages of Telangana (Based on mandal level data, excludes mandals transferred to Andhra Pradesh) (2011)<ref name="census2011-langreport">{{cite web |title=C-16 Population By Mother Tongue |url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-2800.XLSX |work=Census of India 2011 |publisher=Office of the Registrar General |access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref>
}}
[[Telugu language|Telugu]] one of the [[classical languages of India]] is the official language of Telangana and [[Urdu]] is the second official language of the state.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/urdu-is-telanganas-second-official-language-4940595/|title=Urdu is Telangana's second official language|date=16 November 2017|work=The Indian Express|access-date=27 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227094158/http://indianexpress.com/article/india/urdu-is-telanganas-second-official-language-4940595/|archive-date=27 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> About 77% of the population of Telangana speak [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and 12% speak [[Urdu]].<ref name="lang">{{cite web |url=http://pibarchive.nic.in/archieve/others/2011/jan/d2011010502.pdf |title=Region-wise distribution of religious groups 2001 |at=Table 7.3 in page 393 of SKC report |access-date=3 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180908201053/http://pibarchive.nic.in/archieve/others/2011/jan/d2011010502.pdf |archive-date=8 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Urdu in Andhra Pradesh|url=http://www.languageinindia.com/april2003/urduinap.html|publisher=Language in India|access-date=22 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713110121/http://www.languageinindia.com/april2003/urduinap.html|archive-date=13 July 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Before 1948, Urdu was the official language of [[Hyderabad State]], and due to a lack of Telugu-language educational institutions, Urdu was the language of the educated elite of Telangana.<ref>{{cite web|title=Census of India 1921, Hyderabad state, Part II|url=http://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10973/18941/GIPE-015142.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y|publisher=Hyderabad state Census|access-date=3 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004034654/http://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10973/18941/GIPE-015142.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y|archive-date=4 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> After 1948, once Hyderabad State joined the new Republic of India, Telugu became the language of government, and as Telugu was introduced as the [[medium of instruction]] in schools and colleges, the use of Urdu among non [[Hyderabadi Muslims]] decreased.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement3.htm |title=Census of India – Distributions of 10,000 persons by language |publisher=censusindia.gov.in |access-date=14 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011050151/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement3.htm |archive-date=11 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Both Telugu and Urdu are used in services across the state, such as the [[Legislature of Telangana|Telangana Legislature]] website, with Telugu and Urdu versions of the website available,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Telangana/2017-03-06/Telangana-Legislature-website-to-be-available-in-Telgu-Urdu/285077|title=Telangana Legislature website to be available in Telgu, Urdu|website=The Hans India|access-date=27 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228041236/http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Telangana/2017-03-06/Telangana-Legislature-website-to-be-available-in-Telgu-Urdu/285077|archive-date=28 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as the Hyderabad metro, wherein both languages are used on station names and signs along with English and Hindi.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/no-language-wars-here-hyderabad-metro-to-use-4-languages-1458925.html|title=No Language Wars Here, Hyderabad Metro to Use 4 Languages|work=News18|access-date=27 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227153459/https://www.news18.com/news/india/no-language-wars-here-hyderabad-metro-to-use-4-languages-1458925.html|archive-date=27 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The Urdu spoken in Telangana is called Hyderabadi Urdu, which in itself is a dialect of the larger [[Deccani Language|Dakhini]] Urdu dialects of South India. Although the language is orally spoken by most Hyderabadi Muslims, the language in a literary context has long been lost, and standard Urdu is used.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O_WNqSH4ByQC|title=Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi|last=Kulakarṇī|first=A. Rā|date=1 January 1996|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=9788171545797|language=en}}</ref> [[Lambadi]] is also widely used, and Marathi and Kannada predominate in border areas. Many tribal languages are also spoken, especially in Khammam, the largest being [[Koya language|Koya]] and [[Gondi language|Gondi]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Language – India, States and Union Territories|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf|work=Census of India 2011|publisher=Office of the Registrar General|pages=13–14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114073412/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf|archive-date=14 November 2018|access-date=29 September 2018}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Pie chart
|label1=[[Hinduism]]|color1=darkorange|value1=85.09
|label2=[[Islam in India|Islam]]|color2=green|value2=12.68
|label3=[[Telugu Christian|Christianity]]|color3=dodgerBlue|value3=1.3
|label4=Others|color4=Chartreuse|value4=0.9
|caption=Religion in Telangana (2011)<ref>{{cite web|title=Telangana has 44.64 lakh Muslims – GHMC 21 lakh, Khammam only 1.58 lakh|url=http://www.siasat.com/news/telangana-has-4464699-muslims-ghmc-has-21-lakh-and-khammam-only-1-58-lakh-muslims-822834/|publisher=Siasat|access-date=30 August 2015|date=27 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150829210319/http://www.siasat.com/news/telangana-has-4464699-muslims-ghmc-has-21-lakh-and-khammam-only-1-58-lakh-muslims-822834/|archive-date=29 August 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
[[File:Yadagirigutta temple main Gopuram.jpg|thumb|[[Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Swamy Temple, Yadadri|Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Swamy Temple in Yadadri]]]]

According to the 2011 census, [[Hinduism|Hindus]] form 85.1% of the State's population. Muslims form 12.7% and [[Christians]] form 1.3% and 0.9% others.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pib.nic.in/archieve/others/2011/jan/d2011010502.pdf |title=Region-wise distribution of religious groups 2001 |at=Table 7.2 in page 381 of SKC report |access-date=3 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104052049/http://pib.nic.in/archieve/others/2011/jan/d2011010502.pdf |archive-date=4 November 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Minority Population Cenus|url=http://www.apsmfc.com/ministry-population-cenus.html|publisher=ANDHRA PRADESH STATE MINORITIES FINANCE CORPORATION|access-date=26 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219141134/http://www.apsmfc.com/ministry-population-cenus.html|archive-date=19 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Literacy ===
According to the 2011 census, Telangana's literacy rate is 66.46%. Male literacy and female literacy are 74.95% and 57.92%, respectively.<ref name=stats /> [[Hyderabad district, India|Hyderabad district]] leads with 80.96% and [[Mahabub Nagar district|Mahabubnagar district]] at the bottom with 56.06%.<ref name="censusindia1">{{cite web|title=Literacy of Rural – Urban (Andhra Pradesh)|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2-vol2/data_files/AP/Chapter_VI.pdf|publisher=Government of India|access-date=9 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226113601/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2-vol2/data_files/AP/Chapter_VI.pdf|archive-date=26 February 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

In a 2019 report, the ''Key Indicators of Household Social Consumption on Education in India'', by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Telangana has a literacy rate of 72.8% which is the fourth lowest of large states. It also has the second lowest literacy rate among rural women at 53.7%. 37.1% of the population aged 3–35 years received free education at pre-primary and higher levels in Telangana.<ref name="IE_literacy">{{cite news |title=Telangana literacy rate fourth-lowest among big states |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2019/nov/25/telangana-literacy-rate-fourth-lowest-among-big-states-2066624.html |access-date=6 September 2020 |work=The New Indian Express |date=25 November 2019|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218181119/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/2019/nov/25/telangana-literacy-rate-fourth-lowest-among-big-states-2066624.html |archive-date=18 February 2021 }}</ref>

== Administrative divisions ==
{{Main|List of districts in Telangana|List of revenue divisions in Telangana|List of mandals of Telangana}}
[[File:Telangana.jpg|thumb|Telangana at the time of formation on 2 June 2014.]]
[[File:Telangana new districts 2016.jpg|thumb|Telangana new districts created in 2016.]]

The state is divided into [[List of districts in Telangana|33 districts]]. The latest two new districts, Mulugu and Narayanpet, were formed on 17 February 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Telangana/2019-02-16/Telangana-to-have-33-districts-from-tomorrow/496123|title=Telangana to have 33 districts from tomorrow|date=16 February 2019|website=The Hans India|access-date=17 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217142318/https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Telangana/2019-02-16/Telangana-to-have-33-districts-from-tomorrow/496123|archive-date=17 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The districts are divided into [[List of revenue divisions in Telangana|70 revenue divisions]] which are further divided into [[List of mandals in Telangana|584 mandals]].<ref>{{cite web|title=TSDR-Portal|url=http://newdistrictsformation.telangana.gov.in/FirstPage.do|website=newdistrictsformation.telangana.gov.in|access-date=22 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825165347/http://newdistrictsformation.telangana.gov.in/FirstPage.do|archive-date=25 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Kurmanath|first1=K V|title=Telangana govt to create 21 new districts in Oct|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/telangana-issues-draft-notification-on-new-districts/article9018000.ece|access-date=22 August 2016|date=22 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823172719/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/telangana-issues-draft-notification-on-new-districts/article9018000.ece|archive-date=23 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The districts in the state are:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! S.No. !! District !! Headquarters !! Earlier part of
|-
| 1 || [[Adilabad district|Adilabad]] ||[[Adilabad]] || [[Adilabad district|Adilabad]]
|-
| 2 || [[Bhadradri Kothagudem district|Bhadradri Kothagudem]] || [[Kothagudem]] || [[Khammam district|Khammam]]
|-
| 3 || [[Warangal Urban district|Hanmakonda]] || [[Hanmakonda]] || [[Warangal district|Warangal]], [[Karimnagar district|Karimnagar]]
|-
| 4 || [[Hyderabad district, India|Hyderabad]] || [[Hyderabad]] || [[Hyderabad district, India|Hyderabad]]
|-
| 5 || [[Jagitial district|Jagitial]] || [[Jagitial]] || [[Karimnagar district|Karimnagar]]
|-
| 6 || [[Jangaon district|Jangaon]] || [[Jangaon]] || [[Warangal district|Warangal]], [[Nalgonda district|Nalgonda]]
|-
| 7 || [[Jayashankar Bhupalpally district|Jayashankar Bhupalpally]] || [[Bhupalpally]] || [[Warangal district|Warangal]], [[Karimnagar district|Karimnagar]]
|-
| 8 || [[Jogulamba Gadwal district|Jogulamba Gadwal]] || [[Gadwal]] || [[Mahabubnagar district|Mahabubnagar]]
|-
| 9 || [[Kamareddy district|Kamareddy]] || [[Kamareddy]] || [[Nizamabad district|Nizamabad]]
|-
| 10 || [[Karimnagar district|Karimnagar]] || [[Karimnagar]] || [[Karimnagar district|Karimnagar]]
|-
| 11 || [[Khammam district|Khammam]] || [[Khammam]] || [[Khammam district|Khammam]]
|-
| 12 || [[Kumuram Bheem district|Kumuram Bheem]] || [[Asifabad, Telangana|Asifabad]] || [[Adilabad district|Adilabad]]
|-
| 13 || [[Mahabubabad district|Mahabubabad]] || [[Mahabubabad]] || [[Warangal district|Warangal]], [[Khammam district|Khammam]]
|-
| 14 || [[Mahbubnagar district|Mahbubnagar]] || [[Mahbubnagar]] || [[Mahbubnagar district|Mahbubnagar]]
|-
| 15 || [[Mancherial district|Mancherial]] || [[Mancherial]] || [[Adilabad district|Adilabad]]
|-
| 16 || [[Medak district|Medak]] || [[Medak]] || [[Medak district|Medak]]
|-
| 17 || [[Medchal–Malkajgiri district|Medchal–Malkajgiri]] || [[Shamirpet]] || [[Ranga Reddy district|Ranga Reddy]]
|-
| 18 || [[Mulugu district|Mulugu]]|| [[Mulugu district|Mulugu]] || [[Warangal district|Warangal]]
|-
| 19 || [[Nagarkurnool district|Nagarkurnool]] || [[Nagarkurnool]] || [[Mahabubnagar district|Mahabubnagar]]
|-
| 20 || [[Nalgonda district|Nalgonda]] || [[Nalgonda]] || [[Nalgonda district|Nalgonda]]
|-
| 21 || [[Narayanpet district|Narayanpet]] || [[Narayanpet]] || [[Mahabubnagar district|Mahabubnagar]]
|-
| 22 || [[Nirmal district|Nirmal]] || [[Nirmal]] || [[Adilabad district|Adilabad]]
|-
| 23 || [[Nizamabad district|Nizamabad]] || [[Nizamabad, Telangana|Nizamabad]] || [[Nizamabad district|Nizamabad]]
|-
| 24 || [[Peddapalli district|Peddapalli]] || [[Peddapalli, Peddapalli district|Peddapalli]] || [[Karimnagar district|Karimnagar]]
|-
| 25 || [[Rajanna Sircilla district|Rajanna Sircilla]] || [[Sircilla]] || [[Karimnagar district|Karimnagar]]
|-
| 26 || [[Ranga Reddy district|Ranga Reddy]] || [[Shamshabad]] || [[Ranga Reddy district|Ranga Reddy]]
|-
| 27 || [[Sangareddy district|Sangareddy]] || [[Sangareddy]] || [[Medak district|Medak]]
|-
| 28 || [[Siddipet district|Siddipet]] || [[Siddipet]] || [[Medak district|Medak]], [[Karimnagar district|Karimnagar]], [[Warangal district|Warangal]]
|-
| 29 || [[Suryapet district|Suryapet]] || [[Suryapet]] || [[Nalgonda district|Nalgonda]]
|-
| 30 || [[Vikarabad district|Vikarabad]] || [[Vikarabad]] || [[Ranga Reddy district|Ranga Reddy]]
|-
| 31 || [[Wanaparthy district|Wanaparthy]] || [[Wanaparthy]] || [[Mahabubnagar district|Mahabubnagar]]
|-
| 32 || [[Warangal Rural district|Warangal]] || [[Warangal]] || [[Warangal district|Warangal]]
|-
| 33 || [[Yadadri Bhuvanagiri district|Yadadri Bhuvanagiri]] || [[Bhongir]] || [[Nalgonda district|Nalgonda]]
|}

There are a total of [[List of cities in Telangana|12 cities]] in the state. [[Hyderabad]] is the biggest city in the state and [[List of cities in India by population|4th largest city in India]]. There are [[List of municipal corporations in Telangana|13 municipal corporations]] and [[List of municipalities in Telangana|132 municipalities]] in the state.

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Government of Telangana|Politics of Telangana}}
{{See also|List of chief ministers of Telangana}}
[[File:Hyd_Legistative_Assembly.jpg|thumb|[[Telangana Legislative Assembly]] building]]
Telangana is governed by a [[parliamentary system]] of [[representative democracy]], a feature the state shares with other Indian states. [[Universal suffrage]] is granted to residents. There are three branches of government.

# [[Executive (government)|Executive authority]] is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the [[Chief Minister of Telangana|Chief Minister]], although the titular head of government is the [[Governor of Telangana|Governor]]. The governor is the [[head of state]] appointed by the [[President of India]]. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the chief minister by the governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly.
# The legislature, the [[Telangana Legislative Assembly]] and the [[Telangana Legislative Council]], consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker, that are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the speaker or the deputy speaker in the speaker's absence. The Assembly is [[bicameral]] with 119 [[Member of the Legislative Assembly (India)|Members of the Legislative Assembly]] and 40 [[Member of the Legislative Council]]. Terms of office run for five years unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term. The Legislative Council is a permanent body with one-third of members retiring every two years.
# The [[judiciary]] is composed of the [[High Court of Judicature at Hyderabad]] and a system of lower courts.

Auxiliary authorities known as ''[[panchayat]]s'', for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. The state contributes seats to [[Lok Sabha]].

The main players in the [[Politics of Telangana|regional politics]] are the [[Telangana Rashtra Samithi]], [[All India Forward Bloc]], [[All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen]], [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] and [[Indian National Congress]]. Following the [[2014 Telangana Legislative Assembly election|Telangana Legislative Assembly Election in 2014]], the [[Telangana Rashtra Samithi]] under [[Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao]] was elected to power.

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Telangana}}
{{See also|List of districts in Telangana by GDP}}
[[File:Coal Handling Ropeway near Pamulapalli.jpg|thumb|Coal Handling Ropeway near [[Manuguru]], Bhadradri Kothagudem district.]]
The economy of Telangana is mainly driven by agriculture. Two important rivers of
India, the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] and [[Krishna River|Krishna]], flow through the state,
providing irrigation. Farmers in Telangana mainly depend on rain-fed water sources for irrigation. Rice is the major food crop. Other important crops are cotton, sugar cane, mango, and tobacco. Recently, crops used for [[Vegetable fats and oils|vegetable oil]] production such as [[sunflower]] and peanuts have gained favour. There are many multi-state irrigation projects in development, including [[Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects]] and [[Nagarjuna Sagar Dam]], the world's highest masonry dam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agri.ap.nic.in|title=Agriculture dept. of Telangana|access-date=21 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709142554/http://agri.ap.nic.in/|archive-date=9 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="industries">{{cite web|url=http://www.apind.gov.in/indussectors.html|title=Key Sectors of Telangana|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221073936/http://apind.gov.in/indussectors.html|archive-date=21 February 2009}}</ref>

The state has also started to focus on the fields of information technology and [[biotechnology]]. Telangana is one of top IT-exporting states of India. There are 68 Special Economic Zones in the state.<ref name="sez">{{cite web|title=TG Special Economic Zones |url=http://sezindia.nic.in/HTMLS/578FormalapprovalsgrantedunderSEZAct19thJune,09.pdf |publisher=sezindia |access-date=3 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007035200/http://www.sezindia.nic.in/HTMLS/578FormalapprovalsgrantedunderSEZAct19thJune%2C09.pdf |archive-date= 7 October 2009 }}</ref>

Telangana is a mineral-rich state, with coal reserves at [[Singareni Collieries Company]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Singareni Collieries Company Limited|url=http://scclmines.com/scclnew/index.asp|publisher=scclmines|access-date=3 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625044937/http://scclmines.com/scclnew/index.asp|archive-date=25 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The Golconda region has produced some of the world's most famous diamonds, including the colourless [[Koh-i-Noor]] (United Kingdom), the blue [[Hope Diamond|Hope]] (United States), the pink [[Daria-i-Noor]] (Iran), the white [[Regent Diamond|Regent]] (France), the [[Dresden Green Diamond|Dresden Green]] (Germany), and the colourless [[Orlov (diamond)|Orlov]] (Russia), [[Nizam Diamond|Nizam]] and [[Jacob Diamond|Jacob]] (India), as well as the now-lost diamonds [[Florentine Diamond|Florentine Yellow]], [[Akbar Shah (diamond)|Akbar Shah]] and [[Great Mogul Diamond|Great Mogul]].

=== Agriculture ===
[[File:Warangal IMG 4286.JPG|thumb|[[Paddy field]]s in [[Warangal district]]]]
Rice is the major [[food crop]] and [[staple food]] of the state. Other important crops are maize, tobacco, mango, cotton and [[sugar cane]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/agri-biz/telangana-will-show-its-might-in-cotton-maize/article4982372.ece|title=Telangana will show its might in cotton, maize|author=K. V. Kurmanath|work=Business Line|access-date=16 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140622051901/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/agri-biz/telangana-will-show-its-might-in-cotton-maize/article4982372.ece|archive-date=22 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Agriculture has been the chief source of income for the state's economy. The [[Godavari]] and [[Krishna River|Krishna]] rivers flow through the state, providing [[irrigation]]. Apart from major rivers, there are small rivers like Tunga Bhadra, Bima, Dindi, Kinnerasani, Manjeera, Manair, Penganga, Pranahitha, peddavagu and Taliperu. There are many multi-state irrigation projects in development, including [[Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects]] and [[Nagarjuna Sagar Dam]], the world's highest masonry dam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://guntur.nic.in/nagarjuna_sagar.html|title=WELCOME TO GUNTUR DISTRICT OFFICIAL WEBSITE|work=guntur.nic.in|access-date=16 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324163602/http://guntur.nic.in/nagarjuna_sagar.html|archive-date=24 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Agri Export Zone]]s for the following produce have been proposed for the following locations:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=186993|title=Agri Export Zones|website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}
* [[Gherkin]]s: [[Mahabubnagar]], [[Rangareddy]], [[Medak]], [[Karimnagar]], [[Warangal]]
* [[Mangoes]] and [[grapes]]: Hyderabad, Rangareddy, Medak, Mahabubnagar

=== Industries ===
{{See also|Software industry in Telangana}}
[[File:MindSpace campus in Hyderabad, India.jpg|thumb|The [[HITEC City]] is a major IT hub of Hyderabad]]
Several major manufacturing and services industries are in operation mainly around [[Hyderabad]]. Automobiles and auto components, spices, mines and minerals, textiles and apparels, [[pharmaceutical]], horticulture, and poultry farming are the main industries in Telangana.<ref>{{cite news|last=Shankar|first=B V Shiva|date=6 June 2014|title=Telangana government plans big IT push to rebuild brand Hyderabad|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/tech-news/Telangana-government-plans-big-IT-push-to-rebuild-brand-Hyderabad/articleshow/36121006.cms|url-status=live|access-date=1 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214102758/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tech/tech-news/Telangana-government-plans-big-IT-push-to-rebuild-brand-Hyderabad/articleshow/36121006.cms|archive-date=14 February 2015}}</ref>

In terms of services, Hyderabad is nicknamed "Cyberabad" due to the location of major software industries in the city.<ref name="roy aih">{{cite book|title=Worlding cities: Asian experiments and the art of being global|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|page=253|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4051-9277-4|last1=Roy|first1=Ananya|last2=Aihwa|first2=Ong}}</ref><ref name="toi chary">{{cite news|last=Chand|first=Swati Bharadwaj|date=13 October 2011|title=An Amazon shot for city|newspaper=The Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/An-Amazon-shot-for-city/articleshow/10335301.cms?referral=PM|url-status=live|access-date=13 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226140847/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/An-Amazon-shot-for-city/articleshow/10335301.cms?referral=PM|archive-date=26 February 2015}}</ref> Prior to secession, it contributed 10% to India's and 98% to Andhra Pradesh's exports in the IT and ITES sectors in 2013<ref name="toi-it">{{cite news|title=Special governance for Hyderabad needed for growth|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Special-governance-for-Hyderabad-needed-for-growth/articleshow/20753414.cms?referral=PM|newspaper=The Times of India|date=25 June 2013|access-date=25 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910200409/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Special-governance-for-Hyderabad-needed-for-growth/articleshow/20753414.cms?referral=PM|archive-date=10 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> With Hyderabad in the front line of Telangana's goal to promote information technology in India, the city boasts the [[HITEC City]] as its premier hub. IT companies have also been set up in [[Khammam]]<ref>{{Cite news|others=Special Correspondent|date=2020-12-07|title=IT product companies to set up base in Khammam|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/it-product-companies-to-set-up-base-in-khammam/article33272247.ece|access-date=2021-06-30|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> and [[Warangal]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sharma|first=E Kumar|date=2020-01-08|title=Telangana pushes for investment in Tier II cities; Tech Mahindra, Cyient open centres in Warangal|url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/corporate/story/telangana-pushes-for-investment-in-tier-ii-cities-tech-mahindra-cyient-open-centres-in-warangal-241817-2020-01-08|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-30|website=Business Today|language=en}}</ref>

The state government is in the process of developing industrial parks at different places, for specific groups of industries. The existing parks are Software Park at Hyderabad, HITEC City for software units, Apparel Park at [[Gundlapochampalli]], Export Promotion Park at Pashamylaram, Biotechnology park at [[Turkapally]].{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}

Hyderabad is also a major site for healthcare-related industries including hospitals and pharmaceutical organisations such as [[Nizam's Institute of Medical Sciences]], Yashoda Hospitals, LV Prasad Eye Care, Akruti Institute of cosmetic and plastic surgery, Fever Hospital, Durgabai Deshmukh, Continental Hospitals and [[Apollo Hospitals]]. Many pharmaceutical and pharmaceutical-related companies like [[Dr. Reddy's Laboratories]], [[Shantha Biotechnics]] and Aragen (Formerly GVK BIO) are based out of Hyderabad.

In addition, Hyderabad-based healthcare non-profits include the [[Indian Heart Association]], a cardiovascular disease NGO.<ref>{{cite web|title=Indian Heart Association|url=http://www.indianheartassociation.org|publisher=Indian Heart Association Webpage|access-date=27 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518120648/http://indianheartassociation.org/|archive-date=18 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Telangana}}
[[Telangana State Tourism Development Corporation]] (TSTDC) is a state government agency which promotes tourism in Telangana.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Huge-challenges-ahead-for-new-Telangana-tourism-corporation/articleshow/34847749.cms |title=Huge challenges ahead for new Telangana tourism corporation |work=The Times of India |date=9 May 2014 |access-date=4 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512212438/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Huge-challenges-ahead-for-new-Telangana-tourism-corporation/articleshow/34847749.cms |archive-date=12 May 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Telangana has a variety of tourist attractions including historical places, monuments, forts, waterfalls, forests and temples.

==== Waterfalls ====
[[File:Kuntala-waterfalls1.jpg|thumb|[[Kuntala Waterfall]] in [[Adilabad district]]]]

*[[Kuntala Waterfall]] ({{convert|45|m|ft}}) located in [[Kuntala, Adilabad district|Kuntala]], [[Adilabad district]].
*[[Bogatha Waterfall]] is waterfall located in Koyaveerapuram G, Wazeedu Mandal, [[Jayashankar Bhupalpally district]], Telangana.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Reddy|first1=AuthorP Laxma|date=6 July 2019|title=Telangana's Niagara, the Bogatha waterfall offers feast to eyes|work=Telangana Today|url=https://telanganatoday.com/telanganas-niagara-the-bogatha-waterfall-offers-feast-to-eyes|url-status=live|access-date=25 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116031449/https://telanganatoday.com/telanganas-niagara-the-bogatha-waterfall-offers-feast-to-eyes|archive-date=16 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=28 July 2019|title=Telangana starts one-day tours to Bogatha waterfalls|work=The New Indian Express|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2019/jul/28/telangana-starts-one-day-tours-to-bogatha-waterfalls-2010580.html|url-status=live|access-date=25 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200831061408/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/hyderabad/2019/jul/28/telangana-starts-one-day-tours-to-bogatha-waterfalls-2010580.html|archive-date=31 August 2020}}</ref>
*[[Savatula Gundam Waterfalls]] in [[Adilabad district]]
*Gowri Gundaala waterfalls at Sabitham village near [[Manthani]] in [[Peddapalli district]].

=== Awards ===
Telangana state has won CNBC-TV18's Promising State of the Year Award for the year of 2015. The Jury for the India Business Leader Awards (IBLA) has collectively chosen Telangana for the award.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telanganastateinfo.com/telangana-state-bags-promising-state-of-the-year-award/ |title=Telangana Awarded as Most Promising State of the Year |publisher=Country, India |access-date=17 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017112418/http://www.telanganastateinfo.com/telangana-state-bags-promising-state-of-the-year-award/ |archive-date=17 October 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=TS Bags Promising State of Year Award|url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/TS-Bags-Promising-State-of-Year-Award/2015/10/16/article3082202.ece|work=The New Indian Express|access-date=31 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029184104/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/telangana/TS-Bags-Promising-State-of-Year-Award/2015/10/16/article3082202.ece|archive-date=29 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Media ===
Telangana state has English and Telugu News papers. Which are published from different cities. The print media mainly consists of Telugu and English newspapers. ''[[Nava Telangana]]'', ''[[Sakshi (newspaper)|Sakshi]]'', ''[[Andhra Jyothi]]'', ''[[Eenadu]]'' and ''[[Namaste Telangana]]'' are all Telugu news papers. Mainly in English newspaper are ''[[Deccan Chronicle]]'', ''[[The Times of India|The Times Of India]]'', ''The Hindu'', and ''The Hans India''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ministry of Information & broadcasting - Publications on DAVP Panel as on 05 March 2021 |url=http://www.davp.nic.in/Upload/(S(cyeh5555jplw0355y44lfe45))/advtg_report.aspx |website=davp.nic.in |access-date=5 March 2021}}</ref> Notable Urdu newspapers include ''[[Etemaad Daily]]'', ''[[The Munsif Daily]]'', and ''[[The Siasat Daily]]''.

== Infrastructure ==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| width = 220
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Rstps4.jpg
| caption1 = [[NTPC Ramagundam|Ramagundam Thermal Power station]]
| image2 = Outer Ring Road (Nehru ORR) at Narsinghi.jpg
| caption2 = Hyderabad Outer Ring Road
| image3 = Secunderabad Railway Station outside.JPG
| caption3 = [[Secunderabad railway station]]
}}

=== Power ===
{{Main|List of power stations in Telangana}}
Hydel and [[thermal power]] projects in the state meet the power requirements of the state. A number of new power projects are coming up in the State which is expected to generate additional power capacity in the state.

=== Irrigation Projects ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Project !! River !! District
|-
| [[Kaleswaram]] || [[Godavari River|Godavari]] || [[Jayashankar Bhupalpally district|Jayashankar Bhupalpally]]
|-
| [[Sriram Sagar Project|Sriram Sagar]] || [[Godavari River|Godavari]] || [[Nizamabad district|Nizamabad]]
|-
| [[Nagarjuna Sagar Dam|Nagarjuna Sagar]] || [[Krishna River|Krishna]] || [[Nalgonda district|Nalgonda]], [[Guntur district|Guntur]]
|-
| [[Srisailam Dam|Srisailam]] || [[Krishna River|Krishna]] || [[Mahabubnagar district|Mahabubnagar]], [[Kurnool district|Kurnool]]
|-
| [[Nizam Sagar]] || [[Manjira River|Manjira]] || [[Nizamabad district|Nizamabad]]
|-
| [[Singur Dam]] || [[Manjira River|Manjira]] || [[Medak district|Medak]]
|-
| [[Lower Manair Dam]] || [[Maner River|Maner]] || [[Karimnagar district|Karimnagar]]
|-
| [[Mid Manair Dam]] || [[Maner River|Maner]] || [[Rajanna Sircilla district|Rajanna Sircilla]]
|-
| [[Upper Manair Dam]] || [[Maner River|Maner]] || [[Rajanna Sircilla district|Rajanna Sircilla]]
|-
| [[Sripada Yellampalli project|Sripada Yellampalli]] || [[Godavari River|Godavari]] || [[Peddapalli district|Peddapalli]], [[Mancherial district|Mancherial]]
|-
| [[Jurala Project|Jurala]] || [[Krishna River|Krishna]] || [[Jogulamba Gadwal district|Jogulamba Gadwal]]
|-
| [[Koil Sagar]] || [[Krishna River|Krishna]] || [[Mahabubnagar district|Mahabubnagar]]
|-
| [[Osman Sagar]] || [[Musi River (India)|Musi]] || [[Ranga Reddy district]]
|-
| [[Himayat Sagar]] || [[Musi River (India)|Musi]] || [[Ranga Reddy district]]
|}

== Major Cities ==
*[[Hyderabad]]
*[[Warangal]]
*[[Nizamabad, Telangana|Nizamabad]]
*[[Khammam]]
*[[Karimnagar]]
*[[Ramagundam]]
*[[Mahbubnagar]]
*[[Nalgonda]]
*[[Adilabad]]
*[[Suryapet]]
*[[Jagtial]]
*[[Miryalaguda]]

== Major Towns ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Armoor]]
*[[Bellampalle]]
*[[Bhadrachalam]]
*[[Bhainsa]]
*[[Bhongir]]
*[[Bodhan]]
*[[Gadwal]]
*[[Huzurnagar]]
*[[Jammikunta]]
*[[Jangaon]]
*[[Kamareddy]]
*[[Kodad]]
*[[Korutla|Koratla]]
*[[Kothagudem]]
*[[Madhira]]
*[[Mahabubabad]]
*[[Mancherial]]
*[[Medak]]
*[[Metpally]]
*[[Nagarkurnool]]
*[[Nakrekal]]
*[[Narayankhed]]
*[[Naspur]]
*[[Nirmal]]
*[[Palwancha]]
*[[Peddapalli]]
*[[Siddipet]]
*[[Sangareddy]]
*[[Sathupalli]]
*[[Sircilla]]
*[[Tandur]]
*[[Vikarabad]]
*[[Wanaparthy]]
*[[Zaheerabad]]
{{div col end}}

== Transport ==
[[File:TSRTC's JnNURM Metro Express bus in Khammam.jpg|thumb|The [[Telangana State Road Transport Corporation]] (TSRTC) Bus]]
The state is well connected with other states by means of road, rail and airways. The [[Telangana State Road Transport Corporation]] (TSRTC) is the major public transport corporation that connects all the cities and villages.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/it-will-be-tgsrtc-from-june-2/article6014676.ece | title=It will be TGSRTC from June 2 | work=The Hindu | date=16 May 2014 | access-date=2 June 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606235217/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/it-will-be-tgsrtc-from-june-2/article6014676.ece | archive-date=6 June 2014 | url-status=live | df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Mahatma Gandhi Bus Station]] (M.G.B.S) in [[Hyderabad]] is one of the largest bus stand in [[Asia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apsrtc.gov.in/Contact%20Us/Grievances/Citi-Chart.htm |title=citi-Charter |publisher=apsrtc.gov.in |access-date=19 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100917143549/http://apsrtc.gov.in/Contact%20Us/Grievances/Citi-Chart.htm |archive-date=17 September 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aponline.gov.in/Quick%20links/apfactfile/naturaladvantages.html#Airways|title=Andhra Pradesh • Natural Advantages|publisher=Government of Andhra Pradesh|access-date=3 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090403042513/http://www.aponline.gov.in/Quick%20links/apfactfile/naturaladvantages.html#Airways|archive-date=3 April 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Jubilee Bus Station]] in [[Secunderabad]] serves inter city bus services.

=== Roadways ===
The state has a total of [[List of National Highways in India by State#Telangana|16 national highways]] and accounts for a total length of {{convert|2690.23|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name="telangana">{{cite web|title=National Highways in Telangana State|url=https://www.roadbuild.telangana.gov.in/files/451.pdf|website=Roads and Buildings Department – Government of Telangana|access-date=27 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328231109/https://www.roadbuild.telangana.gov.in/files/451.pdf|archive-date=28 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Railways ===
{{See also|South Central Railway zone|Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway}}
The history of railways in this region dates back to the time of [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] in 1874. The [[Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway]], which had its beginnings in a line built privately by the HEH the [[Nizam]]. Much to the dismay of the British authorities, The Nizam bore all the expenses for the construction of the line.<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://www.scr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,1,283|publisher=South Central railway|access-date=11 June 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108223043/http://www.scr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0%2C1%2C283|archive-date=8 January 2016}}</ref>

It operates under the auspices of the [[South Central Railway]] founded in 1966. The landmark building Rail Nilayam in Secunderabad is the Zonal Headquarter office of South Central Railway. Secunderabad and Hyderabad are the main divisions of the South Central Railway that fall in the state.<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://www.scr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,1,283|publisher=South Central Railway|access-date=2 June 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108223043/http://www.scr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0%2C1%2C283|archive-date=8 January 2016}}</ref>

=== Airports ===
{{See also|List of airports in Telangana}}
[[File:Rajiv Gandhi International Airport.jpg|thumb|[[Rajiv Gandhi International Airport]]]]
[[Rajiv Gandhi International Airport]] at [[Shamshabad]] is an international airport serving the city of [[Hyderabad]]. It is the largest airport in the state and one of the busiest airports in the country. The government has plans to upgrade [[Warangal Airport]], [[Nizamabad Airport]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/more-land-required-for-airport-at-jakranpally/article4788933.ece|title=More land required for airport at Jakranpally|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=29 July 2014|date=7 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130713013047/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/more-land-required-for-airport-at-jakranpally/article4788933.ece|archive-date=13 July 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Ramagundam Airport]]. It also plans to construct airports in [[Ramagundam]] and [[Kothagudem]].<ref>{{cite web|title=About Andhra Pradesh |url=http://www.hyderabadisearch.com/AboutAndhrapradesh.aspx |publisher=Hyderabadi search |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607011018/http://www.hyderabadisearch.com/AboutAndhrapradesh.aspx |archive-date=7 June 2014 }}</ref>

[[Warangal]] has a domestic airport in Mamunooru which was established in the year 1930 during the Nizam period. All the exports and imports of Azam Jahi Mills, Warangal were done through the [[Warangal Airport]].{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Telangana}}
[[File:Sammakka gadde at sammakka saarakka jatara.jpg|thumb|[[Sammakka Saralamma Jatara]] is a famous Hindu festival in Telangana]]
Telangana culture combines cultural customs from Persian traditions, embedded during the rule of the region by the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], Qutub Shahis and [[Nizam]]s, with prominent and predominantly south Indian traditions and customs. The State has a rich tradition in classical music, painting and folk arts such as Burra Katha, shadow puppet show, and [[Perini Shivatandavam]], Gusadi Dance, Kolatam.

=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Architecture of Telangana}}
[[File:Warangal_fort.jpg|thumb|[[Kakatiya Kala Thoranam]] within the [[Warangal Fort]]]]
Medieval forts such as the [[Bhongir Fort]], [[Khammam Fort]], and [[Rachakonda|Rachakonda Fort]] are spread across the state. Among the notable ones is the [[Warangal Fort]], which served as the capital of the [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya]] dynasty.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=The Glorious Kakatiya Temples and Gateways|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5889/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-30|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}</ref> The [[Kakatiya Kala Thoranam]] within the fort has become a symbol of Telangana, and features on the [[Emblem of Telangana|state emblem]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Telangana State Emblem Looks Simple Yet Profound|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2014/may/31/Telangana-State-Emblem-Looks-Simple-Yet-Profound-619441.html|access-date=2021-06-30|website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> The fort complex, along with the [[Ramappa Temple]] and [[Thousand Pillar Temple]] are on the tentative list of the [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Sites]].<ref name=":0" />

The Qutb Shahi dynasty established the city of Hyderabad as their capital. The [[Charminar]], [[Golconda Fort]], and [[Qutb Shahi tombs]] in Hyderabad were built by the Qutb Shahi dynasty.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Qutb Shahi Monuments of Hyderabad Golconda Fort, Qutb Shahi Tombs, Charminar|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5573/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-30|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}</ref>

The Nizam era saw the construction of palaces such as the [[Chowmahalla Palace]] and [[Falaknuma Palace]], as well as elaborate public buildings such as the [[Osmania General Hospital]], all in Hyderabad.

==== Religious destinations ====

[[File:Bhadrachalam temple View from Lord Narasimha Temple in 2015 (cropped).JPG|thumb|[[Sita Ramachandraswamy temple, Bhadrachalam]]]]

There are religious worship centres of different religions in the state.

Hindu worship destinations include [[Bhadrachalam Temple]], [[Gnana Saraswati Temple, Basar|Gnana Saraswati Temple]], [[Yadagirigutta Temple]], [[Ramappa Temple]], [[Raja Rajeswara temple, Vemulawada|Vemulawada Raja Rajeswara temple]], the [[Thousand Pillar Temple]].

The Muslim worship destinations such as [[Makkah Masjid, Hyderabad|Makkah Masjid]] near [[Charminar]], [[Khairtabad Mosque]], [[Koh-e-qaim]], [[Mian Mishk Masjid]], [[Toli Masjid]] and [[Spanish Mosque]].

Christian worship centres include the [[Diocese of Dornakal of the Church of South India]], Bahe Church of South India, and [[Medak Cathedral]]. There are also some Buddhist destinations, such as [[Nelakondapalli]], [[Dhulikatta]], [[Phanigiri]] and Kolanpaka.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.templenet.com/encandh1.html|title=The Templenet Encyclopedia – Temples of Andhra Pradesh|access-date=26 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509081809/http://www.templenet.com/encandh1.html|archive-date=9 May 2008|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Cinema ===
{{Main|Telugu cinema}}
Telugu cinema, also known by its sobriquet as [[Tollywood (Telugu)|Tollywood]], is a part of [[Indian cinema]] producing films in the [[Telugu language]], and is centred in the [[Hyderabad, Telangana]] neighbourhood of [[Film Nagar]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/26/stories/2007122650520200.htm | location=Chennai, India | title=Year of success for tinsel town | date=26 December 2007 | access-date=27 December 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020073001/http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/26/stories/2007122650520200.htm | archive-date=20 October 2013 | url-status=dead | work=[[The Hindu]] | df=dmy-all }}</ref> In the early 1990s, the Telugu film industry had largely shifted from [[Chennai]] to [[Hyderabad]]. The Telugu film industry is the second-largest film industry in India next to [[Bollywood]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shafeeq|first=Mohammed|title=Telugu films with Rs 2,000 cr production value stuck due to lockdown|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/telugu-films-with-rs-2000-cr-production-value-stuck-due-to-lockdown/1818162|access-date=25 June 2020|website=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126054807/https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/telugu-films-with-rs-2000-cr-production-value-stuck-due-to-lockdown/1818162|archive-date=26 January 2021}}</ref> In the years 2005, 2006 and 2008 the Telugu film industry produced the largest number of films in India, exceeding the number of films produced in Bollywood.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/-Tollywood-loses-to-Bollywood-on-numbers-/articleshow/6661950.cms?referral=PM |title=Tollywood loses to Bollywood on numbers |work=The Times of India |date=2 October 2010 |access-date=31 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713203509/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/-Tollywood-loses-to-Bollywood-on-numbers-/articleshow/6661950.cms?referral=PM |archive-date=13 July 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-economy/telugu-film-industry-enters-new-era/article1674075.ece |title=Telugu film industry enters new era |work=Business Line |date=6 November 2007 |access-date=31 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203163423/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-economy/telugu-film-industry-enters-new-era/article1674075.ece |archive-date=3 February 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> The industry holds the Guinness World Record for the largest film production facility in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-1/largest-film-studio |title=Largest film studio |publisher=Guinnessworldrecords.com |access-date=31 January 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119000128/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-1/largest-film-studio |archive-date=19 January 2014 }}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Telugu cuisine|Hyderabadi cuisine}}{{Empty section|date=June 2021}}

=== Visual arts ===
Indigenous art forms of Telangana include the [[Cheriyal scroll painting]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Das|first=Arti|title=Moving from scrolls to key chains, an art form from Telangana fights to stay relevant|url=https://scroll.in/magazine/869992/moving-from-scrolls-to-key-chains-an-art-form-from-telangana-fights-to-stay-relevant|access-date=2021-06-30|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Nirmal paintings]], and [[Silver Filigree of Karimnagar|Karimnagar Silver Filigree]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=K.m.dayashankar|date=2015-06-05|title=Silver filigree art cries for promotion|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/silver-filigree-art-cries-for-promotion/article7284734.ece|access-date=2021-06-30|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> A distinctive [[Persianate society|Persianate]] style of painting, called [[Deccan painting]] developed in the region during the medieval period.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sardar|first=Marika|title=Islamic Art of the Deccan|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/decc/hd_decc.htm|url-status=live|access-date=2021-06-30|website=Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref>

Notable museums in the state include the [[Salar Jung Museum]] in Hyderabad, which is one of the largest in India.<ref>{{Cite news|last=IANS|date=2019-01-20|title=Salar Jung museum: How one man's art collection became a national treasure|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/salar-jung-museum-how-one-man-s-art-collection-became-a-national-treasure-119012000161_1.html|access-date=2021-06-30}}</ref> Other museums include the [[Telangana State Archaeology Museum|Telangana State Archeology Museum]], [[City Museum, Hyderabad|City Museum]], and [[Nizam Museum]] in Hyderabad, [[Warangal Museum]] in Warangal, and [[Alampur Museum]] in Alampur.

== Education ==
{{Main|Education in Telangana}}
Telangana has multiple institutes of higher education universities along with numerous primary and secondary schools. The Department of Higher Education deals with matters relating to education at various levels in the state of Telangana.

[[File:Nitw main gate.JPG|thumb|Main gate of [[NIT Warangal]]|left]]According to a 2019 report, the state has a literacy rate of 72.8%, which is one of the [[List of Indian states and union territories by literacy rate|lowest]] in India.<ref name="IE_literacy" /> Schools in Telangana are run by the state government or private organisations, which include religious institutions. Some specialized schools such as the [[Kendriya Vidyalaya|Kendriya Vidyalayas]] and [[Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya|Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas]] are run by agencies of the central government.<ref>{{Cite web|last=parasa|first=Rajeswari|date=2019-03-11|title=Centre sanctions 50 Kendriya Vidyalayas, but Telangana gets none|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/110319/centre-sanctions-50-kendriya-vidyalayas-but-telangana-gets-none.html|access-date=2021-07-02|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2017}}, there are 41,337 schools in the state, with about 70% of them being government schools.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jeyaranjan|first=J.|title=Aspects of Education in Telangana|url=https://www.telangana.gov.in/PDFDocuments/Telangana-Social-Development-Report-2017-Part3.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Telangana is home to 27 universities, which include 3 [[Central university (India)|central universities]], 17 [[State university (India)|state universities]], 2 [[Deemed university|deemed universities]], and 5 [[Private University (India)|private universities]]. The [[Osmania University]] in Hyderabad, established in 1918, is the oldest modern university in the state, and one of the [[List of largest universities|largest university systems]] in the world. The [[University of Hyderabad]] consistently ranks among the top universities in the country.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Today|first=Telangana|title=UoH retains high position in QS Global Ranking 2022|url=https://telanganatoday.com/uoh-retains-high-position-in-qs-global-ranking-2022|access-date=2021-06-29|website=Telangana Today|language=en-US}}</ref> Apart from these, specialised [[Institutes of National Importance|institutes of national importance]] in the state include [[All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bibinagar|AIIMS Bibinagar]], [[IIT Hyderabad]], and [[National Institute of Technology, Warangal|NIT Warangal]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Reddy|first=R. Ravikanth|date=2020-06-14|title=IIT-H, NIT-W set new benchmarks in rankings|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Hyderabad/iit-h-nit-w-set-new-benchmarks-in-rankings/article31828368.ece|access-date=2021-06-29|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

Other notable insitutions include [[Indian School of Business]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad]], [[Kakatiya University]], [[International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad]], [[NALSAR University of Law]], [[Kaloji Narayana Rao University of Health Sciences]], [[National Institute of Fashion Technology Hyderabad]], [[Footwear Design and Development Institute]], [[National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Hyderabad]], and [[Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Basar]], among others.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rgukt.in/home-aboutrgukt.html |title=Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies |publisher=Rgukt.in |access-date=8 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007142943/http://www.rgukt.in/home-aboutrgukt.html |archive-date=7 October 2011 }}</ref>

== Sports ==
{{See also|Sports in Hyderabad#Sports and Stadiums}}
[[File:RGIS HYD.jpg|thumb|[[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium, Hyderabad|Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]]]]

The [[Hyderabad FC]] is a professional [[Association football|football]] club based in Hyderabad and plays in top tier league of India, the [[Indian Super League]]. The home ground of the club is [[G.M.C Balayogi Athletic Stadium]], in [[Gachibowli]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Hyderabad FC replace struggling FC Pune City as new ISL franchise |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/indian-super-league/top-stories/hyderabad-fc-replace-struggling-fc-pune-city-as-new-isl-franchise/articleshow/70862303.cms |access-date=1 July 2020 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=27 August 2020|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025002110/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/indian-super-league/top-stories/hyderabad-fc-replace-struggling-fc-pune-city-as-new-isl-franchise/articleshow/70862303.cms |archive-date=25 October 2019 }}</ref>

The [[Hyderabad cricket team]] is represented in the [[Ranji Trophy]] and has won twice. The [[Sunrisers Hyderabad]], an [[Indian Premier League]] franchise, is based in Hyderabad and has won the trophy once. [[Deccan Chargers]], a currently defunct franchise from Hyderabad, also won the [[Indian Premier League]] once. The [[Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium]] is the home ground of both [[Hyderabad cricket team]] and [[Sunrisers Hyderabad]]. It hosts international as well as domestic matches. The [[Hyderabad Hunters]], a [[Premier Badminton League]] franchise; the [[Telugu Titans]], a [[Pro Kabaddi League]] franchise; the Hyderabad Sky, a [[UBA Pro Basketball League]] franchise and the Telugu Tigers, a [[Premier Futsal]] franchise are also based in Hyderabad. [[Hyderabad Hunters]] are previous winners of the [[Premier Badminton League]] title.

Notable sports persons from the state are [[Mohammad Azharuddin]], [[V. V. S. Laxman]], [[Mithali Raj]], [[Pragyan Ojha]], [[Ambati Rayudu]], [[Saina Nehwal]], [[P.V. Sindhu]], [[Jwala Gutta]], [[Parupalli Kashyap]], [[Gagan Narang]], [[Mukesh Kumar (field hockey)|Mukesh Kumar]] and [[Pullela Gopichand]] ([[Andhra Pradesh]]), as well as [[Sania Mirza]] who has been appointed as the "brand ambassador" of Telangana.<ref>{{Cite news|others=PTI|date=2014-07-22|title=Sania Mirza is Telangana’s brand ambassador|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/sania-mirza-is-telanganas-brand-ambassador/article6237149.ece|access-date=2021-07-06|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

Other stadiums include [[G. M. C. Balayogi Athletic Stadium]], [[Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium]] and [[Gachibowli Indoor Stadium]].

== See also ==
* [[Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb]]
* [[Hyderabad State (1948–1956)]]
* [[Index of Telangana-related articles]]
* [[List of state highways in Telangana]]
* [[List of Telangana people]]
* [[Telangana Language Day]]
* [[Temples of Telangana]]
{{Clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{Country study |country=India |abbr=in |date=September 1995 |section=Regionalism |pd=no}} ([http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0075 Direct link].)
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mISVwxcF5asC&pg=PA175 |title=Committees and commissions in India, 1947–1973 |author=Virendra Kumar |page=175 |volume=9 |section=Committee on Telangana surpluses, 1969 – Report by Justice Bhargava |isbn=978-8170221975 |publisher=D. K. Publishing House |location=New Delhi |access-date=11 December 2013|year=1975}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Fb26pWqhScC |title=Nizam – British Relations 1724–1857 |author=Sarojini Regani |year=1986 |isbn=978-8170221951 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |location=New Delhi |access-date=11 December 2013}}
* {{Cite journal |jstor=2753831 |title=Subregionalism in India: The Case of Telangana |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=43 |number=1 |date=Spring 1970 |pages=5–21 |publisher=University of British Columbia |author=Duncan B. Forrester |doi=10.2307/2753831}}
* {{Cite journal |jstor=2052461 |title=The Hyderabad Political System and its Participants |author=Karen Leonard |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=30 |number=3 |date=May 1971 |pages=569–582 |publisher=Association for Asian Studies |doi=10.1017/s0021911800154841|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/454191gp }}
* {{cite web|title=ReInventing Telangana – First Steps- Socio Economic Outlook 2105|url=http://www.telanganalegislature.org.in/documents/10656/19317/Socio+economic+Survey+Telangana+2015.pdf/f19fc6a4-bf8a-4432-ab8f-64b20f1d772d|publisher=Planning Department, Govt of Telangana|access-date=24 September 2015}}
*{{cite web |last1=Narayan |first1=B. K. |title=Agricultural Development in Hyderabad State, 1900–1956: A Study in Economic History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Av89AAAAYAAJ |publisher=Keshav Prakashan |access-date=5 July 2019 |year=1960}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Sister project links|s=India States Reorganisation Commission Report Telangana Andhra|voy=Telangana}}
'''Government'''
* [http://www.telangana.gov.in/ Official Site of Telangana Government]

'''General information'''
* {{curlie|Regional/Asia/India/Telangana/}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|3250963}}

{{Geographic location
|Centre = Telangana
|North = [[Maharashtra]] and [[Chhattisgarh]]
|Northeast = [[Chhattisgarh]]
|East = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|Southeast = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|South = [[Andhra Pradesh]]
|Southwest = [[Karnataka]]
|West = [[Karnataka]]
|Northwest = [[Maharashtra]]
}}
{{Telangana}}
{{State Agencies of Telangana}}
{{States and territories of India}}
{{Portal bar|Geography|Asia|India}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Telangana| ]]
[[Category:South India]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 2014]]
[[Category:2014 establishments in India]]
[[Category:States and union territories of India]]

The Hyderabad Public School

2021-09-12T17:39:29Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{short description|School in Telangana State, India}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}} {{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}} {{Infobox school | name = Hyd..."

{{short description|School in Telangana State, India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Infobox school
| name = Hyderabad Public School
| logo =
| image = Hyderabad Public School, Begumpet.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| motto = Be Vigilant
| motto_translation =
| location = [[Begumpet]]
| city = [[Hyderabad]]
| state = [[Telangana State]]
| country = [[India]]
| coordinates = 
| other_name = HPS, Begumpet
| former_name = Jagirdars College
| type = [[Public school (privately funded)]]
| established = {{Start date and age|1923|df=yes}}
| founder = H.E.H. [[Nizam]] VII of Hyderabad
| opened =
| closed =
| district = Hyderabad State Capital
| grades =
| superintendent =
| principal = Skand Bali (from August 2017)
| staff =
| faculty = 155
| gender = 
| age_range = 
| enrollment = 3200 (PP1 - 12)
| campus_size = 152 acres (89 acres of which allotted by H.E. Lady Viqar-ul-Umara)
| campus_type =
| team_name =
| newspaper =
| colors = 
| communities =
| feeders =
| website = {{URL|www.hpsbegumpet.org.in}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''The Hyderabad Public School, Begumpet''' ('''HPS, Begumpet''') is a privately funded public school in [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], [[Telangana State]], [[India]].

Children are schooled from the pre-primary stage to the 12th standard (ages 3 to 17). The school is affiliated with the [[Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations]] (ICSE, ISC) and is managed by the Hyderabad Public School Society and the Board of Governors.

== History ==
It was established in 1923 as Jagirdars College by the Seventh [[Nizam]] of Hyderabad, [[Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII|Mir Osman Ali Khan]], and served as a school exclusively for the sons of [[nawab]]s, [[jagirdar]]s and other aristocrats and elites. It was renamed as the Hyderabad Public School in 1951 after the [[Zamindari system]] was abolished in 1950.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hyderabad Public School, Begumpet|url=http://www.my-telugu.com/tour/districts/hyderabad/historical/public-school.shtml|access-date=2011-09-20|publisher=My-Telugu.com}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Shahzore|first=Mohammed Najeeb|date=2021-04-10|title=HPS represents a glorious era which surprisingly continues till date|url=https://www.siasat.com/hps-represents-a-glorious-era-which-surprisingly-continues-till-date-2122612/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-07-02|website=The Siasat Daily|language=en-US}}</ref>

== Campus ==
The school has a {{convert|122|acre|km2|adj=on}} campus with buildings built in the [[Indo-Saracenic]] style.<ref name=":1" />

==Recognition==
HPS, Begumpet has widely been recognized as one of the best lower educational institutions in India.

'''Education World''': The Hyderabad Public School was ranked first in [[Telangana]] & [[Hyderabad]] and sixth in India in the Co-ed Day-cum-Boarding Schools category for 2018-19.<ref>{{Citation|title=Education World Rankings|url=https://www.educationworld.in/school-ranking/?school=Co-ed%20Day-cum-Boarding%20School|publisher=Education World|access-date=2018-11-05}}</ref>

'''Future 50 Award''': The Hyderabad Public School, Begumpet has been ranked as one among the Future 50 schools shaping the success in the Country.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Future 50 schools shaping success|url=https://www.future50schools.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/full-magazine2.pdf}}</ref>

'''Education Today's India School Merit Awards''': The Hyderabad Public School has been ranked third in India and first in the state and city under India's Top 20 Day-cum-Boarding Schools for exemplary contribution to the education field.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.educationtoday.co/school-rankings-2017/school-ranking-details.php?id=108|title=The Hyderabad Public School|last=EducationToday.co|website=Educationtoday.co|language=en|access-date=2018-08-13}}</ref>

'''India's Best Standalone Senior Secondary School and Best Innovative K-12 School Awards''': In 2018, at the GTF Education Summit & Awards conducted by Global Triumph foundation in New Delhi, The Hyderabad Public School was honoured as India's Best Standalone Senior Secondary School and Best Innovative K-12 School.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globaltriumphfoundation.com/awards|title=Awards{{!}} Global Triumph Foundation|website=globaltriumphfoundation.com|language=en|access-date=2018-08-11}}</ref>

'''Great Place to Study by Global League Institute''': The school was selected in the list of 'great places to study' by the Global League Institute based on the Student Satisfaction Survey. The honour was awarded by the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|British House of Commons]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2018|title=The Hyderabad Public School Begumpet|url=https://greatplacetostudy.org/presentation/The%20Great%20Indian%20Schools%202018.pdf|journal=Forbes India Marquee|pages=50}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://emag.youandi.com/1719994/You-I-Monthly-Magazine/July-2018-Issue-23-Richa-Chadha#dual/40/1|title=youandimag You & I Monthly Magazine dated Mon, 2 Jul 18|access-date=2018-08-11}}</ref>

== Notable alumni ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Name
!Class
Year
!Notability
!References
|-
|[[Ajaypal Singh Banga]]
|
|CEO of [[Mastercard]]
|<ref name="Nadella">{{cite web|url=http://www.firstpost.com/world/all-for-love-when-satya-nadella-surrendered-his-green-card-for-h1-b-visa-4083165.html|title=All for love: When Microsoft CEO Satya Nadella surrendered his Green Card for wife Anu|website=[[Firstpost]]|date=26 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103222307/http://www.firstpost.com/world/all-for-love-when-satya-nadella-surrendered-his-green-card-for-h1-b-visa-4083165.html|archive-date=3 November 2017|url-status=live|access-date=5 November 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
|-
|[[Ashok Gajapathi Raju]]
|
|Former Civil Aviation Minister
|<ref>{{Cite news|last=Reporter|first=B. S.|date=2014-05-26|title=Ashok Gajapathi Raju|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/politics/ashok-gajapathi-raju-114052600980_1.html|access-date=2021-07-03}}</ref>
|-
|[[Nagarjuna (actor)|Akkineni Nagarjuna]]
|
|Telugu cinema actor
|<ref name="thehansindia.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hans/2014-02-05/Hyderabad-Public-School-where-Eagles-soar-/84780|title=Hyderabad Public School, where Eagles soar|date=5 February 2014|website=The Hans India}}</ref><ref name="ranker.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.ranker.com/list/famous-hyderabad-public-school-alumni-and-students/reference|title=Famous Hyderabad Public School Alumni|website=Ranker}}</ref>
|-
|[[G. Vivekanand]]
|
|[[Lok Sabha]] MP
|<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-12-19|title=Hyderabad Public School plans mega anniversary blast|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/131219/news-current-affairs/article/hyderabad-public-school-plans-mega-anniversary-blast|access-date=2021-07-02|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Yarlagadda Sumanth Kumar]]
|
|Telugu cinema Actor
|<ref name="https://hpsbegumpet.org.in/alumni-portal/">{{cite web|url=https://hpsbegumpet.org.in/alumni-portal/|title=Hyderabad Public School, notable alumni}}</ref>
|-
|[[Harsha Bhogle]]
|
|Cricket commentator
|<ref name="thehansindia.com"/>
|-
|[[Karan Bilimoria, Baron Bilimoria]]
|
|Founder and CEO, [[Cobra Beer]]
|<ref name="auto">{{Cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/the-hyderabad-public-school-institution-which-produces-nadellas-of-the-world/story-iMnuv3TgD6JFYzVuVh9bpJ.html|title=The Hyderabad Public School: Institution which produces Nadellas of the world|date=2014-02-06|access-date=2018-11-26|language=en|website=www.hindustantimes.com/}}</ref>
|-
|[[M. M. Pallam Raju]]
|
|Former [[Ministry of Human Resource Development (India)|Minister of Human Resource Development]]
|<ref name="auto" />
|-
|[[Mekapati Goutham Reddy]]
|
|MLA
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|[[Menaka Guruswamy]]
|
|Senior advocate in the [[Supreme Court of India]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/150730/lifestyle-health-and-wellbeing/article/top-legal-honour-oxford-harvard-and-now-yale|title=A top legal honour: Oxford, Harvard and now Yale|last=reddy|first=gayatri|date=2015-07-31|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en|access-date=2019-05-21}}</ref>
|-
|[[Nallari Kiran Kumar Reddy]]
|
|Former [[List of chief ministers of Andhra Pradesh|Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh]]
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/from-classmate-to-kirans-deputy/article2072583.ece|title=From classmate to Kiran's deputy|newspaper=The Hindu|date=3 June 2011|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref>
|-
|[[Prem Watsa]]
|
|Business magnate and CEO of [[Fairfax Financial]]
|<ref name="Nadella" />
|-
|[[Ram Charan]]
|
|Telugu cinema actor
|<ref name="thehansindia.com" /><ref name="ranker.com" />
|-
|[[Rana Daggubati]]
|
|Telugu cinema actor
|<ref name="thehansindia.com" /><ref name="ranker.com" />
|-
|[[Satya Nadella]]
|
|CEO of [[Microsoft]]
|<ref name="Nadella" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/exec/nadella/default.aspx|title=Satya Nadella: Executive Vice President, Cloud and Enterprise}}</ref>
|-
|[[Shantanu Narayen]]
|
|President and CEO of [[Adobe Inc.]]
|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.adobe.com/about-adobe/leaders/shantanu-narayen.html|title=Shantanu Narayen, President and Chief Executive Officer - Adobe Executive Profiles|website=www.adobe.com}}</ref>
|-
|[[Syed Akbaruddin]]
|
|[[Permanent Representative of India to the United Nations]]
|<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/sunday-read/the-school-of-dreams/articleshow/61800591.cms|title=What do Satya Nadella, Ajay Banga, Syed Akbaruddin have in common? It's the Hyderabad Public School - Mumbai Mirror -|work=Mumbai Mirror|access-date=2018-04-03}}</ref>
|-
|[[T. K. Kurien]]
|
|CEO of [[Wipro]]
|<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/satya-nadella-s-story-to-inspire-youngsters-with-humble-backgrounds-114020501311_1.html|title=Satya Nadella's story to inspire youngsters with humble backgrounds|last=IANS|newspaper=Business Standard India|date=5 February 2014|via=Business Standard}}</ref>
|-
|[[Y. S. Jaganmohan Reddy]]
|
|[[List of chief ministers of Andhra Pradesh|Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh]]
|<ref name="thehansindia.com" /><ref name="ranker.com" />
|-
|[[Asaduddin Owaisi]]
|
|[[Lok Sabha]] MP
|<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Suares|first=Coreena|date=2019-06-01|title=Hyderabad Public School plans big bash for its students-turned-leaders|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/010619/hyderabad-public-school-plans-big-bash-for-its-students-turned-leaders.html|access-date=2021-07-02|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|[[Akbaruddin Owaisi]]
|
|[[Telangana]] MLA
|<ref name=":0" />
|-
|[[Megha Mittal]]
|
|Former chairman and MD, [[Escada]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hpsbegumpet.org.in}}</ref>
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Hyderabad}}

*[[The Hyderabad Public School, Ramanthapur]]
* [[Hyderabad Public School, Kadapa|The Hyderabad Public School, Kadapa]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.hpsbegumpet.org.in/ Official website]

{{Hyderabad topics}}
{{Coord|17.4442|78.4572|type:edu_region:IN|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hyderabad Public School, Begumpet, The}}
[[Category:Heritage structures in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1923]]
[[Category:Private schools in Hyderabad, India]]
[[Category:Boarding schools in Telangana]]
[[Category:1923 establishments in India]]

Amjad Khan

2021-09-07T18:09:55Z

Saumyasingh:

{{Infobox person
| image =Amjad_Khan.jpg
| name = Amjad Khan
| birth_date = 2nd July, 1994 (age 26)
| birth_place = Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh
| citizenship = India
| nationality = Indian
| education =
| alma_mater = Army School, Bangalore
| occupation = {{unbulleted list| Boxing| boxing Promoter|philanthropist|trainer}}
}}
'''Amjad Khan''' is a former Indian Boxer turned boxing promoter, philanthropist, trainer and the founder of '''Amjad Khan Boxing Foundation''', '''Amjad Khan Training Centre''' <ref>[https://www.oneworldnews.com/amjad-khan-from-an-international-boxer-to-an-international-boxing-promoter/ "One World News", From international boxer to international boxing promoter, October 2018.]
</ref>

==Boxing Career==
'''Amjad Khan''' started training with KSOPC Boxing Club, Kolkata where Muhammad Ali Qamar guided him and in 2004, he took part in various state championships and simultaneously completed his training with the Indian army while also taking part in national and international championships; and was selected to play for the Indian Boxing team for five years. <ref>[http://www.millenniumpost.in/sports/born-fighter-amjad-khan-306897?infinitescroll=1 "Millennium Post", Amjad Khan's career and work, June 2018.]</ref>

==Amjad Khan Boxing Foundation & Amjad Khan Training Centre==
Amjad Khan founded the ''Amjad Khan Boxing Foundation'' and ''Amjad Khan Training Centre'' in 2014 and 2017 respectively.
Both are non profit organisations and aim at reducing stereotypes around boxing, encourage sportsmanship and enable boxing as a medium for physical, mental and emotional well being of the youth of the nation. <ref>[https://www.business-standard.com/content/press-releases-ani/boxer-amjad-khan-looks-to-provide-opportunities-to-youth-having-no-platform-guidance-120101200740_1.html "Business Standard" Amjad Khan provides growth to vulnerable sections, October 2020.]</ref>
The foundation collaborated with National Commission for Protection of Child Rights and ''Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights'' and sent trainers to Sewa Kutir of Guru Bahadur to train juveniles in boxing where more than 60 juveniles signed up for the programme and some of them plan to continue their boxing training with Amjad Khan at his training centre in Malviya Nagar (Delhi).<ref>[https://m.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/sports/inspired-by-tyson-amjad-khan-offers-hope-to-juvenile-criminals-753072 "The Tribune", Amjad Khan offers hope to juvenile criminals, April 2019.]
</ref> Life in a juvenile home can be difficult. <ref> [https://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/08/01/life-in-indias-juvenile-homes/ "The New York Times", Life in indian juvenile homes, August 2013.]
</ref> Juveniles face many challenges in getting back to routine after their sentence. In India, juveniles are discriminated against. A personal sense of denial is also a challenge for them. There are limited firms and schemes to support juveniles with employment as well. '''Amjad Khan Boxing Training Centre''' helps in organising boxing events<ref>[https://www.mmaindia.com/amjad-khan-boxing-training-center-akbtc-presents-the-7th-pro-fight-night-event-in-puney-for-1st-february/ "MMA India", Amjad Khan Training Centre presents Fight Night, February 2020.]</ref> and prepare young boxers for national and international championships <ref>[https://boxrec.com/en/promoter/849892 "Boxing's Official Record Keeper".]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian boxers]]
[[Category:Indian people]]
[[Category:Boxing trainers]]
[[Category:Indian philanthropists]]

Amjad Khan

2021-09-07T18:05:21Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{Infobox person | name = Amjad Khan | birth_date = 2nd July, 1994 (age 26) | birth_place = Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh | citizenship = India |..."

{{Infobox person
| name = Amjad Khan
| birth_date = 2nd July, 1994 (age 26)
| birth_place = Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh
| citizenship = India
| nationality = Indian
| education =
| alma_mater = Army School, Bangalore
| occupation = {{unbulleted list| Boxing| boxing Promoter|philanthropist|trainer}}
}}
'''Amjad Khan''' is a former Indian Boxer turned boxing promoter, philanthropist, trainer and the founder of '''Amjad Khan Boxing Foundation''', '''Amjad Khan Training Centre''' <ref>[https://www.oneworldnews.com/amjad-khan-from-an-international-boxer-to-an-international-boxing-promoter/ "One World News", From international boxer to international boxing promoter, October 2018.]
</ref>

==Boxing Career==
'''Amjad Khan''' started training with KSOPC Boxing Club, Kolkata where Muhammad Ali Qamar guided him and in 2004, he took part in various state championships and simultaneously completed his training with the Indian army while also taking part in national and international championships; and was selected to play for the Indian Boxing team for five years. <ref>[http://www.millenniumpost.in/sports/born-fighter-amjad-khan-306897?infinitescroll=1 "Millennium Post", Amjad Khan's career and work, June 2018.]</ref>

==Amjad Khan Boxing Foundation & Amjad Khan Training Centre==
Amjad Khan founded the ''Amjad Khan Boxing Foundation'' and ''Amjad Khan Training Centre'' in 2014 and 2017 respectively.
Both are non profit organisations and aim at reducing stereotypes around boxing, encourage sportsmanship and enable boxing as a medium for physical, mental and emotional well being of the youth of the nation. <ref>[https://www.business-standard.com/content/press-releases-ani/boxer-amjad-khan-looks-to-provide-opportunities-to-youth-having-no-platform-guidance-120101200740_1.html "Business Standard" Amjad Khan provides growth to vulnerable sections, October 2020.]</ref>
The foundation collaborated with National Commission for Protection of Child Rights and ''Delhi Commission for Protection of Child Rights'' and sent trainers to Sewa Kutir of Guru Bahadur to train juveniles in boxing where more than 60 juveniles signed up for the programme and some of them plan to continue their boxing training with Amjad Khan at his training centre in Malviya Nagar (Delhi).<ref>[https://m.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/sports/inspired-by-tyson-amjad-khan-offers-hope-to-juvenile-criminals-753072 "The Tribune", Amjad Khan offers hope to juvenile criminals, April 2019.]
</ref> Life in a juvenile home can be difficult. <ref> [https://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/08/01/life-in-indias-juvenile-homes/ "The New York Times", Life in indian juvenile homes, August 2013.]
</ref> Juveniles face many challenges in getting back to routine after their sentence. In India, juveniles are discriminated against. A personal sense of denial is also a challenge for them. There are limited firms and schemes to support juveniles with employment as well. '''Amjad Khan Boxing Training Centre''' helps in organising boxing events<ref>[https://www.mmaindia.com/amjad-khan-boxing-training-center-akbtc-presents-the-7th-pro-fight-night-event-in-puney-for-1st-february/ "MMA India", Amjad Khan Training Centre presents Fight Night, February 2020.]</ref> and prepare young boxers for national and international championships <ref>[https://boxrec.com/en/promoter/849892 "Boxing's Official Record Keeper".]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Indian boxers]]
[[Category:Indian people]]
[[Category:Boxing trainers]]
[[Category:Indian philanthropists]]

Draft:Joshua Dove Heatherington

2021-09-07T17:25:10Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{Infobox person | name =Joshua Dove Heatherington | image =Joshua_Dove_Heatherington.jpg | image_size = 200px | birth_date =September 22nd 1993 | nationality =Wheeling ,..."

{{Infobox person
| name =Joshua Dove Heatherington
| image =Joshua_Dove_Heatherington.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| birth_date =September 22nd 1993
| nationality =Wheeling , West Virginia
| occupation =Hiphop Artist
| years_active =2010-present
}}

==Introduction==
'''Joshua Dove Heatherington''', born on September 22nd 1993, in Wheeling, West Virginia, has made quite a name for himself as a young hip hop artist. From a very early age, he was inclined towards the hip hop genre and found his sense of peace and joy in music.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wtrf.com/news/local-hip-hop-artist-to-be-featured-on-national-tv/|title=Local Hip-Hop artist to be featured on National TV|website=WTRF}}</ref> As a result, he has completely immersed himself in the world of music and is driven by his aim to create waves as a hip hop artist, where today is famously known as JoshfromYNC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.billboardhiphop.com/2021/08/joshfromync-releases-blue-hunnits.html|title=JoshfromYNC releases "Blue Hunnits" Listen Now!|website=Bill Board HipHop}}</ref>

==Early life==
Joshua studied at Wheeling Park High School and went to college for business and marketing, graduating in the year 2012. He acquired his stage name JoshfromYNC; however, he started off as a sports player in the Ohio Valley. Baseball always fascinated him, and he loved playing the sport. His favourite baseball team is PITTSBURGH Pirates, while his favourite hockey team is Pittsburgh Penguins and football team is New England Patriots. He recollects how as a child, he loved watching WWF wrestling with his family and absolutely loved watching his favourite wrestlers Stone Cold & The Rock, on stage. Highlighting some of his favourite things in life, Joshua says his favourite movie is Two Fast Two Furious, and he loves the Lamborghini car. His favourite radio show is In The Morning on Shade 45, and his favourite tv show as a kid was Scooby-Doo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pitchforkmusic.com/2021/08/track-of-week-blue-hunnits-by.html|title=Track of the week “Blue Hunnits” By JoshfromYNC|website=Pitch fork music}}</ref>

==Innovation==
JoshfromYNC loves to wear YNC chains and also has a YouTube channel with his stage name and a website where people can find his music (http://www.yncmusic.com/index.html). Joshua Heatherington has done it all from being on BET Jams, Tales On BET, celebrity boxing,MTV jams, BET Soul, VH1, Growing Up Hip Hop New York Reality TV, Love N Hip Hop Atlanta, to Growing Up Hip Hop LA, Shade 45, Hot 97, Power 105, This Is 50, Hip-HopNation on Sirius XM radio, inside the XXL Magazine, The Source Magazine Worldstar, Say Cheese TV, etc.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thisis50.com/2021/07/30/joshfromync-gets-big-recognition-for-his-music-from-godfather-of-rap-snoop-dogg-wheeling-west-virginia-is-on-the-map-for-rap-music/|title=JoshfromYNC Gets BIG recognition for his music from Godfather of Rap Snoop Dogg Wheeling West Virginia is on the map for rap music|website=This is 50}}</ref> His song was played by Snoop Dogg on his TV show GGN Network.As a young hip hop artist from the US, he continuously innovates as an artist, which has resulted in him connecting with listeners and music lovers by creating uniqueness in his music.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thesource.com/2019/03/30/west-virginia-rapper-joshfromync-makes-an-impact-in-his-hometown-and-beyond/|title=WEST VIRGINIA RAPPER JOSHFROMYNC MAKES AN IMPACT IN HIS HOMETOWN AND BEYOND|website=The Source}}</ref>

==Social Media==
Joshua Dove Heatherington on Facebook<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100042369792915|title=Joshua Dove Heatherington}}</ref>

Joshua Dove Heatherington on Instagram<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://instagram.com/joshfromync|title=Joshua Dove Heatherington}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

Dan James Clarke

2021-08-18T18:02:30Z

Saumyasingh:

{{Infobox person
| name =Dan James Clarke
| image =Dan_James_Clarke.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| birth_date =March 25, 2001
| nationality =London, United Kingdom
| occupation =Entrepreneur
| years_active =2010-present
}}

'''Dan James Clarke''' is a British entrepreneur who specialises in social media marketing. He has conducted marketing for major social media platforms such as TikTok as well as providing expert advice in social media growth to brands, influencers, music artists, models and celebrities. He now invests in future innovative technologies and sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uk.style.yahoo.com/style/following-success-dan-james-clarke-103837151.html|title=Following the Success of Dan James Clarke, One of the UK’s Most Successful Social Media Entrepreneurs|website=Yahoo}}</ref>
[[Category:Entrepreneur]]

==Early life==
Clarke grew up in London, UK where he lived with his mother, Kerstine Clarke. He had a passion for Psychology and studies of nonverbal communication, as well as having a strong love for travel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/amp/lifestyle/culture/article/what-makes-dan-james-clarke-an-outstanding-social-media-entrepreneur-at-just-20-23165768|title=What makes Dan James Clarke an outstanding social media entrepreneur at just 20?|website=Midday}}</ref>

==Career==
Clarke initially started his ventures on social media in 2015, at just 14 years old. He grew multiple theme pages on Instagram, amassing over 300,000 followers in total over just a few years. In 2019 he started marketing for popular applications and social media platforms including TikTok, Yubo and calm app.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.usejournal.com/social-media-the-modern-day-drug-5999231e97b3?gi=5fcc901c262|title=Social Media: The Modern Day Drug|website=Use Journal}}</ref>
He eventually found a passion for writing, initially publishing his first article on medium called “Social media: the modern day drug”. Since then he has published his best selling Amazon book: “I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?! In 2020, Clarke started providing social media services to multiple well known clients including Bryce Monkivitch, Tms Tystar, Chris Mark Featherstone, Scotty Chickens and many more. Dan James Clarke’s estimated net worth is $1.5m <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://businessdeccan.com/meet-dan-james-clarke-author-of-im-way-too-sober-for-this-sht-and-popular-social-media-entrepreneur/|title=Meet Dan James Clarke, Author of ‘I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?!’ and Popular Social Media Entrepreneur|website=Business Deccan}}</ref>

==Awards==
Jack Petchey Award (2014)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/brandspot/pr-spot/dan-james-clarke-s-journey-from-being-bullied-at-school-to-being-the-best-social-media-entrepreneur-966270.html|title=Dan James Clarke has made his name in field of social media|website=Deccan Herald}}</ref>

==Social Media==
Dan James Clarke on Facebook<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/danjamesclarke|title=Dan James}}</ref>

Dan James Clarke on Instagram<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://instagram.com/dan_clrk|title=Dan James Clarke}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

Dan James Clarke

2021-08-18T17:54:47Z

Saumyasingh:

{{Infobox person
| name =Dan James Clarke
| image =Dan_James_Clarke.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| birth_date =March 25, 2001
| nationality =London, United Kingdom
| occupation =Entrepreneur
| years_active =2010-present
}}

'''Dan James Clarke''' is a British entrepreneur who specialises in social media marketing. He has conducted marketing for major social media platforms such as TikTok as well as providing expert advice in social media growth to brands, influencers, music artists, models and celebrities. He now invests in future innovative technologies and sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uk.style.yahoo.com/style/following-success-dan-james-clarke-103837151.html|title=Following the Success of Dan James Clarke, One of the UK’s Most Successful Social Media Entrepreneurs|website=Yahoo}}</ref>
[[Category:Entrepreneur]]

==Early life==
Clarke grew up in London, UK where he lived with his mother, Kerstine Clarke. He had a passion for Psychology and studies of nonverbal communication, as well as having a strong love for travel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/amp/lifestyle/culture/article/what-makes-dan-james-clarke-an-outstanding-social-media-entrepreneur-at-just-20-23165768|title=What makes Dan James Clarke an outstanding social media entrepreneur at just 20?|website=Midday}}</ref>

==Career==
Clarke initially started his ventures on social media in 2015, at just 14 years old. He grew multiple theme pages on Instagram, amassing over 300,000 followers in total over just a few years. In 2019 he started marketing for popular applications and social media platforms including TikTok, Yubo and calm app.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.usejournal.com/social-media-the-modern-day-drug-5999231e97b3?gi=5fcc901c262|title=Social Media: The Modern Day Drug|website=Use Journal}}</ref>
He eventually found a passion for writing, initially publishing his first article on medium called “Social media: the modern day drug”. Since then he has published his best selling Amazon book: “I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?! In 2020, Clarke started providing social media services to multiple well known clients including Bryce Monkivitch, Tms Tystar, Chris Mark Featherstone, Scotty Chickens and many more. Dan James Clarke’s estimated net worth is $1.5m <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://businessdeccan.com/meet-dan-james-clarke-author-of-im-way-too-sober-for-this-sht-and-popular-social-media-entrepreneur/|title=Meet Dan James Clarke, Author of ‘I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?!’ and Popular Social Media Entrepreneur|website=Business Deccan}}</ref>

==Awards==
Jack Petchey Award (2014)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/brandspot/pr-spot/dan-james-clarke-s-journey-from-being-bullied-at-school-to-being-the-best-social-media-entrepreneur-966270.html|title=Dan James Clarke has made his name in field of social media|website=Deccan Herald}}</ref>

==Social Media==
Dan James Clarke on Facebook<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/danjamesclarke|title=Dan James}}</ref>

Dan James Clarke on Instagram<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://instagram.com/dan_clrk|title=Dan James Clarke}}</ref>

Dan James Clarke

2021-08-18T17:53:20Z

Saumyasingh:

{{Infobox person
| name =Dan James Clarke
| image =Dan_James_Clarke.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| birth_date =March 25, 2001
| nationality =London, United Kingdom
| occupation =Entrepreneur
| years_active =2010-present
}}

'''Dan James Clarke''' is a British entrepreneur who specialises in social media marketing. He has conducted marketing for major social media platforms such as TikTok as well as providing expert advice in social media growth to brands, influencers, music artists, models and celebrities. He now invests in future innovative technologies and sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uk.style.yahoo.com/style/following-success-dan-james-clarke-103837151.html|title=Following the Success of Dan James Clarke, One of the UK’s Most Successful Social Media Entrepreneurs|website=Yahoo}}</ref>
[[Category:Entrepreneur]]

==Early life==
Clarke grew up in London, UK where he lived with his mother, Kerstine Clarke. He had a passion for Psychology and studies of nonverbal communication, as well as having a strong love for travel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/amp/lifestyle/culture/article/what-makes-dan-james-clarke-an-outstanding-social-media-entrepreneur-at-just-20-23165768|title=What makes Dan James Clarke an outstanding social media entrepreneur at just 20?|website=Midday}}</ref>

==Career==
Clarke initially started his ventures on social media in 2015, at just 14 years old. He grew multiple theme pages on Instagram, amassing over 300,000 followers in total over just a few years. In 2019 he started marketing for popular applications and social media platforms including TikTok, Yubo and calm app.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.usejournal.com/social-media-the-modern-day-drug-5999231e97b3?gi=5fcc901c262|title=Social Media: The Modern Day Drug|website=Use Journal}}</ref>
He eventually found a passion for writing, initially publishing his first article on medium called “Social media: the modern day drug”. Since then he has published his best selling Amazon book: “I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?! In 2020, Clarke started providing social media services to multiple well known clients including Bryce Monkivitch, Tms Tystar, Chris Mark Featherstone, Scotty Chickens and many more. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://businessdeccan.com/meet-dan-james-clarke-author-of-im-way-too-sober-for-this-sht-and-popular-social-media-entrepreneur/|title=Meet Dan James Clarke, Author of ‘I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?!’ and Popular Social Media Entrepreneur|website=Business Deccan}}</ref>

==Awards==
Jack Petchey Award (2014)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deccanherald.com/brandspot/pr-spot/dan-james-clarke-s-journey-from-being-bullied-at-school-to-being-the-best-social-media-entrepreneur-966270.html|title=Dan James Clarke has made his name in field of social media|website=Deccan Herald}}</ref>

==Social Media==
Dan James Clarke on Facebook<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/danjamesclarke|title=Dan James}}</ref>

Dan James Clarke on Instagram<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://instagram.com/dan_clrk|title=Dan James Clarke}}</ref>

Dan James Clarke

2021-08-18T17:49:27Z

Saumyasingh:

{{Infobox person
| name =Dan James Clarke
| image =Dan_James_Clarke.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| birth_date =March 25, 2001
| nationality =London, United Kingdom
| occupation =Entrepreneur
| years_active =2010-present
}}

'''Dan James Clarke''' is a British entrepreneur who specialises in social media marketing. He has conducted marketing for major social media platforms such as TikTok as well as providing expert advice in social media growth to brands, influencers, music artists, models and celebrities. He now invests in future innovative technologies and sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uk.style.yahoo.com/style/following-success-dan-james-clarke-103837151.html|title=Following the Success of Dan James Clarke, One of the UK’s Most Successful Social Media Entrepreneurs|website=Yahoo}}</ref>
[[Category:Entrepreneur]]

==Early life==
Clarke grew up in London, UK where he lived with his mother, Kerstine Clarke. He had a passion for Psychology and studies of nonverbal communication, as well as having a strong love for travel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/amp/lifestyle/culture/article/what-makes-dan-james-clarke-an-outstanding-social-media-entrepreneur-at-just-20-23165768|title=What makes Dan James Clarke an outstanding social media entrepreneur at just 20?|website=Midday}}</ref>

==Career==
Clarke initially started his ventures on social media in 2015, at just 14 years old. He grew multiple theme pages on Instagram, amassing over 300,000 followers in total over just a few years. In 2019 he started marketing for popular applications and social media platforms including TikTok, Yubo and calm app.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.usejournal.com/social-media-the-modern-day-drug-5999231e97b3?gi=5fcc901c262|title=Social Media: The Modern Day Drug|website=Use Journal}}</ref>
He eventually found a passion for writing, initially publishing his first article on medium called “Social media: the modern day drug”. Since then he has published his best selling Amazon book: “I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?! In 2020, Clarke started providing social media services to multiple well known clients including Bryce Monkivitch, Tms Tystar, Chris Mark Featherstone, Scotty Chickens and many more. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://businessdeccan.com/meet-dan-james-clarke-author-of-im-way-too-sober-for-this-sht-and-popular-social-media-entrepreneur/|title=Meet Dan James Clarke, Author of ‘I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?!’ and Popular Social Media Entrepreneur|website=Business Deccan}}</ref>

==Awards==
Jack Petchey Award (2014)<ref>{{Cite web|url=www.thestatesman.com/inspiration-hub/dan-james-clarke-made-name-field-social-media-1502959158.html|title=Dan James Clarke has made his name in field of social media|website=The Statesman}}</ref>

==Social Media==
Dan James Clarke on Facebook<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/danjamesclarke|title=Dan James}}</ref>

Dan James Clarke on Instagram<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://instagram.com/dan_clrk|title=Dan James Clarke}}</ref>

Draft:Dan James Clarke

2021-08-18T17:47:55Z

Saumyasingh: Saumyasingh moved page Draft:Dan James Clarke to Dan James Clarke: New Contribution

#REDIRECT [[Dan James Clarke]]

Dan James Clarke

2021-08-18T17:47:49Z

Saumyasingh: Saumyasingh moved page Draft:Dan James Clarke to Dan James Clarke: New Contribution

{{Infobox person
| name =Dan James Clarke
| image =Dan_James_Clarke.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| birth_date =March 25, 2001
| nationality =London, United Kingdom
| occupation =Entrepreneur
| years_active =2010-present
}}

'''Dan James Clarke''' is a British entrepreneur who specialises in social media marketing. He has conducted marketing for major social media platforms such as TikTok as well as providing expert advice in social media growth to brands, influencers, music artists, models and celebrities. He now invests in future innovative technologies and sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uk.style.yahoo.com/style/following-success-dan-james-clarke-103837151.html|title=Following the Success of Dan James Clarke, One of the UK’s Most Successful Social Media Entrepreneurs|website=Yahoo}}</ref>
[[Category:Entrepreneur]]

==Early life==
Clarke grew up in London, UK where he lived with his mother, Kerstine Clarke. He had a passion for Psychology and studies of nonverbal communication, as well as having a strong love for travel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/amp/lifestyle/culture/article/what-makes-dan-james-clarke-an-outstanding-social-media-entrepreneur-at-just-20-23165768|title=What makes Dan James Clarke an outstanding social media entrepreneur at just 20?|website=Midday}}</ref>

==Career==
Clarke initially started his ventures on social media in 2015, at just 14 years old. He grew multiple theme pages on Instagram, amassing over 300,000 followers in total over just a few years. In 2019 he started marketing for popular applications and social media platforms including TikTok, Yubo and calm app.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.usejournal.com/social-media-the-modern-day-drug-5999231e97b3?gi=5fcc901c262|title=Social Media: The Modern Day Drug|website=Use Journal}}</ref>
He eventually found a passion for writing, initially publishing his first article on medium called “Social media: the modern day drug”. Since then he has published his best selling Amazon book: “I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?! In 2020, Clarke started providing social media services to multiple well known clients including Bryce Monkivitch, Tms Tystar, Chris Mark Featherstone, Scotty Chickens and many more. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://businessdeccan.com/meet-dan-james-clarke-author-of-im-way-too-sober-for-this-sht-and-popular-social-media-entrepreneur/|title=Meet Dan James Clarke, Author of ‘I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?!’ and Popular Social Media Entrepreneur|website=Business Deccan}}</ref>

==Awards==
Jack Petchey Award (2014)<ref>{{Cite web|url=www.thestatesman.com/inspiration-hub/dan-james-clarke-made-name-field-social-media-1502959158.html/amp|title=Dan James Clarke has made his name in field of social media|website=The Statesman}}</ref>

==Social Media==
Dan James Clarke on Facebook<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/danjamesclarke}}</ref>

Dan James Clarke on Instagram<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://instagram.com/dan_clrk}}</ref>

Dan James Clarke

2021-08-18T17:47:11Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{Infobox person | name =Dan James Clarke | image =Dan_James_Clarke.jpg | image_size = 200px | birth_date =March 25, 2001 | nationality =London, United Kingdom | occupatio..."

{{Infobox person
| name =Dan James Clarke
| image =Dan_James_Clarke.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| birth_date =March 25, 2001
| nationality =London, United Kingdom
| occupation =Entrepreneur
| years_active =2010-present
}}

'''Dan James Clarke''' is a British entrepreneur who specialises in social media marketing. He has conducted marketing for major social media platforms such as TikTok as well as providing expert advice in social media growth to brands, influencers, music artists, models and celebrities. He now invests in future innovative technologies and sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uk.style.yahoo.com/style/following-success-dan-james-clarke-103837151.html|title=Following the Success of Dan James Clarke, One of the UK’s Most Successful Social Media Entrepreneurs|website=Yahoo}}</ref>
[[Category:Entrepreneur]]

==Early life==
Clarke grew up in London, UK where he lived with his mother, Kerstine Clarke. He had a passion for Psychology and studies of nonverbal communication, as well as having a strong love for travel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mid-day.com/amp/lifestyle/culture/article/what-makes-dan-james-clarke-an-outstanding-social-media-entrepreneur-at-just-20-23165768|title=What makes Dan James Clarke an outstanding social media entrepreneur at just 20?|website=Midday}}</ref>

==Career==
Clarke initially started his ventures on social media in 2015, at just 14 years old. He grew multiple theme pages on Instagram, amassing over 300,000 followers in total over just a few years. In 2019 he started marketing for popular applications and social media platforms including TikTok, Yubo and calm app.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.usejournal.com/social-media-the-modern-day-drug-5999231e97b3?gi=5fcc901c262|title=Social Media: The Modern Day Drug|website=Use Journal}}</ref>
He eventually found a passion for writing, initially publishing his first article on medium called “Social media: the modern day drug”. Since then he has published his best selling Amazon book: “I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?! In 2020, Clarke started providing social media services to multiple well known clients including Bryce Monkivitch, Tms Tystar, Chris Mark Featherstone, Scotty Chickens and many more. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://businessdeccan.com/meet-dan-james-clarke-author-of-im-way-too-sober-for-this-sht-and-popular-social-media-entrepreneur/|title=Meet Dan James Clarke, Author of ‘I’m Way Too Sober For This Sh*t?!’ and Popular Social Media Entrepreneur|website=Business Deccan}}</ref>

==Awards==
Jack Petchey Award (2014)<ref>{{Cite web|url=www.thestatesman.com/inspiration-hub/dan-james-clarke-made-name-field-social-media-1502959158.html/amp|title=Dan James Clarke has made his name in field of social media|website=The Statesman}}</ref>

==Social Media==
Dan James Clarke on Facebook<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/danjamesclarke}}</ref>

Dan James Clarke on Instagram<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://instagram.com/dan_clrk}}</ref>

Western Australia

2021-08-09T17:18:24Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{short description|State in Australia}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}} {{Use Australian English|date=October 2013}} {{Infobox settlement | name..."

{{short description|State in Australia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Use Australian English|date=October 2013}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Western Australia
| settlement_type = [[states and territories of Australia|State]]
| image_flag = Flag of Western Australia.svg
| flag_size = 125px
| flag_link = Flag of Western Australia
| image_shield = Western Australian Coat of Arms.svg
| shield_size = 120px
| shield_link = Coat of arms of Western Australia
| nickname = The Wildflower State; The Golden State
| image_map = Western Australia in Australia.svg
| mapsize = 300px
| map_caption = Location of Western Australia in Australia
| coordinates = {{coord|26|S|121|E|type:adm1st_region:AU-WA|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Australia}}
| established_title = Established (as the [[Swan River Colony]])
| established_date = {{date|2 May 1829}}
| established_title1 = [[Responsible government|Responsible govt.]] as [[Colony of Western Australia]]
| established_date1 = {{date|21 October 1890}}
| established_title2 = [[Federation of Australia|Federation]]
| established_date2 = {{date|1 January 1901}}
| established_title3 = ''[[Australia Act 1986|Australia Act]]''
| established_date3 = {{date|3 March 1986}}
| seat_type = [[List of Australian capital cities|Capital]]
| seat = [[Perth]]
| seat1_type = [[List of cities in Australia by population|Largest city]]
| seat1 = Perth
| government_type = Parliamentary [[constitutional monarchy]]
| governing_body = {{nowrap|[[Government of Western Australia]]}}
| leader_title = [[Governor of Western Australia|Governor]]
| leader_name = [[Kim Beazley]]
| leader_title1 = [[Premier of Western Australia|Premier]]
| leader_name1 = [[Mark McGowan]] ([[Australian Labor Party (Western Australian Branch)|ALP]])
| government_blank1_title = [[Legislature]]
* [[Upper house]]
* [[Lower house]]
| government_blank1 = [[Parliament of Western Australia]]
[[Western Australian Legislative Council|Legislative Council]] (36 seats)
[[Western Australian Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] (59 seats)
| government_blank2_title = [[Judiciary of Australia|Judiciary]]
| government_blank2 = * [[Supreme Court of Western Australia|Supreme Court of WA]]
* [[Family Court of Western Australia|Family Court of WA]]
* [[District Court of Western Australia|District Court of WA]]
* [[Magistrates Court of Western Australia|Magistrates Court of WA]]
| government_blank3_title = Federal representation
| government_blank3 = [[Parliament of Australia]]
* [[House of Representatives (Australia)|House seats]] 16/151
* [[Australian Senate|Senate seats]] [[List of senators from Western Australia|12]]/76
| area_total_km2 = {{#expr: 2527013 + 115740}}
| area_land_km2 = 2527013
| area_water_km2 = 115740
| area_rank = 1st
| elevation_max_m = 1249
| elevation_max_point = [[Mount Meharry]]
| population_footnotes = <ref name=ABSPop>{{cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/national-state-and-territory-population/sep-2020|title = National, state and territory population – September 2020|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=18 March 2021|accessdate=18 March 2021}}</ref>
| population_as_of = September 2020
| population_total = 2667130
| population_rank = 4th
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_density_rank = 7th
| population_demonym = Western Australian, Sandgroper (colloquial)
| timezone1 = [[Australian Western Standard Time|AWST]]
| utc_offset1 = +08:00
| timezone2 = [[Eucla, Western Australia#TimeZone|ACWST]]
| utc_offset2 = +08:45
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = WA
| iso_code = AU-WA
| blank_name_sec1 = GSP year
| blank_info_sec1 = 2019–20<ref>{{cite web |title=Western Australian Economic Notes - Gross State Product - 2019-20 |url=https://www.wa.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-12/gross-state-product-economic-notes-2019-20.pdf |access-date=19 January 2021}}</ref>
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[List of Australian states and territories by gross state product|GSP]] ($A million)
| blank1_info_sec1 = $292,284 (4th)
| blank2_name_sec1 = GSP per capita
| blank2_info_sec1 = $110,752 (1st)
| website = {{URL|www.wa.gov.au}}
| module = {{Infobox place symbols| embedded=Yes
| mammal = [[Numbat]] (''Myrmecobius fasciatus'')
| bird = [[Black swan]] (''Cygnus atratus'')
| fish = [[Whale shark]] (''Rhincodon typus'')
| flower = [[Anigozanthos manglesii|Red-and-green or Mangles kangaroo paw]] (''Anigozanthos manglesii'')
| fossil = [[Mcnamaraspis kaprios|Gogo fish]] (''Mcnamaraspis kaprios'')
| colour = Black and gold
}}
}}
'''Western Australia''' (abbreviated as '''WA''') is a [[States and territories of Australia|state]] occupying the western {{#expr: ( 2527013 / 7688287 * 100.0 ) round 1}} percent of the land area of [[Australia]] excluding external territories.<ref name="ga20" /> It is bounded by the [[Indian Ocean]] to the north and west, and the [[Southern Ocean]] to the south, the [[Northern Territory]] to the north-east, and [[South Australia]] to the south-east. Western Australia is Australia's largest state, with a total land area of {{convert|2527013|km2}},<ref name="ga20" /> and the [[List of country subdivisions by area|second-largest country subdivision]] in the world, surpassed only by [[Russia]]'s [[Sakha|Sakha Republic]]. {{As of|2017|post=,}} the state has about 2.6 million inhabitants {{ndash}} around 11 percent of the national total {{ndash}} of whom the vast majority (92 percent) live in the [[South-West Land Division|south-west corner]]; 79 percent of the population lives in the [[Perth]] area,<ref name=ABSCapitalPop/> leaving the remainder of the state sparsely populated.

The first Europeans to visit Western Australia belonged to the Dutch [[Dirk Hartog]] expedition, who visited the Western Australian coast in 1616. The first permanent European settlement of Western Australia occurred following the landing by Major [[Edmund Lockyer]] on {{date|26 December 1826}} of an expedition on behalf of the [[New South Wales]] colonial government,<ref name="Western Australia Foundation">{{cite web |url=https://www.records.nsw.gov.au/agency/king-georges-sound-settlement |title=King George's Sound Settlement |publisher=[[State Records Authority of New South Wales]] |access-date={{date|30 August 2016}}}}</ref> although [[Wiebbe Hayes Stone Fort]]{{em dash}}the oldest surviving European building in Australia{{em dash}}was built {{#expr: floor( ( {{JULIANDAY|1826|12|26}}-{{JULIANDAY|1629|6|4}} ) / 365.25 )}} years prior in 1629 on [[West Wallabi Island]] in Western Australia by survivors of the {{ship||Batavia|1628 ship|6}} shipwreck and massacre. Lockyer established a convict-supported military garrison at [[King George Sound|King George III Sound]], at present-day [[Albany, Western Australia|Albany]], and on {{date|21 January 1827}}<ref name="Western Australia Foundation"/> formally took possession for the British Crown of the western part of the continent that was not already claimed by the British Crown.<ref name="rei08" />{{rp|5}} This was followed by the establishment of the [[Swan River Colony]] in 1829, including the site of the present-day capital, [[Perth]].

[[York, Western Australia|York]] was the first inland settlement in Western Australia. Situated {{convert|97|km|mi|0|abbr=off}} east of Perth, it was settled on {{date|16 September 1831}}.<ref name=knibbs>{{cite book | last1 = Knibbs | first1 = G.H. | author-link1 = George Handley Knibbs | title = Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia | chapter = The Creation of the Several Colonies | volume = 4 | publisher = Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics | year = 1911 | location = Melbourne | page = 16 }}</ref> Western Australia achieved [[responsible government]] in 1890 and [[Federation of Australia|federated]] with the other British colonies in Australia in 1901. Today, its [[Economy of Western Australia|economy]] mainly relies on mining, oil and gas, services and construction. The state produces 46 per cent of Australia's exports.<ref name=wsj>{{cite news | first = Enda | last = Curran | title = Western Australia Plans Sovereign Wealth Fund | date = 21 February 2012 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203358704577236780148058626 | work = The Wall Street Journal | access-date = 15 March 2012}}</ref> Western Australia is the largest [[iron ore]] producer in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/iron_ore/mcs-2015-feore.pdf|title=US Geological Survey|date=2014|website=Minerals.usgs.gov|access-date=11 June 2016}}</ref> Its motto is "Cygnis Insignis" ("Bearing the Sign of the Swan"). Its nickname is "The Wildflower State".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Thomas|first=Abbie|date=2002-08-02|title=Western Australian wildflowers bloom|url=https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2002/08/02/2588185.htm|access-date=2020-11-03|website=www.abc.net.au|language=en-AU}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Western Australia}}

The first modern human inhabitants of Australia arrived from the north about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago. Over thousands of years they eventually spread across the whole landmass. These [[Indigenous Australians]] were long established throughout Western Australia by the time European explorers began to arrive in the early 17th century.

[[File:Hessel Gerritsz - Malay Archipelago and Australia.jpg|thumb|right|Map first drawn in 1618 by [[Hessel Gerritsz]] showing the charted coast of Australia. Chartings after 1618, for example by [[François Thijssen]] in 1627, were added to the engraved plate between 1628 and 1632.<ref name="ger18">{{cite web |title=Chart of the Malay Archipelago and the Dutch discoveries in Australia |last=Gerritsz |first=Hessel |author1-link=Hessel Gerritsz |others=Octroy Vande H.M. Heeren de Staten Generael der Vereenichde Neerlanden. The discoveries after 1618 were added to the engraved plate between 1628 and 1632 |publisher=Hessel Gerritsz |location=Amsterdam |year=1618–1638
|url=https://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-231306238/view |via=Trove |access-date=2020-08-03 }}</ref>]]The first Europeans to visit Western Australia were those of the Dutch [[Dirk Hartog]] expedition, who on 25 October 1616 landed at what is now known as Cape Inscription, [[Dirk Hartog Island]]. For the rest of the 17th century, [[European maritime exploration of Australia|other Dutch and British navigators]] encountered the coast of what [[Abel Tasman]] named [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]] in 1644, usually unintentionally as demonstrated by the many shipwrecks along the coast of ships that deviated from the [[Brouwer Route]] (because of poor navigation and storms).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Green |first=J.N. |date=1977 |title=Australia's oldest wreck: The Loss of the Trial, 1622 |url=http://museum.wa.gov.au/maritime-archaeology-db/sites/default/files/no._278_trial_bar_1977_0.pdf |journal=British Archaeological Reports, Supplementary Series |volume=27 |location=Oxford}}</ref> By the late 18th century, British and French sailors had begun to explore the Western Australian coast. The [[Baudin expedition to Australia|Baudin expedition]] of 1800–03 included the coast of Western Australia, and resulted in the [[Freycinet Map of 1811]], the first published map featuring the full outline of Australia. The name New Holland remained in popular and semi-official use until at least the mid-1850s; that is, it was in use for about {{#expr: 1850 - 1644}} years in comparison to the name Australia which to date has been in use for about {{#expr: floor( ( {{CURRENTJULIANDAY}} - {{JULIANDAY|1829}} ) / 365.25 ) }} years.<ref name="wayb79" />{{rp|11}}

[[File:Thevenot - Hollandia Nova detecta 1644.png |thumb |left |[[Melchisédech Thévenot]]'s ''Hollandia Nova—Terre Australe'' in his travel anthology ({{lang-fr|Relations de divers voyages curieux}}) published in 1664,<ref name="the64" /> and which seems to be a copy of ''Archipelagus Orientalis sive Asiaticus'' by [[Joan Blaeu]] in the ''Atlas of the Great Elector'' ({{lang-de|Atlas des Großen Kurfürsten}}) from 1659.<ref name="bla59" /> The latitude staff depicted by Thévenot falls along the ''Zaragoza antimeridian'' from the [[Treaty of Zaragoza]] of 1529 between [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] and [[Portugal]], and which complemented the ''Tordesillas meridian'' from the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] of 1494.]]
The origins of the present state began with the establishment by Lockyer<ref name="Western Australia Foundation"/> of a convict-supported settlement from [[New South Wales]] at [[King George Sound|King George III Sound]]. The settlement was formally annexed on 21 January 1827 by Lockyer when he commanded the [[Union Jack]] be raised and a [[feu de joie]] fired by the troops. The settlement was founded in response to British concerns about the possibility of a French colony being established on the coast of Western Australia.<ref name="Western Australia Foundation"/> On 7 March 1831 it was transferred to the control of the Swan River Colony,<ref name=knibbs/> and named [[Albany, Western Australia|Albany]] in 1832.

In 1829 the [[Swan River Colony]] was established on the Swan River by Captain [[James Stirling (Australian governor)|James Stirling]]. By 1832, the British settler population of the colony had reached around 1,500, and the official name of the colony was changed to Western Australia on 6 February that year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://poi-australia.com.au/swan-river-colony-proclaimed/|title=Swan River Colony Proclaimed|publisher=POI Australia|language=English|accessdate=13 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://statelibrarynsw.tumblr.com/post/156855938896/on-this-day-6th-february-1832-the-swan-river|title=On this day, 6th February 1832|newspaper=State Library of New South Wales|language=English|accessdate=13 February 2021}}</ref> The two separate townsites of the colony developed slowly into the port city of [[Fremantle]] and the state's capital, Perth. [[York, Western Australia|York]] was the first inland settlement in Western Australia, situated {{convert|97|km}} east of Perth and settled on 16 September 1831. York was the staging point for early explorers who discovered the rich gold reserves of Kalgoorlie.

Population growth was very slow until significant discoveries of gold were made in the 1890s around [[Kalgoorlie]].

[[File:John Forrest 1898.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.75|[[John Forrest]] was the first Premier of Western Australia.]]
In 1887, a new constitution was drafted, providing for the right of self-governance of European Australians and in 1890, the act granting [[self-governing colony|self-government]] to the colony was passed by the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]]. [[John Forrest]] became the first [[Premier of Western Australia]].

In 1896, the [[Western Australian Parliament]] authorised the raising of a loan to construct a [[Pipeline transport|pipeline]] to transport {{convert|5|e6impgal|ML|order=flip|abbr=off}} of water per day to the Goldfields of Western Australia. The pipeline, known as the [[Goldfields Water Supply Scheme]], was completed in 1903. [[C. Y. O'Connor|{{thinspace|C. Y.}} O'Connor]], Western Australia's first engineer-in-chief, designed and oversaw the construction of the pipeline. It carries water {{convert|530|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Perth to [[Kalgoorlie]], and is attributed by historians as an important factor driving the state's population and economic growth.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A110059b.htm |title=''O'Connor, Charles Yelverton (1843–1902)'' |author=Tauman, Merab Harris |publisher=[[Melbourne University Press|MUP]] |year=1988 |pages=51–54 |access-date=12 July 2008}}</ref>

Following a campaign led by Forrest, residents of the colony of Western Australia (still informally called the Swan River Colony) voted in favour of [[Federation of Australia|federation]], resulting in Western Australia officially becoming a state on 1 January 1901.

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Western Australia}}
Western Australia is bounded to the east by longitude 129°E, the meridian 129 degrees east of Greenwich, which defines the border with South Australia and the [[Northern Territory]], and bounded by the Indian Ocean to the west and north. The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO) designates the [[Australia and the Southern Ocean|body of water south of the continent]] as part of the Indian Ocean; in Australia it is officially gazetted as the [[Southern Ocean]].{{ref label|Note1|b|b}}<ref name="SouthernOcean">{{cite web|url=http://www.iho.shom.fr/publicat/free/files/S23_1953.pdf|title=Limits of Oceans and Seas (Special Publication No 23)|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007114205/http://www.iho.shom.fr/publicat/free/files/S23_1953.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 October 2009|year=1953|access-date=17 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theage.com.au/national/canberra-all-at-sea-over-position-of-southern-ocean-20031222-gdwzeb.html|title=Canberra all at sea over position of Southern Ocean|date=22 December 2003|newspaper=[[The Age]]|access-date=17 February 2019}}</ref>

The total length of the [[Border of Western Australia|state's eastern border]] is {{convert|1862|km|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/dimensions/borders.htm|title=State And Territory Borders|publisher=Geoscience Australia|date=11 September 2007|access-date=25 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128113204/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/dimensions/borders.htm |archive-date = 28 November 2007}}</ref> There are {{convert|20781|km|0|abbr=on}} of coastline, including {{convert|7892|km|0|abbr=on}} of island coastline.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/coastline-lengths.html |title=Coastline Lengths |publisher=Geoscience Australia |date=18 November 2010 |access-date=21 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110122025201/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/coastline-lengths.html |archive-date=22 January 2011 }}</ref> The total land area occupied by the state is {{convert|2.5|e6km2|e3mi2|abbr=unit}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/dimensions/areadime.htm|title=Area of States and Territories|publisher=Geoscience Australia|date=31 August 2005|access-date=25 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080730134442/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/dimensions/areadime.htm |archive-date = 30 July 2008}}</ref>

===Geology===
The bulk of Western Australia consists of the extremely old [[Yilgarn craton]] and [[Pilbara craton]] which merged with the [[Deccan Plateau]] of India, [[Madagascar]] and the [[Kaapvaal Craton|Kaapvaal]] and [[Zimbabwe]] cratons of Southern Africa, in the [[Archean]] Eon to form [[Ur (continent)|Ur]], one of the oldest [[supercontinent]]s on Earth (3 – 3.2  billion years ago). In May 2017, evidence of the [[Earliest known life forms|earliest known life]] [[Evolutionary history of life#Colonization of land|on land]] may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old [[geyserite]] and other related mineral deposits (often found around [[hot spring]]s and [[geyser]]s) uncovered in the Pilbara craton.<ref name="PO-20170509">{{cite news |title=Oldest evidence of life on land found in 3.48-billion-year-old Australian rocks |url=https://phys.org/news/2017-05-oldest-evidence-life-billion-year-old-australian.html |date=9 May 2017 |website=[[Phys.org]] |access-date=13 May 2017 }}</ref><ref name="NC-20170509">{{cite journal |last1=Djokic |first1=Tara |last2=Van Kranendonk |first2=Martin J. |last3=Campbell |first3=Kathleen A. |last4=Walter |first4=Malcolm R. |last5=Ward |first5=Colin R. |title=Earliest signs of life on land preserved in ca. 3.5 Ga hot spring deposits |date=9 May 2017 |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=8 |pages=15263 |doi=10.1038/ncomms15263 |pmid=28486437 |pmc=5436104 |bibcode=2017NatCo...815263D }}</ref>

Because the only [[orogeny|mountain-building]] since then has been of the [[Stirling Range]] with the rifting from [[Antarctica]], the land is extremely eroded and ancient, with no part of the state above 1,245 metres (4,085 ft) [[Australian Height Datum|AHD]] (at [[Mount Meharry]] in the [[Hamersley Range]] of the [[Pilbara]] region). Most of the state is a low plateau with an average elevation of about 400 metres (1,200 ft), very low relief, and no [[surface runoff]]. This descends relatively sharply to the coastal plains, in some cases forming a sharp escarpment (as with the Darling Range/[[Darling Scarp]] near Perth).

[[File:WAHighways.png|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Western Australian cities, towns, settlements and [[List of highways in Western Australia|road network]].]]

The extreme age of the landscape has meant that the soils are remarkably infertile and frequently [[laterite|laterised]]. Even soils derived from [[granite|granitic]] [[bedrock]] contain an order of magnitude less available [[phosphorus]] and only half as much [[nitrogen]] as soils in comparable climates in other continents. Soils derived from extensive sandplains or [[ironstone]] are even less fertile, nearly devoid of soluble phosphate and deficient in [[zinc]], copper, [[molybdenum]] and sometimes [[potassium]] and [[calcium]].

The infertility of most of the soils has required heavy application by farmers of fertilisers. These have resulted in damage to [[invertebrate]] and bacterial populations.{{citation needed|date=November 2017}} The grazing and use of hoofed mammals and, later, heavy machinery through the years have resulted in [[soil compaction|compaction of soils]] and great damage to the fragile soils.

Large-scale land clearing for agriculture has damaged habitats for native flora and fauna. As a result, the [[Southwest Australia|South West region]] of the state has a higher concentration of rare, threatened or endangered flora and fauna than many areas of Australia, making it one of the world's biodiversity "hot spots". Large areas of the state's wheatbelt region have problems with [[Soil salinity control|dryland salinity]] and the loss of fresh water.

===Climate===
[[File:Western Australia Köppen.svg|left|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] in Western Australia]]
The [[Southwest corner of Western Australia|southwest coastal area]] has a [[Mediterranean climate]]. It was originally heavily forested, including large stands of [[karri]], one of the [[List of tallest trees|tallest trees]] in the world.<ref>{{cite web | title = Climate of Western Australia | publisher=Bureau of Meteorology |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/ausclimwa.htm | access-date =6 December 2009|archive-url=http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/96122/20090317-1643/www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/ausclimwa.html|archive-date=17 March 2009}} {{Dead link |date=December 2016}}</ref> This agricultural region is one of the nine most bio-diverse terrestrial habitats, with a higher proportion of [[endemic species]] than most other equivalent regions. Thanks to the offshore [[Leeuwin Current]], the area is one of the top six regions for marine biodiversity and contains the most southerly [[coral reef]]s in the world.

Average annual rainfall varies from 300 millimetres (12 in) at the edge of the [[Wheatbelt (Western Australia)|Wheatbelt]] region to 1,400 millimetres (55 in) in the wettest areas near [[Northcliffe, Western Australia|Northcliffe]], but from November to March, evaporation exceeds rainfall, and it is generally very dry. Plants are adapted to this as well as the extreme poverty of all soils.

The central two-thirds of the state is [[arid]] and sparsely inhabited. The only significant economic activity is mining. Annual rainfall averages less than 300 millimetres (8–10 in), most of which occurs in sporadic torrential falls related to cyclone events in summer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/jsp/ncc/climate_averages/rainfall/index.jsp |title=Average annual, seasonal and monthly rainfall |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia, Bureau of Meteorology |date=26 October 2011 |access-date=1 June 2014 }}</ref>

An exception to this is the northern tropical regions. The [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley]] has an extremely hot monsoonal climate with average annual rainfall ranging from 500 to 1,500 millimetres (20–60 in), but there is a very long almost rainless season from April to November. Eighty-five percent of the state's [[runoff (water)|runoff]] occurs in the Kimberley, but because it occurs in violent floods and because of the insurmountable poverty of the generally shallow soils, the only development has taken place along the [[Ord River]].

Snow is rare in the state and typically occurs only in the [[Stirling Range]] near [[Albany, Western Australia|Albany]], as it is the only mountain range far enough south and sufficiently elevated. More rarely, snow can fall on the nearby [[Porongurup National Park|Porongurup Range]]. Snow outside these areas is a major event; it usually occurs in hilly areas of southwestern Australia. The most widespread low-level snow occurred on 26 June 1956 when snow was reported in the [[Perth Hills]], as far north as [[Wongan Hills, Western Australia|Wongan Hills]] and as far east as [[Salmon Gums, Western Australia|Salmon Gums]]. However, even in the Stirling Range, snowfalls rarely exceed {{convert|5|cm|0|abbr=on}} and rarely settle for more than one day.<ref>[http://www.feargod.net/wa-snow1.php Snow in Western Australia: About Snow in WA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511051459/http://www.feargod.net/wa-snow1.php |date=11 May 2011 }}. Retrieved 4 February 2007.</ref>

The highest observed maximum temperature of 50.5 °C (122.9 °F) was recorded at [[Mardie Station]] on 19 February 1998. The lowest minimum temperature recorded was −7.2 °C (19.0 °F) at [[Eyre Bird Observatory]] on 17 August 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/extreme/records/national.pdf|title=Rainfall and Temperature Records: National|publisher=[[Bureau of Meteorology]]|access-date=14 November 2009}}</ref>

{{Weather box
|location = Western Australia
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan record high C = 49.8
|Feb record high C = 50.5
|Mar record high C = 48.1
|Apr record high C = 45.0
|May record high C = 40.6
|Jun record high C = 37.8
|Jul record high C = 38.3
|Aug record high C = 41.2
|Sep record high C = 43.1
|Oct record high C = 46.9
|Nov record high C = 48.0
|Dec record high C = 49.8
|Jan record low C = 0.9
|Feb record low C = 0.5
|Mar record low C = -0.8
|Apr record low C = -2.2
|May record low C = -5.6
|Jun record low C = -6.0
|Jul record low C = -6.7
|Aug record low C = -7.2
|Sep record low C = -5.1
|Oct record low C = -5.0
|Nov record low C = -2.1
|Dec record low C = 0.0
|source = [[Bureau of Meteorology]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Australian Daily Extremes Table |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/climate/extremes/monthly_extremes.cgi?area=wa |website=Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=25 November 2020}}</ref>
|date=November 2020
}}

===Flora and fauna===
[[File:RottnestQuokka.jpg|alt=|thumb|A [[quokka]] on [[Rottnest Island]]]]
[[File:Black Swans.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|The [[black swan]] is the state bird of Western Australia]]
Western Australia is home to around [[List of Western Australian birds|540 species of birds]] (depending on the taxonomy used). Of these around 15 are [[endemic species|endemic]] to the state. The best areas for birds are the southwestern corner of the state and the area around Broome and the Kimberley.

The [[Flora of Western Australia]] comprises 10,162 published native [[vascular plant]] species, along with a further 1,196 species currently recognised but unpublished. They occur within 1,543 [[genus|genera]] from 211 [[Family (biology)|families]]; there are also 1,276 naturalised alien or invasive plant species, more commonly known as weeds.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://florabase.dpaw.wa.gov.au/statistics/|title=2016 Vascular Flora Statistics|publisher=Flora Base|access-date=3 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://florabase.dpaw.wa.gov.au/articles/sequence/sequence|title=New linear systematic sequence for vascular plants|publisher=Flora Base|access-date=3 June 2017|archive-date=15 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215190326/https://florabase.dpaw.wa.gov.au/articles/sequence/sequence|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the southwest region are some of the largest numbers of plant species for its area in the world. Western Australia's [[ecoregion]]s include the sandstone gorges of [[Kimberley tropical savanna|The Kimberley]] on the northern coast, and below that the drier [[Victoria Plains tropical savanna]] inland, and the semi-desert [[Pilbara shrublands]], [[Carnarvon xeric shrublands]], and [[Western Australian mulga shrublands]] to the southwest. Southwards along the coast are the [[Southwest Australia savanna]] and the [[Swan Coastal Plain]] around Perth, with the [[Warren (biogeographic region)|Jarrah-Karri forest and shrublands]] on the southwest corner of the coast around the [[Margaret River]] wine-growing area.
Going east along the Southern Ocean coast is the [[Goldfields-Esperance]] region, including the [[Esperance mallee]] and the [[Coolgardie (biogeographic region)|Coolgardie woodlands]] inland around town of [[Coolgardie]]. Deserts occupy the interior, including the [[Great Sandy-Tanami desert]], [[Gibson Desert]], [[Great Victoria Desert]], and [[Nullarbor Plain]].

