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Alamgir Mosque, Aurangabad

2023-09-16T18:47:39Z

Sandy:

{{Short description|Aurangeb's Personal Mosque in Aurangabad,Maharashtra India, built 1693}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Infobox religious building
| name = Alamgir Mosque, Aurangabad
| native_name = आलमगीर मस्जिद, औरंगाबाद
| native_name_lang = "hi"
| image = File:Aurangzeb's Mosque West.jpg
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption = Alamgir mosque at Kila-e-Ark 1880s
| religious_affiliation = [[Islam]]
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| district = [[Aurangabad district|Aurangabad]]
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| ownership = [[Muslims]]
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| functional_status = Active
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| location = Govt.College, Qila Arq, Aurangabad, Maharashtra 431004. <br><small>Previously [[Aurangabad]], [[Mughal Empire]]</small>
| locale =
| municipality = [[Aurangabad Municipal Corporation]]
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| state = [[Maharashtra]]
| country = [[India]]
| map_type = India Maharashtra
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| architecture_style = [[Mughal architecture|Mughal Architecture]]
| founded_by = [[Aurangzeb Alamgir]]
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| established = {{Start date and age|1693}}
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| year_completed = 1693
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'''Alamgir Mosque''' ([[Urdu]]: عالمگیر مسجد) also known as '''Shahi Mosque''', '''Shahi Masjid''' or '''Royal Mosque''', located in the city of [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]], In [[Maharashtra]] State of [[India]]. It was personal [[Mosque]] of Sixth [[Mughal emperors|Mughal Emperor]] [[Aurangzeb Alamgir]], Alamgir Mosque is Build by [[Aurangzeb]] in 1693 CE.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aurangzebe's Private Mosque, Aurangabad (The J. Paul Getty Museum Collection) |url=https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/109DGS |access-date=2023-09-13 |website=The J. Paul Getty Museum Collection |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Aurangzebe's Private Mosque, Aurangabad (The J. Paul Getty Museum Collection) |url=https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/109DGS |access-date=2023-09-13 |website=The J. Paul Getty Museum Collection |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Shahi Masjid (Alamgir Mosque) Aurangabad · Govt.College, Qila Arq, Aurangabad, Maharashtra 431004, India |url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/shahi+masjid+(alamgir+mosque)+aurangabad/@19.8949872,75.3327911,15z/data=!4m6!3m5!1s0x3bdb980583be1d81:0xb4e5ba184d626f42!8m2!3d19.8949872!4d75.3327911!16s/g/1w0qzcmb?entry=ttu |access-date=2023-09-13 |website=Shahi Masjid (Alamgir Mosque) Aurangabad · Govt.College, Qila Arq, Aurangabad, Maharashtra 431004, India |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Alamgir Mosque Rock Where Aurangzeb Used to seat and do his work and Ibada.jpg|thumb|Alamgir Mosque Rock Where Aurangzeb Used to seat and do his work and Ibada]]
Around 1681–82, Aurangzeb had moved his court to Aurangabad, using it as a base for his military campaigns in the [[Deccan]]. The Alamgir Mosque was built in 1693 and was part of the royal palace complex located on a ridge to the North of the city.

== Architecture ==
Alamgir Mosque only of its kind in India that is design of 3 domes other one was [[Babri Masjid]] which can not be counted now as it is [[Demolition of the Babri Masjid|demolished]] by [[Hindu terrorism|Sangi Terrorists]]. The Alamgir Mosque is a relatively modest structure featuring three prominent [[dome]]s atop its prayer hall, emphasizing its royal significance. This architectural design aligns with the style seen in other royal mosques like those found in [[Agra]] and [[Delhi]], characterized by three-part prayer halls capped by triple domes. Additionally, the mosque is equipped with facilities for ablution, including basins for washing hands, feet, and faces before entering the prayer hall.

In proximity to the mosque, there is a small stone enclosed by a barrier. This stone holds historical significance as it marks the spot where [[Emperor Aurangzeb]] prayed and interpreted the [[Quran]] approximately 340 years ago. In his later years, Aurangzeb engaged in Quranic studies and supplemented his income by crafting and selling [[hat]]s. Notably, he opted to use the proceeds from these sales for his [[Aurangzeb#Death|burial expenses]], rather than diverting empire funds for personal gain.

Among the various structures in the vicinity, only the Emperor's personal mosque and the women's mosque have endured the passage of time and remain in good condition.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:Alamgir mosque.jpg|Alamgir mosque at Kila-e-Ark 1880s
Image:Aurangzeb's Mosque East Side (Alamgir Mosque Aurangabad).jpg|Aurangzeb's Mosque East Side
Image:Aurangzeb's Mosque Wazukhana.jpg|Wudu Area, Water Fountain
Image:Aurangzeb's Mosque West.jpg|Aurangzeb's Mosque West
Image:Aurangzebs palace.jpg|View of Begumpura from Aurangzeb's palace 1830s
Image:Aurangabad city.jpg|Kham river & city walls of Aurangabad 1860s
Image:Mecca gate aurangabad.jpg|Mecca gate Aurangabad 1880s
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Tourist attractions in Aurangabad, Maharashtra]]
*[[Kali Masjid, Jalna]]
*[[Jama Masjid, Aurangabad]]
*[[Aurangabad, Maharashtra]]
==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Mosques in India}}

[[Category:Mosques in Aurangabad]]
[[Category:Mosques in Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Religious buildings and structures in Aurangabad, Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Religious buildings and structures completed in 1693]]
[[Category:Grand mosques|Aurangabad]]
[[Category:Mughal mosques]]

{{India-mosque-stub}}

Women in India

2023-02-18T20:26:01Z

Sandy: Created an enlightening write-up.

{{short description|Overview of the status of women in India}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Infobox women by region
|image = Woman harvesting wheat, Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh, India ggia version.jpg
|caption = A woman harvesting wheat in [[Raisen district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], India
|gii = 0.490 (2021)
|gii_rank = 122nd out of 191
|gii_ref = <ref>{{cite web|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|publisher=HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS|access-date=19 December 2022}}</ref>
|matdeath = 112
|womparl = 14.5%
|femed = 41.8% [M: 53.6%]
|womlab = 27.2% [M: 78.8%]
|ggg = 0.629 (2022)
|ggg_rank = 135th out of 146
|ggg_ref = <ref>{{cite web|title=Global Gender Gap Report 2022|url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2022.pdf|publisher=World Economic Forum|access-date=1 March 2023}}</ref>}}
{{Women in society sidebar}}
The status of '''women in India''' has been subject to many changes over the time of recorded India's history.<ref name="The Hindu">{{cite news |title=Rajya Sabha passes Women's Reservation Bill |url=http://hindu.com/2010/03/10/stories/2010031050880100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314035416/http://www.hindu.com/2010/03/10/stories/2010031050880100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 March 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=25 August 2010 |location=Chennai, India }}</ref> Their position in society deteriorated early in India's ancient period, especially in the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan speaking]] regions,{{efn|"Therefore, by the time of the Mauryan Empire the position of women in mainstream Indo-Aryan society seems to have deteriorated. Customs such as child marriage and dowry were becoming entrenched; and a young women’s purpose in life was to provide sons for the male lineage into which she married. To quote the Arthashāstra: ‘wives are there for having sons’. Practices such as female infanticide and the neglect of young girls were also developing at this time. Further, due to the increasingly hierarchical nature of the society, marriage was becoming a mere institution for childbearing and the formalization of relationships between groups. In turn, this may have contributed to the growth of increasingly instrumental attitudes towards women and girls (who moved home at marriage). It is important to note that, in all likelihood, these developments did not affect people living in large parts of the subcontinent—such as those in the south, and tribal communities inhabiting the forested hill and plateau areas of central and eastern India. That said, these deleterious features have continued to blight Indo-Aryan speaking areas of the subcontinent until the present day.<ref name="Dyson2018-20"/>"}}<ref name="Dyson2018-20">{{citation|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|pages=20}}</ref>{{efn|"Darkness can be said to have pervaded one aspect of society during the inter-imperial centuries: the degradation of women. In [[Hinduism]], the monastic tradition was not institutionalized as it was in the heterodoxies of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], where it was considered the only true path to spiritual liberation. (p. 88) Instead, Hindu men of upper castes, passed through several stages of life: that of initiate, when those of the [[Dwija|twice-born castes]] received the sacred thread; that of student, when the upper castes studied the [[Vedas]]; that of the married man, when they became householders; ... Since the Hindu man was enjoined to take a wife at the appropriate period of life, the roles and nature of women presented some difficulty. Unlike the monastic ascetic, the Hindu man was exhorted to have sons, and could not altogether avoid either women or sexuality. ... [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]] approved of child brides, considering a girl of eight suitable for a man of twenty-four, and one of twelve appropriate for a man of thirty.(p. 89) If there was no dowry, or if the groom’s family paid that of the bride, the marriage was ranked lower. In this ranking lay the seeds of the curse of dowry that has become a major social problem in modern India, among all castes, classes and even religions. (p. 90) ... the widow’s head was shaved, she was expected to sleep on the ground, eat one meal a day, do the most menial tasks, wear only the plainest, meanest garments, and no ornaments. She was excluded from all festivals and celebrations, since she was considered inauspicious to all but her own children. This penitential life was enjoined because the widow could never quite escape the suspicion that she was in some way responsible for her husband’s premature demise. ... The positions taken and the practices discussed by Manu and the other commentators and writers of [[Dharmashastra]] are not quaint relics of the distant past, but alive and recurrent in India today – as the attempts to revive the custom of sati (widow immolation) in recent decades has shown."<ref name="Stein2010-90"/>}}<ref name="Stein2010-90">{{citation|last=Stein|first=Burton|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA87|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1|pages=90}}</ref>{{efn|"The legal rights, as well as the ideal images, of women were increasingly circumscribed during the Gupta era. The Laws of Manu, compiled from about 200 to 400 C.E., came to be the most prominent evidence that this era was not necessarily a golden age for women. Through a combination of legal injunctions and moral prescriptions, women were firmly tied to the patriarchal family, ... Thus the Laws of Manu severely reduced the property rights of women, recommended a significant difference in ages between husband and wife and the relatively early marriage of women, and banned widow remarriage. Manu's preoccupation with chastity reflected possibly a growing concern for the maintenance of inheritance rights in the male line, a fear of women undermining the increasingly rigid caste divisions, and a growing emphasis on male asceticism as a higher spiritual calling."<ref name="RamusackSievers1999"/>}}<ref name="RamusackSievers1999">{{citation|last=Ramusack|first=Barbara N.|editor=Barbara N. Ramusack, Sharon L. Sievers|title=Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PA27|year=1999|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-21267-7|pages=27–29|chapter=Women in South Asia}}</ref> and their subordination continued to be reified well into India's early modern period.{{efn|"In regions where social life was not influenced significantly by great warrior lineages – on the fringes of Mughal power, in the north-eastern mountains, the southern peninsula, Sri Lanka, and Nepal – marriage customs tend to elaborate local family ties, enhancing local identities. Women typically marry in or near their natal village. Marriage to kin is preferred. Female seclusion (pardah) is rare and rates of female participation in higher education and wage labour are normal. Women commonly work in public in fields, in shops, and in offices. Unmarried women often walk the streets and use public transport alone or with friends, both male and female. By contrast, in regions ruled by great warrior clans – in the heartlands of Mughal power across Afghanistan, Pakistan, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and east across Bangladesh – extensive marriage networks are typical and the regional rank of families is critical. Marriage is normally forbidden within villages and to close kin. Families prefer women to marry at some distance from the natal village, and more so in high-status families. Pardah is widely practised, and as a result, women’s participation in education and wage labour is low. A woman’s place is definitely at home, where her virtue is the family honour. It is thus less common to see women working in public or travelling without male kin."<ref name="Ludden2013-101"/>}}<ref name="Ludden2013-101">{{citation|last=Ludden|first=David|title=India and South Asia: A Short History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EbFHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA68|year=2013|publisher=Oneworld Publications|isbn=978-1-78074-108-6|pages=101}}</ref><ref name="Dyson2018-20"/><ref name="Stein2010-90"/>

During the [[Company rule in India|British East India Company rule]] (1757–1857), and the [[British Raj]] (1858–1947), measures aiming at amelioration were enacted, including [[Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829]], [[Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856]], [[Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870]], and [[Age of Consent Act, 1891]]. The [[Indian constitution]] prohibits discrimination based on [[sex]] and empowers the government to undertake special measures for them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Salini |first=S. |year=2017 |title=Protection Of Women Under Indian Constitution |journal=Buddy-Mantra |url=https://buddymantra.com/protection-women-indian-constitution/}}</ref> Women's rights under the [[Constitution of India]] mainly include equality, dignity, and freedom from discrimination; additionally, India has various statutes governing the rights of women.<ref>{{cite book |last=Parihar |first=Lalita Dhar |title=Women and law: from impoverishment to empowerment |publisher=Eastern Book Company |location=Lucknow |year=2011 |isbn=9789350280591}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rao |first=Mamta |title=Law relating to women and children |publisher=Eastern Book Co |location=Lucknow |edition=3rd |year=2008 |isbn=9788170121329 |quote=...women and the protection provided under various criminal, personal and labour laws in India}}</ref>

Several women have served in various senior official positions in the Indian government, including that of the [[President of India]], the [[Prime Minister of India]], the [[List of indian Lok Sabha speakers|Speaker of the Lok Sabha]]. However, many women in India continue to face significant difficulties. The rates of [[Malnutrition in India|malnutrition]] are exceptionally high among adolescent girls and pregnant and lactating women in India, with repercussions for [[Children and adolescents in India|children]]'s health.{{efn|"Reports of National Health & Family Survey, United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund, and WHO have highlighted that rates of malnutrition among adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women, and children are alarmingly high in India. Factors responsible for malnutrition in the country include the mother’s nutritional status, lactation behaviour, women’s education, and sanitation. These affect children in several ways including stunting, childhood illness, and retarded growth."<ref name="NarayanJohn2018"/>}}<ref name="NarayanJohn2018">{{cite journal|last1=Narayan|first1=Jitendra|last2=John|first2=Denny|last3=Ramadas|first3=Nirupama|title=Malnutrition in India: status and government initiatives|journal=Journal of Public Health Policy|volume=40|issue=1|year=2018|pages=126–141|issn=0197-5897|doi=10.1057/s41271-018-0149-5|pmid=30353132|s2cid=53032234}}</ref> Violence against women, especially sexual violence, is a serious concern in India.<ref name=guardian2019>{{citation|publisher=Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/india+society/rape|title=India + Rape and Sexual Assault|access-date=15 August 2019}}</ref>

==Women in India during British rule==
{{Further|History of women in the Indian subcontinent}}
<gallery widths="180" heights="180" class="center">
File:Muslim girl india1844.jpg|''A little Mussulman girl'', Calcutta, 1844 lithograph of a Muslim girl in India wearing [[pajamas|paijamas]] and [[kurta|kurti]]; drawn by Emily Eden, wife of the [[Governor-General of India]], [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|George Eden]]
File:BathingGhatBanares1885.jpg|Women and [[Children and adolescents in India|children]] bathing and collecting water at a [[ghat]] in Banares ([[Varanasi]]), the holy [[Hindu]] city on the banks of the [[Ganges]] river in northern India, 1885
File:Anandibai gopalrao joshi.jpg|[[Anandibai Joshi]] MD Class of 1886, Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania
File:Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati 1858-1922 front-page-portrait.jpg|[[Pandita Ramabai]] Saraswati
</gallery>
During the [[British Raj]], many reformers such as [[Ram Mohan Roy]], [[Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar]] and [[Jyotirao Phule]] fought for the betterment of women. [[Peary Charan Sarkar]], a former student of Hindu College, Calcutta and a member of "Young Bengal", set up the first free school for girls in India in 1847 in Barasat, a suburb of Calcutta (later the school was named Kalikrishna Girls' High School). While this might suggest that there was no positive British contribution during the Raj era, that is not entirely the case. Missionaries' wives such as Martha Mault née Mead and her daughter Eliza Caldwell née Mault are rightly remembered for pioneering the education and training of girls in south India. This practice was initially met with local resistance, as it flew in the face of tradition. Raja Rammohan Roy's efforts led to the abolition of Sati under [[Governor-General]] [[Lord William Bentinck|William Cavendish-Bentinck]] in 1829. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's crusade for improvement in the situation of widows led to the [[Widow Remarriage Act]] of 1856. Many women reformers such as [[Pandita Ramabai]] also helped the cause of women.

