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Sourav Ganguly

2023-10-10T17:59:48Z

Sana Khan: better word

{{Short description|Indian cricketer}}

{{fanpov|date=December 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Sourav Ganguly
| image = Sourav Ganguly closeup.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Ganguly in 2008
| office = 35th [[List of presidents of the Board of Control for Cricket in India|President of the Board of Control for Cricket in India]]
| term_start = 23 October 2019
| term_end = 18 October 2022
| 1blankname = Secretary
| 1namedata = [[Jay Shah]]
| predecessor = C.K. Khanna
| successor = [[Roger Binny]]
| predecessor1 = [[Jagmohan Dalmiya]]
| office1 = [[List of Cricket Association of Bengal Presidents|16th President of the Cricket Association of Bengal]]
| successor1 = Avishek Dalmiya
| termstart1 = 2015
| termend1 = 2019
| children =
| spouse =
| office2 = Chairman of the ICC Men's Cricket Committee
| termstart2 = 17 November 2021
| predecessor2 = [[Anil Kumble]]
{{Infobox cricketer
| embed = yes
| fullname = Sourav Chandidas Ganguly
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1972|7|8}}
| birth_place = [[Behala]], [[Calcutta]], [[West Bengal]], India
| nickname = Dada, Prince of Calcutta, Maharaj, Bengal Tiger
| batting = Left-handed
| bowling = Right-arm [[fast bowling|medium]]
| role = [[Batsman]]
| family = {{marriage|[[Dona Ganguly]]|1997}} Sana Ganguly (daughter) [[Snehasish Ganguly]] (brother)
| heightm = 1.80
| international = true
| internationalspan = 1992–2008
| country = India
| testcap = 206
| testdebutagainst = England
| testdebutdate = 20 June
| testdebutyear = 1996
| lasttestagainst = Australia
| lasttestdate = 6 November
| lasttestyear = 2008
| odicap = 84
| odidebutagainst = West Indies
| odidebutdate = 11 January
| odidebutyear = 1992
| lastodiagainst = Pakistan
| lastodidate = 15 November
| lastodiyear = 2007
| odishirt = 99 (previously 21, 24, 1, 2)
| club1 = [[Bengal cricket team|Bengal]]
| year1 = {{nowrap|1990–2010}}
| club2 = [[Lancashire County Cricket Club|Lancashire]]
| year2 = 2000
| club3 = [[Glamorgan County Cricket Club|Glamorgan]]
| year3 = 2005
| club4 = [[Northamptonshire County Cricket Club|Northamptonshire]]
| year4 = 2006
| club5 = [[Kolkata Knight Riders]]
| year5 = 2008–2010
| club6 = [[Pune Warriors India]]
| year6 = 2011–2012
| columns = 4
| column1 = [[Test cricket|Test]]
| column2 = [[One Day International|ODI]]
| column3 = [[First-class cricket|FC]]
| column4 = [[List A cricket|LA]]
| matches1 = 113
| matches2 = 311
| matches3 = 254
| matches4 = 437
| runs1 = 7,212
| runs2 = 11,363
| runs3 = 15,687
| runs4 = 15,622
| bat avg1 = 42.17
| bat avg2 = 41.02
| bat avg3 = 44.18
| bat avg4 = 43.32
| 100s/50s1 = 16/35
| 100s/50s2 = 22/72
| 100s/50s3 = 33/89
| 100s/50s4 = 31/97
| top score1 = 239
| top score2 = 183
| top score3 = 239
| top score4 = 183
| deliveries1 = 3,117
| deliveries2 = 4,561
| deliveries3 = 11,108
| deliveries4 = 8,199
| wickets1 = 32
| wickets2 = 100
| wickets3 = 167
| wickets4 = 171
| bowl avg1 = 52.53
| bowl avg2 = 38.49
| bowl avg3 = 36.52
| bowl avg4 = 38.86
| fivefor1 = 0
| fivefor2 = 2
| fivefor3 = 4
| fivefor4 = 2
| tenfor1 = 0
| tenfor2 = 0
| tenfor3 = 0
| tenfor4 = 0
| best bowling1 = 3/28
| best bowling2 = 5/16
| best bowling3 = 6/46
| best bowling4 = 5/16
| catches/stumpings1 = 71/–
| catches/stumpings2 = 100/–
| catches/stumpings3 = 168/–
| catches/stumpings4 = 131/–
| source = http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/28779.html Cricinfo
| date = 2 January
| year = 2013
| website = {{URL|souravganguly.co.in}}
| medaltemplates = {{MedalSport|Men's [[Cricket]]}}
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Cricket World Cup|World Cup]]}}
{{Medal|RU|[[2003 Cricket World Cup|2003 South Africa-Zimbabwe-Kenya]]|}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[ICC Champions Trophy|Champions Trophy]]|}}
{{Medal|Winner|[[2002 ICC Champions Trophy|2002 Sri Lanka]]|}}
{{Medal|RU|[[2000 ICC KnockOut Trophy|2000 Kenya]]|}}
}}
| signature = Saurav Ganguly Signature.svg
}}

'''Sourav Chandidas Ganguly'''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Menon |first1=B. N. K. |title=Myiris Guide to the ICC World Cup, England '99 |date=1999 |publisher=Marine Sports Pub. Division |isbn=978-81-85361-50-5 |page=132 |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/Myiris_Guide_to_the_ICC_World_Cup_Englan/EwWCAAAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%22Sourav+Chandidas+Ganguly%22&dq=%22Sourav+Chandidas+Ganguly%22&printsec=frontcover}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jha |first1=Sanjay |title=11 Triumphs Trials Turbulence |date=2010 |publisher=Orient Paperbacks |isbn=978-81-222-0497-1 |page=23 |url=https://www.google.co.in/books/edition/11_Triumphs_Trials_Turbulence/x6l1J-Y_K4kC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22Sourav+Chandidas+Ganguly%22&pg=PA23 |language=en}}</ref> ({{IPAc-en|audio=Sourav Ganguly.ogg|s|ʃ|uː|r|ə|v|_|g|ɛ|n|g|uː|l|y}}; natively spelled as '''Gangopadhyay'''; born 8 July 1972), also known as '''Dada''' (meaning ''"elder brother"'' in [[Bengali language|Bengali]]), is an Indian cricket commentator and former [[cricket]]er. He is popularly called as ''Maharaja'' of [[Cricket in India|Indian Cricket]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Abhirup |title=Maharaja of Indian Cricket: Why Sourav Ganguly Is An Inspiration |url=https://www.thequint.com/sports/cricket/sourav-ganguly-maharaja-of-indian-cricket |access-date=17 August 2022 |work=TheQuint |date=8 July 2018}}</ref> He was captain of the [[Indian national cricket team]] and regarded as one of India's most successful cricket captains.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sourav Ganguly: Inside the mind of India's 'greatest' cricket captain |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-43298753 |access-date=8 June 2023 |work=[[BBC]] |date=7 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221227081337/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-43298753 |archive-date=27 December 2022 |language=en}}</ref> As captain, he led Indian national team to win the [[2002 ICC Champions Trophy]] and reach the final of the [[2003 Cricket World Cup]] and the [[2000 ICC KnockOut Trophy|2000 ICC Champions Trophy]].<ref name="bbc-retirement">{{cite news |title=Former India cricket captain Sourav Ganguly retires |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-20120122 |access-date=8 June 2023 |work=[[BBC]] |date=29 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426192352/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-20120122 |archive-date=26 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

Ganguly scored 11363 runs in his ODI career which stands at ninth position in the world for most runs scored in ODI matches.<ref>{{cite web |title=Most runs in career |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/most-runs-in-career-83548 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=9 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608185406/https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/most-runs-in-career-83548 |archive-date=8 June 2023 |language=en}}</ref> He was the third batsman to cross the 10,000 runs in One day cricket, after [[Sachin Tendulkar]] and [[Inzamam Ul Haq]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Sourav Ganguly scores 10,000 ODI run |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/sourav-ganguly-scores-10-000-odi-run/story-2cG6QCAspwfoDHBg4NIrSI.html |access-date=8 June 2023 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |agency=PTI |date=10 August 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109011531/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/sourav-ganguly-scores-10-000-odi-run/story-2cG6QCAspwfoDHBg4NIrSI.html |archive-date=9 November 2017 |language=en}}</ref> He holds the record for highest score in an innings(183) by an Indian batsman in the [[Cricket World Cup|ODI Cricket World Cup]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Records in World Cup |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/trophy/batting-most-runs-innings/world-cup-12 |website=ESPN Cricinfo |access-date=9 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608185902/https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/trophy/batting-most-runs-innings/world-cup-12 |archive-date=8 June 2023 |language=en}}</ref> In 2002, the ''[[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack]]'' ranked him the sixth greatest ODI batsman of all time.<ref name="Wisden's ODI greats">{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2002/dec/13wisden.htm|title=Tendulkar second-best ever: Wisden|work=Rediff.com |access-date=27 November 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123042213/http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2002/dec/13wisden.htm|archive-date=23 January 2009}}</ref> He announced his retirement from international cricket in 2008 and from all forms of cricket in 2012.<ref name="bbc-retirement" />

Ganguly was awarded the fourth highest Indian civilian award, [[Padma Shri]] in 2004.<ref name="Padma Awards">{{cite web|url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf|title=Padma Awards |publisher=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India|date=2015|access-date=21 July 2015|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015193758/http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf|archive-date=15 October 2015}}</ref> He was elected as president of the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]] in 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/sourav-ganguly-takes-charge-officialy-as-39th-bcci-president-1612086-2019-10-23|title=''Sourav Ganguly formally elected as the 39th president of BCCI''|work=[[India Today]]|date=23 October 2019|access-date=23 October 2019|author=India Today Web Desk}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/sports/sourav-ganguly-takes-over-as-bcci-president-ends-33-month-tumultuous-coa-reign/videoshow/71717868.cms|title=''Sourav Ganguly takes over as BCCI president, ends 33-month tumultuous CoA reign''|author=Times Now|work=Economic Times|date=23 October 2019|access-date=23 October 2019}}</ref> He is also a part of the [[Supreme Court of India]] appointed probe panel for the IPL Spot fixing and betting scandal's investigations.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/sourav-ganguly-inducted-into-mudgal-panel-to-probe-ipl-spot-fixing-and-betting-scandal/articleshow/36264053.cms|title=Sourav Ganguly inducted into Mudgal Panel to probe IPL spot-fixing and betting scandal|work=Economic Times|date=9 June 2014|access-date=11 August 2014}}</ref>

== Early and personal life ==

Sourav Ganguly was born on 8 July 1972 in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], and is the youngest son of Chandidas and Nirupa Ganguly.<ref name=cricinfo>{{cite news
|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/india/content/player/28779.html
|title=Cricinfo – Players and Officials – Sourav Ganguly
|publisher=[[ESPN]]
|work=[[Cricinfo Magazine]]
|access-date=19 May 2008
|url-status=live
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620182713/http://www.cricinfo.com/india/content/player/28779.html
|archive-date=20 June 2009
}}</ref>{{Sfn|Datta|2007|p=21}} Chandidas ran a flourishing print business and was one of the richest men in the city.{{Sfn|Tiwari|2005|p=16}} Ganguly had a luxurious childhood and was nicknamed the 'Maharaja', meaning the ''Great King''. Ganguly's father Chandidas Ganguly died at the age of 73 on 21 February 2013 after a long illness.<ref>{{cite web|author=PTI 2|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-02-21/off-the-field/37220979_1_sourav-ganguly-sujan-mukherjee-snehasish |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224083830/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-02-21/off-the-field/37220979_1_sourav-ganguly-sujan-mukherjee-snehasish |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 February 2013 |title=Sourav Ganguly's father Chandidas passes away |date=21 February 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=1 March 2013}}</ref>

Ganguly was educated at [[St. Xavier's Collegiate School]], [[Kolkata]].<ref>{{cite news |title=After cricket, time for school |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/after-cricket-time-for-school/articleshow/4257910.cms |work=The Times of India |date=13 March 2009}}</ref> He was then graduated in commerce from the [[St. Xavier's College, Kolkata]].<ref>{{cite interview |interviewer=Haresh Pandya |last1=Ganguly |first1=Sourav |title=My off-side play is just one of the strengths of my batting |url=https://m.rediff.com/sports/1999/dec/31gangu.htm |website=[[Rediff.com]] |access-date=17 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123220941/https://m.rediff.com/sports/1999/dec/31gangu.htm |archive-date=23 January 2022 |language=en |date=31 December 1999 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Since the favourite sport for the people of Calcutta was [[Association football|football]], Ganguly was initially attracted to the game. However, academics came in-between his love for sports and Nirupa was not very supportive of Ganguly taking up cricket or any other sport as a career.<ref name=bio>{{cite news |url=http://www.souravganguly.net/biography.htm |title=Biography of Sourav Ganguly |publisher=Souravganguly.net |work=Official website of Sourav Ganguly |access-date=19 May 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080530124245/http://www.souravganguly.net/biography.htm |archive-date=30 May 2008 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Datta|2007|pp=22–23}} By then, his elder brother [[Snehasish Ganguly|Snehasish]] was already an established cricketer for the [[Bengal cricket team]]. He supported Ganguly's dream to be a cricketer and asked their father to get Ganguly enrolled in a cricket coaching camp during his summer holidays. Ganguly was studying in [[tenth grade|tenth standard]] at that time.{{Sfn|Daityari|2003|p=3}}

Despite being right-handed, Ganguly learnt to bat left-handed so he could use his brother's sporting equipment.<ref name=bio /> After he showed some promise as a batsman, he was enrolled in a cricket academy. An indoor multi-gym and concrete wicket was built at their home, so he and Snehasish could practice the game. They used to watch a number of old cricket match videos, especially the games played by [[David Gower]], whom Ganguly admired.{{Sfn|Tiwari|2005|p=16}} After he scored a [[century (cricket)|century]] against the Orissa Under–15 side, he was made captain of [[St. Xavier's Collegiate School|St Xavier's School's]] cricket team, where several of his teammates complained against what they perceived to be his arrogance.<ref name=bio /><ref name="ego">{{cite news |last=Coupar |first=Paul |date=27 November 2005 |title=The Awkward XI |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/the-awkward-xi-221919 |url-status=live |access-date=22 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100108055823/http://www.cricinfo.com/wisdencricketer/content/story/221919.html |archive-date=8 January 2010}}</ref> While touring with a junior team, Ganguly refused his turn as the [[List of cricket terms#T|twelfth man]], as he reportedly felt that the duties involved, which included organising equipment and drinks for the players, and delivering messages, were beneath his social status.{{Sfn|Daityari|2003|p=15}} Ganguly purportedly refused to do such tasks as he considered it beneath his social status to assist his teammates in such a way.<ref name="bbccomeback">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/other_international/india/6250454.stm |title=Ganguly back in the limelight |last=Lilywhite |first=Jamie |date=16 July 2007 |access-date=14 January 2010 |work=[[BBC]] |publisher=[[BBC Online]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207051616/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/other_international/india/6250454.stm |archive-date=7 December 2008 }}</ref> However, his playmanship gave him a chance to make his [[first-class cricket]] debut for Bengal in 1989, the same year that his brother was dropped from the team.<ref name=bio />{{Sfn|Dubey|2006|p=205}}

He is married to [[Indian classical dance]]r dancer [[Dona Ganguly]], with whom he has a daughter Sana (b. 2001).<ref name="bio" />

=== Health ===
On 2 January 2021, Ganguly complained of chest pain while exercising and was later diagnosed with three blocked [[coronary arteries]] which had led to a mild [[cardiac arrest]]. He underwent [[primary angioplasty]] for one of the blockages on the same day.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sourav Ganguly undergoes angioplasty after suffering a heart attack, is stable |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/sourav-ganguly-undergoes-angioplasty-after-suffering-a-heart-attack-is-stable/articleshow/80071376.cms |access-date=2 January 2021 |work=The Times of India |date=2 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sourav Ganguly undergoes angioplasty in Kolkata hospital, condition stable |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/sourav-ganguly-admitted-to-hospital-in-kolkata-after-complaints-of-chest-pain-11609576704608.html |access-date=2 January 2021 |work=Mint |date=2 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

== Playing career ==
=== 1990–96: Career beginning and debut success ===
{{See also|List of centuries scored on Test cricket debut}}

[[File:Lord's Pavilion.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The Pavilion at Lord's, where Ganguly made his Test debut in 1996|alt=A brown coloured pavilion in front of a green field, surrounded by a number of banners]]
Following a prolific [[Ranji Trophy|Ranji season]] in 1990–91,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://static.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1990-91/IND_LOCAL/RANJI/STATS/IND_LOCAL_RJI_AVS_BENG.html |title=Ranji Trophy Statistics: 1990–91 |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=22 May 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304051658/http://static.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1990-91/IND_LOCAL/RANJI/STATS/IND_LOCAL_RJI_AVS_BENG.html |archive-date=4 March 2012 }}</ref> Ganguly scored three runs in his [[One Day International]] (ODI) debut for India against the [[West Indies national cricket team|West Indies]] in 1992.<ref name=cricinfo /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/india/engine/match/65487.html |title=9th Match: India v West Indies at Brisbane, January 11, 1992 |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=22 May 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710043304/http://www.cricinfo.com/india/engine/match/65487.html |archive-date=10 July 2009 }}</ref> He was dropped immediately since he was perceived to be "arrogant" and his attitude towards the game was openly questioned. It was rumoured that Ganguly refused to carry drinks for his teammates, commenting that it was not his job to do so, later denied by him. Consequently, he was removed from the team.<ref name=bio /><ref name="bbccomeback" /> He toiled away in domestic cricket, scoring heavily in the 1993–94 and 1994–95 Ranji seasons.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://static.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1993-94/IND_LOCAL/RANJI/STATS/IND_LOCAL_RJI_AVS_BAT_MOST_RUNS.html |title=Batting – Most Runs – Ranji Trophy |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=23 May 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304051705/http://static.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1993-94/IND_LOCAL/RANJI/STATS/IND_LOCAL_RJI_AVS_BAT_MOST_RUNS.html |archive-date=4 March 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://static.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1994-95/IND_LOCAL/RANJI/STATS/IND_LOCAL_RJI_AVS_BAT_HIGHEST_AVS.html |title=Highest Batting Averages in Ranji Trophy |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=23 May 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304051716/http://static.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1994-95/IND_LOCAL/RANJI/STATS/IND_LOCAL_RJI_AVS_BAT_HIGHEST_AVS.html |archive-date=4 March 2012 }}</ref> Following an innings of 171 in the 1995–96 [[Duleep Trophy]], he was recalled to the Indian team for a tour of England in 1996, in the middle of intense media scrutiny.{{Sfn|Bose|2006|p=201}} He played in a single ODI,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65019.html |title=Cricinfo – 3rd ODI: England v India at Manchester, May 26–27, 1996 |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=24 May 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924011845/http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/65019.html |archive-date=24 September 2009 }}</ref> but was omitted from the team for the first [[Test cricket|Test]]. However, after teammate [[Navjot Singh Sidhu]] left the touring party, citing ill-treatment by then captain [[Mohammad Azharuddin]],{{Sfn|Bose|2006|p=258}} Ganguly made his Test debut against England in the Second Test of a three-match series at [[Lord's Cricket Ground]] along with [[Rahul Dravid]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/india/engine/match/63714.html |title=2nd Test: England v India at Lord's, June 20–24, 1996 |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |date=24 June 1996 |access-date=23 May 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710043259/http://www.cricinfo.com/india/engine/match/63714.html |archive-date=10 July 2009 }}</ref> England had won the First Test of the three-match series; however, Ganguly scored a century, becoming only the third cricketer to achieve such a feat on debut at Lord's, after [[Harry Graham (cricketer)|Harry Graham]] and [[John Hampshire]]. [[Andrew Strauss]] and [[Matt Prior]] have since accomplished this feat, but Ganguly's 131 still remains the highest by any batsman on his debut at the ground.{{Sfn|Bose|2006|p=258}} India was not required to bat in the second innings due to the match ending in a draw.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=1;debut_or_last=1;filter=advanced;ground=10;orderby=high_score;runsmin1=100;runsval1=runs;template=results;type=batting|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120720022828/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=1;debut_or_last=1;filter=advanced;ground=10;orderby=high_score;runsmin1=100;runsval1=runs;template=results;type=batting|url-status=dead|archive-date=20 July 2012|title=Statsguru – List of test centuries on debut at Lord's|publisher=ESPN|work=Cricinfo Magazine|access-date=19 May 2008}}</ref> In the next Test match at [[Trent Bridge]] he made 136, thus becoming only the third batsman to make a century in each of his first two innings (after [[Lawrence Rowe]] and [[Alvin Kallicharran]]). He shared a 255 run stand with [[Sachin Tendulkar]], which became at that time the highest partnership for India against any country for any wicket outside India. The Test again ended in a draw, handing England a 1–0 series victory; Ganguly scored 48 in the second innings.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/63715.html
|title=3rd Test: England v India at Nottingham, July 4–9, 1996
|publisher=ESPN
|work=Cricinfo Magazine
|access-date=19 May 2008
|url-status=live
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618193418/http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/63715.html
|archive-date=18 June 2009
}}</ref>{{Sfn|Datta|2007|p=99}}

=== 1997–99: Marriage, Opening in ODIs and World Cup '99 ===
{{See also|List of highest individual scores in ODIs}}

[[File:Sourav Ganguly crop.jpg|thumb|upright|Ganguly in Sri Lanka in 2008.|alt=A middle-aged man stands to wear a white long-sleeved shirt and white trousers, while he has sunglasses resting on a cap that is on his head. Green grass and a boundary line are in the background.]]
Weeks after his successful tour of England, Ganguly eloped with childhood sweetheart [[Dona Ganguly|Dona Roy]]. The bride and groom's family were sworn enemies at that point and this news caused an uproar between them. However, both families reconciled and a formal wedding was held in February 1997.<ref name=bio /><ref name="toi">{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-toi/Saurav-and-Donna-happy-at-last/articleshow/650212913.cms |title=Saurav and Donna happy at last |last=Pandey |first=Jhimli Mukherjee |date=29 May 2001 |work=[[The Times of India]] |publisher=[[The Times Group]] |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110316234552/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-toi/Saurav-and-Donna-happy-at-last/articleshow/650212913.cms |archive-date=16 March 2011 }}</ref> Same year, Ganguly scored his maiden ODI century by hitting 113, opposed to [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]]'s team total of 238. Later that year, he won four consecutive man of the match awards, in the [[Sahara Cup]] with [[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]]; the second of these was won after he took five [[wicket]]s for 16 runs off 10 [[over (cricket)|overs]], his best [[bowling (cricket)|bowling]] in an ODI. After a barren run in Test cricket his form returned at the end of the year with three centuries in four Tests, all against Sri Lanka, and two of these involved stands with Sachin Tendulkar of over 250.<ref name=cricinfo />

During the third final of the [[1997-98 Silver Jubilee Independence Cup|Independence Cup]] at Dhaka in January 1998, India successfully chased down 315 off 48 overs, and Ganguly won the Man of the Match award.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sify.com/sports/independence-cup-final-dhaka-1998-news-cricket-jjwvDejfgji.html |title=Independence Cup final, Dhaka, 1998 |last=Ramchand |first=Partab |date=22 September 2009 |website=[[Sify]] |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404123607/http://sify.com/sports/independence-cup-final-dhaka-1998-news-cricket-jjwvDejfgji.html |archive-date=4 April 2010 }}</ref> In March 1998 he was part of the Indian team that defeated [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]]; in Kolkata, he took three wickets having opened the bowling with his medium pace.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/cricket/article4969356.ece |title=Vintage Sourav Ganguly puts Australia to the sword |last=James |first=Claudia |date=19 October 2008 |work=[[The Times]] |publisher=[[News Corporation (1980–2013)|News Corporation]] |access-date=15 January 2010 |location=London |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604153602/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/cricket/article4969356.ece |archive-date=4 June 2011 }}</ref>

Ganguly was part of the Indian team that competed in the [[1999 Cricket World Cup|1999 World Cup]] in England. During the [[1999 Cricket World Cup#Group A Results|match against Sri Lanka]] at [[Taunton]], India chose to bat. After [[Sadagoppan Ramesh]] was bowled, Ganguly scored 183 from 158 balls, and hit 17 fours and seven sixes. It was the second highest score in World Cup history and the highest by an Indian in the tournament at the time. His partnership of 318 with [[Rahul Dravid]] is the highest overall score in a World Cup and is the second highest in all ODI cricket.{{Sfn|Mandhani|2008|p=134}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://thatscricket.oneindia.in/1999/worldcup/260599review.html|title=Ganguly and Dravid storm the World Cup 1999|last=Reporter|first=Post|date=23 September 2001|work=Thats Cricket|publisher=[[Oneindia.in]]|access-date=15 January 2010}} {{dead link|date=April 2012|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> In 1999–00, India lost Test series to both Australia and [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]] that involved a combined total of five Tests.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://usa.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1999-2000/IND_IN_AUS/STATS/IND_IN_AUS_NOV1999-FEB2000_TEST_BAT_BEST_INNS_SR.html |title=India in Australia, 1999/00 Test Series Best Innings |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604010758/http://usa.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1999-2000/IND_IN_AUS/STATS/IND_IN_AUS_NOV1999-FEB2000_TEST_BAT_BEST_INNS_SR.html |archive-date=4 June 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/mtn-09/engine/series/60684.html|title=South Africa in India Test Series 1999/00 / Results |work=Cricinfo Magazine|publisher=ESPN|access-date=15 January 2010}}</ref> Ganguly struggled scoring 224 runs at 22.40; however his ODI form was impressive, with five centuries over the season taking him to the top of the [[PricewaterhouseCoopers|PwC One Day Ratings]] for batsmen.<ref>{{cite news |last=Coopers |first=Pricewaterhouse |date=19 March 2000 |title=PwC Ratings: Ganguly claims Number One spot |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/pwc-ratings-ganguly-claims-number-one-spot-90432 |access-date=15 January 2010}}</ref> Around the same time, allegations came that Ganguly was romantically involved with [[South India]]n actress [[Nagma]], something he denied.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Basu|first=Surajit|date=19 September 2009|title=History: Past, Present and coming|journal=[[India Today]]|publisher=[[Living Media]]|location=Mumbai, India|volume=2|issue=1–13|page=78|issn=0254-8399|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8L0aAQAAIAAJ&q=sourav+ganguly+nagma|access-date=5 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Ganguly?s career was at stake, so we parted: Nagma |url=http://www.rediff.com/wc2003/2003/mar/06news.htm |access-date=27 July 2018 |work=Rediff.com |date=6 March 2003}}</ref>

=== 2000–05: Ascension to captaincy and accolades ===
{{See also|List of players who have scored 10,000 or more runs in One Day International cricket}}

{{Quote box | width=25% | align=right | quote="People will support you, people will criticize you. When you cross that rope everything is about you."|source=Sourav Ganguly to the media }}

[[File:Ganguly shirt.jpg|thumb|The shirt that Ganguly took off at the final of the [[Indian cricket team in England in 2002|NatWest Series]], on display at a store in London.|alt=A blue coloured T-shirt displayed at a store window. The T-shirt has the words "Ganguly" and the number 99 below it, both in yellow color. Beside the T-shirt, a picture and an open book is visible.]]
In 2000, after the [[match fixing]] scandal by some of the players of the team,<ref name="corruption" /> Ganguly was named the captain of the Indian cricket team. The decision was spurred due to Tendulkar stepping down from the position for his health, and Ganguly being the vice-captain at that time.<ref name=bio /> He began well as a captain, leading India to a series win over South Africa in the five-match one day series and led the Indian team to the finals of the [[2000 ICC KnockOut Trophy]].<ref name=bio /> He scored two centuries, including one in the final; however, [[New Zealand national cricket team|New Zealand]] still won by four wickets.<ref>{{cite news |title=Coca-Cola Champions' Trophy, 2000–01 |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/154124.html |access-date=15 January 2010}}</ref> The same year, Ganguly tried his hand at county cricket career in England but was not successful.{{Sfn|Dubey|2006|p=123}} In "[[The Wisden Cricketer]]", reviewers Steve Pittard and John Stern called him as "The imperious Indian—dubbed 'Lord Snooty'". They commented:
<blockquote>"At the crease it was sometimes uncertain whether his partner was a batsman or a batman being dispatched to take his discarded sweater to the pavilion or carry his kit bag. But mutiny was afoot among the lower orders. In one match Ganguly, after reaching his fifty, raised his bat to the home balcony, only to find it deserted. He did not inspire at Glamorgan or Northamptonshire either. At the latter in 2006 he averaged 4.80 from his four first-class appearances."<ref>{{cite news |last=Pittard |first=Steve |author2=Stern, John |date=24 May 2007 |title=Dodgy overseas signings |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/dodgy-overseas-signings-295629 |access-date=15 January 2010}}</ref>
</blockquote>
His Lancashire teammate [[Andrew Flintoff]] thought him to be aloof and compared his attitude to that of [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles]].<ref name=ego /> In Australia's three Test and five-match ODI tour of India in early 2001, Ganguly caused controversy by arriving late for the toss on four occasions, something that agitated opposing captain [[Steve Waugh]].<ref name="Hero or villain">{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/sport/cricket/hero-or-villain-ganguly-made-his-mark/2008/10/18/1223750407510.html?page=fullpage#contentSwap1 |title=Hero or villain, Ganguly made his mark |last=Swanton |first=Will |date=19 November 2008 |work=[[The Age]] |publisher=[[Fairfax Digital]] |access-date=25 January 2010 |location=Melbourne |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604045116/http://www.theage.com.au/news/sport/cricket/hero-or-villain-ganguly-made-his-mark/2008/10/18/1223750407510.html?page=fullpage |archive-date=4 June 2011 }}</ref> In the Fourth ODI, he caused further controversy by failing to wear his playing attire to the toss, something considered unusual in cricket circles.{{Sfn|Waugh|2001|p=71}} However, India won the Test series 2–1, ending Australia's run of 16 consecutive Test match victories in the Second Test.{{Sfn|Waugh|2001|pp=52–53}} The match saw India looking set for defeat after conceding a first innings lead of 274. Waugh chose to enforce the follow-on and [[V. V. S. Laxman]] (281) and [[Rahul Dravid]] (180) batted for the entire fourth day's play to set Australia a target of 384 on a dusty, spinning wicket. The Australians were unable to survive and became only the third team to lose a Test after enforcing the follow-on.<ref>{{cite news|title=2nd Test: India v Australia at Calcutta 11–15 March 2001 |url=http://www.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/2000-01/AUS_IN_IND/SCORECARDS/AUS_IND_T2_11-15MAR2001.html |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206191053/http://www.cricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/2000-01/AUS_IN_IND/SCORECARDS/AUS_IND_T2_11-15MAR2001.html |archive-date=6 February 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Incredible India defeat Australia |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/in_depth/2001/india_v_australia/1221637.stm |publisher=BBC Sport |date=15 March 2001 |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090916013255/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/in_depth/2001/india_v_australia/1221637.stm |archive-date=16 September 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283938.html |title=Tests – Victory after Following-On |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116105303/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283938.html |archive-date=16 January 2010 }}</ref> In November 2001, Ganguly's wife Dona gave birth to their daughter Sana.<ref name=bio /> During the final match of the [[Indian cricket team in England in 2002|2002 NatWest Series]] held in Lords after a stunning performance by teammates [[Yuvraj Singh]] and [[Mohammad Kaif]], Ganguly took off his shirt in public and brandished it in the air to celebrate India's winning of the match.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Tharakan |first1=Tony |title=Ganguly takes off his shirt one last time |url=http://blogs.reuters.com/world-wrap/2008/11/10/ganguly-takes-off-his-shirt-one-last-time/ |access-date=27 July 2018 |work=Reuters |date=10 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727032740/http://blogs.reuters.com/world-wrap/2008/11/10/ganguly-takes-off-his-shirt-one-last-time/ |archive-date=27 July 2018}}</ref> He was later strongly condemned for tarnishing the "gentleman's game" image of cricket and disrespecting Lord's protocol. Ganguly said that he was only mimicking an act performed by the British all-rounder [[Andrew Flintoff]] during a tour of India.{{Sfn|Kavoori|2009|p=54}} In 2003, India reached the [[2003 Cricket World Cup|World Cup Final]] for the first time since 1983, where they lost to the Australians.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/cwc2003/hi/newsid_2870000/newsid_2875100/2875135.stm |title=Ruthless Aussies lift World Cup |last=Reporter |first=BBC |date=23 February 2003 |work=BBC |publisher=BBC Online |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328120655/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/cwc2003/hi/newsid_2870000/newsid_2875100/2875135.stm |archive-date=28 March 2015 }}</ref> Ganguly had a successful tournament personally, scoring 465 runs at an average of 58.12, including three centuries.<ref name="SC Ganguly / One-Day Internationals / Series averages">{{cite news| url= http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?class=2;template=results;type=batting;view=series| archive-url= https://archive.today/20130119234635/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?class=2;template=results;type=batting;view=series| url-status= dead| archive-date= 19 January 2013| title= SC Ganguly / One-Day Internationals / Series averages| publisher= ESPN| work= Cricinfo| access-date= 25 January 2010}}</ref>
[[File:Shirtof Sourav Ganguly.jpg|thumb|Shirt swayed by Sourav Ganguly]]

{{Quote box | width=25% | align=right | quote="Sourav is the sole reason I am a cricket lover"| source= [[Baichung Bhutia]] on Sourav Ganguly }}

By 2004, he had achieved significant success as captain and was deemed as India's most successful cricket captains by sections of the media. However, his individual performance deteriorated during his captaincy reign, especially after the World Cup, the tour of Australia in 2003 and the Pakistan series in 2004.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/cwc2003/hi/newsid_2780000/newsid_2780800/2780877.stm |title=Ganguly hits back at critics |last=Reporter |first=BBC |date=19 February 2003 |work=BBC |publisher=BBC Online |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407203553/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/cwc2003/hi/newsid_2780000/newsid_2780800/2780877.stm |archive-date=7 April 2008 }}</ref> In 2004, Australia won a Test series in India for the first time since 1969. It was speculated that Ganguly was in disagreement with the head of cricket in Nagpur over the type of pitch to be used for the Third Test. The groundsmen went against Ganguly, leaving a large amount of grass on the pitch. Some experts indicated that the reason for this was for "spite or revenge" against the Indian captain. When Australia's stand-in-captain, Adam Gilchrist, went to the toss, he noticed Rahul Dravid was waiting instead of Ganguly, leaving him to ask Dravid where Ganguly was. Dravid could not give a definitive answer, saying: "Oh, who knows?"<ref name="Hero or villain" />{{Sfn|Gilchrist|2008|pp=423–424}}

Following indifferent form in 2004 and poor form in 2005, he was dropped from the team in October 2005.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2005/dec/15sourav.htm |title=Ganguly cried on being dropped |last=Singh |first=Onkar |date=15 December 2005 |work=[[Rediff.com]] |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607012954/http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2005/dec/15sourav.htm |archive-date=7 June 2011 }}</ref> Having been nominated and rejected in 2000, when the game suffered a tarnished reputation due to match fixing scandals,<ref name="corruption">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/low/in_depth/2000/corruption_in_cricket/1138161.stm |title=In Depth: Corruption in Cricket |publisher=BBC Online|work=BBC |date=26 January 2001|last=Reporter|first=BBC|access-date=15 January 2010}}</ref> the captaincy was passed to Dravid, his former deputy. Ganguly decided against retiring and attempted to make a comeback to the team.<ref name="bbccomeback" /> Ganguly was awarded the [[Padma Shri]] in 2004, India's fourth highest civilian award, in recognition of his distinguished contribution in the field of sports. He was presented with the award on 30 June 2004, by then [[President of India]], Dr. [[A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/445172.cms |title=Ganguly, Dravid and Anju get Padma Shri |last=Bhandari |first=Sunita |work=The Times of India |publisher=The Times Group |date=26 January 2004 |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222001546/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/445172.cms |archive-date=22 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2004/jun/30gang.htm |title=Winning Padma Shri a great honour: Ganguly |agency=Press Trust of India |date=30 June 2004 |work=Rediff.com |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607013000/http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2004/jun/30gang.htm |archive-date=7 June 2011 }}</ref>

=== 2006–07: Comeback and rift with Greg Chappell ===
{{Main|Chappell Ganguly controversy}}
[[File:Sourav Ganguly4 (1).jpg|left|thumb|Ganguly signing autographs outside his residence.|alt=A middle-aged man signing on cricket bats. He wears a white T-shirt and a navy blue cap. A number of people are visible, who surround him.]]

In September 2005, [[Greg Chappell]] became the coach of India for the tour of Zimbabwe. Ganguly's dispute with him resulted in many headlines. Chappell had emailed the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]], stating that Ganguly was "physically and mentally" unfit to lead India and that his "divide and rule" behaviour was damaging the team.<ref name="bbccomeback" /> This email was leaked to the media and resulted in huge backlash from Ganguly's fans. Ganguly had enlisted the support from the Indian media and eventually the board had to intervene and order a truce between the pair.<ref name="bbccomeback" /> BCCI president [[Ranbir Singh Mahendra]] issued a statement that,
<blockquote>
"In view of the decision that cricket is to go forward, both the coach and the captain have been asked to work out a mutual and professional working relationship. For this, performance will be the criteria, applicable to captain, coach and players. [...] Of course the captain controls the game, the coach does his own job. Mutual trust is important. Henceforth no player/captain/coach will write or have any interaction with the media. Going to the media will lead to disciplinary action."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rajaraman |first1=G. |title=A Temporary And Tenuous Truce |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/website/story/a-temporary-and-tenuous-truce/228737 |work=www.outlookindia.com |access-date=8 December 2020}}</ref>
</blockquote>
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; width:50%;"
|-
!colspan="7"|'''Ganguly's results in international matches<ref>{{cite web|title=Statistics / Statsguru / SC Ganguly /Test Matches |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?class=1;template=results;type=batting |publisher=Cricinfo |access-date=4 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920014736/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?class=1%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dbatting |archive-date=20 September 2012 }}</ref>'''
|-
| ||Matches||Won||Lost||Drawn||Tied||No result
|-
|Test<ref>{{cite web|title=List of Test victories |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=matches;result=1;template=results;type=batting |publisher=Cricinfo |access-date=25 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140119022911/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=1%3Bfilter%3Dadvanced%3Borderby%3Dmatches%3Bresult%3D1%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dbatting |archive-date=19 January 2014 }}</ref> ||113||37||35||41||0||–
|-
|ODI<ref>{{cite web|title=List of ODI victories |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=2;filter=advanced;orderby=matches;result=1;template=results;type=batting |publisher=Cricinfo |access-date=25 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031110547/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class=2%3Bfilter%3Dadvanced%3Borderby%3Dmatches%3Bresult%3D1%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dbatting |archive-date=31 October 2013 }}</ref> ||311||149||145||-||1||16
|}
Ganguly, Chappell and the Indian team manager for the Zimbabwe tour, Amitabh Choudhary, were asked to appear before the BCCI committee, where it was reported that assurance of working together was given by them.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Majumdar |first1=Boria |title=When Greg Chappell told Sourav Ganguly: You have no place in the team |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/sports/when-greg-chappell-told-sourav-ganguly-he-has-no-place-in-the-team/articleshow/62658308.cms?from=mdr |access-date=28 January 2020 |work=The Economic Times |date=26 January 2018}}</ref> Consequently, due to his poor form and differences with the coach, Ganguly was dropped as the captain of the team, with Dravid taking his place.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/other_international/india/4333662.stm |title=Ganguly dropped as India captain |last=Reporter |first=BBC |date=13 October 2005 |work=BBC |publisher=BBC Online |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622080858/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/other_international/india/4333662.stm |archive-date=22 June 2013 }}</ref> Chandresh Narayan, chief correspondent for ''[[The Times of India]]'', commented that "The row with Greg Chappell just added to the mystery, but he was going through a really bad patch then, his only score [of note] was a hundred against Zimbabwe and that didn't count for much."<ref name="bbccomeback" /> Ten months later, during India's tour to South Africa, Ganguly was recalled after his middle order replacements [[Suresh Raina]] and Mohammad Kaif suffered poor form.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/solpda/ifs_sport/hi/newsid_6158000/6158641.stm|title=Ganguly recalled for Test series|last=Reporter|first=BBC|date=30 November 2006|work=BBC|publisher=BBC Online|access-date=15 January 2010}}{{dead link|date=June 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Following India's poor batting display in the [[2006 ICC Champions Trophy]]<ref>{{cite news
| url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/team/6.html?class=2;filter=advanced;orderby=start;season=2006%2F07;template=results;trophy=44;type=team;view=innings
| title=Cricinfo Statsguru – India – Champions Trophy 2006 – Team analysis|work=Cricinfo Magazine|publisher=ESPN|access-date=24 May 2008}}</ref> and the ODI series in South Africa, in which they were whitewashed 4–0,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/team/6.html?class=2;home_or_away=2;opposition=3;season=2006%2F07;template=results;type=team;view=innings
| title=Cricinfo Statsguru – India Vs. South Africa 2006–07 – Team analysis|work=Cricinfo Magazine|publisher=ESPN|access-date=24 May 2008}}</ref> Ganguly made his comeback to the Test team.<ref>{{cite news |last=Reporter |first=Cricinfo |date=30 November 2006 |title=Ganguly in, Laxman appointed vice-captain |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ganguly-in-laxman-appointed-vice-captain-270425 |url-status=live |access-date=24 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091224112927/http://www.cricinfo.com/rsavind/content/story/270425.html |archive-date=24 December 2009}}</ref> [[Wasim Jaffer]], [[Zaheer Khan]] and [[Anil Kumble]] had earlier been selected for the one-day squad, despite their recent poor performances.<ref>{{cite news |last=Reporter |first=Cricinfo |date=25 March 2006 |title=Jaffer, Zaheer and Kumble added to ODI squad |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/jaffer-zaheer-and-kumble-added-to-odi-squad-266230 |access-date=24 May 2008}}</ref> Many saw this as an indictment of coach Greg Chappell's youth-first policy.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/241962.cms |title=Raina's inclusion a big surprise |publisher=The Times Group |work=The Times of India |access-date=24 May 2008 |first=Kris |last=Srikkanth |date=30 October 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221225048/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/241962.cms |archive-date=21 February 2009 }}</ref> Coming in at 37/4, Ganguly scored 83 in a tour match against the rest of South Africa, modifying his original batting style and taking a middle-stump guard,<ref>{{cite news |last=Alter |first=Jaime |date=13 December 2006 |title=Exorcising the demons |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/exorcising-the-demons-272255 |url-status=live |access-date=24 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100101214436/http://www.cricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/272255.html |archive-date=1 January 2010}}</ref> resulting in India winning the match.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/249209.html|title=Tour Match: Rest of South Africa v Indians at Potchefstroom, December 7–9, 2006|publisher=ESPN|work=Cricinfo Magazine|access-date=24 May 2008}}</ref> During his first Test innings since his comeback, against South Africa in [[Wanderers Stadium|Johannesburg]] his score of 51 helped India to victory, marking the first Test match win for the team in South Africa.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/rsavind/engine/match/249215.html |title=1st Test: South Africa v India at Johannesburg, December 15–18, 2006 |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=24 May 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014100927/http://www.cricinfo.com/rsavind/engine/match/249215.html |archive-date=14 October 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2006/dec/18indsalead01.htm |title=India score maiden Test win in South Africa |last=Patwardhan |first=Deepti |date=18 December 2006 |work=Rediff.com |access-date=15 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501001010/http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2006/dec/18indsalead01.htm |archive-date=1 May 2010 }}</ref> Though India lost the series, Ganguly accumulated the most runs on the scoring chart.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?id=2753;type=series |title=India in South Africa Test Series, 2006/07 – Most runs |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=24 May 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223011134/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?id=2753%3Btype%3Dseries |archive-date=23 February 2009 }}</ref> After his successful Test comeback he was recalled for the [[One Day International|ODI team]], as India played host to [[West Indies Cricket Team|West Indies]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Vasu |first=Anand |date=12 January 2007 |title=Sehwag out, Ganguly picked for ODIs |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/sehwag-out-ganguly-picked-for-odis-276198 |url-status=live |access-date=24 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924020849/http://www.cricinfo.com/indvwi/content/story/276198.html |archive-date=24 September 2009}}</ref> and [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Vasu |first=Anand |date=12 February 2007 |title=Sehwag and Munaf back for SL series |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/sehwag-and-munaf-back-for-sl-series-278695 |access-date=24 May 2008}}</ref> in back to back ODI tournaments. In his first ODI innings in almost two years,<ref name=odilist>{{cite news|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?class=2;spanmax1=17+Feb+2007;spanmin1=21+Jan+2007;spanval1=span;template=results;type=allround;view=innings|title=Cricinfo Statsguru – SC Ganguly – One-Day Internationals|publisher=ESPN|work=Cricinfo Magazine|access-date=24 May 2008}}</ref> he scored a matchwinning 98.<ref>{{cite news |last=Vaidyanathan |first=Siddarth |date=21 January 2007 |title=India edge past despite Chanderpaul's masterclass |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/west-indies-tour-of-india-2006-07-261294/india-vs-west-indies-1st-odi-267706/match-report |url-status=live |access-date=24 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705000149/http://www.cricinfo.com/indvwi/content/story/277080.html |archive-date=5 July 2009}}</ref> He performed well in both series, averaging almost 70<ref name=odilist /> and won the Man of the Series Award against Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite news |last=Reporter |first=Cricinfo |date=17 February 2007 |title=Ganguly happy with World Cup preparations |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ganguly-happy-with-world-cup-preparations-280709 |url-status=live |access-date=24 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406015106/http://www.cricinfo.com/indvsl/content/story/280709.html |archive-date=6 April 2010}}</ref>

Ganguly was allotted a place in the official team for the [[2007 Cricket World Cup]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Reporter |first=Cricinfo |date=7 January 2006 |title='I will play in the 2007 World Cup' – Ganguly |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/i-will-play-in-the-2007-world-cup-ganguly-232048 |access-date=15 January 2010}}</ref> He was the leading scorer for India in their first round defeat against [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Vaidyanathan |first=Siddhartha |date=17 March 2007 |title=Brilliant Bangladesh stun India |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/icc-world-cup-2006-07-125929/bangladesh-vs-india-8th-match-group-b-247464/match-report |access-date=1 June 2008}}</ref> After India were knocked out of the tournament in the group stage, there were reports of a rift between certain members of the Indian team and Chappell. Ganguly was alleged to have ignored instructions from the team management to score quickly.<ref>{{cite news |last=Vasu |first=Anand |date=3 April 2007 |title=BCCI faces its toughest challenge |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/bcci-faces-its-toughest-challenge-288609 |url-status=live |access-date=1 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100810221409/http://www.cricinfo.com/wc2007/content/story/288609.html |archive-date=10 August 2010}}</ref> After Tendulkar issued a statement saying that what hurt the team most was that "the coach has questioned our attitude", Chappell decided not to renew his contract with the Indian team and left his post as coach, citing "family and personal reasons".<ref>{{cite news |last=Reporter |first=Cricinfo |date=4 April 2007 |title=The Greg Chappell Timeline: A controversial reign |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/a-controversial-reign-288804 |access-date=1 June 2008}}</ref> On 12 December 2007, Ganguly scored his maiden double century of his career while playing against Pakistan. He scored 239 runs in the first innings of the third and final Test match of the series. He was involved in a 300  run partnership for the fifth wicket with Yuvraj Singh.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cricinfo.com/indvpak/content/current/story/324352.html |title=Yuvraj and Ganguly put India on top |last=Premachandran |first=Dileep |date=8 December 2007 |work=Cricinfo |publisher=ESPN |access-date=19 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703041346/http://www.cricinfo.com/indvpak/content/current/story/324352.html |archive-date=3 July 2009 }}</ref> Ganguly remained prolific in both Test and ODI cricket in the year 2007. He scored 1106 Test runs at an average of 61.44 (with three centuries and four fifties) in 2007 to become the second highest run-scorer in Test matches of that year after [[Jacques Kallis]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?class=1;id=2007;type=year |title=Most Runs in Test Matches in 2007 |access-date=19 January 2010 |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316070735/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?class=1%3Bid%3D2007%3Btype%3Dyear |archive-date=16 March 2008 }}</ref> He was also the fifth highest run-scorer in 2007 in ODIs, where he scored 1240 runs at an average of 44.28.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?class=2;id=2007;type=year |title=Most Runs in One-Day Internationals in 2007 |access-date=19 January 2010 |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302215620/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?class=2%3Bid%3D2007%3Btype%3Dyear |archive-date=2 March 2008 }}</ref>

For his performances in 2007, he was named in the World Test XI by Cricinfo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/review2007/content/story/328571.html|title=Mainly Aussie|date=3 January 2008|website=Cricinfo}}</ref>

=== 2008–12: International retirement and IPL ===

[[File:Ganguly with shahrukh.jpg|thumb|Ganguly with the symbol of the [[Kolkata Knight Riders]], flanked by [[Shah Rukh Khan]] on the right and Gauri Khan on the left.|alt=Two middle-aged males and one female standing. The man in the middle wears a black suit and carries a golden coloured casket. The other man to his right wears a black suit and speaks in a microphone. The lady on the left wears a white shirt and black skirt. Her hair is brownish and falls in locks around her.]]
In February 2008, Ganguly joined as the captain of [[Kolkata Knight Riders]] (KKR) team, owned by [[Bollywood]] actor [[Shah Rukh Khan]], as part of the [[Indian Premier League]] (IPL).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/7252238.stm |title=Dhoni tops Indian auction bidding |last=Reporter |first=BBC |date=20 February 2008 |work=BBC |publisher=BBC Online |access-date=19 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101015061026/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/7252238.stm |archive-date=15 October 2010 }}</ref> On 18 April 2008, Ganguly led the KKR, in the IPL [[Twenty20]] cricket match. They had a 140 run victory over [[Royal Challengers Bangalore|Bangalore Royal Challengers]] (captained by Rahul Dravid and owned by [[Vijay Mallya]]). Ganguly opened the innings with [[Brendon McCullum]] and scored 10 runs while McCullum remained unbeaten, scoring 158 runs in 73 balls.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.india-server.com/news/kolkata-knight-tigers-defeat-bangalore-374.html |title=Kolkata Knight Riders Defeat Bangalore Royal Challengers |last=Chatterjee |first=Mridula |date=19 April 2008 |publisher=India-Server.com |access-date=19 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725145401/http://www.india-server.com/news/kolkata-knight-tigers-defeat-bangalore-374.html |archive-date=25 July 2011 }}</ref> On 1 May, in a game between the Knight Riders and the [[Rajasthan Royals]], Ganguly made his second T20 half century, scoring 51 runs off of 39 balls at a strike rate of 130.76. In his innings, Ganguly hit four 4s and two sixes, topping the scorers list for the Knight Riders.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rajasthanroyals.com/td20092304.aspx |title=Rajasthan Royals vs Kolkata Knight Riders |publisher=[[Rajasthan Royals]] |access-date=19 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090427134031/http://www.rajasthanroyals.com/td20092304.aspx |archive-date=27 April 2009 }}</ref>

On 7 July 2008, media reported that Ganguly was being projected as a candidate for the post of President of the [[Cricket Association of Bengal]] (CAB) against his former mentor [[Jagmohan Dalmiya]]. Reports also suggested that he could run for the post of BCCI President in 2014 as East Zone's representative. Ganguly himself did not deny the reports and did not rule out any such move.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.zeenews.com/news545330.html |title=Sourav Ganguly to be BCCI president?|access-date=19 January 2010|date=7 July 2008|publisher=[[Zee News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Ganguly-may-try-to-become-BCCI-chief-in-2014/articleshow/4750851.cms |title=Ganguly may try to become BCCI chief in 2014 |last=Mukherjee |first=Sumit |date=8 July 2009 |work=The Times of India |publisher=The Times Group |access-date=19 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710014615/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Ganguly-may-try-to-become-BCCI-chief-in-2014/articleshow/4750851.cms |archive-date=10 July 2009 }}</ref> The same year in October, Ganguly announced that the Test series against Australia starting in October 2008 would be his last and stated "[t]o be honest, I didn't expect to be picked for this series. Before coming here, [at the conference] I spoke to my team-mates and hopefully I will go out with a winning knock."<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/other_international/india/7656850.stm |title=Ganguly to quit after Test series |last=Reporter |first=BBC |date=7 October 2008 |access-date=14 January 2010 |work=BBC |publisher=BBC Online |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081103023111/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/other_international/india/7656850.stm |archive-date=3 November 2008 }}</ref> Ganguly played in every game of the four-Test series and amassed 324 runs at an average of 54.00.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/averages/batting_bowling_by_team.html?id=4246;team=6;type=series |title=Batting and bowling averages: Border-Gavaskar Trophy, 2008/09 – India |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=19 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221181217/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/averages/batting_bowling_by_team.html?id=4246%3Bteam%3D6%3Btype%3Dseries |archive-date=21 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://cricket.zeenews.com/fullstory.aspx?nid=13768|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120708173913/http://cricket.zeenews.com/fullstory.aspx?nid=13768|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 July 2012|title=Ganguly retiring at the right time|last=Chopra|first=Nikhil|date=18 October 2008|publisher=[[Zee News]]|access-date=19 January 2010}}</ref> While playing the second Test match of the series in Mohali, Ganguly scored his final test century. In the final test match he played at Nagpur against Australia he scored 85 and 0 in his first and second innings respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cricket365.com/player-stats/2665/Sourav-Ganguly |title=Sourav Ganguly | Cricket365 | Stats & Records | International | Cricket365 | Cricket News |publisher=Cricket365 |access-date=11 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140621011745/http://www.cricket365.com/player-stats/2665/Sourav-Ganguly |archive-date=21 June 2014 }}</ref> In the Fourth and final Test, with India needing one wicket to secure a victory, the Indian captain, [[Mahendra Singh Dhoni]], invited Ganguly to lead the side in the field for the final time. India regained the [[Border-Gavaskar Trophy]], winning the series 2–0.<ref>{{cite news |last=Staff |first=Cricinfo |date=10 November 2008 |title=Dhoni carries forward Ganguly's flame |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/dhoni-carries-forward-ganguly-s-flame-377712 |url-status=live |access-date=10 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091018162057/http://www.cricinfo.com/indvaus2008/content/story/377712.html |archive-date=18 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.indiadaily.com/editorial/20270.asp |title=Saurav Ganguly retires from test cricket in style by captaining a victorious Indian side against Aussies |last=Parker |first=Ajit |date=11 November 2008 |work=India Daily |publisher=The Times Group |access-date=19 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201134809/http://indiadaily.com/editorial/20270.asp |archive-date=1 February 2010 }}</ref>

In May 2009, Ganguly was removed from the captaincy of the KKR for the 2009 season of the IPL, and was replaced by McCullum. The decision was questioned by media and other players of the team, when KKR finished at the bottom of the ranking table with three wins and ten losses.<ref>{{cite news |last=Staff |first=Cricinfo |date=23 May 2009 |title=We would have done better under Ganguly – Dinda |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/we-would-have-done-better-under-ganguly-dinda-405696 |url-status=live |access-date=19 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316215949/http://www.cricinfo.com/ipl2009/content/story/405696.html |archive-date=16 March 2010}}</ref> After that, Bengali television channel [[Zee Bangla]] roped him as the host of the reality quiz show titled ''[[Dadagiri Unlimited]]''. It presented participants from the 19 districts of West Bengal, who had to answer questions posed by Ganguly.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/cricketfeatures/Ganguly-s-Dadagiri-on-Bengali-TV-show/Article1-435853.aspx |title=Ganguly's ''Dadagiri'' on Bengali TV show |last=Shukla |first=Shirish |date=24 July 2009 |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |publisher=[[HT Media Ltd]] |access-date=19 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605005945/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/cricketfeatures/Ganguly-s-Dadagiri-on-Bengali-TV-show/Article1-435853.aspx |archive-date=5 June 2011 }}</ref> By August, he was appointed the chairman of CAB's Cricket Development Committee. The job of the committee is to receive a report from the selectors at the end of every cricket season, assess the accountability of the selectors and make necessary recommendations.<ref>{{cite news |last=Staff |first=Cricinfo |date=22 August 2009 |title=Ganguly appointed to Bengal administrative post |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ganguly-appointed-to-bengal-administrative-post-421261 |url-status=live |access-date=19 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827002222/http://www.cricinfo.com/india/content/story/421261.html |archive-date=27 August 2009}}</ref> He played for the Ranji cup in the Bengal team in October 2009.<ref>{{cite news |last=Staff |first=Cricinfo |date=10 October 2009 |title=Ganguly mulls Ranji stint with Bengal |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ganguly-mulls-ranji-stint-with-bengal-424363 |url-status=live |access-date=19 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211181904/http://www.cricinfo.com/india/content/story/424363.html |archive-date=11 December 2009}}</ref> Ganguly scored 110 in the match against Delhi and was involved in a partnership of 222 runs with [[Wriddhiman Saha]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Staff |first=Cricinfo |date=15 December 2009 |title=Ganguly, Saha centuries revive Bengal |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ranji-trophy-ganguly-saha-centuries-revive-bengal-439556 |access-date=19 January 2010}}</ref>

In the third season of the IPL, Ganguly was once again given the captaincy of KKR, after the team ended at the bottom in the second season. The coach [[John Buchanan (cricketer, born 1953)|John Buchanan]] was replaced by [[Dav Whatmore]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.iplt20.com/team.php?team=KKR |title=Kolkata Knight Riders |publisher=Indian Premier League Official Website |access-date=22 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100317014630/http://iplt20.com/team.php?team=KKR |archive-date=17 March 2010 }}</ref> In 40 matches and 38 innings for KKR Ganguly scored 1,031 runs and took eight wickets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/2/2023/tt_Batting_by_Team.html |title=Twenty20 batting and fielding for each team by Sourav Ganguly |publisher=CricketArchive |access-date=19 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107163733/http://www.cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/2/2023/tt_Batting_by_Team.html |archive-date=7 November 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/2/2023/tt_Bowling_by_Team.html |title=Twenty20 bowling for each team by Sourav Ganguly |publisher=CricketArchive |access-date=19 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130043345/http://www.cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/2/2023/tt_Bowling_by_Team.html |archive-date=30 November 2011 }}</ref> In the fourth season of the IPL he was signed by the [[Pune Warriors India]], after being unsold in initial bidding process and he made 50 runs of four matches and three innings.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-03/news/29499381_1_sourav-ganguly-india-captain-kolkata-knight-riders|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110909143502/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-05-03/news/29499381_1_sourav-ganguly-india-captain-kolkata-knight-riders|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 September 2011|title=Sourav Ganguly to Join Pune Warriors|date=25 April 2011|access-date=11 May 2011|work=[[The Times of India]]|publisher=The Times Group}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/2/2023/tt_Batting_by_Team.html |title=Twenty20 batting for each team by Sourav Ganguly |publisher=CricketArchive |access-date=23 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107163733/http://www.cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/2/2023/tt_Batting_by_Team.html |archive-date=7 November 2012 }}</ref>
In the 2012 season he has been appointed as the Captain cum mentor for Pune Warriors India.
On 29 October 2012, he announced that he has decided not to play in next year's IPL and to retire from the game.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20119809 |title=Former India cricket captain Sourav Ganguly retires |date=29 October 2012 |work=BBC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030103401/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20119809 |archive-date=30 October 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/sport/report_sourav-ganguly-quits-ipl-retires-from-all-levels-of-cricket_1757445 |title=Sourav Ganguly quits IPL, retires from all levels of cricket |access-date=29 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101011053/http://www.dnaindia.com/sport/report_sourav-ganguly-quits-ipl-retires-from-all-levels-of-cricket_1757445 |archive-date=1 November 2012 |date=29 October 2012 }}</ref>

==2013-present Administration career ==
[[File:The Union Home Minister, Shri Amit Shah unveils a statue of Shri Arun Jaitley at New Delhi’s Arun Jaitley Stadium on December 28, 2020 (2).jpg|thumb|Minister of Home Affairs, [[Amit Shah]] unveils the statue of [[Arun Jaitley]] in presence of him in New Delhi on 28 December 2020.]]