In 1831 Scottish botanist [[Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)|Robert Brown]] produced a scientific paper, ''[[General view of the botany of the vicinity of Swan River]]''. It discusses the vegetation of the [[Swan River Colony]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Diels, Ludwig; Carr, D. J. (translator) | year = 1981 | chapter = Extra-tropical Western Australia | pages = 47–78 | editor = Carr, D. J.; Carr, S. G. M. | title = People and plants in Australia | publisher = Academic Press Australia | isbn = 978-0-12-160720-3}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{See also|Demographics of Australia}}
[[File:Ngaanyatjarra kids.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ngaanyatjarra]] children, from the desert regions of Western Australia]]
[[File:Perth (AU), Elizabeth Quay -- 2019 -- 0259.jpg|alt=|thumb|Western Australia's capital and largest city, [[Perth]]. Its metropolitan area is home to 75% of the state's population.]]
[[File:Western Australia population T.svg|upright=1.15|thumb|left|WA population growth 1829–2010]]
[[File:WA population density by SA1 (2016).svg|thumb|right|Distribution of the Western Australian population (as density of SA1 census districts)]]

Europeans began to settle permanently in 1826 when [[Albany, Western Australia|Albany]] was claimed by Britain to forestall French claims to the western third of the continent. Perth was founded as the [[Swan River Colony]] in 1829 by British and Irish settlers, though the outpost languished. Its officials eventually requested [[Convictism in Australia|convict]] labour to augment its population. In the 1890s, interstate immigration, resulting from a mining boom in the [[Goldfields-Esperance|Goldfields region]], resulted in a sharp population increase.

Western Australia did not receive significant flows of [[Immigration to Australia|immigrants]] from Britain, Ireland or elsewhere in the [[British Empire]] until the early 20th century. At that time, its local projects—such as the [[Group Settlement Scheme]] of the 1920s, which encouraged farmers to settle the southwest—increased awareness of Australia's western third as a destination for colonists.

Led by immigrants from the British Isles, Western Australia's population developed at a faster rate during the twentieth century than it had previously. After [[World War II]], both the eastern states and Western Australia received large numbers of [[Italian Australian|Italians]], [[Croatian Australian|Croatians]] and [[Macedonian Australians|Macedonians]]. Despite this, Britain has contributed the greatest number of immigrants to this day. Western Australia—particularly Perth—has the highest proportion of British-born of any state: 10.3% in 2011, compared to a national average of 5.1%. This group is heavily concentrated in certain parts, where they account for a quarter of the population.<ref name=abs_2011>{{cite web|title=Country of Birth|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/3105.0.65.0012014?OpenDocument|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|access-date=27 October 2014|format=xls|date=1 October 2014}}</ref>

Perth's metropolitan area (including [[Mandurah]]) had an estimated population of 2,043,138<ref name=ABSCapitalPop>{{cite web|title=3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2016–17: Main Features|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/3218.0Main+Features12016-17|publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=24 April 2018|access-date=13 October 2018}} Estimated resident population, 30 June 2017.</ref> in June 2017 (79% of the state). Other significant population centres include [[Bunbury, Western Australia|Bunbury]] (73,989),<ref name=ABSSUA>{{cite web|title=3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2016–17: Population Estimates by Significant Urban Area, 2007 to 2017|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/3218.02016-17|publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=24 April 2018|access-date=12 October 2018}} Estimated resident population, 30 June 2017.</ref> [[Geraldton]] (37,961),<ref name=ABSSUA/> [[Kalgoorlie-Boulder]] (30,420),<ref name=ABSSUA/> [[Albany, Western Australia|Albany]] (33,998),<ref name=ABSSUA/> [[Karratha]] (16,446),<ref name=ABSSUA/> [[Broome, Western Australia|Broome]] (14,501)<ref name=ABSSUA/> and [[Port Hedland, Western Australia|Port Hedland]] (14,285).<ref name=ABSSUA/>

===Ancestry and immigration===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right;"
|+Country of birth (2016)<ref name="quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au">{{cite web |title=2016 Census Community Profiles: Western Australia |url=https://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/communityprofile/5?opendocument |website=quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au}}</ref><ref name="censusdata.abs.gov.au">{{cite web |title=2016 - Census Output |url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/CensusOutput/copsub2016.NSF/All%20docs%20by%20catNo/2016~Community%20Profile~5/$File/GCP_5.zip?OpenElement |website=www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/}}</ref>
! Birthplace{{refn|group="N"|In accordance with the Australian Bureau of Statistics source, [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Mainland China]] and the Special Administrative Regions of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] are listed separately}} !! Population
|-
| [[Australia]] ||1,492,842
|-
| [[England]] ||194,163 
|-
| [[New Zealand]] ||79,221
|-
| [[India]] ||49,385
|-
| [[South Africa]] ||41,008
|-
| [[Philippines]] ||30,835
|-
| [[Malaysia]] ||29,126
|-
| [[Mainland China]] ||27,126 
|-
| [[Scotland]] ||26,063 
|-
| [[Italy]] ||19,210
|}

At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were:{{refn|group="N"|As a percentage of 2,286,107 persons who nominated their ancestry at the 2016 census.}}<ref name="quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au"/><ref name="censusdata.abs.gov.au"/> 
{{columns-list|colwidth=13em|
* [[English Australians|English]] (40.7%)
* [[Australians|Australian]] (33.2%){{refn|group="N"|The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry are part of the [[Anglo-Celtic Australian|Anglo-Celtic]] group.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/49f609c83cf34d69ca2569de0025c182!OpenDocument|title=Feature Article - Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Australia (Feature Article)|first=c=AU; o=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Australian Bureau of|last=Statistics|website=www.abs.gov.au|date=January 1995}}</ref>}}
* [[Irish Australians|Irish]] (9.8%)
* [[Scottish Australians|Scottish]] (9.4%)
* [[Italian Australians|Italian]] (5.4%)
* [[Chinese Australians|Chinese]] (4.5%)
* [[German Australians|German]] (3.2%)
* [[Indigenous Australians|Indigenous]] (3.1%){{refn|group="N"|Of any ancestry. Includes those identifying as [[Aboriginal Australians]] or [[Torres Strait Islanders]]. Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.}}
* [[Indian Australians|Indian]] (3%)
* [[Dutch Australians|Dutch]] (2.1%)
* [[Filipino Australians|Filipino]] (1.6%)
* [[New Zealand Australians|New Zealander]] (1.4%)
* [[South African Australians|South African]] (1.3%)
* [[Māori Australians|Maori]] (1.2%)
}}

3.1% of the population, or 75,978 people, identified as [[Indigenous Australians]] ([[Aboriginal Australians]] and [[Torres Strait Islanders]]) in 2016.{{refn|group="N"|Of any ancestry. Includes those identifying as [[Aboriginal Australians]] or [[Torres Strait Islanders]]. Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.}}<ref name="quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au"/><ref name="censusdata.abs.gov.au"/>

===Language===
At the 2016 census, 75.2% of inhabitants spoke only English at home, with the next most common languages being [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (1.9%), [[Italian language|Italian]] (1.2%), [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] (0.8%), [[Cantonese]] (0.8%) and [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (0.6%).<ref name="quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au"/><ref name="censusdata.abs.gov.au"/>

===Religion===
At the {{CensusAU|2016}}, 55.5% of respondents identified as [[Christianity|Christian]] and 32.5% as having [[irreligion|no religion]]. 10.3% chose not to state a religion. The most commonly nominated responses were [[Roman Catholic|Catholicism]] (21.4%) and [[Anglican Church of Australia|Anglicanism]] (14.3%).<ref name="quickstats">{{Census 2016 AUS|id=5 |name=Western Australia |access-date=26 June 2019 |quick=on}}</ref><ref name="censusdata.abs.gov.au"/>

==Economy==
{{See also|Economy of Western Australia|Economy of Australia}}
[[File:Brockman 4 Process Plant, July 2019 03.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Brockman 4 mine|Brockman 4]], an [[Iron ore mining in Western Australia|iron ore mine]] in the [[Pilbara]] ]]
[[File:2007 Resource production WA-svg.svg|thumb|right|Western Australia's resource commodity mix, 2007]]
[[File:Major West Australian Commodities 2008-2009 ($ million).png|thumb|right|Major commodity mix, 2008–2009]]
Western Australia's economy is largely driven by extraction and processing of a diverse range of mineral and petroleum commodities. The structure of the economy is closely linked to these natural resources, providing a comparative advantage in resource extraction and processing. As a consequence:
* Western Australia contributes an estimated 58% of Australia's Mineral and Energy Exports,<ref name="Department of Mines and Petroleum">{{cite web|url=http://www.dmp.wa.gov.au/7846.aspx|title=Department of Mines and Petroleum|publisher=WA Department of Mines and Petroleum|date=9 November 2011|access-date=9 November 2011}}</ref> potentially earning up to 4.64% of Australia's total GDP.<ref name="Australian Bureau of Statistics">{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/1301.0Chapter18012009%E2%80%9310|title=Australian Bureau of Statistics|publisher=WA Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=9 November 2011|access-date=9 November 2011}}</ref>
* [[Gross state product]] per person ($97,940 in 2017–18) is higher than any other state and well above the national average ($73,267).<ref name="ABS Nat Accts">{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/mf/5220.0|title=Australian National Accounts: State Accounts, 2017–18|publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=16 November 2018|access-date=19 April 2019}}</ref>
* Diversification (i.e. a greater ''range'' of commodities) over the past 15 years has provided a more balanced production base and less reliance on just a few major export markets, insulating the economy from fluctuations in world prices to some extent.{{citation needed|date=November 2011}}
* Finance, insurance and property services and construction have grown steadily and have increased their share of economic output.<ref name="Structure2005">{{cite web|url=http://www.dtf.wa.gov.au/cms/uploadedFiles/structure_wa_economy_2005.pdf |title=Structure of the WA Economy |publisher=WA Department of Treasury and Finance |date=24 January 2006 |access-date=10 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001203306/http://www.dtf.wa.gov.au/cms/uploadedFiles/structure_wa_economy_2005.pdf |archive-date=1 October 2008 }}{{full citation needed|date=November 2011}} {{Dead link |date=December 2016}}</ref>
* Recent growth in global demand for minerals and petroleum, especially in China (iron-ore) and Japan (for LNG), has ensured economic growth above the national average.

In 2019 Western Australia's overseas exports accounted for 46% of the nation's total.<ref name=wsj/><ref name="austEcIndicators">{{cite web|url=http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/34CE7FFF9776F3F1CA2574B30017CFB2/$File/13500_sep%202008.pdf|title=Australian Economic Indicators|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|year=2008|access-date=11 September 2008}}</ref> The state's major export commodities included iron-ore, petroleum, gold, [[alumina]], nickel, wheat, copper, lithium, chemicals and [[mineral sands]].<ref name=profile>{{cite web |title=Western Australia Economic Profile |url=https://www.jtsi.wa.gov.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/wa-economic-profile-0320.pdf?sfvrsn=9bb8711c_4 |publisher=Government of Western Australia, Department of Jobs, Tourism, Science and Innovation |access-date=17 April 2020 |location=Perth, WA |page=8 |date=March 2020}}</ref>

Western Australia is the world's largest iron-ore producer (32% of the world's total), and extracts 67% (6% of world production) of Australia's 324 tonnes of gold. It is a major world producer of bauxite, which is processed into alumina at four refineries providing 11% of total world production. Diamonds are extracted at the world's largest [[Argyle diamond mine|diamond mine]] in the far north Kimberley region. Coal mined at [[Collie, Western Australia|Collie]] is the main fuel for baseload electricity generation in the state's south-west.<ref name=profile/><ref name=usgs>{{cite book |last1=Tuck |first1=Christopher A.|title=Mineral commodity summaries 2020 |date=20 January 2020 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |location=Reston, Virginia |isbn=978-1-4113-4362-7 |pages=88–89 |chapter-url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020.pdf |access-date=28 February 2020 |chapter=Iron ore}}</ref>

Agricultural production in WA is a major contributor to the state and national economy. Although tending to be highly seasonal, in the period 2010–2019 wheat production in WA has averaged nearly 10 million tonnes ($2.816 billion in 2019), accounting for half the nation's total and providing $2–3 billion in export income.<ref name="cropreport">{{cite web |last1=Wilkinson |first1=Ian |title=Western Australian wheat industry |url=https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/grains-research-development/western-australian-wheat-industry |publisher=Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Agriculture and Food division |access-date=17 April 2020 |location=South Perth, WA |date=9 April 2019}}</ref><ref name="WAatAglance">{{cite web |url=http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/EFF65DC1D23D314FCA25741D000DC292/$File/13065_2008_reissue.pdf|title=WA at a Glance 2008|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=2 April 2008|access-date=10 September 2008}}</ref>

Other significant farm output includes wool, beef, lamb, barley, canola, lupins, oats and pulses.<ref name="cropreport"/> There is a high level of overseas demand for live animals from WA, driven mainly by southeast Asia's feedlots and Middle Eastern countries, where [[Islamic dietary laws]] and a lack of storage and refrigeration facilities favour live animals over imports of processed meat. About half of Australia's live cattle exports come from Western Australia.<ref name="LivestockReport">{{cite web|url=http://abare.gov.au/publications_html/livestock/livestock_08/LiveExports.pdf |title=2008 Live Exports |publisher=ABARE |date=31 March 2008 |access-date=15 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719182756/http://abare.gov.au/publications_html/livestock/livestock_08/LiveExports.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2008 |page=9 }}</ref>

Resource sector growth in recent years has resulted in significant labour and skills shortages, leading to recent efforts by the state government to encourage interstate and overseas immigration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gowestnow.com|title=Go West Now|publisher=Government of Western Australia|year=2008|access-date=16 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121040603/http://www.gowestnow.com/|archive-date=21 November 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the 2006 census,<ref name="2006CensusQuickStats">{{cite web|url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/ViewData?&action=401&tabname=Summary&areacode=5&issue=2006&producttype=QuickStats&textversion=true&navmapdisplayed=true&&breadcrumb=PLD& |title=2006 Census QuickStats: Western Australia, October 2007 |website=Censusdata.abs.gov.au |access-date=14 June 2010}}</ref> the median individual income was A$500 per week in Western Australia (compared to A$466 in Australia as a whole). The median family income was A$1246 per week (compared to A$1171 for Australia). Recent growth has also contributed to significant rises in average property values in 2006, although values plateaued in 2007. Perth property prices are still the second highest in Australia behind Sydney, and high rental prices continue to be a problem.

Located south of Perth, the heavy industrial area of [[City of Kwinana|Kwinana]] has the [[Kwinana Oil Refinery|nation's largest oil refinery]] with a capacity of 146,000 barrels of oil per day, producing most of the state's petrol and diesel.<ref>{{cite web|title=Refining |url=http://www.bp.com/en_au/australia/about-us/what-we-do/refining.html|website=Bp.com|access-date=30 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=McKinnon|first1=Stuart|title=BP sticks by Kwinana despite Qld closure|url=https://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/wa/a/22323082/bp-sticks-by-kwinana-despite-qld-closure/#page1|access-date=27 October 2014|newspaper=[[The West Australian]]|date=3 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aip.com.au/pdf/Downstream_Petroleum_2007_Report.pdf|title=Downstream_Petroleum 2007 Report|publisher=Australian Institute of Petroleum|date=15 July 2008|access-date=12 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001041851/http://www.aip.com.au/pdf/Downstream_Petroleum_2007_Report.pdf|archive-date=1 October 2008|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Kwinana also hosts alumina and nickel processing plants, port facilities for grain and other bulk exports, and support industries for mining and petroleum such as heavy and light engineering, and metal fabrication. Shipbuilding (e.g. [[Austal Ships]]) and associated support industries are found at nearby [[Henderson, Western Australia|Henderson]], just north of Kwinana. Significant secondary industries include cement and building product manufacturing, flour milling, food processing, animal feed production, automotive body building and printing.

Western Australia has a significant fishing industry. Products for local consumption and export include [[western rock lobster]]s, prawns, crabs, shark and tuna, as well as pearl fishing in the [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley]] region of the state. Processing is conducted along the west coast. [[Whaling]] was a key marine industry but ceased at Albany in 1978.

Western Australia has the world's biggest plantations of both [[Indian sandalwood]] (northern WA)<ref>{{cite news | title=Tropical Forestry Services becomes Quintis as the company shifts focus|first=Clint|last= Jasper| website=ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) | date=21 March 2017 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/rural-news/2017-03-22/tropical-forestry-services-rebrands-sandalwood-co-to-quintis/8374366 | access-date=19 September 2020}}</ref> and [[Australian sandalwood]] (semi-arid regions), which are used to produce [[sandalwood oil]] and [[incense]].<ref name=waspfaq>{{cite web | title=Frequently Asked Questions | website=WA Sandalwood Plantations | url=https://www.wasandalwood.com/faq | access-date=19 September 2020}}</ref> The WA [[sandalwood]] industry provides about 40 per cent of the international sandalwood oil market.<ref name=abcdutjahn>{{cite news | title=From the Gibson Desert to New York, these sandalwood harvesters are winning over the perfume market|first1=Rhiannon |last1=Stevens |first2= Isabel|last2= Moussalli| website=ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) | date=5 September 2020 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-09-05/gibson-desert-sandalwood-harvesers-go-international/12453324 | access-date=19 September 2020}}</ref>

===Tourism===
In recent years, tourism has grown in importance, with significant numbers of visitors to the state coming from the UK and Ireland (28%), other European countries (14%) Singapore (16%), Japan (10%) and Malaysia (8%).<ref name="WAatAglance" /> Revenue from tourism is a strong economic driver in many of the smaller population centres outside of Perth, especially in coastal locations.

Tourism forms a major part of the Western Australian economy with 833,100 international visitors making up 12.8% of the total international tourism to Australia in the year ending March 2015. The top three source markets include the United Kingdom (17%), Singapore (10%) and New Zealand (10%) with the majority of purpose for visitation being holiday/vacation reasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tourism.wa.gov.au/Publications%20Library/Research%20and%20reports/Fast%20Facts%20YE%20March%202015.pdf|title=Tourism Western Australia : Fast Facts Year Ending March 2015|website=Tourism.wa.gov.au|access-date=17 February 2019|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304043947/http://www.tourism.wa.gov.au/Publications%20Library/Research%20and%20reports/Fast%20Facts%20YE%20March%202015.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The tourism industry contributes $9.3 billion to the Western Australian economy and supports 94,000 jobs within the state. Both directly and indirectly, the industry makes up 3.2% of the state's economy whilst comparatively, WA's largest revenue source, the mining sector, brings in 31%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tourism.wa.gov.au/Publications%20Library/Research%20and%20reports/TSA%202013-14%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf|title=Tourism Satellite Account : Western Australia 2013 – 2014 : Fact Sheet|website=Tourism.wa.gov.au|access-date=17 February 2019|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035910/http://www.tourism.wa.gov.au/Publications%20Library/Research%20and%20reports/TSA%202013-14%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Tourism WA is the government agency responsible for promoting Western Australia as a holiday destination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tourism.wa.gov.au/|title=Tourism Western Australia|website=Tourism.wa.gov.au|access-date=16 September 2015}}</ref>

==Government==
{{Main|Government of Western Australia}}
[[File:Parliament House, Perth, Western Australia.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Parliament House, Perth|Parliament House]]]]
Western Australia was granted self-government in 1890<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.constitutionalcentre.wa.gov.au/ResearchAndSeminarPapers/LaunchingTheShip/Pages/ProclamationDay.aspx|title=Proclamation Day|publisher=Government of Western Australia|date=11 June 2015|access-date=21 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029211952/https://www.constitutionalcentre.wa.gov.au/ResearchAndSeminarPapers/LaunchingTheShip/Pages/ProclamationDay.aspx|archive-date=29 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> with a bicameral [[Parliament of Western Australia|Parliament]] located in Perth, consisting of the [[Western Australian Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] (or ''lower house''), which has 59 members; and the [[Western Australian Legislative Council|Legislative Council]] (or ''upper house''), which has 36 members. Suffrage is universal and compulsory for citizens over 18 years of age.

With the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901, Western Australia became a state within Australia's [[Federation|federal]] structure; this involved ceding certain powers to the Commonwealth (or Federal) government in accordance with the Constitution; all powers not specifically granted to the Commonwealth remained solely with the State. However over time the Commonwealth has effectively expanded its powers through broad interpretation of its enumerated powers and increasing control of taxation and financial distribution (see [[Federalism in Australia]]).

Whilst the sovereign of Western Australia is the Queen of Australia ([[Elizabeth II]]) and executive power is nominally vested in her state representative, the [[Governor of Western Australia|Governor]] (currently [[Kim Beazley]]), executive power rests with the premier and ministers drawn from the party or coalition of parties holding a majority of seats in the Legislative Assembly. [[Mark McGowan (politician)|Mark McGowan]] is the premier, having defeated [[Colin Barnett]] at the [[2017 Western Australian state election|state election on 11 March 2017]] and retained power at the [[2021 Western Australian state election|2021 election]].

===Secession===
{{Main|Secessionism in Western Australia}}
[[File:Westralia secession movement meeting 1933.jpg|thumb|A 1933 meeting of the Dominion League in support of secession.]]
Secessionism has been a recurring feature of Western Australia's political landscape since shortly after European settlement in 1826. Western Australia was the most reluctant participant in the [[Federation of Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]].<ref>[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MULR/2000/40.html Review Essay, New Federation History, Melbourne University Law Review] www.austlii.edu.au</ref> Western Australia did not participate in the earliest federation conference. Longer-term residents of Western Australia were generally opposed to federation; however, the discovery of gold brought many immigrants from other parts of Australia. It was these residents, primarily in Kalgoorlie but also in Albany who voted to join the Commonwealth, and the proposal of these areas being admitted separately under the name [[Auralia]] was considered.{{citation needed|date=July 2014}}

In a [[1933 Western Australian secession referendum|referendum in April 1933]], 68% of voters voted for the state to leave the Commonwealth of Australia with the aim of returning to the British Empire as an autonomous territory. The State Government sent a delegation to [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Westminster]], but the British Government ruled the referendum invalid and therefore no action was taken.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article30087998|title=25 May 1935 – W. A. Secession Petition Disallowed Committee's ...|website=Nla.gov.au|access-date=16 September 2015}}</ref>

===Local government===
Western Australia is divided into 139 [[Local Government Areas of Western Australia|Local Government Areas]], including [[Shire of Christmas Island|Christmas Island]] and the [[Shire of Cocos|Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]. Their mandate and operations are governed by the [[Local Government Act 1995]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/lga1995182/|title= Local Government Act 1995 |website=Austlii.edu.au|access-date=26 July 2011}}</ref>

==Education==
Education in Western Australia consists of one year of pre-school at age 4 or 5, followed by six years of primary education for all students as of 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://det.wa.edu.au/schoolsandyou/detcms/schoolsandyou/schools-and-you/pre-primary-and-year-7/year-7.en?cat-id=12742035|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717005600/http://det.wa.edu.au/schoolsandyou/detcms/schoolsandyou/schools-and-you/pre-primary-and-year-7/year-7.en?cat-id=12742035|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 July 2014|title=Year 7 students move to secondary school – School education – The Department of Education|date=17 July 2014|access-date=17 February 2019}}</ref> At age 12 or 13, students begin six years of secondary education. Students are required to attend school up until they are 16 years old. Sixteen and 17 year olds are required to be enrolled in school or a training organisation, be employed or be in a combination of school/training/employment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.education.wa.edu.au/enrolling-in-school|title=Enrolling in school – The Department of Education|website=Education.wa.edu.au|language=en-AU|access-date=2018-05-31}}</ref> Students have the option to study at a [[Technical and further education|TAFE]] college after Year 10,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.northmetrotafe.wa.edu.au/sites/default/files/uploads/TAFE%20Admissions%20guide%20for%20entry%20to%20full-time%20courses%20FINAL.pdf|title=TAFE Admissions guide for entry to full time courses|website=Northmetrotafe.wa.edu.au|access-date=31 May 2018|archive-date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516224421/http://www.northmetrotafe.wa.edu.au/sites/default/files/uploads/TAFE%20Admissions%20guide%20for%20entry%20to%20full-time%20courses%20FINAL.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> or continue through to Year 12 with vocational courses or a university entrance courses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scsa.wa.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/438192/WACE-Manual-2018-January-2018.pdf|title=Western Australian Certificate of Education: WACE Manual: General information for senior secondary schooling 2018|date=31 May 2018|publisher=School Curriculum and Standards Authority}}</ref>

There are five universities in Western Australia. They consist of four [[Perth]]-based [[public university|public universities]]; the [[University of Western Australia]], [[Curtin University]], [[Edith Cowan University]] and [[Murdoch University]]; and one [[Fremantle]]-based [[private university|private Roman Catholic university]], the [[University of Notre Dame Australia]]. The [[University of Notre Dame Australia|University of Notre Dame]] is also one of only two [[private university|private universities]] in Australia, along with [[Bond University]], a not-for-profit private education provider based in [[Gold Coast, Queensland]].

==Media==

===Print===
{{Main|List of newspapers in Western Australia}}
Western Australia has two daily newspapers: the [[Seven West Media]]-owned tabloid ''[[The West Australian]]'' and ''[[The Kalgoorlie Miner]]''. Also published is one weekend paper, ''The Weekend West'', and one Sunday tabloid newspaper, which is also owned by Seven West Media after purchase from [[News Corporation (1980–2013)|News Corporation]]'s ''[[The Sunday Times (Western Australia)|The Sunday Times]]''. There are also 17 weekly ''[[Community paper|Community Newspapers]]'' with distribution from [[Yanchep]] in the north to [[Mandurah]] in the south. There are two major weekly rural papers in the state, ''Countryman'' and the [[Rural Press]]-owned ''Farm Weekly''. The interstate broadsheet publication ''[[The Australian]]'' is also available, although with sales per capita lagging far behind those in other states.

===Television===
[[File:ABC Perth gnangarra.JPG|thumb|ABC studios in [[East Perth, Western Australia|East Perth]]]]
Metropolitan Perth has six broadcast television stations;
* [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC TV]] WA. (Callsign: [[ABW (TV station)|ABW]] – Channel 12 Digital)
* [[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]] WA (Callsign: [[SBS-28|SBS]] – Channel 29 Digital)
* [[Seven Network]] Perth. (Callsign: [[TVW]] – Channel 6 Digital)
* [[Nine Network]] Perth. (Callsign: [[STW]] – Channel 8 Digital)
* [[Network Ten]] Perth. (Callsign: [[NEW (TV station)|NEW]] – Channel 11 Digital)
* [[West TV]]. A free-to-air community television channel that began broadcasting in April 2010. It replaced [[Access 31]], which ceased broadcasting in August 2008.

Regional WA has a similar availability of stations, with the exception of West TV. Geographically, it is one of the largest television markets in the world, including almost one-third of the continent.
* [[Golden West Network|Golden West Network (GWN7)]]. Affiliated with Seven. (Callsigns: SSW South West, VEW Goldfields/Esperance, GTW Central West, WAW remote areas)
* [[WIN Television WA]]. Affiliated with Ten (Callsign: WOW)
* [[West Digital Television]]. Affiliated with Nine. (Callsigns: SDW South West, VDW Goldfields/Esperance, GDW Central West, WDW remote areas)
* [[Westlink (Australian TV channel)|Westlink]]. An open-narrowcast community-based television channel. (Satellite only)

In addition, broadcasters operate digital multichannels:
* [[ABC HD (Australian TV channel)|ABC HD]] (Carried by [[ABW (TV station)|ABW]])
* [[ABC2]] (Carried by [[ABW (TV station)|ABW]])
* [[ABC Me]] (Carried by [[ABW (TV station)|ABW]])
* [[ABC News (TV channel)|ABC News]] (Carried by [[ABW (TV station)|ABW]])
* [[SBS HD]] (Carried by [[SBS-28|SBS]])
* [[SBS Viceland]] (Carried by [[SBS-28|SBS]])
* [[Food Network (Australia)|Food Network]] (Carried by [[SBS-28|SBS]])
* [[National Indigenous Television|NITV]] (Carried by [[SBS-28|SBS]])
* [[7HD]] (Carried by [[TVW]])
* [[7TWO]] (Carried by [[TVW]] and affiliates)
* [[7mate]] (Carried by [[TVW]] and affiliates)
* [[7flix]] (Carried by [[TVW]])
* [[Racing.com]] (Carried by [[TVW]] and affiliates)
* [[9HD]] (Carried by [[STW]])
* [[9Gem (Australian TV channel)|9Gem]] (Carried by [[STW]] and affiliates)
* [[9Go! (Australian TV channel)|9Go!]] (Carried by [[STW]] and affiliates)
* [[9Life]] (Carried by [[STW]])
* [[Extra (Australian TV channel)]] (Carried by [[STW]])
* [[One (Australian TV channel)|One]] (Carried by [[NEW (TV station)|NEW]] and affiliate)
* [[10 Peach]] (Carried by [[NEW (TV station)|NEW]] and affiliate)
* [[Ten HD]] (Carried by [[NEW (TV station)|NEW]] and affiliate)
* [[TVSN]] (Carried by [[NEW (TV station)|NEW]] and affiliate)
* [[Spree TV]] (Carried by [[NEW (TV station)|NEW]])

Pay TV services are provided by [[Foxtel]], which acquired many of the assets and all the remaining subscribers of the insolvent [[Galaxy (Australian television)|Galaxy Television]] satellite service in 1998. Some metropolitan suburbs are serviced by Pay TV via cable; however, most of the metropolitan and rural areas can only access Pay TV via satellite.

===Radio===
Perth has many radio stations on both AM and FM frequencies. ABC stations include [[ABC NewsRadio]] ([[6PB]] 585 am), [[720 ABC Perth]] ([[6WF]] 720 am), [[ABC Radio National]] ([[6RN]] 810 am), [[ABC Classic FM]] (6ABC 97.7FM) and [[Triple J]] ([[6JJJ]] 99.3FM). The six commercial stations are: FM 92.9 ([[6PPM]]), Nova 93.7 ([[6PER]]), Mix 94.5 ([[6MIX]]), 96fm ([[6NOW]]), and AM 882 ([[6PR]]), AM 1080 ([[6IX]]) and AM 1116 ([[6MM]])

The leading [[community radio]] stations are [[Curtin FM]] 100.1, [[RTRFM|6RTR]] FM 92.1, Sonshine FM 98.5 (6SON) and [[91.3 SportFM]] (6WSM).

==Culture==

=== Arts and entertainment ===
[[File:His Majesty's Theatre at Dusk exterior image by Robert Garvey.jpg|thumb|[[His Majesty's Theatre, Perth]]]]
Western Australia is home to one of the country's leading performance training institutions, the acclaimed [[Western Australian Academy of Performing Arts]] (WAAPA), as well as a burgeoning theatrical and musical scene. Notable musicians and bands to have been born in or lived in Western Australia include [[Adam Brand (musician)|Adam Brand]], [[Ammonia (band)|Ammonia]], [[Karnivool]], [[Birds of Tokyo]], [[Bon Scott]], [[Eskimo Joe]], [[Johnny Young]], [[Gyroscope (band)|Gyroscope]], the [[John Butler Trio]], [[Tame Impala]], [[Kevin Mitchell (musician)|Kevin Mitchell]], [[Tim Minchin]], [[Troye Sivan]], [[The Kill Devil Hills]], [[Pendulum (drum and bass band)|Pendulum]], [[The Pigram Brothers]], [[Rolf Harris]], [[Stella Donnelly]] and [[The Triffids]]. The [[West Australian Music Industry Awards]] (WAMis) have been awarded every year to the leading musicians and performers in WA since 2001.

Notable actors and television personalities from Western Australia include [[Heath Ledger]], [[Sam Worthington]], [[Ernie Dingo]], [[Jessica Marais]], [[Megan Gale]], [[Rove McManus]], [[Isla Fisher]], and [[Melissa George]]. Films and television series filmed or partly filmed in Western Australia include ''[[Rabbit-Proof Fence]]'', ''[[The Heights (Australian TV series)|The Heights]]'', ''[[Mystery Road (TV series)|Mystery Road]]'', ''[[These Final Hours]]'', ''[[Cloudstreet]]'', ''[[Jasper Jones (film)|Jasper Jones]]'', ''[[Australia (movie)|Australia]]'', ''[[Bran Nue Dae (film)|Bran Nu Dae]]'', ''[[Red Dog (film)|Red Dog]]'', ''[[ABBA: the Movie]]'' and ''[[Last Train to Freo]]''.

Noted Western Australian Indigenous painters and artisans include [[Jack Dale Mengenen]], [[Paddy Bedford]], [[Queenie McKenzie]], and siblings [[Nyuju Stumpy Brown]] and [[Rover Thomas]].<ref name="abc">{{cite news|last=Lee|first=Tim|date=12 February 2013|title='Grand old man of the Kimberley' dies|work=[[ABC News (Australia)]]|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-02-12/27grand-old-man-of-the-kimberley27-dies/4514018/?site=Indigenous&topic=latest|access-date=2 March 2013}}</ref>

The [[West Australian Symphony Orchestra]] (WASO) is based at the [[Perth Concert Hall, Western Australia|Perth Concert Hall]]. Other concert, performance and indoor sporting venues in Western Australia include [[His Majesty's Theatre, Western Australia|His Majesty's Theatre]], the [[State Theatre Centre of Western Australia]], the [[Crown Perth|Crown Theatre]] and [[Perth Arena]], which opened in 2012.

Western Australia has served as the setting for a number of works of [[Australian literature]]. Prominent authors include [[Katharine Susannah Prichard]], [[Randolph Stow]], [[Tim Winton]], [[Kim Scott]], [[Sally Morgan (artist)|Sally Morgan]], [[Joan London (Australian author)|Joan London]], [[Mary Durack]] and [[Craig Silvey]].

===Sport===
{{Main|Sport in Western Australia}}
[[File:AFL WCE VS COLLINGWOOD.JPG|thumb|right|2014 AFL premiership match between [[West Coast Eagles]] and [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]] being played at [[Patersons Stadium]], Subiaco]]
A number of national or international sporting teams and events are based in the state, including:

* [[Australian rules football]]: The [[West Coast Eagles]] and the [[Fremantle Dockers]] compete in the [[Australian Football League]] (AFL). The Fremantle Dockers also have a women's team of the same name playing in the [[AFL Women's]] league, founded in September 2016. The West Coast Eagles also received an AFLW team in 2020. The [[West Australian Football League]] (WAFL) is the main local football competition, but other [[Australian rules football in Western Australia|local and amateur football leagues]] exist across the state.
* Baseball: The [[Perth Heat]] compete in the [[Australian Baseball League]].
* Basketball: The [[Perth Wildcats]] (men) and [[Perth Lynx]] (women) compete in the [[National Basketball League (Australasia)|National Basketball League]] and [[Women's National Basketball League]], respectively.
* [[Cricket]]: [[Western Australia cricket team|Western Australia]] represent the state in [[first-class cricket|first-class]] and [[List A cricket|List A]] domestic cricket, with the [[Perth Scorchers]] competing in the [[Twenty20]] [[Big Bash League]].
* [[Field hockey]]: The [[WA Thundersticks|Thundersticks]] (men) and Diamonds (women) compete in the [[Australian Hockey League]].
* [[Netball]]: The [[West Coast Fever]] compete in the [[ANZ Championship]].
* [[Rugby league]]: The [[West Coast Pirates]] compete in the [[S. G. Ball Cup]].
* [[Rugby union]]: The [[Western Force]] competes in the [[National Rugby Championship]].
* Soccer: [[Perth Glory]] field [[Perth Glory FC|men's]] and [[Perth Glory FC W-League|women's]] teams in the [[A-League]] and [[W-League (Australia)|W-League]], respectively.
* Tennis: The [[International Tennis Federation|ITF]] [[Hopman Cup]], an annual international team indoor hardcourt tennis tournament.
* [[Water Polo]]: The [[UWA Torpedoes]] water polo club competes in the [[Australian National Water Polo League|National Water Polo League (NWPL)]].

International sporting events hosted in the past in Western Australia include the [[Tom Hoad Cup]] (water polo), the [[Perth International]] (golf), the 2006 [[Gravity Games]] ([[extreme sports]]), the 2002 [[Women's Hockey World Cup]], the 1991 [[FINA World Aquatics Championships]], the [[World Rally Championships]] and the [[1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games]].

=== Wine ===
{{Main|Western Australian wine}}
Winemaking regions are concentrated in the cooler climate of the [[West Australian wine#South Western Australia|south-western portion]] of the state. Western Australia produces less than 5% of the country's wine output, but in quality terms is considered to be very much near the top.<ref>{{cite book|title= The World Atlas of Wine; 6th Revised edition |publisher=Mitchell Beazley| year=2007|isbn=978-1-84533-414-7|author=Hugh Johnson & Jancis Robinson}}</ref><ref name="Sotheby">T. Stevenson ''"The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia"'' pg 589 Dorling Kindersley 2005 {{ISBN|0-7566-1324-8}}</ref><ref name="western australian wine">{{cite web|url=http://www.wineaustralia.com/Australia/Default.aspx?tabid=179|title=Wine Australia|website=Wineaustralia.com|access-date=16 September 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080722023419/http://www.wineaustralia.com/Australia/Default.aspx?tabid=179|archive-date=22 July 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name=ocw-wa>winepros.com.au, ''The Oxford Companion to Wine'' pg 765 [https://web.archive.org/web/20010507220252/http://www.winepros.com.au/jsp/cda/reference/oxford_entry.jsp?entry_id=3564 Western Australia]</ref> Major wine producing regions include: [[Margaret River (wine region)|Margaret River]], [[Great Southern Wine Region|The Great Southern]], [[Swan Valley (Western Australia)|Swan Valley]] as well as smaller districts including [[Blackwood Valley]], [[Manjimup, Western Australia|Manjimup]], [[Pemberton, Western Australia|Pemberton]], [[Peel (Western Australia)|Peel]], Chittering Valley, [[Perth Hills]], and [[Geographe Bay|Geographe]].<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web |url=http://www.wineaustralia.com/Australia/Default.aspx?tabid=179 |title=Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation – Western Australian Wine |website=Wineaustralia.com |access-date=14 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080722023419/http://www.wineaustralia.com/Australia/Default.aspx?tabid=179 |archive-date=22 July 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

== Sister states ==
Western Australia has four sister states:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dca.wa.gov.au/DevelopingArtsandCulture/international/inter-government-networks/|title=Sister State Relationships ~ DCA|first=Department of Culture and|last=Arts|website=Dca.wa.gov.au|access-date=17 February 2019|archive-date=18 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218021306/http://www.dca.wa.gov.au/DevelopingArtsandCulture/international/inter-government-networks/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

* [[East Java]], [[Indonesia]]
* [[Hyōgo Prefecture]], [[Japan]]
* [[Tuscany|Tuscany Region]], [[Italy]]
* [[Zhejiang|Zhejiang Province]], [[China]]

In 1981, a [[sister city|sister state]] agreement was drawn up between Western Australia and [[Hyōgo Prefecture]] in [[Japan]] that was aimed at improving cultural ties between the two states.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hyogo.com.au/about-hyogo/hyogo-wa-sister-state-relationship/ |title=Hyogo-WA Sister State Relationship |publisher=Hyogo Prefectural Government Cultural Centre |date=10 April 2015 |access-date=14 April 2016 |archive-date=23 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423002353/http://hyogo.com.au/about-hyogo/hyogo-wa-sister-state-relationship/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Hyogo>{{cite web|url=http://www.wajapan.net/014_OurSisterStateRelationship_E |title=WA-Hyogo Sister State |publisher=Government of Western Australia |access-date= 14 April 2016}}</ref> To commemorate the 10th anniversary of this agreement, the Hyōgo Prefectural Government Cultural Centre was established in Perth in 1992.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hyogo.com.au/about-the-centre/ |title=About the centre |publisher=Hyogo Prefectural Government Cultural Centre |date=27 March 2015 |access-date=14 April 2016 |archive-date=23 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423013128/http://hyogo.com.au/about-the-centre/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Prior to that, the Western Australian government opened an office in [[Kobe]], the largest city in Hyōgo, to facilitate maintenance of the relationship in 1989.<ref name=Hyogo/><ref name=garden>{{cite web|url=http://www.wajapan.net/news_e/889 |title=Japanese garden a tribute to Sister State relationship with Hyogo prefecture |publisher=Government of Western Australia |date=1 June 2013 |access-date=14 April 2016}}</ref>

Following the [[Great Hanshin earthquake]] that devastated southern Hyōgo in January 1995, Western Australian groups and businesses raised funds and provided materials, whilst individuals travelled to Hyōgo to help with emergency relief and the subsequent reconstruction process.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ajswa.com.au/about-the-ajswa.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409085909/http://www.ajswa.com.au/about-the-ajswa.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 April 2013 |title=About Us |publisher= Australia Japan Society of WA |access-date= 14 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.perth.wa.gov.au/newsroom/featured-news/memorial-service-pays-tribute-japanese-earthquake-victims |title=Memorial service pays tribute to Japanese earthquake victims |publisher=City of Perth |date=January 2016 |access-date=14 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508145208/http://www.perth.wa.gov.au/newsroom/featured-news/memorial-service-pays-tribute-japanese-earthquake-victims |archive-date=8 May 2016 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/hansard/hans35.nsf/c02fad1ff7f00ecbc82572e4002d0af9/8137df1a3b82a563482565ff001aa60f?OpenDocument |title=Hansard, Western Australian Legislative Assembly |date=21 October 1997 |publisher=Parliament of Western Australia |access-date=14 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422141344/http://www.parliament.wa.gov.au/hansard/hans35.nsf/c02fad1ff7f00ecbc82572e4002d0af9/8137df1a3b82a563482565ff001aa60f?OpenDocument |archive-date=22 April 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The two governments signed a [[memorandum of understanding]] on the 20th anniversary in 2001 that aimed to improve the economic relationship between the two states.<ref name=Hyogo/>

Further to the sister state relationship, the [[City of Rockingham]] in Western Australia and the [[Akō, Hyōgo|City of Akō]] in Hyōgo signed a sister city agreement in 1997. It is one of nine sister city relationships between Western Australian and Japanese cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wajapan.net/015_OurSisterCityRelationships_E |title=WA-Japan Sister City Relationships |publisher=Government of Western Australia |access-date= 14 April 2016}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Geography|Oceania|Australia|Western Australia}}
* [[Outline of Australia]]
* [[Index of Australia-related articles]]
* 
* [[Government of Western Australia]]
* [[Mining in Western Australia]]
* [[Petroleum in Western Australia]]
* [[Western Australian shark cull]]

===Lists===
* [[List of Western Australian towns]]
* [[List of statues in Western Australia]]
* [[Local Government Areas of Western Australia]]
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="N"}}
[[File:2shillingsWestAustralia.jpg|thumb|"West Australia" on a 1902 stamp]]
{{note label|Note1|a|a}} "West Australia" and its related demonym "West Australian" are occasionally used, including in the names of the main daily newspaper, ''[[The West Australian]]'', and the state-based [[West Australian Football League]], but are rarely used in an official sense. The terms "[[Westralia (disambiguation)|Westralia]]" and "Westralian" were regularly used in the 19th and 20th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://henrietta.liswa.wa.gov.au/search/?searchtype=X&SORT=D&searcharg=westralia&searchscope=2&submit.x=0&submit.y=0&submit=Submit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109143420/http://henrietta.liswa.wa.gov.au/search/?searchtype=X&SORT=D&searcharg=westralia&searchscope=2&submit.x=0&submit.y=0&submit=Submit |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 November 2011 |title=SLWA Online Catalogue /Entire Sta |website=Henrietta.liswa.wa.gov.au |access-date=2 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/result?q=westralia|title=Search results for 'westralia' – Trove|website=Trove.nla.gov.au|access-date=16 September 2015}}</ref> The terms are still found in the names of certain companies and buildings, e.g. Westralia House in Perth and Westralia Airports Corporation, which operates [[Perth Airport]], as well as in the names of several ships.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://henrietta.liswa.wa.gov.au/record=b2140613~S2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109135900/http://henrietta.liswa.wa.gov.au/record=b2140613~S2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 November 2011 |title=SLWA Online Catalogue /Entire Sta |website=Henrietta.liswa.wa.gov.au |access-date=2 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://henrietta.liswa.wa.gov.au/record=b1791098~S2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109141500/http://henrietta.liswa.wa.gov.au/record=b1791098~S2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 November 2011 |title=SLWA Online Catalogue /Entire Sta |website=Henrietta.liswa.wa.gov.au |access-date=2 November 2012 }}</ref> 
{{note label|Note1|b|b}} In Australia, the [[Southern Ocean|body of water south of the continent]] is officially gazetted as the [[Southern Ocean]], whereas the [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO) designates it as part of the Indian Ocean.<ref>[http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S23_1953.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202030545/http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S23_1953.pdf|date=2 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/12/21/1071941610556.html |title=Canberra all at sea over position of Southern Ocean |website=Theage.com.au |date=22 December 2003 |access-date=2 November 2012}}</ref>
{{-}}

==References==
{{Reflist |refs=
<ref name="ga20">{{cite web |title=Area of Australia - States and Territories |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/area-of-australia-states-and-territories |url-status=live |website=[[Geoscience Australia]] |date=15 May 2014 |publisher=Geoscience Australia, Commonwealth of Australia |access-date=2020-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726112116/http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-location-information/dimensions/area-of-australia-states-and-territories |archive-date=2020-07-26 }}</ref>

<ref name="bla59">{{cite book |chapter=Archipelagus Orientalis sive Asiaticus (Karte 27) |trans-chapter=Archipelago Eastern or Asiatic (Map 27) |title=Atlas des Großen Kurfürsten |trans-title=Atlas of the Great Elector |first=Johannes Willemszoon |last=Blaeu |author-link=Joan Blaeu |year=1659 |location=Amsterdam |via=[[Berlin State Library]] ({{lang-de|Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin}}) |url=https://www.bildindex.de/download.php?medium=mi09259i13&type=large |url-status=live |access-date=2020-08-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804044014/https://www.bildindex.de/download.php?medium=mi09259i13&type=large |archive-date=2020-08-04 }}</ref>

<ref name="rei08">{{cite thesis |title=French Exploration and Intentions with Regard to the West Coast of Australia 1772–1829 |degree=MSSc |first= Dorothy V. |last=Reid |date=August 2008 |publisher=Department of Social Sciences, Curtin University of Technology |location=Bentley, Western Australia |url=https://espace.curtin.edu.au/bitstream/handle/20.500.11937/1615/18748_Reid2008.pdf |access-date=2021-04-28 }}</ref>

<ref name="the64">{{cite book |title=Relations de divers voyages curieux |first=Melchisédech |last=Thévenot |author-link=Melchisédech Thévenot |location=Paris |publisher=Iacques Langlois |year=1664 |language=fr |url=https://archive.org/details/relationsdediver00thve |access-date=2020-08-06 |oclc=1052538974 }}</ref>

<ref name="wayb79">{{cite book |title=Western Australian Year Book |author=W. M. Bartlett |number=17 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |location=Western Australian Office |year=1979 |url=https://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/free.nsf/0/D269F393BB0AE162CA257B020012F2FC/$File/13005%20-WA%20YrBook%201979.pdf |access-date=2020-09-13 |oclc=223554105 |issn=0083-8772 }}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Western Australia}}
{{wikivoyage}}
* {{osmrelation|2316598}}
* [http://www.westernaustralia.com/au/Pages/Welcome_to_Western_Australia.aspx Welcome to Western Australia], a tourist website run by [[Tourism Western Australia]], the [[statutory authority]] responsible for promoting Western Australia as a tourist destination
* [http://www.wa.gov.au/ Western Australia government's website]
* [http://nfsa.gov.au/blog/2012/05/15/west-australian-time-capsule/ Watch historical footage of Western Australia] from the [[National Film and Sound Archive]] of Australia's collection.
* [http://aso.gov.au/titles/tags/Western%20Australia/ Watch audiovisual material relating to Western Australia] on the [[National Film and Sound Archive]]'s [http://aso.gov.au/ ''australianscreen online''].

{{Western Australia}}
{{States and territories of Australia}}
{{Australia topics}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Western Australia| ]]
[[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Oceania]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1829]]
[[Category:1829 establishments in Australia]]

South Australia

2021-08-09T17:17:22Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{short description|State of Australia}} {{about||the song|South Australia (song)|the southern region of Australia|Southern Australia}} {{Redirect|South Australian|the 1838–..."

{{short description|State of Australia}}
{{about||the song|South Australia (song)|the southern region of Australia|Southern Australia}}
{{Redirect|South Australian|the 1838–1851 newspapers|The South Australian|the sailing ship|South Australian (clipper ship)}}
{{Use Australian English|date=November 2013}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = South Australia
| settlement_type = [[states and territories of Australia|State]]
| image_flag = Flag of South Australia.svg
| flag_size = 130px
| flag_link = Flag of South Australia
| image_shield = South Australian Coat of Arms.svg
| shield_size = 120px
| shield_link = Coat of arms of South Australia
| nickname = The Festival State The Wine State
| image_map = South Australia in Australia.svg
| mapsize = 300px
| map_caption = Location of South Australia in Australia
| coordinates = {{coord|30|S|135|E|type:adm1st_region:AU-SA|display=inline,titles do fd}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Australia}}
| established_title = ''[[South Australia Act 1834]]''
| established_date = 15 August 1834
| established_title1 = [[Letters Patent establishing the Province of South Australia|Declared as Province]]
| established_date1 = 19 February 1836
| established_title2 = [[Proclamation Day#South Australia|Commencement of colonial government]]
| established_date2 = 28 December 1836
| established_title3 = [[Responsible government]]
| established_date3 = 22 April 1857
| established_title4 = [[Federation of Australia|Federation]]
| established_date4 = 1 January 1901
| established_title5 = ''[[Australia Act 1986|Australia Act]]''
| established_date5 = 3 March 1986
| seat_type = [[List of Australian capital cities|Capital]]
| seat = [[Adelaide]]
| seat1_type = [[List of cities in Australia by population|Largest city]]
| seat1 = Adelaide
| parts_type = Administration
| parts_style = para
| p1 = [[Local government areas of South Australia|74 Local government areas]]
| p2 = [[Lands administrative divisions of South Australia#List of counties|49 Counties]] (cadastral units)
| government_type = [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| governing_body = {{nowrap|[[Government of South Australia]]}}
| leader_party =
| leader_title = [[Governor of South Australia|Governor]]
| leader_name = [[Hieu Van Le]]
| leader_title1 = [[Premier of South Australia|Premier]]
| leader_name1 = [[Steven Marshall]] ([[Liberal Party of Australia (South Australian Division)|Liberal]])
| government_blank1_title = [[Legislature]]
* [[Upper house]]
* [[Lower house]]
| government_blank1 = [[Parliament of South Australia]]
[[South Australian Legislative Council|Legislative Council]] (22 seats)
[[South Australian House of Assembly|House of Assembly]] (47 seats)
| government_blank2_title = [[Judiciary of Australia|Judiciary]]
| government_blank2 = * [[Supreme Court of South Australia|Supreme Court of SA]]
* [[District Court of South Australia|District Court of SA]]
* [[Magistrates Court of South Australia|Magistrates Court of SA]]
| government_blank3_title = Federal representation
| government_blank3 = [[Parliament of Australia]]
* [[House of Representatives (Australia)|House seats]] 10/151
* [[Australian Senate|Senate seats]] [[List of senators from South Australia|12]]/76
| area_total_km2 = 1044353
| area_land_km2 = 984321
| area_water_km2 = 60032
| area_rank = 4th
| elevation_max_m = 1435
| elevation_max_point = [[Mount Woodroffe]]
| elevation_min_m = -16
| elevation_min_point = [[Lake Eyre|Kati Thanda-Lake Eyre]]
| population_footnotes = <ref name=ABSPop>{{cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/national-state-and-territory-population/sep-2020|title = National, state and territory population – September 2020|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=18 March 2021|accessdate=18 March 2021}}</ref>
| population_as_of = September 2020
| population_total = 1770591
| population_rank = 5th
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_density_rank = 6th
| population_demonym = [[South Australians]], Croweater (colloquial),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/newsradio/txt/s1381253.htm |publisher=ABC NewsRadio |title=Wordwatch: Croweater |access-date=11 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050915013033/http://www.abc.net.au/newsradio/txt/s1381253.htm |archive-date=15 September 2005}}</ref> South Aussie
| timezone1 = [[Australian Central Standard Time|ACST]]
| utc_offset1 = +09:30
| timezone1_DST = [[Australian Central Daylight Time|ACDT]]
| utc_offset1_DST = +10:30
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = SA
| iso_code = AU-SA
| blank_name_sec1 = GSP year
| blank_info_sec1 = 2019–20
| blank1_name_sec1 = [[List of Australian states and territories by gross state product|GSP]] ($A million)
| blank1_info_sec1 = $108,334<ref name="gspref">{{cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/economy/national-accounts/australian-national-accounts-state-accounts/latest-release |title=5220.0 – Australian National Accounts: State Accounts, 2019–20 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |date=20 November 2020 |access-date=20 January 2021}}</ref> (5th)
| blank2_name_sec1 = GSP per capita
| blank2_info_sec1 = $61,582 (7th)
| website = {{URL|www.sa.gov.au}}
| module = {{Infobox place symbols| embedded=Yes
| mammal = [[Southern hairy-nosed wombat]] ''(Lasiorhinus latifrons'')
| bird = [[Piping shrike]] ([[Australian magpie]])
| fish = [[Leafy seadragon]] (''Phycodurus eques'')
| insect = 
| flower = [[Swainsona formosa|Sturt's Desert Pea]] (''Swainsona formosa'')
| fossil = ''[[Spriggina|Spriggina floundersi]]''
| mineral = [[Bornite]], [[Opal]] as Gem
| colour = Red, blue, and gold
}}
}}
'''South Australia''' (abbreviated as '''SA''') is a [[States and territories of Australia|state]] in the southern central part of [[Australia]]. It covers some of the most [[arid]] parts of the country. With a total land area of {{convert|983482|km2|sqmi|0}}, it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories by area, and fifth largest by population. It has a total of 1.77 million people,<ref name=ABSPop/> and its population is the second most highly centralised in Australia, after [[Western Australia]], with more than 77 percent of South Australians living in the capital, [[Adelaide]], or its environs. Other population centres in the state are relatively small; [[Mount Gambier]], the second largest centre, has a population of 28,684.

South Australia shares borders with all of the other mainland states, as well as the [[Northern Territory]]; it is bordered to the west by [[Western Australia]], to the north by the Northern Territory, to the north-east by [[Queensland]], to the east by [[New South Wales]], to the south-east by [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], and to the south by the [[Great Australian Bight]].<ref name="SouthernOcean">Most Australians describe the body of water south of the continent as the [[Southern Ocean]], rather than the [[Indian Ocean]] as officially defined by the [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO). In the year 2000, a vote of IHO member nations defined the term "Southern Ocean" as applying only to the waters between [[Antarctica]] and [[60th parallel south|60 degrees south]] latitude.</ref> The state comprises less than 8 percent of the Australian population and ranks fifth in population among the six states and two territories. The majority of its people reside in greater Metropolitan Adelaide. Most of the remainder are settled in fertile areas along the south-eastern coast and [[Murray River|River Murray]]. The state's colonial origins are unique in Australia as [[British Province of South Australia|a freely settled, planned British province]],<ref>[http://www.sapolicehistory.org/history.html South Australian Police Historical Society Inc.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001014654/http://www.sapolicehistory.org/history.html |date=1 October 2011 }} Accessed 13 September 2011.</ref> rather than as a [[convictism in Australia|convict]] settlement. Colonial government commenced on 28 December 1836, when the members of the council were sworn in near the [[Old Gum Tree]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2019}}

As with the rest of the continent, the region has a long history of [[Aboriginal Australians|human occupation]] by numerous tribes and languages. The [[South Australian Company]] established a temporary settlement at [[Kingscote, South Australia|Kingscote]], [[Kangaroo Island]], on 26 July 1836, five months before Adelaide was founded.<ref name="Kangaroo Island">{{cite web |url=http://www.kangarooisland.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm |title=Kangaroo Island Council – Welcome |publisher=[[Kangaroo Island Council]] |access-date=10 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809121105/http://www.kangarooisland.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm |archive-date=9 August 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The guiding principle behind settlement was that of ''systematic colonisation'', a theory espoused by [[Edward Gibbon Wakefield]] that was later employed by the [[New Zealand Company]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Wakefield Model of Systematic Colonisation in South Australia|work=[[University of South Australia]]|date=2008|url=http://search.ror.unisa.edu.au/record/UNISA_ALMA2171701690001831/media/digital/open/9915951887301831/12146718360001831/13146717500001831/pdf}}{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The goal was to establish the province as a centre of civilisation for free immigrants, promising civil liberties and religious tolerance. Although its history is marked by economic hardship, South Australia has remained politically innovative and culturally vibrant. Today, it is known for its fine wine and numerous cultural festivals. The state's economy is dominated by the agricultural, manufacturing and mining industries.

==History==
{{Main|History of South Australia}}
[[File:Alexander Schramm - A scene in South Australia - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=0.95|left|European settlers with Aborigines, 1850]]

Evidence of human activity in South Australia dates back as far as 20,000 years, with [[flint]] mining activity and rock art in the [[Koonalda Cave]] on the [[Nullarbor Plain]]. In addition wooden spears and tools were made in an area now covered in [[peat]] [[bog]] in the South East. [[Kangaroo Island]] was inhabited long before the island was cut off by [[Sea level rise|rising sea levels]].<ref>R.J. Lampert (1979): Aborigines. '''In''' Tyler, M.J., [[Charles Rowland Twidale|Twidale, C.R.]] & Ling, J.K. (Eds) ''Natural History of Kangaroo Island.'' Royal Society of South Australia Inc. {{ISBN|0-9596627-1-5}}</ref>
The first recorded European sighting of the South Australian coast was in 1627 when the Dutch ship the ''Gulden Zeepaert'', captained by [[François Thijssen]], examined and mapped a section of the coastline as far east as the [[Nuyts Archipelago]]. Thijssen named the whole of the country eastward of the Leeuwin "Nuyts Land", after a distinguished passenger on board; the Hon. Pieter Nuyts, one of the Councillors of India.<ref>{{Citation
| author1=Australian Geographical Society.
| author2=Australian National Publicity Association.
| author3=Australian National Travel Association.
| title=Walkabout
| date=1934
| publisher=Australian National Travel Association
| url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-714111795
| access-date=7 January 2019
}}</ref>

The coastline of South Australia was first mapped by [[Matthew Flinders]] and [[Nicolas Baudin]] in 1802, excepting the inlet later named the [[Port River|Port Adelaide River]] which was first discovered in 1831 by Captain [[Collet Barker]] and later accurately charted in 1836–37 by Colonel [[William Light]], leader of the South Australian Colonization Commissioners' 'First Expedition' and first Surveyor-General of South Australia.

The land which now forms the state of South Australia was claimed for Britain in 1788 as part of the colony of [[New South Wales]]. Although the new colony included almost two-thirds of the continent, early settlements were all on the eastern coast and only a few intrepid explorers ventured this far west. It took more than forty years before any serious proposal to establish settlements in the south-western portion of New South Wales were put forward.

On 15 August 1834, the British Parliament passed the [[South Australia Act 1834]] (''Foundation Act''), which empowered His Majesty to erect and establish a province or provinces in southern Australia. The act stated that the land between 132° and 141° east longitude and from 26° south latitude to the southern ocean would be allotted to the colony, and it would be convict-free.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/sa1_doc_1834.pdf |title=Transcript of the South Australia Act, 1834 |publisher=Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House|access-date=27 December 2018}}</ref>

[[File:S. T. Gill - Sturt's Overland Expedition leaving Adelaide, 10th August, 1844 - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|240px|[[Charles Sturt]]'s expedition leaving Adelaide]]
In contrast to the rest of Australia, ''[[terra nullius]]'' did not apply to the new province. The [[Letters Patent]],<ref name="Letters Patent establishing the Province of South Australia 19 February 1836 (UK)">{{Cite web | url=https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item-sdid-38.html | title=Documenting Democracy}}</ref> which used the enabling provisions of the South Australia Act 1834 to fix the boundaries of the Province of South Australia, provided that "nothing in those our Letters Patent shall affect or be construed to affect the rights of any Aboriginal Natives of the said Province to the actual occupation and enjoyment in their own Persons or in the Persons of their Descendants of any Lands therein now actually occupied or enjoyed by such Natives."<ref name="Letters Patent establishing the Province of South Australia 19 February 1836 (UK)"/> Although the patent guaranteed land rights under force of law for the indigenous inhabitants, it was ignored by the South Australian Company authorities and squatters.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Ngadjuri Walpa Juri Lands and Heritage Association | date = n.d. | title = Gnadjuri | publisher=SASOSE Council Inc | isbn = 978-0-646-42821-5 }}</ref> Despite strong reference to the rights of the native population in the initial proclamation by the Governor, there were many conflicts and deaths in the [[Australian frontier wars|Australian Frontier Wars]] in South Australia.
[[File:Nicolas Baudin 2.jpeg|thumb|right|upright|[[Nicolas Baudin]], who mapped the coastline of South Australia, along with Matthew Flinders]]

Survey was required before settlement of the province, and the Colonization Commissioners for South Australia appointed William Light as the leader of its 'First Expedition', tasked with examining 1500 miles of the South Australian coastline and selecting the best site for the capital, and with then planning and surveying the site of the city into one-acre Town Sections and its surrounds into 134-acre Country Sections.

Eager to commence the establishment of their whale and seal fisheries, the South Australian Company sought, and obtained, the Commissioners' permission to send Company ships to South Australia, in advance of the surveys and ahead of the Commissioners' colonists.

The company's settlement of seven vessels and 636 people was temporarily made at Kingscote on Kangaroo Island, until the official site of the capital was selected by William Light, where the City of Adelaide is currently located. The first [[Immigration to Australia|immigrants]] arrived at [[Holdfast Bay]] (near the present day [[Glenelg, South Australia|Glenelg]]) in November 1836.

The commencement of colonial government was proclaimed on 28 December 1836, now known as [[Proclamation Day (South Australia)|Proclamation Day]].

South Australia is the only Australian state to have never received British convicts. Another free settlement, [[Swan River colony]] was established in 1829 but [[Western Australia]] later sought convict labour, and in 1849 Western Australia was formally constituted as a penal colony. Although South Australia was constituted such that convicts could never be transported to the Province, some emancipated or escaped convicts or expirees made their own way there, both prior to 1836, or later, and may have constituted 1–2% of the early population.<ref>Sendziuk, P. (2012): No convicts here: reconsidering South Australia's foundation myth. '''In:''' Foster, R. & Sendziuk, P. (Eds.) ''Turning points: chapters in South Australian history.'' Wakefield Press. {{ISBN|978 1 74305 119 1}}</ref>

The plan for the province was that it would be an experiment in reform, addressing the problems perceived in British society. There was to be religious freedom and no established religion. Sales of land to colonists created an Emigration Fund to pay the costs of transferring a poor young labouring population to South Australia. In early 1838 the colonists became concerned after it was reported that convicts who had escaped from the eastern states may make their way to South Australia. The [[South Australia Police]] was formed in April 1838 to protect the community and enforce government regulations. Their principal role was to run the first temporary gaol, a two-room hut.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/free-settlement.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091024014707/http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/free-settlement.html|url-status=dead|title=History of Adelaide Gaol|archive-date=24 October 2009|access-date=19 November 2020}}</ref>

The current [[flag of South Australia]] was adopted on 13 January 1904, and is a British blue ensign [[Defacement (flag)|defaced]] with the state badge. The badge is described as a [[piping shrike]] with wings outstretched on a yellow disc. The state badge is believed to have been designed by Robert Craig of Adelaide's [[School of Design (Adelaide)|School of Design]].

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of South Australia}}
[[File:Eastern South Australia Satellite Photo.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|Satellite image of eastern South Australia. Note the dry lakes (white patches) in the north.]]
The terrain consists largely of arid and semi-arid rangelands, with several low [[mountain range]]s. The most important (but not tallest) is the [[Mount Lofty Ranges|Mount Lofty]]-[[Flinders Ranges]] system, which extends north about {{convert|800|km|mi}} from [[Cape Jervis (headland)|Cape Jervis]] to the northern end of [[Lake Torrens]]. The highest point in the state is not in those ranges; [[Mount Woodroffe]] ({{convert|1435|m|ft|0}}) is in the [[Musgrave Ranges]] in the extreme northwest of the state.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/landforms/highmtns.htm#state |title=Highest Mountains |publisher=[[Geoscience Australia]] |access-date=28 May 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060421195512/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/landforms/highmtns.htm#state |archive-date = 21 April 2006}}</ref> The south-western portion of the state consists of the sparsely inhabited [[Nullarbor Plain]], fronted by the cliffs of the [[Great Australian Bight]]. Features of the coast include [[Spencer Gulf]] and the [[Eyre Yorke Block|Eyre and Yorke Peninsulas]] that surround it.
[[File:Vignoble barossa automne.jpg|thumb|right|[[Barossa Valley (wine)|Barossa Valley]], northeast of Adelaide]]
[[File:Second Valley 2.JPG|thumb|right|The rugged coastline of [[Second Valley, South Australia|Second Valley]], located on the [[Fleurieu Peninsula]]]]
[[File:Flinders ranges pastoral land.JPG|thumb|left|Arid land in the [[Flinders Ranges]]]]
The principal industries and exports of South Australia are wheat, wine and wool.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNj-OKU4CFwC&q=South+Australia+are+wheat%2C+wine+and+wool.|title=Australian Agriculture: Its History and Challenges|last=Henzell|first=Ted|date=2007|publisher=Csiro Publishing|isbn=9780643993426|language=en}}</ref> More than half of Australia's wines are produced in the South Australian wine regions which principally include: [[Barossa Valley (wine)|Barossa Valley]], [[Clare Valley wine region|Clare Valley]], [[McLaren Vale]], [[Coonawarra wine region|Coonawarra]], the [[Riverland wine region|Riverland]] and the [[Adelaide Hills wine region|Adelaide Hills]]. ''See [[South Australian wine]].''

===South Australian boundaries===
{{Further|South Australian borders}}

South Australia has boundaries with every other Australian mainland state and territory except the [[Australian Capital Territory]] and the [[Jervis Bay Territory]]. The [[Western Australia border]] has a history involving the [[South Australian government astronomer]], Dodwell, and the [[Western Australian Government Astronomer]], [[Harold Curlewis|Curlewis]], marking the border on the ground in the 1920s.

In 1863, that part of New South Wales to the north of South Australia was annexed to South Australia, by letters patent, as the "Northern Territory of South Australia", which became shortened to the Northern Territory ([[Territorial evolution of Australia#6 July 1863|6 July 1863]]).<ref>[[Territorial evolution of Australia#6 July 1863|Territorial evolution of Australia – 6 July 1863]]</ref> The Northern Territory was handed to the federal government in 1911 and became a separate territory.

According to Australian maps, South Australia's south coast is flanked by the [[Southern Ocean]], but official international consensus defines the Southern Ocean as extending north from the pole only to 60°S or 55°S, at least 17 degrees of latitude further south than the most southern point of South Australia. Thus the south coast is officially adjacent to the south-most portion of the Indian Ocean. ''See [[Southern Ocean#Existence and definitions|Southern Ocean: Existence and definitions]]''.

===Climate===
[[File:South Australia Köppen.svg|thumb|right|Climate types in South Australia]]
The southern part of the state has a [[Mediterranean climate]], while the rest of the state has either an [[desert climate|arid]] or [[semi-arid climate]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Climate and Weather | work = Government of South Australia | publisher = Atlas South Australia | date = 28 April 2004 | url = http://www.atlas.sa.gov.au/go/resources/atlas-of-south-australia-1986/environment-resources/climate-and-weather | access-date = 6 December 2009 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100315233707/http://www.atlas.sa.gov.au/go/resources/atlas-of-south-australia-1986/environment-resources/climate-and-weather | archive-date = 15 March 2010 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> South Australia's main temperature range is {{convert|29|C|F|0}} in January and {{convert|15|C|F|0|abbr=on}} in July.
The highest maximum temperature was recorded as {{convert|50.7|C|F|1|abbr=on}} at [[Oodnadatta, South Australia|Oodnadatta]] on 2 January 1960, which is also the highest official temperature recorded in Australia. The lowest minimum temperature was {{convert|-8.2|C|F|1|abbr=on}} at [[Yongala, South Australia|Yongala]] on 20 July 1976.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/extreme/records/national.pdf |title=Rainfall and Temperature Records: National |publisher=[[Bureau of Meteorology (Australia)|Bureau of Meteorology]] |access-date=14 November 2009 }}</ref>
{{Weather box
|width=auto
|location = South Australia
|metric first = Yes
|single line = Yes
|Jan record high C = 50.7
|Feb record high C = 48.2
|Mar record high C = 46.5
|Apr record high C = 42.1
|May record high C = 36.5
|Jun record high C = 34.0
|Jul record high C = 34.2
|Aug record high C = 36.5
|Sep record high C = 41.5
|Oct record high C = 45.4
|Nov record high C = 47.9
|Dec record high C = 49.9
|year record high C = 50.7
|Jan record low C = 0.2
|Feb record low C = 0.8
|Mar record low C = -2.2
|Apr record low C = -3.5
|May record low C = -6.6
|Jun record low C = -8.1
|Jul record low C = -8.2
|Aug record low C = -6.6
|Sep record low C = -4.5
|Oct record low C = -4.4
|Nov record low C = -2.4
|Dec record low C = -0.5
|year record low C = -8.2
|source 1 = Bureau of Meteorology<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/climate/extremes/daily_extremes.cgi?period=%2Fcgi-bin%2Fclimate%2Fextremes%2Fdaily_extremes.cgi&climtab=tmax_high&area=tas&year=2013&mon=1&day=11|title=Official records for Australia in January|date=1 July 2017|work=Daily Extremes|publisher=Bureau of Meteorology|access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref>
|date=March 2012
}}

==Economy==
{{See also|Australian economy}}
[[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 4714 CSIRO Precision Viticulture Trial site in the Eden Valley SA March 2004.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vineyard]] in [[Eden Valley, South Australia|Eden Valley]]. South Australia's wine industry is the largest in Australia.<ref>{{cite web |title=South Australia |url=http://www.wineaustralia.com/australia/Default.aspx?tabid=176 |publisher=Wine Australia |access-date=24 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110409203807/http://www.wineaustralia.com/Australia/Default.aspx?tabid=176 |archive-date=9 April 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]
[[File:Flindersmed.jpg|thumb|right|[[Flinders Medical Centre]]. Health care and social assistance is the largest [[Australian Bureau of Statistics|ABS]] defined employment sector in South Australia.<ref name="abs.gov.au">{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mediareleasesbyReleaseDate/BDE38EF07F5984D0CA2576F50011FE7D?OpenDocument |title=1345.4 – SA Stats, Jun 2011 |publisher=Abs.gov.au |date= 28 June 2011|access-date=17 July 2016}}</ref>]]
South Australia's average annual employment for 2009–10 was 800,600 persons, 18% higher than for 2000–01.<ref name="Summary 1345">[http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/1345.4Feature%20Article1Apr%202011?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=1345.4&issue=Apr%202011&num=&view=] {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> For the corresponding period, national average annual employment rose by 22%.<ref name="Summary 1345"/>

South Australia's largest employment sector is health care and social assistance,<ref name="abs.gov.au"/><ref name="adelaidenow.com.au">{{cite web|url=http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/business/health-now-our-biggest-employer/story-e6frede3-1226046526798 |title=Health now our biggest employer |publisher=adelaidenow |date=7 July 2016 |access-date=17 July 2016}}</ref> surpassing manufacturing in SA as the largest employer since 2006–07.<ref name="abs.gov.au"/><ref name="adelaidenow.com.au"/> In 2009–10, manufacturing in SA had average annual employment of 83,700 persons compared with 103,300 for health care and social assistance.<ref name="abs.gov.au"/> Health care and social assistance represented nearly 13% of the state average annual employment.<ref name="Summary 1345"/>

The retail trade is the second largest employer in SA (2009–10), with 91,900 jobs, and 12 per cent of the state workforce.<ref name="Summary 1345"/>

The manufacturing industry plays an important role in South Australia's economy, generating 11.7%<ref name="abs.gov.au"/> of the state's [[gross state product]] (GSP) and playing a large part in exports. The manufacturing industry consists of automotive (44% of total Australian production, 2006) and component manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, defence technology (2.1% of GSP, 2002–03) and electronic systems (3.0% of GSP in 2006). South Australia's economy relies on exports more than any other state in Australia.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Documents/australias-trade-by-state-and-territory-2013-14.pdf|title=Australia's Trade by State and Territory 2013–14|date=February 2015|work=Australia Unlimited|access-date=28 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106014726/http://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Documents/australias-trade-by-state-and-territory-2013-14.pdf|archive-date=6 November 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Twilight Upon Wheat Fields (139677885).jpeg|thumb|left|Wheat fields at [[Nuriootpa, South Australia|Nuriootpa]]. Agriculture is a large industry for the state.]]

State export earnings stood at $10 billion per year{{When|date=April 2010}}{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} and grew by 8.8% from 2002 to 2003. Production of South Australian food and drink (including agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture, fisheries and manufacturing) is a $10 billion industry.{{When|date=April 2010}}{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

South Australia's [[credit rating]] was upgraded to AAA by [[Standard & Poor's]] in September 2004 and to AAA by [[Moody's]] in November 2004, the highest credit ratings achievable by any company or sovereign. The state had previously lost these ratings in the State Bank collapse. However, in 2012 Standard & Poor's downgraded the state's credit rating to AA+ due to declining revenues, new spending initiatives and a weaker than expected budgetary outlook.<ref name=pu12>{{cite news|last1=Puddy|first1=Rebecca|title=South Australia loses AAA rating in credit rating downgrade|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/state-politics/return-to-surplus-deferred-in-lean-south-australian-budget/story-e6frgczx-1226377225636|access-date=1 September 2015|newspaper=The Australian|date=31 May 2012}}</ref>

South Australia's Gross State Product was $48.9 billion starting 2004, making it $32,996 per capita. Exports for 2006 were valued at $9.0bn with imports at $6.2bn. Private Residential Building Approvals experienced 80% growth over the year of 2006.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

South Australia's economy includes the following major industries: meat and meat preparations, wheat, wine, wool and sheepskins, machinery, metal and metal manufactures, fish and crustaceans, road vehicles and parts, and petroleum products. Other industries, such as education and defence technology, are of growing importance.{{When|date=April 2010}}{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

South Australia receives the least amount of federal funding for its local road network of all states on a per capita and a per kilometre basis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/house/committee/efpa/localgovt/submissions/sub308.pdf |title=Inquiry into Local Government and Cost Shifting |access-date=11 June 2007 |publisher=[[Australian House of Representatives]] |year=2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070710045501/http://www.aph.gov.au/house/committee/efpa/localgovt/submissions/sub308.pdf |archive-date=10 July 2007}}</ref>

In 2013, South Australia was named by [[CommSec]] as the second lowest performing economy in Australia.<ref name="SA Lags on Economic Growth">{{cite web|title=SA Lags on Economic Growth|url=http://indaily.com.au/news/2013/07/22/sa-lags-on-economic-growth/|date=21 July 2013}}</ref> While some sources have pointed at weak retail spending and capital investment, others have attributed poor performance to declines in public spending.<ref name="SA Lags on Economic Growth"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Economic report confirms tough times in South Australia|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-06-28/economic-report-confirms-tough-times-in-south-australia/4787076|publisher=ABC News|date=27 June 2013}}</ref>

===Energy===
{{main|Energy in South Australia}}
South Australia has the lead over other Australian states for its commercialisation and commitment to [[renewable energy]]. It is now the leading producer of [[Wind power in South Australia|wind power]] in Australia.<ref name="Wind Energy - How it works">{{cite web|title=Wind Energy – How it works|url=http://www.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/cec/technologies/wind.html|publisher=Clearenergycouncil|access-date=6 October 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110621044310/http://www.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/cec/technologies/wind.html|archive-date=21 June 2011}}</ref> Renewable energy is a growing source of electricity in South Australia, and there is potential for growth from this particular industry of the state's economy. The [[Hornsdale Power Reserve]] is a bank of grid-connected batteries adjacent to the [[Hornsdale Wind Farm]] in South Australia's Mid-North region. At the time of construction in late 2017, it was billed as the largest lithium-ion battery in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hornsdalepowerreserve.com.au/ |title=Hornsdale Power Reserve |access-date=4 December 2017}}</ref>

===Olympic Dam===

The [[Olympic Dam, South Australia|Olympic Dam]] mine near [[Roxby Downs, South Australia|Roxby Downs]] in northern South Australia is the largest deposit of [[uranium]] in the world, possessing more than a third of the world's low-cost recoverable reserves and 70% of Australia's. The mine, owned and operated by [[BHP]], presently accounts for 9% of global uranium production.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aPGvMTxVcp2k&refer=australia | title = Australia, China Sign Agreements for Uranium Trade (Update5) | author1 = Gemma Daley | author2 = Tan Hwee Ann | publisher = Bloomberg | date = 3 April 2006 | access-date = 27 April 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/ausgeonews/ausgeonews200512/uranium.jsp | publisher = AusGeo News | date = December 2005 | title = Why Australia has so much uranium | author1 = Ian Lambert | author2 = Subhash Jaireth | author3 = Aden McKay | author4 = Yanis Miezitis | access-date = 27 April 2012}}</ref> The Olympic Dam mine is also the world's fourth-largest remaining copper deposit, and the world's fifth largest gold deposit.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/bhpbilliton-olympicdam-idUSSYD52655220091021|title=FACTBOX-BHP Billiton's huge Olympic Dam mine|date=21 October 2009|work=Reuters|access-date=24 May 2019|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524154213/https://www.reuters.com/article/bhpbilliton-olympicdam/factbox-bhp-billitons-huge-olympic-dam-mine-idUSSYD52655220091021|archive-date=24 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> There was a proposal to vastly expand the operations of the mine, making it the largest open-cut mine in the world,<ref>[https://archive.today/20120910000234/http://www.skynews.com.au/finance/article.aspx?id=736400&vId= Sky News Australia – Finance Article]</ref> but in 2012 the BHP Billiton board decided not to go ahead with it at that time due to then lower commodity prices.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-08-22/bhp-billiton-profit-falls-a-third/4215638 BHP shelves Olympic Dam as profit falls a third]. [[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]], 22 August 2012. Retrieved on 16 July 2013.</ref>

===Crown land===
[[Crown land#Australia|Crown land]] held in right of South Australia is managed under the Crown Land Management Act 2009.

==Government==
{{Main|Government of South Australia}}
[[File:Parliament House, South Australia.jpg|upright=1.15|right|thumb|[[Parliament House, Adelaide]]]]

South Australia is a [[constitutional monarchy]] with the [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen of Australia]] as sovereign, and the [[Governor of South Australia]] as her representative.<ref>{{cite AustLII|HCA|31|1907|litigants=[[R v Governor of South Australia; Ex parte Vardon]] |parallelcite=[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1907/31.pdf (1907) 4 CLR 1497] |courtname=auto}}.</ref> It is a state of the [[Commonwealth of Australia]]. The [[bicameral]] [[Parliament of South Australia]] consists of the [[lower house]] known as the [[South Australian House of Assembly|House of Assembly]] and the [[upper house]] known as the [[South Australian Legislative Council|Legislative Council]]. [[South Australian state elections|General elections]] are held every four years, the last being the [[2018 South Australian state election|2018 election]].

Initially, the [[Governor of South Australia]] held almost total power, derived from the letters patent of the imperial government to create the colony. He was accountable only to the British [[Colonial Office]], and thus democracy did not exist in the colony. A new body was created to advise the governor on the administration of South Australia in 1843 called the Legislative Council.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.sa.gov.au/about/1_1_1_legcouncil.shtm |title=Legislative Council 1843–1856 |access-date=28 May 2006 |publisher=[[Parliament of South Australia]] |year=2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060825143657/http://www.parliament.sa.gov.au/about/1_1_1_legcouncil.shtm |archive-date=25 August 2006 }}</ref> It consisted of three representatives of the British Government and four colonists appointed by the governor. The governor retained total executive power.

In 1851, the Imperial Parliament enacted the [[Australian Colonies Government Act]], which allowed for the election of representatives to each of the colonial legislatures and the drafting of a constitution to properly create representative and responsible government in South Australia. Later that year, propertied male colonists were allowed to vote for 16 members on a new 24 seat Legislative Council. Eight members continued to be appointed by the governor.

[[File:Old Parliament House Adelaide 1872.jpg|thumb|left|Old Parliament House in 1872]]
The main responsibility of this body was to draft a constitution for South Australia. The body drafted the most democratic constitution ever seen in the British Empire and provided for universal manhood [[suffrage]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Change name |url=http://www.aec.gov.au/Elections/australian_electoral_history/righttovote.htm |title=The Right to Vote in Australia |publisher=Australian Electoral Commission |date=28 January 2011 |access-date=17 July 2016}}</ref> It created the bicameral [[Parliament of South Australia]]. For the first time in the colony, the executive was elected by the people, and the colony used the [[Westminster system]], where the government is the party or coalition that exerts a majority in the House of Assembly. The Legislative Council remained a predominantly conservative chamber elected by property owners.

{| class="toccolours" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; margin-right:.5em; margin-top:.4em; margin-left:0.5em; font-size:90%;"
|-
! colspan="3" style="background:#cef; text-align:center;"| Composition of the [[Parliament of South Australia]]
|- style="background:#ccc; vertical-align:top;"
![[List of political parties in Australia|Party]]
![[South Australian House of Assembly|House]]
![[South Australian Legislative Council|Council]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#00bfff;"|[[Liberal Party of Australia (South Australian Division)|Liberal]]
| style="text-align:center;"|23
| style="text-align:center;"|8
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f66;"|[[Australian Labor Party (South Australian Branch)|Labor]]
| style="text-align:center;"|19
| style="text-align:center;"|8
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ffad33;"|[[Nick Xenophon's SA-BEST|SA-BEST]]
| style="text-align:center;"|0
| style="text-align:center;"|2
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#90ee90;"|[[Greens South Australia|Greens]]
| style="text-align:center;"|0
| style="text-align:center;"|2
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"|[[Independent (politics)|Independent]]
| style="text-align:center;"|5
| style="text-align:center;"|1
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#5353c6;"|[[Advance SA]]
| style="text-align:center;"|0
| style="text-align:center;"|1
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:white;"|'''Total'''
||'''47'''
||'''22'''
|-
| colspan="3" style="font-size:80%; background:#cef; text-align:center;"| Source: Electoral Commission SA
|}

[[Women's suffrage in Australia]] took a leap forward – enacted in 1895 and taking effect from the [[1896 South Australian colonial election|1896 colonial election]], South Australia was the first in Australia and only the second in the world after [[New Zealand]] to allow women to vote, and the first in the world to allow women to stand for election.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.parliament.sa.gov.au/education/teachers/Documents/Women's%20Petition%20Photograph.pdf |title=Women's Suffrage Petition 1894: parliament.sa.gov.au |access-date=17 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110329160732/http://www.parliament.sa.gov.au/education/teachers/Documents/Women%27s%20Petition%20Photograph.pdf |archive-date=29 March 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1897 [[Catherine Helen Spence]] was the first woman in Australia to be a candidate for political office when she was nominated to be one of South Australia's delegates to the conventions that drafted the constitution. South Australia became an original state of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901.

Although the lower house had universal suffrage, the upper house, the Legislative Council, remained the exclusive domain of property owners until the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] government of [[Don Dunstan]] managed to achieve reform of the chamber in 1973. Property qualifications were removed and the Council became a body elected via [[proportional representation]] by a single state-wide electorate.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dunstan |first=Don |year=1981 |title=Felicia: The political memoirs of Don Dunstan |publisher=Griffin Press Limited |pages=214–215 |isbn=0-333-33815-4}}</ref>
Since the following [[1975 South Australian state election]], no one party has had control of the state's upper house with the balance of power controlled by a variety of minor parties and independents.

===Local government===
South Australia is divided into 74 [[Local government areas of South Australia|local government areas]]. Local councils are responsible for functions delegated by the South Australian parliament, such as road infrastructure and waste management. Council revenue comes mostly from property taxes and government grants.

==Demographics==
{{See also|Demographics of Australia|List of cities in South Australia by population}}
[[File:ABS-3101.0-AustralianDemographicStatistics-EstimatedResidentPopulationStatesTerritories-EstimatedResidentPopulation-Persons-SouthAustralia-A2060846R.svg|thumb|Estimated resident population since 1981]]
[[File:CBD in the Distance (22809720932).jpg|thumb|left|[[Adelaide]] is the largest metropolitan area in the state.]]

As at March 2018 the population of South Australia was 1,733,500.<ref name=ABSPop/>
A majority of the state's population lives within [[Greater Adelaide]]'s metropolitan area which had an estimated population of
1,333,927 in June 2017.<ref name=ABSCapitalPop>{{cite web|title=3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2016–17: Main Features|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/3218.0Main+Features12016-17|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics|publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=24 April 2018|access-date=13 October 2018}} Estimated resident population, 30 June 2017.</ref> Other significant population centres include [[Mount Gambier, South Australia|Mount Gambier]] (29,505),<ref name=ABSSUA>{{cite web|title=3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2016–17: Population Estimates by Significant Urban Area, 2007 to 2017|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/3218.02016-17|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics|publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=24 April 2018|access-date=12 October 2018}} Estimated resident population, 30 June 2017.</ref> [[Victor Harbor, South Australia|Victor Harbor]]-[[Goolwa, South Australia|Goolwa]] (26,334),<ref name=ABSSUA/> [[Whyalla, South Australia|Whyalla]] (21,976),<ref name=ABSSUA/> [[Murray Bridge, South Australia|Murray Bridge]] (18,452),<ref name=ABSSUA/> [[Port Lincoln, South Australia|Port Lincoln]] (16,281),<ref name=ABSSUA/> [[Port Pirie, South Australia|Port Pirie]] (14,267),<ref name=ABSSUA/> and [[Port Augusta, South Australia|Port Augusta]] (13,957).<ref name=ABSSUA/>

===Ancestry and immigration===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right;"
|+Country of Birth (2016)<ref name="quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au">{{Cite web|url=https://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/communityprofile/4?opendocument|title=2016 Census Community Profiles: South Australia|website=quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au|access-date=19 November 2020}}</ref><ref name="censusdata.abs.gov.au">http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/CensusOutput/copsub2016.NSF/All%20docs%20by%20catNo/2016~Community%20Profile~4/$File/GCP_4.zip?OpenElement</ref>
! Birthplace{{refn|group="N"|In accordance with the Australian Bureau of Statistics source, England, Scotland, China] and the Special Administrative Regions of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] are listed separately}} !! Population
|-
| Australia || 1,192,546
|-
| England || 97,392 
|-
| India || 27,594
|-
| China || 24,610 
|-
| Italy || 18,544
|-
| Vietnam || 14,337
|-
| New Zealand || 12,937
|-
| Philippines || 12,465
|-
| Scotland || 11,993 
|-
| Germany || 10,119
|-
| Greece || 8,682
|-
| Malaysia || 7,749
|-
| South Africa || 6,610
|-
| Afghanistan || 6,313
|}

At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were:{{refn|group="N"|As a percentage of 1,227,355 persons who nominated their ancestry at the 2016 census.}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/communityprofile/4GADE?opendocument|title=2016 Census Community Profiles: Greater Adelaide|website=quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au|access-date=19 November 2020}}</ref> 
{{columns-list|colwidth=13em|
* [[English Australians|English]] (40.5%)
* [[Australians|Australian]] (35.5%){{refn|group="N"|The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry are part of the [[Anglo-Celtic Australian|Anglo-Celtic]] group.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/49f609c83cf34d69ca2569de0025c182!OpenDocument|title=Feature Article – Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Australia (Feature Article)|first=c=AU; o=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Australian Bureau of|last=Statistics|website=www.abs.gov.au|date=January 1995}}</ref>}}
* [[Scottish Australians|Scottish]] (8.9%)
* [[Irish Australians|Irish]] (8.5%)
* [[German Australians|German]] (8.2%)
* [[Italian Australians|Italian]] (6.1%)
* [[Chinese Australians|Chinese]] (3.3%)
* [[Greek Australian|Greek]] (2.4%)
* [[Indian Australians|Indian]] (2.1%)
* [[Indigenous Australians|Indigenous]] (2%){{refn|group="N"|name=censusquirk|Of any ancestry. Includes those identifying as [[Aboriginal Australians]] or [[Torres Strait Islanders]]. Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.}}
* [[Dutch Australians|Dutch]] (1.7%)
* [[Vietnamese Australians|Vietnamese]] (1.3%)
* [[Polish Australians|Polish]] (1.2%)
* [[Filipino Australians|Filipino]] (1%)
}}

28.9% of the population was born overseas at the 2016 census. The five largest groups of overseas-born were from [[England]] (5.8%), India (1.6%), China (1.5%), Italy (1.1%) and [[Vietnam]] (0.9%).<ref name="quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au"/><ref name="censusdata.abs.gov.au"/>

2% of the population, or 34,184 people, identified as [[Indigenous Australians]] ([[Aboriginal Australians]] and [[Torres Strait Islanders]]) in 2016.{{refn|group="N"|name=censusquirk}}<ref name="quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au"/><ref name="censusdata.abs.gov.au"/>

===Language===
At the 2016 census, 78.2% of the population spoke only [[Australian English|English]] at home. The other languages most commonly spoken at home were [[Italian language|Italian]] (1.7%), [[Standard Mandarin]] (1.7%), Greek (1.4%) [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] (1.1%), and [[Cantonese]] (0.6%).<ref name="quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au"/><ref name="censusdata.abs.gov.au"/>

=== Religion ===
At the [[2016 Australian census|2016 census]], overall 53.9% of responses identified some variant of [[Christianity]]. 9% of respondents chose not to state a religion. The most commonly nominated responses were [[Irreligion|'No Religion']] (35.4%), [[Roman Catholic|Catholicism]] (18%), [[Anglican Church of Australia|Anglicanism]] (10%) and [[Uniting Church in Australia|Uniting Church]] (7.1%).<ref name="quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au"/><ref name="censusdata.abs.gov.au"/>

==Education==
{{See also|Education in South Australia}}

===Primary and secondary===
{{See also|List of schools in South Australia}}

On 1 January 2009, the school leaving age was raised to 17 (having previously been 15 and then 16).<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.news.com.au/story/0,10117,19215505-1246,00.html |access-date=28 May 2006 |publisher=[[News Corp (2013–present)|News Corp]] |work=[[The Advertiser (Adelaide)|The Advertiser]] |date=22 May 2006 |title=School leaving age to be raised |first=Michael |last=Owen |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914172408/http://www.news.com.au/story/0%2C10117%2C19215505-1246%2C00.html |archive-date=14 September 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Education is compulsory for all children until age 17, unless they are working or undergoing other training. The majority of students stay on to complete their [[South Australian Certificate of Education]] (SACE). School education is the responsibility of the South Australian government, but the public and private education systems are funded jointly by it and the [[Government of Australia|Commonwealth Government]].

The South Australian Government provides, to schools on a per student basis, 89 percent of the total Government funding while the Commonwealth contributes 11 percent. Since the early 1970s it has been an ongoing controversy<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aeufederal.org.au/Debates/ReidPaper.html |title = The Redefinition of Public Education |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080215174248/http://www.aeufederal.org.au/Debates/ReidPaper.html |archive-date = 15 February 2008 |access-date =12 July 2010}}</ref> that 68 percent of Commonwealth funding (increasing to 75% by 2008) goes to private schools that are attended by 32% of the states students.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cms.curriculum.edu.au/anr2008/ch2_student.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016092136/http://cms.curriculum.edu.au/anr2008/ch2_student.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 October 2013 |work=Ministerial Council National Report on Schooling in Australia |title=Chapter 2: Resourcing Australia's schools }}</ref> Private schools often refute this by saying that they receive less State Government funding than public schools, and in 2004 the main private school funding came from the Australian government, not the state government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=2119 |title=Government funding should encourage private schools not penalise them |author=Bill Daniels |date=12 April 2004 |access-date=16 February 2010}}</ref>

On 14 June 2013, South Australia became the third Australian state to sign up to the Australian Federal Government's [[Gonski Report#Education|Gonski Reform Program]]. This will see funding for primary and secondary education to South Australia increased by $1.1 billion before 2019.<ref>{{cite web|title=South Australia signs up to Federal Government's Gonski education reforms|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-06-14/sa-signs-up-to-gonski-education-reforms/4753742|date=14 June 2013}}</ref>

===Tertiary===
[[File:Adelaideunientrance.jpg|right|upright=1.15|thumb|[[University of Adelaide]]]]
There are three public and four private universities in South Australia. The three public universities are the [[University of Adelaide]] (established 1874, third oldest in Australia), [[Flinders University]] (est. 1966) and the [[University of South Australia]] (est. 1991). The four private universities are [[Torrens University Australia]] (est. 2013), [[Carnegie Mellon University - Australia]] (est. 2006), [[University College London]]'s School of Energy and Resources (Australia), and [[Cranfield University]]. All six have their main campus in the Adelaide metropolitan area: Adelaide and UniSA on [[North Terrace]] in the [[Adelaide city centre|city]]; CMU, UCL and Cranfield are co-located on [[Victoria Square, Adelaide|Victoria Square]] in the city, and Flinders at [[Bedford Park, South Australia|Bedford Park]].

====Vocational education====
{{main|TAFE South Australia}}
Tertiary vocational education is provided by a range of Registered Training Organisations (RTOs) which are regulated at Commonwealth level. The range of RTOs delivering education include public, private and 'enterprise' providers i.e. employing organisations who run an RTO for their own employees or members.

The largest public provider of vocational education is [[TAFE South Australia]] which is made up of colleges throughout the state, many of these in rural areas, providing tertiary education to as many people as possible. In South Australia, TAFE is funded by the [[Government of South Australia|state government]] and run by the South Australian [[Department of Further Education, Employment, Science and Technology]] (DFEEST). Each TAFE SA campus provides a range of courses with its own specialisation.

==Transport==
{{Main|Transport in South Australia}}
[[File:SouthAustraliaRoads.png|thumb|Major highways in South Australia]]

===Historical transport in South Australia===
After settlement, the major form of transport in South Australia was ocean transport. Limited land transport was provided by horses and bullocks. In the mid 19th century, the state began to develop a widespread rail network, although a coastal shipping network continued until the post war period.

Roads began to improve with the introduction of motor transport. By the late 19th century, road transport dominated internal transport in South Australia.

===Railway===
South Australia has four interstate rail connections, to [[Perth]] via the Nullarbor Plain, to [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] through the centre of the continent, to New South Wales through [[Broken Hill]], and to [[Melbourne]]–which is the closest capital city to Adelaide.

Rail transport is important for many mines in the north of the state.

The capital Adelaide has a commuter rail network made of electric and diesel electric powered multiple units, with 6 lines between them.

===Roads===
[[File:Nullarbor warning signs, 2012.jpg|thumb|[[Eyre Highway]] west of the [[Nullarbor, South Australia]]]]
South Australia has extensive road networks linking towns and other states. Roads are also the most common form of transport within the major metropolitan areas with car transport predominating. Public [[transport in Adelaide]] is mostly provided by buses and trams with regular services throughout the day.

===Air transport===
[[Adelaide Airport]] provides regular flights to other capitals, major South Australian towns and many international locations. The airport also has daily flights to several Asian hub airports. Adelaide Metro<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://adelaidemetro.com.au/timetables/buses|title=Adelaide Metro|last=Service SA|date=12 February 2020|publisher=Service SA|access-date=19 November 2020|via=adelaidemetro.com.au}}</ref> buses J1 and J1X connect to the city (approx. 30 minutes travel time). Standard fares apply and tickets may be purchased from the driver. Maximum charge (September 2016) for Metroticket is $5.30; off-peak and seniors discounts may apply.
[[File:Waikerie ferry, Riverland 1.JPG|thumb|A ferry crossing the Murray River towards the town of [[Waikerie, South Australia]]]]

===River transport===
The [[River Murray]] was formerly an important trade route for South Australia, with [[River Murray Navigation Co.#Steaming on the Murray River|paddle steamers]] linking inland areas and the ocean at Goolwa.

===Sea transport===
South Australia has a container port at [[Port Adelaide]]. There are also numerous important ports along the coast for minerals and grains.

The passenger terminal at Port Adelaide periodically sees cruise liners.

Kangaroo Island is dependent on the Sea Link ferry service between [[Cape Jervis (headland)|Cape Jervis]] and [[Penneshaw]].

=={{anchor|culture}}Cultural life==
{{see also|Adelaide#Cultural life|Department of the Premier and Cabinet (South Australia)#Arts and culture|List of festivals in Australia#South Australia}}
South Australia has been known as "the Festival State" for many years, for its abundance of arts and [[gastronomic]] festivals.<ref>{{cite journal|publisher=[[The Adelaide Review]]|url=https://www.adelaidereview.com.au/features/is-south-australia-still-festival-state-festival-flux-flow/|title=Is South Australia still the Festival State?|first=Ilona|last=Wallace|date=31 March 2015|access-date=4 September 2019}}</ref> While much of the arts scene is concentrated in Adelaide, the state government has supported regional arts actively since the 1990s. One of the manifestations of this was the creation of [[Country Arts SA]], created in 1992.<ref name=laidlaw>{{cite web|url=https://www.michellelensink.com/laidlaw_hon_diana|website=Hon. Michelle Lensink MLC|title=Laidlaw, Hon. Diana|date=26 November 2003|first=Michelle|last=Lensink|access-date=4 September 2019}}</ref>

[[Diana Laidlaw]] did much to further the arts in South Australia during her term as Arts Minister from 1993 to 2002, and after [[Mike Rann]] assumed government in 2002, he created a strategic plan in 2004 (updated 2007) which included furthering and promoting the arts in South Australia under the topic heading "Objective 4:
Fostering Creativity and Innovation".<ref>{{cite document|title=South Australia'S Strategic Plan 2007|publisher=Government of South Australia|date=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.sa.gov.au/blog/finding-the-next-wave-innovation-and-its-discontent/|title= Finding the Next Wave: Innovation and its Discontents|series= University of Adelaide Cultural Oration 2017|first=Greg |last=Mackie|author-link=Greg Mackie|date=13 July 2017|access-date=4 September 2019}}</ref>

In September 2019, with the arts portfolio now subsumed within the [[Department of the Premier and Cabinet (South Australia)|Department of the Premier and Cabinet]] (DPC) after the election of [[Steven Marshall]] as Premier, and the 2004 strategic plan having been deleted from the website in 2018,<ref>{{cite news|publisher=The Advertiser|website=AdelaideNow|url=https://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/expremier-mike-ranns-vision-for-south-australia-purged-after-14-years-by-new-ruling-liberals/news-story/7426eeab1f56078a971d5a823b411971|title=Ex-premier Mike Rann's vision for South Australia purged after 14 years by new ruling Liberals|date=9 June 2018|first=Matt|last=Smith|access-date=4 September 2019}}</ref> the "''Arts and Culture Plan, South Australia 2019–2024''" was created by the Department.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dpc.sa.gov.au/responsibilities/arts-and-culture/arts-plan|title=Arts and Culture Plan South Australia 2019–2024|access-date=4 September 2019}}</ref> Marshall said when launching the plan: “The arts sector in South Australia is already very strong but it’s been operating without a plan for 20 years”.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=InDaily|url=https://indaily.com.au/arts-and-culture/2019/09/02/marshall-considering-concert-hall-as-part-of-new-arts-plan/|title=Marshall "considering" concert hall as part of new arts plan|date=2 September 2019|first=Stephanie|last=Richards|access-date=4 September 2019}}</ref> However the plan does not signal any new government support, even after the government's {{AUD|31.9 million}} cuts to arts funding when [[Arts South Australia]] was absorbed into DPC in 2018. Specific proposals within the plan include an “Adelaide in 100 Objects” walking tour, a new shared ticketing system for small to medium arts bodies, a five-year-plan to revitalise regional art centres, creation of an arts-focussed high school, and a new venue for the [[Adelaide Symphony Orchestra]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.adelaidereview.com.au/arts/south-australia-arts-plan-review/|title=New Arts Plan and review suggest arts sector learns to live with less government support|journal=The Adelaide Review|date=2 September 2019|first=Walter |last=Marsh|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref>

==Sport==

{{Main|Sport in South Australia}}

===Australian rules football===
[[File:McLeodMarkcrop.jpg|thumb|An AFL match between the Port Adelaide Power and the Adelaide Crows]]
[[Australian rules football]] is the most popular spectator sport in South Australia, with South Australians having the highest attendance rate in Australia.<ref>[http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4174.0 4174.0 Sports Attendance, Australia, 2005–06], 25 January 2007, Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved on 5 July 2009.</ref>

South Australia fields two teams in the [[Australian Football League]] (AFL) national competition: the [[Adelaide Crows|Adelaide Football Club]] and [[Port Adelaide Football Club]]. As of 2015 the two clubs were in the top five in terms of membership numbers, with both clubs' membership figures reaching over 60,000.{{citation needed|date=December 2019}} Both teams have used the [[Adelaide Oval]] as their home ground since 2014, having previously used [[Football Park]] (AAMI Stadium).

The [[South Australian National Football League]] (SANFL), which was the premier league in the state before the advent of the Australian Football League, is a popular local league comprising ten teams: Sturt, Port Adelaide, Adelaide, West Adelaide, South Adelaide, North Adelaide, Norwood, Woodville/West Torrens, Glenelg and Central District.

The [[South Australian Amateur Football League]] comprises 68 member clubs playing over 110 matches per week across ten senior divisions and three junior divisions. The SAAFL is one of Australia's largest and strongest Australian rules football associations.<ref>[http://www.saafl.asn.au/ South Australian Amateur Football League] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090702020422/http://www.saafl.asn.au/ |date=2 July 2009 }}. Retrieved on 5 July 2009.</ref>

===Cricket===
[[Cricket]] is the most popular summer sport in South Australia and attracts big crowds. South Australia has a cricket team, the [[South Australia cricket team|West End Redbacks]], who play at [[Adelaide Oval]] in the [[Adelaide Park Lands]] during the summer; they won their first title since 1996 in the [[2010–11 KFC Twenty20 Big Bash|summer of 2010–11]]. Many international matches have been played at the Adelaide Oval; it was one of the host cities of [[2015 Cricket World Cup]], and for many years it hosted the Australia Day One Day International. South Australia is also home to the [[Adelaide Strikers]], an Australian men's professional [[Twenty20 cricket]] team, that competes in Australia's domestic Twenty20 cricket competition, the [[Big Bash League]].

===Association football===
[[Adelaide United FC|Adelaide United]] represents South Australia in soccer in the men's [[A-League]] and women's [[W-League (Australia)|W-League]]. The club's home ground is [[Hindmarsh Stadium]] (Coopers Stadium), but occasionally plays games at the Adelaide Oval.

The club was founded in 2003 and are the [[2015–16 A-League|2015–16 season]] champions of the [[A-League]]. The club was also premier in the inaugural 2005–06 A-League season, finishing 7 points clear of the rest of the competition, before finishing 3rd in the finals. Adelaide United was also a Grand Finalist in the 2006–07 and 2008–09 seasons. Adelaide is the only A-League club to have progressed past the group stages of the [[Asian Champions League]] on more than one occasion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.footballaustralia.com.au/adelaideunited/news-display/Reds-finalise-squad-for-ACL-Knockout-Stage/48711 |title=Reds finalise squad for ACL Knockout Stage – Adelaide United FC 2013 |website=Footballaustralia.com.au |access-date=16 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203151635/http://www.footballaustralia.com.au/adelaideunited/news-display/Reds-finalise-squad-for-ACL-Knockout-Stage/48711 |archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref>

[[Adelaide City FC|Adelaide City]] remains South Australia's most successful club, having won three [[National Soccer League]] titles and three [[NSL Cup]]s. City was the first side from South Australia to ever win a continental title when it claimed the [[1987 Oceania Club Championship]] and it has also won a record 17 [[National Premier Leagues South Australia|South Australian championships]] and 17 [[FFSA Federation Cup|Federation Cups]].

[[West Adelaide SC|West Adelaide]] became the first South Australian club to be crowned Australian champion when it won the [[1978 National Soccer League]] title. Like City, it now competes in the [[National Premier Leagues South Australia]] and the two clubs contest the [[Adelaide derby]].

===Basketball===
[[File:Brett Maher Court 023.jpg|thumb|[[Titanium Security Arena]], the home of [[basketball]] in South Australia]]
Basketball also has a big following in South Australia, with the [[Adelaide 36ers]] playing in the [[Adelaide Entertainment Centre]]. The 36ers have won four championships in the last 20 years in the [[National Basketball League (Australia)|National Basketball League]]. The [[Adelaide Entertainment Centre]], located in [[Hindmarsh, South Australia|Hindmarsh]], is the home of basketball in the state.

Mount Gambier also has a national basketball team – the Mount Gambier Pioneers. The Pioneers play at the Icehouse (Mount Gambier Basketball Stadium) which seats over 1,000 people and is also home to the Mount Gambier Basketball Association. The Pioneers won the South Conference in 2003 and the Final in 2003; this team was rated second in the top five teams to have ever played in the league. In 2012, the club entered its 25th season, with a roster of 10 senior players (two imports) and three development squad players.

===Motor sport===
Australia's premier motor sport series, the [[Supercars Championship]], has visited South Australia each year since 1999. South Australia's Supercars event, the [[Adelaide 500]], is staged on the [[Adelaide Street Circuit]], a temporary track laid out through the streets and parklands to the east of the [[Adelaide city centre]]. Attendance for the 2010 event totalled 277,800.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100323031612/http://www.speedcafe.com.au/2010/03/16/early-march-the-only-date-for-clipsal-500/ Early March the only date for Clipsal 500] Retrieved from www.speedcafe.com.au/ on 3 May 2010</ref> An earlier version of the [[Adelaide Street Circuit]] played host to the [[Australian Grand Prix]], a round of the [[FIA Formula One World Championship]], each year from 1985 to 1995.

[[Mallala Motor Sport Park]], a permanent circuit located near the town of [[Mallala, South Australia|Mallala]], 58 km north of Adelaide, caters for both state and national level motor sport throughout the year.

[[The Bend Motorsport Park]], is another permanent circuit, located just outside of [[Tailem Bend, South Australia|Tailem Bend]].<ref>[https://www.murrayvalleystandard.com.au/story/3777170/park-named-the-bend/ The Bend Motorsport Park:Tailem Bend raceway, former SA Motorsport Park and Mitsibushi test track, has new official name]. ''Murray Valley Standard''. 8 March 2016</ref>

===Other sports===
Sixty-three percent of South Australian children took part in organised sports in 2002–2003.<ref>[http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/DetailsPage/4901.0Apr%202003?OpenDocument Children's Participation in Cultural and Leisure Activities], April 2003, Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 14 January 2013.</ref>

The [[ATP Adelaide]] was a tennis tournament held from 1972 to 2008 that then moved to Brisbane and was replaced with The World Tennis Challenge a Professional Exhibition Tournament that is part of the Australian Open Series. Also, the [[Royal Adelaide Golf Club]] has hosted nine editions of the [[Australian Open (golf)|Australian Open]], with the most recent being in 1998.

The state has hosted the [[Tour Down Under]] cycle race since 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-03-11/what-sa-gained-by-losing-the-grand-prix/6288836 |title=Victoria may gloat about poaching the Grand Prix, but SA gained a lot by losing it |last=Keane |first=Daniel |date=12 March 2015 |website=[[abc.net.au]] |access-date=21 January 2017}}</ref>

==Places==
[[File:SouthAustraliaRoads.png|thumb|upright=1.3|South Australian cities, towns, settlements and [[List of highways in South Australia|road network]]]]
{| valign=top style="font-size:95%;"|-
|width=200 valign=top|
'''Regions'''
* [[Adelaide Hills]]
* [[Barossa Valley]]
* [[Clare Valley]]
* [[Eyre Peninsula]]
* [[Far North (South Australia)|Far North]]
* [[Fleurieu Peninsula]]
* [[Flinders Ranges]]
* [[Kangaroo Island]]
* [[Limestone Coast]]
* [[Murraylands]]
* [[Nullarbor Plain]]
* [[Riverland]]
* [[Yorke Peninsula]]

'''Rivers'''
* [[Cooper Creek]]
* [[Gawler River (South Australia)|Gawler River]]
* [[Light River (South Australia)|Light River]]
* [[Marne River (South Australia)|Marne River]]
* [[Murray River]]
* [[Onkaparinga River]]
* [[Port River]]
* [[River Torrens]]
* Tod River
|width=200 valign=top|
'''Lakes'''
* [[Lake Albert (South Australia)|Lake Albert]]
* [[Lake Alexandrina (South Australia)|Lake Alexandrina]]
* [[Lake Cadibarrawirracanna]]
* [[Kati Thanda-Lake Eyre]]
* [[Lake Frome]]
* [[Lake Gairdner]]
* [[Lake Torrens]]
* [[Blue Lake (South Australia)|Blue Lake]]

'''Islands'''
* [[Entrance Island, South Australia|Entrance Island]]
* [[Flinders Island (South Australia)|Flinders Island]]
* [[Granite Island (South Australia)|Granite Island]]
* [[Hindmarsh Island]]
* [[Kangaroo Island]]
* [[Liguanea Island]]
* [[Lipson Island]]
* [[Neptune Islands]]
* [[Nuyts Archipelago]]
* [[Pearson Isles]]
* [[Sir Joseph Banks Group]]
* [[Torrens Island]]
* [[Troubridge Island]]
* [[Tumby Island]]
* [[Wardang Island]]
* [[Weeroona Island]]
|width=200 valign=top|
''' Main highways'''
* [[Barrier Highway]]
* [[Barossa Valley Highway]]
* [[Dukes Highway]]
* [[Eyre Highway]]
* [[Flinders Highway, South Australia|Flinders Highway]]
* [[Lincoln Highway (Australia)|Lincoln Highway]]
* [[Main North Road]]
* [[Mallee Highway]]
* [[Northern Expressway]]
* [[Princes Highway]]
* [[Riddoch Highway]]
* [[Stuart Highway]]
* [[Sturt Highway]]
* [[South Eastern Freeway]]
* [[Southern Expressway (Australia)|Southern Expressway]]
|}

==Crime==

{{main|Crime in South Australia}}'''Crime in South Australia''' is managed by the [[South Australia Police]] (SAPOL), various state and federal courts in the [[Judiciary of Australia|criminal justice system]] and the state [[Department for Correctional Services (South Australia)|Department for Correctional Services]], which administers the [[Punishment in Australia|prisons]] and [[remand centre]].

Crime statistics for all categories of offence in the state are provided on the SAPOL website, in the form of rolling 12-month totals.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Police|first=South Australia|title=Crime statistics|url=https://www.police.sa.gov.au/about-us/crime-statistics-map|access-date=20 December 2020|website=www.police.sa.gov.au|language=en-au}}</ref> Crime statistics from the 2017–18 national [[Australian Bureau of Statistics|ABS]] Crime Victimisation Survey show that between the years 2008–09 and 2017–18, the rate of victimisation in South Australia declined for assault and most household crime types.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Statistics|first=c=AU; o=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Australian Bureau of|date=13 February 2019|title=Main Features - South Australia|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4530.0~2017-18~Main%20Features~South%20Australia~27|access-date=20 December 2020|website=www.abs.gov.au|language=en}}</ref>

In 2013 [[Adelaide]] was ranked the safest capital city in Australia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Adelaide's nation's safest city, according to Suncorp study - Adelaide Now|url=https://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/adelaides-nations-safest-city-according-to-suncorp-survey/story-e6frea83-1226554685466}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Geography|Oceania|Australia|South Australia}}
* [[Australia]]
* [[Outline of Australia]]
* [[Index of Australia-related articles]]
* 
* [[Adelaide]]
* [[Country Fire Service]]
* [[Proclamation Day (South Australia)|Proclamation Day]]: 28 December 1836
* [[South Australian Ambulance Service]]
* [[South Australian English]]
* [[Symbols of South Australia]]

===Food and drink===
* [[Farmers Union Iced Coffee]]
* [[Pie floater]]
* [[South Australian food and drink]]
* [[South Australian wine]]

===Lists===
* [[List of amphibians of South Australia]]
* [[List of cities and towns in South Australia]]
*[[List of festivals in Australia#South Australia]]
* [[List of films shot in Adelaide]]
* [[List of highways in South Australia]]
* [[List of people from Adelaide]]
* [[Local Government Areas of South Australia]]
* [[List of public art in South Australia]]
* [[:Category:Tourist attractions in South Australia|Tourist attractions in South Australia]]
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="N"}}

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book| last = Bull| first = John Wrathall| title = Early Experiences of Life in South Australia and an Extended Colonial History | publisher = E.S. Wigg & son , pub. | place = Adelaide| year = 1884| url =https://books.googleusercontent.com/books/content?req=AKW5Qacgkl5I-4oeqdPld0nPuKy5RAsxTWH_pg6cCDSx3vx54rdMZVzlJeCAFfCD0KudmuAoldpcNU6A1OnkBjhKHQRM2Lq2iNV0VzHxOT9Mw0gvP29Fyy8L0bXqKLnzesF7ZpQjffpoItnD1lBjvTGRj2F4ohc63mcii4hiLeHhxrGk6Ern8nIUaqxaXKEq5KdrKy5bsLZWVCO8iWQk-WNW2ORioEbnqFiZeEPcjE1LYWedXz5u9QWTPryjgOgS3v1pTzmfWD8qngUG4CtdAeqEHA7zriK_-X5e67ZBmCAlXWonccI_Alg}}
* {{cite book| last = Stow| first = Jefferson Pickman| title = South Australia: Its History, Productions, and Natural Resources | publisher = E. Spiller, government printer | place = Adelaide| year = 1884| url =https://books.googleusercontent.com/books/content?req=AKW5QadS4ZFNc_9F7N771hvsXlcgYHRvZc5H4Bf6hiR0l5CrrBUtGQfnHdUQVYF5jk7gkFtKyhlRcwyznwHE3JnmyGW08bqhaqweEl5e3BpxDZ2ZXgHhgFRvByDyIvkacL_G2tgEHhX2bwgpP9eNgPWtjKZyvyHDIRp_BIXWiV-qQ-p3CJEoJ02cqn4wrmIaRkTFGWxAWUKS3Q9Vnc9vhtEXVOIFlHFabT8gpGnyXQBnJhlHBwujbQMawM3LWZcijZd_OSxyHTLZdft5Ro42q6SrazIFGoQVBeE2oJmvH5zlVflX0KoMT5w}}
* {{cite book| last = Finniss| first = B.T.| title = The Constitutional History of South Australia During Twenty-One Years from the Foundation of the Settlement in 1836 to the Inauguration of Responsible Government in 1857 | publisher = W.C. Rigby | place = Adelaide| year = 1886| url =http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/AUColLawMon/1886/1.pdf}}
* {{cite book| last = Hodder| first = Edwin| title = The history of South Australia from its foundation to the year of its jubilee: Vol I | publisher = S. Low, Marston & Company, Limited | place = London| year = 1893| url =https://archive.org/download/historysouthaus01hoddgoog/historysouthaus01hoddgoog.pdf}}
* {{cite book| last = Hodder| first = Edwin| title = The history of South Australia from its foundation to the year of its jubilee: Vol II | publisher = S. Low, Marston & Company, Limited | place = London| year = 1893| url =https://archive.org/download/historysouthaus02hoddgoog/historysouthaus02hoddgoog.pdf}}
* {{cite book| last = Pascoe| first = J.J.| title = History of Adelaide and vicinity : with a general sketch of the province of South Australia and biographies of representative men | publisher = Hussey & Gillingham | place = Adelaide| year = 1901| url =https://archive.org/details/historyofadelaid00pascuoft}}
* {{cite book| last = Blacket| first = John| title = History of South Australia: a romantic and successful experiment in colonization | publisher = Hussey & Gillingham Limited | place = Adelaide| year = 1911| url =https://archive.org/download/historyofsouthau00blaciala/historyofsouthau00blaciala.pdf}}
* Pike, Douglas. (1967) ''Paradise of Dissent: South Australia 1829-1857'' (Melbourne UP, 2nd edition)
* {{cite book |url=https://historicalsocietysa.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/A-GLOSSARY-OF-LOCAL-GOVERNMENT-AREAS-IN-SA-1840-1985.pdf |title=A Glossery of Local Government Areas in South Australia, 1840-1985 |first1=E. Jane |last1=Robbins |first2=John R. |last2=Robbins|date=1987 |publisher=Historical Society of South Australia |access-date=2 March 2021}}
* Dorothy Jauncey, Bardi Grubs and Frog Cakes – South Australian Words, [[Oxford University Press]] (2004) {{ISBN|0-19-551770-9}}
* {{cite news| last = Jaensch| first = Dean| title = Community access to the electoral processes in South Australia since 1850 | year = 2002 |publisher= South Australian State Electoral Office| url =https://www.ecsa.sa.gov.au/component/edocman/community-access-to-the-electoral-processes-in-south-australia-since-1850/download}}
* {{cite book| last1 = Sendziuk| first1 = Paul| last2 = Foster| first2 = Robert |title = A History of South Australia | year = 2018 |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]| isbn =9781107623651}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Commons-inline|South Australia}}
* {{wikivoyage-inline|South Australia}}
* {{osmrelation|2316596}}
* [http://www.sa.gov.au/ sa.gov.au]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150122233030/http://www.sa.gov.au/about-sa/state-emblems-and-insignia Official Insignia and Emblems Page]
* [http://www.unisa.edu.au/ University of South Australia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141013113231/http://www.sa.gov.au/topics/water-energy-and-environment/climate-change/tackling-climate-change/south-australia-s-greenhouse-strategy South Australia's greenhouse (climate change) strategy (2007–2020)]
* [http://www.chariot.net.au/~littoral/index.htm Ground Truth – towards an Environmental History of South Australia] Community resources


{{South Australia}}
{{Government of South Australia}}
{{States and territories of Australia}}
{{Australia topics}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}

[[Category:South Australia| ]]
[[Category:States and territories of Australia]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1836]]
[[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in Oceania]]
[[Category:1836 establishments in Australia]]

Combine harvester

2021-08-09T17:15:24Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{Short description|Machine that harvests grain crops}} {{For|the novelty song|The Combine Harvester}} A Lely open-cab combine. File..."