[[Kittur Chennamma]], queen of the princely state Kittur in Karnataka,<ref>{{cite book |title=Saraswati English Plus |page=47 |publisher=New Saraswati House}}</ref> led an armed rebellion against the British in response to the [[Doctrine of lapse]]. [[Rani Lakshmi Bai]], the Queen of [[Jhansi]], led the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] against the British. She is now widely considered as a national hero. [[Begum Hazrat Mahal]], the co-ruler of [[Awadh]], was another ruler who led the revolt of 1857. She refused deals with the British and later retreated to Nepal. The [[Begum of Bhopal|Begums of Bhopal]] were also considered notable female rulers during this period. They were trained in [[martial art]]s. [[Chandramukhi Basu]], [[Kadambini Ganguly]] and [[Anandi Gopal Joshi]] were some of the earliest Indian women to obtain a degree.

In 1917, the first women's delegation met the Secretary of State to demand women's political rights, supported by the Indian National Congress. The All India Women's Education Conference was held in Pune in 1927, it became a major organisation in the movement for social change.<ref name="infochange_women">{{cite news |last=Madhok |first=Sujata |title=Women: Background & Perspective |url=http://www.infochangeindia.org/WomenIbp.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724121920/http://www.infochangeindia.org/WomenIbp.jsp |work=InfoChange India |archive-date=24 July 2008 |url-status=usurped |access-date=24 December 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nelasco |first=Shobana |title=Status of women in India |page=11 |publisher=Deep & Deep Publications |location=New Delhi |year=2010 |isbn=9788184502466}}</ref> In 1929, the Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed, stipulating fourteen as the minimum age of marriage for a girl.<ref name="infochange_women" /><ref>Ambassador of Hindu Muslim Unity, Ian Bryant Wells</ref>{{full citation needed}} [[Mahatma Gandhi]], himself a victim of [[child marriage]] at the age of thirteen, he later urged people to boycott child marriages and called upon young men to marry child widows.<ref name="kamat_gandhi_status" />

==Independent India==
[[File:Unsafe areas for women in india.png|thumb|Female Safety Index per state according to the Tata Strategic Management Group. Light green indicates greatest safety; yellow, medium safety and light red, least safety.]]
Women in India now participate fully in areas such as education, sports, politics, media, art and culture, service sectors, science and technology, etc. [[Indira Gandhi]], who served as [[Prime Minister of India]] for an aggregate period of fifteen years, is the world's longest serving female Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/oxford/hi/people_and_places/arts_and_culture/newsid_8661000/8661776.stm |title=Oxford University's famous south Asian graduates (Indira Gandhi) |work=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>

The Constitution of India guarantees to all Indian women equality (Article 14),<ref name="Into Legal World">{{Cite news |url=http://intolegalworld.com/2017/01/24/women-related-law-compiled/ |title=Women related law:- All compiled – Into Legal World |work=Into Legal World |access-date=7 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207224723/http://intolegalworld.com/2017/01/24/women-related-law-compiled/ |archive-date=7 December 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> no discrimination by the State (Article 15(1)),<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://intolegalworld.com/2017/01/24/women-related-law-compiled |title=Women related law:- All compiled – Into Legal World |work=Into Legal World |access-date=7 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207224723/http://intolegalworld.com/2017/01/24/women-related-law-compiled/ |archive-date=7 December 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> equality of opportunity (Article 16),<ref name="Into Legal World"/> equal pay for equal work (Article 39(d)) and Article 42.<ref>{{Cite web|author=|title=Women Rights in India: Constitutional Rights and Legal Rights|url=https://edugeneral.org/blog/polity/women-rights-in-india/|access-date=2020-06-30|website=EduGeneral|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Into Legal World"/> In addition, it allows special provisions to be made by the State in favour of women and children (Article 15(3)), renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Article 51(A) (e)), and also allows for provisions to be made by the State for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief. (Article 42).<ref name="un_women_free_equal">{{cite web |last1=Menon-Sen |first1=Kalyani |last2=Kumar |first2=A.K. Shiva | author-link2 = A. K. Shiva Kumar |title=Women in India: How Free? How Equal? |url=http://www.un.org.in/wii.htm |publisher=United Nations |year=2001 |access-date=24 December 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060911183722/http://www.un.org.in/wii.htm  |archive-date=11 September 2006}}</ref>

[[Feminism in India|Feminist activism in India]] gained momentum in the late 1970s. One of the first national-level issues that brought women's groups together was the [[Mathura rape case]]. The acquittal of policemen accused of raping a young girl Mathura in a police station led to country-wide protests in 1979–1980. The protest, widely covered by the national media, forced the Government to amend the Evidence Act, the Criminal Procedure Code, and the Indian Penal Code; and created a new offence, custodial rape.<ref name="un_women_free_equal" />

Since alcoholism is often associated with violence against women in India,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Velkoff |first1=Victoria A. |last2=Adlakha |first2=Arjun |title=Women of the World: Women's Health in India | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110604175647/http://www.census.gov/ipc/prod/wid-9803.pdf | archive-date = 4 June 2011 |url=https://www.census.gov/ipc/prod/wid-9803.pdf |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration |access-date=25 December 2006 |ref=WID/98-3}}</ref> many women groups launched anti-liquor campaigns in [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Haryana]], [[Odisha]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and other states.<ref name="un_women_free_equal" /> Many Indian Muslim women have questioned the fundamental leaders' interpretation of women's rights under the Shariat law and have criticised the [[triple talaq]] system (see below about 2017).<ref name="infochange_women" />

[[Mary Roy]] won a lawsuit in 1986, against the inheritance legislation of her [[Kerala|Keralite]] [[Syrian Malabar Nasrani|Syrian Christian]] community in the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]]. The judgement ensured equal rights for Syrian Christian women with their male siblings in regard to their ancestral property.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.rediff.com/news/sep/18arun.htm| title=Ammu may have some similarities to me, but she is not Mary Roy| last=Iype| first=George| publisher=rediff| access-date=12 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/29/stories/2006052918730100.htm| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060531055244/http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/29/stories/2006052918730100.htm| url-status=dead| archive-date=31 May 2006| title=Bank seeks possession of property in Mary Roy case| work=[[The Hindu]]| date=29 May 2006| access-date=12 May 2013| author=George Jacob}}</ref> Until then, her Syrian Christian community followed the provisions of the Travancore Succession Act of 1916 and the Cochin Succession Act, 1921, while elsewhere in India the same community followed the Indian Succession Act of 1925.<ref>{{Cite news | url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/final-decree-in-mary-roy-case-executed/article840061.ece | title=Final decree in Mary Roy case executed | journal=The Hindu | access-date=21 October 2010| date=2010-10-20 | last1=Jacob | first1=George }}</ref>

In the 1990s, grants from foreign donor agencies enabled the formation of new women-oriented NGOs. Self-help groups and NGOs such as [[SEWA|Self Employed Women's Association]] (SEWA) have played a major role in the advancement of women's rights in India. Many women have emerged as leaders of local movements; for example, [[Medha Patkar]] of the [[Narmada Bachao Andolan]].

In 1991, the Kerala High Court restricted the entry of women above the age of 10 and below the age of 50 from [[Sabarimala]] Shrine, as they were of the menstruating age. However, on 28 September 2018, the Supreme Court of India lifted the ban on the entry of women. It said that discrimination against women on any grounds, even religious, is unconstitutional.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/sabarimala-temple-entry-live-updates/article25066336.ece|title=Supreme Court upholds the right of women of all ages to worship at Sabarimala {{!}} Live updates|date=2018-09-28|work=The Hindu|access-date=2018-09-28|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/keralas-sabarimala-temple-must-allow-women-of-all-ages-says-supreme-court-ending-restriction-1923556|title=Women Of All Ages Can Enter Sabarimala Temple, Says Top Court, Ending Ban|work=NDTV.com|access-date=2018-09-28}}</ref>

The Government of India declared 2001 as the Year of Women's Empowerment (''Swashakti'').<ref name="infochange_women" /> The National Policy For The Empowerment Of Women was passed that same year.<ref>{{cite web |title=National policy for the empowerment of women | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151025071255/http://wcd.nic.in/empwomen.htm | archive-date = 25 October 2015 |url=http://www.wcd.nic.in/empwomen.htm |website=wcd.nic.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Women and Child Development]] |access-date=24 December 2006}}</ref>

In 2006, the case of [[Imrana rape case|Imrana]], a Muslim rape victim, was highlighted by the media. Imrana was raped by her father-in-law. The pronouncement of some Muslim clerics that Imrana should marry her father-in-law led to widespread protests, and finally Imrana's father-in-law was sentenced to 10 years in prison. The verdict was welcomed by many women's groups and the All India Muslim Personal Law Board.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rao |first=M.V.R. |title=Imrana: father-in-law gets 10 yrs, Muslim board applauds order | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005231/http://southasia.oneworld.net/article/view/141611/1/ |archive-date=27 September 2007 |url=http://southasia.oneworld.net/article/view/141611/1/ |website=southasia.oneworld.net |publisher=OneWorld South Asia |access-date=25 December 2006}}</ref>

According to a 2011 poll conducted by the [[Thomson Reuters Foundation]], India was the "fourth most dangerous country" in the world for women,<ref>{{cite news |last=Chowdhury |first=Kavita |title=India is fourth most dangerous place in the world for women: Poll |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/india-is-fourth-most-dangerous-place-in-the-world-for-women-poll/1/141639.html |work=[[India Today]] |location=New Delhi |publisher=[[Living Media]] |access-date=13 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Bowcott |first=Owen |title=Afghanistan worst place in the world for women, but InIn 2017dia in top five |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jun/15/worst-place-women-afghanistan-india |work=[[The Guardian]] | World news |location=London |access-date=13 March 2014}}</ref> India was also noted as the worst country for women among the [[G20]] countries,<ref name="Baldwin">{{cite news |last=Baldwin |first=Katherine |title=Canada best G20 country to be a woman, India worst – TrustLaw poll |url=http://news.trust.org//item/?map=poll-canada-best-g20-country-to-be-a-woman-india-worst/ |work=[[Thomson Reuters Foundation|Thomson Reuters Foundation News]] }}</ref> however, this report has faced criticism for promoting inaccurate perceptions.<ref name="femcrit">{{cite web |author= |title=India ranked worst G20 country for women |url=http://feministsindia.com/india-ranked-worst-g20-country-for-women/ |website=feministsindia.com |publisher=FeministsIndia }}</ref>
On 9 March 2010, one day after International Women's day, Rajya Sabha passed the Women's Reservation Bill requiring that 33% of seats in India's Parliament and state legislative bodies be reserved for women.<ref name="The Hindu" /> In October 2017 another poll published by Thomson Reuters Foundation found that Delhi was the fourth most dangerous [[megacity]] (total 40 in the world) for women and it was also the worst megacity in the world for women when it came to sexual violence, risk of rape and harassment.<ref>{{cite news |last=Canton |first=Naomi |title=Sexual attacks: Delhi worst in world, says poll |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Sexual-attacks-Delhi-worst-in-world-says-poll/articleshow/61095531.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref>

The [[Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013]] is a legislative act in India that seeks to protect women from sexual harassment at their place of work. The Act came into force from 9 December 2013. The [[Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013]] introduced changes to the Indian Penal Code, making sexual harassment an expressed offence under Section 354 A, which is punishable up to three years of imprisonment and or with fine. The Amendment also introduced new sections making acts like disrobing a woman without consent, [[stalking]] and sexual acts by person in authority an offense. It also made acid attacks a specific offence with a punishment of imprisonment not less than 10 years and which could extend to life imprisonment and with fine.<ref>{{cite web|title=Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 |url=http://mha.nic.in/pdfs/TheCrimnalLaw030413.pdf |publisher=Government of India |access-date=11 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130417194151/http://mha.nic.in/pdfs/TheCrimnalLaw030413.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2013 }}</ref>

In 2014, an Indian family court in [[Mumbai]] ruled that a husband objecting to his wife wearing a [[kurta]] and jeans and forcing her to wear a [[sari]] amounts to cruelty inflicted by the husband and can be a ground to seek divorce.<ref name="gulfnews1">{{cite web |author=PTI |url=http://gulfnews.com/news/asia/india/wife-s-jeans-ban-is-grounds-for-divorce-india-court-rules-1.1353273 |title=Wife's jeans ban is grounds for divorce, India court rules |publisher=GulfNews.com |access-date=28 October 2015}}</ref> The wife was thus granted a divorce on the ground of cruelty as defined under section 27(1)(d) of Special Marriage Act, 1954.<ref name="gulfnews1"/>

On 22 August 2017, the Indian Supreme Court deemed instant [[triple talaq in India|triple talaq]] (''talaq-e-biddat'') unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/ahead-of-supreme-court-verdict-on-triple-talaq-here-s-a-primer-on-the-case/story-OJ6jjgGTRR988PfbNDpJ5I.html |title=Supreme Court scraps instant triple talaq: Here's what you should know about the practice}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/supreme-court-verdict-on-triple-talaq-small-step-no-giant-leap-4808945/ |title=Small step, no giant leap}}</ref>

A 2018 poll by [[Thomson Reuters Foundation]] termed India as the world's most dangerous country for women.<ref>{{cite news |title=Survey terms India most dangerous country for women |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1416237/survey-terms-india-most-dangerous-country-for-women |access-date=26 June 2018 |work=Dawn }}</ref> The [[National Commission for Women]]<ref name="ZEE">{{Cite news |url=http://zeenews.india.com/india/national-commission-for-women-rejects-survey-that-said-india-is-most-dangerous-place-for-women-2120336.html |title=National Commission for Women rejects survey that said India is most dangerous place for women |last=Bureau |first=Zee Media |work=Zee News}}</ref> and the [[Centre for the Study of Developing Societies]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-42436817 |title=Is India really the most dangerous country for women? |publisher=[[BBC]] |website=[[BBC News]] |access-date=July 2, 2018}}</ref> rejected the survey for its methodology and lack of transparency.<ref>{{Cite magazine |author=Balkrishna Chayan Kundu |title=Fact Check: Is India really no country for women? |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/fact-check/story/fact-check-india-no-country-women-thomson-reuters-foundation-report-poll-true-false-1271690-2018-06-27 |access-date=2022-04-20 |magazine=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

Also in 2018, the Supreme Court of India struck down a law making it a crime for a man to have sex with a married woman without the permission of her husband.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-45404927|title=Adultery no longer a crime in India|first=Soutik|last=Biswas|work=BBC News}}</ref>

Prior to November 2018, women were forbidden to climb [[Agasthyarkoodam]]. A court ruling removed the prohibition.<ref name="Regan">{{cite web|last=Regan |first=Helen |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/01/17/asia/india-woman-mountain-kerala-intl/index.html |title=Indian woman is first to climb Kerala mountain reserved for men|work=CNN |access-date=2019-01-31}}</ref>

