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Bangalore

2023-10-02T16:24:39Z

Samareshadak689:

{{Short description|Capital of Karnataka, India}}
{{About|the city in Karnataka, India}}

{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Bangalore
| official_name = Bengaluru
| image_blank_emblem =
| blank_emblem_type = Logo of the Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike
| blank_emblem_size = 100px
| native_name = 
| native_name_lang = [[Kannada]]
| settlement_type = [[Megacity]]
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
|border = infobox
|perrow = 1/3/2/1
|total_width = 300
|caption_align = center
| image1=UB CITY Skyline.jpg
| caption1 = [[List of tallest buildings in Bangalore|Skyline of Bangalore]]
| image2=Dharmaraya Swamy Temple Bangalore edit1.jpg
| caption2 = [[Dharmaraya Swamy Temple]]
| image3=Bangalore_palace_IMG_20121230_154849.jpg
| caption3 = [[Bangalore Palace]]
| image4=Halasuru Someshwara Temple.jpg
| caption4 = [[Halasuru Someshwara Temple]](1890)
| image5=Bangalore_India.jpg
| caption5 = [[Bagmane Tech Park]]
| image6=Infosys_(4911287704).jpg
| caption6 = [[Infosys]] pyramid
| image7=Vidhana Soudha 2012.jpg
| caption7 = [[Vidhana Soudha]]
}}
| nicknames =
| image_map = {{maplink|display=|frame=yes|type=shape-inverse|id=Q1355|plain=y|title=Bengaluru|description=|coord=|marker=|zoom=10|icon=no|frame-width=300|frame-height=300|frame-align=center|text=Interactive Map Outlining Bangalore}}
| pushpin_map = India Bangalore#Karnataka#India
| pushpin_mapsize = 300
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Bangalore##Location in Karnataka##Location in India
| coordinates = {{coord|12|58|44|N|77|35|30|E|type:city_region:IN-KA|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|India}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[States and union territories of India|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Karnataka]]
| subdivision_type2 = Region
| subdivision_name2 = [[Bayaluseeme|Bayaluseemé]]
| subdivision_type3 = Districts
| subdivision_name3 = [[Bangalore Urban district|Bangalore Urban]]
| established_title = Established
| established_date = 1537
| founder = [[Kempe Gowda I]]
| named_for =
| government_type = [[Municipal Corporations in India|Municipal Corporation]]
* [[Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike]]
* [[Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority]]
| leader_title = [[Mayor]]
| leader_name = ''Vacant''
| leader_title2 = [[Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike|Corporation Commissioner]]
| leader_name2 = Tushar Giri Nath, [[Indian Administrative Service|IAS]]<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/city/bengaluru-infrastructure/new-bbmp-chief-commissioner-inspects-infrastructure-projects-1107607.html |title=New BBMP Chief Commissioner inspects infrastructure projects|newspaper=Deccan Herald|date=}}</ref>
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_footnotes = <ref>{{cite web |title=History of BBMP |url=https://bbmp.gov.in/historyofbbmp.html |website=Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) |access-date=20 May 2021 |archive-date=2 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102002519/https://bbmp.gov.in/historyofbbmp.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Introduction - BMRDA |url=https://bmrda.karnataka.gov.in/info-1/Introduction/en |website=Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority |access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref>
| area_rank =
| area_total_km2 = 741
| area_metro_km2 = 8005
| elevation_footnotes = <ref name="iisc_profile">{{Cite journal |author1=H.S. Sudhira |author2=T.V. Ramachandra |author3=M.H. Bala Subrahmanya |title=City Profile — Bangalore |journal=Cities |volume=24 |issue=5 |place=Bangalore |page=382 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.cities.2007.04.003 |url=http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/pubs/ces_pubs/pubs_2007/theme4_42.pdf | access-date=13 October 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224120858/http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/pubs/ces_pubs/pubs_2007/theme4_42.pdf | archive-date=24 December 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
| elevation_m = 920
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_total = 8443675
| population_footnotes = <ref name="census2011.co.in Bangalore" />
| population_rank = [[List of most populous cities in India|3rd]]
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_urban = 10,456,000
| population_urban_footnotes = <ref name="UNcities2016" />
| population_blank1_title = Rank
| population_blank1 = [[List of million-plus urban agglomerations in India|5th]]
| population_blank1_footnotes = <ref name="ua_2011">{{cite web |title=INDIA STATS : Million plus cities in India as per Census 2011 |url=http://pibmumbai.gov.in/scripts/detail.asp?releaseId=E2011IS3 |website=Press Information Bureau, Mumbai |publisher=National Informatics Centre | access-date=20 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630112755/http://pibmumbai.gov.in/scripts/detail.asp?releaseId=E2011IS3 | archive-date=30 June 2015 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
| population_demonym = Bangalorean, Bengalurinavaru, Bengalurean, Bengaluriga, Bangalori
| blank_name_sec1 = [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]
| blank_info_sec1 = $110 billion<ref>{{Cite web |title=Richest Cities of India |date=20 December 2021 |url=https://www.worldwidewebtimes.com/top-10-richest-cities-of-india/ |access-date=7 January 2023}}</ref>
| blank1_name_sec1 =
| blank1_info_sec1 = 
| timezone1 = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| utc_offset1 = +05:30
| postal_code_type = [[Postal Index Number|Pincode(s)]]
| postal_code = 560 xxx
| area_code = [[Telephone numbers in India|+91-(0)80]]
| registration_plate = [[List of RTO districts in India#KA—Karnataka|KA:]]01-05, 41, 50-53, 57-61
| blank2_name = {{nowrap|[[Official language]]}}
| blank2_info = [[Kannada]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf |title=50th Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India (July 2012 to June 2013) |access-date=14 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708012438/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2016}}</ref>
| website = {{URL|www.bbmp.gov.in/}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Bangalore''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|æ|ŋ|ɡ|ə|l|ɔːr|,_|ˌ|b|æ|ŋ|ɡ|ə|ˈ|l|ɔː|r}} {{respell|BANG|gə|lor|,_-|LOR}}), [[List of renamed places in India|officially]] '''Bengaluru''' ({{IPA-kn|ˈbeŋgɐɭuːɾu|3=Bengaluru-Kannada-Pronunciation.ogg}}), is the [[Capital city|capital]] and largest city of the [[South India|southern Indian]] [[Indian state|state]] of [[Karnataka]]. It has a population of more than {{nowrap|8 million}} and a [[metropolitan area|metropolitan]] population of around {{nowrap|11 million}}, making it [[India]]'s [[List of cities in India by population|third most populous city]] and [[List of million-plus urban agglomerations in India|fifth most populous urban agglomeration]], as well as [[South India]]'s second-largest urban agglomeration, and the [[List of largest cities|27th largest city in the world]].<ref name="2011 pp tableA2">{{cite web |url=http://www.citypopulation.de/php/india-karnataka.php |title=Karnataka (India): Districts, Cities, Towns and Outgrowth Wards – Population Statistics in Maps and Charts}}</ref> Located on the [[Deccan Plateau]], at a height of over {{cvt|3000|ft|m|sigfig=1|disp=flip}} above sea level, Bangalore has a pleasant climate throughout the year, with its parks and green spaces earning it the reputation of India's "Garden City".<ref name="scotts">{{cite web |url=https://scottscheapflights.com/guides/bengaluru-the-indian-garden-city-thats-a-high-tech-hub |title=Bengaluru: The Indian "Garden City" That's a High-Tech Hub |first=Deepa |last=Lakshmin |date=February 23, 2021 |work=Scott's Cheap Flights}}</ref> Its elevation is the highest among India's major cities.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Swaminathan |first1=Jayashankar M. |title=Indian Economic Superpower: Fiction Or Future? |volume=2 of World Scientific series on 21st century business, ISSN 1793-5660 |publisher=World Scientific |year=2009 |isbn=9789812814661 |page=20}}</ref>

The city's history dates back to around 890, as found in a stone inscription found at the [[Nageshvara Temple, Begur|Nageshwara Temple]] in [[Begur, Bangalore]]. In 1537, [[Kempe Gowda I|Kempé Gowdā]], a feudal ruler under the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], established a [[Bengaluru Pete|mud fort]], considered the foundation of modern Bangalore and its oldest areas, or ''pétés'', which still exist. After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Kempe Gowda declared independence; in 1638, a large [[Adil Shahi]] Bijapur army defeated Kempe Gowda III, and Bangalore came under [[Shahaji Bhonsle]] as a [[jagir]], which later became his capital. The [[Mughals]] later captured Bangalore and sold it to [[Maharaja of Mysore|Maharaja]] [[Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar|Devaraja Wodeyar II]] of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]].<ref name="ekoji" /> When [[Hyder Ali|Haider Ali]] seized control of the kingdom, Bangalore's administration passed into his hands.

The city was captured by the [[British East India Company]] after victory in the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] (1799), which then returned administrative control of the city, along with the kingdom, to Maharaja [[Krishnaraja Wadiyar III]]. The old city developed under the dominions of the maharaja. In 1809, the British shifted their [[Bangalore Cantonment|cantonment]] to Bangalore, outside the old city, and a town grew up around it. Following [[independence of India|India's independence]] in 1947, Bangalore became the capital of [[Mysore State]], and remained the capital when the state was [[Unification of Karnataka|enlarged and unified]] in 1956 and renamed Karnataka in 1973. The two urban settlements of Bangalore, the [[Bengaluru Pete|town]] and the cantonment, which had developed as independent entities, merged into a single urban centre in 1949. The existing [[Kannada]] name, ''Bengalūru'', was declared the city's [[official name]] in 2006.