Ganguly was part of the Supreme Court of India appointed Justice Mudgal Committee probe panel for the IPL Spot fixing and betting scandal's investigations. From 2015 to October 2019, he was the President of the Cricket association of Bengal. In 2018 his autobiographical book ''[[A Century is Not Enough]]'' was published.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espn.in/cricket/story/_/id/22590038/excerpt-century-not-enough-sourav-ganguly|title=It was like driving a Rolls-Royce one day and sleeping on the pavement the next|access-date=21 May 2022 |work=ESPN|date=27 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sourav Ganguly on teaming up with SRK, Shoaib Akhtar for IPL: Read an excerpt from A Century Is Not Enough |url=https://www.firstpost.com/firstcricket/sports-news/sourav-ganguly-on-teaming-up-with-srk-shoaib-akhtar-for-ipl-read-an-excerpt-from-a-century-is-not-enough-4368855.html |access-date=21 May 2022 |work=Firstpost |date=27 February 2018 |language=en}}</ref> In March 2019, Ganguly was appointed as the advisor of the [[Delhi Capitals]] IPL team.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chakrabarty |first1=Shamik |title=IPL 2019: Sourav Ganguly joins Delhi Capitals, says no conflict of interest |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/ipl/spoken-to-coa-no-conflict-of-interest-saurav-ganguly-on-delhi-capitals-role-5626951/ |access-date=31 March 2019 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=26 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Team Sportstar |title=Watch: Sourav Ganguly bats at Delhi Capitals nets |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/ipl/ipl-2019-ipl-sourav-ganguly-batting-video-delhi-capitals-kolkata-knight-riders/article26665293.ece |access-date=31 March 2019 |work=[[Sportstar]] |date=28 March 2019}}</ref> In October 2019 he became President of the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-50135057|title=The cricketing god Indians pray will deliver big|date=23 October 2019|work=BBC News}}</ref> and President of the editorial board with Wisden India.
Ganguly's security cover was upgraded to 'Z' Category by the West Bengal government. He will now have 8 to 10 police personnel guarding him.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sourav Ganguly's Security Cover Upgraded to 'Z' Category|url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/sourav-gangulys-security-cover-upgraded-to-z-category-4040881 |work=[[NDTV]] |date=17 May 2023}}</ref>

== Playing style and influences ==

[[File:Sachin in action.jpg|thumb|Ganguly in action on the field.|alt=A cricket match being held. The batsman hits the ball and the other players try to catch it. The green field and the audience are visible in the far.]]
Ganguly commented that David Gower was the first cricketer to attract him to the game. He loved Gower's style and used to watch old videos of him playing.{{Sfn|Tiwari|2005|p=104}} Other cricketers who had an influence on him are: [[David Boon]], [[Mohinder Amarnath]], [[Kapil Dev]] and [[Allan Border]].{{Sfn|Dubey|2006|p=120}} Ganguly is a [[Left-handedness|left-handed]] batsman whose runs came primarily from the [[Off side (cricket)|off-side]]. Debashish Dutta, author of ''Sourav Ganguly, the maharaja of cricket'', commented that throughout his career, "Ganguly played off-side shots such as the square cut, square drive and cover drive with complete command."{{Sfn|Datta|2007|p=309}} [[Rahul Dravid]] has called Ganguly "...next to God on the off-side." He used to hit powerful shots to the off-side on front and back foot with equal ease. However, early in his career he was not comfortable with the hook and pull, often giving his wicket away with mistiming such shots. He was also criticised for having difficulty in handling short [[bouncer (cricket)|bouncers]], notoriously exploited by the Australians and South Africans.{{Sfn|Bose|2006|p=35}} However, after his comeback in 2007, he worked upon these weaknesses to a large extent.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/14/stories/2007121457482300.htm |title=Sourav Ganguly—the comeback man |last=Dinakar |first=Sitesh |date=14 December 2007 |access-date=19 January 2010 |location=Chennai, India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501145210/http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/14/stories/2007121457482300.htm |work=[[The Hindu]] |archive-date=1 May 2008 }}</ref>

Amrita Daityari, author of ''Sourav Ganguly: the fire within'', noted that in ODIs, where Ganguly usually opened the innings, he used to try to take the advantage of fielding restrictions by advancing down the pitch and hitting pace bowlers over extra cover and mid-off. She commented: "Ganguly was notorious for attacking left-arm [[Spin bowling|spin bowlers]]. Due to excellent [[eye–hand coordination]], he was noted for picking the length of the ball early, coming down the pitch and hitting the ball aerially over mid-on or midwicket, often for a six. However, he did have a weakness in running between the wickets and judging quick singles."{{Sfn|Daityari|2003|p=83}} There were many instances where Ganguly's batting partner was run out due to Ganguly's calling for a run, and then sending him back while halfway down the pitch. A situation like this happened in an ODI against Australia where he took a single when on 99, but he coasted and did not ground his bat. Although the bat was past the crease, it was in the air and he was consequently run out. Ganguly said, "I love to watch myself hit a cover drive, to watch myself hit a hundred."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Brijnath |first1=Rohit |title=Poor team performance and morale, overbearing officials, but Saurav Ganguly isn't scared |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/magazine/sport/story/20000313-poor-team-performance-and-morale-overbearing-officials-but-saurav-ganguly-isnt-scared-777210-2000-03-13 |access-date=28 January 2020 |work=India Today |date=13 March 2000 |language=en}}</ref> Ganguly's relationship with former Indian coach [[John Wright (cricketer, born 1954)|John Wright]] has been well documented in contemporary media, with them denoting the relationship as a "symbiotic process". They credited Wright and Ganguly with bringing out international class performers, through academic, coaching and scientific fitness regimens.{{Sfn|Dubey|2006|p=215}} According to Dubey, Ganguly and Wright, along with other members of the team like Tendulkar and Dravid, were the first to understand the importance of a foreign coach for the Indian cricket team and was convinced that the domestic coach has outlived its utility. Ganguly's aggressive style and Wright's importance on fitness ushered in the development of a better cricket team for India.{{Sfn|Dubey|2006|p=215}}

Ganguly is a right-arm [[Medium pace bowling|medium pace bowler]]. He can swing and [[seam bowling|seam]] the ball both ways and often chips in with useful wickets to break partnerships.<ref name=cricinfo /> Vinod Tiwari, author of the biography ''Sourav Ganguly'' praised him saying "[d]espite not being very athletic as a [[Fielding (cricket)|fielder]], Ganguly has taken 100 catches in one-day Internationals. That's something to be proud of!" However he criticised Ganguly's ground fielding, especially his slowness in intercepting the ball to prevent runs and his tendency to get injured during [[Bat pad|catching]] the ball.{{Sfn|Tiwari|2005|p=89}}

== Legacy ==

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%; float:right; clear:right; text-align:right; margin-left:15px"
|+ Centuries against different nations
! scope="col" | Opposition
! scope="col" | Test
! scope="col" | ODI
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left" | {{cr|1=Sri Lanka}}
| 3 || 4
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left" | {{cr|1=New Zealand}}
| 3 || 3
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left" | {{cr|1=Zimbabwe}}
| 2 || 3
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left" | {{cr|1=England}}
| 3 || 1
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left" | {{cr|1=Pakistan}}
| 2 || 2
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left" | {{cr|1=Australia}}
| 2 || 1
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left" | {{cr|1=South Africa}}
| – || 3
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left" | {{cr|1=Bangladesh}}
| 1 || 1
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left" | {{cr|1=Kenya}}
| NA || 3
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: left" | {{cr|1=Namibia}}
| NA || 1
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align: center" | '''Total'''
| '''16''' || '''22'''
|}

Author Pradeep Mandhani commented that in his tenure between 2000 and 2005, Ganguly became India's most successful Test captain. He led his team to victory on 21 occasions – seven times more than [[Mohammad Azharuddin]] with the second most wins—and led them for a record 49 matches—twice more than both Azharuddin and [[Sunil Gavaskar]].{{Sfn|Mandhani|2008|p=67}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Records/India/Tests/Captains/Playing_Record_Captain_Overall.html |title=India Captains' Playing Record in Test Matches |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=6 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918040233/http://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Records/India/Tests/Captains/Playing_Record_Captain_Overall.html |archive-date=18 September 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Compared to his batting average of 45.47 when not captain,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?captain=0;class=2;filter=advanced;orderby=default;template=results;type=batting|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717022950/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?captain=0;class=2;filter=advanced;orderby=default;template=results;type=batting|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 July 2012|title=Statsguru home: SC Ganguly Test matches – Batting analysis not as captain|publisher=ESPN|work=Cricinfo Magazine|access-date=6 November 2008}}</ref> Ganguly's Test batting average as captain was a lower 37.66.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?captain=1;class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=default;template=results;type=batting|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120729013811/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?captain=1;class=1;filter=advanced;orderby=default;template=results;type=batting|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 July 2012|title=Statsguru home: SC Ganguly Test matches – Batting analysis as captain|publisher=ESPN|work=Cricinfo Magazine|access-date=6 November 2008}}</ref>

Statistics about Ganguly show that he was the seventh Indian cricketer to have played 100 Test matches,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/individual/most_matches_career.html?class=1;id=6;type=team |title=Indian Cricketers: Most Test Matches |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=6 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081109080826/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/individual/most_matches_career.html?class=1%3Bid%3D6%3Btype%3Dteam |archive-date=9 November 2008 }}</ref> the 4th highest overall run scorer for India in Tests,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?class=1;id=6;type=team |title=Indian Cricketers: Most Test Runs |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=6 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081105161300/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_career.html?class=1%3Bid%3D6%3Btype%3Dteam |archive-date=5 November 2008 }}</ref> and the fourth Indian to have played in more than 300 ODIs.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/individual/most_matches_career.html?class=2;id=6;type=team |title=Indian Cricketers: Most One-Day Internationals |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=6 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013135313/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/individual/most_matches_career.html?class=2%3Bid%3D6%3Btype%3Dteam |archive-date=13 October 2008 }}</ref> In terms of overall runs scored in ODIs, Ganguly is the third among Indians after Sachin Tendulkar (who has the most ODI runs) and Virat Kohli and the ninth overall.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/83548.html |title=Most Runs in Career: One-Day Internationals |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=6 November 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081105161203/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/83548.html |archive-date=5 November 2008 }}</ref> He has scored 16 centuries in Test matches and 22 in ODIs. He is also one of only ten batsmen to score more than 10,000 runs in ODIs.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/83548.html |title=Cricinfo – Records – One-Day Internationals – Most runs in career |publisher=ESPN |work=Cricinfo Magazine |access-date=6 November 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081105161203/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/content/records/83548.html |archive-date=5 November 2008 }}</ref> Along with Tendulkar, Ganguly has formed the most successful opening pair in One Day Cricket, having amassed the highest number of century partnerships (26) for the first wicket. Together, they have scored more than 7000 runs at an average of 48.98, and hold the world record for creating most 50-run partnership in the first wicket (44 fifties).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Matches/MatchTopOpeners_ODI.asp |title=Opening Pairs with an Aggregate of 1000 Runs or more |publisher=ESPN |work=Howstat Magazine |access-date=6 November 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721050349/http://howstat.com/cricket/Statistics/Matches/MatchTopOpeners_ODI.asp |archive-date=21 July 2008 }}</ref> Ganguly became the fourth player to cross 11,000 ODI runs, and was the fastest player to do so in ODI cricket, after Tendulkar.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/08/04/stories/2005080411102100.htm |title=Ganguly joins 10,000-club |last=Corresspondent |first=Special |date=5 August 2005 |access-date=14 January 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |publisher=[[The Hindu Group]] |location=Chennai, India |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223221054/http://www.hindu.com/2005/08/04/stories/2005080411102100.htm |archive-date=23 February 2009 }}</ref> As of 2006, he is the only Indian captain to win a Test series in Pakistan (although two of the three Tests of that series was led by Rahul Dravid). He is also one of the five players in the world to achieve amazing treble of 10,000 runs, 100 wickets and 100 catches in ODI cricket history, the others being Tendulkar, Kallis, [[Sanath Jayasuriya]] and [[Tillakaratne Dilshan]].{{Sfn|Kavoori|2009|p=923}}

[[File:Ganguly with knightriders.jpg|left|thumb|Ganguly with the young cricketers of the Kolkata Knight Riders team during IPL 2009.|alt=A group of men standing, wearing black T-shirts and blue faded jeans. All of them are looking to the left of the image. The backdrop has alternate black and green boxes.]]
Author [[Mihir Bose]], in his book, ''The magic of Indian cricket: cricket and society in India''. commented that "The cricket world had gotten too used to the stereotype of the meek Indian cricketer. All that has changed under Ganguly, perhaps for the better."{{Sfn|Bose|2006|p=280}} He credits Ganguly for not being shy of taking on responsibility. "He showed that he can be a leader of a team, which has greats like Sachin and Dravid in the side, without any problems. Under Ganguly's leadership, India started winning matches and tournaments, previously lacking from the team considerably."{{Sfn|Bose|2006|p=280}} Within a few years of his captaincy, Ganguly rewrote the rules of being a captain of a cricket team. Unlike some of his predecessors, Ganguly was considered impartial, non-parochial, and forever pushed his players to perform better. Off the field, his interactions with the media, his fans, and detractors were uncompromisingly honest and earned him the respect of cricket followers everywhere. However, along with this respect came the criticisms. Ganguly was condemned as a hot-tempered man who refused to listen to other's opinions and abided by his own rules and regulations.{{Sfn|Bose|2006|p=280}} [[Matthew Engel]], ICC sport critic, noted that this "turning deaf" to other's opinions would one day harm Ganguly and that it was sheer luck that he existed on the sporting world.{{Sfn|Engel|2006|p=45}}

Ganguly believed that his legacy as a captain was that he was able to build a proper Indian team. He added,
<blockquote>
"[We] were able to change the face of Indian cricket. That's what I'm proud of, because I think we made a huge difference. People used to think that we would simply roll over when playing out of India, but we changed the image. [...] [The team wouldn't take any crap from any opposition] Absolutely, and that came from self-belief that, that we had the ability to do well outside India."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mahajan|first=Rohit|date=20 October 2008|title=I wanted to go out with dignity, on a winning note|journal=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)|Outlook]]|publisher=[[Vinod Mehta]]|location=Mumbai, India|volume=48|issue=42|page=18|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PDEEAAAAMBAJ&q=sourav+ganguly+legacy&pg=PA17|access-date=22 January 2010}}</ref>
</blockquote>
Bose commented that Ganguly's greatest legacy lay in his influence on the younger and budding generation of cricketers. Ganguly felt that every young player should play two years of domestic cricket before being selected for international assignments. He also said that every newcomer should be given at least five games to prove himself.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/cwc2003/hi/newsid_2870000/newsid_2870400/2870451.stm |title=World Cup 2003 – Team profile – India |date=12 November 2003 |access-date=12 January 2010 |work=BBC |publisher=BBC Online |first=Thrasy |last=Petropoulos |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622121017/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/cwc2003/hi/newsid_2870000/newsid_2870400/2870451.stm |archive-date=22 June 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20031112/sports.htm#2 |title=Sourav Ganguly will have to get the team balance right |last=Sharma |first=Chetan |date=12 November 2003 |access-date=14 January 2010 |work=[[The Tribune (Chandigarh)|The Tribune]] |publisher=[[Dyal Singh Majithia]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223204104/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20031112/sports.htm |archive-date=23 February 2009 }}</ref> Later he explained that being at the receiving end of an unfair decision against him, that threatened to ruin his international cricket career, it enabled him to understand the insecurities of other newcomers in the team better than his predecessors. Ganguly had always backed the influence and contribution of younger players of the team.{{Sfn|Bose|2006|p=282}}

Despite his contributions, his captaincy and coaching methods came under immense scrutiny from the press as well as other scholars. Engel commented that "He seems like aloof to the problems that his mal-decisions are creating. I don't particularly believe that Ganguly has an 'effing knowledge how to lead his team and tries to counter-pose it with instigating limitless, confrontational behaviours within the younger members of it. [One day] the time will come when such shock tactics will cease to work."{{Sfn|Engel|2006|p=32}} An article on ''[[Cricinfo Magazine]]'' pointed out his reckless behaviour. The reporter Rahul Bhattacharya said, "Generally Ganguly fostered angry or reckless young men. To him 'good behaviour', a broad term espoused by the present team management, belonged in school and probably not even there. He himself had been summoned to the match referee no less than 12 times in the last decade. His approach was bound to precipitate what could possibly be termed a cultural conflict in the world of modern sport. For Ganguly, like for Arjuna Ranatunga, competitiveness involved brinksmanship rather than training. As far as they were concerned Australia were not to be aspired to. They were simply to be toppled. England were not to be appeased. Victory lay precisely in their disapproval. In other words, Ganguly and Ranatunga wanted to do things their way."<ref>{{cite news |last=Bhattacharya |first=Rahul |date=12 September 2007 |title=The heart of the matter |work=Cricinfo Magazine |publisher=ESPN |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/the-heart-of-the-matter-236016 |url-status=live |access-date=10 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118111550/http://www1.cricinfo.com/cricinfomagazine/content/story/236016.html |archive-date=18 November 2008}}</ref>


== Overall career performance ==

[[File:Sourav Ganguly Graph.png|left|thumb|300px|An innings-by-innings breakdown of Ganguly's Test match batting career, showing runs scored (red bars) and the average of last ten innings (blue line).|alt=A graph showing a number of lines going up and down in pink. A single blue line intersects it in-between.]]
{{Clear}}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; width:75%;"
|-
!colspan=2| Test Match Career Performance By Opposition
!colspan=4| Batting Statistics<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?class=1;template=results;type=batting |title=Sourav Ganguly – Test Matches / Batting Analysis |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=13 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106214137/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?class=1%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dbatting |archive-date=6 January 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! style="text-align:left;" | Opposition
!| Matches
!| Runs
!| Average
!| High Score
!| 100 / 50
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]]
|| 24
|| 1403
|| 35.07
|| 144
|| 2 / 7
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|Bangladesh}} [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]]
|| 5
|| 371
|| 61.83
|| 100
|| 1 / 3
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|England}} [[England cricket team|England]]
|| 12
|| 983
|| 57.82
|| 136
|| 3 / 5
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|NZ}} [[New Zealand national cricket team|New Zealand]]
|| 8
|| 563
|| 46.91
|| 125
|| 3 / 2
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]]
|| 12
|| 902
|| 47.47
|| 239
|| 2 / 4
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]]
|| 17
|| 947
|| 33.82
|| 87
|| 0 / 7
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|Sri Lanka}} [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]]
|| 14
|| 1064
|| 46.26
|| 173
|| 3 / 4
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|West Indies}} [[West Indies cricket team|West Indies]]
|| 12
|| 449
|| 32.07
|| 75*
|| 0 / 2
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} [[Zimbabwe national cricket team|Zimbabwe]]
|| 9
|| 530
|| 44.16
|| 136
|| 2 / 1
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:center;" | '''''Overall figures'''''
|| '''113'''
|| '''7212'''
|| '''42.17'''
|| '''239'''
|| '''16 / 35'''
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto; width:75%;"
|-
!colspan=2| ODI Career Performance By Opposition
!colspan=4| Batting Statistics<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?class=2;template=results;type=batting |title=Sourav Ganguly – ODI Matches / Batting Analysis |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=13 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410230407/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?class=2%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dbatting |archive-date=10 April 2016 }}</ref>
|-
! style="text-align:left;" | Opposition
!| Matches
!| Runs
!| Average
!| High Score
!| 100 / 50
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]]
|| 35
|| 774
|| 23.45
|| 100
|| 1 / 5
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|Bangladesh}} [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]]
|| 10
|| 459
|| 57.37
|| 135*
|| 1 / 4
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|England}} [[England cricket team|England]]
|| 26
|| 975
|| 39.00
|| 117*
|| 1 / 7
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|NZ}} [[New Zealand national cricket team|New Zealand]]
|| 32
|| 1079
|| 35.96
|| 153*
|| 3 / 6
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]]
|| 53
|| 1652
|| 35.14
|| 141
|| 2 / 9
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]]
|| 29
|| 1313
|| 50.50
|| 141*
|| 3 / 8
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|Sri Lanka}} [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]]
|| 44
|| 1534
|| 40.36
|| 183
|| 4 / 9
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|West Indies}} [[West Indies cricket team|West Indies]]
|| 27
|| 1142
|| 47.58
|| 98
|| 0 / 11
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} [[Zimbabwe national cricket team|Zimbabwe]]
|| 36
|| 1367
|| 42.71
|| 144
|| 3 / 7
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | [[World Cricket Tsunami Appeal|ICC World XI]]
|| 1
|| 22
|| 22.00
|| 22
|| 0 / 0
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | [[Africa XI]]
|| 2
|| 120
|| 60.00
|| 88
|| 0 / 1
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{cr|Bermuda}}
|| 1
|| 89
|| 89.00
|| 89
|| 0 / 1
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{cr|Ireland}}
|| 1
|| 73
|| –
|| 73*
|| 0 / 1
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|Kenya}} [[Kenya national cricket team|Kenya]]
|| 11
|| 588
|| 73.50
|| 111*
|| 3 / 2
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|Namibia}} [[Namibia national cricket team|Namibia]]
|| 1
|| 112
|| –
|| 112*
|| 1 / 0
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Netherlands national cricket team|Netherlands]]
|| 1
|| 8
|| 8.00
|| 8
|| 0 / 0
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:left;" | {{flagicon|UAE}} [[United Arab Emirates national cricket team|U.A.E.]]
|| 1
|| 56
|| 56.00
|| 56
|| 0 / 1
|- style="text-align:right;"
| style="text-align:center;" | '''''Overall figures'''''
|| '''311'''
|| '''11363'''
|| '''41.02'''
|| '''183'''
|| '''22 / 72'''
|}

== Records and achievements ==
[[File:The President Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam presenting Padma Shri Award to Shri Saurav Ganguly the most successful Captain of Indian Cricket Team at an investiture Ceremony at Rashtrapati Bhawan in New Delhi on June 30, 2004.jpg|thumb|President [[A.P.J Abdul Kalam]] (''right'') presenting the Padma Shri Award to Ganguly (''left''), 2004]]

* The only cricketer to win four consecutive [[Player of the Match awards (cricket)|man of the match awards]] in [[One Day Internationals]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/361147.html|title=Man-of-the-Match monopoly|work=Cricinfo|access-date=23 March 2017|language=en}}</ref>
* The ninth highest run-scorer in ODI history and third among the [[List of India ODI cricketers|Indians]], with 11,363 runs.
* He holds the record for registering the highest individual score by any batsman in a [[ICC Champions Trophy]] final (117)
* He was also the first player to [[List of ICC Champions Trophy centuries|score 3 centuries]] in the history of ICC Champions Trophy
* The second fastest batsman to reach 9,000 ODI runs after [[AB De Villiers]] of South Africa who broke Ganguly's record in 2017 <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283190.html|title=fastest to reach 9000 ODI runs|work=Cricinfo|access-date=23 March 2017|language=en}}</ref>
* One of the only six cricketers to have achieved the unique treble of 10,000 runs, 100 wickets & 100 catches in ODI cricket. (Others cricketer were [[Sachin Tendulkar]], [[Sanath Jayasuriya]], [[Jacques Kallis]], [[Chris Gayle]], [[Tillakaratne Dilshan]].)
* Has the highest individual score by an Indian batsman (183) in the [[Cricket World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/batting/most_runs_innings.html?id=12;team=6;type=trophy|title=Highest individual scores for India in World Cups|work=Cricinfo|access-date=23 March 2017|language=en}}</ref>
* One of the 14 [[cricket]]ers in the world to have played 100 or more Tests and 300 or more ODIs.
* Sourav Ganguly is the only batsman to score a century on debut and to be dismissed first ball in his final Test innings.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.wisdenindia.com/cricket-article/century-centuries-debut/139952|title=A century of centuries on debut|work=Wisden India|access-date=23 March 2017|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117025717/http://www.wisdenindia.com/cricket-article/century-centuries-debut/139952|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Captaincy record ==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; width:60%;"
|-
| colspan="7" style="text-align:center;"| '''Captaincy Record in [[Test cricket|Test Matches]]<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Team records | One-Day Internationals | Cricinfo Statsguru | ESPN Cricinfo |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?captain_involve=2024;class=2;filter=advanced;home_or_away=1;orderby=won;team=6;template=results;type=team |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622091755/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?captain_involve=2024%3Bclass%3D2%3Bfilter%3Dadvanced%3Bhome_or_away%3D1%3Borderby%3Dwon%3Bteam%3D6%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dteam |archive-date=22 June 2013 |access-date=7 June 2012 |publisher=Stats.espncricinfo.com}}</ref><ref name="http">{{cite web |title=Cricket Records | Records | India | ODI matches | Most matches as captain | ESPN Cricinfo |url=http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?captain=1;class=2;filter=advanced;orderby=default;template=results;type=allround |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301005019/http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/player/28779.html?captain=1%3Bclass%3D2%3Bfilter%3Dadvanced%3Borderby%3Ddefault%3Btemplate%3Dresults%3Btype%3Dallround |archive-date=1 March 2014 |access-date=17 December 2012 |publisher=Stats.espncricinfo.com}}</ref>'''
|-
! Venue !! Span !! Matches !! Won !! Lost !! Tied !! Draw
|-
|Home || 2000–2005 || 21 || 10 || 3 || 0 || 8
|-
|Away || 2000–2005 || 28 || 11 || 10 || 0 || 7
|-
| '''Total''' || '''2000–2005''' || '''49''' || '''21''' || '''13''' || '''0''' ||'''15'''
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; width:60%;"
|-
| colspan="13" style="text-align:center;"| '''Career summary as captain in Test Matches<ref name="http" />'''
|-
! Venue !! Span !! Matches !! Runs !! HS !! Bat Avg !! 100 !! Wkts !! BBI !! Bowl Avg !! 5 !! Ct !! St
|-
|Home || 2000–2005 || 21 || 868 || 136 || 29.93 || 2 || 3 || 1/14 || 78.00 || 0 || 24 || 0
|-
|Away || 2000–2005 || 28 || 1693 || 144 || 43.41 || 3 || 2 || 2/69 || 193.00 || 0 || 13 || 0
|-
| '''Total''' || '''2000–2005''' || '''49''' || '''2561''' || '''144''' || '''37.66''' || '''5''' || '''5''' || '''2/69''' || '''124.00''' || '''0''' || '''37''' || 0
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; width:60%;"
|-
| colspan="7" style="text-align:center;"| '''Captaincy Record in [[One Day Internationals]]<ref name=":0" /><ref name="http" />'''
|-
! Venue !! Span !! Matches !! Won !! Lost !! Tied !! N/R
|-
|Home || 2000–2005 || 36 || 18 || 18 || 0 || 0
|-
|Away || 2000–2005 || 51 || 24 || 24 || 0 || 3
|-
|Neutral || 1999–2005 || 59 || 34 || 23 || 0 || 2
|-
| '''Total'''|| '''1999–2005''' || '''146''' || '''76''' || '''65''' || '''0''' || '''5'''
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; width:60%;"
|-
| colspan="13" style="text-align:center;"| '''Career summary as captain in One Day Internationals<ref name="http" />'''
|-
! Venue !! Span !! Matches !! Runs !! HS !! Bat Avg !! 100 !! Wkts !! BBI !! Bowl Avg !! 5 !! Ct !! St
|-
|Home || 2000–2005 || 36 || 1463 || 144 || 43.02 || 2 || 16 || 5/34 || 30.87 || 1 || 14 || 0
|-
|Away || 2000–2005 || 51 || 1545 || 135 || 32.18 || 2 || 15 || 3/22 || 39.26 || 0 || 23 || 0
|-
|Neutral || 2000–2005 || 60 || 2096 || 141 || 41.92 || 7 || 15 || 3/32 || 43.20 || 0 || 24 || 0
|-
| '''Total''' || '''2000–2005''' || '''147''' || '''5104''' || '''144''' || '''38.66''' || '''11''' || '''46''' || '''5/34''' || '''37.63''' || 1 || '''61''' || 0
|}

== Bibliography ==

* {{Cite book|last1=Ganguly|first1=Sourav|title=[[A Century is Not Enough|A Century is Not Enough: My Roller-coaster Ride to Success]]|last2=Bhattacharya|first2=Gautam|authorlink2=Gautam Bhattacharya|publisher=[[Juggernaut Books]]|year=2018|isbn=978-93-86228-56-7}}

== See also ==
* [[List of international cricket centuries by Sourav Ganguly]]
* [[List of highest individual scores in ODIs]]
* [[Dadagiri Unlimited]]
* [[List of Cricket Association of Bengal Presidents]]
* [[No Dada No KKR]]
* [[Cricket All-Stars]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
{{refbegin}}

*{{cite news
| last = Bose
| first = Mihir
| title = The magic of Indian cricket: cricket and society in India
| year = 2006
| publisher = [[Routledge]]
| isbn = 0-415-35691-1
}}
*{{cite news
| last = Daityari
| first = Amrita
| title = Sourav Ganguly: the fire within
| year = 2003
| publisher = [[Rupa & Co.|Rupa & Company Publishers]]
| isbn = 81-291-0143-2
}}
*{{cite news
| last = Datta
| first = Debashish
| title = Sourav Ganguly, the maharaja of cricket
| year = 2007
| publisher = Niyogi Books
| isbn = 978-81-89738-20-4
}}
*{{cite news
| last = Dubey
| first = Abhishek
| title = Dressing Room
| publisher = Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd
| year = 2006
| isbn = 81-8419-191-X
}}
*{{cite news
| last = Engel
| first = Matthew
| title = Wisden Cricketers' Almanack
| publisher = John Wisden & Co Ltd
| year = 2006
| isbn = 978-0-947766-98-6
}}
*{{cite news
| last = Gilchrist
| first = Adam
| title = True Colours
| publisher = Pan Macmillan Australia
| year = 2008
| isbn = 978-1-4050-3922-2
}}
*{{cite news
| last = Kavoori
| first = Anandam P.
| title = The logics of globalization: studies in international communication
| publisher = [[Rowman & Littlefield]]
| year = 2009
| isbn = 978-0-7391-2184-9
}}
*{{cite news
| last = Mandhani
| first = Pradeep
| title = Cricket World Cup '99 frozen
| publisher = [[University of Michigan]]
| year = 2008
| isbn = 978-1-84353-197-5
}}
*{{cite news
| last = Tiwari
| first = Vinod
| title = Sourav Ganguly
| publisher = Manoj Publications
| year =2005
| isbn = 81-8133-985-1
}}
*{{cite news
| last = Waugh
| first = Steve
| title = Ashes Diary 2001
| publisher = HarperCollinsPublishers
| year = 2001
| isbn = 0-7322-6444-8
}}
*{{cite web|url=https://wbsportsandyouth.gov.in/chronology|title=Chronology of Important Sports Events — West Bengal|website=wbsportsandyouth.gov.in|publisher=Government of West Bengal – Department of youth services and sports|date=2017|access-date=25 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013092944/https://wbsportsandyouth.gov.in/chronology|archive-date=13 October 2022|location=Kolkata}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* {{ESPNcricinfo|id=28779}}
* {{Facebook|OfficialSCGanguly |Sourav Ganguly Official}}

{{s-start-collapsible|header={{S-sports}}}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Sachin Tendulkar]] |
title=[[Indian national cricket captains|Indian Test captain]] |
years=2000–2005 |
after=[[Rahul Dravid]]
}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Sachin Tendulkar]] |
title=[[Indian national cricket captains|Indian One-Day captain]] |
years=2000–2005 |
after=[[Rahul Dravid]]
}}
{{succession box |
before=''Position started'' |
title=[[Kolkata Knight Riders]] captain |
years=2008 |
after=[[Brendon McCullum]]
}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Brendon McCullum]] |
title=[[Kolkata Knight Riders]] captain |
years=2010–2011 |
after=[[Gautam Gambhir]]
}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Yuvraj Singh]] |
title=[[Pune Warriors India]] captain |
years=2012 |
after=[[Angelo Mathews]]
}}
{{S-end}}

{{s-start}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Jagmohan Dalmiya]] |
title=[[Presidents of the Cricket Association of Bengal|President of the CAB]] |
years=2015–present |
after=[[Incumbent]]
}}
{{succession box |
before=C K Khanna |
title=[[Presidents of the Board of Control for Cricket in India|President of the BCCI]] |
years=2019–present |
after=[[Incumbent]]
}}
{{s-end}}

{{Padma Shri Award Recipients in Sports}}
{{Indian Test Cricket Captains}}
{{India ODI Cricket Captains}}
{{Indians with 100 or more Test caps}}
{{Batsmen who have scored 10000 Runs in ODI Cricket}}
{{Navboxes
|title= India squads
|bg= #0077FF
|fg= white
|bordercolor=#ff8800
|list1=
{{India Squad 1999 Cricket World Cup}}
{{India Squad 2002 ICC Champions Trophy}}
{{India Squad 2003 Cricket World Cup}}
{{India Squad 2007 Cricket World Cup}}
}}
{{Atlético de Kolkata}}
{{Presidents of CAB}}
{{Presidents of BCCI}}
{{good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ganguly, Sourav}}
[[Category:1972 births]]
[[Category:ACC Asian XI One Day International cricketers]]
[[Category:Bengali cricketers]]
[[Category:Bengali Hindus]]
[[Category:Indian sports executives and administrators]]
[[Category:Cricketers at the 1999 Cricket World Cup]]
[[Category:Cricketers at the 2003 Cricket World Cup]]
[[Category:Cricketers at the 2007 Cricket World Cup]]
[[Category:Cricketers who made a century on Test debut]]
[[Category:Bengal cricketers]]
[[Category:East Zone cricketers]]
[[Category:Glamorgan cricketers]]
[[Category:Indian cricketers]]
[[Category:Indian cricket commentators]]
[[Category:Indian cricket administrators]]
[[Category:India Test cricket captains]]
[[Category:India Green cricketers]]
[[Category:India One Day International cricketers]]
[[Category:India Test cricketers]]
[[Category:Kolkata Knight Riders cricketers]]
[[Category:Lancashire cricketers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Northamptonshire cricketers]]
[[Category:Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers]]
[[Category:Cricketers from Kolkata]]
[[Category:Pune Warriors India cricketers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in sports]]
[[Category:University of Calcutta alumni]]
[[Category:ATK (football club) owners]]

Shashwat Goenka

2023-09-12T09:21:34Z

Sana Khan: Wrote an inspiring guide.

{{Infobox person
| name = Shashwat Goenka
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Kolkata, West Bengal, India
| occupation = Business executive
| years_active = 2013–present
| known_for = Director of RPSG Group
}}

'''Shashwat Goenka''' is an Indian business executive and the youngest scion of the Kolkata-based [[RPSG Group]]. He serves as the Director of the Group and is responsible for leading the conglomerate's foray into new business ventures. Shashwat Goenka was born, in Kolkata, West Bengal, India, to Sanjiv Goenka and Preeti Goenka.

== Career ==
Under his leadership, the RPSG Group has expanded its portfolio in various sectors, including power and energy, retail, FMCG, entertainment, and sports. Shashwat Goenka played a key role in the acquisition of the retail chain Spencer's from the UK-based retailer, Woolworths, in 2011. He also led the Group's entry into the Indian Super League (ISL) by acquiring a franchise, ATK, in 2014, which has won the league title thrice under his leadership.

Apart from his business ventures, Shashwat Goenka is actively involved in philanthropy and supports various charitable causes through the RPSG Foundation.

== Recognition and awards ==
Shashwat Goenka has been recognized for his contributions to the business world and has been awarded several honors, including the 'Asia's 21 Young Leaders Award' by the [[Asia Society]] in 2017<ref>{{cite news |title=Shashwat Goenka wins Asia's 21 Young Leaders award |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/company/corporate-trends/shashwat-goenka-wins-asias-21-young-leaders-award/articleshow/60701049.cms?from=mdr |accessdate=5 April 2023}}</ref> and the '40 Under 40' award by Fortune India in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=Shashwat Goenka: The youngest scion of the RPSG Group |work=Fortune India |url=https://www.fortuneindia.com/people/shashwat-goenka-the-youngest-scion-of-the-rpsg-group/105469 |accessdate=5 April 2023}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Goenka, Shashwat}}
[[Category:Living people]]

Harmuti Junction railway station

2023-09-08T11:50:12Z

Sana Khan: Added a new addition to the collection.

{{Short description|Railway station in Assam}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Infobox station
| name = Harmuti
| type = Junction [[File:Indian_Railways_Suburban_Railway_Logo.svg|30px]] [[Indian Railways]] station
| style = Indian Railways
| image = Harmuti Junction name post 2.jpg
| image_caption =
| address = Harmuti railway station road,[[Harmutty]],[[ Lakhimpur]], [[Assam]]
| country = India
| coordinates = {{coord|27.119132|93.860631|type:railwaystation_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
| map_type = India Assam#India
| map_dot_label = Harmuti
| map_caption = Location in Assam##Location in India
| line = [[Rangia–Murkongselek section]] & [[Harmuti-Naharlagun section]]
| elevation = {{convert|104|m|ft}}
| structure = Standard
| platform = 3
| tracks = 4
| parking = Yes
| rebuilt = 2014
| electrified = No
| code = {{Indian railway code
| code = HMY
| zone = [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone|Northeast Frontier Railway]]
| division = {{rwd|Rangiya}}
}}
| owned = [[Indian Railways]]
| operator = [[Northeast Frontier Railway zone|Northeast Frontier Railway]]
| status = Single diesel line}}

'''Harmuti Junction railway station''' is a small railway station in [[Lakhimpur district]], [[Assam]]. Its code is '''HMY'''. It serves [[Harmutty]] town. The station consists of two platforms. The platform are well sheltered. It lacks many facilities including water and sanitation.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://indiarailinfo.com/station/map/harmuti-junction-hmy/866| title=HMY/Harmuti | website=India Rail Info}}</ref>

== Major trains ==

* [[Kamakhya–Murkongselek Lachit Express]]
* [[Dekargaon–Murkongselek Passenger]]
* [[Murkeongselek–Rangiya Passenger]]
* [[Naharlagun–Guwahati Donyi Polo Express]]
* [[Naharlagun−Guwahati Shatabdi Express]]
* [[Arunachal AC Superfast Express]]
* [[New Tinsukia–Tambaram Express|New Tinsukia–Tambaram Weekly Express]]
* [[Naharlagun–Tinsukia Intercity Expres]]
* [[Kamrup Express|Dibrugarh–Howrah Kamrup Express Via Rangapara North]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Railway stations in Assam}}

{{Assam-railstation-stub}}

[[Category:Railway stations in Lakhimpur district]]
[[Category:Rangiya railway division]]

U GRO Capital

2023-09-08T10:49:40Z

Sana Khan: Created a new article format.

{{Orphan}}

'''U GRO Capital''' (formerly known as Chokhani securities) an Indian Financial Services company which provides customized loans to MSMEs in India. Its headquartered in [[Mumbai]], India.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Investment to Support Green Finance for Micro, Small and Medium Businesses in India {{!}} Headlines |url=https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/headlines/2496076-new-investment-to-support-green-finance-for-micro-small-and-medium-businesses-in-india |website=Devdiscourse |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Co-lending: Another bonanza for private capital |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/columns/C_P_Chandrasekhar/co-lending-another-bonanza-for-private-capital/article38028199.ece |website=frontline.thehindu.com |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ugro Capital aims to double loan book to Rs 7,000 crore in FY23 with focus on co-lending |url=https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/corporate/story/ugro-capital-aims-to-double-loan-book-to-rs-7000-crore-in-fy23-with-focus-on-co-lending-342646-2022-07-25 |website=Business Today |language=en }}</ref>

UGRO Capital is a listed company in [[National Stock Exchange of India|National Stock Exchange]] ({{NSE|UGROCAP}}) and [[Bombay Stock Exchange]] ({{BSE|511742}}). The company's shares are traded under the symbol UGROCAP.<ref>{{cite web |title=UGRO Capital (BSE:511742) - Stock Price, News & Analysis |url=https://simplywall.st/stocks/in/diversified-financials/bse-511742/ugro-capital-shares |website=Simply Wall St |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ugro Capital Share Price, Ugro Capital Stock Price, Ugro Capital Ltd. Stock Price, Share Price, Live BSE/NSE, Ugro Capital Ltd. Bids Offers. Buy/Sell Ugro Capital Ltd. news & tips, & F&O Quotes, NSE/BSE Forecast News and Live Quotes |url=https://www.moneycontrol.com/india/stockpricequote/finance-general/ugrocapital/CS08 |website=Moneycontrol.com |language=en}}</ref>

The company's AUM and Net Worth as on Mar-23 was INR 6,081 Cr and INR 984 Cr respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=UGRO Capital net profit rises two-fold in Q4 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/ugro-capital-net-profit-rises-two-fold-in-q4/articleshow/100258533.cms |website=TOI}}</ref>

UGRO Capital is a non-deposit taking NBFC (Non-Banking Financial Company) registered with the [[Reserve Bank of India]].

==History==
In 1994, The company was incorporated in [[Maharashtra]] as a Private Limited Company in the name and style of Chokhani Securities. In 1995, The company had proposed to carry out merchant banking activities and had received an approval in principle from SEBI as Category I Merchant Banker.

The company was acquired by financial services veteran Mr. Shachindra Nath in 2018 and was later changed its name to U GRO Capital.<ref>{{cite web |title=RBI action against M&M Fin won't impact us: U Gro Capital's Sachindra Nath |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/finance/we-are-in-the-underserved-market-not-unserved-u-gro-capital-vc-md-122100600800_1.html |website=www.business-standard.com }}</ref>

In April 2021, U GRO Capital partnered with [[SBM Bank India]] to launch 'GRO Smart Business' credit card for MSMEs.<ref>{{cite web |title=U GRO Capital partners with SBM Bank India to launch credit card for MSMEs |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/sme-sector/u-gro-capital-partners-with-sbm-bank-india-to-launch-credit-card-for-msmes/articleshow/81970371.cms |website=The Economic Times }}</ref>

In July 2021, the company launched 'Pratham', INR 1,000 Cr MSME Co-lending Program in partnership with [[Bank of Baroda]].<ref>{{cite web |title=U GRO Capital ties-up with Bank of Baroda for co-lending, to disburse over Rs 1000 crore - ET BFSI |url=https://bfsi.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/financial-services/u-gro-capital-ties-up-with-bank-of-baroda-for-co-lending-to-disburse-over-rs-1000-crore/84611815 |website=ETBFSI.com |language=en}}</ref>

In the same year, [[State Bank of India]] and [[Central Bank of India]] entered into a co-lending agreement with U GRO Capital.<ref>{{cite web |title=SBI, U Gro Capital join hands under co-lending scheme |url=https://www.livemint.com/companies/news/sbi-u-gro-capital-join-hands-under-co-lending-scheme-11637135370172.html |website=mint |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ugro Capital signs co-lending agreement with Central Bank of India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-cm/ugro-capital-signs-co-lending-agreement-with-central-bank-of-india-121122200353_1.html |website=www.business-standard.com }}</ref>

In June 2023, [[Investment Fund for Developing Countries|IFU]], a [[Government of Denmark]]'s Development Financial Institution invested DKK 200 million in UGRO Capital to support green finance for MSMEs in India.<ref>{{cite web |title=IFU invests in UGRO Capital to support green finance for MSMEs in India |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/sme-sector/ifu-invests-in-ugro-capital-to-support-green-finance-for-msmes-in-india/articleshow/101156106.cms |website=The Economic Times }}</ref>

==Awards==
*Global SME Finance Awards 2022, Financer of the Year for Asia (Silver) in Cambodia<ref>{{cite web |title=IFC backed Global SME Forum awards U GRO Capital Financer of the Year for Asia (Silver) in Cambodia |url=http://businessnewsthisweek.com/business/ifc-backed-global-sme-forum-awards-u-gro-capital-financer-of-the-year-for-asia-silver-in-cambodia/#:~:text=Mumbai%2C%2022nd%20September%202022%3A%20U,Global%20SME%20Finance%20Awards%2C%202022. |website=Business News This Week }}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Financial services companies of India]]
[[Category:Indian companies established in 1994]]

Alipurduar (Damanpur) Government Polytechnic

2023-07-11T03:47:23Z

Sana Khan: Finished writing a new contribution.

{{notability|1=Companies}}

{{primary sources}}

{{Infobox university
| name = Alipurduar (Damanpur) Government Polytechnic
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image =
| image_upright =
| image_alt =
| caption =
| latin_name =
| other_name = 
| former_name =
| motto =
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| type = Polytechnic college
| established = {{start date and age|2022}}
| closed = 
| founder =
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| affiliation = [[West Bengal State Council of Technical Education]]
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| address = Damanpur
| city = [[Alipurduar, West Bengal]]
| province =
| country = India
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| campus = Urban
| language = Bengali, English
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| website = https://polytechnic.wbtetsd.gov.in/alipurduargovpoly
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}}
'''Alipurduar (Damanpur) Government Polytechnic''', established in 2022, is a government polytechnic located in [[Alipurduar]], West Bengal, India.

==About college==
This polytechnic is affiliated to the West Bengal State Council of Technical Education,<ref>{{cite web |title=Affiliated Polytechnic with the West Bengal State Council of Technical Education |url=https://polytechnic.wbtetsd.gov.in/}}</ref> and recognised by AICTE, New Delhi. This polytechnic offers diploma courses in Computer Science & Engineering, electronics & telecommunication, and electrical engineering.

==See also==
*[[List of institutions of higher education in West Bengal]]
*[[Education in India]]
*[[Education in West Bengal]]
*[[All India Council for Technical Education]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*https://polytechnic.wbtetsd.gov.in/alipurduargovpoly

{{WBSCTE}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in Alipurduar district]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 2022]]
[[Category:2022 establishments in West Bengal]]
[[Category:Technical universities and colleges in West Bengal]]

{{WestBengal-university-stub}}

Tables of historical exchange rates to the india rupee

2023-05-28T01:10:03Z

Sana Khan: Created an enlightening write-up.

#REDIRECT [[Exchange rate history of the Indian rupee]]

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September 11 attacks

2022-11-18T14:38:25Z

Sana Khan: Just published a comprehensive article.