==Timeline of women's achievements in India==
[[File:Rukhmabai Bhikaji.jpg|thumb|170px|[[Rukhmabai]], the second practising female physician in India, the publicity around whose child marriage and subsequent dissolution led to the [[Age of Consent Act, 1891]]]]
[[File:Sarla Thakral.jpg|thumb|200 px|[[Sarla Thakral]] became the first Indian woman to fly an aircraft in 1936.]]
The steady change in the position of women can be highlighted by looking at what has been achieved by women in the country:
* 1848: [[Savitribai Phule]], along with her husband [[Jyotirao Phule]], opened a school for girls in Pune, India. Savitribai Phule became the first woman teacher in India.
* 1879: [[John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune]] established the Bethune School in 1849, which developed into the [[Bethune College]] in 1879, thus becoming the first women's college in India.
* 1883: [[Chandramukhi Basu]] and Kadambini Ganguly became the first female graduates of India and the [[British Empire]].
* 1886: [[Kadambini Ganguly]] and [[Anandi Gopal Joshi]] became the first women from India to be trained in [[Western medicine]].
* 1898: [[Sister Nivedita]] Girls' School was inaugurated
* 1905: Suzanne RD [[Tata family|Tata]] becomes the first Indian woman to drive a car.<ref name="Mumbai Police History">{{cite web |title=Mumbai Police History |url=https://mumbaipolice.maharashtra.gov.in/aboutus.asp |website=mumbaipolice.maharashtra.gov.in |publisher=Mumbai Police |access-date=4 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428195829/https://mumbaipolice.maharashtra.gov.in/aboutus.asp |archive-date=28 April 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* 1916: The first women's university, [[SNDT Women's University]], was founded on 2 June 1916 by the [[social reformer]] [[Dhondo Keshav Karve]] with just five students.
* 1917: [[Annie Besant]] became the first female president of the [[Indian National Congress]].
* 1919: For her distinguished social service, [[Pandita Ramabai]] became the first Indian woman to be awarded the [[Kaisar-i-Hind Medal]] by the [[British Raj]].
* 1925: [[Sarojini Naidu]] became the first Indian born female president of the Indian National Congress.
* 1927: The [[All India Women's Conference]] was founded.
* 1936: [[Sarla Thakral]] became the first Indian woman to fly an aircraft.<ref>{{cite web |last=Centennial Team |url=http://centennialofwomenpilots.com/sarla-thakral-india/ |title=Sarla Thakral |website=centennialofwomenpilots.com |publisher=[[Women of Aviation Worldwide Week|Institute for Women Of Aviation Worldwide]] (iWOAW) |access-date=9 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805025345/http://centennialofwomenpilots.com/sarla-thakral-india/ |archive-date=5 August 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131206203258/http://ibnlive.in.com/photogallery/inside_photo_new_des.php?slideshow_id=3515&num=72 | archive-date = 6 December 2013 |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/photogallery/inside_photo_new_des.php?slideshow_id=3515&num=72 |title=72. Sarla Thakral : Women's Day: Top 100 coolest women of all time |work=[[IBN Live]] | url-status = dead |access-date=9 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ndtv.com/video/player/news/down-memory-lane-first-woman-pilot-recounts-life-story/6231 |title=Down memory lane: First woman pilot recounts life story |format=Video |work=[[NDTV]] |access-date=9 October 2013}}</ref>
* 1944: [[Asima Chatterjee]] became the first Indian woman to be conferred the [[Doctorate of Science]] by an Indian university.
* 1947: On 15 August 1947, following independence, Sarojini Naidu became the governor of the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]], and in the process became India's first woman governor. On the same day, [[Amrit Kaur]] assumed office as the first female Cabinet minister of India in the country's [[First Nehru ministry|first cabinet]].
* Post independence:[[Rukmini Devi Arundale]] was the first ever woman in Indian History to be nominated a Rajya Sabha member. She is considered the most important revivalist in the Indian classical dance form of Bharatanatyam from its original 'sadhir' style, prevalent amongst the temple dancers, Devadasis. She also worked for the re-establishment of traditional Indian arts and crafts.
* 1951: Prem Mathur of the Deccan Airways becomes the first Indian woman commercial pilot.
* 1953: [[Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit]] became the first woman (and first Indian) president of the [[United Nations General Assembly]]
* 1959: [[Anna Chandy]] becomes the first Indian woman judge of a High Court (Kerala High Court)<ref name="highcourtofkerala.nic.in">{{cite web |url=http://highcourtofkerala.nic.in/judge.htm |title=Former Chief Justices / Judges |website=highcourtofkerala.nic.in |publisher=[[Kerala High Court|High Court of Kerala]] |access-date=24 December 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061214211107/http://highcourtofkerala.nic.in/judge.htm |archive-date=14 December 2006}}</ref>
* 1963: [[Sucheta Kriplani]] became the [[Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh]], the first woman to hold that position in any Indian state.
* 1966: Captain Durga Banerjee becomes the first Indian woman pilot of the state airline, [[Indian Airlines]].
* 1966: [[Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay]] wins [[Ramon Magsaysay award]] for community leadership.
* 1966: [[Indira Gandhi]] becomes the first woman [[Prime Minister of India]]
* 1970: [[Kamaljit Sandhu]] becomes the first Indian woman to win a Gold in the [[Asian Games]]
* 1972: [[Kiran Bedi]] becomes the first female recruit to join the [[Indian Police Service]].<ref name="un.org">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2003/sga827.doc.htm |title=Kiran Bedi of India appointed civilian police adviser |website=un.org |publisher=[[United Nations]] |access-date=25 December 2006}}</ref>
* 1978: [[Sheila Sri Prakash]] becomes the first female entrepreneur to independently start an [[architecture]] firm
* 1979: [[Mother Teresa]] wins the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], becoming the first Indian female citizen to do so.
* 1984: On 23 May, [[Bachendri Pal]] became the first Indian woman to climb [[Mount Everest]].
* 1986: [[Surekha Yadav]] became the first Asian woman loco-pilot or railway driver.
* 1989: Justice [[M. Fathima Beevi]] becomes the first woman judge of the [[Supreme Court of India]].<ref name="highcourtofkerala.nic.in" />
* 1991: [[Mumtaz M. Kazi]] became the first Asian woman to drive a diesel locomotive in September.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asia's first woman to drive a diesel train is an Indian |url=http://www.rediff.com/getahead/report/achievers-womens-day-specials-asias-first-woman-mumtaz-kazi-to-ride-a-diesel-train-is-an-indian/20150305.htm |website=Rediff |access-date=12 March 2017}}</ref>
* 1992: [[Asha Sinha]] becomes the First Woman Commandant in the [[Paramilitary forces of India]] when she was appointed Commandan<ref>{{Cite web |last=Salam |first=Shawrina |title=6 Indian Women In Sports Who Made Headlines In 2021 |url=https://feminisminindia.com/2021/12/08/6-indian-women-in-sports-who-made-headlines-in-2021/ |access-date=2022-03-26 |website=Feminism In India |language=en-GB}}</ref> t, [[Central Industrial Security Force]] in [[Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited]].
* 1992: [[Priya Jhingan]] becomes the first lady cadet to join the [[Indian Army]] (later commissioned on 6 March 1993)<ref>{{cite news |last=Ramamurthi |first=Divya |url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Articles/Article29.html |title=Always 001, Army's first lady cadet looks back |work=[[The Indian Express]] |access-date=30 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205183833/http://bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Articles/Article29.html |archive-date=5 February 2007}}</ref>
* 1999: On 31 October, [[Sonia Gandhi]] became the first female [[Leader of the Opposition (India)]].
*The first Indian woman to win an Olympic Medal, [[Karnam Malleswari]], a bronze medal at the [[2000 Summer Olympics|Sydney Olympics]] in the 69 kg weight category in Weightlifting event.
* 2007: On 25 July, [[Pratibha Patil]] became the first female [[President of India]].
* 2009: On 4 June, [[Meira Kumar]] became the first female [[Speaker of Lok Sabha]].
* 2011: On 20 October, Priyanka N. drove the inaugural train of the [[Namma Metro]] becoming the first female Indian metro pilot.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Young woman loco pilot has the ride of her life|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/young-woman-loco-pilot-has-the-ride-of-her-life/article2561948.ece |website=The Hindu |access-date=12 March 2017 }}</ref>
* 2011:[[Mitali Madhumita]] made history by becoming the first woman officer to win a Sena Medal for gallantry.
* 2014: A record 7 female ministers are appointed in the [[First Modi ministry|Modi ministry]], of whom 6 hold Cabinet rank, the highest number of female Cabinet ministers in any [[Government of India|Indian government]] in history. Ministries such as Defence and External Affairs are being held by Women Ministers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elections.in/political-corner/women-cabinet-ministers-india/|title=Women Cabinet Ministers in India}}</ref>
*2015: Sumita Bose the first author and first woman to write the autism book in India. http://indiabookofrecords.in/first-book-on-autism/
* 2016: [[J. Jayalalithaa]], became the first woman chief minister in India to rule the state consecutively 2 times by winning legislative assembly election.
* 2016: [[J. Jayalalithaa]], became the first woman chief minister in India to die in office on 5 December 2016.
* 2017: On 25 March, Tanushree Pareek became the first female combat officer commissioned by the [[Border Security Force]].<ref name="Tanushree Pareek"/>
* 2018: [[Archana Ramasundaram]] of 1980 Batch became the first Woman to become the [[Director General of Police]] of a Paramilitary Force as DG, [[Sashastra Seema Bal]].
* 2018: In February, 24 year old Flying Officer Avani Chaturvedi of the [[Indian Air Force]] became the first Indian female fighter pilot to fly solo. She flew a MiG-21 Bison, a jet aircraft with the highest recorded landing and take-off speed in the world.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/spotlight/9-facts-about-avani-chaturvedi-that-will-inspire-you/articleshow/63026326.cms|title= 9 facts about Avani Chaturvedi that will inspire you|access-date= 2 October 2018|publisher=Times of India}}</ref>
*2019: On 2 December 2019, sub-lieutenant Shivangi became the first woman pilot in the [[Indian Navy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/muzaffarpur-girl-first-woman-pilot-of-indian-navy/articleshow/72341163.cms|title=First Navy Pilot: Bihar girl first woman pilot of Indian Navy|last=Kumar|first=Ajay|website=The Times of India|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref>
*2020: Karuna Nundy a supreme court lawyer was appoineted to a UK panel of experts to build frameworks that protect media freedom across the world.
*2021:A twenty-seven-year-old girl from Manipur scripted history by winning the silver medal in the Women's 49 kg Weightlifting event at the ''Tokyo Olympics'' in 2021. Mirabai Chanu lifted a total of 202 kilograms.
*2023: Surekha Yadav became the first woman in India to drive the indegeniously made Vande Bharat train cruising a distance of 455 kilometers from Solapur to Mumbai on 13 March 2023.

==Politics==
{{main|Women's political participation in India}}
India has one of the highest number of female politicians in the world. Women have held high offices in India including that of the [[List of Presidents of India|President]], [[List of Prime Ministers of India|Prime Minister]], [[List of indian Lok Sabha speakers|Speaker of the Lok Sabha]] and [[Leader of the Opposition (India)|Leader of the Opposition]].
The Indian states [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[Himachal Pradesh]],<ref name=":3">{{cite news |title=50pc reservation for women in panchayats |url=http://news.oneindia.in/2009/08/27/cabinetapproves-50-percent-reservation-for-women-inpancha.html |work=[[Oneindia|Oneindia News]] | access-date = 28 July 2013}}</ref> [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Orissa, India|Orissa]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Tripura]] have implemented 50% reservation for women in PRIs.<ref>{{cite news |title=50% reservation for women in AP, Bihar Panchayats |url=http://www.sify.com/news/50-reservation-for-women-in-ap-bihar-panchayats-news-politics-llzpcIcijii.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627105608/http://www.sify.com/news/50-reservation-for-women-in-ap-bihar-panchayats-news-politics-llzpcIcijii.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 June 2013 |work=[[Sify|Sify News]] | access-date = 28 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mayor Malayalam News |url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/women/features/mayor-malayalam-news-1.696624 |work=[[Mathrubhumi]] |language=ml }}</ref> Majority of candidates in these Panchayats are women. In 2015, 100% of elected members in [[Kodassery]] Panchayat in [[Kerala]] are women.<ref>{{cite news |title=Woman's Malayalam News |url=http://www.mathrubhumi.com/women/news/lsgd-womans-malayalam-news-1.694513 |work=[[Mathrubhumi]] |language=ml }}</ref> There are currently [[List of female Indian chief ministers|16 female chief ministers]] in India as of 2020.

As of 2018, 12 out of 29 states and the union territory of Delhi have had at least one female Chief Minister.

Currently there are 81 women members and 458 male members in the Indian Parliament which equals 15.3% and 84.97% respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Members : Lok Sabha |url=http://164.100.47.194/Loksabha/Members/GenderWiseStatisticalList.aspx |access-date=2022-03-26 |website=164.100.47.194}}</ref>

==Culture==
The status of women in India is strongly connected to family relations. In India, the family is seen as crucially important, and in most of the country, the family unit is [[Patrilineality|patrilineal]]. Families are usually multi-generational, with the bride moving to live with the in-laws. Families are usually hierarchical, with the elders having authority over the younger generations and men over women. The vast majority of marriages are [[monogamous]] (one husband and one wife), but both [[polygyny]] and [[polyandry in India]] have a tradition among some populations in India.<ref>{{cite web |title=India: Family |url=http://countrystudies.us/india/83.htm |website=countrystudies.us |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies|Country Studies]]}}</ref> [[Weddings in India]] can be quite expensive. Most marriages in India [[Arranged marriage in the Indian subcontinent|are arranged]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Most Indians still prefer arranged marriages |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/relationships/man-woman/Most-Indians-still-prefer-arranged-marriages/articleshow/33655556.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref>

With regard to dress, a [[sari]] (a long piece of fabric draped around the body) and [[salwar kameez]] are worn by women all over India. A ''[[Bindi (decoration)|bindi]]'' is part of a woman's make-up. Despite common belief, the bindi on the forehead does not signify marital status; however, the [[Sindoor]] does.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.snopes.com/religion/reddot.asp |title=Hindu Red Dot |publisher=Snopes.com |access-date=3 April 2012}}</ref>

[[Rangoli]] (or Kolam) is a traditional art very popular among Indian women.