Bangalore is considered to be one of the fastest-growing global major metropolises.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://us.rediff.com/money/2008/feb/06sld2.htm |work=Rediff News |date=6 February 2008 |title=India's 10 fastest growing cities | access-date=7 April 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324171237/http://us.rediff.com/money/2008/feb/06sld2.htm | archive-date=24 March 2009 | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-01-06 |title=What makes Bengaluru India's science capital? |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/specials/what-makes-bengaluru-indias-science-capital-935670.html |access-date=2021-01-23 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> Recent estimates of the [[Gross metropolitan product|metro economy]] of its urban area has ranked Bangalore as one of the [[List of cities by GDP|most productive metro areas]] of India.<ref name="gdp">—{{cite web|date=22 January 2015|title=Global city GDP 2014|url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/global-metro-monitor/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525113815/https://www.brookings.edu/research/global-metro-monitor/|archive-date=25 May 2017|access-date=4 March 2017|publisher=[[Brookings Institution]]}} —{{cite web|title=Global city GDP rankings 2008–2025|url=https://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/imagelibrary/downloadMedia.ashx?MediaDetailsID=1562|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110504031739/https://www.ukmediacentre.pwc.com/imagelibrary/downloadMedia.ashx?MediaDetailsID=1562|archive-date=4 May 2011|access-date=16 December 2009|publisher=[[Pricewaterhouse Coopers|PwC]]}} —{{cite web|date=28 September 2012|title=India's top 15 cities with the highest GDP Photos Yahoo! India Finance|url=https://in.finance.yahoo.com/photos/the-top-15-indian-cities-by-gdp-1348807591-slideshow/the-top-15-indian-cities-by-gdp-photo-1348807049.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009131024/https://in.finance.yahoo.com/photos/the-top-15-indian-cities-by-gdp-1348807591-slideshow/the-top-15-indian-cities-by-gdp-photo-1348807049.html|archive-date=9 October 2014|access-date=27 March 2017|publisher=[[Yahoo! Finance]]}}</ref><ref name="India Today">{{Cite web |last=Broder |first=Jonathan |date=5 October 2018 |title=Can it maintain strong economic growth? |url=http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre2018100500 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005030813/http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre2018100500 |archive-date=5 October 2018 |access-date=4 October 2018 |work=India Today:CQR |publisher=Sage Publications |language=en-US |id=cqresrre2018100500}}</ref> The city is considered the pivot for high-technology-based heavy manufacturing industry, with numerous large multinational technology corporations setting up their headquarters there. It is home to many top-tier engineering and research institutions. Bangalore is known as the "Silicon Valley of India" because it is the nation's leading [[software]] exporter as well as a major semiconductor hub.<ref name="cnn-Dec2012">—{{cite news |last=Canton |first=Naomi |date=6 December 2012 |title=How the 'Silicon Valley of India' is bridging the digital divide |publisher=CNN |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/12/06/tech/bangalore-india-internet-access |url-status=live |access-date=6 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121218052853/http://edition.cnn.com/2012/12/06/tech/bangalore-india-internet-access |archive-date=18 December 2012 }} —{{cite news |last=Rai |first=Saritha |date=20 March 2006 |title=Is the Next Silicon Valley Taking Root in Bangalore? |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/20/business/worldbusiness/20bangalore.html |url-status=live |access-date=20 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013023256/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/20/business/worldbusiness/20bangalore.html |archive-date=13 October 2011 }} —{{cite news |last=Vaidyanathan |first=Rajini |date=5 November 2012 |title=Can the 'American Dream' be reversed in India? |publisher=[[BBC World News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20201666 |url-status=live |access-date=5 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105101908/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-20201666 |archive-date=5 November 2012 }}</ref> Several state-owned [[aerospace]] and [[Defence industry of India|defence organisations]] are in the city. The presence of numerous notable sporting arenas in Bangalore makes it one of the country's sporting hubs.

== Etymology ==

''Bangalore'' is an [[anglicised]] version of the city's [[Kannada]] name ''Bengalūru''. It was the name of a village near Kodigehalli in Bangalore city today and was used by [[Kempe Gowda I|Kempe Gowda]] to name the city as Bangalore at the time of its foundation in 1537. The earliest reference to the name "Bengalūru" was found in a ninth-century [[Western Ganga dynasty]] stone inscription on a ''vīra gallu'' ({{lang-kn|ವೀರಗಲ್ಲು|link=no}}; {{lit|[[hero stone]]}}, a rock edict extolling the virtues of a warrior). According to an inscription found in [[Begur, Bangalore|Begur]], "Bengalūrū" was the place of a battle in 890 [[Common Era|CE]].<ref name="OtherNames">{{cite news |first=K |last=Chandramouli |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/07/25/stories/2002072500270200.htm |title=The city of boiled beans |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |date=25 July 2002 |access-date=10 June 2012 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505010927/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/07/25/stories/2002072500270200.htm |archive-date=5 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="TheHinduinscription">{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/08/20/stories/2004082016400300.htm |title=Inscription reveals Bengaluru is over 1,000 years old |date=20 August 2004 |access-date=10 June 2012 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213021302/http://www.hindu.com/2004/08/20/stories/2004082016400300.htm |archive-date=13 February 2012 |url-status=dead |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref>

It was also referred to as "Kalyānapura" or "Kalyānapuri" ("Auspicious City") and "Dēvarāyanagara" during the [[Vijayanagara literature|Vijayanagara]] times.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Bangalore-Future Trends In Public Open Space Usage. Case Study: Mahatma Gandhi Road, Bangalore |url=https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/handle/10919/9941 |publisher=Virginia Tech |date=2004-05-06 |degree=Thesis |language=en |first=Uday Kumar |last=Vagale}}</ref>

An [[apocryphal]] story states that the twelfth-century [[Hoysala]] king [[Veera Ballala II]], while on a hunting expedition, lost his way in the forest. Tired and hungry, he came across a poor old woman who served him boiled beans. The grateful king named the place "Benda-Kaal-uru" (literally, "town of boiled beans"), which eventually evolved into "Bengalūru".<ref name="OtherNames" /><ref name="Bendakaaluru">{{cite web |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/Oct302006/index20581420061029.asp |title=Many miles to go from Bangalore to Bengalūru |author=Vijesh Kamath |work=Deccan Herald |date=30 October 2006 |access-date=10 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916034243/http://archive.deccanherald.com/Deccanherald/Oct302006/index20581420061029.asp |archive-date=16 September 2012 }}</ref><ref name="gandubhoomi" /> [[Suryanath U. Kamath|Suryanath Kamath]] has put forward an explanation of a possible floral origin of the name as derived from ''benga'', the Kannada term for ''[[Pterocarpus marsupium]]'' (also known as the Indian Kino Tree), a species of dry and moist [[deciduous tree]]s that grows abundantly in the region.<ref name="Aditi6" />

On 11 December 2005, the [[Government of Karnataka]] accepted a proposal by [[Jnanpith Award]] winner [[U. R. Ananthamurthy]] to [[Renaming of cities in India|rename]] Bangalore to ''Bengalūru''.<ref name="rename2">
{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-12-11/india/27862209_1_bengaluru-classical-language-kannada |title=Bangalore to be renamed Bengaluru |date=11 December 2005 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=19 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929222432/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-12-11/india/27862209_1_bengaluru-classical-language-kannada |archive-date=29 September 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 27 September 2006, the [[Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike]] (BBMP) passed a resolution to implement the name change.<ref>{{Cite news |title=It will be 'Bengaluru', resolves BMP |date=28 September 2006 |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/09/28/stories/2006092824250300.htm |access-date=16 May 2007 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001090623/http://www.hindu.com/2006/09/28/stories/2006092824250300.htm |archive-date=1 October 2007 |url-status=dead |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref> The government of Karnataka accepted the proposal and it was decided to officially implement the name change from 1 November 2006.<ref>{{Cite news |title=It'll be 'Bengaluru' from November 1 |newspaper=Deccan Herald |date=8 October 2006 |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/oct82006/index2044162006107.asp |access-date=10 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406020325/http://archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/oct82006/index2044162006107.asp |archive-date=6 April 2012 }}</ref><ref name="rename1">{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-11-01/bangalore/27809461_1_bengalooru-skywalks-helmets |title=From today, Bangalore becomes Bengalooru |date=1 November 2006 |access-date=19 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024093527/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2006-11-01/bangalore/27809461_1_bengalooru-skywalks-helmets |archive-date=24 October 2012 |url-status=dead |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref> The [[Government of India|Union government]] approved this request, along with name changes for 11 other Karnataka cities, in October 2014. Hence, Bangalore was renamed to "Bengaluru" on 1 November 2014.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangalore, Mysore, Other Karnataka Cities to be Renamed on 1 November |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.in/bangalore-mysore-other-karnataka-cities-be-renamed-1-november-611683 |issue=ibtimes.co.in |publisher=ibtimes.co.in |date=18 October 2014 |access-date=18 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025122135/http://www.ibtimes.co.in/bangalore-mysore-other-karnataka-cities-be-renamed-1-november-611683 |archive-date=25 October 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Centre nod for Karnataka's proposal on renaming cities |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/centre-nod-for-karnatakas-proposal-on-renaming-cities/article6514079.ece |work=The Hindu |date=18 October 2014 |access-date=18 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018035426/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/centre-nod-for-karnatakas-proposal-on-renaming-cities/article6514079.ece |archive-date=18 October 2014 |url-status=live }}
</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Bangalore}}

=== Early and medieval history ===

{{Multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Naganatheshvara Temple (9th century) at Begur, Bengaluru.JPG
| caption1 = The Begur [[Nageshvara Temple, Begur|Nageshwara Temple]] was built in Bangalore around {{Circa|860}}, during the reign of the [[Western Ganga dynasty]].
| image2 = Bangalore Nandi Temple.jpg
| caption2 = [[Dodda Basavana Gudi]]
}}

A discovery of [[Stone Age]] artefacts during the [[2001 Census of India]] at [[Jalahalli]], Sidhapura and Jadigenahalli, all of which are located on Bangalore's outskirts today, suggest human settlement around 4000 BCE.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangalore dates from 4,000 BC |date=11 October 2001 |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2001-10-11/bangalore/27237242_1_bangalore-mysore-municipal-bodies |work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=7 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053704/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2001-10-11/bangalore/27237242_1_bangalore-mysore-municipal-bodies | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=dead }}</ref> Around 1,000 BCE (during the [[Iron Age]]), burial grounds were established at [[Koramangala]] and [[Chikkajala]] on the outskirts of Bangalore. Coins of the [[Roman emperor]]s [[Augustus]], [[Tiberius]], and [[Claudius]] found at [[Yeswanthpur]] and [[HAL Airport]] indicate that the region was involved in trans-oceanic trade with the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and other civilisations in 27 BCE.<ref name="banghist">{{cite news |first=T.S. |last=Ranganna |title=Bangalore had human habitation in 4000 B.C. |date=27 October 2001 |url=http://hindu.com/2001/10/27/stories/0427402p.htm | access-date=7 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053528/http://hindu.com/2001/10/27/stories/0427402p.htm | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=dead |work=[[The Hindu]] }}
</ref>

The region of modern-day Bangalore was part of several successive [[South India]]n kingdoms. Between the fourth and tenth centuries, the region was ruled by the [[Western Ganga dynasty]] of Karnataka, the first dynasty to set up effective control over the region.<ref name="banghist3">{{harvnb|Srinivas|2004|p=69|Ref=Sri2004}}</ref> According to [[Edgar Thurston]], there were twenty-eight kings who ruled Gangavadi from the start of the Christian era until its conquest by the Cholas. The [[Western Gangas]] ruled the region initially as a sovereign power (350–550 CE), and later as feudatories of the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyas of Badami]], followed by the [[Rashtrakutas]] until the tenth century.<ref name="Aditi6">{{harvnb|Aditi|2008|p=6|Ref=Aditi2008}}</ref> The Begur [[Nageshvara Temple, Begur|Nageshwara Temple]] was commissioned around 860, during the reign of the Western Ganga King Ereganga Nitimarga I, and extended by his successor Nitimarga II.<ref name="banghist4">{{harvnb|Aditi|2008|p=7|Ref=Aditi2008}}</ref><ref name="niti">{{harvnb|Sarma|1992|p=78}}</ref> Around 1004, during the reign of [[Raja Raja Chola I]], the [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]] defeated the Western Gangas under the command of the crown prince [[Rajendra Chola I]], and captured Bangalore.<ref name="banghist4" /><ref>Mysore: A Gazetteer Compiled for Government by B. L. Rice p.224</ref> During this period, the Bangalore region witnessed the migration of many groups—warriors, administrators, traders, artisans, pastorals, cultivators, and religious personnel from [[Tamil Nadu]] and other Kannada-speaking regions.<ref name="banghist3" /> The [[Domlur Chokkanathaswamy temple|Chokkanathaswamy temple]] at [[Domlur]], the Aigandapura complex near [[Hesaraghatta Lake|Hesaraghatta]], [[Mukthi Natheshwara Temple]] at Binnamangala, Choleshwara Temple at [[Begur, Bangalore|Begur]], [[Halasuru Someshwara Temple, Bangalore|Someshwara Temple]] at [[Ulsoor]], date from the [[Chola]] era.<ref name="banghist4" />