{{Short description|2001 Islamist terrorist attacks in the United States}}
{{Redirect|9/11|the calendar dates of 9/11|September 11|and|November 9|other uses|September 11 attacks (disambiguation)|and|911 (disambiguation)}}

{{good article}}
{{Use American English}}
{{Use mdy dates}}
{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = September 11 attacks
| image_size = 250px
| image = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 270
| image_style =
| perrow = 1/2/2
| image1 = WTC smoking on 9-11.jpeg
| alt1 = Black smoke billowing over Manhattan from the Twin Towers
| image2 = FEMA - 3969 - Photograph by Andrea Booher taken on 09-19-2001 in New York.jpg
| alt2 = Rescue workers climb through rubble and smoke at the World Trade Center site, and an American flag flies at left
| image3 = DN-SD-03-11451 (cropped).JPEG
| alt3 = A portion of the Pentagon charred and collapsed, exposing the building's interior
| image4 = UA93 fuselage debris (slight cropped).jpg
| alt4 = A fragment of Flight 93's metal fuselage with two windows in the Somerset County, Pennsylvania, forest
| image5 = 9-11 Memorial South Pool.jpg
| alt5 = Illuminated water falls into 9/11 Memorial south pool at sunset, and glass-clad One World Trade Center with other skyscrapers in the background
}}
| caption = {{hlist|''From top, left to right'': The [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|Twin Towers]] burning • [[Rescue and recovery effort after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center|Rescue workers]] at [[World Trade Center site|Ground Zero]] • Collapsed section of [[the Pentagon]] • [[United Airlines Flight 93|Flight 93]] fuselage fragment • [[National September 11 Memorial & Museum|9/11 Memorial]] south reflecting pool}}
| location = {{unbulleted list|style=white-space:nowrap; | [[New York City]], U.S.; |[[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington, Virginia]], U.S.; |[[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania]], U.S.}}
| date = {{start date and age|September 11, 2001}}
| time-begin = {{circa|8:14 a.m.{{efn|The hijackers began their first attack at around 8:14{{nbsp}}a.m., when a group of five took control of [[American Airlines Flight 11]], stabbing several people before forcing their way into the cockpit.}}|lk=no}}
| time-end = 10:03 a.m.{{efn|The [[United Airlines Flight 93|fourth and final hijacked plane]] of the attacks was crashed in a Pennsylvania field at 10:03{{nbsp}}a.m., which concluded the attacks, since all the attackers were now dead and all of the hijacked planes were destroyed. However, the attackers' damage continued as the North Tower kept burning for an additional 25 minutes, until it ultimately collapsed by 10:28{{nbsp}}a.m.}}
| timezone = [[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]]
| type = {{unbulleted list |[[Islamist terrorism]] |[[Aircraft hijacking]]s|[[Suicide attack]]s|[[Mass murder]]}}
| target = {{unbulleted list |[[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] ([[American Airlines Flight 11|AA 11]] and [[United Airlines Flight 175|UA 175]]) | [[The Pentagon]] ([[American Airlines Flight 77|AA 77]]) |[[United States Capitol|U.S. Capitol Building]] or the [[White House]] ([[United Airlines Flight 93|UA 93]]; unsuccessful due to [[United Airlines Flight 93#Passenger_revolt|passenger revolt]])}}
| fatalities = [[Casualties of the September 11 attacks|2,996]] ([[List of victims of the September 11 attacks|2,977 victims]] + [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|19 al-Qaeda terrorists]])
| injuries = 6,000–25,000{{efn|Sources vary regarding the number of injuries―some say 6,000<ref>{{cite web|title=A Day of Remembrance|date=September 11, 2022 |url=https://ge.usembassy.gov/a-day-of-remembrance/ |publisher=U.S. Embassy in Georgia|access-date=October 27, 2022}}</ref> while others go as high as 25,000.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Stempel|first=Jonathan|title=Accused 9/11 mastermind open to role in victims' lawsuit if not executed|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-sept-11-saudi-ksmohammed/accused-9-11-mastermind-open-to-role-in-victims-lawsuit-if-not-executed-idUSKCN1UO27M|access-date=October 27, 2022|publisher=[[Reuters]]|language=en}}</ref>}}
| perps = {{flag|al-Qaeda}},<ref name="CBC 2004-10-29" /> led by [[Osama bin Laden]] (see also: [[Responsibility for the September 11 attacks|responsibility]])
| partof = [[terrorism in the United States]] 
| numparts = [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|19]]
| motive = Several; see [[Motives for the September 11 attacks]] and [[Fatawā of Osama bin Laden]]
| accused = [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], [[Walid bin Attash]], [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], [[Ammar al-Baluchi]], and [[Mustafa Ahmad al Hawsawi]] (see also: [[United States v. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, et al.]]) 
[[Abdelghani Mzoudi]] (acquitted)
| convicted = {{unbulleted list|[[Zacarias Moussaoui]]|[[Abu Dahdah|Imad Yarkas]]|[[Mounir el-Motassadeq]] (see also: [[Trials related to the September 11 attacks]])}}
| website =
}}
{{Campaignbox al-Qaeda attacks}}


The '''September 11 attacks''', commonly known as '''9/11''',{{efn|The expression ''9/11'' is typically pronounced "nine eleven" in English, even in places that use the opposite [[Date format by country|numerical dating convention]]; the [[Slash (punctuation)|slash]] is not pronounced.}} were four coordinated [[suicide attack|suicide]] [[List of terrorist incidents|terrorist attacks]] carried out by the [[militant]] [[Islamic extremism|Islamist extremist]] network [[al-Qaeda]] against the [[United States]] on Tuesday, September 11, 2001. That morning, [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|19 terrorists]] hijacked four commercial [[airliner]]s scheduled to travel from the [[New England]] and [[Mid-Atlantic (United States)|Mid-Atlantic]] regions of the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] to [[California]]. The hijackers crashed the first two planes into the Twin Towers of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] in New York City, two of the [[History of the world's tallest buildings|five tallest buildings in the world]] at the time, and aimed the next two flights toward targets in or near [[Washington, D.C.]] in a less coordinated attack on the nation's capital. The third team succeeded in crashing into [[the Pentagon]], the headquarters of the [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Department of Defense]] in [[Arlington County, Virginia]], while the fourth plane crashed in rural [[Pennsylvania]] following a passenger revolt. The attacks killed nearly 3,000 people and instigated the multi-decade global [[war on terror]].

The first impact was that of [[American Airlines Flight 11]], which crashed into the [[List of tenants in 1 World Trade Center (1971–2001)|North Tower]] of the World Trade Center complex in [[Lower Manhattan]] at 08:46.{{efn|name=Time4|The exact time is disputed. The 9/11 Commission Report states that Flight 11 struck the North Tower at 8:46:40 a.m.,<ref>{{cite book |last=9/11 Final Report of the National Commission |title=Collapse of WTC1 |year=2004 |url=https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf|page=24}}</ref> NIST reports 8:46:30 a.m.,<ref>{{cite journal |last=National Institute of Standards and Technology |title=Final report on the collapse of the World Trade Center |journal=Nist |year=2005 |url=https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/NCSTAR/ncstar1.pdf|page=69}}</ref> and some other sources claim 8:46:26 a.m.<ref>{{cite news|title=102 Minutes: Last Words at the Trade Center; Fighting to Live as the Towers Die|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/26/nyregion/102-minutes-last-words-at-the-trade-center-fighting-to-live-as-the-towers-die.html|access-date=June 23, 2023}}</ref>}} Sixteen minutes later, at 09:03,{{efn|name=Time|The exact time is disputed. The 9/11 Commission report states that Flight 175 struck the South Tower at 9:03:11 a.m.,<ref>{{cite report |title=Final Report of the 9/11 Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |date=July 22, 2004 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=August 15, 2021 |url=https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |ref={{harvid|9/11 Commission|2004a}} |archive-date=August 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816164111/https://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf |url-status=live |pages=7–8}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |title=Staff Report of the 9/11 Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States |orig-date=August 26, 2004 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=August 15, 2021 |url=https://www.archives.gov/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |ref={{harvid|9/11 Commission|2004b}}|archive-date=July 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712075041/http://www.archives.gov/research/9-11/staff-report-sept2005.pdf |url-status=live |page=24}}</ref> NIST reports 9:02:59 a.m.,<ref>{{cite report |title=Visual Evidence, Damage Estimates, and Timeline Analysis |author=Building and Fire Research Laboratory |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology, United States Department of Commerce |url=https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/NCSTAR/ncstar1-5av1.pdf |ref={{harvid|NISTb|2005}} |access-date=August 24, 2021|archive-date=September 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911011051/https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/NCSTAR/ncstar1-5av1.pdf |url-status=live |page=27}}</ref> and some other sources claim 9:03:02 a.m.<ref>{{cite news |title=Timeline for United Airlines Flight 175 |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1962517 |publisher=NPR |language=en |access-date=August 24, 2021 |archive-date=August 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824221736/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1962517 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} the World Trade Center's [[List of tenants in 2 World Trade Center|South Tower]] was hit by [[United Airlines Flight 175]]. Both [[Collapse of the World Trade Center|110-story skyscrapers collapsed]] within an hour and forty-one minutes,{{efn|name=Time1|While NIST and the 9/11 Commission give differing accounts of the exact second of the North Tower's collapse initiation, with NIST placing it at 10:28:22 a.m.<ref>{{cite journal |last=National Institute of Standards and Technology |title=Final report on the collapse of the World Trade Center |journal=Nist |year=2005 |url=https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/NCSTAR/ncstar1.pdf|page=229}}</ref> and the commission at 10:28:25 a.m.,<ref>{{cite book |last=9/11 Final Report of the National Commission |title=Collapse of WTC1 |year=2004 |url=https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf|page=329}}</ref> it is generally accepted that Flight 11 did not strike the North Tower any sooner than 8:46:26 a.m.,<ref>{{cite news|title=102 Minutes: Last Words at the Trade Center; Fighting to Live as the Towers Die|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/26/nyregion/102-minutes-last-words-at-the-trade-center-fighting-to-live-as-the-towers-die.html|access-date=June 23, 2023}}</ref> so the time it took for the North Tower to collapse was just shy of 102 minutes either way.}} bringing about the destruction of the remaining five structures in the WTC complex, as well as damaging or destroying various other buildings surrounding the towers. A third flight, [[American Airlines Flight 77]], crashed into the Pentagon at 09:37, causing a partial collapse. The fourth and final flight, [[United Airlines Flight 93]], flew in the direction of the capital. Alerted to the previous attacks, the passengers retaliated in an attempt to take control of the aircraft, forcing the hijackers to crash the plane in a [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|Stonycreek Township]] field, near [[Shanksville]] at 10:03 that morning. Investigators determined that Flight 93's target was either the [[United States Capitol]] or the [[White House]].

Within hours of the attacks, the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] determined that al-Qaeda was responsible. The United States formally [[U.S. government response to the September 11 attacks|responded]] by launching the war on terror and [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|invading Afghanistan]] to depose the [[Taliban]], which rejected the conditions of U.S. terms to expel al-Qaeda from Afghanistan and extradite its leaders. The U.S.'s invocation of [[North Atlantic Treaty#Article 5|Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty]]—its only usage to date—called upon allies to fight al-Qaeda. As U.S. and [[NATO]] invasion forces swept through Afghanistan, al-Qaeda leader [[Osama bin Laden]] disappeared into the [[Spīn Ghar|White Mountains]], [[Battle of Tora Bora|eluding captivity]] by western forces.<ref name="BBC News 2011-07-11">{{cite news |first=Gordon |last=Corera |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-14190032 |title=Bin Laden's Tora Bora escape, just months after 9/11 |publisher=BBC News }}</ref> Although bin Laden initially denied any involvement, [[2004 Osama bin Laden video|in 2004]] he formally claimed [[Responsibility for the September 11 attacks|responsibility for the attacks]].<ref name="CBC 2004-10-29">{{cite news |title=Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11 |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bin-laden-claims-responsibility-for-9-11-1.513654 |quote=Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden appeared in a new message aired on an Arabic TV station Friday night, for the first time claiming direct responsibility for the 2001 attacks against the United States. |publisher=CBC News |access-date=September 1, 2011}}</ref> Al-Qaeda's cited motivations included [[1982 Lebanon War|the 1982 Israeli invasion of South Lebanon]], the presence of [[Operation Southern Watch|U.S. military bases in Saudi Arabia]], and [[sanctions against Iraq|devastation caused to Iraq by the UNSC sanctions]]. The nearly decade-long [[Manhunt for Osama bin Laden|manhunt for bin Laden]] concluded on May 2, 2011 when [[Killing of Osama bin Laden|he was killed by the U.S. military and CIA]] after being tracked down to his compound in [[Abbottabad]], [[Pakistan]]. The [[War in Afghanistan|war in Afghanistan]] continued for another eight years until the agreement was made in February 2020 for American and NATO troops to [[Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2020–2021)|withdraw from the country]], and the last members of the U.S. armed forces left the region on August 30, 2021.

The attacks [[Casualties of the September 11 attacks|killed 2,996 people, injured thousands more]], and gave rise to [[Health effects arising from the September 11 attacks|substantial long-term health consequences]] while also generating at least $10{{spaces}}billion in infrastructure and property damage.<ref name="IAGS cost">{{cite web |title=How much did the September 11 terrorist attack cost America? |url=http://www.iags.org/costof911.html |access-date=April 30, 2014 |publisher=Institute for the Analysis of Global Security}}</ref><ref name="PEARL9/11">{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Matthew J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JDEfUCll7DcC |title=The Impact of 9/11 on Politics and War: The Day that Changed Everything? |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-60763-7 |page=222}}</ref> It remains the [[List of battles and other violent events by death toll#Non-state (terrorist) attacks|deadliest terrorist attack in human history]], the [[Aviation accidents and incidents|deadliest aviation-related disaster of all time]] and the single deadliest incident for both [[List of the deadliest firefighter disasters in the United States|firefighters]] and [[List of law enforcement officers killed in the line of duty in the United States|law enforcement]] personnel in the history of the United States, killing 340<ref>{{cite web |title=Deadliest incidents resulting in the deaths of 8 or more firefighters |url=https://www.nfpa.org/News-and-Research/Data-research-and-tools/Emergency-Responders/Firefighter-fatalities-in-the-United-States/Deadliest-incidents-resulting-in-the-deaths-of-8-or-more-firefighters |publisher=[[National Fire Protection Association]]}}</ref> and 72,<ref>{{cite web |title=Congressional Record, Vol. 148, No. 76 |url=https://www.congress.gov/107/crec/2002/06/11/CREC-2002-06-11.pdf |publisher=Government Printing Office |page=H3312 |quote=[[Joel Hefley|Mr. Hefley]]: That fateful Tuesday we lost 72 police officers, the largest single loss of law enforcement personnel in a single day in the history of our country.}}</ref> respectively. The destruction of the World Trade Center and its environs seriously harmed the New York City economy and [[Economic effects of the September 11 attacks|induced global market shocks]]. Many other countries strengthened [[anti-terrorism legislation]] and expanded their powers of [[Law enforcement agency|law enforcement]] and [[Intelligence agency|intelligence agencies]]. Cleanup of the [[World Trade Center site]] (colloquially "Ground Zero") took eight months and was completed in May 2002, while the Pentagon was repaired within a year. After delays in the design of a replacement complex, construction of the One World Trade Center began in November 2006; it opened in November 2014.<ref name="Moore One WTC">{{cite web |last=Moore |first=Jack |title=World Trade Center Re-opens as Tallest Building in America|url=http://onewtc.com/news/world-trade-center-re-opens-as-tallest-building-in-america|publisher=One World Trade Center|access-date=September 11, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904120549/http://onewtc.com/news/world-trade-center-re-opens-as-tallest-building-in-america|archive-date=September 4, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Aaron|title=One World Trade Center opens today|url=https://money.cnn.com/2014/11/03/news/companies/one-world-trade-center/index.html|publisher=CNN|access-date=November 4, 2014}}</ref> [[Memorials and services for the September 11 attacks|Memorials to the attacks]] include the [[National September 11 Memorial & Museum]] in New York City, the [[Pentagon Memorial]] in Arlington County, Virginia, and the [[Flight 93 National Memorial]] at the Pennsylvania crash site.

== Background ==
{{further|Responsibility for the September 11 attacks}}
{{See also|Jihadist extremism in the United States|9/11 Commission Report}}

=== Al-Qaeda{{anchor|Al-Qaeda}} ===
{{Main|Al-Qaeda}}
{{further|Jihad|Wahhabism}}
The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979, when the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan]]. Osama bin Laden traveled to the central Asian country<ref>{{cite book|title=Islam as Resistance|first=Chiara|last=Formichi|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2020|page=206}}</ref> to volunteer, viewing the war as a [[holy]] cause to help fellow Muslims (in Afghanistan) defeat [[Communism|Communist]] invaders (the Soviets).<ref name="CTCSentinel2008-03">{{cite news
| url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA493790&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf
| title=Jihad After Iraq: Lessons from the Arab Afghans Phenomenon
| work=[[CTC Sentinel]]
| date=March 2008
| first=Mohammed M. |last=Hafez
| volume=1
| number=4
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110508004955/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA493790
| url-status=dead
| archive-date=May 8, 2011
}}</ref> Bin Laden organized fellow Arab [[mujahideen]] (the "[[Afghan Arabs]]") to resist the Soviets until that country's exit from Afghanistan in 1989.<ref>{{cite news |title=Al-Qaeda's origins and links |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1670089.stm |publisher=[[BBC News]] |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref> The U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) funneled several billion dollars worth of weapons to the indigenous [[Afghan mujahideen]] resistance, a portion of which bled to the Arab volunteers.<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Steve Coll|last=Coll|first=Steve|title=[[Ghost Wars|Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001]]|publisher=[[Penguin Group]]|year=2004|isbn=9781594200076|pages=144–145, 238}}</ref> However, no direct U.S. aid to bin Laden or any of his affiliates has ever been established.{{sfnp|Bergen|2006|pp=[https://archive.org/details/osamabinladenikn00berg_0/page/60 60]–61}}

In 1996, bin Laden issued his first ''[[Fatwa|fatwā]]'', calling for [[Withdrawal of United States troops from Saudi Arabia|American soldiers to leave]] [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Bin Laden's fatwā (1996) |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html |url-status=dead |publisher=PBS |access-date=May 29, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011031024057/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html |archive-date=October 31, 2001}}</ref> In a second ''fatwā'' in 1998, bin Laden outlined his objections to [[Foreign policy of the United States|American foreign policy]] with respect to Israel, as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the [[Gulf War]].<ref name="PBS 2013-11-28">{{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military-jan-june98-fatwa_1998/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131128194258/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military/jan-june98/fatwa_1998.html|archive-date=November 28, 2013 |title=Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa |website=[[PBS NewsHour]] |publisher=[[PBS]] |url-status=live |access-date=May 29, 2014}}</ref> Bin Laden used [[Islam]]ic texts to exhort [[Muslims]] to attack Americans until the stated grievances were reversed. [[Ulama|Muslim legal scholars]] "have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the [[jihad]] is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries", according to bin Laden.<ref name="PBS 2013-11-28" /><ref>{{cite book|last=Logevall|first=Fredrik|title=Terrorism and 9/11: A Reader|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|year=2002|isbn=0-618-25535-4|location=New York}}</ref>

==== Osama bin Laden ====
{{Main|Osama bin Laden}}
{{further|Militant activity of Osama bin Laden}}
[[File:Osama bin Laden portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Osama bin Laden|bin Laden]] {{circa|1997–1998}}]]
Bin Laden orchestrated the attacks. He initially denied involvement, but later recanted his false statements.<ref name="CBC 2004-10-29" /><ref name="BBC6Jul2011">{{cite news |title=Pakistan inquiry orders Bin Laden family to remain|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14041604 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref><ref name="ajNov2004">{{cite news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613014620/http://english.aljazeera.net/English/archive/archive?ArchiveId=7403 |archive-date=June 13, 2007 |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/English/archive/archive?ArchiveId=7403 |title=Full transcript of bin Laden's speech |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref> [[Al Jazeera]] broadcast a statement by him on September 16, 2001: "I stress that I have not carried out this act, which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation."<ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistan to Demand Taliban Give Up Bin Laden as Iran Seals Afghan Border |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,34440,00.html |publisher=Fox News |access-date=September 3, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523082548/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,34440,00.html |archive-date=May 23, 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In November 2001, U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in [[Jalalabad, Afghanistan]]. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to [[Khaled bin Ouda bin Mohammed al-Harbi|Khaled al-Harbi]] and [[Videos and audio recordings of Osama bin Laden#December 13, 2001|admits foreknowledge]] of the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bin Laden on tape: Attacks 'benefited Islam greatly' |publisher=[[CNN]] |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/12/13/ret.bin.laden.videotape/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227125232/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/12/13/ret.bin.laden.videotape/ |archive-date=December 27, 2007 |url-status=dead |access-date=November 24, 2013 |quote=Reveling in the details of the fatal attacks, bin Laden brags in Arabic that he knew about them beforehand and says the destruction went beyond his hopes. He says the attacks "benefited Islam greatly".}}</ref> On December 27, 2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said:

{{blockquote|It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred for Islam.{{spaces}}... It is the hatred of [[crusaders]]. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, which kills our people.{{spaces}}... We say that the end of the United States is imminent, whether Bin Laden or his followers are alive or dead, for the awakening of the Muslim [[ummah]] [nation] has occurred.{{spaces}}... It is important to hit the economy (of the United States), which is the base of its military power...If the economy is hit they will become reoccupied.|author=Osama bin Laden}}

but he stopped short of admitting responsibility for the attacks.<ref>{{cite news |title=Transcript: Bin Laden video excerpts |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1729882.stm |publisher=BBC News |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref>

Shortly before the [[2004 United States presidential election|U.S. presidential election in 2004]], bin Laden used a [[2004 Osama bin Laden video|taped statement]] to publicly acknowledge al-Qaeda's involvement in the attacks on the United States. He admitted his direct link to the attacks and said they were carried out because{{spaces}}...

{{blockquote| The events that affected my soul in a direct way started in 1982 when America permitted the Israelis to invade Lebanon and the American Sixth Fleet helped them in that. This bombardment began and many were killed and injured and others were terrorised and displaced.

I couldn't forget those moving scenes, blood and severed limbs, women and children sprawled everywhere. Houses destroyed along with their occupants and high rises demolished over their residents, rockets raining down on our home without mercy...And as I looked at those demolished towers in Lebanon, it entered my mind that we should punish the oppressor in kind and that we should destroy towers in America in order that they taste some of what we tasted and so that they be deterred from killing our women and children.

And that day, it was confirmed to me that oppression and the intentional killing of innocent women and children is a deliberate American policy. Destruction is freedom and democracy, while resistance is terrorism and intolerance.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bin Ladin |first=Osama |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2004/11/1/full-transcript-of-bin-ladins-speech |title=Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech |agency=Al Jazeera |date=November 1, 2004 |access-date=June 3, 2023}}</ref>}} Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.<ref>{{cite news|access-date=February 2, 2019|title=Bin Laden Dead – Where Are Other 9/11 Planners?|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/osama-bin-laden-dead-911-perpetrators-now/story?id=13511484|publisher=[[ABC News]]|quote=While initially denying responsibility for the 9/11 attacks, Bin Laden took responsibility for them in a 2004 taped statement, saying that he had personally directed the hijackers.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|access-date=February 2, 2019|title=Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11|publisher=[[CBC News]]|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bin-laden-claims-responsibility-for-9-11-1.513654}}</ref> Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 shows bin Laden with one of the attacks' chief planners, [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], as well as two hijackers, [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]] and [[Wail al-Shehri]], as they made preparations for the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bin-laden-9-11-planning-video-aired-1.618703 |title=Bin Laden 9/11 planning video aired |publisher=[[CBC News]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013183902/https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bin-laden-9-11-planning-video-aired-1.618703 |archive-date=October 13, 2007 |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref> The U.S. never formally indicted bin Laden for the September 11 attacks, but he was on the FBI's Most Wanted List for the [[1998 United States embassy bombings|bombings of the U.S. Embassies]] in [[Dar es Salaam, Tanzania]], and [[Nairobi, Kenya]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Clewley |first=Robin|title=How Osama Cracked FBI's Top 10 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |url=https://www.wired.com/politics/law/news/2001/09/47109 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526032503/http://www.wired.com/politics/law/news/2001/09/47109 |archive-date=May 26, 2008 |access-date=May 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fbi.gov/wanted/topten/usama-bin-laden|title=Usama Bin Laden|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101011161759/https://www.fbi.gov/wanted/topten/usama-bin-laden|archive-date=October 11, 2010|access-date=September 10, 2011}}</ref> After a [[Manhunt for Osama bin Laden|10-year manhunt]], U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] announced that bin Laden was [[death of Osama bin Laden|killed by American special forces]] in his [[Osama bin Laden's compound in Abbottabad|compound]] in [[Abbottabad]], Pakistan, on May 1, 2011.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/asia/osama-bin-laden-is-killed.html|title=Bin Laden Is Dead, President Obama Says |last1=Baker |first1=Peter |last2=Cooper |first2=Helene |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref>

==== Khalid Sheikh Mohammed ====
{{Main|Khalid Sheikh Mohammed}}
[[File:Khalid Shaikh Mohammed after capture.jpg|thumb|[[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] after his capture in 2003]]
Journalist [[Yosri Fouda]] of the Arabic television channel [[Al Jazeera]] reported that in April 2002 al-Qaeda member [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] admitted his involvement in the attacks, along with Ramzi bin al-Shibh.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,3604,906911,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123195032/http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0%2C3604%2C906911%2C00.html |archive-date=January 23, 2008 |title=We left out nuclear targets, for now |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=September 3, 2011 |quote=Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel al-Jazeera is the only journalist to have interviewed Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the al-Qaeda military commander arrested at the weekend.|location=London |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/3685099/Alleged-911-mastermind-wants-to-confess-to-plot.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/3685099/Alleged-911-mastermind-wants-to-confess-to-plot.html |archive-date=January 10, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Alleged 9/11 mastermind wants to confess to plot |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |access-date=September 3, 2011 |location=London|first1=Tom|last1=Leonard|first2=Alex|last2=Spillius}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="aljazeera2007" /> The 2004 [[9/11 Commission Report]] determined that the animosity towards the United States felt by Mohammed, the principal architect of the 9/11 attacks, stemmed from his "violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel".<ref name="9/11 Commission Report 2004 p147">9/11 Commission Report (2004), p. 147.</ref> Mohammed was also an adviser and financier of the [[1993 World Trade Center bombing]] and the uncle of [[Ramzi Yousef]], the lead bomber in that attack.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/26/white-house-power-grabs/|title=White House power grabs |work=[[The Washington Times]]|access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-04-04/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-terror-indictment-unsealed-dismissed.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110417023034/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-04-04/khalid-sheikh-mohammed-terror-indictment-unsealed-dismissed.html|archive-date=April 17, 2011|title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Terror Indictment Unsealed, Dismissed |last1=Van Voris |first1=Bob |last2=Hurtado |first2=Patricia|work=[[Bloomberg BusinessWeek]]|access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref>

Mohammed was arrested on March 1, 2003, in [[Rawalpindi]], Pakistan, by Pakistani security officials working with the CIA. He was then held at multiple [[Black site|CIA secret prisons]] and [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp|Guantanamo Bay]], where he was interrogated and tortured with methods including [[waterboarding]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Shannon |first1=Elaine |last2=Weisskopf |first2=Michael |title=Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Names Names |url=http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,436061,00.html |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN08420997|title=US judge orders CIA to turn over 'torture' memo-ACLU|publisher=[[Reuters]]|access-date=September 3, 2011 |first=Michelle|last=Nichols}}</ref> During U.S. hearings at Guantanamo Bay in March 2007, Mohammed again confessed his responsibility for the attacks, stating he "was responsible for the 9/11 operation from A to Z" and that his statement was not made under duress.<ref name="aljazeera2007">{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2007/03/200852512026300115.html |title=September 11 suspect 'confesses' |publisher=[[Al Jazeera]] |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Key 9/11 suspect 'admits guilt' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6452573.stm |publisher=[[BBC News]] |access-date=April 10, 2012}}</ref>

In a letter presented by his lawyers at the U.S. District Court in Manhattan on July 26, 2019, Mohammed indicated an interest in testifying about Saudi Arabia's role in the 9/11 attacks and helping the victims and families of the victims of 9/11 in exchange for the United States not seeking the death penalty against him. James Kreindler, one of the lawyers for the victims, raised questions over the usefulness of his testimony.<ref name="exchange">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-sept-11-saudi-ksmohammed/accused-9-11-mastermind-open-to-role-in-victims-lawsuit-if-not-executed-idUSKCN1UO27M|title=Accused 9/11 mastermind open to role in victims' lawsuit if not executed|access-date=July 29, 2019|publisher=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>

==== Other al-Qaeda members ====
{{further|Trials related to the September 11 attacks}}
In "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" from the trial of [[Zacarias Moussaoui]], five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation's details. They are bin Laden; Khalid Sheikh Mohammed; Ramzi bin al-Shibh; [[Abu Turab al-Urduni]]; and [[Mohammed Atef]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed |page=24 |url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/defense/941.pdf |year=2006 |publisher=[[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia]] |access-date=September 3, 2011 |archive-date=October 26, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026151908/http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/defense/941.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> To date, only peripheral figures have been tried or convicted for the attacks.

On September 26, 2005, the [[Audiencia Nacional|Spanish high court]] sentenced [[Abu Dahdah]] to 27 years in prison for conspiracy on the 9/11 attacks and being a member of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda. At the same time, another 17 al-Qaeda members were sentenced to penalties of between six and eleven years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/spain-jails-18-alqaeda-operatives/2005/09/27/1127586828047.html |title=Spain jails 18 al-Qaeda operatives|work=[[The Age]] |location=Melbourne |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref> On February 16, 2006, the Spanish Supreme Court reduced Abu Dahdah's penalty to 12 years because it considered that his participation in the conspiracy was not proven.<ref>{{cite news |first=Philippe |last=Naughton |title=Spanish court quashes 9/11 conviction |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article670596.ece |work=[[The Times]] |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref>

Also in 2006 Moussaoui, who some originally suspected might have been the assigned twentieth hijacker, was convicted for the lesser role of conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism and air piracy. He was sentenced to life in prison without parole in the United States.<ref>Summers and Swan (2011), p. 489n.</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Youssef|first=Maamoun|title=Bin Laden: Moussaoui Not Linked to 9/11|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/23/AR2006052301688.html}}</ref> [[Mounir el-Motassadeq]], an associate of the Hamburg-based hijackers, served 15 years in Germany for his role in helping the hijackers prepare for the attacks. He was released in October 2018 and deported to Morocco.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/1426221/9-11-one-of-the-few-men-convicted-mounir-el-motassadeq-is-free/|title=9/11: One of the few men convicted, Mounir el-Motassadeq, is free |website=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|access-date=October 26, 2018}}</ref>

The [[Hamburg cell]] in Germany included radical Islamists who eventually came to be key operatives in the 9/11 attacks.<ref>{{cite news |publisher=BBC News |title=The Hamburg connection|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2349195.stm}}</ref> [[Mohamed Atta]]; [[Marwan al-Shehhi]]; [[Ziad Jarrah]]; [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]]; and [[Said Bahaji]] were all members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell.<ref>"[http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm Chapter of the 9/11 Commission Report detailing the history of the Hamburg Cell] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816215318/http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch5.htm }}". [[9/11 Commission]].</ref>

=== Motives ===
{{Main|Motives for the September 11 attacks}}
{{Further|Fatwa of Osama bin Laden}}
{{See also|Islam and violence|Islam and war}}
Osama bin Laden's declaration of a [[Religious war|holy war]] against the United States, and a [[Fatawā of Osama bin Laden|1998 ''fatwā'' signed by bin Laden]] and others, calling for the killing of Americans,<ref name="PBS 2013-11-28" /> are seen by investigators as evidence of his motivation.<ref>Gunarathna, pp. 61–62.</ref>

In bin Laden's November 2002 "Letter to America", he explicitly stated that al-Qaeda's motives for their attacks include:
* [[Israel–United States military relations|U.S. support of Israel]]<ref name="bin Laden" /><ref name="Israel sources">
*Mearsheimer (2007), p. 67.
*Kushner (2003), p. 389.
*Murdico (2003), p. 64.
*Kelley (2006), p. 207.
*Ibrahim (2007), p. 276.
*{{harvp|Berner|2007|p=80}}</ref>
* The "attacks against Muslims" in [[Somalia]]
* Support of the [[Philippines]] against Muslims in the [[Moro conflict]]
* Support for [[Israelis|Israeli]] "aggression" against Muslims in [[Lebanon]]
* Support of [[Russians|Russian]] "atrocities against Muslims" in [[Chechnya]]
* Pro-American governments in the [[Middle East]] (who "act as your agents") being against Muslim interests
* Support of [[Indian people|Indian]] "oppression against Muslims" in [[Kashmir]]
* The [[Operation Southern Watch|presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia]]<ref>
*Plotz, David (2001) [http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/assessment/2001/09/what_does_osama_bin_laden_want.html What Does Osama Bin Laden Want?], ''Slate''
*{{harvp|Bergen|2001|p=3}}
*{{cite news |last=Yusufzai |first=Rahimullah |title=Face to face with Osama |url=https://www.theguardian.com/g2/story/0,3604,558075,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080119011449/http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0%2C3604%2C558075%2C00.html |work=The Guardian |location=London |access-date=September 3, 2011 |archive-date=January 19, 2008}}
*{{cite news |title=US pulls out of Saudi Arabia |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2984547.stm |publisher=BBC News |access-date=September 3, 2011}}
*{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1025558570331929960 |title=Saga of Dr. Zawahri Sheds Light on the Roots of al Qaeda Terror |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |access-date=September 3, 2011 |url-access=subscription}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/archive/hearing10/9-11Commission_Hearing_2004-04-13.htm |title=Tenth Public Hearing, Testimony of Louis Freeh |publisher=9/11 Commission |access-date=September 3, 2011}}
*{{cite web |title=Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders: World Islamic Front Statement |url=https://fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/980223-fatwa.htm |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]] |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref>
* The [[sanctions against Iraq]]<ref name="bin Laden">
*{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html |title=Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=April 10, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101093303/http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html |archive-date=January 1, 2016}}
*{{cite news|first=Osama |last=bin Laden |title=Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver |work=[[The Observer]] |access-date=September 3, 2011 |location=London}}</ref>
* The [[Environmental destruction]]<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver |work=The Guardian |location=London |title=Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America' |access-date=2010-04-26| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418164357/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver| archive-date=18 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/topstories/2008/04/23/osama-bin-laden-s-aide-ayman-al-zawahiri-rants-on-global-warming-89520-20391770/|title=Osama bin Laden's aide Ayman al-Zawahiri rants on global warming - Mirror.co.uk|website=[[Daily Mirror]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/2010/01/29/2010-01-29_al_qaeda_leader_osama_bin_laden_blasts_us_in_tape_for_global_warming.html |work=New York Daily News |title=Al Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden blasts U.S. in audiotape spewing hate for... global warming |first=Brian |last=Kates }}</ref>

After the attacks, bin Laden and [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] released additional [[Videos and audio recordings of Osama bin Laden|videotapes]] and audio recordings, some of which repeated those reasons for the attacks. Two particularly important publications were bin Laden's 2002 "Letter to America"<ref name="BLLTA">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver |title=Full transcript of bin Laden's 'Letter to America' |work=The Guardian |access-date=September 3, 2011 |location=London}}</ref> and a 2004 videotape by bin Laden.<ref name="Full Ladin">{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html |title=Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech |access-date=April 10, 2012 |last=bin Laden |first=Osama |publisher=[[Al Jazeera]] |quote=So I shall talk to you about the story behind those events and shall tell you truthfully about the moments in which the decision was taken, for you to consider |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101093303/http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html |archive-date=January 1, 2016 }}</ref>

Bin Laden interpreted [[Muhammad]] as having banned the "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia".<ref>{{cite book |last=Bergen |first=Peter L. |author-link=Peter L. Bergen |title=Holy War, Inc.: Inside the Secret World of Osama Bin Laden |year=2005 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7432-3467-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sRhZDrJb0zgC&pg=PP1|access-date=March 20, 2020}}</ref> In 1996, [[Fatawā of Osama bin Laden|bin Laden issued]] a ''[[fatwā]]'' calling for American troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In 1998, al-Qaeda wrote "for over seven years the United States has been occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of places, the Arabian Peninsula, plundering its riches, dictating to its rulers, humiliating its people, terrorizing its neighbors, and turning its bases in the Peninsula into a spearhead through which to fight the neighboring Muslim peoples."<ref name="1998 Al Qaeda fatwā">{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/980223-fatwa.htm |title=1998 Al Qaeda fatwā |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]] (FAS) |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref>

In a December 1999 interview, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to [[Mecca]]", and considered this a provocation to the entire Muslim world.<ref name="guardian-20010926">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/sep/26/afghanistan.terrorism3 |title=Face to face with Osama |work=The Guardian |location=London|access-date=September 3, 2011 |first=Rahimullah |last=Yusufzai}}</ref> One analysis of suicide terrorism suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, al-Qaeda likely would not have been able to get people to commit to suicide missions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pape |first=Robert A. |author-link=Robert Pape |title=Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism |year=2005 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8129-7338-9|url=https://archive.org/details/dyingtowinstrate00pape|access-date=March 20, 2020}}</ref>

In the 1998 ''fatwā'', al-Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans, condemning the "protracted blockade" among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against "Allah, his messenger, and Muslims."<ref name="1998 Al Qaeda fatwā" /> The ''fatwā'' declared that "the ruling to kill the Americans and their allies{{snd}}civilians and military{{snd}}is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the [[Temple Mount|al-Aqsa Mosque]] and the holy mosque of Mecca from their grip, and in order for their [the Americans'] armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim."<ref name="PBS 2013-11-28" /><ref>See also the 1998 [[Fatawā of Osama bin Laden|Al-Qaeda ''fatwā'']]: "The ruling to kill the Americans and their allies{{snd}}civilians and military{{snd}}is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque [Mecca] from their grip, and in order for their armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim." Quoted from {{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military-jan-june98-fatwa_1998/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131128194258/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military/jan-june98/fatwa_1998.html|archive-date=November 28, 2013 |title=Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa |website=[[PBS NewsHour]] |publisher=[[PBS]] |url-status=dead |access-date=May 29, 2014}}</ref>

In 2004, Bin Laden claimed that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982, when he witnessed Israel's bombardment of high-rise apartment buildings during the [[1982 Lebanon War]].<ref>Summers and Swan (2011), pp. 211, 506n.</ref><ref>Lawrence (2005), p. 239.</ref> Some analysts, including political scientists [[John Mearsheimer]] and [[Stephen Walt]], also claimed that U.S. support of Israel was one motive for the attacks.<ref name="Israel sources" /><ref name="guardian-20010926" /> In 2004 and 2010, bin Laden again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel, although most of the letter expressed bin Laden's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden's hope to "destroy and bankrupt" the U.S.<ref>{{cite news|title=Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html%20online%20here|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=August 24, 2016|archive-date=November 14, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114080708/http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html%20online%20here|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>In his taped broadcast from January 2010, Bin Laden said "Our attacks against you [the United States] will continue as long as U.S. support for Israel continues.{{spaces}}... The message sent to you with the attempt by the hero Nigerian [[Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab]] is a confirmation of our previous message conveyed by the heroes of September{{spaces}}11". Quoted from [http://www.haaretz.com/news/bin-laden-attacks-on-u-s-to-go-on-as-long-as-it-supports-israel-1.265770 "Bin Laden: Attacks on U.S. to go on as long as it supports Israel"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161216081625/http://www.haaretz.com/news/bin-laden-attacks-on-u-s-to-go-on-as-long-as-it-supports-israel-1.265770 }}, in Haaretz.com</ref>

Other motives have been suggested in addition to those stated by bin Laden and al-Qaeda. Some authors suggested the "humiliation" that resulted from the Islamic world falling behind the Western world{{snd}}this discrepancy was rendered especially visible by globalization<ref>Bernard Lewis, 2004. In [[Bernard Lewis]]'s 2004 book ''[[The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror]]'', he argues that animosity toward the West is best understood with the decline of the once powerful [[Ottoman empire]], compounded by the import of western ideas{{snd}}[[Arab socialism]], [[Liberal movements within Islam|Arab liberalism]] and [[Secularism in the Middle East|Arab secularism]]</ref><ref>In "The spirit of terrorism", [[Jean Baudrillard]] described 9/11 as the first global event that "questions the very process of globalization". {{cite web |url=http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~ikalmar/illustex/baudriterror.htm |title=The spirit of terrorism |last=Baudrillard |access-date=June 26, 2011}}</ref> and a desire to provoke the U.S. into a broader war against the Islamic world in the hope of motivating more allies to support al-Qaeda. Similarly, others have argued that 9/11 was a strategic move with the objective of provoking America into a war that would incite a [[pan-Islamism|pan-Islamic]] revolution.<ref>In an essay entitled "Somebody Else's Civil War", [[Michael Scott Doran]] argues the attacks are best understood as part of a religious conflict within the Muslim world and that Bin Laden's followers "consider themselves an island of true believers surrounded by a sea of iniquity". Hoping that U.S. retaliation would unite the faithful against the West, bin Laden sought to spark revolutions in Arab nations and elsewhere. Doran argues the [[Osama bin Laden videos]] attempt to provoke a visceral reaction in the Middle East and ensure that Muslim citizens would react as violently as possible to an increase in U.S. involvement in their region. ({{cite magazine|url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2002-01-01/somebody-elses-civil-war|title=Somebody Else's Civil War|first=Michael Scott |last=Doran |issue=January/February 2002|magazine=[[Foreign Affairs]]|access-date=December 5, 2009|url-access=subscription}} Reprinted in {{cite book|last1=Hoge|first1=James F.|last2=Rose|first2=Gideon|title=Understanding the War on Terror |publisher=Norton |year=2005 |location=New York|isbn=978-0-87609-347-4|pages=72–75}})</ref><ref>In ''The Osama bin Laden I Know'', [[Peter Bergen]] argues the attacks were part of a plan to cause the United States to ''increase'' its military and cultural presence in the Middle East, thereby forcing Muslims to confront the idea of a non-Muslim government and to eventually establish conservative Islamic governments in the region.({{harvp|Bergen|2006|p=229}})</ref>

Documents seized during the [[Killing of Osama bin Laden|2011 operation that killed bin Laden]] included a few notes handwritten by bin Laden in September 2002 with the heading "The Birth of the Idea of September 11". In these notes he describes how he was inspired by the crash of [[EgyptAir Flight 990]] on October 31, 1999, which was deliberately crashed by co-pilot [[Gameel Al-Batouti]]. "This is how the idea of 9/11 was conceived and developed in my head, and that is when we began the planning" bin Laden continued, adding that no one but [[Mohammed Atef|Abu Hafs]] and Abu al-Khair knew about it at the time. The 9/11 Commission Report identified Khalid Sheikh Mohammed as the architect of 9/11, but he is not mentioned in bin Laden's notes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lahoud |first=Nelly |title=The Bin Laden Papers: How the Abbottabad Raid Revealed the Truth about al-Qaeda, Its Leader and His Family |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eoppEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 |location=New Haven (CT) |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-26063-2 |pages=16–19, 307}} {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/abbottabad-compound/8F/8F496071D25B831EFBFD5299FBC0DF62_msoB4938.jpg |title=The Birth of the Idea of September 11 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=ar |access-date=April 15, 2022 }}</ref>

=== Planning ===
{{Main|Planning of the September 11 attacks}}
[[File:911 - FEMA - WTC impacts (graphic).svg|thumb|left|alt=Ground zero and surrounding area as seen from directly above depicting where the two planes impacted the towers|Map showing the attacks on the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]]]]
The attacks were conceived by [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], who first presented it to [[Osama bin Laden]] in 1996.<ref>{{cite news |title=Suspect 'reveals 9/11 planning' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3128802.stm |publisher=BBC News |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref> At that time, bin Laden and al-Qaeda were in a period of transition, having just relocated back to Afghanistan from [[Sudan]].<ref name="911-ch5">9/11 Commission Report (2004), Chapter 5, pp. ??{{page needed}}</ref> The [[1998 United States embassy bombings|1998 African embassy bombings]] and bin Laden's February 1998 fatwā marked a turning point of al-Qaeda's terrorist operation,<ref>9/11 Commission Report (2004), p. 67.</ref> as bin Laden became intent on attacking the United States.

In late 1998 or early 1999, bin Laden gave approval for Mohammed to go forward with organizing the plot.<ref>9/11 Commission Report (2004), p. 149.</ref> Mohammed, bin Laden, and [[Mohammed Atef]], the deputy of bin Laden, held a series of meetings in early 1999.<ref>9/11 Commission Report (2004), p. 155.</ref> Atef provided operational support, including target selections and helping arrange travel for the hijackers.<ref name="911-ch5" /> Bin Laden overruled Mohammed, rejecting potential targets such as the [[U.S. Bank Tower (Los Angeles)|U.S. Bank Tower]] in Los Angeles for lack of time.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lichtblau |first=Eric |title=Bin Laden Chose 9/11 Targets, Al Qaeda Leader Says |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/20/us/threats-and-responses-the-plot-bin-laden-chose-9-11-targets-al-qaeda-leader-says.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref>{{sfnp|Wright|2006|p=308}}

[[File:World Trade Center, NY - 2001-09-11 - Debris Impact Areas.svg|thumb|upright|Diagram showing the attacks on the World Trade Center]]
Bin Laden provided leadership and financial support and was involved in selecting participants.{{sfnp|Bergen|2006|p=283}} He initially selected [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]] and [[Khalid al-Mihdhar]], both experienced jihadists who had fought in [[Bosnian war|Bosnia]]. Hazmi and Mihdhar arrived in the United States in mid-January 2000. In early 2000, Hazmi and Mihdhar took flying lessons in San Diego, California, but both spoke little English; performed poorly in flying lessons; and eventually served as secondary ("muscle") hijackers.{{sfnp|Wright|2006|pp=309–15}}<ref>McDermott (2005), pp. 191–92.</ref>

In late 1999, a group of men from [[Hamburg]], Germany, arrived in Afghanistan. The group included [[Mohamed Atta]]; [[Marwan al-Shehhi]]; [[Ziad Jarrah]]; and Ramzi bin al-Shibh.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bernstein |first=Richard |title=On Path to the U.S. Skies, Plot Leader Met bin Laden |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/10/national/10PLOT.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref> Bin Laden selected these men because they were educated, could speak English, and had experience living in the West.{{sfnp|Wright|2006|pp=304–07}} New recruits were routinely screened for special skills and al-Qaeda leaders consequently discovered that [[Hani Hanjour]] already had a commercial pilot's license.{{sfnp|Wright|2006|p=302}} Mohammed later said that he helped the hijackers blend in by teaching them how to order food in restaurants and dress in Western clothing.{{sfnp|Jessee|2006|p=371}}

Hanjour arrived in San Diego on December 8, 2000, joining Hazmi.<ref name="9/11 commission staff statement No. 16">{{cite news|title=9/11 commission staff statement No. 16|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/staff_statement_16.pdf|publisher=9/11 Commission|access-date=September 11, 2012}}</ref>{{Rp|6–7}} They soon left for Arizona, where Hanjour took refresher training.<ref name="9/11 commission staff statement No. 16" />{{rp|7}} Marwan al-Shehhi arrived at the end of May 2000, while Atta arrived on June 3, 2000, and Jarrah arrived on June 27, 2000.<ref name="9/11 commission staff statement No. 16" />{{rp|6}} Bin al-Shibh applied several times for a visa to the United States, but as a Yemeni, he was rejected out of concerns he would overstay his visa.<ref name="9/11 commission staff statement No. 16" />{{rp|4, 14}} Bin al-Shibh stayed in Hamburg, providing coordination between Atta and Mohammed.<ref name="9/11 commission staff statement No. 16" />{{rp|16}} The three [[Hamburg cell]] members all took pilot training in South Florida at [[Huffman Aviation]].<ref name="9/11 commission staff statement No. 16" />{{rp|6}}

In the spring of 2001, the secondary hijackers began arriving in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Monograph.pdf|title=Staff Monograph on 9/11 and Terrorist Travel|publisher=9/11 Commission|year=2004|access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref> In July 2001, Atta met with bin al-Shibh in [[Tarragona]], Catalonia, Spain, where they coordinated details of the plot, including final target selection. Bin al-Shibh also passed along bin Laden's wish for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible.<ref name="irujo">{{cite news|url=http://elpais.com/diario/2004/03/21/espana/1079823611_850215.html |title=Atta recibió en Tarragona joyas para que los miembros del 'comando' del 11-S se hiciesen pasar por ricos saudíes|work=El País|last=Irujo|first=Jose María|access-date=April 10, 2012|language=es}}</ref> Some of the hijackers received passports from corrupt Saudi officials who were family members or used fraudulent passports to gain entry.<ref>{{cite web |title=Entry of the 9/11 Hijackers into the United States Staff Statement No. 1 |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/staff_statements/staff_statement_1.pdf |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon The United States |page=2}}</ref>

There have been a few theories that 9/11 was selected by the hijackers as the date of the attack because of its resemblance to [[9-1-1]], the [[Emergency telephone number|phone number used to report emergencies]] in the United States. However, [[Lawrence Wright]] wrote that the hijackers chose the date when [[John III Sobieski]], the [[King of Poland]] and [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]], began the [[Battle of Vienna|battle]] that turned back the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s Muslim armies that were attempting to capture Vienna on 11 September 1683. During 1683, Vienna was the seat of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and [[Habsburg monarchy]], both major powers in Europe at the time. For Osama bin Laden, this was a date when the West gained some dominance over Islam, and by attacking on this date, he hoped to make a step in Islam "winning" the war for worldwide power and influence.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Hudson |first=John |title=How jihadists schedule terrorist attacks |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/05/03/how-jihadists-schedule-terrorist-attacks/ |magazine=[[Foreign Policy]] |access-date=February 9, 2020 |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Prior intelligence ===
{{Main|September 11 intelligence before the attacks}}
In late 1999, al-Qaeda associate [[Walid bin Attash]] ("Khallad") contacted Mihdhar, telling him to meet him in [[Kuala Lumpur]], Malaysia; Hazmi and [[Abu Bara al Yemeni]] would also be in attendance. The [[NSA]] intercepted a telephone call mentioning the meeting, Mihdhar, and the name "Nawaf" (Hazmi). While the agency feared "Something nefarious might be afoot", it took no further action.

The CIA had already been alerted by Saudi intelligence about the status of Mihdhar and Hazmi as al-Qaeda members, and a CIA team broke into Mihdhar's [[Dubai]] hotel room and discovered that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. While [[Alec Station]] alerted intelligence agencies worldwide about this fact, it did not share this information with the FBI. The [[Malaysian Special Branch]] observed the January 5, 2000, meeting of the two al-Qaeda members and informed the CIA that Mihdhar, Hazmi, and Khallad were flying to [[Bangkok]], but the CIA never notified other agencies of this, nor did it ask the [[State Department]] to put Mihdhar on its watchlist. An FBI liaison to Alec Station asked permission to inform the FBI of the meeting but was told: "This is not a matter for the FBI."{{sfnp|Wright|2006|pp=310–12}}

By late June, senior counter-terrorism official [[Richard A. Clarke|Richard Clarke]] and CIA director [[George Tenet]] were "convinced that a major series of attacks was about to come", although the CIA believed the attacks would likely occur in Saudi Arabia or Israel.{{sfnp|Clarke|2004|pp=235–36}} In early July, Clarke put domestic agencies on "full alert", telling them "Something really spectacular is going to happen here. soon." He asked the FBI and the State Department to alert the embassies and police departments, and the [[United States Department of Defense|Defense Department]] to go to "Threat Condition Delta".{{sfnp|Wright|2006|p=344}}{{sfnp|Clarke|2004|pp=236–37}} Clarke later wrote: "Somewhere in CIA there was information that two known al Qaeda terrorists had come into the United States. Somewhere in FBI, there was information that strange things had been going on at flight schools in the United States{{spaces}}... They had specific information about individual terrorists from which one could have deduced what was about to happen. None of that information got to me or the White House."{{sfnp|Clarke|2004|pp=242–43}}

On July 13, Tom Wilshire, a CIA agent assigned to the FBI's international terrorism division, emailed his superiors at the CIA's [[Counterterrorism Center]] (CTC) requesting permission to inform the FBI that Hazmi was in the country and that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. The CIA never responded.{{sfnp|Wright|2006|p=340}}

The same day in July, Margarette Gillespie, an FBI analyst working in the CTC, was told to review material about the Malaysia meeting. She was not told of the participant's presence in the U.S. The CIA gave Gillespie surveillance photos of Mihdhar and Hazmi from the meeting to show to FBI counterterrorism but did not tell her their significance. The Intelink database informed her not to share intelligence material on the meeting with criminal investigators. When shown the photos, the FBI were refused more details on their significance, and they were not given Mihdhar's date of birth nor passport number.{{sfnp|Wright|2006|pp=340–43}} In late August 2001, Gillespie told the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|INS]], the State Department, the [[United States Customs Service|Customs Service]], and the FBI to put Hazmi and Mihdhar on their watchlists, but the FBI was prohibited from using criminal agents in searching for the duo, hindering their efforts.{{sfnp|Wright|2006|pp=352–53}}

Also in July, a [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]]-based FBI agent sent a message to FBI headquarters, Alec Station, and FBI agents in New York alerting them to "the possibility of a coordinated effort by Osama bin Laden to send students to the United States to attend civil aviation universities and colleges". The agent, Kenneth Williams, suggested the need to interview all flight school managers and identify all Arab students seeking flight training.{{sfnp|Wright|2006|p=350}} In July, Jordan alerted the U.S. that al-Qaeda was planning an attack on the U.S.; "months later", Jordan notified the U.S. that the attack's codename was "The Big Wedding" and that it involved airplanes.{{sfnp|Yitzhak|2016|p=218}}

On August 6, 2001, the CIA's Presidential Daily Brief ("PDB"), designated "For the President Only", was entitled [[Bin Ladin Determined To Strike in US|"Bin Ladin Determined to Strike in U.S."]] The memo noted that FBI information "indicates patterns of suspicious activity in this country consistent with preparations for hijackings or other types of attacks".<ref>{{cite web|title=The Osama bin Laden File: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 343|url=http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB343/|publisher=The National Security Archive|access-date=March 14, 2016}}</ref>

In mid-August, one [[Minnesota]] flight school alerted the FBI about [[Zacarias Moussaoui]], who had asked "suspicious questions". The FBI found that Moussaoui was a radical who had traveled to Pakistan, and the INS arrested him for overstaying his French visa. Their request to search his laptop was denied by FBI headquarters due to the lack of [[probable cause]].{{sfnp|Wright|2006|pp=350–51}}

The failures in intelligence-sharing were attributed to 1995 [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] policies limiting intelligence sharing, combined with CIA and NSA reluctance to reveal "sensitive sources and methods" such as tapped phones.{{sfnp|Wright|2006|pp=342–43}} Testifying before the [[9/11 Commission]] in April 2004, then-[[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[John Ashcroft]] recalled that the "single greatest structural cause for the September 11th problem was the wall that segregated or separated criminal investigators and intelligence agents".{{sfnp|Javorsek II|Rose|Marshall|Leitner|2015|p=742}} Clarke also wrote: "[T]here were... failures to get information to the right place at the right time."{{sfnp|Clarke|2004|p=238}}

== Attacks ==
{{For timeline|Timeline for the day of the September 11 attacks}}
[[File:Flight paths of hijacked planes-September 11 attacks.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Flight paths of the four planes]]
Early on the morning of September 11, 2001, [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|19 hijackers]] took control of four commercial airliners (two [[Boeing 757]]s and two [[Boeing 767]]s) en route to California (three of them headed to [[Los Angeles International Airport|LAX]] in Los Angeles and one to [[San Francisco International Airport|SFO]] in San Francisco) after takeoffs from [[Logan International Airport]] in [[Boston]], Massachusetts; [[Newark Liberty International Airport]] in [[Newark, New Jersey]]; and [[Washington Dulles International Airport]] in [[Loudoun County, Virginia|Loudoun]] and [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax]] counties in [[Virginia]].<ref name="911-ch1" /> Large planes with long coast-to-coast flights were selected for hijacking because they would have more fuel.<ref name="Chap7" />

The four flights were:
* [[American Airlines Flight 11]]: a Boeing 767 aircraft, departed Logan Airport at 7:59{{spaces}}a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of 11 and 76 passengers, not including five hijackers. The hijackers flew the plane into the northern façade of the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 8:46{{spaces}}a.m.
* [[United Airlines Flight 175]]: a Boeing 767 aircraft, departed Logan Airport at 8:14{{spaces}}a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of nine and 51 passengers, not including five hijackers. The hijackers flew the plane into the southern façade of the South Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 9:03{{spaces}}a.m.{{efn|name=Time}}
* [[American Airlines Flight 77]]: a Boeing 757 aircraft, departed Washington Dulles International Airport at 8:20{{spaces}}a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of six and 53 passengers, not including five hijackers. The hijackers flew the plane into the western façade of the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, at 9:37{{spaces}}a.m.
* [[United Airlines Flight 93]]: a Boeing 757 aircraft, departed Newark International Airport at 8:42{{spaces}}a.m. en route to San Francisco, with a crew of seven and 33 passengers, not including four hijackers. As passengers attempted to subdue the hijackers, the aircraft crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania, near Shanksville, at 10:03{{spaces}}a.m.