In 1991, the [[Kerala High Court]] restricted entry of women above the age of 10 and below the age of 50 from [[Sabarimala]] Shrine as they were of the menstruating age. On 28 September 2018, the Supreme Court of India lifted the ban on the entry of women. It said that discrimination against women on any grounds, even religious, is unconstitutional.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto1"/>

=== Portrayal in Indian film ===
The Hindi film industry has had a significant impact on the portrayal of women in Indian society.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Postwar Women 1945-1960 and Their Daughters 1970-1985: an Analysis of Continuity, Contradiction, and Change in Two Generations of Pakeha Women as Mothers, Wives, and Workers |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.26686/wgtn.16934797 |publisher=Victoria University of Wellington Library |first=Helen |last=May}}</ref> The films often depict women as strong, independent, and capable of making their own choices, thus offering audiences a vision of gender equality. Historically, women in India have faced legal restrictions that limited their participation in various activities, and these limitations have raised concerns about the cultural practices and values of the country. Previously, these women could not apply simple and natural makeup on film characters because the law did not allow them to do it although the status quo has changed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=B.N. |first=Anupama |last2=Dutta Chowdhury |first2=Payel |title=Afghan Women and the Taliban: Tracing Questions of Legal Rights, Insecurity and Uncertainty in Select Texts vis-à-vis the Current Crisis |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v14n4.26 |journal=Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities |volume=14 |issue=4 |doi=10.21659/rupkatha.v14n4.26 |issn=0975-2935}}</ref> Along with the media, the Indian film industry has played an important role in driving changes in the law and improving the lives of women in India; it has sent messages to its audiences that challenge the restrictive nature of society, promoting the idea that women should have the freedom to make their own choices and live their lives on their own terms.<ref>{{Citation |title=Bollywood: The Worlds Biggest Film Industry {{!}} Full Documentary {{!}} Documentary Central |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Sos85PrNuo |access-date=2023-04-29 |language=en}}</ref>

The portrayal of women in [[Hindi cinema]] (Bollywood) has shifted over time as social norms have changed, and to include diverse representations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mohapatra |first=Jyoti Prakash |title=The Changing Female Portrayal in Bollywood |url=https://www.academia.edu/16826430/The_Changing_Female_Portrayal_in_Bollywood}}</ref> ''[[Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge]]''<ref>{{Citation |last=Bablu. |first=Chopra, Aditya, 1971- Chopra, Yash. Siddique, Javed. Khan, Shah Rukh, 1965- Kajol. Puri, Amrish. Jalal, Farida. Shah, Satish. Kher, Anupam, 1955- Bakshi, Anand. Khan, Saroj. Khan, Farah. Chakraborty |title=Dilwale dulhania le jayenge |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1190717137 |access-date=2023-04-28 |oclc=1190717137}}</ref>'','' or DDLJ for short, is a 1995 Bollywood film whose main female character, Simran, represented the ideal Indian woman. The film depicts her as a modest, reserved, and respectful female who remains dutiful to her family and never compromises her "purity". Yet, at the same time Simran was discouraged by her father from having a relationship with a man before marriage, especially one he did not know and of whom he did not approve. This film illustrates how women who seek romance for themselves are villainized.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Punathambekar |first=Aswin |title=Bollywood in the Indian-American diaspora: Mediating a transitive logic of cultural citizenship |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1367877905052415 |journal=International Journal of Cultural Studies |language=en |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=151–173 |doi=10.1177/1367877905052415 |issn=1367-8779}}</ref>

In contrast, films such as the 2006 ''[[Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna]]'' and 2022 ''[[Gehraiyaan]]'' explore more nonconforming female characters. In Gehraiyaan, the main characters struggle with mental illnesses, partake in infidelity, and come from broken families. The overall presence of such characters highlight how the modern Indian woman is less bound to traditional expectations and overall have been entering the workforce, been financially independent, and even sexually freed from earlier standards.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ahmed |first=Aafreen |title=Beast of Burden: Depictions of Ideal Beauty and Femininity in Bollywood Cinema |url=https://arts.ucalgary.ca/sites/default/files/teams/21/A.%20AHMED_CMF_Honours_Thesis.pdf |journal=}}</ref>

Other films with nonconforming female characters include: [[Dangal (film)|the 2016 film ''Dangal'']], [[Mili (2022 film)|the 2022 film ''Mili'']], [[Raazi|the 2018 film ''Raazi'']], and more.

==Military and law enforcement==
{{Main|Women in Indian Armed Forces}}
<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Indian army lady officer.jpg|A female officer in the [[Indian Army]] briefing Russian soldiers during a joint exercise in 2015.
File:Women personnel of India's Border Security Force.jpg|Women of the [[Border Security Force]] at the Indian Pakistan border.
</gallery>
The [[Indian Armed Forces]] began recruiting women to non-medical positions in 1992.<ref>{{cite news |work=Reuters |title=Indian armed forces to recruit women for all combat roles: President |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-women-military/indian-armed-forces-to-recruit-women-for-all-combat-roles-president-idUSKCN0VX1SR |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> The [[Indian Army]] began inducting women officers in 1992.<ref>{{cite web |title=Officers Selection – Entry Schemes Women |url=http://joinindianarmy.nic.in/bravo/entry-schemes-women.htm |website=joinindianarmy.nic.in |publisher=Join Indian Army, Government of India}}</ref> The Border Security Force (BSF) began recruiting female officers in 2013. On 25 March 2017, Tanushree Pareek became the first female combat officer commissioned by the BSF.<ref name="Tanushree Pareek">{{cite web |title=First woman combat officer commissioned in BSF after 51 years |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/first-woman-combat-officer-commissioned-in-border-security-force-after-51-years-4585420/ |website=The Indian Express |access-date=25 March 2017 }}</ref>

On 24 October 2015, the Indian government announced that women could serve as fighter pilots in the [[Indian Air Force]] (IAF), having previously only been permitted to fly transport aircraft and helicopters. The decision means that women are now eligible for induction in any role in the IAF.<ref name=channelnewsasia>{{cite news |agency=AFP |title=India paves way for women in military combat roles |publisher=Digital Journal |url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/news/world/india-paves-way-for-women-in-army-combat-roles/article/447473 |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> In 2016, India announced a decision to allow women to take up combat roles in all sections of its army and navy.<ref name=channelnewsasia/>

As of 2014, women made up 3% of Indian Army personnel, 2.8% of Navy personnel, and 8.5% of Air Force personnel.<ref>{{cite news |last=Karat |first=Brinda |title=Indian Army's shameful treatment of women recruits |url=https://www.ndtv.com/opinion/indian-armys-shameful-treatment-of-women-recruits-706717 |work=[[NDTV]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> As of 2016, women accounted for 5% of all active and reserve Indian Armed forces personnel.<ref name=channelnewsasia/>

In 1972 [[Kiran Bedi]] became the First Lady [[Indian Police Service]] Officer and was the only woman in a batch of 80 IPS Officers, she joined the AGMUT Cadre. In 1992 [[Asha Sinha]] a 1982 Batch IPS Officer became the First Woman Commandant in the [[Paramilitary forces of India]] when she was posted as Commandant, [[Central Industrial Security Force]] in [[Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited]]. [[Kanchan Chaudhary Bhattacharya]] the second Lady IPS Officer of India belonging to the 1973 Batch became the first Lady [[Director General of Police]] of a State in India when she was appointed DGP of [[Uttarakhand Police]]. In 2018 an IPS Officer Archana Ramasundram of 1980 Batch became the first Woman to become the [[Director General of Police]] of a Paramilitary Force as DG, [[Sashastra Seema Bal]]. In March 2018, Delhi Police announced that it would begin to induct women into its SWAT team.<ref>{{cite web|title=Delhi: In a first, 40 women to join elite SWAT team|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/delhi-in-a-first-40-women-to-join-elite-swat-team-5088669/|website=The Indian Express|access-date=7 March 2018}}</ref>

On February 17, 2020, the [[Supreme Court of India]] said that women [[officers]] in the [[Indian Army]] can get command positions at par with male officers. The court said that the government's arguments against it were discriminatory, disturbing and based on stereotype. The court also said that permanent commission to all women officers should be made available regardless of their years of service.<ref>{{cite news|title=Women Army Officers Can Get Command Roles. Top Court Slams "Stereotypes"|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/will-women-officers-command-army-units-supreme-court-to-decide-today-2181129}}</ref> The government had earlier said that women commanders would not be acceptable to some troops.<ref>{{cite news|title=Male troops won't accept women commanders|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/male-troops-wont-accept-women-commanders-government-to-sc/articleshow/73945673.cms}}</ref>

==Education and economic development==
According to 1992–93 figures, only 9.2% of the households in India were headed by women. However, approximately 35% of the households below the poverty line were found to be headed by women.<ref name="fao_sd_india">{{cite web |title=Asia's women in agriculture, environment and rural production: India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630002611/http://www.fao.org/sd/wpdirect/WPre0108.htm |archive-date=30 June 2014 |url=http://www.fao.org/sd/wpdirect/WPre0108.htm |website=fao.org |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] |access-date=24 December 2006}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20170518141052/ftp://ftp.fao.org/sd/sdw/sdww/Ind.pdf PDF version]</ref>

===Education===
{{Further|Education in India|History of female education in India}}
[[File:India School.jpg|thumb|left|Women attend an adult literacy class in [[Thiruputkuzhi]], [[Tamil Nadu]] state. The overall female literacy rate in the state in 2011 was 73.44%.<ref>{{citation|title=Tamil Nadu population 2011–2018|work=2011 Census Data|year=2018}}</ref> In the previous decade, it increased by 9%.<ref name="Spary2019">{{citation|last=Spary|first=Carole|title=Gender, Development, and the State in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mn6JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT196|year=2019|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-429-66344-4|pages=196–}}</ref>]]
Though it is sharply increasing,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Rise-in-women-graduates-almost-double-that-of-men-in-a-decade/articleshow/48313138.cms |last=Varma |first=Subodh |title=Rise in women graduates almost double that of men in a decade |work=[[The Times of India]] |agency=TNN |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> the female literacy rate in India is less than the male literacy rate.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last=Singh |first=Shweta |title=Schooling girls and the gender and development paradigm: quest for an appropriate framework for women's education |journal=The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=1–12 |year=2007 |url=http://iji.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.88/prod.273 |doi=10.18848/1833-1882/CGP/v02i03/59330 |access-date=5 March 2017 |archive-date=5 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305114110/http://iji.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.88/prod.273 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Far fewer girls than boys are enrolled in school, and many girls drop out.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> In urban India, girls are nearly on a par with boys in terms of education. However, in rural India, girls continue to be less educated than boys. According to the National Sample Survey Data of 1997, only the states of [[Kerala]] and [[Mizoram]] have approached universal female literacy. According to scholars, the major factor behind improvements in the social and economic status of women in Kerala is literacy.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/>

Under the Non-Formal Education programme (NFE), about 40% of the NFE centres in states and 10% of the centres in [[Union Territory|UTs]] are exclusively [[reservation in India|reserved]] for women. As of 2000, about 300,000 NFE centres were catering to about 7.42 million children. About 120,000 NFE centres were exclusively for girls.<ref>{{cite web |title=Comparing costs & outcomes of formal & non-formal education programs for girls in Uttar Pradesh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215002526/http://www.betifoundation.org/custom/reports/comparingcosts.pdf |archive-date=15 December 2013 |url=http://www.betifoundation.org/custom/reports/comparingcosts.pdf |website=betifoundation.org |publisher=[[Sehba Hussain|BETI Foundation]] (Better Education Through Innovation)}}</ref>

According to a 1998 report by the U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief barriers to [[female education]] in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary facilities), shortage of female teachers and gender bias in the curriculum (female characters being depicted as weak and helpless).<ref name=":1">{{cite book |last=Velkoff |first=Victoria A. |title=Women of the World: Women's Education in India Some famous attitude status for girls|url= https://www.attitudestatusforgirls.com/2019/11/attitude-status-for-girls-2020.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|archive-date=June 28, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628184303/http://www.census.gov/ipc/prod/wid-9801.pdf|title=Women's Education in India |url=https://www.census.gov/ipc/prod/wid-9801.pdf |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration |access-date=25 December 2006 |ref=WID/98-1}}</ref>

The [[literacy rate]] is lower for women compared to men: the literacy rate is 60.6% for women, while for men it is 81.3%. The 2011 census, however, indicated a 2001–2011 decadal literacy growth of 9.2%, which is slower than the growth seen during the previous decade. There is a wide gender disparity in the literacy rate in India: effective literacy rates (age 7 and above) in 2011 were 82.14% for men and 65.46% for women. (population aged 15 or older, data from 2015).<ref name="CIA_Factbook">{{cite web |title=The World Factbook: India |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003138/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 June 2007 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref>

===Workforce participation===
[[File:Adhar process.JPG|thumb|A woman working at an ''[[Aadhaar]]'' center in India.]]
[[File:FarmWorker.JPG|thumb|A farm worker selling [[eggplants]] in Gujarat]]
Contrary to common perception, a large percentage of women in India are actively engaged in traditional and non-traditional work.<ref name="kamat_faq">{{cite web |title=Women of India: Frequently Asked Questions (blog) |url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/women/faq.htm |website=kamat.com |publisher=Kamat's Potpourri |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> Despite the large number of women involved in the workforce, the country has a female labor force participation rate of just 23%.'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=2023-04-27 |website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref>''' National data collection agencies accept that statistics seriously understate women's contribution as workers.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> Reasons for these misleading statistics can be attributed to cultural biases and expectations about women's roles in society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ganguly-Scrase |first=Ruchira |title=Paradoxes of Globalization, Liberalization, and Gender Equality: The Worldviews of the Lower Middle Class in West Bengal, India |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3594657 |journal=Gender and Society |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=544–566 |issn=0891-2432}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Verick |first=Sher |title=Women’s labour force participation in India: Why is it so low? |pages=2 |work=International Labour Organization (ILO) |url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---sro-new_delhi/documents/genericdocument/wcms_342357.pdf |access-date=Apr 26, 2023}}</ref> Additionally, more Indian women are employed in the informal economy than their male counterparts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bonnet |first=Florence |last2=Vanek |first2=Joann |last3=Chen |first3=Martha |title=Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Brief |url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---travail/documents/publication/wcms_711798.pdf |journal=International Labour Office (ILO) |pages=5}}</ref> However, there are far fewer women than men in the paid workforce.

In urban India, women participate in the workforce in impressive numbers. For example, in the software industry 30% of the workforce is female.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Shweta |last2=Hoge |first2=Gretchen |title=Debating outcomes for "working" women: illustrations from India |journal=Journal of Poverty |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=197–215 |doi=10.1080/10875541003711821 |year=2010 |s2cid=144085567 }}</ref> These high numbers are also due to the fact that 81% of the urban female workforce is employed in the informal sector.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Martha Alter |last2=Raveendran |first2=G. |title=Urban Employment in India: Recent Trends and Patterns |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/097380101200600204 |journal=Margin: The Journal of Applied Economic Research |language=en |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=159–179 |doi=10.1177/097380101200600204 |issn=0973-8010}}</ref> Studies have shown that higher education levels lead to higher income for urban-dwelling women.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mukherjee |first=Promita |title=FACTORS INFLUENCING FEMALE WORKFORCE PARTICIPATION IN URBAN INDIA: A CASE STUDY |url=http://www.eprajournals.net/index.php/JIEL/article/view/1786/1790 |journal=International Journal of Indian Economic Light |language=en |volume=11 |issue=2 |doi=10.36713/epra0212 |issn=2277-3142}}</ref>

In rural India in the agriculture and allied industrial sectors, women account for as much as 89.5% of the labour force.<ref name="fao_sd_india"/> In overall farm production, women's average contribution is estimated at 55% to 66% of the total labour. According to a 1991 World Bank report, women accounted for 94% of total employment in dairy production in India.

Women constitute 51% of the total employed in forest-based small-scale enterprises.<ref name="fao_sd_india"/>

India is ahead of the world average on women in senior management.<ref>{{cite news |title=India ahead of world average on women in senior management: Report|url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/india-ahead-of-world-average-on-women-in-senior-management-report-11614781623366.html}}</ref>

====Gender pay gap====

In 2017, a study by Monster Salary Index (MSI) showed the overall [[gender pay gap in India]] was 20 percent. It found that the gap was narrower in the early years of experience.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gender pay parity recorded at 20% in 2017|url=https://www.peoplematters.in/news/compensation-benefits/gender-pay-parity-recorded-at-20-in-2017-19334|work=People Matters|access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref>

While men with 0–2 years of experience earned 7.8 percent higher median wages than women, in the experience group of 6–10 years of experience, the pay gap was 15.3 percent. The pay gap becomes wider at senior level positions as the men with 11 and more years of tenure earned 25 percent higher median wages than women.

Based on the educational background, men with a bachelor's degree earned on average 16 percent higher median wages than women in years 2015, 2016 and 2017, while master's degree holders experience even higher pay gap. Men with a four- or five-year degree or the equivalent of a master's degree have on average earned 33.7 percent higher median wages than women.