In 1117, the [[Hoysala]] king [[Vishnuvardhana]] defeated the Cholas in the Battle of Talakad in south Karnataka, and extended its rule over the region.<ref name="banghist4" /> Vishnuvardhana expelled the Cholas from all parts of the Mysore state.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |title=The Digital South Asia Library-Imperial gazetteer of India |work=uchicago.edu |date=1908–1931 | access-date=16 February 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216124143/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ | archive-date=16 December 2008 | url-status=live }}</ref> By the end of the 13th century, Bangalore became a source of contention between two warring cousins, the Hoysala ruler [[Veera Ballala III]] of [[Halebidu]] and Ramanatha, who administered from the Hoysala held territory in Tamil Nadu.<ref name="banghist4" /> Veera Ballala III had appointed a civic head at Hudi (now within Bangalore Municipal Corporation limits), thus promoting the village to the status of a town. After Veera Ballala III's death in 1343, the next empire to rule the region was the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], which itself saw the rise of four dynasties, the [[Sangama dynasty|Sangamas]] (1336–1485), the [[Saluva dynasty|Saluvas]] (1485–1491), the [[Tuluva dynasty|Tuluvas]] (1491–1565), and the [[Aravidu dynasty|Aravidu]] (1565–1646).<ref name="banghist6">{{harvnb|Aditi|2008|p=8|Ref=Aditi2008}}</ref> During the reign of the Vijayanagara Empire, [[Achyuta Deva Raya]] of the [[Tuluva dynasty]] raised the [[Shivanasamudra Falls|Shivasamudra Dam]] across the [[Arkavati]] river at [[Hesaraghatta]], whose reservoir is the present city's supply of regular piped water.<ref name="Aditi9">{{harvnb|Aditi|2008|p=9|Ref=Aditi2008}}</ref>

=== Foundation and early modern history ===

{{Multiple image
| align=right
| direction=vertical
| image1=Bangalore Fort.jpg
| caption1=Bangalore Fort in 1860 showing fortifications and barracks. The fort was originally built by [[Kempe Gowda I]] as a mud fort in 1537.
| image2=Bangalore palace side view.jpg
| caption2=[[Bangalore Palace]], built in 1887 in [[Tudor architecture|Tudor architectural style]] was modelled on [[Windsor Castle]] in England.<ref name="tt8">{{harvnb|Pinto|Srivastava|2008|p=8|Ref=TalkoftheTown}}</ref>
}}

Modern Bangalore was begun in 1537 by a [[chieftain|chief]] of the Vijayanagara Empire, [[Kempe Gowda I]], who aligned with the Vijayanagara empire to campaign against Gangaraja (whom he defeated and expelled to Kanchi), and who built [[Bengaluru Pete|a mud-brick fort]] for the people at the site that would become the central part of modern Bangalore. Kempe Gowda was restricted by rules made by Achuta Deva Raya, who feared the potential power of Kempe Gowda and did not allow a formidable stone fort. Kempe Gowda referred to the new town as his "gandubhūmi" or "Land of Heroes".<ref name="gandubhoomi">{{cite news |url=http://www.livemint.com/2010/05/21205005/Bangalore-Bhath--First-city-e.html |title=Bangalore bhath: first city edifices |last1=Misra |first1=Hemant |last2=Jayaraman |first2=Pavitra |newspaper=[[Mint (newspaper)|Mint]] |date=22 May 2010 | access-date=11 June 2012}}</ref> Within the fort, the town was divided into smaller divisions, each called a ''pete'' ({{IPA-kn|peːteː}}).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Aruni |first=S. K. |date=2013-01-02 |title=A city that fell to the lure of trade |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/a-city-that-fell-to-the-lure-of-trade/article4264672.ece |access-date=2022-06-27 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The town had two main streets—Chikkapeté Street and Doddapeté Street.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Earlier known as Doddapete, Avenue Road could be as old as Bengaluru |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/earlier-known-as-doddapete-avenue-road-could-be-as-old-as-bengaluru/articleshow/46697749.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2022-05-30}}</ref> Their intersection formed the Doddapeté Square—the heart of Bangalore. Kempe Gowda I's successor, Kempe Gowda II, built four towers that marked Bangalore's boundary.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shekhar |first=Divya |title=To secure a budding Bengaluru, Kempe Gowda built 4 towers |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/to-secure-a-budding-bengaluru-kempe-gowda-built-4-towers/articleshow/55087621.cms#:~:text=Bengaluru%20began%20to%20scale%20newer,%22eventual%22%20boundaries%20of%20Bengaluru. |access-date=2022-05-30}}</ref> During the Vijayanagara rule, many saints and poets referred to Bangalore as "Devarāyanagara" and "Kalyānapura" or "Kalyānapuri" ("Auspicious City").<ref name="bglrHist2">{{Cite thesis |chapter=5: Bangalore: mud fort to sprawling metropolis |title=Bangalore—future trends in public open space usage. Case study: Mahatma Gandhi Road, Bangalore |chapter-url=http://hdl.handle.net/10919/9941 |last=Vagale |first=Uday Kumar |year=2004 |page= |publisher=[[Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University]] |pages=34–35 |hdl=10919/9941 |access-date=26 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605195117/http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05172004-231956/unrestricted/4.pdf |archive-date=5 June 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 in the [[Battle of Talikota]], Bangalore's rule changed hands several times. Kempe Gowda declared independence, then in 1638, a large [[Adil Shahi]] Bijapur army led by Ranadulla Khan and accompanied by his second in command [[Shahaji|Shāhji Bhōnslē]] defeated Kempe Gowda III, and Bangalore was given to Shāhji as a ''[[jagir]]'' (feudal estate). around 1639 [[Shahaji Bhonsle]] given order to reconstruction of destroyed City and building new lakes to solve water shortage of region.<ref name="bglrHist2"/> In 1687, the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] general Kasim Khan, under orders from [[Aurangzeb]], defeated [[Ekoji I]], son of Shāhji, and sold Bangalore to [[Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar]] (1673–1704), the then ruler of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] for three lakh rupees.<ref name="ekoji">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/02/22/stories/2005022201010300.htm |title=The bean city |first=S |last=Srinivas |access-date=2 July 2007 |date=22 February 2005 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213025649/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2005/02/22/stories/2005022201010300.htm |archive-date=13 February 2012 |url-status=dead |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref> After the death of Krishnaraja Wodeyar II in 1759, [[Hyder Ali]], Commander-in-Chief of the Mysore Army, proclaimed himself the ''de facto'' ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. Hyder Ali is credited with building the Delhi and Mysore gates at the northern and southern ends of the city in 1760.<ref name="tt6">{{harvnb|Pinto|Srivastava|2008|p=6|Ref=TalkoftheTown}}</ref> The kingdom later passed to Hyder Ali's son [[Tipu Sultan]]. Hyder and Tipu directed the building of the [[Lal Bagh]] [[Botanical garden|Botanical Gardens]] in 1760.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shekhar |first=Divya |title=Date with history: All you need to know about the iconic Lalbagh's Glass House built in 1889 |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/date-with-history-all-you-need-to-know-about-the-iconic-lalbaghs-glass-house-built-in-1889/articleshow/53647928.cms |access-date=2022-05-23}}</ref> Under them, Bangalore developed into a commercial and military centre of strategic importance.<ref name="bglrHist2" />

The Bangalore fort was captured by [[British Empire|British forces]] under [[Lord Cornwallis]] on 21 March 1791 during the [[Third Anglo-Mysore War]] and formed a centre for British resistance against Tipu Sultan.<ref name="Mil_Engr_In_India_Vol_1">{{cite book |title=The military engineer in India, vol I |last=Sandes |first=E.W.C. |year=1933 |publisher=The Institution of Royal Engineers |location=Chatham |isbn=978-1-84734-071-9 |pages=163–165}}</ref> Following Tipu's death in the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] (1799), the British returned administrative control of the Bangalore pētē to the [[Maharaja of Mysore]] and was incorporated into the [[Princely State of Mysore]], which existed as a nominally sovereign entity of the [[British Raj]]. The [[Bengaluru Pete|old pētē]] developed in the dominions of the Maharaja of Mysore. The [[Raj Bhavan (Karnataka)|Residency of Mysore State]] was first established in [[Mysore]] City in 1799 and later shifted to Bangalore in 1804.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=26 March 2011 |title=The Resident arose with Tipu's fall |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mysuru/the-resident-arose-with-tipus-fall/articleshow/7794922.cms |access-date=2022-05-24 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> It was abolished in 1843,<ref name=":3" /> only to be revived in 1881 at Bangalore and closed down permanently in 1947, with [[independence of India|Indian independence]].<ref name="rajbha">{{cite web |url=http://rajbhavan.kar.nic.in/ |title=Raj Bhavan, Karnataka |work=The Homepage of Raj Bhavan, Government of Karnataka |access-date=24 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206190404/http://rajbhavan.kar.nic.in/history/fromresi-rajbhavan.htm |archive-date=6 February 2012}}</ref> The British found Bangalore to be a pleasant and appropriate place to station their [[garrison]] and therefore moved their cantonment to Bangalore from [[Seringapatam]] in 1809 near [[Ulsoor]], about {{cvt|6|km|0}} northeast of the city. A town grew up around the cantonment, by absorbing several villages in the area. The new centre had its own municipal and administrative apparatus, though technically it was a British enclave within the territory of the Wodeyar Kings of the Princely State of [[Mysore]].<ref>{{harvnb|Srinivas|2004|p=3|Ref=Sri2004}}</ref> Two important developments which contributed to the rapid growth of the city, include the introduction of telegraph connections to all major Indian cities in 1853 and a rail connection to [[Madras]] (now Chennai), in 1864.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ghosh |first1=Jyotirmoy |title=Entrepreneurship in tourism and allied activities: a study of Bangalore city in the post-liberalization period |publisher=[[Pondicherry University]] |year=2012 |page=86 |url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/5261/9/09_chapter%203.pdf |access-date=8 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053804/http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/5261/9/09_chapter%203.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2013 |url-status=live }}
</ref>

=== Later modern and contemporary history ===

{{Multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Bangalore Pete in the 1890s.jpg
| caption1 = A view of [[Bengaluru Pete|Bangalore Pete]] during the 1890s
| image2 = Bangalore Cantonment.jpg
| caption2 = A view of [[Bangalore Cantonment]], {{Circa|1895}}
| image3 = Bangalore (Baedeker, 1914).jpg
| caption3 = Map of the city and environs, {{Circa|1914}}
| image4 = Bangalore-torpedo-batey-haosef.jpg
| caption4 = The [[Bangalore torpedo]] was invented in Bangalore in 1912.
| image5 = UB City at night .jpg
| caption5 = Aerial view of [[UB City]], a business district in Bangalore, 2019
}}