{{Short description|Machine that harvests grain crops}}
{{For|the [[novelty song]]|The Combine Harvester}}
[[File:Lely-Mähdrescher.jpg|thumb|A Lely open-cab combine.]]
[[File:Claas-lexion-570-1.jpg|thumb|Harvesting oats with a [[Claas Lexion]] 570 harvester with enclosed air-conditioned cab, rotary thresher and laser-guided automatic steering]]
[[File:Old Style Harvester.jpg|thumb|A "Sunshine" harvester in the [[Henty, New South Wales|Henty, Australia]], region]]
[[File:John Deere 9870 STS with 625D.JPG|thumb|John Deere Combine 9870 STS with 625D]]

The modern '''combined harvester''', or simply '''combine''', is a versatile machine designed to efficiently harvest a variety of grain crops. The name derives from its combining four separate harvesting operations—[[Reaper|reaping]], [[threshing]], gathering, and [[winnowing]]—into a single process. Among the crops harvested with a combine are [[wheat]], [[rice]], [[oat]]s, [[rye]], [[barley]], [[Maize|corn]] ([[maize]]), [[sorghum]], [[soybean]]s, [[flax]] ([[linseed]]), [[sunflowers]] and [[rapeseed]]. The separated [[straw]], left lying on the field, comprises the stems and any remaining leaves of the crop with limited [[nutrient]]s left in it: the straw is then either chopped, spread on the field and ploughed back in or [[Baler|baled]] for bedding and limited-feed for livestock.

Combine harvesters are one of the most economically important labour-saving inventions, significantly reducing the fraction of the population engaged in agriculture.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Century of Innovation: Twenty Engineering Achievements That Transformed Our Lives, Chapter 7, Agricultural Mechanization |last=Constable |first=George |author2=Somerville, Bob |year=2003 |publisher=Joseph Henry Press |location=Washington, DC |isbn=0-309-08908-5 |url= http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=2955}}</ref>

==History ==
In 1826 in Scotland, the inventor Reverend [[Patrick Bell]] designed (but did not patent) a [[reaper machine]], which used the scissors principle of plant cutting; a principle that is still used today. The Bell machine was pushed by horses. A few Bell machines were available in the United States. In 1835, in the United States, [[Hiram Moore]] built and patented the first combine harvester, which was capable of reaping, threshing and winnowing cereal grain. Early versions were pulled by horse, mule or ox teams.<ref>{{cite web|title=About Combine harvesters|publisher=Mascus UK|url=http://www.mascus.co.uk/Agriculture/Used-Agricultural-Combine-harvesters}}</ref> In 1835, Moore built a full-scale version with a length of 5.2 m (17 ft) and a cut width of 4.57 m (15 ft); by 1839, over {{convert|50|acre|ha|abbr=on|order=flip}} of crops were harvested.<ref>{{cite book|title=Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology|date=September 2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780203028292|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n--ivouMng8C&q=Hiram+Moore+and+combine+harvester&pg=PA865}}</ref> This combine harvester was pulled by 20 horses fully handled by farmhands. By 1860, combine harvesters with a cutting, or [[swathe]], width of several metres were used on American farms.<ref>{{cite web|title=The History of Combine Harvesters|publisher=Cornways|url=http://www.cornways.de/hi_combine.html}}</ref>

A parallel development in Australia saw the development of the [[Stripper (agriculture)|stripper]] based on the Gallic stripper, by [[John Ridley (inventor)|John Ridley]] and others in [[South Australia]] by 1843. The stripper only gathered the heads, leaving the stems in the field.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://collection.maas.museum/object/211927|title=Sunshine Header Harvester}}</ref> The stripper and later headers had the advantage of fewer moving parts and only collecting heads, requiring less power to operate. Refinements by [[Hugh Victor McKay]] produced a commercially successful combine harvester in 1885, the [[Sunshine Harvester Works|Sunshine Header-Harvester]].<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/related_reports/article377318.ece Timesonline.co.uk], access date 31-09-2009</ref>
[[File:Mules pull farm equipment (3537172980).jpg|thumb|left|Case harvester, 20+ mule team]]
[[File:John Deere 9870 STS underbelly.JPG|thumb|John Deere 9870 STS underbelly]]
[[File:CaseCombineHarvester.jpg|thumb|[[Case Corporation|Case IH]] Axial-Flow combine]]
Combines, some of them quite large, were drawn by [[mule]] or [[horse]] teams and used a [[bullwheel]] to provide power. Later, steam power was used, and George Stockton Berry integrated the combine with a [[steam engine]] using straw to heat the boiler.<ref>[http://www.historylink101.com/lessons/farm-city/combine.htm Historylink.com], access date 18-08-2009</ref> At the turn of the twentieth century, horse-drawn combines were starting to be used on the American plains and Idaho (often pulled by teams of twenty or more horses).

In 1911, the [[Holt Manufacturing Company]] of California, US produced a self-propelled harvester.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=3cJeffKoriEC&pg=PA118&lpg=PA118&dq=oldest+self-propelled+combine+harvester&source=bl&ots=bsYPJG-OFa&sig=7cXtYy83WSUZFMVLLO5yOvR2gfQ&hl=en&ei=P95DTNjiOoH98Ab90IAK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CDIQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=false The John Deere Tractor Legacy], Don McMillan, Voyageur Press, 2003, page 118 with photo</ref> In Australia in 1923, the patented [[Sunshine Auto Header]] was one of the first center-feeding self-propelled harvesters.<ref>[https://books.google.com.au/books?id=eiqZ7KmeLRMC&pg=PA72 Remarkable Australian Farm Machines], Graeme R. Quick, Rosenberg Publishing, 2007, page 72.</ref> In 1923 in Kansas, the Baldwin brothers and their [[Gleaner Manufacturing Company]] patented a self-propelled harvester that included several other modern improvements in grain handling.<ref>[http://www.agcoiron.com/fileUpload/GLEANER_85Years_Brochure.pdf Gleaner: 85 Years of Harvest History], Gleaner Agco Company, 2008, page 8</ref> Both the Gleaner and the Sunshine used [[Fordson]] engines; early Gleaners used the entire Fordson chassis and driveline as a platform. In 1929, Alfredo Rotania of Argentina patented a self-propelled harvester.<ref>[http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=651079 La maquinaria que haría historia], La Nacion, 6 Nov 2004 (Spanish)</ref>
[[International Harvester]] started making horse-pulled combines in 1915. At the time, horse powered binders and stand alone [[threshing machines]] were more common. In the 1920s, [[Case Corporation]] and [[John Deere]] made combines and these were starting to be tractor pulled with a second engine aboard the combine to power its workings. The [[Great Depression|world economic collapse in the 1930s]] stopped farm equipment purchases, and for this reason, people largely retained the older method of harvesting. A few farms did invest and used [[Caterpillar tractors]] to move the outfits.

[[Tractor]]-drawn combines (also called pull-type combines) became common after [[World War II]] as many farms began to use tractors. An example was the [[All-Crop Harvester]] series. These combines used a shaker to separate the grain from the chaff and straw-walkers (grates with small teeth on an eccentric shaft) to eject the straw while retaining the grain. Early tractor-drawn combines were usually powered by a separate gasoline engine, while later models were [[Power take-off|PTO]]-powered, via a shaft transferring tractor engine power to operate the combine. These machines either put the harvested crop into bags that were then loaded onto a wagon or truck, or had a small bin that stored the grain until it was transferred via a chute.

In the U.S., [[Allis-Chalmers]], [[Massey-Harris]], [[International Harvester]], [[Gleaner Manufacturing Company]], [[John Deere]], and [[Minneapolis Moline]] are past or present major combine producers.
In 1937, the Australian-born Thomas Carroll, working for [[Massey-Harris]] in Canada, perfected a self-propelled model and in 1940, a lighter-weight model began to be marketed widely by the company.<ref>[http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/AS10082b.htm "Carroll, Thomas (Tom) (1888–1968)"], ''Australian Dictionary of Biography''</ref> [[Lyle Yost]] invented an auger that would lift grain out of a combine in 1947, making unloading grain much easier and further from the combine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kansas.com/2012/04/06/2286965/lyle-yost-founder-of-hesston-industries.html|publisher=[[Wichita Eagle]]|first=Dan|last=Voorhis|title=Lyle Yost, founder of Hesston Industries, dies at age 99|access-date=September 12, 2012|date=April 6, 2012Z}}</ref> In 1952 Claeys launched the first self-propelled combine harvester in Europe;<ref>CARROL J.: The World Encyclopedia of Tractors & Farm Machinery, 1999 Annes Piblisching Ltd, p. 127</ref> in 1953, the European manufacturer [[Claas]] developed a self-propelled combine harvester named '[[Claas Selbstfahrer|Hercules]]', it could harvest up to 5 tons of wheat a day.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/related_reports/article377318.ece Timesonline.co.uk], access date 31-09-2009</ref> This newer kind of combine is still in use and is powered by [[Diesel engine|diesel]] or [[gasoline]] engines. Until the self-cleaning rotary screen was invented in the mid-1960s combine engines suffered from overheating as the chaff spewed out when harvesting small grains would clog radiators, blocking the airflow needed for cooling.

A significant advance in the design of combines was the rotary design. The grain is initially stripped from the stalk by passing along a helical rotor, instead of passing between rasp bars on the outside of a cylinder and a concave. Rotary combines were first introduced by [[New Holland Agriculture|Sperry-New Holland]] in 1975.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://farmindustrynews.com/mag/farming_euro_yellow_combine_2/ |title=Farmindustrynews.com |access-date=2009-11-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023192941/http://farmindustrynews.com/mag/farming_euro_yellow_combine_2/ |archive-date=2008-10-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In about the 1980s on-board electronics were introduced to measure threshing efficiency. This new instrumentation allowed operators to get better grain yields by optimizing ground speed and other operating parameters.

The largest "class 11" combines today have nearly 800 engine [[horsepower]] (600 kW) and are fitted with headers up to {{convert|60|ft|m|0}} wide.

[[File:Kombajn New Holland TX68 seče pole mezi Slatinkami a Lípami, okres Prostějov (04).jpg|thumb|left|A New Holland TX68 with grain platform attached.]]
[[File:Combine-harvesting-corn.jpg|thumb|left|A John Deere Titan series combine unloading corn.]]

==Combine header==
Combines are equipped with removable header that are designed for particular crops. The standard header, sometimes called a grain platform, is equipped with a ''reciprocating knife cutter bar'', and features a revolving reel with metal teeth to cause the cut crop to fall into the auger once it is cut. A variation of the platform, a "flex" platform, is similar but has a cutter bar that can flex over contours and ridges to cut soybeans that have pods close to the ground. A flex head can cut soybeans as well as cereal crops, while a rigid platform is generally used only in cereal grains.

Some wheat headers, called "draper" headers, use a fabric or rubber apron instead of a cross auger. Draper headers allow faster feeding than cross augers, leading to higher throughputs due to lower power requirements. On many farms, platform headers are used to cut wheat, instead of separate wheat headers, so as to reduce overall costs.

Dummy heads or pick-up headers feature spring-tined pickups, usually attached to a heavy rubber belt. They are used for crops that have already been cut and placed in [[windrow]]s or swaths. This is particularly useful in northern climates such as western Canada, where swathing kills weeds resulting in a faster dry down.

While a grain platform can be used for corn, a specialized corn head is ordinarily used instead. The corn head is equipped with snap rolls that strip the stalk and leaf away from the ear, so that only the ear (and husk) enter the throat. This improves efficiency dramatically, since so much less material must go through the cylinder. The corn head can be recognized by the presence of points between each row.

Occasionally rowcrop heads are seen that function like a grain platform, but have points between rows like a corn head. These are used to reduce the amount of weed seed picked up when harvesting small grains.

Self-propelled [[Gleaner Manufacturing Company|Gleaner]] combines could be fitted with special tracks instead of tires to assist in harvesting rice. These tracks can be made to fit other combines by adding adapter plates. Some combines, particularly the pull type, have tires with a deep diamond tread which prevents sinking in mud.{{clear left}}

==Conventional combine==
The cut crop is carried up the feeder throat (commonly called the "feederhouse"), by a ''chain and flight elevator'', then fed into the threshing mechanism of the combine, consisting of a rotating ''threshing drum'' (commonly called the "cylinder"), to which grooved steel bars (rasp bars) are bolted. The rasp bars thresh or separate the grains and chaff from the straw through the action of the cylinder against the ''concave'', a shaped "half drum", also fitted with steel bars and a meshed grill, through which grain, chaff and smaller debris may fall, whereas the straw, being too long, is carried through onto the ''straw walkers''. This action is also allowed because grain is heavier than straw, which causes it to fall rather than "float" across from the cylinder/concave to the walkers. The drum speed is variably adjustable on most machines, whilst the distance between the drum and concave is finely adjustable fore, aft and together, to achieve optimum separation and output. Manually engaged ''disawning plates'' are usually fitted to the concave. These provide extra friction to remove the [[awn (botany)|awn]]s from [[barley]] crops. After the primary separation at the cylinder, the clean grain falls through the concave and to the shoe, which contains the chaffer and sieves. The shoe is common to both conventional combines and rotary combines.

==Hillside leveling==
[[File:Palouse hills northeast of Walla Walla.jpg|thumb|[[Palouse]] hills]]
[[File:Massey Ferguson 7260 AL-4 combine with hillside levelling - IMG 4759.jpg|thumb|A Massey Ferguson combine fitted with the hillside leveling option]]
In the [[Palouse]] region of the Pacific Northwest of the United States the combine is retrofitted with a [[hydraulic]] hillside leveling system. This allows the combine to harvest the steep but fertile soil in the region. Hillsides can be as steep as a 50% slope. [[Gleaner Manufacturing Company|Gleaner]], [[Case IH|IH and Case IH]], [[Deere & Company|John Deere]], and others all have made combines with this hillside leveling system, and local machine shops have fabricated them as an aftermarket add-on.

The first leveling technology was developed by Holt Co., a US company in California, in 1891.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.agpowermag.com/articles/articles.php?articleid=1384 |title=Ag Power Mag, Sept 2001 |access-date=2005-02-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107050723/http://www.agpowermag.com/articles/articles.php?articleid=1384 |archive-date=2017-01-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Modern leveling came into being with the invention and patent of a level sensitive [[mercury switch]] system invented by [[Raymond Alvah Hanson]] in 1946.<ref>[http://www.rahco.com/combines.html Rahco.com, 2005]</ref> Raymond's son, Raymond Jr., produced leveling systems exclusively for John Deere combines until 1995 as R. A. Hanson Company, Inc. In 1995, his son, Richard, purchased the company from his father and renamed it RAHCO International, Inc. In March 2011, the company was renamed Hanson Worldwide, LLC.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040420012328/http://hansonworldwide.com/ 2012]</ref> Production continues to this day.

Hillside leveling has several advantages. Primary among them is an increased threshing efficiency on hillsides. Without leveling, grain and chaff slide to one side of separator and come through the machine in a large ball rather than being separated, dumping large amounts of grain on the ground. By keeping the machinery level, the straw-walker is able to operate more efficiently, making for more efficient threshing. [[International Harvester|IH]] produced the [http://www.toytractorshow.com/international_harvester_15_series_combines.htm 453] combine which leveled both side-to-side and front-to-back, enabling efficient threshing whether on a hillside or climbing a hill head on.

Secondarily, leveling changes a combine's [[center of gravity]] relative to the hill and allows the combine to harvest along the contour of a hill without tipping, a danger on the steeper slopes of the region; it is not uncommon for combines to roll over on extremely steep hills.

Newer leveling systems do not have as much tilt as the older ones. A John Deere 9600 combine equipped with a Rahco hillside conversion kit will level to 44%, while the newer STS combines will only go to 35%. These modern combines use the rotary grain separator which makes leveling less critical. Most combines on the Palouse have dual drive wheels on each side to stabilize them.

A leveling system was developed in Europe by the Italian combine manufacturer [[Laverda (harvesters)|Laverda]], which still produces it today.

==Sidehill leveling==
Sidehill combines are very similar to hillside combines in that they level the combine to the ground so that the threshing can be efficiently conducted; however, they have some very distinct differences. Modern hillside combines level around 35% on average, while older machines were closer to 50%. Sidehill combines only level to 18%. They are sparsely used in the Palouse region. Rather, they are used on the gentle rolling slopes of the midwest. Sidehill combines are much more mass-produced than their hillside counterparts. The height of a sidehill machine is the same height as a level-land combine. Hillside combines have added steel that sets them up approximately 2–5 feet higher than a level-land combine and provide a smooth ride.

==Maintaining threshing speed==
[[File:GLEANER L2.JPG|thumb|[[Allis-Chalmers]] [[Gleaner Manufacturing Company|GLEANER]] L2]]

Another technology that is sometimes used on combines is a [[continuously variable transmission]]. This allows the ground speed of the machine to be varied while maintaining a constant engine and threshing speed. It is desirable to keep the threshing speed constant since the machine will typically have been adjusted to operate best at a certain speed.

Self-propelled combines started with standard manual transmissions that provided one speed based on input [[Revolutions per minute|rpm]]. Deficiencies were noted and in the early 1950s combines were equipped with what John Deere called the "Variable Speed Drive". This was simply a variable width sheave controlled by spring and hydraulic pressures. This sheave was attached to the input shaft of the transmission. A standard 4 speed manual transmission was still used in this drive system. The operator would select a gear, typically 3rd. An extra control was provided to the operator to allow him to speed up and slow down the machine within the limits provided by the variable speed drive system. By decreasing the width of the sheave on the input shaft of the transmission, the belt would ride higher in the groove. This slowed the rotating speed on the input shaft of the transmission, thus slowing the ground speed for that gear. A clutch was still provided to allow the operator to stop the machine and change transmission gears.

Later, as hydraulic technology improved, hydrostatic transmissions were introduced by Versatile Mfg for use on swathers but later this technology was applied to combines as well. This drive retained the 4 speed manual transmission as before, but this time used a system of hydraulic pumps and motors to drive the input shaft of the transmission. This system is called a Hydrostatic drive system. The engine turns the [[hydraulic pump]] capable of pressures up to {{convert|4000|psi|MPa|-1|abbr=on}}. This pressure is then directed to the [[hydraulic motor]] that is connected to the input shaft of the transmission. The operator is provided with a lever in the cab that allows for the control of the hydraulic motor's ability to use the energy provided by the pump. By adjusting the swash plate in the motor, the stroke of its pistons are changed. If the swash plate is set to neutral, the pistons do not move in their bores and no rotation is allowed, thus the machine does not move. By moving the lever, the swash plate moves its attached pistons forward, thus allowing them to move within the bore and causing the motor to turn. This provides an infinitely variable speed control from 0 ground speed to what ever the maximum speed is allowed by the gear selection of the transmission. The standard clutch was removed from this drive system as it was no longer needed.

Most if not all modern combines are equipped with hydrostatic drives. These are larger versions of the same system used in consumer and commercial lawn mowers that most are familiar with today. In fact, it was the downsizing of the combine drive system that placed these drive systems into mowers and other machines.

==The threshing process==
[[File:Maehdrescher schema nummeriert.svg|thumb|upright=3.0
|Conventional combine harvester (cut)
{| style="width:100%"
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| style="width:50%" |
1) Reel 
2) Cutter bar 
3) Header auger 
4) Grain conveyor 
5) Stone trap 
6) Threshing drum 
7) Concave 
8) Straw walker 
9) Grain pan 
10) Fan
|
11) Top Adjustable sieve 
12) Bottom sieve 
13) Tailings conveyor 
14) Rethreshing of tailings 
15) Grain auger 
16) Grain tank 
17) Straw chopper 
18) Driver's cab 
19) Engine 
20) Unloading auger 
21) Impeller
|}
]]

[[File:Dreschtrommel Matador.jpg|thumb|Rasp bar in a [[Claas Matador Gigant]]]]
[[File:Mietitrebbiatrice 3.jpg|thumb|Sieves in a Claas Medion]]
[[File:Schüttler Matador.webm|thumb|Straw walkers in a [[Claas Matador Gigant]]]]

Despite great advances in mechanics and computer control, the basic operation of the combine harvester has remained unchanged almost since it was invented.

Power requirements over the years have increased due to larger capacities and some processes such as rotary threshing and straw chopping take considerable power. This is sometimes supplied by a large tractor in a pull-type combine, or a large gasoline or diesel engine in a self-propelled type. A frequent problem is the presence of airborne chaff and straw, which can accumulate causing a fire hazard and to radiators which can become plugged. Most machines have addressed these problems with enclosed engine compartments and rotary centrifugal inlet screens which prevent chaff buildup.

First, the header, described above, cuts the crop and feeds it into the threshing cylinder. This consists of a series of horizontal ''rasp bars'' fixed across the path of the crop and in the shape of a quarter cylinder. Moving rasp bars or rub bars pull the crop through concaved grates that separate the grain and chaff from the straw. The grain heads fall through the fixed concaves. What happens next is dependent on the type of combine in question. In most modern combines, the grain is transported to the shoe by a set of 2, 3, or 4 (possibly more on the largest machines) augers, set parallel or semi-parallel to the rotor on axial mounted rotors and perpendicular on [[Case IH Axial Flow Combines|"Axial Flow"]] combines.

In older Gleaner machines, these augers were not present. Those combines are unique in that the cylinder and concave is set inside feederhouse instead of in the machine directly behind the feederhouse. Consequently, the material was moved by a "raddle chain" from underneath the concave to the walkers. The clean grain fell between the raddle and the walkers onto the shoe, while the straw, being longer and lighter, floated across onto the walkers to be expelled. On most other older machines, the cylinder was placed higher and farther back in the machine, and the grain moved to the shoe by falling down a "clean grain pan", and the straw "floated" across the concaves to the back of the walkers.

Since the Sperry-New Holland TR70 Twin-Rotor Combine came out in 1975, most manufacturers have combines with rotors in place of conventional cylinders. However, makers have now returned to the market with conventional models alongside their rotary line-up. A rotor is a long, longitudinally mounted rotating cylinder with plates similar to rub bars (except for in the above-mentioned Gleaner rotaries).

There are usually two sieves, one above the other. The sieves are basically metal frames that have many rows of "fingers" set reasonably close together. The angle of the fingers is adjustable, to change the clearance and thereby control the size of material passing through. The top is set with more clearance than the bottom to allow a gradual cleaning action. Setting the concave clearance, fan speed, and sieve size is critical to ensure that the crop is threshed properly, the grain is clean of debris, and all of the grain entering the machine reaches the grain tank or 'hopper'. (Observe, for example, that when travelling uphill the fan speed must be reduced to account for the shallower gradient of the sieves.)

Heavy material, e.g., unthreshed heads, fall off the front of the sieves and are returned to the concave for re-threshing.

The straw walkers are located above the sieves, and also have holes in them. Any grain remaining attached to the straw is shaken off and falls onto the top sieve.

When the straw reaches the end of the walkers it falls out the rear of the combine. It can then be baled for cattle bedding or spread by two rotating straw spreaders with rubber arms. Most modern combines are equipped with a straw spreader.

Rather than immediately falling out the rear of the combine at the end of the walkers, there are models of combine harvesters from Eastern Europe and Russia (e.g. Agromash Yenisei 1200 1 HM, etc.) that have "straw catchers" at the end of the walkers, which temporarily hold the straw and then, once full, deposit it in a stack for easy gathering.

== Conventional and rotary designs ==
[[File:McCormick141 Combine.jpg|left|thumb|IH [[McCormick Tractors|McCormick]] 141 self-propelled Harvester-Thresher c. 1954–57, shown in thresher mode, with harvester dismounted.]]
[[File:Tr85.jpg|thumb|Tr85]]

For some time, combine harvesters used the conventional design, which used a rotating cylinder at the front-end which knocked the seeds out of the heads, and then used the rest of the machine to separate the straw from the chaff, and the chaff from the grain. The TR70 from Sperry-New Holland was brought out in 1975 as the first rotary combine. Other manufacturers soon followed, [[International Harvester]] with their '[[Case IH Axial Flow Combines|Axial Flow]]' in 1977 and [[Gleaner Manufacturing Company|Gleaner]] with their N6 in 1979.

In the decades before the widespread adoption of the rotary combine in the late seventies, several inventors had pioneered designs which relied more on centrifugal force for grain separation and less on gravity alone. By the early eighties, most major manufacturers had settled on a "walkerless" design with much larger threshing cylinders to do most of the work. Advantages were faster grain harvesting and gentler treatment of fragile seeds, which were often cracked by the faster rotational speeds of conventional combine threshing cylinders.

It was the disadvantages of the rotary combine (increased power requirements and over-pulverization of the straw by-product) which prompted a resurgence of conventional combines in the late nineties. Perhaps overlooked but nonetheless true, when the large engines that powered the rotary machines were employed in conventional machines, the two types of machines delivered similar production capacities. Also, research was beginning to show that incorporating above-ground crop residue (straw) into the soil is less useful for rebuilding [[soil fertility]] than previously believed. This meant that working pulverized straw into the soil became more of a hindrance than a benefit. An increase in feedlot beef production also created a higher demand for straw as fodder. Conventional combines, which use straw walkers, preserve the quality of straw and allow it to be baled and removed from the field.

==Instrumentation==
While the principles of basic threshing have changed little over the years, modern advancements in electronics and monitoring technology has continued to develop. Whereas older machines required the operator to rely on machine knowledge, frequent inspection and monitoring, and a keen ear to listen for subtle sound changes, newer machines have replaced many of those duties with instrumentation.

===Shaft monitors===
Early on, simple magnetic pickups were used to monitor shaft rotation, and issue a warning when they deviated beyond preset limits. Temperature sensors can also give warning when bearings overheat due to lack of lubrication, sometimes leading to combine fires.

===Loss monitors===
The job of monitoring how much grain is wasted by the thresher by being discharged with the chaff and straw used to require going behind the machine to check. Yield monitors work like a microphone, registering an electrical impulse caused by grains impacting a plate. A meter in the operator's cab displays the relative amount of grain loss proportional to speed.

===Yield monitoring===
Measuring the amount of yield (bushels per acre or tonnes per hectare) has become increasingly important, particularly when real-time measurement can help determine which areas of a field are more or less productive. These variations can often be remediated with variable crop inputs. Yield is determined by measuring the amount of grain harvested in relation to the area covered.

===Cameras===
Cameras placed at strategic points on the machine can eliminate some of the guesswork for the operator.

===Field mapping===
The advent of [[GPS]] and [[GIS]] technologies has made it possible to create field maps, which can assist in navigation, and in the preparation of yield maps, which show which parts of the field are more productive.

==Combine fires==
Grain combine fires are responsible for millions of dollars of loss each year. Fires usually start near the engine where dust and dry crop debris accumulate.<ref>[http://www.nwroc.umn.edu/cropping_issues/2006/Issue11/08_01_06_no_3.htm UMN.edu] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100623043459/http://www.nwroc.umn.edu/Cropping_issues/2006/Issue11/08_01_06_no_3.htm |date=2010-06-23 }}</ref> Fires can also start when heat is introduced by bearings or gearboxes that have failed. From 1984 to 2000, 695 major grain combine fires were reported to U.S. [[volunteer fire department|local fire departments]].<ref>[http://www.bbe.umn.edu/extens/ennotes/enaug03/combine.html UMN.edu] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611151436/http://www.bbe.umn.edu/extens/ennotes/enaug03/combine.html |date=2010-06-11 }}</ref> Dragging chains to reduce [[static electricity]] was one method employed for preventing harvester fires, but it is not yet clear what if any role static electricity plays in causing harvester fires. The application of the appropriate synthetic greases will reduce the friction experienced at crucial points, i.e. chains, sprockets and gear boxes, compared to petroleum based lubricants. Engines with synthetic lubricants will also remain significantly cooler during operation.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

==See also==
[[File:SS851422.JPG|thumb|John Deere Combine harvesters being transported by railway on [[Goods wagon|flat car]]s in [[Tyrone, Pennsylvania]], in the United States.]]
{{Portal|Agriculture and Agronomy}}
*[[Agricultural machinery]]
*[[Combine Demolition Derby]]
*[[Custom harvesting]]
*[[Museum of Scottish Country Life]] Largest collection of Combine Harvesters in Europe.

==References==
;Notes
{{Reflist|2}}

;Bibliography
* {{cite book|first=Graeme R.|last= Quick|author2=Wesley F. Buchele|title=The Grain Harvesters|publisher=American Society of Agricultural Engineers|location=[[St. Joseph, Michigan|St. Joseph]]|year=1978|isbn=0-916150-13-5}}

==External links==
{{commons|Combine harvester|Combine harvester}}
* [http://www.agmachine.com/ Worldwide Agricultural Machinery and Farm Equipment Directory]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=GtkDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA90&dq=popular+mechanics+July+1932+airplane&hl=en&ei=IoAZTePWB-DRnAe63OjPDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CDgQ6AEwBjg8#v=onepage&q&f=true "Gold Harvest Feeds The World"] page 90 ''Popular Mechanics'', July 1949, cutaway illustration of the John Deere open cab one-man self-propelled combine of the type common for decades after World War Two
* [http://www.toytractorshow.com/international_harvester_15_series_combines.htm Pictures of combines with corn and wheat heads]
* [http://www.museum.vic.gov.au/sunshine/index.htm History of Sunshine Harvesters – Museum Victoria, Australia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080511174018/http://www.triz-journal.com/archives/2008/04/02/ The Birth of the Australian Stripping Combine Harvester]
* [http://www.wheatfarm.com/comparo/ Pictures of Gleaner levelling combines]
* [http://www.thecombineforum.com The Combine Talk Forums – A Website with more information and pictures]
* [http://content.wsulibs.wsu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/masc_media/id/31/rec/1 Washington State University film of horse-drawn combine in 1938]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Agricultural machinery]]
[[Category:Combine harvesters| ]]
[[Category:Harvesters]]
[[Category:Vehicles introduced in 1834]]
[[Category:Grain production]]

Agriculture

2021-08-09T17:12:55Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{good article}} {{redirect|Farming}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}} {{Use American English|date=March 2016}} {{short description|Cultivation of plants and animals to pr..."

{{good article}}
{{redirect|Farming}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2016}}
{{short description|Cultivation of plants and animals to provide useful products}}
[[File:Unload wheat by the combine Claas Lexion 584.jpg|thumb|upright=2.2|[[Harvest]]ing wheat with a [[combine harvester]] accompanied by a tractor and trailer]]

'''Agriculture''' is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock.<ref name="Office1999">{{cite book |title=Safety and health in agriculture |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=GtBa6XIW_aQC|page=77}} |year=1999 |publisher=International Labour Organization |isbn=978-92-2-111517-5 |page=77 |access-date=13 September 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722061757/http://books.google.com/books?id=GtBa6XIW_aQC |archive-date=22 July 2011|quote=defined agriculture as 'all forms of activities connected with growing, harvesting and primary processing of all types of crops, with the breeding, raising and caring for animals, and with tending gardens and nurseries'.}}</ref> Agriculture was the key development in the rise of [[sedentism|sedentary]] [[human civilization]], whereby farming of [[domestication|domesticated]] species created food [[economic surplus|surpluses]] that enabled people to live in cities. The [[history of agriculture]] began thousands of years ago. After gathering wild grains beginning at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers began to plant them around 11,500 years ago. Pigs, sheep, and cattle were domesticated over 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. [[Industrial agriculture]] based on large-scale [[monoculture]] in the twentieth century came to dominate agricultural output, though about 2 billion people still depended on [[subsistence agriculture]].

Modern [[agronomy]], [[plant breeding]], [[agrochemical]]s such as [[pesticide]]s and [[fertilizer]]s, and technological developments have sharply increased [[crop]] yields, while causing [[Environmental impact of agriculture|widespread ecological and environmental damage]]. [[Selective breeding]] and modern practices in [[animal husbandry]] have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about [[animal welfare]] and environmental damage. Environmental issues include contributions to [[global warming]], depletion of [[aquifer]]s, [[deforestation]], [[antibiotic resistance]], and [[growth hormone]]s in [[industrial meat production]]. Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to [[environmental degradation]], such as [[biodiversity loss]], [[desertification]], [[soil degradation]] and [[Climate change and agriculture|global warming]], all of which can cause decreases in crop yield. [[Genetically modified organism]]s are widely used, although some are banned in certain countries.

The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, [[fuel]]s and [[raw material]]s (such as [[natural rubber|rubber]]). Food classes include cereals ([[grains]]), [[vegetable]]s, fruits, [[cooking oil|oils]], meat, milk, [[edible mushroom|fungi]] and [[eggs as food|eggs]]. Over one-third of the world's workers are employed in agriculture, second only to the [[service sector]], although in recent decades, the global trend of a decreasing number of agricultural workers continues, especially in developing countries where [[smallholding]] is being overtaken by industrial agriculture and mechanization.
<noinclude>{{Agriculture}}</noinclude>

== Etymology and scope {{anchor|Etymology|Scope}}==
{{further|Horticulture#Scope}}

The word ''agriculture'' is a late [[Middle English]] adaptation of Latin {{lang|la|agricultūra}}, from {{lang|la|ager}} 'field' and {{lang|la|cultūra}} '[[Tillage|cultivation]]' or 'growing'.<ref>{{cite book |page=[https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_x2z7/page/14 14] |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Word Histories |editor=Chantrell, Glynnis |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-863121-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_x2z7/page/14 }}</ref> While agriculture usually refers to human activities, certain species of [[Attine ants|ant]],<ref>{{cite news |last1=St. Fleur |first1=Nicholas |title=An Ancient Ant-Bacteria Partnership to Protect Fungus |newspaper=The New York Times |date=6 October 2018 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/06/science/ants-fungus-amber.html |access-date=14 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Hongjie |last2=Sosa Calvo |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Horn |first3=Heidi A. |last4=Pupo |first4=Mônica T. |last5=Clardy |first5=Jon |last6=Rabeling |first6=Cristian |last7=Schultz |first7=Ted R. |last8=Currie |first8=Cameron R. |title=Convergent evolution of complex structures for ant–bacterial defensive symbiosis in fungus-farming ants |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=2018 |volume=115 |issue=42 |pages=10725 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1809332115 |pmid=30282739 |pmc=6196509 }}</ref> [[termite]] and [[ambrosia beetle|beetle]] have been cultivating crops for up to 60 million years.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Evolution of Agriculture in Insects |journal=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics |volume=36 |pages=563–595 |date=December 2005 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152626 |author1=Mueller, Ulrich G. |author2=Gerardo, Nicole M. |author3=Aanen, Duur K. |author4=Six, Diana L. |author-link4=Diana Six |author5=Schultz, Ted R.}}</ref> Agriculture is defined with varying scopes, in its broadest sense using natural resources to "produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related services".<ref name=Maine /> Thus defined, it includes [[arable farming]], [[horticulture]], [[animal husbandry]] and [[forestry]], but horticulture and forestry are in practice often excluded.<ref name=Maine>{{cite web |url=http://www.maine.gov/education/aged/definition.html |title=Definition of Agriculture |publisher=State of Maine |access-date=6 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323075557/http://www.maine.gov/education/aged/definition.html |archive-date=23 March 2012 }}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Vavilov-centers updated.jpg|thumb |upright=1.35 |[[Center of origin|Centres of origin]], as numbered by [[Nikolai Vavilov]] in the 1930s. Area 3 (gray) is no longer recognised as a centre of origin, and [[Papua New Guinea]] (area P, orange) was identified more recently.<ref name=Larson2014 /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Denham |first1=T. P. |title=Origins of Agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New Guinea |journal=Science |volume=301 |issue=5630 |year=2003 |pages=189–193 |doi=10.1126/science.1085255 |pmid=12817084 |s2cid=10644185 }}</ref>]]
{{Main|History of agriculture}}

=== Origins ===
[[File:0025 - 0220 Brick Relief with Rice-husking Scene Eastern Han Dynasty National Museum of China anagoria.jpg|thumb|[[Han dynasty]] tomb brick showing workers rice husking]]
{{Main|Neolithic Revolution}}

The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could be sustained by [[hunter-gatherer|hunting and gathering]].<ref name=Bocquet-Appel>{{cite journal |author=Bocquet-Appel, Jean-Pierre |title=When the World's Population Took Off: The Springboard of the Neolithic Demographic Transition |journal=Science |date=29 July 2011 |volume=333 |issue=6042 |pages=560–561 |doi=10.1126/science.1208880 |pmid=21798934 |bibcode=2011Sci...333..560B |s2cid=29655920 }}</ref> Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe,<ref name="Stephens 897–902">{{Cite journal |last1=Stephens |first1=Lucas |last2=Fuller |first2=Dorian |last3=Boivin |first3=Nicole |last4=Rick |first4=Torben |last5=Gauthier |first5=Nicolas |last6=Kay |first6=Andrea |last7=Marwick |first7=Ben |last8=Armstrong |first8=Chelsey Geralda |last9=Barton |first9=C. Michael|date=30 August 2019|title=Archaeological assessment reveals Earth's early transformation through land use |journal=Science |volume=365|issue=6456 |pages=897–902 |doi=10.1126/science.aax1192 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=31467217 |hdl=10150/634688 |hdl-access=free |bibcode=2019Sci...365..897S |s2cid=201674203}}</ref> and included a diverse range of [[taxa]], in at least 11 separate [[centers of origin|centres of origin]].<ref name="Larson2014">{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.1323964111 |title=Current perspectives and the future of domestication studies |journal=PNAS |volume=111 |issue=17 |pages=6139–6146 |year=2014 |last1=Larson |first1=G. |last2=Piperno |first2=D. R. |last3=Allaby |first3=R. G. |last4=Purugganan |first4=M. D. |last5=Andersson |first5=L. |last6=Arroyo-Kalin |first6=M. |last7=Barton |first7=L. |last8=Climer Vigueira |first8=C. |last9=Denham |first9=T. |last10=Dobney |first10=K. |last11=Doust |first11=A. N. |last12=Gepts |first12=P. |last13=Gilbert |first13=M. T. P. |last14=Gremillion |first14=K. J. |last15=Lucas |first15=L. |last16=Lukens |first16=L. |last17=Marshall |first17=F. B. |last18=Olsen |first18=K. M. |last19=Pires |first19=J.C. |last20=Richerson |first20=P. J. |last21=Rubio De Casas |first21=R. |last22=Sanjur |first22=O.I. |last23=Thomas |first23=M. G. |last24=Fuller |first24=D.Q. |doi-access=free |pmid=24757054 |pmc=4035915 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.6139L}}</ref> Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Harmon |first1=Katherine |title=Humans feasting on grains for at least 100,000 years |url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/humans-feasting-on-grains-for-at-least-100000-years/ |magazine=[[Scientific American]] |access-date=28 August 2016 |date=17 December 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917013143/http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/humans-feasting-on-grains-for-at-least-100000-years/ |archive-date=17 September 2016 }}</ref> From around 11,500 years ago, the eight [[Neolithic founder crops]], [[emmer wheat|emmer]] and [[einkorn wheat]], hulled [[barley]], [[pea]]s, [[lentil]]s, [[Vicia ervilia|bitter vetch]], [[chick pea]]s and [[flax]] were cultivated in the [[Levant]]. Rice was [[Agriculture in China|domesticated in China]] between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC,<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17898767 |year=2007 |last1=Zong |first1=Y. |last2=When |first2=Z. |last3=Innes |first3=J. B. |last4=Chen |first4=C. |last5=Wang |first5=Z. |last6=Wang |first6=H. |title=Fire and flood management of coastal swamp enabled first rice paddy cultivation in east China |volume=449 |issue=7161 |pages=459–462 |doi=10.1038/nature06135 |journal=Nature |bibcode=2007Natur.449..459Z |s2cid=4426729 }}</ref> followed by [[mung bean|mung]], [[soy]] and [[Azuki bean|azuki]] beans. Sheep were domesticated in [[Mesopotamia]] between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book |title=Sheep and Goat Science |edition=Fifth |last=Ensminger |first=M. E. |author2=Parker, R. O. |year=1986 |publisher=Interstate Printers and Publishers |isbn=978-0-8134-2464-4}}</ref> Cattle were domesticated from the wild [[aurochs]] in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan some 10,500 years ago.<ref name="McTavish">{{cite journal |author=McTavish, E. J. |author2=Decker, J. E. |author3=Schnabel, R.D. |author4=Taylor, J. F. |author5=Hillis, D. M. |year=2013 |title=New World cattle show ancestry from multiple independent domestication events |journal=PNAS |volume=110 |issue=15 |pages=E1398–1406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1303367110 |pmid=23530234 |pmc=3625352 |bibcode=2013PNAS..110E1398M }}</ref> [[Domestic pig|Pig production]] emerged in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larson |first1=Greger |last2=Dobney |first2=Keith |author-link2= Keith Dobney |last3=Albarella |first3=Umberto |last4=Fang |first4=Meiying |last5=Matisoo-Smith |first5=Elizabeth |last6=Robins |first6=Judith |last7=Lowden |first7=Stewart |last8=Finlayson |first8=Heather |last9=Brand |first9=Tina |date=11 March 2005 |title=Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig Domestication |journal=Science |volume=307 |issue=5715 |pages=1618–1621 |doi=10.1126/science.1106927 |pmid=15761152|bibcode=2005Sci...307.1618L |s2cid=39923483 }}</ref> where [[wild boar]] were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larson |first1=Greger |last2=Albarella |first2=Umberto |last3=Dobney |first3=Keith |last4=Rowley-Conwy |first4=Peter |last5=Schibler |first5=Jörg |last6=Tresset |first6=Anne |last7=Vigne |first7=Jean-Denis |last8=Edwards |first8=Ceiridwen J. |last9=Schlumbaum |first9=Angela |date=25 September 2007 |title=Ancient DNA, pig domestication, and the spread of the Neolithic into Europe |journal=PNAS |volume=104 |issue=39 |pages=15276–15281 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0703411104 |pmid=17855556 |pmc=1976408 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10415276L }}</ref> In the [[Andes]] of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, [[coca]], [[llama]]s, [[alpaca]]s, and [[guinea pig]]s. [[Sugarcane]] and some [[List of root vegetables|root vegetables]] were domesticated in [[New Guinea]] around 9,000 years ago. [[Sorghum]] was domesticated in the [[Sahel]] region of Africa by 7,000 years ago. Cotton was domesticated in [[Peru]] by 5,600 years ago,<ref name="Broudy1979">{{cite book |last=Broudy |first=Eric |title=The Book of Looms: A History of the Handloom from Ancient Times to the Present |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=shN5_-W1RzcC|page=81}} |year=1979 |publisher=UPNE |isbn=978-0-87451-649-4 |page=81 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180210232500/{{google books|plainurl=y|id=shN5_-W1RzcC|page=81}} |archive-date=10 February 2018}}</ref> and was independently domesticated in Eurasia. [[Agriculture in Mesoamerica|In Mesoamerica]], wild [[teosinte]] was bred into maize by 6,000 years ago.<ref>Johannessen, S.; Hastorf, C. A. (eds.) ''Corn and Culture in the Prehistoric New World'', Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.</ref>
Scholars have offered multiple hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from [[hunter-gatherer]] to agricultural societies indicate an initial period of intensification and increasing [[sedentism]]; examples are the [[Natufian culture]] in the [[Levant]], and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Then, wild stands that had previously been harvested started to be planted, and gradually came to be domesticated.<ref>Hillman, G. C. (1996) "Late Pleistocene changes in wild plant-foods available to hunter-gatherers of the northern Fertile Crescent: Possible preludes to cereal cultivation". In D. R. Harris (ed.) ''The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia'', UCL Books, London, pp. 159–203. {{ISBN|9781857285383}}</ref><ref>Sato, Y. (2003) "Origin of rice cultivation in the Yangtze River basin". In Y. Yasuda (ed.) ''The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture'', Roli Books, New Delhi, p. 196</ref><ref name=b1>{{cite book |chapter=Australia and the Origins of Agriculture |author=Gerritsen, R. |title=Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology |date=2008 |publisher=Archaeopress |pages=29–30|isbn=978-1-4073-0354-3|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_1896}}</ref>

=== Civilizations ===
[[File:Tomb of Nakht (2).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Agricultural scenes of [[threshing]], a grain store, harvesting with [[sickle]]s, digging, tree-cutting and ploughing from [[Ancient Egyptian agriculture|ancient Egypt]]. Tomb of [[Nakht]], 15th century BC]]

In Eurasia, the [[Sumer]]ians started to live in villages from about 8,000 BC, relying on the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers and a canal system for irrigation. Ploughs appear in [[pictograph]]s around 3,000 BC; seed-ploughs around 2,300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, and fruits including dates, grapes, and figs.<ref name=BritMus>{{cite web |title=Farming |url=http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/staff/resources/background/bg08/home.html |publisher=[[British Museum]] |access-date=15 June 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616222522/http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/staff/resources/background/bg08/home.html |archive-date=16 June 2016 }}</ref> [[Ancient Egyptian agriculture]] relied on the [[Nile River]] and its seasonal flooding. Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the [[Paleolithic]], after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as [[flax]] and [[papyrus]].<ref name=Janick>{{cite journal |author=Janick, Jules |title=Ancient Egyptian Agriculture and the Origins of Horticulture |journal=Acta Hort. |volume=583 |pages=23–39 |url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Hort_306/text/lec06.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Kees, Herman |title=Ancient Egypt: A Cultural Topography |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientegyptcult0000kees |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=1961 |isbn=9780226429144 }}</ref> In [[Agriculture in India|India]], wheat, barley and [[jujube]] were domesticated by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats.<ref name=gupta>{{cite journal |author=Gupta, Anil K. |title=Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration |url=http://repository.ias.ac.in/21961/1/333.pdf |journal=Current Science |volume=87 |issue=1 |year=2004 |page=59 |jstor=24107979}}</ref> Cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in [[Mehrgarh]] culture by 8,000–6,000 BC.<ref name=Baber>Baber, Zaheer (1996). ''The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India''. State University of New York Press. 19. {{ISBN|0-7914-2919-9}}.</ref><ref name=harrisandgosden385>Harris, David R. and Gosden, C. (1996). ''The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia: Crops, Fields, Flocks And Herds''. Routledge. p. 385. {{ISBN|1-85728-538-7}}.</ref><ref name=Possehl>Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). ''Mehrgarh'' in ''Oxford Companion to Archaeology'', Ed. Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press.</ref> Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC.<ref>Stein, Burton (1998). ''A History of India''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 47. {{ISBN|0-631-20546-2}}.</ref> Archeological evidence indicates an animal-drawn [[plough]] from 2,500 BC in the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]].<ref name=lal>{{Cite journal |title=Thematic evolution of ISTRO: transition in scientific issues and research focus from 1955 to 2000 |first=R. |last=Lal |journal=Soil and Tillage Research |volume=61 |issue=1–2 |date=2001 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00184-2}}</ref>
In China, from the 5th century BC there was a nationwide [[granary]] system and widespread [[sericulture|silk farming]].<ref>[[#Needham|Needham]], Vol. 6, Part 2, pp. 55–57.</ref> Water-powered grain mills were in use by the 1st century BC,<ref>[[#Needham|Needham]], Vol. 4, Part 2, pp. 89, 110, 184.</ref> followed by irrigation.<ref>[[#Needham|Needham]], Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 110.</ref> By the late 2nd century, [[heavy plough]]s had been developed with iron ploughshares and [[mouldboard]]s.<ref name="greenberger 2006 11-12">Greenberger, Robert (2006) ''The Technology of Ancient China'', Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 11–12. {{ISBN|1404205586}}</ref><ref>[[Wang Zhongshu]], trans. by K. C. Chang and Collaborators, ''Han Civilization'' (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982).</ref> These spread westwards across Eurasia.<ref>{{cite book |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=SaJlbWK_-FcC|page=270}} |author=Glick, Thomas F. |page=270 |title=Medieval Science, Technology And Medicine: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-96930-7 |series=Volume 11 of The Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages Series}}</ref> Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago – depending on the [[molecular clock]] estimate that is used<ref name="pnas1">{{Cite journal |last1=Molina |first1=J. |last2=Sikora |first2=M. |last3=Garud |first3=N. |last4=Flowers |first4=J. M. |last5=Rubinstein |first5=S. |last6=Reynolds |first6=A. |last7=Huang |first7=P. |last8=Jackson |first8=S. |last9=Schaal |first9=B. A. |last10=Bustamante |doi=10.1073/pnas.1104686108 |first10=C. D. |last11=Boyko |first11=A. R. |last12=Purugganan |first12=M. D. |title=Molecular evidence for a single evolutionary origin of domesticated rice |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=108 |issue=20 |pages=8351–8356 |year=2011 |pmid=21536870|pmc=3101000|bibcode=2011PNAS..108.8351M }}</ref> – on the Pearl River in southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild rice ''[[Oryza rufipogon]]''.<ref name="nature1">{{cite journal |title=A map of rice genome variation reveals the origin of cultivated rice |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/nature11532 |year=2012 |last1=Huang |first1=Xuehui |last2=Kurata |first2=Nori |last3=Wei |first3=Xinghua |last4=Wang |first4=Zi-Xuan |last5=Wang |first5=Ahong |last6=Zhao |first6=Qiang |last7=Zhao |first7=Yan|last8=Liu |first8=Kunyan |last9=Lu |first9=Hengyun |last10=Li |first10=Wenjun |last11=Gu |first11=Yunli |last12=Lu |first12=Yiqi |last13=Zhou |first13=Congcong|last14=Fan|first14=Danlin |last15=Weng |first15=Qijun |last16=Zhu |first16=Chuanrang |last17=Huang |first17=Tao |last18=Zhang |first18=Lei|last19=Wang |first19=Yongchun |last20=Feng |first20=Lei |last21=Furuumi |first21=Hiroyasu |last22=Kubo |first22=Takahiko |last23=Miyabayashi|first23=Toshie |last24=Yuan |first24=Xiaoping |last25=Xu |first25=Qun |last26=Dong |first26=Guojun |last27=Zhan |first27=Qilin |last28=Li |first28=Canyang |last29=Fujiyama |first29=Asao|last30=Toyoda |first30=Atsushi |volume=490 |issue=7421 |pages=497–501 |pmid=23034647 |pmc=7518720 |display-authors=8 |bibcode=2012Natur.490..497H |doi-access=free }}</ref> In [[Agriculture in ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[Agriculture in ancient Rome|Rome]], the major cereals were wheat, emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products.<ref name="koester 1995 p76-77">Koester, Helmut (1995), ''History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age'', 2nd edition, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 76–77. {{ISBN|3-11-014693-2}}</ref><ref name="White">White, K. D. (1970), ''Roman Farming''. Cornell University Press.</ref>

In the Americas, crops domesticated in Mesoamerica (apart from [[teosinte]]) include squash, beans, and [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]].<ref name=Murphy2011>{{cite book |author=Murphy, Denis |title=Plants, Biotechnology and Agriculture |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=etQsieKuRH8C|page=153}} |year=2011 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-84593-913-7 |page=153}}</ref> Cocoa was being domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Davis |first1=Nicola |title=Origin of chocolate shifts 1,400 miles and 1,500 years |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/oct/29/origin-of-chocolate-shifts-1400-miles-and-1500-years-cacao-ecuador |access-date=31 October 2018 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=29 October 2018}}</ref>
The [[domestic turkey|turkey]] was probably domesticated in Mexico or the American Southwest.<ref name=Speller>{{cite journal |last1=Speller |first1=Camilla F. |author-link1=Camilla Speller |display-authors=etal |title=Ancient mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals complexity of indigenous North American turkey domestication|journal=PNAS |date=2010 |volume=107 |issue=7 |pages=2807–2812 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0909724107 |pmid=20133614 |pmc=2840336|bibcode=2010PNAS..107.2807S }}</ref> The [[Aztec]]s developed irrigation systems, formed [[Terrace (agriculture)|terraced]] hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed [[chinampa]]s or artificial islands. The [[Maya civilization|Mayas]] used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland from 400 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101105/full/news.2010.587.html|title=Mayans converted wetlands to farmland |author=Mascarelli, Amanda |journal=Nature |date=5 November 2010 |doi=10.1038/news.2010.587}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Invisible Artifacts: Uncovering Secrets of Ancient Maya Agriculture with Modern Soil Science |journal=Soil Horizons |author=Morgan, John |date=6 November 2013 |doi=10.2136/sh2012-53-6-lf |volume=53 |issue=6 |page=3 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Spooner 2005 14694–99">{{cite journal |title=A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping |last1=Spooner |first1=David M. |first2=Karen |last2=McLean |first3=Gavin |last3=Ramsay |first4=Robbie |last4=Waugh |first5=Glenn J. |last5=Bryan |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |volume=102 |issue=41 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0507400102 |pmc=1253605 |pages=14694–14699 |pmid=16203994 |year=2005 |bibcode=2005PNAS..10214694S }}</ref><ref name="online">{{cite book |author=Office of International Affairs |title=Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation |date=1989 |url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=030904264X&page=92 |work=nap.edu |isbn=978-0-309-04264-2 |page=92|doi=10.17226/1398 }}</ref><ref name="John Michael Francis 2005">{{cite book |author=Francis, John Michael |title=Iberia and the Americas |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2005 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=OMNoS-g1h8cC|page=867}} |isbn=978-1-85109-426-4 }}</ref> [[Coca]] was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and [[pineapple]].<ref name=Murphy2011 /> Cotton was domesticated in [[Peru]] by 3,600 BC.<ref name="Broudy1979 p81">{{cite book |last=Broudy |first=Eric |title=The Book of Looms: A History of the Handloom from Ancient Times to the Present|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=shN5_-W1RzcC|page=81}} |year=1979 |publisher=UPNE |isbn=978-0-87451-649-4 |page=81}}</ref> Animals including [[llama]]s, [[alpaca]]s, and [[guinea pig]]s were domesticated there.<ref name="RischkowskyPilling2007">{{cite book |last1=Rischkowsky |first1=Barbara |last2=Pilling |first2=Dafydd |title=The State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Skpj197tU0oC|page=10 }}|year=2007 |publisher=Food & Agriculture Organization |isbn=978-92-5-105762-9 |page=10}}</ref> In [[History of agriculture in the United States|North America]], the indigenous people of the [[Eastern Agricultural Complex|East domesticated crops]] such as [[sunflower]], tobacco,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heiser Jr |first1=Carl B. |year=1992 |title=On possible sources of the tobacco of prehistoric Eastern North America |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=33 |pages=54–56 |doi=10.1086/204032|s2cid=144433864 }}</ref> squash and ''[[Chenopodium]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ford, Richard I. |page=75|title=Prehistoric Food Production in North América|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eeuzAAAAIAAJ|year=1985|publisher=University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology, Publications Department|isbn=978-0-915703-01-2}}</ref><ref>Adair, Mary J. (1988) ''Prehistoric Agriculture in the Central Plains.'' Publications in Anthropology 16. University of Kansas, Lawrence.</ref> Wild foods including [[wild rice]] and [[maple sugar]] were harvested.<ref name="Smith2013">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Andrew |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=DOJMAgAAQBAJ|page=1}} |year=2013 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-973496-2 |page=1}}</ref> The domesticated [[strawberry]] is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and North America.<ref>{{cite document |last1=Hardigan |first1=Michael A. |title=P0653: Domestication History of Strawberry: Population Bottlenecks and Restructuring of Genetic Diversity through Time |url=https://pag.confex.com/pag/xxvi/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/28409 |publisher=Pland & Animal Genome Conference XXVI 13–17 January 2018 San Diego, California |access-date=28 February 2018}}</ref> The [[Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest|indigenous people of the Southwest]] and the [[Pacific Northwest]] practiced [[forest gardening]] and [[fire-stick farming]]. The [[Native American use of fire|natives controlled fire]] on a regional scale to create a low-intensity [[fire ecology]] that [[Sustainable agriculture|sustained a low-density agriculture]] in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" [[permaculture]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Fire in California's Ecosystems |url=https://archive.org/details/firecaliforniase00sugi |url-access=limited |editor1=Sugihara, Neil G. |editor2=Van Wagtendonk, Jan W. |editor3=Shaffer, Kevin E. |editor4=Fites-Kaufman, Joann |editor5=Thode, Andrea E. |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/firecaliforniase00sugi/page/n433 417] |chapter=17 |isbn=978-0-520-24605-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=Blackburn, Thomas C. |editor2=Anderson, Kat |year=1993 |title=Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians |publisher=Ballena Press |isbn=978-0-87919-126-9}}</ref><ref name=Cunningham2010>{{cite book |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=nuYuYGHwCygC|page=135 }}|pages=135, 173–202 |last=Cunningham |first=Laura |title=State of Change: Forgotten Landscapes of California |publisher=Heyday |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-59714-136-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Anderson |first=M. Kat |title=Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge And the Management of California's Natural Resources |url=https://archive.org/details/tendingwildnativ0000ande |url-access=registration |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-520-24851-9}}</ref> A system of [[companion planting]] called [[Three Sisters (agriculture)|the Three Sisters]] was developed in North America. The three crops were [[winter squash]], maize, and climbing beans.<ref name="wilson">{{cite book |title=Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians: An Indian Interpretation |last=Wilson |first=Gilbert |year=1917 |publisher=Dodo Press |isbn=978-1-4099-4233-7 |pages=25 and passim |url=http://www.bookdepository.com/publishers/Dodo-Press |ref=wilson1917 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314055513/http://www.bookdepository.com/publishers/Dodo-Press |archive-date=14 March 2016 }}</ref><ref name="landon">{{cite journal |last=Landon |first=Amanda J. |title=The "How" of the Three Sisters: The Origins of Agriculture in Mesoamerica and the Human Niche |journal=Nebraska Anthropologist |year=2008 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=nebanthro |pages=110–124}}</ref>

[[Indigenous Australians]], long supposed to have been nomadic [[hunter-gatherers]], practised systematic burning, possibly to enhance natural productivity in fire-stick farming.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jones |first=R. |doi=10.1007/BF03400623 |title=Fire-stick Farming|journal=Fire Ecology |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=3–8 |year=2012 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Gunditjmara]] and other groups developed eel farming and fish trapping systems from some 5,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Elizabeth |year=1988 |title=Complex Hunter-Gatherers: A Late Holocene Example from Temperate Australia |journal=Archaeopress Archaeology |volume=423}}</ref> There is evidence of 'intensification' across the whole continent over that period.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lourandos |first=Harry |year=1997 |title=Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> In two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central, early farmers cultivated yams, native millet, and bush onions, possibly in permanent settlements.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gammage |first=Bill |author-link=Bill Gammage |date=October 2011 |title=The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines made Australia |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=aUddY9fGkNMC}} |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-1-74237-748-3 |pages=281–304}}</ref><ref name=b1 />

===Revolution ===
[[File:Islamic Spain agricultural scene.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Arab Agricultural Revolution]], starting in [[Al-Andalus]] (Islamic Spain), transformed agriculture with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants.<ref name=Watson />]]

In the Middle Ages, both [[Arab Agricultural Revolution|in the Islamic world]] and in Europe, agriculture transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees (such as the orange) to Europe by way of [[Al-Andalus]].<ref name=Watson>{{cite journal |first=Andrew M. |last=Watson |date=1974 |title=The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=8–35 |doi=10.1017/s0022050700079602}}</ref><ref name=NatGeographic2015>{{cite book |author=National Geographic |title=Food Journeys of a Lifetime |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=h2Q5BgAAQBAJ|page=126}} |year=2015 |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |isbn=978-1-4262-1609-1 |page=126}}</ref> After 1492 the [[Columbian exchange]] brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, [[sweet potato]]es and [[manioc]] to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice and [[turnip]]s, and livestock (including horses, cattle, sheep and goats) to the Americas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/american-indians/essays/columbian-exchange |title=The Columbian Exchange |publisher=The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |author=Crosby, Alfred |access-date=11 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703092537/http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/american-indians/essays/columbian-exchange |archive-date=3 July 2013}}</ref>

[[Irrigation]], [[crop rotation]], and [[fertilizers]] advanced from the 17th century with the [[British Agricultural Revolution]], allowing global population to rise significantly. Since 1900 agriculture in developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity as [[Mechanized farming|mechanization]] replaces human labor, and assisted by [[synthetic fertilizer]]s, pesticides, and [[selective breeding]]. The [[Haber-Bosch]] method allowed the synthesis of [[ammonium nitrate]] fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing [[crop yields]] and sustaining a further increase in global population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/hort_306/text/lec32.pdf |title=Agricultural Scientific Revolution: Mechanical |author=Janick, Jules |publisher=Purdue University |access-date=24 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525074054/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Hort_306/text/lec32.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2013 |df =dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nae.edu/Publications/Bridge/52548/52645.aspx |title=The Impact of Mechanization on Agriculture |journal=The Bridge on Agriculture and Information Technology |date=2011 |volume=41 |number=3 |author=Reid, John F. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105033809/http://www.nae.edu/Publications/Bridge/52548/52645.aspx |archive-date=5 November 2013 }}</ref> Modern agriculture has raised or encountered ecological, political, and economic issues including [[water pollution]], [[biofuel]]s, [[genetically modified organism]]s, [[tariff]]s and [[Agricultural subsidy|farm subsidies]], leading to alternative approaches such as the [[organic movement]].<ref name="motherjones1">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.motherjones.com/tom-philpott/2013/04/history-nitrogen-fertilizer-ammonium-nitrate |last=Philpott |first=Tom |title=A Brief History of Our Deadly Addiction to Nitrogen Fertilizer |date=19 April 2013 |access-date=7 May 2013 |magazine=Mother Jones |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505115125/https://www.motherjones.com/tom-philpott/2013/04/history-nitrogen-fertilizer-ammonium-nitrate |archive-date=5 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="smh.com.au">{{cite journal |url=http://www.smh.com.au/world/ten-worst-famines-of-the-20th-century-20110815-1iu2w.html |title=Ten worst famines of the 20th century |journal=Sydney Morning Herald |date=15 August 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703063152/http://www.smh.com.au/world/ten-worst-famines-of-the-20th-century-20110815-1iu2w.html |archive-date=3 July 2014}}
</ref>

== Types ==
[[File:Reindeer herding.jpg|thumb|left|[[Reindeer]] herds form the basis of pastoral agriculture for several Arctic and Subarctic peoples.]]

[[Pastoralism]] involves managing domesticated animals. In [[nomadic pastoralism]], herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practised in arid and semi-arid regions of [[Sahara]], Central Asia and some parts of India.<ref>{{cite book |last=Blench |first=Roger |title=Pastoralists in the new millennium |publisher=FAO |date=2001 |pages=11–12 |url=http://www.odi.org.uk/work/projects/pdn/eps.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201000745/http://www.odi.org.uk/work/projects/pdn/eps.pdf |archive-date=1 February 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

In [[shifting cultivation]], a small area of forest is cleared by cutting and burning the trees. The cleared land is used for growing crops for a few years until the soil becomes too infertile, and the area is abandoned. Another patch of land is selected and the process is repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with abundant rainfall where the forest regenerates quickly. This practice is used in Northeast India, Southeast Asia, and the Amazon Basin.<ref>{{cite web |title=Shifting cultivation |url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/about/swidden |publisher=[[Survival International]] |access-date=28 August 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160829015112/http://www.survivalinternational.org/about/swidden |archive-date=29 August 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

[[File:Manuring a vegetable garden.jpg|thumb|Spreading manure by hand in Zambia]]

[[Subsistence farming]] is practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone, with little left over for transport elsewhere. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia.<ref>{{cite book |author=Waters, Tony |title=The Persistence of Subsistence Agriculture: life beneath the level of the marketplace |publisher=Lexington Books |date=2007}}</ref> An estimated 2.5 billion subsistence farmers worked in 2018, cultivating about 60% of the earth's [[arable land]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last= |date=7 March 2018 |title=Chinese project offers a brighter farming future |department=Editorial |journal=Nature |volume=555 |issue=7695 |page=141 |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-02742-3 |pmid=29517037 |bibcode=2018Natur.555R.141. |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Intensive farming]] is cultivation to maximise productivity, with a low fallow ratio and a high use of inputs (water, fertilizer, pesticide and automation). It is practiced mainly in developed countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9042533|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060705221311/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9042533|url-status=dead|title=Encyclopædia Britannica's definition of Intensive Agriculture|archive-date=5 July 2006}}</ref><ref name="bbcFactSheet">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/livingthingsenvironment/4foodandsustainabilityrev5.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503035007/http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/biology/livingthingsenvironment/4foodandsustainabilityrev5.shtml|url-status=dead|title=BBC School fact sheet on intensive farming|archive-date=3 May 2007}}</ref>

== Contemporary agriculture ==

=== Status ===
[[File:Farm in Hainan 01.jpg|thumb|left|China has the largest agricultural output of any country.<ref name=UNCTAD2017 />]]

From the twentieth century, intensive agriculture increased productivity. It substituted synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labour, but caused increased water pollution, and often involved farm subsidies. In recent years there has been a backlash against the [[environmental awareness|environmental effects]] of conventional agriculture, resulting in the [[organic farming|organic]], [[Regenerative agriculture|regenerative]], and [[sustainable agriculture]] movements.<ref name="motherjones1" /><ref>{{cite web |publisher=The World Bank |year=1995 |url=http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=469372&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000009265_3970311122936 |title=Overcoming agricultural pollution of water: the challenge of integrating agricultural and environmental policies in the European Union, Volume 1 |access-date=15 April 2013 |author=Scheierling, Susanne M. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605112426/http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=469372&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000009265_3970311122936 |archive-date=5 June 2013}}</ref> One of the major forces behind this movement has been the [[European Union]], which first certified [[organic food]] in 1991 and began reform of its [[Common Agricultural Policy]] (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies,<ref>{{cite web |publisher=European Commission |year=2003 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/capreform/index_en.htm |title=CAP Reform |access-date=15 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017124251/http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/capreform/index_en.htm |archive-date=17 October 2010}}</ref> also known as [[Decoupling and re-coupling|decoupling]]. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as [[integrated pest management]], selective breeding,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Poincelot |first1=Raymond P. |title=Toward a More Sustainable Agriculture |chapter=Organic Farming |journal=Towards a More Sustainable Agriculture |pages=14–32 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-1506-3_2 |year=1986 |isbn=978-1-4684-1508-7 }}</ref> and [[controlled-environment agriculture]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |url=http://www.agweek.com/business/agriculture/4527042-cutting-edge-technology-will-change-farming |title=The cutting-edge technology that will change farming |work=Agweek |date=9 November 2018 |access-date=23 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117020138/http://www.agweek.com/business/agriculture/4527042-cutting-edge-technology-will-change-farming |archive-date=23 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author=Charles, Dan |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/11/02/561462293/hydroponic-veggies-are-taking-over-organic-and-a-move-to-ban-them-fails |title=Hydroponic Veggies Are Taking Over Organic, And A Move To Ban Them Fails |work=[[NPR]] |date=3 November 2017 |access-date=24 November 2018}}</ref> Recent mainstream technological developments include [[genetically modified food]].<ref>[http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file15655.pdf GM Science Review First Report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016100707/http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file15655.pdf |date=16 October 2013 }}, Prepared by the UK GM Science Review panel (July 2003). Chairman David King, p. 9</ref> Demand for non-food biofuel crops,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Smith, Kate |author2=Edwards, Rob |date=8 March 2008 |url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/2008-the-year-of-global-food-crisis-1.828546 |title=2008: The year of global food crisis |journal=The Herald |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411220739/http://www.heraldscotland.com/2008-the-year-of-global-food-crisis-1.828546 |archive-date=11 April 2013}}</ref> development of former farm lands, rising transportation costs, [[Climate change and agriculture|climate change]], growing consumer demand in China and India, and [[population growth]],<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0118/p08s01-comv.html |title=The global grain bubble |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |date=18 January 2008 |access-date=26 September 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130063759/http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0118/p08s01-comv.html |archive-date=30 November 2009}}</ref> are threatening [[food security]] in many parts of the world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7284196.stm |title=The cost of food: Facts and figures |publisher=BBC |date=16 October 2008 |access-date=26 September 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090120025945/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7284196.stm |archive-date=20 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Walt, Vivienne |date=27 February 2008 |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1717572,00.html |title=The World's Growing Food-Price Crisis |journal=Time |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129211855/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1717572,00.html |archive-date=29 November 2011 }}</ref><ref name="guardian.co.uk">Watts, Jonathan (4 December 2007). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/04/china.business "Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901074034/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/04/china.business |date=1 September 2013 }}, ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref><ref name="timesonline.co.uk">Mortished, Carl (7 March 2008).[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article3500975.ece "Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814134028/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article3500975.ece |date=14 August 2011}}, ''The Times'' (London).</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Borger, Julian (26 February 2008). [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/feb/26/food.unitednations "Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225150554/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/feb/26/food.unitednations |date=25 December 2016}}, ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref> The [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] posits that an increase in [[smallholding|smallholder agriculture]] may be part of the solution to concerns about [[food prices]] and overall food security, given the favorable experience of Vietnam.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ifad.org/operations/food/farmer.htm |title=Food prices: smallholder farmers can be part of the solution |publisher=International Fund for Agricultural Development |access-date=24 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505224355/http://www.ifad.org/operations/food/farmer.htm |archive-date=5 May 2013 }}</ref> [[soil retrogression and degradation|Soil degradation]] and diseases such as [[stem rust]] are major concerns globally;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/rust/stem/rust-report/stem-ug99racettksk/en/ |title=Wheat Stem Rust – UG99 (Race TTKSK)|publisher=FAO|access-date=6 January 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107064545/http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/rust/stem/rust-report/stem-ug99racettksk/en/|archive-date=7 January 2014}}</ref> approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.<ref>Sample, Ian (31 August 2007). [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food "Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429094959/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food |date=29 April 2016}}, ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214-unu.html |title=Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127175559/http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214-unu.html |archive-date=27 November 2011 |work=[[Mongabay]] |date=14 December 2006 |access-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> By 2015, the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, followed by the European Union, India and the United States.<ref name=UNCTAD2017 /> Economists measure the [[total factor productivity]] of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United States is roughly 1.7 times more productive than it was in 1948.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=USDA Economic Research Service |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/agproductivity/ |title=Agricultural Productivity in the United States |date=5 July 2012 |access-date=22 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201021133/http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/AgProductivity/ |archive-date=1 February 2013 }}</ref>

=== Workforce ===
[[File:Transition from agriculture to developed economy.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|On the [[three-sector theory]], the proportion of people working in agriculture (left-hard bar in each group, green) falls as an economy becomes more developed.]]

Following the [[three-sector theory]], the number of people employed in agriculture and other [[primary sector|primary]] activities (such as fishing) can be more than 80% in the least developed countries, and less than 2% in the most highly developed countries.<ref name=LaborForce>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2048.html|title=Labor Force – By Occupation|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |website=The World Factbook |access-date=4 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522214333/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2048.html |archive-date=22 May 2014 }}</ref> Since the [[Industrial Revolution]], many countries have made the transition to developed economies, and the proportion of people working in agriculture has steadily fallen. During the 16th century in Europe, for example, between 55 and 75% of the population was engaged in agriculture; by the 19th century, this had dropped to between 35 and 65%.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://economics.ouls.ox.ac.uk/13621/1/uuid9ef3c3c6-512f-44b6-b74e-53266cc42ae2-ATTACHMENT01.pdf |title=Economic structure and agricultural productivity in Europe, 1300–1800 |journal=European Review of Economic History |volume=3 |pages=1–25 |author=Allen, Robert C. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027195415/http://economics.ouls.ox.ac.uk/13621/1/uuid9ef3c3c6-512f-44b6-b74e-53266cc42ae2-ATTACHMENT01.pdf |archive-date=27 October 2014 }}</ref> In the same countries today, the figure is less than 10%.<ref name=LaborForce />
At the start of the 21st century, some one billion people, or over 1/3 of the available work force, were employed in agriculture. It constitutes approximately 70% of the global employment of children, and in many countries employs the largest percentage of women of any industry.<ref name=ILO /> The service sector overtook the agricultural sector as the largest global employer in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/story/191279|title=Services sector overtakes farming as world's biggest employer: ILO |agency=Associated Press |date=26 January 2007 |access-date=24 April 2013 |newspaper=The Financial Express |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013062206/http://www.financialexpress.com/news/story/191279|archive-date=13 October 2013 }}</ref>

=== Safety ===
[[File:Ford Tractor with ROPS bar fitted.JPG|thumb|left|[[Rollover protection system|Rollover protection bar]] [[retrofit]]ted to a mid-20th century [[Fordson tractor]]]]
{{Main|Agricultural safety and health}}

Agriculture, specifically farming, remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, [[noise-induced hearing loss]], skin diseases, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. On [[industrial agriculture|industrialized farms]], injuries frequently involve the use of [[agricultural machinery]], and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries is [[Rollover protection structure|tractor rollovers]].<ref name="aginjury">{{cite web |url=https://wwwa.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/aginjury/ |title=NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topic: Agricultural Injuries |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=16 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028181205/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/aginjury/ |archive-date=28 October 2007}}</ref> Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can be [[Health effects of pesticides|hazardous to worker health]], and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have children with birth defects.<ref name=NIOSH_pest>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2012-108/ |title=NIOSH Pesticide Poisoning Monitoring Program Protects Farmworkers |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=15 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402004253/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2012%2D108/ |archive-date=2 April 2013|doi=10.26616/NIOSHPUB2012108 |year=2011 |doi-access=free }}</ref> As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at risk for injuries, illness, and death.<ref name="NIOSH Agri">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/agriculture/ |title=NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topic: Agriculture |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |access-date=16 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009224012/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/agriculture/ |archive-date=9 October 2007 }}</ref> Ages 0–6 May be an especially vulnerable population in agriculture;<ref name=WeicheltGorucu2018>{{Cite journal |last1=Weichelt |first1=Bryan |last2=Gorucu |first2=Serap |date=17 February 2018 |title=Supplemental surveillance: a review of 2015 and 2016 agricultural injury data from news reports on AgInjuryNews.org |url=http://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/early/2018/02/16/injuryprev-2017-042671 |journal=Injury Prevention |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=injuryprev–2017–042671 |doi=10.1136/injuryprev-2017-042671 |pmid=29386372|s2cid=3371442 }}</ref> common causes of fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning, machinery and motor accidents, including with all-terrain vehicles.<ref name="NIOSH Agri" /><ref name=WeicheltGorucu2018 /><ref>{{Cite journal |author=The PLOS ONE staff |date=6 September 2018 |title=Correction: Towards a deeper understanding of parenting on farms: A qualitative study |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=e0203842 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0203842 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6126865 |pmid=30188948 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1303842. }}</ref>

The [[International Labour Organization]] considers agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic sectors".<ref name=ILO>{{cite web |url=http://www.ilo.org/safework/info/standards-and-instruments/codes/WCMS_161135/lang--en/index.htm |title=Safety and health in agriculture |publisher=International Labour Organization |access-date=1 April 2018 |date=21 March 2011}}</ref> It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least 170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported.<ref name=ILO2>{{cite web |url=http://www.ilo.org/safework/areasofwork/hazardous-work/WCMS_356550/lang--en/index.htm |title=Agriculture: A hazardous work |publisher=International Labour Organization |access-date=1 April 2018 |date=15 June 2009 }}</ref> The organization has developed the [[Safety and Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001]], which covers the range of risks in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should play.<ref name=ILO />

In the United States, agriculture has been identified by the [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] as a priority industry sector in the [[National Occupational Research Agenda]] to identify and provide intervention strategies for occupational health and safety issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nora/councils/agff/default.html|title=CDC – NIOSH – NORA Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Sector Council|date=21 March 2018|publisher=NIOSH|access-date=7 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/programs/agff/ |title=CDC – NIOSH Program Portfolio : Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing : Program Description |date=28 February 2018 |publisher=NIOSH |access-date=7 April 2018}}</ref>
In the European Union, the [[European Agency for Safety and Health at Work]] has issued guidelines on implementing health and safety directives in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture, and forestry.<ref>{{cite web |title=Protecting health and safety of workers in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture and forestry |url=https://osha.europa.eu/en/tools-and-publications/publications/protecting-health-and-safety-workers-agriculture-livestock/view |publisher=European Agency for Safety and Health at Work |access-date=10 April 2018 |date=17 August 2017}}</ref> The Agricultural Safety and Health Council of America (ASHCA) also holds a yearly summit to discuss safety.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=editor |first=Scott Heiberger managing |date=3 July 2018 |title=The future of agricultural safety and health: North American Agricultural Safety Summit, February 2018, Scottsdale, Arizona |journal=Journal of Agromedicine |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=302–304 |doi=10.1080/1059924X.2018.1485089 |issn=1059-924X |pmid=30047853 |s2cid=51721534}}</ref>

== Production ==
{{Main|List of countries by GDP sector composition}}
{{See also|List of most important agricultural crops worldwide}}
[[File:Value of agricultural production, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Value of agricultural production, 2016<ref>{{cite web |title=Value of agricultural production |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/value-of-agricultural-production |website=Our World in Data |access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref>]]
Overall production varies by country as listed.

{|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! colspan=2|Largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) according to [[IMF]] and [[CIA World Factbook]], at peak level as of 2018
|-
|{{Bar chart|float=center
|title =
|table_width=70
|bar_width =50 
|data_max =1,120
|label_type =Economy
|data_type ={{center|Countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) at peak level as of 2018 (billions in USD)}}
|label1 =(01) '''{{CHN}}''' |data1= 1,117
|label2 =(02) '''{{IND}}''' |data2= 414
|label3 = {{nowrap|(—) '''''{{EU}}'''''}} |data3= 308
|label4 =(03) '''{{USA}}''' |data4= 185
|label5 =(04) '''{{BRA}}''' |data5= 162
|label6 =(05) '''{{IDN}}''' |data6= 141
|label7 =(06) '''{{NGR}}''' |data7= 123
|label8 =(07) '''{{RUS}}''' |data8= 108
|label9 =(08) '''{{PAK}}''' |data9= 76
|label10 =(09) '''{{ARG}}''' |data10= 70
|label11 =(10) '''{{TUR}}''' |data11= 64
|label12 =(11) '''{{JPN}}''' |data12= 62
|label13 =(12) '''{{FRA}}''' |data13= 59
|label14 =(13) '''{{IRN}}''' |data14= 57
|label15 =(14) '''{{AUS}}''' |data15= 56
|label16 =(15) '''{{MEX}}''' |data16= 51
|label17 =(16) '''{{ITA}}''' |data17= 50
|label18 =(17) '''{{ESP}}''' |data18= 43
|label19 =(18) '''{{BAN}}''' |data19= 41
|label20 =(19) '''{{THA}}''' |data20= 40
|label21 =(20) '''{{EGY}}''' |data21= 40
|caption={{resize|88%|The twenty largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) at peak level as of 2018, according to the [[IMF]] and [[CIA World Factbook]].}}
|isbn=978-0-309-04248-2 |date=1 February 1990 }}
|}

{|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! colspan=2|Largest countries by agricultural output according to [[UNCTAD]] at 2005 constant prices and exchange rates, 2015<ref name=UNCTAD2017>{{cite web |url=http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=95 |title=UNCTADstat – Table view |access-date=26 November 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020072414/http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=95 |archive-date=20 October 2017}}</ref>
|-
|{{Bar chart|float=center
|title =
|table_width=70
|bar_width =50 
|data_max =500,000
|label_type =Economy
|data_type ={{center|Countries by agricultural output in 2015 (millions in 2005 constant USD and exchange rates)}}
|label1 =(01) '''{{CHN}}''' |data1=418,455
|label2 =(02) '''{{IND}}''' |data2=196,592
|label3 =(03) '''{{USA}}''' |data3=149,023
|label4 =(04) '''{{NGR}}''' |data4=77,113
|label5 =(05) '''{{BRA}}''' |data5=59,977
}}
|}

=== Crop cultivation systems ===
[[File:An example of slash and burn agriculture practice Thailand.jpg|thumb|left|[[Slash and burn]] shifting cultivation, Thailand]]

Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of the farmer.<ref name="FAO FS">{{cite web |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |url=http://www.fao.org/farmingsystems/description_en.htm |title=Analysis of farming systems |access-date=22 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806063804/http://www.fao.org/farmingsystems/description_en.htm |archive-date=6 August 2013}}</ref><ref name="PCP APS">"Agricultural Production Systems". pp. 283–317 in [[#Acquaah|Acquaah]].</ref>

Shifting cultivation (or [[slash and burn]]) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then [[perennial plant|perennial]] crops for a period of several years.<ref name="CS">"Farming Systems: Development, Productivity, and Sustainability", pp. 25–57 in [[#Chrispeels|Chrispeels]]</ref> Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (10–20). This fallow period is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or [[manure]]) and some manual [[pest control]]. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.<ref name="CS" />

[[File:Intercropping coconut n Tagetes erecta.jpg|thumb|[[Intercropping]] of [[coconut]] and [[Tagetes erecta|Mexican marigold]]]]

Further industrialization led to the use of [[monoculture]]s, when one [[cultivar]] is planted on a large acreage. Because of the low [[biodiversity]], nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of [[pesticide]]s and fertilizers.<ref name="PCP APS" /> [[Multiple cropping]], in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and [[intercropping]], when several crops are grown at the same time, are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as [[polyculture]]s.<ref name="CS" />

In [[subtropics|subtropical]] and [[arid]] environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced such as agroforestry. In [[Temperateness|temperate]] environments, where ecosystems were predominantly [[grassland]] or [[prairie]], highly productive annual farming is the dominant agricultural system.<ref name="CS" />

Important categories of food crops include cereals, legumes, forage, fruits and vegetables.<ref name="FAO" /> [[Natural fiber]]s include cotton, [[wool]], [[hemp]], silk and [[flax]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Profiles of 15 of the world's major plant and animal fibres|url=http://www.fao.org/natural-fibres-2009/about/15-natural-fibres/en/|publisher=FAO|access-date=26 March 2018|date=2009}}</ref> Specific crops are cultivated in distinct [[growing region]]s throughout the world. Production is listed in millions of metric tons, based on [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] estimates.<ref name="FAO" />

{|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! colspan=2|Top agricultural products, by crop types (million tonnes) 2004 data
|-
|Cereals ||style="text-align:right;"|2,263
|-
|Vegetables and melons ||style="text-align:right;"|866
|-
|[[Root]]s and [[tuber]]s ||style="text-align:right;"|715
|-
|Milk ||style="text-align:right;"|619
|-
|Fruit ||style="text-align:right;"|503
|-
|Meat ||style="text-align:right;"|259
|-
|[[Vegetable oil|Oilcrops]] ||style="text-align:right;"|133
|-
|Fish (2001 estimate) ||style="text-align:right;"|130
|-
|[[Egg (food)|Eggs]] ||style="text-align:right;"|63
|-
|[[Pulse (legume)|Pulses]] ||style="text-align:right;"|60
|-
|[[Fiber crop|Vegetable fiber]] ||style="text-align:right;"|30
|-
|colspan=2|''Source: [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]''<ref name="FAO">{{cite web |url=http://faostat.fao.org/ |title=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAOSTAT) |access-date=2 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118190636/http://faostat.fao.org/|archive-date=18 January 2013}}</ref>
|}

{|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! colspan=2|Top agricultural products, by individual crops (million tonnes) 2011 data
|-
|Sugar cane ||style="text-align:right;"|1794
|-
|Maize ||style="text-align:right;"|883
|-
|Rice ||style="text-align:right;"|722
|-
|Wheat ||style="text-align:right;"|704
|-
|Potatoes ||style="text-align:right;"|374
|-
|Sugar beet ||style="text-align:right;"|271
|-
|Soybeans ||style="text-align:right;"|260
|-
|Cassava ||style="text-align:right;"|252
|-
|Tomatoes ||style="text-align:right;"|159
|-
|Barley ||style="text-align:right;"|134
|-
|colspan=2|''Source: [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]''<ref name="FAO" />
|}

=== Livestock production systems ===
{{Main|Livestock|Animal husbandry}}
{{See also|List of domesticated animals}}
[[File:Hog confinement barn interior.jpg|thumb|left|[[Intensive animal farming|Intensively farmed]] pigs]]

Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk, [[egg (food)|eggs]], or [[wool]], and for work and transport.<ref name=Clutton-Brock>{{cite book |author=Clutton-Brock, Juliet |title=A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=cgL-EbbB8a0C|page=1}} |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-63495-3 |pages=1–2}}</ref> [[Working animal]]s, including horses, [[mule]]s, [[ox]]en, [[water buffalo]], camels, llamas, alpacas, donkeys, and dogs, have for centuries been used to help cultivate fields, [[harvest]] crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Falvey |first=John Lindsay |author-link=Lindsay Falvey |year=1985 |title=Introduction to Working Animals |isbn=978-1-86252-992-2 |location=Melbourne, Australia |publisher=MPW Australia}}</ref>

Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless.<ref name="FAO lps">{{cite web |author1=Sere, C. |author2=Steinfeld, H. |author3=Groeneweld, J. |year=1995 |url=http://www.fao.org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6101E/x6101e00.htm#Contents|title=Description of Systems in World Livestock Systems – Current status issues and trends |publisher=U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=8 September 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026004040/http://www.fao.org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6101E/X6101E00.HTM#Contents |archive-date=26 October 2012 }}</ref> {{as of|2010}}, 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of which had production increased by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, also showed significant production increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050.<ref name=LP>{{cite journal |title=Livestock production: recent trends, future prospects |author=Thornton, Philip K. |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0134 |pmid=20713389 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |date=27 September 2010 |volume=365 |issue=1554 |pages=2853–2867 |doi-access=free |pmc=2935116 }}</ref> [[Aquaculture]] or fish farming, the production of fish for human consumption in confined operations, is one of the fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://content.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1663604,00.html |title=Fish Farming's Growing Dangers |journal=Time |author=Stier, Ken |date=19 September 2007|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907071708/http://content.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1663604,00.html |archive-date=7 September 2013 }}</ref>

During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective breeding focused on creating livestock [[breed]]s and [[crossbreed]]s that increased production, while mostly disregarding the need to preserve [[genetic diversity]]. This trend has led to a significant decrease in genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds, leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations previously found among traditional breeds.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A global view of livestock biodiversity and conservation – Globaldiv |author=Ajmone-Marsan, P. |journal=Animal Genetics |date=May 2010 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2052.2010.02036.x |pmid=20500752 |volume=41 |issue=supplement S1 |pages=1–5 |url=http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/148417 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803140941/https://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/148417 |archive-date=3 August 2017 }}</ref>

[[File:Broiler house.jpg|thumb|Raising chickens intensively for meat in a broiler house]]

Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as [[shrubland]], [[rangeland]], and [[managed intensive rotational grazing|pastures]] for feeding [[ruminant]] animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil, representing 30–40 million pastoralists.<ref name="CS" /> Mixed production systems use grassland, [[fodder]] crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric (one stomach; mainly chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops.<ref name="FAO lps" />

Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently in [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] member countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure use becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution.<ref name="FAO lps" /> Industrialized countries use these operations to produce much of the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists estimate that 75% of the growth in livestock production between 2003 and 2030 will be in [[confined animal feeding operations]], sometimes called [[factory farming]]. Much of this growth is happening in developing countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa.<ref name=LP /> Some of the practices used in commercial livestock production, including the usage of [[growth hormone]]s, are controversial.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-02-604_en.pdf |title=Growth Promoting Hormones Pose Health Risk to Consumers, Confirms EU Scientific Committee |date=23 April 2002 |access-date=6 April 2013 |publisher=European Union |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502123053/http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-02-604_en.pdf |archive-date=2 May 2013 }}</ref>

=== Production practices ===
[[File:Fendt Tractor Ripping up Kulin.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tillage|Tilling]] an arable field]]
{{see|Tillage|Crop rotation|Irrigation}}

Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow or [[harrow (tool)|harrow]] to prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to [[no-till farming|no-till]]. It may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO2, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.<ref name="Soil nutrient" /><ref name="PCP Tillage">"Land Preparation and Farm Energy", pp. 318–338 in [[#Acquaah|Acquaah]]</ref>

Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects, [[mite]]s, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological ([[biocontrol]]), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation, [[culling]], [[cover crop]]s, intercropping, [[compost]]ing, avoidance, and [[Disease resistance in fruit and vegetables|resistance]]. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.<ref name="PCP Pest">"Pesticide Use in U.S. Crop Production", pp. 240–282 in [[#Acquaah|Acquaah]]</ref>

[[Nutrient management]] includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of use of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure, [[green manure]], compost and minerals.<ref name="PCP Soil">"Soil and Land", pp. 165–210 in [[#Acquaah|Acquaah]]</ref> Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a [[fallow]] period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or [[Manure spreader|by spreading]] either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or [[pasture]]s.<ref name="CS nutrient">"Nutrition from the Soil", pp. 187–218 in [[#Chrispeels|Chrispeels]]</ref><ref name="Soil nutrient">Brady, N. C.; Weil, R. R. (2002). "Practical Nutrient Management" pp. 472–515 in ''Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils''. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. {{ISBN|978-0135051955}}</ref>

[[File:PivotWithDrops.JPG|thumb|A [[center pivot irrigation]] system]]

[[Water management]] is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world.<ref name="CS" /> Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the [[Great Plains]] in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year.<ref name="PCP Water">"Plants and Soil Water", pp. 211–239 in [[#Acquaah|Acquaah]]</ref> Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.<ref name="Pimentel water">{{cite journal |author1=Pimentel, D. |author2=Berger, D. |author3=Filberto, D. |author4=Newton, M. |year=2004 |title=Water Resources: Agricultural and Environmental Issues |journal=BioScience |volume=54 |pages=909–918 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0909:WRAAEI]2.0.CO;2 |issue=10 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

According to a report by the [[International Food Policy Research Institute]], agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, the International Food Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.<ref name=ifpri>{{cite web |url=http://www.ifpri.org/publication/food-security-world-natural-resource-scarcity |author=International Food Policy Research Institute |title=Food Security in a World of Growing Natural Resource Scarcity |year=2014 |publisher=CropLife International |access-date=1 July 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305043943/http://www.ifpri.org/publication/food-security-world-natural-resource-scarcity |archive-date=5 March 2014 }}</ref>

[[Payment for ecosystem services]] is a method of providing additional incentives to encourage farmers to conserve some aspects of the environment. Measures might include paying for reforestation upstream of a city, to improve the supply of fresh water.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tacconi |first1=L. |year=2012 |title=Redefining payments for environmental services |journal=Ecological Economics |volume=73 |issue=1|pages=29–36 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.09.028}}</ref>

== Crop alteration and biotechnology ==

=== Plant breeding ===
{{Main|Plant breeding}}
[[File:Wheat selection k10183-1.jpg|thumb|left|Wheat cultivar tolerant of high [[salinity]] (left) compared with non-tolerant variety]]

Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist [[Gregor Mendel]]. His work on [[dominant allele|dominant]] and [[recessive allele]]s, although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits, [[self-pollination]] and [[cross-pollination]], and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cls.casa.colostate.edu/TransgenicCrops/history.html |title=History of Plant Breeding |date=29 January 2004 |publisher=Colorado State University |access-date=11 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121061931/http://cls.casa.colostate.edu/TransgenicCrops/history.html |archive-date=21 January 2013 }}</ref>

Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and [[drought tolerance]], eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stadler |first=L. J. |author-link=Lewis Stadler |author2=Sprague, G.F. |title=Genetic Effects of Ultra-Violet Radiation in Maize: I. Unfiltered Radiation |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages=572–578 |date=15 October 1936 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/22/10/579.pdf |doi=10.1073/pnas.22.10.572 |access-date=11 October 2007 |pmid=16588111 |pmc=1076819 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024233407/http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/22/10/579.pdf |archive-date=24 October 2007 |url-status=live |bibcode=1936PNAS...22..572S }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Berg |first=Paul |author2=Singer, Maxine |title=George Beadle: An Uncommon Farmer. The Emergence of Genetics in the 20th century |url=https://archive.org/details/georgebeadleunco0000berg |url-access=registration |publisher=Cold Springs Harbor Laboratory Press |date=15 August 2003 |isbn=978-0-87969-688-7 }}</ref>

The [[Green Revolution]] popularized the use of conventional [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] to sharply increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the US have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ruttan |first=Vernon W. |title=Biotechnology and Agriculture: A Skeptical Perspective |journal=AgBioForum |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=54–60 |date=December 1999 |url=http://www.agbioforum.org/v2n1/v2n1a10-ruttan.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521021149/http://www.agbioforum.org/v2n1/v2n1a10-ruttan.pdf |archive-date=21 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Cassman |first=K. |title=Ecological intensification of cereal production systems: The Challenge of increasing crop yield potential and precision agriculture |journal=Proceedings of a National Academy of Sciences Colloquium, Irvine, California |date=5 December 1998 |url=http://www.lsc.psu.edu/nas/Speakers/Cassman%20manuscript.html |access-date=11 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024001804/http://www.lsc.psu.edu/nas/Speakers/Cassman%20manuscript.html |archive-date=24 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Conversion note: 1 bushel of wheat=60 pounds (lb) ≈ 27.215 kg. 1 bushel of maize=56 pounds ≈ 25.401 kg</ref>

=== Genetic engineering ===
{{Main|Genetic engineering}}
{{See also|Genetically modified food|Genetically modified crops|Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms|Genetically modified food controversies}}
[[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 382 Genetically Modified Potatoes.jpg|thumb|[[Genetically modified crops|Genetically modified]] potato plants (left) resist virus diseases that damage unmodified plants (right).]]

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are [[organism]]s whose [[Genetics|genetic]] material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known as [[recombinant DNA technology]]. Genetic engineering has expanded the genes available to breeders to use in creating desired germlines for new crops. Increased durability, nutritional content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes bred into crops through genetic engineering.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/index.html|title=20 Questions on Genetically Modified Foods |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=16 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327015739/http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/index.html |archive-date=27 March 2013 }}</ref> For some, GMO crops cause [[food safety]] and [[food labeling regulations|food labeling]] concerns. Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and crops.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://current.com/groups/news-blog/93975745_peru-bans-genetically-modified-foods-as-us-lags.htm |title=Peru bans genetically modified foods as US lags |date=28 November 2012 |publisher=Current TV |access-date=7 May 2013 |author=Whiteside, Stephanie |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324013255/http://current.com/groups/news-blog/93975745_peru-bans-genetically-modified-foods-as-us-lags.htm |archive-date=24 March 2013 }}</ref> Currently a global treaty, the [[Biosafety Protocol]], regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, the US does not.<ref>{{cite book |author=Shiva, Vandana |author-link=Vandana Shiva |title=Earth Democracy: Justice, Sustainability, and Peace |publisher=[[South End Press]] |location=Cambridge, MA |year=2005}}</ref>

Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene implanted into its genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to herbicides, including [[glyphosate]]. These seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with herbicides to control weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5031e/y5031e0i.htm |title=Benefits and risks of the use of herbicide-resistant crops |author1=Kathrine Hauge Madsen |author2=Jens Carl Streibig |publisher=FAO |access-date=4 May 2013 |website=Weed Management for Developing Countries |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604013840/http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5031e/y5031e0i.htm |archive-date=4 June 2013 }}</ref> With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides.<ref name="Farmers Guide to GMOs">{{cite web |url=http://www.rafiusa.org/pubs/Farmers_Guide_to_GMOs.pdf |title=Farmers Guide to GMOs |publisher=Rural Advancement Foundation International |access-date=16 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501145751/http://www.rafiusa.org/pubs/Farmers_Guide_to_GMOs.pdf |archive-date=1 May 2012|date=11 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2008-02-13/report-raises-alarm-over-superweedsbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice |title=Report Raises Alarm over 'Super-weeds' |journal=Bloomberg BusinessWeek |date=13 February 2008 |author=Hindo, Brian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226181242/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2008-02-13/report-raises-alarm-over-superweedsbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice |archive-date=26 December 2016}}</ref> Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implications.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ozturk |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Glyphosate inhibition of ferric reductase activity in iron deficient sunflower roots |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5669940 |journal=New Phytologist |volume=177 |issue=4|pages=899–906 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02340.x |pmid=18179601 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113232909/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5669940 |archive-date=13 January 2017 |df=dmy-all |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacterium ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' (Bt), which produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops resist damage by insects.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/html_pubs/biotech/insect.htm |title=Insect-resistant Crops Through Genetic Engineering |publisher=University of Illinois |access-date=4 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121073949/http://www.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/html_pubs/biotech/insect.htm |archive-date=21 January 2013 }}</ref> Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices, and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases, wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kimbrell, A. |title=Fatal Harvest: The Tragedy of Industrial Agriculture |publisher=Island Press |location=Washington |year=2002}}</ref>

{{anchor|Criticisms}}

== Environmental impact ==
{{Main|Environmental issues with agriculture}}

=== Effects and costs ===
[[File:Water pollution in the Wairarapa.JPG|upright|thumb|left|[[Water pollution]] in a rural stream due to [[Agricultural pollution in New Zealand|runoff from farming activity in New Zealand]]]]

Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to [[environmental degradation]], such as [[biodiversity loss]], [[desertification]], [[soil degradation]] and [[Climate change and agriculture|global warming]], which cause decrease in crop yield.<ref>{{cite web |title=Making Peace with Nature: A scientific blueprint to tackle the climate, biodiversity and pollution emergencies |year=2021 |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |url=https://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature |access-date=9 June 2021}}</ref> Agriculture is one of the most important drivers of environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change, water use and toxic emissions. Agriculture is the main source of toxins released into the environment, including insecticides, especially those used on cotton.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Publications/PriorityProducts/tabid/56053/Default.aspx |title=Priority products and materials: assessing the environmental impacts of consumption and production |author=International Resource Panel |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |year=2010 |access-date=7 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224061455/http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Publications/PriorityProducts/tabid/56053/Default.aspx |archive-date=24 December 2012 }}</ref> The 2011 UNEP Green Economy report stated that agricultural operations produced some 13 per cent of anthropogenic global greenhouse gas emissions. This includes gases from the use of inorganic fertilizers, agro-chemical pesticides, and herbicides, as well as fossil fuel-energy inputs.<ref name="unep.org">{{cite web |title=Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication |publisher=UNEP |year=2011 |url=https://www.unenvironment.org/search/node?keys=Towards+a+Green+Economy%3A+Pathways+to+Sustainable+Development+and+Poverty+Eradication |access-date=9 June 2021}}</ref>

Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through effects such as pesticide damage to nature (especially herbicides and insecticides), nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and loss of natural environment. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of £2,343 million, or £208 per hectare.<ref name=Pretty2000>{{cite journal |last1=Pretty |year=2000 |title=An assessment of the total external costs of UK agriculture |journal=Agricultural Systems |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=113–136 |doi=10.1016/S0308-521X(00)00031-7 |first1=J. |display-authors=1 |last2=Brett |first2=C. |last3=Gee |first3=D. |last4=Hine |first4=R. E. |last5=Mason |first5=C. F. |last6=Morison |first6=J. I. L. |last7=Raven |first7=H. |last8=Rayment |first8=M. D. |last9=Van Der Bijl |first9=G. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222549141 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113233847/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222549141 |archive-date=13 January 2017}}</ref> A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million.<ref name=Tegtmeier2005>{{cite journal |last1=Tegtmeier |first1=E. M. |last2=Duffy |first2=M. |year=2005 |title=External Costs of Agricultural Production in the United States |journal=The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Agriculture |url=http://www.organicvalley.coop/fileadmin/pdf/ag_costs_IJAS2004.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205134016/http://www.organicvalley.coop/fileadmin/pdf/ag_costs_IJAS2004.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2009}}</ref> Both studies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis, but they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society.<ref name=Pretty2000 /><ref name=Tegtmeier2005 />

Agriculture seeks to increase yield and to reduce costs. Yield increases with inputs such as fertilisers and removal of pathogens, predators, and competitors (such as weeds). Costs decrease with increasing scale of farm units, such as making fields larger; this means removing [[hedge]]s, ditches and other areas of habitat. Pesticides kill insects, plants and fungi. These and other measures have cut biodiversity to very low levels on intensively farmed land.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Richards |first1=A. J. |title=Does Low Biodiversity Resulting from Modern Agricultural Practice Affect Crop Pollination and Yield? |journal=Annals of Botany |date=2001 |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=165–172 |doi=10.1006/anbo.2001.1463|doi-access=free }}</ref> Effective yields fall with on-farm losses, which may be caused by poor production practices during harvesting, handling, and storage.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca6122en |title=The State of Food and Agriculture 2019. Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction, In brief |publisher=FAO |year=2019 |page=12}}</ref>

=== Livestock issues ===
[[File:Biogas.jpg|thumb|Farmyard [[anaerobic digester]] converts waste plant material and manure from livestock into [[biogas]] fuel.]]

A senior UN official, Henning Steinfeld, said that "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html |title=Livestock a major threat to environment |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization |date=29 November 2006 |access-date=24 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328062709/http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html |archive-date=28 March 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources of [[greenhouse gas]]es, responsible for 18% of the world's [[greenhouse gas emissions]] as measured in CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO2. It produces 65% of human-related [[nitrous oxide]] (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2,) and 37% of all human-induced [[methane]] (which is 23 times as warming as CO2.) It also generates 64% of the [[ammonia]] emission. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving [[deforestation]]; in the Amazon basin 70% of [[Deforestation of the Amazon Rainforest|previously forested area]] is now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feedcrops.<ref name="LEAD">{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625012113/http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf |archive-date=25 June 2008 |last1=Steinfeld |first1=H. |last2=Gerber |first2=P. |last3=Wassenaar |first3=T. |last4=Castel |first4=V. |last5=Rosales |first5=M. |last6=de Haan |first6=C. |year=2006 |publisher=U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization |location=Rome |url=http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf |title=Livestock's Long Shadow – Environmental issues and options |access-date=5 December 2008}}</ref> Through deforestation and [[land degradation]], livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity. Furthermore, the UNEP states that "[[methane emissions]] from global livestock are projected to increase by 60 per cent by 2030 under current practices and consumption patterns."<ref name="unep.org" />

=== Land and water issues ===
{{See also|Environmental impact of irrigation}}
[[File:Crops Kansas AST 20010624.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Circular [[irrigated]] crop fields in [[Haskell County, Kansas|Kansas]]. Healthy, growing crops of [[maize|corn]] and [[sorghum]] are green (sorghum may be slightly paler). Wheat is brilliant gold. Fields of brown have been recently harvested and plowed or have lain in [[fallow]] for the year.]]

Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is the driving force causing [[biodiversity loss]]. Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%.<ref name="Vitousek">{{cite journal |author1=Vitousek, P. M. |author2=Mooney, H. A. |author3=Lubchenco, J. |author4=Melillo, J. M. |year=1997 |title=Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems |journal=Science |volume=277 |pages=494–499 |doi=10.1126/science.277.5325.494 |issue=5325 |citeseerx=10.1.1.318.6529 }}</ref> Land degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with cropland overrepresented.<ref name="FAO GLADA">{{cite web|author=Bai, Z.G. |author2=D.L. Dent |author3=L. Olsson |author4=M.E. Schaepman |name-list-style=amp |date=November 2008 |title=Global assessment of land degradation and improvement: 1. identification by remote sensing |publisher=FAO/ISRIC |url=http://www.isric.org/isric/webdocs/docs/Report%202008_01_GLADA%20international_REV_Nov%202008.pdf |access-date=24 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213041558/http://www.isric.org/isric/webdocs/docs/Report%202008_01_GLADA%20international_REV_Nov%202008.pdf |archive-date=13 December 2013 }}</ref> Land management is the driving factor behind degradation; 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be through deforestation, [[desertification]], [[soil erosion]], mineral depletion, [[soil acidification|acidification]], or [[Soil salinity|salinization]].<ref name="CS" />

[[Eutrophication]], excessive nutrient enrichment in [[aquatic ecosystem]]s resulting in [[algal bloom]]s and [[anoxic waters|anoxia]], leads to [[fish kill]]s, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]]) [[surface runoff|runoff]] and [[leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] from agricultural land. These nutrients are major [[nonpoint source pollution|nonpoint pollutants]] contributing to [[eutrophication]] of aquatic ecosystems and pollution of groundwater, with harmful effects on human populations.<ref name="Eutr">{{cite journal |author=Carpenter, S. R. |author2=Caraco, N. F. |author3=Correll, D. L. |author4=Howarth, R. W. |author5=Sharpley, A. N. |author6=Smith, V. H. |year=1998 |title=Nonpoint Pollution of Surface Waters with Phosphorus and Nitrogen |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=8 |pages=559–568 |doi=10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0559:NPOSWW]2.0.CO;2 |issue=3 |hdl=1808/16724 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Fertilisers also reduce terrestrial biodiversity by increasing competition for light, favouring those species that are able to benefit from the added nutrients.<ref name="Hautier Niklaus Hector">{{cite journal |last1=Hautier |first1=Y. |last2=Niklaus |first2=P. A. |last3=Hector |first3=A. |title=Competition for Light Causes Plant Biodiversity Loss After Eutrophication |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5927 |date=2009 |doi=10.1126/science.1169640 |pmid=19407202 |pages=636–638|bibcode=2009Sci...324..636H |s2cid=21091204 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/18666/2/Hautier_2009.pdf |type=Submitted manuscript }}</ref>
Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of withdrawals of freshwater resources.<ref>{{cite web |editor=Molden, D. |url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/About_IWMI/Strategic_Documents/Annual_Reports/2006_2007/pdf/IWMI%20Annual%20Report%202006-07.pdf |title=Findings of the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture |website=Annual Report 2006/2007 |publisher=International Water Management Institute |access-date=6 January 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107031305/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/About_IWMI/Strategic_Documents/Annual_Reports/2006_2007/pdf/IWMI%20Annual%20Report%202006-07.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=On Water|url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/eib-big-ideas-on-water|access-date=7 December 2020|website=European Investment Bank|language=en}}</ref> Agriculture is a major draw on water from [[aquifer]]s, and currently draws from those underground water sources at an unsustainable rate. It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China, the [[Ganges|Upper Ganges]] and the western US are being depleted, and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/13/stressed-aquifers-around-the-globe/|title=Stressed Aquifers Around the Globe |author=Li, Sophia |date=13 August 2012 |access-date=7 May 2013 |website=[[The New York Times]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402141530/http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/08/13/stressed-aquifers-around-the-globe/ |archive-date=2 April 2013 }}</ref> Increasing pressure is being placed on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning that [[water scarcity]] is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more food for the world's growing population with reduced water resources.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0511sp2.htm |title=Water Use in Agriculture |date=November 2005 |publisher=FAO |access-date=7 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615091527/http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0511sp2.htm |archive-date=15 June 2013 }}</ref> [[Farm water|Agricultural water]] usage can also cause major environmental problems, including the destruction of natural wetlands, the spread of water-borne diseases, and land degradation through salinization and waterlogging, when irrigation is performed incorrectly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0303sp1.htm |title=Water Management: Towards 2030 |date=March 2003 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |access-date=7 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510184315/http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0303sp1.htm |archive-date=10 May 2013 }}</ref>

=== Pesticides ===
{{Main|Environmental impact of pesticides}}
[[File:Crop spraying near St Mary Bourne - geograph.org.uk - 392462.jpg|thumb|Spraying a crop with a [[pesticide]]]]

Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5{{nbsp}}million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively constant.<ref name="Pimentel pesticide">{{cite web |author1=Pimentel, D. |author2=Culliney, T. W. |author3=Bashore, T. |year=1996 |url=http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/pimentel.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990218073023/http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/pimentel.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 February 1999 |title=Public health risks associated with pesticides and natural toxins in foods |website=Radcliffe's IPM World Textbook |access-date=7 May 2013}}</ref> The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that three million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths.<ref name="WHO">''Our planet, our health: Report of the WHO commission on health and environment''. Geneva: [[World Health Organization]] (1992).</ref> Pesticides select for [[pesticide resistance]] in the pest population, leading to a condition termed the "pesticide treadmill" in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.<ref name="CS Pest">"Strategies for Pest Control", pp. 355–383 in [[#Chrispeels|Chrispeels]]</ref>

An alternative argument is that the way to "save the environment" and prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'.<ref name="DAvery">{{cite book |author=Avery, D.T. |year=2000 |title=Saving the Planet with Pesticides and Plastic: The Environmental Triumph of High-Yield Farming |url=https://archive.org/details/savingplanetwith00aver |url-access=registration |publisher=Hudson Institute |location=Indianapolis}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Center for Global Food Issues |url=http://www.cgfi.org |title=Center for Global Food Issues |access-date=14 July 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160221143850/http://www.cgfi.org/ |archive-date=21 February 2016}}</ref> However, critics argue that a trade-off between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable,<ref name="WH">Lappe, F. M.; Collins, J.; Rosset, P. (1998). [http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/bi430-fs430/Documents-2004/10B-DEVEL%20WORLD/World%20Hunger--Twelve%20Myths.pdf "Myth 4: Food vs. Our Environment"], pp. 42–57 in ''World Hunger, Twelve Myths'', Grove Press, New York. {{ISBN|9780802135919}}</ref> and that pesticides simply replace [[good agricultural practices|good agronomic practices]] such as crop rotation.<ref name="CS Pest" /> The [[Push–pull agricultural pest management]] technique involves intercropping, using plant aromas to repel pests from crops (push) and to lure them to a place from which they can then be removed (pull).<ref name=PushPull>{{Cite journal|author1=Cook, Samantha M. |author2=Khan, Zeyaur R. |author3=Pickett, John A. |year=2007 |title=The use of push-pull strategies in integrated pest management |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |volume=52|pages=375–400 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091407 |pmid=16968206}}</ref>

=== Climate change ===
{{Main|Climate change and agriculture}}
[[File:Winnowing The Grain, Axum, Ethiopia (Detail) (3157508890).jpg|thumb|left|[[Winnowing]] grain: [[global warming]] will probably harm crop yields in low latitude countries like Ethiopia.]]

[[Climate change]] and agriculture are interrelated on a global scale. Global warming affects agriculture through changes in [[instrumental temperature record|average temperatures]], rainfall, and [[extreme weather|weather extremes]] (like storms and heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]] and ground-level [[ozone]] concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods;<ref name=science-news>{{cite news |first=Susan |last=Milius |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/nutrition-climate-change-top-science-stories-2017-yir|title=Worries grow that climate change will quietly steal nutrients from major food crops|date=13 December 2017|work=[[Science News]]|access-date=21 January 2018}}</ref> and changes in [[current sea level rise|sea level]].<ref>Hoffmann, U., Section B: Agriculture – a key driver and a major victim of global warming, in: Lead Article, in: Chapter 1, in {{cite book |editor=Hoffmann, U. |title=Trade and Environment Review 2013: Wake up before it is too late: Make agriculture truly sustainable now for food security in a changing climate |url=http://unctad.org/en/pages/PublicationWebflyer.aspx?publicationid=666 |publisher=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) |location=Geneva, Switzerland |year=2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128140551/http://unctad.org/en/pages/PublicationWebflyer.aspx?publicationid=666 |archive-date=28 November 2014 |pages=3, 5}}</ref> Global warming is already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world.<ref name="porter summary">Porter, J. R., ''et al''., Executive summary, in: [http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap7_FINAL.pdf Chapter 7: Food security and food production systems] (archived [https://web.archive.org/web/20141105164634/https://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap7_FINAL.pdf 5 November 2014]), in {{cite book |year=2014 |author=IPCC AR5 WG2 A |editor=Field, C. B. |title=Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II (WG2) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |display-editors=etal |pages=488–489}}</ref> Future climate change will probably negatively affect [[crop yield|crop production]] in [[low latitude]] countries, while effects in northern [[latitude]]s may be positive or negative.<ref name="porter summary" /> Global warming will probably increase the risk of [[food insecurity]] for some vulnerable groups, such as the [[poverty|poor]].<ref>Paragraph 4, in: Summary and Recommendations, in: {{cite book |author=HLPE |title=Food security and climate change. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security |url=http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |location=Rome, Italy |date=June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212075812/http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |archive-date=12 December 2014 |page=12}}</ref>

Animal husbandry is also responsible for greenhouse gas production of {{CO2}} and a percentage of the world's methane, and future land infertility, and the displacement of wildlife. Agriculture contributes to climate change by [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] emissions of greenhouse gases, and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forest for agricultural use.<ref>Section 4.2: Agriculture's current contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, in: {{cite book |author=HLPE |title=Food security and climate change. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security |url=http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |location=Rome, Italy |date=June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212075812/http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |archive-date=12 December 2014 |pages=67–69}}</ref> Agriculture, forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% to global annual emissions in 2010.<ref>Blanco, G., ''et al''., Section 5.3.5.4: Agriculture, Forestry, Other Land Use, in: [http://report.mitigation2014.org/report/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter5.pdf Chapter 5: Drivers, Trends and Mitigation] (archived [https://web.archive.org/web/20141230092610/http://report.mitigation2014.org/report/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter5.pdf 30 December 2014)], in: {{cite book |year=2014 |author=IPCC AR5 WG3 |editor=Edenhofer, O. |title=Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III (WG3) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |display-editors=etal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141127222605/http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/ |archive-date=27 November 2014 |page=383}}. Emissions aggregated using 100-year [[global warming potential]]s from the [[IPCC Second Assessment Report]].</ref> A range of policies can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture,<ref>Porter, J. R., ''et al''., Section 7.5: Adaptation and Managing Risks in Agriculture and Other Food System Activities, in [http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap7_FINAL.pdf Chapter 7: Food security and food production systems] (archived [https://web.archive.org/web/20141105164634/https://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap7_FINAL.pdf 5 November 2014]), in {{cite book |year=2014 |author=IPCC AR5 WG2 A |editor=Field, C.B. |title=Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II (WG2) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |display-editors=etal |pages=513–520}}</ref><ref>Oppenheimer, M., ''et al''., Section 19.7. Assessment of Response Strategies to Manage Risks, in: [http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap19_FINAL.pdf Chapter 19: Emergent risks and key vulnerabilities] (archived [https://web.archive.org/web/20141105164634/https://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap19_FINAL.pdf 5 November 2014]), in {{cite book |year=2014 |author=IPCC AR5WG2 A |editor=Field, C.B. |title=Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II (WG2) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |display-editors=etal |page=1080}}</ref> and greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector.<ref>Summary and Recommendations, in: {{cite book |author=HLPE |title=Food security and climate change. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security |url=http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |location=Rome, Italy |date=June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212075812/http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/ |archive-date=12 December 2014 |pages=12–23}}</ref><ref>Current climate change policies are described in {{cite book |author=Annex I NC |title=6th national communications (NC6) from Parties included in Annex I to the Convention including those that are also Parties to the Kyoto Protocol |url=http://unfccc.int/national_reports/annex_i_natcom/submitted_natcom/items/7742.php |publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |date=24 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140802030817/http://unfccc.int/national_reports/annex_i_natcom/submitted_natcom/items/7742.php |archive-date=2 August 2014 }} and {{citation |author=Non-Annex I NC |title=Non-Annex I national communications |url=http://unfccc.int/national_reports/non-annex_i_natcom/items/2979.php |publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |date=11 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913171139/http://unfccc.int/national_reports/non-annex_i_natcom/items/2979.php |archive-date=13 September 2014 }}</ref><ref>Smith, P., ''et al''., Executive summary, in: [http://report.mitigation2014.org/report/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter5.pdf Chapter 5: Drivers, Trends and Mitigation] (archived [https://web.archive.org/web/20141230092610/http://report.mitigation2014.org/report/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter5.pdf 30 December 2014)], in: {{cite book |year=2014 |author=IPCC AR5 WG3 |editor=Edenhofer, O. |title=Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III (WG3) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) |url=http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |display-editors=etal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141127222605/http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/ |archive-date=27 November 2014 |pages=816–817}}</ref>

=== Sustainability ===
[[File:TerracesBuffers.JPG|thumb|upright|Terraces, [[conservation tillage]] and conservation buffers reduce [[soil erosion]] and [[water pollution]] on this farm in Iowa.]]
{{main|Sustainable agriculture}}

Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how critical water, land, and [[ecosystem]] resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests.<ref>{{cite web |editor=Boelee, E. |url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/topics/ecosystems/ |title=Ecosystems for water and food security |year=2011 |publisher=IWMI/UNEP |access-date=24 May 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523025920/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Topics/Ecosystems/ |archive-date=23 May 2013 }}</ref> Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.<ref>{{cite web |author=Molden, D. |url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/news_room/pdf/The-scientist_com-Opinion_The%20Water_Deficit.pdf |title=Opinion: The Water Deficit |publisher=The Scientist |access-date=23 August 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113125654/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/news_room/pdf/The-scientist_com-Opinion_The%20Water_Deficit.pdf |archive-date=13 January 2012 }}</ref>

Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make farming more sustainable.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://croplife.intraspin.com/pesticides/paper.asp?id=461 |author=Safefood Consulting, Inc.|title=Benefits of Crop Protection Technologies on Canadian Food Production, Nutrition, Economy and the Environment |year=2005 |publisher=CropLife International |access-date=24 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130706005846/http://croplife.intraspin.com/pesticides/paper.asp?id=461 |archive-date=6 July 2013}}</ref> Technology permits innovations like [[conservation tillage]], a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion, reduces water pollution, and enhances [[carbon sequestration]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Trewavas, Anthony |title=A critical assessment of organic farming-and-food assertions with particular respect to the UK and the potential environmental benefits of no-till agriculture |journal=Crop Protection |year=2004 |pages=757–781 |doi=10.1016/j.cropro.2004.01.009 |volume=23 |issue=9}}</ref> Other potential practices include [[conservation agriculture]], [[agroforestry]], improved [[Convertible husbandry|grazing]], avoided grassland conversion, and [[biochar]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Griscom |first1=Bronson W. |last2=Adams |first2=Justin |last3=Ellis |first3=Peter W. |last4=Houghton |first4=Richard A. |last5=Lomax |first5=Guy |last6=Miteva |first6=Daniela A. |last7=Schlesinger |first7=William H. |last8=Shoch |first8=David |last9=Siikamäki|first9=Juha V.|last10=Smith |first10=Pete |last11=Woodbury |first11=Peter |date=2017 |title=Natural climate solutions |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=114 |issue=44 |pages=11645–11650 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1710465114 |pmid=29078344 |pmc=5676916 |bibcode=2017PNAS..11411645G |issn=0027-8424}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda |publisher=National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-309-48452-7 |pages=117, 125, 135 |doi=10.17226/25259|pmid=31120708 |last1=National Academies Of Sciences |first1=Engineering }}</ref> Current mono-crop farming practices in the United States preclude widespread adoption of sustainable practices, such as 2-3 crop rotations that incorporate grass or hay with annual crops, unless negative emission goals such as soil carbon sequestration become policy.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25259/negative-emissions-technologies-and-reliable-sequestration-a-research-agenda |title=Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda |publisher=National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-309-48452-7 |page=97 |doi=10.17226/25259|pmid=31120708 |last1=National Academies Of Sciences |first1=Engineering }}</ref>

The International Food Policy Research Institute states that agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, it found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.<ref name=ifpri/> The food demand of Earth's projected population, with current climate change predictions, could be satisfied by improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented consumer mindset.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.journals.elsevier.com/ecological-modelling |title=Ecological Modelling |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180123072613/https://www.journals.elsevier.com/ecological-modelling |archive-date=23 January 2018 }}</ref>

=== Energy dependence ===
[[File:Baumwoll-Erntemaschine auf Feld.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Mechanised agriculture]]: from the first models in the 1940s, tools like a [[cotton picker]] could replace 50 farm workers, at the price of increased use of [[fossil fuel]].]]

Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from [[fossil fuel]] sources.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/world-oil-supplies-are-set-to-run-out-faster-than-expected-warn-scientists-453068.html |title=World oil supplies are set to run out faster than expected, warn scientists |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021233714/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/world-oil-supplies-are-set-to-run-out-faster-than-expected-warn-scientists-453068.html |archive-date=21 October 2010 |work=[[The Independent]] |date=14 June 2007 |access-date=14 July 2016}}</ref> Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depending on geographic area)<ref>{{cite web |title=The Future of the Green Revolution: Implications for International Grain Markets |author=Herdt, Robert W. |url=http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/uploads/files/06132caf-3d72-49e4-817d-ae89e0249d18.pdf |publisher=The Rockefeller Foundation|date=30 May 1997 |access-date=16 April 2013 |page=2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019153636/http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/uploads/files/06132caf-3d72-49e4-817d-ae89e0249d18.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2012 }}</ref> as [[world population]] doubled. Heavy reliance on [[petrochemical]]s has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output.<ref name="ncseonline.org" />

Industrialized agriculture depends on fossil fuels in two fundamental ways: direct consumption on the farm and manufacture of inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery.<ref name="ncseonline.org">{{cite web |author=Schnepf, Randy |date=19 November 2004 |title=Energy use in Agriculture: Background and Issues |website=CRS Report for Congress |url=http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/assets/crs/RL32677.pdf |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |access-date=26 September 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927190908/http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/assets/crs/RL32677.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2013 }}</ref>

{|class="wikitable floatright" text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan=4|Agriculture and food system share (%) of total energy consumption by three industrialized nations{{needs update|date=September 2020}}
|-
! Country
! Year
! Agriculture (direct & indirect)
! Food system
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web|author=White, Rebecca |year=2007 |title=Carbon governance from a systems perspective: an investigation of food production and consumption in the UK |publisher=Oxford University Center for the Environment |url=http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/research/energy/downloads/eceee07/white.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719044949/http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/research/energy/downloads/eceee07/white.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2011 }}</ref>
|2005
|1.9
|11
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|United States<ref name="ers.usda.gov">{{cite web |author1=Canning, Patrick |author2=Charles, Ainsley |author3=Huang, Sonya |author4=Polenske, Karen R. |author5=Waters, Arnold |year=2010 |title=Energy Use in the U.S. Food System |website=USDA Economic Research Service Report No. ERR-94 |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Publications/ERR94/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918182458/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/err94/ |archive-date=18 September 2010}}</ref>
|2002
|2.0
|14
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|Sweden<ref name="WallgrenHöjer2009">{{cite journal |last1=Wallgren |first1=Christine |last2=Höjer |first2=Mattias|title=Eating energy – Identifying possibilities for reduced energy use in the future food supply system |journal=Energy Policy |volume=37 |issue=12 |year=2009 |pages=5803–5813 |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2009.08.046}}</ref>
|2000
|2.5
|13
|}

Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery.<ref name="ncseonline.org" /> In particular, the production of [[nitrogen fertilizer]] can account for over half of agricultural energy usage.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Energy and the food system |author1=Woods, Jeremy |author2=Williams, Adrian |author3=Hughes, John K. |author4=Black, Mairi |author5=Murphy, Richard |date=August 2010 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0172 |pmid=20713398 |pmc=2935130 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society |volume=365 |pages=2991–3006 |issue=1554 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Together, direct and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for about 2% of the nation's energy use. Direct and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has since gradually declined.<ref name="ncseonline.org" /> [[Food systems]] encompass not just agriculture but off-farm processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of food system energy use in the US.<ref name="css.snre.umich.edu">{{cite web |author1=Heller, Martin |author2=Keoleian, Gregory |year=2000 |title=Life Cycle-Based Sustainability Indicators for Assessment of the U.S. Food System |publisher=University of Michigan Center for Sustainable Food Systems |url=http://css.snre.umich.edu/css_doc/CSS00-04.pdf |access-date=17 March 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314094203/http://css.snre.umich.edu/css_doc/CSS00-04.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2016 }}</ref><ref name="ers.usda.gov" />

== Disciplines ==
=== Agricultural economics ===
{{Main|Agricultural economics}}
[[File:1846 - Anti-Corn Law League Meeting.jpg|thumb|left|In 19th century Britain, the [[protectionist]] [[Corn Laws]] led to high prices and widespread protest, such as this 1846 meeting of the [[Anti-Corn Law League]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Anti-Corn Law League |url=http://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/history/anti-corn-law-league/ |website=Liberal History |access-date=26 March 2018}}</ref>]]

Agricultural economics is economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and services".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uidaho.edu/cals/aers/agriculturaleconomics |title=Agricultural Economics |publisher=University of Idaho |access-date=16 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401181613/http://www.uidaho.edu/cals/aers/agriculturaleconomics |archive-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/13649/1/wp06-01.pdf |page=4 |title=Agricultural Economics: A Brief Intellectual History |author=Runge, C. Ford |date=June 2006 |access-date=16 September 2013 |publisher=Center for International Food and Agriculture Policy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021133005/http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/13649/1/wp06-01.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2013 }}</ref> Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from [[tenant farmer]]s and [[sharecropping]] in the post-[[American Civil War]] Southern United States<ref>{{cite web |url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/t/te009.html |title=Tenant Farming and Sharecropping |website=Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture |publisher=Oklahoma Historical Society |author=Conrad, David E. |access-date=16 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527204119/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/T/TE009.html |archive-date=27 May 2013 }}</ref> to the European [[feudal]] system of [[manorialism]].<ref>{{cite book |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=_YjJc_c4BxsC|page=43}} |title=Medieval Castles |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |author=Stokstad, Marilyn |isbn=978-0-313-32525-0 |year=2005 |access-date=17 March 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117123730/{{google books|plainurl=y|id=_YjJc_c4BxsC|page=43}}|page=43 |archive-date=17 November 2016 }}</ref> In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed to [[food processing]], distribution, and [[agricultural marketing]], sometimes referred to as the [[Agricultural value chain|value chain]], have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of [[value added|value addition]] (e.g. more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain. [[Market concentration]] has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute [[economic surplus]] from producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities.<ref name=Sexton2000>{{cite journal |author=Sexton, R. J. |year=2000 |title=Industrialization and Consolidation in the US Food Sector: Implications for Competition and Welfare |journal=American Journal of Agricultural Economics |volume=82 |issue=5 |pages=1087–1104 |doi=10.1111/0002-9092.00106}}</ref>

National government policies can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products, in the form of taxation, [[Subsidy|subsidies]], tariffs and other measures.<ref name=LloydCroserAnderson2013>{{cite web |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/4101/WPS4864.pdf?sequence=1 |title=How Do Agricultural Policy Restrictions to Global Trade and Welfare Differ across Commodities? |author1=Lloyd, Peter J. |author2=Croser, Johanna L. |author3=Anderson, Kym |website=Policy Research Working Paper #4864 |publisher=The World Bank |access-date=16 April 2013 |date=March 2009 |pages=2–3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605125346/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/4101/WPS4864.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=5 June 2013}}</ref> Since at least the 1960s, a combination of trade restrictions, [[exchange rate policy|exchange rate policies]] and subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and the developed world. In the 1980s, non-subsidized farmers in developing countries experienced adverse effects from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/8699/wps3901.pdf?sequence=1 |title=Do Global Trade Distortions Still Harm Developing Country Farmers? |author1=Anderson, Kym |author2=Valenzuela, Ernesto |website=World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3901 |date=April 2006 |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 April 2013 |pages=1–2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605145451/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/8699/wps3901.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=5 June 2013 }}</ref>

However, {{as of|2009|lc=y}}, there was still a significant amount of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product prices. The three agricultural products with the greatest amount of trade distortion were sugar, milk and rice, mainly due to taxation. Among the [[oilseed]]s, sesame had the greatest amount of taxation, but overall, feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s, policy-driven distortions have seen a greater decrease among livestock products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural policy.<ref name=LloydCroserAnderson2013 /> Despite this progress, certain crops, such as cotton, still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating global prices, causing hardship in developing countries with non-subsidized farmers.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/may/24/american-cotton-subsidies-illegal-obama-must-act |title=America's $24bn subsidy damages developing world cotton farmers |author=Kinnock, Glenys |date=24 May 2011 |access-date=16 April 2013 |newspaper=The Guardian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906122834/http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/may/24/american-cotton-subsidies-illegal-obama-must-act |archive-date=6 September 2013 }}</ref> Unprocessed commodities such as corn, soybeans, and cattle are generally graded to indicate quality, affecting the price the producer receives. Commodities are generally reported by production quantities, such as volume, number or weight.<ref>{{cite web |title=Agriculture's Bounty |url=http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/studies/AgriculturesBounty.pdf |date=May 2013 |access-date=19 August 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826100413/http://www.ibrc.indiana.edu/studies/AgriculturesBounty.pdf |archive-date=26 August 2013 }}</ref>

=== Agricultural science ===
{{Main|Agricultural science}}
{{further|Agronomy}}
[[File:Research-mapping plant genomes.jpg|thumb|An [[agronomy|agronomist]] mapping a plant [[genome]]]]

[[Agricultural science]] is a broad multidisciplinary field of [[biology]] that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and [[social science]]s used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as agronomy, plant breeding and genetics, [[plant pathology]], crop modelling, soil science, [[entomology]], production techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation, [[waste management]], and [[bioremediation]].<ref name="Bosso 2015">{{cite book |last=Bosso |first=Thelma |title=Agricultural Science |publisher=Callisto Reference |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-63239-058-5}}</ref><ref name="Boucher 2018">{{cite book |last=Boucher |first=Jude |title=Agricultural Science and Management |publisher=Callisto Reference |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-63239-965-6}}</ref>

The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, when [[Johann Friedrich Mayer (agriculturist)|Johann Friedrich Mayer]] conducted experiments on the use of [[gypsum]] (hydrated [[calcium sulphate]]) as a fertilizer.<ref name="JB 1840">John Armstrong, Jesse Buel. ''A Treatise on Agriculture, The Present Condition of the Art Abroad and at Home, and the Theory and Practice of Husbandry. To which is Added, a Dissertation on the Kitchen and Garden.'' 1840. p. 45.</ref> Research became more systematic when in 1843, [[John Lawes]] and Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term agronomy field experiments at [[Rothamsted Research Station]] in England; some of them, such as the [[Park Grass Experiment]], are still running.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Long Term Experiments|url=https://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/long-term-experiments|publisher=Rothamsted Research|access-date=26 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silvertown |first1=Jonathan |last2=Poulton |first2=Paul |last3=Johnston |first3=Edward |last4=Edwards |first4=Grant |last5=Heard |first5=Matthew |last6=Biss |first6=Pamela M. |title=The Park Grass Experiment 1856–2006: its contribution to ecology |journal=Journal of Ecology |volume=94 |issue=4 |date=2006 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2745.2006.01145.x |pages=801–814 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In America, the [[Hatch Act of 1887]] provided funding for what it was the first to call "agricultural science", driven by farmers' interest in fertilizers.<ref>Hillison, J. (1996). [http://pubs.aged.tamu.edu/jae/pdf/vol37/37-04-08.pdf The Origins of Agriscience: Or Where Did All That Scientific Agriculture Come From?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002140821/http://pubs.aged.tamu.edu/jae/pdf/vol37/37-04-08.pdf |date=2 October 2008 }}. ''Journal of Agricultural Education''.</ref> In agricultural entomology, the USDA began to research biological control in 1881; it instituted its first large program in 1905, searching Europe and Japan for natural enemies of the [[Lymantria dispar dispar|gypsy moth]] and [[brown-tail]] moth, establishing [[parasitoid]]s (such as solitary wasps) and predators of both pests in the USA.<ref name="Coulson J. R. 2000">Coulson, J. R.; Vail, P. V.; Dix M. E.; Nordlund, D. A.; Kauffman, W. C.; Eds. 2000. 110 years of biological control research and development in the United States Department of Agriculture: 1883–1993. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. pages=3–11</ref><ref name=Berkeley>{{cite web |title=History and Development of Biological Control (notes) |access-date=10 April 2017 |publisher=University of California Berkeley |url=https://nature.berkeley.edu/biocon/BC%20Class%20Notes/6-11%20BC%20History.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124001647/http://nature.berkeley.edu/biocon/BC%20Class%20Notes/6-11%20BC%20History.pdf |archive-date=24 November 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Reardon |first1=Richard C. |title=Biological Control of The Gypsy Moth: An Overview |url=http://www.main.nc.us/SERAMBO/BControl/gypsy.html#conclu |website=Southern Appalachian Biological Control Initiative Workshop |access-date=10 April 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160905052259/http://www.main.nc.us/SERAMBO/BControl/gypsy.html |archive-date=5 September 2016}}</ref>

== Policy ==
{{Main|Agricultural policy}}

{|class="wikitable floatright"
|+ [[Agricultural subsidy|Direct subsidies]] for animal products and feed by [[OECD]] countries in 2012, in billions of US dollars<ref>{{cite web |title=Meat Atlas |publisher=Heinrich Boell Foundation, Friends of the Earth Europe |year=2014 |url=https://www.foeeurope.org/meat-atlas }}</ref>
! Product !! Subsidy
|-
|Beef and veal ||18.0
|-
|Milk ||15.3
|-
|Pigs ||7.3
|-
|Poultry ||6.5
|-
|Soybeans ||2.3
|-
|Eggs ||1.5
|-
|Sheep ||1.1
|}

[[Agricultural policy]] is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food safety and natural disasters), [[economic stability]] (including policies related to taxes), natural resources and [[environmental sustainability]] (especially [[water resource management|water policy]]), research and development, and market access for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations and agreements with other countries).<ref>{{cite journal |page=13 |title=Agricultural and food policy choices in Australia |journal=Sustainable Agriculture and Food Policy in the 21st Century: Challenges and Solutions |date=October 2010 |access-date=22 April 2013 |author1=Hogan, Lindsay |author2=Morris, Paul |url=http://coserve.com.au/PDF/VirtualMeeting/ABARE-Agric_food_policy_CONFERENCE_PAPER-2010.pdf}}</ref> Agricultural policy can also touch on [[food quality]], ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and [[Conservation biology|conservation]]. Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://europa.eu/european-union/topics/agriculture_en |title=Agriculture: Not Just Farming |publisher=European Union |access-date=8 May 2018 |date=16 June 2016 }}</ref>

There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy, including consumers, agribusiness, trade lobbies and other groups. [[Agribusiness]] interests hold a large amount of influence over policy making, in the form of [[lobbying]] and [[campaign contribution]]s. Political action groups, including those interested in environmental issues and labor unions, also provide influence, as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://faculty.missouri.edu/ikerdj/papers/SFT-Corporatization%20of%20Fm%20Pol%20(9-10).htm |title=Corporatization of Agricultural Policy |author=Ikerd, John |journal=Small Farm Today Magazine |year=2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807024012/http://faculty.missouri.edu/ikerdj/papers/SFT-Corporatization%20of%20Fm%20Pol%20(9-10).htm |archive-date=7 August 2016 }}</ref> The [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Dr. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division, states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in 2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/sep/22/food-firms-lobbying-samuel-jutzi |title=Corporate Lobbying Is Blocking Food Reforms, Senior UN Official Warns: Farming Summit Told of Delaying Tactics by Large Agribusiness and Food Producers on Decisions that Would Improve Human Health and the Environment |author=Jowit, Juliette |date=22 September 2010 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=8 May 2018}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Main|Outline of agriculture}}

{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Aeroponics]]
* [[Agricultural aircraft]]
* [[Agricultural engineering]]
* [[Agricultural robot]]
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Building-integrated agriculture]]
* [[Contract farming]]
* [[Corporate farming]]
* [[Crofting]]
* [[Ecoagriculture]]
* [[Hill farming]]
* [[List of documentary films about agriculture]]
* [[Pharming (genetics)]]
* [[Remote sensing]]
* [[Subsistence economy]]
* [[Vertical farming]]
* [[Vegetable farming]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Cited sources ==

* {{cite book |last=Acquaah |first=George |ref=Acquaah |title=Principles of Crop Production: Theory, Techniques, and Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IzMhAQAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-022133-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chrispeels |first1=Maarten J. |last2=Sadava |first2=David E. |ref=Chrispeels |title=Plants, Genes, and Agriculture |publisher=Jones and Bartlett |place=Boston, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-86720-871-9|year=1994}}
* {{cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Needham |ref=Needham |year=1986 |title=Science and Civilization in China |place= Taipei |publisher=Caves Books}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www.fao.org/home/en/ Food and Agriculture Organization]
* [http://www.usda.gov/ United States Department of Agriculture]
* [http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture Agriculture] material from the [[World Bank Group]]
* {{NYTtopic|subjects/a/agriculture}}
* {{Guardian topic |science/agriculture}}

{{Agriculture footer}}

{{Horticulture and gardening}}

{{Portal bar|Agriculture|History|Drink|Food}}

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Agriculture|Agriculture]]
[[Category:Agronomy]]
[[Category:Food industry]]

Samir Ghanem

2021-08-09T17:11:34Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{Short description|Egyptian comedian, singer, and entertainer}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}} {{Infobox person | name = Samir Ghanem | image = Sa..."

{{Short description|Egyptian comedian, singer, and entertainer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Samir Ghanem
| image = Samir Ghanem.jpg
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption = Samir Ghanem in 2010
| birth_name = Samir Youssef Ghanem {{lang|ar|سمير يوسف غانم}}
| birth_date = {{birth date|1937|1|15|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Hieracon|al-ʿAtawlah]], [[Asyut Governorate|Asyut]], [[Kingdom of Egypt]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2021|5|20|1937|01|15}}
| death_place = [[Giza]], Egypt
| othername =
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1963–2021
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Dalal Abdel Aziz]]|1984}}
| children = [[Donia Samir Ghanem|Donia]] and [[Amy Samir Ghanem|Amy]]
| domesticpartner =
| website =
}}

'''Samir Yousef Ghanem''' ({{lang-ar|سمير يوسف غانم}}; 15 January 1937 – 20 May 2021)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hiamag.com/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%B1/%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8/741791-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8081%D9%84%D9%87%D8%B0%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A8-%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%85-%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86-%D9%84%D9%83%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1|title=في عيد ميلاده الـ81..لهذا السبب سمير غانم كوميديان لكل العصور|work=hiamag|language=Arabic|date=14 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mbc.net/ar/programs/yahdoth-fe-masr/articles/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A9-%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%85-%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2---%D8%AA%D8%B2%D9%88%D8%AC-%D8%B5%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9--%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%82-%D8%B0%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%89-%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87%D9%85%D8%A7-%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85-%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%AF/photos/409204.html|title=أسرار في حياة سمير غانم ودلال عبد العزيز|work=MBC|language=Arabic|date=16 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dotmsr.com/details/262818/%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%85%D9%86-%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B8%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B7|title=أشهر الشخصيات الفنية من محافظة أسيوط - دوت مصر|date=19 April 2015|work=دوت مصر|access-date=17 March 2018|language=ar-Ar}}</ref> was an Egyptian comedian, singer, and entertainer.

==Career==
Ghanem was born in [[Hieracon|al-ʿAtawlah]], [[Asyut Governorate]].<ref name="akhbarassiut">{{cite web|url=http://akhbarassiut.com/2017/01/15/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%85-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9/|title=الفنان سمير غانم ابن قرية عرب الأطاولة بمركز الفتح يحتفل اليوم بعيد ميلاده|work=akhbarassiut|language=Arabic|date=15 January 2017}}</ref> He earned a [[bachelor's degree]] in [[Agriculture]] from [[Alexandria University]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.vogue.me/culture/vogue-arabia-interviews-samir-ghanem/ |title=Get to Know Legendary Egyptian Comedian Samir Ghanem Who is Joy Personified |website=Vogue |date=11 November 2019 }}</ref>

He was a member of the stand-up comedy trio [[Tholathy Adwa'a El Masrah]] alongside [[George Sidhom]] and [[El Deif Ahmed]].<ref name="MSN Arabia on El Deif Ahmed">{{Cite web|url=http://www.arabia.msn.com/entertainment/spotlight8/|title=MSN {{!}} Outlook, Office, Skype, Bing, Breaking News, and Latest Videos|website=www.arabia.msn.com|language=en-US|access-date=17 March 2018|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061123101759/http://www.arabia.msn.com/entertainment/spotlight8/|archivedate=23 November 2006}}</ref> Their debut was ''Doctor Save Me'', a short performance that introduced them to the entertainment world. They presented the first ever TV show ''Ramadan Riddles''. After El Deif Ahmed's death in 1970,<ref name="MSN Arabia on El Deif Ahmed"/> Ghanem and Sidhom continued under the same name (Tholathy Adwa'a El Masrah) until the 1980s.

Samir Ghanem used to host a show on [[Orascom TV|OTV]] called ''An Hour With Samir Ghanem''.

==Personal life==
He was married to actress Dalal Abdel Aziz, and the father of actresses [[Donia Samir Ghanem|Donia]] and Amy.

Ghanem who was recovering at hospital in serious condition after contracting [[COVID-19]] died from complications of kidney functions and [[Black fungus (COVID-19 condition)|associated mucormycosis]] related to the infection in El Safa Hospital, [[Mohandiseen]], Giza on 20 May 2021, at the age of 84.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1861896/middle-east |title=Famous Egyptian comedian Samir Ghanem dies aged 84 while battling COVID-19 |website=Arab News |date=20 May 2021 }}</ref><ref name="royanews">{{cite web |url=https://en.royanews.tv/news/28131/2021-05-20 |title=Egyptian comedian Samir Ghanem dies at 84 |website=Roya News |date=20 May 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/news/healthmedicine/2021/5/22/سمير-غانم-white-fungus-black-fungus-الفطر-الأبيض-الفطر |title=بعد الفطر الأسود الذي أصاب سمير غانم قبيل وفاته.. الفطر الأبيض مرض جديد يصيب مرضى كورونا |website=Al Jazeera |language=Arabic |date=22 May 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2021/05/20/iconic-egyptian-comedian-samir-ghanem-passes-away-at-the-age-of-84/ |title=Iconic Egyptian Comedian Samir Ghanem Passes Away Aged 84 |website=Egyptian Streets |date=20 May 2021 }}</ref>

His wife Dalal Abdel Aziz died on 7 August 2021, <ref>{{cite web |url= https://peoplenewschronicle.com/the-death-of-the-egyptian-actress-dalal-abdel-aziz/|title= The death of the Egyptian actress, Dalal Abdel Aziz |website=People News Chronicle |date=7 August 2021 }}</ref> due to complications related to COVID-19 as well.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/106686/Breaking-Veteran-actress-Dalal-Abdel-Aziz-passes-away-at-61 |title=Breaking: Veteran actress Dalal Abdel Aziz passes away at 61 after long struggle with after COVID-19 symptoms |website=Egypt Today |date=7 August 2021 }}</ref>

==Selected Filmography==
Ghanem participated in more than 300 acting roles including films, TV series and theater plays, the last of which was in the series ''Badal Al Hadduta Talata'' with his daughter Donia Samir Ghanem.<ref name="royanews"/>

===Plays by Tholathy Adwa'a El Masrah after 1970===
After El Deif Ahmed's death in 1970, Tholathy Adwa'a El Masrah continued producing plays. The two most famous are:
*''Music in East District''
*''[[Al Motazawegoon|Al-Mutazawwigun]] (Married)''

===Later plays===
While [[George Sidhom]] retired due to a brain stroke,<ref>[http://mail.arab-celebs.com/news.asp?id=46 Arab celebs]{{dead link|date=May 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Samir Ghanem continued producing plays.<ref>[http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/574/profile.htm Al Ahram Weekly on Samir Ghanem] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070316172323/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/574/profile.htm |date=16 March 2007 }}</ref>
*''Goha Rules the City''
*''Faris wa Bani Khayban (The Knight and Disaster Clan)''
*''Akhuya Hayes wana Layes (Happy Is My Brother, Lost Am I)''
*''Ana wal-Nizam wa Hawak (Me, the Government and Your Love)''
*''Bahloul fi Istanbul (Bahloul in Istanbul)''
*''Ana wa Mirati wa Monica (Me, My Wife and Monica)''
*''Akhoia hayes wana layes''
*''Mamno3 fe lelet el do5la''
*Habash house (beit el habash)

==References==
<references/>

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ghanem, Samir}}
[[Category:1937 births]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Asyut]]
[[Category:Egyptian comedians]]
[[Category:Egyptian male film actors]]
[[Category:Egyptian male television actors]]
[[Category:Egyptian television presenters]]
[[Category:Egyptian male stage actors]]
[[Category:Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt]]
[[Category:Deaths from mucormycosis]]
[[Category:Egyptian Arabic]]
[[Category:Alexandria University alumni]]

{{Egypt-actor-stub}}

Dalal Abdel Aziz

2021-08-09T17:10:59Z

Saumyasingh:

{{Short description|Egyptian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Dalal Abdel Aziz
| image =
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1960|1|17|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Farghan, Egypt|Farghan]], [[Sharqia Governorate|Sharqia]], Egypt
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2021|08|07|1960|01|17}}
| death_place = [[Mohandiseen]], [[Giza]], Egypt
| othername =
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1977–2021
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Samir Ghanem]]|1984|2021|reason=died}}
| children = [[Donia Samir Ghanem|Donia]] and [[Amy Samir Ghanem|Amy]]
| domesticpartner =
| website =
}}

'''Dalal Abdel Aziz''' ({{lang-ar|دلال عبد العزيز}}; 17 January 1960 – 7 August 2021) was an Egyptian actress. She was the wife of actor [[Samir Ghanem]] from 1984 until his death in 2021.

Died:August 7,2021

==Career==
Abdel Aziz entered the field of acting in 1977 with some small roles, including her role in the series "Bint Al Ayam", and her actual beginning was when artist Nour El Demerdash introduced her to theater, and she participated in many series, plays and films, and with these works she was able to obtain many awards as the best actress.

==Personal life==
Abdel Aziz was married to actor [[Samir Ghanem]]; they were the parents of actresses [[Donia Samir Ghanem|Donia]] and [[Amy Samir Ghanem|Amy]].

Ghanem died from complications of kidney functions and [[Black fungus (COVID-19 condition)|associated mucormycosis]] related to the infection in El Safa Hospital, [[Mohandiseen]], Giza on 20 May 2021, at the age of 84.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1861896/middle-east |title=Famous Egyptian comedian Samir Ghanem dies aged 84 while battling COVID-19 |website=Arab News |date=20 May 2021 }}</ref><ref name="royanews">{{cite web |url=https://en.royanews.tv/news/28131/2021-05-20 |title=Egyptian comedian Samir Ghanem dies at 84 |website=Roya News |date=20 May 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/news/healthmedicine/2021/5/22/سمير-غانم-white-fungus-black-fungus-الفطر-الأبيض-الفطر |title=بعد الفطر الأسود الذي أصاب سمير غانم قبيل وفاته.. الفطر الأبيض مرض جديد يصيب مرضى كورونا |website=Al Jazeera |language=Arabic |date=22 May 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2021/05/20/iconic-egyptian-comedian-samir-ghanem-passes-away-at-the-age-of-84/ |title=Iconic Egyptian Comedian Samir Ghanem Passes Away Aged 84 |website=Egyptian Streets |date=20 May 2021 }}</ref> Abdel Aziz herself died on 7 August, <ref>{{cite web |url= https://peoplenewschronicle.com/the-death-of-the-egyptian-actress-dalal-abdel-aziz/|title= The death of the Egyptian actress, Dalal Abdel Aziz |website=People News Chronicle |date=7 August 2021 }}</ref> due to complications related to COVID-19 as well.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/106686/Breaking-Veteran-actress-Dalal-Abdel-Aziz-passes-away-at-61 |title=Breaking: Veteran actress Dalal Abdel Aziz passes away at 61 after long struggle with after COVID-19 symptoms |website=Egypt Today |date=7 August 2021 }}</ref>

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|id=nm1695459|name=Dalal Abdulaziz}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abdel Aziz, Dalal}}
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Sharqia Governorate]]
[[Category:Egyptian film actresses]]
[[Category:Egyptian stage actresses]]
[[Category:Egyptian television actresses]]
[[Category:Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt]]
[[Category:20th-century Egyptian actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Egyptian actresses]]

{{Egypt-actor-stub}}

Draft:Dalal Abdel Aziz

2021-08-09T17:10:15Z

Saumyasingh: Saumyasingh moved page Draft:Dalal Abdel Aziz to Dalal Abdel Aziz

#REDIRECT [[Dalal Abdel Aziz]]

Dalal Abdel Aziz

2021-08-09T17:10:09Z

Saumyasingh: Saumyasingh moved page Draft:Dalal Abdel Aziz to Dalal Abdel Aziz

{{AFC submission/draft}}

{{Short description|Egyptian actress}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Dalal Abdel Aziz
| image =
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1960|1|17|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Farghan, Egypt|Farghan]], [[Sharqia Governorate|Sharqia]], Egypt
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2021|08|07|1960|01|17}}
| death_place = [[Mohandiseen]], [[Giza]], Egypt
| othername =
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1977–2021
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Samir Ghanem]]|1984|2021|reason=died}}
| children = [[Donia Samir Ghanem|Donia]] and [[Amy Samir Ghanem|Amy]]
| domesticpartner =
| website =
}}

'''Dalal Abdel Aziz''' ({{lang-ar|دلال عبد العزيز}}; 17 January 1960 – 7 August 2021) was an Egyptian actress. She was the wife of actor [[Samir Ghanem]] from 1984 until his death in 2021.

Died:August 7,2021

==Career==
Abdel Aziz entered the field of acting in 1977 with some small roles, including her role in the series "Bint Al Ayam", and her actual beginning was when artist Nour El Demerdash introduced her to theater, and she participated in many series, plays and films, and with these works she was able to obtain many awards as the best actress.

==Personal life==
Abdel Aziz was married to actor [[Samir Ghanem]]; they were the parents of actresses [[Donia Samir Ghanem|Donia]] and [[Amy Samir Ghanem|Amy]].

Ghanem died from complications of kidney functions and [[Black fungus (COVID-19 condition)|associated mucormycosis]] related to the infection in El Safa Hospital, [[Mohandiseen]], Giza on 20 May 2021, at the age of 84.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1861896/middle-east |title=Famous Egyptian comedian Samir Ghanem dies aged 84 while battling COVID-19 |website=Arab News |date=20 May 2021 }}</ref><ref name="royanews">{{cite web |url=https://en.royanews.tv/news/28131/2021-05-20 |title=Egyptian comedian Samir Ghanem dies at 84 |website=Roya News |date=20 May 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/news/healthmedicine/2021/5/22/سمير-غانم-white-fungus-black-fungus-الفطر-الأبيض-الفطر |title=بعد الفطر الأسود الذي أصاب سمير غانم قبيل وفاته.. الفطر الأبيض مرض جديد يصيب مرضى كورونا |website=Al Jazeera |language=Arabic |date=22 May 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://egyptianstreets.com/2021/05/20/iconic-egyptian-comedian-samir-ghanem-passes-away-at-the-age-of-84/ |title=Iconic Egyptian Comedian Samir Ghanem Passes Away Aged 84 |website=Egyptian Streets |date=20 May 2021 }}</ref> Abdel Aziz herself died on 7 August, <ref>{{cite web |url= https://peoplenewschronicle.com/the-death-of-the-egyptian-actress-dalal-abdel-aziz/|title= The death of the Egyptian actress, Dalal Abdel Aziz |website=People News Chronicle |date=7 August 2021 }}</ref> due to complications related to COVID-19 as well.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/106686/Breaking-Veteran-actress-Dalal-Abdel-Aziz-passes-away-at-61 |title=Breaking: Veteran actress Dalal Abdel Aziz passes away at 61 after long struggle with after COVID-19 symptoms |website=Egypt Today |date=7 August 2021 }}</ref>

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|id=nm1695459|name=Dalal Abdulaziz}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abdel Aziz, Dalal}}
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Sharqia Governorate]]
[[Category:Egyptian film actresses]]
[[Category:Egyptian stage actresses]]
[[Category:Egyptian television actresses]]
[[Category:Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt]]
[[Category:20th-century Egyptian actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century Egyptian actresses]]

{{Egypt-actor-stub}}

Dalal Abdel Aziz

2021-08-09T17:09:31Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{AFC submission/draft}}  {{Short description|Egyptian actress}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}} {{Infobox person | name = Dalal Abd..."

Yuan dynasty

2021-08-04T10:57:19Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{pp-pc1}} {{pp-move-indef |small = yes}} {{Short description|Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China (1271-1368)}} {{use dmy dates|date=August 2017}} {{use British English|date=..."

{{pp-pc1}}
{{pp-move-indef |small = yes}}
{{Short description|Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China (1271-1368)}}
{{use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{use British English|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name = {{nobold|{{lang|zh|大元}}}} {{lower|0.2em|{{lang|mn|{{MongolUnicode|ᠳᠠᠢ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠶᠤᠸᠠᠨ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠤᠯᠤᠰ}}
}}}} ({{lang|mn-Latn|Dai Ön Ulus}}, "Great Yuan State" in [[Middle Mongol]])
| conventional_long_name = Great Yuan
| common_name = Yuan dynasty
| era = [[Postclassical Era]]
| status = [[Khagan]]-ruled [[division of the Mongol Empire|division]] of the [[Mongol Empire]] [[Conquest dynasty]] of [[imperial China]]
| empire = Mongol Empire
| government_type = [[Monarchy]]
| year_start = 1271
| year_end = 1368
| event_start = [[Kublai Khan|Kublai]]'s proclamation of the dynastic name "Great Yuan"<ref name="Proclamation1271" />
| date_start = 5 November
| event_end = Fall of [[Khanbaliq]]
| date_end = 14 September
| event_pre = Enthronement of [[Genghis Khan|Genghis Emperor]]{{NoteTag|name=Emperor}}
| date_pre = Spring, 1206<ref name="Enthronement1206" />
| event1 = [[Battle of Xiangyang]]
| date_event1 = 1268–1273
| event2 = [[Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty|Conquest of Southern Song]]
| date_event2 = 4 February 1276
| event3 = [[Battle of Yamen]]
| date_event3 = 19 March 1279
| event4 = [[Red Turban Rebellion]]
| date_event4 = 1351–1368
| event_post = Formation of [[Northern Yuan dynasty]]
| date_post = 1368–1388
| p1 = Mongol Empire
| p2 = Southern Song dynasty
| s1 = Northern Yuan dynasty
| s2 = Ming dynasty
| s3 = Phagmodrupa dynasty
| image_map = Yuen Dynasty 1294 - Goryeo as vassal.png
| image_map_caption = Yuan dynasty ({{circa|1294}}) [[Goryeo under Mongol rule|Goryeo]] was a semi-autonomous vassal state{{NoteTag|The situation of [[Goryeo]] during Yuan dynasty was disputed. Some scholars (such as [[Tan Qixiang]]) regarded it as a country;<ref>{{cite book |language = zh-Hans |script-title = zh:《中国历史地图集》 |trans-title = The Historical Atlas of China |title-link = The Historical Atlas of China |publisher = [[SinoMaps Press]] |volume = 7 |author1-link = Tan Qixiang |last1 = Tan |first1 = Qixiang |display-authors = etal |isbn = 9787503118449 |year = 1987 }}</ref> others regarded it as a part of Yuan.}}
| image_map2 = Yuan Provinces.png
| image_map2_caption = Provinces of Yuan in 1330
| capital = [[Khanbaliq]] ([[Beijing]]) [[Shangdu]] (summer capital)
| common_languages = [[Middle Mongol]] [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ([[Old Mandarin]])
| religion = [[Buddhism]] ([[Tibetan Buddhism]] as ''de facto'' [[state religion]]), Mongolian [[Tengrism]]/Chinese [[Heaven worship]], [[Shamanism]], [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Chinese folk religion]], [[Church of the East in China|Chinese Nestorian Christianity]], [[Catholic Church in China|Roman Catholic Christianity]], [[History of the Jews in China|Judaism]], [[Chinese Manichaeism]], [[Islam]]
| currency = Predominantly [[Banknote|Paper Currency]] ([[Jiaochao]]), with a small amount of [[Cash (Chinese coin)|Chinese cash]] in use
| leader1 = [[Kublai Khan]]
| leader2 = [[Emperor Huizong of Yuan|Toghon Temür]]
| year_leader1 = 1259–1294
| year_leader2 = 1332–1368
| title_leader = [[List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty|Khagan-Emperor]]{{NoteTag|name=Emperor|Decades before [[Kublai Khan]] announced the dynastic name "[[Yuan dynasty|Great Yuan]]" in 1271, [[Khagan]]s (Great Khans) of the "Great Mongol State" (''Yeke Mongγol Ulus'') already started to use the Chinese title of [[Emperor of China|Emperor]] ({{zh |c = 皇帝 |p = Huángdì }}) practically in the [[Chinese language]] since the enthronement of [[Genghis Khan|Genghis Emperor]] ({{zh |c = 成吉思皇帝 |l = Chéngjísī Huángdì |labels = no }}) in Spring 1206.<ref name="Enthronement1206">{{cite book |script-title = zh:《元史》 |trans-title = History of Yuan |title-link = History of Yuan |language = zh-Classical |chapter = 太祖本纪 [Chronicle of [[Genghis Khan|Taizu]]] |quote = [[1206|元年]]丙寅，[[Genghis Khan|帝]]大会诸王群臣，建九斿白旗，即[[Emperor of China|皇帝]]位于斡难河之源，诸王群臣共上尊号曰成吉思皇帝["Genghis [[Emperor of China|Huangdi]]"]。}}</ref>}}
| deputy1 = [[Ahmad Fanakati]]
| deputy2 = [[Toqto'a (Yuan dynasty)|Toqto'a]]
| year_deputy1 = 1264–1282
| year_deputy2 = 1340–1355
| title_deputy = [[Chancellor of China|Chancellor]]
| stat_year1 = 1290
| stat_pop1 = 77,000,000
| stat_year2 = 1293
| stat_pop2 = 79,816,000
| stat_year3 = 1310
| ref_area3 = <ref>{{cite journal |date = September 1997 |title = Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia |journal = [[International Studies Quarterly]] |volume = 41 |issue = 3 |page = 499 |doi = 10.1111/0020-8833.00053 |first = Rein |last = Taagepera |author-link = Rein Taagepera |jstor = 2600793 |url = http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 }}</ref>
| stat_area3 = 11000000
| stat_year4 = 1330
| stat_pop4 = 83,873,000
| stat_year5 = 1350
| stat_pop5 = 87,147,000
|today=[[China]] [[Mongolia]] [[North Korea]] [[Russia]]}}
{{History of the Mongols}}
{{History of China}}

The '''Yuan dynasty''' ({{zh |c = {{linktext|元|朝}} |p = Yuán Cháo }}), officially the '''Great Yuan'''<ref name="CivilSociety" /> ({{zh |c = {{linktext|大|元}} |p = Dà Yuán }}; {{lang-xng|{{MongolUnicode|ᠶᠡᠭᠡ ᠶᠤᠸᠠᠨ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ}}}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|Yeke Ywan Ulus}}, literally "Great Yuan State"{{NoteTag|Modern [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] form commonly used by modern Mongolian and Chinese academics: {{MongolUnicode|ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠶᠤᠸᠠᠨ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ}}, {{lang|mn-Latn|Yehe Yuan Ulus}} or ''{{transl|mn|Ikh Yuan Üls/Yekhe Yuan Ulus}}''; {{lang|mn|Их Юань улс}} in [[Mongolian Cyrillic]].}}), was a [[successor state]] to the [[Mongol Empire]] after [[Division of the Mongol Empire|its division]] and a [[Dynasties in Chinese history|ruling dynasty of China]] established by [[Kublai Khan]], leader of the [[Mongols|Mongol]] [[Borjigin]] clan, lasting from 1271 to 1368. In [[Chinese historiography]], this dynasty followed the [[Song dynasty]] and preceded the [[Ming dynasty]].

Although [[Genghis Khan]] (an uprising ex-subject of the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Empire]]) had been enthroned with the Chinese title of [[Emperor of China|Emperor]]{{NoteTag|name=Emperor}} in 1206<ref name="Enthronement1206" /> and the [[Mongol Empire]] had ruled territories including modern-day [[Northern and southern China|northern China]] for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Chinese style,{{sfn|Mote|1994|p=624}} and the conquest was not complete until 1279 when the Southern Song dynasty was defeated in the [[Battle of Yamen]]. His realm was, by this point, isolated from the other Mongol [[khanate]]s and controlled most of modern-day [[China]] and its surrounding areas, including modern [[Mongolia]].<ref>{{cite book |last = Atwood |first = Christopher Pratt |title = Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire |url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo0000atwo |url-access = registration |year = 2004 |publisher = [[Facts On File]] |isbn = 978-0-8160-4671-3 }}</ref> It was the first non-[[Han Chinese|Han]] dynasty to rule all of [[China proper]] and lasted until 1368 when the Ming dynasty defeated the Yuan forces.<ref name="Non-Han1">{{cite book |last = Tan |first = Koon San |title = Dynastic China: An Elementary History |year = 2014 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bnCMBAAAQBAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+first+non-han&pg=PA312 |page = 312 |isbn = 9789839541885 }}</ref><ref name="Non-Han2">{{cite book |last = Cheung |first = Martha |title = An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation (Volume 2): From the Late Twelfth Century to 1800 |year = 2016 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YCElDwAAQBAJ&q=yuan+dynasty+first+non-han&pg=PA2 |page = 2 |isbn = 9781134829316 }}</ref> Following that, the rebuked Genghisid rulers retreated to the [[Mongolian Plateau]] and continued to rule as the [[Northern Yuan dynasty]].<ref name="The History of China">{{cite book |title = The History of China |url = {{Google books |plainurl = yes |id = 69EbKf6JrxYC |page = 427 }} |access-date = 4 March 2015 }}</ref>

Some of the Yuan emperors mastered the Chinese language, while others only used their native Mongolian language and the [['Phags-pa script]].<ref>{{citation |last = Franke |first = Herbert |title = Could the Mongol emperors read and write Chinese? }}</ref>

After the [[division of the Mongol Empire]], the Yuan dynasty was the khanate ruled by the successors of [[Möngke Khan]]. In [[Chinese historiography|official Chinese histories]], the Yuan dynasty bore the [[Mandate of Heaven]]. The dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather [[Genghis Khan]] on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty and accorded him the [[temple name]] [[List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty|Taizu]].{{NoteTag|name=Emperor}} In the edict titled ''Proclamation of the Dynastic Name'',<ref name="Proclamation1271" /> Kublai announced the name of the new dynasty as Great Yuan and claimed the succession of former Chinese dynasties from the [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors]] to the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref name="Proclamation1271" />

In addition to [[Emperor of China]], Kublai Khan also claimed the title of [[Khagan|Great Khan]], supreme over the other successor khanates: the [[Chagatai Khanate|Chagatai]], the [[Golden Horde]], and the [[Ilkhanate]]. As such, the Yuan was also sometimes referred to as the '''Empire of the Great Khan'''. However, while the claim of supremacy by the Yuan emperors was at times recognized by the western khans, their subservience was nominal and each continued its own separate development.<ref>{{cite book |last = Saunders |first = J. J. |author-link = J. J. Saunders |title = The History of Mongol Conquests }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last = Grousset |first = René |author-link = René Grousset |year = 1939 |language = fr |title = L'empire des steppes: Attila, Gengis-Khan, Tamerlan |trans-title = The Empire of Steppes }}</ref>

== Name ==
{{See also|Names of China|Mongol Empire|I Ching|Mandate of Heaven}}

{{Infobox Chinese
|pic = Yuan dynasty (Chinese and Mongolian).svg
|piccap = "Yuan dynasty" in [[Chinese characters]] (top) and "Great Yuan State" (''Yehe Yüan Ulus'', a modern form) in [[Mongolian script]] (bottom)
|picsize = 145px
|c = 元朝
|l = "Yuan dynasty"
|p = Yuán cháo
|w = Yüan2 ch'ao2
|mi = {{IPAc-cmn|yuan|2|-|ch|ao|2}}
|suz = Nyœ́ záu
|y = Yùhn chìuh
|ci = {{IPAc-yue|j|yun|4|-|c|iu|4}}
|j = Jyun4 ciu4
|tl = Guân tiâo
|altname = Dynastic name
|c2 = 大元
|l2 = Great Yuan
|p2 = Dà Yuán
|y2 = Daai6 Yun4
|ci2 = {{IPAc-yue|d|aai|6|-|j|yun|4}}
|altname3 = Alternative official full name: {{MongolUnicode|ᠳᠠᠢ ᠶᠤᠸᠠᠨ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ}} {{lang|mn-Latn|Dai Yuwan Yeqe Mongɣul Ulus}}
|t3 = 大元大蒙古國
|s3 = 大元大蒙古国
|p3 = Dà Yuán Dà Měnggǔ Guó
|l3 = "Great Yuan" (Middle Mongol transliteration of Chinese "Dà Yuán") Great Mongol State
}}
{{special characters}}

In 1271, [[Kublai Khan]] imposed the name '''Great Yuan''' ({{zh |c = 大元 |p = Dà Yuán |w = Ta-Yüan }}), establishing the Yuan dynasty.<ref name="CivilSociety">{{cite book |last = Simon |first = Karla W. |title = Civil Society in China: The Legal Framework from Ancient Times to the 'New Reform Era' |publisher = Oxford University Press |page = 39 (note 69) }}</ref> "Dà Yuán" ({{lang|zh|大元}}) is from the clause "{{lang|zh|大哉乾元}}" ({{zh |p = dà zāi Qián Yuán |l = Great is Qián, the Primal }}) in the ''[[Ten Wings|Commentaries]] on the [[I Ching|Classic of Changes]]'' section<ref>{{cite book |language = zh-Hant |script-title = zh:《易傳》 |trans-title = [[Ten Wings|Commentaries]] on the [[I Ching|Classic of Changes]] |section = [[s:zh:周易/乾|周易·乾卦·彖傳]] |quote = 《彖》曰：'''大哉乾元'''，萬物資始，乃統天。}}</ref> regarding the first hexagram [[Qian (hexagram)|Qián]] ({{lang|zh|乾}}).<ref name="Proclamation1271">{{citation |author = Kublai Emperor |author-link = Kublai Khan |date = 18 December 1271 |language = zh-Classical |script-title = zh:《建國號詔》 |trans-title = Edict to Establish the Name of the State |series = 《元典章》[''Statutes of Yuan''] |url = //zh.wikisource.org/wiki/建國號詔 }}</ref> The counterpart in the [[Mongolian language]] was ''Dai Ön Ulus'', also rendered as ''Ikh Yuan Üls'' or ''Yekhe Yuan Ulus''. In Mongolian, ''Dai Ön'' (Middle Mongol transliteration of Chinese "Dà Yuán") was often used in conjunction with the "Yeke Mongghul Ulus" (lit. "Great Mongol State"), which resulted in the form {{MongolUnicode|ᠳᠠᠢ ᠥᠨ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ}} ({{lang|mn-Latn|Dai Ön Yeqe Mongɣul Ulus}}),<ref name="mname">''The Early Mongols: Language, Culture and History'' by Volker Rybatzki & Igor de Rachewiltz, p. 116.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title = Bolor Dictionary |url = http://www.bolor-toli.com/ |access-date = 2020-07-12 |website = www.bolor-toli.com }}</ref>, meaning "'''Great Yuan Great Mongol State'''".{{citation needed|date=October 2018}} As per modern historiographical norm, the "Yuan dynasty" refers exclusively to the realm based in China. However, the Chinese-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" was meant to be applied to the entire [[Mongol Empire]].<ref name="GreatYuan1">{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=David |title = In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia |year=2019 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=itKyDwAAQBAJ&q=great+yuan+entire+mongol+empire&pg=PA50 |page=50 |isbn=9781108482448 }}</ref><ref name="GreatYuan2">{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=David |title = Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols |year=2009 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PDjWpqU55eMC&q=great+yuan+refer+to+entire+mongol+empire&pg=PA293 |page=293|isbn=9780674036086}}</ref><ref name="GreatYuan3">{{cite book |last1=Brook|first1=Timothy|last2=Walt van Praag|first2=Michael van |last3=Boltjes|first3=Miek |title = Sacred Mandates: Asian International Relations since Chinggis Khan |year=2018 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6p1WDwAAQBAJ&q=great+yuan+refer+to+entire+mongol+empire&pg=PA45 |page=45 |isbn=9780226562933 }}</ref> This usage is seen in the writings, including non-Chinese texts, produced during the time of the Yuan dynasty.<ref name="GreatYuan2" /><ref name="GreatYuan3" /> In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to the ''de facto'' [[Division of the Mongol Empire|disintegrated nature]] of the Mongol Empire.

The Yuan dynasty is also known by westerners as the "Mongol dynasty"<ref>Asian Nationalism, by Michael Leifer, Professor of International Relations Michael Leifer, p. 23.</ref> or "Mongol Dynasty of China",<ref>''A Military History of Japan: From the Age of the Samurai to the 21st Century: From the Age of the Samurai to the 21st Century'', John T. Kuehn Ph.D., p. 61.</ref> similar to the names "Manchu dynasty"<ref>''Voyages in World History'', by Valerie Hansen, Ken Curtis, p. 53.</ref> or "Manchu Dynasty of China"<ref>''The Military Engineer'', Volume 40, p. 580.</ref> which were used by westerners for the [[Qing dynasty]]. Furthermore, the Yuan is sometimes known as the "Empire of the Great Khan" or "Khanate of the Great Khan",<ref>''Focus On World History: The Era Of Expanding Global Connections – 1000–1500 C.E.: Grades 7–9'', by Kathy Sammis, p. 46.</ref> which particularly appeared on some Yuan maps, since Yuan emperors held the nominal title of [[Great Khan]]. Nevertheless, both terms can also refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271.

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Yuan dynasty}}
{{Further|Timeline of the Yuan dynasty}}

{{Campaignbox Mongol conquests}}
{{Division of the Mongol Empire}}

=== Background ===
{{Main|Mongol conquest of Jin China|Division of the Mongol Empire|Toluid Civil War|Mongol conquest of Song China}}

[[Genghis Khan]] united the Mongol tribes of the steppes and became [[Great Khan]] in 1206.{{sfn|Ebrey|2010|p=169}} He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis' third son, [[Ögedei Khan]], the Mongols [[Siege of Caizhou|destroyed]] the weakened [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] in 1234, conquering most of [[Northern and southern China|northern China]].{{sfn|Ebrey|2010|pp=169–170}} Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in [[Xingzhou (in modern Hebei)|Xingzhou]], [[Hebei]]. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother [[Sorghaghtani Beki|Sorghaghtani]]. He sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=415}} [[Möngke Khan]] succeeded Ögedei's son, [[Güyük Khan|Güyük]], as Great Khan in 1251.{{sfn|Allsen|1994|p=392}} He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China.{{sfn|Allsen|1994|p=394}} Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued [[paper money]], revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=418}} He adopted as his capital city Kaiping in [[Inner Mongolia]], later renamed [[Shangdu]].{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=65}}

[[File:MongolMap.jpg|thumb|left|Mongol successor khanates]]

Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, [[Shi Tianze]], [[Liu Heima]] ({{lang|zh|[[w:zh:劉黑馬|劉黑馬]]}}, aka Liu Ni),<ref>{{cite web |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1yMnAQAAIAAJ&q=liu+heima+ |title = Revue bibliographique de sinologie, n° 19/2001 – Collectif |website = Books.google.com |date = 2002-01-01 |access-date = 2016-05-27 |author = Collectif }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://big5.xjass.com/ls/content/2013-02/27/content_267592.htm |title= "萬戶路"、"千戶州" ——蒙古千戶百戶制度與華北路府州郡體制 – 新疆哲學社會科學 |website=Big5.xjass.com |date=2013-02-27 |access-date=2016-05-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080427/http://big5.xjass.com/ls/content/2013-02/27/content_267592.htm |archive-date = 2016-03-04 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.wenxue100.com/book_LiShi/138_190.thtml |title = 白话元史-刘伯林传(附刘黑马传) |website = Wenxue100.com |access-date=2016-05-27 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.iqh.net.cn/info.asp?column_id=7794 |title = "万户路"、"千户州"——蒙古千户百户制度与华北路府州郡体制 – 中国人民大学清史研究所 |website = Iqh.net.cn |date=2013-04-30 |access-date=2016-05-27 }}</ref> and the Khitan [[Xiao Zhala]] ({{lang|zh|[[w:zh:蕭札剌|蕭札剌]]}}) defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NfzOAAAAMAAJ&q=Ogodei+divided+them+into+three+tiimens+%28Chinese:+wan-hu%29+and+thirty-six+minqat+commanded+by+the+Khitan+Hsiao+Cha-la+and+Hans+Liu+Ni+%28Heima%29+and+Shi-+T%27ien-tse.+By+1234,+three+and+perhaps+more+lumen-it+noyad+were+posted.+The+three+... |title = The Mechanics of Conquest and Governance: The Rise and Expansion of the ... |author = Timothy Michael May |website = Books.google.com |date = 2009-01-14 |access-date = 2016-05-27 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://123.125.114.20/view/ca3dae260722192e4536f629.html?re=view |title = 您的访问出错了。 |website = 123.125.114.20 |access-date = 2016-05-27 }}{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://121.199.12.114:99/main/wz_xs.tom?c_name=%CF%F4%D7%D3%CF%D4&d_id=wzadd20120314102439zw&searh_text= |title = ¹ú¼ÊÈåÑ§ÈËÎïÐÅÏ¢Æ½Ì¨ |publisher=121.199.12.114:99 |date=2012-03-14 |access-date = 2016-05-27 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url = http://www.docin.org/p-716638698.html |title = 【doc】-兼论金元之际的汉地七万户 – 豆丁网 |language = zh |publisher = Docin.org |date = 2013-10-26 |access-date = 2016-05-27 }}</ref> Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan.<ref>{{Cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=F00qAQAAMAAJ&q=%28Brief+history+of+the+Black+Tartars%29+which+lists+the+men+who+held+posts+under+Og%C3%B6dei,+or+more+precisely,+from+the+last+two+families,+Shi+Tianze+and+Liu+Heima+%23%23%23%23%23,+see+Meng-ta+peilu+und+Hei-ta+shih+liieh,+translated+by+E.+Haenisch+and+Yao+Ts%27ung-wu,+edited+by+P.+Olbricht+and+E.+Pinks,+%E2%80%9CAsiatische+Forschungen%E2%80%9D,+Bd.+56+%28Wiesbaden:+Otto+Harrassowitz,+1980%29,+pp.+202-206.+and+professional |title = Foundations and Limits of State Power in China |date = 1987-01-01 |access-date = 2016-05-27 |isbn = 9780728601390 |last = Schram |first = Stuart Reynolds }}</ref> Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MztuAAAAMAAJ&q=liu+heima+mongols |title = Rulers from the steppe: state formation on the Eurasian periphery |date = 2008-09-02 |access-date = 2016-05-27 |isbn = 9781878986016 |last1 = Seaman |first1 = Gary |last2 = Marks |first2 = Daniel }}</ref> There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier ({{lang|zh-Hant|石抹孛迭兒}}), Tabuyir ({{lang|zh-Hant|塔不已兒}}), and Zhongxi, the son of Xiaozhaci ({{lang|zh-Hant|蕭札刺之子重喜}}) commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ogödei Khan.<ref>{{cite web |last = Hu (胡) |first = Xiaopeng (小鹏) |language = zh-Hans |url = http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/periodical/xbsdxb-shkxb200106008 |script-title = zh:窝阔台汗己丑年汉军万户萧札剌考辨——兼论金元之际的汉地七万户 |trans-title = A Study of XIAO Zha-la the Han Army Commander of 10,000 Families in the Year of 1229 during the Period of Khan (O)gedei |website = D.wanfangdata.com.cn |access-date = 2016-05-27 }}{{cite web |url = http://www.nssd.org/articles/article_detail.aspx?id=5638208 |title = 国家哲学社会科学学术期刊数据库 |website = Nssd.org |access-date = 2016-05-27 }}</ref><ref>''[[New History of Yuan]]'', Volume 146. {{Wikisource-inline|zh:新元史/卷146}}</ref>

Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the Chinese [[Song dynasty]] in southern China.{{sfn|Allsen|1994|p=410}} The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor = 606298 |title = Review: Nomads on Ponies vs. Slaves on Horses Reviewed Work: Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260–1281 by Reuven Amitai-Preiss |author = John Masson Smith, Jr. |journal = [[Journal of the American Oriental Society]] |volume = 118 |issue = 1 |year = 1998 |pages = 54–62 }}</ref> He died in 1259 without a successor.{{sfn|Allsen|1994|p=411}} Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother, [[Ariq Böke]], was challenging his claim to the throne.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=422}} Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=51}} A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=53}} Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on the bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=423–424}} Ariq Böke was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264.{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=104}} All of the three western khanates ([[Golden Horde]], [[Chagatai Khanate]] and [[Ilkhanate]]) became functionally autonomous, and only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=62}}{{sfn|Allsen|1994|p=413}} Civil strife had [[Division of the Mongol Empire|permanently divided the Mongol Empire]].{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=24}}

=== Rule of Kublai Khan ===
==== Early years ====
Instability troubled the early years of Kublai Khan's reign. Ögedei's grandson [[Kaidu]] refused to submit to Kublai and threatened the western frontier of Kublai's domain.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=77}}{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=105}} The hostile but weakened Song dynasty remained an obstacle in the south.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=77}} Kublai secured the northeast border in 1259 by installing the hostage prince [[Wonjong of Goryeo|Wonjong]] as the ruler of the [[Goryeo|Kingdom of Goryeo]] (Korea), making it a Mongol tributary state.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|pp=436–437}}{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=77}} Kublai was also threatened by domestic unrest. Li Tan, the son-in-law of a powerful official, instigated a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After successfully suppressing the revolt, Kublai curbed the influence of the Han advisers in his court.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=426}} He feared that his dependence on Chinese officials left him vulnerable to future revolts and defections to the Song.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=66}}

Kublai's government after 1262 was a compromise between preserving Mongol interests in China and satisfying the demands of his Chinese subjects.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=427}} He instituted the reforms proposed by his Chinese advisers by centralizing the bureaucracy, expanding the circulation of paper money, and maintaining the [[Salt in Chinese History#Ancient China and the early empire|traditional monopolies on salt]] and [[History of metallurgy in China#Iron|iron]].{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|pp=70–71}} He restored the Imperial Secretariat and left the local administrative structure of past Chinese dynasties unchanged.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=70}} However, Kublai rejected plans to revive the Confucian [[imperial examination]]s and divided Yuan society into three, later four, classes with the Han occupying the lowest rank. Kublai's Chinese advisers still wielded significant power in the government, but their official rank was nebulous.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|pp=70–71}}

==== Founding the dynasty ====
[[File:YuanEmperorAlbumKhubilaiPortrait.jpg|thumb|left|[[Kublai Khan]], founder of the Yuan dynasty]]

Kublai readied the move of the Mongol capital from [[Karakorum]] in Mongolia to [[Khanbaliq]] in 1264,{{sfn|Ebrey|2010|p = 172}} constructing a new city near the former [[Jurchens|Jurchen]] capital [[Zhongdu]], now modern [[Beijing]], in 1266.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=132}} In 1271, Kublai formally claimed the [[Mandate of Heaven]] and declared that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan ({{zh |c = 大元 |labels = no }}) in the style of a traditional Chinese dynasty.{{sfn|Mote|1994|p=616}} The name of the dynasty originated from the ''[[I Ching]]'' and describes the "origin of the universe" or a "primal force".{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=136}} Kublai proclaimed Khanbaliq the Daidu ({{zh |c = 大都 |p = Dàdū |l = Great Capital |labels = no }}) of the dynasty.{{sfn|Mote|1999|p=460}} The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to herald a new era of Chinese history.{{sfn|Mote|1999|p=458}} The adoption of a dynastic name legitimized Mongol rule by integrating the government into the narrative of traditional Chinese political succession.{{sfn|Mote|1999|p = 616}} Khublai evoked his public image as a [[Emperor of China|sage emperor]] by following the rituals of Confucian propriety and ancestor veneration,{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=458}} while simultaneously retaining his roots as a leader from the steppes.{{sfn|Mote|1999|p=616}}

Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of the [[Silk Road]] trade network by protecting the [[Yam (route)|Mongol postal system]], constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paper banknotes ({{zh |t = 鈔 |p = [[Jiaochao]] |labels = no }}). During the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols continued issuing [[Yuan dynasty coinage|coins]]; however, under [[Külüg Khan]] coins were completely replaced by paper money. It wasn't until the reign of [[Toghon Temür]] that the government of the Yuan dynasty would attempt to reintroduce copper coinage for circulation.<ref name="MilesScott">{{cite book |author1=David Miles |author2=Andrew Scott |title = Macroeconomics: Understanding the Wealth of Nations |date=January 14, 2005 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-01243-7 |page=273 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.coinweek.com/expert-columns/mike-markowitz/coinweek-ancient-coin-series-coinage-mongols/ |title = CoinWeek Ancient Coin Series: Coinage of the Mongols |date=22 May 2016 |access-date=14 June 2017 |work = Mike Markowitz (CoinWeek) }}</ref><ref>Hartill, David (22 September 2005). ''Cast Chinese Coins.'' [[Trafford]], [[United Kingdom]]. {{ISBN|1412054664}}</ref> The ''[[Pax Mongolica]]'', Mongol peace, enabled the spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=72}} Kublai expanded the [[Grand Canal (China)|Grand Canal]] from southern China to Daidu in the north.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=74}} Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=62}} He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchant [[Marco Polo]], who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=463}} Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others like [[Christopher Columbus]] to chart a passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=61}}

==== Military conquests and campaigns ====
After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=429}} Kublai besieged [[Xiangyang District, Xiangfan|Xiangyang]] between 1268 and 1273,{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=77}} the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangzi River basin.{{sfn|Ebrey|2010|p=172}} An unsuccessful naval expedition was undertaken [[Mongol invasions of Japan#First invasion (1274)|against Japan]] in 1274.{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=107}} The Duan family ruling the [[Kingdom of Dali]] in Yunnan submitted to the Yuan dynasty as vassals and were allowed to keep their throne, militarily assisting the Yuan dynasty against the Song dynasty in southern China. The Duan family still ruled Dali relatively independently during the Yuan dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=James A. |last2=Whitmore |first2=John K. |title=China's Encounters on the South and Southwest: Reforging the Fiery Frontier Over Two Millennia |date=2014 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004282483 |page=146 |edition=reprint, revised |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YV1hBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA146}}</ref> The [[Tusi]] chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling the [[Chiefdom of Bozhou]] which was recognized by the Song dynasty and Tang dynasty also received recognition by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty and later by the [[Ming dynasty]]. The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the [[Shu Han]] era king Huoji who helped [[Zhuge Liang]] against [[Meng Huo]]. They were also recognized by the [[Ming dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Herman |first1=John. E. |editor1-last=Di Cosmo |editor1-first=Nicola |editor2-last=Wyatt |editor2-first=Don J |title=Political Frontiers, Ethnic Boundaries and Human Geographies in Chinese History |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135790950 |page=260 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1mQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA260}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Crossley |editor1-first=Pamela Kyle |editor2-last=Siu |editor2-first=Helen F. |editor3-last=Sutton |editor3-first=Donald S. |title=Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China |date=2006 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520230156 |page=143 |edition=illustrated |volume=28 of Studies on China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EtNVMUx9qIIC&pg=PA143}}</ref>

Kublai captured the Song capital of [[Hangzhou]] in 1276,{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=106}} the wealthiest city of China,{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=430}} after the surrender of the Southern Song Han Chinese [[Emperor Gong of Song]]. Emperor Gong of Song (personal name Zhao Xian) was married off to a Mongol princess of the royal [[Borjigin]] family of the Yuan dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hua |first1=Kaiqi |editor1-last=Heirman |editor1-first=Ann |editor2-last=Meinert |editor2-first=Carmen |editor3-last=Anderl |editor3-first=Christoph |title=Buddhist Encounters and Identities Across East Asia |date=2018 |publisher=BRILL |location=Leiden, Netherlands |isbn=978-9004366152 |doi=10.1163/9789004366152_008 |page=213 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGdjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA213 |chapter=Chapter 6 The Journey of Zhao Xian and the Exile of Royal Descendants in the Yuan Dynasty (1271 1358)}}</ref> Song loyalists escaped from the capital and enthroned a young child as [[Emperor Bing of Song]], who was Emperor Gong's younger brother. The Yuan forces commanded by Han Chinese General [[Zhang Hongfan]] led a predominantly Han navy to defeat the Song loyalists at the [[battle of Yamen]] in 1279. The last Song emperor drowned, bringing an end to the Song dynasty.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|pp=77–78}} The conquest of the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years.{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=113}}

The Yuan dynasty created a "Han Army" ({{zh |t = 漢軍 |labels = no }}) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" ({{zh |t = 新附軍 |labels = no }}).<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8hOgAAAAIAAJ&q=han+tumen+khitan&pg=PA66 |title = ä¸ĺ ˝ĺ ¤äťŁĺŽ ĺ čž ĺ ¸ |author = Charles O. Hucker |page = 66 |access-date = 2016-05-27 |isbn = 9780804711937 |year = 1985 }}</ref>

Kublai's government faced financial difficulties after 1279. Wars and construction projects had drained the Mongol treasury.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=473}} Efforts to raise and collect tax revenues were plagued by corruption and political scandals.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=111}} Mishandled military expeditions followed the financial problems.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=473}} Kublai's [[Mongol invasions of Japan#Second invasion (1281)|second invasion of Japan]] in 1281 failed because of an [[Kamikaze (typhoon)|inauspicious typhoon]].{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=107}} Kublai botched his campaigns against [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam|Annam, Champa]], and [[Mongol invasion of Java|Java]],{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=113}} but won a [[Pyrrhic victory]] against [[First Mongol invasion of Burma|Burma]].{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=218}} The expeditions were hampered by disease, an inhospitable climate, and a tropical terrain unsuitable for the mounted warfare of the Mongols.{{sfn|Rossabi|2012|p=113}}{{sfn|Morgan|2007|p=107}} The [[Trần dynasty]] which ruled Annam (Đại Việt) defeated the Mongols at the [[Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)]]. Annam, Burma, and Champa recognized Mongol hegemony and established tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|pp=218–219}}

Internal strife threatened Kublai within his empire. Kublai Khan suppressed rebellions challenging his rule in Tibet and the northeast.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|pp=487–488}} His favorite wife died in 1281 and so did his chosen heir in 1285. Kublai grew despondent and retreated from his duties as emperor. He fell ill in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294.{{sfn|Rossabi|1994|p=488}}

=== Successors after Kublai ===
{{Main list|List of Yuan emperors}}
{{Further|List of Northern Yuan khans|Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)}}

{{More citations needed section|date = December 2013}}

==== Temür Khan ====
Following the conquest of [[Kingdom of Dali|Dali]] in 1253, the former ruling Duan dynasty were appointed as [[Maharajah]].<ref>{{cite book|title = Genghis Khan : a Biography |last=Stone |first=Zofia |year=2017 |publisher=Vij Books India Private Limited |isbn=9789386367112 |location=New Delhi |oclc=975222159 }}</ref> Local chieftains were appointed as [[Tusi]], recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, [[Ming dynasty|Ming]], and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]]-era governments, principally in the province of [[Yunnan]]. Succession for the Yuan dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son, [[Zhenjin]], as the [[Crown Prince]], but he died before Kublai in 1285.<ref>{{cite book |title=The rise and fall of the second largest empire in history : how Genghis Khan's Mongols almost conquered the world |last=Craughwell |first=Thomas J. |year=2010 |publisher = Fair Winds Press |isbn=9781616738518 |location=Beverly, MA |page=251 |oclc=777020257 }}</ref> Thus, Zhenjin's third son, with the support of his mother Kökejin and the minister [[Bayan of the Baarin|Bayan]], succeeded the throne and ruled as [[Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong of Yuan|Temür Khan]], or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as neighboring countries such as Vietnam,<ref>{{cite book |title=Transnationalism in ancient and medieval societies : the role of cross-border trade and travel |last=Howard |first=Michael C. |year=2012 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=9780786490332 |location=Jefferson, NC |page = 84 |oclc=779849477 }}</ref> which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However, the corruption in the Yuan dynasty began during the reign of Temür Khan.

==== Külüg Khan ====
[[File:Ser Marco Polo Ancient Chinese War Vessel.jpg|thumb|Painting of a 14th-century Yuan dynasty [[Junk (ship)|junk]]]]

[[Külüg Khan]] (Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, largely rejecting his objectives. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals", focused on monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307–11), the government fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan court faced popular discontent.<ref>{{cite book |title = Dynastic China : an elementary history |last=San |first=Tan Koon |publisher=The Other Press |year=2014 |isbn=9789839541885 |location=Kuala Lumpur |page=323 |oclc=898313910 }}</ref>

==== Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan ====
The fourth Yuan emperor, [[Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan|Buyantu Khan]] (born Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstream [[Culture of China|Chinese culture]] after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |title = Historical dictionary of Tibet |last1 = Powers |first1 = John |last2=Templeman |first2=David |year=2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0810879843 |location = Lanham, MD |page=742 |oclc=801440529 }}</ref> He had been mentored by [[Li Meng (Yuan dynasty)|Li Meng]], a [[Confucian]] academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of the [[Department of State Affairs]] ({{zh |t = 尚書省 |labels = no }}), which resulted in the execution of five of the highest-ranking officials.<ref name=":0" /> Starting in 1313 the traditional [[imperial examination]]s were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works.

==== Gegeen Khan and Yesün Temür ====
[[File:Miaoyingsi baita.jpg|thumb|left|White stupa in [[Miaoying Temple]]]]

Emperor [[Gegeen Khan]], Ayurbarwada's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father's policies to reform the government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grand [[Chancellor of China|chancellor]] Baiju. During his reign, the ''Da Yuan Tong Zhi'' ({{zh |c = 《大元通制》 |l = 'Comprehensive Institutions of the Great Yuan' |labels = no }}), a huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan dynasty begun by his father, was formally promulgated. Gegeen was assassinated in a [[coup]] involving five princes from a rival faction, perhaps steppe elite opposed to Confucian reforms. They placed [[Yesün Temür]] (or Taidingdi) on the throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to [[regicide]].

Before Yesün Temür's reign, China had been relatively free from popular rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression aggravated the financial difficulties of the Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase revenue, such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items.{{sfn|Hsiao|1994|p=551}}

==== Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür ====
[[File:柏林禅寺舍利塔 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Pagoda of Bailin Temple|Bailin Temple Pagoda]] of Zhaoxian County, [[Hebei]] Province, built in 1330 during the Yuan dynasty.]]

When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, [[Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür|Tugh Temür]] was recalled to [[Khanbaliq]] by the [[Qipchaq]] commander [[El Temür]]. He was installed as the emperor (Emperor Wenzong) in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son [[Ragibagh]] succeeded to the throne in Shangdu with the support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as the [[War of the Two Capitals]]. Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdicated in favour of his brother [[Khutughtu Khan Kusala|Kusala]], who was backed by Chagatai Khan [[Eljigidey]], and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after a banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as [[Golden Horde]] and [[Ilkhanate]] to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world.{{sfn|Hsiao|1994|p=550}} However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.

Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many measures honoring [[Confucianism]] and promoting [[Culture of China|Chinese cultural values]]. His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was founding the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature ({{zh |t = 奎章閣學士院 |labels = no }}), first established in the spring of 1329 and designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to the transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment". The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional [[compendium]] named ''Jingshi Dadian'' ({{zh |t = 《經世大典》 |labels = no }}). Tugh Temür supported [[Zhu Xi]]'s [[Neo-Confucianism]] and also devoted himself in [[Buddhism]].

==== Toghon Temür ====
After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequent death of [[Rinchinbal Khan|Rinchinbal]] (Emperor Ningzong) the same year, the 13-year-old [[Toghon Temür]] (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was summoned back from [[Guangxi]] and succeeded to the throne. After El Temür's death, [[Bayan of the Merkid|Bayan]] became as powerful an official as El Temür had been in the beginning of his long reign. As Toghon Temür grew, he came to disapprove of Bayan's autocratic rule. In 1340 he allied himself with Bayan's nephew [[Toqto'a (Yuan dynasty)|Toqto'a]], who was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. With the dismissal of Bayan, Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalled [[Twenty-Four Histories|official histories]] of the [[Liao dynasty|Liao]], [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]], and [[Song dynasty|Song]] dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toqto'a resigned his office with the approval of Toghon Temür, marking the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349.

=== Decline of the empire ===
[[File:Belt plaque with dragon design.jpg|thumb|A Yuan dynasty [[jade]] belt plaque featuring carved designs of a [[Chinese dragon|dragon]]]]

[[File:Yuan Dynasty, porcelain dish, mid 14th century.jpg|thumb|A Yuan dynasty blue-and-white [[porcelain]] dish with fish and flowing water design, mid-14th century, [[Freer Gallery of Art]]]]

The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. [[Outlaw]]s ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies.

From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and the resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, the [[Red Turban Rebellion]] led by Song loyalists started and grew into a nationwide uprising and the Song loyalists established a renewed Song dynasty in 1351 with its capital at Kaifeng. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghon Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghon Temür's restoration of power on the one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. He fled north to [[Shangdu]] from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the [[Míng dynasty]] (1368–1644), founded by [[Zhu Yuanzhang]] in the south. Zhu Yuanzhang was a former Duke and commander in the army of the Red Turban Song dynasty and assumed power as Emperor after the death of the Red Turban Song Emperor Han Lin'er, who had tried to regain Khanbaliq, which eventually failed, and who died in [[Yingchang]] (located in present-day [[Inner Mongolia]]) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some royal family members still live in [[Henan]] today.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://news.xinmin.cn/domestic/zonghe/2007/02/06/149732.html |title = 成吉思汗直系后裔现身河南巨幅家谱为证(组图)_新民网 |website = News.xinmin.cn |date = 2007-02-06 |access-date = 2016-05-27 }}</ref>

The [[Liang (realm)|Prince of Liang]], [[Basalawarmi]] established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in [[Yunnan]] and [[Guizhou]], but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces in [[Manchuria]] under [[Naghachu]] had also [[Ming campaign against Naghachu|surrendered to the Ming dynasty]]. The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great Yuan (大元) was formally carried on, and is known as the [[Northern Yuan dynasty]].<ref name="The History of China" />

== Impact ==
[[File:Chinese celadon vase Branly 71.1886.89.1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|[[Yuan Dynasty]] era [[Celadon]] vase from [[Mogadishu]].]]
[[File:BLW Wall-tile with Dragon.jpg|thumb|[[Ilkhanate]] [[Rub el Hizb|wall-tile]] containing the [[Azure dragon]].]]

A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of [[drama]] and the [[novel]] and the increased use of the [[Vernacular Chinese|written vernacular]]. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the [[Mongol World Empire]] also very much influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across [[Asia]] until its decline; the communications between Yuan dynasty and its ally and subordinate in [[Persia]], the [[Ilkhanate]], encouraged this development.{{sfn|Guzman|1988|pp=568–570}}{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=211}} Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan-rite [[Tantric Buddhism]] had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of the Yuan dynasty introduced [[Middle Eastern]] [[cartography]], [[astronomy]], medicine, clothing, and diet in East Asia. Eastern crops such as [[carrot]]s, [[turnip]]s, new varieties of [[lemon]]s, [[eggplant]]s, and [[melon]]s, high-quality granulated [[sugar]], and [[cotton]] were all either introduced or successfully popularized during the Yuan dynasty.<ref name="Mongol Empire p.611">C.P. Atwood – Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.611</ref>

Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to [[Islam]], by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. [[Nestorianism]] and [[Roman Catholicism]] also enjoyed a period of toleration. [[Buddhism]] (especially [[Tibetan Buddhism]]) flourished, although [[Taoism]] endured certain persecutions in favor of Buddhism from the Yuan government. [[Confucian]] governmental practices and examinations based on the [[Chinese classic texts|Classics]], which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Yuan court, probably in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, [[cartography]], [[geography]], and scientific education.

[[File:Plate; Yuan Dynasty; Lacquer, wood, and fabric.jpg|thumb|left|A plate made of [[lacquerware|lacquer]], wood, and paper from the Yuan dynasty. The Chinese were able to perfect a method of making lacquer. Decorating this plate are parrots and peonies. The parrot was a symbol of fidelity; because of its ability to mimic human speech, it was believed to be a suitable companion to a woman whose husband was away from home. The bird would be able to inform each person of the other's activities. The peony was a symbol of female virtue. When shown in full bloom, it is a token of love, affection, and feminine beauty.<ref>{{cite book |author = Birmingham Museum of Art | title = Birmingham Museum of Art: A Guide to the Collection | publisher = Giles | year = 2010 | location = London | page = 28 | url = http://www.birminghammuseumstore.org/bmapu.html | access-date = 2011-07-01 | isbn = 978-1-904832-77-5 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110910171150/http://www.birminghammuseumstore.org/bmapu.html | archive-date = 10 September 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> [[Birmingham Museum of Art]].]]

Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified [[Potassium nitrate|saltpetre]], printing techniques, [[porcelain]], [[playing cards]], and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of thin [[glass]] and [[cloisonné]] became popular in China. The Yuan exercised a profound influence on the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368–97) admired the Mongols' unification of China and adopted its garrison system.<ref name="Mongol Empire p.611" />

Aside from the [[Sino-Roman relations|ancient Roman embassies]], the [[Europeans in Medieval China|first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back]] date from this time. The most famous traveler of the period was the [[Venice|Venetian]] [[Marco Polo]], whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the capital of the Great Khan, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, ''Il milione'' (or, ''The Million'', known in English as the ''Travels of Marco Polo''), appeared about the year 1299. Some doubted the accuracy of Marco Polo's accounts due to the lack of mentioning the Great Wall of China, tea houses, which would have been a prominent sight since Europeans had yet to adopt a tea culture, as well the practice of foot binding by the women in capital of the Great Khan. Recent studies however show that Polo's account is largely accurate and unique.<ref name="vogel">{{cite book |author=Hans Ulrich Vogel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ydo_9TEmuVQC&pg=PA1 |title=Marco Polo Was in China: New Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues|publisher= BRILL |date=21 November 2012|isbn= 978-9004231931}}</ref><ref name=polo>{{citation |first=Stephen G. |last=Haw |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-34850-8 |title=Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the realm of Khubilai Khan |series=Volume 3 of Routledge studies in the early history of Asia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DSfvfr8VQSEC&pg=PA54 |pages=52–57}}</ref>

The Yuan undertook extensive public works. Among Kublai Khan's top engineers and scientists was the astronomer [[Guo Shoujing]], who was tasked with many public works projects and helped the Yuan reform the [[lunisolar calendar]] to provide an accuracy of 365.2425 days of the year,<ref>{{cite web|author=Marilyn Shea |url=http://hua.umf.maine.edu/China/astronomy/tianpage/0018Guo_Shoujing6603w.html |title=Guo Shoujing – 郭守敬 – Chinese Astronomy – 中国天文学 |publisher=Hua.umf.maine.edu |access-date=2016-05-27}}</ref> which was only 26 seconds off the modern [[Gregorian calendar]]'s measurement. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, [[granary|granaries]] were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the [[Grand Canal of China]], which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout [[Asia]] and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major food crop, [[sorghum]], along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation.

The Yuan dynasty was the first dynasty founded by non-[[Han Chinese|Han]] ethnicity that ruled all of [[China proper]]. In the historiography of Mongolia, it is generally considered to be the continuation of the Mongol Empire. Mongols are widely known to worship the Eternal Heaven, and according to the traditional Mongolian ideology Yuan is considered to be "the beginning of an infinite number of beings, the foundation of peace and happiness, state power, the dream of many peoples, besides it there is nothing great or precious."<ref>Ganbold et al., op. cit., 2006, p.20–21.</ref> In traditional [[historiography of China]], on the other hand, the Yuan dynasty is usually considered to be the legitimate dynasty between the [[Song dynasty]] and the [[Ming dynasty]]. Note, however, Yuan dynasty is traditionally often extended to cover the Mongol Empire before [[Kublai Khan]]'s formal establishment of the Yuan in 1271, partly because Kublai officially honored prior rulers of the Mongol Empire as Yuan emperors by conferring them [[posthumous name]]s and [[temple name]]s. Despite the traditional historiography as well as the official views (including the government of the Ming dynasty which overthrew the Yuan dynasty), there also exist Chinese people{{who|date=March 2014}} who did not consider the Yuan dynasty as a legitimate dynasty of China, but rather as a period of foreign domination. The latter believe that Hans were treated as [[second-class citizen]]s,{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} and that China stagnated economically and scientifically.

The dynasty chose white as its imperial color, which corresponds to the Metal element according to the theory of the [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Five Elements]] (wuxing). Note that the Metal element does not follow from the Song's dynastic element Five in the creation sequence of the five elements. Instead, it follows from the Jin Dynast's dynastic element Earth. Although the Yuan did not openly announce it, its choice of white as its imperial color suggests that it considered Jin, another conquest dynasty, rather than the Han-Chinese Song dynasty, as its rightful predecessor.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yuan Julian|title="Legitimation Discourse and the Theory of the Five Elements in Imperial China." Journal of Song-Yuan Studies 44 (2014): 325–364.|journal=Journal of Song-Yuan Studies|url=https://www.academia.edu/23276848|language=en}}</ref>

The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the [[Ilkhanid]]s, the Chinese Huangdi (Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy clout upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Central Asiatic Journal|journal=Central Asiatic Journal |volume=52 |url=https://www.academia.edu/3725455|year=2008|page=46|last1=Ho|first1=Kai-Lung}}</ref>

== Government ==
{{See also||Mongolian nobility#Mongol Empire (1206–1368) and Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)}}

[[File:Yuan coinage.jpg|thumb|[[Yuan dynasty coinage]]]]
[[File:Evolution map of the Northwest territory of the Yuan Dynasty in Haiguotuzhi.jpg|thumb|Map of the Northwest territory]]

The structure of the Yuan government took shape during the reign of [[Kublai Khan]] (1260–1294). While some changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368.

The system of bureaucracy created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of the [[Han Chinese|Hans]], [[Khitan people|Khitans]], [[Jurchen people|Jurchens]], [[Mongol]]s, and [[Tibetan Buddhist]]s. While the official terminology of the institutions may indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese-style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came from the native [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], [[Song dynasty|Song]], as well as Khitan [[Liao dynasty|Liao]] and Jurchen [[Jin dynasty (1115-1234)|Jin]] dynasties. Chinese advisers such as [[Liu Bingzhong]] and [[Yao Shu]] gave strong influence to Kublai's early court, and the central government administration was established within the first decade of Kublai's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartite [[separation of powers|division of authority]] among [[civil affairs|civil]], military, and [[Censorate|censorial]] offices, including the [[Zhongshu Sheng|Central Secretariat]] (Zhongshu Sheng) to manage civil affairs, the [[Privy Council]] ({{zh |t = 樞密院 |p = Shūmì Yuàn |labels = no }}) to manage military affairs, and the [[Censorate]] to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local government institutions, however, showed a major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Nevertheless, such a civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese-style [[Three Departments and Six Ministries|Six Ministries]]), was created in China. At various times another central government institution called the [[Department of State Affairs]] (Shangshu Sheng) that mainly dealt with [[finance]] was established (such as during the reign of [[Külüg Khan]] or Emperor Wuzong), but was usually abandoned shortly afterwards.

While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced since the [[Sui dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] dynasties) gave a Sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshaped and redirected those institutions. For example, the authority of the Yuan legal system, the [[Ministry of Justice]], did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols and [[Semuren]], who had separate courts of justice. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic group were decided by a mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance of the [[Ministry of War (imperial China)|Ministry of War]] compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council.

The [[Kingdom of Qocho]], [[Kingdom of Dali]], [[Chiefdom of Bozhou]], other [[Tusi]] kingdoms and [[Goryeo]] were ruled by kings inside the Yuan empire.

== Science and technology ==
{{Main|Science and technology of the Yuan dynasty}}

=== Mathematics ===
{{Further|Chinese mathematics}}

[[File:Yanghui triangle.gif|thumb|right|A diagram of [[Pascal's triangle]] in [[Zhu Shijie]]'s ''[[Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns]]'', written in 1303]]
[[File:Yang_Hui_magic_circle.svg|thumb|right|[[Yang Hui]]'s Magic Circle]]

Advances in polynomial algebra were made by mathematicians during the Yuan era. The mathematician [[Zhu Shijie]] (1249–1314) solved [[simultaneous equations]] with up to four unknowns using a rectangular array of coefficients, equivalent to modern [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrices]].{{sfn|Joseph|2011|p=196}}{{sfn|Dauben|2007|p=344}} Zhu used a method of elimination to reduce the simultaneous equations to a single equation with only one unknown.{{sfn|Dauben|2007|p=346}} His method is described in the ''[[Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns]]'', written in 1303. The opening pages contain a diagram of [[Pascal's triangle]]. The summation of a finite arithmetic series is also covered in the book.{{sfn|Ho|1985|p=101}}

[[Guo Shoujing]] applied mathematics to the construction of calendars. He was one of the first mathematicians in China to work on spherical trigonometry.{{sfn|Ho|1985|p=105}} Gou derived a cubic interpolation formula for his astronomical calculations.{{sfn|Joseph|2011|p=247}} His calendar, the ''Shoushi Li'' ({{zh |t = 《授時暦》 |l = 'Time Granting Calendar' |labels = no }}), was disseminated in 1281 as the official calendar of the Yuan dynasty.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=172}} The calendar may have been influenced solely by the work of [[Song dynasty]] astronomer [[Shen Kuo]] or possibly by the work of Arab astronomers.{{sfn|Ho|1985|p=105}} There are no explicit signs of Muslim influences in the Shoushi calendar, but Mongol rulers were known to be interested in Muslim calendars.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=172}} Mathematical knowledge from the Middle East was introduced to China under the Mongols, and Muslim astronomers brought [[Arabic numerals]] to China in the 13th century.{{sfn|Ho|1985|p=105}}

=== Medicine ===
The physicians of the Yuan court came from diverse cultures.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=142}} Healers were divided into non-Mongol physicians called ''otachi'' and traditional Mongol shamans. The Mongols characterized ''otachi'' doctors by their use of herbal remedies, which was distinguished from the spiritual cures of Mongol shamanism.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=142}} Physicians received official support from the Yuan government and were given special legal privileges. Kublai created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to manage medical treatises and the education of new doctors.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=125}} Confucian scholars were attracted to the medical profession because it ensured a high income and medical ethics were compatible with Confucian virtues.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=157}}{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=125}}

The Chinese medical tradition of the Yuan had "Four Great Schools" that the Yuan inherited from the Jin dynasty. All four schools were based on the same intellectual foundation, but advocated different theoretical approaches toward medicine.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=157}} Under the Mongols, the practice of Chinese medicine spread to other parts of the empire. Chinese physicians were brought along military campaigns by the Mongols as they expanded towards the west. Chinese medical techniques such as [[acupuncture]], [[moxibustion]], [[pulse diagnosis]], and various herbal drugs and elixirs were transmitted westward to the Middle East and the rest of the empire.{{sfn|Lane|2006|pp=138–139}} Several medical advances were made in the Yuan period. The physician [[Wei Yilin]] (1277–1347) invented a suspension method for [[Reduction (orthopedic surgery)|reducing]] dislocated joints, which he performed using anesthetics.{{sfn|Lane|2006|p=140}} The Mongol physician [[Hu Sihui]] described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise.{{sfn|Lane|2006|p=140}}

Western medicine was also practiced in China by the Nestorian Christians of the Yuan court, where it was sometimes labeled as ''huihui'' or Muslim medicine.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=151}} The Nestorian physician Jesus the Interpreter founded the Office of Western Medicine in 1263 during the reign of Kublai.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=155}} Huihui doctors staffed at two imperial hospitals were responsible for treating the imperial family and members of the court.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=125}} Chinese physicians opposed Western medicine because its [[Humorism|humoral system]] contradicted the [[yin and yang|yin-yang]] and wuxing philosophy underlying traditional Chinese medicine.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=157}} No Chinese translation of Western medical works is known, but it is possible that the Chinese had access to [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]''.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=151}}

=== Printing and publishing ===
[[File:Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing plate 1287.jpg|thumb|Yuan dynasty [[banknote]] with its printing plate, 1287]]
[[File:Chinese movable type 1313-ce.png|thumb|right|A revolving typecase with individual [[movable type]] characters from [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]]'s ''Nong Shu'', published in 1313]]

The Mongol rulers patronized the Yuan printing industry.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=182}}{{sfn|Wu|1950|p=460}} Chinese printing technology was transferred to the Mongols through [[Kingdom of Qocho]] and Tibetan intermediaries.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=182}} Some Yuan documents such as [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]]'s ''Nong Shu'' were printed with earthenware [[movable type]], a technology invented in the 12th century. However, most published works were still produced through traditional [[block printing]] techniques.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|pp=176–177}} The publication of a Taoist text inscribed with the name of [[Töregene Khatun]], Ögedei's wife, is one of the first printed works sponsored by the Mongols. In 1273, the Mongols created the Imperial Library Directorate, a government-sponsored printing office.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=182}} The Yuan government established centers for printing throughout China.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=182}} Local schools and government agencies were funded to support the publishing of books.{{sfn|Wu|1950|p=463}}

Private printing businesses also flourished under the Yuan. They published a diverse range of works, and printed educational, literary, medical, religious, and historical texts. The volume of printed materials was vast.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=181}} In 1312, 1,000 copies of a Buddhist text commented by Cosgi Odsir were printed just within Beijing.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=183}} By 1328, annual sales of printed calendars and almanacs reached over three million in the Yuan dynasty.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=184}}

One of the more notable applications of printing technology was the ''[[Jiaochao]]'', the paper money of the Yuan. Jiaochao were made from the bark of mulberry trees.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=183}} The Yuan government used woodblocks to print paper money, but switched to bronze plates in 1275.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=179}} The Mongols experimented with establishing the Chinese-style paper monetary system in Mongol-controlled territories outside of China. The Yuan minister [[Bolad]] was sent to Iran, where he explained Yuan paper money to the Il-khanate court of [[Gaykhatu]].{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=177}} The Il-khanate government issued paper money in 1294, but public distrust of the exotic new currency doomed the experiment.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=178}}

Foreign observers took note of Yuan printing technology. Marco Polo documented the Yuan printing of paper money and almanac pamphlets called ''tacuini''.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=183}} The vizier [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani|Rashid-al-Din]] recognized that printing was a valuable technological breakthrough, and expressed regret that the Mongol experiment with printing paper money had failed in the Muslim world. Rashid-al-Din's view was not shared by other chroniclers in the Middle East, who were critical of the experiment's disruptive impact on the Il-khanate.{{sfn|Allsen|2001|p=184}}

=== Ceramics ===
[[File:BW Jar FFD RBG.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|right|Blue-and-white Covered Jar with Fretwork Floral Design in Red and Blue Glaze, excavated in Baoding.]]

In [[Chinese ceramics]] the period was one of expansion, with the great innovation the development in [[Jingdezhen ware]] of [[underglaze]] painted [[blue and white pottery]]. This seems to have begun in the early decades of the 14th century, and by the end of the dynasty was mature and well-established. Other major types of wares continued without a sharp break in their development, but there was a general trend to some larger size pieces, and more decoration. This is often seen as a decline from Song refinement. Exports expanded considerably, especially to the Islamic world.

== Society ==
{{See also|Society of the Mongol Empire}}

=== Imperial lifestyle ===
[[File:Liu-Kuan-Tao-Jagd.JPG|thumb|Painting of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280]]

Since its invention in 1269, the [['Phags-pa script]], a unified script for spelling [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]], and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] languages, was preserved in the court until the end of the dynasty. Most of the Emperors could not master [[written Chinese]], but they could generally converse well in the language. The Mongol custom of long standing quda/marriage alliance with Mongol clans, the [[Onggirat]], and the Ikeres, kept the imperial blood purely Mongol until the reign of [[Tugh Temur]] (Emperor Wenzong), whose mother was a [[Tangut people|Tangut]] concubine. The Mongol Emperors had built large palaces and pavilions, but some still continued to live as nomads at times. Tugh Temür was an example of a Yuan emperor who actively sponsored cultural activities; including in his imperial capacity and in his personal activities such as writing [[Yuan poetry|poetry]], [[painting]], reading [[Chinese classics|Chinese classical texts]], and ordering the compilation of books.{{sfn|Mote|1999|p=471}}

The average Mongol garrison family of the Yuan dynasty seems to have lived a life of decaying rural leisure, with income from the harvests of their Chinese tenants eaten up by costs of equipping and dispatching men for their tours of duty. The Mongols practiced debt slavery, and by 1290 in all parts of the Mongol Empire commoners were selling their children into slavery. Seeing this as damaging to the Mongol nation, Kublai in 1291 forbade the sale abroad of Mongols. Kublai wished to persuade the Chinese that he was becoming increasingly [[sinicized]] while maintaining his Mongolian credentials with his own people. He set up a civilian administration to rule, built a capital within China, supported Chinese religions and culture, and devised suitable economic and political institutions for the court. But at the same time he never abandoned his Mongolian heritage.<ref>The Cambridge History of China (Volume 6), by Denis C. Twitchett, Herbert Franke, John King Fairbank, p. 488-489</ref>

=== Culture ===
{{See also|Yuan poetry|Zaju}}
[[File:Wine Jar with Fish and Aquatic Plants, 52.87.1.jpg|thumb|left|Wine jar with fish and aquatic plants, 14th century. Porcelain with underglaze cobalt blue decoration. [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]

During the Yuan dynasty, various important developments in the arts occurred or continued in their development, including the areas of painting, mathematics, calligraphy, poetry, and theater, with many great artists and writers being famous today. Due to the coming together of painting, poetry, and calligraphy at this time many of the artists practicing these different pursuits were the same individuals, though perhaps more famed for one area of their achievements than others. Often in terms of the further development of [[Shan shui|landscape painting]] as well as the classical joining together of the arts of painting, poetry, and calligraphy, the [[Song dynasty]] and the Yuan dynasty are linked together.

In [[Chinese painting]] during the Yuan dynasty there were [[:Category:Yuan dynasty painters|many famous painters]]. In the area of [[Chinese calligraphy|calligraphy]] many of the great calligraphers were from the Yuan dynasty era. In [[Yuan poetry]], the main development was the ''[[Qu (poetry)|qu]]'', which was used among other poetic forms by most of the [[:Category:Yuan dynasty poets|famous Yuan poets]]. Many of the poets were also involved in the major developments in the [[Chinese opera|theater]] during this time, and the other way around, with people important in the theater becoming famous through the development of the ''[[Chinese Sanqu poetry|sanqu]]'' type of ''qu''. One of the key factors in the mix of the ''[[Zaju|zaju variety show]]'' was the incorporation of poetry both classical and of the newer ''qu'' form. One of the important cultural developments during the Yuan era was the consolidation of poetry, painting, and calligraphy into a unified piece of the type that tends to come to mind when people think of classical Chinese art. Another important aspect of Yuan times is the increasing incorporation of the then current, vernacular Chinese into both the ''qu'' form of poetry and the ''zaju'' variety show. Another important consideration regarding Yuan dynasty arts and culture is that so much of it has survived in China, relatively to works from the [[Tang dynasty]] and Song dynasty, which have often been better preserved in places such as the [[Shōsōin]], in Japan.

=== Religion ===
{{See also|Islam during the Yuan dynasty|Religion in the Mongol Empire}}

[[File:Yüen dynasty Manichaean diagram of the Universe.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Manichaean Diagram of the Universe]]'', a painting describing Yuan period [[Manichaean]] cosmology.]]

There were many religions practiced during the Yuan dynasty, such as [[Buddhism]], [[Islam]], [[Christianity]] and [[Manichaeism]]. The establishment of the Yuan dynasty had dramatically increased the number of [[Muslim]]s in China. However, unlike the western khanates, the Yuan dynasty never converted to Islam. Instead, Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty, favored Buddhism, especially the Tibetan variants. As a result, [[Tibetan Buddhism]] was established as the ''de facto'' [[state religion]]. The top-level department and government agency known as the [[Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs]] (Xuanzheng Yuan) was set up in [[Khanbaliq]] (modern [[Beijing]]) to supervise [[Buddhist monk]]s throughout the empire. Since Kublai Khan only esteemed the [[Sakya]] sect of Tibetan Buddhism, other religions became less important. He and his successors kept a Sakya [[Imperial Preceptor]] (Dishi) at court. Before the end of the Yuan dynasty, 14 leaders of the Sakya sect had held the post of Imperial Preceptor, thereby enjoying special power.<ref>''History of civilizations of Central Asia: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century''. Part two: The achievements, p. 59</ref> Furthermore, Mongol patronage of Buddhism resulted in a number of monuments of Buddhist art. Mongolian Buddhist translations, almost all from Tibetan originals, began on a large scale after 1300. Many Mongols of the upper class such as the [[Jalayir]] and the Oronar nobles as well as the emperors also patronized [[Confucian]] scholars and institutions. A considerable number of Confucian and Chinese historical works were translated into the [[Mongolian language]].

[[File:Yuan porcelain buddha.JPG|thumb|left|A Yuan [[Qingbai]] porcelain statue of [[Guanyin]], a [[bodhisattva]] of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism]]

At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.<ref name="buell1979">{{cite journal |jstor = 41930343|journal=Journal of Asian History |title=Sino-Khitan Administration in Mongol Bukhara |last=Buell |first=Paul D. |volume= 13 |number=2 |date=1979 |pages=137–8 }}</ref>

Genghis Khan and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&pg=PA24 |title=China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects |author=Michael Dillon |year=1999 |publisher=Curzon Press |location=Richmond |page = 24 |isbn = 978-0-7007-1026-3 |access-date=2010-06-28}}</ref> Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves" and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. [[Circumcision]] was also forbidden. Jews were also affected and forbidden by the Mongols to eat [[Kosher]].<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&pg=PA230 |title = Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road |author = Johan Elverskog |year=2010 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |edition = illustrated |page=228 |isbn = 978-0-8122-4237-9 |access-date = 2010-06-28 }}</ref>

<blockquote>
Among all the [subject] alien peoples only the Hui-hui say “we do not eat Mongol food”. [Cinggis Qa’an replied:] “By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?” He thereupon made them eat. “If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime.” He issued a regulation to that effect ... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the Muslims say: “if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat”. Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |title = The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims |author = Donald Daniel Leslie |year = 1998 |page = 12 |publisher = The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology |access-date = 30 November 2010 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |archive-date = 17 December 2010 |df = dmy-all }}</ref>
</blockquote>

The Muslims in the semu class revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the [[Ispah Rebellion]], but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese meaning "barracks" and also meaning "thanks"; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Hans for assisting them.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kkJwAAAAMAAJ&q=popular+belief+mongols |title=Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic |author = Dru C. Gladney |year=1991 |publisher = Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University |page=234 |edition = 2, illustrated, reprint |isbn = 978-0-674-59495-1 |access-date = 2010-06-28}}</ref>

During the [[Ming conquest of Yunnan]], Muslim generals [[Mu Ying]] and [[Lan Yu (general)|Lan Yu]] led Muslim troops loyal to the Ming dynasty against Mongol and Muslim troops loyal to the Yuan dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vIUmU2ytmIIC&q=zhu+yuanzhang+mosques&pg=PA170 |title = Cheng Ho and Islam in Southeast Asia |author=Tan Ta Sen, Dasheng Chen |year=2009 |publisher = Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn = 978-981-230-837-5 |page = 170 |access-date = 2010-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hUEswLE4SWUC&q=lan+yu+yunnan+muslim&pg=PA34 |title=China's Muslim Hui community: migration, settlement and sects |author=Michael Dillon |year=1999 |publisher=Curzon Press |location=Richmond |page=34 |isbn = 978-0-7007-1026-3 |access-date = 2010-06-28}}</ref>

[[Hindu]] statues were found in [[Quanzhou]] dating to the Yuan period.<ref>{{cite web |first = Chung-wah |last = Chow |url = http://travel.cnn.com/quanzhou-chinas-forgotten-historic-port-258149/ |title = What to do in Quanzhou: China's forgotten historic port | CNN Travel |website = Travel.cnn.com |date = 2012-09-07 |access-date = 2016-05-27 }}</ref>

=== Social classes ===
Politically, the system of government created by Kublai Khan was the product of a compromise between Mongolian patrimonial [[feudalism]] and the traditional Chinese [[autocratic]]-[[bureaucratic]] system. Nevertheless, socially the educated Chinese [[elite]] were in general not given the degree of esteem that they had been accorded previously under native Chinese dynasties. Although the traditional Chinese elite were not given their share of power, the Mongols and the [[Semu]] people (various allied groups from [[Central Asia]] and the western end of the empire) largely remained strangers to the mainstream [[Chinese culture]], and this dichotomy gave the Yuan regime a somewhat strong "[[Colonialism|colonial]]" coloration.{{sfn|Hsiao|1994|pp=491–492}} The unequal treatment is possibly due to the fear of transferring power to the ethnic Chinese under their rule. The Mongols and Semuren were given certain advantages in the dynasty, and this would last even after the restoration of the [[imperial examination]] in the early 14th century. In general there were very few North Chinese or Southerners reaching the highest-post in the government compared with the possibility that Persians did so in the [[Ilkhanate]].{{sfn|Morgan|1982|p=135}} Later the [[Yongle Emperor]] of the [[Ming dynasty]] also mentioned the discrimination that existed during the Yuan dynasty. In response to an objection against the use of "barbarians" in his government, the Yongle Emperor answered: "... Discrimination was used by the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty, who employed only "Mongols and Tartars" and discarded northern and southern Chinese and this was precisely the cause that brought disaster upon them".{{sfn|Morgan|1982|pp=124–136}}

[[File:Brown-glazed Jar with Design of Three Fish. Yuan Dynasty. Excavated from Hancheng City.jpg|thumb|Brown-glazed Jar with Design of Three Fish. Yuan dynasty. Excavated from [[Hancheng]] City]]

The Mongols had employed foreigners long before the reign of Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty. But during Kublai's reign a hierarchy of reliability was introduced in China. The population was divided into the following classes:
# [[Mongols]]. The Mongols were called "Gao-chen" (the citizens of the ruling empire) by the conquered Southern Song population<ref>Natsagdorj, S., and C. Dalai. 2003. “Yuan gürnii üyeiin Mongol oron.” In Mongol Ulsiin Tuukh, vol. 2: XII-XIV Zuunii Dund üy, edited by C. Dalai and T. Ishdorj. Ulaanbaatar: Admon, p. 225</ref>
# [[Semu]], consisting of non-Mongol foreigners from the west and [[Central Asia]], like [[Kingdom of Qocho|Buddhist Uyghurs from Turfan]], [[Tanguts]], [[Tibetans]], [[History of the Jews in China|Jews]], Nestorian Christians, and Muslims from Central Asia
# "[[Han Chinese|Han]]", or all subjects of the former Jin dynasty, including [[Han Chinese|Hans]], [[Khitans]], [[Jurchens]] in [[Northern and southern China|northern China]], and other peoples like [[Koreans]]<ref name="Mote2003">{{cite book |first = Frederick W. |last = Mote |author-link = Frederick W. Mote |title = Imperial China 900–1800 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SQWW7QgUH4gC&pg=PA490 |year=2003 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn = 978-0-674-01212-7 |pages = 490– }}</ref><ref name="Tanner2010">{{cite book |first = Harold Miles |last = Tanner |title = China: A History: Volume 1: From Neolithic cultures through the Great Qing Empire 10,000 BCE–1799 CE |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ePBeFRJnE_gC&pg=PA257 |date = 12 March 2010 |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company |isbn = 978-1-60384-564-9 |pages = 257– }}</ref><ref name="Tanner2009">{{cite book |first = Harold Miles |last = Tanner |title = China: A History |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA257 |date=13 March 2009 |publisher=Hackett Publishing |isbn = 978-0-87220-915-2 |pages = 257–}}</ref><ref name="Kupfer2008">{{cite book |first = Peter |last = Kupfer |title = Youtai - Presence and Perception of Jews and Judaism in China |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hCJNQPszu5sC&pg=PA189 |year=2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-631-57533-8 |pages=189– }}</ref><ref name="Oh2013">{{cite book |first = Young Kyun |last = Oh |title = Engraving Virtue: The Printing History of a Premodern Korean Moral Primer |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1QZ-FNbV-NUC&pg=PA50 |date=24 May 2013 |publisher = Brill |isbn = 978-90-04-25196-0 |pages=50– }}</ref><ref name="Zhao2008">{{cite book |first = George Qingzhi |last = Zhao |title = Marriage as Political Strategy and Cultural Expression: Mongolian Royal Marriages from World Empire to Yuan Dynasty |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XnIIbzweN7IC&pg=PA24 |year=2008 |publisher = Peter Lang |isbn = 978-1-4331-0275-2 |pages=24– }}</ref><ref name="Rossabi1983">{{cite book |first = Morris |last = Rossabi |title = China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&pg=PA247 |year=1983 |publisher = University of California Press |isbn = 978-0-520-04562-0 |pages=247– }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url = https://www.academia.edu/7542628 |title = The Semu ren in the Yuan Empire - who were they? | Stephen G. Haw |website=Academia.edu |date=1970-01-01 |access-date=2016-05-27 |last = Haw |first = Stephen G. }}</ref>
# Southerners, or all subjects of the former Southern Song dynasty, including Hans and minority native ethnic groups in [[Northern and southern China|southern China]], sometimes called "Manzi" during the Yuan

Partner merchants and non-Mongol overseers were usually either immigrants or local ethnic groups. Thus, in China they were [[Kingdom of Qocho|Uighur Buddhists]], [[Turkestani]] and [[Persian people|Persian]] Muslims, and [[Christians]]. Foreigners from outside the Mongol Empire entirely, such as the [[Marco Polo|Polo family]], were everywhere welcomed.

At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in [[Bukhara]] in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.<ref name="buell1979" /> Hans were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq, [[Olmaliq|Almaliq]], and [[Samarqand]] by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers.<ref>{{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=B934LaVBaz8C&pg=PA96 |title = The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the ... |first = Michal |last = Biran |page=96 |date=2005-09-15 |access-date = 2016-05-27 |isbn = 9780521842266 }}</ref> [[Alans]] were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called [[Asud|"Right Alan Guard"]] which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former [[Kingdom of Qocho]] and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi (Ch'i Kung-chih).<ref name="Rossabi 1983">{{cite book |author = Morris Rossabi |title = China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&q=alan+guard+mongols&pg=PA255 |year = 1983 |publisher = University of California Press |isbn = 978-0-520-04562-0 |pages = 255– }}</ref> After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators and co-management with Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) of gardens and fields in Samarqand was put upon the Muslims as a requirement since Muslims were not allowed to manage without them.<ref>{{cite book |title = E.J.W. Gibb memorial series |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=35pFAQAAIAAJ&q=After+the+Mongol+massacre+the+number+of+the+inhabitants+had+fallen+to+one+quarter+;+Muslims+were+allowed+to+manage+fields+and+gardens+only+conjointly+with+Chinese,+Qara-Khitays,+and+others,+and+the+chiefs+also+were+appointed+from+different+nations. |year=1928 |page = 451 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first = Emil |last = Bretschneider |author-link = Emil Bretschneider |year=1888 |title = Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources |chapter=The Travels of Ch'ang Ch'un to the West, 1220–1223 recorded by his disciple Li Chi Ch'ang |chapter-url = https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/changchun.html |publisher=Barnes & Noble |pages=37–108 }}</ref> The Yuan-appointed Governor of Samarqand was a Khitan from the [[Qara Khitai]], held the title Taishi, familiar with Chinese culture his name was Ahai.<ref>{{cite book |title = E.J.W. Gibb memorial series |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=35pFAQAAIAAJ&q=Ahai,+the+governor+of+the+town,+belonged+to+the+Qara-Khitays,+and+bore+the+title+of+taishi+;+he+was+acquainted+with+Chinese+culture,+since+he+served+as+interpreter+during+the+conversation+between+Ch%27ang-Ch%27un+and+Chingiz-Khan.+Ahai+lived+at+... |year=1928 |page=451 }}</ref>

Han officials and colonists were [[History of Siberia#Mongol conquest of Southern and Western Siberia|sent by the Yuan dynasty]] to areas of [[Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty|Lingbei province]] including {{lang|zh|[[w:zh:和宁路|Henning Circuit]], [[w:zh:益蘭州|Yilan Prefecture]], and [[w:zh:謙州|Qian Prefecture]]}}.<ref>{{cite book |trans-title = [[History of Yuan]] |script-title = zh:《元史》 |language = zh-Hant }}</ref>

[[File:The South Mosque of Jinan 2009-03.JPG|thumb|left|upright=0.9|[[Jinan Great Southern Mosque]] was completed during the reign of [[Temür Khan]] (the Emperor Chengzong of Yuan)]]

Despite the high position given to Muslims, some policies of the Yuan emperors severely discriminated against them, restricting Halal slaughter and other Islamic practices like circumcision, as well as [[Kosher]] butchering for Jews, forcing them to eat food the Mongol way.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |title = The Integration of Religious Minorities in China: The Case of Chinese Muslims |first = Donald Daniel |last = Leslie |year = 1998 |page = 12 |publisher = The Fifty-ninth George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology |access-date = 2010-11-30 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101217112014/http://islamicpopulation.com/asia/China/China_integration%20of%20religious%20minority.pdf |archive-date = 2010-12-17 }}</ref> Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined [[Han Chinese|Hans]] in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder [[Zhu Yuanzhang]] had Muslim generals like [[Lan Yu (general)|Lan Yu]] who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had a Chinese surname which meant "barracks" and could also mean "thanks". Many Hui Muslims claim this is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was given in thanks by the Hans for assisting them.<ref>{{cite book |url = {{Google books |plainurl = yes |id = kkJwAAAAMAAJ }} |title = Muslim Chinese: ethnic nationalism in the People's Republic |first = Dru C. |last = Gladney |year=1991 |publisher = Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University |page = 234 |edition = 2nd, illustrated, reprint |isbn = 978-0-674-59495-1 |access-date = 2010-06-28 }}</ref> During the war fighting the Mongols, among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang's armies was the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/scholarship.php?searchterm=005_dachang.inc&issue=005 |title = China's Islamic Communities Generate Local Histories |publisher=China Heritage Quarterly |date=2015-10-19 |access-date = 2016-05-27 }}</ref> The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the [[Ispah Rebellion]] but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.

The Yuan dynasty started passing anti-Muslim and anti-Semu laws and getting rid of Semu Muslim privileges towards the end of the Yuan dynasty, in 1340 forcing them to follow Confucian principles in marriage regulations, in 1329 all foreign holy men including Muslims had tax exemptions revoked, in 1328 the position of Muslim Qadi was abolished after its powers were limited in 1311. In the middle of the 14th century this caused Muslims to start rebelling against Mongol Yuan rule and joining rebel groups. In 1357–1367 the Yisibaxi Muslim Persian garrison started a revolt against the Yuan dynasty in Quanzhou and southern Fujian. Persian merchants Amin ud-Din (Amiliding) and Saif ud-Din) Saifuding led the revolt. Persian official Yawuna assassinated both Amin ud-Din and Saif ud-Din in 1362 and took control of the Muslim rebel forces. The Muslim rebels tried to strike north and took over some parts of Xinghua but were defeated at Fuzhou two times and failed to take it. Yuan provincial loyalist forces from Fuzhou defeated the Muslim rebels in 1367 after A Muslim rebel officer named Jin Ji defected from Yawuna.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Liu 刘 |first1=Yingsheng 迎胜 |editor1-last=Schottenhammer |editor1-first=Angela |title=The East Asian Mediterranean: Maritime Crossroads of Culture, Commerce and Human Migration |date=2008 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3447058094 |page=121 |edition=illustrated |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GSA_AaRdgioC&pg=PA121 |volume=Volume 6 of East Asian economic and socio-cultural studies: East Asian maritime history |issn=1860-1812 |chapter=Muslim Merchants in Mongol Yuan China}}</ref>

The Muslim merchants in Quanzhou who engaged in maritime trade enriched their families which encompassed their political and trade activities as families. Historians see the violent Chinese backlash that happened at the end of the Yuan dynasty against the wealth of the Muslim and Semu as something inevitable, however anti-Muslim and anti-Semu laws had already been passed by the Yuan dynasty. In 1340 all marriages had to follow Confucian rules, in 1329 all foreign holy men and clerics including Muslims no longer were exempt from tax, in 1328 the Qadi (Muslim headmen) were abolished after being limited in 1311. This resulted in anti-Mongol sentiment among Muslims so some anti-Mongol rebels in the mid 14th century were joined by Muslims. Quanzhou came under control of Amid ud-Din (Amiliding) and Saif ud-Din (Saifuding), two Persian military officials in 1357 as they revolted against the Mongols from 1357 to 1367 in southern Fujian and Quanzhou, leading the Persian garrison (Ispah) They fought for Fuzhou and Xinghua for 5 years. Both Saifuding and Amiliding were murdered by another Muslim called Nawuna in 1362 so he then took control of Quanzhou and the Ispah garrison for 5 more years until his defeat by the Yuan.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chaffee |first1=John W. |title=The Muslim Merchants of Premodern China: The History of a Maritime Asian Trade Diaspora, 750–1400 |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1108640091 |page=157 |series=New Approaches to Asian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IfBmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA157}}</ref>

The historian [[Frederick W. Mote]] wrote that the usage of the term "social classes" for this system was misleading and that the position of people within the four-class system was not an indication of their actual social power and wealth, but just entailed "degrees of privilege" to which they were entitled institutionally and legally, so a person's standing within the classes was not a guarantee of their standing, since there were rich and well socially standing Chinese while there were less rich Mongol and Semu than there were Mongol and Semu who lived in poverty and were ill-treated.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl = yes |id = SQWW7QgUH4gC |page = 492 }} Mote 2003], p. 492.</ref>

The reason for the order of the classes and the reason why people were placed in a certain class was the date they surrendered to the Mongols, and had nothing to do with their ethnicity. The earlier they surrendered to the Mongols, the higher they were placed, the more they held out, the lower they were ranked. The Northern Chinese were ranked higher and Southern Chinese were ranked lower because southern China withstood and fought to the last before caving in.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=sTPPAsiFDS4C |page=265 }} ed. Zhao 2007], p. 265.</ref><ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=iWH0AAAAMAAJ }} Bakhit 2000], p. 426.</ref> Major commerce during this era gave rise to favorable conditions for private southern Chinese manufacturers and merchants.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=RXOrZUlF_OoC |page=29 }} Ford 1991], p. 29.</ref>

When the Mongols placed the Uighurs of the [[Kingdom of Qocho]] over the Koreans at the court the Korean King objected, then the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean King, saying that the Uighur King of Qocho was ranked higher than the Karluk Kara-Khanid ruler, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean King, who was ranked last, because the Uighurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uighurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uighurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting.<ref>[{{Google books |plainurl = yes |id = sNpD5UKmkswC |page = 247 }} ed. Rossabi 1983], p. 247.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url = https://www.academia.edu/7542628 |title = The Semu ren in the Yuan Empire – who were they? | Stephen G. Haw |publisher=Academia.edu |date=1970-01-01 |access-date=2016-05-27 |last = Haw |first = Stephen G. }}</ref>

Japanese historians like Uematsu, Sugiyama and Morita criticized the perception that a four-class system existed under Mongol rule and Funada Yoshiyuki questioned the very existence of the Semu as a class.<ref>{{cite journal |url = https://www.academia.edu/2439642 |title = The Image of the Semu People: Mongols, Chinese, and Various Other Peoples under the Mongol Empire | Funada Yoshiyuki |journal = Paper Presented at the International Roundtable Entitled "The Nature of the Mongol Empire and Its Legacy", Centre for Studies in Asian Cultures and Social Anthropology, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna |date=1970-01-01 |access-date=2016-05-27 |last = Yoshiyuki |first = Funada }}</ref>

=== Nobility ===
{{main|Chinese nobility}}
Many [[Tusi]] chiefdoms and kingdoms in southwestern China which existed before the Mongol invasions were allowed to retain their integrity as vassals of the Yuan dynasty after surrendering, including the [[Kingdom of Dali]], the Han Chinese Yang family ruling the [[Chiefdom of Bozhou]] with its seat at the castle [[Hailongtun]], [[Chiefdom of Lijiang]],
[[Chiefdom of Shuidong]], [[Chiefdom of Sizhou]], [[Chiefdom of Yao'an]], [[Chiefdom of Yongning]] and [[Mu'ege]]. As were [[Korea under Mongol rule]] and the [[Kingdom of Qocho]].