[[Media documentation of the September 11 attacks|Media coverage]] was extensive during the attacks and aftermath, beginning moments after the first crash into the World Trade Center.<ref>See, for example, news coverage by CNN: {{cite news|publisher=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/video/data/2.0/video/us/2011/09/07/natpkg-911-aircheck-timeline.cnn.html|title=Breaking News Videos from CNN.com}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! rowspan="2"|Operator
! rowspan="2"|Flight number
! rowspan="2"|Aircraft type
! rowspan="2"|Time of departure*
! rowspan="2"|Time of crash*
! rowspan="2"|Departed from
! rowspan="2"|En route to
! rowspan="2"|Crash site
! colspan="5"|Fatalities {{Nobold|(There were no survivors from the flights)}}
|-
!Crew
!Passengers†
!Ground§
!Hijackers
!Total‡
|-
|[[American Airlines]]
|[[American Airlines Flight 11|11]]
|[[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-223ER]]
|style="text-align:right;"|7:59 a.m.
|style="text-align:right;"|8:46 a.m.
|[[Logan International Airport]]
|[[Los Angeles International Airport]]
|[[List of tenants in 1 World Trade Center (1971–2001)|North Tower]] of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]], floors 93 to 99
|style="text-align:right;"|11
|style="text-align:right;"|76
|style="text-align:right;" rowspan="2" |2,606
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|style="text-align:right;" rowspan="2" |2,763
|-
|[[United Airlines]]
|[[United Airlines Flight 175|175]]
|[[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-222]]
|style="text-align:right;"|8:14 a.m.
|style="text-align:right;"|9:03 a.m.{{efn|name=Time}}
|[[Logan International Airport]]
|[[Los Angeles International Airport]]
|[[List of tenants in 2 World Trade Center|South Tower]] of the World Trade Center, floors 77 to 85
|style="text-align:right;"|9
|style="text-align:right;"|51
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|-
|[[American Airlines]]
|[[American Airlines Flight 77|77]]
|[[Boeing 757|Boeing 757-223]]
|style="text-align:right;"|8:20 a.m.
|style="text-align:right;"|9:37 a.m.
|[[Washington Dulles International Airport]]
|[[Los Angeles International Airport]]
|West wall of [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]]
|style="text-align:right;"|6
|style="text-align:right;"|53
|style="text-align:right;"|125
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|style="text-align:right;"|189
|-
|[[United Airlines]]
|[[United Airlines Flight 93|93]]
|[[Boeing 757|Boeing 757-222]]
|style="text-align:right;"|8:42 a.m.
|style="text-align:right;"|10:03 a.m.
|[[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark Int'l Airport]]
|[[San Francisco International Airport]]
|Field in [[Stonycreek Township, Somerset County, Pennsylvania|Stonycreek Township]] near [[Shanksville, Pennsylvania|Shanksville]]
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|style="text-align:right;"|33
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|4
|style="text-align:right;"|44
|-
! scope="row" style="text-align:right" colspan="8" |Totals
|style="text-align:right;"|33
|style="text-align:right;"|213
|style="text-align:right;"|2,731
|style="text-align:right;"|19
|style="text-align:right;"|2,996
|}
'''*''' [[Eastern Time Zone|Eastern Daylight Time]] (UTC−04:00) '''†''' Excluding hijackers '''§''' Including emergency workers '''‡''' Including hijackers

=== The four crashes ===
{{See also|Media documentation of the September 11 attacks}}[[File:September 11 2001 just collapsed.jpg|thumb|Collapse of the towers as seen from across the [[Hudson River]] in New Jersey|258x258px]]

At 7:59 a.m., [[American Airlines Flight 11]] took off from [[Logan International Airport]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |title=Probe reconstructs horror, calculated attacks on planes |last=Johnson |first=Glen |work=The Boston Globe|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202072139/http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm |archive-date=December 2, 2012 }}</ref> Fifteen minutes into the flight, five hijackers armed with boxcutters took over the plane, injuring at least three people (and possibly killing one)<ref>{{cite news |title=Excerpt: A travel day like any other until some passengers left their seats |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2001986488_planes23.html |work=[[The Seattle Times]] |access-date=May 23, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119033249/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2001986488_planes23.html |archive-date=November 19, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Inside the failed Air Force scramble to prevent the Sept. 11 attacks |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5315883/ |publisher=[[MSNBC]] |access-date=May 23, 2008|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918164352/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5315883/ |archive-date=September 18, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Woolley |first=Scott |title=Video Prophet |url=https://www.forbes.com/home/technology/forbes/2007/0423/068.html |work=Forbes |access-date=May 23, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216103647/http://www.forbes.com/home/technology/forbes/2007/0423/068.html |archive-date=December 16, 2008 }}</ref> before forcing their way into the cockpit. The terrorists also displayed an apparent explosive device in order to frighten the hostages into submission, while additionally spraying [[Tear gas|mace]] into the cabin to further hinder any efforts to resist.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Sheehy, Gail |url=http://www.observer.com/node/48805 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071207153421/http://www.observer.com/node/48805 |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 7, 2007 |title='Stewardess ID'd Hijackers Early, Transcripts Show' burden |work=New York Observer |access-date=Sep 30, 2010}}</ref> Back at Logan, [[United Airlines Flight 175]] took off at 8:14 a.m., more or less the same time as Flight 11's hijacking.<ref name="We have some planes">{{cite web|url=https://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch1.htm|title=WE HAVE SOME PLANES|publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States}}</ref> Hundreds of miles southwest at [[Dulles International Airport]] in [[Fairfax, Virginia|Fairfax]] and [[Loudoun, Virginia|Loudoun]] Counties, [[Virginia]], [[American Airlines Flight 77]] left the runway at 8:20 a.m.<ref name="We have some planes" /> Flight 175's journey proceeded normally for 28 minutes until 8:42 a.m., when another group of five hijacked the plane, murdering both pilots and stabbing several crew members before assuming control of the aircraft. As was the case with Flight 11, the hijackers used bomb threats to instill fear into the passengers and crew{{sfn|9/11 Commission|2004a|pp=7-8}} and sprayed chemical weapons to disable any opposition.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/specials/september-11-remembered/2011-09-06/september-11-timeline/2862086|title=September 11: From take-off to tragic loss|access-date=November 29, 2022|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref> Concurrently, [[United Airlines Flight 93]] departed from [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark International Airport]] in [[New Jersey]];<ref name="We have some planes" /> originally scheduled to pull away from the gate at 8:00 a.m., the plane was running 42 minutes late.

At 8:46 a.m., Flight 11 became the first plane to reach its target when it was deliberately crashed into the north face of the World Trade Center's North Tower (1 WTC),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB196/doc01.pdf |title=Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 11 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board }}</ref> although the initial presumption by many was that this was merely an accident.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5335a3.htm|title=Preliminary Results from the World Trade Center Evacuation Study – New York City, 2003|access-date=November 30, 2022}}</ref> At 8:51 a.m., shortly after the North Tower was struck and only minutes following the hijacking of Flight 175, [[American Airlines Flight 77]] was also taken over by another group of five who forcibly entered the cockpit 31 minutes after takeoff.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gregor |first=Joseph A. |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/foia/9_11/ATC_Report_AA77.pdf |title=ATC Report American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |access-date=September 25, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029094317/https://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/foia/9_11/ATC_Report_AA77.pdf |archive-date=October 29, 2012 }}</ref> Although the hijackers were equipped with knives,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2001/09/12/on-flight-77-our-plane-is-being-hijacked/85b3c4b3-876b-4bb5-b1f7-00cc8c37b75e/|title='On Flight 77: 'Our Plane Is Being Hijacked'|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=November 27, 2022}}</ref> there were no reports of anyone on board actually being stabbed unlike the first two planes, nor did the two people who made phone calls mention the use of mace or a bomb threat of any kind. Seventeen minutes after the first plane crashed into the North Tower, Flight 175 was flown into the South Tower's southern facade (2{{spaces}}WTC)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB196/doc03.pdf |title=Flight Path Study – United Airlines Flight 175 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board }}</ref> at 9:03 a.m.,{{efn|name=Time}} instantly proving to the entire world that the first crash was not an accident but that a terrorist attack was underway.<ref>{{cite news|title=9:03 a.m.: The 9/11 moment when many grasped a new reality|url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2021/09/10/903-a-m-the-9-11-moment-when-many-grasped-a-new-reality/|website=[[The Mercury News]]|access-date=February 5, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title='By 9:05 a.m., it was clear America was under attack'|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/09/11/it-was-the-loudest-explosion-ive-ever-heard-a-9/11-survivor-on-her-harrowing-escape-from-the-pentagon.html|publisher=[[CNBC]]|access-date=February 5, 2023}}</ref> After waiting 46 minutes to make their move—a holdup that proved disastrous for the terrorists when combined with the delayed takeoff from the runway—four men aboard Flight 93 struck suddenly, killing at least one passenger<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/26/arts/united-93-and-the-politics-of-heroism.html |title='United 93' and the politics of heroism|newspaper=The New York Times|last1=Longman|first1=Jere }}</ref> before storming the cockpit and seizing control of the plane at 9:28 a.m., turning the plane eastbound and setting course for Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stout |first=David |title=Recording From Flight 93 Played at Trial |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/12/us/12cnd-moussaoui.html?hp&ex=1144900800&en=f6fc83f83a632d06&ei=5094&partner=homepage |work=The New York Times |access-date=August 24, 2008 |archive-date=September 4, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904030034/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/12/us/12cnd-moussaoui.html?hp&ex=1144900800&en=f6fc83f83a632d06&ei=5094&partner=homepage |url-status=live }}</ref> Much like their counterparts on the first two flights, the fourth team also used bomb threats to get their way and again filled the cabin with mace.<ref>{{cite news |title=Transcript: Paula Zahn Now |publisher=CNN|url=http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0604/12/pzn.01.html |access-date=April 5, 2010 |archive-date=October 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021015137/http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0604/12/pzn.01.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Nine minutes after Flight 93's hijacking, Flight 77 was crashed into the west side of The Pentagon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB196/doc02.pdf |title=Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board }}</ref> Because of the two delays,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2021/09/09/flight-93-target-capitol/|title=What was Flight 93's target on 9/11?|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=November 27, 2022}}</ref> the passengers and crew of Flight 93 had time to be made aware of the previous attacks through phone calls to the ground. Knowing their lives were forfeited rendered the bomb threat moot, and an uprising was hastily organized in the hopes of taking control of the aircraft, with an assault on the hijackers being launched at 9:57 a.m.<ref name="WP93">{{cite news |first=David |last=Snyder |title=Families Hear Flight 93's Final Moments |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-351703.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602123513/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-351703.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 2, 2013|newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=November 12, 2013}}</ref> Within minutes, they had fought their way to the front of the cabin and began breaking down the cockpit door. Fearing their captives would gain the upper hand, the hijackers rolled the plane and pitched it into a nosedive,<ref name="Flight93Xscript">{{cite wikisource |title=Flight 93 Cockpit Transcript}}</ref><ref name="NPS Flight 93 Story">{{cite web |title=The Flight 93 Story |url=http://www.nps.gov/flni/historyculture/index.htm |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=September 21, 2011}}</ref> crashing into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, southeast of Pittsburgh, at 10:03 a.m. The plane was around twenty minutes away from reaching D.C. at the time of the crash, and its target is believed to have been either the [[United States Capitol|Capitol Building]] or the [[White House]].<ref name="Chap7">{{cite book|chapter=The Attack Looms |chapter-url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |year=2004 |title=9/11 Commission Report |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=September 1, 2011}}</ref><ref name="WP93" />

[[File:WTC 2 plane crash (Myers clip6).webm|thumb|234x234px|United Airlines Flight 175 crashes into WTC 2]]
Some passengers and crew members who called from the aircraft using the cabin air phone service and mobile phones provided details: several hijackers were aboard each plane; they used [[Mace (spray)|mace]], tear gas, or pepper spray to overcome attendants; and some people aboard had been stabbed.<ref name="93phone">
* {{cite news |last=McKinnon |first=Jim |title=The phone line from Flight 93 was still open when a GTE operator heard Todd Beamer say: 'Are you guys ready? Let's roll' |url=http://old.post-gazette.com/headlines/20010916phonecallnat3p3.asp |work=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |access-date=April 10, 2011}}
* {{cite news |title=Relatives wait for news as rescuers dig |url=http://europe.cnn.com/2001/US/09/12/family.reacts/index.html |publisher=CNN|access-date=November 11, 2013}}
* Summers and Swan (2011), pp. 58, 463n, 476n.
* {{cite news |last1=Wilgoren |first1=Jodi |last2=Wong |first2=Edward |title=On Doomed Flight, Passengers Vowed To Perish Fighting |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/13/us/after-attacks-united-flight-93-doomed-flight-passengers-vowed-perish-fighting.html |url-status=live |work=The New York Times |access-date=September 1, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090820221831/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/13/us/after-attacks-united-flight-93-doomed-flight-passengers-vowed-perish-fighting.html |archive-date=August 20, 2009}}
* {{cite news |last=Serrano |first=Richard A. |title=Moussaoui Jury Hears the Panic From 9/11 |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2006/apr/11/nation/na-moussa11 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |access-date=September 1, 2011}}
* {{cite news |last1=Goo |first1=Sara Kehaulani |last2=Eggen |first2=Dan |title=Hijackers used Mace, knives to take over airplanes |url=http://www.sfgate.com/default/article/Hijackers-used-Mace-knives-to-take-over-2805009.php |work=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=November 12, 2013}}
* {{cite news|last=Ahlers|first=Mike M.|url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/01/27/911.commis.knife/|title=9/11 panel: Hijackers may have had utility knives|access-date=September 1, 2011|publisher=CBS News}}</ref> Reports indicated hijackers stabbed and killed pilots, flight attendants, and one or more passengers.<ref name="911-ch1">9/11 Commission Report, pp. 4–14.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0201/06/lklw.00.html |title=Encore Presentation: Barbara Olson Remembered |work=Larry King Live |publisher=CNN |access-date=September 1, 2011}}</ref> According to the 9/11 Commission's final report, the hijackers had recently purchased multi-function hand tools and assorted [[Leatherman]]-type utility knives with locking blades (which were not forbidden to passengers at the time), but were not found among the possessions left behind by the hijackers.<ref name="commission">{{cite web |title=National Commission Upon Terrorist Attacks in the United States |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/archive/hearing7/9-11Commission_Hearing_2004-01-27.htm |publisher=National Commission Upon Terrorist Attacks in the United States |access-date=January 24, 2008 }}</ref><ref>Summers and Swan (2011), p. 343.</ref> A flight attendant on Flight 11, a passenger on Flight 175, and passengers on Flight 93 said the hijackers had bombs, but one of the passengers said he thought the bombs were fake. The FBI found no traces of explosives at the crash sites, and the 9/11 Commission concluded that the bombs were probably fake.<ref name="911-ch1" /> On at least two of the hijacked flights―American 11 and United 93―the terrorists tried to ensure nobody would resist by claiming over the PA system that they were taking hostages and were returning to the airport to have a ransom demand met, an obvious attempt to deceive those on-board into staying put by way of a false hope. Both of these attempts fell on deaf ears, however, as the hijacker pilots in both instances (Mohamed Atta<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ntsb.gov/about/Documents/Flight_Path_Study_AA11.pdf|title=Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 11|publisher=[[National Transportation Safety Board]] |access-date=November 29, 2022}}</ref> and Ziad Jarrah,<ref>{{cite news|last=Hirschkorn |first=Phil|title=On tape, passengers heard trying to retake cockpit |url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/LAW/04/12/moussaoui.trial/|publisher=CNN|access-date=November 29, 2022}}</ref> respectively) keyed the wrong switch and mistakenly transmitted their messages to ATC instead of the people on the plane as intended, in the process tipping off the flight controllers that the planes had been hijacked.

[[Collapse of the World Trade Center|Three buildings in the World Trade Center collapsed]] due to fire-induced structural failure. Although the South Tower was struck 17 minutes after the North Tower, the plane's impact zone was far lower and into a corner, with the unevenly-balanced additional structural weight causing it to collapse first at 9:58 a.m.,<ref>{{cite journal|last=National Institute of Standards and Technology|title=Final Reports from the NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation|journal=Nist |year=2005|url=https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/NCSTAR/ncstar1-5av1.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|80}}<ref>{{cite book|last=9/11 Final Report of the National Commission|title=Collapse of WTC2|year=2004|url=https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|322}} having burned for 55 minutes{{efn|NIST and the 9/11 Commission both state that the collapse began at 9:58:59 a.m., which is rounded to 9:59<ref>{{cite journal|last=National Institute of Standards and Technology|title=Final Reports from the NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation|journal=Nist |year=2005|url=https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/NCSTAR/ncstar1-5av1.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|84}}<ref>{{cite book|last=9/11 Final Report of the National Commission|title=Collapse of WTC2|year=2004|url=https://9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|322}} for simplicity. If the commission's claim that the South Tower was struck at 9:03:11 is to be believed, then the collapse began 55 minutes and 48 seconds after the crash, not 56 minutes.}} in the fire caused by the crash of United Airlines Flight 175 and the explosion of its fuel. The North Tower lasted another 29 minutes before sharing the same fate as its twin at 10:28,{{efn|The exact time of the North Tower's collapse initiation is disputed, with NIST dubbing the moment it began to collapse as being 10:28:22 a.m.<ref>{{cite web |title=Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Building 7 |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-C13-4d4c17460292ee57ef313f6491fa8d1e/pdf/GOVPUB-C13-4d4c17460292ee57ef313f6491fa8d1e.pdf |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |access-date=March 17, 2023}}</ref> and the 9/11 Commission recording the time as 10:28:25.<ref name="DOD Cronk Biden Announces" />{{rp|329}}}} collapsing 1 hour and 41 minutes{{efn|name=Time1}} after being struck by American Airlines Flight 11. When the North Tower collapsed, debris fell on the nearby [[7 World Trade Center]] building (7{{spaces}}WTC), damaging the building and starting fires. These fires burned for nearly seven hours, compromising the building's structural integrity, and 7{{spaces}}WTC collapsed at 5:21{{spaces}}p.m.<ref>''World Trade Center Building Performance Study'', Ch. 5 WTC 7{{snd}}section 5.5.4</ref>{{sfnp|''Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Building 7''|2008|p=xxxvii}} The west side of The Pentagon sustained significant damage.

[[File:Pentagon Security Camera 1.ogv|thumb|thumbtime=01:31|Security camera footage of [[American Airlines Flight 77]] hitting [[The Pentagon]].<ref name="jw">{{cite AV media |title=Flight 77, Video 2 |publisher=Judicial Watch |via=YouTube |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L75Gga92WO8 |access-date=April 4, 2012 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211214/L75Gga92WO8 |archive-date=December 14, 2021 |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The plane hits The Pentagon approximately 86 seconds after the start of this recording.|234x234px]]

At 9:42 a.m., the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (FAA) grounded all civilian aircraft within the continental U.S., and civilian aircraft already in flight were told to land immediately.<ref>{{cite news |title=Chapter 1: "We have some planes" |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch1.pdf |work=9/11 Commission Report }}</ref> All international civilian aircraft were either turned back or redirected to airports in Canada or Mexico, and were banned from landing on [[United States territory]] for three days.<ref>{{cite web |title=Profiles of 9/11 – About 9/11|url=http://www.biography.com/profiles-of-9-11/about911.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722151526/http://www.biography.com/profiles-of-9-11/about911.jsp |archive-date=July 22, 2011 |publisher=[[The Biography Channel]] |access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The attacks created widespread confusion among news organizations and air traffic controllers. Among the unconfirmed and often contradictory news reports aired throughout the day, one of the most prevalent said a car bomb had been detonated at the U.S. State Department's headquarters in Washington, D.C.<ref name="errors2">{{cite web |last=Miller |first=Mark |title=Three hours that shook America: A chronology of chaos |url=http://www.broadcastingcable.com/news/news-articles/three-hours-shook-america-chronology-chaos/93600 |website=[[Broadcasting & Cable]] |access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref> Another jet ([[Delta Air Lines Flight 1989]]) was suspected of having been hijacked, but the aircraft responded to controllers and landed safely in Cleveland, Ohio.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Adams |first1=Marilyn |last2=Levin |first2=Alan |last3=Morrison |first3=Blake |title=Part II: No one was sure if hijackers were on board |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/sept11/2002-08-12-hijacker-daytwo_x.htm |work=[[USA Today]] |access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref>

In an April 2002 interview, [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] and [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], who are believed to have organized the attacks, said Flight 93's intended target was the United States Capitol, not the White House.{{sfnp|Fouda|Fielding|2004|pp=158–59}} During the planning stage of the attacks, [[Mohamed Atta]] (Flight 11's hijacker and pilot) thought the White House might be too tough a target and sought an assessment from [[Hani Hanjour]] (who hijacked and piloted Flight 77).<ref name="The Eleventh Day pp 323">Summers and Swan (2011), p. 323.</ref> Mohammed said al-Qaeda initially planned to target nuclear installations rather than the World Trade Center and The Pentagon, but decided against it, fearing things could "get out of control".<ref name="AlQaedaplotted2002">{{cite news |title=Al-Qaeda 'plotted nuclear attacks' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2244146.stm |publisher=BBC News |access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref> Final decisions on targets, according to Mohammed, were left in the hands of the pilots.<ref name="The Eleventh Day pp 323" /> If any pilot could not reach his intended target, he was to crash the plane.<ref name="Chap7" />

=== Casualties ===
{{Main|Casualties of the September 11 attacks|Lists of victims of the September 11 attacks}}
The attack on the World Trade Center's North Tower single-handedly made 9/11 the [[List of battles and other violent events by death toll#Non-state (terrorist) attacks|deadliest act of terrorism in world history]].<ref name="PEARL9/11" /> Taken together, the four crashes caused the deaths of 2,996 people (including the hijackers) and injured thousands more.<ref name='CBC-Winnipegger'>{{cite news |title=Winnipegger heads to NY for 9/11 memorial |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/winnipegger-heads-to-ny-for-9-11-memorial-1.991431 |publisher=CBC News |access-date=November 13, 2013 |quote=A total of 2,996 people died: 19 hijackers and 2,977 victims.}}</ref> The death toll included 265 on the four planes (from which there were no survivors); 2,606 in the World Trade Center and in the surrounding area; and 125 at The Pentagon.<ref name="edition.cnn.com">{{cite news |title=Accused 9/11 plotter Khalid Sheikh Mohammed faces New York trial |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/CRIME/11/13/khalid.sheikh.mohammed/index.html |publisher=CNN|access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/US/05/16/pentagon.video/index.html |title=First video of Pentagon 9/11 attack released |publisher=CNN|access-date=September 2, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923103317/http://www.cnn.com/2006/US/05/16/pentagon.video/index.html |archive-date=September 23, 2006|url-status=live}}</ref> Most who died were civilians; the rest included 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 terrorists.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stone |first=Andrea |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/sept11/2002-08-20-pentagon_x.htm |title=Military's aid and comfort ease 9/11 survivors' burden |work=USA Today |access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://www.orgsites.com/va/asis151/Sep11Memorial.pdf September 11 Memorial] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326025722/http://www.orgsites.com/va/asis151/Sep11Memorial.pdf }}</ref> After New York, New Jersey lost the most state citizens.<ref name="beveridge">{{cite news |url=http://www.gothamgazette.com/demographics/91102.shtml|title=9/11/01-02: A Demographic Portrait of the Victims in 10048 |website=Gotham Gazette |last=Beveridge|first=Andrew |access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref> More than 90 countries lost citizens in the attacks;<ref name="countries_deaths">{{cite web|title=A list of the countries whose citizens died as a result of the attacks on September 11, 2001 |publisher=[[Bureau of International Information Programs|U.S. Department of State, Office of International Information Programs]] |url=http://usinfo.state.gov/is/img/assets/4756/9_11onepager1.pdf |access-date=March 18, 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411152231/http://usinfo.state.gov/is/img/assets/4756/9_11onepager1.pdf |archive-date=April 11, 2008}}</ref> for example, the 67 Britons who died were more than in any other terrorist attack anywhere.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=British victims of September 11 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/sep/10/september11.uk |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=June 6, 2017}}</ref>
[[File:US Navy 010911-N-6157F-006 Pentagon damage, Sept. 11, 2001.jpg|thumb|Smoke billowing out of [[The Pentagon]], where 125 workers died. The [[Washington Monument]] can be seen in the distance.]]
In Arlington County, Virginia, 125 Pentagon workers died when Flight 77 crashed into the building's western side. 70 were civilians and 55 were military personnel, many of whom worked for the [[United States Army]] or the [[United States Navy]]. The Army lost 47 civilian employees; six civilian contractors; and 22 soldiers, while the Navy lost six civilian employees; three civilian contractors; and 33 sailors. Seven [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] (DIA) civilian employees died, and one [[Office of the Secretary of Defense]] (OSD) contractor.<ref name="national">{{cite web|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States|publisher=U.S. Congress|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/index.htm|access-date=September 8, 2006}}</ref>{{sfnp|Goldberg et al.|2007|pp=208–12}}<ref>{{cite web |title=September 11, 2001 Pentagon Victims |url=http://www.patriotresource.com/wtc/victims/pentagon.html |publisher=Patriot Resource |access-date=March 18, 2016}}</ref> [[Lieutenant General]] [[Timothy Maude]], an Army Deputy Chief of Staff, was the highest-ranking military official killed at The Pentagon.<ref name="arlington">{{cite web|title=Remembering the Lost: Timothy J. Maude, Lieutenant General, United States Army|publisher=Arlington National Cemetery|url=http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/tjmaude.htm|access-date=April 16, 2001}}</ref>

In New York City, more than 90% of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact. In the North Tower, between 1,344<ref>{{cite news|title=Two Years Later: The 91st Floor; The Line Between Life and Death, Still Indelible|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/10/us/two-years-later-the-91st-floor-the-line-between-life-and-death-still-indelible.html |access-date=December 5, 2022}}</ref> and 1,402<ref>{{cite news |website=[[Forbes]]|title=9/11 Survivors And Thrivers|access-date=December 5, 2022|last=Bousquette|first=Isabelle|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/isabellebousquette/2021/09/10/911-survivors-and-thrivers/?sh=285a95f2552d}}</ref> people were at, above or one floor below the point of impact and all died. Hundreds were killed instantly the moment the plane struck.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch9.htm |title=Heroism and Horror |year=2004 |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States}}</ref> The estimated 800 people<ref name="102Mins">{{cite news |last=Dwyer |first=Jim |author2=Lipton, Eric |title=102 Minutes: Last Words at the Trade Center; Fighting to Live as the Towers Die |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/26/nyregion/102-minutes-last-words-at-the-trade-center-fighting-to-live-as-the-towers-die.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=December 5, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114063928/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/26/nyregion/102-minutes-last-words-at-the-trade-center-fighting-to-live-as-the-towers-die.html |archive-date=November 14, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> who survived the impact were trapped and died in the fires or from smoke inhalation; fell or jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames; or were killed in the building's collapse. The destruction of all three staircases in the North Tower when Flight 11 hit made it impossible for anyone from the impact zone upward to escape. 107 people not trapped by the impact died.<ref name="NISTcasualties">{{harvp|Sunder|2005|p=48}}</ref> When the plane struck between floors 93 and 99, the 92nd floor was also rendered inescapable when the crash severed all elevator shafts while debris falling from the floors above blocked the stairwells, ensuring the deaths of all 69 workers on the final floor below the impact zone.

In the South Tower, around 600 people were on or above the 77th floor when Flight 175 struck and few survived. As with the North Tower, hundreds were killed at the moment of impact. However, unlike those in the North Tower, the estimated 300 survivors<ref name="102Mins" /> of the crash were not technically trapped by the damage done by Flight 175's impact, but most were either unaware that a means of escape still existed or were unable to use it. One stairway, [[Stairwell A]], narrowly avoided being destroyed as Flight 175 crashed through the building, allowing 14 people located on the floors of impact (including [[Stanley Praimnath]], a man who saw the plane coming at him) and four more from the floors above to escape. New York City [[9-1-1]] operators who received calls from people inside the tower were not well informed of the situation as it rapidly unfolded and as a result, told callers not to descend the tower on their own.<ref>{{cite book |last=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks |title=The 9/11 Commission Report |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |url=https://archive.org/details/911commissionrep00nati/page/294 |page=[https://archive.org/details/911commissionrep00nati/page/294 294] |isbn=978-0-393-32671-0 |access-date=January 24, 2014 |edition=first }}</ref> In total, 630 people died in the South Tower, fewer than half the number killed in the North Tower.<ref name="NISTcasualties" /> In stark contrast to the North Tower, where over 200 people fell to their deaths from the floors trapped by Flight 11's impact,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/sept11/2002-09-02-jumper_x.htm|title=Desperation forced a horrific decision|work=USA Today|access-date=April 18, 2015|archive-date=September 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906201041/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/sept11/2002-09-02-jumper_x.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> only 3 were spotted jumping or falling from the upper floors of the South Tower.<ref>{{cite journal|last=National Institute of Standards and Technology|title=Final Reports from the NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation|journal=Nist |year=2005|url=https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/NCSTAR/ncstar1-5av1.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|86}} Casualties in the South Tower were significantly reduced because some occupants decided to leave the building immediately following the first crash, and because Eric Eisenberg, an executive at [[Aon (company)|AON Insurance]], made the decision to evacuate the floors occupied by AON (floors 92 and 98–105) in the moments following the impact of Flight 11. The seventeen minute gap allowed over 900 of the 1,100 AON employees present on-site to evacuate from above the 77th floor before the South Tower was struck; Eisenberg was among the nearly 200 who did not escape. Similar pre-impact evacuations were carried out by companies such as [[Fiduciary Trust Company International|Fiduciary Trust]], [[Corporation Service Company|CSC]], and Euro Brokers, all of whom had offices on floors above the point of impact. The failure to order a full evacuation of the South Tower after the first plane crash into the North Tower was described by ''[[USA Today]]'' as "one of the day's great tragedies".<ref name="Purpura 2007 p300">{{cite book |last=Purpura |first=Philip |title=Security and Loss Prevention: An Introduction |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ir4gbdZLlOEC&pg=PA300|access-date=September 16, 2017 |edition=5th |year=2007 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-055400-6 |page=300 |chapter=Life safety, fire protection, and emergencies |quote=Almost all the 600 people in the top floors of the south tower died after a second hijacked airliner crashed in the 80th floor shortly after 9{{spaces}}a.m. The failure to evacuate the building was one of the day's great tragedies.}}</ref>

As exemplified in the photograph ''[[The Falling Man]]'', more than 200 people fell to their deaths from the burning towers, most of whom were forced to commit [[suicide]] by [[Jumper (suicide)|jumping]] in order to escape the extreme heat, fire and smoke.<ref name="horrificdecision">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/sept11/2002-09-02-jumper_x.htm |title=Desperation forced a horrific decision |work=USA Today|last1=Cauchon |first1=Dennis |last2=Moore |first2=Martha|access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref> Some occupants of each tower above the point of impact made their way toward the roof in the hope of helicopter rescue, but the roof access doors were locked.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Paltrow|first1=Scot|title=Could Helicopters Have Saved People From the Top of the Trade Center?|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1003784754436648720|website=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=January 22, 2017}}</ref> No plan existed for helicopter rescues, and the combination of roof equipment, thick smoke and intense heat prevented helicopters from approaching.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/05/18/terror/main618174.shtml|title=Poor Info Hindered 9/11 Rescue|publisher=CBS News|access-date=September 2, 2011|archive-date=December 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225172234/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/poor-info-hindered-9-11-rescue/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

At the World Trade Center complex, a total of 414 emergency workers died as they tried to rescue people and fight fires, while another law enforcement officer was separately killed on-board United 93 as it crashed. The [[New York City Fire Department]] (FDNY) lost 343 firefighters, including a chaplain and two [[paramedics]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nyfd.com/9_11_wtc.html|title=The Unofficial Home Page of FDNY |publisher=New York City Fire Department}}</ref> The [[New York City Police Department]] (NYPD) lost 23 officers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Post-9/11 report recommends police, fire response changes |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002-08-19-nypd-nyfd-report_x.htm |agency=Associated Press |work=USA Today |access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The [[Port Authority Police Department]] (PAPD) lost 37 officers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Police back on day-to-day beat after 9/11 nightmare|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2002/US/07/20/wtc.police/ |publisher=CNN|access-date=November 12, 2013}}</ref> Eight emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics from private emergency medical services (EMS) units were killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-memorial.org/Tribute/EMS/medics.html|title=EMT & Paramedics|access-date=August 18, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203041213/http://www.world-memorial.org/Tribute/EMS/medics.html|archive-date=February 3, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Almost all of the emergency personnel who died at the scene that day were killed as a result of the towers collapsing, with the exception of one who died when a civilian who fell from the upper floors of the South Tower landed on him.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/the-passionate-eye/september-11-2001-5-firsthand-stories-from-people-who-survived-1.6130622|title=September 11, 2001: 5 firsthand stories from people who survived|publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]|access-date=November 1, 2022|language=en }}</ref>

[[Cantor Fitzgerald]] L.P. (an investment bank on the North Tower's 101st–105th floors) lost 658 employees, considerably more than any other employer.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5282060.stm?lsf |title=Cantor rebuilds after 9/11 losses |publisher=BBC News |access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref> [[Marsh & McLennan Companies|Marsh Inc.]], located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93–100, lost 358 employees,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://memorial.mmc.com/ |title=Marsh & McLennan Companies 9/11 Memorial|access-date=September 7, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mmc.com/about/history.php |title=Milestones of Marsh & McLennan Companies |access-date=September 7, 2011 |archive-date=April 26, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426233407/http://www.mmc.com/about/history.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> and 175 employees of [[Aon Corporation]] were also killed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.investmentnews.com/article/20070911/REG/70911011 |title=Industry honors fallen on 9/11 anniversary |publisher=InvestmentNews |last=Siegel|first=Aaron |access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) estimated that about 17,400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks. Turnstile counts from the Port Authority suggest 14,154 people were typically in the Twin Towers by 8:45{{spaces}}a.m.{{sfnp|Averill|2005|loc="Occupant Behavior, Egress, and Emergency Communications"}}{{page needed}}{{sfnp|Dwyer|Flynn|2005|p=266}} Most people below the impact zone safely evacuated the buildings.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/26/nyregion/102-minutes-last-words-at-the-trade-center-fighting-to-live-as-the-towers-die.html |title=Last Words at the Trade Center; Fighting to Live as the Towers Die |last1=Dwyer |first1=Jim |first2=Eric |last2=Lipton |first3=Kevin |last3=Flynn |first4=James |last4=Glanz|work=The New York Times |access-date=September 2, 2011|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

Weeks after the attack, the death toll was estimated to be over 6,000, more than twice the number of deaths eventually confirmed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2001/US/09/29/gen.america.under.attack/index.html |title=Source: Hijacking suspects linked to Afghanistan |publisher=CNN|access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The city was only able to identify remains for about 1,600 of the World Trade Center victims. The medical examiner's office collected "about 10,000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead".<ref name="CBS2">{{cite news |title=Ground Zero Forensic Work Ends |publisher=CBS News |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/02/23/national/main675839.shtml |access-date=September 2, 2011 |archive-date=December 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225172509/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/ground-zero-forensic-work-ends/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 by workers who were preparing to demolish the damaged [[Deutsche Bank Building]].

In 2010, a team of anthropologists and archaeologists searched for human remains and personal items at the [[Fresh Kills Landfill]], where 72 more human remains were recovered, bringing the total found to 1,845. DNA profiling continues in an attempt to identify additional victims.<ref>{{cite news|last=Andrade |first=Mariano |title=Scientists still struggle to identify 9/11 remains |url=http://news.discovery.com/human/psychology/world-trade-center-remains-110826.htm |agency=Agence France-Presse |access-date=September 5, 2011 |work=[[Discovery News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/remains-wtc-worker-ernest-james-40-id-ten-years-9-11-article-1.945620 |title=Remains of WTC worker Ernest James, 40, ID'd ten years after 9/11 |last=Lemre |first=Jonathan |work=New York Daily News |access-date=April 10, 2012}}</ref><ref name="DNAContinue">{{cite news |first=Bobby |last=Cuza |title=9/11 A Decade Later: DNA Matching Efforts To Continue At WTC Site |url=http://www.ny1.com/content/143516/9-11-a-decade-later--remains-from-wtc-tested-by-latest-dna-tech |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140920211012/http://www.ny1.com/content/143516/9-11-a-decade-later--remains-from-wtc-tested-by-latest-dna-tech |archive-date=September 20, 2014 |publisher=[[NY1]] |access-date=September 21, 2011}}</ref> The remains are being held in storage in Memorial Park, outside the New York City Medical Examiner's facilities. It was expected that the remains would be moved in 2013 to a repository behind a wall at the 9/11 museum.{{update inline}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Disturbed Tomb: Memorialization and Human Remains at the 9/11 Museum |url=https://paulmullins.wordpress.com/2014/05/19/the-disturbed-tomb-memorialization-and-human-remains-at-the-911-museum/ |access-date=2023-06-17 |website=Archaeology and Material Culture |language=en}}</ref>

In July 2011, a team of scientists at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner was still trying to identify remains, in the hope that improved technology will allow them to identify other victims.<ref name="DNAContinue" /> On August 7, 2017, the 1,641st victim was identified as a result of newly available DNA technology,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-40855907|title=9/11 victim identified 16 years on|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> and a 1,642nd on July 26, 2018.<ref name="no1642">{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/amp/news/september-11-2001-attacks-remains-victim-scott-michael-johnson-identified/|title="Finality": 9/11 victim's remains identified 17 years later|publisher=[[CBS News]]}}</ref> Three more victims were identified in 2019 and further two in 2021. As of September 2021, 1,106 victims are yet to be identified.<ref>{{cite news|title=New York 9/11 Victim Identified 18 Years After Attack|url=https://www.wnep.com/article/news/new-york-9-11-victim-identified-18-years-after-attack/523-5d8a00b6-4e72-4d47-a5c1-a9d8f89ec82c|publisher=[[WNEP-TV]] |access-date=February 13, 2021|archive-date=August 8, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808125056/https://www.wnep.com/article/news/new-york-9-11-victim-identified-18-years-after-attack/523-5d8a00b6-4e72-4d47-a5c1-a9d8f89ec82c|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title='Reopening Old Wounds': When 9/11 Remains Are Identified, 20 Years Later|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/06/nyregion/9-11-ground-zero-victims-remains.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/06/nyregion/9-11-ground-zero-victims-remains.html |archive-date=December 28, 2021 |url-access=limited|first=Corey|last=Kilgannon|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=September 11, 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

=== Damage ===
{{further|Collapse of the World Trade Center}}
[[File:World Trade Center 3 After 9-11 Attacks With Original Building Locations.jpg|thumb|World Trade Center site ([[Ground zero#World Trade Center|Ground Zero]]) with an overlay showing the original building locations]]
[[File:September 17 2001.jpg|thumb|Remains of [[Six World Trade Center|6]], [[7 World Trade Center|7]], and [[List of tenants in 1 World Trade Center (1971–2001)|1]]{{spaces}}WTC on September 17]]
[[File:Aerial view of the Pentagon during rescue operations post-September 11 attack.JPEG|thumb|Aerial view of The Pentagon]]

Along with the 110-floor [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|Twin Towers]], numerous other buildings at the World Trade Center site were destroyed or badly damaged, including WTC buildings 3{{spaces}}through{{spaces}}7 and [[St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church]].<ref name="wtcstudy">{{cite web|url=http://www.fema.gov/rebuild/mat/wtcstudy.shtm |title=World Trade Center Building Performance Study |publisher=[[Federal Emergency Management Agency]] |access-date=September 3, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101016101226/http://www.fema.gov/rebuild/mat/wtcstudy.shtm |archive-date=October 16, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The North Tower, South Tower, the [[Marriott World Trade Center|Marriott Hotel (3{{spaces}}WTC)]], and 7{{spaces}}WTC were destroyed. The U.S. Customs House ([[6 World Trade Center]]), [[4 World Trade Center (1975–2001)|4{{spaces}}World Trade Center]], [[5 World Trade Center]], and both pedestrian bridges connecting buildings were severely damaged. The [[Deutsche Bank Building]] (still popularly referred to as the Bankers Trust Building) on 130 Liberty Street was partially damaged and demolished some years later, starting in 2007.<ref name="The Eleventh Day pp 75">Summers and Swan (2011), p. 75.</ref><ref name='130 Liberty Finally Gone from Ground Zero'>{{cite news |first=Matt |last=Chaban |title=130 Liberty Finally Gone from Ground Zero |url=http://www.commercialobserver.com/2011/02/130-liberty-finally-gone-from-ground-zero/ |work=[[The New York Observer]] |access-date=April 10, 2012}}</ref> The two buildings of the [[Brookfield Place (New York City)|World Financial Center]] also suffered damage.<ref name="The Eleventh Day pp 75" /> The last fires at the World Trade Center site were extinguished on December 20, exactly 100 days after the attacks.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/dec/20/september11.usa |title=Ground Zero stops burning, after 100 days |website=The Guardian |access-date=May 5, 2018}}</ref>

The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned as uninhabitable because of toxic conditions inside the office tower, and was [[Deconstruction (building)|deconstructed]].<ref>''World Trade Center Building Performance Study{{snd}}Bankers Trust Building'', pp. {{page needed}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Deutsche Bank Building at 130 Liberty Street|publisher=Lower Manhattan Construction Command Center |url=http://www.renewnyc.com/plan_des_dev/130Liberty/default.asp|access-date=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The [[Borough of Manhattan Community College]]'s Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was condemned due to extensive damage from the attacks, and was reopened in 2012.<ref>{{cite news |last=Shapiro |first=Julie |title=Students Return to Rebuilt Fiterman Hall 11 Years After 9/11 |url=https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20120827/financial-district/students-return-rebuilt-fiterman-hall-11-years-after-911 |url-status=dead |website=DNAinfo New York |access-date=October 27, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027125835/https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20120827/financial-district/students-return-rebuilt-fiterman-hall-11-years-after-911 |archive-date=October 27, 2017 }}</ref>

Other neighboring buildings (including [[90 West Street]] and the [[Barclay–Vesey Building|Verizon Building]]) suffered major damage but have been restored.<ref name="nyconstruction">{{cite web |title=Verizon Building Restoration |url=http://newyork.construction.com/projects/TopProjects04/Verizon.asp |url-status=live |publisher=New York Construction (McGraw Hill) |access-date=September 2, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511183933/http://newyork.construction.com/projects/TopProjects04/Verizon.asp |archive-date=May 11, 2011}}</ref> [[Brookfield Place (New York City)|World Financial Center]] buildings, [[One Liberty Plaza]], the [[Millenium Hilton]], and 90 Church Street had moderate damage and have since been restored.<ref>''World Trade Center Building Performance Study{{snd}}Peripheral Buildings'', pp. {{page needed}}</ref> Communications equipment on top of the North Tower was also destroyed, with only [[WCBS-TV]] maintaining a backup transmitter on the [[Empire State Building]], but media stations were quickly able to reroute the signals and resume their broadcasts.<ref name="wtcstudy" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Bloomfield |first=Larry |url=http://sysdesignshowcase.broadcastengineering.com/ar/broadcasting_new_york_broadcasters |title=New York broadcasters rebuild |publisher=Broadcast Engineering |access-date=September 3, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080604040210/http://sysdesignshowcase.broadcastengineering.com/ar/broadcasting_new_york_broadcasters |archive-date=June 4, 2008}}</ref>

The [[PATH (rail system)|PATH]] train system's [[World Trade Center station (PATH)|World Trade Center station]] was located under the complex. As a result, the entire station was demolished completely when the towers collapsed, and the tunnels leading to [[Exchange Place station (PATH)|Exchange Place station]] in [[Jersey City, New Jersey]], were flooded with water.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.panynj.gov/drp/wtcpath/pathinfo.php|title=Downtown Restoration Program |publisher=The Port Authority of NY&NJ|access-date=February 7, 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111002148/http://www.panynj.gov/drp/wtcpath/pathinfo.php|archive-date=January 11, 2009}}</ref> The station was rebuilt as the $4{{spaces}}billion [[World Trade Center Transportation Hub]], which reopened in March 2015.<ref>{{cite news |title=World Trade Center transportation hub, dubbed Oculus, opens to public |publisher=[[WABC-TV]] |url=http://abc7ny.com/1229181/ |access-date=July 8, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.panynj.gov/press-room/press-item.cfm?headLine_id=2353|title=Port Authority Announces Opening of World Trade Center Transportation Hub|publisher=Port Authority of New York and New Jersey|access-date=January 29, 2016|archive-date=February 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203034610/http://www.panynj.gov/press-room/press-item.cfm?headLine_id=2353|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[WTC Cortlandt station|Cortlandt Street station]] on the [[New York City Subway]]'s [[IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line]] was also in close proximity to the World Trade Center complex, and the entire station, along with the surrounding track, was reduced to rubble.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/04/nyregion/subway-line-in-attack-may-reopen-much-earlier.html|title=Subway Line in Attack May Reopen Much Earlier|last=Kennedy|first=Randy|work=The New York Times|access-date=February 7, 2018|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The latter station was rebuilt and reopened to the public on September 8, 2018.<ref>{{cite news |title=WTC Cortlandt Subway Station Reopens for 1st Time Since 9/11 Attacks |url=https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local/WTC-Cortlandt-Subway-Station-Reopens-for-1st-Time-Since-9-11-Attacks-492777501.html |access-date=September 8, 2018 |publisher=[[WNBC-TV]] |agency=Associated Press }}</ref>

The Pentagon was severely damaged by the impact of American Airlines Flight 77 and the ensuing fires, causing one section of the building to collapse.<ref>''The Pentagon Building Performance Report'', pp. ??{{page needed}}</ref> As the airplane approached the Pentagon, its wings knocked down light poles and its right engine hit a power generator before crashing into the western side of the building.<ref>''Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 77'', pp. {{page needed}}</ref><ref name="fdr">''American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report'', pp. ??{{page needed}}</ref> The plane hit the Pentagon at the first-floor level. The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact, while the mid and tail sections kept moving for another fraction of a second.{{sfnp|Goldberg et al.|2007|p=17}} Debris from the tail section penetrated the furthest into the building, breaking through {{convert|310|ft|m|0}} of the three outermost of the building's five rings.{{sfnp|Goldberg et al.|2007|p=17}}<ref>{{cite news |last=Maclean |first=John N |title=America Under Attack: A chronicle of chaos and heroism at the Pentagon |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/29/AR2008052903149.html |newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref>

=== Rescue efforts ===
{{Main|Maritime response following the September 11 attacks}}
{{See also|List of emergency and first responder agencies that responded to the September 11 attacks}}
[[File:USACE Patrol Boat Hocking heads toward lower Manhattan on 9-11.jpg|thumb|Patrol Boat Hocking of the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] on its way providing assistance to the site of World Trade Center on 11 September 2001.]]
The [[New York City Fire Department]] deployed 200 units (half of the department) to the World Trade Center [[New York City Fire Department #Fire companies]],[[New York City Fire Department #Engine companies]] and [[New York City Fire Department #Rescue companies]],[[New York City Fire Department #Squad companies]],[[New York City Fire Department #Hazardous materials company]], including [[New York City Fire Department #Apparatus manufacturers]],[[New York City Fire Department #Fireboats (marine companies)]],[[New York City Fire Department #Volunteer departments]] . Their efforts were supplemented by numerous off-duty [[firefighters]] and [[emergency medical services]].<ref name="mckinsey-ems">''McKinsey Report'', "Emergency Medical Service response", pp. ??{{page needed}}</ref><ref name="mckinsey-exec">''McKinsey Report'', "Executive Summary", pp. ??{{page needed}}</ref><ref>''McKinsey Report'', Exhibit 7, "Fire Apparatus Deployment on September 11"</ref> The [[New York City Department of Corrections]] [[#New York City Department of Corrections# ESU]] officers also responded to the WTC.<ref>{{cite web |last1=C1 |first1=Staff |title=DOC shares stories of unsung CO heroes who responded on 9/11 |url=https://www.corrections1.com/corrections-officer-heroes/articles/doc-shares-stories-of-unsung-co-heroes-who-responded-on-911-WJSNrGFd2owvvZrt/ |website=corrections1.com |access-date=22 July 2022}}</ref>.[[New York City Police Department #Special Operations Bureau Emergency Service Unit]],deployed its [[NYPD #Special Operations Bureau Aviation Unit]],[[PAPD #Aviation Unit]],[[PAPD #Firefighting and Crash Emergency]].[[New York City Parks Enforcement Patrol]] (PEP) - The PEP responded with several officers and assisted with traffic control, manning checkpoints and escorting people out of the area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nycgovparks.org/news/daily-plant?id=23458|title = The Daily Plant : NYC Parks}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dc37blog.net/2018/01/11/urban-park-rangers-honored-for-9-11-heroism/|title = Urban Park Rangers Honored for 9/11 Heroism|date = 11 January 2018}}</ref> [[New York City Sheriff's Office]] - large response by the NYC Sheriff, who helped with evacuations, traffic control and scene control.[[New York State Court Officers]] - NY State Court Officers responded and helped with evacuations at the WTC. Three officers were lost on the day.<ref>{{cite web |last1=odmp |first1=odmp |title=New York State Office of Court Administration |url=https://www.odmp.org/agency/2764-new-york-state-office-of-court-administration-new-york |website=odmp.org |access-date=30 July 2022}}</ref>.[[New York State Police]] (NYSP) - Troopers from the NYSP responded on 9/11, including elements of the Mobile Response Team / SWAT & K9 teams.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Seidler Ramirez |first1=Jan |title=Chief Curator and Vice President of Collections |url=https://www.911memorial.org/connect/blog/hard-hat-used-911-recovery-efforts-view |website=911memorial.org |access-date=30 July 2022}}</ref>.[[New York City Department of Sanitation Environmental Police]] - responded and assisted at the WTC attacks.[[ASPCA Humane Law Enforcement Division|American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Humane Law Enforcement]],(New York ASPCA) (Disbanded in 2013) - Special Investigators from the ASPCA's Humane Law Enforcement division were assigned to search for abandoned animals in homes and apartments in restricted area around the World Trade Center site that had been evacuated. One investigator died later after the attacks.<ref>{{cite web |last1=odmp |first1=odmp |title=Special Investigator Diane DiGiacomo |url=https://www.odmp.org/officer/22667-special-investigator-diane-digiacomo |website=odmp.org}}</ref>.[[New York City Department of Sanitation Environmental Police]] - responded and assisted at the WTC attacks.Once on the scene, the [[FDNY]], the [[NYPD]], and the [[PAPD]] did not coordinate efforts and performed redundant searches for civilians.<ref name="mckinsey-ems" />{{sfnp|Alavosius|Rodriquez|2005|pp=666–80}}

As conditions deteriorated, the [[NYPD #Aviation Unit]] relayed information to police commanders, who issued orders for its personnel to evacuate the towers; most NYPD officers were able to safely evacuate before the buildings collapsed.{{sfnp|Alavosius|Rodriquez|2005|pp=666–80}}<ref name="mckinsey-nypd">''McKinsey Report'', "NYPD", pp. ??{{page needed}}</ref> With separate command posts set up and incompatible radio communications between the agencies, warnings were not passed along to FDNY commanders.

After the first tower collapsed, FDNY commanders issued evacuation warnings. Due to [[Radio communications during the September 11 attacks|technical difficulties]] with malfunctioning radio repeater systems, many firefighters never heard the evacuation orders. 9-1-1 dispatchers also received information from callers that was not passed along to commanders on the scene.<ref name="mckinsey-exec" />

== Reactions ==
{{Main|Reactions to the September 11 attacks}}
{{See also|Timeline for September following the September 11 attacks}}
The 9/11 attacks resulted in immediate responses to the event, including [[U.S. government response to the September 11 attacks|domestic reactions]]; [[Closings and cancellations following the September 11 attacks|closings and cancellations]]; [[hate crime]]s; [[Islam in the United States|Muslim-American]] responses to the event; [[Reactions to the September 11 attacks|international responses to the attack]]; and [[U.S. military response during the September 11 attacks|military responses to the events]]. An [[September 11 Victim Compensation Fund|extensive compensation program]] was quickly established by Congress in the aftermath to compensate the victims and families of victims of the 9/11 attacks as well.<ref>{{cite book |title=Who Gets What: Fair Compensation after Tragedy and Financial Upheaval |first=Kenneth |last=Feinberg |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |location=New York |isbn=978-1-58648-977-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5j6N5LTz1N0C }}</ref><ref>Feinberg, Kenneth. ''What is Life Worth?: The Unprecedented Effort to Compensate the Victims of 9/11'' (2005), Perseus Books Group.</ref>

=== Immediate response ===
{{Further|U.S. military response during the September 11 attacks}}
{{See also|Communication during the September 11 attacks}}
[[File:President George W. Bush Receives Information Regarding Terrorist Attacks.jpg|thumb|President [[George W. Bush]] is briefed in [[Sarasota, Florida]], where he learned of the attacks unfolding while he was visiting [[Emma Booker Elementary School|an elementary school]].]]
[[File:9 11 Terror Attacks Historical Pentagon Briefing.webm|thumb|start=02:16|alt=Rumsfeld in front of microphone flanked by a suited politicians and a General, all with grim expressions |Eight hours after the attacks, [[Donald Rumsfeld]], then U.S. Secretary of Defense, declares "The Pentagon is functioning."]]
At 8:32 a.m., [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] officials were notified Flight{{spaces}}11 had been hijacked and they, in turn, notified the [[North American Aerospace Defense Command]] (NORAD). NORAD scrambled two [[McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle|F-15s]] from [[Otis Air National Guard Base]] in Massachusetts and they were airborne by 8:53 a.m. Because of slow and confused communication from FAA officials, NORAD had nine minutes' notice, and no notice about any of the other flights before they crashed.