In the 19th century, Bangalore essentially became a [[Twin cities|twin city]], with the "pētē", whose residents were predominantly [[Kannadiga]]s and the cantonment created by the British.<ref name="bang hist two towns">{{Cite thesis |chapter=8: Public domain—contested spaces and lack of imageability |title=Bangalore—future trends in public open space usage. Case study: Mahatma Gandhi Road, Bangalore |chapter-url=http://hdl.handle.net/10919/9941 |last=Vagale |first=Uday Kumar |year=2004 |publisher=[[Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University]] |page=49 |hdl=10919/9941 |access-date=26 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605195117/http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05172004-231956/unrestricted/4.pdf |archive-date=5 June 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Throughout the 19th century, the Cantonment gradually expanded and acquired a distinct cultural and political salience as it was governed directly by the British and was known as the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore. While it remained in the princely territory of Mysore, Cantonment had a large military presence and a cosmopolitan [[civilian]] population that came from outside the princely state of Mysore, including British and [[Anglo-Indians]] army officers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sharp Private Investigation Detective Agency In Benguluru|url=https://bangaloredetectives.in/about-bangalore-detectives.php|access-date=2022-01-17|website=bangaloredetectives.in}}</ref>

Bangalore was hit by a [[Bubonic plague|plague]] epidemic in 1898 that claimed nearly 3,500 lives. The crisis caused by the outbreak catalysed the city's sanitation process. Telephone lines were laid to help co-ordinate anti-plague operations. Regulations for building new houses with proper sanitation facilities came into effect. A health officer was appointed and the city divided into four wards for better co-ordination. [[Victoria Hospital (Bangalore Medical College)|Victoria Hospital]] was inaugurated in 1900 by [[Lord Curzon]], the then [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General of British India]].<ref>{{cite news |title=1898 plague revisited |date=17 November 2012 |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-11-17/bangalore/35171344_1_bangalore-vivek-first-health-officer |work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=8 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054205/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-11-17/bangalore/35171344_1_bangalore-vivek-first-health-officer | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=dead }}</ref> New extensions in [[Malleswaram]] and [[Basavanagudi]] were developed in the north and south of the pētē.<ref>{{cite web |first=Maya |last=Jaypal |title=Malleswaram, Basavanagudi, the new extensions |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/237394/malleswaram-basavanagudi-extensions.html |work=[[Deccan Herald]] | access-date=8 September 2013 |date=26 March 2012 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130908211532/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/237394/malleswaram-basavanagudi-extensions.html | archive-date=8 September 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref> In 1903, motor vehicles came to be introduced in Bangalore.<ref>{{harvnb|Karnataka State Gazetteer: Bangalore District|p=91|Ref=kar}}</ref> In 1906, Bangalore became one of the first cities in India to have electricity from [[hydro power]], powered by the [[hydroelectric]] plant situated in [[Shivanasamudra]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Srinivasaraju |first=Sugata |title=ElectriCity |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?230851 |access-date=15 November 2011 |work=Outlook India |date=10 April 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110121155127/http://outlookindia.com/article.aspx?230851 |archive-date=21 January 2011 |url-status=live }}
</ref> The [[Indian Institute of Science]] was established in 1909, which subsequently played a major role in developing the city as a science research hub.<ref name="tt10" /> In 1912, the [[Bangalore torpedo]], an offensive explosive weapon widely used in [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], was devised in Bangalore by [[British Indian Army|British army officer]] Captain McClintock of the [[Madras Engineer Group|Madras Sappers and Miners]].<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/1844966/report-dna-special-bangalore-torpedo-gave-them-their-d-day-69-years-ago |title=Bangalore torpedo gave them their D-Day, 69 years ago |access-date=1 October 2013 |first=Nirad |last=Mudur |author2=Hemanth CS |date=7 June 2013 |work=[[Daily News and Analysis]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004213533/http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/1844966/report-dna-special-bangalore-torpedo-gave-them-their-d-day-69-years-ago |archive-date=4 October 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Bangalore's reputation as the "Garden City of India" began in 1927 with the [[silver jubilee]] celebrations of the rule of [[Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV]]. Several projects such as the construction of parks, public buildings and hospitals were instituted to improve the city.<ref name="Basavaraja">
{{cite book |last1=Basavaraja |first1=Kadati Reddera |title=History and Culture of Karnataka: Early Times to Unification |publisher=Chalukya Publications |year=1984 |page=332 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VvpIAAAAIAAJ |access-date=27 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227181924/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VvpIAAAAIAAJ |archive-date=27 December 2017 |url-status=live }}
</ref> Bangalore played an important role during the [[Indian independence movement]]. [[Mahatma Gandhi]] visited the city in 1927 and 1934 and addressed public meetings here.<ref name="banghist" /> In 1926, the [[1926 Binny Mills Strike|labour unrest]] in [[Binny Mills]] due to demand by textile workers for payment of bonus resulted in [[Lathi charge|lathi charging]] and police firing, resulting in the death of four workers, and several injuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Nair|2005|p=70|Ref=nair}}</ref> In July 1928, there were notable [[Bangalore disturbances|communal disturbances]] in Bangalore, like when a [[Ganesha|Ganesh]] idol was removed from a school compound in the Sultanpet area of Bangalore.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dimensions of Socio-Political Change in Mysore, 1918–40 |first=Chandrasekhar |last=S. |publisher=APH Publishing |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8364-1471-4 |page=135}}</ref> In 1940, the first flight between Bangalore and [[Bombay]] took off, which placed the city on India's urban map.<ref name="tt10">{{harvnb|Pinto|Srivastava|2008|p=10|Ref=TalkoftheTown}}</ref>

After India's independence in August 1947, Bangalore remained in the newly carved [[Mysore State]] of which the Maharaja of Mysore was the ''[[Rajapramukh]]'' (appointed governor).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Boland-Crewe |first1=Tara |last2=Lea |first2=David |title=The Territories and States of India |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/territoriesstate0000unse/page/135 135] |isbn=978-0-203-40290-0 |quote=When the new, extended Mysore was created on 1 November 1956 (by the addition of coastal, central and northern territories), Wodeyar became Governor of the whole state, which was renamed Karnataka in 1973. |url=https://archive.org/details/territoriesstate0000unse/page/135}}</ref> The "City Improvement Trust" was formed in 1945, and in 1949, the "City" and the "Cantonment" merged to form the [[Bangalore City Corporation]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-03-28 |title=Civic bodies of yore didn't digress from progress |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/237732/civic-bodies-yore-didnt-digress.html |access-date=2022-05-26 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> The [[Government of Karnataka]] later constituted the [[Bangalore Development Authority]] in 1976 to coordinate the activities of these two bodies.<ref name="lm">{{harvnb|Srinivas|2004|p=4|Ref=Sri2004}}</ref> Public sector employment and education provided opportunities for Kannadigas from the rest of the state to migrate to the city. Bangalore experienced rapid growth in the decades 1941–51 and 1971–81, which saw the arrival of many immigrants from northern Karnataka. The [[Government of India]] set up the [[All India Institute of Mental Health]] (AIIMH) in 1956. By 1961, Bangalore had become the sixth-largest city in India, with a population of 1,207,000.<ref name="bglrHist2" /> In the following decades, Bangalore's manufacturing base continued to expand with the establishment of private companies such as [[MICO]] (Motor Industries Company), which set up its manufacturing plant in the city.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2002-09-10|title=Mico Bangalore Plant To Go Five-Day Week|work=Business Standard India|url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/mico-bangalore-plant-to-go-five-day-week-102091001002_1.html|access-date=2022-01-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=MICO is now Bosch – Motorindia|url=https://www.motorindiaonline.in/mico-is-now-bosch/|access-date=2022-01-18|language=en-US|work=Motor India}}</ref>

By the 1980s, urbanisation had spilled over the current boundaries, and in 1986, the [[Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority]], was established to co-ordinate the development of the entire region as a single unit.<ref name="lm" /> On 8 February 1981, a [[1981 Bangalore circus fire|major fire broke out]] at Venus Circus in Bangalore, where more than 92 people died, the majority of them children.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/02/09/world/death-toll-raised-to-66-in-fire-at-circus-in-india.html |title=Death Toll Raised to 66 in Fire at Circus in India |date=9 February 1981 |work=The New York Times | access-date=31 January 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118202157/http://www.nytimes.com/1981/02/09/world/death-toll-raised-to-66-in-fire-at-circus-in-india.html | archive-date=18 November 2016 | url-status=live }}</ref> Bangalore experienced a growth in its real estate market in the 1980s and 1990s, spurred by capital investors from other parts of the country who converted Bangalore's large plots and colonial [[bungalow]]s into multi-storied apartments.<ref name="realestate">{{cite journal |last=Benjamin |first=Solomon |url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN020773.pdf |title=Governance, economic settings and poverty in Bangalore |journal=Environment & Urbanization |volume=12 |issue=1 |date=April 2000 |pages=35–36 |access-date=11 June 2012 |doi=10.1177/095624780001200104 |s2cid=14335580 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717051953/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN020773.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2012 |url-status=live |doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1985, [[Texas Instruments]] became the first [[multinational corporation]] to set up base in Bangalore. Other information technology companies followed suit and by the end of the 20th century, Bangalore had established itself as the ''[[Silicon Valley]] of India''.<ref name="bglrHist2" /> Today, Bangalore is India's third most populous city.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Most Populated Cities in India- Top 50 Indian Cities by Population|url=https://www.indiaonlinepages.com/population/most-populated-cities-in-india.html|access-date=2022-01-18|website=www.indiaonlinepages.com}}</ref> During the 21st century, Bangalore has had major terrorist attacks in [[2008 Bangalore serial blasts|2008]], [[2010 Bangalore stadium bombing|2010]], and [[2013 Bangalore blast|2013]].<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |last2= |last3= |first3= |title=8 blasts rock Bangalore |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/8-blasts-rock-bangalore/articleshow/3279730.cms |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=The Times of India |date= 25 July 2008|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2010-04-17 |title=Ten wounded in Bangalore cricket stadium blast |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-47776820100417 |access-date=2022-07-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |last2= |first2= |last3= |first3= |title=Bangalore blast a terror attack, confirms Home Ministry |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/bangalore-blast-bjp-terror-attack-home-ministry-sushilkumar-shinde-159094-2013-04-17 |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Bangalore geography and environment}}
[[File:BangaloreLake.jpg|thumb|The [[Hesaraghatta Lake]] in Bangalore]]
Bangalore lies in the southeast of the [[South India]]n state of Karnataka. It is in the heart of the [[Mysore Plateau]] (a region of the larger [[Cretaceous]] [[Deccan Plateau]]) at an average elevation of {{cvt|900|m|ft|abbr=on|0}}.<ref name="ground water">
{{cite web |url=http://cgwb.gov.in/District_Profile/karnataka/BANGALORE_URBAN_BROCHURE.pdf |title=Ground water information booklet |publisher=Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India |access-date=16 June 2012 |date=December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517230107/http://cgwb.gov.in/District_Profile/karnataka/BANGALORE_URBAN_BROCHURE.pdf |archive-date=17 May 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|8|date=December 2012}} It is located at {{Coord|12|58|44|N|77|35|30|E}} and covers {{cvt|741|km²|0}}.<ref name="area">{{cite web |url=http://www.kar.nic.in/finance/bud2007/bs07e.pdf |title=Finance budget for 2007–08 |publisher=Government of Karnataka |access-date=28 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070628141329/http://www.kar.nic.in/finance/bud2007/bs07e.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The majority of the city of Bangalore lies in the [[Bangalore Urban district]] of Karnataka and the surrounding rural areas are a part of the [[Bangalore Rural district]]. The Government of Karnataka has carved out the new district of [[Ramanagara]] from the old Bangalore Rural district.<ref>{{cite web |title=District census handbook- Bangalore rural |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2929_PART_A_DCHB_BANGALORE%20RURAL.pdf |publisher=Directorate of census operations Karnataka| access-date=26 October 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114052450/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/2929_PART_A_DCHB_BANGALORE%20RURAL.pdf| archive-date=14 November 2016| url-status=live}}</ref>