The Han Chinese nobles [[Duke Yansheng]] and [[List of Celestial Masters|Celestial Masters]] continued possessing their titles in the Yuan dynasty since the previous dynasties.

==Administrative divisions==
{{Main|Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty}}
{{See also|Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia}}

[[File:Yuan Dynasty Administrative division 1330.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.15|Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty.]]

The territory of the Yuan dynasty was divided into the Central Region ({{lang|zh|腹裏}}) governed by the [[Zhongshu Sheng|Central Secretariat]] and places under control of various provinces ({{lang|zh|行省}}) or Branch Secretariats ({{lang|zh-Hant|行中書省}}), as well as the region under the [[Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs]].

The Central Region, consisting of present-day [[Hebei]], [[Shandong]], [[Shanxi]], the south-eastern part of present-day [[Inner Mongolia]] and the [[Henan]] areas to the north of the [[Yellow River]], was considered the most important region of the dynasty and directly governed by the Central Secretariat (or Zhongshu Sheng) at [[Khanbaliq]] (modern [[Beijing]]); similarly, another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (or Xuanzheng Yuan) [[Tibet under Yuan rule|held administrative rule]] over the whole of modern-day [[Tibet]] and a part of [[Sichuan]], [[Qinghai]] and [[Kashmir]].

Branch Secretariats or simply [[province]]s, were provincial-level administrative organizations or institutions, though they were not exactly provinces in modern sense. There were 11 "regular" provinces in Yuan dynasty,<ref>Duosang Mongol History, Vol. 1; Zhong-gou Tong-shi; History of Zhong-gou Border Nationalities; The New Yuan-shih</ref> and their administrations were subordinated to the Central Secretariat.

Below the level of provinces, the largest political division was the [[Circuit (administrative division)#China|circuit]] ({{lang|zh|道}}), followed by [[Circuit (administrative division)#China|lù]] ({{lang|zh|路}}), [[Fu (country subdivision)|fǔ]] ({{lang|zh|府}}) and [[Zhou (country subdivision)|zhōu]] ({{lang|zh|州}}). These are three kinds of prefecture-like divisions. The lowest political division was the [[Counties of the People's Republic of China#History|county]] ({{lang|zh|縣}}).

Basically, lù is higher than fǔ, and fǔ is higher than zhōu. However, the actual relationship between them could be very complicated. Both lù, fǔ and zhōu could administer counties. Some fǔ and zhōu are directly administered by the province, while some exist inside a lù. A lù usually administers several counties, along with several fǔ and zhōu, and the fǔ or zhōu themselves could also administer their own counties. As a result, it is impossible to exactly define how many tiers of divisions there are under a province.

This government structure at the provincial level was later inherited and modified by the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties.

== Gallery ==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160px">
File:Yuan dynasty iron magic square.jpg|[[Magic square]] in Arabic numerals (Yuan dynasty)
File:Yuan Dynasty - waterwheels and smelting.png|[[smelting]] machines (Yuan dynasty)
File:水轮.jpg|Water wheel (Yuan dynasty)
File:水锤.jpg|Water hammer (Yuan dynasty)
File:纺织机.jpg|Weaving machine (Yuan dynasty)
File:水磨齿轮.jpg|water mill gear (Yuan dynasty)
File:农书织布机.jpg|loom (Yuan dynasty)
File:Zhao Mengfu1.jpg|Yuan painting ([[Zhao Mengfu]])
File:Chuangzi_Nu1.jpg|Chuangzi Nu (Yuan dynasty)<ref name="bm">{{cite web |url = http://www.grandhistorian.com/chinesesiegewarfare/index-english12122007.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=November 11, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091202081843/http://www.grandhistorian.com/chinesesiegewarfare/index-english12122007.html |archive-date=December 2, 2009 }}</ref>
File:Skanda detail heart sutra zhao mengfu.jpeg|Military costume.
File:Immortal Riding a Dragon.jpg|Yuan painting of a legendary figure riding on a [[dragon]].
File:Horse and Groom, after Li Gonglin by Zhao Yong.jpg|Yuan [[cavalry]]
File:Jiang Ge.JPG|Yuan Mongol soldier
File:Qubilai Setsen Khaan.JPG|[[Genghis Khan]]'s grandson, [[Kublai Khan]] during his youth
File:元负囊骑马俑.jpg|Mongol rider (Yuan dynasty)
File:Yuan stone Nestorian inscription (rep).JPG|Chinese stone inscription of a [[Nestorian]] [[Nestorian Cross|Christian Cross]] from a monastery of [[Fangshan District]] in [[Beijing]] (then called Dadu, or [[Khanbaliq]]), dated to the Yuan Dynasty
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Div col |colwidth = 20em }}
* [[List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty]]
** [[Chinese emperors family tree (late)#Yuan Dynasty and Northern Yuan Dynasty|Emperor's family tree]]
* [[Mongol Empire]]
** [[List of Mongol rulers]]
** [[Mongol invasions and conquests]]
* [[Mughal Empire]]
* [[History of Mongolia]]
* [[History of China]]
** [[Dynasties in Chinese history]]
*** [[Jurchens|Jurchen]] [[Jurchen dynasty|Jin dynasty]]
*** [[Song dynasty]]
*** [[Ming dynasty]]
*** [[Western Xia]]
*** [[Dali Kingdom]]
* [[Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty]]
** [[Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia]]
** [[Tibet under Yuan rule]]
** [[Mongolia under Yuan rule]]
** [[Manchuria under Yuan rule]]
** [[Goryeo under Mongol Rule|Korea under Yuan rule]]
* [[Yuan dynasty coinage]]
* [[Islam during the Yuan dynasty]]
* [[Europeans in Medieval China]]
* [[Hua-Yi distinction]]
* [[Jun ware]]
* [[List of largest empires]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
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* {{cite journal|jstor=4528536|title="Ta Chin" (Great Golden): The Origin and Changing Interpretations of the Jurchen State Name|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/ae07fdefccda848c8f5f0961f70095c1d9a91f02|journal=T'oung Pao|series=Second Series|volume=77|issue=4/5|year=1991|pages=253–299|last1=陳學霖|first1=Hok-Lam Chan|doi=10.1163/156853291X00046|s2cid=162236445}}
* {{cite book|first=Joseph|last=Dauben|chapter=Chinese Mathematics|editor=Victor Katz|title=The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook|year=2007|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-11485-9}}
* {{cite book|first=Patricia Buckley|last=Ebrey|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of China|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-12433-1|edition=2nd|orig-year=1996}}
* {{cite journal|first=Gregory G.|last=Guzman|title=Were the Barbarians a Negative or Positive Factor in Ancient and Medieval History?|journal=The Historian|year=1988|pages=558–571|volume=50|issue=4|doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.1988.tb00759.x}}
* {{cite book|first=Peng Yoke|last=Ho|title=Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China|year=1985|publisher=Hong Kong University Press|isbn=978-0-486-41445-4}}
* {{The Cambridge History of China|volume=6|first=Ch'i-Ch'ing|last=Hsiao|chapter=Mid-Yuan Politics|pages=490–560}}
* {{cite book|first=George Gheverghese|last=Joseph|title=The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics|year=2011|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-13526-7}}
* {{cite book |first=George|last=Lane|title=Daily Life in the Mongol Empire|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing|isbn=978-0-313-33226-5}}
* {{cite journal|first=David|last=Morgan|title=Who Ran the Mongol Empire?|journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|year=1982|pages=124–136|volume=114|issue=1|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00159179}}
* {{cite book|first=David|last=Morgan|title=The Mongols|year=2007|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-3539-9}}
* {{cite book|first=Morris|last=Rossabi|title=Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times|year=1988|publisher=University of California Press|location=Los Angeles|isbn=978-0-520-06740-0|url=https://archive.org/details/khubilaikhanhisl00ross}}
* {{The Cambridge History of China|volume=6|first=Morris|last=Rossabi|chapter=The reign of Khubilai Khan|pages=414–489}}
* {{cite book |first=Morris|last=Rossabi|title=The Mongols: A Very Short Introduction|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-984089-2}}
* {{cite book |first=Frederick W.|last=Mote|title=Imperial China: 900–1800|year=1999|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01212-7}}
* {{The Cambridge History of China|volume=6|last=Mote|chapter=Chinese society under Mongol rule, 1215-1368|pages=616–664}}
* {{cite journal|last=Smith, Jr.|first=John Masson|date=Jan–Mar 1998|title=Review: Nomads on Ponies vs. Slaves on Horses|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=118|number=1|pages=54–62|doi=10.2307/606298|jstor=606298}}
* {{cite journal|first=K. T.|last=Wu|title=Chinese Printing under Four Alien Dynasties: (916-1368 A. D.)|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|volume=13|issue=3/4|year=1950|pages=447–523|issn=0073-0548|doi=10.2307/2718064|jstor=2718064}}
* {{cite journal |jstor=20062627|doi=10.1177/0097700405282349|title=Reinventing China: Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century |last=Zhao|first=Gang|volume=32|pages=3–30 |number=1 |date=January 2006|journal=Modern China|s2cid=144587815}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Library resources box}}

* {{cite journal |last = Birge |first=Bettine |year = 1995 |title = Levirate marriage and the revival of widow chastity in Yüan China |journal = Asia Major |series = 3rd series |volume = 8 |issue = 2 |pages = 107–146 |jstor = 41645519 }}
* Brook, Timothy. ''The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties'' (History of Imperial China) (Harvard UP, 2010). [https://www.amazon.com/Troubled-Empire-Dynasties-History-Imperial/dp/0674072537/ excerpt]
* {{cite book |editor-first = Hok-lam |editor-last = Chan |editor-first2 = W.T. |editor-last2 = de Bary |title = Yuan Thought: Chinese Thought and Religion Under the Mongols |year = 1982 |publisher = Columbia University Press |location = New York, NY |isbn = 978-0-231-05324-2 }}
* {{cite book |first = Arthur |last = Cotterell |title = The Imperial Capitals of China - An Inside View of the Celestial Empire |location=London, England |publisher = Pimlico |year=2007 |isbn = 9781845950095 }}
* {{cite book |first = John |last = Dardess |editor1 = Denis C. Twitchett |editor2 = Herbert Franke (sinologist) |editor3 = John King Fairbank |chapter = Shun-ti and the end of Yuan rule in China |title = The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year = 1994 |pages = 561–586 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-24331-5 }}
* {{cite book |last = Ebrey |first = Patricia Buckley |title = Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook |edition = 2nd |publisher = Simon and Schuster |isbn = 978-1-4391-8839-2 |date = 2009-11-24 }}
* {{cite journal |last = Endicott-West |first = Elizabeth |year = 1986 |title = Imperial governance in Yüan times |journal = Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume = 46 |issue = 2 |pages = 523–549 |doi = 10.2307/2719142 |jstor = 2719142 }}
* {{cite book |first = Elizabeth |last = Endicott-West |editor1 = Denis C. Twitchett |editor2 = Herbert Franke (sinologist) |editor3 = John King Fairbank |chapter = The Yuan government and society |title = The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 710–1368 |year = 1994 |pages = 587–615 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-24331-5 }}
* {{cite book |first = John D. |last = Langlois |title = China Under Mongol Rule |year = 1981 |publisher = Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn = 978-0-691-10110-1 }}
* {{cite journal |last = Langlois |first=John D. |year = 1977 |title = Report on the research conference: The Impact of Mongol Domination on Chinese Civilization |journal = [[Journal of Song-Yuan Studies|Sung Studies Newsletter]] |volume = 13 |issue=13 |pages = 82–90 |jstor = 23497251 }}
* {{cite book |first = Ann |last = Paludan |title = Chronicle of the China Emperors |location = London, England |publisher = Thames & Hudson |year = 1998 |isbn = 978-0-500-05090-3 |url = https://archive.org/details/chronicleofchine00palu }}
* {{cite book |first = John Joseph |last = Saunders |title = The History of the Mongol Conquests |orig-year = 1971 |year = 2001 |publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn = 978-0-812-21766-7 }}
* Owen, Stephen, "The Yuan and Ming Dynasties," in Stephen Owen, ed. ''An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911''. New York: [[W. W. Norton]], 1997. [http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/OwenSanqu.pdf pp. 723 743]. ([https://www.webcitation.org/6PoDJKDwo?url=http://courses.washington.edu/chin463/OwenSanqu.pdf Archive]).
* “Directory of Scholars Working in Sung, Liao, Chin and Yüan”. 1987. “Directory of Scholars Working in Sung, Liao, Chin and Yüan”. Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies, no. 19. Society for Song, Yuan, and Conquest Dynasty Studies: 224–54. {{JSTOR|23497542}}.

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Yuan Dynasty}}

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ʼPhags-pa script

2021-08-04T10:55:34Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{Refimprove|date=December 2008}} {{Infobox writing system |name={{hamza}}Phags-pa |altname= |type=Alphabet |time=1269 – c. 1360 |languages={{plainlist| *Chinese..."

{{Refimprove|date=December 2008}}
{{Infobox writing system
|name={{hamza}}Phags-pa
|altname=
|type=[[Alphabet]]
|time=1269 – c. 1360
|languages={{plainlist|
*[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
*[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
*[[Persian language|Persian]]
*[[Sanskrit]]
*[[Classical Tibetan|Tibetan]]
*[[Old Uyghur language|Uyghur]]}}
|fam1=[[Egyptian hieroglyphs]]
|fam2=[[Proto-Sinaitic]]
|fam3=[[Phoenician alphabet]]
|fam4=[[Aramaic alphabet]]
|fam5=[[Brāhmī script|Brāhmī]][a]
|fam6=[[Gupta script|Gupta]]
|fam7=[[Tibetan script|Tibetan]]
|children=[[Horizontal square script]]
|sisters=[[Lepcha script|Lepcha]], [[Meitei script|Meitei]]. [[Marchen script|Marchen]]
|creator=[[Drogön Chögyal Phagpa]]
|unicode=[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UA840.pdf U+A840–U+A87F]
|iso15924=Phag
|sample=Yang Wengshe 1314.jpg
|caption=[[Christianity in China|Christian]] tombstone from [[Quanzhou]] dated 1314, with inscription in the {{hamza}}Phags-pa script ''ꞏung shė yang shi mu taw'' 'tomb memorial of Yang Wengshe'
|imagesize=250px
|footnotes=[a] The Semitic origin of the Brahmic scripts is not universally agreed upon.
}}{{RCL}}{{brahmic}}

The '''{{hamza}}Phags-pa script''' is an [[alphabet]] designed by the [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] monk and State Preceptor (later [[Imperial Preceptor]]) [[Drogön Chögyal Phagpa]] for [[Kublai Khan]], the founder of the [[Yuan dynasty]], as a unified script for the written languages within the Yuan. The actual use of this script was limited to about a hundred years during the [[Mongols|Mongol]]-led Yuan dynasty, and it fell out of use with the advent of the [[Ming dynasty]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

It was used to write and transcribe [[varieties of Chinese]], the [[Tibetic languages]], [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], the [[Uyghur language]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Persian language|Persian]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chinese-iranian-viii|title=CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS viii. Persian Lang. – Encyclopaedia Iranica|website=www.iranicaonline.org|access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.babelstone.co.uk/Phags-pa/Description.html|title=BabelStone : {{hamza}}Phags-pa Script : Description|website=www.babelstone.co.uk|access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref> and other neighboring languages during the Yuan era.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Script/phagspascript.html|title=The {{hamza}}Phags-pa Script (www.chinaknowledge.de)|last=Theobald|first=Ulrich|website=www.chinaknowledge.de|language=en|access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.babelstone.co.uk/Phags-pa/Overview.html|title=BabelStone : Phags-pa Script : Overview|website=www.babelstone.co.uk|access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref> For [[Historical linguistics|historical linguists]], the documentation of its use provides clues about the changes in these languages.

Its descendant systems include [[Horizontal square script]], used to write Tibetan and Sanskrit. There is a theory that the Korean [[Hangul]] alphabet had a limited influence from {{hamza}}Phags-pa (see [[Origin of Hangul]]). During the [[Pax Mongolica]] the script has even made numerous appearances in [[Mongol elements in Western medieval art|western medieval art]].

== Nomenclature ==
{{hamza}}Phags-pa script: {{Phagspa|v|ꡏꡡꡃ ꡣꡡꡙ ꡐꡜꡞ|mongxol tshi|style=height:40px}} ''mongxol tshi'', "Mongolian script";

{{lang-mn|дөрвөлжин үсэг}} ''dörvöljin üseg'', "square script";

{{bo|t=ཧོར་ཡིག་གསར་པ་|w=hor yig gsar ba}} "new Mongolian script";

[[Yuan dynasty]] {{zh|t=蒙古新字|p=měnggǔ xīnzì}} "new Mongolian script";

Modern {{zh|t=八思巴文|p=bāsībā wén}} "{{hamza}}Phags-pa script"

== History ==

During the [[Mongol Empire]], the Mongols wanted a universal script to write down the languages of the people they subjugated. The [[Old Uyghur alphabet|Uyghur]]-based [[Mongolian alphabets|Mongolian alphabet]] is not a perfect fit for the [[Middle Mongol language]], and it would be impractical to extend it to a language with a very different phonology like [[Chinese language|Chinese]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} Therefore, during the Yuan dynasty (c. 1269), Kublai Khan asked the Tibetan monk [[{{hamza}}Phags-pa lama|{{hamza}}Phags-pa]] to design a new alphabet for use by the whole empire. {{hamza}}Phags-pa extended his native [[Tibetan alphabet]]<ref name=":0" /> to encompass Mongol and Chinese, evidently [[Central Plains Mandarin]].<ref>{{cite book
|chapter = Reflections on the Study of Post-Medieval Chinese Historical Phonology
|chapter-url = http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/files/publication/o0004_02_5568.pdf
|first = W. South
|last = Coblin
|author-link = Weldon South Coblin
|title = 第三屆國際漢學會議論文集: 語言組. 南北是非 : 漢語方言的差異與變化
|trans-title = Papers from the Third International Conference on Sinology, Linguistics Section. Dialect Variations in Chinese
|year = 2002
|editor = 何大安
|url = http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/publ_o_d_en.asp-aid=4.htm
|publisher = Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica
|location = Taipei
|isbn = 978-957-671-936-3
|pages = 23–50
|accessdate = 21 October 2011
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130516155409/http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/publ_o_d_en.asp-aid=4.htm
|archive-date = 2013-05-16
|url-status = dead
}} p. 31.</ref> The resulting 38 letters have been known by several descriptive names, such as "square script" based on their shape, but today are primarily known as the {{hamza}}Phags-pa alphabet.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

Descending from [[Tibetan script]] it is part of the [[Brahmic scripts|Brahmic family of scripts]], which includes [[Devanagari]] and scripts used throughout [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref name=":0" /> It is unique among Brahmic scripts in that it is written top bottom,<ref name=":0" /> like how Chinese used to be written; and like the [[Manchu alphabet]] or later [[Mongolian alphabet]].

Despite its origin, the script was written vertically (top to bottom) like the previous Mongolian scripts. It did not receive wide acceptance and was not a popular script even among the elite Mongols themselves, although it was used as an official script of the Yuan dynasty until the early 1350s<ref>Strange Names of God: The Missionary Translation of the Divine Name and the Chinese Responses to Matteo Ricci's "Shangti" in Late Ming China, 1583-1644, by Sangkeun Kim, p139</ref> when the [[Red Turban Rebellion]] started. After this it was mainly used as a phonetic [[Gloss (annotation)|gloss]] for Mongols learning [[Chinese characters]]. It was also used as one of the scripts on Tibetan currency in the twentieth century, as script for Tibetan seal inscriptions from the Middle Ages up to the 20th century and for inscriptions on the entrance doors of Tibetan monasteries.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

== Syllable formation ==
Although it is an alphabet, phagspa is written like a syllabary or abugida, with letters forming a single syllable glued or '[[Ligature (language)|ligated]]' together.<ref name=":0" />{{multiple image
|width = 300
|direction = vertical
|image1 = Phagspa imperial edict dragon year.jpg
|caption1 = An imperial edict in {{hamza}}Phags-pa
|image2 = Phagspa styles.png
|caption2 = The {{hamza}}Phags-pa script, with consonants arranged according to Chinese phonology. At the far left are vowels and medial consonants. 
'''Top''': Approximate values in Middle Chinese. (Values in parentheses were not used for Chinese.)
 
'''Second''': Standard letter forms.
 
'''Third''': [[Seal script]] forms. (A few letters, marked by hyphens, are not distinct from the preceding letter.)
 
'''Bottom''': The "Tibetan" forms. (Several letters have alternate forms, separated here by a • bullet.)
}}
Unlike the ancestral Tibetan script, all {{hamza}}Phags-pa letters are written in temporal order (that is, /CV/ is written in the order ''C–V'' for all vowels) and in-line (that is, the vowels are not diacritics). However, vowel letters retain distinct initial forms, and short /a/ is not written except initially, making {{hamza}}Phags-pa transitional between an [[abugida]], a [[syllabary]], and a full alphabet. The letters of a {{hamza}}Phags-pa syllable are linked together so that they form syllabic blocks.<ref name=":0" />

== Typographic forms ==
{{hamza}}Phags-pa was written in a variety of graphic forms. The standard form (top, at right) was blocky, but a "Tibetan" form (bottom) was even more so, consisting almost entirely of straight orthogonal lines and right angles. A "[[seal script]]" form (Chinese 蒙古篆字 ''měnggǔ zhuànzì'' "Mongolian Seal Script"), used for imperial seals and the like, was more elaborate, with squared sinusoidal lines and spirals.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} This 'Phags-pa script is different from the 'Phags-pa script, or 八思巴字 in Chinese, that shares the same name but its earliest usage can be traced back to the late 16th century, the early reign of [[Wanli Emperor]]. According to Professor [[Junast]] 照那斯图 of the [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]], the later 'Phags-pa script is actually a seal script of [[Tibetan]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=[[Junast]] 照那斯图|title=一种从八思巴字脱胎而来的文字 (in Chinese) |journal=Minority Languages of China 民族语文 |date=April 2003 |issue=2002.3. |pages=56-58}}</ref>

Korean records state that [[hangul]] was based on an "Old Seal Script" (古篆字), which may be {{hamza}}Phags-pa and a reference to its Chinese name 蒙古篆字 měnggǔ zhuànzì (see [[origin of hangul]]). However, it is the simpler standard form of {{hamza}}Phags-pa that is the closer graphic match to hangul.

== Letters ==

=== Basic Letters ===
The following 41 are the basic {{hamza}}Phags-pa letters.

Letters 1-30 and 35-38 are base consonants. The order of Letters 1-30 is the same as the traditional order of the thirty basic letters of the Tibetan script, to which they correspond. Letters 35-38 represent sounds that do not occur in Tibetan, and are either derived from an existing Tibetan base consonant (e.g. Letters 2 and 35 are both derived from the simple Tibetan letter KHA, but are graphically distinct from each other) or from a combination of an existing Tibetan base consonant and the semi-vowel (subjoined) letter WA (e.g. Letter 36 is derived from the complex Tibetan letter KHWA).

As is the case with Tibetan, these letters have an inherant [a] vowel sound attached to them in non-final positions when no other vowel sign is present (e.g. the letter KA with no attached vowel represents the syllable ''ka'', but with an appended vowel ''i'' represents the syllable ''ki'').

Letters 31-34 and 39 are vowels. Letters 31-34 follow the traditional order of the corresponding Tibetan vowels. Letter 39 represents a vowel quality that does not occur in Tibetan, and may be derived from the Tibetan double-E vowel sign.

Unlike Tibetan, in which vowels signs may not occur in isolation but must always be attached to a base consonant to form a valid syllable, in the {{hamza}}Phags-pa script initial vowels other than ''a'' may occur without a base consonant when they are not the first element in a diphthong (e.g. ''ue'') or a digraph (e.g. ''eeu'' and ''eeo''). Thus in Chinese {{hamza}}Phags-pa texts the syllables ''u'' 吾 wú, ''on'' 刓 wán and ''o'' 訛 é occur, and in Mongolian {{hamza}}Phags-pa texts the words ''ong qo chas'' "boats", ''u su nu'' (gen.) "water", ''e du -ee'' "now" and ''i hee -een'' "protection" occur. These are all examples of where ''<nowiki/>'o'', ''<nowiki/>'u'', ''<nowiki/>'e'', ''<nowiki/>'i'' etc. would be expected if the Tibetan model had been followed exactly. An exception to this rule is the Mongolian word ''<nowiki/>'er di nis'' "jewels", where a single vowel sign is attached to a null base consonant. Note that the letter EE is never found in an initial position in any language written in the {{hamza}}Phags-pa script (for example, in Tao Zongyi's description of the Old Uighur script, he glosses all instances of Uighur ''e'' with the {{hamza}}Phags-pa letter EE, except for when it is found in the initial position, when he glosses it with the {{hamza}}Phags-pa letter E instead).

However, initial semi-vowels, diphthongs and digraphs must be attached to the null base consonant 'A (Letter 30). So in Chinese {{hamza}}Phags-pa texts the syllables ''<nowiki/>'wen'' 元 yuán, ''<nowiki/>'ue'' 危 wēi and ''<nowiki/>'eeu'' 魚 yú occur; and in Mongolian {{hamza}}Phags-pa texts the words ''<nowiki/>'eeu lu'' "not" and ''<nowiki/>'eeog bee.e'' "gave" occur. As there is no sign for the vowel ''a'', which is implicit in an initial base consonant with no attached vowel sign, then words that start with an ''a'' vowel must also use the null base consonant letter 'A (e.g. Mongolian ''<nowiki/>'a mi than'' "living beings"). In Chinese, and rarely Mongolian, another null base consonant -A (Letter 23) may be found before initial vowels (see "Letter 23" below).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! No.
!{{hamza}}Phags-pa letter
!Derivation
!Letter Name
!Transcription
!Mongolian Examples
!Chinese Examples
|-
|1
|{{Phagspa||ꡀ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER KA ཀ [U+0F40]
|KA
|k
|Only used for words of foreign origin, such as ''kal bu dun'' (gen. pl.) from Sanskrit ''kalpa'' "aeon" [cf. Mongolian ''galab'' ᠭᠠᠯᠠᠪ], with the single exception of the common Mongolian word ''ye kee'' "large, great" [cf. Mongolian ''yeke'' ᠶᠡᠬᠡ]
|''kiw'' 裘 qiú
''kue'' 夔 kuí
|-
|2
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡁ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER KHA ཁ [U+0F41]
|KHA
|kh
|''kheen'' "who" [cf. Mongolian ''ken'' ᠬᠡᠨ]
|''khang'' 康 kāng
''kheeu'' 屈 qū
|-
|3
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡂ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER GA ག [U+0F42]
|GA
|g
|''bi chig'' "written document, book" [cf. Mongolian ''bičig'' ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ]
|''ging'' 荊 jīng
''gu'' 古 gǔ
|-
|4
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡃ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER NGA ང [U+0F44]
|NGA
|ng
|''deng ri'' "heaven" [cf. Mongolian ''tengri'' ᠲᠡᠩᠷᠢ]
|''ngiw'' 牛 niú
''ngem'' 嚴 yán
''ding'' 丁 dīng
|-
|5
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡄ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER CA ཅ [U+0F45]
|CA
|c
|
|''cay'' 柴 chái
''ci'' 池 chí
|-
|6
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡅ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER CHA ཆ [U+0F46]
|CHA
|ch
|''cha q-an'' "white" [cf. Mongolian ''čaɣan'' ᠴᠠᠭᠠᠨ]
|''chang'' 昌 chāng
''cheeu'' 褚 chǔ
|-
|7
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡆ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER JA ཇ [U+0F47]
|JA
|j
|''jil'' "year" [cf. Mongolian ''ǰil'' ᠵᠢᠯ]
|''jim'' 針 zhēn
|-
|8
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡇ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER NYA ཉ [U+0F49]
|NYA
|ny
|
|''nyiw'' 鈕 niǔ
|-
|9
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡈ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER TA ཏ [U+0F4F]
|TA
|t
|Mostly used in words of foreign origin, such as ''<nowiki/>'er ti nis'' (also ''<nowiki/>'er di nis'') "jewels" [cf. Mongolian ''erdenis'' ᠡᠷᠳᠡᠨᠢᠰ] and ''ta layi'' "sea, ocean" [cf. Mongolian ''dalai'' ᠳᠠᠯᠠᠢ]
|''ten'' 田 tián
''tung'' 童 tóng
|-
|10
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡉ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER THA ཐ [U+0F50]
|THA
|th
|''thu thum'' "each, all" [cf. Mongolian ''tutum'' ᠲᠤᠲᠤᠮ]
|''thang'' 湯 tāng
''thung'' 通 tōng
|-
|11
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡊ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER DA ད [U+0F51]
|DA
|d
|''u ri da nu'' (gen.) "former, previous" [cf. Mongolian ''urida'' ᠤᠷᠢᠳᠠ]
|''dung'' 東 dōng
''du'' 都 dū
|-
|12
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡋ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER NA ན [U+0F53]
|NA
|n
|''ma nu'' "our" [cf. Mongolian ''manu'' ᠮᠠᠨᠤ]
|''nee'' 聶 niè
''nung'' 農 nóng
''gon'' 管 guǎn
|-
|13
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡌ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER PA པ [U+0F54]
|PA
|p
|Only used in words of foreign origin, such as ''pur xan'' "Buddha" [cf. Mongolian ''burqan'' ᠪᠤᠷᠬᠠᠨ]
|''pang'' 龐 páng
''pay'' 白 bái
|-
|14
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡍ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER PHA ཕ [U+0F55]
|PHA
|ph
|
|''phon'' 潘 pān
''phu'' 浦 pǔ
|-
|15
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡎ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER BA བ [U+0F56]
|BA
|b
|''ba sa'' "then, still, also" [cf. Mongolian ''basa'' ᠪᠠᠰᠠ]
|''ban'' 班 bān
''been'' 邊 biān
|-
|16
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡏ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER MA མ [U+0F58]
|MA
|m
|''<nowiki/>'a mi than'' "living beings" [cf. Mongolian ''amitan'' ᠠᠮᠢᠲᠠᠨ]
|''min'' 閔 mǐn
''mew'' 苗 miáo
''gim'' 金 jīn
|-
|17
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡐ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER TSA ཙ [U+0F59]
|TSA
|ts
|
|''tsaw'' 曹 cáo
''tsin'' 秦 qín
|-
|18
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡑ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER TSHA ཚ [U+0F5A]
|TSHA
|tsh
|Only used in words of foreign origin, such as ''sha tshin'' "religion"
|''tshay'' 蔡 cài
''tshiw'' 秋 qiū
|-
|19
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡒ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER DZA ཛ [U+0F5B]
|DZA
|dz
|
|''dzam'' 昝 zǎn
''dzew'' 焦 jiāo
|-
|20
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡓ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER WA ཝ [U+0F5D]
|WA
|w
|Only used in words of foreign origin, such as ''wa chi ra ba ni'' "Vajrapāṇi"
|''wan'' 萬 wàn
''wu'' 武 wǔ
''xiw'' 侯 hóu
''gaw'' 高 gāo
|-
|21
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡔ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER ZHA ཞ [U+0F5E]
|ZHA
|zh
|
|''zheeu'' 茹 rú
''zhew'' 饒 ráo
|-
|22
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡕ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER ZA ཟ [U+0F5F]
|ZA
|z
|Only found in the single word ''za ra'' "month" [cf. Mongolian ''sara'' ᠰᠠᠷᠠ]
|''zeeu'' 徐 xú
''zi'' 席 xí
|-
|23
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡖ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER -A འ [U+0F60]
|<nowiki>-A</nowiki>
|<nowiki>-</nowiki>
|This letter is found rarely initially, e.g. ''-ir gee nee'' (dat./loc.) "people" [cf. Mongolian ''irgen'' ᠢᠷᠭᠡᠨ], but frequently medially between vowels where it serves to separate a syllable that starts with a vowel from a preceding syllable that ends in a vowel, e.g. ''er khee -ud'' "Christians" and ''q-an'' "emperor, khan" [cf. Mongolian ''qaɣan'' ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ] (where ''q-an'' is a contraction for the hypothetical ''qa -an'')
|''-an'' 安 ān
''-ing'' 應 yīng
''-eeu'' 郁 yù
|-
|24
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡗ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER YA ཡ [U+0F61]
|YA
|y
|''na yan'' "eighty" [cf. Mongolian ''nayan'' ᠨᠠᠶᠠᠨ]
|''yi'' 伊 yī
''yang'' 羊 yáng
''day'' 戴 dài
''hyay'' 解 xiè
|-
|25
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡘ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER RA ར [U+0F62]
|RA
|r
|''chee rig'' "army" [cf. Mongolian ''čerig'' ᠴᠡᠷᠢᠭ]
|
|-
|26
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡙ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER LA ལ [U+0F63]
|LA
|l
|''al ba'' "tax, tribute" [cf. Mongolian ''alba'' ᠠᠯᠪᠠ]
|''leeu'' 呂 lǚ
''lim'' 林 lín
|-
|27
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡚ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER SHA ཤ [U+0F64]
|SHA
|sh
|''shi nee'' "new" [cf. Mongolian ''šine'' ᠱᠢᠨᠡ]
|''shi'' 石 shí
''shwang'' 雙 shuāng
|-
|28
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡛ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER SA ས [U+0F66]
|SA
|s
|''hee chus'' "end, goal" [cf. Mongolian ''ečüs'' ᠡᠴᠦᠰ]
|''su'' 蘇 sū
''syang'' 相 xiàng
|-
|29
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡜ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER HA ཧ [U+0F67]
|HA
|h
|Initially in words that now have null initials, such as ''har ban'' "ten" [cf. Mongolian ''arban'' ᠠᠷᠪᠠᠨ], and medially only in the single word ''-i hee -een'' (or ''-i h-een'') "protector, guardian"
|''hwa'' 花 huā
''sh.hi'' 史 shǐ
''l.hing'' 冷 lěng
''j.hang'' 莊 zhuāng
|-
|30
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡝ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER A ཨ [U+0F68]
|'A
|'
|''<nowiki/>'eeu lu'' "not" [cf. Mongolian ''ülü'' ᠦᠯᠦ]
|''<nowiki/>'wang'' 王 wáng
''<nowiki/>'eeu'' 虞 yú
|-
|31
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡞ}}
|TIBETAN VOWEL SIGN I ི [U+0F72]
|I
|i
|''-i hee -een'' (or ''-i h-een'') "protection"
|''li'' 李 lǐ
''n.hing'' 能 néng
''heei'' 奚 xī
|-
|32
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡟ}}
|TIBETAN VOWEL SIGN U ུ [U+0F74]
|U
|u
|''u su nu'' (gen.) "water" [cf. Mongolian ''usun'' ᠤᠰᠤᠨ]
|''u'' 吳 wú
''mue'' 梅 méi
|-
|33
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡠ}}
|TIBETAN VOWEL SIGN E ེ [U+0F7A]
|E
|e
|''e du -ee'' "now" [cf. Mongolian ''edüge'' ᠡᠳᠦᠭᠡ]
|''ze'' 謝 xiè
''jem'' 詹 zhān
''gue'' 國 guó
|-
|34
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡡ}}
|TIBETAN VOWEL SIGN O ོ [U+0F7C]
|O
|o
|''ong qo chas'' "boats" [cf. Mongolian ''ongɣočas'' ᠣᠩᠭᠣᠴᠠᠰ]
|''no'' 那 nā
''mon'' 滿 mǎn
|-
|35
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡢ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER KHA ཁ [U+0F41]
|QA
|q
|''qa muq'' "all" [cf. Mongolian ''qamuɣ'' ᠬᠠᠮᠤᠭ]
|
|-
|36
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡣ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER KHA [U+0F41] plus TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER WA [U+0FAD] ཁྭ
|XA
|x
|Only used in words of foreign origin, such as ''pur xan'' "Buddha" [cf. Mongolian ''burqan'' ᠪᠤᠷᠬᠠᠨ]
|''xu'' 胡 hú
''xong'' 黃 huáng
|-
|37
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡤ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER HA [U+0F67] plus TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER WA [U+0FAD] ཧྭ
|FA
|f
|
|''fang'' 方 fāng
''fi'' 費 fèi
|-
|38
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡥ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER GA ག [U+0F42]
|GGA
|
|
|
|-
|39
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡦ}}
|TIBETAN VOWEL SIGN EE ཻ [U+0F7B]
|EE
|ee
|''el deeb'' "various" [cf. Mongolian ''eldeb'' ᠡᠯᠳᠡᠪ] (Poppe reads this word as ''eel deeb'', as the only example of an initial letter EE, but I think that it is clear from the rubbing of the inscription that the initial letter is a slightly deformeed letter E)
|''chee'' 車 chē
''seeu'' 胥 xū
''geeing'' 經 jīng
|-
|40
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡧ}}
|TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER WA ྭ [U+0FAD]
|SUBJOINED WA
|w
|
|''xway'' 懷 huái
''jwaw'' 卓 zhuō
''gwang'' 廣 guǎng
|-
|41
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡨ}}
|TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER YA ྱ [U+0FB1]
|SUBJOINED YA
|y
|
|''hya'' 夏 xià
''gya'' 家 jiā
''dzyang'' 蔣 jiǎng
|}

=== Additional Letters ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! No.
!{{hamza}}Phags-pa letter
!Derivation
!Letter Name
!Transcription
!Sanskrit or Tibetan Examples
|-
|42
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡩ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER TTA ཊ [U+0F4A]
|TTA
|tt
|''sha tt-a pa ... i ta'' (Sanskrit ''ṣaṭ pāramitā'') [Ill.3 Line 6]
|-
|43
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡪ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER TTHA ཋ [U+0F4B]
|TTHA
|tth
|''pra tish tthi te'' (Sanskrit ''pratiṣṭhite'') [Ill.3 Line 8] (TTHA plus unreversed I)
''dhish tthi te'' (Sanskrit ''dhiṣṭhite'') [''Tathāgatahṛdaya-dhāraṇī'' Line 16] (TTHA plus reversed I)
''nish tthe'' (Sanskrit ''niṣṭhe'') [''Tathāgatahṛdaya-dhāraṇī'' Line 10] (TTHA plus reversed E)
|-
|44
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡫ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER DDA ཌ [U+0F4C]
|DDA
|dd
|''dann dde'' (Sanskrit ''daṇḍaya'') [''Tathāgatahṛdaya-dhāraṇī'' Line 14]
''<nowiki/>'-a kad ddha ya'' (Sanskrit ''ākaḍḍhaya'') [Ill.4 Line 7] (DDA plus reversed HA)
|-
|45
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡬ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER NNA ཎ [U+0F4E]
|NNA
|nn
|''sb-a ra nna'' (Sanskrit ''spharaṇa'') [Ill.3 Line 3]
''ush nni ...'' (Sanskrit ''uṣṇīṣa'') [Ill.3 Line 6] (NNA plus reversed I)
''kshu nnu'' (Sanskrit ''kṣuṇu'') [''Tathāgatahṛdaya-dhāraṇī'' Line 2] (NNA plus reversed U)

''ha ra nne'' (Sanskrit ''haraṇe'') [Ill.4 Line 5] (NNA plus reversed E)
''pu nn.ya'' (Sanskrit ''puṇya'') [''Tathāgatahṛdaya-dhāraṇī'' Line 13] (NNA plus reversed subjoined Y)
|-
|46
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡱ}}
|TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER RA ྲ [U+0FB2]
|Subjoined RA
| rowspan="2" |r
|''bh-ru^'' (Sanskrit ''bhrūṁ'') [Ill.3 Line 2]
''mu dre'' (Sanskrit ''mudre'') [Ill.3 Line 9]
''ba dzra'' (Sanskrit ''vajra'') [Ill.3 Line 9]

''bkra shis'' (Tibetan ''bkra-shis'' "prosperity, good fortune") [Ill.5]
|-
|47
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡲ}}
|TIBETAN LETTER RA ར [U+0F62]
|Superfixed RA
|''sangs rgyas'' (Tibetan ''sangs-rgyas'' "Buddha") [Ill.6]
|-
|48
|{{Phagspa|2=ꡳ}}
|TIBETAN SIGN SNA LDAN ྃ [U+0F83]
DEVANAGARI SIGN CANDRABINDU [U+0901]
|[[Chandrabindu|Candrabindu]]
|^
|''o^ bh-ru^ bh-ru^'' (Sanskrit ''oṁ bhrūṁ bhrūṁ'') [Ill.3 Line 2]
''sa^ ha ...'' (Sanskrit ''saṁhatana'') [Ill.3 Line 9]
|}

=== Menggu Ziyun ===
Following are the initials of the {{hamza}}Phags-pa script as presented in ''[[Menggu Ziyun]]''. They are ordered according to the Chinese philological tradition of the 36 initials.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+36 initials in 蒙古字韵 ''Menggu Ziyun''
|-
! No. !! Name !! Phonetic value !! {{hamza}}Phags-pa letter !! {{hamza}}Phags-pa Initial !! Notes
|-
| 1 || [[wikt:見|見]] jiàn|| {{IPA|*[k]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡂ|ga}} || g- ||
|-
| 2 || [[wikt:溪|溪]] qī|| {{IPA|*[kʰ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡁ|kha}} || kh- ||
|-
| 3 || [[wikt:群|群]] qún|| {{IPA|*[ɡ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡀ|ka}} || k- ||
|-
| 4 || [[wikt:疑|疑]] yí|| {{IPA|*[ŋ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡃ|nga}} || ng- ||
|-
| 5 || [[wikt:端|端]] duān|| {{IPA|*[t]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡊ|da}} || d- ||
|-
| 6 || [[wikt:透|透]] tòu|| {{IPA|*[tʰ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡉ|tha}} || th- ||
|-
| 7 || [[wikt:定|定]] dìng|| {{IPA|*[d]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡈ|ta}} || t- ||
|-
| 8 || [[wikt:泥|泥]] ní|| {{IPA|*[n]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡋ|na}} || n- ||
|-
| 9 || [[wikt:知|知]] zhī|| {{IPA|*[ʈ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡆ|ja}} || j- ||
|-
| 10 || [[wikt:徹|徹]] chè|| {{IPA|*[ʈʰ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡅ|cha}} || ch- ||
|-
| 11 || [[wikt:澄|澄]] chéng|| {{IPA|*[ɖ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡄ|ca}} || c- ||
|-
| 12 || [[wikt:娘|娘]] niáng|| {{IPA|*[ɳ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡇ|nya}} || ny- ||
|-
| 13 || [[wikt:幫|幫]] bāng|| {{IPA|*[p]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡎ|ba}} || b- ||
|-
| 14 || [[wikt:滂|滂]] pāng|| {{IPA|*[pʰ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡍ|pha}} || ph- ||
|-
| 15 || [[wikt:並|並]] bìng|| {{IPA|*[b]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡌ|pa}} || p- ||
|-
| 16 || [[wikt:明|明]] míng|| {{IPA|*[m]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡏ|ma}} || m- ||
|-
| 17 || [[wikt:非|非]] fēi|| {{IPA|*[p̪]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡤ|fa}} || f- || Normal form of the letter ''fa''
|-
| 18 || [[wikt:敷|敷]] fū|| {{IPA|*[p̪ʰ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡰ|fa¹}} || f¹- || Variant form of the letter ''fa''
|-
| 19 || [[wikt:奉|奉]] fèng|| {{IPA|*[b̪]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡤ|fa}} || f- || Normal form of the letter ''fa''
|-
| 20 || [[wikt:微|微]] wēi|| {{IPA|*[ɱ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡓ|wa}} || w- || Letter ''wa'' represents {{IPA|[v]}}
|-
| 21 || [[wikt:精|精]] jīng|| {{IPA|*[ts]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡒ|dza}} || dz- ||
|-
| 22 || [[wikt:清|清]] qīng|| {{IPA|*[tsʰ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡑ|tsha}} || tsh- ||
|-
| 23 || [[wikt:從|從]] cóng|| {{IPA|*[dz]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡐ|tsa}} || ts- ||
|-
| 24 || [[wikt:心|心]] xīn|| {{IPA|*[s]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡛ|sa}} || s- ||
|-
| 25 || [[wikt:邪|邪]] xié|| {{IPA|*[z]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡕ|za}} || z- ||
|-
| 26 || [[wikt:照|照]] zhào|| {{IPA|*[tɕ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡆ|ja}} || j- ||
|-
| 27 || [[wikt:穿|穿]] chuān|| {{IPA|*[tɕʰ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡅ|cha}} || ch- ||
|-
| 28 || [[wikt:床|床]] chuáng|| {{IPA|*[dʑ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡄ|ca}} || c- ||
|-
| 29 || [[wikt:審|審]] shěn|| {{IPA|*[ɕ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡮ|sha¹}} || sh¹- || Variant form of the letter ''sha''
|-
| 30 || [[wikt:禪|禪]] chán|| {{IPA|*[ʑ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡚ|sha}} || sh- || Normal form of the letter ''sha''
|-
| 31 || [[wikt:曉|曉]] xiǎo|| {{IPA|*[x]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡜ|ha}} || h- || Normal form of the letter ''ha''
|-
| rowspan=2 | 32 || rowspan=2 | [[wikt:匣|匣]] xiá|| rowspan=2 | {{IPA|*[ɣ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡣ|xa}} || x- ||
|-
| {{Phagspa|v|ꡯ|ha¹}} || h¹- || Variant form of the letter ''ha''
|-
| rowspan=2 | 33 || rowspan=2 | [[wikt:影|影]] yǐng|| rowspan=2 | {{IPA|*[ʔ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡖ|{{hamza}}a}} || {{hamza}}- || [[glottal stop]]
|-
| {{Phagspa|v|ꡗ|'a}} || y- || Normal form of the letter ''ya''
|-
| rowspan=2 | 34 || rowspan=2 | [[wikt:喻|喻]] yù|| rowspan=2 | {{IPA|*[j]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡝ|a}} || - || [[zero onset|null initial]]
|-
| {{Phagspa|v|ꡭ|a}} || y¹- || Variant form of the letter ''ya''
|-
| 35 || [[wikt:來|來]] lái|| {{IPA|*[l]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡙ|la}} || l- ||
|-
| 36 || [[wikt:日|日]] rì|| {{IPA|*[ɲ]}} || {{Phagspa|v|ꡔ|zha}} || zh- ||
|}

== Unicode ==
{{Main|Phags-pa (Unicode block)}}

{{hamza}}Phags-pa script was added to the [[Unicode]] Standard in July 2006 with the release of version 5.0.

The Unicode block for {{hamza}}Phags-pa is U+A840–U+A877:{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}
{{Unicode chart Phags-pa}}

U+A856 {{Phagspa|v|ꡖ|{{hamza}}a}} {{small|PHAGS-PA LETTER SMALL A}} is transliterated using {{unichar|A78F|LATIN LETTER SINOLOGICAL DOT}} from the [[Latin Extended-D]] Unicode block.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2009/09031r-n3567r.pdf|title=L2/09-031R: Proposal to encode a Middle Dot letter for Phags-pa transliteration|date=2009-04-04|first=Andrew|last=West}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Brahmic scripts]]
* [[Mongolian alphabets]]
* [[Origin of hangul]]
* [[Mongol elements in Western medieval art]]
* [[Menggu Ziyun]] (Yuan dynasty {{hamza}}Phags-pa—Chinese rhyming dictionary)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* {{cite book | last=Coblin | first=W. South | author-link=Weldon South Coblin | title=A Handbook of {{hamza}}Phags-pa Chinese | series=ABC Dictionary Series | year=2006 | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | location=Honolulu | isbn=978-0-8248-3000-7|url=https://books.google.com/?id=3q6nja-Ii8gC|accessdate=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book|title=Chinese in Hp'ags-pa Script|first=Paul. B.|last=Denlinger|year=1963|url=https://books.google.com/?id=4mHKuAAACAAJ|accessdate=24 April 2014}}
* {{cite book | last=Everding | first=Karl-Heinz | title=Herrscherurkunden aus der Zeit des mongolischen Großreiches für tibetische Adelshäuser, Geistliche und Klöster. Teil 1: Diplomata Mongolica. Mittelmongolische Urkunden in {{hamza}}Phags-pa-Schrift. Eidtion, Übersetzung, Analyse | location=Halle | publisher=International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies | year=2006 | isbn=978-3-88280-074-6 }}
* {{cite book | last=Poppe | first=Nicholas | author-link=Nicholas Poppe | title=The Mongolian Monuments in hP´ags-pa Script | edition=Second | location=Wiesbaden | publisher=Harrassowitz | year=1957 }}
* {{cite book | last=Sampson | first=Geoffrey | author-link=Geoffrey Sampson | title=Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction | location=Great Britain | publisher=Anchor Brenton Ltd | year=1985 | isbn=978-0-09-156980-8 }}
* {{cite book | last=Schuh | first=Dieter | author-link=Dieter Schuh | title=Grundlagen tibetischer Siegelkunde. Eine Untersuchung über tibetische Siegelaufschriften in {{hamza}}Phags-pa-Schrift | location=Sankt Augustin | publisher=VGH Wissenschaftsverlag | year=1981 | isbn=978-3-88280-011-1 }}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Phagspa script}}
*[http://www.babelstone.co.uk/Phags-pa/index.html BabelStone: {{hamza}}Phags-pa Script] (with free fonts)
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/phagspa.htm Omniglot: {{hamza}}Phags-pa script]
* [http://www.ancientscripts.com/hphagspa.html Ancientscripts: hPhags-pa]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091018190435/http://kr.geocities.com/tomchiukc/Language/Mongolian/MidMongolian.html Mongolian characters after Kublai Khan]

{{list of writing systems}}
{{Yuan dynasty topics}}

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Phags-Pa Script}}
[[Category:Brahmic scripts]]
[[Category:Mongolian writing systems]]
[[Category:Transcription of Chinese]]
[[Category:Obsolete writing systems]]
[[Category:Abugida writing systems]]
[[Category:Writing systems without word boundaries]]
[[Category:Old Mandarin]]
[[Category:Yuan dynasty]]
[[Category:Mongolia–Tibet relations]]

Tibetan script

2021-08-04T10:54:35Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{Short description|writing system used to write certain Tibetic languages}} {{Infobox writing system |name=Tibetan |type=Abugida |time=c. 650–present |languages= {{hlis..."

{{Short description|writing system used to write certain Tibetic languages}}
{{Infobox writing system
|name=Tibetan
|type=[[Abugida]]
|time=c. 650–present
|languages= {{hlist|list_style=line-height:1.3em;|[[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]]|[[Dzongkha]]|[[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]]|[[Sikkimese language|Sikkimese]]|[[Balti language|Balti]]|[[Sherpa language|Sherpa]]|[[Jirel language|Jirel]]|[[Yolmo language|Yolmo]]|[[Tshangla language|Tshangla]]|[[Sanskrit]]}}
|fam1=[[Proto-Sinaitic script]]
|fam2=[[Phoenician alphabet]]
|fam3=[[Aramaic alphabet]]
|fam4=[[Brahmi script|Brāhmī]]
|fam5=[[Gupta script|Gupta]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Daniels |first1=P.T. |title=Writing systems of major and minor languages |date=January 2008}}</ref><ref name="masica">{{cite book |last1=Masica |first1=Colin |title=The Indo-Aryan languages |date=1993 |page=143}}</ref>
|sisters = [[Sharada script|Sharada]], [[Siddhaṃ script|Siddhaṃ]]
|children = * [[Meitei script|Meitei]]<ref name="Meithei" >{{cite book |last1=Chelliah |first1=Shobhana Lakshmi |title=A Grammar of Meithei |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_Grammar_of_Meithei/noCHVvu0P8oC?hl=en&gbpv=0 |quote="Meithei Mayek is part of the Tibetan group of scripts,which originated from the Gupta Brahmi script" |publisher=De Gruyter |date=2011 |page=355 |isbn=9783110801118 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Singh |first1=Harimohon Thounaojam |title=The Evolution and Recent Development of the Meetei Mayek Script |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263852161 |publisher=Cambridge University Press India |page=28 |date=January 2011 }}</ref>
* [[Lepcha script|Lepcha]]
* [[ʼPhags-pa script|ʼPhags-pa]]
* [[Marchen script|Marchen]]
|sample=Om Mani Padme Hum mantra.svg
|caption=The [[mantra]] "[[Om mani padme hum]]"
|imagesize = 250px
|unicode=[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0F00.pdf U+0F00–U+0FFF] [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2022.pdf Final Accepted Script Proposal of the First Usable Edition (3.0)]
|iso15924=Tibt
}}
{{Contains special characters|Tibetan}}
{{Alphabet}}
{{Brahmic}}

The '''Tibetan script''' is a segmental writing system (''[[abugida]]'') of [[Brahmic scripts|Indic]] origin used to write certain [[Tibetic languages]], including [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]], [[Dzongkha]], [[Sikkimese language|Sikkimese]], [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]], [[Jirel]] and sometimes [[Balti language|Balti]]. It has also been used for some non-Tibetic languages in close cultural contact with Tibet, such as [[Thakali language|Thakali]].<ref>http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/kailash/pdf/kailash_09_01_02.pdf</ref> The printed form is called [[uchen script]] while the hand-written cursive form used in everyday writing is called [[umê script]]. This writing system is used across the [[Himalayas]], and [[Tibet]].

The script is closely linked to a broad ethnic Tibetan identity, spanning across areas in [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Tibet]].<ref>Chamberlain 2008</ref> The Tibetan script is of [[Brahmic scripts|Brahmic]] origin from the [[Gupta script]] and is ancestral to scripts such as [[Meitei script|Meitei]],<ref name="Meithei" /> [[Lepcha script|Lepcha]],<ref name="daniels">Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright. ''The World's Writing Systems''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.</ref> [[Marchen script|Marchen]] and the multilingual [[ʼPhags-pa script]].<ref name="daniels" />

==History==
The creation of the Tibetan alphabet is attributed to [[Thonmi Sambhota]] of the mid-7th century. Tradition holds that Thonmi Sambhota, a minister of [[Songtsen Gampo]] in the 7th century, was sent to [[India]] to study the art of writing, to find a system of writing suitable for the Tibetan language. Upon his return, he introduced an alphabet based on the [[Nāgarī script|Nagari]] that was used in [[Kashmir]] at the time. The script had 30 consonantal characters, of which 6 were created specifically to match Tibetan phonology.<ref>William Woodville Rockhill, {{Google books|avFDAQAAMAAJ|Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution|page=671}}, United States National Museum, page 671</ref> The origin is still debated however; other studies suggest that the Tibetan script was based on an adaption of the Indian Brahmi and Gupta scripts from Khotan, taught to Thonmi Sambhota in Kashmir.<ref>Berzin, Alexander. ''A Survey of Tibetan History - Reading Notes Taken by Alexander Berzin from Tsepon, W. D. Shakabpa, Tibet: A Political History. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1967: http://studybuddhism.com/web/en/archives/e-books/unpublished_manuscripts/survey_tibetan_history/chapter_1.html.</ref>

Three orthographic standardisations were developed. The most important, an official orthography aimed to facilitate the translation of [[Buddhist scriptures]], emerged during the early 9th century. Standard orthography has not altered since then, while the spoken language [[sound change|has changed]] by, for example, losing complex [[consonant cluster]]s. As a result, in all modern Tibetan dialects and in particular in the [[Standard Tibetan]] of [[Lhasa]], there is a great divergence between current spelling (which still reflects the 9th-century spoken Tibetan) and current pronunciation. This divergence is the basis of an argument in favour of [[spelling reform]], to write Tibetan ''as it is pronounced''; for example, writing ''[[Kagyu]]'' instead of ''Bka'-rgyud''. In contrast, the pronunciation of the [[Balti language|Balti]], [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]] and [[Purgi language|Purigi]] languages adheres more closely to the original spelling. Purigi is the closest linguistic heir of Old Tibetan and therefore Purigi pronunciations adhered most closely to the Old Tibetan.

New research and writings suggest that there were one or more Tibetan scripts in use prior to the introduction of the current script by [[Songtsen Gampo]] and [[Thonmi Sambhota]]. The Tunhong manuscripts ([[dunhuang manuscript]]) are key evidence for this hypothesis.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Phuntsok |first1=Thubten |title=བོད་ཀྱི་ལོ་རྒྱུས་སྤྱི་དོན་པདྨ་ར་གཱའི་ལྡེ་མིག "A General History of Tibet"}}</ref>

==Description==

===Basic alphabet===

In the Tibetan script, the [[syllable]]s are written from left to right. Syllables are separated by a ''tsek'' (་); since many Tibetan words are monosyllabic, this mark often functions almost as a space. Spaces are not used to divide words.

The Tibetan alphabet has thirty basic letters, sometimes known as "radicals", for consonants.<ref name="daniels"/> As in other [[Indic scripts]], each consonant letter assumes an [[inherent vowel]]; in the Tibetan script it is /a/. The letter {{bo-textonly|ཨ}} is also the base for dependent vowel marks.

Although some Tibetan dialects are [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]], the language had no tone at the time of the script's invention, and there are no dedicated symbols for tone. However, since tones developed from segmental features, they can usually be correctly predicted by the archaic spelling of Tibetan words.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:75%"
|-align=center style="font-size:small"
!
!style="background:beige;" colspan=2 | Unaspirated ''high''
!style="background:#d6f5d6;" colspan=2 | [[Aspirated consonant|Aspirated]] ''medium''
!style="background:#ffcce6;" colspan=2 | [[Voiced]] ''low''
!style="background:#99bbff;" colspan=2 | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] ''low''
|-align=center style="font-size:small"
!
! Letter
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
! Letter
! IPA
! Letter
! IPA
! Letter
! IPA
|-align=center
| '''''[[Guttural]]''''' ||style="background:beige; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཀ}} || {{IPA|/ka/}} ||style="background:#d6f5d6; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཁ}} || {{IPA|/kʰa/}} ||style="background:#ffcce6; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ག}} || {{IPA|/ɡa*/}} ||style="background:#99bbff; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ང}} || {{IPA|/ŋa/}}
|-align=center
| '''''[[Palatal]]''''' ||style="background:beige; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཅ}} || {{IPA|/tʃa/}} ||style="background:#d6f5d6; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཆ}} || {{IPA|/tʃʰa/}} ||style="background:#ffcce6; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཇ}} || {{IPA|/dʒa*/}} ||style="background:#99bbff; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཉ}} || {{IPA|/ɲa/}}
|-align=center
| rowspan="2" | '''''[[Dental consonant|Dental]]''''' ||style="background:beige; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཏ}} || {{IPA|/ta/}} ||style="background:#d6f5d6; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཐ}} || {{IPA|/tʰa/}} ||style="background:#ffcce6; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ད}} || {{IPA|/da*/}} ||style="background:#99bbff; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ན}} || {{IPA|/na/}}
|- align="center"
| style="background:beige; font-size:24px;" |{{bo-textonly|ཙ}}||{{IPA|/tsa/}}|| style="background:#d6f5d6; font-size:24px;" |{{bo-textonly|ཚ}}||{{IPA|/tsʰa/}}|| style="background:#ffcce6; font-size:24px;" |{{bo-textonly|ཛ}}||{{IPA|/dza*/}}|| style="background:#EEEFE4; font-size:24px;" |{{bo-textonly|ཝ}}||{{IPA|/wa/}}
|-align=center
| '''''[[Labial consonant|Labial]]''''' ||style="background:beige; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|པ}} || {{IPA|/pa/}} ||style="background:#d6f5d6; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཕ}} || {{IPA|/pʰa/}} ||style="background:#ffcce6; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|བ}} || {{IPA|/ba*/}} ||style="background:#99bbff; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|མ}} || {{IPA|/ma/}}
|-align=center
|style="background:#d9b3ff;" | '''''low''''' ||style="background:#d9b3ff; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཞ}} || {{IPA|/ʒa*/}} ||style="background:#d9b3ff; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཟ}} || {{IPA|/za*/}} ||style="background:#d9b3ff; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|འ}} || {{IPA|/a/}} {{angle bracket|ʼa}} ||style="background:#d9b3ff; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཡ}} || {{IPA|/ja/}}
|-align=center
|style="background:#b3ffff;" | '''''medium''''' ||style="background:#b3ffff; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ར}} || {{IPA|/ra/}} ||style="background:#b3ffff; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ལ}} || {{IPA|/la/}} ||style="background:#b3ffff; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཤ}} || {{IPA|/ʃa/}} ||style="background:#b3ffff; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ས}} || {{IPA|/sa/}}
|-align=center
|style="background:#ffffcc;" | '''''high''''' ||style="background:#ffffcc; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཧ}} || {{IPA|/ha/}} ||style="background:#ffffcc; font-size:24px;"| {{bo-textonly|ཨ}} || {{IPA|/a/}} {{angle bracket|ꞏa}}
|-
|align="center" colspan=9 style="font-size:88%" |* – Only in [[loanwords]]
|}

===Consonant clusters===
[[File:Tibetan map of the Kizil Caves (13th entury CE).jpg|thumb|Tibetan map of the [[Kizil Caves]], [[Tarim Basin]]. 13th century CE]]
One aspect of the Tibetan script is that the consonants can be written either as radicals or they can be written in other forms, such as [[subscript and superscript]] forming [[consonant cluster]]s.

To understand how this works, one can look at the radical {{bo-textonly|ཀ}} /ka/ and see what happens when it becomes {{bo-textonly|ཀྲ}} /kra/ or {{bo-textonly|རྐ}} /rka/. In both cases, the symbol for {{bo-textonly|ཀ}} /ka/ is used, but when the {{bo-textonly|ར}} /ra/ is in the middle of the consonant and vowel, it is added as a subscript. On the other hand, when the {{bo-textonly|ར}} /ra/ comes before the consonant and vowel, it is added as a superscript.<ref name="daniels" /> {{bo-textonly|ར}} /ra/ actually changes form when it is above most other consonants; thus {{bo-textonly|རྐ}} rka. However, an exception to this is the cluster {{bo-textonly|རྙ}} /rɲa/. Similarly, the consonants {{bo-textonly|ཝ}} /wa/, {{bo-textonly|ར}} /ra/, and {{bo-textonly|ཡ}} /ja/ change form when they are beneath other consonants; thus {{bo-textonly|ཀྭ}} /kwa/; {{bo-textonly|ཀྲ}} /kra/; {{bo-textonly|ཀྱ}} /kja/.

Besides being written as subscripts and superscripts, some consonants can also be placed in prescript, postscript, or post-postscript positions. For instance, the consonants {{bo-textonly|ག}} /ʰka/, {{bo-textonly|ད}} /ʰta/, {{bo-textonly|བ}} /ʰpa/, {{bo-textonly|མ}} /ma/ and {{bo-textonly|འ}} /a/ can be used in the prescript position to the left of other radicals, while the position after a radical (the postscript position), can be held by the ten consonants {{bo-textonly|ག}} /ʰka/, {{bo-textonly|ན}} /na/, {{bo-textonly|བ}} /ʰpa/, {{bo-textonly|ད}} /ʰta/, {{bo-textonly|མ}} /ma/, {{bo-textonly|འ}} /a/, {{bo-textonly|ར}} /ra/, {{bo-textonly|ང}} /ŋa/, {{bo-textonly|ས}} /sa/, and {{bo-textonly|ལ}} /la/. The third position, the post-postscript position is solely for the consonants {{bo-textonly|ད}} /ʰta/ and {{bo-textonly|ས}} /sa/.<ref name="daniels" />

====Head letters====
The superscript position above a radical is reserved for the consonants {{bo-textonly|ར}} /ra/, {{bo-textonly|ལ}} /la/, and {{bo-textonly|ས}} /sa/.

*When {{bo-textonly|ར}} /ra/, {{bo-textonly|ལ}} /la/, and {{bo-textonly|ས}} /sa/ are in superscript position with {{bo-textonly|ཀ}} /ka/, {{bo-textonly|ཅ}} /tʃa/, {{bo-textonly|ཏ}} /ta/, {{bo-textonly|པ}} /pa/ and {{bo-textonly|ཙ}} /tsa/, there are no changes in the sound. They look and sound like:
**{{bo-textonly|རྐ}} /ka/, {{bo-textonly|རྟ}} /ta/, {{bo-textonly|རྤ}} /pa/, {{bo-textonly|རྩ}} /tsa/
**{{bo-textonly|ལྐ}} /ka/, {{bo-textonly|ལྕ}} /tʃa/, {{bo-textonly|ལྟ}} /ta/, {{bo-textonly|ལྤ}} /pa/,
**{{bo-textonly|སྐ}} /ka/, {{bo-textonly|སྕ}} /tʃa/, {{bo-textonly|སྟ}} /ta/, {{bo-textonly|སྤ}} /pa/, {{bo-textonly|སྩ}} /tsa/
*When {{bo-textonly|ར}} /ra/, {{bo-textonly|ལ}} /la/, and {{bo-textonly|ས}} /sa/ are in superscript position with {{bo-textonly|ག}} /ʰka/, {{bo-textonly|ཇ}} /ʰtʃa/, {{bo-textonly|ད}} /ʰta/, {{bo-textonly|བ}} /ʰpa/ and {{bo-textonly|ཛ}} /ʰtsa/, they lose their aspiration and become voiced. They look and sound like:
**{{bo-textonly|རྒ}} /ga/, {{bo-textonly|རྗ}} /d͡ʒa/, {{bo-textonly|རྡ}} /da/, {{bo-textonly|རྦ}} /ba/, {{bo-textonly|རྫ}} /dza/
**{{bo-textonly|ལྒ}} /ga/, {{bo-textonly|ལྗ}} /d͡ʒa/, {{bo-textonly|ལྡ}} /da/, {{bo-textonly|ལྦ}} /ba/,
**{{bo-textonly|སྒ}} /ga/, {{bo-textonly|སྗ}} /d͡ʒa/, {{bo-textonly|སྡ}} /da/, {{bo-textonly|སྦ}} /ba/, {{bo-textonly|སྫ}} /dza/
*When {{bo-textonly|ར}} /ra/, {{bo-textonly|ལ}} /la/, and {{bo-textonly|ས}} /sa/ are in superscript position with {{bo-textonly|ང}} /ŋa/, {{bo-textonly|ཉ}} /ɲa/, {{bo-textonly|ན}} /na/ and {{bo-textonly|མ}} /ma/, the nasal sound gets high. They look and sound like:
**{{bo-textonly|རྔ}} /ŋa/, {{bo-textonly|རྙ}} /ɲa/, {{bo-textonly|རྣ}} /na/, {{bo-textonly|རྨ}} /ma/
**{{bo-textonly|ལྔ}} /ŋa/, {{bo-textonly|ལྨ}} /ma/
**{{bo-textonly|སྔ}} /ŋa/, {{bo-textonly|སྙ}} /ɲa/, {{bo-textonly|སྣ}} /na/, {{bo-textonly|སྨ}} /ma/

====Sub-joined letters====
The subscript position under a radical is for the consonants {{bo-textonly|ཡ}} /ja/, {{bo-textonly|ར}} /ra/, {{bo-textonly|ལ}} /la/, and {{bo-textonly|ཝ}} /wa/.

===Vowel marks===

The [[vowel]]s used in the alphabet are {{bo-textonly|ཨ}} /a/, {{bo-textonly|ཨི}} /i/, {{bo-textonly|ཨུ}} /u/, {{bo-textonly|ཨེ}} /e/, and {{bo-textonly|ཨོ}} /o/. While the vowel /a/ is included in each consonant or radical, the other vowels are indicated by marks; thus {{bo-textonly|ཀ}} /ka/, {{bo-textonly|ཀི}} /ki/, {{bo-textonly|ཀུ}} /ku/, {{bo-textonly|ཀེ}} /ke/, {{bo-textonly|ཀོ}} /ko/. The vowels {{bo-textonly|ཨི}} /i/, {{bo-textonly|ཨེ}} /e/, and {{bo-textonly|ཨོ}} /o/ are placed above consonants as diacritics, while the vowel {{bo-textonly|ཨུ}} /u/ is placed underneath consonants.<ref name="daniels" /> [[Old Tibetan]] included a reversed form of the mark for /i/, the gigu 'verso', of uncertain meaning. There is no distinction between long and short vowels in written Tibetan, except in [[loanword]]s, especially transcribed from the [[Sanskrit]].

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Vowel mark
!IPA
!Vowel mark
!IPA
!Vowel mark
!IPA
!Vowel mark
!IPA
|- style="text-align:center;"
|{{bo-textonly|ི}} || {{IPA|/i/}} || {{bo-textonly|ུ}} || {{IPA|/u/}} || {{bo-textonly|ེ}} || {{IPA|/e/}} || {{bo-textonly|ོ}} || {{IPA|/o/}}
|}

===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Tibetan numerals
| {{bo-textonly|༠}} || {{bo-textonly|༡}} || {{bo-textonly|༢}} || {{bo-textonly|༣}} || {{bo-textonly|༤}} || {{bo-textonly|༥}} || {{bo-textonly|༦}} || {{bo-textonly|༧}} || {{bo-textonly|༨}} || {{bo-textonly|༩}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[Devanagari numerals]]
| ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४ || ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९
|- style="text-align:center;"
![[Arabic numerals]]
| 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Tibetan fractions
| {{bo-textonly|༳}} ||{{bo-textonly|༪}} ||{{bo-textonly|༫}} || {{bo-textonly|༬}} || {{bo-textonly|༭}} || {{bo-textonly|༮}} || {{bo-textonly|༯}} || {{bo-textonly|༰}} || {{bo-textonly|༱}} || {{bo-textonly|༲}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Arabic fractions
| -0.5 || 0.5 || 1.5 || 2.5 || 3.5 || 4.5 || 5.5 || 6.5 || 7.5 || 8.5
|}

===Modifiers===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+
|-
! Symbol/ Graphemes !! Name !! Function
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|༄}} || {{bo-textonly|ཡིག་མགོ་}} ''[[yig mgo]]'' || marks beginning of text
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|༈}} || {{bo-textonly|སྦྲུལ་ཤད་}} ''sbrul shad'' || separates sections of meaning equivalent to topics and sub-topics
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|༉}} || {{bo-textonly|བསྐུར་ཡིག་མགོ་}} ''[[yig mgo|bskur yig mgo]]'' || list enumerator ([[Dzongkha]])
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|་}} || {{bo-textonly|ཙེག་}} ''tseg'' || [[morpheme]] [[delimiter]]
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|།}} || {{bo-textonly|ཚིག་གྲུབ་}} ''tshig-grub'' || full stop (marks end of a section of text)
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|༎}} || {{bo-textonly|དོན་ཚན་}} ''don-tshan'' || full stop (marks end of a whole topic)
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|༴}} || {{bo-textonly|བསྡུས་རྟགས་}} ''bsdus rtags'' || repetition
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|༺}} || {{bo-textonly|གུག་རྟགས་གཡོན་}} ''gug rtags g.yon''|| left bracket
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|༻}} || {{bo-textonly|གུག་རྟགས་གཡས་}} ''gug rtags g.yas'' || right bracket
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|༼}} || {{bo-textonly|ཨང་ཁང་གཡོན་}} ''ang khang g.yon'' || left bracket used for bracketing with a roof over
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|༽}} || {{bo-textonly|ཨང་ཁང་གཡས་}} ''ang khang g.yas'' || right bracket used for bracketing with a roof over
|}

==Extended use==
[[File:Unknown Tibetan Sanskrit Text.jpg|thumb|250px|A text in Tibetan script suspected to be [[Sanskrit]] in content. From the personal artifact collection of Donald Weir.]]
The Tibetan alphabet, when used to write other languages such as [[Balti language|Balti]] and [[Sanskrit]], often has additional and/or modified [[graphemes]] taken from the basic Tibetan alphabet to represent different sounds.

===Extended alphabet===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+
|-
! Letter !! Used in !! Romanization & IPA
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཫ}} || [[Balti language|Balti]] || qa {{IPA|/qa/}} ([[/q/]])
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཬ}} || [[Balti language|Balti]] || ɽa {{IPA|/ɽa/}} ([[/ɽ/]])
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཁ༹}} || [[Balti language|Balti]] || xa {{IPA|/χa/}} ([[/χ/]])
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ག༹}} || [[Balti language|Balti]] || ɣa {{IPA|/ʁa/}} ([[/ʁ/]])
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|གྷ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || gha {{IPA|/ɡʱ/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཛྷ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || jha {{IPA|/ɟʱ, d͡ʒʱ/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཊ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ṭa {{IPA|/ʈ/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཋ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ṭha {{IPA|/ʈʰ/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཌ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ḍa {{IPA|/ɖ/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཌྷ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ḍha {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཎ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ṇa {{IPA|/ɳ/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|དྷ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || dha {{IPA|/d̪ʱ/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|བྷ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || bha {{IPA|/bʱ/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཥ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ṣa {{IPA|/ʂ/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཀྵ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || kṣa {{IPA|/kʂ/}}
|}

*In [[Balti language|Balti]], consonants ka, ra are represented by reversing the letters {{bo-textonly|ཀ ར}} (ka, ra) to give {{bo-textonly|ཫ ཬ}} (qa, ɽa).
*The [[Sanskrit]] "[[retroflex consonants]]" ṭa, ṭha, ḍa, ṇa, ṣa are represented in Tibetan by reversing the letters {{bo-textonly|ཏ ཐ ད ན ཤ}} (ta, tha, da, na, sha) to give {{bo-textonly|ཊ ཋ ཌ ཎ ཥ}} (Ta, Tha, Da, Na, Sa).
*It is a classical rule to transliterate Sanskrit ca, cha, ja, jha, to Tibetan {{bo-textonly|ཙ ཚ ཛ ཛྷ}} (tsa, tsha, dza, dzha), respectively. Nowadays, {{bo-textonly|ཅ ཆ ཇ ཇྷ}} (ca, cha, ja, jha) can also be used.

===Extended vowel marks and modifiers===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+
|-
! Vowel Mark !! Used in !! Romanization & IPA
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཱ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ā {{IPA|/aː/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཱི}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ī {{IPA|/iː/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཱུ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ū {{IPA|/uː/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཻ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ai {{IPA|/ai/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཽ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || au {{IPA|/au/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ྲྀ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ṛ /r̩/
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཷ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ṝ {{IPA|/r̩ː/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ླྀ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ḷ {{IPA|/l̩/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཹ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || ḹ {{IPA|/l̩ː/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཾ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || aṃ {{IPA|/◌̃/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ྃ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || aṃ {{IPA|/◌̃/}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|ཿ}} || [[Sanskrit]] || aḥ {{IPA|/h/}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+
|-
! Symbol/ Graphemes !! Name !! Used in !! Function
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|྄}} || ''[[Virama|srog med]]'' || [[Sanskrit]] || ''suppresses the [[inherent vowel]] sound''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| {{bo-textonly|྅}} || ''[[Avagraha|paluta]]'' || [[Sanskrit]] || ''used for prolonging vowel sounds''
|}

==Romanization and transliteration==

Romanization and transliteration of the Tibetan script is the representation of the Tibetan script in the [[Latin script]]. Multiple Romanization and transliteration systems have been created in recent years, but do not fully represent the true phonetic sound.<ref>See for instance [http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom1_bo.pdf] [http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom2_dz.pdf]</ref> While the [[Wylie transliteration]] system is widely used to Romanize [[Standard Tibetan]], others include the Library of Congress system and the IPA-based transliteration (Jacques 2012).

Below is a table with Tibetan letters and different Romanization and transliteration system for each letter, listed below systems are: [[Wylie transliteration]] (W), [[Tibetan pinyin]] (TP), [[Dzongkha]] phonetic (DP), [[ALA-LC Romanization]] (A)<ref>[https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/tibetan.pdf ALA-LC Romanization of Tibetan script (PDF)]</ref> and [[THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription]] (THL).

{| class="wikitable"
|-align=center style="font-size:small"
! Letter
! [[Wylie transliteration|W]]
! [[Tibetan pinyin|TP]]
! DP
! [[ALA-LC Romanization|A]]
! [[THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription|THL]]
! style="border-left:2px solid black;" | Letter
! W
! TP
! DP
! A
! THL
! style="border-left:2px solid black;" | Letter
! W
! TP
! DP
! A
! THL
! style="border-left:2px solid black;" | Letter
! W
! TP
! DP
! A
! THL
|-align=center
|{{bo-textonly|ཀ}} || ka || g || ka || ka || ka || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཁ}} || kha || k || kha || kha || kha || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ག}} || ga* || k* || kha* || ga* || ga* || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ང}} || nga || ng || nga || nga || nga
|-align=center
|{{bo-textonly|ཅ}} || ca || j || ca || ca || cha || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཆ}} || cha || q || cha || cha || cha || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཇ}} || ja* || q* || cha* || ja* || ja* || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཉ}} || nya || ny || nya || nya || nya
|-align=center
|{{bo-textonly|ཏ}} || ta || d || ta || ta || ta || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཐ}} || tha || t || tha || tha || ta || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ད}} || da* || t* || tha* || da* || da* || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ན}} || na || n || na || na || na
|-align=center
|{{bo-textonly|པ}} || pa || b || pa || pa || pa || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཕ}} || pha || p || pha || pha || pa || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|བ}} || ba* || p* || pha* || ba* || ba* || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|མ}} || ma || m || ma || ma || ma
|-align=center
|{{bo-textonly|ཙ}} || tsa || z || tsa || tsa || tsa || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཚ}} || tsha || c || tsha || tsha || tsa || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཛ}} || dza* || c* || tsha* || dza* || dza* || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཝ}} || wa || w || wa || wa || wa
|-align=center
|{{bo-textonly|ཞ}} || zha* || x* || sha* || zha* || zha* || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཟ}} || za* || s* || sa* || za* || za* || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|འ}} || 'a || - || a || 'a || a || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཡ}} || ya || y || ya || ya || ya
|-align=center
|{{bo-textonly|ར}} || ra || r || ra || ra || ra || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ལ}} || la || l || la || la || la || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཤ}} || sha || x || sha || sha || sha || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ས}} || sa || s || sa || sa || sa
|-align=center
|{{bo-textonly|ཧ}} || ha || h || ha || ha || ha || style="border-left:2px solid black;" | {{bo-textonly|ཨ}} || a || a || a || a || a || style="border-left:2px solid black;" colspan="12" |  
|-
|align="center" colspan=24 style="font-size:88%" |* – Only in [[loanwords]]
|}

==Input method and keyboard layout==
===Tibetan===
[[File:Tibetan Keyboard.png|thumb|420px|[[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]] keyboard layout]]
The first version of Microsoft Windows to support the Tibetan keyboard layout is MS [[Windows Vista]]. The layout has been available in [[Linux]] since September 2007. In [[Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]] 12.04, one can install Tibetan language support through Dash / Language Support / Install/Remove Languages, the input method can be turned on from Dash / Keyboard Layout, adding Tibetan keyboard layout. The layout applies the similar layout as in Microsoft Windows.

[[Mac OS]]-X introduced Tibetan Unicode support with OS-X version 10.5 and later, now with three different keyboard layouts available: Tibetan-Wylie, Tibetan QWERTY and Tibetan-Otani.

===Dzongkha===
[[File:Dzongkha Keyboard layout Main.svg|thumb|300px|[[Dzongkha]] keyboard layout]]
{{Main|Dzongkha keyboard layout}}
The Dzongkha keyboard layout scheme is designed as a simple means for inputting [[Dzongkha]] text on computers. This keyboard layout was standardized by the [[Dzongkha Development Commission]] (DDC) and the [[Department of Information Technology and Telecommunications, Bhutan|Department of Information Technology]] (DIT) of the [[Royal Government of Bhutan]] in 2000.

It was updated in 2009 to accommodate additional characters added to the [[Unicode]] & [[Universal Coded Character Set|ISO 10646]] standards since the initial version. Since the arrangement of keys essentially follows the usual order of the Dzongkha and Tibetan alphabet, the layout can be quickly learned by anyone familiar with this alphabet. Subjoined (combining) consonants are entered using the Shift key.

The Dzongkha (dz) keyboard layout is included in Microsoft Windows, Android, and most distributions of Linux as part of [[XFree86]].

==Unicode==

{{Main|Tibetan (Unicode block)}}

Tibetan was originally one of the scripts in the first version of the [[Unicode]] Standard in 1991, in the Unicode block U+1000–U+104F. However, in 1993, in version 1.1, it was removed (the code points it took up would later be used for the [[Burmese script]] in version 3.0). The Tibetan script was re-added in July, 1996 with the release of version 2.0.

The Unicode block for Tibetan is U+0F00–U+0FFF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks and special symbols used in religious texts:

{{Unicode chart Tibetan}}

==See also==
* [[Tibetan calligraphy]]
* [[Tibetan Braille]]
* [[Dzongkha Braille]]
* [[:Category:Tibetan typefaces|Tibetan typefaces]]
* [[Wylie transliteration]]
* [[Tibetan pinyin]]
* [[THDL Simplified Phonetic Transcription]]
* [[Tise]], input method for Tibetan script
* [[Limbu script]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
*Asher, R. E. ed. ''The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics''. Tarrytown, NY: Pergamon Press, 1994. 10 vol.
*Beyer, Stephan V. (1993). ''The Classical Tibetan Language''. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
*Chamberlain, Bradford Lynn. 2008. Script Selection for Tibetan-related Languages in Multiscriptal Environments. ''International Journal of the Sociology of Language'' 192:117–132.
*Csoma de Kőrös, Alexander. (1983). ''A Grammar of the Tibetan Language''. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
*Csoma de Kőrös, Alexander (1980–1982). ''Sanskrit-Tibetan-English Vocabulary''. 2 vols. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
*Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright. ''The World's Writing Systems''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
*Das, Sarat Chandra: "The Sacred and Ornamental Characters of Tibet". ''Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal'', vol. 57 (1888), pp. 41–48 and 9 plates.
*Das, Sarat Chandra. (1996). ''An Introduction to the Grammar of the Tibetan Language''. Reprinted by Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
*Jacques, Guillaume 2012. [https://www.academia.edu/2322359/A_new_transcription_system_for_Old_and_Classical_Tibetan A new transcription system for Old and Classical Tibetan], Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 35.3:89-96.
*Jäschke, Heinrich August. (1989). ''Tibetan Grammar''. Corrected by Sunil Gupta. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.

==External links==
* [https://sites.google.com/site/chrisfynn2/home/tibetanscriptfonts/howtowritethetibetanscript Tibetan Calligraphy]—Online guide for writing Tibetan script.
* [https://sites.google.com/view/chrisfynn/home/tibetanscriptfonts/thetibetanwritingsystem Elements of the Tibetan writing system].
* [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0F00.pdf Unicode area U0F00-U0FFF, Tibetan script (162KB)]
* [http://www.thlib.org/tools/#wiki=/access/wiki/site/26a34146-33a6-48ce-001e-f16ce7908a6a/encoding%20model%20of%20the%20tibetan%20script%20in%20the%20ucs.html Encoding Model of the Tibetan Script in the UCS]
* [http://www.digitaltibetan.org/index.php/Digital_Tibetan Digital Tibetan]—Online resource for the digitalization of Tibetan.
* [http://www.thlib.org/tools/#wiki=/access/wiki/site/26a34146-33a6-48ce-001e-f16ce7908a6a/home.html Tibetan Scripts, Fonts & Related Issues]—[[THDL]] articles on Unicode font issues; free cross-platform OpenType fonts—Unicode compatible.
* [http://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/free-tibetan/ Free Tibetan Fonts Project]
* [http://www.ancientscripts.com/tibetan.html Ancient Scripts: Tibetan]

{{Tibetan language}}
{{list of writing systems}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Tibetan script| ]]
[[Category:Dzongkha language]]
[[Category:Brahmic scripts]]
[[Category:Writing systems without word boundaries]]

Gyirong County

2021-08-04T10:53:34Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{Infobox settlement  <!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions..."

{{Infobox settlement



|name =Gyirong County
|official_name =
|other_name =
|native_name = {{lower|0.1em|{{nobold|{{lang|zh-hans|吉隆县}} • {{Bo-textonly|སྐྱིད་གྲོང་རྫོང་།}}}}}}
|nickname =
|settlement_type =[[County (People's Republic of China)|County]]
|total_type = 
|motto =

|image_skyline =Gyirong welcome.JPG
|imagesize =250px
|image_caption =
|image_map =Location of Gyirong within Xizang (China).png
|mapsize =
|map_caption =Location of Gyirong County (red) within Xigazê City (yellow) and the Tibet Autonomous Region
|pushpin_map =China Tibet
|pushpin_label =Gyirong
|pushpin_label_position =
|pushpin_map_caption =Location of the seat in the Tibet Autonomous Region
|pushpin_mapsize =

|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = [[China|People's Republic of China]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Autonomous regions of China|Autonomous region]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Tibet Autonomous Region]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[Prefecture-level city]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Xigazê]]
|seat = [[Zongga]]

|leader_title =
|leader_name =
|established_title =
|established_date =
|area_total_km2 =
|elevation_m =
|population_as_of = 1999
|population_footnotes =
|population_note =
|population_total =
|population_density_km2 =

|timezone = [[China Standard Time|China Standard]]
|utc_offset = +8
| coor_type = 
|coordinates = {{coord|28|51|16|N|85|17|48|E|type:adm3rd_region:CN-54|display=inline,title}}

|postal_code_type =
|postal_code =
|area_code =
|website =
|footnotes =
}}
'''sKyid-grong''' ('''Gyirong''', Kyirong, {{bo|t=སྐྱིད་གྲོང་རྫོང་།|w=skyid grong rdzong |z=Gyirong Zong}}; {{zh|s=吉隆县 |p=Jílóng Xiàn}}) is a county of [[Xigazê]] Prefecture, [[Tibet Autonomous Region]]. It is famous because of its mild climatically conditions and its abundant vegetation which is unusual for the Tibetan plateau. The capital lies at [[Zongga]]. Its name in Tibetan, Dzongka means "mud walls".

It is one of the four counties that comprise the [[Qomolangma National Nature Preserve]] (Gyirong, [[Dinggyê County|Dinggyê]], [[Nyalam County|Nyalam]], and [[Tingri County|Tingri]]).<ref>Department of Forestry, Government of the Tibet Autonomous Region, People’s Republic of China, ‘’Report on Protected Lands in the Tibet Autonomous Region’’ Lhasa: Tibet Autonomous Region Government Publishing House, 2006</ref>

In 1945 [[Peter Aufschnaiter]] counted 26 temples and monasteries which covered the area of sKyid-grong and the neighboring La-sdebs. The most famous temple of sKyid-grong is the Byams-sprin lha-khang, erected by the famous Tibetan king Srong-btsan sgam-po ([[Songtsän Gampo]]) as one of the four Yang-´dul temples in the 7th century A.D. During the 11th century the famous South Asian scholar [[Atisha]] visited sKyi-grong. sKyid-grong was one of the favorite meditation places of the Tibetan Yogin Mi-la ras-pa ([[Milarepa]]).

The local [[Kyirong language|Gyirong language]] has been researched thoroughly and folk literature of this region was collected and published during the 1980s.

== Special places ==
[[File:NH-45-13 Dhunche Nepal; China.jpg|thumb|left|Map including part of Gyirong County ([[Defense Mapping Agency|DMA]], 1985)]]
Of outstanding importance are the Byams-sprin lha-khang temple, which was built in the 7th century A. D., and the ´Phags-pa lha-khang temple. The ´Phags-pa lha-khang formerly contained one of the holiest Avalokiteshvara statues of Tibet, the statue of the Ārya Va-ti bzang-po. This statue was brought to India in 1959 and is now kept in [[Dharamsala, Himachal Pradesh|Dharamsala]].

Of some importance is the bKra-shis bdam-gtan gling monastery, founded by yongs-´dzin Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan (1713–1793), who was one of the teachers of the [[8th Dalai Lama]].

[[Lake Paiku]] is in this county. This is a {{convert|27|km|abbr=on}} long, slightly salty lake surrounded by snowy peaks {{convert|5700|to|6000|m|ft|abbr=on}} high.

==Towns and townships==
* [[Zongga]] Town ({{lang|bo|རྫོང་དགའ་}}, {{lang|zh-hans|宗嘎镇}})
* [[Gyirong Town]] ({{lang|bo|སྐྱིད་གྲོང་}}, {{lang|zh-hans|吉隆镇}})
* [[Zhêba Township]] ({{lang|bo|ཀྲེ་པ་}}, {{lang|zh-hans|折巴乡}})
* [[Kungtang]] Township({{lang|bo|གུང་ཐང་}}, {{lang|zh-hans|贡当乡}})
* [[Chagna]] Township ({{lang|bo|བྲག་སྣ་}}, {{lang|zh-hans|差那乡}})

==Transportation==
Up to 1960 one of the main trade routes between Nepal and Tibet passed through this region. Easily accessible from Nepal, it was used several times as an entrance gate for military actions from the site of Nepal against Tibet. In 2017, Chinese soldiers began building a new road on the Tibetan side of the border, and intend to continue construction into Nepal via [[Rasuwa]] pending approval from Kathmandu.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rfa.org/english/news/tibet/road-09082017172957.html?mc_cid=188d8809c7&mc_eid=1f9d28130a |publisher=[[Radio Free Asia]] |quote=The group, which appeared on Sept. 1 at Nepal’s border with Kyirong county in the Tibet Autonomous Region, distributed food and clothing to the Nepalese, promising to help them with the roadwork and other construction projects in Nepal if permission can be obtained from government authorities in Kathmandu, a resident of the area told RFA’s Tibetan Service. |title=China Builds Road to Nepal Border, Sets Up Flag |date=September 8, 2017 |author=Lhuboom |author2=Richard Finney |translator-first=Dorjee |translator-last=Damdul}}</ref>

A possibility of [[China–Nepal railway|a transborder railway link]] along a similar route (Gyirong to Kathmandu via Rasuwa) is considered as well.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://thewire.in/preview/373372|title=The Uneasy Future of the Nepal-China Railway|date=2019-06-20}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* Roland Bielmeier, Silke Herrmann: ''Märchen, Sagen und Schwänke vom Dach der Welt. Tibetisches Erzählgut in Deutscher Fassung, Band 3. Viehzüchtererzählungen sowie Erzählgut aus sKyid-grong und Ding-ri, gesammelt und ins Deutsche übertragen''. Vereinigung für Geschichtswissenschaft Hochasiens Wissenschaftsverlag (= Beiträge zur tibetischen Erzählforschung, 3), Sankt Augustin 1982
* Harrer, Heinrich: [[Seven Years in Tibet]]; ''Beyond Seven Years in Tibet: My Life Before, During, and After (2007)''
* Aufschnaiter, Peter: ''Land and Places of Milarepa''. East and West, 26 (1976):1-2, S. 175-189
* Brauen, Martin: ''Heinrich Harrers Impressionen aus Tibet''. Innsbruck, 1974
* Brauen, Martin: ''Peter Aufschnaiter. Sein Leben in Tibet''. Innsbruck, 1983
* Ehrhard, Franz-Karl: ''Die Statue des Ārya Va-ti bzang-po''. Wiesbaden, 2004
* Huber, Brigitte: The Tibetan Dialect of Lende (Kyi-rong): a grammatical description with historical annotations''. Bonn, 2005
* [[Dieter Schuh]]: ''Das Archiv des Klosters bKra-shis bsam-gtan gling von sKyid-grong''. Bonn, 1988

{{County-level divisions of Tibet}}
{{Xigaze Prefecture}}
{{Towns in Xigazê}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Gyirong County| ]]
[[Category:Counties of Tibet]]
[[Category:Shigatse]]

Gyirong Town

2021-08-04T10:52:20Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{distinguish|Kerung VDC}} {{Infobox settlement | name = Gyirong Town | native_name = {{bo-textonly|སྐྱིད་གྲོ..."

{{distinguish|Kerung VDC}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Gyirong Town
| native_name = {{bo-textonly|སྐྱིད་གྲོང་}} · {{lang|zh-Hans|吉隆镇}}
| settlement_type = Town
| image_skyline =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| etymology =
| nickname =
| coor_pinpoint = Gyirong Town government
| coordinates = {{coord|28.3933|N|85.3292|E|type:city_region:CN-54_source:Gaode|format=dms|display=it}}
| coordinates_type =
| coordinates_region =
| elevation_m = 2700
| pushpin_map = China Tibet topography
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Tibet Automomous Region
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[China|People's Republic of China]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Autonomous regions of China|Autonomous region]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Prefecture-level city]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Shigatse]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Counties of the People's Republic of China|County]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Gyirong County|Gyirong]]
| website = 
| official_name =
}}
'''Gyirong Town''' ({{bo|t=སྐྱིད་གྲོང་}}; {{zh|s=吉隆镇 |t=吉隆鎮 |p=Jílóng zhèn}}; {{lang-ne|केरुङ}}), also referred to as ''Kyirong'' or ''Kerung'', is situated in the southern part of [[Gyirong County]] in the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]], China. The town is situated on the east bank of Gyirong River (Gyirong Zangbo), a tributary of the [[Trishuli River]] with an elevation of about {{convert|2700|m|ft}}. It has a subtropical mountain monsoon climate, with reasonable precipitation and warm weather, unusual for Tibet.

The town is located {{convert|70|km|mi}} south of the county seat [[Zongga]] and roughly {{cvt|25|km}} north of [[Rasuwa Fort]] on the [[China-Nepal border]] where a [[border crossing]] into [[Nepal]] is located.

In Gyirong Town, there is a village of ethnic [[Nepalis|Nepali]] referred to as [[Daman people]]. They are descendants of Nepalese [[Gurkha]] army centuries ago. Previously [[Statelessness|stateless]], they were granted Chinese citizenship in 2003.<ref>{{Cite web| title = "Eastern Gypsies": Damans in Tibet
| last = Woebom| first = Tenzin| website = Vtibet| date = 2014-12-23| access-date = 2017-02-13| url=http://www.vtibet.com/en/calture/popular/201501/t20150107_270124.html}}</ref>

==History==
After the division of the Tibetan Empire, descendants of [[Songtsen Gampo]] fled to Gyirong and then founded the Gongtang Kingdom, whose ruins are now in Gyirong.
[[File:Rasuwa_Fort_01.JPG|thumb|right|Rasuwa Fort is a China-Nepal border crossing located 25 km south of Gyirong Town.]]
Historically, Gyirong Town has been an important town in the cross border trade between [[China–Nepal border|China and Nepal]] as it was located on a major traditional trade thoroughfare between the two countries. In 1961, Gyirong was established as a [[port of entry]] from [[Rasuwa Fort]] in Nepal by the Chinese government.<ref>{{cite web |language= zh-cn |author= 李月 |publisher= Xinhua News |script-title=zh:西藏吉隆：加速发展的边境小镇 |trans-title = Gyirong, Tibet: Accelerated Development of the Border Town|url=http://tibet.news.cn/gdbb/2009-11/04/content_18139347.htm|date= 2009-11-04 |access-date= 2011-11-16 |url-status= dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110818194304/http://tibet.news.cn/gdbb/2009-11/04/content_18139347.htm |archive-date = 2011-08-18 }}</ref> In December 2014, the Gyirong [[port of entry]] was opened to international users<ref name="murton_crosscurrent">{{Cite magazine| title = A Himalayan Border Trilogy: The Political Economies of Transport Infrastructure and Disaster Relief between China and Nepal| first = Galen| author = Murton| magazine = Cross-Currents E-Journal| date = March 2016| issn = 2158-9674| access-date = 2017-02-09| url = https://cross-currents.berkeley.edu/e-journal/issue-18/murton| quote = On December 1, 2014, the Sino-Nepal border at Rasuwaghadi was officially opened for commercial business.
}}</ref> and this route between China and Nepal was considered to be more reliable than one through the [[Zhangmu]]-[[Kodari]] border crossing.<ref>{{Cite web| title = Rasuwa-Kerung road spells new heights in trade| website = Timure| date = February 17, 2010| access-date = 2017-02-13
| url = http://timure.over-blog.com/article-rasuwa-kerung-road-spells-new-heights-in-trade-45118568.html| quote = Technically, the Syafrubesi-Rasuwagadhi road is more reliable than the Kodari Highway, said Sitaula.}}</ref>

===The April 2015 earthquake===
Gyirong/Rasuwa played a minor role as a cross-border trade route until about a year after the [[April 2015 Nepal earthquake]] as the cross-border route through the Zhangmu-Kodari border crossing was more badly damaged, only reopening on 29 May 2019.<ref>{{Cite web| title = Kodari Checkpoint To Open Today| work = The Spotlight Online| date = 2019-05-29 | access-date = 2019-06-28 | url = https://www.spotlightnepal.com/2019/05/29/kodari-checkpoint-open-today/}}</ref> Both corridors sustained quake damage and had been closed<ref name="murton_crosscurrent"/> due to the collapse of the border bridges at both locations and due to continuing rockfall from unstable hillsides, the Gyirong/Rasuwa crossing being technically easier to re-open.

The Gyirong-Rasuwa Fort route experienced quicker recovery<ref name="Tibet Train">{{Cite web | title = The Tibet Train | last = Rai | first = Om Astha | website = Times of Nepal | access-date = 2019-07-01 | url = https://nepalitimes.atavist.com/the-tibet-train | language = en | archive-date = 2020-10-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201029141613/https://nepalitimes.atavist.com/the-tibet-train | url-status = dead }}</ref> since it is favoured for trans-Himalayan connectivity due to lower elevation and gentler pass slope. A temporary bridge was constructed in place of the damaged concrete bridge while a new concrete bridge was constructed and opened on 7 June 2019.<ref>{{Cite web| title = New China-Nepal friendship bridge comes into operation | website = Times of India | date = 2019-06-07| access-date = 2019-07-01| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/new-china-nepal-friendship-bridge-comes-into-operation/articleshow/69692230.cms| language =en }}</ref> However, hillside stabilization had yet to be addressed as of Nov 2018 and this was necessary before major infrastructure work could progress. Bridges remain damaged and only recently begun reconstruction. Additionally transnational electricity projects are expected to pass through the area, although funding is still a question mark and Nepali government remains cash strapped and overburdened with competing projects.<ref name="Tibet Train" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Township-level divisions of Shigatse Prefecture}}
{{China–Nepal border crossings}}

[[Category:Gyirong County]]
[[Category:China–Nepal border crossings]]

{{Shigatse-geo-stub}}

Trishuli River

2021-08-04T10:50:42Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{Infobox river | name = Trishuli River | image = Trisuli River in Rasuwa.JPG | image_size = | image_caption = Trisuli River in Rasuwa |..."

{{Infobox river
| name = Trishuli River
| image = Trisuli River in Rasuwa.JPG
| image_size =
| image_caption = Trisuli River in Rasuwa
| map =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| source1_location = [[Gosaikunda]], [[Rasuwa District|Rasuwa]], Nepal
| mouth_location = [[Gandaki River|Narayani River]]
| progression =
| length =
| source1_elevation =
| mouth_elevation =
| discharge1_avg =
| basin_size =
| river_system = [[Gandaki River|Narayani River]]
| tributaries_left =
| tributaries_right = Zarong-chu
}}
The '''Trishuli River''' ({{lang-ne|त्रिशूली नदी}}) is one of the major tributaries of the [[Gandaki River|Narayani River]] basin in central [[Nepal]]. It originates in [[Tibet]] as a stream and enters Nepal at [[Gyirong Town]].

==Etymology==
The Trishuli is named after the ''[[trishula]]'' or trident of [[Shiva]], the most powerful god in the [[Hindu]] pantheon,<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.tigermountain.com/index.php?linkid=11&sublink=3 | title =Rafting | publisher =Tiger Mountain |access-date = 2010-05-18}}</ref> There is a legend that says high in the [[Himalayas]] at [[Gosaikunda]], [[Shiva]] drove his trident into the ground to create three springs – the source of the river and hence its name Trisuli.<ref>{{cite web| url =http://budgettrekking.com/sub/rafting.php| title =Budget treks and expeditions| access-date =2010-05-18| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110708103313/http://budgettrekking.com/sub/rafting.php| archive-date =2011-07-08}}</ref>

==Course==
The stream in Tibet crosses the Nepalese border at [[Gyirong Town]], with the Kyirong gorge opens out at Ragma (3000 m). Thereafter, it flows through [[Nepal]] and joins at [[Devighat|Devghat]] the [[Gandaki River|Narayani River]], which at a lower stage flows into [[India]] and joins the [[Ganges]].

==Basin data==
More than 60 per cent of the total drainage basin of the Trishuli lies in Tibet with about 9 per cent being covered by snow and glaciers. 85 per cent of its catchment area of {{convert|4640|km2}} lies above {{convert|3000|m}} out of which 11 per cent lies above {{convert|6000|m}}. It has been regularly gauged at Betrawati at an elevation of {{convert|600|m}}. The average lowest and the melt season discharges of this river are close to average discharges recorded on the Narayani River.<ref name=sharma>{{cite web|url =http://iahs.info/redbooks/a218/iahs_218_0113.pdf | title =Snow and Glacier Hydrology | work = Role of Meltwater in Major River Systems of Nepal | last=K.P. Sharma | publisher = KathmanduSymposium,Novemberl992 |access-date = 2010-05-18}}</ref>

==Water sports and tourism==
Trisuli is Nepal’s most popular rafting river with impressive gorges, exciting rapids, some easier sections and easy accessibility from [[Kathmandu]] and [[Pokhara]]. Rafting in Trisuli is one of the most popular outdoor activities in Nepal. Trishuli River is made up of snow melt of Mt. Ganesh and Langtang Himal. [[Chitwan National Park]] is also easily accessible.

Most of the travel and tour agents in Nepal show off Trishuli River Rafting as one of the most adventurous river rafting activity in Nepal.

== Dangers ==
Trishuli River is also one of the dangerous river of Nepal. The curvy Prithvi Highway is a bad fate for many Nepalese people traveling to and back from the capital.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/update-trishuli-bus-accident-death-toll-rises-to-eight/|title=UPDATE: Trishuli bus accident death toll rises to eight|date=2019-05-19|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-17}}</ref> Every year, several buses and trucks fall and disappear into this wild river, making the corridor a dangerous pass for people.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Hydrography of Nepal}}

{{coord|27|49|N|84|47|E|display=title|region:NP_type:river_source:GNS-enwiki}}

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Rivers of Bagmati Province]]
[[Category:Rivers of Tibet]]
[[Category:International rivers of Asia]]

Gorkha Kingdom

2021-08-04T10:48:43Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{short description|Former kingdom located in present-day western Nepal}} {{Infobox former country |native_name = गोरखा राज्य |conventional_long_name = Ki..."

{{short description|Former kingdom located in present-day western Nepal}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name = गोरखा राज्य
|conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Gorkha
|common_name = Gorkha Kingdom
|government_type = [[Monarchy]]
|image_map =
|image_map_caption =
|capital = [[Gorkha Municipality|Gorkha Darbar]]
|common_languages = [[Khas language|Khas]] (later Nepali)
|religion= [[Hinduism]]
|title_leader =Māhārājādhirāj (''Sovereign King'')
|leader1 = [[Dravya Shah]] (first)
|year_leader1 = 1559–1570 CE
|leader2 = [[Purna Shah]]
|year_leader2 = 1570–1605 CE
|leader3 = [[Ram Shah]]
|year_leader3 = 1609–1633 CE
|leader4 = [[Dambar Shah]]
|year_leader4 = 1633–1645 CE
|leader5 = [[Krishna Shah (Nepalese royal)|Krishna Shah]]
|year_leader5 = 1645–1661 CE
|leader6 = [[Rudra Shah]]
|year_leader6 = 1661–1673 CE
|leader7= [[Prithvipati Shah]]
|year_leader7 = 1673–1716 CE
|leader8 = [[Nara Bhupal Shah]]
|year_leader8 = 1716–1743 CE
|leader9 = [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] (last)
|year_leader9 = 1743–1768 CE
|today = [[Nepal]]
|year_start = 1559 CE
|year_end = 1768 CE
| p1 = Khasa kingdom
| image_p1 =
| s1 = Kingdom of Nepal
| image_s1 = [[File:Flag of Nepal.svg|24px|link=Nepal|alt=Flag of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal]]
}}
{{History of Nepal}}

'''Gorkha Kingdom''' ({{lang-ne|गोरखा राज्य}}) was a kingdom in the confederation of 24 states known as [[Chaubisi rajya]], on the [[Indian subcontinent]], present-day western [[Nepal]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Hamilton| first = Francis Buchanan | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30364/30364-h/30364-h.htm#page7| title = An Account of the Kingdom Of Nepal and of the Territories Annexed to This Dominion by the House of Gorkha| publisher = Edinburgh: Longman| year=1819| access-date = 12 January 2013}} Page 237.</ref> The Kingdom of Gorkha extended from the [[Marshyangdi|Marshyangdi River]] in the west to the [[Trishuli River]] in the east, which separated it from the kingdoms of Lamjung and Nepal respectively.<ref>{{cite book | last = Kirkpatrick| first = Colonel| url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ijxAAAAAYAAJ| title = An Account of the Kingdom of Nepaul| publisher = London: William Miller| year=1811| access-date = 12 January 2013}} Page 123.</ref> The Gorkha Kingdom was established by Prince [[Dravya Shah]], second son of King [[Yasho Brahma Shah]] of [[Kingdom of Lamjung|Lamjung Kingdom]], in 1559 CE replacing the [[Khadka]] chiefs.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}

== Origin ==
According to legends, one of the earliest Shah rulers was Rishi-raj Rana-Ji, of the [[Lunar dynasty]]. He was made the ruler of [[Chittor Fort|Chittorgarh]] and received the title of ''Bhattarak''.<ref name=DW>Daniel Wright, ''History of Nepāl'', Cambridge University Press, 1877, Nepal. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uy4YAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA273 Chapter X], page 273</ref> The lunar dynasty remained in power for thirteen generations. Then, the [[Muslim]] [[Yavanas]] took power. The Bhattarak had to abdicate and could only retain his caste family name, ''Rana-ji''. The rajas were titled ''Rana-Ji'' for four generations and ''Rana-ji Rava'' for a further seventeen generations.

[[Akbar]], the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] emperor, (1542-1605) wished to marry the daughter of Fatte Sinha Rana-Ji Rava. Akbar was refused because he was from a different religion (namely [[Islam]]) than [[Hindu]] religion altogether. This decision led to war. Many [[Rajput]], including Fatte Sinha Rana-ji Rava, were killed. The survivors of the war were led by Udaybam Rana-Ji Rava. They founded a settlement, [[Udaipur]].<ref name=DW />

Manmath Rana-Ji Rava went to [[Ujjain]]. His son Bhupal Ranaji Rao went to [[Ridi]]{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} in the northern hills and in 1495 CE ([[Saka Era]] 1417), to [[Sargha]], and then to [[Khium]] in Bhirkot. There, he cultivated the land. The new ruler of Khium had sons, Kancha and Micha.<ref name=DW /> Their ''bartabandha'' (the taking of the Bharmanical thread) was performed. Plans for the boys to marry the daughters of the Raghuvanshi [[Rajputs]] were made. Kancha, the elder son went to [[Dhor]]. He conquered [[Magarat]] and reigned over [[Garhon]], [[Sathum]] and [[Birkot]]. Micha, the younger son, went to Nuwakot in the far west and became ruler there.<ref name=DW />

From Micha, a dynasty of seven rajas commenced in Nuwakot. Kulamandan, the eldest son of Jagdeva, became ruler of [[Kaski District|Kaski]] displacing [[Gurung]] king. He was favoured and became ''Shah'' and succeeded his father. Kalu, the second son was sent to Dura Danda in [[Lamjung]] at the people's request to become their king. Kalu was killed by the Sekhant tribe, who were the ancestor of present-day [[Gurungs]]. In the 1500s, another son, Yasobramha, became the ruler of [[Lamjung]] after he compromised with the [[Gurungs]].<ref name=DW /> The second son of Yasobramha, [[Dravya Shah]] conquered the [[Ghale]] people of neighbouring Ligligkot, now in [[Gorkha District|Gorkha]]. Prince [[Dravya Shah]] in 1559 CE also replaced the [[Khadka]] chiefs to become the first King of Gorkha Kingdom.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
The ancient name of Gor-kha is White Zhou or Shakya.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bringing Aid To Gorkha's Poor {{!}} Features {{!}} ECS Nepal - The Nepali Way|url=http://ecs.com.np/features/bringing-aid-to-gorkhas-poor|website=ecs.com.np}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Kings Palace Gorkha Nepal.jpg|The old king's Darbar at Gorkha
File:Nepal30005a.JPG|Mohar of Gorkha king Prithvi Narayan Shah dated [[Shalivahana era|Saka Era]] 1685 (1763 CE)
</gallery>

==List of kings of Gorkha==
[[File:Khas or Kus group, Goorkha, dominant tribe, Nipal.jpg|thumb|Khas or Kus group, Goorkha, dominant tribe, Nipal]]

The following is list of all ten kings of Gorkha hill principality{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
{{Succession table monarch
| name1 = '''[[Dravya Shah]]'''
| nickname1 =
| native1 = राजा द्रव्य शाह
| life1 = died 1570
| reignstart1 = 1559
| reignend1 = 1570
| notes1 = Son of [[Yasho Brahma Shah]]
| family1 = Shah
| image1 =
| alt1 = Dravya Shah of Gorkha
| name2 = '''[[Purna Shah]]'''/Purendra Shah
| nickname2 =
| native2 = पूर्ण शाह/ पूरेन्द्र शाह
| life2 = died 1605
| reignstart2 = 1570
| reignend2 = 1605
| notes2 = Son of Dravya Shah
| family2 = Shah
| image2 =
|alt2 =Purendra Shah of Gorkha
| name3 = '''[[Chatra Shah]]'''
| nickname3 =
| native3 = छत्र शाह
| life3 = died 1609 (heirless)
| reignstart3 = 1605
| reignend3 = 1609
| notes3 = First son of Purendra/Purna Shah
| family3 = Shah
| image3 =
| alt3 = Chatra Shah of Gorkha
| name4 = '''[[Ram Shah]]'''
| nickname4 = Ram Shah The Just
| native4 = श्रीमन्त महाराजधिराज राम शाह
| life4 = died 1636
| reignstart4 = 1609
| reignend4 = 1633 (abdicated)
| notes4 = Second son of Purna/Purendra Shah adopted title of Svasti Sri Giriraj
| family4 = Shah
| image4 =
| alt4 = Ram Shah of Gorkha
| name5 = '''[[Dambar Shah]]'''
| nickname5 =
| native5 = डम्वर शाह
| life5 = died 1645
| reignstart5 = 1633
| reignend5 = 1645
| notes5 = Son of Ram Shah
| family5 = Shah
| image5 =
| alt5 = Dambar Shah of Gorkha
| name6 = '''[[Krishna Shah (Nepalese royal)|Krishna Shah]]'''
| nickname6 =
| native6 = श्रीकृष्ण शाह
| life6 = died 1661
| reignstart6 = 1645
| reignend6 = 1661
| notes6 = Son of Dambar Shah
| family6 = Shah
| image6 =
| alt6 = Krishna Shah of Gorkha
| name7 = '''[[Rudra Shah]]'''
| nickname7 =
| native7 = रुद्र शाह
| life7 = died 1673
| reignstart7 = 1661
| reignend7 = 1673
| notes7 = Son of Krishna Shah
| family7 = Shah
| image7 =
| alt7 = Rudra Shah of Gorkha
| name8 = '''[[Prithvipati Shah]]'''
| nickname8 =
| native8 = पृथ्वीपत्ति शाह
| life8 = died 1716
| reignstart8 = 1673
| reignend8 = 1716
| notes8 = Son of Rudra Shah
| family8 = Shah
| image8 =
| alt8 = Prithvipati Shah of Gorkha
| name9 = '''[[Nara Bhupal Shah]]'''
| nickname9 =
| native9 = नरभूपाल शाह
| life9 = 1697- 3 April 1743
| reignstart9 = 1716
| reignend9 = 1743
| notes9 = Grandson of Prithvipati Shah and Son of Prince [[Birbhadra Shah]]
| family9 = Shah
| image9 =
| alt9 = Nara Bhupal Shah of Gorkha
| name10 = '''[[Prithvi Narayan Shah]]'''
| nickname10 =
| native10 = बडामहाराजधिराज पृथ्वीनारायण शाह
| life10 = {{Birth date|1723|1|11|df=y}}{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} – {{Death date and age|1775|1|15|1723|1|11|df=y}}
| reignstart10 = 1743
| reignend10 = 25 September 1768
| notes10 = Son of Nara Bhupal Shah
| family10 = Shah
| image10 = Prithvi Narayan Shah.jpg
| alt10 = Prithvi Narayan Shah of Gorkha
}}

==Expansion campaign==
From 1736, the Gorkhalis engaged in a campaign of expansion begun by King [[Nara Bhupal Shah]], which was continued by his son, [[Prithvi Narayan Shah|King Prithvi Narayan Shah]] and grandson [[Bahadur Shah of Nepal|Prince Bahadur Shah]]. Over the years, they conquered huge tracts of land to the east and west of Gorkha.<ref>{{cite book | last = Hamilton| first = Francis Buchanan | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30364/30364-h/30364-h.htm#page7| title = An Account of the Kingdom Of Nepal and of the Territories Annexed to This Dominion by the House of Gorkha| publisher = Edinburgh: Longman| year=1819| access-date = 6 January 2013}} Page 7.</ref><ref>Northey, William Brook and Morris, Charles John (1928). ''The Gurkhas: Nepal-Their Manners, Customs and Country.'' Asian Educational Services. {{ISBN|9788120615779}}. Pages 30-31.</ref>

Among their conquests, the most important and valuable acquisition was the wealthy [[Newar]] confederacy of [[Nepal Mandala]] centered in the [[Kathmandu Valley]]. Starting in 1745, the Gorkhalis mounted a blockade in a bid to starve the population into submission, but the inhabitants held out.

The Newars appealed to the British [[East India Company]] to help, and in 1767, it sent an expedition under Captain Kinloch which ended in failure.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marshall|first=Julie G.|title=Britain And Tibet 1765-1947 |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |page=39 |chapter=Gurkha Conquest of Nepal and the Kinloch and Logan Missions |isbn= 9780415336475}}</ref> The three Newar capitals of [[Kathmandu]], [[Patan, Nepal|Lalitpur]] and [[Bhaktapur]] fell to the Gorkhalis between 1768 and 1769. The Gorkhali king subsequently moved his capital to Kathmandu.<ref>{{cite book | last = Hamilton| first = Francis Buchanan | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30364/30364-h/30364-h.htm#page7| title = An Account of the Kingdom Of Nepal and of the Territories Annexed to This Dominion by the House of Gorkha| publisher = Edinburgh: Longman| year=1819| access-date = 15 January 2013}} Page 7.</ref>

In 1788, the Gorkhalis turned their attention north and invaded [[Tibet]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Marshall|first=Julie G.|title=Britain And Tibet 1765-1947 |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |page=57 |chapter=Nepal 1788-1903 |isbn= 9780415336475}}</ref> They seized the border towns of [[Gyirong County|Kyirong]] and [[Nyalam Town|Kuti]], and forced the Tibetans to pay an annual tribute. When the Tibetans stopped paying it, the Gorkhalis invaded Tibet again in 1791 and plundered the [[Tashilhunpo Monastery]] in [[Shigatse]]. This time the Chinese army came to Tibet's defence and advanced close to Kathmandu but could not achieve success due to strong counterattack with [[khukuri]].<ref name="nepalarmy"/> The anxious Bahadur Shah asked for 10 howitzer mountain guns from the British East India Company. Captain [[William Kirkpatrick (East India Company officer)|William Kirkpatrick]] arrived in Kathmandu.<ref>{{cite book | last = Kirkpatrick| first = Colonel| url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ijxAAAAAYAAJ| title = An Account of the Kingdom of Nepaul| publisher = London: William Miller| year=1811| access-date = 11 February 2013}}</ref> Eventually, the Fu Kanggan was keen to protect his army and the war being resultless was concluded by signing a peace treaty at Betrawati.<ref name="nepalarmy"/><ref>{{cite news|last= Boulnois|first= L.|title= Chinese Maps and Prints on the Tibet-Gorkha War of 1788-92 |url= http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/kailash/pdf/kailash_15_0102_03.pdf|access-date=21 January 2013|newspaper= Kailash |page = 86}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://countrystudies.us/nepal/11.htm|title= The Enclosing of Nepal|author= |publisher= U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=21 January 2013}}</ref>

A later [[Nepalese–Tibetan War]] was fought from 1855 to 1856 in [[Tibet]] between the forces of the Tibetan government ([[Ganden Phodrang]], then [[Tibet under Qing rule|under administrative rule]] of the [[Qing dynasty]]) and the invading Nepalese army, resulting in the victory of Nepal.<ref name="nepalarmy">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/history.php?page=three |title=Archived copy |access-date=2017-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220102904/http://nepalarmy.mil.np/history.php?page=three |archive-date=2016-12-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The Gorkha dominion reached its height at the beginning of the 19th century, extending all along the [[Himalaya]]n foothills from [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaon]] and [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]] in the west to [[Sikkim]] in the east. They were made to return much of the occupied territories after their defeat in the [[Anglo-Nepalese War]] (1814–1816) later during the gorkha Sikh war (1809) they lost the control over Kangra Valley.<ref>{{cite book | last = Pradhan| first = Kumar | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Pz4bAAAAIAAJ | title = The Gorkha conquests: the process and consequences of the unification of Nepal, with particular reference to eastern Nepal |publisher = Oxford University Press | year=1991 | access-date = 6 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = History of Sikkim, 1817–1904: Analysis of British Policy and Activities | last = Jha | first = Pranab Kumar | year = 1985 | publisher = O.P.S. Publishers | page = 11 | asin = B001OQE7EY }}</ref>

==Gorkha to Nepal==
[[File:Gorkha stamp 1907.jpeg|thumb|Postage stamp issued by Gorkha government in 1907]]
[[File:Gorkhapatra masthead 9Jan33.jpg|thumb|''Gorkhapatra'' dated January 9, 1933]]

The Gorkha dominion continued to be known as Gorkha Rajya (meaning the Gorkha Kingdom) until the beginning of the 20th century. Historically, the name 'Nepal' referred mainly to Kathmandu valley, the homeland of the Newars. Since the 1930s, the state began using it to refer to the entire country and 'Nepal Khaldo' (Nepal Valley) became 'Kathmandu Valley'.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/nepal/history|title=History of Nepal - Lonely Planet Travel Information|last=Planet|first=Lonely|website=www.lonelyplanet.com|access-date=2016-05-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wiIw2_WFwC4C|title=Nepal 8|last=Bindloss|first=Joseph|date=2010-09-15|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=9781742203614|language=en}}</ref> The name Gorkha Sarkar (meaning Gorkha government) was also changed to Nepal government.