While India passed the Equal Remuneration Act way back in 1976, which prohibits discrimination in remuneration on grounds of sex. But in practice, the pay disparity still exists and is one of many lingering forms of gender inequality in the Indian workforce.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Batra |first=Renu |last2=Reio |first2=Thomas G. |title=Gender Inequality Issues in India |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1523422316630651 |journal=Advances in Developing Human Resources |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=88–101 |doi=10.1177/1523422316630651 |issn=1523-4223}}</ref>

====Women-owned businesses====

One of the most famous female business success stories, from the rural sector, is the [[Shri Mahila Griha Udyog Lijjat Papad]]. Started in 1959 by seven women in [[Mumbai]] with a seed capital of only [[Indian rupee|Rs.]]80, it had an annual turnover of more than Rs. 800 [[crore]] (over $109 million) in 2018. It provides employment to 43,000 (in 2018) women across the country.<ref>{{cite news|title=The amazing Lijjat Papad story: from Rs 80 to Rs 800 crore|url=https://in.finance.yahoo.com/news/amazing-lijjat-papad-story-rs-80-rs-800-crore-130350826.html|work=Yahoo Finance|access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref>

One of the largest dairy co-operatives in the world, [[Amul]], began by mobilizing rural women in [[Anand, Gujarat|Anand]] in the western state of [[Gujarat]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Amul celebrates the women it has empowered|url=https://www.campaignindia.in/video/amul-celebrates-the-women-it-has-empowered/419139|work=Campaign India|access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref>

====Notable women in business====

In 2006, [[Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw]], who founded Biocon, one of India's first biotech companies, was rated India's richest woman. [[Lalita D. Gupte]] and [[Kalpana Morparia]] were the only businesswomen in India who made the list of the Forbes World's Most Powerful Women in 2006. Gupte ran [[ICICI Bank]], India's second-largest bank, until October 2006<ref>{{cite news |last=Bahree |first=Megha |title=India's most powerful businesswomen |url=http://www.forbes.com/2006/08/30/power-women-india_cz_mb_06women_0831india.html }}</ref> and Morparia is CEO of JP Morgan India.<ref>{{cite news |last=Advani |first=Abhishek |title=JP Morgan's India CEO |url=https://www.forbes.com/2009/11/16/forbes-india-kalpana-morparia-ceo-jp-morgan-interview.html|work=Forbes|access-date=23 January 2012}}</ref>

Shaw remained the richest self-made woman in 2018,<ref>{{cite web|title=India's 100 Richest People 2018|website=[[Forbes]]|url=https://www.forbes.com/india-billionaires/list/2/#tab:overall|access-date= 2 October 2018}}</ref> coming in at 72nd place in terms of net worth in [[Forbes]]'s annual rich list. She was the 4th and last female in the list, thereby showing that 96 of 100 the richest entities in the country continued to be male controlled directly or indirectly.

According to the ‘Kotak Wealth Hurun – Leading Wealthy Women 2018’ list, which compiled the 100 wealthiest Indian women based on their net worth as on 30 June 2018 Shaw was only one of two women, the other being [[Jayshree Ullal]], who did not inherit their current wealth from family relatives in the top ten.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ecavade|first=Sakshi|title=India's Top 10 Richest Women 2018|url=https://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/india/indias-top-10-richest-women-2018|work=My India|access-date= 2 October 2018 }}</ref>

However, India has a strong history of many women with inherited wealth establishing large enterprises or launching successful careers in their own rights.<ref>{{cite news |last=Raghunatahan|first=Anu|title=India's 100 Richest 2017: Billionaire Heiresses Blazing Their Own Trail|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/anuraghunathan/2017/10/04/indias-100-richest-2017-billionaire-heiresses-blazing-their-own-trail/?ss=india-billionaires#830d5a561c7b|work=Forbes|access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref>

=== Land and property rights ===
[[File:Women_Harvesting_Rice_Paddy.jpg|thumb|Women harvesting rice paddy in [[Tamil Nadu]]. Women rarely own land in their own names, although they often work in agriculture.]]
In most Indian families, women do not own any property in their own names, and do not get a share of parental property.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> Due to weak enforcement of laws protecting them, women continue to have little access to land and property.<ref name="carol_chronic">{{cite web |last=Coonrod |first=Carol S. |title=Chronic hunger and the status of women in India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910220125/http://www.thp.org/reports/indiawom.htm |archive-date=10 September 2014 |url=http://www.thp.org/reports/indiawom.htm |website=thp.org |publisher=[[The Hunger Project]] |access-date=24 December 2006}}</ref> In India, women's property rights vary depending on religion, and tribe, and are subject to a complex mix of law and custom,<ref>{{cite book |last=Pandey |first=Shruti |title=Property rights of Indian women |url=http://www.muslimpersonallaw.co.za/inheritancedocs/Property%20Rights%20of%20INdian%20Women.pdf |publisher=Law and Sharia Consultants |location=South Africa }}</ref> but in principle the move has been towards granting women equal legal rights, especially since the passing of The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 |url=http://www.hrln.org/admin/issue/subpdf/HSA_Amendment_2005.pdf |publisher=Human Rights Law Network (HRLN) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319062659/http://www.hrln.org/admin/issue/subpdf/HSA_Amendment_2005.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

The Hindu personal laws of 1956 (applying to [[Hindus]], [[Buddhists]], [[Sikhs]], and [[Jains]]) gave women rights to inheritances. However, sons had an independent share in the ancestral property, while the daughters' shares were based on the share received by their father. Hence, a father could effectively disinherit a daughter by renouncing his share of the ancestral property, but a son would continue to have a share in his own right. Additionally, married daughters, even those facing domestic abuse and harassment, had no residential rights in the ancestral home. Thanks to an amendment of the Hindu laws in 2005, women now have the same status as men.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indiacode.nic.in/fullact1.asp?tfnm=200539 |title=The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 |website=indiacode.nic.in |publisher=India Code Legislative Department |access-date=3 April 2012}}</ref>

In 1986, the Supreme Court of India ruled that [[Shah Bano case|Shah Bano]], an elderly divorced Muslim woman, was eligible for [[alimony]]. However, the decision was opposed by fundamentalist Muslim leaders, who alleged that the court was interfering in their personal law. The [[Government of India|Union Government]] subsequently passed the [[The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act 1986|Muslim Women's (Protection of Rights Upon Divorce) Act]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act |access-date=14 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227155728/http://www.sudhirlaw.com/themuslimwomen.htm |website=sudhirlaw.com |publisher=Sudhir Shah & Associates |archive-date=27 December 2007 |url=http://www.sudhirlaw.com/themuslimwomen.htm}}</ref>

Similarly, [[Christians|Christian]] women have struggled over the years for equal rights in divorce and succession. In 1994, all churches, jointly with women's organizations, drew up a draft law called the Christian Marriage and Matrimonial Causes Bill. However, the government has still not amended the relevant laws.<ref name="infochange_women"/> In 2014, the Law Commission of India has asked the government to modify the law to give Christian women equal property rights.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rajagopal |first=Krishnadas |title=Property law unfair to Christian women: report |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/property-law-unfair-to-christian-women-report/article6410350.ece |work=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref>

==Crimes against women==
{{Further|Violence against women in India}}

[[File:2012 Crime Rate against Women per 100000 in India by its States and Union Territories, VAW Map.svg|thumb|250px|The map shows the comparative rate of violence against women in Indian states and union territories in 2012. Crime rate data per 100,000 women in this map is the broadest definition of crime against women under Indian law. It includes rape, sexual assault, insult to modesty, kidnapping, abduction, cruelty by intimate partner or relatives, trafficking, persecution for dowry, dowry deaths, indecency, and all other crimes listed in Indian Penal Code.<ref>{{citation |contribution=Table 5.1 |title=Crime in India 2012 Statistics | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140620023952/http://ncrb.nic.in/CD-CII2012/Statistics2012.pdf | archive-date = 20 June 2014 |url=http://ncrb.nic.in/CD-CII2012/Statistics2012.pdf |page=385 |publisher=National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India}}</ref><ref>{{citation |contribution=Table |title=Intimate Partner Violence, 1993–2010 |url=http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ipv9310.pdf |page=10 |publisher=Bureau of Justice Statistics, US Department of Justice}}</ref>]]

Crime against women such as rape, [[acid attack]]s, [[dowry killing]]s, [[honour killing]]s, and the [[forced prostitution]] of young girls has been reported in India.<ref>{{cite news |last=Tilak |first=Sudha G. |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/12/2012122991735307545.html |title=Crimes against women increase in India – Features |work=[[Al Jazeera English]] |access-date=7 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Upreti |first=Deepak K. |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/197720/india-home-unspeakable-crimes-against.html |title=India is home of unspeakable crimes against women |work=[[Deccan Herald]] |access-date=7 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Kumar |first=Madhuri |title=Atrocities against women on the rise |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-08/patna/37560490_1_international-women-s-day-women-empowerment-bhrc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928034433/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-03-08/patna/37560490_1_international-women-s-day-women-empowerment-bhrc |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 September 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref> TrustLaw, a London based news service owned by the [[Thomson Reuters Foundation]], ranked India as the fourth most dangerous place in the world for women to live based on a poll of 213 gender experts.<ref>{{cite news |last=Reuters | author-link = Reuters |title=The world's 5 most dangerous countries For women: Thomson Reuters Foundation Survey | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150628081837/http://www.trust.org/spotlight/The-worlds-most-dangerous-countries-for-women-2011 | archive-date = 28 June 2015 |url=http://www.trust.org/trustlaw/womens-rights/dangerpoll/ |publisher=[[Reuters|Thomas Reuters]] | access-date =13 August 2011}}</ref><ref name="femcrit" /> Police records in India show a high incidence of crimes against women. The National Crime Records Bureau reported in 1998 that by 2010 growth in the rate of crimes against women would exceed the population growth rate.<ref name="un_women_free_equal" /> Earlier, many crimes against women were not reported to police due to the social stigma attached to rape and molestation. Official statistics show a dramatic increase in the number of reported crimes against women.<ref name="un_women_free_equal" />

===Acid attacks===

An analyses of Indian news reports determined that 72% of cases reported from January 2002 to October 2010 included at least one female victim.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Combating Acid Violence In Bangladesh, India, and Cambodia|url=https://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/cedaw_crc_contributions/AvonGlobalCenterforWomenandJustice.pdf|publisher=Avon Global Center for Women and Justice at [[Cornell Law School]] and the [[New York City Bar Association]]|page=13}}</ref> [[Sulfuric acid]], [[nitric acid]], and [[hydrochloric acid]], the most common types of acid used in attacks, are generally cheap and widely available as a common cleaning supply.<ref>{{cite news |last=Carney |first=Scott |title=Acid Attacks on Women in India | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070824045642/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=13760338| archive-date= 24 August 2007 |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=13760338 |work=[[NPR]] |access-date=22 August 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kumar|first=Vidhik|title=Acid Attacks in India: A Socio-Legal Report|url=https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1239&context=dignity|journal=Dignity: A Journal on Sexual Exploitation and Violence|volume=6|issue=5|pages=Page 1}}</ref> Acid attacks against women often are done as a form of revenge and are often done by relatives or friends. The number of acid attacks has been rising in recent years.<ref>{{cite news |last=Thakur |first=Sunita |title=India's acid victims demand justice |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7270568.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=9 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Soni was on the verge of being a policewoman when her husband poured acid all over her face|language=en-AU|work=ABC News|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-24/indian-acid-victims-want-to-break-down-social-stigma/11428952|access-date=2021-12-04}}</ref>

===Child marriage===
{{main|Child marriage in India}}
[[Child marriage]] has been traditionally prevalent in India but is not so continued in Modern India to this day. Historically, child brides would live with their parents until they reached puberty. In the past, child widows were condemned to a life of great agony, shaved heads, living in isolation, and being shunned by society.<ref name="kamat_gandhi_status">{{cite web |last=Kamat |first=Jyotsana |title=Gandhi and status of women (blog) |url=http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/gwomen.htm |website=kamat.com |publisher=Kamat's Potpourri |access-date=24 December 2006}}</ref> Although child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is still a common practice.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lawson |first=Alastair |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1617759.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |title=Child marriages targeted in India }}</ref> The [[Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929]] is the relevant legislation in the country.

According to UNICEF's "State of the World’s Children-2009" report, 47% of India's women aged 20–24 were married before the legal age of 18, rising to 56% in rural areas.<ref>{{cite book |last=UNICEF | author-link = UNICEF |contribution=Table 9: Child protection | editor-last = UNICEF | editor-link = UNICEF |title=The state of the world's children 2009: maternal and new born health |url=http://www.unicef.org/sowc09/docs/SOWC09_Table_9.pdf |publisher=[[UNICEF]] |year=2009}}</ref> The report also showed that 40% of the world's child marriages occur in India.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dhar |first=Aarti |title=40 p.c. child marriages in India: UNICEF |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/40-p.c.-child-marriages-in-India-UNICEF/article16353462.ece |location=Chennai, India |work=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref>

===Domestic violence===
{{main|Domestic violence in India}}

[[Domestic violence in India]] is endemic.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ganguly |first=Sumit |title=India's shame |url=https://thediplomat.com/2012/04/indias-shame/ |website=[[The Diplomat]] |access-date=27 April 2012}}</ref> Around 70% of women in India are victims of domestic violence, according to [[Renuka Chowdhury]], former Union minister for Women and Child Development.<ref name="bbctackle">{{cite news |last=Chowdhury |first=Renuka | author-link =Renuka Chowdhury |title=India tackles domestic violence |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6086334.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=25 April 2012}}</ref> Domestic violence was legally addressed in the 1980s when the 1983 Criminal Law Act introduced [[Chapters XX and XXA of the Indian Penal Code#Section 498A|section 498A]] "Husband or relative of husband of a woman subjecting her to cruelty".<ref name="unwomen.org">{{cite news |last=UN Women | author-link = UN Women |title=Confronting dowry-related violence in India: women at the center of justice |url=http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2012/12/confronting-dowry-related-violence-in-india-women-at-the-center-of-justice |publisher=[[UN Women]] |location=New York }}</ref>

The National Crime Records Bureau reveal that a crime against a woman is committed every three minutes, a woman is raped every 29 minutes, a [[dowry]] death occurs every 77 minutes, and one case of cruelty committed by either the husband or relative of the husband occurs every nine minutes.<ref name="bbctackle"/> This occurs despite the fact that women in India are legally protected from domestic abuse under the [[Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005|Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act]].<ref name="bbctackle"/>

In India, domestic violence toward women is considered as any type of abuse that can be considered a threat; it can also be physical, psychological, or sexual abuse to any current or former partner.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal |last1=Mahapatro |first1=Meerambika |last2=Gupta |first2=R.N. |last3=Gupta |first3=Vinay K. |title=Control and support models of help-seeking behavior in women experiencing domestic violence in India |journal=[[Violence & Victims]] |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=464–475 |doi=10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-12-00045 |pmid=25069150 |s2cid=22702635 }}</ref> Domestic violence is not handled as a crime or complaint, it is seen more as a private or family matter.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In determining the category of a complaint, it is based on caste, class, religious bias and race which also determines whether action is to be taken or not.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Many studies have reported about the prevalence of the violence and have taken a criminal-justice approach, but most woman refuse to report it.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> These women are guaranteed constitutional justice, dignity and equality but continue to refuse based on their sociocultural contexts.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> As the women refuse to speak of the violence and find help, they are also not receiving the proper treatment.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===Dowry===
{{Main|Dowry system in India|Dowry death|Dowry law in India}}
[[File:2012 India dowry death rate per 100000 people distribution map for its States and Union Territories.svg|thumb|250px|A map of the Indian dowry death rate per 100,000 people, 2012.]]
In 1961, the Government of India passed the Dowry Prohibition Act,<ref name=Dowry_Act>{{cite web |title=The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150828055909/http://wcd.nic.in/dowryprohibitionact.htm | archive-date = 28 August 2015 |url=http://www.wcd.nic.in/dowryprohibitionact.htm |website=wcd.nic.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Women and Child Development]] |access-date=6 March 2017}}</ref> making dowry demands in wedding arrangements illegal. However, many cases of dowry-related domestic violence, suicides and murders have been reported. In the 1980s, numerous such cases were reported.<ref name="kamat_faq" />

In 1985, the Dowry Prohibition (maintenance of lists of presents to the bride and bridegroom) Rules were framed.<ref name=Dowry_Rules>{{cite web |title=The Dowry Prohibition (maintenance of lists of presents to the bride and bridegroom) rules, 1985 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140922130043/http://wcd.nic.in/dowryprohibitionrules.htm | archive-date = 22 September 2014 |url=http://www.wcd.nic.in/dowryprohibitionrules.htm |website=wcd.nic.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Women and Child Development]] |access-date=6 March 2017}}</ref> According to these rules, a signed list should be maintained of presents given at the time of the marriage to the bride and the bridegroom. The list should contain a brief description of each present, its approximate value, the name of who has given the present, and relationship to the recipient. However, such rules are rarely enforced.