After both of the Twin Towers had already been hit, more fighters were scrambled from [[Joint Base Langley–Eustis|Langley Air Force Base]] in Virginia at 9:30 a.m.<ref name="norad">{{cite web|title=We Have Some Planes|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf|website=The 911 Commission Report|publisher=911 Commission|access-date=September 9, 2011 |pages=20–42}}</ref> At 10:20 a.m., Vice President [[Dick Cheney]] issued orders to shoot down any commercial aircraft that could be positively identified as being hijacked. These instructions were not relayed in time for the fighters to take action.<ref name="norad" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Cheney: Order To Shoot Down Hijacked 9/11 Planes 'Necessary'|url=http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2011/09/04/cheney-order-to-shoot-down-hijacked-11-planes-necessary/|access-date=September 9, 2011 |publisher=Fox News Channel}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Schrader|first=Esther|title=Cheney Gave Order to Shoot Down Jets|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2004/jun/18/nation/na-cheney18|access-date=September 9, 2011 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> Some fighters took to the air without live ammunition, knowing that to prevent the hijackers from striking their intended targets, the pilots might have to intercept and crash their fighters into the hijacked planes, possibly ejecting at the last moment.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hendrix |first=Steve |title=F-16 pilot was ready to give her life on Sept. 11 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/f-16-pilot-was-ready-to-give-her-life-on-sept-11/2011/09/06/gIQAMpcODK_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=September 9, 2011}}</ref>

For the first time in U.S. history, the emergency preparedness plan called [[Security Control of Air Traffic and Air Navigation Aids]] (SCATANA) was invoked,<ref>{{cite web |author=Flight Data Center |title=NOTAMs/Flight Restrictions in Effect on September 13, 2001 |url=http://www.judicialwatch.org/archive/2007/Saudi%20Docs%202.pdf |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |page=15ff}}</ref> thus stranding tens of thousands of passengers across the world.<ref name="Commission">{{cite web |title=Wartime |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch10.htm |website=National Commission on Terrorists Attacks upon the United States |publisher=U.S. Congress |access-date=September 3, 2011}}</ref> [[Ben Sliney]], in his first day as the National Operations Manager of the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Williams |first=Andrew |title=60 Seconds: Ben Sliney |url=http://www.metro.co.uk/fame/interviews/article.html?in_article_id=20603&in_page_id=11 |website=[[Metro (British newspaper)|Metro]] |location=London |access-date=April 13, 2010 |archive-date=May 29, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529141832/http://www.metro.co.uk/fame/interviews/article.html?in_article_id=20603&in_page_id=11 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ordered that American airspace would be closed to all international flights, causing about 500 flights to be turned back or redirected to other countries. Canada received 226 of the diverted flights and launched [[Operation Yellow Ribbon]] to deal with the large numbers of grounded planes and stranded passengers.<ref name="canadaflights">{{cite press release |title=Actions taken following September 11 terrorist attacks |publisher=[[Transport Canada]] |url=http://www.tc.gc.ca/mediaroom/releases/nat/2001/01_h152e.htm |access-date=September 3, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415131425/http://www.tc.gc.ca/mediaroom/releases/nat/2001/01_h152e.htm |archive-date=April 15, 2002}}</ref>

The 9/11 attacks had immediate effects on the American people.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stein |first=Howard F. |year=2003 |title=Days of Awe: September 11, 2001 and its Cultural Psychodynamics |journal=Journal for the Psychoanalysis of Culture and Society |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=187–99 |doi=10.1353/psy.2003.0047|s2cid=144229311 }}</ref> Police and rescue workers from around the country took a leave of absence from their jobs and traveled to New York City to help recover bodies from the twisted remnants of the Twin Towers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Asthma Rates Up Among Ground Zero Workers|publisher=[[CBS News]]|agency=Associated Press|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-204_162-3207507.html|access-date=September 11, 2013}}</ref> Blood donations across the U.S. surged in the weeks after 9/11.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Glynn |first1=Simone A. |title=Effect of a National Disaster on Blood Supply and Safety: The September 11 Experience |year=2003 |journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]|volume=289 |issue=17 |pmid=12734136 |doi=10.1001/jama.289.17.2246 |pages=2246–53 |last2=Busch |first2=MP |last3=Schreiber |first3=GB |last4=Murphy |first4=EL |last5=Wright |first5=DJ |last6=Tu |first6=Y |last7=Kleinman |first7=SH |last8=Nhlbi Reds Study |first8=Group|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Red Cross Woes|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/business/july-dec01/redcross_12-19.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905071729/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/business/july-dec01/redcross_12-19.html|archive-date=September 5, 2011|access-date=September 3, 2011|publisher=[[PBS]]}}</ref>

The deaths of adults in the attacks resulted in over 3,000 children losing a parent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coates |first1=S. |last2=Schechter |first2=D. |doi=10.1016/j.psc.2004.03.006 |title=Preschoolers' traumatic stress post-9/11: Relational and developmental perspectives |journal=Psychiatric Clinics of North America |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=473–89 |year=2004 |pmid=15325488}}</ref> Subsequent studies documented children's reactions to these actual losses and to feared losses of life, the protective environment in the attacks' aftermath, and the effects on surviving caregivers.<ref>Schechter DS, Coates SW, First E (2002). Observations of acute reactions of young children and their families to the World Trade Center attacks. Journal of Zero-to-Three: National Center for Infants, Toddlers, and Families, 22(3), 9–13.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Coates |first1=Susan W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LieHtrW44_gC |title=September 11: Trauma and Human Bonds |last2=Rosenthal |first2=Jane L. |last3=Schechter |first3=Daniel S. |publisher=Analytic Press |isbn=978-0-88163-381-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Klein |first1=T. P. |last2=Devoe |first2=E. R. |last3=Miranda-Julian |first3=C. |last4=Linas |first4=K. |title=Young children's responses to September 11th: The New York City experience |doi=10.1002/imhj.20200 |pmid=28636121 |journal=[[Infant Mental Health Journal]] |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |year=2009|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Domestic reactions ===
{{Further|U.S. government response to the September 11 attacks}}
[[File:Address to the Nation by President George W. Bush on September 11, 2001.webm|thumb|President Bush addressed the nation from the White House at 8:30 PM ET.]]
[[File:Remarks from Ground Zero September 14, 2001.webm|thumb|thumbtime=00:11|The President spoke to rescue workers at [[Ground zero#World Trade Center|Ground Zero]] on September 14.]]
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Following the attacks, President George W. Bush's approval rating soared to 90%.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/116500/Presidential-Approval-Ratings-George-Bush.aspx |title=Presidential Approval Ratings – George W. Bush |publisher=Gallup |access-date=September 4, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090402045152/http://www.gallup.com/poll/116500/presidential-approval-ratings-george-bush.aspx |archive-date=April 2, 2009 }}</ref> On September 20, 2001, he addressed the nation and a joint session of Congress regarding the events of September 11 and the subsequent nine days of rescue and recovery efforts, and described his intended response to the attacks. [[Mayor of New York City|New York City mayor]] [[Rudy Giuliani]]'s [[Rudy Giuliani during the September 11 attacks|highly visible role]] won him high praise in New York and nationally.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Pooley|first=Eric|title=Mayor of the World |url=http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2020227_2020306_2022358,00.html |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref>

Many relief funds were immediately set up to assist the attacks' victims, with the task of providing [[Financial assistance following the September 11 attacks|financial assistance]] to the [[Casualties of the September 11 attacks|survivors of the attacks]] and to the victims' families. By the deadline for victims' compensation on September 11, 2003, 2,833 applications had been received from the families of those who were killed.<ref>{{cite news |last=Barrett |first=Devlin |title=9/11 Fund Deadline Passes |publisher=CBS News |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/01/16/national/main593715.shtml |access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-date=August 26, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826063644/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/01/16/national/main593715.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Contingency plans for the [[continuity of government]] and the evacuation of leaders were implemented soon after the attacks.<ref name="Commission" /> Congress was not told that the United States had been under a continuity of government status until February 2002.<ref>{{cite news |title='Shadow Government' News To Congress |publisher=CBS News |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/03/01/attack/main502530.shtml |access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-date=September 5, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905080451/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/03/01/attack/main502530.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the largest restructuring of the U.S. government in contemporary history, the United States enacted the [[Homeland Security Act]] of 2002, creating the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]]. Congress also passed the [[USA PATRIOT Act]], saying it would help detect and prosecute terrorism and other crimes.<ref name="lifeandliberty.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.lifeandliberty.gov/highlights.htm |title=The USA PATRIOT Act: Preserving Life and Liberty |access-date=September 4, 2011 |publisher=[[United States Department of Justice]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102035036/http://www.justice.gov/archive/ll/highlights.htm|archive-date=January 2, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> Civil liberties groups have criticized the PATRIOT Act, saying it allows law enforcement to invade citizens' privacy and that it eliminates judicial oversight of law enforcement and domestic intelligence.<ref name="ACLUAdv">{{cite press release |url=https://www.aclu.org/national-security/uncle-sam-asks-what-hell-going-herein-new-aclu-print-and-radio-advertisements |title=Uncle Sam Asks: "What The Hell Is Going On Here?" in New ACLU Print and Radio Advertisements |publisher=[[American Civil Liberties Union]] |access-date=April 10, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Eggen |first=Dan |title=Key Part of Patriot Act Ruled Unconstitutional |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A59626-2004Sep29.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/law/09/26/patriot.act/index.html |title=Federal judge rules 2 Patriot Act provisions unconstitutional |access-date=September 4, 2011 |publisher=CNN}}</ref>

In an effort to effectively combat future acts of terrorism, the [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) was given broad powers. NSA commenced [[NSA warrantless surveillance controversy|warrantless surveillance]] of telecommunications, which was sometimes criticized since it permitted the agency "to eavesdrop on telephone and e-mail communications between the United States and people overseas without a warrant".<ref>{{cite news |last1=VandeHei |first1=Jim |last2=Eggen |first2=Dan |title=Cheney Cites Justifications For Domestic Eavesdropping |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/04/AR2006010400973.html |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> In response to requests by various intelligence agencies, the [[United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]] permitted an expansion of powers by the U.S. government in seeking, obtaining, and sharing information on U.S. citizens as well as non-U.S. people from around the world.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Savage |first1=Charlie |last2=Poitras |first2=Laura |title=How a Court Secretly Evolved, Extending U.S. Spies' Reach |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/12/us/how-a-courts-secret-evolution-extended-spies-reach.html |access-date=March 13, 2014}}</ref>

==== Hate crimes ====
{{See also|Islamophobic incidents|Persecution of Muslims}}
Six days after the attacks, President Bush made a public appearance at [[Islamic Center of Washington|Washington, D.C.'s largest Islamic Center]] and acknowledged the "incredibly valuable contribution" that millions of [[Islam in the United States|American Muslims]] made to their country and called for them "to be treated with respect".<ref>{{cite news |last=Freedman |first=Samuel G. |title=Six Days After 9/11, Another Anniversary Worth Honoring |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/08/us/on-religion-six-days-after-9-11-another-anniversary-worth-honoring.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=March 12, 2015}}</ref> Numerous incidents of [[harassment]] and [[hate crime]]s against [[Muslims]] and [[South Asian ethnic groups|South Asians]] were reported in the days following the attacks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/cchr/html/report.html|title=New York City Commission on Human Rights|publisher=Nyc.gov |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040203071912/http://www.nyc.gov/html/cchr/html/report.html |archive-date=February 3, 2004 |access-date=May 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/post9-11-us-policies-created-atmosphere-of-fear-for-south-asians/836936 |title=Post-9/11, US policies created atmosphere of fear for South Asians|website=The Indian Express|access-date=October 23, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Hate">{{cite news|title=Hate crime reports up in wake of terrorist attacks |publisher=CNN|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/16/gen.hate.crimes |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051127025019/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/16/gen.hate.crimes/ |archive-date=November 27, 2005 |access-date=May 29, 2014}}</ref>

[[Sikh]]s were also subject to targeting due to the use of [[turban]]s in the [[Sikh faith]], which are stereotypically associated with Muslims. There were reports of attacks on mosques and other religious buildings (including the firebombing of a [[Hindu temple]]), and assaults on individuals, including one murder: [[Murder of Balbir Singh Sodhi|Balbir Singh Sodhi]], a Sikh mistaken for a Muslim, who was fatally shot on September 15, 2001, in [[Mesa, Arizona]].<ref name="Hate" /> Two dozen members of Osama bin Laden's family were urgently evacuated out of the country on a private charter plane under FBI supervision three days after the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/bin-laden-family-evacuated/|title=Bin Laden Family Evacuated|publisher=CBS News|access-date=January 30, 2019}}</ref>

According to an academic study, people perceived to be [[Ethnic groups in the Middle East|Middle Eastern]] were as likely to be victims of hate crimes as followers of [[Islam]] during this time. The study also found a similar increase in hate crimes against people who may have been perceived as Muslims, [[Arabs]], and others thought to be of Middle Eastern origin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bsu.edu/news/article/0,1370,-1019-12850,00.html |title=Many minority groups were victims of hate crimes after 9-11 |publisher=[[Ball State University]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211050839/http://www.bsu.edu/news/article/0%2C1370%2C-1019-12850%2C00.html |archive-date=December 11, 2008 |access-date=May 29, 2014}}</ref> A report by the South Asian American advocacy group known as South Asian Americans Leading Together documented media coverage of 645 bias incidents against Americans of South Asian or Middle Eastern descent between September 11 and 17 2001. Various crimes such as vandalism, arson, assault, shootings, harassment, and threats in numerous places were documented.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saalt.org/attachments/1/American%20Backlash%20report.pdf|title=American Backlash: Terrorist Bring War Home in More Ways Than One |year=2003 |publisher=SAALT |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203140832/http://static.911digitalarchive.org/REPOSITORY/OTHER_OBJECTS/6object.pdf |archive-date=December 3, 2010 |access-date=May 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Thayil|first=Jeet|title=645 racial incidents reported in week after September 11|newspaper=[[India Abroad]]|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-79281024.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511211812/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-79281024.html|archive-date=May 11, 2011}}</ref> Women wearing [[hijab]] were also targeted.<ref name="HRW not enemy">{{Cite web |title=We Are Not the Enemy: Hate Crimes Against Arabs, Muslims, and Those Perceived to be Arab or Muslim after September 11 |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/usahate/usa1102-04.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522192143/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/usahate/usa1102-04.htm |archive-date=May 22, 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=June 7, 2022 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref>

==== Discrimination and racial profiling ====
{{Further|Detentions following the September 11 attacks|Islamophobia in the United States|Flying while Muslim}}
{{See also|Airport racial profiling in the United States}}
A poll of [[Arab Americans|Arab-Americans]], conducted in May 2002, found that 20% had personally experienced discrimination since September 11. A July 2002 poll of Muslim Americans found that 48% believed their lives had changed for the worse since September 11, and 57% had experienced an act of bias or discrimination.<ref name="HRW not enemy" />

Following the September 11 attacks, many [[Pakistani Americans]] identified themselves as Indians to avoid potential discrimination and obtain jobs (Pakistan was created as a result of the [[partition of India]] in 1947).<ref>{{cite news |title=Pakistanis pose as Indians after NY bomb scare |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-timessquare-backlash/pakistanis-pose-as-indians-after-ny-bomb-scare-idUSTRE64655Y20100507 |publisher=[[Reuters]] |access-date=March 23, 2020 }}</ref>

By May 2002, there were 488 complaints of [[Employment discrimination in the United States|employment discrimination]] reported to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). 301 of those were complaints from people fired from their jobs. Similarly, by June 2002, the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) had investigated 111 September 11th-related complaints from airline passengers purporting that their religious or ethnic appearance caused them to be singled out at security screenings. DOT investigated an additional 31 complaints from people who alleged they were completely blocked from boarding airplanes on the same grounds.<ref name="HRW not enemy" />

==== Muslim American response ====
{{See also|Muslim attitudes towards terrorism|Peace in Islamic philosophy}}
Muslim organizations in the United States were swift to condemn the attacks and called "upon [[Muslim Americans]] to come forward with their skills and resources to help alleviate the sufferings of the affected people and their families".<ref>{{cite web|last=American Muslim Leaders |title=Muslim Americans Condemn Attack |publisher=ISNA |url=http://www.islamicity.com/articles/Articles.asp?ref=AM0109-335 |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> These organizations included the [[Islamic Society of North America]], American Muslim Alliance, [[American Muslim Council]], [[Council on American-Islamic Relations]], [[Islamic Circle of North America]], and the Shari'a Scholars Association of North America. Along with monetary donations, many Islamic organizations launched blood drives and provided medical assistance, food, and shelter for victims.<ref>{{cite news|last=Beaulieu |first=Dan |title=Muslim groups around world condemn the killing of innocents |publisher=Agence France Presse |language=en }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Davis |first=Joyce M. |title=Muslims condemn attacks, insist Islam not violent against innocents |agency=Knight Ridder Washington Bureau }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Witham |first=Larry |title=Muslim groups decry attacks; No cause justifies the 'immoral' act, U.S. councils say |work=The Washington Times }}</ref>

==== Interfaith efforts ====
Curiosity about Islam increased after the attacks. As a result, many mosques and Islamic centers began holding open houses and participating in outreach efforts to educate non-Muslims about the faith. In the first 10 years after the attacks, [[Interfaith dialogue|interfaith]] community service increased from 8 to 20 percent. and the percentage of U.S. congregations involved in interfaith worship doubled from 7 to 14 percent.<ref>{{Cite news|title=From fear of Islam to outreach: how 9/11 prompted interfaith efforts|work=The Christian Science Monitor|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2011/0908/From-fear-of-Islam-to-outreach-how-9-11-prompted-interfaith-efforts|access-date=August 27, 2021|issn=0882-7729}}</ref>

=== International reactions ===
The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments worldwide. Across the globe, nations offered pro-American support and solidarity.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Hertzberg|first=Hendrik|title=Lost love|url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/09/11/060911ta_talk_hertzberg|url-status=live|magazine=[[The New Yorker]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606070654/http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/09/11/060911ta_talk_hertzberg|archive-date=June 6, 2011|access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries, as well as Libya and Afghanistan, condemned the attacks. Iraq was a notable exception, with an immediate official statement that, "the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity".<ref>{{cite news|title=Attacks draw mixed response in Mideast|publisher=[[CNN]]|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/09/12/mideast.reaction/index.html|url-status=dead|access-date=May 29, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813060324/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/09/12/mideast.reaction/index.html|archive-date=August 13, 2007}}</ref> The government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks, but privately many Saudis favored bin Laden's cause.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Summers|first1=Anthony|url=https://archive.org/details/eleventhdayfulls0000summ|title=The Eleventh Day: The Full Story of 9/11 and Osama bin Laden|last2=Swan|first2=Robbyn|publisher=[[Ballantine Books]]|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4000-6659-9|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/eleventhdayfulls0000summ/page/403 403]|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="The Kingdom and the Towers">{{cite web|title=The Kingdom and the Towers|url=http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2011/08/9-11-2011-201108|access-date=September 4, 2011|website=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]}}</ref>

Although [[Palestinian Authority]] (PA) president [[Yasser Arafat]] also condemned the attacks, there were reports of celebrations of disputed size in the [[West Bank]], [[Gaza Strip]], and [[East Jerusalem]].<ref>{{cite news|title=In pictures: Atrocities' aftermath|language=en-GB|publisher=[[BBC News]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1538664.stm|access-date=September 12, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Porter|first=Patrick|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VE5yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA139|title=Blunder: Britain's War in Iraq|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2018|isbn=978-0-19-880796-4|page=139|access-date=September 12, 2019}}</ref> Palestinian leaders discredited news broadcasters that justified the attacks or showed celebrations,<ref name="fox1">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,34187,00.html |publisher=Fox News |title=Arafat Horrified by Attacks, but Thousands of Palestinians Celebrate; Rest of World Outraged |access-date=April 17, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413170546/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,34187,00.html |archive-date=April 13, 2008 |url-status=live |df=mdy-all }}</ref> and the Authority claimed such celebration do not represent the Palestinians' sentiment, adding that it would not allow "a few kids" to "smear the real face of the Palestinians".<ref>Palestinian Authority has muzzled coverage of Palestinian celebrations' (Middle East Newsline) 'Israel to AP: Release film of Palestinian celebrations' (Jerusalem Post/The Associated Press) 'Bin-Laden Poster Seen at Gaza Rally' (The Associated Press).</ref><ref name="FOX_Quash">{{cite news |last=Donaldson |first=Catherine |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,34346,00.html |title='Palestinian Officials Quash Pictures of Arab Celebrations' by Catherine Donaldson-Evans |publisher=Fox News |access-date=September 11, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505074246/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,34346,00.html |archive-date=May 5, 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Footage by CNN{{vague}} and other news outlets were suggested by a report originating at a Brazilian university to be from 1991; this was later proven to be a false accusation, resulting in a statement being issued by CNN.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/20/cnn.statement/|title=CNN statement about false claim it used old video – September 20, 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416104012/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/20/cnn.statement/|access-date=September 12, 2019|archive-date=April 16, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Palestinians Dancing in the Street|url=https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/false-footaging/|access-date=September 12, 2019|website=[[Snopes]]|language=en-US}}</ref> As in the United States, the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other countries between Muslims and non-Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |title=Muslim community targets racial tension |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/1551868.stm |publisher=BBC News |access-date=April 11, 2012}}</ref>

[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368]] condemned the attacks and expressed readiness to take all necessary steps to respond and combat all forms of terrorism in accordance with their [[Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter|Charter]].<ref name="SecCounc">{{cite web|title=Security Council Condemns, 'In Strongest Terms', Terrorist Attacks on the United States|publisher=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/SC7143.doc.htm|access-date=September 11, 2006 |quote=The Security Council today, following what it called yesterday's "horrifying terrorist attacks" in New York, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania, unequivocally condemned those acts, and expressed its deepest sympathy and condolences to the victims and their families and to the people and Government of the United States.}}</ref> Numerous countries introduced anti-terrorism legislation and froze bank accounts they suspected of al-Qaeda ties.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hamilton|first=Stuart|title=September 11, the Internet, and the effects on information provision in Libraries|url=http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla68/papers/156-079e.pdf|access-date=September 4, 2011|publisher=[[International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=G8 counter-terrorism cooperation since September 11 backgrounder|url=http://www.g8.fr/evian/english/navigation/g8_documents/archives_from_previous_summits/kananaskis_summit_-_2002/g8_counter-terrorism_cooperation_since_september_11th_backgrounder.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927084019/http://www.g8.fr/evian/english/navigation/g8_documents/archives_from_previous_summits/kananaskis_summit_-_2002/g8_counter-terrorism_cooperation_since_september_11th_backgrounder.html|archive-date=September 27, 2011|access-date=September 4, 2011|publisher=[[Group of Eight]]}}</ref> Law enforcement and intelligence agencies in a number of countries arrested alleged terrorists.<ref>{{cite news|last=Walsh |first=Courtney C |title=Italian police explore Al Qaeda links in cyanide plot |website=The Christian Science Monitor |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0307/p07s02-woeu.html |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=SE Asia unites to smash militant cells |publisher=CNN|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/05/07/seasia.terror.pact/ |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref>

British Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] said Britain stood "shoulder to shoulder" with the United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=Blair's statement in full |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/1538551.stm |publisher=BBC News |access-date=August 23, 2021}}</ref> A few days later, Blair flew to Washington, D.C., to affirm British solidarity with the United States. In a speech to Congress nine days after the attacks, which Blair attended as a guest, President Bush declared "America has no truer friend than Great Britain."<ref>{{cite web|title=President Declares 'Freedom at War with Fear' |url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html |publisher=The White House |access-date=August 25, 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225062850/http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html |archive-date=February 25, 2008 }}</ref> Subsequently, Prime Minister Blair embarked on two months of diplomacy to rally international support for military action; he held 54 meetings with world leaders and traveled more than 40,000 miles (60,000{{spaces}}km).<ref>{{cite news |title=Tony Blair's allegiance to George Bush laid bare |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/tony-blairs-corrosive-allegiance-to-george-bush-laid-bare-for-the-first-time-6668892.html |work=Evening Standard |location=London |access-date=August 23, 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Vladimir Putin in the United States 13-16 November 2001-54.jpg|thumb|[[Vladimir Putin]] (right) and his then-wife [[Lyudmila Putina]] (center) on November 16]]

The U.S. set up the [[Guantanamo Bay detention camp]] to hold inmates they defined as "[[illegal enemy combatants]]". The legitimacy of these detentions has been questioned by the [[European Union]] and human rights organizations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Euro MPs urge Guantanamo closure |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5074216.stm |publisher=BBC News |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mendez |first=Juan E. |author-link=Juan E. Méndez |title=Detainees in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba; Request for Precautionary Measures, Inter-Am. C.H.R |url=http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/cases/guantanamo-2003.html |publisher=[[University of Minnesota]] |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=USA: Release or fair trials for all remaining Guantánamo detainees |url=https://www.amnesty.org/press-releases/2008/05/usa-release-or-fair-trials-all-remaining-guantc3a1namo-detainees-20080502/ |publisher=Amnesty International |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref>

On September 25, 2001, [[Iran]]'s [[List of Presidents of Iran#List of Presidents|fifth president]], [[Mohammad Khatami]], meeting British Foreign Secretary [[Jack Straw]], said: "Iran fully understands the feelings of the Americans about the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on September 11." He said although the American administrations had been at best indifferent about terrorist operations in Iran (since 1979), the Iranians felt differently and had expressed their sympathetic feelings with bereaved Americans in the tragic incidents in the two cities. He also stated that "Nations should not be punished in place of terrorists."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20020503200608/http://www.president.ir/cronicnews/1380/8007/800703/800703.htm P.I.R.I News Headlines (Tue 80/07/03 A.H.S)]. The Official Site of the Office of the President of Iran. [http://president.ir/en Official website of the President of the Islamic Republic of Iran]. September 25, 2001. Permanent Archived Link. Original page and URL are not available online now. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20010926214218/http://www.president.ir/ Website's Homepage at that time (Title: Presidency of The Islamic Republic of Iran, The Official Site)])</ref>

According to [[Radio Farda]]'s website, when the news of the attacks was released, some Iranian citizens gathered in front of the Embassy of Switzerland in Tehran, which serves as the protecting power of the United States in Iran (U.S. interests-protecting office in Iran), to express their sympathy, and some of them lit candles as a symbol of mourning. This piece of news at Radio Farda's website also states that in 2011, on the anniversary of the attacks, the [[United States Department of State]] published a post at its blog, in which the Department thanked the Iranian people for their sympathy and stated that it would never forget Iranian people's kindness on those harsh days.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.radiofarda.com/content/f12_us_state_department_thanks_iranian_sympathy_with_sept_11_victims_in_2001/24324962.html |title=تشکر وزارت خارجه آمریکا از همدردی ایرانیان با قربانیان ۱۱ سپتامبر |language=fa |website=[[Radio Farda]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121163708/http://www.radiofarda.com/content/f12_us_state_department_thanks_iranian_sympathy_with_sept_11_victims_in_2001/24324962.html|archive-date=January 21, 2012|access-date=June 30, 2016 |url-status=live}} [https://translate.google.com/translate?&sl=fa&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radiofarda.com%2Fcontent%2Ff12_us_state_department_thanks_iranian_sympathy_with_sept_11_victims_in_2001%2F24324962.html A mechanized Translation by Google Translate is available here].</ref> After the attacks, both the President<ref>[http://en.isna.ir/news/8008-04338/Iran-s-President-Says-Muslims-Reject-bin-Laden-s-Islam "Iran's President Says Muslims Reject bin Laden's 'Islam'"]. [[Iranian Students News Agency]]. November 10, 2001 / 17:07. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160918154504/http://en.isna.ir/news/8008-04338/Iran-s-President-Says-Muslims-Reject-bin-Laden-s-Islam Permanent Archived Link]. Retrieved and archived on September 18, 2016, 15:45:04 UTC.</ref><ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3302180,00.html Ynetnews News – Khatami slams bin Laden, defends Hizbullah]. [[Ynetnews]]. November 9, 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160908183108/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3302180,00.html Permanent Archived Link]. Retrieved and archived on September 8, 2016; 18:31:08 UTC.</ref> and the Supreme Leader of Iran, condemned the attacks. The [[BBC]] and ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine published reports on holding candlelit vigils for the victims by Iranian citizens on their websites.<ref>{{cite news |last=Corera |first=Gordon |title=Iran's gulf of misunderstanding with US |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/5377914.stm |publisher=BBC News |access-date=May 22, 2010}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20160404184211/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/5377914.stm Permanent Archived Link].</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20101115094604/http://www.time.com/time/europe/photoessays/vigil/2.html Iran mourns America's dead] ''Time''</ref> According to ''[[Politico#Politico Magazine|Politico Magazine]]'', following the attacks, [[Ali Khamenei|Sayyed Ali Khamenei]], the Supreme Leader of Iran, "suspended the usual '[[Death to America]]' chants at [[Jumu'ah|Friday prayers]]" temporarily.<ref name="Politico 2013-11-19">{{cite news |last=Slavin |first=Barbara |title=34 Years of Getting to No with Iran |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2013/11/a-failure-to-communicate-100052.html |website=[[Politico|Politico Magazine]] |access-date=July 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129195150/http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2013/11/a-failure-to-communicate-100052.html |archive-date=January 29, 2014}}</ref>

In September 2001, shortly after the attacks, some fans of [[AEK Athens F.C.|AEK Athens]] burned an Israeli flag and unsuccessfully tried to burn an American flag. Though the American flag did not catch fire, the fans booed during a [[moment of silence]] for victims of the attacks.<ref>{{cite news |title=Plus: Soccer; Fans in Athens Try To Burn U.S. Flag |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/23/sports/plus-soccer-fans-in-athens-try-to-burn-us-flag.html |issn=0362-4331 |work=The New York Times |agency=[[Associated Press]] |access-date=April 18, 2018}}</ref>

=== Military operations ===
{{further|War on terror}}
At 2:40 p.m. on September 11, [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [[Donald Rumsfeld]] was issuing rapid orders to his aides to look for evidence of Iraqi involvement. According to notes taken by senior policy official [[Stephen Cambone]], Rumsfeld asked for, "Best info fast. Judge whether good enough hit S.H. [Saddam Hussein] at same time. Not only UBL" [Osama bin Laden].<ref>{{cite episode |title=Bush's War |access-date=September 4, 2011 |series=Frontline |series-link=Frontline (U.S. TV series) |credits=Written, produced and directed by [[Michael Kirk]], produced and reported by Jim Gilmore |network=PBS |station=WGBH |location=Boston |time=8:40 |transcript=Transcript |transcript-url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/bushswar/etc/script.html |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/bushswar/}}</ref> Cambone's notes quoted Rumsfeld as saying, "Need to move swiftly{{snd}}Near term target needs{{snd}}go massive{{snd}}sweep it all up. Things related and not."<ref name="IraqSuspect">{{cite news |first=Joel |last=Roberts |title=Plans For Iraq Attack Began on 9/11 |publisher=CBS News |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/04/september11/main520830.shtml |access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-date=May 25, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060525035205/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/04/september11/main520830.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Borger |first=Julian |title=Blogger bares Rumsfeld's post 9/11 orders |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/feb/24/freedomofinformation.september11 |access-date=October 7, 2009 |location=London}}</ref>

In a meeting at [[Camp David]] on September 15 the Bush administration rejected the idea of attacking [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraq]] in response to 9/11.<ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/911Report.pdf 9/11 Commission Report] pp. 334–36</ref> Nonetheless, they later [[2003 Invasion of Iraq|invaded the country]] with allies, citing "Saddam Hussein's support for terrorism".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/03/20030322.html|title=President Discusses Beginning of Operation Iraqi Freedom |access-date=October 29, 2011}}</ref> At the time, as many as seven in ten Americans believed the Iraqi president played a role in the 9/11 attacks.<ref>{{cite news |title=US public thinks Saddam had role in 9/11 |website=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/sep/07/usa.theobserver |access-date=March 20, 2017}}</ref> Three years later, Bush conceded that he had not.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bush: Saddam was not responsible for 9/11 |website=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/sep/12/september11.usa2 |access-date=March 20, 2017}}</ref>

[[File:US Army Afghanistan 2006.jpg|thumb|left|[[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|U.S. soldiers in Afghanistan]], 2006]]

The [[NATO]] council declared that the terrorist attacks on the United States were an attack on all NATO nations that satisfied [[North Atlantic Treaty#Article 5|Article 5]] of the NATO charter. This marked the first invocation of Article 5, which had been written during the [[Cold War]] with an attack by the Soviet Union in mind.<ref>{{cite web|title=Statement by the North Atlantic Council |publisher=NATO |url=http://www.nato.int/docu/pr/2001/p01-124e.htm |access-date=September 4, 2011 |quote=Article 5: The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. Any such armed attack and all measures taken as a result thereof shall immediately be reported to the Security Council. Such measures shall be terminated when the Security Council has taken the measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security.}}</ref> Australian Prime Minister [[John Howard]], who was in Washington, D.C. during the attacks, invoked Article IV of the [[ANZUS]] treaty.<ref>{{cite news|title=ABC Conversations with Richard Fidler John Howard Interview Transcript |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |url=http://www.abc.net.au/reslib/201109/r826557_7555516.pdf}}</ref> The Bush administration announced a [[War on Terror]], with the stated goals of bringing bin Laden and al-Qaeda to justice and preventing the emergence of other terrorist networks.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/specials/attacked/transcripts/bushaddress_092001.html|title=Text: President Bush Addresses the Nation|access-date=July 4, 2015|newspaper=The Washington Post|last=Bush|first=George}}</ref> These goals would be accomplished by imposing economic and military sanctions against states harboring terrorists, and increasing global surveillance and intelligence sharing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/news-information/cia-the-war-on-terrorism/Counter_Terrorism_Strategy.pdf|title=National Strategy for Combating Terrorism|access-date=July 4, 2015|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|archive-date=February 24, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224121111/https://www.cia.gov/news-information/cia-the-war-on-terrorism/Counter_Terrorism_Strategy.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On September 14, 2001, the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists]]. It is still in effect, and grants the President the authority to use all "necessary and appropriate force" against those whom he determined "planned, authorized, committed or aided" the September 11 attacks or who harbored said persons or groups.<ref>{{cite web |title=Public Law 107–40—Sept. 18, 2001: Joint Resolution To authorize the use of United States Armed Forces against those responsible for the recent attacks launched against the United States |url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-107publ40/pdf/PLAW-107publ40.pdf |access-date=July 4, 2015 |publisher=107th Congress}}</ref>

On October 7, 2001, the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|War in Afghanistan]] began when U.S. and British forces initiated aerial bombing campaigns targeting [[Taliban]] and al-Qaeda camps, then later invaded Afghanistan with ground troops of the [[Special Forces]].{{citation needed}} This eventually led to the overthrow of the Taliban's rule of Afghanistan with the [[Fall of Kandahar]] on December 7, 2001, by U.S.-led [[International Security Assistance Force|coalition forces]].<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Military Operations in the Global War on Terrorism: Afghanistan, Africa, the Philippines, and Colombia|url=http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl32758.pdf|access-date=July 5, 2015|publisher=[[Air University (United States Air Force)]]}}</ref> Osama bin Laden, who went into hiding in the [[Spin Ghar|White Mountains]], was targeted by U.S. coalition forces in the [[Battle of Tora Bora]], but he escaped across the [[Durand Line|Pakistani border]] and would remain out of sight for almost ten years.<ref name="BBC News 2011-07-11" />

The [[Philippines]] and [[Indonesia]], among other nations with their own internal conflicts with [[Islamic terrorism]], also increased their military readiness.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kuppuswamy|first=C.S. |title=Terrorism in Indonesia : Role of the Religious Organisation |publisher=South Asia Analysis Group |url=http://www.saag.org/%5Cpapers16%5Cpaper1596.html |access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611032357/http://www.saag.org/papers16/paper1596.html |archive-date=June 11, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Banlaoi |first=Rommel |contribution=Radical Muslim Terrorism in the Philippines |year=2006 |title=Handbook on Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia |editor-last=Tan |editor-first=Andrew |place=London |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing}}</ref> The military forces of the United States of America and the Islamic Republic of Iran cooperated with each other to overthrow the [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Taliban regime]], which had had conflicts with the government of Iran.<ref name="Politico 2013-11-19" /><ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Zawahiri blasts Iran for helping Washington |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20080909-zawahiri-blasts-iran-helping-washington-al-qaeda |publisher=France 24 |access-date=2022-04-08}}</ref> Iran's [[Quds Force]] helped U.S. forces and Afghan rebels in the [[2001 uprising in Herat]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-06-09-iran-taliban_x.htm|title=Iran helped overthrow Taliban, candidate says|website=USA Today|access-date=January 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129125643/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-06-09-iran-taliban_x.htm|archive-date=November 29, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spongobongo.com/her9940.htm|title=Iranian Special Forces Reportedly Fight Alongside US in Battle for Herat|website=SpongoBongo.com|access-date=January 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819201520/http://www.spongobongo.com/her9940.htm|archive-date=August 19, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Soufan,2018">[https://ctc.usma.edu/qassem-soleimani-irans-unique-regional-strategy Qassem Soleimani and Iran's Unique Regional Strategy{{snd}}Combating Terrorism Center at West Point]. ''[[Ali Soufan]]''. ''CTC Sentinel''. November 2018, Vol. 11, Issue 10. Combating Terrorism Center{{snd}}CTC at West Point. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181119185404/https://ctc.usma.edu/qassem-soleimani-irans-unique-regional-strategy Permanent link and archived version at Wayback Machine]. [https://archive.today/20181119185830/https://ctc.usma.edu/qassem-soleimani-irans-unique-regional-strategy Permanent link and archived version at archive.is]. Retrieved and archived on November 19, 2018. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181203191310/https://ctc.usma.edu/qassem-soleimani-irans-unique-regional-strategy/ Permanent link] at [[WebCite]] (November 30, 2018. 14:42:35 UTC).'' [https://perma.cc/LPE7-RC2L Permanent link and Archived Version at Perma.cc] (August 5, 2021). "In the months after 9/11, Soleimani saw an opportunity to defeat the Taliban once and for all by unconventional means{{snd}}namely, cooperation with the United States. Early in the war, he directed Iranian diplomats to share intelligence on Taliban military positions with their U.S. counterparts. The Americans, in return, told the Iranians what they knew about an al-Qa`ida fixer hiding out in eastern Iran."''</ref>

== Aftermath ==
{{Main|Aftermath of the September 11 attacks}}
{{See also|Post-9/11}}

=== Health issues ===
{{Main|Health effects arising from the September 11 attacks}}
[[File:Dust covered 911 victims.jpg|thumb|Survivors covered in dust after the collapse of the towers]]
Hundreds of thousands of tons of toxic debris containing more than 2,500 contaminants, including known carcinogens, were spread across Lower Manhattan due to the Twin Towers' collapse.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gates |first=Anita |title=Buildings Rise from Rubble while Health Crumbles |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/11/arts/television/11dust.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2006/09/05/nyregion/20060905_HEALTH_GRAPHIC.html |title=What was Found in the Dust |work=The New York Times |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Exposure to the toxins in the debris is alleged to have contributed to [[Health effects arising from the September 11 attacks|fatal or debilitating illnesses]] among people who were at Ground Zero.<ref name="CNN 2007-05-24">{{cite news|title=New York: 9/11 toxins caused death|publisher=CNN|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/05/24/wtc.dust/index.html|access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070618154824/http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/05/24/wtc.dust/index.html |archive-date=June 18, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/13/nyregion/13symptoms.html |title=Tracing Lung Ailments That Rose With 9/11 Dust |last=DePalma |first=Anthony |work=The New York Times |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> The Bush administration ordered the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks, citing national security, but the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre-September 11 levels until June 2002.<ref>{{cite news|last=Heilprin |first=John |title=White House edited EPA's 9/11 reports |work=Seattle Post-Intelligencer |url=http://www.seattlepi.com/default/article/White-House-edited-EPA-s-9-11-reports-1122465.php |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref>

Health effects extended to residents, students, and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby [[Chinatown, Manhattan|Chinatown]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Updated Ground Zero Report Examines Failure of Government to Protect Citizens |publisher=Sierra Club |year=2006 |url=http://www.sierraclub.org/groundzero/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611191219/http://www.sierraclub.org/groundzero/ |archive-date=June 11, 2010 |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust, and the victims' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Stephen |title=9/11 "Wall of Heroes" To Include Sick Cops |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/04/28/national/main4049362.shtml |publisher=CBS News |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Approximately 18,000 people have been estimated to have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust.<ref>{{cite news |last=Shukman |first=David |title=Toxic dust legacy of 9/11 plagues thousands of people |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-14738140 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=September 11, 2011}}</ref> There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development. A notable children's environmental health center is currently{{when}} analyzing the children whose mothers were pregnant during the WTC collapse and were living or working nearby.<ref>{{cite web |title=CCCEH Study of the Effects of 9/11 on Pregnant Women and Newborns |website=World Trade Center Pregnancy Study |publisher=Columbia University |year=2006 |url=http://www.familiesofseptember11.org/docs/CCCEH%20Study%20Intro.pdf |access-date=September 4, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726045732/http://www.familiesofseptember11.org/docs/CCCEH%20Study%20Intro.pdf |archive-date=July 26, 2011}}</ref> A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions, and that 30%–40% were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack.<ref>{{cite news|last=Grady|first=Denise|title=Lung Function of 9/11 Rescuers Fell, Study Finds|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/08/nyregion/08lung.html|access-date=September 4, 2011|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref>

Years after the attacks, legal disputes over the costs of illnesses related to the attacks were still in the court system. On October 17, 2006, a federal judge rejected New York City's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers, allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city.<ref>{{cite news |first=Anthony |last=DePalma |title=Many Ground Zero Workers Gain Chance at Lawsuits |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/18/nyregion/nyregionspecial3/18toxic.html |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks. Christine Todd Whitman, administrator of the EPA in the attacks' aftermath, was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe.<ref>{{cite news|first=Larry |last=Neumeister |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/n/a/2006/02/02/national/a142556S81.DTL |title=Judge Slams Ex-EPA Chief Over Sept. 11 |agency=Associated Press |work=San Francisco Chronicle |access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524084609/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2006%2F02%2F02%2Fnational%2Fa142556S81.DTL |archive-date=May 24, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater [[Wall Street]] area.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Ben |title=Rudy's black cloud. WTC health risks may hurt Prez bid |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/rudy-black-cloud-wtc-health-risks-hurt-prez-bid-article-1.618126 |work=New York Daily News |access-date=May 29, 2014}}</ref>

On December 22, 2010, the [[United States Congress]] passed the [[James L. Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act]], which President [[Barack Obama]] signed into law on January 2, 2011. It allocated $4.2{{spaces}}billion to create the [[World Trade Center Health Program]], which provides testing and treatment for people suffering from long-term health problems related to the 9/11 attacks.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/12/20/new.york.9.11.bill/index.html |publisher=[[CNN]] |title=Bloomberg urges passage of 9/11 health bill }}</ref><ref name="WTCHP faq">{{cite web|title=World Trade Center Health Program FAQ|url=https://www.cdc.gov/wtc/faq.html|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|access-date=July 2, 2012}}</ref> The WTC Health Program replaced preexisting 9/11-related health programs such as the Medical Monitoring and Treatment Program and the WTC Environmental Health Center program.<ref name="WTCHP faq" />

In 2020, the NYPD confirmed that 247 NYPD police officers had died due to 9/11-related illnesses. In September 2022, the FDNY confirmed that the total number of firefighters that died due to 9/11-related illnesses was 299. Both agencies believe that the death toll will rise dramatically in the coming years. The [[Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department]] (PAPD), the law enforcement agency with jurisdiction over the World Trade Center due to the [[Port Authority of New York and New Jersey]] owning the site confirmed that four of its police officers have died of 9/11-related illnesses. The chief of the PAPD at the time, Joseph Morris, made sure that industrial-grade respirators were provided to all PAPD police officers within 48 hours and decided that the same 30 to 40 police officers would be stationed at the World Trade Center pile, drastically lowering the number of total PAPD personnel who would be exposed to the air. The FDNY and NYPD had rotated hundreds, if not thousands, of different personnel from all over New York City to the pile, which exposed many of them to dust that would give them cancer or other diseases years or decades later. Also, they weren't given adequate respirators and breathing equipment that could have prevented future diseases.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www1.nyc.gov/site/nypd/about/memorials/9-11-tribute.page |title=9/11 Tribute |publisher=NYPD |access-date=19 September 2022}}{{SemiBareRefNeedsTitle}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www1.nyc.gov/site/fdny/news/022-22/fdny-adds-37-names-memorial-wall-deaths-related-world-trade-center-illnesses |title=FDNY Adds 37 Names to Memorial Wall for Deaths Related to World Trade Center Illnesses|website=www1.nyc.gov |access-date=19 September 2022}}{{SemiBareRefNeedsTitle}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thechiefleader.com/stories/port-authority-police-union-leader-still-pain-for-families-of-911-cops-free-article,6828 |title=Port Authority Police-Union Leader: Still Pain for Families of 9/11 Cops (Free Article)|website=The Chief Leader |access-date=19 September 2022}}{{SemiBareRefNeedsTitle}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/september-11/ny-9-11-port-authority-police-saved-lives-20210906-gtmdsurzt5fjxaqhp6bdiq3x3q-story.html |title=Swift action on 9/11 by NYC's Port Authority police saved lives|website=New York Daily News |access-date=19 September 2022}}{{SemiBareRefNeedsTitle}}</ref>

=== Economic ===
{{Main|Economic effects of the September 11 attacks}}
The attacks had a significant economic impact on United States and world markets.<ref>{{cite web |last=Makinen|first=Gail |url=https://fas.org/irp/crs/RL31617.pdf |title=The Economic Effects of 9/11: A Retrospective Assessment |page=17 |publisher=Congressional Research Service, [[Library of Congress]] |access-date=September 4, 2011 }}</ref> The stock exchanges did not open on September 11 and remained closed until September 17. Reopening, the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] (DJIA) fell 684 points, or 7.1%, to 8921, a record-setting one-day point decline.<ref>{{cite news |title=Markets reopen, plunge |last=Barnhart |first=Bill |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/chi-010917markets,0,5287650.story|work=Chicago Tribune |access-date=April 11, 2012}}</ref> By the end of the week, the DJIA had fallen 1,369.7 points (14.3%), at the time its largest one-week point drop in history. In 2001 dollars, U.S. stocks lost $1.4{{spaces}}trillion in valuation for the week.<ref name="MarkDec">{{cite news|last=Fernandez |first=Bob |title=U.S. Markets Decline Again |work=KRTBN Knight Ridder Tribune Business News }}</ref>

In New York City, about 430,000 job-months and $2.8{{spaces}}billion in wages were lost in the first three months after the attacks. The economic effects were mainly on the economy's export sectors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dolfman |first1=Michael L. |last2=Wasser |first2=Solidelle F. |journal=Monthly Labor Review |volume=127 |year=2004 |title=9/11 and the New York City Economy}}</ref> The city's GDP was estimated to have declined by $27.3{{spaces}}billion for the last three months of 2001 and all of 2002. The U.S. government provided $11.2{{spaces}}billion in immediate assistance to the [[Government of New York City]] in September 2001, and $10.5{{spaces}}billion in early 2002 for economic development and infrastructure needs.<ref name="crs-5">{{cite web|last=Makinen|first=Gail |url=https://fas.org/irp/crs/RL31617.pdf |title=The Economic Effects of 9/11: A Retrospective Assessment |page=5 |publisher=Congressional Research Service, [[Library of Congress]] |access-date=September 4, 2011 }}</ref>

[[File:Deficits vs. Debt Increases - 2008.png|thumb|[[United States federal budget|U.S. deficit]] and [[United States public debt|debt]] increases 2001–2008]]
Also hurt were small businesses in [[Lower Manhattan]] near the World Trade Center (18,000 of which were destroyed or displaced), resulting in lost jobs and their consequent wages. Assistance was provided by [[Small Business Administration]] loans; federal government Community Development Block Grants; and Economic Injury Disaster Loans.<ref name="crs-5" /> Some {{convert|31900000|sqft|m2}} of Lower Manhattan office space was damaged or destroyed.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hensell |first=Lesley |title=Tough Times Loom For Manhattan Commercial Market |url=http://realtytimes.com/rtpages/20011214_downtown.htm |website=Realty Times |access-date=September 4, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814003420/http://realtytimes.com/rtpages/20011214_downtown.htm |archive-date=August 14, 2011 }}</ref> Many wondered whether these jobs would return, and if the damaged tax base would recover.<ref>{{cite web |last=Parrott |first=James |title=The Employment Impact of the September 11 World Trade Center Attacks: Updated Estimates based on the Benchmarked Employment Data |publisher=The Fiscal Policy Institute |url=http://www.fiscalpolicy.org/Employment%20Impact%20of%20September%2011_Update.pdf |access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-date=September 11, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911170813/http://www.fiscalpolicy.org/Employment%20Impact%20of%20September%2011_Update.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Studies of 9/11's economic effects show the Manhattan office real-estate market and office employment were less affected than first feared, because of the financial services industry's need for face-to-face interaction.<ref>{{cite ssrn |last=Fuerst |first=Franz |title=Exogenous Shocks and Real Estate Rental Markets: An Event Study of the 9/11 Attacks and their Impact on the New York Office Market|ssrn=800006}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last=Russell |first=James S. |title=Do skyscrapers still make sense? Revived downtowns and new business models spur tall-building innovation |magazine=Architectural Record |url=http://archrecord.construction.com/innovation/2_Features/0411SkyscraperSense.asp |access-date=September 4, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808062854/http://archrecord.construction.com/innovation/2_Features/0411SkyscraperSense.asp |archive-date=August 8, 2011}}</ref>

North American air space was closed for several days after the attacks and air travel decreased upon its reopening, leading to a nearly 20% cutback in air travel capacity, and exacerbating financial problems in the struggling [[Airline|U.S. airline industry]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bhadra |first1=Dipasis |last2=Texter |first2=Pamela |title=Airline Networks: An Econometric Framework to Analyze Domestic U.S. Air Travel |publisher=[[United States Department of Transportation]] |year=2004 |url=http://www.bts.gov/publications/journal_of_transportation_and_statistics/volume_07_number_01/html/paper_06/ |access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050330035744/http://www.bts.gov/publications/journal_of_transportation_and_statistics/volume_07_number_01/html/paper_06/ |archive-date=March 30, 2005 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The September 11 attacks also led to the U.S. [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|wars in Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq War|Iraq]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/ezra-klein/post/bin-ladens-war-against-the-us-economy/2011/04/27/AFDOPjfF_blog.html |title=Bin Laden's war against the U.S. economy |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Thomas |last=Heath}}</ref> as well as additional [[homeland security]] spending, totaling at least $5{{spaces}}trillion.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/osama-bin-laden-didnt-win-but-he-was-enormously-successful/2011/05/02/AFexZjbF_story.html |title=Osama bin Laden didn't win, but he was 'enormously successful' |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Suzy |last=Khimm }}</ref>

=== Effects in Afghanistan ===
{{further|War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|Aftermath of the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|Killing of Ayman al-Zawahiri}}
{{Quote box
| width = 23em
| align = right
| quote = If there are Americans clamoring to bomb Afghanistan back to the [[Stone Age]], they ought to know that this nation does not have so far to go. This is a post-apocalyptic place of felled cities, parched land and downtrodden people.
| source = — [[Barry Bearak]], ''[[The New York Times]]'', September 13, 2001<ref name="TalibanPlead" />
}}
Most of the [[Afghans|Afghan population]] was already going hungry at the time of the September 11 attacks.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/unknown/2001/09/26/horror-in-afghanistan|title=Horror in Afghanistan|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref> In the aftermath of the attacks, tens of thousands of people attempted to flee Afghanistan due to the possibility of military retaliation by the United States. Pakistan, already [[Afghans in Pakistan|home to many Afghan refugees]] from previous conflicts, closed its border with Afghanistan on September 17, 2001.<ref name="speechto" /> Thousands of Afghans also fled to the frontier with [[Tajikistan]], although were denied entry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/tajikistan-holed-border|title=Tajikistan: Holed up at the border – Afghanistan|website=ReliefWeb}}</ref> The [[Taliban]] leaders in Afghanistan themselves pleaded against military action, saying "We appeal to the United States not to put Afghanistan into more misery because our people have suffered so much.", referring to [[Afghanistan conflict (1978-present)|two decades of conflict]] and the humanitarian crisis attached to it.<ref name="TalibanPlead">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/13/us/after-attacks-afghans-taliban-plead-for-mercy-miserable-land-nothing.html|title=After The Attacks: The Afghans; Taliban Plead for Mercy to the Miserable in a Land of Nothing|first=Barry|last=Bearak|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref>

All United Nations expatriates had left Afghanistan after the attacks and no national or international aid workers were at their post. Workers were instead preparing in bordering countries like Pakistan, China and Uzbekistan to prevent a potential "humanitarian catastrophe", amid a critically low food stock for the Afghan population.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/central/09/20/ret.afghan.refugees/|title=CNN – Afghan refugee crisis spreads – September 20, 2001|publisher=CNN}}</ref> The [[World Food Programme]] stopped importing wheat to Afghanistan on September 12 due to security risks.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1556117.stm|title=Aid shortage adds to Afghan woes|via=BBC News}}</ref> ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' suggested the creation of a [[buffer zone]] in an inevitable war, similarly as in the [[Bosnian War]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1001278471167134840|title=A Buffer Zone for Afghans|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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| image1 = Donald Trump official portrait.jpg
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| image4 =
| footer = Presidents [[Donald Trump]] and [[Joe Biden]] during whose presidencies the U.S. ended the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|2001–2021 War in Afghanistan]]. Under the [[Presidency of Barack Obama|Obama Administration]] a [[Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2011–2016)|partial withdrawal]] took place
| caption1 =
}}
Approximately one month after the attacks, the United States led a broad [[Participants in Operation Enduring Freedom|coalition of international forces]] to overthrow the Taliban regime from Afghanistan for their harboring of al-Qaeda.<ref name="speechto">{{cite news|title=U.S. President Bush's speech to United Nations |publisher=CNN|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/11/10/ret.bush.un.transcript/index.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615023853/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/11/10/ret.bush.un.transcript/index.html |archive-date=June 15, 2006 |access-date=May 29, 2014}}</ref> Though Pakistani authorities were initially reluctant to align themselves with the United States against the Taliban, they permitted the coalition access to their military bases, and arrested and handed over to the U.S. over 600 suspected al-Qaeda members.<ref>{{cite news|title=Musharraf 'bullied' into supporting US war on terror|url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/south-asia/musharraf-bullied-into-supporting-us-war-on-terror-ex-general_586640.html|access-date=September 4, 2011|publisher=Zee News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Khan |first=Aamer Ahmed |title=Pakistan and the 'key al-Qaeda' man |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4513281.stm |publisher=BBC News |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref>