Bangalore's topography is generally flat, although the western parts of the city are hilly. The highest point is [[Vidyaranyapura]] [[Doddabettahalli]], {{cvt|962|m|0}} above sea level, situated to the northwest of the city.<ref name="bglrGeo">{{cite web |url=http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/wetlands/sarea.html |title=Study area: Bangalore |publisher=Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science |access-date=11 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716221547/http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/wetlands/sarea.html |archive-date=16 July 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> No major rivers run through the city, although the [[Arkavathy River|Arkavathi]] and [[South Pennar river|South Pennar]] cross paths at the [[Nandi Hills, India|Nandi Hills]], {{cvt|60|km|0}} to the north. [[River Vrishabhavathi]], a minor tributary of the Arkavathi, arises within the city at Basavanagudi and flows through the city. The rivers Arkavathi and Vrishabhavathi together carry much of Bangalore's [[sewage]].<ref>{{Cite web |author=Chethan Kumar|date=Dec 15, 2021 |title=K'taka Dumps 1,746m Litres Sewage Into Rivers Each Day {{!}} Bengaluru News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/ktaka-dumps-1746m-litres-sewage-into-rivers-each-day/articleshow/88287378.cms |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-11 |title=Can Vrishabhavathi be Bengaluru's Thames? |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/city/top-bengaluru-stories/can-vrishabhavathi-be-bengalurus-thames-1090378.html |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> A [[sanitary sewer|sewerage]] system, constructed in 1922, covers {{cvt|215|km²|0}} of the city and connects with five [[sewage treatment]] centres located in the city's periphery.<ref name="sewage">{{cite news |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/mar112004/metro1.asp |title=Each drop of water counts |last=Tekur |first=Suma | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311005340/http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/mar112004/metro1.asp | archive-date=11 March 2007 |newspaper=Deccan Herald |date=11 March 2004}}</ref>

In the 16th century, Kempe Gowda I constructed many lakes to meet the town's water requirements. The Kempambudhi Kere, since overrun by modern development, was prominent among those lakes. In the first half of the 20th century, the Nandi Hills [[waterworks]] were commissioned by [[Mirza Ismail|Sir Mirza Ismail]] ([[Diwan (title)|Diwan]] of Mysore, 1926–41 CE) to provide a water supply to the city. The river [[Kaveri]] provides around 80% of the city's water supply and the remaining 20% is obtained from the Thippagondanahalli and Hesaraghatta reservoirs of the Arkavathi river.<ref name="watersup">{{cite web |url=http://bwssb.org/help_faq.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060206121846/http://bwssb.org/help_faq.html | archive-date=6 February 2006 |title=Help/FAQ |publisher=Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board | access-date=2 July 2007}}</ref> Bangalore receives {{Convert|800|e6litre|e6USgal||abbr=off}} of water a day, more than any other Indian city,<ref name="bglrWater">{{cite news |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/NM2/Thirsty-Bangalore-invokes-god/Article1-6117.aspx |title=Thirsty Bangalore invokes god |newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=9 June 2003 |access-date=11 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303074533/http://www.hindustantimes.com/News-Feed/nm2/Thirsty-Bangalore-invokes-god/Article1-6117.aspx |archive-date=3 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> but Bangalore does face occasional water shortages, especially during summer and in years with low rainfall.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 February 2018 |title=water shortage: Water crisis: Is Bengaluru heading for Day Zero? |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/water-crisis-is-bluru-heading-for-day-zero/articleshow/62893432.cms |access-date=2022-05-27 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref> A [[random sample|random sampling]] of the [[air quality index]] (AQI) of twenty stations within the city ranged from 76 to 314, suggesting heavy to severe air pollution around areas of high traffic.<ref name="EIA">{{cite web |url=http://www.bmrtl.com/EIA.PDF | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060320001853/http://www.bmrtl.com/EIA.PDF | archive-date=20 March 2006 |title=Environmental impact analysis |publisher=Bangalore Metropolitan Rapid Transport Corporation Limited, Government of Karnataka |year=2006 | access-date=11 June 2012}}</ref>

Bangalore has a handful of freshwater lakes and [[water tank]]s, the largest of which are Madivala tank, [[Hebbal Lake, Bangalore|Hebbal Lake]], [[Ulsoor]] Lake, Yediyur Lake and [[Sankey Tank]]. However, about 90% of Bangalore's lakes are polluted;<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=More than 90% of Bengaluru's lakes are polluted or encroached |url=http://scroll.in/article/804967/more-than-90-of-bengalurus-lakes-are-polluted-or-encroached |access-date=2022-06-17 |website=Scroll.in |date= 14 March 2016|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=10 April 2021|first=Naveen|last=Menezes|title=Bengaluru's lakes: The good, the bad, the very dirty|url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/civic/bengalurus-lakes-the-good-the-bad-the-very-dirty/articleshow/81995420.cms|access-date=2022-01-24|website=Bangalore Mirror|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-12-17|title=Lakes of Bengaluru: Industrial effluents, raw sewage; stinky tale of Chandapura lake|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bangalore/lakes-of-bengaluru-industrial-effluents-pollution-chandrapura-lake-7633698/|access-date=2022-01-24|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref> the city government began revival and conservation efforts in December 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bengaluru plans revival of its old charm, to revive 25 lakes|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/lifestyle/news/2020/12/28/bengaluru-plans-to-revive-25-lakes.html|access-date=2022-01-24|website=OnManorama}}</ref> Groundwater occurs in [[silt]]y to [[sand]]y layers of the [[alluvial]] sediments. The [[Peninsular Gneiss]]ic Complex (PGC) is the most dominant rock unit in the area and includes [[granite]]s, [[gneiss]]es and [[migmatite]]s, while the soils of Bangalore consist of red [[laterite]] and red, fine [[loam]]y to [[clay]]ey soils.<ref name="EIA" />

The city's vegetation is mostly large [[deciduous]] [[canopy (biology)|canopy]] and some [[coconut]] trees.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nagendra |first=Suri Venkatachalam & Harini |title=Photo essay: If you look closely, you can still find the 'Garden City' in Bengaluru |url=https://scroll.in/magazine/885306/secular-sacred-or-domestic-how-bengaluru-treats-the-trees-on-its-streets |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=Scroll.in |date=13 July 2018 |language=en-US}}</ref> Many trees are frequently felled to pave way for infrastructure development.<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |last2= |last3= |first3= |title=Over 1 lakh trees cut to build roads in Karnataka in 4 years {{!}} Bengaluru News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/over-1-lakh-trees-cut-to-build-roads-in-karnataka-in-4-years/articleshow/90580162.cms |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=The Times of India |date= April 2022|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-12-28 |title=3,559 trees to be cut down in city for road, metro |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/city/3559-trees-to-be-cut-down-in-city-for-road-metro-789337.html |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> Though Bangalore has been classified as a part of the seismic zone II (a stable zone), it has experienced [[earthquake]]s of magnitude as high as 4.5 on the [[Richter scale]].<ref name="quake">
{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/jan/30inter.htm |title=The Rediff interview. Dr S K Srivastav, additional director general, Indian Meteorological Department |work=[[Rediff.com]] |date=30 January 2000 |first=Onkar |last=Singh |access-date=2 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214104533/http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/jan/30inter.htm |archive-date=14 February 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Climate ===

Bangalore has a [[tropical savanna climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''Aw'') with distinct [[wet season|wet]] and [[dry season|dry]] seasons. Due to its high elevation, Bangalore usually enjoys a more moderate climate throughout the year, although occasional [[heat wave]]s can make summer somewhat uncomfortable.<ref name="hightemp">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/05/18/stories/2005051818670300.htm |title=Rise in temperature 'unusual' for Bangalore |access-date=2 July 2007 |date=18 May 2005 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208035132/http://www.hindu.com/2005/05/18/stories/2005051818670300.htm |archive-date=8 February 2012 |url-status=dead |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref> The coolest month is January with an average low temperature of {{cvt|15.1|°C}} and the hottest month is April with an average high of {{cvt|34.1|°C}}.<ref name="metrain">{{cite web |url=http://www.imd.ernet.in/section/climate/bangalore1.htm |title=Bangalore |publisher=India Meteorological Department, Government of India | access-date=7 February 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708113015/http://www.imd.ernet.in/section/climate/bangalore1.htm | archive-date=8 July 2007 | url-status=dead}}</ref> The highest temperature ever recorded in Bangalore is {{cvt|39.2|°C|0}}, recorded 24 April 2016, corresponding with [[2014–2016 El Niño event|the strong El Niño]] in that year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/bengaluru-records-highest-temperature-since-1931/article8516533.ece |title=Bengaluru records highest temperature since 1931 |newspaper=The Hindu |date=24 April 2016 |access-date=5 September 2017}}</ref> The lowest ever recorded is {{cvt|7.8|°C|0}} in January 1884.<ref name="hightem">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/10/stories/2006051022920300.htm |date=10 May 2006 |title=Set up rain gauges in areas prone to flooding |first=Vidyashree |last=Amaresh | access-date=22 December 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071216110551/http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/10/stories/2006051022920300.htm | archive-date=16 December 2007 | url-status=dead |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref name="lowtem">{{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/Archives/Dec172006/city115220061217.asp |work=Deccan Herald |date=17 December 2006 |title=Bangalore weather back again |author=Ashwini Y.S. | access-date=22 December 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204091959/http://www.deccanherald.com/Archives/Dec172006/city115220061217.asp | archive-date=4 December 2007 | url-status=dead}}</ref> Winter temperatures rarely drop below {{cvt|14|°C}}, and summer temperatures seldom exceed {{cvt|36|°C}}. Bangalore receives rainfall from both the northeast and the southwest [[monsoon]]s, and the wettest months is September, followed by October and August.<ref name="metrain" /> The summer heat is moderated by fairly frequent [[thunderstorm]]s, which occasionally cause power outages and local flooding. Most of the rainfall occurs during the late afternoon or evening and rain before noon is infrequent. November 2015 (290.4 mm) was recorded as one of the wettest months in Bangalore with heavy rains causing severe flooding in some areas, and closure of a number of organisations for over a couple of days.<ref>{{cite web |title=Global monitoring precipitation |url=http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/global_monitoring/precipitation/sn43295_1yr.gif |website=cpc.ncep.noaa.gov |access-date=17 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225922/http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/global_monitoring/precipitation/sn43295_1yr.gif |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> The heaviest rainfall recorded in a 24-hour period is {{cvt|179|mm|in|0}} recorded on 1 October 1997.<ref name="rainmax">{{cite web |url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2223/stories/20051118005402400.htm |work=The Frontline |date=5 November 2005 |title=Bangalore's woes |first=Ravi |last=Sharma |access-date=5 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220184237/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2223/stories/20051118005402400.htm |archive-date=20 February 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2022, Bangalore faced a large amount of rainfall, which was 368% more than the yearly average.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Bhattacharjee |first1=Nivedita |last2=Mandayam |first2=Nandan |date=2022-09-06 |title=India's Bengaluru hit by flooding, traffic snarls after heavy rain |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/india/indias-bengaluru-hit-by-flooding-traffic-snarls-after-heavy-rain-2022-09-05/ |access-date=2022-09-12}}</ref> Several areas were flooded, and power supply was also cut off.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-09-12 |title=Bengaluru floods: How families struggled to find help as India's IT capital drowned |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-62849937 |access-date=2022-09-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bureau |first=Bengaluru |date=2022-09-05 |title=Heavy rain brings Bengaluru to its knees |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/heavy-rain-brings-bengaluru-to-its-knees/article65854264.ece |access-date=2022-09-12 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