A 1997 report claimed that each year at least 5,000 women in India die dowry-related deaths, and at least a dozen die each day in 'kitchen fires' thought to be intentional.<ref>{{cite news |last=UPI | author-link = United Press International |title=Kitchen fires kill Indian brides with inadequate dowry |url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/52a/033.html |work=[[United Press International]] |location=New Delhi}}</ref> The term for this is "[[bride burning]]" and is criticised within India itself.

In 2011, the National Crime Records Bureau reported 8,618 [[dowry deaths]]. Unofficial estimates claim the figures are at least three times as high.<ref name="unwomen.org"/>

===Female infanticide and sex-selective abortion===
[[File:2011 Census sex ratio map for the states and Union Territories of India Boys to Girls 0 to 1 age group.svg|thumb|250px|right|A map of India's child sex ratio, 2011.]]
{{main|Female foeticide in India|Missing women of Asia}}
In India, the male-female [[sex ratio]] is skewed dramatically in favour of men, the chief reason being the high number of women who die before reaching adulthood.<ref name="un_women_free_equal" /> Tribal societies in India have a less skewed sex ratio than [[Indian caste system|other caste groups]]. This is in spite of the fact that tribal communities have far lower income levels, lower literacy rates, and less adequate health facilities.<ref name="un_women_free_equal" /> Many experts suggest the higher number of men in India can be attributed to female infanticides and sex-selective abortions. The sex ratio is particularly bad in the north-western area of the country, particularly in [[Haryana]] and [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref name=cc2011>{{cite book |last=Chandramouli |first=C. |title= Child sex ratio in India |url=http://www.actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/child_sex_ratio_-_presentation_by_census_commissioner.pdf |publisher=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Registrar General & Census Commissioner]] |location=India |via=[[ActionAid]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127110334/http://www.actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/child_sex_ratio_-_presentation_by_census_commissioner.pdf |archive-date=27 November 2018 }}</ref>

Ultrasound scanning constitutes a major leap forward in providing for the care of mother and baby, and with scanners becoming portable, these advantages have spread to rural populations. However, ultrasound scans often reveal the sex of the baby, allowing pregnant women to decide to abort female foetuses and try again later for a male child. This practice is usually considered the main reason for the change in the ratio of male to female children being born.<ref name="India's lost daughters">{{cite news |last=Gentleman |first=Amelia |title=India's lost daughters |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/world/asia/09iht-india.html?_r=1 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=2 June 2012}}</ref>

In 1994 the Indian government passed a law forbidding women or their families from asking about the sex of the baby after an ultrasound scan (or any other test which would yield that information) and also expressly forbade doctors or any other persons from providing that information. In practice this law (like the law forbidding dowries) is widely ignored, and levels of abortion on female foetuses remain high and the sex ratio at birth keeps getting more skewed.
<ref name="India's lost daughters"/>

Female infanticide (killing of infant girls) is still prevalent in some rural areas.<ref name="un_women_free_equal" /> Sometimes this is infanticide by neglect, for example families may not spend money on critical medicines or withhold care from a sick girl.

Continuing abuse of the dowry tradition has been one of the main reasons for sex-selective abortions and female infanticides in India.

===Honour killings===
{{main|Honor killings by region#India}}
[[Honour killing]]s have been reported widely in India, most frequently in the [[North|northern regions of India]]. This is usually motivated by a girl (or, less commonly, a boy) marrying without the family's acceptance, especially for marrying outside their [[caste system in India|caste]] or religion or, more particular to northwestern India, between members of the same [[gotra]]. In 2010, the [[Supreme Court of India]] issued notice in regard to honor killings to the states of [[Punjab (Indian state)|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], [[Bihar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Himachal Pradesh]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref name="bbc.com">{{cite news |title=India court seeks 'honour killing' response |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/10364986 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref>

===Accusations of witchcraft===
Violence against women related to accusations of witchcraft occurs in India, particularly in parts of [[Northern India]]. Belief in the supernatural among the Indian population is strong, and [[lynching]]s for witchcraft are reported by the media.<ref>{{cite news |last=Singh |first=Rao Jaswant |title=Branded witch, tribal woman forced to dip hands in hot oil |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/Branded-witch-tribal-woman-forced-to-dip-hands-in-hot-oil/articleshow/3578363.cms? |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> In [[Assam]] and [[West Bengal]] between 2003 and 2008 there were around 750 deaths related to accusations of witchcraft.<ref name=Witch>{{cite news |last=Blakely |first=Rhys |title=Witchcraft is given a spell in India's schools to remove curse of deadly superstition |url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/asia/article2609335.ece |work=[[The Times]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> Officials in the state of [[Chhattisgarh]] reported in 2008 that at least 100 women are maltreated annually as suspected witches.<ref>{{cite news |title=Fifty 'witches' beaten by mob |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073536/http://news.sky.com/story/657468/fifty-witches-beaten-by-mob |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url=http://news.sky.com/story/657468/fifty-witches-beaten-by-mob |agency=[[Sky News]] }}</ref>

===Rape===
{{Main|Rape in India}}
[[File:Delhi protests-India Raped, says one young woman's sign.jpg|thumb|People in [[Delhi]], [[India]] protesting after a young student was [[2012 Delhi gang rape case|gang-raped in Delhi]] in December 2012.]]
[[Rape in India]] has been described by [[Radha Kumar]] as one of India's most common crimes against women<ref name="Kumar">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=68xTBT1-H4IC |last=Kumar |first=Radha|author-link=Radha Kumar |contribution=The agitation against rape|editor-last=Kumar|editor-first=Radha|editor-link=Radha Kumar |title=The history of doing: an illustrated account of movements for women's rights and feminism in India 1800–1990 |page=128 |publisher=Zubaan |location=New Delhi |year=2003 |orig-date=1993 |isbn=9788185107769 }}</ref> and by the [[UN]]’s human-rights chief as a "national problem".<ref>{{cite news |title=India's women: Rape and murder in Delhi |url=https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21569031-horrible-attack-could-prove-turning-point-indias-women-rape-and-murder-delhi |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> Since the 1980s, women's rights groups lobbied for [[marital rape]] to be declared unlawful,<ref name="Kumar"/> but the [[Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013]] still maintains the marital exemption by stating in its exception clause under Section 375, that: "Sexual intercourse or sexual acts by a man with his own wife, the wife not being under fifteen years of age, is not rape".<ref>{{cite news |title=The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 |url=http://indiacode.nic.in/acts-in-pdf/132013.pdf |work=[[The Gazette of India]] |publisher=Government of India |year=2013}}</ref> While per-capita reported incidents are quite low compared to other countries, even developed countries,<ref>{{cite web |last=Goel |first=Sharad |url=http://messymatters.com/rape/ |title=Lies, damned lies, rape, and statistics (blog) |publisher=Messy Matters |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Humphrey |first1=John A. |last2=Schmalleger |first2=Frank |contribution=Mental illness, addictive behaviors, and sexual deviance|editor-last1=Humphrey|editor-first1=John A.|editor-last2=Schmalleger|editor-first2=Frank |title=Deviant behavior |page=252 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |location=Sudbury, Massachusetts |year=2012 |edition=2nd |isbn=9780763797737 |postscript=.}}</ref> a new case is reported every 20 minutes.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mohanty |first1=Suchitra |last2=Daniel |first2=Frank Jack |title=Indian rape victim's father says he wants her named |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/us-india-rape-idUSBRE90500B20130106 |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref><ref name=indiatribune>{{cite news |title=Rape statistics around the world |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150308052811/http://www.indiatribune.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=10195:rape-statistics-around-the-world-&catid=107:coverpage&Itemid=471 |archive-date=8 March 2015 |url=http://www.indiatribune.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=10195:rape-statistics-around-the-world-&catid=107:coverpage&Itemid=471 |work=[[India Tribune]] |access-date=15 March 2013}}</ref> In fact, as per the NCRB data released by the government of India in 2018, a rape is reported in India in every 15 minutes.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mishra |first1=Varalika |title=A rape in India every 15 minutes: government data |url=https://asiatimes.com/2020/01/a-rape-in-india-every-15-minutes-government-data/ |access-date=18 May 2020 |work=Asia Times }}</ref>

New Delhi has one of the highest rate of rape-reports among Indian cities.<ref name=indiatribune/> Sources show that rape cases in India have doubled between 1990 and 2008.<ref name="AFP">{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title=Indian student gang-raped, thrown off bus in New Delhi |url=http://www.arabnews.com/indian-student-gang-raped-thrown-bus-new-delhi |work=[[Arab News]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ganguly |first=Meenakshi, South Asia director |title=India: Rape victim's death demands action |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/12/29/india-rape-victim-s-death-demands-action |work=[[Human Rights Watch]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref>

===Sexual harassment===
{{Main|Eve teasing}}

[[Eve teasing]] is a euphemism used for [https://www.issuewomenchild.com/2020/05/sexual-harassment-at-workplace.html sexual harassment] or molestation of women by men. Many activists blame the rising incidence of sexual harassment against women on the influence of "Western culture". In 1987, The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act was passed<ref name=Ind_Rep>{{cite web |title=The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1987 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140922130043/http://wcd.nic.in/dowryprohibitionrules.htm |archive-date=22 September 2014 |url=http://www.wcd.nic.in/dowryprohibitionrules.htm |website=wcd.nic.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Women and Child Development]] |access-date=24 December 2006}}</ref> to prohibit indecent representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings or in any other manner.

Of the total number of crimes against women reported in 1990, half related to molestation and harassment in the workplace.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> In 1997, in a landmark judgement{{ambiguous}}, the Supreme Court of India took a strong stand against sexual harassment of women in the workplace. The Court also laid down detailed guidelines for prevention and redressal of grievances. The National Commission for Women subsequently elaborated these guidelines into a Code of Conduct for employers.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> In 2013 India's top court investigated on a law graduate's allegation that she was sexually harassed by a recently retired Supreme Court judge.<ref>{{cite news |title=India Supreme Court investigates ex-judge for sexual harassment |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-24909511 |publisher=[[BBC News]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> The [https://www.issuewomenchild.com/2020/05/sexual-harassment-at-workplace.html Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act] came into force in December 2013, to prevent Harassment of women at workplace.

According to a report from Human Rights Watch, despite women increasingly denunciate sexual harassment at work, they still face stigma and fear retribution as the governments promote, establish and monitor complaint committees.<ref name="women india HRW">{{cite web |title=India: Women at Risk of Sexual Abuse at Work |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/10/14/india-women-risk-sexual-abuse-work |website=Human Rights Watch |language=en }}</ref> As South Asia director at Human Rights Watch explained, “India has progressive laws to protect women from sexual abuse by bosses, colleagues, and clients, but has failed to take basic steps to enforce these laws”.<ref name="women india HRW"/>

A study by [[ActionAid]] UK found that 80% of women in India had experienced sexual harassment ranging from unwanted comments, being groped or assaulted. Many incidents go unreported as the victims fear [[Victim blaming|being shunned by their families]].<ref name="reuters_26May2016">{{cite news |last=Bhalla |first=Nita |title=Almost 80 percent of Indian women face public harassment in cities – survey |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/india-women-harassment-cities-idINKCN0YE23R |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref>

===Trafficking===
The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act was passed in 1956.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020053429/http://wcd.nic.in/act/itpa1956.htm |archive-date=20 October 2015 |url=http://wcd.nic.in/act/itpa1956.htm |website=wcd.nic.in |publisher=[[Ministry of Women and Child Development]] |access-date=24 December 2006}}</ref> However many cases of [[human trafficking|trafficking]] of young girls and women have been reported.

==Women's safety laws==

{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
# Guardians & Wards Act, 1890<ref>{{cite web |title=Guardians & Wards Act, 1890 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150902004147/http://wcd.nic.in/gawaact.htm |archive-date=2 September 2015 |url=http://wcd.nic.in/gawaact.htm |publisher=[[Ministry of Women and Child Development]] |access-date=7 March 2017}}</ref>
#Indian Penal Code, 1860
#Christian Marriage Act, 1872
#Indian Evidence Act, 1872<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Evidence Act, 1872 |url=http://www.lawnotes.in/Indian_Evidence_Act,_1872 |website=lawnotes.in |year=1872 |access-date=19 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180119235441/http://www.lawnotes.in/Indian_Evidence_Act,_1872 |archive-date=19 January 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
#Married Women's Property Act, 1874
#Workmen's compensation Act, 1923
#Indian Successions Act, 1925
#Immoral Traffic (prevention) Act, 1956
#Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961<ref name="Dowry_Act"/>
#Commission of Sati(Prevention) Act, 1987
#Cinematograph Act, 1952
#Births, Deaths & Marriages Registration Act, 1886
#Minimum Wages Act, 1948
#Prevention of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012
#Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929
#Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application, 1937
#Indecent Representation of Women(Prevention) Act, 1986
#Special Marriage Act, 1954<ref>{{cite web |title=The Special Marriage Act, 1954 |url=http://indiankanoon.org/doc/4234 |website=indiankanoon.org |publisher=Indiankanoon |year=1954 |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref>
#Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
#Hindu Successions Act, 1956
#[[Foreign Marriage Act, 1969]]
#Family Courts Act, 1984
#Maternity Benefit Act, 1961
#Hindu Adoption & Maintenance Act, 1956
#Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973
#Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971
#National Commission for Women Act, 1990
#The Pre-conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994
#Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005
#Sexual Harassment of Women at Work Place (Prevention, Prohibition & Redressal) Act, 2013<ref>{{cite news |title=Sexual Harassment of Women at Work Place (Prevention, Prohibition & Redressal) Act, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123064739/http://iith.ac.in/other_links/pdf/Sexual%20Harassment%20of%20Women%20at%20Workplace%20Act%202013.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2016 |url=https://www.iith.ac.in/other_links/pdf/Sexual%20Harassment%20of%20Women%20at%20Workplace%20Act%202013.pdf |work=[[The Gazette of India]] |publisher=Government of India |year=2013}}</ref>
#Indian Divorce Act, 1969
#Equal Remuneration Act, 1976
#Hindu Widows Remarriage Act, 1856
#Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986
{{div col end}}

== Deaf/hard of hearing women ==
===Education===
As stated in earlier sections, Indian women are disadvantaged in comparison to men in many areas such as literacy skills contributing to drop out rates,<ref name=":0" /> gender bias, and inadequate facilities.<ref name=":1" /> Prior access to someone with a disability is the number one factor that affects how Indian teachers' attitudes toward students with disabilities,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parasuram|first=Kala|title=Variables that affect teachers' attitudes towards disability and inclusive education in Mumbai, India|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09687590600617352|journal=Disability & Society|volume=21|issue=3|pages=231–242|doi=10.1080/09687590600617352|s2cid=144319030|issn=0968-7599}}</ref> so it can be challenging to find unbiased education. Deaf women face unique challenges in education, as they experience the intersection of oppression as both a woman and a Deaf person.