In a speech by the [[Nizari Isma'ilism|Nizari Ismaili]] [[Imam]] at the Nobel Institute in 2005, [[Aga Khan IV]] stated that the "9/11 attack on the United States was a direct consequence of the international community ignoring the human tragedy that was Afghanistan at that time".<ref>{{cite web |last=Aga Khan |first=Karim |title=Speech by His Highness the Aga Khan at the Nobel Institute on Democratic Development, Pluralism and Civil Society |url=http://ismaili.net/heritage/node/30810 |website=Ismaili |access-date=January 6, 2018}}</ref>

In 2011, the U.S. and NATO under [[Presidency of Barack Obama|President Obama]] initiated a [[Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2011–2016)|drawdown of troops]] in Afghanistan finalized in 2016. During the presidencies of [[Presidency of Donald Trump|Donald Trump]] and [[Presidency of Joe Biden|Joe Biden]] in 2020 and 2021, the United States alongside its NATO allies [[Withdrawal of United States troops from Afghanistan (2020–2021)|withdrew all troops from Afghanistan]] completing the withdrawal of all regular U.S. troops on August 30, 2021, 12 days before the 20th anniversary of the September 11 attacks,<ref name="DOD Cronk Biden Announces">{{Cite web |last=Cronk |first=Terri Moon |title=Biden Announces Full U.S. Troop Withdrawal From Afghanistan by Sept. 11 |url=https://www.defense.gov/Explore/News/Article/Article/2573268/biden-announces-full-us-troop-withdrawal-from-afghanistan-by-sept-11/ |access-date=2021-08-16 |publisher=U.S. Department of Defense |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="White House 2021-04-14">{{Cite web |title=Remarks by President Biden on the Way Forward in Afghanistan |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2021/04/14/remarks-by-president-biden-on-the-way-forward-in-afghanistan/ |access-date=2021-08-16 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Time 2021">{{cite magazine |last=Satia |first=Priya |editor-last=Felsenthal |editor-first=Edward |editor-link=Edward Felsenthal |title=History's Warning for the U.S. Withdrawal From Afghanistan |url=https://time.com/5959073/afghanistan-withdrawal-empire-history/ |url-status=live |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |location=[[New York City]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427194916/https://time.com/5959073/afghanistan-withdrawal-empire-history/ |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=27 April 2021}}</ref> The withdrawal marked the end of the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|2001–2021 War in Afghanistan]]. Biden said that after nearly 20 years of war, it was clear that the U.S. military could not transform Afghanistan into a modern [[democracy]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Zucchino |first1=David |title=The U.S. War in Afghanistan: How It Started, and How It Ended |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/article/afghanistan-war-us.html}}</ref>

=== Cultural influence ===
{{Main|Cultural influence of the September 11 attacks}}
{{Further|List of cultural references to the September 11 attacks|Entertainment affected by the September 11 attacks|Osama bin Laden in popular culture}}
{{See also|Osama bin Laden (elephant)}}
The impact of 9/11 extends beyond geopolitics and into society and culture in general. Immediate responses to 9/11 included greater focus on home life and time spent with family, higher church attendance, and increased expressions of patriotism such as the flying of American flags.<ref name="Carducci2009b">{{cite book|first=Bernardo J.|last=Carducci|title=The Psychology of Personality: Viewpoints, Research, and Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1gJPXv5wQbIC&pg=PA200|access-date=January 16, 2012 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-3635-8|pages=200–}}</ref> [[Clear Channel memorandum|The radio industry responded by removing certain songs from playlists]], and the attacks have subsequently been used as background, narrative, or thematic elements in [[List of films about the September 11 attacks|film]], [[List of songs about the September 11 attacks|music]], [[List of books about the September 11 attacks|literature]], and [[Humor based on the September 11 attacks|humor]]. Already-running television shows as well as programs developed after 9/11 have reflected [[post-9/11]] cultural concerns.<ref name="Pop Culture Guide">{{cite book |last1=Quay |first1=Sara |last2=Damico |first2=Amy |title=September 11 in Popular Culture: A Guide |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-35505-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lx7i4YHl_NoC}}</ref>

[[9/11 conspiracy theories]] have become social phenomena, despite lack of support from expert scientists, engineers, and historians.<ref>{{cite news |title=9/11 conspiracy theories won't stop|first=Joshua|last=Norman|publisher=CBS News|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/9-11-conspiracy-theories-wont-stop/}}</ref> 9/11 has also had a major impact on the religious faith of many individuals; for some it strengthened, to find [[consolation]] to cope with the loss of loved ones and overcome their grief; others started to question their faith or lose it entirely, because they [[Problem of evil|could not reconcile it]] with their view of religion.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/29/september-11-challenged-faith_n_941017.html|title=After 9/11, Some Run Toward Faith, Some Run The Other Way|work=HuffPost|access-date=April 6, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/faith/questions/god.html|title=Faith and Doubt at Ground Zero – The Question of God|work=PBS Frontline|access-date=April 6, 2013}}</ref>

The culture of America succeeding the attacks is noted for heightened security and an increased demand thereof, as well as [[paranoia]] and [[anxiety]] regarding future terrorist attacks that includes most of the nation. Psychologists have also confirmed that there has been an increased amount of national anxiety in commercial air travel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200201/anxiety-after-911 |title=Anxiety After 9/11 |first1=Brad |last1=Schmidt |first2=Jeffrey |last2=Winters |work=[[Psychology Today]] |access-date=October 11, 2013}}</ref> Anti-Muslim hate crimes rose nearly ten-fold in 2001 and have subsequently remained "roughly five times higher than the pre-9/11 rate."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ingraham |first1=Christopher |title=Anti-Muslim hate crimes are still five times more common today than before 9/11 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/02/11/anti-muslim-hate-crimes-are-still-five-times-more-common-today-than-before-911/ |access-date=October 15, 2020 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] }}</ref>

=== Government policies toward terrorism ===
{{Further|War on terror|Anti-terrorism legislation|Airport security repercussions due to the September 11 attacks|Legal issues related to the September 11 attacks}}
{{See also|Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture}}
[[File:CIA illegal flights.svg|upright=1.4|thumb|Alleged "[[extraordinary rendition]]" illegal flights of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], as reported by Polish newspaper ''[[Rzeczpospolita (newspaper)|Rzeczpospolita]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rp.pl/artykul/292283.html |title=Politycy nie pozwolili śledczym tropić lotów CIA – Rzeczpospolita |language=pl |work=[[Rzeczpospolita (newspaper)|Rzeczpospolita]] |access-date=February 24, 2022 |archive-date=July 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711125637/http://www.rp.pl/artykul/292283.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]
As a result of the attacks, many governments across the world passed legislation to combat terrorism.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Terrorism in the Asia-Pacific: Threat and Response |journal=[[The Journal of Asian Studies]] |year=2004 |first=Andrew |last=Scobell |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=1078–79 |doi=10.1017/S0021911804002463|s2cid=163030372}}</ref> In Germany, where several of the 9/11 terrorists had resided and taken advantage of that country's liberal asylum policies, two major anti-terrorism packages were enacted. The first removed legal loopholes that permitted terrorists to live and raise money in Germany. The second addressed the effectiveness and communication of intelligence and law enforcement.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/crs/RL32710.pdf |title=Germany's Role in Fighting Terrorism: Implications for U.S. Policy |access-date=September 4, 2011 |last1=Miko |first1=Francis |last2=Froehlich |first2=Christian |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]}}</ref> Canada passed the [[Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act]], their first anti-terrorism law.<ref>{{cite news|title=Anti-terrorism Act|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/background/cdnsecurity/|access-date=November 12, 2013 |publisher=CBC News}}</ref> The United Kingdom passed the [[Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001]] and the [[Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Q and A: Anti-terrorism legislation |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3197394.stm |publisher=BBC News |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Sam |last=Coates |title=After all the fuss dies down, what really happened |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article588553.ece |work=The Times |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> New Zealand enacted the [[Terrorism Suppression Act 2002]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Terrorism Suppression Act 2002|url=http://legislation.co.nz/act/public/2002/0034/19.0/DLM2493700.html|publisher=New Zealand Government|access-date=September 4, 2011|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219044052/http://legislation.co.nz/act/public/2002/0034/19.0/DLM2493700.html|archive-date=December 19, 2011}}</ref>

In the United States, the [[Department of Homeland Security]] was created by the [[Homeland Security Act of 2002]] to coordinate domestic anti-terrorism efforts. The [[USA Patriot Act]] gave the federal government greater powers, including the authority to detain foreign terror suspects for a week without charge; to monitor terror suspects' telephone communications, e-mail, and Internet use; and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions. The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes, and assigned [[sky marshals]] to flights.

Further, the [[Aviation and Transportation Security Act]] made the federal government, rather than airports, responsible for [[airport security]]. The law created the [[Transportation Security Administration]] to inspect passengers and luggage, causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy.<ref name="Modern World History">{{cite book |last1=Beck |first1=Roger |title=Modern World History |chapter=20 |publisher=[[Holt McDougal]] |year=2004 |pages=657–58 |isbn=978-0-618-69012-1|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSPAAAACAAJ}}</ref> After suspected abuses of the USA Patriot Act were brought to light in June 2013 with articles about the collection of American call records by the [[National Security Agency|NSA]] and the [[PRISM (surveillance program)|PRISM]] program (see [[Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)]]), Representative [[Sensenbrenner|Jim Sensenbrenner]],(R- [[Wisconsin]]) who introduced the Patriot Act in 2001, said that the NSA overstepped its bounds.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/07/opinion/president-obamas-dragnet.html|title=President Obama's Dragnet|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sensenbrenner.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=337001|title=Author of Patriot Act: FBI's FISA Order is Abuse of Patriot Act|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130610061511/http://sensenbrenner.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=337001|archive-date=June 10, 2013}}</ref>

[[Criticism of the war on terror]] has focused on its morality, efficiency, and cost. According to a 2021 study conducted under the auspices of the [[Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs]], the several post-9/11 wars participated in by the United States in its [[War on Terror]] have caused the displacement, conservatively calculated, of 38 million people in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Yemen, Somalia, and the Philippines.<ref>{{cite web |first1=David |last1=Vine |first2=Cala |last2=Coffman |first3=Katalina |last3=Khoury |first4=Madison |last4=Lovasz |first5=Helen |last5=Bush |first6=Rachel |last6=Leduc |first7=Jennifer |last7=Walkup |url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/files/cow/imce/papers/2020/Displacement_Vine%20et%20al_Costs%20of%20War%202020%2009%2008.pdf |title=Creating Refugees: Displacement Caused by the United States' Post-9/11 Wars |publisher=[[Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Vine |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/sep/18/us-wars-iraq-george-w-bush |title=US-led wars have displaced 37 m people. America should accept responsibility |work=[[The Guardian]] }}</ref><ref name="Costs of War">{{Cite web|title=Latest Figures |website=Costs of War|url=https://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/figures|access-date=September 1, 2021 |language=en}}</ref> The study estimated these wars caused the deaths of 897,000 to 929,000 people and cost $8 trillion.<ref name="Costs of War" /> The [[U.S. Constitution]] and [[U.S. law]] prohibits the use of [[Torture in the United States|torture]], yet such [[Human rights violations by the CIA|human rights violations occurred]] during the War on Terror under the euphemism [[Enhanced interrogation techniques|Enhanced interrogation]].<ref>[https://apnews.com/4925f7f0fa654853bd6f2f57174179fe In Yemen's secret prisons, UAE tortures and US interrogates]. Associated Press, 2017.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Twenty Years On: The Legacy of 9/11 |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/09/09/twenty-years-legacy-9/11 |publisher=Human Rights Watch }}</ref> In 2005, ''The Washington Post'' and [[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW) published revelations concerning CIA flights and "[[CIA black sites|black sites]]", covert prisons operated by the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Europeans Probe Secret CIA Flights |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/16/AR2005111602198.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Craig |last=Whitlock }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=EU to look into 'secret US jails' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4403166.stm |publisher=BBC News }}</ref> The term "torture by proxy" is used by some critics to describe situations in which the CIA and other U.S. agencies have [[Extraordinary rendition|transferred suspected terrorists]] to countries known to employ torture.<ref>"[https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/08/28/new-cia-docs-detail-bruta_n_271299.html New CIA Docs Detail Brutal 'Extraordinary Rendition' Process]". ''[[Huffington Post]]''. August 28, 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title='A heavy price': Two decades of war, wariness and the post-9/11 security state |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/national-security/heavy-price-two-decades-war-wariness-post-9-11-security-n1278846 |publisher=NBC News }}</ref>

== Investigations ==
=== FBI ===
{{further|Hijackers in the September 11 attacks}}
Immediately after the attacks, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] started [[PENTTBOM]], the largest criminal inquiry in United States history. At its height, more than half of the FBI's agents worked on the investigation and followed a half-million leads.<ref name='Pentbomb'>{{cite web |url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/9-11-investigation/9-11-investigation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101010030053/http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/9-11-investigation/9-11-investigation |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 10, 2010 |title=9/11 Investigation (PENTTBOM) |access-date=April 11, 2012 |publisher=[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]}}</ref> The FBI concluded that there was "clear and irrefutable" evidence linking al-Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks.<ref>{{cite web|title=Testimony of Dale L. Watson, Executive Assistant Director, Counterterrorism/Counterintelligence Division, FBI Before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence|url=https://www.fbi.gov/congress/congress02/watson020602.htm |publisher=[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]|access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100410013616/http://www.fbi.gov/congress/congress02/watson020602.htm |archive-date=April 10, 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[File:Mohamed Atta.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Mohamed Atta head shot, expressionless, full face |[[Mohamed Atta]], an Egyptian national, was the ringleader of the attacks.]]
The FBI was quickly able to identify the hijackers, including leader Mohamed Atta, when his luggage was discovered at Boston's Logan Airport. Atta had been forced to check two of his three bags due to space limitations on the 19-seat commuter flight he took to Boston. Due to a new policy instituted to prevent flight delays, the luggage failed to make it aboard American Airlines Flight 11 as planned. The luggage contained the hijackers' names, assignments, and al-Qaeda connections. "It had all these Arab-language{{sic}} papers that amounted to the Rosetta stone of the investigation", said one FBI agent.<ref name="Unraveling 9-11 Was in the Bags">{{cite news |title=Unraveling 9–11 Was in the Bags |url=http://www.securityinfowatch.com/news/10555883/unraveling-9-11-was-in-the-bags |work=Newsday |access-date=April 11, 2012}}</ref> Within hours of the attacks, the FBI released the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers.{{sfnp|Clarke|2004|pp=13–14}}<ref name="FBI 19">{{cite web |title=FBI Announces List of 19 Hijackers |publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation |url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/pressrel/press-releases/fbi-announces-list-of-19-hijackers |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Abu Jandal, who served as bin Laden's chief bodyguard for years, confirmed the identity of seven hijackers as al-Qaeda members during interrogations with the FBI on September 17. He had been jailed in a Yemeni prison since 2000.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bergen |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Bergen |title=Manhunt: The Ten-Year Search for Bin Laden – from 9/11 to Abbottabad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7SriggSMckC&pg=PA29 |location=New York |publisher=Broadway Paperbacks |isbn=978-0-307-95588-3 |pages=29–30}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Soufan |first1=Ali |author-link1=Ali Soufan |last2=Freedman |first2=Daniel |title=The Black Banners (Declassified): How Torture Derailed the War on Terror after 9/11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1tTXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT302 |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-54072-7 |pages=317–318}}</ref> On September 27, 2001, photos of all 19 hijackers were released, along with information about possible nationalities and aliases.<ref>{{cite web|title=The FBI Releases 19 Photographs of Individuals Believed to be the Hijackers of the Four Airliners that Crashed on September 11, 2001|url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/pressrel/press-releases/the-fbi-releases-19-photographs-of-individuals-believed-to-be-the-hijackers|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation|access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Fifteen of the men were from Saudi Arabia, two were from the [[United Arab Emirates]], one was from Egypt, and one was from Lebanon.<ref>{{cite news |last=Johnston |first=David|title=Two Years Later: 9/11 Tactics; Official Says Qaeda Recruited Saudi Hijackers to Strain Ties|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/09/us/two-years-later-9-11-tactics-official-says-qaeda-recruited-saudi-hijackers.html|access-date=September 4, 2011 |newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref>

By midday, the U.S. National Security Agency and German intelligence agencies had intercepted communications pointing to Osama bin Laden.<ref>{{cite news |title=Piece by piece, the jigsaw of terror revealed |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/piece-by-piece-the-jigsaw-of-terror-revealed-671334.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015065134/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/piece-by-piece-the-jigsaw-of-terror-revealed-671334.html|archive-date=October 15, 2009|access-date=September 4, 2011 |newspaper=The Independent|location=London}}</ref> Two of the hijackers were known to have traveled with a bin Laden associate to Malaysia in 2000<ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/911Report.pdf 9/11 Commission Report] pp. 266–72</ref> and hijacker [[Mohammed Atta]] had previously gone to [[Afghanistan]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121109021924/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C1000987-2%2C00.html The Manhunt Goes Global] Time magazine October 15, 2001</ref> He and others were part of a terrorist cell in [[Hamburg]].<ref>{{cite news |first1=John |last1=Tagliabue |last2=Bonner |first2=Raymond |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/29/world/nation-challenged-german-intelligence-german-data-led-us-search-for-more-suicide.html|title=A Nation challenged: German Intelligence; German Data Led U.S. to Search For More Suicide Hijacker Teams |work=The New York Times |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> One of the members of the [[Hamburg cell]] in Germany was discovered to have been in communication with [[Khalid Sheik Mohammed]] who was identified as a member of [[al-Qaeda]].<ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/911Report.pdf 9/11 Commission Report] pp. 276–77</ref>

Authorities in the United States and United Kingdom also obtained electronic intercepts, including telephone conversations and electronic bank transfers, which indicated that [[Mohammed Atef]], a bin Laden deputy, was a key figure in the planning of the 9/11 attacks. Intercepts were also obtained that revealed conversations that took place days before September 11 between bin Laden and an associate in Pakistan. In those conversations, the two referred to "an incident that would take place in America on, or around, September 11" and they discussed potential repercussions. In another conversation with an associate in Afghanistan, bin Laden discussed the "scale and effects of a forthcoming operation." These conversations did not specifically mention the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, or other specifics.<ref>{{cite news |title=The proof they did not reveal |work=Sunday Times |url=http://www.sunday-times.co.uk/news/pages/sti/2001/10/07/stiusausa02012.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011116020322/http://www.sunday-times.co.uk/news/pages/sti/2001/10/07/stiusausa02012.html|archive-date=November 16, 2001}}</ref>

{{Bar chart
| title = Origins of [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|the 19 hijackers]]
| label_type = Nationality
| data_type = Number
| bar_width = 20
| width_units = em
| data_max = 19
| label1 = [[Saudi Arabia]]
| data1 = 15
| label2 = [[United Arab Emirates]]
| data2 = 2
| label3 = [[Egypt]]
| data3 = 1
| label4 = [[Lebanon]]
| data4 = 1
}}

In their annual violent crime index for the year of 2001, the FBI recorded the deaths from the attacks as murder, in separate tables so as not to mix them with other reported crime for that year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Crime in the United States 2001, Section V |url=https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/ojstatbb/ezacjrp/pdf/cius_911.pdf |access-date=April 13, 2023 |publisher=[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]}}</ref> In a disclaimer, the FBI stated that "the number of deaths is so great that combining it with the traditional [[crime statistics]] will have an [[outlier]] effect that falsely [[skewness|skews]] all types of measurements in the program's analyses."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2001/toc01.pdf|title=Crime in the United States 2001|publisher=[[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]|page=2|access-date=September 12, 2018}}</ref> New York City also did not include the deaths in their annual crime statistics for 2001.<ref name="HuffPost story">{{cite news|last=Hanrahan|first=Mark|title=Henryk Siwiak, Shot To Death On September 11th: Case Remains Unsolved|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/09/08/911-only-homicide-unsolved_n_953864.html|newspaper=[[Huffington Post]]|access-date=September 6, 2016}}</ref>

=== CIA ===
{{Further|September 11 intelligence before the attacks}}
In 2004, [[John L. Helgerson]], the Inspector General of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA), conducted an internal review of the agency's pre-9/11 performance and was harshly critical of senior CIA officials for not doing everything possible to confront terrorism.<ref name="Spiegel 2009">{{cite news |title=Ex-CIA Inspector General on Interrogation Report: 'The Agency Went over Bounds and Outside the Rules' |website=Der Spiegel |url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/ex-cia-inspector-general-on-interrogation-report-the-agency-went-over-bounds-and-outside-the-rules-a-646010.html |access-date=February 3, 2021}}</ref> According to [[Philip Giraldi]] in ''[[The American Conservative]]'', Helgerson criticized their failure to stop two of the 9/11 hijackers, Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, as they entered the United States and their failure to share information on the two men with the FBI.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.theamericanconservative.com/articles/deep-background/|title=Deep Background |magazine=American Conservative |access-date=April 11, 2012}}</ref>{{better source needed|fringe}}

In May 2007, senators from both major U.S. political parties drafted legislation to make the review public. One of the backers, Senator [[Ron Wyden]] said, "The American people have a right to know what the Central Intelligence Agency was doing in those critical months before 9/11."<ref>{{cite news|first=Katherine |last=Shrader |title=Senators Want CIA to Release 9/11 Report |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2007/05/17/national/w131436D49.DTL |work=San Francisco Chronicle |agency=Associated Press |access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017005618/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2007%2F05%2F17%2Fnational%2Fw131436D49.DTL |archive-date=October 17, 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The report was released in 2009 by President [[Barack Obama]].<ref name="Spiegel 2009" />

=== Congressional inquiry ===
{{Main|Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001}}
In February 2002, the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] and the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] formed a joint inquiry into the performance of the [[U.S. Intelligence Community]].<ref>[http://www.intelligence.senate.gov/press/record.cfm?id=263577 Press Release of Intelligence Committee], Senate and House Intelligence Committees Announce Joint Inquiry into the September 11 Terrorist Attacks, February 14, 2002.</ref> Their 832-page report released in December 2002<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gpoaccess.gov/serialset/creports/911.html |title=Congressional Reports: Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001 |access-date=August 10, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204747/http://www.gpoaccess.gov//serialset/creports/911.html |archive-date=August 7, 2010}}</ref> detailed failings of the FBI and CIA to use available information, including about terrorists the CIA knew were in the United States, in order to disrupt the plots.<ref name="Theoharis 2006 p222–224">{{cite book |editor-first=Athan G. |editor-last=Theoharis |title=The Central Intelligence Agency: Security Under Scrutiny |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-nj4RLdHCU0C&pg=PA223 222–224] |year=2006 |isbn=0-313-33282-7}}</ref> The joint inquiry developed its information about possible involvement of Saudi Arabian government officials from non-classified sources.<ref name="McClatchy DC 2013-08-12">{{cite news |first=Ali |last=Watkins |url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2013/08/12/199122_senate-intelligence-panel-could.html?rh=1 |title=Senate intelligence panel could seek to declassify documents; it just doesn't |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903123631/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2013/08/12/199122_senate-intelligence-panel-could.html|archive-date=September 3, 2014 |publisher=[[The McClatchy Company|McClatchy Washington Bureau]] }}</ref> Nevertheless, the Bush administration demanded 28 related pages remain classified.<ref name="Theoharis 2006 p222–224" /> In December 2002, the inquiry's chair [[Bob Graham]] (D-FL) revealed in an interview that there was "evidence that there were foreign governments involved in facilitating the activities of at least some of the terrorists in the United States."<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/politics-july-dec02-intelligence_12-11/ Improving Intelligence], [[PBS]] interview with Sen. Bob Graham, December 11, 2002.</ref> September 11 victim families were frustrated by the unanswered questions and redacted material from the congressional inquiry and demanded an independent commission.<ref name="Theoharis 2006 p222–224" /> September 11 victim families,<ref>{{cite news |first=Chris |last=Mondics |url=http://articles.philly.com/2014-03-31/business/48708504_1_osama-president-obama-law-firm |title=Struggling to detail alleged Saudi role in 9/11 attacks |work=[[Philadelphia Inquirer]] }}</ref> members of Congress<ref>[https://jones.house.gov/sites/jones.house.gov/files/Reps.%20Jones%20and%20Lynch%20Letter%20to%20Obama_28%20Pages.pdf April 10, 2014 Letter to Barack Obama] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160907084340/http://jones.house.gov/sites/jones.house.gov/files/Reps.%20Jones%20and%20Lynch%20Letter%20to%20Obama_28%20Pages.pdf }}, signed by Representatives [[Walter B. Jones Jr.]] and [[Stephen Lynch (politician)|Stephen Lynch]].</ref> and the Saudi Arabian government are still seeking release of the documents.<ref>{{cite news |first=Jake |last=Tapper |author-link=Jake Tapper |url=http://thelead.blogs.cnn.com/2014/09/08/why-hasnt-obama-kept-promise-to-declassify-28-pages-about-911 |title=Why hasn't Obama kept promise to declassify 28 pages of a report about 9/11? |publisher=[[CNN]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Twenty-Eight Pages |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |first=Lawrence |last=Wright |url=http://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/twenty-eight-pages |access-date=August 30, 2019}}</ref> In June 2016, CIA chief [[John O. Brennan|John Brennan]] said that he believes 28 redacted pages of a congressional inquiry into 9/11 will soon be made public, and that they will prove that the government of Saudi Arabia had no involvement in the September 11 attacks.<ref>{{cite news |first=Euan |last=McKirdy |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2016/06/12/politics/cia-john-brennan-saudi-arabia-9-11/ |title=CIA chief: Missing report pages exonerate Saudi Arabia in 9/11 attacks |publisher=[[CNN]] }}</ref>

In September 2016, the Congress passed the [[Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act]] that would allow relatives of victims of the September 11 attacks to sue [[Saudi Arabia]] for its government's [[Alleged Saudi government role in the September 11 attacks|alleged role in the attacks]].<ref>"[https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2016/09/23/obama-veto-terrorism-lawsuit-bill-setting-up-override-battle/90407496/ Why Obama doesn't want 9/11 families suing Saudi Arabia]". ''USA Today''. September 23, 2016.</ref><ref>"[http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/saudi-arabia-warns-750b-response-9-11-liability-suit-article-1.2603675 Saudi Arabia threatens to pull $750B from U.S. economy if Congress allows them to be sued for 9/11 terror attacks]". ''Daily News'' (New York). April 16, 2016.</ref><ref>"[http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/saudi-government-didn-fund-terrorists-obama-aide-article-1.2605678 Mayor de Blasio joins Democrats in calling on President Obama to go after Saudi Arabia on 9/11 ties]". ''Daily News'' (New York). April 19, 2016.</ref>

=== 9/11 Commission ===
{{Main|9/11 Commission|9/11 Commission Report}}
{{See also|Criticism of the 9/11 Commission}}
The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (9/11 Commission), chaired by [[Thomas Kean]] and [[Lee H. Hamilton]], was formed in late 2002 to prepare a thorough account of the circumstances surrounding the attacks, including preparedness for and the immediate response to the attacks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/about/bio_kean.htm|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|publisher=govinfo.library.unt.edu|access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> On July 22, 2004, the commission issued the ''[[9/11 Commission Report]]''. The report detailed the events of 9/11, found the attacks were carried out by members of al-Qaeda, and examined how security and intelligence agencies were inadequately coordinated to prevent the attacks.

Formed from an independent bipartisan group of mostly former senators, representatives, and governors, the commissioners explained, "We believe the 9/11 attacks revealed four kinds of failures: in imagination, policy, capabilities, and management."<ref>{{cite web |title=Foresight-and Hindsight |url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch11.htm |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> The commission made numerous recommendations on how to prevent future attacks, and in 2011 was dismayed that several of its recommendations had yet to be implemented.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bennett |first=Brian |title=Post-9/11 assessment sees major security gaps |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2011/aug/30/nation/la-na-911-report-card-20110831 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref>

=== National Institute of Standards and Technology ===
{{Main|NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation}}
{{See also|7 World Trade Center#9/11 and collapse}}
[[File:WTC-Wreckage-exterior shell of south tower.jpg|thumb|right|The exterior support columns from the lower level of the South Tower remained standing after the building collapsed.]]
The U.S. [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) investigated the collapses of the Twin Towers and 7{{spaces}}WTC. The investigations examined why the buildings collapsed and what fire protection measures were in place, and evaluated how fire protection systems might be improved in future construction.<ref name="NISTInvest">{{cite press release |title=NIST's World Trade Center Investigation |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |url=https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2006/09/nists-world-trade-center-investigation |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> The investigation into the collapse of 1{{spaces}}WTC and 2{{spaces}}WTC was concluded in October 2005 and that of 7{{spaces}}WTC was completed in August 2008.<ref name="NIST WTC 7 Investigation">{{cite press release |title=NIST WTC 7 Investigation Finds Building Fires Caused Collapse |publisher=The National Institute of Standards and Technology |url=https://www.nist.gov/news-events/news/2008/08/nist-wtc-7-investigation-finds-building-fires-caused-collapse |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref>

NIST found that the fireproofing on the Twin Towers' steel infrastructures was blown off by the initial impact of the planes and that had this not occurred, the towers likely would have remained standing.<ref name="NISTCollapse">{{cite book|author=National Construction Safety Team |chapter-url=https://www.nist.gov/customcf/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=909017 |title=Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology, United States Department of Commerce |chapter=Executive Summary |access-date=April 10, 2011 |chapter-format=PDF}}</ref> A 2007 study of the north tower's collapse published by researchers of [[Purdue University]] determined that since the plane's impact had stripped off much of the structure's thermal insulation, the heat from a typical office fire would have softened and weakened the exposed girders and columns enough to initiate the collapse regardless of the number of columns cut or damaged by the impact.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Irfanoglu |first1=A.|last2=Hoffmann |first2=C. M.|doi=10.1061/(ASCE)0887-3828(2008)22:1(62)|title=Engineering Perspective of the Collapse of WTC-I|journal=Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities|volume=22|page=62|year=2008|quote=As the aircraft debris went through several stories in the tower, much of the thermal insulation on the core columns would have been scoured off. Under such conditions, the ensuing fire would be sufficient to cause instability and initiate collapse. From an engineering perspective, impact damage to the core structure had a negligible effect on the critical thermal load required to initiate collapse in the core structure.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Purdue creates scientifically based animation of 9/11 attack|last=Tally|first=Steve|publisher=Purdue News Service|url=http://news.uns.purdue.edu/x/2007a/070612HoffmannWTC.html|access-date=September 4, 2011|quote=The aircraft moved through the building as if it were a hot and fast lava flow", Sozen says. "Consequently, much of the fireproofing insulation was ripped off the structure. Even if all of the columns and girders had survived the impact{{snd}}an unlikely event{{snd}}the structure would fail as the result of a buckling of the columns. The heat from an ordinary office fire would suffice to soften and weaken the unprotected steel. Evaluation of the effects of the fire on the core column structure, with the insulation removed by the impact, showed that collapse would follow whatever the number of columns cut at the time of the impact.|archive-date=December 31, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231084252/https://news.uns.purdue.edu/x/2007a/070612HoffmannWTC.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The director of the original investigation stated that "the towers really did amazingly well. The terrorist aircraft didn't bring the buildings down; it was the fire which followed. It was proven that you could take out two-thirds of the columns in a tower and the building would still stand."<ref name="TerrorProof">{{cite web|title=Building a Terror-Proof Skyscraper: Experts Debate Feasibility, Options |first=Pete |last=Sigmund |url=http://www.constructionequipmentguide.com/Building-a-Terror-Proof-Skyscraper-Experts-Debate-Feasibility-Options/2598/ |access-date=April 11, 2012 }}</ref> The fires weakened the trusses supporting the floors, making the floors sag. The sagging floors pulled on the exterior steel columns causing the exterior columns to bow inward.

With the damage to the core columns, the buckling exterior columns could no longer support the buildings, causing them to collapse. Additionally, the report found the towers' stairwells were not adequately reinforced to provide adequate [[Fire escape|emergency escape]] for people above the impact zones.<ref name="NIST">{{cite web|title=Translating WTC Recommendations into Model Building Codes|publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology|url=http://wtc.nist.gov/NIBS_MMC/CodeChangeProposals.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310004023/http://wtc.nist.gov/NIBS_MMC/CodeChangeProposals.htm|archive-date=March 10, 2011|access-date=September 4, 2011 }}</ref> NIST concluded that uncontrolled fires in 7{{spaces}}WTC caused floor beams and girders to heat and subsequently "caused a critical support column to fail, initiating a fire-induced progressive collapse that brought the building down".<ref name="NIST WTC 7 Investigation" />

=== Alleged Saudi government role ===
{{Main|Alleged Saudi government role in the September 11 attacks}}{{See also|Saudi Arabia–United States relations|Saudi Arabia and state-sponsored terrorism|The 28 pages}}
In July 2016, the Obama administration released a document compiled by U.S. investigators Dana Lesemann and Michael Jacobson, known as "File 17",<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi diplomats 'links to 9/11 attackers' |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/saudi-diplomats-linked-to-9-11-plot-9hgrfjhbm |work=The Week }}</ref> which contains a list naming three dozen people, including the suspected [[General Intelligence Presidency|Saudi intelligence]] officers attached to Saudi Arabia's embassy in Washington, D.C.,<ref>{{cite news |title=US to reveal Saudi official allegedly tied to 9/11 attackers |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/09/reveal-saudi-official-allegedly-tied-911-attackers-190913011926350.html |publisher=Al Jazeera }}</ref> which connects Saudi Arabia to the hijackers.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Riechmann|first1=Deb|title=File 17 Is Glimpse Into Still-Secret 28 Pages About 9/11|url=https://apnews.com/fe56c5d224a8463aa7cfc6ccf4689122 |publisher=Associated Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=CIA and Saudi Arabia Conspired to Keep 9/11 Details Secret, New Book Says |url=https://www.newsweek.com/cia-and-saudi-arabia-conspired-keep-911-details-secret-new-book-says-1091935 |work=Newsweek }}</ref>

In September 2016, Congress passed the [[Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act]].<ref name="Stempel">{{cite news|last=Stempel|first=Jonathan|title=Saudi Arabia must face U.S. lawsuits over Sept. 11 attacks|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-saudi-sept11/saudi-arabia-must-face-u-s-lawsuits-over-sept-11-attacks-idUSKBN1H43A1|publisher=Reuters|access-date=November 22, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first1=Scott|last1=Horsley|first2=Alisa|last2=Chang|title=Senate Votes To Override Obama's Veto On Sept. 11 Lawsuit Bill|publisher=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/2016/09/28/495709481/sept-11-lawsuits-vote-today-could-be-first-reversal-of-an-obama-veto}}</ref> The practical effect of the legislation was to allow the continuation of a longstanding civil lawsuit brought by families of victims of the September 11 attacks against Saudi Arabia for its government's alleged role in the attacks.<ref>{{cite web|title=S.2040 – Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/senate-bill/2040|publisher=U.S. Congress |access-date=May 20, 2016}}</ref> In March 2018, a U.S. judge formally allowed a suit to move forward against the government of Saudi Arabia brought by 9/11 survivors and victims' families.<ref name="Stempel" />

In 2022, the families of some 9/11 victims obtained two videos and a notepad seized from Saudi national [[Omar al-Bayoumi]] by the British courts. The first video showed him hosting a party in [[San Diego]] for Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, the first two hijackers to arrive in the U.S. The other video showed al-Bayoumi greeting the cleric [[Anwar al-Awlaki]], who was blamed for radicalizing Americans and later killed in a CIA drone strike. The notepad depicted a hand-drawn airplane and some mathematical equations that, according to a pilot's court statement, might have been used to calculate the rate of descent to get to a target. According to a 2017 FBI memo, from the late 1990s up until the 9/11 attack, al-Bayoumi was a paid cooptee of the Saudi [[General Intelligence Presidency]]. {{As of|2022|04}} he is believed to be living in Saudi Arabia, which has denied any involvement in 9/11.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Herridge |first1=Catherine |title=Newly released video shows 9/11 hijackers with alleged Saudi intelligence operative |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/911-hijackers-video-saudi-intelligence-official-omar-al-bayoumi/ |publisher=CBS News }}</ref>

== Rebuilding ==
{{Main|Rescue and recovery effort after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center|Construction of One World Trade Center}}
{{Further|World Trade Center (2001–present)|World Trade Center site}}
[[File:FEMA - 3886 - Photograph by Andrea Booher taken on 09-13-2001 in New York.jpg|thumb|Search and rescue teams inspect the wreckage at Ground Zero on September 13.]]
[[File:OneWorldTradeCenter.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Rebuilt [[One World Trade Center]] nearing completion in July 2013 by architect [[David Childs]]]]
On the day of the attacks, New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani stated: "We will rebuild. We're going to come out of this stronger than before, politically stronger, economically stronger. The skyline will be made whole again."<ref>{{cite news |last=Taylor |first=Tess |url=http://www.architectureweek.com/2001/0926/today.html |title=Rebuilding in New York |work=Architecture Week |issue=68 |access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511012010/http://www.architectureweek.com/2001/0926/today.html |archive-date=May 11, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Within hours of the attack, a substantial search and rescue operation was launched. After months of around-the-clock operations, the World Trade Center site was cleared by the end of May 2002.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/05/30/rec.wtc.cleanup/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201081749/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/05/30/rec.wtc.cleanup/ |archive-date=December 1, 2008 |url-status=dead |title=Ceremony closes 'Ground Zero' cleanup |publisher=CNN|access-date=November 24, 2013}}</ref> The damaged section of The Pentagon was rebuilt and occupied within a year of the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|last=Oglesby |first=Christy |title=Phoenix rises: Pentagon honors 'hard-hat patriots' |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/09/11/ar911.memorial.pentagon/ |publisher=CNN|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041218040531/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/09/11/ar911.memorial.pentagon/ |archive-date=December 18, 2004 |access-date=May 29, 2014}}</ref> The temporary [[World Trade Center (PATH station)|World Trade Center PATH station]] opened in late 2003 and construction of the new 7{{spaces}}World Trade Center was completed in 2006. Work on rebuilding the main World Trade Center site was delayed until late 2006, when leaseholder [[Larry Silverstein]] and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed on financing.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/22/nyregion/nyregionspecial3/22rebuild.html |title=An Agreement Is Formalized on Rebuilding at Ground Zero |work=The New York Times |last=Bagli |first=Charles V. |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> The construction of [[One World Trade Center]] began on April 27, 2006, and reached its full height on May 20, 2013. The spire was installed atop the building at that date, putting 1{{spaces}}WTC's height at 1,776 feet (541{{spaces}}m) and thus claiming the title of the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/1-wtc-spire-bringing-full-height-article-1.1340224|title=One World Trade Center gets spire, bringing it to its full 1,776-foot height|last1=Badia|first1=Erik|work=New York Daily News website|access-date=January 12, 2015|last2=Sit|first2=Ryan}}</ref> One WTC finished construction and opened on November 3, 2014.<ref name="Moore One WTC" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://time.com/3553897/one-world-trade-center-freedom-tower-opens-doors-new-york-city-911/|title=One World Trade Center Opens Its Doors|last=Iyengar|first=Rishi|magazine=Time|access-date=January 12, 2015}}</ref>

On the World Trade Center site, three more office towers were to be built one block east of where the original towers stood.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lower Manhattan: Current Construction |url=http://www.lowermanhattan.info/construction/project_updates/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914070256/http://www.lowermanhattan.info/construction/project_updates/|archive-date=September 14, 2011|publisher=Lower Manhattan Construction Command Center|access-date=September 8, 2011}}</ref> 4{{spaces}}WTC, meanwhile, opened in November 2013, making it the second tower on the site to open behind 7{{spaces}}World Trade Center, as well as the first building on the Port Authority property.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-11-12/world-trade-center-tower-debuts-in-manhattan-leasing-test|title=NYC's World Trade Tower Opens 40% Empty in Revival|website=Bloomberg.com|access-date=October 5, 2015}}</ref> 3{{spaces}}WTC opened on June 11, 2018, becoming the fourth skyscraper at the site to be completed.<ref name="USAToday 2018-06-10">{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2018/06/10/3-world-trade-center-open-after-years-delays-twin-towers-site/689035002/|title=New World Trade Center to open after years of delays|website=USA Today|access-date=June 11, 2018}}</ref> On the 16th anniversary of the 9/11 attacks, a writer for ''[[Curbed New York]]'' said that although "there is a World Trade Center again", it was not finished, as 2{{spaces}}and 5{{spaces}}WTC did not have definite completion dates, among other things.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bindelglass |first=Evan |title=The status of the World Trade Center complex, 16 years later |url=https://ny.curbed.com/2017/9/11/16284798/world-trade-center-nyc-construction-update |website=Curbed NY |access-date=January 11, 2018}}</ref>

[[Christopher O. Ward]], Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Executive Director from 2008 to 2011, is a survivor of the attacks and is credited with getting the construction of the 9/11 site back on track.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://twintowersalliance.com/Ward_1-30-09.pdf |title=Transcript: Friday, 1/30/09 {{!}} Chris Ward, Executive Director of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey |website=Twin Towers Alliance |access-date=January 13, 2021 |archive-date=May 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512070859/https://twintowersalliance.com/Ward_1-30-09.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Memorials ==
{{Main|Memorials and services for the September 11 attacks}}
[[File:Lower Manhattan from Jersey City September 2020 HDR panorama.jpg|thumb|400x400px|The ''[[Tribute in Light]]'' in 2020 – the two columns of light represent the Twin Towers.]]
In the days immediately following the attacks, many memorials and vigils were held around the world, and photographs of the dead and missing were posted around [[World Trade Center site|Ground Zero]]. A witness described being unable to "get away from faces of innocent victims who were killed. Their pictures are everywhere, on phone booths, street lights, walls of subway stations. Everything reminded me of a huge funeral, people quiet and sad, but also very nice. Before, New York gave me a cold feeling; now people were reaching out to help each other."<ref>{{cite web |last=Sigmund |first=Pete |title=Crews Assist Rescuers in Massive WTC Search |url=http://www.constructionequipmentguide.com/Crews-Assist-Rescuers-in-Massive-WTC-Search/1531/ |publisher=Construction Equipment Guide |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref>

One of the first memorials was the ''[[Tribute in Light]]'', an installation of 88 searchlights at the footprints of the World Trade Center towers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tribute in light to New York victims |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1857699.stm |publisher=BBC News |access-date=April 1, 2012}}</ref> In New York City, the [[World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition]] was held to design an appropriate memorial on the site.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition |url=http://wtcsitememorial.org/about.html |publisher=World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition |access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-date=December 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215163019/http://www.wtcsitememorial.org/about.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The winning design, ''[[National September 11 Memorial & Museum|Reflecting Absence]]'', was selected in August 2006, and consists of a pair of reflecting pools in the footprints of the towers, surrounded by a list of the victims' names in an underground memorial space.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title=WTC Memorial Construction Begins|publisher=[[CBS News]]|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/03/13/national/main1393070.shtml|access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> The memorial was completed on September 11, 2011;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/remembering-9-11/place-of-remembrance/ |title=A Place of Remembrance |website=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]] |year=2011 |access-date=November 5, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105175631/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/remembering-9-11/place-of-remembrance/ |archive-date=November 5, 2014 }}</ref> a museum also opened on site on May 21, 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.myfoxny.com/story/25574078/national-september-11-memorial-museum-opens |title=National September 11 Memorial Museum opens |publisher=[[WNYW]] |access-date=May 21, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521194934/http://www.myfoxny.com/story/25574078/national-september-11-memorial-museum-opens |archive-date=May 21, 2014}}</ref>

''[[The Sphere]]'' by the German sculptor [[Fritz Koenig]] is the world's largest bronze sculpture of modern times, and stood between the Twin Towers on the [[Austin J. Tobin]] Plaza of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] in New York City from 1971 until the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. The sculpture, weighing more than 20 tons, was the only remaining work of art to be recovered largely intact from the ruins of the collapsed Twin Towers after the attacks. Since then, the work of art, known in the U.S. as ''The Sphere'', has been transformed into an important symbolic monument of 9/11 commemoration. After being dismantled and stored near a hangar at [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]], the sculpture was the subject of the 2001 documentary ''[[The Sphere]]'' by filmmaker [[Percy Adlon]]. On August 16, 2017, the work was reinstated, installed at the [[Liberty Park]] close to the new World Trade Center aerial and the [[9/11 Memorial]].<ref name="NYT 2017-11-29">{{cite news |last=Otterman |first=Sharon |title=Battered and Scarred, 'Sphere' Returns to 9/11 Site |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/29/nyregion/911-memorial-sphere-sculpture.html |work=The New York Times |access-date=August 23, 2021}}</ref>

In Arlington County, the [[Pentagon Memorial]] was completed and opened to the public on the seventh anniversary of the attacks in 2008.<ref>{{cite news |last=Miroff |first=Nick |title=Creating a Place Like No Other |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/10/AR2008091000018.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Miroff |first=Nick |title=A Long-Awaited Opening, Bringing Closure to Many |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/11/AR2008091100579.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> It consists of a landscaped park with 184 benches facing the Pentagon.<ref name="dwyer-may2007">{{cite news |last=Dwyer |first=Timothy |title=Pentagon Memorial Progress Is Step Forward for Families |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/25/AR2007052502284.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> When the Pentagon was repaired in 2001–2002, a private chapel and indoor memorial were included, located at the spot where Flight 77 crashed into the building.<ref>{{cite web |title=DefenseLINK News Photos – Pentagon's America's Heroes Memorial |url=http://www.defenselink.mil/photos/newsphoto.aspx?newsphotoid=4018 |url-status=dead |publisher=Department of Defense |access-date=September 4, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130081905/http://www.defenselink.mil/photos/newsphoto.aspx?newsphotoid=4018 |archive-date=November 30, 2009}}</ref>

In Shanksville, a [[Flight 93 National Memorial|concrete-and-glass visitor center]] was opened on September 10, 2015,<ref name="NPS 93 mem">{{cite web |title=Flight 93 National Memorial – Sources and Detailed Information |publisher=National Park Service |url=https://www.nps.gov/flni/learn/historyculture/sources-and-detailed-information.htm |access-date=January 31, 2017 |quote=13. When will the Memorial be finished?}}</ref> situated on a hill overlooking the crash site and the white marble ''Wall of Names''.<ref name="NPS FAQs">{{cite web |title=Flight 93 National Memorial – Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) |publisher=National Park Service |pages=22–23 |url=https://www.nps.gov/flni/historyculture/upload/FAQs_longform_formatted_5-2013.pdf |access-date=January 31, 2017}}</ref> An observation platform at the visitor center and the white marble wall are both aligned beneath the path of Flight 93.<ref name="NPS FAQs" /><ref name="NYT 2015-09-09">{{cite news |title=A Long Road to a Place of Peace for Flight 93 Families |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/09/us/a-long-road-to-a-place-of-peace-for-flight-93-families.html |access-date=September 9, 2015}}</ref> A temporary memorial is located {{convert|500|yd|0}} from the crash site.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/flni|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411125737/http://www.nps.gov/flni|archive-date=April 11, 2008 |title=Flight 93 Memorial Project |publisher=Flight 93 Memorial Project / National Park Service |access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> New York City firefighters donated a cross made of steel from the World Trade Center and mounted on top of a platform shaped like the Pentagon.<ref name='ap2008-08-24'>{{cite news |last=Nephin |first=Dan |title=Steel cross goes up near flight's 9/11 Pa. crash site |agency=Associated Press |url=http://global.christianpost.com/news/steel-cross-installed-near-flight-93-site-in-pa-33978/ |access-date=September 5, 2011 |archive-date=October 21, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021140020/http://global.christianpost.com/news/steel-cross-installed-near-flight-93-site-in-pa-33978/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was installed outside the firehouse on August 25, 2008.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gaskell |first=Stephanie|title=Pa. site of 9/11 crash gets WTC beam |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/05/us/05memorial.html|work=New York Daily News|access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Many other permanent memorials are elsewhere. Scholarships and charities have been established by the victims' families and by many other organizations and private figures.<ref>{{cite news|last=Fessenden|first=Ford |title=9/11; After the World Gave: Where $2 Billion in Kindness Ended Up|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/18/giving/9-11-after-the-world-gave-where-2-billion-in-kindness-ended-up.html|work=The New York Times|access-date=September 4, 2011}}</ref>

On every anniversary in New York City, the names of the victims who died there are read out against a background of somber music. The President of the United States attends a memorial service at the Pentagon,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/11/at-a-memorial-ceremony-loss-and-tension/?hp |work=The New York Times |title=At a Memorial Ceremony, Loss and Tension |first=Andy |last=Newman }}</ref> and asks Americans to observe [[Patriot Day]] with a moment of silence. Smaller services are held in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, which are usually attended by the First Lady.
{{clear}}

== See also ==
{{cmn|
* [[9/11 truth movement]]
* [[9/11 conspiracy theories]]
* [[Delta Air Lines Flight 1989|Delta 1989]] & [[Korean Air Flight 085|Korean 085]], two other flights that were falsely suspected of being hijacked as part of the September 11 attacks
* [[Air France Flight 8969]]
* [[Bojinka plot]]
* [[Khobar Towers bombing]]
* [[List of attacks on U.S. territory]]
* [[List of aviation incidents involving terrorism]]
* [[List of deadliest terrorist attacks in the United States]]
* [[List of Islamist terrorist attacks]]
* [[List of major terrorist incidents]]
* [[List of terrorist incidents in New York City]]
* [[List of terrorist incidents in 2001]]
* [[Outline of the September 11 attacks]]
* [[Timeline of al-Qaeda attacks]]
* [[Timeline of the September 11 attacks]]
* [[USS Cole bombing]]
* [[1993 World Trade Center bombing]]
* [[1998 United States embassy bombing]]
* [[2006 transatlantic aircraft plot]]
* [[2007 John F. Kennedy International Airport attack plot]]
* [[2009 Bronx terrorism plot]]
* [[2010 transatlantic aircraft bomb plot]]
}}

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography{{anchor|Sources}} ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite report|chapter-url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch1.pdf|title=9/11 Commission Report|chapter=Chapter 1.1: 'We Have Some Planes': Inside the Four Flights|year=2004|publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|access-date=March 18, 2016}}
* {{cite journal|title=Unity of Purpose/Unity of effort: Private-Sector Preparedness in Times of Terror |journal=Disaster Prevention & Management |last1=Alavosius |first1=Mark P. |last2=Rodriquez |first2=Nischal J. |year=2005 |volume=14 |doi=10.1108/09653560510634098 |issue=5|page=666 }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/about/Documents/AAL77_fdr.pdf |title=American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |access-date=September 3, 2011 }}
* {{cite report |last=Averill |first=Jason D. |url=http://wtc.nist.gov/NCSTAR1/PDF/NCSTAR%201-7.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090509033658/http://wtc.nist.gov/NCSTAR1/PDF/NCSTAR%201-7.pdf |archive-date=May 9, 2009 |title=Final Reports of the Federal Building and Fire Investigation of the World Trade Center Disaster |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) |year=2005 |access-date=September 2, 2011 }}
* {{cite book|last=Bergen|first=Peter L.|title=Holy War, Inc.: Inside the Secret World of Osama Bin Laden|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sRhZDrJb0zgC&pg=PP1|year=2001|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-3467-2|access-date=March 18, 2016}}
* {{cite book|last=Bergen|first=Peter|title=The Osama Bin Laden I Know: An Oral History of Al Qaeda's Leader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_XkM92XMlQ4C&pg=PP1|year=2006|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-9592-5|access-date=March 18, 2016}}
* {{cite book|first=Brad|last=Berner|title=The World According to Al Qaeda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smP3gFyQpXQC&pg=PP1|year=2007|publisher=Peacock Books|isbn=978-81-248-0114-7|access-date=March 18, 2016}}
* Bodnar, John.. ''Divided by Terror: American Patriotism after 9/11'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2021) how memory of the event stimulated and reshaped patriotism.
* {{cite book|last1=Clarke|first1=Richard|title=Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terror|year=2004|publisher=Free Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7432-6024-4|url=https://archive.org/details/againstallenemie00clar|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dwyer |first1=Jim |last2=Flynn |first2=Kevin |title=102 Minutes |publisher=Times Books |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Ctk6LxDDR8C&pg=PP1 |isbn=978-0-8050-7682-0 |access-date=March 18, 2016 }}
* {{cite report |url=https://www.nist.gov/customcf/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=861610 |title=Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Building 7 |publisher=[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] |access-date=April 11, 2012 |format=PDF |ref={{harvid|''Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Building 7''|2008}} }}
* {{cite web |title=Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 77 |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB196/doc02.pdf |publisher=[[National Transportation Safety Board]] |access-date=September 3, 2011 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Fouda|first1=Yosri|last2=Fielding|first2=Nick|title=Masterminds of Terror: The Truth Behind the Most Devastating Terrorist Attack the World Has Ever Seen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IASlEi7rogIC&pg=PP1|year=2004|publisher=Arcade Publishing|isbn=978-1-55970-717-6|access-date=March 18, 2016}}
* {{cite book |last1=Goldberg |first1=Alfred |last2=Papadopoulos |first2=Sarandis |last3=Putney |first3=Diane |last4=Berlage |first4=Nancy |last5=Welch |first5=Rebecca |display-authors=1 |title=Pentagon 9/11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wfhI5oc41sMC&pg=PP1 |year=2007 |publisher=Government Printing Office |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-16-078328-9 |access-date=March 18, 2016 |ref={{harvid|Goldberg et al.|2007}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Graff |first=Garrett M. |author-link=Garrett Graff |title=The Only Plane in the Sky: An Oral History of 9/11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=we-oDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |location=New York |publisher=Avid Reader Press |isbn=978-1-5011-8220-4 }}
* {{cite book|last=Gunaratna|first=Ronan|title=Inside Al Qaeda: global network of terror|url=https://archive.org/details/insidealqaedaglo00guna|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-12692-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Holmes|first=Stephen|title=Making sense of suicide missions|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eciSejVv-YoC&pg=PP1|isbn=978-0-19-929797-9|editor=Diego Gambetta|chapter=Al Qaeda, September 11, 2001|access-date=March 18, 2016}}
* {{cite book |title=The Al Qaeda reader |first1=Raymond |last1=Ibrahim |last2=bin Laden |first2=Osama |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ne5JZYf-dlkC&pg=PR2 |year=2007 |publisher=Random House Digital, Inc. |isbn=978-0-385-51655-6 |access-date=March 18, 2016 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Javorsek II|first1=Daniel|last2=Rose|first2=John|last3=Marshall|first3=Christopher|last4=Leitner|first4=Peter|title=A Formal Risk-Effectiveness Analysis Proposal for the Compartmentalized Intelligence Security Structure|journal=International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence|volume=28|issue=4|pages=734–61|doi=10.1080/08850607.2015.1051830|s2cid=152911592}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Jessee|first1=Devin|title=Tactical Means, Strategic Ends: Al Qaeda's Use of Denial and Deception|journal=International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence|year=2006|volume=18|issue=3|pages=367–88|doi=10.1080/09546550600751941|s2cid=144349098|url=http://web.international.ucla.edu/media/files/FTPV_A_175157_P.pdf|access-date=March 23, 2016|archive-date=November 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121230603/https://web.international.ucla.edu/media/files/FTPV_A_175157_P.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|first=Christopher|last=Kelley|title=Executing the Constitution: putting the president back into the Constitution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgzmexCI734C&pg=PP1|year=2006|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-6727-5|access-date=March 18, 2016}}
* {{cite book |last1=Keppel |first1=Gilles |last2=Milelli |first2=Jean-Pierre |last3=Ghazaleh |first3=Pascale |title=Al Qaeda in its own words |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674028043 |url-access=registration |year=2008 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02804-3 |access-date=March 18, 2016 }}
* {{cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Bruce |title=Messages to the world: the statements of Osama Bin Laden |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_fRlEZoaioC&pg=PP1 |access-date=May 29, 2014 |year=2005 |publisher=Verso |isbn=978-1-84467-045-1 }}
* {{cite book|title=The SAGE Encyclopedia of Terrorism, Second Edition|first=Gus|last=Martin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I_jh4VBi_HYC&pg=PP1|year=2011|publisher=Sage|isbn=978-1-4129-8017-3|access-date=March 18, 2016}}
* {{cite book|last=McDermott|first=Terry|title=Perfect Soldiers: The 9/11 Hijackers|year=2005|publisher=HarperCollins|pages=191–92|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Oufo58esZAC&pg=PP1|isbn=978-0-06-058470-2}}
* {{cite web |url=http://home2.nyc.gov/html/fdny/html/mck_report/toc.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603212555/http://home2.nyc.gov/html/fdny/html/mck_report/toc.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 3, 2010 |title=McKinsey Report |publisher=FDNY / McKinsey & Company |access-date=September 25, 2011 }}
* {{cite book|title=The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy|first=John J.|last=Mearsheimer|publisher=Macmillan|year=2007|isbn=978-0-374-17772-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIrFUBs7G6kC}}
* {{cite book|title=Osama Bin Laden|first=Suzanne|last=Murdico|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SSHiERbJuKMC&pg=PP1|publisher=Rosen Publishing Group|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8239-4467-5}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/build03/PDF/b03017.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721055255/http://www.fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/build03/PDF/b03017.pdf |archive-date=July 21, 2011 |title=The Pentagon Building Performance Report |publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) |access-date=September 3, 2011 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Summers |first1=Anthony |last2=Swan |first2=Robbyn |title=The Eleventh Day: The Full Story of 9/11 and Osama Bin Laden |year=2011 |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/eleventhdayfulls0000summ |url-access=registration |isbn=978-1-4000-6659-9 |access-date=March 18, 2016 }}
* {{cite book|last=Sunder|first=Shyam S.|title=Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers|publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)|year=2005|url=https://www.nist.gov/manuscript-publication-search.cfm?pub_id=909017|access-date=September 2, 2011}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.fema.gov/pdf/library/fema403_ch6.pdf |title=World Trade Center Building Performance Study – Bankers Trust Building |publisher=[[Federal Emergency Management Agency]] |access-date=July 12, 2007 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.fema.gov/pdf/library/fema403_ch7.pdf |title=World Trade Center Building Performance Study – Peripheral Buildings |publisher=[[Federal Emergency Management Agency]] |access-date=September 3, 2011 }}
* {{cite web|year=2002|url=http://www.fema.gov/pdf/library/fema403_ch5.pdf|title=World Trade Center Building Performance Study |publisher=Federal Emergency Management Agency|access-date=September 2, 2011}}
* {{cite book |title=The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11 |last=Wright |first=Lawrence |year=2006 |publisher=Knopf |url=https://archive.org/details/loomingtoweralqa00wrig |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-375-41486-2 |author-link=Lawrence Wright }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Yitzhak|first1=Ronen|title=The War Against Terrorism and For Stability of the Hashemite Regime: Jordanian Intelligence Challenges in the 21st Century|journal=International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence|volume=29|issue=2|pages=213–35|doi=10.1080/08850607.2016.1121038 |s2cid=155138286}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|work=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks|title=The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TjKODEaahVQC&pg=PP1|publisher=Cosimo, Inc|isbn=978-1-61640-219-8}}
* {{cite book|first=Stephen E|last=Atkins|title=The 9/11 Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PDDIgWRN_HQC&pg=PP1|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-921-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Bolton |first=M. Kent |year=2006|title=U.S. National Security and Foreign Policymaking After 9/11: Present at the Re-creation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IETboc9ajpQC&pg=PP1 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-5900-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Caraley |first=Demetrios |year=2002 |title=September 11, terrorist attacks, and U.S. foreign policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xMCGStzPzooC&pg=PP1 |publisher=Academy of Political Science|isbn=978-1-884853-01-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Chernick |first=Howard |year=2005 |title=Resilient city: the economic impact of 9/11
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GL6vOpKbFygC&pg=PP1 |publisher=Russell Sage Foundation|isbn=978-0-87154-170-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Damico |first1=Amy M |last2=Quay |first2=Sara E. |year=2010 |title=September 11 in Popular Culture: A Guide
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgtSLkKxIpEC&pg=PP1|publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-0-313-35505-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Hampton |first=Wilborn |year=2003 |title=September 11, 2001: attack on New York City|url=https://archive.org/details/september112001a00wilb|url-access=registration |publisher=Candlewick Press|isbn=978-0-7636-1949-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Langley |first=Andrew |year=2006 |title=September 11: Attack on America
|url=https://archive.org/details/september11attac0000lang|url-access=registration |publisher=Compass Point Books |isbn=978-0-7565-1620-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Neria |first1=Yuval |last2=Gross |first2=Raz |last3=Marshall |first3=Randall D. |last4=Susser |first4=Ezra S. |year=2006 |title=9/11: mental health in the wake of terrorist attacks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kADL4ymHsY8C&pg=PP1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83191-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Ryan |first=Allan A. |title=The 9/11 Terror Cases: Constitutional Challenges in the War against Al Qaeda |publisher=University Press of Kansas |year=2015|isbn=978-0-7006-2132-3}}
* {{cite book|first1=Steven |last1=Strasser |first2=Craig R |last2=Whitney |first3=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States|last3=United States. Congress. Senate. Select Committee on Intelligence|title=The 9/11 investigations: staff reports of the 9/11 Commission: excerpts from the House–Senate joint inquiry report on 9/11: testimony from fourteen key witnesses, including Richard Clarke, George Tenet, and Condoleezza Rice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLCn_D7lX5kC&pg=PP1|year=2004|publisher=PublicAffairs|isbn=978-1-58648-279-4}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Prone to spam}}
* [http://www.9-11commission.gov/ National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States] ''official commission website''
* [https://www.911memorial.org/visit/memorial/names-911-memorial/ List of victims]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/911_archive/ September 11, 2001, Documentary Project] from the U.S. [[Library of Congress]], ''Memory.loc.gov''
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/lcwa/html/sept11/sept11-overview.html September 11, 2001, Web Archive] from the U.S. [[Library of Congress]], ''Minerva''
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/sept11/index.html National Security Archive]
* [http://911digitalarchive.org/ September 11 Digital Archive: Saving the Histories of September 11, 2001], from the ''Center for History and New Media'' and the ''American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning''
* [[s:Verbatim Transcript of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Hearing for ISN 10024|DoD: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Verbatim Transcript of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Hearing for ISN 10024]], from Wikisource
*[http://911legacies.com/ The 9/11 Legacies Project], ''Oriental Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague''
*[https://responsiblestatecraft.org/tag/911at20/ 9/11 at 20: A Week of Reflection], ''Responsible Statecraft, The Quincy Institute''

'''Multimedia'''

* [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/trade.center/multimedia.day.html CNN.com]

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Adarsh Gourav

2022-10-17T02:47:51Z

Sana Khan: Developed an original article.