<div class="center">{{Weather box
| location = Bangalore (1991–2020, extremes 1901–present)
| metric first = Y
| single line = Y
| Jan record high C = 32.8
| Feb record high C = 35.9
| Mar record high C = 37.3
| Apr record high C = 39.2
| May record high C = 38.9
| Jun record high C = 38.1
| Jul record high C = 33.3
| Aug record high C = 33.3
| Sep record high C = 33.3
| Oct record high C = 32.4
| Nov record high C = 33.0
| Dec record high C = 31.1
| year record high C = 39.2
| Jan high C = 28.4
| Feb high C = 30.9
| Mar high C = 33.4
| Apr high C = 34.1
| May high C = 33.1
| Jun high C = 29.7
| Jul high C = 28.3
| Aug high C = 28.1
| Sep high C = 28.6
| Oct high C = 28.5
| Nov high C = 27.4
| Dec high C = 26.9
| year high C = 29.8
| Jan low C = 16.1
| Feb low C = 17.6
| Mar low C = 20.2
| Apr low C = 22.1
| May low C = 21.8
| Jun low C = 20.6
| Jul low C = 20.1
| Aug low C = 20.0
| Sep low C = 20.0
| Oct low C = 19.8
| Nov low C = 18.3
| Dec low C = 16.4
| year low C = 19.4
| Jan record low C = 7.8
| Feb record low C = 9.4
| Mar record low C = 11.1
| Apr record low C = 14.4
| May record low C = 16.7
| Jun record low C = 16.7
| Jul record low C = 16.1
| Aug record low C = 14.4
| Sep record low C = 15.0
| Oct record low C = 13.2
| Nov record low C = 9.6
| Dec record low C = 8.9
| year record low C = 7.8
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 1.6
| Feb rain mm = 7.1
| Mar rain mm = 14.7
| Apr rain mm = 61.7
| May rain mm = 128.7
| Jun rain mm = 110.3
| Jul rain mm = 116.4
| Aug rain mm = 162.7
| Sep rain mm = 208.3
| Oct rain mm = 186.4
| Nov rain mm = 64.5
| Dec rain mm = 15.4
| year rain mm = 1077.8
| Jan rain days = 0.2
| Feb rain days = 0.3
| Mar rain days = 1.1
| Apr rain days = 4.0
| May rain days = 7.5
| Jun rain days = 6.8
| Jul rain days = 8.0
| Aug rain days = 10.2
| Sep rain days = 9.5
| Oct rain days = 9.6
| Nov rain days = 4.2
| Dec rain days = 1.3
| year rain days = 62.7
| time day = 17:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| Jan humidity = 41
| Feb humidity = 32
| Mar humidity = 29
| Apr humidity = 35
| May humidity = 47
| Jun humidity = 62
| Jul humidity = 65
| Aug humidity = 67
| Sep humidity = 64
| Oct humidity = 65
| Nov humidity = 61
| Dec humidity = 53
| year humidity = 52
| Jan sun = 262.3
| Feb sun = 247.6
| Mar sun = 271.4
| Apr sun = 257.0
| May sun = 241.1
| Jun sun = 136.8
| Jul sun = 111.8
| Aug sun = 114.3
| Sep sun = 143.6
| Oct sun = 173.1
| Nov sun = 190.2
| Dec sun = 211.7
| Jan uv = 10
| Feb uv = 12
| Mar uv = 12
| Apr uv = 12
| May uv = 12
| Jun uv = 12
| Jul uv = 12
| Aug uv = 12
| Sep uv = 12
| Oct uv = 12
| Nov uv = 10
| Dec uv = 10
| source 1 = [[India Meteorological Department]]<ref name=IMDnormals>
{{cite web| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf| archive-date=5 February 2020 |url=https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf |title=Station: Bangalore/Bangaluru Climatological Table 1981–2010 |work=Climatological Normals 1981–2010 |publisher=India Meteorological Department |date=January 2015 |pages=81–82| access-date=10 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=IMDextremes>
{{cite web| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205042509/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf| archive-date=5 February 2020 |url=https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf |title=Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012) |publisher=India Meteorological Department |date=December 2016 |page=M88| access-date=10 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=IMDcityrainfall>
{{cite web
| url = https://cdsp.imdpune.gov.in/extremes_1991_2020/?stn=43295
| title = Climatological Information - Bengaluru (43295)
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| access-date = 27 September 2022}}</ref> Time and Date (dewpoints, 2005–2015)<ref>{{cite web
|url = https://www.timeanddate.com/weather/india/bengaluru/climate
|title = Climate & Weather Averages in Bengaluru, India
|publisher = Time and Date
|access-date = 19 July 2022}}</ref>
| source 2 = [[NOAA]] (sun: 1971–1990)<ref name="NOAA">{{cite web |url=ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/RA-II/IN/43295.TXT |title=Bangalore Climate Normals 1971–1990 |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | access-date=24 December 2012}}</ref> Weather Atlas<ref name="Weather Atlas">
{{cite web
| url = https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/india/bengaluru-climate
| title = Climate and monthly weather forecast Bengaluru, India
| publisher = Weather Atlas
| access-date = 13 June 2022
}}</ref>
| date = August 2010
| source =
| Jan dew point C = 13
| Feb dew point C = 12
| Mar dew point C = 13
| Apr dew point C = 17
| May dew point C = 19
| Jun dew point C = 19
| Jul dew point C = 19
| Aug dew point C = 19
| Sep dew point C = 19
| Oct dew point C = 18
| Nov dew point C = 17
| Dec dew point C = 15
}}{{Weather box
| location = Bangalore ([[HAL Airport]]) 1991–2020, extremes 1901–present
| metric first = Y
| single line = Y
| Jan record high C = 32.5
| Feb record high C = 35.0
| Mar record high C = 36.6
| Apr record high C = 38.3
| May record high C = 38.0
| Jun record high C = 37.5
| Jul record high C = 33.0
| Aug record high C = 32.2
| Sep record high C = 33.0
| Oct record high C = 32.5
| Nov record high C = 31.7
| Dec record high C = 30.4
| year record high C = 38.3
| Jan high C = 28.0
| Feb high C = 30.4
| Mar high C = 32.9
| Apr high C = 33.8
| May high C = 33.0
| Jun high C = 29.9
| Jul high C = 28.6
| Aug high C = 28.3
| Sep high C = 28.7
| Oct high C = 28.3
| Nov high C = 27.1
| Dec high C = 26.4
| year high C = 29.6
| Jan low C = 15.0
| Feb low C = 16.4
| Mar low C = 18.9
| Apr low C = 21.2
| May low C = 21.3
| Jun low C = 20.3
| Jul low C = 19.8
| Aug low C = 19.7
| Sep low C = 19.6
| Oct low C = 19.3
| Nov low C = 17.7
| Dec low C = 15.6
| year low C = 18.7
| Jan record low C = 8.8
| Feb record low C = 10.0
| Mar record low C = 11.7
| Apr record low C = 14.6
| May record low C = 16.7
| Jun record low C = 15.6
| Jul record low C = 16.1
| Aug record low C = 15.0
| Sep record low C = 15.6
| Oct record low C = 13.7
| Nov record low C = 10.5
| Dec record low C = 9.2
| year record low C = 8.8
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 2.3
| Feb rain mm = 5.8
| Mar rain mm = 11.2
| Apr rain mm = 59.8
| May rain mm = 110.4
| Jun rain mm = 101.8
| Jul rain mm = 101.1
| Aug rain mm = 133.6
| Sep rain mm = 176.4
| Oct rain mm = 177.3
| Nov rain mm = 59.0
| Dec rain mm = 15.0
| year rain mm = 953.7
| Jan rain days = 0.2
| Feb rain days = 0.4
| Mar rain days = 0.8
| Apr rain days = 3.5
| May rain days = 6.6
| Jun rain days = 5.8
| Jul rain days = 7.6
| Aug rain days = 9.0
| Sep rain days = 8.9
| Oct rain days = 9.3
| Nov rain days = 4.3
| Dec rain days = 1.1
| year rain days = 57.5
| time day = 17:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
| Jan humidity = 41
| Feb humidity = 31
| Mar humidity = 28
| Apr humidity = 35
| May humidity = 46
| Jun humidity = 62
| Jul humidity = 65
| Aug humidity = 67
| Sep humidity = 63
| Oct humidity = 65
| Nov humidity = 61
| Dec humidity = 54
| year humidity = 52
| date = August 2010
| source = [[India Meteorological Department]]<ref name=IMDnormals>
{{cite web| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205040301/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf| archive-date=5 February 2020 |url=https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/1981-2010%20CLIM%20NORMALS%20%28STATWISE%29.pdf |title=Station: Bangalore/Bangaluru Climatological Table 1981–2010 |work=Climatological Normals 1981–2010 |publisher=India Meteorological Department |date=January 2015 |pages=81–82| access-date=10 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=IMDextremes>
{{cite web| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205042509/http://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf| archive-date=5 February 2020 |url=https://imdpune.gov.in/library/public/EXTREMES%20OF%20TEMPERATURE%20and%20RAINFALL%20upto%202012.pdf |title=Extremes of Temperature & Rainfall for Indian Stations (Up to 2012) |publisher=India Meteorological Department |date=December 2016 |page=M88| access-date=10 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=IMDcityrainfall2>
{{cite web
| url = https://cdsp.imdpune.gov.in/extremes_1991_2020/?stn=43296
| title = Climatological Information - Bengaluru (43296)
| publisher = India Meteorological Department
| access-date = 27 September 2022}}</ref>
}}</div>