==== Education during COVID-19 ====
In addition to the normal obstacles in accessible education, the COVID-19 pandemic added another layer of difficulty for Deaf women. Not only are they facing gender bias and having their needs put aside as women, the pandemic created new problems such as lack of face-to-face communication and masks that inhibit lipreading. A study by Rising Flame Organization found that over 90% of their sample of Deaf/DeafBlind/Hard of Hearing women in India struggled when it came to accessibility of education during the pandemic as well as other resources.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://risingflame.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/NeglectedAndForgotten_RFandSS.pdf |title=Neglected and Forgotten: Women with disabilities during COVID crisis in India |publisher=Rising Flame and Sightsavers}}</ref>

=== Violence against Deaf women ===
Women and girls who have a disability, including deafness, face much more of a risk of sexual violence.<ref name=":05">{{Cite journal|title=Invisible Victims of Sexual Violence: Access to Justice for Women and Girls with Disabilities in India|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/04/03/invisible-victims-sexual-violence/access-justice-women-and-girls-disabilities|language=en}}</ref> Deafness in particular can impair one's situational awareness and ability to quickly and effectively communicate a need for help to others (such as shouting "HELP!" to a passerby) which makes Deaf women easier targets for violence.<ref name=":05"/>

Reporting of this violence is also extremely low due to lack of access to adequate communication - accommodations like an interpreter are rarely available in these scenarios. Even though the Indian government intended to upkeep and enforce laws regarding sexual violence - specifically mentioning women with disabilities - following civic unrest about a young woman's rape in 2013, these laws were not able to be executed effectively.<ref name=":05"/>

Disabled women in India also struggle with problems regarding obtaining medical treatment, legal justice, compensation, and more.<ref name=":05"/> The ''2014 Guidelines and Protocols for Medico-Legal Care for Victims/Survivors of Sexual Violence'' by India's Ministry of Health and Family Welfare states their view about the reason disabled women often have trouble with reporting violence:<blockquote>…[be]cause of the obvious barriers to communication, as well as their dependency on caretakers who may also be abusers. When they do report, their complaints are not taken seriously and the challenges they face in expressing themselves in a system that does not create an enabling environment to allow for such expression, complicates matters further.<ref name=":05"/></blockquote>There are obvious obstacles when it comes to Deaf women reporting in the first place, such as lack of interpreters, fear of stigma, and more. However, on top of that, the justice system does not respond well when a report actually does come in.<ref name=":05"/> Human Rights Watch even found that sometimes women and girls are denied access to accommodations if they cannot prove that they are disabled.<ref name=":05" /> Many cases are just swept under the rug, despite legislation in place.

=== Organizations ===
There is not yet a one standardized sign language in India, so there has been much emphasis on kinship among Deaf women. They often face an intersection of oppression, being Deaf and a woman. A few organizations have crept up that are led by Deaf women to share a sense of community, learn from one another, and understand their identity as Deaf women.

==== Delhi Foundation of Deaf Women ====
The Delhi Foundation of Deaf Women (DFDW) was started in order to create space for career opportunities and to experience community and social skills among alike women that share the same identity. It hosts a number of events and social activities to promote Deaf awareness and pride in Deaf women's identities. Not only that, but it serves as a rehabilitation center for Deaf women.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Friedner|first=Michele|title=Identity Formation and Transnational Discourses: Thinking Beyond Identity Politics|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/097152150801500208|journal=Indian Journal of Gender Studies|language=en|volume=15|issue=2|pages=365–385|doi=10.1177/097152150801500208|s2cid=145547497|issn=0971-5215}}</ref> Although it focuses primarily on Deaf women, as their needs are specific, the DFDW also helps Deaf men with some skill-building and a few Deaf men are leaders of some specific programming for the DFDW.<ref name=":12" />

==== All India Foundation of Deaf Women ====
The All India Foundation of Deaf Women began by filling the need of community as a club for Deaf women, but recognized that Deaf women need more structured support.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Welcome AIFDW|url=http://aifdw.org/|access-date=2021-10-26|website=aifdw.org}}</ref> Since then in 1973, they have expanded into a rehabilitation center for Deaf women and other Deaf individuals. They are currently offering support, seminars, and other events.<ref name=":2" />

The Hyderabad Foundation Of Deaf Women has been affiliated with the All India Foundation of Deaf Women since 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|title=About|url=https://hfdw.in/about/|access-date=2021-10-01|website=hfdw.in|language=en-US}}</ref> This foundation focuses on the empowerment of Deaf women in INdia and throws events like the National Cultural Festival of Deaf Women, a festival that celebrates Deaf women participating in arts, technology, and other skills.<ref>{{Cite web|last=India|first=The Hans|title=VNRVJIET holds 4th national cultural festival for deaf women|url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Education-and-Careers/2019-01-01/VNRVJIET-holds-4th-national-cultural-festival-for-deaf-women/467625|access-date=2021-10-26|website=www.thehansindia.com|language=en}}</ref>

=== Career Opportunities ===
There are certain careers that, culturally, are not thought of as appropriate for Deaf people. With that in mind, the intersection of Deafness and being a woman creates a substantial societal issue when it comes to Deaf women in India finding fulfilling careers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parasnis|first1=Ila|last2=Samar|first2=Vincent J.|last3=Mandke|first3=Kalyani|title=Deaf Adults' Attitudes Toward Career Choices for Deaf and Hearing People in India|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44401048|journal=American Annals of the Deaf|volume=141|issue=5|pages=333–339|doi=10.1353/aad.2012.0239|jstor=44401048|pmid=9002317|s2cid=16325772|issn=0002-726X}}</ref>

That being said, Deafness is somewhat accepted in India and not necessarily viewed as a disability that makes a person less intelligent, which affects how employers may view Deaf candidates.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Friedner|first=Michele|title=Producing "Silent Brewmasters": Deaf Workers and Added Value in India's Coffee Cafés|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/awr.12005|journal=Anthropology of Work Review|language=en|volume=34|issue=1|pages=39–50|doi=10.1111/awr.12005|issn=1548-1417}}</ref>

==Other concerns==

===Participation of women in social life===
The degree to which women participate in public life, that is being outside the home, varies by region and background. For example, the [[Rajput]]s, a patrilineal clan inhabiting parts of India, especially the north-western area, have traditionally practiced [[purdah|ghunghat]], and many still do to this day. In recent years however, more women have started to challenge such social norms: for instance women in rural [[Haryana]] are increasingly rejecting the [[ghunghat]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Jolly |first=Asit |title=The ghunghat no longer works for me. It holds me back |url=https://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/haryana-rural-women-throw-off-the-veil-to-empower-themselves/1/223586.html |work=[[India Today]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> In India, most population (about two thirds)<ref name="CIA_India">{{cite web |title=The World Factbook: South Asia: India |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/ |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> is rural, and, as such, lives in tight-knit communities where it is very easy for a woman to ruin her family's 'honor' through her behavior. The concept of [[family honor]] is especially prevalent in northern India. [[Izzat (honour)|Izzat]] is a concept of honor prevalent in the culture of North India and [[Pakistan]].<ref name="ref14fohaz">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rtBi1MgVD0AC&pg=PA99 |last=Cheesman |first=David |contribution=The backbone of the country|editor-last=Cheesman|editor-first=David |title=Landlord power and rural indebtedness in colonial Sind, 1865–1901 |page=99 |publisher=Curzon Press |location=Richmond, Surrey |year=1997 |isbn=9780700704705 |quote=... Izzat remains to this day a critical part of life throughout Pakistan and northern India. Maintaining izzat is a driving motivation for vast numbers of people, from all communities and classes and in every walk of life ... }}</ref> Izzat applies to both sexes, but in different ways. Women must uphold the 'family honor' by being chaste, passive and submissive, while men must be strong, brave, and be willing and able to control the women of their families.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vishwanath |first1=Jyothi |last2=Palakonda |first2=Srinivas C. |title=Patriarchal ideology of honour and honour crimes in India |journal=International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences |volume=6 |issue=1–2 |pages=386–395 |url=http://www.sascv.org/ijcjs/pdfs/jyothiiicjs2011i&iind.pdf }}</ref> The rural areas surrounding [[Delhi]] are among the most conservative in India: it has been estimated that 30% of all honor killings of India take place in [[Western Uttar Pradesh]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Jeelani |first=Gulam |title=30% honour killings of the country in west UP: AIDWA survey |url=http://english.pradesh18.com/news/uttar-pradesh/30-honour-killings-of-the-country-in-west-up-aidwa-survey-830059.html |website=[[News18.com]] |agency=[[CNN]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> while Haryana has been described as "one of India's most conservative when it comes to caste, marriage and the role of women. Deeply patriarchal, caste purity is paramount and marriages are arranged to sustain the status quo."<ref>{{cite news |last=Denyer |first=Simon |title=Haryana village proud after double "honour killing" |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-33604820080516 |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref>

In 2018 the Supreme Court of India lifted a decades-old ban prohibiting women between the ages of 10 and 50 from entering [[Sabarimala temple]] in [[Kerala]]. In 2019 two women entered the temple under police protection. [[Hindu nationalist]]s protested the women's entry and [[P. S. Sreedharan Pillai|Sreedharan Pillai]], State President of the Kerala branch of the nationalist [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (of which Indian prime minister [[Narendra Modi]] is a member) described the women's entry into the temple as "a conspiracy by the atheist rulers to destroy the Hindu temples."<ref>{{cite news |title=Protests Erupt In Southern India After Women Defy Centuries-Old Temple Ban |url=https://www.npr.org/2019/01/02/681544151/protests-erupt-in-southern-india-after-women-defy-centuries-old-temple-ban |agency=[[NPR]] |access-date=24 January 2018}}</ref> Prime Minister Modi said, "We knew that the communists do not respect Indian history, culture and spirituality but nobody imagined they will have such hatred," The shrine is dedicated to the worship of [[Lord Ayyappa]], a celibate deity, and adherents believe the presence of women would "pollute" the site and go against the wishes of the patron deity. The two women had to go into hiding after entering the temple and were granted 24 hour police protection. One of the women was locked out of her home by her husband and had to move in to a shelter. Dozens of women seeking entry to temple have since been turned back by demonstrators.<ref>{{cite news |title=Woman who defied Indian temple ban 'shunned' by family |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jan/23/woman-indian-temple-family-sabarimala-kerala |agency=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=24 January 2010}}</ref>

Prior to November 2018, women were forbidden to climb [[Agasthyarkoodam]]. A court ruling removed the prohibition.<ref name="Regan"/>

===Health===
[[File:Community health worker gives a vaccination in Odisha state, India (8380317750).jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Community health worker]] preparing a [[vaccine]] in [[Odisha]]]]
{{main|Women's health in India}}
The average female life expectancy today in India is low compared to many countries, but it has shown gradual improvement over the years. In many families, especially rural ones, girls and women face nutritional discrimination within the family, and are anaemic and malnourished.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> Almost half of adolescent girls are chronically malnourished.<ref name="Fanta_Project">{{cite book |last=Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance (FANTA) |title=India: Nutrition profile |url=http://www.fantaproject.org/sites/default/files/download/India-Nutrition-Profile-Mar2014.pdf |publisher=[[USAID]] }}</ref> In addition, poor nutrition during pregnancy often leads to birth complications.<ref name="Fanta_Project"/>

The [[Maternal death|maternal mortality]] in India is the 56th highest in the world.<ref name="CIA_Maternal">{{cite web |title=The World Factbook: Country Comparison: Maternal Mortality Rate |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2223rank.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111030110139/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2223rank.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 October 2011|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> 42% of births in the country are supervised in Medical Institution. In rural areas, most of women deliver with the help of women in the family, contradictory to the fact that the unprofessional or unskilled deliverer lacks the knowledge about pregnancy.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/>

===Family planning===
{{Main|Family planning in India}}
The average woman living in a rural area in India has little or no control over becoming pregnant. Women, particularly in rural areas, do not have access to safe and self-controlled methods of contraception. The public health system emphasises permanent methods like sterilisation, or long-term methods like IUDs that do not need follow-up. Sterilisation accounts for more than 75% of total contraception, with female sterilisation accounting for almost 95% of all sterilisations.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> The contraceptive prevalence rate for 2007/2008 was estimated at 54.8%.<ref name="CIA_India"/>

A three-judge bench of the Supreme Court of India in Civil Appeal No. 5802 of 2022 made a ruling on 29 September 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=KM |first=Ashok |title=Consent Of Woman's Family Not Needed For Abortion, Doctors Cannot Impose Extra Legal Conditions : Supreme Court |url=https://www.livelaw.in/top-stories/consent-of-womans-family-not-needed-for-abortion-doctors-cannot-impose-extra-legal-conditions-supreme-court-210606 |access-date=2022-09-30 |website=LiveLaw |language=en}}</ref> The ruling defined "[[woman]]" as all persons who require access to safe abortion, along with [[cisgender]] women, thus including transpersons and other gender-diverse persons as well as cisgender women.<ref>{{cite court |litigants= X vs Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, Govt of NCT Of Delhi, Civil Appeal No 5802 of 2022 |pinpoint= Para 11 |court= [[Supreme Court of India]] |url= https://main.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2022/21815/21815_2022_2_1501_38628_Judgement_29-Sep-2022.pdf |access-date=30 September 2022| url-status=live | quote= |postscript= }}</ref> The Court remarked that medical practitioners should refrain from imposing extra-legal conditions on those seeking abortion, such as obtaining the consent of the abortion seeker's family, producing documentary proofs, or judicial authorization, and that only the abortion seeker's consent was material, unless she was a minor or mentally ill.<ref>{{cite court |litigants= X vs Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, Govt of NCT Of Delhi, Civil Appeal No 5802 of 2022 |pinpoint= Para 23 |court= [[Supreme Court of India]] |url= https://main.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2022/21815/21815_2022_2_1501_38628_Judgement_29-Sep-2022.pdf |access-date=30 September 2022 | url-status=live| quote= |postscript= }}</ref> It also stated that "every pregnant woman has the intrinsic right to choose to undergo or not to undergo abortion without any consent or authorization from a third party"<ref>{{cite court |litigants= X vs Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, Govt of NCT Of Delhi, Civil Appeal No 5802 of 2022 |pinpoint= Para 98 |court= [[Supreme Court of India]] |url= https://main.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2022/21815/21815_2022_2_1501_38628_Judgement_29-Sep-2022.pdf |access-date=30 September 2022 | url-status=live | quote= |postscript= }}</ref> and that a woman is the only and "ultimate decision-maker on the question of whether she wants to undergo an abortion."<ref>{{cite court |litigants= X vs Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, Govt of NCT Of Delhi, Civil Appeal No 5802 of 2022 |pinpoint= Para 108 |court= [[Supreme Court of India]] |url= https://main.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2022/21815/21815_2022_2_1501_38628_Judgement_29-Sep-2022.pdf |access-date=30 September 2022 | url-status=live | quote= |postscript= }}</ref> On the topic of the difference between the gestation period considered legal for married and unmarried women—24 weeks for the former and 20 weeks for the latter—the Court ruled that the distinction was discriminatory, artificial, unsustainable and in violation of Article 14 of the Constitution of India,<ref>{{cite court |litigants= X vs Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, Govt of NCT Of Delhi, Civil Appeal No 5802 of 2022 |pinpoint= Para 121 |court= [[Supreme Court of India]] |url= https://main.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2022/21815/21815_2022_2_1501_38628_Judgement_29-Sep-2022.pdf |access-date=30 September 2022 | url-status=live | quote= |postscript= }}</ref> and that "all women are entitled to the benefit of safe and legal abortion."<ref>{{cite court |litigants= X vs Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, Govt of NCT Of Delhi, Civil Appeal No 5802 of 2022 |pinpoint= Para 56 |court= [[Supreme Court of India]] |url= https://main.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2022/21815/21815_2022_2_1501_38628_Judgement_29-Sep-2022.pdf |access-date=30 September 2022 | url-status=live | quote= |postscript= }}</ref> On the subject of pregnancies resulting from [[marital rape]], the Court ruled that women can seek an abortion in the term of 20 to 24 weeks under the ambit of "survivors of sexual assault or rape".<ref>{{cite court |litigants= X vs Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, Govt of NCT Of Delhi, Civil Appeal No 5802 of 2022 |pinpoint= Para 71-76 |court= [[Supreme Court of India]] |url= https://main.sci.gov.in/supremecourt/2022/21815/21815_2022_2_1501_38628_Judgement_29-Sep-2022.pdf |access-date=30 September 2022 | archive-date= 29 September 2022| url-status=live | quote= A woman may become pregnant as a result of non-consensual sexual intercourse performed upon her by her husband. |postscript= }}</ref>