{{short description|Indian film actor (born 1994)}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Adarsh Gourav
| image = Adarsh Gourav at the premiere of Qala-2 (cropped).jpg
| caption = Gourav in November 2022
| birth_name = Adarsh Gourav Bhagavatula
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1994}}
| birth_place = [[Jamshedpur]], [[Bihar]], India (present-day [[Jharkhand]])
| death_date =
| death_place =
| other_names =
| known_for = ''[[Mom (film)|Mom]]'' (2017) ''[[The White Tiger (film)|The White Tiger]]'' (2021)
| alma_mater =
| occupation = {{hlist|Actor|singer}}
| years_active = 2007{{endash}}present
}}

'''Adarsh Gourav Bhagavatula''' (born 1994) is an Indian actor and singer who works in [[Hindi]] and English films. Gourav is best known for his portrayal of Mohit Chadda in the Hindi thriller film ''[[Mom (film)|Mom]]'' (2017), and of Balram Halwai in American drama film ''[[The White Tiger (film)|The White Tiger]]'' (2020), which garnered him international acclaim, and nominations for the [[BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role]], and the [[Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theweek.co.uk/108860/films-2021-new-releases|title=2021 films: new releases and what’s coming out|website=The Week}}</ref><ref name="Quint-24Mar21">{{cite web|url=https://www.thequint.com/amp/story/entertainment/celebrities/the-white-tiger-actor-adarsh-gourav-wins-rising-star-award-at-6th-annual-awff?__twitter_impression=true|title=The White Tiger's Adarsh Gourav Wins AWFF 'Rising Star' Award|website=Quint}}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Adarsh Gourav Bhagavatula was born into a [[Telugu people|Telugu]] family in [[Jamshedpur]], India. His father Satishnarayan Bhagavatula is from [[Srikakulam district]] and his mother Padmavati hails from [[Vizianagaram]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]]. Gourav was brought up in [[Jamshedpur]] and studied in Loyola School, Jamshedpur. He later moved to [[Mumbai]] and studied at [[Narsee Monjee College of Commerce and Economics|Narsee Monjee College]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ramachandran|first=S.|title=Telugu boy earns his stripes|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/tollywood/310121/telugu-boy-earns-his-stripes.html|access-date=2021-07-24|website=Deccan Chronicle|language=en}}</ref>

In 2007, when Gourav's father, who was an employee of The [[Central Bank of India]], got transferred to Mumbai, the family decided to relocate. He studied at the [[Lilavatibai Podar High School]]. While singing in the [[Kala Ghoda Arts Festival]] 2007, he was spotted and asked if he wanted to try acting. He agreed only because he was excited to be on television. After a year of auditioning, he was cast as the young Shahrukh Khan in the film [[My Name Is Khan|''My Name is Khan'']].<ref name="FirstPost-20Jan21" /><ref name="DNA-30Oct20">{{cite web|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/hollywood/report-who-is-adarsh-gourav-all-you-need-to-know-about-priyanka-chopra-rajkummar-rao-s-the-white-tiger-co-star-2853227|title=Who is Adarsh Gourav? All you need to know about Priyanka Chopra, Rajkummar Rao's 'The White Tiger' co-star|first=Riddhima|last=Kanetkar}}</ref>

He studied in The Drama School in Mumbai.<ref name="IE-21Jan20">{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/hollywood/who-is-adarsh-gourav-the-actor-from-the-white-tiger-7145770/|title=Who is Adarsh Gourav, the actor from The White Tiger?|website=Indian Express|first=Mimansa|last=Shekhar}}</ref>

==Career==
He was scouted to sing for Raell Padamsee's theatre company. He also sang for films like Black and White and Chal Chalein.{{citation needed}}
Although his acting career began when he was 14, Adarsh seriously started pursuing acting when he was cast to play one of the primary characters in a film titled "Banana", produced by [[John Abraham]] Entertainment and directed by Sajid Ali. While in his final year of college at [[Narsee Monjee College of Commerce and Economics|Narsee Monjee College of Commerce]], he worked with [[Anurag Kashyap]] in his short film "Clean Shaven" with [[Radhika Apte]]. The next year he was cast as the lead in ''[[Rukh (film)|Rukh]]'' alongside [[Manoj Bajpayee]]<ref name="FirstPost-20Jan21">{{cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/entertainment/the-white-tiger-find-adarsh-gourav-on-discovering-the-invisibility-of-balram-and-learnings-from-priyanka-chopra-jonas-rajkummar-rao-9219881.html|title=The White Tiger’s Adarsh Gourav on discovering the 'invisibility' of Balram, and learnings from his co-actors|website=First Post|first=Udita|last=Jhunjhunwala}}</ref> and as one of the antagonists in [[Sridevi]]'s ''[[Mom (film)|Mom]]''.<ref name="MensXP-20Jan21">{{cite web|last=Arora|first=Simran|title=Adarsh Gourav From ‘The White Tiger’ Has A Boy Next Door Look Which Is As Unique As His Acting|url=https://www.mensxp.com/fashion/celebrity-style/84834-adarsh-gourav-from-the-white-tiger-has-a-boy-next-door-look-which-is-as-brilliant-as-his-acting.html|website=Mens XP}}</ref> To work on his craft, he took a break and went to The Drama School Mumbai in 2016. After finishing school, he worked in the Amazon production "Die Trying" and the [[The Viral Fever|TVF]] production ''[[Hostel Daze]]''. He also played Prince Tarquin in the NCPA production "Lucrece" directed by Paul Goodwin in 2017. In 2018, he worked with Academy nominee [[Deepa Mehta]] on her Netflix series ''[[Leila (TV series)|Leila]]''.{{citation needed}}

After a few months of not being able to find any acting work, he was called in for an audition of ''The White Tiger''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/adarsh-gourav-says-mainstream-bollywood-movies-never-attracted-him-but-admire-big-actors-who-can-sing-and-dance-101612104603618.html|title=Adarsh Gourav says mainstream Bollywood movies never attracted him|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref> His portrayal of Balram Halwai in the Netflix film has been lauded by all as the "star of Ramin Bahrani's film",<ref name="HT-14Jan21">{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/hollywood/the-white-tiger-first-reviews-critics-call-it-roaring-success-more-realistic-slumdog-millionaire-that-ll-make-adarsh-gaurav-a-star/story-aVKss0KMdVH4DySPts9VJJ.html|title=The White Tiger first reviews: Critics call it roaring success, ‘more realistic’ Slumdog Millionaire that’ll make Adarsh Gaurav a star|publisher=Hindustan Times}}</ref> with the Evening Standard saying, "Gourav is nuanced and utterly engaging as Balram Halwai, a bright peasant who morphs from lickspittle chauffeur into something more ruthless.<ref name="StandardUK">{{cite web|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/film/netflix-the-white-tiger-review-b700369.html|title=Netflix’s The White Tiger review: this tale of two Indias is as angry, smart and dark as Parasite|first=Charlotte|last=O'Sullivan}}</ref>" and Variety calling it a "small marvel".<ref name="Variety-5Jan21">{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2021/film/reviews/the-white-tiger-review-ramin-bahrani-priyanka-chopra-1234875962/|title=‘The White Tiger’ Review: Ramin Bahrani’s Absorbing Tale of an Indian Servant on the Rise Is Like ‘Slumdog Millionaire’ With More Reality|first=Owen|last=Gleiberman}}</ref> The Telegraph said Gourav "gives the definition of a breakthrough performance"<ref name="Telegraph-20Jan21">{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/films/0/white-tiger-review-punchy-propulsive-tale-grubby-ascent-top/|title=The White Tiger, review: the punchy, propulsive tale of a grubby ascent to the top|first=Robbie|last=Collins}}</ref> The Entertainment Weekly called him "a largely unknown actor whose soulful combination of sheer will and vulnerability should, in a just world, win him the kind of accolades that helped make Slumdog's Dev Patel a star.<ref name="5Jan21">{{cite web|url=https://ew.com/movies/movie-reviews/the-white-tiger-netflix-review/|title=The White Tiger brings exhilarating big-screen storytelling to Netflix|first=Leah|last=Greenblatt}}</ref> For his performance, Gourav was nominated for the [[Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead|Film Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=2021 Film Independent Spirit Award Nominations Announced!|url=https://www.filmindependent.org/blog/2021-film-independent-spirit-award-nominations-announced/|access-date=5 February 2021|website=Film Independent|language=en-US}}</ref> and was also nominated for the BAFTA for [[BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role|Best Actor]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=BAFTA 2021: The White Tiger Stars Priyanka Chopra And Adarsh Gourav Feature On Longlist|url=https://www.ndtv.com/entertainment/bafta-2021-the-white-tiger-stars-priyanka-chopra-and-adarsh-gourav-feature-on-longlist-2363354|access-date=5 February 2021|website=NDTV.com}}</ref>

In May 2023, he was a part of Audible's podcast series called ''Desi Down Under'', along with Taaruk Raina and [[Prajakta Koli]]. The story is set in Sydney about three 20 year olds from Mangalore who go to Australia to learn surf-lifesaving skills at Coogee Beach.<ref>{{Cite web |title=All about Audible India’s latest original offering is Desi Downunder |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/entertainment/adarsh-gourav-prajakta-koli-and-taaruk-raina-chat-with-the-telegraph-on-their-adrenaline-pumping-audio-series-desi-downunder/cid/1937775 |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=www.telegraphindia.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Adarsh Gourav talks about his new Audible series Desi Down Under, and why he never wants to feel ‘settled’ as an artist |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/bollywood/adarsh-gourav-talks-about-his-new-audible-series-desi-down-under-and-why-he-never-wants-to-feel-settled-as-an-artist-101683899194249.html |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

==Singing career==
Gourav learnt Hindustani classical music for nine years under different Gurus.<ref name="GQ-29Oct20"/> In college, he was the lead vocalist for a progressive rock band called "Oak Island".<ref name="MensXP-20Jan21" />

He started getting interested in Western music while in Junior college and sang for the college band "Steepsky". They recorded a single called "Good guys finish last". In college, he sang for a progressive rock band called "Oak Island" which was also featured in ''MTV Indies-Never Hide Sounds''.<ref name="GQ-29Oct20">{{cite web|url=https://www.gqindia.com/entertainment/content/adarsh-gourav-show-priyanka-chopra-jonas-the-white-tiger-netflix|title=Who is Adarsh Gourav? The man who stole the show in the trailer of Priyanka Chopra Jonas’s The White Tiger|publisher=GQ India|first=Rimi|last=Chakraborty}}</ref>

==Filmography==

===Films===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"
!scope="col"| Year
!scope="col"| Title
!scope="col"| Role
!scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|2010
| scope="row" | ''[[My Name Is Khan]]''
| Young Rizwan Khan
|
|-
|2014
| scope="row" | ''Who Killed My Valentine?''
| Unknown
| Short film
|-
|2016
| scope="row" | ''[[Madly (2016 film)|Madly]]''
| Allwyn
| Segment: "Clean Shaven"
|-
|rowspan=3|2017
| scope="row" | ''[[Rukh (film)|Rukh]]''
| Dhruv
|
|-
| scope="row" | ''[[Mom (film)|Mom]]''
|Mohit "Bunty" Chadda
|
|-
| scope="row" | ''Toothache''
| Arjun
| rowspan=2|Short film
|-
|2020
| scope="row" | ''Mr Radish''
| Dhawal Parekh
|-
|2021
| scope="row" | ''[[The White Tiger (film)|The White Tiger]]''
| Balram Halwai
|Nominated—[[AACTA International Award for Best Actor]] Nominated—[[BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role]] Nominated—[[Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead]]
|-
|2023
|{{Pending|align=left|''Kho Gaye Hum Kahan'' {{dagger|alt=Films that have not yet been released}}}}
|{{TBA}}
|Filming <ref>{{cite news |title=Siddhant Chaturvedi announces the start of 'Kho Gaye Hum Kahan' shoot; co-stars Ananya Panday and Adarsh Gourav share their excitement - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/hindi/bollywood/news/siddhant-chaturvedi-announces-the-start-of-kho-gaye-hum-kahan-shoot-co-stars-ananya-panday-and-adarsh-gourav-share-their-excitement/articleshow/90074499.cms |access-date=10 March 2022 |work=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
|}

===Web series===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"
!scope="col"| Year
!scope="col"| Title
!scope="col"| Role
!scope="col"| Notes
|-
|2018
| scope="row" |''Die Trying''
|Jason
|
|-
|2019
| scope="row" | ''[[Leila (TV series)|Leila]]''
| Naz Chaudhary
|
|-
|2019–2021
| scope="row" |''[[Hostel Daze]]''
|Ankit Pandey
|Nominated—[[Filmfare OTT Awards|Filmfare OTT Award for Best Actor in a Comedy Series]] (2021)
|-
|2023
| scope="row" |''[[Extrapolations (TV series)|Extrapolations]]''
|Gaurav
|
|-
|TBA
|''[[Guns & Gulaabs]]''
|TBA
|Filming completed<ref>{{Cite web |last=PTI |title=Raj and DK wrap up shoot of Netflix series 'Guns & Gulaabs' |url=https://theprint.in/features/raj-and-dk-wrap-up-shoot-of-netflix-series-guns-gulaabs/909526/ |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref>
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|3841091}}
*{{Instagram|gouravadarsh}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gourav, Adarsh}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1994 births]]
[[Category:Indian male film actors]]
[[Category:Telugu male actors]]
[[Category:Indian male singers]]
[[Category:Male actors in Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male child actors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors from Jharkhand]]

History of South India

2022-07-10T12:49:04Z

Sana Khan: Authored a unique article.

{{short description|Article on history of southern India}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use Indian English}}
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
The '''history of southern India''' covers a span of over four thousand years during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires.
[[File:Dravida nadu.jpg|thumb|Location of [[South India]]]]
The period of known history of southern India begins with the [[Iron Age in India|Iron Age]] (c. 1200 BCE to 200 BCE), [[Sangam period]] (c. 600 BCE to 300 CE) and Medieval south India until the 15th century CE. Dynasties of [[Chera Dynasty|Chera]], [[Chola Dynasty|Chola]], [[Pandyan Dynasty|Pandyan]], [[Travancore]], [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]], [[Zamorin]], [[Kolathunadu]], [[Chalukya]], [[Pallava Dynasty|Pallava]], [[Satavahana]], [[Rashtrakuta]], [[Kakatiya]], [[Reddy dynasty]], [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty]], [[Vijayanagara Empire|Vijayanagara]], [[Bahamani Sultanate|Bahamani empire]] and [[Hoysala]] were at their peak during various periods of history. These dynasties constantly fought amongst each other and against external forces when northern armies invaded southern India.

[[Vijayanagara empire]] rose in response to the Muslim intervention and covered the most of southern India and acted as a bulwark against [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] expansion into the south. When the European powers arrived during the 16th and 18th century CE, the southern kingdoms, most notably [[Tipu Sultan]]'s [[Kingdom of Mysore]], resisted the new threats, and many parts eventually succumbed to British occupation. The British created the [[Madras Presidency]] which acted as an administrative centre for the rest of South India, with them being princely states. After [[Partition of India|Indian independence]] South India was linguistically divided into the states of [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], [[Telangana]] and [[Kerala]].

==Prehistoric period to Iron age==
{{See also|Prehistoric India|Prehistoric Tamil Nadu#Pre-historic period|History of Karnataka#Pre-history|History of Andhra Pradesh#Introduction|Pre-history of Kerala}}

[[File:Pre Historic Mid Krishna-Tungabhadra Valley sites.jpg|thumb|400px|Pre-historic sites of Mid Krishna-Tungabhadra Valley in southern Indian state of [[Andhra Pradesh]]]]
South India remained in the [[Mesolithic]] until 2500 BCE. [[Microlith]] production is attested for the period 6000 to 3000 BCE. The [[Neolithic]] period lasted from 2500 BCE to 1000 BCE, followed by the [[Iron Age India|Iron Age]], characterized by [[megalithic]] burials.<ref>One such site was found at [[Krishnagiri, Dharmapuri|Krishnagiri]] in Tamil Nadu— {{cite news | title= Steps to preserve megalithic burial site | url= http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/06/stories/2006100617521000.htm | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080918094106/http://www.hindu.com/2006/10/06/stories/2006100617521000.htm | url-status= dead | archive-date= 18 September 2008 | access-date=2006-11-15 | location=Chennai, India | work= [[The Hindu]] | date=6 October 2006}}</ref> Comparative excavations carried out in [[Adichanallur]] in [[Tirunelveli district]] and in [[Northern India]] have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture.<ref>K. A. N. Sastri, ''A History of South India'', pp. 49–51</ref> The [[Tungabhadra River|Krishna Tungabhadra valley]]<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yK8D8c5-HXAC&q=Veerapuram&pg=PA126 |title = Pre- and Protohistoric Andhra Pradesh up to 500 B.C|isbn = 9788125024750|last1 = Murty|first1 = M. L. K.|year = 2003}}</ref> was also a place for Megalithic culture in South India.

=== Beginning of Iron Age ===
{{see also|Iron Age in India}}

The earliest Iron Age sites in South India date from '''c. 1200 to 200 BCE''' and some of sites are contemporary to [[Sangam period]].

'''[[Hallur]]''' in [[Karnataka]] and '''[[Adichanallur]]''' in [[Tamil Nadu]] are notable iron Age sites of ancient southern India.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070527142322/http://www.hindu.com/2007/05/25/stories/2007052502532200.htm Front Page : Some pottery parallels]. The Hindu (2007-05-25). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.</ref>

==Ancient period==
{{Main|Sangam period}}
{{Further|Tamil Sangams|Sangam literature}}
{{See also|Indo-Roman trade relations}}
[[File:Silk route.jpg|thumbnail|330px|Ancient [[Silk Road]] map. The [[Spice trade]] was mainly along the water routes (blue).]]
[[File:South India in BC 300.jpg|left|250px|thumb|South India in 300 BCE, showing the Chera, Pandya, and Chola tribes.]]
Evidence in the forms of documents and inscriptions do not appear often in the history of ancient South India. Although there are signs that the history dates back to several centuries BCE, we only have an authentic archaeological evidence from the early centuries of the [[common era]]. Until about 600 BC, literature composed to the north of the [[Vindhya Range|Vindhyas]] do not display any cognizance of the region to the south.<ref name="northsouth">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p216</ref> During the reign of [[Ashoka]] (c. 268–232 BCE) the three Tamil dynasties of [[Chola]], [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] and [[Pandya]] were ruling the south.

===Pandyan Dynasty===
{{Main|Pandyan Empire}}
[[File:Srivaikundam Temple Structure, Thirunelveli4.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Stone sculpture, [[Srivaikuntanathan Permual temple]], [[Srivaikuntam]], [[Tuticorin]], Tamil Nadu]]
The [[Pandyas]] were one of the three ancient Tamil dynasties ([[Chola]] and [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] being the other two) who ruled the Tamil country from pre-historic times until the end of the 15th century. They ruled initially from Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula, and in later times moved to [[Madurai]]. Pandyas are mentioned in [[Sangam Literature]] (c. 400 BCE – 300 CE) as well as by [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] sources during this period.[[File:GreyPotteryWithEngravingsVirampatnamArikamedu1stCenturyCE.jpg|thumb|250px|Grey pottery with engravings, [[Arikamedu]]]]
The early Pandya dynasty of the Sangam literature went into obscurity during the invasion of the [[Kalabhras]]. The dynasty revived under Kadungon in the early 6th century CE, pushed the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and ruled from Madurai. They again went into decline with the rise of the Cholas in the 9th century CE and were in constant conflict with them. Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola empire until they found an opportunity for reviving their fortunes during the late 13th century. Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (c. 1251) expanded their empire into the Telugu country and invaded Sri Lanka to conquer the northern half of the island. They also had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of [[Srivijaya]] and their successors. During their history Pandyas were repeatedly in conflict with the [[Pallavas]], [[Cholas]], [[Hoysalas]] and finally the Muslim invaders from the Delhi Sultanate. The Pandyan Kingdom finally became extinct after the establishment of the Madurai Sultanate in the 14th century CE. The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature. They controlled the pearl fisheries along the south Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced one of the finest pearls known in the ancient world.

===Chola Empire===
{{Main|Chola Empire}}
{{See also|Early Cholas|Medieval Cholas|Later Cholas}}
[[File:Rajendra map new.svg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Chola Empire]] at its greatest extent, during the reign of [[Rajendra Chola I]] in 1030 CE]]
[[File:Peutinger India.png|thumb|250px|right| Section of ''[[Tabula Peutingeriana]]'', the Roman map from 300 CE, depicting South Indian peninsula and Sri Lanka (''Insula Taprobane'')]]
[[File:Periplous of the Erythraean Sea.svg|thumbnail|250px|right|Names, routes and locations of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (1st century CE)]]
[[File:ThanjavurBigTemple.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur|Brihadisvara temple]] at [[Thanjavur]], [[Tamil Nadu]] is one of the largest monolithic temple complexes in the world – a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].]]
The [[Cholas]] were one of the three main dynasties to rule south India from ancient times. [[Karikala Chola]] (late 1st century CE) was the most famous king during the early years of the dynasty and managed to gain ascendency over the [[Pandyas]] and [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]]. The Chola dynasty, however, went into a period of decline from the 4th century CE. This period coincided with the ascendency of the [[Kalabhras]] who moved down from the northern Tamil country, displacing the established kingdoms and ruled over most of south India for almost 300 years.
[[File:chola fresco.png|thumb|Chola Fresco of Dancing girls. Peruvudaiyaar Temple c. 1100 C.E., [[Thanjavur]], [[Tamil Nadu]].]]
[[Vijayalaya Chola]] revived the Chola dynasty in 850 CE by conquering [[Thanjavur]] by defeating [[Ilango Mutharaiyar]] and making it his capital. His son [[Aditya Chola II|Aditya]] defeated the Pallava king [[Aparajita]] and extended the Chola territories to [[Tondaimandalam]]. The centres of the Chola Kingdom were at [[Kanchi]] ([[Kanchipuram]]) and [[Thanjavur]]. One of the most powerful rulers of the Chola kingdom was [[Raja Raja Chola]], who ruled from 985 to 1014 CE. His army conquered the Navy of the Cheras at [[Thiruvananthapuram]], and annexed [[Anuradhapura]] and the northern province of [[Ceylon]]. [[Rajendra Chola I]] completed the conquest of [[Sri Lanka]], invaded [[Bengal]], and undertook a great naval campaign that occupied parts of [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]], [[Burma]], and [[Sumatra]]. The Chola dynasty began declining by the 13th century and ended in 1279. Cholas were great builders and have left some of the most beautiful examples of early Tamil temple architecture. [[Brihadisvara Temple]] in [[Thanjavur]] is a fine example and has been listed as one of the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage Sites]].
[[File:Raraja detail.png|thumb|right|Detail of the statue of [[Rajaraja Chola]] at [[Brihadisvara Temple]] at [[Thanjavur]], Tamil Nadu.]]

===Chera Dynasty===
{{Main|Chera Empire}}
The Chera kingdom was one of the [[Tamil people|Tamil]] dynasties who ruled southern India from ancient times until around the 12th century CE. The Early Cheras ruled over the [[Malabar Coast]], [[Coimbatore]], [[Erode]], [[Namakkal]], [[Karur]] and [[Salem District|Salem]] Districts in South India, which now form part of the modern day Indian states of [[Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu]]. Throughout the reign of the Early Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to their territories, with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to the [[Middle East]] and to [[southern Europe]]. Evidence of extensive foreign trade from ancient times can be seen throughout the Malabar coast ([[Muziris]]), Karur and Coimbatore districts.

==== Trade relations ====
The region of Kerala (Cheras) was possibly engaged in trading activities from the 3rd millennium BCE with [[Arab]]s, [[Sumer]]ians and [[Babylonia]]ns.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC ''Striving for sustainability, environmental stress and democratic initiatives in Kerala''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206081255/https://books.google.com/books?id=gOrvghLklKoC }}, p. 79; {{ISBN|81-8069-294-9}}, Srikumar Chattopadhyay, Richard W. Franke; Year: 2006.</ref> [[Phoenicians]], [[Greeks]], [[Egyptians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], and [[Chinese people|Chinese]] were attracted by a variety of commodities, especially [[spice]]s and [[Cotton Fabric|cotton fabrics]].<ref name="Menon57">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA57|access-date=10 October 2012|year=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|pages=57–58}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6jF4Q5jQWboC&pg=PA392 ''Faces of Goa: a journey through the history and cultural revolution of Goa and other communities influenced by the Portuguese''] By Karin Larsen (p. 392)</ref> [[Arab]]s and [[Phoenicians]] were the first to enter [[Malabar Coast]] to trade [[Spice]]s.<ref name="Menon57"/> The Arabs on the coasts of [[Yemen]], [[Oman]], and the [[Persian Gulf]], must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other [[Eastern world|eastern countries]].<ref name="Menon57"/> They must have brought the [[Cinnamon]] of Kerala to the [[Middle East]].<ref name="Menon57"/> The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.<ref name="Menon57"/>

[[Muziris]], [[Tyndis]], Naura, Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among the principal trading port centres of the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] kingdom.<ref name="Kusuman">{{cite book |author=K. K. Kusuman |title=A History of Trade & Commerce in Travancore |publisher=Mittal Publications |year=1987 |isbn=978-81-7099-026-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qbNuyHswr1cC |pages=1–2 |access-date=30 May 2015}}</ref> [[Megasthanes]], the Greek ambassador to the court of [[Maurya Empire|Magadhan]] king [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (4th century BCE) mentions Muziris and a [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyan]] trade centre. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] mentions Muziris as India's first port of importance. According to him, Muziris could be reached in 40 days from the [[Red Sea]] ports of [[Egypt]] purely depending on the [[South west monsoon]] winds. Later, the unknown author of the ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' notes that "both Muziris and [[Nelcynda]] are now busy places". There were harbours of Naura near [[Kannur]], Tyndis near [[Kozhikode]], and [[Purakkad|Barace]] near [[Alappuzha]], which were also trading with Rome and Palakkad pass (churam) facilitated migration and trade. [[Tyndis]] was a major center of trade, next only to [[Muziris]], between the Cheras and the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>''Coastal Histories: Society and Ecology in Pre-modern India'', Yogesh Sharma, Primus Books 2010</ref>

Roman establishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of ''[[Augustus]]'' and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, are marked in the [[Tabula Peutingeriana]]; the only surviving map of the Roman ''[[cursus publicus]]''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA246|title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India|author=Abraham Eraly|year= 2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-670-08478-4|pages=246–|access-date=7 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="Iyengar_2001">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERq-OCn2cloC|title=History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D.|author=Iyengar PTS|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=2001|isbn=81-206-0145-9|access-date=29 December 2008}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] (1st century CE) states that the port of ''[[Tyndis]]'' was located at the northwestern border of ''Keprobotos'' ([[Chera dynasty]]).<ref name=":2">Gurukkal, R., & Whittaker, D. (2001). In search of Muziris. ''Journal of Roman Archaeology,'' ''14'', 334–50.</ref> The [[North Malabar]] region, which lies north of the port at ''[[Tyndis]]'', was ruled by the kingdom of [[Ezhimala]] during [[Sangam period]].<ref name="Okay" /> The port of [[Tyndis]] which was on the northern side of [[Muziris]], as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere near [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="Okay" /> Its exact location is a matter of dispute.<ref name="Okay" /> The suggested locations are [[Ponnani]], [[Tanur, Malappuram|Tanur]], [[Beypore]]-[[Chaliyam]]-[[Kadalundi]]-[[Vallikkunnu]], and [[Koyilandy]].<ref name="Okay" />

According to the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', a region known as ''[[Limyrike]]'' began at ''[[Kannur|Naura]]'' and ''[[Tyndis]]''. However the [[Ptolemy]] mentions only ''[[Tyndis]]'' as the ''[[Limyrike]]''s starting point. The region probably ended at [[Kanyakumari]]; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day [[Malabar Coast]]. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000 [[sesterces]].<ref>According to [[Pliny the Elder]], goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price. See [https://web.archive.org/web/20131106031753/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/BookLibrary/books/bibliographie/P/Plinyelder/elder/pliny-india.html]</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] mentioned that ''[[Limyrike]]'' was prone by pirates.<ref>Bostock, John (1855). "26 (Voyages to India)". ''Pliny the Elder, The Natural History''. London: Taylor and Francis.</ref> The [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] mentioned that the ''[[Limyrike]]'' was a source of [[Malabar pepper]]s.<ref>Indicopleustes, Cosmas (1897). ''Christian Topography''. 11. United Kingdom: The Tertullian Project. pp. 358–73.</ref><ref>Das, Santosh Kumar (2006). The Economic History of Ancient India. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. p. 301.</ref> Contemporary [[Sangam literature|Tamil literature]], ''[[Puṟanāṉūṟu]]'' and ''[[Akanaṉūṟu]],'' speak of the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] vessels and the Roman gold that used to come to the Kerala ports in search of [[Malabar pepper]] and other [[spices]], which had enormous demand in the West. The contact with [[Middle East]] and Romans might have given rise to small colonies of [[Cochin Jews]], [[Mappila]] [[Muslim]]s, and [[Saint Thomas Christian|Syrian Christians]] in the chief harbour towns of Kerala.

===Satavahana Empire===
{{Main|Satavahana Dynasty}}
The '''Śātavāhana Empire'''<ref>{{cite book|last=Woolner|first=Alfred C.|title=Introduction to Prakrit|year=1928|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|location=Delhi|isbn=9788120801899|pages=235 pages(see page:15)}}</ref> was a royal [[India]]n [[dynasty]] based from [[Amaravathi village, Guntur district|Amaravati]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]] as well as [[Junnar]] ([[Pune]]) and Prathisthan ([[Paithan]]) in [[Maharashtra]]. The territory of the empire covered much of [[India]] from 300 BCE onward. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates suggest that it lasted about 450 years, until around 220 CE. The Satavahanas are credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting the onslaught of foreigners after the decline of [[Mauryan Empire]].

Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the [[Mauryan dynasty]], but declared independence with its decline. They are known for their patronage of [[Hinduism]]. The Sātavāhanas were one of the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] to the southern tip of India.

They had to compete with the [[Shunga Empire|Shunga]]s and then the [[Kanva dynasty|Kanva]]s of [[Magadha]] to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect a huge part of India against foreign invaders like the [[Sakas]], [[Yavanas]] and [[Pahlavas]]. In particular their struggles with the [[Western Kshatrapas]]
went on for a long time. The great rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty [[Gautamiputra Satakarni]] and [[Sri Yajna Sātakarni]] were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the [[Western Kshatrapas]] and stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.

===Pallava Dynasty===
{{Main|Pallava Empire}}
[[File:Mamallapuram1a.jpg|thumb|The [[Shore Temple]] in [[Mahabalipuram]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]]. built by the Pallavas – a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].]]
The [[Pallava]]s were a great south Indian dynasty who ruled between the 3rd century CE until their final decline in the 9th century CE. Their capital was [[Kanchipuram]] in [[Tamil Nadu]]. Their [[Origin of Pallava|origins]] are not clearly known. However, it is surmised that they were Yadavas and they probably were feudatories of Satavahanas. Pallavas started their rule from [[Krishna river]] valley, known today as [[Palnadu]], and subsequently spread to southern [[Andhra Pradesh]] and north [[Tamil Nadu]]. [[Mahendravarman I]] was a prominent Pallava king who began work on the rock-cut temples of [[Mahabalipuram]]. His son [[Narasimhavarman I]] came to throne in 630 CE. He defeated the Chalukya king [[Pulakeshin II]] in 632 CE and burned the Chalukyan capital Vatapi. Pallavas and [[Pandyas]] dominated the southern regions of South India between the 6th and the 9th centuries CE.

===Kadambas of Banavasi===
{{Main|Kadambas}}
[[File:Close up of a dravidian style shrine in Panchakuta Basadi at Kambadahalli.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Panchakuta Basadi, 9th century, [[Jain]], [[Kambadahalli]], [[Mandya District]], Karnataka.]]
Kadambas were one of the greatest kingdoms which ruled south India. Kadambas ruled during 345–525 CE. Their kingdom spanned the present day [[Karnataka]] state. [[Banavasi]] was their capital. They expanded their territories to cover [[Goa]], [[Hanagal]]. The dynasty was founded by Mayura Sharma c. 345 CE. They built fine temples in Banavasi, [[Belgavi]], [[Halsi]] and Goa. Kadambas were the first rulers to use [[Kannada]] as an administrative language as proven by the [[Halmidi inscription]] (450 CE) and Banavasi copper coin. With the rise of the [[Chalukya dynasty]] of Badami, the Kadambas ruled as their feudatory from 525 CE for another five hundred years.

===Gangas of Talkad===
{{Main|Western Gangas}}
The Western Ganga Dynasty ruled southern Karnataka region during 350–550 CE. They continued to rule until the 10th century as feudatories of [[Rashtrakutas]] and [[Chalukyas]]. They rose from the region after the fall of the Satavahana empire and created a kingdom for themselves in Gangavadi (south Karnataka) while the [[Kadambas]], their contemporaries, did the same in [[north Karnataka]]. The area they controlled was called Gangavadi which included the present-day districts of [[Mysore]], [[Chamrajanagar]], [[Tumkur]], [[Kolar]], [[Mandya]] and [[Bangalore]]. They continued to rule until the 10th century as feudatories of [[Rashtrakutas]] and [[Chalukyas]]. Gangas initially had their capital at [[Kolar]], before moving it to [[Talakad]] near Mysore. They made a significant contribution to [[Kannada literature]] with such noted writers as King [[Durvinita]], King [[Shivamara II]] and [[Chavundaraya]]. The famous [[Jain]] monuments at [[Shravanabelagola]] were built by them.

==Early Middle Ages==
===Chalukya Dynasty===
{{Main|Chalukya Empire}}
[[File:Pattadakal1.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Badami Chalukya Architecture]], [[Virupaksha Temple]], [[Pattadkal]], [[Karnataka]].]]

The Chalukyas ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties: [[Badami Chalukyas]], [[Eastern Chalukyas]], [[Western Chalukyas]]. The Badami Chalukyas were the earliest dynasty which ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the [[Kadamba dynasty]] of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of [[Pulakeshin II]]. After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan region. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Badami Chalukyas before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. The Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.

One of the first kings of the Chalukyan dynasty was [[Pulakeshin I]]. He ruled from [[Badami]] in [[Karnataka]]. His son [[Pulakeshin II]] became the king of the Chalukyan empire in 610 CE and ruled until 642 CE. Pulakeshin II is most remembered for the battle he fought and won against Emperor [[Harshavardhana]] in 637 CE. He also defeated the Pallava king [[Mahendravarman I]]. The Chalukya empire existed from 543–757 CE and an area stretching from Kaveri to Narmada rivers. The Chalukyas created the Chalukyan style of architecture. Great monuments were built in [[Pattadakal]], [[Aihole]] and [[Badami]]. These temples exhibit the evolution of the [[Vesara]] style of architecture.

The [[Eastern Chalukyas]] ruled along the east coast of South India around the present-day [[Vijayawada]]. The Eastern Chalukya dynasty was created by [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana]], a brother of Pulakeshin II. The Eastern Chalukyas continued to rule for over five hundred years and were in close alliance with the [[Cholas]].

===Rashtrakuta Empire===
{{Main|Rashtrakuta Empire}}
[[File:Kailasha temple at ellora.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Rashtrakuta architecture, Kailasanatha Temple, in [[Ellora Caves]], [[Maharashtra]].]]
The Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from Manyaketha in [[Gulbarga]] from 735 CE until 982 CE and reached its peak under [[Amoghavarsha I]] (814–878 CE), considered ''Ashoka of South India''. The Rashtrakutas came to power at the decline of the Badami Chalukyas and were involved in a three-way power struggle for control of the Gangetic plains with the [[Prathihara]] of [[Gujarat]] and [[Pala Empire|Palas]] of [[Bengal]]. The Rashtrakutas were responsible for building some of the beautiful rock-cut temples of [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]] including the Kailasa temple. [[Kannada language]] literature flourished during this period of [[Adikavi Pampa]], [[Sri Ponna]] and [[Shivakotiacharya]]. King [[Amoghavarsha I]] wrote the earliest [[Extant literature|extant]] Kannada classic [[Kavirajamarga]].

=== Second Cheras of Mahodayapuram ===
{{main article|Chera/Perumals of Makotai}}
[[File:3rd Tiruvalla Copper Plate.jpg|thumb|[[Quilon Syrian copper plates]] granted to [[Saint Thomas Christians]] testify the role of merchant guilds and trade corporations in Early Medieval Kerala. The sixth plate also contains a number of signatures of the witnesses to the grant in [[Arabic]] (Kufic script), [[Middle Persian]] (cursive Pahlavi script) and [[Judeo-Persian]] (standard square [[Hebrew]] script).<ref name="cereti">{{Cite book|last=Cereti|first=C. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3gOdaiXNKkC&q=Exegisti+Monumenta:+Festschrift+in+Honour+of+Nicholas+Sims-+Williams|title=Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams|publisher=Harrassowitz|year=2009|isbn=978-3447059374|editor-last=Sundermann|editor-first=W.|location=Wiesbaden|pages=|chapter=The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates|editor-last2=Hintze|editor-first2=A.|editor-last3=de Blois|editor-first3=F.}}</ref>]]
Much of history of the region of [[Kerala]] from the 6th to the 8th century is obscure.<ref name="Kerala 2011">"Kerala." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 2011. Web. 26 December 2011.</ref> From the [[Kodungallur]] line of the Cheras rose the [[Kulasekhara Dynasty (Second Cheras)|Kulasekhara dynasty]], which was established by [[Kulashekhara Alwar|Kulasekhara Varman]]. At its zenith these Later Cheras ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of Kulasekhara period, the southern region from [[Nagercoil]] to [[Thiruvananthapuram]] was ruled by [[Ays (Kerala)|Ay kings]], who lost their power in the 10th century and thus the region became a part of the Cheras.<ref name="Balachand">{{cite book|author=K. Balachandran Nayar|title=In quest of Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXIeAAAAMAAJ|access-date=8 August 2012|year=1974|publisher=Accent Publications|page=86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166|access-date=8 August 2012|year=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|page=97}}</ref> Kerala witnessed a flourishing period of art, literature, trade and the [[Bhakti movement]] of Hinduism.<ref name="Sreedhar123">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166|access-date=8 August 2012|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|pages=123–31}}</ref> A Keralite identity, distinct from the [[Tamil people|Tamils]], became [[Malayalam|linguistically separate]] during this period.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chaitanya|first1=Krishna|title=Kerala|publisher=New Delhi: National Book Trust, India; [chief stockists in India: India Book House, Bombay]|oclc=515788|pages=15}}</ref> The origin of [[Malayalam calendar]] dates back to year 825 CE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_93.pdf |title=Kollam Era |publisher=Indian Journal History of Science |access-date=30 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527163650/http://www.new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_93.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Time measurement and calendar construction|author=Broughton Richmond|year=1956|pages=218|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUlmAAAAMAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=History of Kerala|author=R. Leela Devi|publisher=Vidyarthi Mithram Press & Book Depot|year=1986|pages=408|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pXpuAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> For the local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Nair Chieftains known as [[Naduvazhi]]s, with each province comprising a number of ''Desams'' under the control of chieftains, called as ''Desavazhis''.<ref name="Sreedhar123"/> The era witnessed also a shift in political power, evidenced by a gradual increase of [[Nambudiri|Namboothiri]] Brahmin settlements, who established the [[Caste system in India|caste hierarchy]] in Kerala by assigning different groups separate positions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166|title=A Survey of Kerala History|author=A Sreedhara Menon|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|page=138|access-date=9 August 2012}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar|last=M. T. Narayanan|publisher=Northern Book Centre|year=2003}}</ref> As a result, many temples were constructed across Kerala, which according to M. T. Narayanan "became cornerstones of the socio-economic society".<ref name=":0" /> [[Mamankam festival]], which was the largest native festival, was held at [[Tirunavaya]] near [[Kuttippuram]], on the bank of river [[Bharathappuzha]].<ref name="Okay" /> [[Athavanad]], the headquarters of ''[[Azhvanchery Thamprakkal]]'', who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the [[Nambudiri]] [[Brahmin]]s of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.<ref name="Okay" />

[[Sulaiman al-Tajir]], a [[Persians|Persian]] merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of [[Sthanu Ravi Varma]] (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and [[China]] at that time, based at the port of [[Kollam]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=India Charitram|last=Menon|first=A. Shreedhara|publisher=DC Books|year=2016|isbn=978-8126419395|location=Kottayam|pages=219}}</ref> A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable [[Muslim]] population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as [[Al-Masudi]] of [[Baghdad]] (896–956 CE), [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] (1100–1165 CE), [[Abulfeda]] (1273–1331 CE), and [[Al-Dimashqi (geographer)|Al-Dimashqi]] (1256–1327 CE) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of Muslims of Malabar|last=Razak|first=Abdul|publisher=|year=2013}}</ref> Some historians assume that the [[Mappila]]s can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Kupferschmidt1987">{{cite book|author=Uri M. Kupferschmidt|title=The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA458|access-date=25 July 2012|year=1987|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-07929-8|pages=458–59}}</ref><ref name="Kulakarṇī1996">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O_WNqSH4ByQC&pg=PA54|title=Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi|author=A. Rā Kulakarṇī|publisher=Popular Prakashan|year=1996|isbn=978-81-7154-579-7|pages=54–55|access-date=24 July 2012}}</ref>

The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two major religions, [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of [[Jainism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index34.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010321010740/http://www.kerala.cc/keralahistory/index34.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=21 March 2001 |title=The Buddhist History of Kerala |publisher=Kerala.cc |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref> The social system became fractured with divisions on [[Caste system in kerala|caste]] lines.<ref>{{cite book |author=A Sreedhara Menon |title=A Survey Of Kerala History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA166 |access-date=9 August 2012 |year= 2007 |publisher=DC Books |isbn=978-8126415786 |page=138}}</ref> The Kulasekhara dynasty was finally subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of the [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]] and [[Later Cholas|Cholas]].<ref name="Balachand"/> However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern [[Venad|Venad kingdom]] was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India.{{citation needed}} After his death, in the absence of strong central power, the state was fractured into about thirty small warring principalities under Nair Chieftains; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of [[Samuthiri]] in the north, [[Venad]] in the south and Kochi in the middle.<ref>{{cite book|author=Educational Britannica Educational|title=The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xPUvqtdfjyAC&pg=PA311|access-date=15 September 2012|year=2010|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-61530-202-4|page=311}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Territories and States of India |url=https://www.questia.com/read/108994726 |publisher= Europa |access-date=|year=2002 |pages=144–46}}{{dead link}}</ref> The port at [[Kozhikode]] held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while [[Kollam]] (Quilon), [[Kochi]], and [[Kannur]] (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.<ref name="Malekandathil">''The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800''. Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K. S. Mathew (2001). Edited by: Pius Malekandathil and T. Jamal Mohammed. Fundacoa Oriente. Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR (Kerala)</ref>

===Western Chalukya Empire===
{{Main|Western Chalukya Empire}}{{Unreferenced section}}[[File:Itagi Mahadeva temple.JPG|thumb|left|Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in the [[Koppal district]], 1112 CE, an example of ''dravida'' articulation with a ''nagara'' superstructure]]
The Western Chalukya Empire was created by the descendants of the Badami Chalukya clan and ruled from 973–1195 CE. Their capital was [[Basavakalyan|Kalyani]], present day [[Basava Kalyana]] in [[Karnataka]]. They came to power at the decline of the Rashtrakutas. They ruled from the Kaveri in the South to Gujarat in the north. The empire reached its peak under [[Vikramaditya VI]]. The [[Eastern Chalukyas|Kalyani Chalukyas]] promoted the ''[[Gadag]]'' style of architecture, excellent examples of which are present in [[Gadag]], [[Dharwad]], [[Koppal]] and [[Haveri]] districts of Karnataka. They patronised great Kannada poets such as [[Ranna (Kannada poet)|Ranna]] and [[Nagavarma II]] and is considered as a golden age of [[Kannada literature]]. The [[Vachana]] ''Sahitya'' style of native Kannada poetry flourished during these times.

===Hoysala Dynasty===
{{Main|Hoysala Empire}}{{Unreferenced section}}[[File:Somanathapura Keshava temple altered.JPG|right|thumb|200px|[[Keshava temple]], [[Somanathapura]], [[Karnataka]].]]
Hoysalas began their rule as subordinates of the Chalukyas of Kalyani and gradually established their own empire. Nripa Kama Hoysala who ruled in the western region of Gangavadi, founded the Hoysala dynasty. His later successor Ballala I reigned from his capital at [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]]. [[Vishnuvardhana]] Hoysala (1106–1152 CE) conquered the [[Nolamba]] region earning the title ''Nolambavadi Gonda''. Some of the most magnificent specimens of South Indian temples are those attributed to the Hoysala dynasty of Karnataka. [[Vesara]] style reached its peak in their period. Hoysalas period is remembered today as one of the brightest periods in the history of Karnataka. They ruled [[Karnataka]] for over three centuries from c. 1000 to 1342 CE. The most famous kings among the Hoysalas were [[Vishnuvardhana]], [[Veera Ballala II]] and [[Veera Ballala III]]. Jainism flourished during the Hoysala period. [[Ramanuja]], the founder of Shri Vaishnavism or [[Vishishtadvaita|Vishishtadvaita Vedanta]], came to Hoysala kingdom to spread his school of qualified-monism Hindu thought. Hoysalas encouraged both Kannada and [[Sanskrit literature]] and earned a great name as builders of temples at [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]], [[Halebid]]u, [[Somanathapura]], [[Belavadi]] and [[Amrithapura]]. Such famous poets as [[Rudrabhatta]], [[Janna]], [[Raghavanka]] and [[Harihara (poet)|Harihara]] wrote many classics in Kannada during this time.