Similarly, the Gorkhali language was renamed as [[Nepali language|Nepali]] in 1933.<ref>Lienhard, Siegfried (1992). ''Songs of Nepal: An Anthology of Nevar Folksongs and Hymns.'' New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. {{ISBN|81-208-0963-7}}. Page 3.</ref> The term Gorkhali in the former [[national anthem]] entitled "Shreeman Gambhir" was changed to Nepali in 1951.<ref>{{cite news|title=The kings song |url=http://www.himalmag.com/component/content/article/4214-.html |access-date=3 April 2012 |newspaper=Himal Southasian |date=June 2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025182216/http://www.himalmag.com/component/content/article/4214-.html |archive-date=25 October 2012 }}</ref> The government newspaper, launched in 1901, is still known as [[Gorkhapatra]] (meaning Gorkha gazette).

The Shah dynasty ruled Nepal until 2008 when it became a republic following a people's movement.<ref>{{cite news|title= Nepal's Gorkha kingdom falls |url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-06-02/rest-of-world/27770497_1_narayanhity-dipendra-prithvi-narayan-shah |archive-url= https://archive.today/20130411033226/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-06-02/rest-of-world/27770497_1_narayanhity-dipendra-prithvi-narayan-shah |url-status= dead |archive-date= 11 April 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013|newspaper= [[The Times of India]] |date= 2 June 2008}}</ref> Today, [[Gorkha District]], roughly corresponding to the old kingdom, is one of the 77 administrative districts of Nepal.

==Gurkhas and Gorkhas==
[[File:5th Gurkha Rifles, Japan 1946.jpg|thumb|Gurkha soldiers arrive in Japan in 1946 as part of Allied occupation forces]]

Not to be confused with the inhabitants of the old Gorkha Kingdom only, the [[Gurkha]]s are also military units in the British or the Indian army (where they are known as Gorkhas) enlisted in Nepal and India. Their history goes back to the [[Anglo-Nepalese War|Anglo-Gorkha War]] and the [[Sugauli Treaty]] of 1816. It allowed the [[British East India Company]] to recruit men from the Gorkha kingdom hills to serve as mercenaries.

During [[World War II]] (1939–45), a total of 250,280 Gurkhas served in 40 battalions, plus eight [[Nepalese Army]] battalions, plus parachute, training, garrison, and porter units. They earned 2,734 bravery awards, and suffered around 32,000 casualties in all theatres.<ref>{{cite book | last = Parker | first = John | year = 2005 | title = The Gurkhas: The Inside Story of the World's Most Feared Soldiers | publisher = Headline Book Publishing | isbn = 978-0-7553-1415-7}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery class="center" widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Metal Window.JPG|Metal Window
File:Stone history.JPG|Stone history
File:Gorkha Durbar.JPG|Gorkha Durbar
File:King Prithavi Pal.JPG|King Prithavi Pal
File:Image of Goddess & Gorkha Palace.JPG|Image of Goddess & Gorkha Palace
File:Gorkha Tallo Durbar.JPG|Gorkha Tallo Durbar
File:Shree Panch Bada Maharajadhiraj Prithavi Narayan Shah Dev.JPG|Shree Panch Bada Maharajadhiraj Prithavi Narayan Shah Dev
File:Nepali Cannon.JPG|Nepali Cannon
File:Nagada.JPG|Nagada
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Battle of Kathmandu]]
* [[Kingdom of Nepal]]
* [[List of Hindu empires and dynasties]]
* [[Shah dynasty]]
* [[Rana dynasty]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Nepal topics}}

{{Uttarakhand}}

[[Category:Gurkhas]]
[[Category:History of Nepal]]
[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of Nepal]]
[[Category:16th-century establishments in Nepal]]
[[Category:18th-century disestablishments in Nepal]]

Anglo-Nepalese War

2021-08-04T10:42:50Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{short description|1814–1816 war between Nepal and Great Britain}} {{EngvarB|date=January 2014}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}} {{more footnotes|date=November 2019}} {..."

{{short description|1814–1816 war between Nepal and Great Britain}}
{{EngvarB|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{more footnotes|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Anglo-Nepalese War नेपाल-अङ्ग्रेज युद्ध
| image = Anglo-Nepal war.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = [[Bhakti Thapa]] (yellow) leading Nepalese [[Nepali Army|Gorkhali Army]] against British forces
| date = 1 November 1814 – 4 March 1816
| place = [[Kingdom of Nepal]]
| result = [[East India Company]] victory
* [[Sugauli Treaty|Treaty of Sugauli]], (March 4, 1816)
By the treaty, Nepal remained independent, but it received a British resident with the status of an ambassador to an independent country rather than of the controlling agent of the supreme government in an Indian state.
| territory = Nepal renounced all claim to the disputed Tarai, and ceded its conquests west of the Kali River and extending to the Sutlej River.
| combatant1 = [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|20px]] [[East India Company]] [[File:Tehga.svg|20px]] [[Garhwal Kingdom]] [[File:Patiala flag.svg|20px]] [[Patiala State]] [[File:Flag of Sikkim (1967-1975).svg|20px]] [[Kingdom of Sikkim]]
| combatant2 = [[File:Flag of Nepal (19th century-1962).svg|22px]] [[Kingdom of Nepal|Nepal]]
| commander1 = [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|20px]] [[Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings|Francis Rawdon-Hastings]] [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|20px]] [[David Ochterlony]] [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|20px]] [[Rollo Gillespie]]{{KIA}} [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|20px]] Bennet Marley [[File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg|20px]] John Sullivan Wood [[File:Patiala flag.svg|20px]] Karam Singh [[File:Tehga.svg|20px]] Sudarshan Shah [[File:Flag of Sikkim (1967-1975).svg|20px]] [[Tsugphud Namgyal]]
| commander2 = [[File:Flag of Nepal (19th century-1962).svg|20px]] [[Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah]] [[File:Flag of Nepal (19th century-1962).svg|20px]] [[Bhimsen Thapa]] [[File:Flag of Nepal (19th century-1962).svg|20px]] [[Amar Singh Thapa]](Bada){{refn|group=note|Not to be confused with the better known commander of Gorkhali forces in the [[Gurkha War]] with the same name. The two Amar Singhs are differentiated by the qualifier Bada (greater) and Sanu (lesser).}} [[File:Flag of Nepal (19th century-1962).svg|20px]] [[Ujir Singh Thapa]] [[File:Flag of Nepal (19th century-1962).svg|20px]] [[Dalbhanjan Pande]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bilder-aus-nepal.de/Pages/Philatelie/ANGLO-NEPALESE-1816.html|title=Britisch-Nepalischer Krieg 1814-1816|website=www.bilder-aus-nepal.de}}</ref>{{sfn|Pradhan|2012|p=50}} [[File:Flag of Nepal (19th century-1962).svg|20px]] [[Balbhadra Kunwar]] [[File:Flag of Nepal (19th century-1962).svg|20px]] [[Ranabir Singh Thapa]] [[File:Flag of Nepal (19th century-1962).svg|20px]] [[Ranajor Singh Thapa]] [[File:Flag of Nepal (19th century-1962).svg|20px]] [[Bhakti Thapa]]{{KIA}} [[File:Flag of Nepal (19th century-1962).svg|20px]] [[Bakhtawar Singh Thapa]]
| strength1 = 22,000 men, with sixty cannon (First campaign)<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=L-X-XYB_ZkIC&pg=PA492&dq=gorkha+war&hl=en&sa=X&ei=9Nj7TvnmC4LMrQf1vfHoDw&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=gorkha%20war&f=false Historical Dictionary of the British Empire: A-J, Volume 1; Volume 6, pp. 493]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HvE_Pa_ZlfsC&pg=PA156&dq=Gorkha+War&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mjT3TrjeBYynrAeAsrTxDw&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Gorkha%20War&f=false The Victorians at war, pp.155]</ref>
17,000 (Second campaign)<ref name="Naravane, p. 189">{{harvp|Naravane|2006|p=189}}</ref>
Unknown number of Indian mercenaries during both campaigns.
| strength2 = a little more than 11,000<ref name="Smith, p. 218">Smith, p. 218.</ref>
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = Unknown
}}

{{HistoryofNepal}}

The '''Anglo-Nepalese War''' (1 November 1814 – 4 March 1816), also known as the '''Gorkha War''', was fought between the [[Gorkhali army]] of the [[Kingdom of Nepal|Kingdom of Nepal]] (present-day [[Nepal]]) and the British forces of the [[East India Company]] (EIC, present-day India). Both sides had ambitious expansion plans for the mountainous north of the Indian subcontinent. The war ended with the signing of the [[Sugauli Treaty|Treaty of Sugauli]] in 1816 [[Anno Domini|AD]], which ceded some Nepalese controlled territory to the EIC.

The British war effort was led by the East India Company and supported by a coalition of native states; the [[Garhwal Kingdom]], the [[Patiala State]] and the [[Kingdom of Sikkim]] against the Kingdom of Gorkha. The Kingdom of Gorkha's war effort was led mostly by the Thapa Kaji.{{refn|group=note|Bhimsen's nephew [[Ujir Singh Thapa]]{{sfn|Princep|1825|p=115}} commanded over the Butwal-Jitgadhi Axis while his brothers [[Ranbir Singh Thapa]] and [[Bakhtawar Singh Thapa]] commanded over the Makwanpur-Hariharpur Axis and Bijayapur-Sindhuligadhi Axis respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the Nepalese Army |publisher=Nepal Army |url=http://www.nepalarmy.mil.np:80/history.php?page=two |website=nepalarmy.mil.np |access-date=16 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228014557/http://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/history.php?page=two |archive-date=28 December 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Bada Kaji [[Amar Singh Thapa]] who was considered a member of the larger Thapa caucus,{{sfn|Pradhan|2012|p=26}} led the battle as overall commander against the columns of Major-General [[Rollo Gillespie]] and Colonel [[David Ochterlony]]; his son [[Ranjore Thapa]] commanded the Nahan and Jaithak forts;{{sfn|Anon|1816|p=427}} and Ranjor's nephew [[Balbhadra Kunwar]]{{sfn|Acharya|1971b|p=3}} commanded the [[Dehradun|Doon region]] at [[Battle of Nalapani|Nalapani]].{{sfn|Princep|1825|p=93}}}}

==Historical background==
{{further|Unification of Nepal|Sino-Nepalese War|East India Company}}
The [[Shah dynasty|Shah]] era of Nepal began with the [[Gorkha Kingdom|Gorkha]] king [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]] invading [[Kathmandu]] valley, which consisted of the capital of the [[Malla (Nepal)|Malla]] confederacy. Until that time only the Kathmandu valley was referred to as [[Nepal]]. The confederacy requested help from the [[East India Company]] and an ill-equipped and ill-prepared expedition numbering 2,500 was led by Captain Kinlock in 1767 [[Anno Domini|AD]]. The expedition was a disaster; the Gorkhali army easily overpowered those who had not succumb to malaria or desperation. This ineffectual British force provided the Gorkhali with a few firearms to arms themselves and make effective use of them.

Victory and occupation of the [[Kathmandu Valley]] by Prithvi Narayan Shah, starting with the [[Battle of Kirtipur]], resulted in the shift of the capital of his kingdom from Gorkha to Kathmandu, and subsequently the empire that he and his descendants built came to be known as Nepal. Also, the invasion of the wealthy Kathmandu Valley provided the Gorkha army with economic support for furthering their martial ambitions throughout the region.

To the north however, aggressive raids into [[Tibet]] over a long-standing dispute over trade and control of the mountain passes triggered Chinese intervention. In 1792 the Chinese [[Qianlong Emperor]] sent an army, expelling the Nepalese from Tibet to within {{convert|5|km}} of their capital at Kathmandu. Acting regent Bahadur Shah (Prithvi Naryan's younger son) appealed to the then British [[Governor-General]] of India for help. Anxious to avoid confrontation with the Chinese, the Governor-General did not send troops but sent Captain Kirkpatrick as mediator. However, before he arrived the war with China had finished. In 1789, Tibetan government stopped the usage of Nepalese coins for trade in Tibet, citing purity concerns over the copper and the silver coins minted by the Nepalese government,<ref>[[Historical money of Tibet]]</ref>{{Circular reference|date=November 2017}} which led to the [[Sino-Nepalese War|first Nepal-Tibet war (Sino-Nepalese War)]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZD9--xYamkC |title=Britain and Tibet 1765–1947: A Select Annotated Bibliography of British Relations with Tibet and the Himalayan States Including Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan |isbn=9780415336475 |last1=Marshall |first1=Julie G. |year=2005}}</ref> A resounding victory of Gorkha forces over Tibetans in the [[Sino-Nepalese War|first Nepal-Tibet war]] left the [[Potala Palace|Lhasa Durbar]] with no choice but to ask for assistance from the [[Qing Emperor]] in [[Peking]]. In the immediate aftermath of the [[Sino-Nepalese War]] (1789–1792 [[Anno Domini|AD]]), Nepal was forced to sign the 'Treaty of Betrawati'<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HY7HBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP42 |title=Nepal and the Geo-Strategic Rivalry between China and India |isbn=9781136335495 |last1=Upadhya |first1=Sanjay |date=2012-02-27}}</ref> which stipulated that the Government of Nepal was required to make payment of tribute to Qing court in Peking once every five years, after the defeat of Gurkha forces by the [[Qing]] army in Tibet.<ref name="books.google.com"/>

The Tibet affair had postponed a previously planned attack on the [[Garhwal Kingdom]], but by 1803 [[Anno Domini|AD]] the Raja of Garhwal, Pradyuman Shah, had also been defeated. He was killed in the struggle in January 1804 [[Anno Domini|AD]] and all his land annexed. Further west, general [[Amar Singh Thapa]] overran lands as far as Kangra, Himachal Pradesh – the strongest fort in the hill region – and laid siege to it. However, Maharaja [[Ranjit Singh]], the ruler of the Sikh state in Punjab, intervened and drove the Nepalese army east of the [[Sutlej]] river by 1809 [[Anno Domini|AD]].

==Causes==
[[Image:Joppen1907India1805a.jpg|thumbnail|left|Map of India in 1805]]
In the years leading up to the war, the British had been expanding their sphere of influence. While the Nepalese had been expanding their empire – into [[Sikkim]] to the east, the [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaon]] and the [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]] to the west, and into [[Awadh]] to the south – the [[British East India Company]] had consolidated its position in India from its main bases of [[Calcutta]], [[Madras]] and [[Bombay]]. Indian distrust of Britain's expansion lead to the [[Anglo-Maratha wars]] and brought the EIC into conflict with the [[Sikh Empire]].

===Trade===
The principal cause of the war was economic. The British had sought to open up Nepal in order to have access to a trade route to Tibet. Despite a series of delegations headed by [[William Kirkpatrick (orientalist)|William Kirkpatrick]] (1792), Maulvi Abdul Qader (1795), and later William O. Knox (1801), the Nepalese government strongly resisted foreign attempts to open up the country, fearful of Europe's colonial ambitions and the prospect of forced conversion to Christianity. These sentiments became embodied within the Nepalese proverb "With the merchants come the musket and with the Bible comes the bayonet."

Lord Hastings was seeking commercial opportunities in the Himalayan region. He knew that these would gratify his employers and silence his critics, since the East India Company was experiencing financial troubles at the time. It needed substantial funds in Britain in order to pay overheads, pensions and dividends, but there were problems remitting the necessary assets from India. Traditionally the Company had bought Indian produce and sold it in London; but this business model was no longer profitable. The staple Indian export was cotton, but demand was declining as home-produced textiles captured the British market. This forced the Company to ship its Indian textiles to Canton in order to sell them to the Chinese. It subsequently purchased tea with the proceeds and shipped it for sale in Britain. Adopting this complex business model led to a decline in the Company's profit (all tea at this time came from China. It was not grown in India until the 1840s).<ref name="Pemble, ''Forgetting and remembering Britain's Gurkha War'', p.366">Pemble, ''Forgetting and remembering Britain's Gurkha War'', p.366</ref>

Under these circumstances, Hastings sought to conquer Nepal's far western provinces in Tibet, the only region in the world where expensive [[Cashmere wool]] was produced. Under the terms of the treaty of 1816, Nepal surrendered these areas to the Company. Hastings hoped that this territory, partially annexed by the Company, would give British merchants direct access to the wool-growing areas.<ref name="Pemble, ''Forgetting and remembering Britain's Gurkha War'', p.366 "/>

Similarly David Ochterlony, then an agent at Ludhiana, on 24 August 1814 noted of Dehra Dun as a "potentially thriving entrepot for Trans-Himalayan trade." He contemplated annexing Garhwal not so much with the view to revenue, but for security of commercial communications with the country where the shawl wool is produced. The British soon got to know that Kumaon provided a better facility for trade with Tibet. Therefore, the annexation of these two areas became part of their strategic objectives.

===Political safety===
While trade was indeed a major objective of the Company, out of it grew a concept of "political safety," which essentially meant a strategy of dissuasion and larger areas of occupation. The evidence does not support the claim that Hastings invaded Nepal only for commercial reasons. It was a strategic decision. He was wary of the Hindu revival and solidarity among the Marathas, the Sikhs, and the Gurkhas amid the decaying Mughal empire. He was hatching pre-emptive schemes of conquest against the Marathas in central India, and he needed to cripple Nepal first, in order to avoid having to fight on two fronts.<ref name="Pemble, ''Forgetting and remembering Britain's Gurkha War'', p.366 "/>

That it was a flawed strategy is explained by [[Peter James Marshall|P.J. Marshal]]: "Political safety meant military preparedness. The military expenditure for 1761–62 to 1770–71 was 44 percent of the total spending of 22 million pounds. War and diplomacy rather than trade and improvement; most of the soldiers-would-be politicians and Governor Generals rarely understood. The political safety of Bengal was their first priority and they interpreted safety as requiring the subjugation of Mysore, the Marathas, the Pindaris, the Nepalese and the Burmese."

===Border dispute===
The acquisition of the [[Nawab of Awadh]]'s lands by the British East India Company brought the region of [[Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh|Gorakhpur]] into the close proximity of the raja(king) of Palpa – the last remaining independent town within the Nepalese heartlands. Palpa and [[Butwal]] were originally two separate principalities; they were afterwards united under one independent Rajput prince, who, having conquered Butwal, added it to his hereditary possessions of Palpa. The lands of Butwal, though conquered and annexed, were yet held in fief, or paid an annual sum, first to Awadh, and afterwards, by transfer, to the British.<ref name="Anon (1816), p. 425">Anon (1816), p.425.</ref><ref name="Oldfield, p. 40">Oldfield, p. 40.</ref> During the regency of Rani Rajendra Laxmi, towards the close of the 18th century, the hill country of Palpa was conquered and annexed to Nepal. The rajah retreated to Butwal, but was subsequently induced, under false promises of redress, to visit Kathmandu, where he was put to death, and his territories in Butwal seized and occupied by the Nepalese.<ref name="Oldfield, p. 40">Oldfield, p. 40.</ref> [[Bhimsen Thapa]], the Nepalese prime minister from 1806 to 1837, installed his own father as governor of Palpa, leading to serious border disputes between the two powers. The occupation of Terai of Butwal from 1804 till 1812 by the Nepalese, which was under British protection, was the immediate reason which led to the Anglo-Nepalese war in 1814.<ref name="Oldfield, p. 40"/><ref name="Smith, p. 172">Smith, ''Warlike Preliminaries'', Ch. 8, p. 172.</ref><ref name="Prinsep, Ch. 2, ''Causes of Nipal War'', p. 54-80.">Prinsep, Ch. 2, ''Causes of Nipal War'', p. 54-80.</ref>

In October 1813, the ambitious [[Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings|Francis Edward Rawdon-Hastings]], the Earl of Moira, assumed the office of the Governor-General, and his first act was to re-examine the border dispute between Nepal and British East India Company. These disputes arose because there was no fixed boundary separating the Nepalese and the British. A struggle with the former was unpromising as the British were ignorant of the country or its resources and, despite their technological superiority, it was a received persuasion that the nature of the mountainous tract, which they would have to penetrate, would be as baffling to them as it had been to all the efforts of many successive Mahomedan sovereigns.<ref name="Hastings, p. 9">Hastings, p. 9.</ref> A border commission imposed on Nepal by the Governor-General failed to solve the problem. The Nepalese Commissioners had remarked to the British the futility of debating about a few square miles of territory since there never could be real peace between the two States, until the British should yield to the Nepalese all the British provinces north of the Ganges, making that river the boundary between the two, "as heaven had evidently designed it to be."<ref name="Hastings, p. 9"/> However, Nepalese Historian [[Baburam Acharya]] contends that the British were striving to annex the hill regions of Nepal and were the ones responsible for creating border disputes. At the border demarcation, the British representative Major Bradshaw disrespected the Nepalese representatives – Rajguru [[Ranganath Poudyal]] and [[Kaji (Nepal)|Kaji]] [[Dalabhanjan Pande]], with a view of invoking a war against the Nepalese.{{sfn|Acharya|1971|p=3}} In the meantime, the British found that the Nepalese were preparing for war; that they had for some time been laying up large stores of saltpetre; purchasing and fabricating arms, and organizing and disciplining their troops under some European deserters in this service, after the model of the companies of East India's sepoy battalions.<ref name="Anon (1816), p. 425">Anon (1816), p.425.</ref> The conviction that the Nepalese raids into the flatlands of the [[Terai]], a much prized strip of fertile ground separating the Nepalese hill country from India, increased tensions<ref name="Hastings, p. 9"/> – the British felt their power in the region and their tenuous lines of communication between [[Calcutta]] and the northwest were under threat. Since there was no clear border, confrontation between the two powers was "necessary and unavoidable".<ref name="Anon (1816), p. 426">Anon (1816), p.426.</ref> Britain formally declared war on Nepal on the 1st of November, 1814.<ref name="Smith, p. 187-212">Smith, ''Britain's Declaration of War'', p. 187-212.</ref>

==War preparation==
[[File:Bhimsen-thapa-painting.jpg|upright|thumb|Bhimsen Thapa, prime minister of Nepal from 1806 to 1837.]]

===Pre-war opinions===
When the Kathmandu Durbar solicited Nepalese chiefs' opinions about a possible war with the British, Amar Singh Thapa was not alone in his opposition, declaring that – "They will not rest satisfied without establishing their own power and authority, and will unite with the hill [[rajas]], whom we have dispossessed. We have hitherto but hunted deer; if we engage in this war, we must prepare to fight tigers."<ref name="Prinsep, p. 460">Prinsep, p. 460.</ref> He was against the measures adopted in Butwal and Sheeoraj, which he declared to have originated in the selfish views of persons, who scrupled not to involve the nation in war to gratify their personal avarice.<ref name="Prinsep, p. 460">Prinsep, p. 460.</ref><ref name="Prinsep, p. 79-80">Prinsep, p. 79-80.</ref>

This contrasts sharply with the prime minister of Nepal, Bhimsen Thapa – " ... our hills and fastness are formed by the hand of God, and are impregnable."<ref name="Prinsep, p. 458">Prinsep, p. 458: The entire letter by Bhimsen Thapa is as follows: "Through the influence of your good fortune, and that of your ancestors, no one has yet been able to cope with the state of Nipal. The Chinese once made war upon us, but were reduced to seek peace. How then will the English be able to penetrate into the hills? Under your auspices, we shall by our own exertions be able to oppose to them a force of fifty-two lakhs of men, with which we will expel them. The small fort of Bhurtpoor was the work of man, yet the English being worsted before it, desisted from the attempt to conquer it; our hills and fastnesses are formed by the hand of God, and are impregnable. I therefore recommend the prosecution of hostilities. We can make peace afterwards on such terms as may suit our convenience."</ref><ref name="Hunter, p. 100">Hunter, p. 100.</ref> This stance by Bhimsen Thapa is not surprising, as insinuated by Amar Singh, considering Amar Singh had made the usurpations in Butwal and Sheoraj, and whose family derived most of the advantages.<ref name="Prinsep, p. 79-80">Prinsep, p. 79-80.</ref> Prinsep estimates that the revenue of the usurped lands could not have been less than a lakh of rupees a year to the Nepalese, in the manner they collected it: the retention of this income was therefore an object of no small importance to the ambitious views of Bhimsen Thapa and the preservation of the influence he had contrived to establish for his family.<ref name="Prinsep, p. 79-80">Prinsep, p. 79-80.</ref> The Nepalese prime minister realized the Nepalese had several advantages over the British including knowledge of the region and recent experience fighting in the mountainous terrain. However, the British had numerical superiority and far more modern weapons.

In the meantime, the Governor-General also naively believed that "the difficulties of mountain warfare were greater on the defensive side than on that of a well conducted offensive operation."<ref name="Hastings, p. 9"/> Soldiers like [[Rollo Gillespie]] saw the Nepalese as a challenge to British supremacy — "Opinion is everything in such a country as India: and whenever the natives shall begin to lose their reverence for the English arms, our superiority in other respects will quickly sink into contempt."

[[File:Francis Edward Rawdon, Marquess of Hastings.jpg|left|upright|thumb|Francis Edward Rawdon, Marquess of Hastings, Governor-General of India from 1813 to 1823.]]

===Finance===
The Governor-General looked towards the Nawab of Awadh to finance the impending warfare with Nepal: two [[crore]] (20 million) rupees were solicited. Of this matter he writes:
<blockquote>
"...Saadut Ali<ref>[[Saadat Ali Khan II]]</ref> unexpectedly died. I found, however, that what had been provisionally agitated with him was perfectly understood by his successor,<ref>[[Ghazi-ud-Din Haider]]</ref> so that the latter came forward with a spontaneous offer of a crore of rupees, which I declined as a peishcush or tribute on his accession to the sovereignty of Oude, but accepted as a loan for the Honourable Company. Eight lacs were afterwards added to this sum, in order that the interest of the whole, at six per cent, might equal the allowances to different branches of the Nawab Vizier's family, for which guarantee of the British Government had been pledged, and the payment of which, without vexatious retardments, was secured, by the appropriation of the interest to the specific purpose. The sum thus obtained was thrown into the general treasury, whence I looked to draw such portions of it as the demands of the approaching service might require. My surprise is not to be expressed, when I was shortly after informed from Calcutta, that it had been deemed expedient to employ fifty four lacs of the sum obtained by me in discharging an eight per cent loan, that the remainder was indispensable for current purposes, and it was hoped I should be able to procure from the Nawab Vizier a further aid for the objects of the war. This took place early in autumn, and operations against Nepaul could not commence till the middle of November, on which account the Council did not apprehend my being subjected to any sudden inconvenience through its disposal of the first sum. Luckily I was upon such frank terms with the Nawab Vizier, as that I could explain to him fairly my circumstances. He agreed to furnish another crore; so that the Honourable Company was accommodated with above two millions and a half sterling on my simple receipt."<ref name="Hastings, p. 9-10.">Hasting, p. 9-10.</ref>
</blockquote>

In the aftermath of the war, he writes:
<blockquote>
"The richest portion of the territory conquered by us bordered on the dominions the Nawab Vizier. I arranged the transfer of that tract to him in extinction of the second crore which I had borrowed. Of that crore the charges of the war absorbed fifty two lacs: forty eight lacs (£600,000) were consequently left in the treasury, a clear gain to the Honourable Company, in addition to the benefit of precluding future annoyance from an insolent neighbour."<ref name="Hastings, p. 9-10."/>
</blockquote>

This was in contrast with the Nepalese who had spent huge amount of resources on the first and second wars against the Tibetans, which had led to the gradual exhaustion of their treasury.

===Terrain===
[[File:1st Foot Guards.jpg|thumb|upright|1st Foot Guards]]

To the British, who were used to fighting in the plains, but were unacquainted with the terrain of the hills, the formidability of the topology is expressed by one anonymous British soldier as such:
<blockquote>
"...The territory subject to Nepal consists of a mountainous tract of country, lying between Tibet and the valley of the Ganges, in breadth not exceeding one hundred miles, but in length stretching nearly along the whole extent of the north-west frontier of the British dominions. Below the hills they held possession of a portion of the plain of irregular width, distinguished by the name of the Nepal Turrye,<ref>Terai</ref> but the period at which the acquisition was made is not ascertained.
 
The general military character of the country is that of extreme difficulty. Immediately at the front of the hills the plain is covered with the Great Saul Forest,<ref>''[[Shorea robusta]]'', also known as ''sal'' or ''shala'' tree, is a species of tree belonging to the family [[Dipterocarpaceae]].</ref> for an average width of ten or twelve miles; the masses of the mountains are immense, their sides steep, and covered with impenetrable jungle. The trenches in these ridges are generally water-courses, and rather chasms or gulfs than any thing that deserves the name of a valley. The roads are very insecure, and invariably pathways over mountains, or the beds of rivers, the usual means of transport throughout the country being by hill porters. Notwithstanding this general description, spaces comparatively open and hollow, and elevated tracts of tolerably level land, are to be met with, but so completely detached as to contribute but little to facilitate intercourse.
 
One of the largest and most fertile of these constitutes the valley of Nepal Proper.<ref>"Nepal Proper" refers to the Kathmandu Valley. Before the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley by Prithvi Narayan Shah, only this valley was originally referred to as Nepal.</ref> To the westward of Nepal, there is a difficult tract, till the country again opens in the valley of Gorkah, the original possession of the present dynasty. – Westward of this the country is again difficult, till it somewhat improves in the district of Kemaoon.<ref>Kumaon</ref> Further to the westward lies the valley of the Dhoon,<ref>Dehradun</ref> and the territory of Sue-na-Ghur;<ref>[[Srinagar, Uttarakhand]]</ref> and further still, the more recent conquests, stretching to the village, in which Umar Sing,<ref>Amar Singh Thapa</ref> a chief of uncommon talents, commanded, and indeed, exercised an authority almost independent."<ref name="Anon (1816), p. 426"/>
</blockquote>

==First campaign==
===British plan of operation===
[[File:Officer and Private, 40th Foot, 1815.jpg|thumb|upright|Officer and Private, 40th Regiment of Foot, 1815]]
[[File:Gurkha soldier 1815.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Gurkha|Gorkhali warrior]].]]

The initial British campaign was an attack on two fronts across a frontier of more than {{convert|1,500|km}}, from the Sutlej to the Koshi. In the eastern front, Major-General Bennet Marley and Major-General John Sullivan Wood led their respective columns across the [[Tarai]] towards the heart of the valley of Kathmandu. Major-General [[Rollo Gillespie]] and Colonel [[David Ochterlony]] commanded columns in the western front. These columns were faced with the Nepalese army under the command of [[Amar Singh Thapa]].<ref name="Anon (1816), p. 427">Anon (1816), p.427.</ref> About the beginning of October, 1814, the British troops began to move towards different depots; and the army was soon after formed into four divisions, one at Benares, one at Meeruth, one at Dinapur, and one at Ludhiana.

''The first division'', at [[Dinapur]], being the largest, was commanded by Major-General Marley, and was intended to seize the pass at [[Makwanpur District|Makwanpur]], between Gunduk and Bagmati, the key to Nepal, and to push forward to [[Kathmandu]]: thus at once carrying the war into the heart of the enemy's country.<ref name="Anon (1816), p. 427"/><ref name="Fraser, p. 13.">Fraser, p. 13.</ref> This force consisted of 8,000 men, including his Majesty's 24th foot of 907 strong; there was a train attached to it of four 18-pounders, eight 6- and 3-pounders, and fourteen mortars and howitzers.<ref name="Smith, p. 215-219.">Smith, ''Plan of Operation'', p. 215-219.</ref><ref name="Prinsep, p. 85.">Prinsep, p. 85.</ref>

''The second division'', at [[Benares]], under command of Major-General Wood, having subsequently removed to [[Gorakhpur]], was meant to enter the hills by the Bhootnuill pass, and, turning to the eastward, to penetrate the hilly districts, towards Kathmandu, and cooperate with the first division, while its success would have divided the enemy's country and force into two parts, cutting off all the troops in [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaon]] and [[Garhwal District|Garhwal]] from communication with the capital.<ref name="Anon (1816), p. 427"/><ref name="Fraser, p. 13."/> Its force consisted of his Majesty's 17th foot, 950 strong, and about 3000 infantry, totaling 4,494 men; it had a train of seven 6- and 3-pounders, and four mortars and howitzers.<ref name="Smith, p. 215-219."/><ref name="Prinsep, p. 84."/>

''The third division'', was formed at [[Meerut]], under Major-General Gillespie; and it was purposed to march directly to the [[Dehra Dun]]; and having reduced the forts in that valley, to move, as might be deemed expedient, to the eastward, to recover [[Srinagar, Uttarakhand|Srinagar]] from the troops of Amar Singh Thapa; or to the westward, to gain the post of [[Nahan]], the chief town of [[Sirmaur district|Sirmaur]], where Ranjore Singh Thapa held the government for his father, Amar Singh; and so sweep on towards the [[Sutlej]], in order to cut off that chief from the rest, and thus to reduce him to terms.<ref name="Anon (1816), p. 427"/><ref name="Fraser, p. 13."/> This division originally consisted of his Majesty's 53d, which with artillery and a few dismounted dragoons, made up about one thousand Europeans, and two thousand five hundred native infantry, totaling 3,513 men.<ref name="Smith, p. 215-219."/><ref name="Prinsep, p. 84.">Prinsep, p. 84.</ref>

''The fourth, or north-western division'', at [[Ludhiana]], was to operate in the hilly country lying near the Sutlej: it assembled under Brigadier-General Ochterlony, and was destined to advance against the strong and extensive cluster of posts held by Amar Singh and the troops under his immediate orders at and surrounding Irkee, a considerable town of [[Kahlur]], and to cooperate with the forces under Major-General Gillespie, moving downwards among the hills, when these positions should be forced, surrounding Amar Singh, and driving him upon that army.<ref name="Anon (1816), p. 427"/><ref name="Fraser, p. 13."/> The force consisted exclusively of native infantry and artillery, and amounted to 5,993 men; it had a train of two 18-pounder, ten 6-pounders, and four mortars and howitzers.<ref name="Smith, p. 215-219."/><ref name="Prinsep, p. 83.">Prinsep, p. 83.</ref>

Lastly, beyond the [[Koshi River]] eastward, Major Latter was furnished with two thousand men, including his district battalion, for the defence of the [[Purnia division|Poornea]] frontier. This officer was desired to open a communication with the Raja of Sikkim, and to give him every assistance and encouragement to expel the [[Gorkha Kingdom|Gorkhas]] from the eastern hills, short of an actual advance of troops for the purpose.<ref name="Prinsep, p. 85."/> Captain Barré Latter was sent to the border with [[Purnia|Poornea]] and after a successful mission to confine the Gorkhas to their own territory concluded the Anglo-Sikkimese [[Treaty of Titalia]] confirming the Raja's dominions, although the latter lost territory from his border to the [[Tamur River]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Paget |first=William Henry |title=Frontier and overseas expeditions from India |url=https://archive.org/details/frontieroverseas04indi |year=1907 |page=[https://archive.org/details/frontieroverseas04indi/page/40 40]}}</ref>

The Commander-in-Chief of the British forces was Lord Moira. All four divisions composed mostly of Indian Sepoys. Ochterlony's army was the only division without a single British battalion. In conclusion, the Gorkhali Army defeated the British on three fronts consisting the middle and the east whereas lost the remaining two fronts in the west.

===Battle of Makwanpur Gadhi===
{{main|Battle of Makwanpur (1816)}}
Major General Marley was tasked to occupy Hetauda and capture the fortresses of Hariharpur and Makawanpur before proceeding to Kathmandu. His frontage of advance lay between Rapati river and Bagmati river. After additional reinforcements, he had 12,000 troops for his offensive against the Makawanpur and Hariharpur axis. A big attack base was established but Major General Marley showed reluctance to take risks against the Nepalese. Some skirmishes had already started taking place. Similarly, Major General George Wood, sometimes known as the Tiger of the British Indian Army, proved exceedingly cautious against the hard charging Nepalese.

Colonel<ref>The use of English terms for their grades of command was common in the Nepalese army, but the powers of the different ranks did not correspond with those of the British system. The title of General was assumed by Bhimsen Thapa, as Commander-in-chief, and enjoyed by himself alone; of Colonels there were three or four only; all principal officers of the court, commanding more than one battalion. The title of Major was held by the adjutant of a battalion or independent company; and Captain was the next grade to colonel, implying the command of a corps. Luftun, or Lieutenant, was the style of the officers commanding companies under the Captain; and then followed the subaltern ranks of Soobadar, Jemadar, and Havildar, without any Ensigns. (Prinsep, p. 86-87)</ref> [[Ranabir Singh Thapa]], brother of Bhimsen Thapa, was to be the Sector Commander of Makawanpur-Hariharpur axis. He was given a very large fortress and about 4,000 troops with old rifles and a few pieces of cannons. But the British could not move forward from the border. Colonel Ranabir Singh Thapa had been trying to lure the enemies to his selected killing area. But Major General Wood would not venture forward from Bara Gadhi and he eventually fell back to Betiya.

===Battle of Jitgadh===
With the help of an ousted Palpali king, Major General Wood planned to march on Siuraj, Jit Gadhi and Nuwakot with a view to bypass the Butwal defenses, flushing out minor opposition on the axis, and assault Palpa from a less guarded flank. Nepalese Colonel [[Ujir Singh Thapa]] had deployed his 1200 troops in many defensive positions including Jit Gadhi, Nuwakot Gadhi and Kathe Gadhi. The troops under Colonel Ujir were very disciplined and he himself was a dedicated and able commander. He was famous for exploiting advantage in men, material, natural resources and well versed in mountain tactics. The British advance took place on 22nd Poush1871 BS (January 1814 AD) to Jit Gadh. While they were advancing to this fortress, crossing the Tinau River, the Nepalese troops opened fire from the fortress. Another of the attackers' columns was advancing to capture Tansen Bazar. Here too, Nepalese spoiling attacks forced the General to fall back to Gorakhpur. About 70 Nepalese lost their lives in Nuwakot pakhe Gadhi. Meanwhile, more than 300 of the enemy perished.

===Battle of Hariharpur Gadhi===
No special military action had taken place in Hariharpur Gadhi fortress in the first campaign. Major General Bannet Marley and Major General George Wood had not been able to advance for an offensive against Makawanpur and Hariharpur Gadhi fortresses.

===Battle of Nalapani===
{{further|Battle of Nalapani}}
The [[Battle of Nalapani]] was the first battle of Anglo-Nepalese War. The battle took place around the Nalapani fort, near [[Dehradun]], which was placed under siege by the British between 31 October and 30 November 1814. The fort's garrison was commanded by Captain [[Balbhadra Kunwar]], while Major-General [[Rollo Gillespie]], who had previously fought at the [[Invasion of Java (1811)|Battle of Java]], was in charge of the attacking British troops. Gillespie was killed on the first day of the siege while rallying his men and despite considerable odds, both in terms of numbers and firepower, Balbhadra and his 600-strong garrison, which also consisted of brave women who reportedly shielded the bullets and cannonballs with their bodies, successfully held out against more than 5,000 British troops for over a month.
Fraser recorded the situation in the following terms:

{{block quote|The determined resolution of the small party which held this small post for more than a month, against so comparatively large a force, must surely wring admiration from every voice, especially when the horrors of the latter portion of this time are considered; the dismal spectacle of their slaughtered comrades, the sufferings of their women and children thus immured with themselves, and the hopelessness of relief, which destroyed any other motive for their obstinate defence they made, than that resulting from a high sense of duty, supported by unsubdued courage. This, and a generous spirit of courtesy towards their enemy, certainly marked the character of the garrison of Kalunga, during the period of its siege.{{pb}}Whatever the nature of the Ghoorkhas may have been found in other quarters, there was here no cruelty to wounded or to prisoners; no poisoned arrows were used; no wells or waters were poisoned; no rancorous spirit of revenge seemed to animate them: they fought us in fair conflict, like men; and, in intervals of actual combat, showed us a liberal courtesy worthy of a more enlightened people.{{pb}}So far from insulting the bodies of the dead and wounded, they permitted them to lie untouched, till carried away; and none were stripped, as is too universally the case.<ref>W. Shackell, p.590</ref>}}

After two costly and unsuccessful attempts to seize the fort by direct attack, the British changed their approach and sought to force the garrison to surrender by cutting off the fort's external water supply. Having suffered three days of thirst, on the last day of the siege, Balbhadra, refusing to surrender, led the 70 surviving members of the garrison in a charge against the besieging force. Fighting their way out of the fort, the survivors escaped into the nearby hills. The battle set the tone for the rest of the Anglo-Nepalese War, and a number of later engagements, including one at Jaithak, unfolded in a similar way.

The experience at Nalapani so discomforted the British that Lord Hastings so far varied his plan of operations as to forego the detachment of a part of this division to occupy Gurhwal.<ref name="Prinsep, p. 94.">Prinsep, p. 94.</ref> He accordingly instructed Colonel Mawbey to leave a few men in a strong position for the occupation of the Doon and to carry his undivided army against Amar Singh's son, Colonel Ranajor Singh Thapa, who was with about 2300 elite of the Gurkha army, at Nahan.<ref name="Prinsep, p. 94."/> It was further intended to reinforce the division considerably; and the command was handed over to Major-General Martindell.<ref name="Prinsep, p. 94."/> In the meantime Colonel Mawbey had led back the division through the Keree pass, leaving Colonel Carpenter posted at Kalsee, at the north western extremity of the Doon.<ref name="Prinsep, p. 95.">Prinsep, p. 95.</ref> This station commanded the passes of the Jumna on the main line of communication between the western and eastern portions of the Gurkha territory, and thus was well chosen for procuring intelligence.<ref name="Prinsep, p. 95."/>

===Battle of Jaithak===
{{further|Battle of Jaithak}}
[[File:Battle of Jaithak.JPG|thumb|Stockaded position of the [[Nepalis|Nepalese]] at Jaithak]]
Major General Martindale now joined the force and took over command. He occupied the town of Nahan on 27 December, and started his attack on the fort of Jaithak. The fort had a garrison of 2000 men under the command of [[Ranajor Singh Thapa]], the son of the [[Amar Singh Thapa]]. The first assault ended in disaster, with the Nepalese successfully warding off the British offensive. The second managed to cut off the water supply to the fort, but could not capture it mainly because of the exhausted state of the troops and shortage of ammunition. Martindale lost heart and ordered a withdrawal. Jaithak was eventually captured much later in the war, when Ochterlony had taken over the command.<ref name="Navarne, p. 190.">Navarne, p. 190.</ref>

A single day of battle at Jaithak cost the British over three hundred men dead and wounded and cooled Martindell's ardour for battle. For over a month and a half, he refused to take any further initiative against the Nepalese army. Thus by mid-February, of the four British commanders the Nepalese army had faced till that time, Gillespie was dead, Marley had deserted, Wood was harassed into inactivity, and Martindell was practically incapacitated by over-cautiousness. It set the scene for Octorloney to soon show his mettle and change the course of the war.

===Trying times for Nepalese troops===
Out West, the Nepalese were hopelessly overextended. Kumaun, a key link in Nepalese army communications with the Far West, was defended by a small force, numbering about seven hundred and fifty men, with an equal number of Kumaoni irregulars, altogether about fifteen hundred men to defend a whole province. In addition, Doti which was to the East of Kumaun, had been practically stripped of troops. [[Bam Shah]], as governor of Kumaun, had final responsibility for the defence of the province.

The British force, numbering initially over forty five hundred men, was easily able to outmanoeuvre the Nepalese army defenders and force them to abandon one post after another. Despite a significant victory over Captain Hearsey's force, which had been sent on a flanking movement though Eastern Kumaun, and the capture of the captain himself, the Nepalese army was unable to stem the tide of the British advance. Hasti Dal Shah arrived in Almora with a small body of reinforcement troops. A further reinforcement of four companies was sent from Kathmandu to aid the beleaguered defences of Kumaun, but the difficulties of communication through the hills prevented them from arriving in time to be of any help.

Meanwhile, Hastings sent Colonel Nicolls, Quartermaster-General for the British troops in India, to take charge of the Almora campaign and assigned two thousand regular troops to this front in addition to the very large number of irregulars already assigned to the area – all of this against fewer than one thousand Nepalese army soldiers.

[[Hasti Dal Shah]] and some five hundred Nepalese Army men had set out from Almora to secure Almora's Northern line of communications with Kathmandu. This party was intercepted. Hasti Dal Shah, the ablest Nepalese commander in this sector, was killed in the first moments of the battle. The Nepalese suffered terrible losses. When word of this disaster reached the defenders at Almora, they were stunned. The British closed in on Almora and the Nepalese was unable to prevent the British advance. On April 25, 1815, 2,000 British regulars under Col. Nicholls and a force of irregular troops under Col. Gardiner assaulted and captured the heights of the town of Almorah. Subsequently, the British managed to establish gun positions within seventy yards of the gate of the fort at Almora and the British artillery demolished the walls of the fort at point blank range. Bam Shah surrendered Almora on 27 April 1815. The result of this British victory was the capitulation of the province of Kumaon and all of its fortresses.

===Second Battle of Malaon and Jaithak===
The second battle of Malaon and Jaithak cut the Nepalese lines of communication between Central Nepal and the Far West. It also sealed the fate of Kazi Amar Singh Thapa at Malaon and Ranajor Singh Thapa at Jaithak. At Malaon, Major-General Ochterlony had moved with extreme care summoning reinforcements and heavy guns from Delhi until his total attack force consisted of over ten thousand men well-equipped with heavy cannon.

Kazi Amar Singh Thapa's position in the Malaon Hills depended on Bilaspur in the lowlands for his food supplies, and the nature of the hills forced him to spread his forces very thinly in an attempt to defend every vantage point. Ochterlony cut off the supply of food from Bilaspur and then turned his attention to the intricate network of defensive posts that were designed to withstand any frontal assault. Although rear fortifications supported these posts, none could withstand a long cannonade by heavy guns. Because Ochterlony had sufficient troops to attack and overwhelm several positions simultaneously, the thinly spread Nepalese defences could be dangerously divided.

Ochterlony chose his target, a point on the ridge, and then proceeded to move slowly, consolidating each position that he took, and allowing the pioneers time to build roads so that the heavy guns could be moved forward to support each attack. After a series of carefully planned and executed moves, he succeeded in establishing a position on the crest of Deothal, not even over a thousand yards from Kazi Amar Singh Thapa's main fort at Malaon. The old warrior [[Bhakti Thapa]] valiantly led assault after assault on this position, but he died during battle and the position did not fall. Immensely impressed by Bhakti's sustained courage against impossible odds, the British made the well appreciated and honourable gesture of returning his body with full military honours. The British superiority in numbers made it inevitable that they would be able to establish themselves and their heavy guns on a vantage point within range of Ranajor Singh's fortifications, sooner or later.

Both Kazi Amar Singh Thapa and Ranajor Singh Thapa were thus hemmed in and looking down the barrels of the British guns when Bam Shah's letter arrived, announcing the fall of Almora. Although the old commander was still reluctant to surrender, Kazi Amar Singh Thapa at last saw the hopelessness of the situation and, compelled by circumstances and the British guns, surrendered with honour for both himself and Ranajor Singh. The Nepalese positions in the Far West lost control to the British on 15 May 1815.

==Second campaign==
[[File:Eight Gurkha men depicted in a British Indian painting, 1815.jpg|thumb|right|Gorkhali soldiers in 1815 [[Anno Domini|AD]].]]

The outstretched Nepalese army was defeated on the Western front i.e. [[Garhwal District|Garhwal]] and [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaon]] area. Ochterlony had finally outfoxed Bada Kaji [[Amar Singh Thapa]]. He was the only successful British Commander in the first Nepal-Company campaign. Not surprisingly [[Lord Moira]] appointed him as the Main Operational Commander in the second offensive on the Bharatpur-Makawanpur-Hariharpur front with 17,000 strong invasion force, but again, most of them were Indian sepoys.<ref name="Naravane, p. 191">{{harvp|Naravane|2006|p=191}}</ref>

The British had given a 15-day ultimatum to Nepal to ratify a treaty on 28 November. But the points of the treaty were very difficult for the Nepalese to ratify quickly. The delay provided the excuse for the British to commence the second military campaign against the kingdom. Colonel Bhaktawar Singh Thapa, another brother of [[Bhimsen Thapa]], had been appointed as Sector Commander for defensive battles for the area from [[Bijayapur]] to [[Sindhuli Gadhi]] in the first campaign. In this second campaign, Bada Kaji Amarsingh Thapa{{refn|group=note|Not to be confused with the better known commander of Gorkhali forces in the [[Gurkha War]] with the same name. The two Amar Singhs are differentiated by the qualifier Bada (greater) and Sanu (lesser).}}was detailed as Sector Commander for [[Sindhuli Gadhi]] and the eastern front. Colonel Bhaktawar Singh Thapa was manning his headquarters at [[Makwanpur Gadhi]]. Major General [[David Ochterlony]], was the overall commander against Nepal with a massive 17,000 British troops to assault the fronts including Upardang Gadhi, Sinchyang Gadhi, Kandrang Gadhi, Makawanpur Gadhi and [[Hariharpur Gadhi]].

During the campaign in February 1816, Ochterlony decided to take a very infrequently used pass through the mountains. The failure there would have been a disaster for British. But the successful passage would allow British to directly emerge and attack the Nepalese's rear. Colonel Kelly and Colonel O’Hollorah followed the river Bagmati to reach [[Hariharpur Gadhi]]. Some of the heads of villagers were bribed for sensitive information about the defensive positions in the area of Hariharpur Gadhi. The information seriously compromised the Nepalese defences. Secret routes would have given the enemy advantage even if they were able to get only a battalion through. But the British were able to advance with more than a brigade's strength. Colonel Kelly and Colonel O’Hollorah launched their attack from two different directions on 29 February. The Nepalese troops were eventually driven back from Hariharpur Gadhi after a big battle. Kaji Ranjore Singh Thapa withdrew to Sindhuli Gadhi to link up with Bada Kaji [[Amar Singh Thapa]]. The British troops did not approach Sindhuli Gadhi and fell back to [[Makawanpur]] by the end of March 1816.

The situation became very critical for Nepal and the British which eventually led to a treaty. Major General [[David Ochterlony]] settled down to receive the treaty, signed by Kathmandu Durbar through Chandra Sekhar Upadhyaya, Pandit Gajaraj Mishra and finally though Bhaktawar Singh Thapa. Two days later the ratified treaty was handed over to the British in [[Makawanpur]]. The war ended with the [[Treaty of Sugauli]], which has been considered as an unequal treaty which led to Nepal losing its one-third territory. The river Mechi became the new Eastern border and the Mahakali the Western boundary of Nepal.

==Aftermath==
===The Treaty of Sugauli===
[[File:Sugauli treaty.jpg|thumb|right|Bhimsen Thapa's troops, right, at Segauli, 1816, with India Pattern Brown Bess muskets and chupi bayonets.]]
[[File:Sugauli Treaty2.PNG|thumb|right|The [[Sugauli Treaty|Treaty of Sugauli]] 4 March 1816. It suited Ochterlony to bring the campaign to a speedy conclusion because of the approach of the dreaded aul-fever season but also because a number of his European troops were suffering from [[dysentery]].]]

{{main|Sugauli Treaty}}

The [[Sugauli Treaty|Treaty of Sugauli]] was ratified on 4 March 1816. As per the treaty, Nepal lost all Sikkim (including [[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling]]), the territories of [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaon]] and [[Garhwal Kingdom|Garhwal]] and Western Terai. The [[Mechi River]] became the new eastern border and the [[Mahakali river]] the western boundary of the kingdom. The [[British East India Company]] would pay 200,000 rupees annually to compensate for the loss of income from the Terai region. The British set up [[Resident (title)|Resident]].<ref>India-Board (8 November 1816) in Kathmandu.</ref> The fear of having a British Resident in Kathmandu ultimately proved to be unfounded, as the rulers of Nepal managed to isolate the Resident to such an extent as to be in virtual house arrest.

The Terai lands, however, proved difficult for the British to govern and some of them were returned to the kingdom later in 1816 and the annual payments accordingly abolished.<ref name="Oldfield, p. 304-305.">Oldfield, p. 304-305.</ref> However even after the conclusion of the Anglo-Nepalese War, the border issue between the two states was not yet settled. The boundary between Nepal and Oudh was not finally adjusted until 1830; and that between Nepal and the British territories remained as a matter of discussion between the two Governments for several years later.<ref name="Oldfield, p. 306.">Oldfield, p. 306.</ref>

The British never had the intention to destroy either the existence or the independence of a state which was usefully interposed between them and the dependencies of China.<ref name="Anon (1816), p. 428.">Anon (1816), p. 428.</ref> Lord Hastings had given up his plan to dismember Nepal from fear of antagonising China – whose vassal Nepal in theory was. In 1815, while British forces were campaigning in far western Nepal, a high-ranking Manchu official advanced with a large
military force from China to Lhasa; and the following year, after the Anglo-Nepalese treaty had been signed, the Chinese army moved south again, right up to Nepal's frontier. The Nepalese panicked, because memories were still vivid of the Chinese invasion of 1792, and there was a flurry of urgent diplomatic activity. Hastings sent mollifying assurances to the imperial authorities, and ordered the British Resident, newly arrived in Kathmandu, to pack his bags and be ready to leave at once if the Chinese invaded again.<ref name="Pemble, ''Forgetting and remembering Britain's Gurkha War'', pp.367.">Pemble, ''Forgetting and remembering Britain's Gurkha War'', p.367.</ref>
Due to the forced treaty under compulsion and duress, experts on international treaty view that Nepal might not have had the capability to recognize the Sugauli as a sound treaty.

===Cost of war===
Despite the boast of Lord Moira to the British parliament on having increased the state coffers, the Gurkha War had in reality cost more than the combined cost of the campaigns against the [[Marathas]] and the [[Pindaris]] for which Lord Moira's administration is better known: Sicca Rs. {{formatnum:5156961}} as against Sicca Rs. {{formatnum:3753789}}.<ref name="Lamb, p. 41.">Lamb, p. 41.</ref> This was the kind of fact which greatly influenced the policy of the Company government in subsequent years. Thus, while the Company Government, in theory, thoroughly approved of the development of trade, especially in shawl wool, between Western Tibet and its territories, it was unprepared to take any decisive step to bring this about. It preferred to leave the Chinese in Tibet to their own devices, and hoped to avoid the risk, however slight, of another expensive hill war.<ref name="Lamb, p. 41."/>

Furthermore, despite the British merchants' direct access to the wool growing areas after the war, the hopes of shawl wool trade were never realised. The British merchants found that they were too late. The shawl wool market was strictly closed and closely guarded. It was monopolised by traders from Kashmir and Ladakh, and the only outsider with whom they dealt was Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the powerful Sikh ruler of Lahore. Ranjit was very zealous of his privilege, and he was the last person the British could afford to offend at this time of crisis and uncertainty. So the East India Company never did get its shawl wool. When it finally acquired the Punjab and Kashmir, after the Sikh Wars of the 1840s, it had long since given up trade, and Kashmir was so little valued that it was quickly discarded – sold for a knock-down price to the Raja of Jammu.<ref name="Pemble, ''Forgetting and remembering Britain's Gurkha War'', pp.366-367.">Pemble, ''Forgetting and remembering Britain's Gurkha War'', p.366-367.</ref>

===Gorkha recruitment===
{{main|Brigade of Gurkhas|Gorkha regiments (India)}}
[[File:Ilngurkhas1858.jpg|thumb|right|Gurkahs of 66th Regiment in their national costume.]]
[[File:Kukri.jpg|thumb|The [[Khukuri]] is the traditional weapon and tool of the [[Gurkhas]].]]

David Ochterlony and the political agent [[William Fraser (British administrator)|William Fraser]] were quick to recognize the potential of Nepalese soldiers in British service. During the war the British were keen to use defectors from the Nepalese army and employ them as irregular forces. His confidence in their loyalty was such that in April 1815 he proposed forming them into a battalion under Lieutenant Ross called the Nasiri regiment. This regiment, which later became the [[1GR|1st King George's Own Gurkha Rifles]], saw action at the Malaun fort under the leadership of Lieutenant Lawtie, who reported to Ochterlony that he "had the greatest reason to be satisfied with their exertions".

About 5,000 men entered British service in 1815, most of whom were not 'real' Gorkhali but Kumaonis, Garhwalis and other Himalayan hill men. These groups, eventually lumped together under the term ''Gurkha'', became the backbone of British Indian forces.

As well as Ochterlony's Gorkhali battalions, William Fraser and [[Frederick Young (soldier)|Lieutenant Frederick Young]] raised the Sirmoor battalion, later to become the [[2nd King Edward VII's Own Gurkha Rifles (The Sirmoor Rifles)|2nd King Edward VII's Own Gurkha Rifles]]; an additional battalion, the Kumaon battalion was also raised eventually becoming the [[3rd Queen Alexandra's Own Gurkha Rifles]]. None of these men fought in the second campaign.

===Fate of protagonists===
====Bhimsen Thapa====
{{main|Bhimsen Thapa}}

Prime Minister [[Bhimsen Thapa]], with the support of the queen regent [[Queen Tripurasundari|Tripura Sundari]], remained in power despite the defeat of Nepal. Other ruling families, particularly the Pandes, decried what they saw as Bhimsen Thapa's submissive attitude towards the British. The prime minister however had been able to retain power by maintaining a large, modernized army and politically dominating the court during the minority of King [[Rajendra of Nepal|Rajendra Bikram Shah]], (reigned 1816–1847). Additionally, he was able to freeze out the Pandes from power by appointing members of his own family into positions of authority.

When queen Tripura Sundari died in 1832, [[Bhimsen Thapa]] began to lose influence. In 1833, [[Brian Houghton Hodgson|Brian Hodgson]] became British resident, openly favouring Bhimsen Thapa's opponents, and in 1837 the king announced his intention to rule independently, depriving the prime minister and his nephew of their military powers. After the eldest son of the queen died, Bhimsen Thapa was falsely accused of attempting to poison the prince. Although acquitted, the Thapas were in turmoil. When the head of the Pande family, Rana Jang Pande, became prime minister, he had Bhimsen Thapa re-imprisoned; Bhimsen Thapa committed suicide in August 1839.

====David Ochterlony====
{{main|David Ochterlony}}

For his part, [[David Ochterlony]] received thanks from both [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] and became the first officer in the [[British East India Company]] to be awarded the [[Order of the Bath|GCB]]. [[Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings|Lord Moira]] also reinstated him as Resident at [[Delhi]] and he lived in the style appropriate to a very senior figure of the Company. However, after Lord Moira left India – succeeded by [[William Amherst, 1st Earl Amherst|Lord Amherst]] as Governor-General in 1823 – Ochterlony fell out of favor.

In 1825 the [[Raja]] of [[Bharatpur, India|Bharatpur]] died and the six-year-old heir to the throne, whom Ochterlony supported, was usurped by his cousin Durjan Sal. When Durjan Sal failed to submit to Ochterlony's demands to vacate the throne, the British general prepared to march on Bharatpur. He did not receive the backing of the new Governor-General however, and after Amherst countermanded his orders, Ochterlony resigned, as Amherst had anticipated. This episode badly affected the ailing general who died shortly after on 14 July 1825. A 165-foot-high memorial was later erected in [[Calcutta]] in his memory; however, Sir David Ochterlony's greatest legacy is the continuing recruitment of [[Gurkha|Gorkhas]] into the British and Indian armies.

Soon after Ochterlony's resignation Amherst was himself obliged to do what Ochterlony had prepared to do, and laid siege to Bharatpur.<ref name="Naravane, p. 191"/>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Gurkha]]
* [[History of Nepal]]
* [[Kingdom of Nepal]]
* [[Brigade of Gurkhas]]
* [[Sino-Nepalese War]]
* [[Gurkha–Sikh War]]
* [[Nepalese-Tibetan War]]
* [[East India Company]]
* [[Company rule in India]]
* [[Nawab of Awadh]]
* [[Garhwali people]]
* [[Kumauni people]]
* [[Awadh]]
* [[Battle of Nalapani]]
* [[Treaty of Thapathali]]
{{col div end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}
There's an inaccuracy in the troops size, especially from the British East India Company. This war was costly and impacted great loss for the British despite having superior number and advanced ammunitions.

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography and further reading==
===Primary sources===
* India-Board. (16 August 1815). ''Dispatches, dated Fort-William, 25 January 1815''. The London Gazette. Issue: 17052. Published: 19 Aug 1815. pp. 1–8. [http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/17052/pages/1685]
* India-Board. (8 November 1816). ''Dispatches, dated Fort-William, 30 March 1816''. The London Gazette. Issue: 17190. Published: 11 Nov 1816. pp. 1–4. [http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/17190/pages/2137]
* Anon. (1816). ''An account of the war in Nipal; Contained in a Letter from an Officer on the Staff of the Bengal Army''. Asiatic journal and monthly miscellany, Vol 1. May, 1816. pp. 425–429. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_dtAAQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false]
* Fraser, James Baillie. (1820). ''Journal of a tour through part of the snowy range of the Himālā mountains, and to the sources of the rivers Jumna and Ganges''. London: Rodwell and Martin. [https://archive.org/details/journaloftourthr00fras]
* Anon. (1822). ''Military sketches of the Goorka war in India: in the years 1814, 1815, 1816''. Woodbridge, Printed by J. Loder for R. Hunter, London. [https://archive.org/details/militarysketche00unkngoog]
* East India Company. (1824). Papers respecting the Nepaul War. ''Papers regarding the administration of the Marquis of Hastings in India''. [https://books.google.com/books?id=kElDAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false]
* Marquis of Hastings. (1824). ''Summary of the operations in India: with their results : from 30 April 1814 to 31 Jan. 1823 ''. [https://books.google.com/books?id=jkZDAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false]
* [[Henry Thoby Prinsep|Prinsep, Henry Thoby]]. (1825). ''History of the political and military transactions in India during the administration of the Marquess of Hastings, 1813–1823, Vol 1''. London: Kingsbury, Parbury & Allen. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tq1jAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s]
* W. Shackell. The Monthly Magazine. Volume: XLIX Part: I for 1820. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a20EAAAAQAAJ&pg]

===Secondary sources===
* {{citation |last=Acharya |first=Baburam |title=King Girvan's letter to Kaji Ranjor Thapa |journal=Regmi Research Series |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=3–5 |date=January 1, 1971 |orig-year=1950 |url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/regmi/pdf/Regmi_03.pdf}}
* Smith, Thomas. (1852). ''Narrative of a five-year's residence at Nepaul''. Vol 1. London: Colburn and Co. [https://archive.org/details/narrativeafivey09ochtgoog]
* Oldfield, Henry Ambrose. (1880). ''Sketches from Nipal, Vol 1''. London: W.H. Allen and Co. [https://archive.org/details/sketchesfromnipa01oldf]
* Hunter, William Wilson. (1896). ''Life of Brian Houghton Hodgson''. London: John Murray. [https://archive.org/details/cu31924029875915]
* Lamb, Alastair. (1986). ''British India and Tibet, 1766–1910''. Taylor & Francis. pp. 26–43. {{ISBN|0710208723}}
* Gould, Tony. (2000). ''Imperial Warriors – Britain and the Gorkhas''. Granta Books {{ISBN|1-86207-365-1}}
* {{citation |first=M. S. |last=Naravane |title=Battles of the honourable East India Company: Making of the Raj |pages=189–191 |isbn=978-81-313-0034-3 |publisher=APH Publishing |year=2006}}
* Pemble, John. (2009). Forgetting and remembering Britain's Gurkha War. ''[[Asian Affairs]]'', 40(3), 361–376.
* Pemble, John. (2009). ''Britain's Gorkha War: The Invasion of Nepal, 1814–16''. Casemate Pub & Book Dist Llc {{ISBN|978-1-84832-520-3}}.
* {{citation |last=Nepalese Army Headquarters |title=The Nepalese Army |url=http://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/sipahi_display.php?type=coffeetable |year=2010 |isbn=978-9937-2-2472-7 |access-date=3 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126094718/http://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/sipahi_display.php?type=coffeetable |archive-date=26 January 2013 |url-status=dead}}

===Bibliography===
* Marshall, Julie G. (2005). ''Britain and Tibet 1765-1947: a select annotated bibliography of British relations with Tibet and the Himalayan states including Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan''. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-33647-3}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Anglo-Nepalese War}}
* [http://countrystudies.us/nepal/ History of Nepal]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110607215048/http://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/history.php?page=two History of the Nepalese Army]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051018202001/http://www.nepaldemocracy.org/documents/treaties_agreements/nep_india_open_border.htm Indian-Nepalese border; The Tarai region]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030902202914/http://www.Nepalesecongress.org.np/contents/nepal/treaties/2.php The Sugauli Treaty]

{{British colonial campaigns}}
{{Nepal topics}}
{{Uttarakhand}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1814]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1815]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1816]]
[[Category:Wars involving the British East India Company|Gurkha war]]
[[Category:19th century in Nepal|History of Nepal]]
[[Category:History of Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Wars involving Nepal]]
[[Category:19th-century military history of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Gurkhas]]
[[Category:Nepal–United Kingdom relations]]
[[Category:1810s in Asia]]
[[Category:Anglo-Nepalese War| ]]
[[Category:1816 in Nepal]]
[[Category:1814 in Nepal]]
[[Category:1810s in Nepal]]
[[Category:1815 in Nepal]]

Cyber Boy Corp

2021-08-04T10:41:46Z

Saumyasingh:

{{Infobox company
| name = Cyber Boy Corp.
| logo = Cyberboycorp.jpg
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| industry = Software company
| genre =
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| founded = {{Start date and age|2020}}
| founder = Sr Roy Andrade
| defunct = 
| hq_location = Beverly Hills,Los Angeles County, California
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| key_people = Sr Roy Andrade
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'''Cyber Boy Corp.''' is a software company that specializes in offering cybersecurity services.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cyber Boy Corp.’s 1st Video Game |url=https://in.news.yahoo.com/cyber-boy-corp-1st-video-132400522.html |website=in.news.yahoo.com |access-date=6 February 2021 |language=en-IN}}</ref> It was founded by Roy Andrade with the aim to safeguard data from hackers. The company is headquartered in Beverly Hills, Los Angeles County, California, with operations all around the world. Cyber Boy Corp. established its video game department in 2021 and already has its debut video game in production.<ref>{{cite web |title=seekerstime |url=https://www.seekerstime.com/cyber-boy-corp-eyes-on-releasing-its-own-video-game-in-2021/https://www.yahoo.com/lifestyle/amphtml/cyber-boy-corp-ceo-sr-144925695.html |access-date=6 February 2021}}</ref>

Since its inception in 2020, Cyber Boy Corp., under the leadership of Roy Andrade, has secured over 500k followers on its Instagram account along with creating a sensation in the global gaming and cybersecurity market.

Cyber Boy Corp. has been featured in numerous publications including Yahoo, Globe News Wire, About Insider, The CowBoy Channel, Ritz Herald, Verna Magazine, and others.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Corp |first1=Cyber Boy |title=Cyber Boy Corp.’s 1st Video Game |url=https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/01/25/2163489/0/en/Cyber-Boy-Corp-s-1st-Video-Game.html |website=GlobeNewswire News Room |access-date=6 February 2021 |date=25 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sr. Roy Andrade Is Working On A Video Game At Cyber Boy Corp |url=https://www.vernamagazine.com/2021/01/24/sr-roy-andrade-is-working-on-a-video-game-at-cyber-boy-corp/ |website=Verna Magazine |access-date=6 February 2021 |date=25 January 2021}}</ref>

==History==
Cyber Boy Corp. was founded in 2020 by Roy Andrade, a leading entrepreneur and IT professional, with the aim to address the rapidly increasing malware practices in the IT sector. As an executive protection firm Cyber Boy Corp. has offered several entrepreneurs top-notch security services since its inception.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cyber Boy Corp. CEO Plans Winter 2021 Launch of Cyber Boy Video Game |url=https://www.thecowboychannel.com/story/43271745/cyber-boy-corp-ceo-plans-winter-2021-launch-of-cyber-boy-video-game |website=www.thecowboychannel.com |access-date=6 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

Roy Andrade was nominated by Dr. Rich Schultz of the University of Phoenix in The National Society of Leadership and Success.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cyber Boy Corp. Eyes on Releasing its Own Video Game in 2021 |url=https://www.seekerstime.com/cyber-boy-corp-eyes-on-releasing-its-own-video-game-in-2021/ |website=Seekers Time |access-date=6 February 2021 |date=24 January 2021}}</ref>

The company at the beginning of 2021, announced the establishment of its Video Game Department and will soon release its first Game titled, “CyberBoy’’.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cyber Boy Corp’s CEO Sr Roy Andrade Announces First Video Game |url=https://www.zee5.com/zee5news/cyber-boy-corps-ceo-sr-roy-andrade-announces-first-video-game |website=ZEE5 News |access-date=6 February 2021 |language=en |date=25 January 2021}}</ref> Along with that, Cyber Boy Corp. is also in the process of producing several mobile apps.<ref>{{cite web |title=Roy Andrade's 2020 Christmas Interview at Cyber Boy Corp. Headquarters |url=https://www.aboutinsider.com/roy-andrades-2020-christmas-interview-at-cyber-boy-corp-headquarters/ |website=ABOUT INSIDER |access-date=6 February 2021 |date=17 December 2020}}</ref>

Cyber Boy Corp., under the leadership of Roy, will soon branch out into other aspects of technology, such as artificial intelligence or AI and the internet of things or IoT.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Cyber Boy Corp. {{!}} Aileensoul |url=https://www.aileensoul.com/cyber-boy-corp |website=www.aileensoul.com |access-date=6 February 2021}}</ref>

==Products and services==
Cyber Boy Corp. offers a vast range of security services that help clients get rid of the malware from their systems.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cyber Boy Corp. |url=https://cyber-boy-corp.business.site/ |website=cyber-boy-corp.business.site |access-date=6 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref> In 2021, the company also established its video game department and will offer various types of gaming products in the upcoming future.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://cyberboycorp.us/ Official website]
* {{YouTube|c=UCeA_Y4SzSdp19JYYCLue-0g| Cyber Boy Corp.}}
* {{Instagram|cyberboycorp| Cyber Boy Corp.}}
* {{Twitter|cyberboycorp| Cyber Boy Corp.}}

[[Category:Companies established in 2020]]
[[Category:Companies based in California]]
[[Category:Software companies]]

East India Company

2021-08-04T10:37:00Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{About|the 16th–19th-century English and British trading company|its rule in India during the period 1757–1857, see Company rule in India}} {{other uses of|HEIC| HEIC..."

{{About|the 16th–19th-century English and British trading company|its rule in India during the period 1757–1857, see [[Company rule in India]]}}
{{other uses of|HEIC| HEIC (disambiguation)}}
{{Short description|16th- to 19th-century British trading company}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox company
| name = East India Company
| logo = Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg
| logo_caption = [[Flag of the East India Company|Company flag]] (1801)
| image = Coat of arms of the East India Company.svg
| image_caption = [[#Coat of arms|Coat of arms]] (1698) '''Motto:''' ''Auspicio Regis et Senatus Angliae'' [[Latin]] for "By command of the King and Parliament of England"
| type = [[Public company|Public]]
| fate = [[Nationalization|Nationalised]]: {{bulletedlist|Territories and responsibilities ceded to the British Government by the [[Government of India Act 1858]]| dissolved by the [[East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873]]}}
| foundation = {{start date and age|1600|12|31|df=yes}}
| founders = [[John Watts (merchant)|John Watts]], [[George White (merchant)|George White]]
| defunct = {{End date and age|df=yes|1874|6|1}}
| location_city = [[London]]
| location_country = [[Great Britain]]
| industry = [[Trade]]
| products = Cotton, silk, [[indigo dye]], [[sugar]], salt, [[spices]], [[niter|saltpetre]], tea, and [[opium]]
}}

{{Colonial India}}

The '''East India Company''' ('''EIC'''), also known as the '''Honourable East India Company''' ('''HEIC'''), '''East India Trading Company''' ('''EITC'''), the '''English East India Company''' or (after [[Acts of Union 1707|1707]]) the '''British East India Company''', and informally known as '''John Company''',<ref>{{cite book|last1=Carey|first1=W. H.|title=1882 – The Good Old Days of Honourable John Company|date=1882|publisher=Argus Press|location=Simla |url=http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/texts/empire/good/1882good.html|access-date=30 July 2015}}</ref> '''Company Bahadur''',<ref>{{cite web |title=Company Bahadur |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Company-Bahadur |website=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> or simply '''The Company''' was an English, and later British, [[joint-stock company]] founded in 1600.<ref>The [[Dutch East India Company]] was the first to issue public stock.</ref> It was formed to [[Indian Ocean trade|trade in the Indian Ocean region]], initially with the [[East Indies]] (the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Southeast Asia]]), and later with [[Qing dynasty|Qing China]]. The company seized [[Company rule in India|control of large parts of the Indian subcontinent]], [[European colonisation of Southeast Asia|colonised parts of Southeast Asia]] and [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] after the [[First Opium War]], and maintained trading posts and colonies in the [[Persian Gulf Residency|Persian Gulf Residencies]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Henige, David P.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/299459478|title=Colonial governors from the fifteenth century to the present : a comprehensive list|date=1970|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=0-299-05440-3|oclc=299459478}}</ref>

Originally [[Chartered company|chartered]] as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East-Indies",<ref name="jiscuk">{{cite web |last1=Scott |first1=William |title=East India Company, 1817-1827 |url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/a9ee8afa-3ebe-340e-83c6-2e45bd014d1c |website=archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk |publisher=Senate House Library Archives, University of London |access-date=20 September 2019 |archive-url=https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/data/gb96-ms938 |archive-date=1994 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Parliament of England |title=Charter granted by Queen Elizabeth to the East India Company |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Charter_Granted_by_Queen_Elizabeth_to_the_East_India_Company |website=en.wikisource.org |publisher=Wikimedia |access-date=20 September 2019 |date=31 December 1600 |quote=Governor and Company of Merchants of London, Trading into the East-Indies}}</ref> the company rose to account for half of the world's trade during the mid-1700s and early 1800s,<ref name=onlinegallery /> particularly in basic commodities including [[cotton]], [[silk]], [[indigo dye]], [[sugar]], [[salt]], [[spice]]s, [[niter|saltpetre]], [[tea]], and [[opium]]. The company also ruled the beginnings of the [[British Empire]] in India.<ref name=onlinegallery>{{cite book |last1=Farrington |first1=Anthony |title=Trading Places: The East India Company and Asia 1600–1834 |date=2002 |publisher=British Library |isbn=9780712347563 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6g5XwAEACAAJ |access-date=21 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/features/trading/booksgifts1.html|title=Books associated with Trading Places – the East India Company and Asia 1600–1834, an Exhibition|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330215843/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/features/trading/booksgifts1.html|archive-date=30 March 2014}}</ref>

The company eventually came to rule large areas of India, exercising military power and assuming administrative functions. [[Company rule in India]] effectively began in 1757 after the [[Battle of Plassey]] and lasted until 1858 when, following the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], the [[Government of India Act 1858]] led to the [[British Crown]] assuming direct control of India in the form of the new [[British Raj]].

Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances. The company was dissolved in 1874 as a result of the [[East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873|East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act]] enacted one year earlier, as the Government of India Act had by then rendered it vestigial, powerless, and obsolete. The official [[Machinery of government|government machinery]] of [[British Raj]] had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies.

{{TOC limit|4}}

== History ==

=== Origins ===
{{further|Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)}}
[[File:Jameslancaster.jpg|thumb|upright|[[James Lancaster]] commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601]]
In 1577, [[Francis Drake]] set [[Francis Drake's Circumnavigation|out on an expedition]] from England to plunder [[Spain|Spanish]] settlements in [[South America]] in search of gold and silver. In the ''[[Golden Hind]]'' he achieved this but also sailed across the [[Pacific Ocean]] in 1579, known then only to the Spanish and Portuguese. Drake eventually sailed into the [[East Indies]] and came across the [[Maluku Islands|Moluccas]], also known as the Spice Islands, and met with [[Sultan]] [[Babullah of Ternate|Babullah]]. In return for linen, gold and silver, a large haul of exotic spices including [[clove]]s and [[Nutmeg]] were traded – the English initially not knowing of their huge value.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wheeler |first1=Jack |title=Sir Francis Drake and the Sultan |url=https://www.escapeartist.com/blog/sir-francis-drake-sultan |website=International Strategies For the Globally Minded |date=21 August 2017 |publisher=Escape Artist}}</ref> Drake returned to England in 1580 and became a celebrated hero; his eventual circumnavigation raised an enormous amount of money for England's [[coffer]]s, and investors received a return of some 5000 per cent. Thus started what was an important element in the eastern design during the late sixteenth century.<ref name="Lawson2">{{Harvnb|Lawson|1993|p=2}}</ref>

Soon after the defeat of the [[Spanish Armada]] in 1588, the captured Spanish and Portuguese ships with their cargoes enabled English voyagers to potentially travel the globe in search of riches.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Desai|first1=Tripta|title=The East India Company: A Brief Survey from 1599 to 1857|date=1984|publisher=Kanak Publications|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JdoKAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> London merchants presented a petition to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] for permission to sail to the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name="igi-ii-p454">{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Imperial Gazetteer of India |article=Early European Settlements |article-url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V02_489.gif&volume=2 |volume=II |year=1908 |page=454}}</ref> The aim was to deliver a decisive blow to the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly of Far Eastern Trade.<ref name="Wernham">{{cite book |last=Wernham |first=R.B |year=1994 |title=The Return of the Armadas: The Last Years of the Elizabethan Wars Against Spain 1595–1603 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |pages=333–334 |isbn=978-0-19-820443-5}}</ref> Elizabeth granted her permission and on 10 April 1591 [[James Lancaster]] in the {{ship|English ship|Bonaventure|1567|2}} with two other ships sailed from [[Torbay]] around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] to the [[Arabian Sea]] on one of the earliest English overseas Indian expeditions. Having sailed around [[Cape Comorin]] to the [[Malay Peninsula]], they preyed on Spanish and Portuguese ships there before returning to England in 1594.<ref name="igi-ii-p454" />

The biggest capture that galvanised English trade was the seizure of a large Portuguese [[carrack]], the ''[[Madre de Deus]]'' by [[Sir Walter Raleigh]] and the [[George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland|Earl of Cumberland]] at the [[Battle of Flores (1592)|Battle of Flores]] on 13 August 1592.<ref name=McCulloch>{{cite book|author1=McCulloch, John Ramsay|title=A Treatise on the Principles, Practice, & History of Commerce|date=1833|publisher=Baldwin and Cradock|page=[https://archive.org/details/atreatiseonprin00goog/page/n138 120]|url=https://archive.org/details/atreatiseonprin00goog|author1-link=John Ramsay McCulloch}}</ref> When she was brought in to [[Dartmouth, Devon|Dartmouth]] she was the largest vessel that had been seen in England and her cargo consisted of chests filled with jewels, pearls, gold, silver coins, [[ambergris]], cloth, tapestries, [[Cubeb|pepper]], cloves, [[cinnamon]], nutmeg, [[Styrax benzoin|benjamin]] (a tree that produces frankincense), red dye, [[cochineal]] and [[ebony]].{{sfn|Leinwand|2006|pp=125–127}} Equally valuable was the ship's [[Rutter (nautical)|rutter]] (mariner's handbook) containing vital information on the [[Old China Trade|China]], India, and Japan trades. These riches aroused the English to engage in this opulent commerce.<ref name=McCulloch />

In 1596, three more English ships sailed east but all were lost at sea.<ref name="igi-ii-p454" /> A year later however saw the arrival of [[Ralph Fitch]], an adventurer merchant who, along with his companions, had made a remarkable fifteen-year overland journey to [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Persian Gulf]], the [[Indian Ocean]], India and [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>'Ralph Fitch: An Elizabethan Merchant in Chiang Mai; and 'Ralph Fitch's Account of Chiang Mai in 1586–1587' in: Forbes, Andrew, and Henley, David, ''Ancient Chiang Mai'' Volume 1. Chiang Mai, Cognoscenti Books, 2012.</ref> Fitch was then consulted on the Indian affairs and gave even more valuable information to Lancaster.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Prasad|first1=Ram Chandra|title=Early English Travellers in India: A Study in the Travel Literature of the Elizabethan and Jacobean Periods with Particular Reference to India|date=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=9788120824652|page=45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nUx8ZzIHBsC&pg=PA45}}</ref>

=== Formation ===
On 22 September 1599, a group of merchants met and stated their intention "to venture in the pretended voyage to the East Indies (the which it may please the Lord to prosper), and the sums that they will adventure", committing £30,133 (over £4,000,000 in today's money).<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HTCsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA18 |first=Marguerite Eyer |last=Wilbur |year=1945 |title=The East India Company: And the British Empire in the Far East |location=Stanford, Cal. |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-28645|page=18}}</ref><ref name="british-history.ac.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=68624|title=East Indies: September 1599|website=british-history.ac.uk|access-date=18 February 2017}}</ref> Two days later, "the Adventurers" reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project.<ref name="british-history.ac.uk" /> Although their first attempt had not been completely successful, they nonetheless sought the Queen's unofficial approval to continue. They bought ships for their venture and increased their capital to £68,373.

The Adventurers convened again a year later, on 31 December, and this time they succeeded; the Queen granted a [[Royal Charter]]<ref name="igi-ii-p454" /> to "[[George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland|George, Earl of Cumberland]], and 215 [[Knight]]s, [[Aldermen]], and [[Burgess (title)|Burgesses]]"{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} under the name '''Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies'''.<ref name="igi-ii-p454" /> For a period of fifteen years, the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/imperialgazette01meyegoog/page/n501/mode/1up?q=fifteen|title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1908|volume=II: The Indian Empire, Historical|location=Oxford|page=455}}</ref> on English trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the [[Straits of Magellan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://theodora.com/encyclopedia/e/east_india_company.html|title=East India Company - Encyclopedia|website=theodora.com|access-date=26 March 2021}}</ref> Any traders in breach of the charter without a licence from the company were liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo (half of which went to the Crown and the other half to the company), as well as imprisonment at the "royal pleasure".<ref>{{Cite book|title=A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels|first=Robert|last=Kerr|author-link=Robert Kerr (writer)|volume=8|year=1813|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=tCwwAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&pg=GBS.PA102|page=102|publisher=W. Blackwood}}</ref>

The governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 [[British East India Company directors|directors]] or "committees", who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, which appointed them. Ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was initially transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite [[St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate|St Botolph's]] church in [[Bishopsgate]], before moving to India House in [[Leadenhall Street]].<ref>{{cite book|first=John|last=Timbs|author-link=John Timbs|title=Curiosities of London: Exhibiting the Most Rare and Remarkable Objects of Interest in the Metropolis|url=https://archive.org/details/curiositieslond01timbgoog|year=1855|publisher=D. Bogue|page=[https://archive.org/details/curiositieslond01timbgoog/page/n279 264]}}</ref>

== Early voyages to the East Indies ==

Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601 aboard the {{ship||Red Dragon|1595|2}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gardner |first=Brian |year=1990 |orig-year=1971 |title=The East India Company: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/eastindiacompany00gard|url-access=registration |publisher=Dorset Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/eastindiacompany00gard/page/23 23]–24 |isbn=978-0-88029-530-7}}</ref> After capturing a rich 1,200 ton Portuguese carrack in the [[Malacca Strait]]s the trade from the booty enabled the voyagers to set up two "[[Factory (trading post)|factories]]" – one at [[Bantam (city)|Bantam]] on [[Java]] and another in the [[Molucca]]s (Spice Islands) before leaving.<ref name="Dulles106">Dulles (1969), p106.</ref> They returned to England in 1603 to learn of Elizabeth's death but Lancaster was knighted by the new King [[James VI and I|James I]].<ref>{{Cite book|title = England's quest of eastern trade|author=Foster, Sir William|edition = 1933|publisher = A. & C. Black|place=London|page=157|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gp6wBJx0-igC&pg=PA154|isbn=9780415155182|year=1998}}</ref> By this time, the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|war with Spain]] had ended but the company had successfully and profitably breached the Spanish and Portuguese duopoly, with new horizons opened for the English.<ref name="Wernham" />

In March 1604, Sir [[Henry Middleton (captain)|Henry Middleton]] commanded the [[Second voyage to Asia|second voyage]]. General [[William Keeling]], a captain during the second voyage, led the third voyage aboard the ''Red Dragon'' from 1607 to 1610 along with the ''Hector'' under Captain [[Sir William Hawkins|William Hawkins]] and the ''Consent'' under Captain [[David Middleton (mariner)|David Middleton]].<ref name="East India Company 1897 vi">{{Cite book|author=East India Company|author-link=East India Company|title=List of Factory Records of the late East India Company: preserved in the Record Department of the India Office, London |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924023223757|year=1897|page=vi}}</ref>

Early in 1608 [[Alexander Sharpeigh]] was appointed captain of the company's ''Ascension'', and general or commander of the fourth voyage. Thereafter two ships, ''Ascension'' and ''Union'' (captained by Richard Rowles) sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1608.<ref name="East India Company 1897 vi" /> This expedition would be lost.<ref name="Mill1817" />
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="border:1px black; float:center; margin-left:1em;"
|+ East India Company Initial expeditions<ref name="Mill1817">{{cite book|author=James Mill|title=The History of British India|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ncIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA481|access-date=30 July 2018|year=1817|publisher=Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy|pages=15–18|chapter=1}}</ref>
! Year !! Vessels !! Total Invested £ !! Bullion sent £!! Goods sent £!! Ships & Provisions £ !! Notes
|-
| 1603 || 3 || '''60,450''' || 11,160 || 1,142 || 48,140 ||
|-
| 1606 || 3 || '''58,500''' || 17,600 || 7,280 || 28,620 ||
|-
| 1607 || 2 || '''38,000''' || 15,000 || 3,400 || 14,600 || Vessels lost
|-
| 1608 || 1 || '''13,700''' || 6,000 || 1,700 || 6,000 ||
|-
| 1609 || 3 || '''82,000''' || 28,500 || 21,300 || 32,000 ||
|-
| 1610 || 4 || '''71,581''' || 19,200 || 10,081 || 42,500 ||
|-
| 1611 || 4 || '''76,355''' || 17,675 || 10,000 || 48,700 ||
|-
| 1612 || 1 || '''7,200''' || 1,250 || 650 || 5,300 ||
|-
| 1613 || 8 || rowspan="4" | '''272,544''' || 18,810 || 12,446 || ||
|-
| 1614 || 8 || 13,942 || 23,000 || ||
|-
| 1615 || 6 || 26,660 || 26,065 || ||
|-
| 1616 || 7 || 52,087 || 16,506 || ||
|-
|}

Initially, the company struggled in the [[spice trade]] because of the competition from the already well-established [[Dutch East India Company]]. The English company opened a factory in Bantam on Java on its first voyage, and imports of [[Black pepper|pepper]] from Java remained an important part of the company's trade for twenty years. The Bantam factory closed in 1683.

Company ships docked at [[Surat]] in [[Gujarat]] in 1608. The company established its first Indian factory in 1611 at [[Machilipatnam|Masulipatnam]] on the [[Coastal Andhra|Andhra Coast]] of the [[Bay of Bengal]]; and a second at Surat in 1612. The high profits reported by the company after landing in India initially prompted James I to grant subsidiary licences to other trading companies in England. However, in 1609 he renewed the East India Company's charter for an indefinite period, with the proviso that its privileges would be annulled if trade was unprofitable for three consecutive years.

== Foothold in India ==
{{See also|History of Kolkata#Establishment of English trade in Bengal (1600–1700)|label 1=Establishment of English trade in Bengal (1600–1700)}}
[[File:Reddragonship.jpg|thumb|{{ship||Red Dragon|1595|2}} fought the Portuguese at the [[Battle of Swally]] in 1612, and made several voyages to the [[East Indies]]]]
[[File:Jahangir investing a courtier with a robe of honour watched by Sir Thomas Roe, English ambassador to the court of Jahangir at Agra from 1615-18, and others.jpg|thumb|275px|The emperor [[Jahangir]] investing a courtier with a robe of honour, watched by [[Sir Thomas Roe]], English ambassador to the court of Jahangir at Agra from 1615 to 1618, and others]]

English traders frequently engaged in hostilities with their Dutch and Portuguese counterparts in the Indian Ocean. The company achieved a major victory over the Portuguese in the [[Battle of Swally]] in 1612, at [[Suvali]] in [[Surat]]. The company decided to explore the feasibility of gaining a territorial foothold in mainland India, with official sanction from both Britain and the [[Mughal Empire]], and requested that the Crown launch a diplomatic mission.<ref name="fordham1">The battle of Plassey ended the tax on the Indian goods. {{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/india/1617englandindies.html|title=Indian History Sourcebook: England, India, and The East Indies, 1617 CE|publisher=Fordham University}}</ref>

In 1612, James I instructed Sir [[Thomas Roe]] to visit the Mughal Emperor Nur-ud-din Salim [[Jahangir]] (r. 1605–1627) to arrange for a commercial treaty that would give the company exclusive rights to reside and establish factories in Surat and other areas. In return, the company offered to provide the Emperor with goods and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful, and Jahangir sent a letter to James through Sir Thomas Roe:<ref name="fordham1" />

{{quote|Upon which assurance of your royal love I have given my general command to all the kingdoms and ports of my dominions to receive all the merchants of the English nation as the subjects of my friend; that in what place soever they choose to live, they may have free liberty without any restraint; and at what port soever they shall arrive, that neither Portugal nor any other shall dare to molest their quiet; and in what city soever they shall have residence, I have commanded all my governors and captains to give them freedom answerable to their own desires; to sell, buy, and to transport into their country at their pleasure.

For confirmation of our love and friendship, I desire your Majesty to command your merchants to bring in their ships of all sorts of rarities and rich goods fit for my palace; and that you be pleased to send me your royal letters by every opportunity, that I may rejoice in your health and prosperous affairs; that our friendship may be interchanged and eternal.|Nuruddin Salim Jahangir|Letter to James I.}}

== Expansion ==
The company, which benefited from the imperial patronage, soon expanded its commercial trading operations. It eclipsed the Portuguese [[Estado da Índia]], which had established bases in [[Goa]], [[Chittagong]], and [[Bombay]] – Portugal later ceded Bombay to England as part of the [[dowry]] of [[Catherine of Braganza]] on her marriage to King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]. The East India Company also launched a joint attack with the Dutch [[United East India Company]] (VOC) on Portuguese and Spanish ships off the coast of China, which helped secure EIC ports in China.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Gabriel Tatton's Maritime Atlas of the East Indies, 1620–1621: Portsmouth Royal Naval Museum, Admiralty Library Manuscript, MSS 352 |first=Sarah |last=Tyacke |author-link=Sarah Tyacke |journal=Imago Mundi |volume=60 |issue=1 |year=2008 |pages=39–62 |doi=10.1080/03085690701669293|s2cid=162239597 }}</ref> The company established [[trading post]]s in [[Surat]] (1619), [[Chennai|Madras]] (1639), Bombay (1668), and [[Calcutta]] (1690). By 1647, the company had 23 factories, each under the command of a [[factor (agent)|factor]] or master merchant and governor, and 90 employees{{clarify|date=March 2017}} in India. The major factories became the walled forts of [[Fort William, India|Fort William]] in Bengal, [[Fort St George]] in Madras, and [[Bombay Castle]].

In 1634, the Mughal emperor [[Shah Jahan]] extended his hospitality to the English traders to the region of [[Bengal]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theprint.in/pageturner/excerpt/east-india-company-sent-a-diplomat-to-jahangir-all-the-mughal-emperor-cared-about-was-beer/281255/|title=East India Company sent a diplomat to Jahangir & all the Mughal Emperor cared about was beer|first=William|last=Dalrymple|date=24 August 2019}}</ref> and in 1717 completely waived customs duties for their trade. The company's mainstay businesses were by then cotton, silk, [[indigo dye]], [[Potassium nitrate|saltpetre]], and tea. The Dutch were aggressive competitors and had meanwhile expanded their monopoly of the spice trade in the [[Straits of Malacca]] by ousting the Portuguese in 1640–1641. With reduced Portuguese and Spanish influence in the region, the EIC and VOC entered a period of intense competition, resulting in the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars]] of the 17th and 18th centuries.

Within the first two decades of the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company or ''Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie'', (VOC) was the wealthiest commercial operation in the world with 50,000 employees worldwide and a private fleet of 200 ships. It specialised in the spice trade and gave its shareholders 40% annual dividend.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.neatorama.com/2012/08/06/The-Nutmeg-Wars/|title=The Nutmeg Wars|website=Neatorama}}</ref>

The British East India Company was fiercely competitive with the Dutch and French throughout the 17th and 18th centuries over spices from the [[Spice Islands]]. Some spices, at the time, could only be found on these islands, such as nutmeg and cloves; and they could bring profits as high as 400 percent from one voyage.<ref name="auto">{{cite AV media | people=Suijk, Paul (Director) | date=2015 | title=1600 The British East India Company| trans-title = The Great Courses (Episode 5, 13:16| medium=on-line video | location=Brentwood Associates/The Teaching Company Sales. Chantilly, VA, USA | publisher=Liulevicius, Professor Vejas Gabriel (lecturer)}}</ref>

The tension was so high between the Dutch and the British East Indies Trading Companies that it escalated into at least four [[Anglo-Dutch Wars]]:<ref name="auto" /> 1652–1654, 1665–1667, 1672–1674 and 1780–1784.

Competition arose in 1635 when Charles I granted a trading licence to Sir [[William Courten|William Courteen]], which permitted the rival [[Courteen association]] to trade with the east at any location in which the EIC had no presence.<ref>{{cite book|last=Riddick|first=John F. |title=The history of British India: a chronology |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2006|isbn=978-0-313-32280-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Es6x4u_g19UC&pg=PA4|page=4}}</ref>

In an act aimed at strengthening the power of the EIC, King Charles II granted the EIC (in a series of five acts around 1670) the rights to autonomous territorial acquisitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops and form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas.<ref>"East India Company" (1911). [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]], Volume 8, p.835</ref>

In 1689 a Mughal fleet commanded by [[Sidi Yaqub]] attacked Bombay. After a year of resistance the EIC surrendered in 1690, and the company sent envoys to [[Aurangzeb]]'s camp to plead for a pardon. The company's envoys had to prostrate themselves before the emperor, pay a large indemnity, and promise better behaviour in the future. The emperor withdrew his troops, and the company subsequently re-established itself in Bombay and set up a new base in Calcutta.<ref name="encyclopedia.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Asia.aspx|title=Asia facts, information, pictures – Encyclopedia.com articles about Asia|publisher=encyclopedia.com|access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref>

{| {{table}}
|+ Indian exports of textiles to Europe (pieces per year)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Broadberry |first1=Stephen |last2=Gupta |first2=Bishnupriya |title=The Rise, Organization, and Institutional Framework of Factor Markets |url=http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/factormarkets.php |website=International Institute of Social history |access-date=7 August 2018}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="2" | Years !! colspan="5" | EIC !! [[United East India Company|VOC]] !! France !! [[Estado da Índia|EdI]] !! Denmark !! rowspan="2" |Total
|-
! Bengal !!Madras!!Bombay!!Surat!!EIC (total)!!VOC (total)||||||
|-
| 1665–1669||7,041||37,078||95,558||||139,677||126,572||||||||266,249
|-
| 1670–1674||46,510||169,052||294,959||||510,521||257,918||||||||768,439
|-
| 1675–1679||66,764||193,303||309,480||||569,547||127,459||||||||697,006
|-
| 1680–1684||107,669||408,032||452,083||||967,784||283,456||||||||1,251,240
|-
| 1685–1689||169,595||244,065||200,766||||614,426||316,167||||||||930,593
|-
| 1690–1694||59,390||23,011||89,486||||171,887||156,891||||||||328,778
|-
| 1695–1699||130,910||107,909||148,704||||387,523||364,613||||||||752,136
|-
| 1700–1704||197,012||104,939||296,027||||597,978||310,611||||||||908,589
|-
| 1705–1709||70,594||99,038||34,382||||204,014||294,886||||||||498,900
|-
| 1710–1714||260,318||150,042||164,742||||575,102||372,601||||||||947,703
|-
| 1715–1719||251,585||20,049||582,108||||534,188||435,923||||||||970,111
|-
| 1720–1724||341,925||269,653||184,715||||796,293||475,752||||||||1,272,045
|-
| 1725–1729||558,850||142,500||119,962||||821,312||399,477||||||||1,220,789
|-
| 1730–1734||583,707||86,606||57,503||||727,816||241,070||||||||968,886
|-
| 1735–1739||580,458||137,233||66,981||||784,672||315,543||||||||1,100,215
|-
| 1740–1744||619,309||98,252||295,139||||812,700||288,050||||||||1,100,750
|-
| 1745–1749||479,593||144,553||60,042||||684,188||262,261||||||||946,449
|-
| 1750–1754||406,706||169,892||55,576||||632,174||532,865||||||||1,165,039
|-
| 1755–1759||307,776||106,646||55,770||||470,192||321,251||||||||791,443
|}

=== Slavery 1621–1757 ===

The East India Company's archives suggest its involvement in the slave trade began in 1684, when a Captain Robert Knox was ordered to buy and transport 250 slaves from Madagascar to St. Helena.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pinkston|first=Bonnie|date=3 October 2018|title=Documenting the British East India Company and their Involvement in the East Indian Slave Trade|url=https://aquila.usm.edu/slisconnecting/vol7/iss1/10|journal=SLIS Connecting|volume=7|issue=1|pages=53–59|doi=10.18785/slis.0701.10|issn=2330-2917|doi-access=free}}</ref> The East India Company began using and transporting slaves in Asia and the Atlantic in the early 1620s, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica,<ref>{{Cite web|title=East India Company {{!}} Definition, History, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/East-India-Company|access-date=21 June 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> or in 1621, according to Richard Allen.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |first=Richard B. |last=Allen |title=European Slave Trading in the Indian Ocean, 1500–1850 |location=Athens, Ohio |publisher=Ohio University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780821421062 |url=http://www.ohioswallow.com/book/European+Slave+Trading+in+the+Indian+Ocean%2C+1500%E2%80%931850 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Japan ===
[[File:Bodleian Library MS. Jap. b.2 Shuinjo.jpg|thumb|Document with the original [[vermilion]] seal of Tokugawa Ieyasu, granting trade privileges in Japan to the East India Company in 1613]]

In 1613, during the rule of [[Tokugawa Hidetada]] of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]], the British ship {{ship||Clove|ship|2}}, under the command of Captain [[John Saris]], was the first British ship to call on Japan. Saris was the chief factor of the EIC's trading post in Java, and with the assistance of [[William Adams (sailor, born 1564)|William Adams]], a British sailor who had arrived in Japan in 1600, he was able to gain permission from the ruler to establish a commercial house in [[Hirado, Nagasaki|Hirado]] on the Japanese island of [[Kyushu]]:
{{quote|We give free license to the subjects of the King of Great Britaine, Sir Thomas Smythe, Governor and Company of the East Indian Merchants and Adventurers forever safely come into any of our ports of our Empire of Japan with their shippes and merchandise, without any hindrance to them or their goods, and to abide, buy, sell and barter according to their own manner with all nations, to tarry here as long as they think good, and to depart at their pleasure.<ref>{{cite book|first=Marguerite Eyer|last=Wilbur|title=The East India Company: And the British Empire in the Far East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HTCsAAAAIAAJ|year=1945|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-2864-5|pages=82–83}}</ref>}}

However, unable to obtain Japanese [[raw silk]] for import to China and with their trading area reduced to Hirado and [[Nagasaki]] from 1616 onwards, the company closed its factory in 1623.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Akira|last1=Hayami|title=Japan's Industrious Revolution: Economic and Social Transformations in the Early Modern Period|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z-1rCQAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-4-431-55142-3|page=49}}</ref>

=== Anglo Mughal War ===
{{Main|Anglo-Mughal War}}
[[File:The English ask pardon of Aurangzeb.jpg|thumb|An English soldier apologising to Emperor [[Aurangzeb]].]]
The first of the [[Anglo-Indian Wars]] occurred in 1686 when the company conducted naval code against [[Shaista Khan]], the governor of [[Mughal Bengal]]. This later caused the Siege of Mumbai and led the intervention of [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Aurangzeb]], and ultimately the English company was defeated and fined.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Conflict and Cooperation in Anglo-Mughal Trade Relations during the Reign of Aurangzeb|first=Farhat|last=Hasan|journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient|volume=34|issue=4|date=1991|pages=351–360|doi=10.1163/156852091X00058|jstor=3632456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=John Company Armed: The English East India Company, the Anglo-Mughal War and Absolutist Imperialism, c. 1675–1690|first=James|last=Vaugn|journal=Britain and the World|volume=11|issue=1|date=September 2017}}
</ref>

=== Mughal convoy piracy incident of 1695 ===
{{Main|Ganj-i-Sawai}}
In September 1695, Captain [[Henry Every]], an English pirate on board the {{ship||Fancy|ship|2}}, reached the Straits of [[Bab-el-Mandeb]], where he teamed up with five other pirate captains to make an attack on the Indian fleet on return from the annual pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]. The Mughal convoy included the treasure-laden ''[[Ganj-i-Sawai]]'', reported to be the greatest in the Mughal fleet and the largest ship operational in the Indian Ocean, and its escort, the ''Fateh Muhammed''. They were spotted passing the straits en route to [[Surat]]. The pirates gave chase and caught up with ''Fateh Muhammed'' some days later, and meeting little resistance, took some £50,000 to £60,000 worth of treasure.<ref>{{cite book |last=Burgess |first=Douglas R |year=2009 |title=The Pirates' Pact: The Secret Alliances Between History's Most Notorious Buccaneers and Colonial America|location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-07-147476-4}}</ref>

Every continued in pursuit and managed to overhaul ''Ganj-i-Sawai'', which resisted strongly before eventually [[striking the colours|striking]]. ''Ganj-i-Sawai'' carried enormous wealth and, according to contemporary East India Company sources, was carrying a relative of the Grand Mughal, though there is no evidence to suggest that it was his daughter and her retinue. The loot from the ''Ganj-i-Sawai'' had a total value between £325,000 and £600,000, including 500,000 gold and silver pieces, and has become known as the richest ship ever taken by pirates.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sims-Williams |first1=Ursula |title=The highjacking of the Ganj-i Sawaʼi |url=https://blogs.bl.uk/asian-and-african/2013/03/the-highjacking-of-the-ganj-i-sawa%CA%BCi.html# |website=The British Library |access-date=16 June 2020}}</ref>

When the news arrived in England it caused an outcry. To appease Aurangzeb, the East India Company promised to pay all financial reparations, while [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] declared the pirates ''[[hostis humani generis]]'' ("enemies of the human race"). In mid-1696 the government issued a £500 bounty on Every's head and offered a free pardon to any informer who disclosed his whereabouts. When the East India Company later doubled that reward, the first worldwide manhunt in recorded history was underway.<ref>{{Harvnb|Burgess|2009|p=144}}</ref>

The plunder of Aurangzeb's treasure ship had serious consequences for the English East India Company. The furious Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb ordered Sidi Yaqub and [[Nawab Daud Khan]] to attack and close four of the company's factories in India and imprison their officers, who were almost lynched by a mob of angry [[Mughal (tribe)|Mughals]], blaming them for their countryman's depredations, and threatened to put an end to all English trading in India. To appease Emperor Aurangzeb and particularly his [[Grand Vizier]] Asad Khan, Parliament exempted Every from all of the Acts of Grace (pardons) and amnesties it would subsequently issue to other pirates.<ref>Fox, E. T. (2008). King of the Pirates: The Swashbuckling Life of Henry Every. London: Tempus Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-7524-4718-6}}.</ref>

<gallery class="center" widths="220px" heights="220px">
File:Mocha Dapper 1680.jpg|English, Dutch and Danish factories at [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]]
File:Henry Every.gif|An 18th-century depiction of [[Henry Every]], with the ''Fancy'' shown engaging its prey in the background
File:Every engaging the Great Mogul's Ship.jpg|British pirates that fought during the [[Child's War]] engaging the [[Ganj-i-Sawai]]
File:Captain Every (Works of Daniel Defoe).png|Depiction of [[Henry Every|Captain Every]]'s encounter with the Mughal Emperor's granddaughter after his September 1695 capture of the Mughal trader Ganj-i-Sawai
</gallery>

===Afghanistan===
[[File:The army of the Indus entering Kandahar.jpg|thumb|Army of the Indus entering [[Kandahar]], c. 1839]]
{{main|First Anglo-Afghan War}}
During the [[Great Game]], the East India Company wished to control [[Afghanistan]] to prevent a [[Russian Empire]] advance through the Afghan mountains towards India, although other motivations were also cited such as fear of a religious uprising in the [[princely state]]s.<ref name="Husain">{{cite book |last1=Husain |first1=Farrukh |title=Afghanistan in the age of empires: the great game for South and Central Asia |date=2018 |publisher=Silk Road Books |isbn=978-1-5272-1633-4 |pages=81, 412}}</ref> The British allied with Afghan emir [[Dost Mohammad Khan]], but following the latter's contacts with the Russians and [[Qajar Iran|Qajar Persians]] to extinguish the [[Sikh Empire]] in Punjab, the Company's "Army of the [[Indus]]" invaded Afghanistan to put [[Shah Shujah Durrani]] on the throne. However following the start of an Afghan insurrection, the Company was [[1842 retreat from Kabul|forced to retreat from Kabul]] in 1842 in what became one of the worst British military disasters.<ref>https://www.thoughtco.com/britains-disastrous-retreat-from-kabul-1773762</ref><ref>https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/02/the-perils-of-invading-afghanistan/273389/</ref>

== Forming a complete monopoly ==

=== Trade monopoly ===
[[File:Rear view of the East India Company's Factory at Cossimbazar.jpg|thumb|Rear view of the East India Company's Factory at [[Cossimbazar]]]]
The prosperity that the officers of the company enjoyed allowed them to return to Britain and establish sprawling estates and businesses, and to obtain political power. The company developed a [[lobbying|lobby]] in the English parliament. Under pressure from ambitious tradesmen and former associates of the company (pejoratively termed ''Interlopers'' by the company), who wanted to establish private trading firms in India, a deregulating act was passed in 1694.<ref name="victorianweb.org">{{Cite web|url=http://victorianweb.org/history/empire/india/eic.html|title=The British East India Company – the Company that Owned a Nation (or Two)|website=victorianweb.org}}</ref>

This allowed any English firm to trade with India, unless specifically prohibited by act of parliament, thereby annulling the charter that had been in force for almost 100 years. When the East India Company Act 1697 (9 Will. c. 44) was passed in 1697, a new "parallel" East India Company (officially titled the ''English Company Trading to the East Indies'') was floated under a state-backed indemnity of £2 million.<ref name="Boggart">{{cite journal |last1=Boggart |first1=Dan |editor1-last=Lamoreaux |editor1-first=Naomi R. |editor2-last=Wallis |editor2-first=John Joseph |title=East Indian Monopoly and Limited Access in England |journal=Organizations, Civil Society, and the Roots of Development |date=2017 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago}}</ref> The powerful stockholders of the old company quickly subscribed a sum of £315,000 in the new concern, and dominated the new body. The two companies wrestled with each other for some time, both in England and in India, for a dominant share of the trade.<ref name="victorianweb.org" />

It quickly became evident that, in practice, the original company faced scarcely any measurable competition. The companies merged in 1708, by a tripartite indenture involving both companies and the state, with the charter and agreement for the new ''United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies'' being awarded by [[Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3t0TAAAAQAAJ|title=Charters Relating to the East India Company from 1600 to 1761: Reprinted from a Former Collection with Some Additions and a Preface for the Government of Madras|last1=Company|first1=East India|last2=Shaw|first2=John|date=1887|publisher=R. Hill at the Government Press|pages=217|language=en}}</ref> Under this arrangement, the merged company lent to the Treasury a sum of £3,200,000, in return for exclusive privileges for the next three years, after which the situation was to be reviewed. The amalgamated company became the ''United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies''.<ref name="victorianweb.org" />

[[File:Portrait of East India Company official.jpg|thumb|275px|[[Company painting]] depicting an official of the East India Company, c. 1760]]
In the following decades there was a constant battle between the company lobby and Parliament. The company sought a permanent establishment, while Parliament would not willingly allow it greater autonomy and so relinquish the opportunity to exploit the company's profits. In 1712, another act renewed the status of the company, though the debts were repaid. By 1720, 15% of British imports were from India, almost all passing through the company, which reasserted the influence of the company lobby. The licence was prolonged until 1766 by yet another act in 1730. {{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

At this time, Britain and France became bitter rivals. Frequent skirmishes between them took place for control of colonial possessions. In 1742, fearing the monetary consequences of a war, the British government agreed to extend the deadline for the licensed exclusive trade by the company in India until 1783, in return for a further loan of £1 million. Between 1756 and 1763, the [[Seven Years' War]] diverted the state's attention towards consolidation and [[French and Indian War|defence of its territorial possessions]] in Europe and its [[English colonization of the Americas|colonies in North America]].<ref name="oxforddnb.com">Thomas, P. D. G. (2008) "[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/22699 Pratt, Charles, first Earl Camden (1714–1794)]", ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', Oxford University Press, online edn. Retrieved 15 February 2008 {{ODNBsub}}</ref>

The war took place on Indian soil, between the company troops and the French forces. In 1757, the [[Law Officers of the Crown]] delivered the [[Pratt–Yorke opinion]] distinguishing overseas territories acquired by [[right of conquest]] from those acquired by private [[treaty]]. The opinion asserted that, while the Crown of Great Britain enjoyed sovereignty over both, only the property of the former was vested in the Crown.<ref name="oxforddnb.com" />

With the advent of the [[Industrial Revolution]], Britain surged ahead of its European rivals. Demand for Indian commodities was boosted by the need to sustain the troops and the economy during the war, and by the increased availability of raw materials and efficient methods of production. As home to the revolution, Britain experienced higher standards of living. Its spiralling cycle of prosperity, demand and production had a profound influence on overseas trade. The company became the single largest player in the British global market. In 1801 [[Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville|Henry Dundas]] reported to the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] that

{{quote|... on the 1st March, 1801, the debts of the East India Company amounted to 5,393,989''[[Pound sterling|l.]]'' their effects to 15,404,736''l.'' and that their sales had increased since February 1793, from 4,988,300''l.'' to 7,602,041''l.''<ref>{{cite book |first=William Henry |last=Pyne |author-link=William Henry Pyne |title=The Microcosm of London, or London in Miniature |location=London |publisher=Methuen |volume=2 |year=1904 |orig-year=1808 |page=[https://archive.org/details/microcosmoflondo02pyneuoft/page/159 159] |url=https://archive.org/details/microcosmoflondo02pyneuoft }}</ref>}}

=== Saltpetre trade ===
[[File:Potassium nitrate.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Saltpetre]] used for [[gunpowder]] was one of the major trade goods of the company]]

Sir [[Sir John Banks, 1st Baronet|John Banks]], a businessman from [[Kent]] who negotiated an agreement between the king and the company, began his career in a syndicate arranging contracts for [[Victualling Commissioners|victualling the navy]], an interest he kept up for most of his life. He knew that [[Samuel Pepys]] and [[John Evelyn]] had amassed a substantial fortune from the [[Levant]] and Indian trades.

He became a director and later, as governor of the East India Company in 1672, he arranged a contract which included a loan of £20,000 and £30,000 worth of [[saltpetre]]—also known as potassium nitrate, a primary ingredient in [[gunpowder]]—for the King "at the price it shall [[Candle auction|sell by the candle]]"—that is by auction—where bidding could continue as long as an inch-long candle remained alight.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Janssens|first1=Koen|title=Annales Du 17e Congrès D'Associationi Internationale Pour L'histoire Du Verre|publisher=Asp / Vubpress / Upa|isbn=978-90-5487-618-2|page=366|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ir6UHACu7zMC&pg=PA366|year=2009}}</ref>

Outstanding debts were also agreed and the company permitted to export 250 tons of saltpetre. Again in 1673, Banks successfully negotiated another contract for 700 tons of saltpetre at £37,000 between the king and the company. So high was the demand from armed forces that the authorities sometimes turned a blind eye on the untaxed sales. One governor of the company was even reported as saying in 1864 that he would rather have the saltpetre made than the tax on salt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://salt.org.il/frame_saltpet.html|title=SALTPETER the secret salt – Salt made the world go round|publisher=salt.org.il|access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

== Basis for the monopoly ==

=== Colonial monopoly ===
{{further|Great Britain in the Seven Years' War}}
[[File:India 1835 2 Mohurs (rev).jpg|thumb|upright|An East India Company coin, struck in 1835]]
[[File:Clive.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Robert Clive]] became the first British [[Governor of Bengal]] after he had instated [[Mir Jafar]] as the [[Nawab of Bengal]]]]

The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) resulted in the defeat of the French forces, limited French imperial ambitions, and stunted the influence of the Industrial Revolution in French territories. [[Robert Clive]], the governor-general, led the company to a victory against [[Joseph François Dupleix]], the commander of the French forces in India, and recaptured Fort St George from the French. The company took this respite to seize [[Battle of Manila (1762)|Manila]] in 1762.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.regiments.org/wars/18thcent/56philip.htm |title=The Seven Years' War in the Philippines |website=Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040710132157/http://www.regiments.org/wars/18thcent/56philip.htm |archive-date=10 July 2004 |access-date=4 September 2013}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=Citation is to a hobbyist website; there must be peer reviewed academically published sources for this.|date=November 2016}}

By the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]], France regained the five establishments captured by the British during the war ([[Pondicherry district|Pondichéry]], [[Mahé, India|Mahe]], [[Karaikal]], [[Yanam, French India|Yanam]] and [[Chandernagar]]) but was prevented from erecting fortifications and keeping troops in Bengal (art. XI). Elsewhere in India, the French were to remain a military threat, particularly during the War of American Independence, and up to the capture of Pondichéry in 1793 at the outset of the French Revolutionary Wars without any military presence. Although these small outposts remained French possessions for the next two hundred years, French ambitions on Indian territories were effectively laid to rest, thus eliminating a major source of economic competition for the company.

The East India Company had also been granted competitive advantages over colonial American tea importers to sell tea from its colonies in Asia in American colonies. This led to the [[Boston Tea Party]] of 1773 in which protesters boarded British ships and threw the tea overboard. When protesters successfully prevented the unloading of tea in three other colonies and in Boston, Governor [[Thomas Hutchinson (governor)|Thomas Hutchinson]] of the [[Province of Massachusetts Bay]] refused to allow the tea to be returned to Britain. This was one of the incidents which led to the [[American revolution]] and independence of the American colonies.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=Stacy|title=The big box swindle|url=https://www.strongtowns.org/journal/2016/7/19/stacy-mitchell|access-date=20 April 2018}}</ref>

The Company's trade monopoly with India was abolished in the [[Charter Act of 1813]]. The monopoly with China was ended in [[Saint Helena Act 1833|1833]], ending the trading activities of the company and rendering its activities purely administrative.

=== East India Company Army and Navy ===
{{see|Presidency armies|Royal Indian Navy#East India Company}}
In its first century and half, the EIC used a few hundred soldiers as guards. The great expansion came after 1750, when it had 3,000 regular troops. By 1763, it had 26,000; by 1778, it had 67,000. It recruited largely [[sepoy|Indian troops]] and trained them along European lines.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gerald Bryant |year=1978 |title=Officers of the East India Company's army in the days of Clive and Hastings |journal=The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=203–227 |doi=10.1080/03086537808582508}}</ref> The military arm of the East India Company quickly developed into a private corporate armed force used as an instrument of geo-political power and expansion instead of its original purpose as a guard force. Because of this, the EIC became the most powerful military force in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. As it increased in size, the army was divided into the [[Presidency Armies]] of [[Bengal Army|Bengal]], [[Madras Army|Madras]] and [[Bombay Army|Bombay]], each of which recruited its own [[infantry]], [[cavalry]], and [[artillery]] [[:Category:Honourable East India Company regiments|units]]. The company's merchant ships, called [[East Indiaman]] were usually well armed to defend against pirates. The EIC also maintained a naval arm called the Bombay Marine; in 1830 this was renamed the Indian Navy.