===Women from lower castes===

Lower caste women in India have seen significant improvement in their status. Educated and financially well-off Dalit women used politics to achieve status, however, the number of Dalit women who were involved in politics later declined due to increasing income and educational levels.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TgkDwAAQBAJ |title=Dalit Women: Vanguard of an Alternative Politics in India |publisher=Taylor & Francis |author=S. Anandhi, Karin Kapadia |year=2017|isbn=9781351797184 }}</ref> The status of Dalit women within households is also noted to have been improved.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dalits in Neoliberal India: Mobility Or Marginalisation? |page=231 |last=Still |first=Clarinda |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>

===Sex ratios===
[[File:Sex determination ban.JPG|thumb|A sign in an Indian hospital stating that prenatal sex determination is a crime.]]
India has a highly skewed sex ratio, which is attributed to sex-selective abortion and female infanticide affecting approximately one million female babies per year.<ref>{{cite news |title=Indian girl Infanticide-Female Fetocide: 1 million girls killed before or after birth per year |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121215070213/http://rupeenews.com/2008/04/indian-girl-infanticide-female-foeticide-1-million-girls-killed-before-or-after-birth-per-year/ |archive-date=15 December 2012 |url=http://rupeenews.com/2008/04/indian-girl-infanticide-female-foeticide-1-million-girls-killed-before-or-after-birth-per-year/ |work=Rupee News |access-date=20 February 2013}}</ref> In, 2011, government stated India was missing three million girls and there are now 48 less girls per 1,000 boys.<ref>{{cite news |author=PTI |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-loses-3-million-girls-in-infanticide/article3981575.ece |title=India loses 3 million girls in infanticide |work=[[The Hindu]] |access-date=20 February 2013 |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> Despite this, the government has taken further steps to improve the ratio, and the ratio is reported to have been improved in recent years.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ahmad |first=Faiz |title=Sex ratio in India showing improvement |url=http://www.nationalturk.com/en/sex-ratio-in-india-showing-improvement-41907 |work=National Turk |access-date=7 February 2014}}</ref>

The number of missing women totaled 100 million across the world.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Basu |first=Alaka Malwade |title=Fertility decline and increasing gender imbalance in India, including a possible South Indian turnaround |journal=[[Development and Change]] |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=237–263 |doi=10.1111/1467-7660.00116 }}</ref> The male-to-female ratio is high in favor toward men in developing countries in Asia, including India, than that of areas such as North America. Along with abortion, the high ratio of men in India is a result of sex selection, where physicians are given the opportunity to incorrectly{{clarify}} determine the sex of a child during the ultrasound.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Doskoch |first=P. |title=Skewed sex ratio of births in India may be the result of sex-selective abortion |journal=[[International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health|International Family Planning Perspectives]] |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=102–103 |url=https://www.guttmacher.org/journals/ipsrh/2006/06/skewed-sex-ratio-births-india-may-be-result-sex-selective-abortion }}</ref> India currently has a problem known as the "missing women", but it has been present for quite some time.{{clarify timeframe}} The female mortality in 2001 was 107.43.<ref name="Lane, T. 2004">{{cite journal |last=Lane |first=Trevor |title='''Update''': Contraceptive use around the globe / Child sex ratios continue to decline in India / Circumcision lowers risk of HIV, not other STIs / Herpes risk factors in rural Costa Rica / Fathers make a difference / Infant mortality in China rises with parity / Reproductive health among Caribbean youth / In brief |journal=[[International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health|International Family Planning Perspectives]] |volume=30 |issue=2 |page=56 |url=https://www.guttmacher.org/journals/ipsrh/2004/06/update }}</ref> The deaths of these "missing women" were attributed to the death history rate of women in India starting in 1901.

The gap between the two gender titles is a direct response to the gender bias within India. Men and women in India have unequal health and education rights. Male education and health are more of a priority, so women's death rates are increasing.<ref name="Lane, T. 2004"/> The argument continues{{according to whom}} that a lack of independence that women are not allowed to have is a large contributor to these fatalities. Women in India have a high fertility rate and get married at a young age. Those who are given more opportunity and rights are more likely to live longer and contribute to the economy rather than that of a woman expected to serve as a wife starting at a young age and continuing the same responsibilities for the rest of her life.{{editorializing}} As women continue to "disappear," the sex ratio turns its favor toward men. In turn, this offsets reproduction and does not allow for a controlled reproductive trend. While the excess mortality of women is relatively high, it cannot be blamed completely for the unequal sex ratio in India.{{POV statement}} However, it is a large contributor considering the precedence that Indian men have over women.

===Sanitation===
{{Further|Sanitation in India}}

In rural areas, schools have been reported to have gained the improved sanitation facility.<ref>{{cite book |last=Walker |first=Angela |title=In rural India, improved sanitation and iron supplements help girls stay in school |url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/india_55555.html |publisher=[[UNICEF]] |location=India }}</ref> Given the existing socio-cultural norms and situation of sanitation in schools, girl students are forced not to relieve themselves in the open unlike boys.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bisoee |first=Animesh |title=School minus loo is public urinal – Girls answer natures call outside campus; slum dwellers defecate on playground |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1131214/jsp/jharkhand/story_17679434.jsp#.UyCMB87utH0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308032004/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1131214/jsp/jharkhand/story_17679434.jsp#.UyCMB87utH0 |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 March 2014 |location=Calcutta, India |work=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> Lack of facilities in home forces women to wait for the night to relieve themselves and avoid being seen by others.<ref>{{cite book |title=Water, environment and sanitation |url=http://www.unicef.org/india/wes.html |publisher=UNICEF |location=India}}</ref> Access to sanitation in Bihar has been discussed. According to an estimate from 2013, about 85% of the rural households in [[Bihar]] have no access to a toilet; and this creates a dangerous situation for women and girls who are followed, attacked and raped in the fields.<ref>{{cite news |last=Tewary |first=Amarnath |title=India Bihar rapes 'caused by lack of toilets' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-22460871 |publisher=[[BBC News]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref>
[[File:Dr Kiran Bedi - 2016 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Kiran Bedi]]
In 2011 a "Right to Pee" (as called by the media) campaign began in [[Mumbai]], India's largest city.<ref name=nytimes1>{{cite news |last=Yardley |first=Jim |title=In Mumbai, a campaign against restroom injustice |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/15/world/asia/in-mumbai-a-campaign-against-restroom-injustice.html?pagewanted=all |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=19 January 2018}}</ref> Women, but not men, have to pay to urinate in Mumbai, despite regulations against this practice. Women have also been sexually assaulted while urinating in fields.<ref name=nytimes1/> Thus, activists have collected more than 50,000 signatures supporting their demands that the local government stop charging women to urinate, build more toilets, keep them clean, provide sanitary napkins and a trash can, and hire female attendants.<ref name=nytimes1/> In response, city officials have agreed to build hundreds of public toilets for women in Mumbai, and some local legislators are now promising to build toilets for women in every one of their districts.<ref name=nytimes1/>

==See also==

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Welfare schemes for women in India]]
*[[Women in Indian Armed Forces]]
*[[Gender inequality in India]]
*[[Women's suffrage in India]]
*[[Menstrual taboo]]
*[[Rape in India]]
*[[Social issues in India]]
*[[Women in agriculture in India]]
*[[Gender pay gap in India]]
*[[Women's rights in Jammu and Kashmir]]
*[[Women in Hinduism]]
*[[Women in Sikhism]]
*[[Women's Reservation Bill]]
*[[National Commission for Women]]
*[[Ministry of Women and Child Development (India)|Ministry of Women and Child Development]]
*[[Centre for Equality and Inclusion]]
*[[Women's Rights Are Human Rights]]
{{div col end}}

'''Lists of Indian women by profession:'''
*[[:Category:Lists of Indian women]]
*[[List of female chief ministers in India]]
*[[List of Indian women in dance|Dancers]]
*[[List of Indian film actresses|Film actresses]]
*[[List of Indian women writers|Writers]]
*[[List of Indian sportswomen|Sportswomen]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist|33em}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last=Ali |first=Azra Asghar |title=The Emergence of Feminism among Indian Muslim Women 1920–1947 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000}}
*{{cite book |last=Altekar |first=Anant Sadashiv |title=The position of women in Hindu civilization, from prehistoric times to the present day |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1956}}
*{{cite book |last=Amin |first=Sonia Nishat |title=The World of Muslim Women in Colonial Bengal, 1876–1939 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=1996}}
*{{cite journal |last=Anagol |first=Padma |author-link = Padma Anagol|title=Feminist inheritances and foremothers: the beginnings of feminism in modern India |journal=[[Women's History Review]] |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=523–546 |doi=10.1080/09612025.2010.502398 |year=2010 |s2cid=144279774 }}
::Traces the beginnings of feminism in modern India to social and religious reform movements in Maharashtra, Western India.
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haElZuOzuhsC |last=Bader |first=Clarisse|author-link=Clarisse Bader |title=Women in Ancient India |publisher=Routledge |series=Trubner's Oriental Series |year=2001 |orig-date=1925 |isbn=9780415244893}}
*{{cite journal |last=Banerjee |first=Swapna M. |title=Debates on domesticity and the position of women in late colonial India |journal=[[History Compass]] |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=455–473 |doi=10.1111/j.1478-0542.2010.00688.x }}
*{{cite book |last=Borthwick |first=Meredith |title=The changing role of women in Bengal, 1849-1905 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2015}}
*{{cite book |last=Brinks |first=Ellen |title=Anglophone Indian Women Writers, 1870–1920 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2016}}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nLMDxv_L-U8C |last=Chakravarti |first=Uma |title=Gendering Caste Through a Feminist Lens |year=2003 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=9788185604541}}
*{{cite book|editor-last=Chaudhur|editor-first=Maitrayee |title=Feminism in India. Issues in Contemporary Indian Feminism |publisher=Kali for Women & Women Unlimited |location=New Delhi |year=2004}}
*{{cite journal |last=Choudhary |first=Renu |title=Women in Indian society: a historical perspective |journal=Madhya Pradesh Journal of Social Sciences |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=41–53 |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-412800305/women-in-indian-society-a-historical-perspective }}
*{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Geraldine |title=Women in modern India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999}}, A major scholarly survey.
*Gautier, Francois (2010). Femmes indiennes. (Nouvelle revue de l'Inde.) Paris: L'Harmattan.
*{{cite book |last=Healey |first=Madelaine |title=Indian Sisters: A History of Nursing and the State, 1907–2007 |publisher=Routledge |year=2014}}
*{{cite book |last1=Joshi |first1=Rama |last2=Liddle |first2=Joanna |title=Daughters of independence: gender, caste, and class in India |publisher=Rutgers University Press |location=New Brunswick |year=1986 |isbn=9780862324063}}
*{{cite journal |url=http://www.uaf.edu.pk/faculties/social_sci/courses/gender_and_development/02.pdf |last1=Joshi |first1=Rama |last2=Liddle |first2=Joanna |title=Gender and colonialism: Women's organisation under the Raj |journal=[[Women's Studies International Forum]] |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=521–529 |doi=10.1016/0277-5395(85)90083-4 }}
*[[Madhu Kishwar]], In Search of Answers: Indian Women's Voices (with [[Ruth Vanita]], Zed Books, 1984). {{ISBN|0862321786}}.
*Madhu Kishwar, Women Bhakta Poets : Manushi (Manushi Publications, 1989). ASIN B001RPVZVU.
*Majumdar, R. C. (2014). Great women of India. Kolkata : 2014. Editors : Swami Madhavananda, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=68xTBT1-H4IC |last=Kumar |first=Radha|author-link=Radha Kumar |title=The history of doing: an illustrated account of movements for women's rights and feminism in India 1800–1990 |publisher=Zubaan, an Associate of Kali for Women |location=New Delhi |year=2003 |isbn=9788185107769}}
*{{cite book |url=http://legacy.abc-clio.com/reader.aspx?isbn=9780313014406 |last=Raman |first=Sita Anantha |title=Women in India: A Social and Cultural History (2 vol.) |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2009}}
*{{citation|editor1-last=Sangari|editor1-first=Kumkum|editor2-last=Vaid|editor2-first=Sudesh |title=Recasting Women: Essays in Indian Colonial History |year=1990 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=9780813515809|title-link=Recasting Women: Essays in Indian Colonial History}}
*{{cite book |editor-last1=Sarkar|editor-first1=Sumit|editor-last2=Sarkar|editor-first2=Tanika |title=Women and Social Reform in Modern India: A Reader |year=2008|isbn = 978-0253220493|last1 = Sarkar|first1 = Sumit|last2=Sarkar|first2=Tanika}}
*{{cite journal |last=Seth |first=Sanjay |title=Nationalism, modernity, and the "woman question" in India and China |journal=[[The Journal of Asian Studies]] |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=273–297 |doi=10.1017/S0021911812002215 |jstor=43553178 |s2cid=145461651 }}
*{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Tribat |title=Women in Ancient India From 320 A.D. to C. 1200 A.D |publisher=ESS Publishers |location=New Delhi |year=1987}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Tharakan |first1=Sophie M. |last2=Tharakan |first2=Michael |title=Status of Women in India: A Historical Perspective |journal=[[Social Scientist]] |volume=4 |issue=4–5 |pages=115–123 |doi=10.2307/3516124 |jstor=3516124 }}

===Historiography===
*{{citation |last=Basu |first=Aparna |contribution=Women's History in India: An Historiographical Survey|editor-last1=Offen|editor-first1=Karen|editor-last2=Pierson|editor-first2=Ruth Roach|editor-last3=Rendall|editor-first3=Jane |title=Writing Women's History: International Perspectives |page=181 |year=1991 |postscript=.|hdl = 2027/heb.03316.0001.001 |doi= 10.1007/978-1-349-21512-6_10 |publisher=Indiana University Press }}
*{{cite journal |last=Forbes |first=Geraldine Hancock |title=Reflections on South Asian Women's/Gender History: Past and Future |journal=Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History |volume=4 |issue=1 |doi=10.1353/cch.2003.0012 |s2cid=144912833 }}
*{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA1318 |last=Pande |first=Rekha |contribution=Women's History: India|editor-last=Boyd|editor-first=Kelly |title=Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2 |year=1999 |pages=1318–1321 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |postscript=.|isbn=9781884964336 }}
*{{citation |last=Ramusack |first=Barbara N. |contribution=Women in South Asia|editor-last1=Ramusack|editor-first1=Barbara N.|editor-last2= Sievers|editor-first2=Sharon L. |title=Women in Asia: restoring women to history |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, Indiana |year=1999 |isbn=9780253212672 |postscript=.}}

==External links==
*[http://www.skidmore.edu/academics/arthistory/ah369/LINKSPG2.HTM#bib Women of the Mughal Dynasty]

{{Social issues in India}}
{{Domestic violence}}
{{India topics}}
{{Asia topic|Women in|titlestyle = background:#FFCBDB}}

[[Category:Women in India| ]]
[[Category:Indian women|*]]
[[Category:Articles created or expanded during Women's History Month (India) - 2015]]
[[Category:Women by country|India]]

Secretary-General

2022-06-26T12:39:29Z

Sandy: Wrote an inspiring article.

#redirect[[Secretary (title)#Secretary-general]]

Mizo Hills

2022-06-21T05:59:21Z

Sandy: Shared an engaging guide.

#REDIRECT [[Lushai Hills]]