== Demographics ==
{{See also|Housing in Bangalore}}

{{Historical populations
| title= Population growth
| state=
| 1941| 406760
| 1951| 778977
| 1961| 1207000
| 1971| 1654000
| 1981| 2922000
| 1991| 4130000
| 2001| 5101000
| 2011| 8425970
| estimate=
| estyear=
| estref=
| footnote= Source: [[Census of India]]<ref name="Census population">
{{cite web |url=http://www.cicred.org/Eng/Seminars/Details/Seminars/PDE2007/Papers/IYER_Neelakantan_paperNairobi2007-project.pdf |title=Census population |work=Census of India |page=21 | access-date=7 June 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519132559/http://www.cicred.org/Eng/Seminars/Details/Seminars/PDE2007/Papers/IYER_Neelakantan_paperNairobi2007-project.pdf | archive-date=19 May 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |title=Provisional population totals, Census of India 2011 | access-date=29 November 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507135928/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | archive-date=7 May 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref>}}
[[File:Bangalore .jpg|thumb|Sunset over the city from Nagawara|alt=|left]]
[[File:Shivoham Shiva Statue.jpg|thumb|200px|Lord [[Shiva]] statue at [[Shivoham Shiva Temple]]|alt=|left]]
Bangalore is a [[megacity]] with a population of 8,443,675 in the city and 10,456,000 in the urban agglomeration,<ref name="UNcities2016">{{cite web |title=The World's Cities in 2016 |url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2016_data_booklet.pdf |publisher=[[United Nations]] |access-date=4 March 2017 |page=4 |date=October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112211410/http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2016_data_booklet.pdf |archive-date=12 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="census2011.co.in Bangalore">Bangalore Metropolitan/City Population section of {{cite web |title=Bangalore Population Sex Ratio in Bangalore Literacy rate Bangalore |url=http://www.census2011.co.in/census/city/448-bangalore.html |website=[[2011 Census of India]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126061217/http://www.census2011.co.in/census/city/448-bangalore.html |archive-date=26 January 2017}}</ref> up from 8.5 million at the 2011 census.<ref name="2011UA">{{cite web |title=Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population 1 lakh and above |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |work=Censusindia |publisher=The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India |access-date=17 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113152754/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is the third most populous city in India, the 18th most populous city in the world and the [[List of million-plus urban agglomerations in India|fifth most populous urban agglomeration]] in India.<ref name="2011 pp tableA2" /><ref name="census11">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |publisher=censusindia.gov.in |title=Cities having population 1 lakh and above | access-date=24 July 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507135928/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_2_PR_Cities_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | archive-date=7 May 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref> With a growth rate of 38% during the decade, Bangalore was the fastest-growing Indian metropolis after [[New Delhi]] between 1991 and 2001. Residents of Bangalore are referred to as "Bangaloreans" in English, ''Bengaloorinavaru or Bengaloorigaru'' in [[Kannada]] and ''Banglori'' in [[Hindi]] or [[Urdu]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-09-13|title=Banglori Dakhni: How a language associated with Hyderabad thrives in Bengaluru too|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/banglori-dakhni-how-language-associated-hyderabad-thrives-bengaluru-too-108850|access-date=2021-07-25|website=The News Minute|language=en}}</ref> People from other states have migrated to Bangalore, study, or work there as well.<ref name="kannadapop">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/07/23/stories/2004072310610400.htm |title=Kannadigas assured of all support |date=23 July 2004 |access-date=10 May 2010 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110630035953/http://www.hindu.com/2004/07/23/stories/2004072310610400.htm |archive-date=30 June 2011 |url-status=dead |work=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref>
{{bar box
| title=Religion in Bangalore City (2011)<ref name="GISData" />
| titlebar=#Fcd116
| left1=Religion
| right1=Percent
| float=right
| bars=
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|darkorange|79}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|green|13.90}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|blue|5.48}}
{{bar percent|[[Jainism]]|pink|0.97}}
{{bar percent|[[Sikhism]]| darkkhaki|0.15}}
{{bar percent|[[Buddhism]]|gold|0.06}}
{{bar percent|Others|black|0.44}}
}}

{{as of|alt=According to the 2011|2011}} census of India, 79% of Bangalore's population is [[Hindu]], a little less than the [[Demographics of India|national average]].<ref name="GISData">{{cite web |title=Table C-01 Population By Religion - Karnataka |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11378/download/14491/DDW29C-01%20MDDS.XLS |website=census.gov.in |publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}} Scroll down to BBMP (M. Corp. + OG) in the document at row no. '''596'''.</ref> [[Muslim]]s comprise 13.9% of the population, roughly the same as their national average. [[Christians]] and [[Jain]]s account for 5.4% and 1.0% of the population, respectively, double that of their national averages. The city has a literacy rate of 90%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf |title=Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 2011 |publisher=[[Government of India]] | access-date=28 December 2011 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113152754/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/paper2/data_files/India2/Table_3_PR_UA_Citiees_1Lakh_and_Above.pdf | archive-date=13 November 2011}}</ref> Roughly 10% of Bangalore's population lives in [[slum]]s<ref name="indiancityslums">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ |title=Total Population, Slum Population ... | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070806121833/http://www.censusindia.net/results/slum/slum2.html | archive-date=6 August 2007}} Census of India, 2001. 2006. [[Government of India]]</ref>—a relatively low proportion when compared to other cities in the developing world such as [[Mumbai]] (50%) and [[Nairobi]] (60%).<ref name="slumpop2">Warah, Rasna. [http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/develop/2003/1006slums.htm "Slums Are the Heartbeat of Cities"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060217174046/http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/develop/2003/1006slums.htm |date=17 February 2006 }}. The EastAfrican. 2006. National Media Group Ltd. 6 October 2003</ref> The 2008 [[NCRB|National Crime Records Bureau]] statistics indicate that Bangalore accounts for 8.5% of the total crimes reported from 35 major cities in India which is an increase in the crime rate when compared to the number of crimes fifteen years ago.<ref name="NCRB">{{cite web |url=http://ncrb.nic.in/CII2008/cii-2008/Snapshots.pdf |title=Snaphhots – 2008 |publisher=National Crime Records Bureau |access-date=21 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622023825/http://ncrb.nic.in/CII2008/cii-2008/Snapshots.pdf |archive-date=22 June 2011}}</ref>

In the ''Ease of Living Index 2020 (''published by the [[Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs|Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs]]), it was ranked the most livable Indian city with a population of over a million.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Sen |first=Meghna |date=2021-03-04 |title=Ease of Living Index: Bengaluru is the best city to live in India, Pune next |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/ease-of-living-index-2020-bengaluru-tops-list-pune-second-ahmedabad-ranked-third-full-list-11614844555278.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304082244/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/ease-of-living-index-2020-bengaluru-tops-list-pune-second-ahmedabad-ranked-third-full-list-11614844555278.html |archive-date=2021-03-04 |access-date=2021-03-15 |website=mint |language=en}}</ref>

Bangalore has the same major urbanisation problems seen in many fast-growing cities in developing countries: rapidly escalating social inequality, mass displacement and dispossession, the proliferation of slum settlements, and epidemic public health crisis due to severe water shortage and sewage problems in poor and working-class neighbourhoods.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roy |first1=Ananya |last2=Ong |first2=Aihwa |title=Worlding Cities: Asian Experiments and the Art of Being Global |chapter=Speculating on the Next World City |volume=42 |edition=illustrated |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4443-4678-7}}</ref>
{{Further|Rashtrottahana Parishat}}

=== Languages ===
{{Pie chart
|caption = Languages of Bangalore (2011)<ref name="language"/>
|label1 = [[Kannada]] |value1 = 42.05 |color1 = darkslateblue
|label2 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]] |value2 = 16.34 |color2 = royalblue
|label3 = [[Telugu language|Telugu]] |value3 = 13.73 |color3 = steelblue
|label4 = [[Urdu]] |value4 = 13.00 |color4 = green
|label5 = [[Hindi]] |value5 = 4.64 |color5 = orange
|label6 = [[Malayalam]] |value6 = 3.16 |color6 = cornflowerblue
|label7 = [[Marathi language|Marathi]] |value7 = 2.05 |color7 = red
|label8 = Others |value8 =5.03 |color8=black
}}
The official language of Bangalore is [[Kannada]], spoken by 42.05% of the population. The second-largest language is [[Tamil language|Tamil]], spoken by 16.34% of the population. 13.73% speak [[Telugu language|Telugu]], 13.00% [[Urdu]], 4.64% [[Hindi]], 3.16% [[Malayalam]] and 2.05% have [[Marathi language|Marathi]] as their first language.<ref name="language">{{Cite web |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10255/download/13367/DDW-C16-TOWN-STMT-MDDS-2900.XLSX|title=Table C-16 Population by Mother Tongue (Urban): Karnataka|website=censusindia.gov.in|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}} See BBMP (M Corp. +OG) (Part)</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kaminsky |first1=Arnold P. |last2=Long |first2=Roger D. |title=India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic |volume=1 |edition=reprint |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2011 |page=75 |isbn=978-0-313-37463-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.milestoneloc.com/how-many-languages-are-spoken-in-bangalore/#:~:text=The%20percentage%20of%20languages%20spoken,Telegu%3A%2014%25 | title=How Many Languages are Spoken in Bangalore? - Milestone Localization | date=9 February 2022 }}</ref> Other major languages in the city include [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Marwari language|Marwari]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]], [[Odia language|Odia]] and [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]. The Kannada language spoken in Bangalore is a form called as 'Old [[Mysuru]] Kannada' which is also used in most of the southern part of Karnataka. A vernacular dialect of this, known as [[Bangalore Kannada]], is spoken among the youth in Bangalore and the adjoining [[Mysore]] regions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Keith |last2=Ogilvie |first2=Sarah |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |edition=revised |publisher=Elsevier |year=2010 |page=577 |isbn=978-0-08-087775-4}}</ref> English is extensively spoken and is the principal language of the professional and business class.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lindsay |first1=Jennifer |title=Between Tongues: Translation And/of/in Performance in Asia |edition=illustrated, reprint, annotated |publisher=NUS Press |year=2006 |page=52 |isbn=9789971693398}}</ref>

The major communities of Bangalore who share a long history in the city, other than the [[Kannadigas]], are the [[Telugus]] and [[Tamilians]], who both migrated to Bangalore in search of a better livelihood, and the [[Deccani people|Dakhanis]].<ref name="diverse" /><ref>{{cite news |first=Deepika |last=Sarma |title=Building blocks of one of the city's largest communities |date=4 October 2012 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/building-blocks-of-one-of-the-citys-largest-communities/article3961678.ece |work=The Hindu | access-date=9 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921074349/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/building-blocks-of-one-of-the-citys-largest-communities/article3961678.ece | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Srinivas|2004|pp=100–102|loc=The Settlement of Tamil-Speaking Groups in Bangalore|Ref=Sri2004}}</ref> Already in the 16th century, Bangalore had few Tamil or Telugu or speakers, who spoke Kannada for business.<ref>{{harvnb|Srinivas|2004|p=5|Ref=Sri2004}}</ref> Telugu-speaking people initially came to Bangalore on invitation by the Mysore royalty.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/31/stories/2007103160320300.htm |title=Bangalore calling: it all goes way back... |access-date=9 September 2013 |last=Srivatsa |first=Sharath S. |date=31 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060736/http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/31/stories/2007103160320300.htm |archive-date=21 September 2013 |url-status=dead |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref>