===Kakatiyas===
{{Main|Kakatiyas}}
[[File:Ramappa1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ramappa temple]] in [[Warangal]]]]
The Kakatiya dynasty rose to prominence in the 11th century with the decline of the Chalukyas. By the early 12th century, the Kakatiya Durjaya clan declared independence and began expanding their kingdom.<ref>[http://igmlnet.uohyd.ernet.in:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf The History of Andhras, Durga Prasad] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313210732/http://igmlnet.uohyd.ernet.in:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf }}</ref> By the end of the century, their kingdom had reached the [[Bay of Bengal]] and it stretched between the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] and the [[Krishna]] rivers. The empire reached its zenith under Ganapatideva who was its greatest ruler, responsible for uniting the upper and lower regions of eastern Deccan that spoke the Telugu language, for the first time. At its largest, the empire included most of modern-day [[Andhra Pradesh]], Telangana and parts of [[Odisha]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Chhattisgarh]], [[Maharashtra]] and Karnataka. Ganapatideva was succeeded by his daughter Rudramba who became the famous warrior-queen [[Rudrama Devi]]. The Kakatiya dynasty lasted for three centuries, but their existence can be dated back to the 7th century as per inscriptions although they only served as local chieftains to Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. [[Warangal]] was their capital which was founded in the 12th century. [[Marco Polo]] visited Warangal in 1289 and wrote extensively on the kingdom, the city, the queen Rudrama Devi, the prosperity and wealth of the kingdom and the way people live. By the early 14th century, the Kakatiya dynasty attracted the attention of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] under [[Alauddin Khalji]]. Despite defeating the first attempt in 1303, it paid tribute to Delhi for a few years from 1310 after [[Siege of Warangal (1310)|a successful siege]] by [[Malik Kafur]] and was besieged again in [[Siege of Warangal (1318)|1318 by Khusrau Khan]]. But they refused to pay tribute to the new Tughluq regime in 1320, which prompted annexation of the Telugu country by Sultan [[Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq]]. The Kakatiyas were eventually conquered by the forces of [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] in 1323.<ref name="books.google.co.in">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3nHg-eKWuIC&q=did+kakatiyas+ruled+tamil+nadu&pg=PA71 | title=The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c.1350–1650 | first=Carla M. | last=Sinopoli | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | isbn=9781139440745 | page=71 | access-date=4 February 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ROgpDwAAQBAJ&q=did+kakatiyas+ruled+tamil+nadu&pg=PA39 |title = Water Resources and Tourism Promotion in Telangana State|isbn = 9789385886041|last1 = Gade|first1 = Dr Jayaprakashnarayana}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y2noBgAAQBAJ&q=kakatiya+telugu+inscriptions+in+tamil+nadu&pg=PT186 |title = Gods, Heroes and their Story Tellers: Intangible cultural heritage of South India|isbn = 9789384391492|last1 = Hari Saravanan|first1 = V.|year = 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myK8ZYEIu4YC&q=did+kakatiyas+ruled+kanchi&pg=PA20 |title = Sri Varadarajaswami Temple, Kanchi: A Study of Its History, Art and Architecture|isbn = 9788170170266|last1 = Raman|first1 = K. V.|date = June 2003}}</ref> The Kakatiyas were well-versed in administrative duties, military affairs, social policy and diplomatic affairs, developing a unique social structure which differed from other medieval Hindu kingdoms of the subcontinent. Their encouragement of cultural influences from the neighbouring Andhra region in Telangana and vice versa ushered in an era of prosperity and standard of living in both regions. It was made possible due to extensive building of irrigation tanks, artificial lakes and other kinds of small and large reservoirs, interconnected through linking techniques, which helped in converting the dry, arid and rugged areas of Kakatiya territory into a strong, wealthy and stable abode for people who migrated and settled in Telangana. The system of employing capable military officers (nayakas) from any background as part of earning new loyalists for the kings was pursued by them first and then implemented by Vijayanagara Empire. They were egalitarian rulers who despite adhering to the varna system rewarded those who served the kingdom with loyalty. Their encouragement of inland and maritime trade with safety incentives and exemptions for merchants who faced loss in their sea-borne journey greatly developed commerce with other nations and faraway kingdoms, bringing vast amounts of riches. The Kakatiyan legacy is preserved in the form of arts, literature and architecture as well as reservoirs which survive in Telangana. Their patronage of artisans, poets and musicians, also followed by subordinate kings, led to an extensive growth of Telugu language, customs and the overall culture assosciated with it. Their architectural legacy, borrowed from Western Chalukyas and later developing it into a distinctive style identified with the kingdom, is preserved in the form of forts, temples and gateways. Notable among these are [[Warangal Fort]], [[Kakatiya Kala Thoranam]], [[Thousand Pillar Temple]], [[Ramappa Temple]], [[Kota Gullu]], [[Elgandal Fort]], [[Medak Fort]] and the temples at Pillalamarri in Suryapet. They built large reservoirs like the [[Pakhal Lake]], [[Ramappa Lake]], [[Bhadrakali Lake]] and [[Laknavaram Lake]] along with other bigger and smaller yet significant ones. They were also very likely to be the original holders of the [[Koh-i-Noor]] diamond which was mined in Kollur, Andhra Pradesh and the existence of diamond trade and markets were also mentioned in the writings of Marco Polo.

===Kolathunadu===
{{main article|Kolathunadu}}
{{See also|Kannur|North Malabar}}
[[File:Ezhimala beach.JPG|thumbnail|[[Ezhimala]], the early headquarters of the [[Mushika dynasty]] of [[North Malabar]]]]
The ancient kingdom of [[Ezhimala]] in [[Malabar District|Northern Kerala]] had jurisdiction over the [[North Malabar]] which consisted of two ''Nadu''s (regions)- The coastal ''Poozhinadu'' and the hilly eastern ''Karkanadu''. According to the works of [[Sangam literature]], ''Poozhinadu'' consisted much of the coastal belt between [[Mangalore]] and [[Kozhikode]].<ref name="Census_Handbook">{{Cite book|title=District Census Handbook, Kasaragod (2011)|publisher=Directorate of Census Operation, Kerala|location=Thiruvananthapuram|pages=9|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3201_PART_B_KASARAGOD.pdf}}</ref> ''Karkanadu'' consisted of [[Wayanad]]-[[Gudalur, Nilgiris|Gudalur]] hilly region with parts of [[Kodagu]] (Coorg).<ref name="wnd">{{cite book
| author = Government of India | year=2014–15
| title= District Census Handbook – Wayanad (Part-B) 2011 | publisher=Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala
| url= https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/3203_PART_B_WAYANAD.pdf
}}</ref> It is said that Nannan, the most renowned ruler of [[Ezhimala]] dynasty, took refuge at [[Wayanad]] hills in the 5th century CE when he was lost to [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]], just before his execution in a battle, according to the [[Sangam literature|Sangam works]].<ref name="wnd"/> Ezhimala kingdom was succeeded by [[Mushika dynasty]] in the early medieval period, most possibly due to the migration of [[Tuluva Brahmin]]s from [[Tulu Nadu]]. The ''[[Mushika-vamsha]] Mahakavya'', written by [[Athula]] in the 11th century, throws light on the recorded past of the [[Mushika Kingdom|Mushika Royal Family]] up until that point.<ref name="Kola Swaroopam"/> The Indian anthropologist [[A. Aiyappan|Ayinapalli Aiyappan]] states that a powerful and warlike clan of the [[Bunt (community)|Bunt community]] of [[Tulu Nadu]] was called ''Kola Bari'' and the Kolathiri Raja of Kolathunadu was a descendant of this clan.<ref name="Aiyappan">{{cite book |last1=Ayinapalli |first1=Aiyappan |title=The Personality of Kerala |publisher=Department of Publications, [[University of Kerala]] |page=162 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXFuAAAAMAAJ |access-date=27 July 2018 |quote=A very powerful and warlike section of the Bants of Tulunad was known as Kola bari. It is reasonable to suggest that the Kola dynasty was part of the Kola lineages of Tulunad.}}</ref>
[[File:City of Cannanore, 1572.jpg|thumbnail|A portrait of [[Kannur]], the largest city of [[North Malabar]], drawn in 1572, from [[Georg Braun]] and [[Frans Hogenberg]]'s atlas ''Civitates orbis terrarum'', Volume I]]
The kingdom of [[Kolathunadu]], who were the descendants of [[Mushika dynasty]], at the peak of its power reportedly extended from [[Netravati River]] ([[Mangalore]]) in the north<ref name="Kola Swaroopam">{{cite book |last1=Sreedhara Menon |first1=A. |title=''Kerala Charitram'' |year=2007 |publisher=DC Books |location=Kottayam |isbn=978-8126415885 |edition=2007 |page=175 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FAlXPgAACAAJ&q=%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B3+%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82 |access-date=19 July 2020}}</ref> to [[Korapuzha]] ([[Kozhikode]]) in the south with Arabian Sea on the
west and [[Kodagu]] hills on the eastern boundary, also including the isolated islands of [[Lakshadweep]] in Arabian Sea.<ref name="Census_Handbook"/> An [[Old Malayalam]] inscription ([[Ramanthali inscriptions]]), dated to 1075 CE, mentioning king Kunda Alupa, the ruler of [[Alupa dynasty]] of [[Mangalore]], can be found at [[Ezhimala]] near Kannur.<ref>Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala.'' Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 483.</ref> The [[Arabic]] inscription on a copper slab within the [[Madayi Palli|Madayi Mosque]] in Kannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE.<ref name="Madayi">{{cite book
| author = Charles Alexander Innes | year=1908
| title= Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I) | publisher=Madras Government Press |pages=423–24
| url= https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.358941/mode/2up
}}</ref> In his book on travels (''[[Il Milione]]''), [[Marco Polo]] recounts his visit to the area in the mid 1290s. Other visitors included [[Faxian]], the Buddhist pilgrim and [[Ibn Batuta]], writer and historian of [[Tangiers]]. The [[Kolathunadu]] in the late medieval period emerged into independent 10 principalities i.e., [[Kadathanadu]] ([[Vadakara]]), [[Dharmadom|Randathara]] or Poyanad ([[Dharmadom]]), [[Kingdom of Kottayam|Kottayam]] ([[Thalassery]]), [[Nileshwaram]], Iruvazhinadu ([[Panoor (Municipality)|Panoor]]), [[Kurumbranad]] etc., under separate royal chieftains due to the outcome of internal dissensions.<ref name="Logan">{{Cite book|title=Malabar Manual (Volume-I)|last=Logan|first=William|publisher=Asian Educational Services|year=2010|isbn=978-8120604476|location=New Delhi|pages=631–66}}</ref> The [[Nileshwaram]] dynasty on the northernmost part of [[Kolathiri]] dominion, were relatives to both Kolathunadu as well as the [[Zamorin]] of [[Calicut]], in the early medieval period.<ref name="Neeleswaram fete">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-kerala/neeleswaram-fete-to-showcase-its-heritage/article2645520.ece | title=Neeleswaram fete to showcase its heritage | author=The Hindu staff reporter | website=The Hindu | date=21 November 2011 | access-date=24 November 2016 }}</ref> The kingdom of [[Kumbla]] in the northernmost region of the modern state of Kerala, who had jurisdiction over the [[Tehsil|Taluk]]s of [[Manjeshwar]] and [[Kasaragod]], and parts of [[Mangalore taluk|Mangalore]] in Southern [[Tulu Nadu]], were also vassals to the kingdom of [[Kolathunadu]] until the [[Kannada|Carnatic]] conquests of the 15th century CE.<ref name="Kola Swaroopam"/>
[[File:Cannonore fort & Bay'; a watercolor by John Johnston, c.1795-1801.jpg|left|thumbnail|[[St. Angelo Fort|Kannur fort and Bay]]; a watercolor by John Johnston (1795–1801)]]
According to [[Mappila|Kerala Muslim]] tradition, the [[North Malabar]] region was also home to several [[Islam in India|oldest mosques]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. According to the [[Legend of Cheraman Perumals]], the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of [[Chera dynasty]], who left from [[Dharmadom]] near [[Kannur]] to [[Mecca]] and converted to [[Islam]] during the lifetime of [[Muhammad|Prophet Muhammad]] (c. 570–632).<ref>{{cite book |author=Jonathan Goldstein |title=The Jews of China |publisher=M. E. Sharpe |year=1999|isbn=9780765601049 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Z6DlzyT2vwC |page=123}}</ref><ref name="SimpsonKresse2008">{{cite book |author1=Edward Simpson|author2=Kai Kresse|title=Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0qHKA7zEaEC&pg=PA333|access-date=24 July 2012 |year=2008|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-70024-5|pages=333}}</ref><ref name="Kupferschmidt1987" /><ref name="Raṇṭattāṇi2007">{{cite book|author=Husain Raṇṭattāṇi|title=Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlb5BrabQd8C&pg=PA179|access-date=25 July 2012|year=2007|publisher=Other Books|isbn=978-81-903887-8-8|pages=179–}}</ref> According to ''[[Qissat Shakarwati Farmad]]'', the [[Mosque|''Masjids'']] at [[Kodungallur]], [[Kollam]], [[Madayi]], [[Barkur]], [[Mangalore]], [[Kasaragod]], Kannur, [[Dharmadam]], [[Koyilandy|Panthalayani]], and [[Chaliyam]], were built during the era of [[Malik Dinar]], and they are among the oldest ''Masjid''s in the [[Indian subcontinent]].<ref>Prange, Sebastian R. ''Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast.'' Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.</ref> It is believed that [[Malik Dinar]] died at [[Thalangara]] in [[Kasaragod]] town.<ref name="ch">p. 58, Cultural heritage of [[Kerala]]: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978</ref> The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque in the erstwhile Kolathunadu contains an [[Old Malayalam]] inscription written in a mixture of ''[[Vatteluttu]]'' and [[Grantha script]]s which dates back to the 10th century CE.<ref name="Okay">Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), ''South Indian Inscriptions.'' VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.</ref> It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a [[Hindu]] king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the [[Muslim]]s of Kerala.<ref name="Okay"/>

===Musunuri===
{{Main|Musunuri Nayaks}}
After the downfall of [[Kakatiya]] empire, two cousins known as Musunuri Nayaks rebelled against [[Delhi Sultanate]] and recaptured [[Warangal]] and brought the whole of [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-speaking areas under their control. Although short lived (50 years), the Nayak rule is considered a watershed in the history of South India. Their rule inspired the establishment of [[Vijayanagar empire|Vijayanagara empire]] to defend [[Hindu]] dharma for the next five centuries.

===Reddy Dynasty===
The Reddy Dynasty was established by Prolaya Vema Reddy. The region that was ruled by the Reddy dynasty is now in Andhra Pradesh except some areas of Chitoor, Anantapur and Kurnool districts. Prolaya Vema Reddy was part of the confederation that started a movement against the invading Turkic Muslim armies of the Delhi Sultanate in 1323 CE and succeeded in repulsing them from Warangal. Reddys ruled coastal and central Andhra for over a hundred years from 1325 to 1448 CE. At its maximum extent, the Reddy kingdom stretched from Cuttak, Odisha to the north, Kanchi to the south and Srisailam to the west. The initial capital of the kingdom was Addanki. Later, it was moved to Kondavidu and subsequently to Rajahmundry. The Reddis were known for their fortifications. Two major hill forts, one at [[Kondapalli]], 20 km north west of Vijayawada and another at Kondaveedu about 30 km west of Guntur stand testimony to the fort building skill of the Reddi kings. The forts of [[Bellamkonda]], Vinukonda and [[Nagarjunakonda]] in the Palnadu region were also part of the Reddi kingdom.

The dynasty remained in power until the middle of the 15th century and was supplanted by the Gajapatis of Odisha, who gained control of coastal Andhra. The [[Gajapatis]] eventually lost control of coastal Andhra after Gajapati Prataprudra Deva was defeated by Krishna Deva Raya of Vijaynagar. The territories of the Reddi kingdom eventually came under the control of the [[Vijayanagara]] Empire.

==Late middle ages==
===Rise of Muslim dynasties===
[[File:Hampi, Vittala Temple, Kallina Ratha, India.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Vijayanagara]] architecture, Stone chariot in Vittala temple, Hampi, Karnataka]]
The early medieval period saw the rise of Muslim dynasties in South India. The defeat of the [[Kakatiya dynasty]] of [[Warangal]] by the forces of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in 1323 CE. and the defeat of the Hoysalas in 1333 CE. heralded a new chapter in South Indian history. The grand struggle of the period was between the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] based in [[Gulbarga]] and the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] with its capital in Vijayanagara in Karnataka. By the early 16th century, the Bahmani empire fragmented into five different kingdoms based in [[Ahmednagar]], [[Berar Sultanate|Berar]], [[Bidar]], [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]] and [[Golconda]], together called the [[Deccan Sultanates]].

On the southwestern Coast of South India, a new local economical and political power arose into the vacuum created by the disintegration of [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] power. The [[Zamorin]]s of [[History of Kozhikode|Calicut]], with the help of the Muslim-Arab merchants, dominated the maritime trade on Malabar Coast for the next few centuries.

===Vijayanagara Empire===
{{Main|Vijayanagara Empire|Origin of Vijayanagara Empire|Ancient City of Vijayanagara|Battle of Raichur|Battle of Talikota}}
[[File:South India in AD 1400.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Map of South India in the 15th century]]
[[File:Krishna temple at Hampi.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Chalukya]] influence in pillar design, and [[Dravidian architecture|Dravida]] Vimana, at Krishna temple in [[Hampi]]]]
[[File:Ornate pillared mantapa in Cheluva Narayanaswamy temple at Melkote.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Kalyanamantapa in Cheluva Narayanaswamy temple in [[Melkote]]]]

Differing theories have been proposed regarding the Vijayanagara empire's origins. Many historians propose [[Harihara I]] and [[Bukka Raya I]], the founders of the empire, were [[Kannadiga]]s and commanders in the army of the [[Hoysala Empire]] stationed in the [[Tungabhadra]] region to ward off Muslim invasions from the Northern India.<ref name="Kannadaempire">Historians such as [[P. B. Desai]] (''History of Vijayanagar Empire'', 1936), [[Henry Heras]] (''The Aravidu Dynasty of Vijayanagara'', 1927), [[B.A. Saletore]] (''Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire'', 1930), G.S. Gai (Archaeological Survey of India), William Coelho (''The Hoysala Vamsa'', 1955) and Kamath (Kamath 2001, pp157–160)</ref><ref name="karma">Karmarkar (1947), p30</ref><ref name="Kulke">Kulke and Rothermund (2004), p188</ref><ref name="rice">Rice (1897), p345</ref> Others claim that they were Telugu people first associated with the [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya kingdom]] who took control of the northern parts of the [[Hoysala Empire]] during its decline.<ref name="telguorigin">Robert Sewell (''A Forgotten Empire Vijayanagar: A Contribution to the History of India'', 1901), Nilakanta Sastri (1955), N. Ventakaramanayya (''The Early Muslim expansion in South India'', 1942) and B. Surya Narayana Rao (''History of Vijayanagar'', 1993) in Kamath (2001) pp157–160.</ref> Irrespective of their origin, historians agree the founders were supported and inspired by [[Vidyaranya]], a saint at the [[Sringeri]] monastery to fight the Muslim invasion of South India.<ref name="vidya">Nilakanta Sastry (1955), p216</ref><ref name="vidya1">Kamath (2001), p160</ref> Writings by foreign travelers during the late medieval era combined with recent excavations in the Vijayanagara principality have uncovered much-needed information about the empire's history, fortifications, scientific developments and architectural innovations.<ref name="History">Portuguese travellers Barbosa, Barradas and Italian Varthema and Caesar Fredericci in 1567, Persian Abdur Razzak in 1440, Barani, Isamy, Tabataba, Nizamuddin Bakshi, [[Ferishta]] and Shirazi and vernacular works from the 14th to 16th centuries. (Kamath 2001, pp157–158)</ref><ref name="discover">Fritz & Michell (2001) pp1–11</ref>

Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Hindu states of the Deccan, the [[Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri|Yadava Empire]] of Devagiri, the [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya Kingdom]] of [[Warangal]], the [[Pandyan Empire]] of [[Madurai]], and the tiny kingdom of [[Kampili]] had been repeatedly invaded by [[Muslim]]s from the north, and by 1336 they had all been defeated by [[Alauddin Khalji]] and [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]], the [[Sultanate of Delhi|Sultans of Delhi]]. The [[Hoysala Empire]] was the sole remaining Hindu state in the path of the Muslim invasion.<ref name="onlykingdom">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p216</ref> After the death of Hoysala king [[Veera Ballala III]] during a battle against the Sultan of Madurai in 1343, the Hoysala Empire merged with the growing Vijayanagara empire.
[[File:Karnataka Hampi IMG 0730.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Virupaksha temple, [[Hampi]]]]

In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of ''Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara'' ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of [[Arcot]], the [[Reddy]]s of Kondavidu, the [[Madurai Sultanate|Sultan of Madurai]] and gained control over [[Goa]] in the west and the Tungabhadra-[[Krishna River]] [[doab]] in the north.<ref name="femalepoet">Kamath (2001), p162</ref><ref name="vijayama1">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p317</ref> The original capital was in the [[principality]] of [[Anegondi]] on the northern banks of the Tungabhadra River in today's [[Karnataka]]. It was later moved to nearby Vijayanagara on the river's southern banks during the reign of Bukka Raya I.

With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now imperial in stature, [[Harihara II]], the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the [[Krishna River]] and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.<ref name="umbrella">The success was probably also due to the peaceful nature of Muhammad II Bahmani, according to Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p242</ref> The next ruler, [[Deva Raya I]], emerged successful against the [[Gajapatis]] of [[Odisha]] and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.<ref name="aqueduct">From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadra and an aqueduct {{convert|15|mi|km|0}} long was cut out of rock (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p243).</ref> [[Deva Raya II]] (called ''Gajabetekara'')<ref name="hunter">Also deciphered as ''Gajaventekara'', a metaphor for "great hunter of his enemies", or "hunter of elephants" (Kamath 2001, p163).</ref> succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the [[Sangama Dynasty|Sangama dynasty]] rulers.<ref name="hunter1">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p244</ref> He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the [[Zamorin]] of [[History of Kozhikode|Calicut]] and [[Quilon]] in the south. He invaded the island of [[Lanka]] and became overlord of the kings of [[Burma]] at [[Pegu]] and [[Tanintharyi Division|Tanasserim]].<ref name="Burma">From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p245)</ref><ref name="Burma1">Kamath (2001), p164</ref><ref name="Bidjanagar">From the notes of Abdur Razzak about Vijayanagara: ''a city like this had not been seen by the pupil of the eye nor had an ear heard of anything equal to it in the world'' (''Hampi, A Travel Guide'' 2003, p11)</ref> The empire declined in the late 15th century until the serious attempts by commander [[Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya]] in 1485 and by general [[Tuluva Narasa Nayaka]] in 1491 to reconsolidate the empire.

[[File:Vijayanagara.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Krishna Deva Raya]]
After nearly two decades of conflict with rebellious chieftains, the empire eventually came under the rule of [[Krishnadevaraya|Krishna Deva Raya]], the son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka.<ref name="great">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p250</ref>
In the following decades the Vijayanagara empire dominated all of Southern India and fought off invasions from the five established [[Deccan Sultanates]].<ref name="civilization">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p239</ref><ref name="civilization1">Kamath (2001), p159</ref> The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious.<ref name="perfect">From the notes of Portuguese traveler [[Domingo Paes]] about Krishna Deva Raya: ''A king who was perfect in all things'' (''Hampi, A Travel Guide'' 2003, p31)</ref> The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]], while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.<ref name="richcity">The notes of Portuguese Barbosa during the time of Krishna Deva Raya confirms a very rich and well provided Vijayanagara city (Kamath 2001, p186)</ref> Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya.<ref name="dibba">Most monuments including the royal platform (''Mahanavami Dibba'') were actually built over a period spanning several decades (Dallapiccola 2001, p66)</ref>

Krishna Deva Raya was followed by his younger brother [[Achyuta Deva Raya]] in 1529 and in 1542 by [[Sadashiva Raya]] while the real power lay with [[Aliya Rama Raya]], the son-in-law of Krishna Deva Raya, whose relationship with the Deccan Sultans who allied against him has been debated.<ref name="involve">Dr. P. B. Desai asserts that Rama Raya's involvement often was at the insistence of one Sultan or the other (Kamath 2001, p172).</ref>

The sudden capture and killing of Aliya Rama Raya in 1565 at the [[Battle of Talikota]], against an alliance of the Deccan sultanates, after a seemingly easy victory for the Vijayanagara armies, created havoc and confusion in the Vijayanagara ranks, which were then completely routed. The Sultanates' army later plundered Hampi and reduced it to the ruinous state in which it remains; it was never re-occupied. [[Tirumala Deva Raya]], Rama Raya's younger brother who was the sole surviving commander, left Vijayanagara for [[Penukonda]] with vast amounts of treasure on the back of 1500 elephants.<ref name="venue1">Some scholars say the war was actually fought between Rakkasagi and Tangadigi in modern [[Bijapur district, Karnataka|Bijapur district]], close to Talikota, and the battle is also called "Battle of Rakkasa-Tangadi". Shervani claimed that the actual venue of the battle was Bannihatti (Kamath 2001, p170)</ref>

The empire went into a slow decline regionally, although trade with the Portuguese continued, and the British were given a land grant for the establishment of [[Madras]].<ref name="reviver">The Telugu work ''Vasucharitamu'' refers to Aravidu King Tirumala Deva Raya (1570) as the ''reviver of the [[Karnata Empire]]''.(Ramesh 2006)</ref><ref name="reviver1">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p268</ref> Tirumala Deva Raya was succeeded by his son [[Sriranga I]] later followed by [[Venkata II]] who was the last great king of Vijayanagara empire, made his capital [[Chandragiri]] and [[Vellore]], repulsed the invasion of the [[Deccan Sultanates]] and saved [[Penukonda]] from being captured.<ref name="capital">Kamath (2001), p174</ref>

His successor [[Rama Deva Raya]] took power and ruled until 1632, after whose death [[Venkata III]] became king and ruled for about ten years. The empire was finally conquered by the [[Sultanate]]s of [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]] and [[Golkonda]].<ref name="capital"/> The largest feudatories of the Vijayanagara empire – the [[Pemmasani Nayaks|Nayaks of Gandikota]], the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore Kingdom]], [[Keladi Nayaka]], [[Madurai Nayak Dynasty|Nayaks of Madurai]], [[Thanjavur Nayaks|Nayaks of Tanjore]], [[Nayakas of Chitradurga]] and [[Nayak dynasty|Nayak Kingdom]] of [[Gingee]] palegars of gummanayakanapalya – declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries. These Nayaka kingdoms lasted into the 18th century while the Mysore Kingdom remained a princely state until [[Partition of India|Indian Independence]] in 1947 although they came under the [[British Raj]] in 1799 after the death of [[Tipu Sultan]].<ref name="capital1">Kamath (2001), p220, p226, p234</ref>

=== Kingdom of Kozhikode ===
{{Main Article|Zamorin}}
[[File:Uru.jpg|thumbnail|''[[Uru (boat)|Uru]]'', a type of ship that was historically used for maritime trade, built at [[Beypore]], [[Kozhikode]]]]
[[File:Map of Kampili kingdom.png|thumbnail|A political map of [[India]] in 1320 CE. Note that most of the present-day state of [[Kerala]] had been under the sovereignty of the [[Zamorin]] of [[Calicut]].]]
Historical records regarding the origin of the Samoothiri of [[Kozhikode]] is obscure. However, its generally agreed that the Samoothiri were originally the [[Nair]] chieftains of Eralnadu region of the Later Chera Kingdom and were known as the [[Eradi]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krishna Iyer|first=K. V.|url=https://archive.org/details/TheZamorinsOfCalicut|title=The Zamorins of Calicut}}</ref> Eralnadu ([[Eranad]]) province was situated in the northern parts of present-day [[Malappuram district]] and was landlocked by the [[Kingdom of Valluvanad|Valluvanad]] and Polanadu in the west. Legends such as ''[[Keralolpathi]]'' tell the establishment of a local ruling family at [[Nediyiruppu]], near present-day [[Kondotty]] by two young brothers belonging to the [[Eradi|Eradi clan]]. The brothers, Manikkan and Vikraman were the most trusted generals in the army of the [[Chera Kingdom|Cheras]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kerala.gov.in/history&culture/intrusion.htm |title=officialwebsite of |publisher=Kerala.gov.in |access-date=2010-03-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204110522/http://www.kerala.gov.in/history%26culture/intrusion.htm |archive-date=4 December 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Kerala Sanchaaram |last=Divakaran |first=Kattakada |year=2005 |publisher=Z Library |location=Trivandrum }}</ref> [[M.G.S. Narayanan]], a Kerala-based historian, in his book, ''Calicut: The City of Truth'' states that the Eradi was a favourite of the last Later Chera king and granted him, as a mark of favor, a small tract of land on the sea-coast in addition to his hereditary possessions (Eralnadu province). Eradis subsequently moved their capital to the coastal marshy lands and established the kingdom of Kozhikode<ref>To corroborate his assertion that Eradi was in fact a favourite of the last Later Chera, M.G.S. cites a stone inscription discovered at [[Kollam]] in southern [[Kerala]]. It refers to ''"Nalu Taliyum, Ayiram, Arunurruvarum, Eranadu Vazhkai Manavikiraman, mutalayulla Samathararum" – "The four Councillors, The Thousand, The Six Hundred, along with Mana Vikrama-the Governor of Eralnadu and other Feudatories."'' M.G.S. indicates that [[Kozhikode]] lay in fact beyond and not within the kingdom of Polanadu and there was no need of any kind of military movements for [[Kozhikode]].</ref> They later assumed the title of ''Samudrāthiri'' ("one who has the sea for his border") and continued to rule from Kozhikode.

Samoothiri allied with Muslim Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. They became the most powerful king in [[Kerala|the Malayalam speaking regions]] during the [[Middle Age]]s. In the 14th century, Kozhikode conquered large parts of central Kerala following the seize of [[Tirunavaya]] from [[Kingdom of Valluvanad|Valluvanad]], which was under the control of the king of [[Perumpadappu, Malappuram|''Perumbadappu Swaroopam'']]. He was forced to shift his capital (c. CE 1405) further south from [[Kodungallur]] to [[Kochi]]. In the 15th century, Cochin was reduced in to a vassal state of Kozhikode. The ruler of [[Kolathunadu]] ([[Kannur]]) had also came under the influence of Zamorin by the end of the 15th century.<ref name="Okay" />
[[File:Calicut 1572 (cropped).jpg|thumb|300px|left|A panorama of port [[Kozhikode]], shows several types of ships, shipbuilding, net fishing, dinghy traffic and a rugged, sparsely populated interior ([[Georg Braun]] and [[Frans Hogenberg]]'s atlas ''Civitates orbis terrarum'', 1572)]]
At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam ([[Quilon]]) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam ([[Koyilandy]]) in the north.<ref>Varier, M. R. Raghava. "Documents of Investiture Ceremonies" in K. K. N. Kurup, Edit., "India's Naval Traditions". Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 1997</ref><ref name="Iyer">K. V. Krishna Iyer, ''Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806''. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.</ref> [[Ibn Battuta]] (1342–1347), who visited the city of [[Kozhikode]] six times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city. He describes Kozhikode as "one of the great ports of the district of Malabar" where "merchants of all parts of the world are found". The king of this place, he says, "shaves his chin just as the Haidari Fakeers of Rome do... The greater part of the Muslim merchants of this place are so wealthy that one of them can purchase the whole freightage of such vessels put here and fit-out others like them".<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Ibn Battuta]], H. A. R. Gibb |volume=IV |title=The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D 1325–1354 |location=London }}</ref> [[Ma Huan]] (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho ([[Zheng He]])<ref>[[Ma Huan]]: Ying Yai Sheng Lan, ''The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores'', translated by J.V.G. Mills, 1970 [[Hakluyt Society]], reprint 1997 White Lotus Press. {{ISBN|974-8496-78-3}}</ref> states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. He makes note of the 20 or 30 mosques built to cater to the religious needs of the Muslims, the unique system of calculation by the merchants using their fingers and toes (followed to this day), and the matrilineal system of succession. [[Abdur Razzaq (traveller)|Abdur Razzak]] (1442–43), [[Niccolò de' Conti]] (1445), [[Afanasy Nikitin]] (1468–74), [[Ludovico di Varthema]] (1503–1508), and [[Duarte Barbosa]] witnessed the city as one of the major trading centres in the [[Indian subcontinent]] where traders from different parts of the world could be seen.<ref>Varthema, Ludovico di, ''The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema, A.D. 1503–08'', translated from the original 1510 Italian ed. by John Winter Jones, Hakluyt Society, London</ref><ref>Gangadharan. M., ''The Land of Malabar: The Book of Barbosa'' (2000), Vol II, M.G University, Kottayam.</ref>

The king [[Deva Raya II]] (1424–1446) of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] conquered about the whole of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Sewell|first=Robert|title=The Forgotten Empire|pages=87}}</ref> He defeated the [[Zamorin]] of [[Kozhikode]], as well as the ruler of [[Kollam]] around 1443.<ref name="Iyer"/> [[Fernão Nunes]] says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire.<ref name=":1" /> Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion.{{citation needed}} As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala.{{citation needed}} He built a fort at [[Ponnani]] in 1498.{{citation needed}}

=== Kingdom of Venad ===
{{main|Venad}}
[[File:A view of Coylang Wellcome L0038178.jpg|thumbnail|[[Kollam]], the capital of Venad, in 1700s]]
[[Venad]] was a kingdom in the south west tip of Kerala, which acted as a buffer between Cheras and Pandyas. Until the end of the 11th century, it was a small principality in the [[Ay Kingdom]]. The ''Ays'' were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith, ruled over a region from [[Nagercoil]] in the south to [[Thiruvananthapuram]] in the north. Their capital was at [[Kollam]]. A series of attacks by the [[Pandya]]s between the 7th and 8th centuries caused the decline of Ays although the dynasty remained powerful until the beginning of the 10th century.<ref name="Menon2007">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA97|access-date=18 September 2012|year=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|pages=97–99}}</ref> When Ay power diminished, Venad became the southernmost principality of the [[Second Chera Kingdom]]<ref name="Menon139"/> Invasion of Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096. However, the Chera capital, [[Mahodayapuram]], fell in the subsequent attack, which compelled the Chera king, Rama varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam.<ref name="Menon140">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA140|access-date=18 September 2012|year=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|page=140}}</ref> Thus, Rama Varma Kulasekara, the last king of Chera dynasty, is probably the founder of the Venad royal house, and the title of Chera kings, ''Kulasekara'', was thenceforth adopted by the rulers of Venad. The end of Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of the Venad.<ref name="Menon141">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA140|access-date=18 September 2012|year=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|page=141}}</ref> The Venadu King then also was known as Venadu Mooppil Nayar.
[[File:Sree Padmanabha Swamy Temple.jpg|thumbnail|[[Padmanabhaswamy Temple|Sree Padmanabha Swamy]] at [[Thiruvananthapuram]] was the largest temple in [[Venad]], which was eventually expanded into the [[Malayalam]] kingdom of [[Travancore]] in modern period.]]
In the second half of the 12th century, two branches of the Ay Dynasty: Thrippappur and Chirava, merged into the Venad family and established the tradition of designating the ruler of Venad as Chirava Moopan and the heir-apparent as ''Thrippappur Moopan''. While Chrirava Moopan had his residence at [[Kollam]], the Thrippappur Moopan resided at his palace in Thrippappur, {{convert|9|mi}} north of Thiruvananthapuram, and was vested with the authority over the temples of Venad kingdom, especially the [[Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple]].<ref name="Menon139">{{cite book|author=A Sreedhara Menon|title=A Survey of Kerala History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&pg=PA139|access-date=18 September 2012|year=2007|publisher=DC Books|isbn=978-81-264-1578-6|page=139}}</ref> The most powerful kingdom of Kerala during the colonial period, [[Travancore]], was developed through the expansion of Venad by Mahahrajah [[Marthanda Varma]], a member of the Thrippappur branch of the Ay Dynasty who ascended to the throne in the 18th century.

===Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India===
{{see also|Age of Discovery|Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India|Portuguese India|Dutch Malabar}}
[[File:Vascodagama.JPG|thumb|upright|Vasco da Gama landing near [[Kozhikode]] in Kerala]]
The maritime [[spice trade]] monopoly in the [[Indian Ocean]] stayed with the [[Arab]]s during the [[High Middle Ages|High]] and [[Late Middle Ages]]. However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European [[Age of Discovery]]. After [[Vasco Da Gama]]'s arrival in [[Kappad]] [[Kozhikode]] in 1498, the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]] began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular.<ref>{{cite book |author=Charles Corn |year=1999 |orig-year=First published 1998 |title=The Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade |publisher=Kodansha America |pages=4–5 |isbn=1-56836-249-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=PN Ravindran |year=2000 |title=Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VaGCgSLrdr4C |publisher=CRC Press |page=3 |isbn=978-90-5702-453-5 |access-date=11 November 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=PD Curtin |year=1984 |title=Cross-Cultural Trade in World History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=144 |isbn=0-521-26931-8}}</ref> Following the discovery of sea route from [[Europe]] to [[Malabar Coast|Malabar]] in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between [[Ormus]] and the [[Malabar Coast]] and south to [[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]].<ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288</ref><ref>{{Cite book | author = Knox, Robert | author-link = Robert Knox (sailor) | year = 1681 | title = An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon | pages = 19–47 |publisher = Reprint. Asian Educational Services | place = London| title-link = An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon }}</ref>
[[File:Caminho maritimo para a India.png|thumb|The path [[Vasco da Gama]] took to reach [[Kozhikode]] (black line)|alt=]]
[[Vasco da Gama]] was sent by the King of Portugal Dom [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]] and landed at Kozhikode in 1497–1499.<ref>{{cite web|title=‌Portuguese (1505–1961)|url=http://www.myeduphilic.com/about-the-europeans/|website=myeduphilic|access-date=5 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107004355/http://www.myeduphilic.com/about-the-europeans/|archive-date=7 November 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Samoothiri Maharaja of Kozhikode permitted the Portuguese to trade with his subjects. Their trade in Kozhikode prospered with the establishment of a factory and fort in his territory. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked the Samoothiri and finally led to conflict.

The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Samoothiri and Rajah of [[Kingdom of Kochi|Kochi]]{{snd}}they allied with Kochi and when [[Francisco de Almeida]] was appointed Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, he established his headquarters at [[Kochi]]. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a number of fortresses along the [[Malabar Coast]].<ref name="Mehta2005">{{cite book|author=J. L. Mehta |year=2005 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707 – 1813|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA324|access-date=9 August 2012 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-1-932705-54-6|pages=324–27}}</ref> Nonetheless, the Portuguese suffered severe setbacks due to attacks by Samoothiri Maharaja's forces, especially naval attacks under the leadership of admirals of Kozhikode known as [[Kunjali Marakkar]]s, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.<ref>{{cite web|title=Maritime Heritage – Join Indian Navy {{!}} Government of India|url=https://www.joinindiannavy.gov.in/en/about-us/maritime-heritage.html|website=www.joinindiannavy.gov.in|access-date=23 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Singh |first=Arun Kumar |title=Give Indian Navy its due |url=https://www.asianage.com/opinion/columnists/110217/give-indian-navy-its-due.html |access-date=23 January 2021 |work=[[The Asian Age]] }}</ref>
[[File:Mattancherry palace at night.jpg|left|thumbnail|The [[Mattancherry Palace]] at [[Kochi]] was built and gifted by the Portuguese as a present to the [[Kingdom of Cochin]] around 1545]]
The Portuguese influence got weakened in Kerala when the [[Zamorin]] defeated them with the help of [[Dutch East India Company]] in the early 17th century. In 1664, the municipality of [[Fort Kochi]] was established by [[Dutch Malabar]], making it the first municipality in the [[Indian subcontinent]], which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite news|title=50 years on, Kochi still has a long way to go|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kochi/50-years-on-kochi-still-has-a-long-way-to-go/articleshow/60835311.cms|last=M K Sunil Kumar|access-date=1 June 2021|work=The Times of India}}</ref> The [[Dutch Malabar]] (1661–1795) in turn were weakened by their constant battles with [[Marthanda Varma]] of the [[Travancore Royal Family]], and were defeated at the [[Battle of Colachel]] in 1741, resulting in the complete eclipse of Dutch power in Malabar. The [[Treaty of Mavelikkara]] was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvements in the region.

In the meantime, Marthanda Varma annexed many smaller northern kingdoms through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of preeminence in Kerala.<ref>{{cite book|author=A. Sreedhara Menon|title=Political History of Modern Kerala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wnAjqjhc1VcC&pg=PA140|access-date=10 August 2012|year=1987|publisher=D C Books|isbn=978-81-264-2156-5|page=140}}</ref> Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful [[Zamorin]] of [[History of Kozhikode|Kozhikode]] in the [[Purakkad|Battle of Purakkad]] in 1763.<ref name="AHoT 162">{{cite book|last1=Shungoony Menon|first1=P.|title=A History of Travancore from the Earliest Times|publisher=Higgin Botham & Co.|location=Madras|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog/page/n212 162]–64|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorytravanc00menogoog|access-date=5 May 2016|language=en|format=pdf}}</ref> The region of [[Mahé, India|Mahé]] came under French control by the 18th century CE.

===Nayak kingdoms===
{{Main|Nayaks of Madurai|Nayaks of Tanjore|Nayakas of Chitradurga|Keladi Nayaka}}
[[File:Granite pillars1 in hall (mantapa) in Aghoreshwara Temple at Ikkeri.jpg|right|thumb|175px|Aghoreshwara temple, mantapa in Keladi Nayaka art [[Shimoga District]], [[Karnataka]].]]
Vijayangara empire had established military and administrative governors called Nayakas to rule in the various territories of the empire. After the demise of the Vijayanagara empire, the local governors declared their independence and started their rule. The Nayak of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Keladi Nayakas of [[Shimoga]], Nayakas of Chitradurga and [[Kingdom of Mysore]] were the most prominent of them. Raghunatha Nayak (1600–1645) was the greatest of the Tanjavur Nayaks. Raghunatha Nayak encouraged trade and permitted a Danish settlement in 1620 at Danesborg at Tarangambadi. This laid the foundation of future European involvement in the affairs of the country. The success of the Dutch inspired the English to seek trade with Thanjavur, which was to lead to far-reaching repercussions. Vijaya Raghava (1631–1675 CE) was the last of the Thanjavur Nayaks. Nayaks reconstructed some of the oldest temples in the country and their contributions can be seen even today. Nayaks expanded the existing temples with large pillared halls, and tall gateway towers was a striking feature in the religious architecture of this period. Kantheerava Narasaraja Wodeyar and [[Tipu Sultan]] from the Kingdom of Mysore, Madhakari Nayaka of [[Chitradurga]] Nayaka clan and Venkatappa Nayaka of [[Keladi]] dynasty are the most famous among the post Vijayanagara rulers from Kannada country.

In Madurai, [[Thirumalai Nayak]] was the most famous Nayak ruler. He patronised art and architecture creating new structures and expanding the existing landmarks in and around Madurai. His landmark buildings are the Meenakshi Temple Gopurams and Thirumalai Nayak Palace in Madurai. On Thirumalai Nayak's death in 1659 CE, other notable ruler was [[Rani Mangammal]]. Shivaji Bhonsle, the great Maratha Ruler, invaded the south, as did Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore and other Muslim Rulers, resulting in chaos and instability and the Madurai Nayak Kingdom collapsed in 1736 following internal strife.

The [[Tanjavur Nayaks]] ruled till the late 17th century until their dynasty was put to an end by Madurai Rulers, and the Marathas grabbing the opportunity to install their ruler. The Tanjavur Nayak kings were notable for their contribution to Arts and [[Telugu literature]].

===Maratha Empire===
{{Main|Maratha Empire}}
[[File:Mysore Palace at dusk.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Mysore Palace]] in [[Mysore]], [[Karnataka]].]]
The '''Maratha Empire''' or the '''Maratha Confederacy''' was an Indian imperial power that existed from 1674 to 1818. At its peak, the empire covered much of the [[South Asia|subcontinent]], encompassing a territory of over 2.8 million km².

The Marathas were a yeoman [[Hindu]] warrior group from the western [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] (present day Maharashtra) that rose to prominence by establishing 'Hindawi Swarajya'. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica: The Maratha group of castes is a largely rural class of peasant cultivators, landowners, and soldiers. The Marathas became prominent in the 17th century under the leadership of [[Shivaji]] Bhosale who revolted against the Bijapur Sultanate, and carved out a rebel territory with [[Raigad fort|Raigad]] as his stronghold.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |title=Shivaji Maharaj: Growth of a Symbol |first=Malavika |last=Vartak |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=34 |issue=19 |pages=1126–1134 |jstor=4407933}} {{subscription required}}</ref> Known for their mobility, the Marathas were able to consolidate their territory during the [[Deccan Wars]] against the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and, later in time, controlled a large part of India.<ref name=britannica>[http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363851/Maratha Maratha (people) – Encyclopædia Britannica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207064435/http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/363851/Maratha }}. Global.britannica.com. Retrieved 12 July 2013.</ref>

[[Chattrapati Shahu|Shahu]], a grandson of Chhatrapati Shivaji, was released by the Mughals after the death of Aurangzeb. Following a brief struggle with his aunt [[Tarabai]], Shahu became ruler. During this period, he appointed [[Balaji Vishwanath]] Bhat and later his descendants as the Deshasth [[Peshwa]]s (Warriors) or the prime ministers of the Maratha Empire. After the death of the Mughal Emperor [[Aurangzeb]], the empire expanded greatly under the rule of the Peshwas. The empire at its peak stretched from [[Tamil Nadu]]<ref>Mehta, J. L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&dq=nizam+1743+trichinopoly&pg=PA204 ''Advanced study in the history of modern India 1707–1813''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206081255/https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&lpg=PA204&dq=nizam%201743%20trichinopoly&pg=PA204#v=onepage&q=nizam%201743%20trichinopoly&f=false }}</ref><ref>Mackenna, P. J. et al. [https://books.google.com/books?id=sm_71j9KYPcC&dq=chanda+sahib+trichinopoly&pg=PA98 ''Ancient and modern India'']</ref> in the south Tanjavur of Tamil Nadu, to [[Maratha conquest of North-west India|Peshawar]](modern-day [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]) in the north, and [[Expeditions in Bengal|Bengal]] and [[Andaman Islands]] in east.<ref name="andamanonline.in">[http://www.andamanonline.in/about/Profile/History/index.html Andaman & Nicobar Origin | Andaman & Nicobar Island History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215163141/http://www.andamanonline.in/about/Profile/History/index.html }}. Andamanonline.in. Retrieved 12 July 2013.</ref><ref name="marathiecards.com">[http://www.marathiecards.com/Sarkhel_Kanhoji_Angre.htm Welcome to Alibag / Alibaug. Sarkhel Kanhoji Angre] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209102203/http://marathiecards.com/Sarkhel_Kanhoji_Angre.htm }}. Marathiecards.com. Retrieved 12 July 2013.</ref>
The rise of Maratha military power under Chatrapathi [[Shivaji]] and his heirs in the immediate north of what is today considered South India had a profound influence on the political situation of South India, with Maratha control quickly extending as far east as [[Ganjam]] and as far south as [[Thanjavur]]. Following the death of Aurangzeb, Mughal power withered, and South Indian rulers gained autonomy from Delhi. The [[Wodeyar]] kingdom of [[Mysore]], which was originally in tribute to Vijayanagara and gained in strength over the next few decades, subsequently emerging as the dominant power in the southern part of South India. The [[Asaf Jahis]] of Hyderabad controlled the territory north and east of Mysore, while the Marathas controlled portions of [[Karnataka]]. By the close of the "medieval" period, most of South India was either autonomy under Maratha ruled directly from, or under tribute to the Nayak dynasty or Wodeyars.

=== Kingdom of Mysore (Mysuru) ===
The [[Kingdom of Mysore]] was a realm in [[South India|southern India]], traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of [[Mysore]]. From 1799 until 1950, it was a [[princely state]], until 1947 in a [[subsidiary alliance]] with [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British India]]. It then became [[Mysore State]] (later enlarged and renamed to [[Karnataka]]) with its ruler remaining as [[Rajapramukh]] until 1956, when he became the first Governor of the reformed state.

The kingdom, which was founded and ruled for most part by the Hindu [[Wodeyar]] family, initially served as a [[vassal state]] of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. The 17th century saw a steady expansion of its territory and during the rule of [[Kanthirava Narasaraja I|Narasaraja Wodeyar I]] and [[Chikka Devaraja|Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar]], the kingdom annexed large expanses of what is now southern [[Karnataka]] and parts of [[Tamil Nadu]] to become a powerful state in the southern [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]. During a brief [[Islam in India|Muslim rule]], the kingdom shifted to a Sultanate style of administration.<ref name="Yazdani">{{Citation |title=India, Modernity and the Great Divergence: Mysore and Gujarat (17th to 19th C.)|given=Kaveh |surname=Yazdani|publisher=Brill Publisher |year=2017 |isbn= 9789004330795 |page=115}}</ref><ref name="Simmons">{{Citation |title=Devotional Sovereignty: Kingship and Religion in India|given=Caleb |surname=Simmons|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780190088897 |pages=10–12}}</ref>

During this time, it came into conflict with the [[Maratha Empire|Marathas]], the [[Nizam of Hyderabad]], the [[Kingdom of Travancore]] and the [[British Empire|British]], which culminated in the four [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]. Success in the first Anglo-Mysore war and a stalemate in the second was followed by defeat in the third and the fourth. Following Tipu's death in the fourth war in the [[siege of Seringapatam (1799)]], large parts of his kingdom were annexed by the British, which signalled the end of a period of Mysorean hegemony over South India. The British restored the Wodeyars to their throne by way of a [[subsidiary alliance]] and the diminished Mysore was transformed into a [[princely state]]. The Wodeyars continued to rule the state until [[Indian independence movement|Indian independence in 1947]], when Mysore acceded to the [[Dominion of India|Union of India]].

Even as a princely state, Mysore came to be counted among the more developed and urbanised regions of India. This period (1799–1947) also saw Mysore emerge as one of the important centres of art and culture in India. The Mysore kings were not only accomplished exponents of the fine arts and men of letters, they were enthusiastic patrons as well, and their legacies continue to influence [[Rocket|rocket science]],<ref>Roddam Narasimha (1985). [http://nal-ir.nal.res.in/2382/01/tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750–1850 A.D.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927182042/http://nal-ir.nal.res.in/2382/01/tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf }}</ref> music, and art even today.

==Modern history==
===Colonial period===
[[File:1800 Map of Peninsular India-1795.jpg|thumb|right|South India in 1800]]
In the middle of the 18th century, the French and the British East India company initiated a protracted struggle for military control of South India. The period was marked by shifting alliances between the two East India companies and the local powers, mercenary armies employed by all sides, and general anarchy in South India. Cities and forts changed hands many times, and soldiers were primarily remunerated through loot. The four [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] and the three [[Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)|Anglo-Maratha Wars]] saw Mysore, the Marathas and Hyderabad aligning themselves in turns with either the British or the French. Eventually, British power in alliance with Hyderabad prevailed and Mysore was absorbed as a [[princely state]] within British India. The Nizam of Hyderabad sought to retain his autonomy through diplomacy rather than open war with the British. The Maratha Empire that stretched across large swathes of central and northern India was broken up, with most of it annexed by the British.

===British South India===
South India during the British colonial rule was divided into the [[Madras Presidency]] and [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]], [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], [[Thiruvithamcoore]] (also known as Travancore), [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]], [[Vizianagaram]] and a number of other minor princely states. The Madras Presidency was ruled directly by the British, while the rulers of the princely states enjoyed considerable internal autonomy. British Residents were stationed in the capitals of the important states to supervise and report on the activities of the rulers. British troops were stationed in cantonments near the capitals to prevent rebellion. The rulers of these states accepted the principle of paramountcy of the British Crown. The larger princely states issued their own currency and built their own railroads—with non-standard gauges which would be incompatible with their neighbors. The cultivation of [[coffee]] and [[tea]] was introduced to the mountainous regions of South India during the British period, and both remain important cash crops.

===After independence===
On 15 August 1947, the former British India achieved independence as the new dominions of India and Pakistan. The rulers of India's princely states acceded to the government of India between 1947 and 1950, and South India was organized into a number of new states. Most of South India was included in Madras state, which included the territory of the former Madras Presidency together with the princely states of Banganapalle, Pudukkottai, and Sandur. The other states in South India were Coorg (the erstwhile Coorg province of British India), Mysore State (the former princely state of Mysore) and [[Travancore-Cochin]], formed from the merger of the princely states of Travancore and Cochin. The former princely state of Hyderabad became Hyderabad State, and erstwhile Bombay Presidency became [[Bombay State]].

In 1953, the [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] government yielded to intense pressure from the northern [[Telugu language|Telugu]]-speaking districts of Madras State, and allowed them to vote to create India's first linguistic state. [[Andhra State]] was created on 1 November 1953 from the northern districts of Madras State, with its capital in [[Kurnool]]. Increasing demands for reorganisation of the patchwork of India's states resulted in the formation of a national States Reorganisation Commission. Based on the commission's recommendations, the [[Parliament of India]] enacted the [[States Reorganisation Act]] of 1956, which reorganized the boundaries of India's states along linguistic lines. Andhra State was renamed [[Andhra Pradesh]], and enlarged by the addition of Telugu-speaking region of [[Telangana]], formerly part of Hyderabad State. Mysore State was enlarged by the addition of Coorg and the [[Kannada language|Kannada]]-speaking districts of southwestern Hyderabad State and southern Bombay State. The new [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]-speaking state of Kerala was created by the merger of Travancore-Cochin with [[Malabar District|Malabar]] and [[Kasaragod District|Kasargod]] districts of Madras State. Madras State, which after 1956 included the [[Tamil people|Tamil]]-majority regions of South India, changed its name to [[Tamil Nadu]] in 1968, and Mysore State was renamed Karnataka in 1972. [[Portuguese India]], which included [[Goa]], was annexed by India in 1961, and Goa became a state in 1987. The enclaves of [[French India]] were ceded to India in the 1950s, and the southern four were organised into the [[union territory]] of [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]].

== See also ==
* [[South India]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[Nayaka dynasties]]
* [[List of Tamil monarchs]]
* [[Hinduism in South India]]
* [[Maurya Empire|History of Maurya]]

;History by states
* [[History of Tamil Nadu|Tamil Nadu]], [[History of Kerala|Kerala]], [[History of Karnataka|Karnataka]], [[History of Andhra Pradesh|Andhra Pradesh]], [[History of Telangana|Telangana]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Rao, Velcheru Narayana, David Shulman, and Sanjay Subrahmanyam. ''Textures of Time: Writing History in South India 1600–1800'' (2003)
* {{cite book | first= K. A. | last= Nilakanta Sastri | year=2000 | title= A History of South India | publisher=Oxford University Press | location= New Delhi}}
* {{cite book | first= K. A. | last= Nilakanta Sastri |author2=Srinivasachari | year=2000 | title= Advanced History of India | publisher= Allied Publishers Ltd | location= New Delhi}}
* {{cite book | first= Bipin | last= Chandra | year=1999 | title= The India after Independence | publisher= Penguin | location= New Delhi }}
{{refend}}

[[Category:History of India by region]]
[[Category:South India]]