== Opium trade ==
{{Main|First Opium War|Second Opium War|History of opium in China}}
[[File:Destroying Chinese war junks, by E. Duncan (1843).jpg|thumb|The {{ship||Nemesis|1839|2}} destroying Chinese war [[Junk (ship)|junks]] during the [[Second Battle of Chuenpi]], 7 January 1841, by [[Edward Duncan]]]]

In the 18th century, Britain had a huge trade deficit with [[Qing dynasty|China]]. Therefore, in 1773, the company created a British monopoly on [[opium]] buying in [[Bengal]], India, by prohibiting the licensing of opium farmers and private cultivation. The monopoly system established in 1799 continued with minimal changes until 1947.<ref name="Windle 2012 55–74">{{cite journal|last=Windle|first=James|title=Insights for Contemporary Drug Policy: A Historical Account of Opium Control in India and Pakistan|journal=Asian Journal of Criminology|year=2012|volume=7|issue=1|pages=55–74|doi=10.1007/s11417-011-9104-0|s2cid=144113092|url=http://roar.uel.ac.uk/3485/1/Windle%202012%20-%20Historical%20Account%20of%20Opium%20Control%20in%20South%20Asia%20-%20pre-print%20copy.pdf}}</ref>
As the [[opium trade]] was illegal in China, Company ships could not carry opium to China. So the opium produced in Bengal was sold in Calcutta on condition that it be sent to China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ampltd.co.uk/collections_az/EIC-Factory-1/description.aspx|title=EAST INDIA COMPANY FACTORY RECORDS Sources from the British Library, LondonPart 1: China and Japan|publisher=ampltd.co.uk|access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref>

Despite the Chinese ban on opium imports, reaffirmed in 1799 by the [[Jiaqing Emperor]], the drug was smuggled into China from Bengal by traffickers and agency houses such as [[Jardine Matheson Holdings|Jardine, Matheson & Co]], [[David Sassoon & Co.]], and [[Dent & Co.]] in amounts averaging 900 tons a year. The proceeds of the drug-smugglers landing their cargoes at [[Lintin Island]] were paid into the company's factory at [[Guangzhou|Canton]] and by 1825, most of the money needed to buy tea in China was raised by the illegal opium trade.

The company established a group of trading settlements centred on the Straits of Malacca called the [[Straits Settlements]] in 1826 to protect its trade route to China and to combat local piracy. The settlements were also used as penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners.

[[File:A busy drying room in the opium factory at Patna, India. Lit Wellcome V0019160.jpg|200px|thumb|left|An opium factory in [[Patna]], India from c. 1850.]]In 1838 with the amount of smuggled opium entering China approaching 1,400 tons a year, the Chinese imposed a death penalty for opium smuggling and sent a Special Imperial Commissioner, [[Lin Zexu]], to curb smuggling. This resulted in the [[First Opium War]] (1839–42). After the war Hong Kong island was ceded to Britain under the [[Treaty of Nanking]] and the Chinese market opened to the opium traders of Britain and other nations.<ref name="Windle 2012 55–74" /> The Jardines and [[Apcar and Company]] dominated the trade, although [[Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company|P&O]] also tried to take a share.<ref>{{cite book|page=103|last=Harcourt|first=Freda|title=Flagships of Imperialism: The P & O Company and the Politics of Empire from Its Origins to 1867 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmMLqQXmIkMC&pg=PA103|year=2006|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-1-84779-145-0}}</ref> A [[Second Opium War]] fought by Britain and France against China lasted from 1856 until 1860 and led to the [[Treaty of Tientsin]], which legalised the importation of opium. Legalisation stimulated domestic Chinese opium production and increased the importation of opium from Turkey and Persia. This increased competition for the Chinese market led to India's reducing its opium output and diversifying its exports.<ref name="Windle 2012 55–74" />
{{-}}

== Regulation of the company's affairs ==
The British government issues a series of regulations over the years.<ref>Huw Vaughan Bowen, ''The business of empire: the East India Company and imperial Britain, 1756–1833'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005).</ref> The [[Regulating Act of 1773]] was the first but did not prove to be a success and subsequently in 1784 the British government passed [[Pitt's India Act]], which created the [[India Board]] to regulate the company's governance of India. Following this the government intervened more frequently in Company affairs in a series of [[East India Company Act]]s.

=== Writers ===
[[File:Boston Tea Party Currier colored.jpg|thumb|''The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor'', 1773|alt=Two ships in a harbour, one in the distance. On board, men stripped to the waist and wearing feathers in their hair are throwing crates overboard. A large crowd, mostly men, is standing on the dock, waving hats and cheering. A few people wave their hats from windows in a nearby building. Monopolistic activity by the company triggered the [[Boston Tea Party]].]]

The company employed many junior clerks, known as "writers", to record the details of accounting, managerial decisions, and activities related to the company, such as minutes of meetings, copies of Company orders and contracts, and filings of reports and copies of ship's logs. Several well-known British scholars and literary men had Company writerships, such as [[Henry Thomas Colebrooke]] in India and [[Charles Lamb]] in England. One Indian writer of some importance in the 19th century was [[Ram Mohan Roy]], who learned English, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Greek, and Latin.<ref>{{cite AV media | people=Suijk, Paul (Director) | date=2015 | title=The British East India Company | trans-title = The Great Courses (Episode 24, 7:38–4:33) | medium=on-line video | location=Brentwood Associates/The Teaching Company Sales. Chantilly, VA, USA | publisher=Fisher, Professor Michael H (lecturer)}}</ref>

=== Financial troubles ===
{{More citations needed|section|date=December 2020}}
The company kept good financial statistics.<ref>Huw Bowen, "East India Company: trade and domestic financial statistics, 1755–1838." ''UK Data Archive,'' [http://resources.amdigital.co.uk/eic/map/data/about.docx Data].</ref>

Although the company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was becoming clearer that the company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. The [[Bengal famine of 1770]], in which one-third of the local population died, caused distress in Britain. Military and administrative costs mounted beyond control in British-administered regions in Bengal because of the ensuing drop in labour productivity.

At the same time, there was commercial stagnation and trade depression throughout Europe. The directors of the company attempted to avert bankruptcy by appealing to Parliament for financial help. This led to the passing of the [[Tea Act]] in 1773, which gave the company greater autonomy in running its trade in the American colonies, and allowed it an exemption from tea import duties which its colonial competitors were required to pay.

When the American colonists and tea merchants were told of this Act, they boycotted the company tea. Although the price of tea had dropped because of the Act, it also validated the [[Townshend Acts]], setting the precedent for the king to impose additional taxes in the future. The arrival of tax-exempt Company tea, undercutting the local merchants, triggered the [[Boston Tea Party]] in the [[Province of Massachusetts Bay]], one of the major events leading up to the [[American Revolution]].

== Indian Rebellion and disestablishment ==
{{Main|Indian Rebellion of 1857}}
[[File:"Capture of the King of Delhi by Captain Hodson".jpg|thumb|Capture of the last Mughal emperor [[Bahadur Shah Zafar]] and his sons by [[William Stephen Raikes Hodson|William Hodson]] in 1857]]

The [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] (also known as the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Mutiny]] or Sepoy Mutiny) resulted in widespread devastation in a limited region of north-central India. The crisis began in the Company’s army in February, April and May 1857, when scattered mutinies coalesced and to a major revolt. Entire units revolted, killing their British officers and rousing the populace. There was wide support among both Hindu and Muslim elements, ranging from peasants to princes. However the Sikh soldiers supported the British cause. Historians have identified multiple overlapping causes—some recent and some stretching back decades. In 1854 Britain went to war with Russia, but fighting bogged down in the Crimea. London sent many of its best troops to the Crimean front. The extremely bloody stalemate led to widespread rumours to the effect that the army was not nearly as strong as its reputation had claimed. It also opened the possibility of a Russian intervention in India that would overthrow the British—indeed London throughout the 19th century was seriously worried about such a threat. Company leaders had ignored long festering cultural grievances among numerous factions inside India. The Company's army was composed largely of high-caste Hindu gentry, who increasingly resented the deterioration of service conditions. They had learned how to organize and fight but were losing their respect for their British officers. Ambitious peasants resented the rising taxes and the changes in land tenure that made it harder to become successful farmers. At the highest social level princes and their entourages were angry with the systematic takeover of lapsed princedoms where there was no direct heir. Religious anger emerged from the criminalisation of traditional practices. The Hindu [[Sati (practice)|suttee]] (burning widows alive when their husband died) was criminalised and replaced with legalised remarriage. Religious leaders were outraged at this intrusion, and stimulated the formation of Hindu language newspapers which every week attacked the Company. Indian nationalists were angry with Christian missionaries, who were trying to convert the peasants. Muslims who did convert to Christianity were now allowed to inherit from their families, despite the rules against that in Muslim sharia law. The final spark came when the Company introduced new cartridges for its rifles, which were supposedly greased with pork and cow fat. To load his rifle the soldier had to bite off the paper, thus horribly polluting himself; both Muslims and Hindus saw a plot to force a mass conversion to Christianity. Historians agree that neither side understood the other, and the Company was unaware that the crisis was building.<ref>Robert Tombs, The English and their History (2015) pp 564-568.</ref>

British leaders condemned the East India Company for permitting the events to occur.<ref>{{cite book|last1=David|first1=Saul|title=The Indian Mutiny: 1857|year=2003|publisher=Penguin|location=London|isbn=978-0-14-100554-6|edition=4th}}</ref> In the aftermath of the Rebellion, under the provisions of the [[Government of India Act 1858]], the British Government nationalised the company. The British government took over its Indian possessions, its administrative powers and machinery, and its [[presidency armies|armed forces]].

The Company had already divested itself of its commercial trading assets in India in favour of the UK government in 1833, with the latter assuming the debts and obligations of the Company, which were to be serviced and paid from tax revenue raised in India. In return, the shareholders voted to accept an annual dividend of 10.5%, guaranteed for forty years, likewise to be funded from India, with a final pay-off to redeem outstanding shares. The debt obligations continued beyond dissolution, and were only extinguished by the UK government during the Second World War.<ref>{{Citation|last=Robins|first=Nick|title=A Skulking Power|date=2012|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183pcr6.16|work=The Corporation That Changed the World|pages=171–198|series=How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational|publisher=Pluto Press|jstor=j.ctt183pcr6.16|isbn=978-0-7453-3195-9|access-date=2021-01-30}}</ref>

The company remained in existence in vestigial form, continuing to manage the tea trade on behalf of the British Government (and the supply of [[Saint Helena]]) until the [[East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873]] came into effect, on 1 January 1874. This Act provided for the formal dissolution of the company on 1 June 1874, after a final dividend payment and the commutation or redemption of its stock.<ref>East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873 (36 & 37 Vict. 17) s. 36: "On the First day of June One thousand eight hundred and seventy-four, and on payment by the East India Company of all unclaimed dividends on East India Stock to such accounts as are herein-before mentioned in pursuance of the directions herein-before contained, the powers of the East India Company shall cease, and the said Company shall be dissolved." Where possible, the stock was redeemed through commutation (i.e. exchanging the stock for other securities or money) on terms agreed with the stockholders (ss. 5–8), but stockholders who did not agree to commute their holdings had their stock compulsorily redeemed on 30 April 1874 by payment of £200 for every £100 of stock held (s. 13).</ref> ''[[The Times]]'' commented on 8 April 1873:<ref>{{cite news |title=Not many days ago the House of Commons passed |newspaper=Times |location=London |date=8 April 1873 |page=9}}</ref>
{{quote|text=It accomplished a work such as in the whole history of the human race no other trading Company ever attempted, and such as none, surely, is likely to attempt in the years to come.}}

== Establishments in Britain ==
[[File:East India House by Thomas Malton the Younger.jpg|thumb|The expanded [[East India House]], London, painted by [[Thomas Malton]] in c.1800]]
The company's headquarters in London, from which much of India was governed, was [[East India House]] in [[Leadenhall Street]]. After occupying premises in [[Philpot Lane]] from 1600 to 1621; in [[Crosby Hall, London|Crosby House]], [[Bishopsgate]], from 1621 to 1638; and in Leadenhall Street from 1638 to 1648, the company moved into Craven House, an Elizabethan mansion in Leadenhall Street. The building had become known as East India House by 1661. It was completely rebuilt and enlarged in 1726–1729; and further significantly remodelled and expanded in 1796–1800. It was finally vacated in 1860 and demolished in 1861–1862.<ref>{{cite book |first=Sir William |last=Foster |title=The East India House: its History and Associations |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177522 |place=London |publisher=John Lane |year=1924 }}</ref> The site is now occupied by the [[Lloyd's building]].

In 1607, the company decided to build its own ships and leased a yard on the [[River Thames]] at [[Deptford]]. By 1614, the yard having become too small, an alternative site was acquired at [[Blackwall Yard|Blackwall]]: the new yard was fully operational by 1617. It was sold in 1656, although for some years East India Company ships continued to be built and repaired there under the new owners.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Hermione |editor-last=Hobhouse |editor-link=Hermione Hobhouse |chapter=Blackwall Yard |title=Poplar, Blackwall and Isle of Dogs: the parish of All Saints |series=[[Survey of London]] |volume=44 |publisher=Athlone Press/Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England |location=London |year=1994 |isbn=9780485482447 |pages=553–565 |via=British History Online |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-london/vols43-4/pp575-582 }}</ref>

In 1803, an Act of Parliament, promoted by the East India Company, established the East India Dock Company, with the aim of establishing a new set of docks (the [[East India Docks]]) primarily for the use of ships trading with India. The existing Brunswick Dock, part of the Blackwall Yard site, became the Export Dock; while a new Import Dock was built to the north. In 1838 the East India Dock Company merged with the [[West India Docks|West India Dock Company]]. The docks were taken over by the [[Port of London Authority]] in 1909, and closed in 1967.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Hermione |editor-last=Hobhouse |editor-link=Hermione Hobhouse |chapter=The East India Docks |title=Poplar, Blackwall and Isle of Dogs: the parish of All Saints |series=[[Survey of London]] |volume=44 |publisher=Athlone Press/Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England |location=London |year=1994 |isbn=9780485482447 |pages=575–582 |via=British History Online |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-london/vols43-4/pp575-582 }}</ref>

[[File:Addiscombe Seminary photo c.1859.jpg|thumb|left|[[Addiscombe Military Seminary|Addiscombe Seminary]], photographed in ''c''.1859, with cadets in the foreground]]
The [[East India Company College|East India College]] was founded in 1806 as a training establishment for "writers" (i.e. clerks) in the company's service. It was initially located in [[Hertford Castle]], but moved in 1809 to purpose-built premises at [[Hertford Heath]], Hertfordshire. In 1858 the college closed; but in 1862 the buildings reopened as a [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public school]], now [[Haileybury and Imperial Service College]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Frederick Charles |last1=Danvers |first2=Harriet |last2=Martineau |author2-link=Harriet Martineau |first3=Monier |last3=Monier-Williams |author3-link=Monier Monier-Williams |first4=Steuart Colvin |last4=Bayley |author4-link=Steuart Bayley |first5=Percy |last5=Wigram |first6=Brand |last6=Sapte |url=https://archive.org/details/memorialsoldhai00collgoog |title=Memorials of Old Haileybury College |place=Westminster |year=1894 |publisher=Archibald Constable }}</ref><ref name="Farrington 1976">Farrington 1976.</ref>

The [[Addiscombe Military Seminary|East India Company Military Seminary]] was founded in 1809 at [[Addiscombe]], near [[Croydon]], Surrey, to train young officers for service in the company's armies in India. It was based in Addiscombe Place, an early 18th-century mansion. The government took it over in 1858, and renamed it the Royal Indian Military College. In 1861 it was closed, and the site was subsequently redeveloped.<ref>{{Cite book |first=H. M. |last=Vibart |title=Addiscombe: its heroes and men of note |place=Westminster |publisher=Archibald Constable |year=1894 |ol=23336661M }}</ref><ref>Farrington 1976, pp. pp. 111–23.</ref>

In 1818, the company entered into an agreement by which those of its servants who were certified insane in India might be cared for at Pembroke House, [[Hackney (parish)|Hackney]], London, a private [[History of psychiatric institutions|lunatic asylum]] run by Dr George Rees until 1838, and thereafter by Dr William Williams. The arrangement outlasted the company itself, continuing until 1870, when the India Office opened its own asylum, the [[Hanwell#Healthcare|Royal India Asylum]], at [[Hanwell]], Middlesex.<ref>Farrington 1976, pp. 125–132.</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Diane K. |last1=Bolton |first2=Patricia E. C. |last2=Croot |first3=M. A. |last3=Hicks |author3-link=Michael Hicks (historian) |chapter=Ealing and Brentford: Public services |title=A History of the County of Middlesex: Volume 7, Acton, Chiswick, Ealing and Brentford, West Twyford, Willesden |editor1-first=T. F. T. |editor1-last=Baker |editor2-first=C. R. |editor2-last=Elrington |editor2-link=Christopher Elrington |publisher=Victoria County History |location=London |year=1982 |pages=147–149 |chapter-url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/middx/vol7/pp147-49 }}</ref>

The [[East India Club]] in London was formed in 1849 for officers of the company. The Club still exists today as a private [[gentlemen's club]] with its club house situated at 16 [[St James's Square]], London.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eastindiaclub.com/|title=East India Club|access-date=7 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111074553/http://www.eastindiaclub.com/|archive-date=11 January 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Forrest |first=Denys Mostyn |year=1982 |title=Foursome in St James's: the story of the East India, Devonshire, Sports, and Public Schools Club |location=London |publisher=East India, Devonshire, Sports and Public Schools Club }}</ref>

== Legacy and criticisms ==
The East India Company was one of the most powerful and enduring organisations in history and had a long lasting impact on the Indian Subcontinent, with both positive and harmful effects. Although dissolved by the [[East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873]] following the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|rebellion of 1857]], it stimulated the growth of the [[British Empire]]. Its professionally trained armies rose to dominate the sub-continent and were to become the armies of British India after 1857. It played a key role in introducing English as an official language in India. This also led to [[Macaulayism]] in the Indian subcontinent.
[[File:Panorama of a durbar procession of Akbar II (Retouched).jpg|thumb|Panorama of a [[Durbar (court)|durbar]] procession of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Emperor [[Akbar II]], 1806–37. The Emperor is followed by the British Resident.]]
Once the East India Company took over Bengal in the [[treaty of Allahabad]] (1765) it collected taxes which it used to further its expansion to the rest of India and did not have to rely on venture capital from London. It returned a high profit to those who risked original money for earlier ventures into Bengal.

During the first century of the East India Company's expansion in India, most people in India lived under regional kings or Nawabs. By the late 18th century many Moghuls were weak in comparison to the rapidly expanding Company as it took over cities and land, and built roads, bridges and railways. Work began in 1849 on the first railway, the [[Great Indian Peninsula Railway]], running for 21 miles (33.8 km) between Bombay (Mumbai) and Tannah (Thane).<ref>Rao, M.A. (1988). ''Indian Railways'', New Delhi: National Book Trust, p.15.</ref> The Company sought quick profits because the financial backers in England took high risks: their money for possible profits or losses through shipwrecks, wars or calamities.

The increasingly large territory the company was annexing and collecting taxes was also run by the local Nawabs. In essence, it was a dual administration. Between 1765 and 1772 [[Robert Clive]] gave the responsibility of tax collecting, [[Dewan|diwani]], to the Indian deputy and judicial and police responsibilities to other Indian deputies. The Company concentrated its new power of collecting revenue and left the responsibilities to the Indian agencies. The East India Company took the beginning steps of British takeover of power in India for centuries to come. In 1772, the company made [[Warren Hastings]], who had been in India with the Company since 1750, its first governor-general to manage and overview all of the annexed lands. The dual administration system came to an end.

Hastings learned Urdu and Persian and took great interest in preserving ancient Sanskrit manuscripts and having them translated into English. He employed many Indians as officials.<ref>{{cite AV media | people=Suijk, Paul (Director) | date=2015 | title=The British East India Company | trans-title = The Great Courses (Episode 24,19:11) | medium=on-line video | location=Brentwood Associates/The Teaching Company Sales. Chantilly, VA, USA | publisher=Fisher, Professor Michael H (lecturer)}}</ref>

Hastings used [[Sanskrit]] texts for Hindus and [[Arabic]] texts for Muslims. Hastings also annexed lands and kingdoms and enriched himself in the process. His enemies in London used this against him to have him impeached. (See [[Impeachment of Warren Hastings]].)<ref>{{cite AV media | people=Suijk, Paul (Director) | date=2015 | title=The British East India Company | trans-title = The Great Courses (Episode 24,17:27) | medium=on-line video | location=Brentwood Associates/The Teaching Company Sales. Chantilly, VA, USA | publisher=Fisher, Professor Michael H (lecturer)}}</ref>

[[Charles Cornwallis]], widely remembered as having surrendered to [[George Washington]] following the [[Siege of Yorktown]] in 1781, replaced Hastings. Cornwallis distrusted Indians and replaced Indians with Britons. He introduced a system of personal land ownership for Indians. This change caused much conflict since most illiterate people had no idea why they suddenly became land renters from land owners.<ref>{{cite AV media | people=Suijk, Paul (Director) | date=2015 | title=The British East India Company | trans-title = The Great Courses (Episode 24,16:00) | medium=on-line video | location=Brentwood Associates/The Teaching Company Sales. Chantilly, VA, USA | publisher=Fisher, Professor Michael H (lecturer)}}</ref>

The Mughals, [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]] and other local rulers often had to choose to fight against the company and lose everything or cooperate with the company and receive a big pension but lose their Empires or Kingdoms. The British East India Company gradually took over most of India by threat, intimidation, bribery or outright war.<ref>{{cite AV media | people=Suijk, Paul (Director) | date=2015 | title=The British East India Company | trans-title = The Great Courses (Episode 24, 9:27) | medium=on-line video | location=Brentwood Associates/The Teaching Company Sales. Chantilly, VA, USA | publisher=Fisher, Professor Michael H (lecturer)}}</ref>

The East India Company was the first company to record the Chinese usage of [[Bergamot essential oil|oil of bergamot]] to flavor tea, which led to the development of [[Earl Grey tea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/09/16/stories/2002091600060300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030701062320/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/09/16/stories/2002091600060300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=2003-07-01|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=Bringing back John Company}}</ref>

The East India Company introduced a system of merit-based appointments that provided a model for the [[Indian Civil Service (British India)|British and Indian civil service]].<ref name="The Economist 2011, p. 111">"The Company that ruled the waves", in The Economist, 17–30 December 2011, p. 111.</ref>

Widespread corruption and looting of Bengal resources and treasures during its rule resulted in poverty. A proportion of the loot of Bengal went directly into Clive's pocket.<ref name="eic">{{cite news|last1=Dalrymple|first1=William|title=The East India Company: The original corporate raiders|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/04/east-india-company-original-corporate-raiders|access-date=8 June 2017|work=The Guardian|date=4 March 2015}}</ref> Famines, such as the [[Great Bengal Famine|Great Bengal famine of 1770]] and [[Great Bengal Famine of 1943|subsequent famines]] during the 18th and 19th centuries, became more widespread, chiefly because of exploitative agriculture promulgated by the policies of the East India Company and the forced cultivation of [[opium]] in place of grain.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Davis|first1=Mike|title=Late Victorian Holocausts|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/d/davis-victorian.html|access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Moxham|first1=Roy|title=Lecture: THE EAST INDIA COMPANY'S SEIZURE OF BENGAL AND HOW THIS LED TO THE GREAT BENGAL FAMINE OF 1770|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oye9VIieRGc|website=You Tube|publisher=Brick Lane Circle|access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref> When the Company first arrived, India produced over a third of the world's GDP. Critics have argued the company damaged the Indian economy through exploitive economic policies and looting.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bharucha|first1=Nauzer|title=The English looted India, and they looted the word 'loot'|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/the-english-looted-india-and-they-looted-the-word-loot/articleshow/71986425.cms|access-date=12 November 2019|agency=Times News Network|date=10 November 2019}}</ref>

== Symbols ==
=== Flags ===
{{See|Flag of the East India Company}}
<div style="float:right;"><gallery mode="packed" heights="75px" class="center" caption="Historical depictions">
File:British East India Company Flag from Downman.jpg|Downman (1685)
File:British East India Company Flag from Lens.jpg|Lens (1700)
File:NatGeog1917EastIndiaCompanyFlag.jpg|''[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]'' (1917)
File:British East India Company Flag from Rees.jpg|Rees (1820)
File:British East India Company Flag from Laurie.jpg|Laurie (1842)
</gallery>
<gallery mode="nolines" heights="70px" class="center" caption="Modern depictions">
File:British East India Company flag.svg| 1600–1707
File:Flag of the British East India Company (1707).svg| 1707–1801
File:Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg| 1801–1874
</gallery></div>
The English East India Company flag changed over time, with a [[canton (flag)|canton]] based on the flag of the contemporary Kingdom, and a field of 9-to-13 alternating red and white stripes.

From 1600, the canton consisted of a [[St George's Cross]] representing the [[Kingdom of England]]. With the [[Acts of Union 1707]], the canton was changed to the new [[Evolution of UK Flag|Union Flag]]—consisting of an English St George's Cross combined with a Scottish [[Flag of Scotland|St Andrew's cross]]—representing the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. After the [[Acts of Union 1800]] that joined Ireland with Great Britain to form the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]], the canton of the East India Company flag was altered accordingly to include a [[Saint Patrick's Saltire]].

There has been much debate about the number and order of stripes in the field of the flag. Historical documents and paintings show variations from 9-to-13 stripes, with some images showing the top stripe red and others showing it white.

At the time of the American Revolution the East India Company flag was nearly identical to the [[Grand Union Flag]]. Historian [[Charles Fawcett (historian)|Charles Fawcett]] argued that the East India Company Flag inspired the [[Flag of the United States|Stars and Stripes of America]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gb-eic2.html |title=The Striped Flag of the East India Company, and its Connexion with the American "Stars and Stripes" |first=Charles |last=Fawcett |author-link=Charles Fawcett (historian) |editor=Rob Raeside |date=30 July 2013}}</ref>

=== Coat of arms ===
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Coat of arms of East India Company 1600-1709.jpg
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| caption1 = The original coat of arms of the East India Company (1600)
| image2 = Coat of arms of the East India Company.svg
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| caption2 = The later coat of arms of the East India Company (1698)

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The East India Company's original [[coat of arms]] was granted in 1600. The blazon of the arms is as follows:

"Azure, three ships with three masts, rigged and under full sail, the sails, pennants and ensigns Argent, each charged with a cross Gules; on a chief of the second a pale quarterly Azure and Gules, on the 1st and 4th a fleur-de-lis or, on the 2nd and 3rd a leopard or, between two roses Gules seeded Or barbed Vert." The shield had as a [[Crest (heraldry)|crest]]: "A sphere without a frame, bounded with the Zodiac in bend Or, between two pennants flottant Argent, each charged with a cross Gules, over the sphere the words {{lang|la|Deus indicat}}" ([[Latin]]: God Indicates). The [[Supporter (heraldry)|supporters]] were two sea lions (lions with fishes' tails) and the motto was {{lang|la|Deo ducente nil nocet}} (Latin: Where God Leads, Nothing Harms).<ref name="heraldry">{{cite web |title=East India Company |url=http://www.hubert-herald.nl/BhaHEIC.htm |website=Hubert Herald |access-date=10 February 2014}}</ref>

The East India Company's later arms, granted in 1698, were: "Argent a cross Gules; in the dexter chief quarter an escutcheon of the [[Coat of arms of France|arms of France]] and [[Coat of arms of England|England]] quarterly, the shield ornamentally and regally crowned Or." The crest was: "A lion rampant guardant Or holding between the forepaws a regal crown proper." The supporters were: "Two lions rampant guardant Or, each supporting a banner erect Argent, charged with a cross Gules." The motto was {{lang|la|Auspicio regis et senatus angliæ}} (Latin: Under the auspices of the King and the Senate of England).<ref name="heraldry" />

=== Merchant mark ===
<div style="float:right;"><gallery>
File:Symbols on a Blue Scinde Dawk.jpg|HEIC [[Merchant's mark]] on a Blue Scinde Dawk postage stamp (1852)
</gallery></div>
When the East India Company was chartered in 1600, it was still customary for individual merchants or members of companies such as the [[Company of Merchant Adventurers of London|Company of Merchant Adventurers]] to have a distinguishing [[merchant's mark]] which often included the mystical [[Merchant's mark#The East India Company's Merchant's Mark|"Sign of Four"]] and served as a trademark. The East India Company's merchant mark consisted of a "Sign of Four" atop a heart within which was a [[saltire]] between the lower arms of which were the initials "EIC". This mark was a central motif of the East India Company's coinage<ref>East India Company coin 1791, half pice, as illustrated.</ref> and forms the central emblem displayed on the [[Scinde Dawk]] postage stamps.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/mjshah.geo/scinde/scinde.html|title=Scinde District Dawks|date=27 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027143019/http://www.geocities.com/mjshah.geo/scinde/scinde.html|archive-date=27 October 2009}}</ref>

== Ships ==
{{See also|East Indiaman|List of ports of call of the British East India Company}}
[[File:Ships in Bombay Harbour, 1731.jpg|thumb|right|Ships in [[Bombay Harbour]], c. 1731]]
Ships of the East India Company were called [[East Indiaman|East Indiamen]] or simply "Indiamen".<ref>Sutton, Jean (1981) ''Lords of the East: The East India Company and Its Ships''. London: Conway Maritime</ref>

[[File:Indiaman Royal George.jpg|thumb|right|{{ship||Royal George|East Indiaman|2}} was one of the five East Indiamen the Spanish fleet captured in 1780]]

During the [[French Revolutionary Wars|French Revolutionary]] and [[Napoleonic Wars]], the East India Company arranged for [[Letter of marque|letters of marque]] for its vessels such as ''Lord Nelson''. This was not so that they could carry cannon to fend off warships, privateers, and pirates on their voyages to India and China (that they could do without permission) but so that, should they have the opportunity to take a prize, they could do so without being guilty of piracy. Similarly, the ''Earl of Mornington'', an East India Company [[packet ship]] of only six guns, also sailed under a letter of marque.

In addition, the company had its own navy, the [[History of the Indian Navy|Bombay Marine]], equipped with warships such as {{ship|HCS|Grappler|1804|2}}. These vessels often accompanied vessels of the Royal Navy on expeditions, such as the [[Invasion of Java (1811)|Invasion of Java]].

At the [[Battle of Pulo Aura]], which was probably the company's most notable naval victory, [[Nathaniel Dance]], Commodore of a convoy of Indiamen and sailing aboard the {{ship||Warley|1796 ship|2}}, led several Indiamen in a skirmish with a French squadron, driving them off. Some six years earlier, on 28 January 1797, five Indiamen, ''Woodford'', under Captain Charles Lennox, ''Taunton-Castle'', Captain Edward Studd, ''Canton'', Captain Abel Vyvyan, ''Boddam'', Captain George Palmer, and {{ship||Ocean|1788 EIC ship|2}}, Captain John Christian Lochner, had encountered Admiral [[Pierre César Charles de Sercey|de Sercey]] and his squadron of frigates. On this occasion the Indiamen succeeded in bluffing their way to safety, and without any shots even being fired. Lastly, on 15 June 1795, ''General Goddard'' played a large role in the capture of seven Dutch East Indiamen off [[Saint Helena|St Helena]].

[[East Indiamen]] were large and strongly built and when the [[Royal Navy]] was desperate for vessels to escort merchant convoys it bought several of them to convert to warships. ''Earl of Mornington'' became HMS ''Drake''. Other examples include:
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* {{HMS|Calcutta|1795|6}}
* {{HMS|Glatton|1795|6}}
* {{HMS|Hindostan|1795|6}}
* {{HMS|Hindostan|1804|6}}
* {{HMS|Malabar|1804|6}}
* {{HMS|Buffalo|1813|6}}
{{div col end}}

Their design as merchant vessels meant that their performance in the warship role was underwhelming and the Navy converted them to transports.

== Records ==
{{Main|India Office Records}}
Unlike all other British Government records, the records from the East India Company (and its successor the [[India Office]]) are not in [[The National Archives (United Kingdom)|The National Archives]] at [[Kew]], London, but are held by the [[British Library]] in London as part of the [[Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections, British Library|Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections]]. The catalogue is searchable online in the ''[[Access to Archives]]'' catalogues.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/|title=The Discovery Service|website=discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk}}</ref> Many of the East India Company records are freely available online under an agreement that the [[Families in British India Society]] has with the British Library. Published catalogues exist of East India Company ships' journals and logs, 1600–1834;<ref>{{cite book | title=Catalogue of East India Company ships' journals and logs: 1600–1834 | publisher=British Library | editor-last=Farrington |editor-first=Anthony | place=London | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-7123-4646-7}}</ref> and of some of the company's daughter institutions, including the East India Company College, Haileybury, and Addiscombe Military Seminary.<ref name="Farrington 1976"/>

''[[The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British India and its Dependencies]]'', first issued in 1816, was sponsored by the East India Company, and includes much information relating to the EIC.

==Early Governors==
* 1600–1601 : Sir [[Thomas Smythe]] (first Governor)
* 1601–1602 : [[John Watts (merchant)|Sir John Watts]]
* 1602–1603 : Sir John Harts
* 1606–1607 : Sir William Romney
* 1607–1621 : Sir [[Thomas Smythe]]
* 1621–1624 : Sir William Halliday
* 1624–1638 : [[Maurice Abbot|Sir Maurice (Morris) Abbot]]
* 1638–1641 : Sir [[Christopher Clitherow]]
<ref>{{cite book|title=The Emergence of International Business, 1200–1800: The English East India Company|page=Appendix}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|British Empire|Companies}}

===East India Company===
* [[Company rule in India]]
** [[Economy of India under Company rule]]
** [[Governor-General of India]]
** [[Chief Justice of Bengal]]
** [[Advocate-General of Bengal]]
** [[Chief Justice of Madras]]
** [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]
** [[Indian independence movement]]
* [[List of East India Company directors]]
* [[List of trading companies]]
* [[Old Protestant Cemetery in Macau|East India Company Cemetery in Macau]]
* [[:Category:Honourable East India Company regiments]]

===General===
* [[British Imperial Lifeline]]
* [[Lascar]]
* [[Carnatic Wars]]
* [[Commercial Revolution]]
* [[Political warfare in British colonial India]]
* [[Trade between Western Europe and the Mughal Empire in the 17th century]]
* [[Whampoa anchorage]]

== Notes and references ==
{{notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Andrews |first=Kenneth R. |title=Trade, Plunder, and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480–1630 |year=1985 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=978-0-521-25760-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/tradeplundersett0000andr }}
* {{Cite book |last=Bowen |first=H. V. |title=Revenue and Reform: The Indian Problem in British Politics, 1757–1773 |year=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=978-0-521-40316-0 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Bowen |first=H. V. |title=The Worlds of the East India Company |editor=Margarette Lincoln |editor2=Nigel Rigby |year=2003 |publisher=Brewer |location=Rochester, NY |isbn=978-0-85115-877-8 }}; 14 essays by scholars
* {{Cite book |last=Brenner |first=Robert |title=Merchants and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London's Overseas Traders, 1550–1653 |year=1993 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=978-0-691-05594-7 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Carruthers |first=Bruce G. |title=City of Capital: Politics and Markets in the English Financial Revolution |year=1996 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=978-0-691-04455-2 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Chaudhuri |first=K. N. |title=The English East India Company: The Study of an Early Joint-Stock Company, 1600–1640 |author-link=Kirti N. Chaudhuri |year=1965 |publisher=Cass |location=London }}
* {{Cite book |last=Chaudhuri |first=K. N. |title=The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company, 1660–1760 |year=1978 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=978-0-521-21716-3 }}
* {{cite book|last=Chaudhury|first=S.|title=Merchants, Companies, and Trade: Europe and Asia in the Early Modern Era|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=London}}
* Collins, G. M. (2019). "The Limits of Mercantile Administration: Adam Smith and Edmund Burke on Britain’s East India Company" ''Journal of the History of Economic Thought'', 41(3), 369-392.
* [[William Dalrymple (historian)|Dalrymple, William]] (March 2015). ''[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/04/east-india-company-original-corporate-raiders? The East India Company: The original corporate raiders].'' "For a century, the East India Company conquered, subjugated and plundered vast tracts of south Asia. The lessons of its brutal reign have never been more relevant." ''[[The Guardian (UK)|The Guardian]]''
* [[William Dalrymple (historian)|William Dalrymple]] ''The Anarchy – The Relentless Rise of the East India Company'', Bloomsbury, London, 2019, {{ISBN|978-1-4088-6437-1}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Dirks |first=Nicholas |title=The Scandal of Empire: India and the creation of Imperial Britain |year=2006 |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England |isbn=978-0-674-02166-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Dann |first=John | title=Mr Bridgman's Accomplice -Long Ben's Coxswain 1660-1722 | year=2019 |isbn=978-178456-636-4}}
* Dodwell, Henry. ''Dupleix and Clive: Beginning of Empire''. (1968).
* {{Cite book | title = Eastward ho! The first English adventurers to the Orient |author = Dulles, Foster Rhea | edition = 1969 | publisher = Books for Libraries Press |place=Freeport, New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wlsf8tQYLroC | isbn = 978-0-8369-1256-2 |year = 1931 }}
* {{cite book |last=Farrington |first=Anthony |title=Trading Places: The East India Company and Asia, 1600–1834 |year=2002 |publisher=British Library |location=London |isbn=978-0-7123-4756-3 }}
* {{cite book |editor1-first=Margot |editor1-last=Finn |editor2-first=Kate |editor2-last=Smith |title=The East India Company at Home, 1757–1857 |publisher=UCL Press |location=London |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-78735-028-1 }}
* Furber, Holden. ''John Company at Work: A study of European Expansion in India in the late Eighteenth century'' (Harvard University Press, 1948)
* {{Cite book |last=Furber |first=Holden |title=Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient, 1600–1800 |author-link=Holden Furber |year=1976 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |location=Minneapolis |isbn=978-0-8166-0787-7 }}
* Gardner, Brian. ''The East India Company : a history'' (1990) [https://archive.org/details/eastindiacompany00gard Online free to borrow]
* {{cite book|last=Greenwood|first=Adrian|title=Victoria's Scottish Lion: The Life of Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde |author-link=Adrian Greenwood
|year=2015|publisher=History Press | place=UK | page=496 |isbn =978-0-7509-5685-7| url=http://www.thehistorypress.co.uk/index.php/victoria-s-scottish-lion-26465.html}}
* {{Citation| last1=Harrington| first1=Jack| year=2010| title=Sir John Malcolm and the Creation of British India | publisher=New York: [[Palgrave Macmillan]].| isbn=978-0-230-10885-1}}
* Hutková, K. (2017). "Technology transfers and organization: the English East India Company and the transfer of Piedmontese silk reeling technology to Bengal, 1750s–1790s" ''Enterprise & Society'', 18(4), 921-951.
* {{cite book|last=Keay|first=John|title=The Honourable Company: A History of the English East India Company|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpdgQt6Tc54C|year=2010|publisher=HarperCollins UK|isbn=978-0-00-739554-5}}
* Kumar, Deepak. (2017) ''The evolution of colonial science in India: natural history and the East India Company." Imperialism and the natural world'' (Manchester University Press, 2017).
* {{Cite book |last=Lawson |first=Philip |title=The East India Company: A History |year=1993 |publisher=Longman |location=London |isbn=978-0-582-07386-9|url=https://www.questia.com/library/1876665/the-east-india-company-a-history}}
* {{cite book|last=Leinwand|first=Theodore B.|title=Theatre, Finance and Society in Early Modern England|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University|isbn=978-0-521-03466-1}}
* McAleer, John. (2017). ''Picturing India: People, Places, and the World of the East India Company'' (University of Washington Press).
* {{cite book|first=Arthur |last=MacGregor |author-link=Arthur MacGregor |title=Company Curiosities: nature, culture and the East India Company, 1600–1874 |publisher=Reaktion Books |location=London |year=2018 |isbn=9781789140033 }}
* Marshall, P. J. ''Problems of empire: Britain and India 1757–1813'' (1968) [https://archive.org/details/problemsofempire00mars Online free to borrow]
* Misra, B. B. ''[https://www.questia.com/library/2283315/the-central-administration-of-the-east-india-company The Central Administration of the East India Company, 1773–1834]'' (1959)
* {{Cite book |last=O'Connor |first=Daniel |title=The Chaplains of the East India Company, 1601–1858 |place=London |publisher=Continuum |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4411-7534-2 }}
* Oak, Mandar, and Anand V. Swamy. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mandar_Oak/publication/254408832_Myopia_or_strategic_behavior_Indian_regimes_and_the_East_India_Company_in_late_eighteenth_century_India/links/55d569f108ae1e651663798e.pdf "Myopia or strategic behavior? Indian regimes and the East India Company in late eighteenth century India."] ''Explorations in economic history'' 49.3 (2012): 352–366.
* Philips, C. H. ''The East India Company 1784–1834'' (2nd ed. 1961), on its internal workings.
* Raman, Bhavani. "Sovereignty, property and land development: the East India Company in Madras." ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' 61.5-6 (2018): 976-1004.
* Rees, L. A. (2017). Welsh sojourners in India: the East India Company, networks and patronage, c. 1760–1840. ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History,'' 45(2), 165-187.
* Riddick, John F. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Es6x4u_g19UC The history of British India: a chronology]'' (2006), covers 1599–1947
* Riddick, John F. ''Who Was Who in British India'' (1998), covers 1599–1947
* {{cite web |url=http://thinkingpast.com/seldenmapatlas/eicvoyage3.htm |title=Selden Map Atlas |last1=Ruffner |first1=Murray |date=21 April 2015 |publisher=Thinking Past |access-date=28 April 2015}}
* {{Citation |editor-last=Risley |editor-first=Sir Herbert H. |editor-link=Herbert Hope Risley |series=Imperial Gazetteer of India |volume=2 | title = The Indian Empire: Historical | place=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press, under the authority of H.M. [[India Office|Secretary of State for India]] | year=1908|display-authors=etal}}
* {{Citation |editor-last=Risley |editor-first=Sir Herbert H. |editor-link=Herbert Hope Risley |series=Imperial Gazetteer of India |volume=4 | title = The Indian Empire: Administrative | place=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press, under the authority of H.M Secretary of State for India | year = 1908|display-authors=etal}}
* Robins, Nick (December 2004). ''[http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/politics/2014/04/worlds-first-multinational The world's first multinational],'' in the ''[[New Statesman]]''
* {{Cite book |last=Robins |first=Nick |title=The Corporation that Changed the World: How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational |year=2006 |publisher=Pluto Press |location=London |isbn=978-0-7453-2524-8 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sudipta |title=Empire of Free Trade: The East India Company and the Making of the Colonial Marketplace |year=1998 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-8122-3426-8 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://thinkingpast.com/seldenmapatlas/eicvoyage1.htm |title=Selden Map Atlas |last1=Sharpe |first1=Brandon |date=23 April 2015|publisher=Thinkingpast.com|access-date=28 April 2015}}
* St. John, Ian. ''[https://www.questia.com/library/120085766/the-making-of-the-raj-india-under-the-east-india The Making of the Raj: India Under the East India Company]'' (ABC-CLIO, 2011)
* {{Cite book |last=Steensgaard |first=Niels |title=The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeenth Century: The East India Companies and the Decline of the Caravan Trade |year=1975 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-77138-0 }}
* Stern, Philip J. ''[https://www.questia.com/library/120076623/the-company-state-corporate-sovereignty-and-the-early The Company-State: Corporate Sovereignty and the Early Modern Foundations of the British Empire in India]'' (2011)
* Sutherland, Lucy S. "The East India Company in Eighteenth-Century Politics." ''Economic History Review'' 17.1 (1947): 15–26. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2590689 online]
** {{Cite book |last=Sutherland |first=Lucy S. |title=The East India Company in Eighteenth-Century Politics |year=1952 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford }}
* Vaughn, J. M. (2019). ''The Politics of Empire at the Accession of George III: The East India Company and the Crisis and Transformation of Britain's Imperial State'' (Lewis Walpole Series in Eighteenth-Century Culture and History).
* {{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Roger |title=London's Lost Global Giant: In Search of the East India Company |year=2015 |publisher=Bristol Book Publishing |location=London |isbn=978-0-9928466-2-6}}

=== Historiography ===
* {{cite book |editor-first=Anthony |editor-last=Farrington |title=The Records of the East India College, Haileybury, & other institutions |place=London |publisher=H.M.S.O. |year=1976 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Stern |first=Philip J. |year=2009 |title=History and historiography of the English East India Company: Past, present, and future! |journal=History Compass |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=1146–1180 |doi=10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00617.x }}
* Van Meersbergen, G. (2017). "Writing East India Company History after the Cultural Turn: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Seventeenth-Century East India Company and Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie." ''Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies,'' 17(3), 10-36. [https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/80791376.pdf online]

{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|British East India Company}}
* [[s:Charter Granted by Queen Elizabeth to the East India Company|Charter of 1600]]
* {{In Our Time|East India Company|p0054906|East_India_Company}}
* [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1600_1699/eastindiacompany/eastindiacompany.html Seals and Insignias of East India Company]
* [http://salt.org.il/india.html The Secret Trade] The basis of the monopoly.
* [http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/trading/tradingplaces.html Trading Places] – a learning resource from the British Library
* [http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConNarrative.136/The-East-India-Company.html Port Cities: History of the East India Company]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080330065505/http://www.eicships.info/index.html Ships of the East India Company]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060630085209/http://www.plantcultures.org.uk/themes/empires_landing.html Plant Cultures: East India Company in India]
* [http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/British/EAco.html History and Politics: East India Company]
* Nick Robins, [http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/politics/2014/04/worlds-first-multinational "The world's first multinational"], 13 December 2004, ''[[New Statesman]]''
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1853/07/11.htm East India Company: Its History and Results] article by Karl Marx, MECW Volume 12, p. 148 in [[Marxists Internet Archive]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060909080353/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/history/primarydocs/Political_History/ABKeithDoc009.htm Text of East India Company Act 1773]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060909081557/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/history/primarydocs/Political_History/ABKeithDoc013.htm Text of East India Company Act 1784]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20030626.shtml "The East India Company – a corporate route to Europe"] on [[BBC Radio 4]]'s ''[[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]]'' featuring Huw Bowen, Linda Colley and Maria Misra
* [http://www.historymole.com/cgi-bin/main/results.pl?theme=10006825 HistoryMole Timeline: The British East India Company]
* [https://digital.lib.ecu.edu/special/ead/findingaids/0472-003 William Howard Hooker Collection: East Indiaman Thetis Logbook (#472-003), East Carolina Manuscript Collection, J. Y. Joyner Library, East Carolina University]

{{Chartered companies}}
{{Foreign trade in Imperial China|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

{{West Bengal}}

{{Indian Independence Movement}}

[[Category:British East India Company| ]]
[[Category:British colonisation of Asia]]
[[Category:British Ceylon]]
[[Category:British Malaya]]
[[Category:British rule in Singapore]]
[[Category:British Indian history]]
[[Category:Colonial Indian companies]]
[[Category:Chartered companies]]
[[Category:Defunct companies of England]]
[[Category:Former monopolies]]
[[Category:Trading companies]]
[[Category:Trade monopolies]]
[[Category:History of Kolkata]]
[[Category:History of Bengal]]
[[Category:History of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:History of West Bengal]]
[[Category:History of India]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]
[[Category:History of foreign trade in China]]
[[Category:Mysorean invasion of Malabar]]
[[Category:Defunct companies of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1600]]
[[Category:British companies disestablished in 1874]]
[[Category:1600 establishments in England]]
[[Category:1600s establishments in British India]]
[[Category:1600 establishments in Asia]]
[[Category:1874 disestablishments in British India]]
[[Category:1874 disestablishments in Asia]]
[[Category:Age of Sail]]

Nepal

2021-08-04T10:36:52Z

Saumyasingh: Created page with "{{Short description|Country in South Asia}} {{About|the country}} {{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}{{Use British English|da..."

{{Short description|Country in South Asia}}
{{About|the country}}
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}{{Use British English|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/11/09/it-is-federal-democratic-republic-nepal-not-just-nepal-parliamentary-committee-says |title=It is Federal Democratic Republic Nepal, not just Nepal, parliamentary committee says |work=The Kathmandu Post |date=9 November 2020 |access-date=28 June 2021 }}</ref>
| common_name = Nepal
| native_name = {{ubl|{{native name|ne|
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल |italics=off}}|'' Saṅghīya Loktāntrik Gaṇatantra Nepāl''}}
| image_flag = Flag of Nepal.svg
| flag_type = [[Flag of Nepal|Flag]]
| alt_flag = Two united crimson pennants with blue borders, top one containing a stylised symbol for the moon and the bottom one, the sun.
| flag_border = no
| flag_size = 85px
| image_coat = New Emblem of Nepal.svg
| alt_coat = In the background, blue-white snowy himalayas, green forested hills and yellowish fertile plains from top to bottom; in the foreground, two male and female hands joined and a plain white map of Nepal, supported by a wreath of red rhododendrons, seven on each side, with the flag of Nepal at the crest, and at the bottom, the motto of Nepal in Devanagari script
| symbol_type = [[Emblem of Nepal|Emblem]]
| coa_size = 115px
| national_motto = {{native phrase|sa|[[Janani Janmabhumishcha Swargadapi Gariyasi]]}} "Mother and motherland are greater than heaven"
| national_anthem = {{native phrase|ne|[[Sayaun Thunga Phulka]]|paren=omit}} "Made of Hundreds of Flowers" <div style="padding-top:0.5em;"class="center">[[File:Sayaun Thunga Phool Ka (instrumental).ogg]]</div>
| image_map = Nepal (orthographic projection).svg
| image_map2 =
| map_width = 220px
| alt_map = Image of a globe centred on Nepal, with Nepal highlighted.
| map_caption = Area controlled by Nepal shown in dark green; regions claimed but not controlled shown in light green
| capital = [[Kathmandu]]<ref name="Fact Monster Nepal">{{cite web |title=Nepal {{!}} Facts, History & News |url=https://www.infoplease.com/world/countries/nepal |website=www.infoplease.com |access-date=29 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
| largest_city = capital
| coordinates = {{Coord|28|10|N|84|15|E|region:NP_type:country|display=it}}
| official_languages = [[Nepali language|Nepali]]<ref name="Britannica Nepal">{{cite web |title=Nepal {{!}} Culture, History, & People |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nepal |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=29 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
| national_languages = All mother-tongues<ref name=con15>{{cite web|title=नेपालको संविधान २०७२|trans-title=Constitution of Nepal 2015|url=http://www.lawcommission.gov.np/np/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8-1.pdf|via=[[Nepal Law Commission]]|access-date=16 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808043521/http://www.lawcommission.gov.np/np/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8-1.pdf|archive-date=8 August 2019|url-status=dead|date=20 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/66852/|title=Why English?|last1=Mandal|first1=Bidhi|last2=Nayak|first2=Ravi|newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]]|language=en |date=9 June 2019 |access-date=17 April 2020}}</ref> {{small|(see [[Languages of Nepal]])}}
| ethnic_groups = {{ublist|list_style=line-height:1.3em; |class=nowrap |37.39% [[Khas people|Khas (Pahari)]]| 7.1% [[Magar people|Magar]]|6.6% [[Tharu people|Tharu]] | 5.8% [[Tamang people|Tamang]]| 5% [[Newar people|Newar]]| 4.4% [[Nepalese Muslims|Musalman]]| 4% [[Yadav]] |2.3% [[Rai people|Rai]] | 2% [[Gurung people|Gurung]] | 1.5% [[Limbu people|Limbu]] | 21.93% Others}}
| ethnic_groups_year = [[2011 Nepal census|2011]]
| ethnic_groups_ref = {{sfn|2011 National Census|p=4}}
| religion = {{ublist|list_style=line-height:1.3em; |class=nowrap | 81.3% [[Hinduism in Nepal|Hinduism]]<ref>https://www.lawcommission.gov.np/en/archives/category/documents/prevailing-law/constitution/constitution-of-nepal</ref>|9.0% [[Buddhism in Nepal|Buddhism]]|4.4% [[Islam in Nepal|Islam]]|3.1% [[Kirat Mundhum|Kirant]]|1.4% [[Christianity in Nepal|Christianity]]|0.5% [[Nature worship|Prakriti]]|0.3% Others}}
| religion_year = [[2011 Nepal census|2011]]
| religion_ref = {{sfn|2011 National Census|p=4}}
| demonym = [[Nepalis|Nepali]], [[:wikt:Nepalese|Nepalese]]
| membership = {{cslist|[[United Nations|UN]]|[[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|SAARC]]| [[BIMST-EC]]}}
| government_type = [[Federal parliamentary republic]]
| leader_title1 = [[President of Nepal|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Bidhya Devi Bhandari]]<ref name=office>{{Cite news|url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/21933|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322091521/https://therisingnepal.org.np/news/21933|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 March 2020|title=President Bhandari administers oath of office to Oli|newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]]|date=15 February 2020|access-date=17 April 2020}}</ref>
| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Nepal|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Sher Bahadur Deuba]]<ref name=office/>
| leader_title3 = [[House of Representatives (Nepal)|Speaker of HoR]]
| leader_name3 = [[Agni Sapkota|Agni Prasad Sapkota]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/newly-elected-hor-speaker-agni-sapkota-takes-oath-of-office/|title=Newly elected HoR Speaker Agni Sapkota takes oath of office|date=27 January 2020|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=13 February 2020|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213161748/https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/newly-elected-hor-speaker-agni-sapkota-takes-oath-of-office/}}</ref>
| leader_title4 = [[National Assembly (Nepal)|Chairman of NA]]
| leader_name4 = [[Ganesh Prasad Timilsina]]
| leader_title5 = [[Chief Justice of Nepal|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name5 = [[Cholendra Shumsher JB Rana]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/cholendra-shumsher-jb-rana-confirmed-as-chief-justice/|title=Cholendra Shumsher JB Rana confirmed as Chief Justice|date=1 January 2019|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=17 April 2020}}</ref>
| legislature = [[Federal Parliament of Nepal|Federal Parliament]]
| upper_house = [[National Assembly (Nepal)|National Assembly]]
| lower_house = [[House of Representatives (Nepal)|House of Representatives]]
| sovereignty_type = [[Unification of Nepal|Formation]]
| established_event1 = [[Kingdom of Nepal|Kingdom]]
| established_date1 = 25 September 1768<ref>{{cite web|last=Subba|first=Sanghamitra|date=20 December 2019|title=A future written in the stars|url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/a-future-written-in-the-stars/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131123714/https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/a-future-written-in-the-stars/|archive-date=31 January 2021|access-date=31 January 2021|website=Nepali Times|language=en-US}}</ref>
| established_event2 = [[Treaty of Sugauli]]<ref>The Sugauli Treaty of 1816 rendered moot the degree of independence of Nepal. The sixth point of the treaty directly questions the degree of independence of Nepal. The fact that any differences between Nepal and Sikkim will be "referred to the arbitration of the East India Company" sees Nepal as a semi-independent or a vassal state or tributary of the British empire.</ref>
| established_date2 = 4 March 1816
| established_event3 = [[Nepal-Britain Treaty of 1923]]<ref>Formal recognition of Nepal as an independent and sovereign state by Great Britain.</ref>
| established_date3 = 21 December 1923
| established_event4 = [[Republic Day (Nepal)|Federal Republic]]
| established_date4 = 28 May 2008
| established_event5 = [[Constitution of Nepal|Current constitution]]
| established_date5 = 20 September 2015
| area_km2 = 147,516
| area_rank = 93rd 
| area_sq_mi = 56,827 
| percent_water = 2.8
| population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} {{UN Population|Nepal}}{{UN Population|ref}}
| population_estimate_rank = 49th
| population_estimate_year = {{UN Population|Year}}
| population_census = 26,494,504{{sfn|2011 National Census|p=1}}
| population_census_year = 2011
| population_density_km2 = 180
| population_density_sq_mi = 518 
| population_density_rank = 50th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $122.62 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=70&pr.y=12&sy=2019&ey=2019&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=558&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|publisher=IMF|access-date=15 April 2020}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2021
| GDP_PPP_rank = 84th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $4,199<ref name=imf2 />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 144th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $36.084 billion
| GDP_nominal_year = 2021
| GDP_nominal_rank = 98th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,236<ref name=imf2 />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 158th
| Gini = 32.8 
| Gini_year = 2010
| Gini_change =
| Gini_ref =<ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=NP |title=Gini Index (World Bank Estimate) - Nepal|publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=16 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140608054636/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI |archive-date=8 June 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| Gini_rank = 115th
| HDI = 0.602 
| HDI_year = 2019 
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI_ref =<ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/2019-human-development-index-ranking|title=Human Development Report 2019|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|year=2019|format=PDF|access-date=16 April 2020|archive-date=31 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531231053/http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/2019-human-development-index-ranking|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 142nd
| currency = [[Nepalese rupee]] (Rs, {{lang|ne|रू}})
| currency_code = NPR
| time_zone = [[Nepal Standard Time]]
| utc_offset = [[UTC+05:45|+05:45]]
| DST_note = {{nowrap|''[[Daylight saving time|DST]] not observed''}}
| drives_on = [[Right- and left-hand traffic|left]]
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Nepal|+977]]
| cctld = [[.np]]
| electricity = 230 V–50 Hz<ref>{{Citation |chapter-url=http://www.lawcommission.gov.np/en/archives/5067|title=Electricity Rules, 2050 (1993)|chapter=Voltage, Frequency and Power Factor of Electricity|year=1993|type=Regulation|language=en-US |via=[[Nepal Law Commission]] |access-date=17 April 2020}}</ref>
| today =
}}

'''Nepal''' ({{IPAc-en|Lang|n|ɪ|ˈ|p|ɔː|l}};<ref>{{cite web|title=Nepal {{!}} Definition of Nepal by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.com also meaning of Nepal|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/nepal|access-date=23 July 2020|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|language=en}}</ref> {{lang-ne|[[:ne:नेपाल|नेपाल]]}} {{IPA-ne|nepal|}}), officially the '''Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal''' ({{lang-ne|
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल }}), is a [[landlocked country]] located in [[South Asia]]. It is mainly situated in the [[Himalayas]], but also includes parts of the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]], bordering [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet]] of China [[China–Nepal border|to the north]], and India [[India–Nepal border|in the south, east, and west]], while it is narrowly separated from [[Bangladesh]] by the [[Siliguri Corridor]], and from [[Bhutan]] by the [[States and union territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Sikkim]]. Nepal has a [[Geography of Nepal|diverse geography]], including [[Terai|fertile plains]], subalpine forested hills, and eight of the world's ten [[List of highest mountains#List|tallest mountains]], including [[Mount Everest]], the highest point on Earth. Nepal is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious and multi-cultural state, with [[Nepali language|Nepali]] as the official language. [[Kathmandu]] is the nation's capital and the [[List of cities in Nepal|largest city]].

The name "Nepal" is first recorded in texts from the [[Vedic period]] of the [[Indian subcontinent]], the era in [[ancient Nepal]] when [[Hinduism]] was founded, the predominant religion of the country. In the middle of the first millennium BC, [[Gautama Buddha]], the founder of [[Buddhism]], was born in [[Lumbini]] in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of [[Tibet]]. The centrally located [[Kathmandu Valley]] is intertwined with the culture of [[Indo-Aryan people|Indo-Aryan]]s, and was the seat of the prosperous [[Newar people|Newar]] confederacy known as [[Nepal Mandala]]. The Himalayan branch of the ancient [[Silk Road]] was dominated by the [[Lhasa Newar|valley's traders]]. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional [[Newa art|art]] and [[Architecture of Nepal|architecture]]. By the 18th century, the [[Gorkha Kingdom]] achieved the [[unification of Nepal]]. The [[Shah dynasty]] established the [[Kingdom of Nepal]] and later formed an alliance with the [[British Empire]], under its [[Rana dynasty]] of [[Prime Minister of Nepal|premiers]]. The country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between [[Imperial China]] and [[British India]]. [[Parliamentary democracy]] was introduced in 1951 but was twice suspended by Nepalese monarchs, in 1960 and 2005. The [[Nepalese Civil War]] in the 1990s and early 2000s resulted in the establishment of a [[secular]] [[republic]] in 2008, ending the world's last [[Hinduism|Hindu]] monarchy.

The [[Constitution of Nepal]], adopted in 2015, affirms Nepal as a [[Secular state|secular]] [[federal republic|federal]] [[parliamentary republic]] divided into [[Provinces of Nepal|seven provinces]]. It remains the only multi-party, fully democratic nation in the world currently ruled by a communist party. Nepal was admitted to the [[United Nations]] in 1955, and friendship treaties were signed with India in 1950 and the China in 1960. Nepal hosts the permanent secretariat of the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|SAARC]], of which it is a founding member. Nepal is also a member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and the [[Bay of Bengal Initiative]]. The [[Nepalese Armed Forces]] are the fifth-largest in South Asia; and are notable for their [[Gurkha]] history, particularly during the [[world war]]s, and has been a significant contributor to [[United Nations peacekeeping]] operations.

== Etymology ==
Before the [[unification of Nepal]], the [[Kathmandu Valley]] was known as ''Nepal''.{{efn|The entire territory controlled by the monarch seated in Kathmandu at any given time would also be referred to as ''Nepal''. Thus, at times, only the Kathmandu valley was considered ''Nepal'' while at other times, ''Nepal'' would encompass an area comparable to and largely overlapping with the modern state of Nepal.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A history of ancient and early medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th century|last=Singh|first=Upinder|year=2008|location=New Delhi|publisher=Pearson Longman|isbn=9788131716779|page=477}}</ref>}} The precise origin of the term ''Nepāl'' is uncertain. ''Nepal'' appears in [[ancient Indian]] literary texts dated as far back as the fourth century BC. However, an absolute chronology can not be established, as even the oldest texts may contain anonymous contributions dating as late as the [[early modern period]]. Academic attempts to provide a plausible theory are hindered by the lack of a complete picture of history and insufficient understanding of linguistics or relevant Indo-European and Tibeto-Burman languages.<ref name=Malla>{{cite web |title=Nepāla: Archaeology of the Word|last=Malla|first=Kamal P.|author-link=Kamal P. Malla|work=The Nepal Heritage Society Souvenir for PATA Conference|pages=33–39|conference=3rd PATA International Tourism & Heritage Conservation Conference (1–4 November)|location=Kathmandu|year=1983|url=http://www.kpmalla.com/?attachment_id=285|access-date=5 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322214352/http://www.kpmalla.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Nepala.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2012}}</ref>

According to [[Hindu mythology]], Nepal derives its name from an ancient Hindu sage called ''Ne'', referred to variously as ''Ne Muni'' or ''Nemi''. According to ''Pashupati Purāna'', as a place protected by ''Ne'', the country in the heart of the Himalayas came to be known as ''Nepāl''.{{efn|The word ''pala'' in [[Pali]] language means ''to protect''. Consequently, ''Nepala'' translates to ''protected by Ne''.}} According to ''Nepāl Mahātmya'',{{efn|''Nepalamahatmya'', of 30 chapters about the Nepal ''Tirtha'' (pilgrimage) region, is a regional text that claims to be a part of the ''[[Skanda Purana]]'', the largest ''[[Puranas#Mahapuranas|Mahāpurāṇa]]''.}} ''Nemi'' was charged with protection of the country by [[Pashupati]].<ref name=Prasad>{{Cite book |title=The Life and Times of Maharaja Juddha Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana of Nepal|last=Prasad|first=Ishwari|year=1996|publisher=Ashish Publishing House|location=New Delhi|isbn=817024756X|via=Google Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEvbH8Fv-boC}}</ref> According to [[Buddhist mythology]], [[Manjushri]] [[Bodhisattva]] drained a primordial lake of [[Nāga|serpents]] to create the Nepal valley and proclaimed that ''[[Adi-Buddha]]'' ''Ne'' would take care of the community that would settle it. As the cherished of ''Ne'', the valley would be called ''Nepāl''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=History of Nepal: As told by its own and contemporary chroniclers|last=Hasrat|first=Bikram Jit|year=1970|location=Hoshiarpur|page=7}}</ref> According to ''Gopalarājvamshāvali'', the [[genealogy]] of ancient [[Gopal Bansa|Gopala dynasty]] compiled {{circa|1380s}}, Nepal is named after ''Nepa'' the cowherd, the founder of the Nepali scion of the [[Abhira tribe|Abhiras]]. In this account, the cow that issued milk to the spot, at which ''Nepa'' discovered the ''[[Jyotirlinga]]'' of [[Pashupatinath Temple|''Pashupatināth'']] upon investigation, was also named ''Ne''.<ref name=Malla/>

Norwegian [[Indology|indologist]] [[Christian Lassen]] had proposed that ''Nepāla'' was a compound of ''Nipa'' (foot of a mountain) and ''-ala'' (short suffix for ''alaya'' meaning abode), and so ''Nepāla'' meant "abode at the foot of the mountain". He considered ''Ne Muni'' to be a fabrication.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Indische Alterthumskunde|url=https://archive.org/details/indischealterth08lassgoog|trans-title=Indian Archaeology|last=Lassen|first=Christian|author-link=Christian Lassen|year=1847–1861}}</ref> Indologist [[Sylvain Levi]] found Lassen's theory untenable but had no theories of his own, only suggesting that either ''[[Newar people|Newara]]'' is a [[vulgarism]] of [[sanskrit]]ic ''Nepala,'' or ''Nepala'' is [[Sanskritisation|Sanskritization]] of the local ethnic;<ref>{{Cite book |title=Le Nepal : Etude Historique d'Un Royaume Hindou|last=Levi|first=Sylvain|author-link=Sylvain Lévi|location=Paris|publisher=Ernest Leroux|year=1905|volume=1|pages=222–223}}</ref> his view has found some support though it does not answer the question of etymology.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Majupuria |first1=Trilok Chandra |last2=Majupuria |first2=Indra |year=1979 |title=Glimpses of Nepal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jDNuAAAAMAAJ|publisher=Maha Devi |page=8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Ralph L. |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.1.turner.1333792 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714053644/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.1.turner.1333792 |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 July 2012 |title=A Comparative and Etymological Dictionary of the Nepali Language |publisher=London: Routledge and Kegan Paul |year=1931 |access-date=8 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hodgson |first=Brian H. |url=https://archive.org/details/essaysonlanguage00hodg |title=Essays on the Languages, Literature and Religion of Nepal and Tibet |publisher=London: Trübner & Co |year=1874 |access-date=8 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111204021/http://archive.org/details/essaysonlanguage00hodg |archive-date=11 November 2012 |url-status=live }} Page 51.</ref><ref name=Malla/> It has also been proposed that ''Nepa'' is a [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]] stem consisting of ''Ne'' (cattle) and ''Pa'' (keeper), reflecting the fact that early inhabitants of the valley were ''Gopalas'' (cowherds) and ''Mahispalas'' (buffalo-herds).<ref name=Malla/> [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]] believed ''Nepal'' originated from Tibeto-Burman roots – ''Ne,'' of uncertain meaning (as multiple possibilities exist), and ''pala'' or ''bal'', whose meaning is lost entirely.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Kirata-Jana-Krti: The Indo-Mongoloids: Their Contribution to the History and Culture of India|last=Chatterji|first=Suniti Kumar|author-link=Suniti Kumar Chatterji|year=1974|location=Calcutta|publisher=The Asiatic Society|edition=2|page=64}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Nepal}}

=== Ancient Nepal ===
[[File:Birth of Buddha at Lumbini.jpg|thumb|left|This painting in a [[Laos|Laotian]] temple depicts a legend surrounding the birth of [[Gautam Buddha]] {{circa|563}} BC in [[Lumbini]], Western Nepal.|alt=The painting depicts Gautam Buddha taking seven steps immediately after birth; seven lotuses mark his steps. His mother, Maya, watches over him while grabbing on a Sal tree branch for support, gods and angels celebrate the occasion by showering flowers and playing music.]]
By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa, where they had earlier evolved.<ref name="Dyson2018">{{cite book |last=Dyson|first=Tim |title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year=2018 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|page=1}} Quote: "Modern human beings—''Homo sapiens''—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially, they came by way of the coast. ... it is virtually certain that there were ''Homo sapiens'' in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present. (page 1)"</ref><ref name="PetragliaAllchin">{{cite book |author1=Michael D. Petraglia |author2=Bridget Allchin |author-link2=Bridget Allchin |title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA10 |publisher=[[Springer Science + Business Media]] |page=6 |isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1|date=22 May 2007 }} Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka."</ref><ref name="Fisher2018">{{cite book |last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23|year=2018|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-107-11162-2|page=23}} Quote: "Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the ''Homo sapiens'' range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along with the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and the northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago (page 23)"</ref> The earliest known modern human remains in [[South Asia]] date to about 30,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Petraglia|first1=Michael D. |last2=Allchin|first2=Bridget |author-link2=Bridget Allchin|editor=Michael Petraglia |editor2=Bridget Allchin|title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA6| year=2007|publisher=[[Springer Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1| chapter=Human evolution and culture change in the Indian subcontinent|page=6}}</ref> The oldest discovered archaeological evidence of human settlements in Nepal dates to around the same time.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Corvinus|first=Gudrun|author-link=Gudrun Corvinus|title=The Prehistory of Nepal (A summary of the results of 10 years research) |publisher=Nepal Research Center |location=Kathmandu |url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/ancientnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_154_02.pdf |access-date=3 March 2020}}</ref>

After 6500 BC, evidence for the domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in [[Mehrgarh]] and other sites in what is now [[Balochistan]].<ref name=coni>{{cite book |last1=Coningham|first1=Robin|last2=Young|first2=Ruth|title=The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BC – 200 AD|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hB5TCgAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-84697-4|pages=104–5}}</ref> These gradually developed into the [[Indus Valley Civilization]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kulke|first1=H.|last2=Rothermund|first2=D.|author1-link=Hermann Kulke|date=1 August 2004|title=A History of India|series=4th|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC|pages=21–3}}</ref><ref name=coni/> the first urban culture in South Asia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Singh|first=U.|author-link=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|year=2009|publisher=[[Longman]]|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-1677-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC|page=181}}</ref> Prehistoric sites of [[Paleolithic|palaeolithic]], [[mesolithic]] and [[neolithic]] origins have been discovered in the [[Sivalik Hills|Siwalik hills]] of [[Dang District, Nepal|Dang district]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/c...tnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_154_02.pdf|title=The Prehistory of Nepal}}{{Dead link|date=June 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The earliest inhabitants of modern Nepal and adjoining areas are believed to be people from the [[Indus Valley Civilization]]. It is possible that the [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] people whose history predates the onset of the [[Bronze Age]] in the Indian subcontinent (around 6300 BC) inhabited the area before the arrival of other ethnic groups like the Tibeto-Burmans and [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryans]] from across the border.<ref>{{cite book|title=Nepal|author=Krishna P. Bhattarai|publisher=Infobase publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aArqOqBGBQC&pg=PA32|isbn=9781438105239|year=2009}}</ref> By 4000 BC, the Tibeto-Burmese people had reached Nepal either directly across the Himalayas from Tibet or via Myanmar and north-east India or both.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang|first1=Hua-Wei|last2=Li|first2=Yu-Chun|last3=Sun|first3=Fei|last4=Zhao|first4=Mian|last5=Mitra|first5=Bikash|last6=Chaudhuri|first6=Tapas Kumar|last7=Regmi|first7=Pasupati|last8=Wu|first8=Shi-Fang|last9=Kong|first9=Qing-Peng|last10=Zhang|first10=Ya-Ping|date=April 2012|title=Revisiting the role of the Himalayas in peopling Nepal: insights from mitochondrial genomes|journal=Journal of Human Genetics|language=en|volume=57|issue=4|pages=228–234|doi=10.1038/jhg.2012.8|pmid=22437208|issn=1435-232X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Another possibility for the first people to have inhabited Nepal are the [[Kusunda people]]. According to Hogdson (1847), the earliest inhabitants of Nepal were perhaps the Kusunda people, probably of [[Australo-Melanesian|proto-Australoid origin]].<ref>Africa's History & Migrations 200,000bc-3,000bc
By Akan Takruri</ref> [[Stella Kramrisch]] (1964) mentions a substratum of a race of pre-Dravidians and Dravidians, who were in Nepal even before the Newars, who formed the majority of the ancient inhabitants of the valley of Kathmandu.<ref>Susi Dunsmore
British Museum Press, 1993 - Crafts & Hobbies - 204 pages</ref>

By the late [[Vedic period]], Nepal was being mentioned in various Hindu texts, such as the late Vedic ''[[Pariśiṣṭa#Atharvaveda|Atharvaveda Pariśiṣṭa]]'' and in the post-Vedic ''Atharvashirsha'' [[Upanishads|Upanishad]].<ref name="autogenerated4">P. 17 ''Looking to the Future: Indo-Nepal Relations in Perspective'' By Lok Raj Baral</ref> The [[Gopal Bansa]] was the oldest dynasty to be mentioned in various texts as the earliest rulers of the central Himalayan kingdom known by the name 'Nepal'.<ref name="Tiwari2001">{{cite book |author=Sudarshan Raj Tiwari|title=The Ancient Settlements of the Kathmandu Valley|year=2001|publisher=Centre for Nepal and Asian Studies, Tribhuvan University|isbn=978-99933-52-07-5|page=17}}</ref> The Gopalas were followed by [[Kirata Kingdom|Kiratas]] who ruled for over 16 centuries by some accounts.<ref>{{cite book |title=Nepal Antiquary|year=1978|publisher=Office of the Nepal Antiquary.|page=7}}</ref> According to the [[Mahabharata]], the then Kirata king went to take part in the [[Battle of Kurukshetra]]. In the south-eastern region, [[Janakpurdham]] was the capital of the prosperous kingdom of [[Videha]] or Mithila, that extended down to the Ganges, and home to [[King Janak]]a and his daughter, [[Sita]].

[[File:Changunarayan temple 2019.jpg|right|thumb|In the premises of the [[Changu Narayan Temple]], is a stone inscription dated 464 AD, the first in Nepal since the Ashoka inscription of Lumbini ({{circa|250}} BC).|alt=Changu Narayan Temple is one of the oldest temples in Nepal. This two-storied pagoda, rebuilt c. 1700 AD, showcases exquisite woodcraft in every piece of its timber, probably the finest in Nepal.]]
Around 600 BC, small kingdoms and confederations of clans arose in the southern regions of Nepal. From one of these, the [[Shakya]] polity, arose a prince who later renounced his status to lead an ascetic life, founded [[Buddhism]], and came to be known as [[Gautama Buddha]] (traditionally dated 563–483 BC).<ref name="Klostermaier">{{cite book |author=Klaus K. Klostermaier|title=A Survey of Hinduism: Second Edition|year=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=df1SUJMdC9sC&pg=PA482|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-1-4384-0933-7|page=482}}</ref> Nepal came to be established as a land of spirituality and refuge in the intervening centuries, played an important role in transmitting Buddhism to East Asia via Tibet,<ref name=leo/> and helped preserve Hindu and Buddhist manuscripts.

By 250 BC, the southern regions had come under the influence of the [[Maurya Empire]]. [[Emperor Ashoka]] made a pilgrimage to [[Lumbini]] and [[Pillars of Ashoka|erected a pillar]] at Buddha's birthplace, the [[Lumbini pillar inscription|inscriptions]] on which mark the starting point for properly recorded history of Nepal.{{sfn|Landon|1928|p=11}} Ashoka also visited the Kathmandu valley and built monuments commemorating Gautam Buddha's visit there. By the 4th century AD, much of Nepal was under the influence of the [[Gupta Empire]].{{efn|On [[Samudragupta]]'s [[Allahabad Pillar]], Nepal is mentioned as a border country.}}<ref name="ChakrabartiChakrabarti2013">{{cite book |author1=Kunal Chakrabarti|author2=Shubhra Chakrabarti|title=Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVOFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|date= 2013|publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]]|isbn=978-0-8108-8024-5|page=9}}</ref>

In the Kathmandu valley, the Kiratas were pushed eastward by the [[Licchavi (clan)|Lichchhavis]], and the [[Licchavi (kingdom)|Lichchhavi dynasty]] came into power {{circa}} 400 AD. The Lichchhavis built monuments and left a series of inscriptions; Nepal's history of the period is pieced together almost entirely from them.{{sfn|Landon|1928|p=19}}<ref name=leo>{{cite book |last1=Rose|first1=Leo E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VTduAAAAMAAJ|title=Nepal: profile of a Himalayan kingdom|last2=Scholz|first2=John T.|date=1980|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-89158-651-7|language=en}}</ref>

In 641, [[Songtsen Gampo]] of the [[Tibetan Empire]] sends Narendradeva back to [[Licchavi (kingdom)|Licchavi]] with an army and subjugates Nepal. Parts of Nepal and Licchavi was later under the direct influences of the Tibetan empire.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beckwith|first=Christopher I|title=The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages|year=1987|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>

The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late 8th century and was followed by a [[Thakuri]] rule. Thakuri kings ruled over the country up to the middle of the 11th century AD; not much is known of this period that is often called the dark period.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://royalnepal.synthasite.com/the-thakuri-dynasty.php|title=Nepal Monarchy: Thakuri Dynasty|website=royalnepal.synthasite.com|access-date=17 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230042020/http://royalnepal.synthasite.com/the-thakuri-dynasty.php|archive-date=30 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Medieval Nepal ===
[[File:Sinja_Valley, Karnali.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sinja Valley]], thought to be the place of origin of the [[Khas]]as and the [[Nepali language]], was at the heart of the Khas Malla empire.|alt=A wooden bridge in Sinja Valley with wooden pillars on either side, their top sculpted to depict human figures standing on the platform.]]
In the 11th century, a [[Khasa Kingdom|powerful empire]] of [[Khas people]] emerged in western Nepal whose territory at its highest peak included much of western Nepal as well as parts of western Tibet and [[Uttarakhand]] of India. By the 14th century, the empire had splintered into loosely associated {{transl|ne|[[Baise rajya]]s}}, literally 22 states as they were counted. The rich culture and language of the Khas people spread throughout Nepal and as far as Indo-China in the intervening centuries; [[Khas language|their language]], later renamed the Nepali language, became the lingua franca of Nepal as well as much of North-east India.<ref name=leo/>

In south-eastern Nepal, Simraungarh annexed [[Mithila (region)|Mithila]] around 1100 AD, and the unified Tirhut stood as a powerful kingdom for more than 200 years,<ref name=Darnal/> even ruling over Kathmandu for a time.{{sfn|Landon|1928|pp=32-33}} After another 300 years of Muslim rule, Tirhut came under the control of the Sens of [[Makwanpur District|Makawanpur]].<ref name=Darnal>{{cite journal |last=Darnal|first=Prakash|date=31 December 2018|title=A Review of Simarongarh's History on Its Nexus Areas with References of Archaeological Evidences|journal=Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology|language=en|volume=12|pages=18–26|doi=10.3126/dsaj.v12i0.22176|issn=1994-2672|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the eastern hills, a confederation of Kirat principalities ruled the area between Kathmandu and Bengal.

[[File:Patan Durbar Square Lalitpur.jpg|thumb|right|[[Patan Durbar Square]], one of the three palace squares in the Kathmandu Valley, was built by the Mallas in the 17th century. The Durbar Squares are a culmination of over a millennium of development in Nepali art and architecture.|alt=Patan Durbar Square has many buildings, mostly temples, built in the Pagoda style, and a couple of temples of [[Shikhara]] architecture showcasing the pinnacle of Nepali wood-, stone- and metal-craft.]]
In the Kathmandu valley, the [[Malla (Nepal)|Mallas]], who make several appearances in Nepalese history since ancient times, had established themselves in Kathmandu and Patan by the middle of the 14th century. The Mallas ruled the valley first under the suzerainty of Tirhut but established independent reign by late 14th century as Tirhut went into decline. In the late 14th century, [[Jayasthiti Malla]] introduced widespread socio-economic reforms, principal of which was the caste system. By dividing the indigenous non-Aryan Buddhist population into castes modelled after the four [[Varna (Hinduism)|Varna system]] of Hinduism, he provided an influential model for the Sanskritization and Hinduization of the indigenous non-Hindu tribal populations in all principalities throughout Nepal. By the middle of the 15th century, Kathmandu had become a powerful empire which, according to [[William James Kirkpatrick|Kirkpatrick]], extended from Digarchi or Sigatse in Tibet to Tirhut and Gaya in India.{{sfn|Landon|1928|p=39}} In the late 15th century, Malla princes divided their kingdom in four – Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur in the valley and Banepa to the east. The competition for prestige among these brotherly kingdoms saw the flourishing of art and architecture in central Nepal, and the building of famous [[Kathmandu Durbar Square|Kathmandu]], [[Patan Durbar Square|Patan]] and [[Bhaktapur Durbar Square]]s; their division and mistrust led to their fall in the late 18th century, and ultimately, the unification of Nepal into a modern state.<ref name=leo/>{{sfn|Landon|1928|pp=52-61}}

Apart from one destructive sacking of Kathmandu in the early 13th century, Nepal remains largely untouched by the [[Muslim invasion of India]] that began in the 11th century. However, the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal period]] saw an influx of high-caste Hindus from India into Nepal. They soon intermingled with the Khas people and by the 16th century, there were about 50 Rajput-ruled principalities in Nepal, including the 22 (Baisi) states and, to their east in west-central Nepal, 24 [[Chaubisi rajya|''Chaubisi'' states]]. There emerged a view that Nepal remained the true bastion of unadulterated Hinduism at a time when Indian culture had been influenced by centuries of Mughal, followed by [[British Raj|British rule]]. [[Gorkha Kingdom|Gorkha]], one of the Baisi states, emerged as an influential and ambitious kingdom with a reputation for justice, after it codified the first Hinduism-based laws in the Nepalese hills.<ref name=leo/>

=== Unification, expansion and consolidation (1768–1951) ===
{{Main|Kingdom of Nepal}}
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In the mid-18th century, [[Prithvi Narayan Shah]], a [[Gurkha|Gorkha]] king, set out to put together what would become present-day Nepal. He embarked on his mission by securing the neutrality of the bordering mountain kingdoms. After several bloody battles and sieges, notably the [[Battle of Kirtipur]], he managed to conquer the Kathmandu Valley in 1769.<ref>{{cite book |last=Giuseppe |first=Father |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSsoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA307 |title=Account of the Kingdom of Nepal |work=Asiatick Researches |publisher=London: Vernor and Hood |year=1799 |page=308 |access-date=2 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016233414/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSsoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA307 |archive-date=16 October 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Gorkha control reached its height when the [[Kumaon Kingdom|Kumaon]] and [[Garhwal Kingdom]]s in the west to [[Sikkim]] in the east came under Nepalese control. A dispute with [[Tibet]] over the control of mountain passes and inner Tingri valleys of Tibet forced the [[Qing dynasty|Qing Emperor]] of China to start the [[Sino-Nepalese War|Sino-Nepali War]] compelling the Nepali to retreat to their own borders in the north.{{sfn|Landon|1928|pp=68-69}} The rivalry between the Kingdom of Nepal and the [[East India Company]] over the control of states bordering Nepal eventually led to the [[Anglo-Nepalese War|Anglo-Nepali War]] (1815–16). At first, the British underestimated the Nepali and were soundly defeated until committing more military resources than they had anticipated needing. Thus began the reputation of [[Gurkha]]s as fierce and ruthless soldiers. The war ended in the [[Sugauli Treaty]], under which Nepal ceded recently captured lands.{{sfn|Landon|1928|pp=75-80}}<ref name=leo/>

Factionalism inside the royal family led to a period of instability. In 1846, a plot was discovered revealing that the reigning queen had planned to overthrow Jung Bahadur Kunwar, a fast-rising military leader. This led to the [[Kot massacre]]; armed clashes between military personnel and administrators loyal to the queen led to the execution of several hundred princes and chieftains around the country. Bir Narsingh Kunwar emerged victoriously and founded the [[Rana dynasty]], and came to be known as [[Jung Bahadur Rana]]. The king was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British and assisted them during the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] (and later in both World Wars). In 1860 some parts of the western Terai region were gifted to Nepal by the British as a friendly gesture because of her military help to sustain British control in India during the rebellion (known as ''[[Naya Muluk]]'', new country). In 1923, the United Kingdom and Nepal formally signed [[Nepal–Britain Treaty of 1923|an agreement of friendship]] that superseded the Sugauli Treaty of 1816.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |first1=andrea matles |last1=savada |first2=george lawrence |last2=harris |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/93012226/ |title=Nepal and Bhutan : country studies |access-date=26 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630034937/https://www.loc.gov/item/93012226/ |archive-date=30 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Hindu practice of [[Sati (practice)|Sati]], in which a widow sacrificed herself in the funeral pyre of her husband, was banned in 1919, and [[History of slavery in Asia|slavery]] was officially abolished in 1924.{{sfn|Hutt|2004|p=22}} Rana rule was marked by tyranny, [[wikt:debauchery|debauchery]], economic exploitation and religious persecution.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dietrich |first=Angela |title=Buddhist Monks and Rana Rulers: A History of Persecution |url=http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BH/bh117536.htm |journal=Buddhist Himalaya: A Journal of Nagarjuna Institute of Exact Methods |year=1996 |access-date=17 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001124156/http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-BH/bh117536.htm |archive-date=1 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Lal |first=C.K. |title=The Rana resonance |url=http://nepalitimes.com/news.php?id=8741 |newspaper=Nepali Times |date=16 February 2001 |access-date=17 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928013152/http://nepalitimes.com/news.php?id=8741 |archive-date=28 September 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{clear}}

===Nepal after 1951===

==== Transitional era (1951–1960) ====
Following the success of Indian Independence Movement which Nepalese activists had taken part in, with India's support and cooperation of King Tribhuvan, [[Nepali Congress]] was successful in toppling the Rana regime, establishing a parliamentary democracy.

====Panchayat era (1960–1990)====
After a decade of power wrangling between the king and the government, [[Mahendra of Nepal|King Mahendra]] (ruled 1955–1972) scrapped the democratic experiment in 1960, and a "partyless" [[Panchayat (Nepal)|Panchayat]] system was created to govern Nepal. The political parties were banned and politicians imprisoned or exiled.{{sfn|Hutt|2004|pp=3–7}}

==== Nepalese civil war (1996–2006) ====
[[File:Dr. Ram Baran Yadav.jpg|thumb|[[Ram Baran Yadav]] became the first [[President of Nepal|President]] of the Nepali republic on 23 July 2008, after the monarchy was finally abolished following its decades-long tussle with democracy.|alt=|185x185px]] The Panchayat rule modernised the country, introducing reforms and developing infrastructure, but curtailed liberties and imposed heavy censorship. In 1990, the [[People's Movement I (1990)|People's Movement]] forced [[Birendra of Nepal|King Birendra]] (ruled 1972–2001) to accept constitutional reforms and to establish a multiparty democracy.{{sfn|Hutt|2004|pp=3–7}}<ref name="Nepal_Timeline">{{cite news |title=Nepal profile – Timeline|date=19 February 2018|work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1166516.stm |access-date=29 September 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303103321/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1166516.stm |archive-date=3 March 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1996, the [[Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)|Maoist Party]] started a violent bid to replace the royal parliamentary system with a people's republic.{{sfn|Hutt|2004|pp=3–7}} This led to the long [[Nepali Civil War]] and more than 16,000 deaths.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8268651.stm|title=Nepal raises conflict death toll|date=22 September 2009 |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=11 March 2020}}</ref> With the death of both the King and the Crown Prince in a [[Nepalese royal massacre|massacre in the royal palace]] on 1 June 2001, King Birendra's brother [[Gyanendra of Nepal|Gyanendra]] inherited the throne in 2001{{sfn|Hutt|2004|pp=3–7}} and subsequently assumed full executive powers aiming to quash the Maoist insurgency himself.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hutt|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Hutt (academic and translator)|year=2005|title=King Gyanendra's Coup and its Implications for Nepal's Future|jstor=24590670|journal=[[The Brown Journal of World Affairs]]|volume=12|issue=1|pages=111–123|issn=1080-0786}}</ref>

==== Federal Democratic Republic (2008–present) ====

The Maoist Party joined mainstream politics following the success of the peaceful [[2006 democracy movement in Nepal|democratic revolution of 2006]];<ref name="Abolish">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7424302.stm |title=Nepal votes to abolish monarchy |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=28 May 2008 |access-date=18 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107130737/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7424302.stm |archive-date=7 January 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nepal became a [[secular state]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/05/18/nepal.king/|title=Nepal king stripped of most powers|publisher=CNN |date=18 May 2006 |access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref> and on 28 May 2008, it was declared a republic,<ref name="Abolish"/> ending its time-honoured status as the world's only Hindu kingdom.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/03/world/birenda-55-ruler-of-nepal-s-hindu-kingdom.html|title=Birenda, 55, Ruler of Nepal's Hindu Kingdom|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|last=Crossette|first=Barbara|author-link=Barbara Crossette|date=3 June 2001|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref> The country's new designation as the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal was submitted to the United Nations on 4 August 2008,<ref name="unterm">{{cite web|url=https://untermportal.un.org/unterm/display/record/unhq/na/3922e336-a0f8-4780-b597-d9485555160e|title=Nepal|publisher=United Nations|access-date=30 May 2021}}</ref> and later confirmed by the constitution.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Constitution of Nepal – Nepal Law Commission|url=https://www.lawcommission.gov.np/en/archives/category/documents/prevailing-law/constitution/constitution-of-nepal|access-date=2021-06-04|language=en-US}}</ref> After a decade of instability and internal strife which saw two constituent assembly elections, the [[Constitution of Nepal|new constitution]] was promulgated on 20 September 2015, making Nepal a federal democratic republic divided into [[Provinces of Nepal|seven provinces]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://kathmandupost.com/valley/2015/09/20/constitution-special-the-evolution-of-nepals-constitution|title=[Constitution special] The evolution of Nepal's constitution|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]]|language=en |date=20 September 2015 |access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://kathmandupost.com/valley/2015/09/20/people-celebrate-constitution-promulgation-in-photos|title=Constitution of Nepal 2015 Promulgated|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]]|language=en |date=20 September 2015 |access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref>

In June 2017, [[Nepali Congress]] leader [[Sher Bahadur Deuba]] was elected as the 40th Prime Minister of Nepal, succeeding the Prime Minister and Chairman of [[CPN (Maoist Centre)]] [[Pushpa Kamal Dahal]]. Deuba had been previously Prime Minister from 1995 to 1997, from 2001 to 2002, and from 2004 to 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2017/06/06/sher-bahadur-deuba-elected-new-pm-of-nepal|title=Sher Bahadur Deuba elected 40th PM of Nepal|website=kathmandupost.com}}</ref>
In November 2017, Nepal had [[2017 Nepalese general election|its first general election]] since the civil war ended and the monarchy was abolished. The main alternatives were the centrist Nepali Congress Party and the alliance of former Maoist rebels and the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist)|Communist UML]] party.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42126210|title=Nepal election: First poll since civil war ended|date=26 November 2017|via=www.bbc.com}}</ref> The alliance of communists won the election, and UML leader [[Khadga Prasad Sharma Oli]] was sworn in February 2018 as the new Prime Minister. He had previously been Prime Minister since 2015 until 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12511455|title=Nepal country profile|date=19 February 2018|via=www.bbc.com}}</ref> In July 2021, Prime Minister Oli was replaced by Sher Bahadur Deuba after a constitutional crisis.<ref>https://www.reuters.com/world/china/nepals-new-pm-wins-confidence-vote-amid-coronavirus-crisis-2021-07-18/</ref>
{{clear}}

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Nepal|Geology of Nepal}}
[[File:Nepal topo en.jpg|thumb|A topographic map of Nepal]]
Nepal is of roughly trapezoidal shape, about {{convert|800|km|mi|-1}} long and {{convert|200|km|mi|-1}} wide, with an area of {{convert|147516|km2|mi2|0|abbr=on}}. It lies between latitudes [[26th parallel north|26°]] and [[31st parallel north|31°N]], and longitudes [[80th meridian east|80°]] and [[89th meridian east|89°E]]. Nepal's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian plate, then part of the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]], began a north-eastward [[Plate tectonics|drift]] caused by [[seafloor spreading]] to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.<ref name=ali>{{cite journal |last1=Ali|first1=J. R.|last2=Aitchison|first2=J. C.|year=2005|title=Greater India|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|volume=72|issue=3–4|pages=170–173|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.07.005|bibcode=2005ESRv...72..169A}}</ref> Simultaneously, the vast [[Tethys Ocean|Tethyn]] [[oceanic crust]], to its northeast, began to [[subduction|subduct]] under the [[Eurasian plate]].<ref name=ali/> These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]], both created the [[Indian Ocean]] and caused the Indian [[continental crust]] eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the [[Himalayas]].<ref name=ali/> The rising barriers blocked the paths of rivers creating large lakes, which only broke through as late as 100,000 years ago, creating fertile valleys in the middle hills like the Kathmandu Valley. In the western region, rivers which were too strong to be hampered, cut some of the world's deepest gorges.<ref name=Jwhelpton/> Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast [[trough (geology)|trough]] that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Dikshit|first1=K. R.|last2=Schwartzberg|first2=Joseph E.|author2-link=Joseph E. Schwartzberg|title=India: Land|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|pages=1–29|access-date=18 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508084916/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India|archive-date=8 May 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> and now constitutes the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prakash|first1=B.|last2=Kumar|first2=S.|last3=Rao|first3=M. S.|last4=Giri|first4=S. C.|year=2000|title=Holocene Tectonic Movements and Stress Field in the Western Gangetic Plains|journal=Current Science|volume=79|issue=4|pages=438–449|url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf|access-date=18 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504075319/http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/aug252000/prakash.pdf|archive-date=4 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal lies almost completely within this collision zone, occupying the central sector of the Himalayan arc, nearly one-third of the {{Convert|2400|km|abbr=on|adj=on}}-long Himalayas,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Beek |first1=Peter |first2=Xavier |last2=Robert |first3=Jean-Louis |last3=Mugnier |first4=Matthias |last4=Bernet |first5=Pascale |last5=Huyghe |first6=Erika |last6=Labrin |title=Late Miocene- Recent Exhumation of the Central Himalaya and Recycling in the Foreland Basin Assessed by Apatite Fission-Track Thermochronology of Siwalik Sediments, Nepal |journal=Basin Research |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=413–434 |year=2006 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2117.2006.00305.x |bibcode=2006BasR...18..413V |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00137089/file/vdbeek_et_al_BR_2006.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berger |first1=Antoine |first2=Francois |last2=Jouanne |first3=Riad |last3=Hassani |first4=Jean Louis |last4=Mugnier |title=Modelling the Spatial Distribution of Present day Deformation in Nepal: how cylindrical is the Main Himalayan Thrust in Nepal? |journal=Geophys. J. Int. |volume=156 |issue=1 |pages=94–114 |year=2004 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02038.x |bibcode=2004GeoJI.156...94B |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last2=Bilham |first2=Roger |first1=Michael |last1=Jackson |title=Constraints on Himalayan Deformation inferred from Vertical Velocity Fields in Nepal and Tibet |journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=99 |issue=B7 |pages=897–912 |year=1994 |doi=10.1029/94JB00714 |bibcode=1994JGR....9913897J }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chamlagain |first1=Deepak |first2=Daigoro |last2=Hayashi |title=Neotectonic Fault Analysis by 2D Finite Element Modeling for Studying the Himalayan Fold and Thrust belt in Nepal |journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences |volume=29 |issue=2–3 |pages=473–489 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.jseaes.2005.10.016 |bibcode=2007JAESc..29..473C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=F. |last1=Jouanne |display-authors=1 |first2=J. L. |last2=Mugnier |first3=J. F. |last3=Gamond |first4=P. |last4=Le Fort |first5=M. R. |last5=Pandey |first6=L. |last6=Bollinger |first7=M. |last7=Flouzat |first8=J. P. |last8=Avouac |title=Current Shortening Across the Himalayas of Nepal |journal=Geophys. J. Int. |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |year=2004 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02180.x |bibcode=2004GeoJI.157....1J |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pandey |first1=M. R. |first2=R. P. |last2=Tandukar |first3=J. P. |last3=Avouac |first4=J. |last4=Vergne |first5=Th. |last5=Heritier |title=Seismotectonics of the Nepal Himalaya from a Local Seismic Network |journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences |volume=17 |issue=5–6 |pages=703–712 |year=1999 |doi=10.1016/S1367-9120(99)00034-6 |bibcode=1999JAESc..17..703P }}</ref> with a small strip of southernmost Nepal stretching into the Indo-Gangetic plain and two districts in the northwest stretching up to the Tibetan plateau.<ref name=Jwhelpton>{{Cite book |last=Whelpton |first=John |title=A History of Nepal |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-80470-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofnepal00whel }}</ref>

[[File:Everest kalapatthar crop.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mount Everest]], the highest peak on earth, lies on the Nepal–China border.]]
Nepal is divided into three principal physiographic belts known as ''[[himalayas|Himal]]''–''[[Lower Himalayan Range|Pahad]]''–''[[Terai]]''.{{efn|This trichotomy is a prominent feature of Nepali discourse and is represented in the [[Emblem of Nepal]], with blue and white peaks signifying ''Himal'', green hills below them signifying ''Pahad'' and the yellow strip at the bottom signifying the ''Terai'' belt.}} Himal is the mountain region containing snow and situated in the Great Himalayan Range; it makes up the northern part of Nepal. It contains the highest elevations in the world including {{convert|8848.86|m|ft|0}} height [[Mount Everest]] (''Sagarmāthā'' in Nepali) on the border with China. Seven other of the world's "[[eight-thousander]]s" are in Nepal or on its border with Tibet: [[Lhotse]], [[Makalu]], [[Cho Oyu]], [[Kangchenjunga]], [[Dhaulagiri]], [[Annapurna]] and [[Manaslu]]. Pahad is the mountain region that does not generally contain snow. The mountains vary from {{convert|800|to|4000|m|ft|-2}} in altitude, with progression from subtropical climates below {{convert|1200|m|ft|-2}} to alpine climates above {{convert|3600|m|ft|-2}}. The [[Lower Himalayan Range]], reaching {{convert|1500|to|3000|m|ft|-2}}, is the southern limit of this region, with subtropical river valleys and "hills" alternating to the north of this range. Population density is high in valleys but notably less above {{convert|2000|m|ft|-2}} and very low above {{convert|2500|m|ft|-2}}, where snow occasionally falls in winter. The southern lowland plains or ''Terai'' bordering India are part of the northern rim of the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]. Terai is the lowland region containing some hill ranges. The plains were formed and are fed by three major Himalayan rivers: the [[Koshi River|Koshi]], the [[Gandaki River|Narayani]], and the [[Ghaghara|Karnali]] as well as smaller rivers rising below the permanent snowline. This region has a subtropical to tropical climate. The outermost range of the foothills called [[Sivalik Hills]] or Churia Range, cresting at {{convert|700|to|1000|m|ft|-1}}, marks the limits of the Gangetic Plain; however broad, low valleys called [[Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal|Inner Terai Valleys]] ({{Lang|ne|Bhitri Tarai Upatyaka}}) lie north of these foothills in several places.
[[File:Köppen climate types of Nepal.svg|thumb|Köppen climate classification for Nepal]]
The Indian plate continues to move north relative to Asia at about {{Convert|50|mm|abbr=on}} per year.<ref>Bilham ''et al.'', 1998;{{Incomplete short citation|date=April 2020}} Pandey ''et al.'', 1995.{{Incomplete short citation|date=April 2020}}</ref> This makes Nepal an earthquake prone-zone, and periodic earthquakes that have devastating consequences present a significant hurdle to development. Erosion of the Himalayas is a very important source of sediment, which flows to the Indian Ocean.<ref>Summerfield & Hulton, 1994;{{Incomplete short citation|date=April 2020}} Hay, 1998.{{Incomplete short citation|date=April 2020}}</ref> Saptakoshi, in particular, carries a huge amount of silt out of Nepal but sees extreme drop in Gradient in [[Bihar]], causing severe floods and course changes, and is, therefore, known as the sorrow of Bihar. Severe flooding and landslides cause deaths and disease, destroy farmlands and cripple the transport infrastructure of the country, during the monsoon season each year.

Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to the altitudes. The tropical and subtropical zones lie below {{convert|1200|m|ft|-2}}, the [[temperate]] zone {{convert|1200|to|2400|m|ft|-2}}, the cold zone {{convert|2400|to|3600|m|ft|-2}}, the subarctic zone {{convert|3600|to|4400|m|ft|-2}}, and the Arctic zone above {{convert|4400|m|ft|-2}}. Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, [[monsoon]], autumn, winter and spring. The Himalayas block cold winds from Central Asia in the winter and form the northern limits of the monsoon wind patterns.

== Biodiversity ==
{{main|Wildlife of Nepal}}
{{See also|Protected areas of Nepal|Community forestry in Nepal}}

[[File:Land cover map of Nepal using Landsat 30 m (2010) data.jpg|thumb|This land cover map of Nepal using Landsat 30 m (2010) data shows forest cover as the dominant type of land cover in Nepal.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Development of 2010 national land cover database for the Nepal|journal = Journal of Environmental Management|date = 15 January 2015|pages = 82–90|volume = 148|series = Land Cover/Land Use Change (LC/LUC) and Environmental Impacts in South Asia|doi = 10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.07.047|pmid = 25181944|first1 = Kabir|last1 = Uddin|first2 = Him Lal|last2 = Shrestha|first3 = M. S. R.|last3 = Murthy|first4 = Birendra|last4 = Bajracharya|first5 = Basanta|last5 = Shrestha|first6 = Hammad|last6 = Gilani|first7 = Sudip|last7 = Pradhan|first8 = Bikash|last8 = Dangol}}</ref>|left]]

Nepal contains a disproportionately large diversity of plants and animals, relative to its size.<ref name=wwf>{{cite web |url=http://www.wwfnepal.org/?206342/The-Status-of-Nepals-Mammals|title=The Status of Nepal's Mammals: The National Red List Series |publisher=WWF Nepal |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref><ref name=kindl/> Nepal, in its entirety, forms the western portion of the [[eastern Himalaya]]n biodiversity hotspot, with notable [[biocultural diversity]].<ref name="O'Neill_al2017">{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=A. R.|last2=Badola |first2=H.K. |last3=Dhyani |first3=P. P. |last4=Rana |first4=S. K. |year=2017 |title=Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas |journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=21 |doi=10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9 |pmid=28356115 |pmc=5372287}}</ref> The dramatic differences in elevation found in Nepal (60 m from sea level in the Terai plains, to 8,848 m [[Mount Everest]])<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jha|first=Sasinath|year=2008|title=Status and Conservation of Lowland Terai Wetlands in Nepal|journal=Our Nature|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=67–77|doi=10.3126/on.v6i1.1657|issn=2091-2781|doi-access=free}}</ref> result in a variety of [[biome]]s.<ref name=wwf/> The Eastern half of Nepal is richer in biodiversity as it receives more rain, compared to western parts, where [[arctic desert]]-type conditions are more common at higher elevations.<ref name=kindl>{{citation |doi = 10.1007/978-94-007-1802-9_1|chapter = An Overview of the Biodiversity in Nepal|title = Himalayan Biodiversity in the Changing World|pages = 1–40|year = 2012|last1 = Paudel|first1 = Prakash Kumar|last2 = Bhattarai|first2 = Bishnu Prasad|last3 = Kindlmann|first3 = Pavel|isbn = 978-94-007-1801-2}}</ref> Nepal is a habitat for 4.0% of all [[Mammal|mammal species]], 8.9% of [[Bird|bird species]], 1.0% of [[Reptile|reptile species]], 2.5% of [[Amphibian|amphibian species]], 1.9% of [[Fish|fish species]], 3.7% of [[Butterfly|butterfly species]], 0.5% of [[Moth|moth species]] and 0.4% of [[Spider|spider species]].<ref name=kindl/> In its 35 forest-types and 118 ecosystems,<ref name=wwf/>{{efn|198 ecological types were first proposed in 1976, which was further revised and reduced to 118, which was further reduced by IUCN to 59 in 1998, which was further reduced to 36 in 2002. As this issue has yet to be settled, the 35-forest-type classification is generally preferred to the ecological categorisation.<ref name=kindl/>}} Nepal harbours 2% of the [[Flowering plant|flowering plant species]], 3% of [[pteridophyte]]s and 6% of [[bryophyte]]s.<ref name=kindl/>

Nepal's [[forest cover]] is {{convert|59624|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, 40.36% of the country's total land area, with an additional 4.38% of [[Shrubland|scrubland]], for a total forested area of 44.74%, an increase of 5% since the turn of the millennium.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/forest-cover-increased-nepal-late/|title=Forest cover has increased in Nepal of late|date=13 May 2016|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=24 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824161239/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/forest-cover-increased-nepal-late/|archive-date=24 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The country had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 7.23/10, ranking it 45th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the southern plains, [[Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands]] ecoregion contains some of the world's tallest grasses as well as ''[[Shorea robusta|Sal]]'' forests, [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical evergreen forests]] and tropical riverine deciduous forests.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-W0OAQAAMAAJ|title=Forests of Nepal|last=Stainton|first=J. D. A.|date=1972|publisher=Hafner Publishing Company|isbn=9780028527000|language=en}}</ref> In the lower hills (700 m – 2,000 m), [[Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests|subtropical]] and [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest|temperate deciduous mixed forests]] containing mostly S''al'' (in the lower altitudes), ''[[Schima wallichii|Chilaune]]'' and ''[[Castanopsis indica|Katus]]'', as well as [[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests|subtropical pine forest]] dominated by [[chir pine]] are common. The middle hills (2,000 m – 3,000 m) are dominated by [[oak]] and [[rhododendron]]. [[Temperate coniferous forest|Subalpine coniferous forests]] cover the 3,000 m to 3,500 m range, dominated by oak (particularly in the west), [[Abies spectabilis|Eastern Himalayan fir]], [[Pinus wallichiana|Himalayan pine]] and [[Tsuga dumosa|Himalayan hemlock]]; rhododendron is common as well. Above 3,500 m in the west and 4,000 m in the east, coniferous trees give way to rhododendron-dominated [[Alpine tundra|alpine shrubs and meadows]].<ref name=kindl/>

[[File:Great_Indian_One-Horned_Rhinoceros_of_assam.jpg|thumb|The [[greater one-horned rhinoceros]] roams the sub-tropical grasslands of the Terai plains.]]

Among the notable trees, are the [[astringent]] ''[[Azadirachta indica]]'', or ''neem'', which is widely used in traditional [[herbal medicine]],<ref name="Goyal2006">{{cite book |last=Goyal|first=Anupam|title=The WTO and International Environmental Law: Towards Conciliation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UTGQAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA295|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-567710-2|page=295}} Quote: "The Indian government successfully argued that the medicinal ''neem'' tree is part of traditional Indian knowledge. (page 295)"</ref> and the luxuriant ''[[Ficus religiosa]]'', or ''peepal'',<ref name="Hughes2013">{{cite book |last=Hughes|first=Julie E.|title=Animal Kingdoms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL8qWNmpkc0C&pg=PT106|year=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-07480-4|page=106|quote=At same time, the leafy pipal trees and comparative abundance that marked the Mewari landscape fostered refinements unattainable in other lands.}}</ref> which is displayed on the ancient seals of [[Mohenjo-daro]],<ref name="AmeriCostello2018">{{cite book |last1=Ameri|first1=Marta|last2=Costello|first2=Sarah Kielt|last3=Jamison|first3=Gregg; Scott, Sarah Jarmer|title=Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SklVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156|year=2018|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-17351-3|pages=156–7}} Quote: "The last of the centaurs has the long, wavy, horizontal horns of a markhor, a human face, a heavy-set body that appears bovine, and a goat tail ... This figure is often depicted by itself, but it is also consistently represented in scenes that seem to reflect the adoration of a figure in a pipal tree or arbor and which may be termed ritual. These include fully detailed scenes like that visible in the large 'divine adoration' seal from Mohenjo-daro."</ref> and under which [[Gautama Buddha|Gautam Buddha]] is recorded in the [[Pali canon]] to have sought enlightenment.<ref name="Gwynne2011">{{cite book |author=Paul Gwynne|title=World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tdsRKc_knZoC&pg=RA5-PT195|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-6005-9|page=358}} Quote: "The tree under which Sakyamuni became the Buddha is a peepal tree (''[[Ficus religiosa]]'')", page 358</ref>

Most of the subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest of the lower Himalayan region is descended from the [[Tethys Ocean|Tethyan]] [[Tertiary]] flora.<ref name=sun>{{cite journal |last=Sun|first=Hang|year=2002|title=Tethys retreat and Himalayas-Hengduanshan Mountains uplift and their significance on the origin and development of the sino-himalayan elements and alpine flora|url=http://europepmc.org/abstract/cba/371633|journal=Acta Botanica Yunnanica|volume=24|issue=3|pages=273–288|issn=0253-2700|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120958/http://europepmc.org/abstract/cba/371633|archive-date=26 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> As the [[Indian Plate]] collided with [[Eurasia]] forming and raising the Himalayas, the [[arid]] and semi-arid [[Mediterranean flora]] was pushed up and adapted to the more alpine climate over the next 40–50 million years.<ref name=sun/><ref name="USGS">{{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/himalaya.html|title=The Himalayas: Two continents collide|author=USGS|date=5 May 1999|access-date=26 August 2019|author-link=United States Geological Survey|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117130339/https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/himalaya.html|archive-date=17 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Eastern Himalaya|Himalayan biodiversity hotspot]] was the site of mass exchange and intermingling of the Indian and Eurasian species in the [[neogene]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Karanth|first=K. P.|date=25 March 2006|title=Out-of-India Gondwanan Origin of Some Tropical Asian Biota|journal=[[Current Science]]|volume=90|issue=6|pages=789–792|url=http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf|access-date=18 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411223533/http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf|archive-date=11 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> One mammal species ([[Himalayan field mouse]]), two each of bird and reptile species, nine amphibia, eight fish and 29 butterfly species are endemic to Nepal.<ref name=kindl/>{{efn|According to the 2019 IUCN red list, two species of mammals, one bird species and three amphibian species are endemic to Nepal.<ref>{{cite book |title=IUCN Red List version 2019–21|author=IUCN|chapter=Table 8a: Total endemic and threatened endemic species in each country (totals by taxonomic group): VERTEBRATES|chapter-url=https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/2019_2_RL_Table_8a.pdf|access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref>}}

[[File:Himalayan Monal Adult Male East Sikkim Sikkim India.png|thumb|left|The [[Himalayan monal]] ({{lang|ne|Danphe}}), the national bird of Nepal,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/national-bird-verge-disappearance/|title=National bird on verge of disappearance|date=16 April 2016|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=25 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826121001/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/national-bird-verge-disappearance/|archive-date=26 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> nests high in the Himalayas.]]

Nepal contains 107 [[IUCN]]-designated [[threatened species]], 88 of them animal species, 18 plant species and one species of "fungi or protist" group.<ref>{{cite book |title=IUCN Red List version 2019-2|chapter=Table 5: Threatened species in each country (totals by taxonomic group)|chapter-url=https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/2019_2_RL_Table_5.pdf|access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> These include the [[Endangered species|endangered]] [[Bengal tiger]], the [[red panda]], the [[Asiatic elephant]], the [[Himalayan musk deer]], the [[wild water buffalo]] and the [[South Asian river dolphin]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Red List of Mammal Species of Nepal|url=https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/red_list_poster_low.jpg|format=jpg|author=[[IUCN]] Nepal|access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref> as well as the [[critically endangered]] [[gharial]], the [[Bengal florican]],<ref name="wwf" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Bengal Florican Conservation Action Plan |author=Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal |url=http://www.birdlifenepal.org/download-newsletter/56|via=birdlifenepal.org|access-date=25 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819192112/http://www.birdlifenepal.org/download-newsletter/56|archive-date=19 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[white-rumped vulture]], which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of [[diclofenac]]-treated cattle.<ref name=thtvul>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/conservation-of-white-rumped-vultures-in-progress-in-nepal/|title=Conservation of white-rumped vultures in progress in Nepal|date=16 March 2018|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=25 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826121112/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/conservation-of-white-rumped-vultures-in-progress-in-nepal/|archive-date=26 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered [[Wildlife of Nepal|Nepali wildlife]]. In response, the system of [[Protected areas of Nepal|national parks and protected areas]], first established in 1973 with the enactment of ''National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973'',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/284/|title=Chitwan National Park |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=25 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120952/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/284/|archive-date=26 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> was substantially expanded. ''Vulture restaurants''<ref name=kindl/> coupled with a ban on veterinary usage of diclofenac has seen a rise in the number of white-rumped vultures.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/mahottari-declared-58th-diclofenac-free-district/|title=Mahottari declared 58th diclofenac-free district|date=8 August 2017|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120952/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/mahottari-declared-58th-diclofenac-free-district/|archive-date=26 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=thtvul/> The [[Community forestry in Nepal|community forestry program]] which has seen a third of the country's population directly participate in managing a quarter of the total forested area has helped the local economies while reducing [[human-wildlife conflict]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/96394/nepal-community-forest-value-untapped|title=Community forest value untapped|date=26 September 2012|website=The New Humanitarian|language=en|access-date=24 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718195507/http://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/96394/nepal-community-forest-value-untapped|archive-date=18 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ojha|first1=Hemant|last2=Persha|first2=Lauren|last3=Chhatre|first3=Ashwini|date=November 2009|title=Community Forestry in Nepal: A Policy Innovation for Local Livelihoods|url=http://cdm15738.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/16969/filename/16970.pdf|publisher=International food policy research institute|access-date=24 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016233415/http://cdm15738.contentdm.oclc.org/utils/getfile/collection/p15738coll2/id/16969/filename/16970.pdf|archive-date=16 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The breeding programmes<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wwfnepal.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/tal/project/gharial_breeding/|title=The Terai Arc Landscape Project (TAL) – Gharial Breeding Centre |publisher=WWF Nepal |access-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826121004/http://www.wwfnepal.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/tal/project/gharial_breeding/|archive-date=26 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> coupled with community-assisted military patrols,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/joint-patrol-for-wildlife-conservation-in-chitwan-national-park/|title='Joint Patrol' for wildlife conservation in CNP|date=22 March 2018|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120952/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/joint-patrol-for-wildlife-conservation-in-chitwan-national-park/|archive-date=26 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and a crackdown on poaching and smuggling, has seen poaching of critically endangered tigers and elephants as well as [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] rhinos, among others, go down to effectively zero, and their numbers have steadily increased.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iucn.org/content/nepal-celebrates-%E2%80%98zero-poaching-year%E2%80%99-rhino-tiger-and-elephant|title=Nepal celebrates 'zero poaching year' for rhino, tiger and elephant|date=14 March 2014|publisher=IUCN|language=en|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122073025/https://www.iucn.org/content/nepal-celebrates-%E2%80%98zero-poaching-year%E2%80%99-rhino-tiger-and-elephant|archive-date=22 November 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal has ten [[national park]]s, three [[wildlife reserves]], one [[Game reserve|hunting reserve]], three [[Conservation Area]]s and eleven [[buffer zone]]s, covering a total area of {{convert|28959.67|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, or 19.67% of the total land area,<ref>{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNksAQAAMAAJ|title=Nepal biodiversity resource book: Protected areas, Ramsar sites, and World Heritage sites|author=Nepalnature.com (Organization)|author2=International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Nepal|author3=Nepal Ministry of Environment, Science, and Technology|chapter=Protected Areas of Nepal|page=41|date=1 October 2007|publisher=International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development|isbn=9789291150335|language=en}}</ref> while ten [[wetland]]s are registered under the [[Ramsar Convention]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ramsar.org/wetland/nepal|title=Nepal |publisher=Ramsar |access-date=25 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708074016/https://www.ramsar.org/wetland/nepal|archive-date=8 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Politics and government ==
===Politics===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; float:right; margin-right:9px; margin-left:2px;"
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[File:Bidhya Devi Bhandari.jpg|175px]] || style="text-align:left;" | [[File:The former Prime Minister of Nepal, Mr. Sher Bahadur Deuba meeting the Union Minister for Commerce & Industry and Textiles, Shri Anand Sharma, in New Delhi on June 13, 2013 (cropped).jpg|150px]]
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Bidhya Devi Bhandari]] [[President of Nepal|President]]
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Sher Bahadur Deuba]] [[Prime Minister of Nepal|Prime Minister]]
|}
{{Main|Politics of Nepal}}
Nepal is a parliamentary republic with a multi-party system.<ref name="Al Jazeera elections explained">{{cite news |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2017/11/nepal-elections-2017-explained-171126103009857.html|title=Nepal elections explained|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]|access-date=17 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190814220351/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/interactive/2017/11/nepal-elections-2017-explained-171126103009857.html|archive-date=14 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> It has three political parties recognised in the federal parliament: [[Nepal Communist Party (NCP)]], [[Nepali Congress]] (NC),<ref name="Al Jazeera elections explained" /> and [[Janata Samajbadi Party, Nepal]] (JSPN).<ref name="Al Jazeera elections explained" /> Of the two major parties both of which officially espouse democratic socialism, NCP is considered leftist while Nepali Congress is considered centrist.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/blogs/asia/2017/10/nepal-headed-communist-state-171014095129113.html|title=Is Nepal headed towards a communist state?|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]|access-date=17 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726113406/https://www.aljazeera.com/blogs/asia/2017/10/nepal-headed-communist-state-171014095129113.html|archive-date=26 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> During most of the brief periods of democratic exercise in the 1950s and the 1990s, Nepali Congress held majority of seats in parliament; [[Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist)|CPN (UML)]] was its competitor in the 1990s.<ref name="Khadka 1993">{{cite journal |last=Khadka|first=Narayan|year=1993|title=Democracy and Development in Nepal: Prospects and Challenges|journal=Pacific Affairs|volume=66|issue=1|pages=44–71|doi=10.2307/2760015|issn=0030-851X|jstor=2760015}}</ref> After the [[Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre)|Maoists]] entered the political process in 2006, they emerged as the third largest party.<ref name="mao" /> In the aftermath of the [[2017 Nepalese legislative election|2017 elections]], the first one according to the new constitution, NCP, formed by the merger of CPN (UML) and CPN (Maoist Centre) has become the ruling party at the federal level and in six out of seven provinces.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/ncp-to-announce-party-department-chiefs-today/|title=NCP to announce party department chiefs today|date=21 July 2019|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=18 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818100446/https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/ncp-to-announce-party-department-chiefs-today/|archive-date=18 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The Madhesi coalition, comprising [[Samajbadi Party, Nepal]] and [[Rastriya Janata Party Nepal|Rastriya Janata Party, Nepal]], which later merged to form JSPN, formed the provincial government in Province No. 2, though it has negligible presence in the rest of the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2017-05-26/uml-wins-mayor-deputy-mayor-in-pokhara-lekhnath-metropolis.html|title=UML wins mayor, deputy mayor in Pokhara Lekhnath metropolis|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]]|access-date=18 April 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418092943/http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2017-05-26/uml-wins-mayor-deputy-mayor-in-pokhara-lekhnath-metropolis.html|archive-date=18 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/nepali-communists-win-landslide-face-big-obstacles-win-change|title=Nepali Communists win landslide, but face big obstacles to win change|date=5 January 2018|newspaper=[[Green Left Weekly]]|language=en|access-date=17 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726113413/https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/nepali-communists-win-landslide-face-big-obstacles-win-change|archive-date=26 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2018-01-29/uml-to-get-4-chief-ministers-maoist-centre-2.html|title=UML to get 4 chief ministers, Maoist Centre 2|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]] |language=en |access-date=18 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418092959/http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2018-01-29/uml-to-get-4-chief-ministers-maoist-centre-2.html|archive-date=18 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Though Nepali Congress has a significantly reduced representation, it is the only major opposition to the ruling communist party in all levels of government.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/20981|title=Nepali Congress in the Opposition|newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]]|access-date=18 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818100448/http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/20981|archive-date=18 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> However, Sher Bahadur Deuba, leader of the Nepali Congress, was appointed as Prime Minister again in July 2021.<ref>https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/7/19/nepals-new-pm-sher-bahadur-deuba-wins-confidence-vote</ref>

[[File:BP Koirala.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[B.P. Koirala]] led the 1951 revolution, became the first democratically elected Prime Minister, and after being deposed and imprisoned in 1961, spent the rest of his life fighting for democracy.|alt=Portrait of B. P. Koirala]]
In the 1930s, a vibrant underground political movement arose in the capital, birthing [[Nepal Praja Parishad]] in 1936,{{sfn|Hutt|2004|p=3-7}} which was dissolved seven years later, following the execution of the [[Martyrs of Nepal|four great martyrs]]. Around the same time, Nepalis involved in the [[Indian independence movement]] started organizing into political parties, leading to the birth of [[Nepali Congress]] and [[Communist Party of Nepal]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brown|first=T. Louise|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uy2IAgAAQBAJ|title=The Challenge to Democracy in Nepal|date=1 November 2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-88532-9|language=en}}</ref> As communism was trying to find its footing, Nepali Congress was successful in [[1951 Nepalese revolution|overthrowing the Rana regime]] in 1951 and enjoyed the overwhelming support of the electorate.<ref name="ram00">{{cite journal |last1=Ramachandran|first1=Shastri|last2=Ramachandaran|first2=Shastri|year=2003|title=Nepal as Seen from India|journal=[[India International Centre Quarterly]]|volume=30|issue=2|pages=81–98|issn=0376-9771|jstor=23006108}}</ref> In the partyless [[Panchayat (Nepal)|Panchayat system]] initiated in 1962 by [[Mahendra of Nepal|King Mahendra]], monarchy loyalists took turns leading the government; political leaders remained underground, exiled or in prison.{{sfn|Hutt|2004|p=3-7}} A communist insurgency was crushed in its cradle in the 1970s, which led to the eventual coalescence of hitherto scattered communist factions under the [[United Left Front (Nepal, 1990)|United Left Front]].

After the [[1990 Nepalese revolution|joint civil resistance]] launched by the United Left Front and Nepali Congress overthrew the Panchayat in 1990,<ref name=ram00/><ref>Rawal, Bhim Bahadur. ''Nepalma samyabadi andolan: udbhab ra vikas''. Kathmandu: Pairavi Prakashan. p. 83-84.</ref> the Front became [[CPN UML|CPN (UML)]], adopted multi-party democracy, and in the brief period, it was in government, introduced welfare programs that remain popular.<ref name="Khadka 1993" /> After the Maoist Party joined mainstream politics, in the aftermath of the [[2006 Nepalese revolution|peaceful revolution of 2006]], it also adopted multi-party democracy as its official line. The transition period between 2006 and 2015 saw sustained protests from the newly formed ethnocentric nationalist movements, principal among them the [[Madhes Movement]]. RJPN and SPN advocating equal rights and self-governance for the Madhesi people became major political parties in the Terai, Province No. 2 in particular.<ref name=mao>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/07/06/AR2010070605214.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |title=Long stalemate after Maoist victory disrupts life in Nepal |first=Anup |last=Kaphle |date=7 July 2010 |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104015054/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/07/06/AR2010070605214.html |archive-date=4 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11057207&fsrc=nwl |title=Nepal's election The Maoists triumph |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=17 April 2008 |access-date=29 July 2009 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/60XT8Sk3J?url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11057207&fsrc=nwl |archive-date=29 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Baburam Bhattarai elected prime minister of Nepal |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14700892 |access-date=12 March 2012 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=28 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010024052/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14700892 |archive-date=10 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2012/05/27/nepal-elections.html |title=Nepal PM calls new elections after constitution failure |publisher=[[CBC News]] |date=28 May 2012 |access-date=28 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528045008/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2012/05/27/nepal-elections.html |archive-date=28 May 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Government ===
{{Main|Government of Nepal|Constitution of Nepal}}
Nepal is governed according to the [[Constitution of Nepal]]. It defines Nepal as having multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, multi-cultural characteristics with common aspirations of people living in diverse geographical regions, and being committed to and united by a bond of allegiance to the national independence, territorial integrity, national interest, and prosperity of Nepal.<ref name=con15/>
{{multiple images|perrow=2/1
|image1=Kathmandu-35.JPG
|width1=148
|image2=Supreme Court of Nepal 01.jpg
|width2=148
|image3=Nepalese Constituent Assembly Building.jpg
|width3=300
|footer= Clockwise from top-left: (a) [[Singha Durbar]], the seat of government in Kathmandu (b) the Supreme Court (c) [[International Convention Centre, Nepal|Parliament House]]
}}
The [[Government of Nepal]] has three branches:<ref name=con15/>
* [[Executive (government)|Executive]]: The form of governance is a multi-party, competitive, federal democratic republican parliamentary system based on plurality. The President appoints the parliamentary party leader of the political party with the majority in the House of Representatives as Prime Minister, who forms the Council of ministers that exercises the executive power.
* [[Legislature]]: The Legislature of Nepal, called the Federal Parliament, consists of the House of Representatives and the National Assembly. The House of Representatives consists of 275 members elected through a [[mixed electoral system]] and has a term of five years. The National Assembly, consisting of 59 members elected by provincial electoral colleges, is a permanent house; a third of its members are elected every two years for a six-year term.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/printedition/news/2015-09-16/ca-approves-ceremonial-prez-bicameral-legislature.html |title=CA approves ceremonial prez, bicameral legislature |date=16 September 2015 |newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]]|access-date=8 December 2017 |quote=Provincial parliaments will be unicameral. "The CA also approved a mixed electoral system for parliamentary election with 60 percent directly elected and 40 percent proportionally elected." |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209044107/http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/printedition/news/2015-09-16/ca-approves-ceremonial-prez-bicameral-legislature.html |archive-date=9 December 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Judiciary]]: Nepal has a unitary three-tier independent judiciary that comprises the Supreme Court, the highest court in the land, headed by the [[Chief Justice of Nepal|Chief Justice]], seven High Courts, one in each province, the highest court at the provincial level, and 77 district courts, one in each district. The municipal councils can convene local judicial bodies to resolve disputes and render non-binding verdicts in cases not involving actionable crime. The actions and proceedings of the local judicial bodies may be guided and countermanded by the district courts.<ref name=con15/>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Nepal}}
{{Nepal province labelled map}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+
|- style="background:#98fb98;"
! Province
! Capital
! [[List of current Nepalese governors|Governor]]
! Chief Minister
! [[List of districts of Nepal|Districts]]
! Area (km2)
! [[List of Nepalese provinces by population|Population]] (2011)
! Density (people/km2)
! [[List of Nepalese provinces by Human Development Index|Human Development Index]]
! Map
|-
|[[Province No. 1]]||[[Biratnagar]]||[[Somnath Adhikari Pyasi|Somnath Adhikari]]||[[Sher Dhan Rai]]||14||25,905 km2||4,534,943||175||0.553||[[File:Nepal Province 1.svg|100px]]
|-
|[[Province No. 2]]||[[Janakpur]]||[[Rajesh Jha]]||[[Mohammad Lalbabu Raut]]||8||9,661 km2||5,404,145 ||559||0.485||[[File:Nepal Province 2.svg|100px]]
|-
|[[Bagmati Pradesh|Bagmati Province]]||[[Hetauda]] ||Bishnu Prasad Prasain||[[Dormani Poudel]] ||13|| 20,300 km2|| 5,529,452||272||0.560||[[File:Nepal Province 3.svg|100px]]
|-
|[[Gandaki Pradesh|Gandaki Province]]||[[Pokhara]] ||[[Sita Kumari Poudel]]||[[Krishna Chandra Nepali Pokharel|Krishna Chandra Nepali]]||11||21,504 km2||2,403,757||112||0.567||[[File:Nepal Province 4.svg|100px]]
|-
|[[Lumbini Pradesh|Lumbini Province]]||[[Deukhuri]]||Dharmanath Yadav||[[Shankar Pokharel]]||12||22,288 km2||4,499,272||219||0.519||[[File:Nepal Province 5.svg|100px]]
|-
|[[Karnali Pradesh|Karnali Province]]||[[Birendranagar]]||Govinda Prasad Kalauni||[[Mahendra Bahadur Shahi]]||10|| 27,984 km2||1,570,418||41||0.469||[[File:Nepal Karnali.svg|100px]]
|-
|[[Sudurpashchim Pradesh|Sudurpashchim Province]]||[[Godawari, Seti|Godawari]]||[[Sharmila Kumari Panta]]||[[Trilochan Bhatta]]||9||19,915 km2|| 2,552,517||130||0.478||[[File:Nepal Sudurpashchim Pradesh.svg|100px]]
|-
!Nepal
![[Kathmandu]]
![[President of Nepal|President]] [[Bidhya Devi Bhandari]]
![[Prime Ministers of Nepal|Prime Minister]] [[Khadga Prasad Sharma Oli]]
![[List of districts of Nepal|77]]
!147,557 km2
!26,494,504
!180
!0.579
![[File:Nepal grey.svg|frameless|100x100px]]
|}
Nepal is a federal republic comprising [[List of provinces of Nepal|7 provinces]]. Each province is composed of 8 to 14 districts. The districts, in turn, comprise local units known as urban and rural municipalities.<ref name=con15/> There is a total of 753 local units which includes 6 metropolitan municipalities, 11 sub-metropolitan municipalities and 276 municipalities for a total of 293 urban municipalities, and 460 rural municipalities.<ref name=asia1>{{cite web |title=Diagnostic Study of Local Governance in Federal Nepal 2017|author=Australian Government-The Asia Foundation Partnership on Subnational Governance in Nepal|publisher=[[The Asia Foundation]]|url=https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Diagnostic-Study-of-Local-Governance-in-Federal-Nepal-07112018.pdf|access-date=20 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720153050/https://asiafoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Diagnostic-Study-of-Local-Governance-in-Federal-Nepal-07112018.pdf|archive-date=20 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Each local unit is composed of wards. There are 6,743 wards in total.

The local governments enjoy executive and legislative as well as limited judicial powers in their local jurisdiction. The provinces have unicameral parliamentary Westminster system of governance. The local and provincial governments exercise some absolute powers and some powers shared with provincial and/or federal government. The district coordination committee, a committee composed of all elected officials from the local governments in the district, has a very limited role.<ref name=con15/><ref name=asia1/>

=== Largest cities ===
{{Largest cities of Nepal}}

=== Laws and law enforcement{{Anchor|Crime_and_law_enforcement}} ===
{{Main|Law enforcement in Nepal}}
[[File:NPP2019_11.jpg|thumb|right|Nepal has made progress with regard to minority rights in recent years.]]
The [[Constitution of Nepal]] is the supreme law of the land, and any other laws contradicting it are automatically invalid to the extent of the contradiction.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/55907/|title=Govt registers amendment bill to review 56 laws in bulk|newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]]|language=en|access-date=2 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902125309/https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/55907/|archive-date=2 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The specific legal provisions are codified as Civil Code and Criminal Code, accompanied by Civil Procedure Code and Criminal Procedure Code respectively.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/25251|title=The Modified Criminal And Civil Codes|newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]]|access-date=2 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902125556/http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/25251|archive-date=2 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The Supreme Court is the highest authority in the interpretation of laws and it can direct the parliament to amend or enact new laws as required. Nepali laws are considered generally more progressive compared to other developing countries, and in some instances, many developed ones. The death penalty has been abolished.<ref name="Death Penalty">{{cite web |url=http://www.deathpenalty.org/article.php?id=81|title=International Views on the Death Penalty|publisher=[[Death Penalty Focus]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106083835/http://www.deathpenalty.org/article.php?id=81|archive-date=6 November 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=6 November 2012}}</ref> Nepal also has made progress in LGBT rights and gender equality. It recognises marital rape and supports abortion rights; however, owing to a rise in sex-selective abortion, constraints have been introduced. Nepal is a signatory to the [[Geneva Convention]], [[Biological Weapons Convention|Conventions/Treaties on the prohibition of Biological]], [[Chemical Weapons Convention|Chemical]] and [[Nuclear weapons convention|Nuclear weapons]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/vwTreatiesByCountrySelected.xsp?xp_countrySelected=NP|title=Treaties, States parties, and Commentaries – Nepal|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]]|access-date=2 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902125320/https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/vwTreatiesByCountrySelected.xsp%3Fxp_countrySelected%3DNP|archive-date=2 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[ILO fundamental conventions|International Labour Organization Fundamental Conventions]], [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]] and the [[Paris climate accord]]. Some legal provisions, guided by socio-economic, cultural and religious sensibilities, remain discriminatory. There is gender-based discrimination against foreign nationals married to Nepali citizens.{{Efn|However, same-sex marriage with foreign nationals occurring in a jurisdiction that recognises same-sex marriage is now recognised in Nepal, for eligibility to obtain a "non-tourist visa" as dependent of a Nepali citizen, by verdict of the Supreme Court in 2017, as the laws do not make sex-specific distinction in provisions relating to the rights of foreign nationals married to Nepali citizens.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nkp.gov.np/full_detail/8972/?keywords=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%20%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4|title=निर्णय नं. ९९२१ - उत्प्रेषण / परमादेश|publisher=[[Government of Nepal]]}}</ref>|name=|group=}} Paternal lineage of a person is valued and required in legal documents. Many laws remain unenforced in practice.

[[File:Traffic-controllers - Kathmandu, Nepal - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|Traffic Police personnel manually direct traffic at the busiest roads and junctions.]]
[[Nepal Police]] is the primary law enforcement agency. It is an independent organization under the command of the [[Inspector General of Police (Nepal)|Inspector General]], who is appointed by and reports to the [[Ministry of Home Affairs (Nepal)|Ministry of Home Affairs]]. In addition to maintaining law and order, it is responsible for the management of road traffic, which is undertaken by Nepal Traffic Police. [[Armed Police Force (Nepal)|Nepal Armed Police Force]], a separate paramilitary police organization, works in cooperation with Nepal police in routine security matters; it is intended for crowd control, counter-insurgency and anti-terrorism actions, and other internal matters where the use of force may be necessary. The [[Central Investigation Bureau|Crime Investigation Department]] of Nepal Police specializes in criminal investigation and forensic analysis.<ref name="Newman2010">{{cite book |title=Crime and Punishment around the World |first=Graeme |last=Newman |page=171 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2uK6bR9byVIC&pg=RA2-PA176|isbn=978-0-313-35134-1}}</ref><ref name="AHRC">{{cite web |title=NEPAL: Corruption in Nepal – Curse or Crime? |url=http://www.humanrights.asia/opinions/columns/AHRC-ETC-011-2012 |publisher=[[Asian Human Rights Commission]]|access-date=6 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130815082147/http://www.humanrights.asia/opinions/columns/AHRC-ETC-011-2012 |archive-date=15 August 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="InterpolNepal">{{cite web|title=INTERPOL - Kathmandu|url=https://www.interpol.int/Who-we-are/Member-countries/Asia-South-Pacific/NEPAL|access-date=7 May 2021|website=[[Interpol]]}}</ref><ref name="Brown2013">{{cite web |title=The Impact of Organized Crime on Governance in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Nepal|publisher=[[Center on International Cooperation]]|url=http://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/kavanagh_crime_developing_countries_nepal_study.pdf|access-date=6 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223155209/http://cic.nyu.edu/sites/default/files/kavanagh_crime_developing_countries_nepal_study.pdf |archive-date=23 February 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://niss.org.np/organizational-structure-and-role-of-nid-in-nepals-federal-set-up/|title=Organizational Structure and Role of NID in Nepal's Federal Set up|publisher=[[Nepal Institute for Strategic Studies]]|access-date=2 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902125311/http://niss.org.np/organizational-structure-and-role-of-nid-in-nepals-federal-set-up/|archive-date=2 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority]] is an independent investigative agency that investigates and prosecutes cases related to corruption, bribery and abuses of authority. At 2.16 per 100,000 in 2016, Nepal's intentional homicide rate is much lower than average; police data indicates a steady increase in the crime rate in recent years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2019/12/08/crime-rate-in-nepal-rose-by-40-percent-in-past-five-fiscal-years-police-data-reveals|title=Crime rate in Nepal rose by 40 percent in past five fiscal years, police data reveals|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=3 April 2020}}</ref> Nepal was ranked 76 out of 163 countries in the Global Peace Index (GPI) in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://visionofhumanity.org/indexes/global-peace-index/|title=Global Peace Index 2019|website=Vision of Humanity|publisher=[[Institute for Economics & Peace]]|access-date=9 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619080402/http://visionofhumanity.org/indexes/global-peace-index/|archive-date=19 June 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Nepal}}
[[File:Gurkha Memorial, Horse Guards Avenue - geograph.org.uk - 379881.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Gurkha]] Memorial, London]]
Nepal depends on diplomacy for national defence. It maintains a policy of neutrality between its neighbours, has amicable relations with other countries in the region, and has a policy of non-alignment at the global stage. Nepal is a member of [[SAARC]], [[UN]], [[WTO]], [[BIMSTEC]] and [[Asia Cooperation Dialogue|ACD]], among others. It has bilateral diplomatic relations with 167 countries and the EU,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mofa.gov.np/foreign-policy/bilateral-relation/|title=Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs Nepal MOFA|language=en-US|publisher=[[Government of Nepal]]|access-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925203632/https://mofa.gov.np/foreign-policy/bilateral-relation/|archive-date=25 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> has embassies in 30 countries<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mofa.gov.np/embassy-of-nepal/|title=Embassy of Nepal – Ministry of Foreign Affairs Nepal MOFA|language=en-US|publisher=[[Government of Nepal]]|access-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717045107/https://mofa.gov.np/embassy-of-nepal/|archive-date=17 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and six consulates,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mofa.gov.np/consulates-general-of-nepal/|title=Consulates General of Nepal – Ministry of Foreign Affairs Nepal MOFA|language=en-US|access-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724133315/https://mofa.gov.np/consulates-general-of-nepal/|archive-date=24 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> while 25 countries maintain embassies in Nepal, and more than 80 others maintain non-residential diplomatic missions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mofa.gov.np/non-residential-diplomatic-missions/|title=NON-RESIDENTIAL DIPLOMATIC MISSIONS – Ministry of Foreign Affairs Nepal MOFA|language=en-US|publisher=[[Government of Nepal]]|access-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717010017/https://mofa.gov.np/non-residential-diplomatic-missions/|archive-date=17 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal is one of the major contributors to the [[United Nations peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping]] missions, having contributed more than 119,000 personnel to 42 missions since 1958.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/nepalese-peacekeepers-receive-un-medal|title=Nepalese Peacekeepers receive UN Medal|publisher=[[United Nations]]|language=en|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> Nepali people have a reputation for honesty, loyalty and bravery, which has led to them serving as legendary Gurkha warriors in the Indian and British armies for the last 200 years, with service in both world wars, India-Pakistan wars as well as Afghanistan and Iraq,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/the-nepalis-fighting-americas-wars/ |title=The Nepalis Fighting America's Wars |first=Peter |last=Gill |newspaper=[[The Diplomat]] |language=en-US |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919053517/https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/the-nepalis-fighting-americas-wars/ |archive-date=19 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> though Nepal was not directly involved in any of those conflicts, and winning the highest military awards, including the [[Victoria Cross]] and the [[Param Vir Chakra]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/the-big-question-who-are-the-gurkhas-and-what-is-their-contribution-to-military-history-1676354.html|title=The Big Question: Who are the Gurkhas and what is their contribution|date=30 April 2009|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|language=en|access-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603070551/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/the-big-question-who-are-the-gurkhas-and-what-is-their-contribution-to-military-history-1676354.html|archive-date=3 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:DA-ST-96-01245_c1.JPEG|thumb|upright|left|Nepal is one of the major contributors to UN peacekeeping missions.]]
Nepal pursues a policy of "balanced relations" with the two giant immediate neighbours, India and China;<ref>{{cite news |url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/18241|title=Nepal's Ties With India, China|newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]]|access-date=11 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222203139/http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/18241|archive-date=22 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Dahal|first=Girdhari|year=2018|title=Foreign Relation of Nepal with China and India|journal=[[Journal of Political Science]]|volume=XVIII|pages=46–61|doi=10.3126/jps.v18i0.20439|doi-access=free}}</ref> the [[1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship|1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship]] with India provides for a much closer relationship.<ref name=rn50>{{cite news |url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/22232|title=Reviewing The Treaty Of 1950|newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]]|access-date=11 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303194225/http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/22232|archive-date=3 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal and India share an open border with free movement of people, religious, cultural and marital ties. India is Nepal's largest trading partner, which it depends upon for all of its oil and gas, and a number of essential goods. Nepalis can own property in India, while Indians are free to live and work in Nepal.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/is-it-the-end-of-india-s-special-relationship-with-nepal/story-ijLNl5AvvOt1w6fQANekVP.html|title=Is it the end of India's special relationship with Nepal?|date=8 March 2018|newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]]|language=en|access-date=6 April 2020}}</ref> Relations between India and Nepal, though very close, is "fraught with difficulties stemming from geography, economics, the problems inherent in big power-small power relations, and common ethnic, linguistic and cultural identities that overlap the two countries' borders".{{sfn|Balakrishnan|2010|p=196}} Nepal established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China on 1 August 1955, and signed the [[Sino-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship|Treaty of Peace and Friendship]] in 1960; relations since have been based on the [[Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence]]. Nepal maintains neutrality in conflicts between China and India. It remains firmly committed to the [[One-China policy|One China Policy]] and is known to curb anti-China activities from the [[Tibetan diaspora|Tibetan refugees]] in Nepal.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-tibet-nepal-20150806-story.html|title=Tibet's Road Ahead: Tibetans lose a haven in Nepal under Chinese pressure|date=6 August 2015|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=12 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023225427/https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-tibet-nepal-20150806-story.html|archive-date=23 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Haviland |first=Charles |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7353249.stm |title=Nepal Arrests Tibetan Protesters |work=[[BBC News]] |date=17 April 2008 |access-date=29 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090930002704/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7353249.stm |archive-date=30 September 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> Citizens of both countries can cross the border and travel as far as 30 km without a visa.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/china-urged-to-let-nepalis-work-in-taklakot/|title=China urged to let Nepalis work in Taklakot|date=7 June 2019|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=12 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607195323/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/china-urged-to-let-nepalis-work-in-taklakot/|archive-date=7 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> China is viewed favourably in Nepal owing to the absence of any border disputes or serious interference in internal politics, coupled with its assistance in infrastructure development and aid during emergencies; favourability has increased since China helped Nepal during the [[2015 Nepal blockade|2015 economic blockade]] imposed by India.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/why-nepals-access-to-china-ports-matters/|title=Why Nepal's Access to China Ports Matters|last=Rajgopalan|first=Rajeswari Pillai|newspaper=[[The Diplomat]]|language=en-US|access-date=12 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031155408/https://thediplomat.com/2018/09/why-nepals-access-to-china-ports-matters/|archive-date=31 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Subsequently, China granted Nepal access to its ports for third-country trade, and Nepal joined China's [[Belt and Road Initiative]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/opinion/belt-and-road-initiative-nepals-concern-and-commitment/|title=Belt and Road Initiative: Nepal's concern and commitment|date=23 April 2019|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=12 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424161958/https://thehimalayantimes.com/opinion/belt-and-road-initiative-nepals-concern-and-commitment/|archive-date=24 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

Nepal emphasises greater cooperation in South Asia and actively pushed for the establishment of [[SAARC]], the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the permanent secretariat of which, is hosted in Kathmandu.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Iqbal|first=Muhammad Jamshed|year=2006|title=SAARC: Origin, Growth, Potential and Achievements|url=http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/SAARC_Jamshed_Iqbal.pdf|journal=[[Pakistan Journal of History & Culture]]|volume=XXVII|pages=127–40|access-date=11 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111092347/http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_Journal/SAARC_Jamshed_Iqbal.pdf|archive-date=11 November 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal was one of the first countries to recognise an independent Bangladesh, and the two countries seek to enhance greater cooperation, on trade and water management; seaports in Bangladesh, being closer, are seen as viable alternatives to India's monopoly on Nepal's third-country trade.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/19231|title=Nepal, Bangladesh Can Become Better Trade Partners|newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]]|access-date=12 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181111072640/http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/19231|archive-date=11 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal was the first South Asian country to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, and the countries enjoy a strong relationship;<ref>{{cite news |url=http://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/42903/|title=Marking the diplomatic ties between Nepal and Israel|newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]]|language=en|access-date=12 September 2019}}</ref> it recognises the rights of the Palestinians, having voted in favour of its recognition at the UN and against the recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2017/12/23/unga-vote-consistent-with-nepals-position-on-israel-palestine|title=UNGA vote 'consistent with Nepal's position on Israel, Palestine'|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]]|language=en|access-date=12 September 2019}}</ref> Countries that Nepal maintains a close relationship with, include the most generous donors and development partners—the United States, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Japan and Norway, among others.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Khadka|first=Narayan|year=1997|title=Foreign Aid to Nepal: Donor Motivations in the Post-Cold War Period|journal=[[Asian Survey]]|volume=37|issue=11|pages=1044–1061|doi=10.2307/2645740|issn=0004-4687|jstor=2645740}}</ref>

===Military and intelligence===
{{main|Nepalese Army}}
[[File:Kukri,_karda_&_chakmak.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The multipurpose [[Kukri]] knife (top) is the signature weapon of the Nepali armed forces, and is used by the Gurkhas, Nepal Army, Police and even security guards.]]
The President is the supreme commander of the [[Nepalese Army]]; its routine management is handled by the [[Ministry of Defence (Nepal)|Ministry of Defence]]. The military expenditure for 2018 was $398.5 million,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.CD?locations=NP|title=Military expenditure (current USD) {{!}} Data|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref> around 1.4% of GDP.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?locations=NP|title=Military expenditure (% of GDP) {{!}} Data|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=14 September 2019}}</ref> An almost exclusively ground infantry force, Nepal Army numbers at less than one hundred thousand;<ref name=rag/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2018/08/10/new-chief-faces-daunting-task-rebuilding-nepal-armys-image|title=New chief faces daunting task rebuilding Nepal Army's image|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]]|language=en|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/lieutenant-general-purna-chandra-thapa-to-take-charge-of-nepali-army-as-acting-chief-of-army-staff/|title=Thapa to take charge of Nepali Army as acting CoAS|date=9 August 2018|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917071448/https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/lieutenant-general-purna-chandra-thapa-to-take-charge-of-nepali-army-as-acting-chief-of-army-staff/|archive-date=17 September 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> recruitment is voluntary.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nepal/|title=South Asia :: Nepal – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> It has few aircraft, mainly helicopters, primarily used for transport, patrol, and search and rescue.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/nepali-army-launches-new-helicopters/|title=Nepali Army launches new helicopters|date=23 June 2015|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160723110205/http://thehimalayantimes.com/business/nepali-army-launches-new-helicopters/|archive-date=23 July 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Directorate of Military Intelligence (Nepal)|Directorate of Military Intelligence]] under Nepal Army serves as the military intelligence agency;<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVLeCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA199|title=Military and Democracy in Nepal|last=Adhikari|first=Indra|date=2015|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781317589068|language=en}}</ref> [[National Investigation Department of Nepal|National Investigation Department]] tasked with national and international intelligence gathering, is independent.<ref name=rag>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8dHXRR3z-_EC&pg=PA130|title=Nepal as a Federal State: Lessons from Indian Experience|last=Raghavan|first=V. R.|date=2013|publisher=[[Vij Books India]]|isbn=9789382652014|language=en}}</ref> Nepal Army is primarily used for routine security of critical assets, an anti-poaching patrol of national parks, counterinsurgency, and search and rescue during natural disasters;<ref>{{cite news |url=http://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/19522/|title=Army to rescue|newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]]|language=en|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref> it also undertakes major construction projects.<ref name=milroad>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/dolpa-hq-connected-to-national-road-network/|title=Dolpa HQ connected to national road network|date=18 November 2018|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> There are no discriminatory policies on recruitment into the army, but it is dominated by men from elite Pahari warrior castes.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/4357/|title=Women promoted to major for first time in NA infantry|last=Pariyar|first=Kamal|newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]]|language=en|access-date=15 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180601000757/http://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/4357/|archive-date=1 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.saferworld.org.uk/resources/news-and-analysis/post/751-bhakti-shah-the-fight-for-gay-and-transgender-rights-in-nepal|title=Bhakti Shah – the fight for gay and transgender rights in Nepal|publisher=[[Saferworld]]|language=en|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref>

== Economy ==
[[File:Women Working in the Rice Fields at Khiji Nepal.jpg|thumb|left|Two-thirds of the Nepali workforce is employed in agriculture but productivity is low, as most of it is done with traditional methods and manual labour.]]
{{Main|Economy of Nepal}}
Nepal's gross domestic product (GDP) for 2019 was $34.186 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=NP |title=GDP (current US$) {{!}} Data |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190312080539/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=NP |archive-date=12 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web|title=Nepal {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/country/NP|access-date=2021-07-23|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>With an annual growth rate calculated at 6.6% in 2019,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=NP |title=GDP growth (annual %) {{!}} Data |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 September 2019}}</ref> and expected 2.89% in 2021,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nepal - Gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate 2026|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/425729/gross-domestic-product-gdp-growth-rate-in-nepal/|access-date=2021-07-23|website=Statista|language=en}}</ref>Nepal is one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. However, the country ranks 165th in the world{{efn|October 2019, IMF update, excludes [[Somalia]] and [[Syria]].}} in [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|nominal GDP per capita]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=47&pr.y=14&sy=2019&ey=2019&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512,668,914,672,612,946,614,137,311,546,213,674,911,676,314,548,193,556,122,678,912,181,313,867,419,682,513,684,316,273,913,868,124,921,339,948,638,943,514,686,218,688,963,518,616,728,223,836,516,558,918,138,748,196,618,278,624,692,522,694,622,962,156,142,626,449,628,564,228,565,924,283,233,853,632,288,636,293,634,566,238,964,662,182,960,359,423,453,935,968,128,922,611,714,321,862,243,135,248,716,469,456,253,722,642,942,643,718,939,724,734,576,644,936,819,961,172,813,132,726,646,199,648,733,915,184,134,524,652,361,174,362,328,364,258,732,656,366,654,144,336,146,263,463,268,528,532,923,944,738,176,578,534,537,536,742,429,866,433,369,178,744,436,186,136,925,343,869,158,746,439,926,916,466,664,112,826,111,542,298,967,927,443,846,917,299,544,582,941,474,446,754,666,698&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a= |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |publisher=IMF |access-date=15 November 2019}}</ref> and 162nd{{efn|October 2019, IMF update; excludes [[Somalia]], [[Syria]], and [[Venezuela]].}} in [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita at PPP]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=81&pr.y=10&sy=2019&ey=2019&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512,668,914,672,612,946,614,137,311,546,213,674,911,676,314,548,193,556,122,678,912,181,313,867,419,682,513,684,316,273,913,868,124,921,339,948,638,943,514,686,218,688,963,518,616,728,223,836,516,558,918,138,748,196,618,278,624,692,522,694,622,962,156,142,626,449,628,564,228,565,924,283,233,853,632,288,636,293,634,566,238,964,662,182,960,359,423,453,935,968,128,922,611,714,321,862,243,135,248,716,469,456,253,722,642,942,643,718,939,724,734,576,644,936,819,961,172,813,132,726,646,199,648,733,915,184,134,524,652,361,174,362,328,364,258,732,656,366,654,144,336,146,263,463,268,528,532,923,944,738,176,578,534,537,536,742,429,866,433,369,178,744,436,186,136,925,343,869,158,746,439,926,916,466,664,112,826,111,542,298,967,927,443,846,917,299,544,582,941,474,446,754,666,698&s=PPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |publisher=IMF |access-date=15 November 2019}}</ref> Nepal has been a member of [[WTO]] since 23 April 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/acc_e/a1_nepal_e.htm |title=Accessions: Nepal |publisher=WTO |access-date=15 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115111106/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/acc_e/a1_nepal_e.htm |archive-date=15 November 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The 16.8-million-worker [[Labour in Nepal|Nepali labour force]] is the 37th largest in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2095rank.html|title=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=18 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530152006/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications//the-world-factbook/rankorder/2095rank.html|archive-date=30 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Primary sector of the economy|The primary sector]] makes up 27.59% of GDP, [[Secondary sector of the economy|the secondary sector]] 14.6%, and [[Tertiary sector of the economy|the tertiary sector]] 57.81%.<ref name="National Accounts of Nepal 2018/19">{{cite web |url=https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2019/04/Press-release-2018_19.pdf |title=National Accounts of Nepal 2018/19 |year=2019 |publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics Nepal |access-date=5 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505113753/https://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/upLoads/2019/04/Press-release-2018_19.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nepal's foreign exchange remittances of US$8.1 billion in 2018, the 19th largest in the world and constituting 28.0% of GDP,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/money/2019/04/10/nepal-is-19th-largest-receiver-of-remittances-with-81-billion|title=Nepal is 19th largest receiver of remittances with $8.1 billion |website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref> were contributed to its economy by millions of workers primarily in India, the middle east and East Asia, almost all of them unskilled labourers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/valley/2018/05/02/unskilled-workers-dominate-nepali-labour-force-abroad|title=Unskilled workers dominate Nepali labour force abroad|website=Kathmandu Post|language=en|access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/miscellaneous/2017/09/18/more-nepalis-going-abroad-for-employment|title=More Nepalis going abroad for employment|website=Kathmandu Post|language=en|access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref> Major agricultural products include cereals (barley, maize, millet, paddy and wheat), oilseed, potato, pulses, sugarcane, jute, tobacco, milk and water buffalo meat.<ref name=cia17>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nepal/|title=South Asia :: Nepal – The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=18 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chaudhary|first=Deepak|date=1 November 2018|title=Agricultural Policies and Rural Development in Nepal: An Overview|journal=Research Nepal Journal of Development Studies|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=34–46|doi=10.3126/rnjds.v1i2.22425|issn=2631-2131|doi-access=free}}</ref> Major industries include tourism, carpets, textiles, cigarettes, cement, brick, as well as small rice, jute, sugar and oilseed mills.<ref name=cia17/> Nepal's international trade greatly expanded in 1951 with the establishment of democracy; liberalization began in 1985 and picked up pace after 1990. By the fiscal year 2016/17, Nepal's foreign trade amounted Rs 1.06 trillion, a twenty-three folds increase from Rs 45.6 billion in 1990/91. More than 60% of Nepal's trade is with India. Major exports include readymade garment, carpet, pulses, handicrafts, leather, medicinal herbs, and paper products, which account for 90% of the total. Major imports include various finished and semi-finished goods, raw materials, machinery and equipment, chemical fertilizers, electrical and electronic devices, petroleum products, gold, and readymade garments.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Acharya|first=Khubi Ram|date=5 July 2019|title=Nepalese Foreign Trade: Growth, Composition, and Direction|journal=NCC Journal|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=91–96|doi=10.3126/nccj.v4i1.24741|issn=2505-0788|doi-access=free}}</ref> Inflation was at 4.5% in 2019.<ref name="wb19">{{cite web|title=Overview|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nepal/overview|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621191142/https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nepal/overview|archive-date=21 June 2019|access-date=23 November 2019|publisher=World Bank|language=en}}</ref> Foreign exchange reserves were at US$9.5 billion in July 2019, equivalent to 7.8 months of imports.<ref name=wb19/>

[[File:Fewa lake,Pokhara.jpg|thumb|right|[[Pokhara]] (pictured) is one of the premier tourist destinations. Nepal has a significant potential for the development of ecological, cultural and spiritual tourism.]]
Nepal has made significant progress in poverty reduction bringing the population below the international poverty line (US$1.90 per person per day) from 15% in 2010 to just 9.3% in 2018, although vulnerability remains extremely high, with almost 32% of the population living on between US$1.90 and US$3.20 per person per day.<ref name=wb19/> Nepal has made improvement in sectors like nutrition, child mortality, electricity, improved flooring and assets. Under the current trend, Nepal is expected to eradicate poverty within 20 years.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/bangladesh-nepal-poverty-india-idINDEE92H0FZ20130318 |title=Bangladesh, Nepal, Rwanda top India in reducing poverty – study |date=19 March 2013 |access-date=19 March 2013 |agency=Reuters India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321061824/http://in.reuters.com/article/2013/03/18/bangladesh-nepal-poverty-india-idINDEE92H0FZ20130318 |archive-date=21 March 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2013/mar/17/aid-trade-reduce-acute-poverty |title=World poverty is shrinking rapidly, new index reveals |last=McVeigh |first=Tracy |date=17 March 2013 |work=The Guardian |access-date=19 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140216091824/http://www.theguardian.com/society/2013/mar/17/aid-trade-reduce-acute-poverty |archive-date=16 February 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> The agriculture sector is particularly vulnerable as it is highly dependent on the monsoon rains, with just 28% of the arable land being irrigated, {{as of |2014}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://projects.worldbank.org/en/results/2014/04/11/nepal-irrigation-and-water-resource-management|title=Nepal: Irrigation and Water Resource Management|publisher=World Bank|language=en|access-date=24 November 2019}}</ref> Agriculture employs 76% of the workforce, services 18%, and manufacturing and craft-based industry 6%.<ref name="World Bank: Nepal- Country Overview 2012">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org.np/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/NEPALEXTN/0,,contentMDK:22147453~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:223555,00.html |title=World Bank: Nepal- Country Overview 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=World Bank |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120822110758/http://www.worldbank.org.np/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/NEPALEXTN/0,,contentMDK:22147453~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:223555,00.html |archive-date=22 August 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Private investment, consumption, tourism and agriculture are the principal contributors to economic growth.<ref name="wb19" />

The government's budget is about $13.71 billion (FY 2019/20);<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-05/30/c_138102450.htm|title=Nepali gov't presents 13.71 bln USD budget for next fiscal year |agency=Xinhua News Agency |access-date=24 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530051927/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-05/30/c_138102450.htm|archive-date=30 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> expenditure of infrastructure development budget, most of it contributed by foreign aid, usually fails to meet the target.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.setopati.com/market/141194/|title=Finance Minister Khatiwada worried as ministries fail to spend development budget |website=Setopati|access-date=24 November 2019}}</ref> The country receives foreign aid from the UK,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmintdev/854/85403.htm |title=DFID's bilateral programme in Nepal |date=27 March 2015 |publisher=The [[International Development Committee]] of the House of Commons |access-date=17 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150609015721/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmintdev/854/85403.htm |archive-date=9 June 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-britain-nepal-aid-corruption-idUSKBN0MN00F20150327 |title=UK should cut aid to Nepal if "endemic" corruption persists: report |date=27 March 2015 |work=Reuters |access-date=16 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518085227/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/03/27/us-britain-nepal-aid-corruption-idUSKBN0MN00F20150327 |archive-date=18 May 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> India, Japan, the US, the EU, China, Switzerland, and Scandinavian countries. The [[Nepalese rupee|Nepali rupee]] has been tied to the [[Indian rupee]] at an exchange rate of 1.6 for many years. Per capita income is $1,004.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/per-capita-income-to-reach-1400-by-2023-24/|title=Per capita income to reach $1,400 by 2023-24|date=4 April 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=24 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405145909/https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/per-capita-income-to-reach-1400-by-2023-24/|archive-date=5 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[distribution of wealth]] among the Nepalis is consistent with that in many developed and developing countries: the highest 10% of households control 39.1% of the national wealth and the lowest 10% control only 2.6%. [[European Union]] (EU) (46.13%), the US (17.4%), and Germany (7.1%) are its main export partners; they mainly buy Nepali ready-made garments (RMG).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ktm2day.com/2011/10/11/eu-is-largest-buyer-of-nepali-garments/ |title=EU as Nepal's largest exporter |date=11 October 2011 |publisher=ktm2day |access-date=11 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013040013/http://www.ktm2day.com/2011/10/11/eu-is-largest-buyer-of-nepali-garments/ |archive-date=13 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nepal's import partners include India (47.5%), the United Arab Emirates (11.2%), China (10.7%), Saudi Arabia (4.9%), and Singapore (4%).

Besides having landlocked, rugged geography, few tangible natural resources and poor infrastructure, the ineffective post-1950 government and the long-running civil war are also factors in stunting the country's economic growth and development.<ref name="Encarta">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Nepal: Economy |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562648_3/Nepal.html |page=3 |access-date=23 September 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028104223/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562648_3/Nepal.html |archive-date=28 October 2009 |work=MSN Encarta |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Development Failure">{{cite web |url=http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1514&context=himalaya |title=Development Failure: A Critical Review of Three Analyses of Development in Nepal |access-date=30 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817153139/http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1514&context=himalaya |archive-date=17 August 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Development-Conflict Nexus">{{cite web |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/idmc/website/countries.nsf/%28httpEnvelopes%29/22099AADFE2FE9D2C12576B0003EC686?OpenDocument |title=A Development Failure: The Development-Conflict Nexus |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120720104316/http://www.internal-displacement.org/idmc/website/countries.nsf/%28httpEnvelopes%29/22099AADFE2FE9D2C12576B0003EC686?OpenDocument |archive-date=20 July 2012 |access-date=30 July 2012}}</ref> Debt bondage even involving debtors' children has been a persistent social problem in the western hills and the [[Terai]], with an estimated 234,600 people or 0.82% of the population considered as enslaved, by The Global Slavery Index in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/nepal/ |title=Nepal |last=Kevin Bales |website=The Global Slavery Index 2016 |publisher=The Minderoo Foundation Pty Ltd |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313214330/https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/nepal/ |archive-date=13 March 2018 |access-date=13 March 2018 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

===Tourism===
[[File:Hashish-shop-Kathmandu-1973.jpg|upright|thumb|Nepal used to have legal marijuana and hashish shops for the benefit of the hippies, in the 1960s and '70s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pietri|first=Joseph R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7wACBAAAQBAJ|title=The King of Nepal: Life Before the Drug Wars|date=1 March 2010|publisher=[[Trine Day]]|isbn=978-1-937584-49-8|language=en}}</ref>]]
{{main|Tourism in Nepal}}
Tourism is one of the largest and fastest-growing industries in Nepal, employing more than a million people and contributing 7.9% of the total GDP.<ref name=tkptour19/> The number of international visitors crossed one million in 2018 for the first time (not counting Indian tourists arriving by land).<ref name=tkptour19>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/money/2019/05/26/nepal-tourism-generated-rs240b-and-supported-1m-jobs-last-year-report|title=Nepal tourism generated Rs 240b and supported 1m jobs last year: Report|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://tourism.gov.np/files/statistics/2.pdf|publisher=Government of Nepal, Ministry of Culture, Tourism & Civil Aviation, Planning & Evaluation Division, Research & Statistical Section|title=Nepal Tourism Statistics 2017|date=May 2018|editor-last=Ghimire|editor-first=Dandu Raj|display-editors=etal|access-date=1 December 2019|archive-date=24 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124041439/http://tourism.gov.np/files/statistics/2.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nepal's share of visitors to South Asia is about 6%, and they spend much less on average, with Nepal sharing 1.7% of the earnings.<ref name=thttour>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/nepal-enough-opportunities-tap-tourists-visit-south-asian-nations/|title=Nepal has enough opportunities to tap tourists who visit other South Asian nations|date=6 November 2016|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref> Premier destinations include Pokhara, the Annapurna trekking circuit and the four UNESCO world heritage sites—Lumbini, Sagarmatha National Park (home to Mount Everest), seven sites in the Kathmandu Valley collectively listed as one, and Chitwan National Park. Most of Nepal's mountaineering earning comes from Mount Everest, which is more accessible from the Nepalese side.

Nepal, officially opened to westerners in 1951, became a popular destination at the end of the [[hippie trail]], during the 1960s and 1970s. The industry, disrupted by the civil war in the 1990s, has since recovered but faces challenges to growth, owing to a lack of proper facilities for high-end tourism termed the "infrastructure bottleneck", the flag carrier in shambles, and a handful of destinations properly developed and marketed. The home-stay tourism, in which cultural and eco-tourists stay as paying guests in the homes of indigenous people, has seen some success.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/68553/|title=Homestay registration on the rise|last=Sunuwar|first=Muna|website=My Republica|language=en|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref>

===Foreign employment===
[[File:Child_Labour_in_Brick_Kilns_of_Nepal.jpg|thumb|left|While adults are employed in slavery-like conditions abroad, hundreds of thousands of children in the country are employed as [[Child labour in Nepal|child labour]] (not including the agricultural sector).]]
The rate of unemployment and underemployment exceeds half of the working-age population,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/money/2019/04/27/nepals-unemployment-rate-estimated-at-114-percent|title=Nepal's unemployment rate estimated at 11.4 percent|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref> driving millions to seek employment abroad, mainly in India, the Gulf, and East Asia. Mostly unskilled, uneducated, and indebted to loan sharks, these workers are swindled by the manpower companies and sent to exploitative employers or war-ridden countries under fraudulent contracts.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/01/world/middleeast/12-hostages-from-nepal-are-executed-in-iraq-a-militant.html|title=12 Hostages From Nepal Are Executed in Iraq, a Militant Group Claims|last=Tavernise|first=Sabrina|date=1 September 2004|work=The New York Times|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/48523/|title=He narrowly escaped the 2004 Iraq massacre of 12 Nepalis|last=Sharma|first=Bhadra|website=My Republica|language=en|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref> They have their passports seized, to be returned when the employer grants them leave or terminates their contracts. Most do not get paid minimum wage,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/basic-minimum-wage-eludes-nepali-migrant-workers/|title=Basic minimum wage eludes Nepali migrant workers|date=9 May 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref> and many are forced to forfeit all or part of the wages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2019/10/13/nepali-migrant-workers-returning-home-from-labour-destination-countries-without-wages|title=Nepali migrant workers returning home from labour destination countries without wages|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref> Many Nepalis work in extremely unsafe conditions; an average of two workers die each day.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/nepal-receiving-two-dead-migrant-workers-every-day-for-past-seven-years-report/|title=Nepal receiving two dead migrant workers every day for past seven years: Report|date=24 August 2018|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref> Due to restrictions placed on women, many depend on traffickers to get out of the country, and end up victims of violence and abuse.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asiafoundation.org/2018/06/06/nepalese-labor-migration-a-status-report/|title=Nepalese Labor Migration—A Status Report|date=6 June 2018|publisher=The Asia Foundation|language=en-US|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref> Many Nepalese are believed to be working under slavery-like conditions, and Nepal spends billions of rupees rescuing stranded workers, on remuneration to the indebted families of the dead, and in legal costs for those arrested in foreign countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/blogs/asia/2018/02/plight-nepal-migrant-workers-180205084756399.html|title=The plight of Nepal's migrant workers|publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=ilofe>{{cite web|url=https://www.ilo.org/kathmandu/areasofwork/labour-migration/lang--en/index.htm|title=Labour migration in Nepal (ILO in Nepal)|publisher=ILO |language=en|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref> Though millions have raised themselves out of poverty, due to a lack of entrepreneurial skills, the remittance is largely spent on real estate and consumption.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/50427/|title=Sorrows of Nepali migrant workers|last=Mishra|first=Surya Nath|website=My Republica|language=en|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=ilofe/>

{{Clear|left}}

== Infrastructure ==

===Energy===
[[File:Kaligandaki A HPS Tailrace Channel.jpg|thumb|upright|Middle Marsyangdi Hydroelectric Dam. Nepal has significant potential to generate [[hydropower]], which it plans to export across South Asia.]]
The bulk of energy in Nepal comes from biomass (80%) and imported fossil fuels (16%).<ref name=adb17>{{cite report|title=NEPAL ENERGY SECTOR ASSESSMENT, STRATEGY, AND ROAD MAP|date=March 2017|url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/356466/nepal-energy-assessment-road-map.pdf|publisher=[[Asian Development Bank|ADB]]|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> Most of the final energy consumption goes to the residential sector (84%) followed by transport (7%) and industry (6%); the transport and industry sectors have been expanding rapidly in recent years.<ref name=adb17/> Except for some lignite deposits, Nepal has no known oil, gas or coal deposits.<ref name=adb17/> All commercial fossil fuels (mainly oil, LPG and coal) are imported, spending 129% of the country's total export revenue.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/from-a-fossil-past-to-an-electric-future/|title=From a fossil past to an electric future|last=Rai|first=Om Astha|language=en-US|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> Only about 1% of the energy need is fulfilled by electricity.<ref name=adb17/> The perennial nature of Nepali rivers and the steep gradient of the country's topography provide ideal conditions for the development of hydroelectric projects. Estimates put Nepal's economically feasible hydro-power potential at approximately 42,000 MW.<ref name=adb17/> However, Nepal has been able to exploit only about 1,100 MW. As most of it is generated from run-of-river (ROR) plants, the actual power produced is much lower in the dry winter months when peak demand can reach as high as 1,200 MW, and Nepal needs to import as much as 650 MW from India to meet the demands.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/from-the-nepali-press/more-than-half-of-nepals-electricity-imported-from-india/|title=More than half of Nepal's electricity imported from India|last=Times|first=Nepali|language=en-US|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> Major hydro-power projects suffer delays and setbacks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/nea-to-build-10-new-hydropower-projects/|title=NEA to build 10 new hydropower projects|date=26 August 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/money/2018/08/17/power-generation-to-increase-by-750-mw|title=Power generation to increase by 750 MW|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/money/2019/06/09/nepal-fails-to-meet-energy-sector-targets-in-the-current-fiscal|title=Nepal fails to meet energy sector targets in the current fiscal|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> Nepal's electrification rate (76%) is comparable to that of other countries in the region but there is significant disparity between the rural (72%) and urban (97%) areas.<ref name=adb17/> The position of the power sector remains unsatisfactory because of high tariffs, high system losses, high generation costs, high overheads, over staffing, and lower domestic demand.<ref name="USAID SARI">{{cite web |title=Energy sector in Nepal |url=http://www.sari-energy.org/PageFiles/Countries/Nepal_Energy_detail.asp |access-date=15 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425173323/http://sari-energy.org/PageFiles/Countries/Nepal_Energy_detail.asp |archive-date=25 April 2012 }}</ref>

===Transportation===
Nepal remains isolated from the world's major land, air and sea transport routes, although, within the country, aviation is in a better state, with 47 airports, 11 of them with paved runways;<ref name="World Factbook">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nepal/|title=South Asia :: Nepal – The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> flights are frequent and support a sizeable traffic. The hilly and mountainous terrain in the northern two-thirds of the country has made the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. {{As of|2016}}, there were just over {{convert|11890|km|0|abbr=on}} of paved roads, {{convert|16100|km|0|abbr=on}} of unpaved roads, and just {{convert|59|km|0|abbr=on}} of railway line in the south.<ref name="World Factbook" /> {{As of |2018}}, all district headquarters (except [[Simikot]]) had been connected to the road network.<ref name=milroad/> Most of the rural roads are not operable during the rainy season; even national highways regularly become inoperable.<ref>{{cite web |title=Connecting Nepal's Rural Poor to Markets |url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2009/12/17/connecting-nepals-rural-poor-to-markets |access-date=4 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130422061224/http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2009/12/17/connecting-nepals-rural-poor-to-markets |archive-date=22 April 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nepal depends almost entirely on assistance from countries like China, India and Japan, for building, maintenance and expansion of the road network. The only practical seaport of entry for goods bound for Kathmandu is [[Kolkata]] in India. The national carrier, [[Nepal Airlines]], is in poor shape due to mismanagement and corruption, and has been blacklisted by the EU.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2019/09/14/the-rise-and-fall-of-nepal-airlines|title=The rise and fall of Nepal Airlines|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Internally, the poor state of development of the road system makes access to markets, schools, and health clinics a challenge.<ref name="Encarta" />

===Communication===
According to the [[Nepal Telecommunications Authority|Nepal Telecommunication Authority]] MIS August 2019 report, voice telephony subscription rate was at 2.70% of total population for fixed phones and 138.59% for mobile; 98% of all voice telephony was through mobile phones.<ref name=ntams>{{cite report|title=Nepal Telecommunications Authority MIS Report Shrawan, 2076|publisher=Nepal Telecommunications Authority|date=August 2019 |url=https://nta.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/MIS-2076-Shrawan.pdf |access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> Similarly, while an estimated 14.52% had access to fixed broadband, an additional 52.71% were accessing the internet using their mobile data subscriptions; almost 15 million of them with 3G or better.<ref name=ntams/> The mobile voice telephony and broadband market was dominated by two telecommunications companies, the state-owned [[Nepal Telecom]] (55%) and the private multinational, [[Ncell]] (40%).<ref name=ntams/> Of the 21% market share enjoyed by fixed broadband, around 25% was again shared by Nepal Telecom, with the rest going to the private Internet Service Providers.<ref name=ntams/> Although there is high disparity in penetration rate between the rural and urban areas, mobile service has reached 75 districts of the country covering 90% of land area, and broadband access is expected to reach 90% of the population by 2020.<ref name="World Factbook" />

===Media===
{{As of|2019}}, the state operates three television stations as well as national and regional radio stations. There are 117 private TV channels and 736 FM radio stations licensed for operation, at least 314 of them, community radio stations.<ref name="World Factbook" /> According to the 2011 census, the percentage of households possessing radio was 50.82%, television 36.45%, cable TV 19.33%, and computer 7.28%.{{sfn|2011 National Census|pp=2, 32}} According to the Press Council Nepal classification, {{as of|2017|lc=y}} of the 833 publications producing original content, ten national dailies and weeklies are rated A+ class.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/press-council-nepal-classifies-833-newspapers-magazines/|title=Press Council Nepal classifies 833 newspapers, magazines|date=15 January 2017|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> In 2019, [[Reporters Without Borders]] ranked Nepal at 106th in the world in terms of press freedom.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/nepal-slides-six-places-down-press-freedom-rankings-states-rsf-report/|title=Nepal retains its position in press freedom rankings, states RSF report|date=19 April 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Nepal}}
The citizens of Nepal are known as [[Nepali people|Nepali]] or Nepalese. The Nepali are descendants of three major migrations from India, [[Tibet]] and North Burma, and the Chinese province of [[Yunnan]] via [[Assam]]. Among the earliest inhabitants were the [[Kirat]] of the eastern region, [[Newar]]s of the [[Kathmandu Valley]], aboriginal [[Tharu people|Tharus]] of the Terai plains and the Khas Pahari people of the far-western hills. Despite the migration of a significant section of the population to the Terai in recent years, the majority of Nepalese still live in the central highlands, and the northern mountains are sparsely populated.

Nepal is a multicultural and multiethnic country, home to 125 distinct ethnic groups, speaking 123 different mother tongues and following a number of indigenous and folk religions in addition to Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity.{{sfn|2011 National Census|p=4}} According to the 2011 census, Nepal's population was 26.5 million, almost a threefold increase from nine million in 1950. From 2001 to 2011, the average family size declined from 5.44 to 4.9. The census also noted some 1.9 million absentee people, over a million more than in 2001; most are male labourers employed overseas. This correlated with the drop in sex ratio to 94.2 from 99.8 for 2001.{{sfn|2011 National Census|p=3}} The annual population growth rate was 1.35% between 2001 and 2011, compared to an average of 2.25% between 1961 and 2001; also attributed to the absentee population.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nepal.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/Nepal%20Population%20Situation%20Analysis.pdf|title=Population situation analysis of Nepal|publisher=[[UNFPA]]|year=2017|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref>

Nepal is one of the ten least urbanized, and the ten fastest urbanizing countries in the world. {{As of| 2014}}, an estimated 18.3% of the population lived in urban areas. Urbanization rate is high in the Terai, doon valleys of the inner Terai and valleys of the middle hills, but low in the high Himalayas. Similarly, the rate is higher in central and eastern Nepal compared to further west.<ref>{{cite report|title=Urbanisation and urban growth in Nepal (GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report 1294)|year=2015|publisher=UK:GSDRC|location=University of Birmingham, Birmingham|last=Bakrania|first=S.}}</ref> The capital, [[Kathmandu]], nicknamed the "City of temples", is the largest city in the country and the cultural and economic heart. Other large cities in Nepal include [[Pokhara]], [[Biratnagar]], [[Lalitpur, Nepal|Lalitpur]], [[Bharatpur, Nepal|Bharatpur]], [[Birgunj]], [[Dharan, Nepal|Dharan]], [[Hetauda]] and [[Nepalgunj]]. Congestion, pollution and drinking water shortage are some of the major problems facing the rapidly growing cities, most prominently the Kathmandu Valley.

=== Language ===
{{Main|Languages of Nepal}}
Nepal's diverse linguistic heritage stems from three major language groups: [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]], [[Tibeto-Burman]], and various [[indigenous language]] isolates. The major languages of Nepal (percent spoken as native language) according to the 2011 census are [[Nepali language|Nepali]] (44.6%), [[Maithili language|Maithili]] (11.7%), [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] (6.0%), [[Tharu language|Tharu]] (5.8%), [[Tamang language|Tamang]] (5.1%), [[Nepal Bhasa]] (3.2%), [[Bajjika dialect|Bajjika]] (3%) and [[Magar language|Magar]] (3.0%), [[Doteli language|Doteli]] (3.0%), [[Urdu]] (2.6%), [[Awadhi]] (1.89%), and [[Sunwar language|Sunwar]]. Nepal is home to at least four indigenous [[Nepali Sign Language|sign languages]].

Descendent of [[Sanskrit]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]] is written in [[Devanagari]] script. It is the official language and serves as ''lingua franca'' among Nepali of different ethnolinguistic groups. The regional languages [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] and Bhojpuri are spoken in the southern Terai region; [[Urdu]] is common among [[Nepali Muslims]]. [[Tibetic languages|Varieties of Tibetan]] are spoken in and north of the higher Himalaya where standard literary Tibetan is widely understood by those with religious education. Local dialects in the Terai and hills are mostly unwritten with efforts underway to develop systems for writing many in Devanagari or the Roman alphabet.

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Nepal}}{{Pie chart|thumb=right|label6=[[Animism|Nature Worship]]|color7=purple|value7=0.35|label7=Others|color6=pink|value6=0.46|color5=DodgerBlue|caption=Religion in Nepal (2011)<ref name="2011census">{{cite book|title=Statistical Yearbook of Nepal - 2013|date=2013|publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics|location=Kathmandu|page=23|url=http://cbs.gov.np/publications/statisticalyearbook_2013|access-date=13 December 2015}}</ref>|value5=1.41|label5=[[Christianity in Nepal|Christianity]]|color4=OrangeRed|value4=3.04|label4=[[Kiratism]]|color3=Green|value3=4.39|label3=[[Islam in Nepal|Islam]]|color2=Yellow|value2=9.04|label2=[[Buddhism in Nepal|Buddhism]]|color1=DarkOrange|value1=81.34|label1=[[Hinduism in Nepal|Hinduism]]}}[[File:Sadus at Pashupatinath temple.JPG|thumb|[[Sadhu]]s in [[Pashupatinath Temple]]|left]]

Nepal is a secular country, as declared by the Constitution of Nepal 2072 (Part 1, Article 4), where secularism 'means religious, cultural freedom, along with the protection of religion, culture handed down from time immemorial ({{Lang-hi|सनातन|label=none}})'.<ref>{{Cite web|date=20 September 2015|title=The Constitution of Nepal|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/np/np029en.pdf|access-date=7 May 2021|website=wipo.int|publisher=Nepal Gazette}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Constitution of Napal (in Nepali)|url=http://mohp.gov.np/downloads/Constitution%20of%20Nepal_2072_Nepali.pdf|access-date=7 May 2021|website=mohp.gov.np/}}</ref> The 2011 census reported that the religion with the largest number of followers in Nepal was [[Hinduism in Nepal|Hinduism]] (81.3% of the population), followed by [[Buddhism in Nepal|Buddhism]] (9%); the remaining were [[Islam in Nepal|Islam]] (4.4%), [[Kirat Mundhum|Kirant]] (3.1%), [[Christianity in Nepal|Christianity]] (1.4%) and ''Prakriti'' or nature worship (0.5%).{{sfn|2011 National Census|pp=4, 184}} By percentage of population, Nepal has the largest population of Hindus in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.beliefnet.com/columnists/religion101/2012/11/hindu-demographics-denominations-part-one.html|title=Hindu Demographics & Denominations (Part One)|date=28 November 2012|website=Religion 101|language=en|access-date=21 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190821130245/https://www.beliefnet.com/columnists/religion101/2012/11/hindu-demographics-denominations-part-one.html|archive-date=21 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal was officially a Hindu Kingdom until recently, and [[Shiva]] was considered the guardian deity of the country.<ref>''Anthologia anthropologica. The native races of Asia and Europe;'' by James George Frazer, Sir; Robert Angus Downie</ref> Although many government policies throughout history have disregarded or marginalized minority religions, Nepalese societies generally enjoy religious tolerance and harmony among all religions, with only isolated incidents of religiously-motivated violence.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/22579/|title=Eid highlights Nepal's religious tolerance|last=KHADKA|first=UPENDRA LAMICHHANE and BASANT|website=My Republica|language=en|access-date=2 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://np.usembassy.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/79/NEPAL-2018-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf|title=NEPAL-2018-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT|publisher=US Embassy Nepal|access-date=1 December 2019}}</ref> Nepal's constitution does not give anyone the right to convert any person to another religion. Nepal also passed a more stringent anti-conversion law on 2017.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nepal: Nepal: Bill criminalises religious conversion|url=https://www.csw.org.uk/2017/08/21/press/3676/article.htm|access-date=2021-02-05|website=www.csw.org.uk}}</ref> Nepal has the second-largest number of [[Hindu]]s in the world after India and has the highest population percentage of [[Hindus]].<ref name="PewDec2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|title=The Global Religious Landscape|date=December 2012|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=5 November 2018}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Nepal}}
Nepal entered modernity in 1951 with a literacy rate of 5% and about 10,000 students enrolled in 300 schools.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} By 2017, there were more than seven million students enrolled in 35,601 schools.<ref name=moe17>{{cite report|title=Education in figures 2017|publisher=Ministry of Education, Nepal|year=2017|url=https://moe.gov.np/assets/uploads/files/Education_in_Figures_2017.pdf|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> The overall literacy rate (for population age 5 years and above) increased from 54.1% in 2001 to 65.9% in 2011.{{sfn|2011 National Census|p=4}} The net primary enrolment rate reached 97% by 2017,<ref name="undp">{{cite web|url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/NPL.html|title=Human Development Report 2010 – Nepal|publisher=Hdrstats.undp.org|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415135354/http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/NPL.html|archive-date=15 April 2012|access-date=25 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicef.org/nepal/education|title=Education|publisher=UNICEF |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> however, enrolment was less than 60% at the secondary level (grades 9 –12),<ref name=uis>{{cite web|url=https://uis.unesco.org/en/country/np|title=Nepal|date=27 November 2016|publisher=UNESCO |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> and around 12% at the tertiary level.<ref name=uis/> Though there is significant gender disparity in overall literacy rate,{{sfn|2011 National Census|p=4}} girls have overtaken boys in enrolment to all levels of education.<ref name=uis/> Nepal has eleven universities and four independent science academies.<ref name=moe17/> Lack of proper infrastructures and teaching materials, and a high student-to-teacher ratio, as well as politicization of school management committees<ref>{{cite web|url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/12519|title=Community-based School Management The Role Politics Plays |website=The Rising Nepal |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> and partisan unionization among both students and teachers,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/minister-pokhrel-urges-teachers-to-be-loyal-to-their-schools/|title=Minister Pokhrel urges teachers to be loyal to their schools|date=15 September 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> present a hurdle to progress. Free basic education is guaranteed in the constitution but the programme lacks funding for effective implementation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/valley/2018/05/08/free-education-to-cost-threefold|title=Free education to cost threefold|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Government has scholarship programmes for girls and disabled students as well as the children of martyrs, marginalized communities and the poor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edusanjal.com/scholarship/types-of-scholarships-provided-to-nepalese-students-by-government-of-nepal/|title=Types of scholarships provided to Nepalese students by government of Nepal|website=Edusanjal|language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/medical-colleges-charging-extra-fees-even-from-govt-scholarship-holders/|title=Medical colleges charging extra fees even from govt scholarship holders|date=7 April 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Tens of thousands of Nepali students leave the country every year in search of better education and work, with half of them never returning.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://admin.myrepublica.com/society/story/23904/more-students-seeking-no-objection-to-study-abroad.html|title=More students seeking 'no objection' to study abroad|last=Sharma|first=Nirjana|date=3 July 2015|work=[[República (Nepalese newspaper)|Republica]]|access-date=20 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020173146/http://admin.myrepublica.com/society/story/23904/more-students-seeking-no-objection-to-study-abroad.html|archive-date=20 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://nepalitimes.com/regular-columns/Between-the-lines/More-Nepali-students-settle-overseas,528|title=Losing our young|last=Tsering|first=Dolker|date=17 July 2015|work=[[Nepali Times]]|access-date=20 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020173506/http://nepalitimes.com/regular-columns/Between-the-lines/More-Nepali-students-settle-overseas,528|archive-date=20 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in Nepal}}
[[File:Kunde Hospital IMG 1688a.jpg|thumb|upright|Kunde Hospital in remote Himalayan region]]
Health care services in Nepal are provided by both the public and private sectors. Life expectancy at birth is estimated at 71 years as of 2017, 153rd highest in the world,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html|title=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> up from 54 years in the 1990s.<ref name=ththeal>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/kathmandu/nepal-ranks-second-in-lung-ailment-deaths/|title=Nepal ranks second in lung ailment deaths|date=12 August 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Two-thirds of all deaths are due to non-communicable diseases; heart disease is the leading cause of death.<ref name=nhrc19>{{cite report|title= Nepal Burden of Disease 2017: A Country Report based on the Global Burden of Disease 2017 Study|author=Nepal Health Research Council (NHRC), Ministry of Health and Population (MoHP) and Monitoring Evaluation and Operational Research (MEOR)|publisher= NHRC, MoHP, and MEOR|year=2019|location=Kathmandu, Nepal|url=http://nhrc.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/NBoD-2017_NHRC-MoHP.pdf|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> While sedentary lifestyle, imbalanced diet and consumption of tobacco and alcohol has contributed in the rise of non-communicable diseases, many lose their life to communicable and treatable diseases caused by poor sanitation and malnutrition due to a lack of education, awareness and access to healthcare services.<ref name=nhrc19/><ref name=tkpheal19>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/study-reveals-high-prevalence-of-non-communicable-diseases-in-nepal/|title=Study reveals high prevalence of non-communicable diseases in Nepal|date=5 August 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref>

Nepal has made great progress in maternal and child health. 95% of children have access to iodized salt, and 86% of children aged 6 – 59 months receive Vitamin A prophylaxis.<ref name=unicefhealth/> Stunting, underweight and wasting has been reduced significantly;<ref name=unicefhealth>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicef.org/nepal/nutrition|title=Nutrition|website=UNICEF |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> malnutrition, at 43% among children under five, is extremely high.<ref name=ntimes19>{{cite web|url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/nearly-half-of-nepali-children-still-malnourished/|title=Nearly half of Nepali children still malnourished|last=Awale|first=Sonia|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Anemia in women and children increased between 2011 and 2016, reaching 41% and 53% respectively.<ref name=ntimes19/> Low birth weight is at 27% while breastfeeding is at 65%.<ref name=ntimes19/> Nepal has reduced maternal mortality rate to 229,<ref name=kpmm>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2019/02/10/maternal-mortality-reduction-target-hard-to-meet-for-nepal-officials|title=Maternal mortality reduction target hard to meet for Nepal: Officials|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> from 901 in 1990;<ref name=whomm>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/94/5/16-030516/en/|title=WHO {{!}} Reaching Nepal's mothers in time|publisher=WHO|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=kpmm/> infant mortality is down to 32.2 per thousand live births compared to 139.8 in 1990.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.MORT?locations=NP&view=chart|title=Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) - Nepal {{!}} Data|publisher=World Bank |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Contraceptive prevalence rate is 53% but the disparity rate between rural and urban areas is high due to a lack of awareness and easy access.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/nepal-far-from-hitting-contraceptive-target/|title=Nepal far from hitting contraceptive target|last=Bhattarai|first=Sewa|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref>

Progress in health is driven by strong government initiative in cooperation with NGOs and INGOs. Public health centers provide 72 essential medicines free of cost. In addition, the public health insurance plan initiated in 2016 which covers health treatments of up to Rs 50,000 for five members of a family, for a premium of Rs 2500 per year, has seen limited success, and is expected to expand.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2018/06/07/health-insurance-plan-yet-to-cover-38-districts-in-nepal|title=Health insurance plan yet to cover 38 districts in Nepal|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> By paying stipends for four antenatal visits to health centers and hospitalized delivery, Nepal decreased home-births from 81% in 2006<ref name="whomm"/> to 41% in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mhtf.org/2017/12/29/the-current-state-of-maternal-health-in-nepal/|title=The Current State of Maternal Health in Nepal|date=29 December 2017|publisher=Maternal Health Task Force|language=en-us|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> School meal programs have improved education as well as nutrition metrics among children.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/usda-wfp-provide-school-meals/|title=USDA, WFP to provide school meals|date=4 February 2018|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Toilet building subsidies under the ambitious "one household-one toilet" program has seen toilet prevalence rate reach 99% in 2019, from just 6% in 1990.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2019/08/01/government-has-been-trying-to-eliminate-open-defecation-for-over-a-decade-here-s-why-it-hasn-t-worked|title=Government has been trying to eliminate open defecation for over a decade. Here's why it hasn't worked.|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref>

===Immigrants and refugees===
{{Main|Demographics of Nepal#Foreign population in Nepal}}
Nepal has a long tradition of accepting immigrants and refugees.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unhcr.org/nepal.html|title=Nepal|last=Refugees|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|publisher=United Nations High Commission for Refugees|language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> In modern times, Tibetans and Bhutanese have constituted a majority of refugees in Nepal. Tibetan refugees began arriving in 1959,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/07/a-state-within-a-state-tibetans-in-nepal/|title=A State Within a State: Tibetans in Nepal|website=The Diplomat |language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> and many more cross into Nepal every year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-tibet-nepal-20150806-story.html|title=Tibet's Road Ahead: Tibetans lose a haven in Nepal under Chinese pressure|date=6 August 2015|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> The Bhutanese [[Lhotshampa|Lhotsampa]] refugees began arriving in the 1980s and numbered more than 110,000 by the 2000s. Most of them have been resettled in third countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,IRIN,,BTN,491946b81e,0.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008021239/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/publisher,IRIN,,BTN,491946b81e,0.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 October 2012|title=UNHCR {{!}} Refworld {{!}} Nepal: Bhutanese refugees find new life beyond the camps|date=8 October 2012|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> In late 2018, Nepal had a total of 20,800 confirmed refugees, 64% of them Tibetan and 31% Bhutanese.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reporting.unhcr.org/node/10316#_ga=2.192568106.1679015461.1575456467-1408828592.1575456467|title=Nepal {{!}} Global Focus|publisher=United Nations High Commission for Refugees |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> Economic immigrants, and refugees fleeing persecution or war, from neighbouring countries, Africa and the Middle East, termed "urban refugees" because they live in apartments in the cities instead of refugee camps,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/700-illegals-set-for-3rd-country-resettlement/|title=700 illegals set for 3rd-country resettlement|date=6 March 2019|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/11/bleak-outlook-nepal-urban-refugees-151123110438884.html|title=Bleak outlook for Nepal's urban refugees|publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.nepalitimes.com/page/state-of-statelessness-for-refugees-in-nepal|title=State of statelessness {{!}} Nepali Times|last=Hansen|first=Jan Møller|website=Nepali Times |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> lack official recognition; the government facilitates their resettlement in third countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/national/2019/06/21/nepals-governments-have-been-quietly-facilitating-urban-refugee-resettlement-for-years|title=Nepal's government has been quietly facilitating urban refugee resettlement for years|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref>

Around 2,000 immigrants, half of them Chinese, applied for a work permit in 2018/19. The government lacks data on Indian immigrants as they do not require permits to live and work in Nepal;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.onlinekhabar.com/2019/10/803843|title=नेपालमा अमेरिकादेखि उत्तरकोरियासम्मका कामदार|website=Online Khabar|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> [[Government of India]] puts the number of [[Non-Resident Indians]] in the country at 600,000.<ref name="mea.gov.in">{{cite web |url = http://mea.gov.in/images/attach/NRIs-and-PIOs_1.pdf |title = Population of Overseas Indians |publisher = [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)]] |date = 31 December 2018 |access-date= 4 December 2019 }}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Nepal}}

[[File:Magar Culture.jpg|alt=|thumb|upright|A [[Magars|Magar]] couple in their ethnic dress]]

===Society===
Traditional Nepali society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy. The [[Caste system in Nepal|Nepali caste system]] embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found in South Asia. Social classes are defined by more than a hundred [[endogamous]] hereditary groups, often termed as ''[[jāti]]s'', or "castes". Nepal declared [[untouchability]] to be illegal in 1963<ref>{{cite book |last=Bista|first=Dor Bahadur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JzFROpFVYRAC|title=Fatalism and Development: Nepal's Struggle for Modernization|date=1991|publisher=[[Orient Blackswan]]|isbn=978-81-250-0188-1|language=en|page=44}}</ref> and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives. At the workplace and educational institutions in urban Nepal, caste-related identification has pretty much lost its importance.

Family values are important in the Nepali tradition, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm in Nepal, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas. An overwhelming majority of Nepalis, with or without their consent, have [[Arranged marriage in the Indian subcontinent|their marriages arranged]] by their parents or other family elders. Marriage is thought to be for life, and the divorce rate is extremely low, with less than one in a thousand marriages ending in divorce.<ref>{{cite journal |first= Bala Ram|last=Acharya|year=2005|title=Sociological Analysis of Divorce: A Case Study from Pokhara, Nepal|url=https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/DSAJ/article/view/284|journal=[[Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology]]|language=en|volume=1|pages=129–145|doi=10.3126/dsaj.v1i0.284|issn=1994-2672|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Child marriage]]s are common, especially in rural areas; many women wed before reaching 18.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nepal.unfpa.org/en/node/15217|title=Child Marriage|date=30 December 2015|website=[[UNFPA]] Nepal|language=en|access-date=31 March 2020}}</ref>

Many [[Public holidays in Nepal|Nepali festivals]] are religious in origin. The best known include: [[Dashain]], [[Tihar (festival)|Tihar]], [[Teej]], [[Chhath]], [[Maghi]], [[Sakela]], [[Holi]], [[Eid ul-Fitr]], [[Christmas]], and the [[Vaisakhi|Nepali new year]].

===Symbols===
{{Infobox place symbols
| title = [[National symbols of Nepal|National symbols]]
| region_type = National
| country = Nepal
| flag = [[Flag of Nepal]]
| emblem = [[Emblem of Nepal]]
| language = [[Languages of Nepal|All mother-tongues of Nepal]]
| anthem = [[Sayaun Thunga Phulka]]
| song =
| currency = [[Nepalese rupee]] (रू) (NPR)
| calendar =
| dance =
| instrument =
| mammal = [[Cow]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/south-asia/Cow-becomes-national-animal-of-Nepal/articleshow/49049371.cms|title=Cow becomes national animal of Nepal|date=21 September 2015|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]]|language=en|access-date=3 April 2020}}</ref>
| bird = [[Himalayan monal]]
| flower = [[Rhododendron arboreum]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/rhododendron-facing-existential-crisis-ilam-highlands/|title=Rhododendron facing existential crisis in Ilam highlands|date=18 March 2017|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826120952/https://thehimalayantimes.com/nepal/rhododendron-facing-existential-crisis-ilam-highlands/|archive-date=26 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
| river =
| sport = [[Volleyball]]<ref name=voll/>
| costume =
| colour = {{colour box|crimson}} [[Crimson]]
}}
The emblem of Nepal depicts the snowy Himalayas, the forested hills, and the fertile Terai, supported by a wreath of rhododendrons, with the national flag at the crest and in the foreground, a plain white map of Nepal below it, and a man's and woman's right hands joined to signify gender equality. At the bottom is the national motto, a Sanskrit quote of patriotism attributed in Nepali folklore to Lord Rama, written in Devanagari script—"''Mother and motherland are greater than heaven''".

[[Flag of Nepal|Nepal's flag]] is the only national flag in the world that is not rectangular in shape.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/flags/flagtemplate_np.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110410060127/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/flags/flagtemplate_np.html |archive-date=10 April 2011 |title=Flag Description}}</ref> The constitution contains instructions for a [[Geometric Construction]] of the double-pennant flag.<ref>compare [http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/np01000_.html this copy of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501104849/http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/np01000_.html |date=1 May 2016 }}</ref> According to its official description, the crimson in the flag stands for victory in war or courage, and is also the colour of the [[rhododendron]]. The flag's blue border signifies Nepali people's desire for peace. The moon on the flag is a symbol of the peaceful and calm nature of Nepalis, while the sun represents the aggressiveness of Nepali warriors.

The president is the symbol of national unity. The [[Martyrs of Nepal|martyrs]] are the symbols of patriotism. Commanders of the Anglo-Nepalese war, [[Amar Singh Thapa]], [[Bhakti Thapa]], and Balbhadra Kunwar are considered war heroes. A special designation of "National hero" has been conferred to 16 people from Nepal's history for their exceptional contributions to the prestige of Nepal. Prithvi Narayan Shah, the founder of modern Nepal, is held in high regard and considered "Father of the Nation" by many.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/nepali/news-42652772|title=११ वर्षपछि राष्ट्रिय एकता दिवस|date=11 January 2018 |language=en-GB |access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=Hutt1991/>

===Art and architecture===
{{main|Architecture of Nepal}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2/1|caption_align=center
| align = right
|image_style = border:none;
| image3 = Shivas_Kinder - 0219.jpg|width3=325
| image2 = Tusha_Hiti_step-well.jpg|width2=150
| image1 = Nyatapola Temple.JPG|width1=170
| footer = {{font|size=110%|font=Sans-serif|text= Clockwise from top-left: (a) [[Nyatapola]], a five storied [[pagoda]] in Bhaktapur, bejewelled with characteristic stone, metal and wood craftsmanship, has survived at least four major earthquakes.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001461/146117e.pdf |title=Science, Research and Technology in Nepal |year=2006 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |pages=3–6 |author1=Dayananda Bajracharya |author1-link=Dayananda Bajracharya |author2=Dinesh Raj Bhuju |author3=Jiba Raj Pokhrel |access-date=18 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303210819/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001461/146117e.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Pagodas, now an indispensable part of East Asian architecture, are conjectured to have been transmitted to China from Nepal. (b) Nepali stonecraft in a community water spout (c) A traditional Newar "Ankhijhyal" window in the form of a peacock}}
}}
The oldest known examples of architecture in Nepal are [[stupa]]s of early Buddhist constructions in and around [[Kapilvastu District|Kapilvastu]] in south-western Nepal, and those constructed by [[Ashoka]] in the [[Kathmandu Valley]] {{circa|250}} BC. The characteristic architecture associated exclusively with Nepal was developed and refined by Newa artisans of the Kathmandu Valley starting no later than the Lichchhavi period. A [[Tang dynasty]] Chinese travel book, probably based on records from c. 650 AD, describes contemporary Nepali architecture, predominantly built with wood, as rich in artistry, as well as wood and metal sculpture. It describes a magnificent seven-storied pagoda in the middle of a palace, with copper-tiled roofs, its balustrade, grills, columns and beams set about with fine and precious stones, and four golden sculptures of [[Makara]]s in the four corners of the base spouting water from their mouths like a fountain, supplied by copper pipes connected to the runnels at the top of the tower. Later Chinese chronicles describe Nepal's king's palace as an immense structure with many roofs, suggesting that Chinese were not yet familiar with the pagoda architecture, which has now become one of the chief characteristic of Chinese architecture. A typical pagoda temple is built with wood, every piece of it finely carved with geometrical patterns or images of gods, goddesses, mythical beings and beasts. The roofs usually tiled with clay, and sometimes gold plated, diminish in proportion successively until the topmost roof is reached which is itself ensigned by a golden finial. The base is usually composed of rectangular terraces of finely carved stone; the entrance is usually guarded by stone sculptures of conventional figures. Bronze and copper craftsmanship observable in the sculpture of deities and beasts, decorations of doors and windows and the finials of buildings, as well as items of every day use is found to be of equal splendour. The most well-developed of Nepali painting traditions is the [[thanka]] or [[paubha]] painting tradition of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], practised in Nepal by the Buddhist monks and Newar artisans. [[Changu Narayan Temple]], built c. fourth century AD has probably the finest of Nepali woodcraft; the Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur Durbar Squares are the culmination of Nepali art and architecture, showcasing Nepali wood, metal and stone craftsmanship refined over two millennia.<ref name=landon2>{{Cite book|last=Landon Perceval|url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.81837|title=Nepal Vol II|date=1928}}</ref>

The [[Newar window|"ankhijhyal" window]], that allow a one-way view of the outside world, is an example of unique Nepali woodcraft, found in building structures, domestic and public alike, ancient and modern. Many cultures paint the walls of their homes with regular patterns, figures of gods and beasts and religious symbols; others paint their walls plain, often with clay or [[chernozem]] contrasted with yellow soil or limestone. The roofs of religious as well as domestic structures project considerably, presumably to provide protection from the sun and the rain. The timber of domestic structures are finely carved as with their religious counterparts.<ref name=landon2/>

===Literature and the performing arts===
{{main|Nepalese literature|Music of Nepal|Cinema of Nepal}}
Nepal's literature was closely intertwined with that of the rest of South Asia until its unification into a modern kingdom. Literary works, which were written in Sanskrit by Brahmin priests educated and sometimes also based in Varanasi, included religious texts and other fantasies involving kings, gods and demons.<ref name=bba/> The oldest extant Nepali language text is dated to the 13th century but except for the epigraphic material, Nepali language literature older than the 17th century haven't been found. However, Newar literature dates back almost 500 years.<ref name=Hutt1991/> The modern history of Nepali literature begins with Bhanubhakta Acharya (1814-1868), who for the first time composed major and influential works in Nepali, the language accessible to the masses, most prominently, the [[Bhanubhakta Ramayana]], a translation of the ancient Hindu epic.<ref name=bba>{{Cite journal|last=Maitra|first=Kiran Shankar|year=1982|title=The First Poet of Nepali Literature|journal=Indian Literature|volume=25|issue=5|pages=63–71|issn=0019-5804|jstor=23331113}}</ref> By the end of the nineteenth century, [[Motiram Bhatta]] had published print editions of the works of Acharya, and through his efforts, single-handedly popularised and propelled Nepali language literature into modernity.<ref name=Hutt1991/> By the mid-twentieth century, Nepali literature was no longer limited to the Hindu literary traditions. Influenced by western literary traditions, writers in this period started producing literary works addressing the contemporary social problems,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=V.|year=1992|journal=Journal of South Asian Literature|volume=27|issue=2|pages=209–218|issn=0091-5637|jstor=40874126|title=B. P. Koirala: A Major Figure in Modern Nepali Literature}}</ref> while many others continued to enrich Nepali poetic traditions with authentic Nepali poetry. Newar literature also emerged as a premier literary tradition. After the advent of democracy in 1951, Nepali literature flourished. Literary works in many other languages began to be produced. Nepali literature continued to modernise, and in recent years, has been strongly influenced by the post civil-war Nepali experience as well as global literary traditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Nepali-literature|title=Nepali literature|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en|access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.therisingnepal.org.np/index/news/34119|title=Conflict-period Nepali literature holds importance for awareness |website=The Rising Nepal |access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Riccardi|first=Theodore|year=1993|title=Review of Himalayan Voices: An Introduction to Modern Nepali Literature|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London|volume=56|issue=1|pages=157–158|issn=0041-977X|jstor=620321|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00002007}}</ref><ref name=Hutt1991>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y6IwDwAAQBAJ|title=Himalayan Voices: An Introduction to Modern Nepali Literature|last=Hutt|first=Michael J.|date=29 July 1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07048-6|language=en}}</ref>

[[Maruni]], [[Lakhey]], [[Sakela]], [[Kauda]] and [[Tamang Selo]] are some examples of the traditional Nepali music and dance in the hilly regions of Nepal.

Nepali film industry is known as "Kollywood".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/miscellaneous/2016/05/28/changing-winds-in-kollywood|title=Changing winds in Kollywood|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref>

Nepal Academy is the foremost institution for the promotion of arts and culture in Nepal, established in 1957.<ref name=Hutt1991/>

===Clothing===
[[File:Bhoto jatra.jpg|thumb|right|A Nepali man in Daura-Suruwal, coat and Dhaka topi, displays the bhoto during the [[Bhoto Jatra]] festival.]]
The most widely worn traditional dress in Nepal, for both women and men, from ancient times until the advent of modern times, was draped.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26">{{cite book |last=Tarlo|first=Emma|title=Clothing Matters: Dress and Identity in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ByoTXhXCuyAC&pg=PA26|year=1996|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago and London|isbn=978-0-226-78976-7|page=26}}</ref> For women, it eventually took the form of a [[sari]], a single long piece of cloth, famously six yards long, and of width spanning the lower body.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26"/> The sari is tied around the waist and knotted at one end, wrapped around the lower body, and then over the shoulder.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26"/> In its more modern form, it has been used to cover the head, and sometimes the face, as a veil,<ref name="Tarlo1996-26"/> particularly in the Terai. It has been combined with an underskirt, or the [[Petticoat#Asian petticoats|petticoat]], and tucked in the waistband for more secure fastening. It is worn with a [[blouse]], or [[choli|cholo]], which serves as the primary upper-body garment, the sari's end, passing over the shoulder, now serving to obscure the upper body's contours, and to cover the midriff.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26"/> Cholo-sari has become the attire of choice for formal occasions, official environs and festive gatherings. In its more traditional form, as part of traditional dresses and as worn in daily life while performing household chores or labour, it takes the form of a {{transl|ne|fariya}} or {{transl|ne|gunyu}}, usually shorter than a sari in length as well as breadth, and all of it wrapped around the lower body.

For men, a similar but shorter length of cloth, the [[dhoti]], has served as a lower-body garment.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26-28">{{cite book |last=Tarlo|first=Emma|title=Clothing Matters: Dress and Identity in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ByoTXhXCuyAC&pg=PA26|year=1996|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago and London|isbn=978-0-226-78976-7|pages=26–28}}</ref> It too is tied around the waist and wrapped.<ref name="Tarlo1996-26-28"/> Among the Aryans, it is also wrapped once around each leg before being brought up through the legs to be tucked in at the back. Dhoti or its variants, usually worn over a [[kaupinam|langauti]], constitute the lower-body garment in the traditional clothing of Tharus, Gurungs and Magars as well as the Madhesi people, among others. Other forms of traditional apparel that involve no stitching or tailoring are [[patuka]]s (a length of cloth wrapped tightly over the waist by both sexes as a waistband, a part of most traditional Nepali costumes, usually with a khukuri tucked into it when worn by men), scarves like {{transl|ne|pachhyauras}} and {{transl|ne|majetros}} and shawls like the newar ''ga'' and Tibetan [[khata]], ghumtos (the wedding veils) and various kinds of [[turban]]s (scarves worn around the head as a part of a tradition, or to keep off the sun or the cold,<ref name="Tarlo1996-26-28"/> called a [[pheta]], pagri or sirpau).

Until the beginning of the first millennium AD, the ordinary dress of people in South Asia was entirely unstitched.<ref name="Rahman-Alkazi2002">{{cite book |last=Alkazi |first=Roshen |editor=Rahman, Abdur |title=India's Interaction with China, Central and West Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NZvpAAAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-565789-0 |pages=464–484 |chapter=Evolution of Indian Costume as a result of the links between Central Asia and India in ancient and medieval times}}</ref> The arrival of the Kushans from [[Central Asia]], {{circa|48}} AD, popularised cut and sewn garments in the style of Central Asia.<ref name="Rahman-Alkazi2002"/> The simplest form of sewn clothing, Bhoto (a rudimentary vest), is a universal unisex clothing for children, and traditionally the only clothing children wear until they come of age and are given adult garb, sometimes in a ceremonial rite of passage, such as the gunyu-choli ceremony for Hindu girls. Men continue to wear bhoto through adulthood. Upper body garment for men is usually a vest such as the ''bhoto'', or a shirt similar to the ''[[kurta]]'', such as ''daura'', a closed-necked double-breasted long shirt with five pleats and eight strings that serve to tie it around the body. ''Suruwal'', simply translated as a pair of trousers, is an alternative to and, more recently, replacement for ''dhoti'', {{transl|ne|kachhad}} (Magars) or {{transl|ne|lungi}} (Tharus); it is traditionally much wider above the knees but tapers below, to fit tightly at the ankles, and is tied to the waist with a drawstring. Modern cholos worn with sarees are usually half-sleeved and single-breasted, and do not cover the midriff. The traditional one called the chaubandi cholo, like the daura, is full-sleeved, double-breasted with pleats and strings, and extends down to the patuka, covering the midriff.

Daura-Suruwal and Gunyu-Cholo were the national dresses for men and women respectively until 2011 when they were removed to eliminate favouritism.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://narimag.com.np/news/2019-05-21/20190521125417.html |script-title=ne:गुन्यू–चोलो तथा फरिया जोगाउने अभियान|website=narimag.com.np|language=ne|access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref> Traditional dresses of many pahari ethnic groups are Daura-Suruwal or similar, with patuka, a dhaka topi and a coat for men, and Gunyu-cholo or similar, with patuka and sometimes a scarf for women. For many other groups, men's traditional dresses consist of a shirt or a vest, paired with a ''dhoti'', {{transl|ne|kachhad}} or {{transl|ne|lungi}}. In the high Himalayas, the traditional dresses are largely influenced by Tibetan culture. Sherpa women wear the [[chuba]] with the [[pangi (apron)|pangi]] apron, while Sherpa men wear shirts with stiff high collar and long sleeves called tetung under the chuba. Tibetan Xamo Gyaise hats of the Sherpas, [[dhaka topi]] of pahari men and tamang round caps are among the more distinctive headwears.

Married Hindu women wear {{transl|ne|tika}}, {{transl|ne|sindur}}, {{transl|ne|pote}} and red bangles. Jewellery of gold and silver, and sometimes precious stones, are common. Gold jewellery includes {{transl|ne|mangalsutras}} and {{transl|ne|tilaharis}} worn with the {{transl|ne|pote}} by the Hindus, {{transl|ne|samyafung}} (a huge gold flower worn on the head) and Nessey (huge flattened gold earrings) worn by the Limbus, and {{transl|ne|sirphuli}}, {{transl|ne|sirbandhi}} and {{transl|ne|chandra}} worn by the Magars. Tharu women can wear as much as six kilograms of silver in jewellery, which includes {{transl|ne|mangiya}} worn on the head, {{transl|ne|tikuli}} the forehead, and {{transl|ne|kanseri}} and {{transl|ne|tikahamala}} around the neck.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/entertainment/last-of-tharu-jewellry/|title=Last of Tharu jewellry?|date=11 August 2006|website=The Himalayan Times|language=en-US|access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref>

In the last 50 years, fashions have changed a great deal in Nepal. Increasingly, in urban settings, the sari is no longer the apparel of everyday wear, transformed instead into one for formal occasions. The traditional kurta suruwal is rarely worn by younger women, who increasingly favour jeans. The ''dhoti'' has largely been reduced to the [[liturgical]] [[vestment]] of shamans and Hindu priests.

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Nepalese cuisine}}
[[File:Nepali_dal-bhat-tarkari.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A dal-bhat thali with boiled rice, lentil soup, fried leafy greens, vegetable curry, yoghurt, papad and vegetable salad]]
Nepali cuisine consists of a wide variety of regional and traditional cuisines. Given the range of diversity in soil type, climate, culture, ethnic groups, and occupations, these cuisines vary substantially from each other, using locally available spices, herbs, vegetables, and fruit.<ref name=tkpcrop>{{cite web|url=https://kathmandupost.com/opinion/2018/08/12/defining-our-food-culture|title=Defining our food culture|website=Kathmandu Post |language=en|access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref> The [[Columbian exchange]] had brought the potato, the tomato, maize, peanuts, cashew nuts, pineapples, guavas, and most notably, [[chilli peppers]], to South Asia. Each became staples of use.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/seta/2008/10/16/stories/2008101650731500.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |title=Potato: historically important vegetable |date=16 October 2008 |author=D Balasubramanian | location=Chennai, India |access-date=26 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712125030/http://www.hindu.com/seta/2008/10/16/stories/2008101650731500.htm |archive-date=12 July 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[cereal]]s grown in Nepal, their choice, times, and regions of planting, correspond strongly to the timing of Nepal's monsoons,<ref name=sen-colleen-p13>{{cite book |last=Sen|first=Colleen Taylor|title=Feasts and Fasts: A History of Food in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VN_vCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA164|year=2014|publisher=[[Reaktion Books]]|isbn=978-1-78023-391-8|pages=164–165}}</ref> and the variations in altitude. Rice and wheat are mostly cultivated in the terai plains and well-irrigated valleys, and maize, millet, barley and buckwheat in the lesser fertile and drier hills.<ref name=tkpcrop/><ref name=pathak>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BiOiK89C5jcC|title=Taste of Nepal|last=Pathak|first=Jyoti|date=2007|publisher=Hippocrene Books|isbn=978-0-7818-1121-7|language=en}}</ref>

The foundation of a typical Nepali meal is a cereal cooked in plain fashion, and complemented with flavourful savoury dishes.<ref name="Davidson2014-p409">{{cite book |last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA409|year=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=409}}</ref> The latter includes [[lentil]]s, [[pulses]] and vegetables spiced commonly with [[ginger root|ginger]] and [[garlic]], but also more discerningly with a combination of spices that may include [[coriander]], [[cumin]], [[turmeric]], [[cinnamon]], [[cardamon]], [[jimbu]] and others as informed by culinary conventions.<ref name="Davidson2014-p409"/> In an actual meal, this mental representation takes the form of a platter, or [[thali]], with a central place for the cooked cereal, peripheral ones, often in small bowls, for the flavourful accompaniments, and the simultaneous, rather than piecemeal, ingestion of the two in each act of eating, whether by actual mixing—for example of rice and lentils—or in the folding of one—such as bread—around the other, such as cooked vegetables.<ref name="Davidson2014-p409"/> ''Dal-bhat'', centred around steamed rice is the most common example.<ref name=cnnfood/> as well as dairy and sometimes meat, is the most common and prominent example. The unleavened flat bread made from wheat flour called [[chapati]] occasionally replaces the steamed rice, particularly in the Terai, while Dhindo, prepared by boiling corn, millet or buckwheat flour in water, continuously stirring and adding flour until thick, almost solid consistency is reached, is the main substitute in the hills and mountains. Tsampa, flour made from roasted barley or naked barley, is the main staple in the high himalayas. Throughout Nepal, fermented, then sun-dried, leafy greens called ''Gundruk'', are both a delicacy and a vital substitute for fresh vegetables in the winter.<ref name=pathak/>

[[File:Plateful_of_Momo_in_Nepal.jpg|thumb|left|Momo dumplings with chutney]]
A notable feature of Nepali food is the existence of a number of distinctive vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.<ref name="Davidson2014-p410">{{cite book |last=Davidson|first=Alan|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA410|year=2014|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-967733-7|page=410}}</ref> The appearance of ''[[ahimsa]]'', or the avoidance of violence toward all forms of life in many religious orders early in South Asian history, especially [[Upanishads|Upanishadic Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], is thought to have been a notable factor in the prevalence of vegetarianism among a segment of Nepal's Hindu and Buddhist populations, as well as among Jains.<ref name="Davidson2014-p410"/> Among these groups, strong discomfort is felt at thoughts of eating meat.<ref name="SahakianSaloma2016-50">{{cite book |last1=Sahakian|first1=Marlyne|last2=Saloma|first2=Czarina|last3=Erkman|first3=Suren|title=Food Consumption in the City: Practices and patterns in urban Asia and the Pacific|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TBIxDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|year=2016|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-317-31050-1|page=50}}</ref> Though per capita meat consumption is low in Nepal, the proportion of vegetarianism is not high as in India, due to the prevalence of [[Shaktism]], of which animal sacrifice is a prominent feature.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Majupuria|first=Indra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tPAsvQEACAAJ|title=Joys of Nepalese Cooking: A Most Comprehensive and Practical Book on Nepalese Cookery : 371 Easy-to-make, Kitchen-tested Recipes|date=1990|publisher=S. Devi|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Samaybaji.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Samayabaji (Newar cuisine)]]
Nepali cuisines possess their own distinctive qualities to distinguish these hybrid cuisines from both their northern and southern neighbours.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nepalitimes.com/here-now/could-nepali-cuisine-go-global/|title=Could Nepali cuisine go global?|last=Heaton|first=Thomas|language=en-US|access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref><ref name=cnnfood>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/nepal-top-foods/index.html|title=Momos to Thali: What to eat in Kathmandu|last=marsh|first=jenni|date=16 December 2016|publisher=CNN Travel|language=en|access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref> Nepali cuisines, with generally tomato-based, leaner curries, are lighter than their cream-based Indian counterparts, and Nepali momo dumplings are heavily spiced compared to their northern counterparts.<ref name=cnnfood/> Newar cuisine, one of the richest and most influential in Nepal, is more elaborate and diverse than most, as Newar culture developed in the highly fertile and prosperous Kathmandu valley.<ref name=tkpcrop/> A typical Newar cuisine can comprise more than a dozen dishes of cereals, meat, vegetable curries, chutneys and pickles. Kwanti (sprouted beans soup), chhwela (ground beef), [[Chatānmari|chatamari]] (rice flour crepe), bara (fried lentil cake), kachila (marinated raw minced beef), samaybaji (centred around flattened rice), {{transl|ne|lakhaamari}} and {{transl|ne|yomuri}} are among the more widely recognised.<ref name=cnnfood/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Oq8AgAAQBAJ|title=Curry Cookbook - Nepal Cuisine|last=Rai|first=Jay|publisher=Springwood emedia|isbn=978-1-4760-4069-1|language=en}}</ref> Juju dhau, a sweet yoghurt originating in Bhaktapur, is also famous.<ref name=cnnfood/> Thakali cuisine is another well-known food tradition which seamlessly melds the Tibetan and the Indian with variety in ingredients, especially the herbs and spices.<ref name=tkpcrop/> In the Terai, [[Bagiya]] is a rice flour dumpling with sweets inside, popular among the Tharu and Maithil people. Various communities in the Terai make {{transl|ne|sidhara}} (sun-dried small fish mixed with [[taro]] leaves) and biriya (lentil paste mixed with taro leaves) to stock for the monsoon floods.<ref name=tkpcrop/> {{transl|ne|Selroti}}, {{transl|ne|kasaar}}, {{transl|ne|fini}} and {{transl|ne|chaku}} are among the sweet delicacies. Rice pulau or sweet rice porridge called {{transl|ne|kheer}} are usually the main dish in feasts.<ref name=pathak/> Tea and buttermilk (fermented milk leftover from churning butter from yoghurt) are common non-alcoholic drinks. Almost all janajati communities have their own traditional methods of brewing alcohol. Raksi (traditional distilled alcohol), jaand (rice beer), tongba (millet beer) and chyaang are the most well-known.

=== Sports and recreation ===
{{Main|Sports in Nepal}}
[[File:Five-stone_in_Nepal.jpg|thumb|right|Nepali children playing a variant of knucklebones, with pebbles]]
Nepali indigenous sports, like [[dandi biyo]] and [[kabaddi]] which were considered the unofficial national sports until recently,<ref name= voll>{{cite news |url=https://english.onlinekhabar.com/its-official-volleyball-is-the-national-sport-of-nepal.html|title=It's official: Volleyball is the national sport of Nepal|newspaper=[[Online Khabar]]|access-date=29 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722085509/https://english.onlinekhabar.com/its-official-volleyball-is-the-national-sport-of-nepal.html|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> are still popular in rural areas.<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play">{{cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/lifestyle/people/more-than-just-childs-play/|title=More than just child's play|date=25 February 2018|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|language=en-US|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721224138/https://thehimalayantimes.com/lifestyle/people/more-than-just-childs-play/|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite efforts, standardization and development of dandi biyo has not been achieved,<ref name="Online Khabar national sport">{{cite news |url=https://english.onlinekhabar.com/nepals-national-sport-five-things-didnt-know-dandi-biyo.html|title=Nepal's' 'national sport' we never had: Five things you didn't know about dandi-biyo |newspaper=[[Online Khabar]]|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721224142/https://english.onlinekhabar.com/nepals-national-sport-five-things-didnt-know-dandi-biyo.html|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live|access-date=21 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/57793/|title=Dandi Biyo Championship in Dhading|last=Republica|newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]]|language=en|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721224139/https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/57793/|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> while Kabaddi, as a professional sport, is still in its infancy in Nepal.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/kabaddi/nepali-kabaddi-team-announces-12-member-men-s-squad-for-asian-games-2018|title=Nepal announces 12-member men's kabaddi squad for Asian Games 2018|date=6 August 2018|website=[[Sportskeeda]]|language=en|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721224141/https://www.sportskeeda.com/kabaddi/nepali-kabaddi-team-announces-12-member-men-s-squad-for-asian-games-2018|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bagh-Chal]], an ancient [[Board games|board game]] that's thought to have originated in Nepal, can be played on chalk-drawn boards, with pebbles, and is still popular today.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Tiger and goats is a draw |last1=Jin |first1=L.Y. |last2=Nievergelt |first2=J. |editor2-first=Richard J |editor2-last=Nowakowski |editor1-first=Michael H |editor1-last=Albert |journal=Games of No Chance |url=https://www.msri.org/people/staff/levy/files/Book56/22jin.pdf |publisher=[[MSRI Publications]] |volume=56 |year=2009 |pages=163–176 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511807251.008 |isbn=9780511807251 |access-date=22 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721201337/http://www.msri.org/people/staff/levy/files/Book56/22jin.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://ejournals.ukm.my/apjitm/article/view/26093|title=Analyzing Thousand Years Old Game Tigers and Goats is Still Alive|first1=Hiroyuki|last1=Iida|first2=Sakshi|last2=Agarwal|date=1 October 2018|journal=[[Asia-Pacific Journal of Information Technology and Multimedia]]|volume=7|issue=2|via=[[UKM e-Journal System]]|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721201347/http://ejournals.ukm.my/apjitm/article/view/26093|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Ludo (board game)|Ludo]], [[snakes and ladders]] and [[carrom]] are popular pastimes.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2741570&language=en|title=KUNA : Carrom... Traditional game widely loved in Gulf region – Society – 16/08/2018|agency=[[Kuwait News Agency]]|access-date=21 July 2019}}</ref> [[Chess]] is also played.<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> [[Volleyball]] was declared as the national sport of Nepal in 2017.<ref name=voll/> Popular children's games include versions of [[Tag (game)|tag]],<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> [[knucklebones]],<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> [[hopscotch]], [[Duck, duck, goose#Rumaal Chor|Duck, duck, goose]]<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> and [[seven stones|lagori]], while [[marbles]],<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> [[top]], [[hoop rolling]] and [[gully cricket]] are also popular among boys. [[Rubber band]]s, or [[ranger band]]s cut from tubes in [[Bicycle|bike]] tyres, make a multi-purpose sporting equipment for Nepali children, which may be bunched or chained together, and used to play [[dodgeball]], [[cat's cradle]], [[jianzi]]<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> and a variety of [[skipping rope]] games.<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" />
[[File:Nepali_Fans.JPG|thumb|left|Nepali cricket fans are renowned for an exceptionally enthusiastic support of their national team.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/24222487/fans-frolic-frenzy-await-nepal-lord-visit|title=Fans, frolic, frenzy await Nepal's Lord's visit|date=29 July 2018|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721184833/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/24222487/fans-frolic-frenzy-await-nepal-lord-visit|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/nepal/content/story/728911.html|title=Cricket-mad Nepal faces infrastructure challenges|date=18 March 2014|publisher=ESPNcricinfo|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721184823/http://www.espncricinfo.com/nepal/content/story/728911.html|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
[[Association football|Football]] and [[cricket]] are popular professional sports.<ref>{{cite web |title=Football at the heart of the Himalayas |url=https://www.fifa.com/theclub/news/newsid=93201/ |publisher=[[FIFA]] |date=5 March 2009 |access-date=17 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903141351/http://www.fifa.com/theclub/news/newsid=93201/ |archive-date=3 September 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nepal is competitive in football in the South Asia region but has never won the [[SAFF|SAFF championships]], the regional tournament.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://kathmandupost.com/sports/2018/09/12/nepal-eye-historic-final|title=Saff Championship: Nepal eye historic final|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722102020/https://kathmandupost.com/sports/2018/09/12/nepal-eye-historic-final|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/nepal-crash-out-of-saff-cship-after-3-0-defeat-to-maldives/|title=Nepal crash out of SAFF C'ship after 3–0 defeat to Maldives|date=12 September 2018|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722102013/https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/nepal-crash-out-of-saff-cship-after-3-0-defeat-to-maldives/|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> It usually ranks in the bottom quarter in the [[FIFA World Rankings]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/ranking-table/men/|title=The FIFA/Coca-Cola World Ranking - Ranking Table |publisher=[[FIFA]]|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907060006/https://www.fifa.com/fifa-world-ranking/ranking-table/men/|archive-date=7 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal has had success in cricket and holds the elite [[List of countries with ODI status|ODI status]],<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theweek.co.uk/cricket/92328/nepal-cricket-odi-status?amp|title=Nepal make cricket history after securing ODI status|newspaper=[[The Week|The Week (UK)]]|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627202049/http://www.theweek.co.uk/cricket/92328/nepal-cricket-odi-status?amp|archive-date=27 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/22777050/biggest-day-nepal-cricket-history-khadka |title='Biggest day in Nepal cricket history' – Khadka |date=15 March 2018 |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=16 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316024753/http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/22777050/biggest-day-nepal-cricket-history-khadka |archive-date=16 March 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> consistently ranking in the Top 20 in the [[International Cricket Council|ICC]] [[ICC ODI Championship|ODI]] and [[ICC T20I Championship|T20I rankings]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/rankings/mens/team-rankings/odi|title=ICC Ranking for ODI teams International Cricket Council|publisher=[[International Cricket Council|ICC]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324175838/https://www.icc-cricket.com/rankings/mens/team-rankings/odi|archive-date=24 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/rankings/mens/team-rankings/t20i|title=ICC Ranking for T20 teams International Cricket Council|publisher=[[International Cricket Council|ICC]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324175834/https://www.icc-cricket.com/rankings/mens/team-rankings/t20i|archive-date=24 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal has had some success in [[Athletics (sport)|athletics]] and [[martial arts]], having won many medals at the [[South Asian Games]] and some at the [[Asian games]].<ref name=trn>{{Cite news |url=http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/33198|title=Current priorities of sports: Hosting SAG, winning medals|newspaper=[[The Rising Nepal]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722085510/http://therisingnepal.org.np/news/33198|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal has never won an [[Olympic games|olympic]] medal.<ref name=gauri/> Sports like [[basketball]], volleyball, [[futsal]], [[wrestling]], competitive bodybuilding<ref name=gauri/><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/malik-overall-winner-afghanistan-bag-team-cship/|title=Malik overall winner, Afghanistan bag team c'ship|date=21 July 2019|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722085506/https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/malik-overall-winner-afghanistan-bag-team-cship/|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[badminton]] are also gaining in popularity.<ref name="Himalayan Times More than child's play" /> Women in football, cricket, athletics, martial arts, badminton and swimming have found some success.<ref name=award>{{Cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/cricket-football-dominate-nominations/|title=Cricket, football dominate nominations|date=26 June 2019|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722102011/https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/cricket-football-dominate-nominations/|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=gauri>{{Cite news |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/67830/|title=Will she quench Nepal's thirst for Olympic medals?|first=Rajan|last=Shah|newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]]|access-date=29 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722091043/https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/67830/|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepal also fields players and national teams in several tournaments for the [[differently abled]], most notably in men's<ref name=menb>{{Cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/blind-cricketers-horrible-journey-to-world-cup/|title=Blind cricketers' horrible journey to WC|date=22 January 2018|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721201344/https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/blind-cricketers-horrible-journey-to-world-cup/|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as women's blind cricket.<ref name=wmenb>{{Cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/nepal-defeat-pakistan-seal-womens-blind-cricket-series/|title=Nepal defeat Pakistan, seal women's blind cricket series|date=4 February 2019|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|access-date=21 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721201351/https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/nepal-defeat-pakistan-seal-womens-blind-cricket-series/|archive-date=21 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

The only international stadium in the country is the multi-purpose [[Dasharath Rangasala|Dasarath Stadium]] where the [[Nepal national football team|men]] and [[Nepal women's national football team|women national football teams]] play their home matches.<ref name=dash>{{Cite news |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/27598/|title=Renovation of Dasharath Stadium takes forever, hurts nation's football|first=Prabin Bikram|last=Katwal|newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]]|access-date=29 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722085516/https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/27598/|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Since the formation of the [[Nepal national cricket team|national team]], Nepal has played its home matches of cricket at [[Tribhuvan University International Cricket Ground]].<ref name="cricktarchv">{{cite web |title=Grounds in Nepal |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/93/grounds_for_country_93.html |publisher=[[Cricket Archive]] |access-date=18 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116202325/http://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Grounds/93/grounds_for_country_93.html |archive-date=16 January 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Nepal police, Armed police force and Nepal army are the most prolific producers of national players, and aspiring players are known to join armed forces, for the better sporting opportunities they can provide.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/khawas-passes-second-lieutenant-test/|title=Khawas passes second lieutenant test|first=Bipulendra|last=Adhikari|newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/nepal-apf-club-athletes-gopi-chandra-parki-kanchhi-maya-koju-win-5000m-races-seventh-national-games/|title=APF athletes Parki, Koju win 5,000m races|date=26 December 2016|newspaper=[[The Himalayan Times]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722094941/https://thehimalayantimes.com/sports/nepal-apf-club-athletes-gopi-chandra-parki-kanchhi-maya-koju-win-5000m-races-seventh-national-games/|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Nepali sports is hindered by a lack of infrastructure,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://kathmandupost.com/sports/2019/04/25/national-games-conclude-with-concerns-over-maintenance-and-upgradation-of-infrastructure|title=National Games conclude with concerns over maintenance and upgradation of infrastructure|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722102021/https://kathmandupost.com/sports/2019/04/25/national-games-conclude-with-concerns-over-maintenance-and-upgradation-of-infrastructure|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> funding,<ref name=menb/> corruption, nepotism and political interference.<ref name=trn/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci-icc/content/story/1003757.html|title=ICC suspends Cricket Association of Nepal|date=26 April 2016|publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|access-date=22 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718083716/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci-icc/content/story/1003757.html|archive-date=18 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/69986/|title=ICC's suspension of CAN continues|newspaper=[[Republica (newspaper)|Republica]]|access-date=29 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722100456/https://myrepublica.nagariknetwork.com/news/69986/|archive-date=22 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Very few players are able to make a living as professional sportspeople.<ref name=dash/><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://kathmandupost.com/30/2020/02/22/athletes-spend-the-best-years-of-their-lives-playing-sports-but-are-often-left-with-little-to-retire-on|title=Athletes spend the best years of their lives playing sports, but are often left with little to retire on|newspaper=[[The Kathmandu Post]]|language=en|access-date=26 February 2020}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Nepal|Asia
}}
* [[Outline of Nepal]]

== Citations ==

===Notes===
{{notelist|colwidth=30em}}

=== References ===
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Balakrishnan|first=T. K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHDySAAACAAJ|title=Foreign Policy of India: Problems and Paradoxes|chapter=India's Foreign Policy for Nepal, Bangladesh & Sri Lanka|date=2010|publisher=Mohini Publishers & Distributors|isbn=978-81-909928-1-7|language=en|via=[[Google Books]]}}
* {{Cite book |first=Perceval |last=Landon|author-link=Perceval Landon|url=http://archive.org/details/nepal01perc|title=Nepal, Vol. 1|date=1928|publisher=Constable & Co. (Edinburgh)|others=Public Resource|via=[[Internet Archive]]|isbn=8-120-60724-4}}
* {{cite web |title=National Population and Housing Census 2011 (National Report)|publisher=Central Bureau of Statistics (Nepal)|date=November 2012|url=http://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/National%20Report.pdf |access-date=26 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130418041642/http://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/National%20Report.pdf|archive-date=18 April 2013|ref={{sfnRef|2011 National Census}}}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Hutt|editor-first=Michael|editor-link=Michael Hutt (academic and translator)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NpYHG2sA76cC|title=Himalayan 'people's War': Nepal's Maoist Rebellion|date=2004|publisher=[[C. Hurst & Co.]]|isbn=978-1-85065-722-4|language=en|access-date=18 April 2020}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Shaha |first=Rishikesh |title=Ancient and Medieval Nepal |year=1992 |publisher=Manohar Publications |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-85425-69-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tiwari |first=Sudarshan Raj |title=The Brick and the Bull: An account of Handigaun, the Ancient Capital of Nepal |year=2002 |publisher=Himal Books |isbn=978-99933-43-52-3}}
* {{Cite book |first=Barbara |last=Crossette |title=So Close to Heaven: The Vanishing Buddhist Kingdoms of the Himalayas |location=New York |publisher=Vintage |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-679-74363-7}}
* {{Cite book |author= Dor Bahadur Bista|title=People of Nepal |publisher=Department of Publicity, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of Nepal |year=1967 |isbn=978-99933-0-418-0}}
* {{Cite book |first=Dervla |last=Murphy |title=The Waiting Land: A Spell in Nepal |publisher=Transatlantic Arts |year=1968 |isbn=978-0-7195-1745-7}}
* {{Cite book |author=Rishikesh Shaha |title=Modern Nepal: A Political History |publisher=Manohar Publishers and Distributors |year=2001 |isbn=978-81-7304-403-8|author-link=Rishikesh Shaha }}
* {{Cite book |author=Jane Wilson-Howarth |title=A Glimpse of Eternal Snows: a family's journey of love and loss in Nepal |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides, UK |year=2012 |page=390 |isbn=978-1-84162-435-8|author-link=Jane Wilson-Howarth }}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Nepal|Nepal|auto=Q837}}{{EB1911 poster|Nepal}}

===Government===
* {{Official website|http://www.nepal.gov.np}} of the [[Government of Nepal]]
* {{Official website|http://www.welcomenepal.com}} of [[Nepal Tourism Board]]

===General information===
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12511455 Nepal country profile] from [[BBC News]]
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nepal/ Nepal]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* {{GovPubs|Nepal}}
* {{curlie|Regional/Asia/Nepal}}
* {{wikiatlas|Nepal}}
*{{Wikivoyage-inline}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|184633}}
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=NP Key Development Forecasts for Nepal] from [[International Futures]]

{{Nepal topics}}
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