Other native communities are the [[Tuluvas]] and the [[Konkanis]] of coastal Karnataka, and the [[Kodavas]] of the state's [[Kodagu district]]. The migrant communities include [[Maharashtrians]], [[Punjabis]], [[Rajasthanis]], [[Gujaratis]], [[Tamilians]], [[Telugus]], [[Malayalis]], [[Odias]], [[Sindhis]], Biharis, Jharkhandis, and [[Bengalis]].<ref name="diverse">{{cite web |first=G N |last=Prashanth |title=A melting pot that welcomes all |url=http://mobiletoi.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=yes&pageid=22&edlabel=TOIBG&mydateHid=18-07-2009&pubname=Times+of+India+-+Bangalore&edname=&articleid=Ar02200&publabel=TOI |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502011608/http://mobiletoi.timesofindia.com/mobile.aspx?article=yes&pageid=22&edlabel=TOIBG&mydateHid=18-07-2009&pubname=Times+of+India+-+Bangalore&edname=&articleid=Ar02200&publabel=TOI |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 May 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=9 September 2013}}</ref> Bangalore once had a large [[Anglo-Indian]] population, the second-largest after [[Calcutta]]. Today, there are around 10,000 Anglo-Indians in Bangalore.<ref>{{cite news |author1=M. V. Chandrasekhar |author2=Sahana Charan |title=They are now part of city's unique social mix |date=23 December 2006 |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/12/23/stories/2006122324880300.htm |access-date=9 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060916/http://www.hindu.com/2006/12/23/stories/2006122324880300.htm |archive-date=21 September 2013 |url-status=dead |work=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref> Bangalorean Christians include [[Tamil Christians]], [[Mangalorean Catholics]], Kannadiga Christians, [[Saint Thomas Christians|Malayali Syrian Christians]] and [[List of Christian denominations in Northeast India|Northeast Indian Christians]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Crossette |first1=Barbara |title=Bangalore Journal; Christians Revel in Conversion Back to Indianness |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/20/world/bangalore-journal-christians-revel-in-conversion-back-to-indianness.html~:text=In%20Bangalore%2C%20a%20city%20of,counterpart%2C%20the%20Mar%20Thoma%20church%3B |website=The New York Times |date=20 January 1990}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hefner |first1=Robert W. |title=Global Pentecostalism in the 21st Century |date=2013 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-01094-0 |pages=194–222 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bHHAAAAQBAJ&q=prominent+christian+denominations+in+bangalore&pg=PA194 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Joseph |last=Christopher |title=In the Indian rector's murder, the 'why' matters as much as the 'who' |url=http://www.ucanews.com/news/in-the-indian-rectors-murder-the-why-matters-as-much-as-the-who/70603 |date=31 March 2014 |publisher=UCA News |access-date=1 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409060525/http://www.ucanews.com/news/in-the-indian-rectors-murder-the-why-matters-as-much-as-the-who/70603 |archive-date=9 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> Muslims form a very diverse population, consisting of [[Dakhini]] and Urdu-speaking Muslims, [[Kutchi Memon]]s, [[Labbay]] and [[Mappila]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gayer |first1=Laurent |last2=Jaffrelot |first2=Christophe |title=Muslims in Indian Cities: Trajectories of Marginalisation |edition=illustrated |publisher=Hurst Publishers |year=2012 |page=290 |isbn=978-1-84904-176-8}}</ref>

Other languages with sizeable numbers of speakers include [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Marwari language|Marwari]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Kodava language|Kodagu]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Lambadi]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]].<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-16/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-2900.XLSX 2011 census]</ref>

== Civic administration ==
{{See also|Infrastructure in Bangalore}}

=== Management ===

{{Multiple images
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| image1 = High Court of Karnataka, Bangalore MMK.jpg
| caption1 = The [[Karnataka High Court]] is the supreme judicial body in Karnataka and is located in Bangalore.
| image2 = Vikas Soudha.JPG
| caption2 = The Vikasa Soudha, situated adjacent to the [[Vidhana Soudha]], houses many state ministries.
| image3 =
| caption3 = Typical [[Bangalore City Police|Bangalore Police]] vehicle
}}

The [[Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike]] (BBMP, ''Greater Bangalore Municipal Corporation'') is in charge of civic administration of the city. It was formed in 2007 by merging 100 wards of the erstwhile ''Bangalore Mahanagara Palike'', with seven neighbouring City Municipal Councils, one Town Municipal Council and 110 villages around Bangalore. The number of wards increased to 243 in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |date=23 June 2022 |title=Government notifies draft of newly delimited 243 wards in Bengaluru |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/government-notifies-draft-of-newly-delimited-243-wards-in-bengaluru/article65558456.ece}}</ref> The BBMP is run by a city council of 250 members, including 198 [[corporator]]s representing each of the [[Ward (country subdivision)|wards]] of the city and 52 other elected representatives, consisting of members of Parliament and the state legislature. Elections to the council are held once every five years and are decided by [[Direct election|popular vote]]. Members contesting elections to the council usually represent one or more of the state's political parties. A mayor and deputy mayor are also elected from the elected members of the council.<ref name="Council">{{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/62189/bbmp-election-result-2-pm.html |title=BBMP election result by 2 pm |work=Deccan Herald |location=India |date=4 April 2010 | access-date=5 May 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409054108/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/62189/bbmp-election-result-2-pm.html | archive-date=9 April 2010 | url-status=live}}</ref> Elections to the BBMP were held on 28 March 2010, after a gap of three and a half years since the expiry of the previous elected body's term, and the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] was voted into power{{Spaced en dash}}the first time it had ever won a civic poll in the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/report_bjp-wins-bruhat-bangalore-mahanagara-palike-elections-for-the-first-time_1367595 |title=BJP wins Bangalore municipal elections for the first time |work=Daily News and Analysis |location=India |date=5 April 2010 | access-date=5 May 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408151645/http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/report_bjp-wins-bruhat-bangalore-mahanagara-palike-elections-for-the-first-time_1367595 | archive-date=8 April 2010 | url-status=live}}</ref> [[Indian National Congress]] councillor Sampath Raj became [[List of mayors of Bangalore|the city's mayor]] in September 2017; the vote was boycotted by the [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]].<ref name="TH-Sept2017">{{cite news |author=Staff Reporter |title=Sampath Raj is city's new Mayor |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/sampath-raj-is-citys-new-mayor/article19768858.ece |work=The Hindu |date=28 September 2017 |language=en-IN |access-date=25 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929063904/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/sampath-raj-is-citys-new-mayor/article19768858.ece |archive-date=29 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In September 2018, [[Indian National Congress]] councillor Gangambike Mallikarjun was elected as mayor,<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/gangambike-elected-as-s-new-mayor/articleshow/65996515.cms |title=Gangambike elected as Bengaluru's new Mayor |date=28 September 2018 |work=The Economic Times |access-date=2 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125183400/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/gangambike-elected-as-s-new-mayor/articleshow/65996515.cms |archive-date=25 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> replacing [[R. Sampath Raj|Sampath Raj]]. In 2019 [[BJP]]'s [[M Goutham Kumar]] took charge as mayor. On 10 September 2020, the term of the BBMP council ended and Gaurav Gupta was appointed as the administrator of BBMP.<ref name="m.economictimes.com">{{Cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/term-of-bbmp-council-ends-govt-appoints-gaurav-gupta-as-administrator/articleshow/78043069.cms?from=mdr |title=Term of BBMP council ends; govt appoints Gaurav Gupta as administrator |newspaper=The Economic Times}}</ref> The municipal commissioner of Bangalore is Tushar Giri Nath,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-09 |title=New BBMP chief commissioner inspects infrastructure projects |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/city/bengaluru-infrastructure/new-bbmp-chief-commissioner-inspects-infrastructure-projects-1107607.html |access-date=2022-06-20 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> and the [[Police Commissioner of Bangalore|police commissioner]] is Pratap Reddy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-16 |title=Karnataka: Pratap Reddy appointed new Bengaluru city police commissioner, replaces Kamal Pant |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bangalore/karnataka-pratap-reddy-appointed-new-bengaluru-city-police-commissioner-replaces-kamal-pant-7920729/ |access-date=2022-06-20 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>

Bangalore's rapid growth has created several administrative problems relating to [[traffic congestion]] and degrading infrastructure. The unplanned nature of growth in the city resulted in massive traffic [[gridlock]]s; a [[List of flyovers and under-passes in Bengaluru|flyover system]] and one-way traffic systems were introduced, which were only moderately successful.<ref name="urban">
{{cite web |url=http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/water/paper/urbanfloods_bangalore/profile.htm |title=Urban Floods: Case Study of Bangalore |access-date=14 September 2013 |last=Ramachandra |first=T. V. |author2=Pradeep P. Mujumdar |publisher=[[Indian Institute of Science]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908001459/http://www.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/water/paper/urbanfloods_bangalore/profile.htm |archive-date=8 September 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2003 ''Battelle Environmental Evaluation System'' (BEES) evaluation of Bangalore's physical, biological and socioeconomic parameters indicated that Bangalore's water quality and terrestrial and aquatic [[ecosystem]]s were close to ideal, while the city's socioeconomic parameters (traffic, [[quality of life]]) air quality and [[noise pollution]] were poor.<ref name="bees">{{cite web |url=http://www.bmrtl.com/EIA.PDF |title=Environmental Impact Analysis |access-date=20 March 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060320001853/http://www.bmrtl.com/EIA.PDF |archive-date=20 March 2006}} {{small|(372 kB)}}. Bangalore Metropolitan Rapid Transport Corporation Limited. 2006. Government of Karnataka. 2005. (pp. 30–32)</ref> The BBMP works in conjunction with the [[Bangalore Development Authority]] (BDA) and the Agenda for Bangalore's Infrastructure and Development Task Force (ABIDe) to design and implement civic and infrastructural projects.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=TOINEW&BaseHref=TOIBG%2F2010%2F04%2F24&GZ=T&ViewMode=HTML&EntityId=Ar00202&AppName=1 |title=The Bruhat Journey | access-date=14 September 2013 |work=[[The Times of India]] | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053750/http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Archive&Source=Page&Skin=TOINEW&BaseHref=TOIBG%2F2010%2F04%2F24&GZ=T&ViewMode=HTML&EntityId=Ar00202&AppName=1 | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Bangalore City Police]] (BCP) has seven geographic zones, includes the Traffic Police, the City Armed Reserve, the Central Crime Branch and the City Crime Record Bureau and runs 86 police stations, including two all-women police stations.<ref name="bcp">[http://www.bcp.gov.in/english/index.htm "Bangalore City Police"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060220032844/http://www.bcp.gov.in/english/index.htm |date=20 February 2006 }}. Bangalore City Police. 2006. Karnataka State Police.</ref> Other units within the BCP include Traffic Police, City Armed Reserve (CAR), City Special Branch (CSB), City Crime Branch (CCB) and City Crime Records Bureau (CCRB). As capital of the state of Karnataka, Bangalore houses important state government facilities such as the [[Karnataka High Court]], the [[Vidhana Soudha]] (the home of the Karnataka state legislature) and [[Raj Bhavan, Bangalore|Raj Bhavan]] (the residence of the governor of Karnataka). Bangalore contributes four members to the lower house of the [[Indian Parliament]], the ''[[Lok Sabha]]'', from its four constituencies: [[Bangalore Rural (Lok Sabha constituency)|Bangalore Rural]], [[Bangalore Central (Lok Sabha constituency)|Bangalore Central]], [[Bangalore North (Lok Sabha constituency)|Bangalore North]], and [[Bangalore South (Lok Sabha constituency)|Bangalore South]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2009/Stats/VOLI/25_ConstituencyWiseDetailedResult.pdf |title=Constituency Wise Detailed Results |publisher=[[Election Commission of India]] |access-date=14 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811090059/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/archiveofge2009/Stats/VOLI/25_ConstituencyWiseDetailedResult.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2014}}</ref> and 28 members to the [[Karnataka Legislative Assembly]].<ref>{{cite news |first=S. |last=Rajendran |title=Power of the city |date=19 April 2013 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/power-of-the-city/article4631157.ece |work=The Hindu | access-date=14 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053415/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/power-of-the-city/article4631157.ece | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref>

Electricity in Bangalore is regulated through the [[Bangalore Electricity Supply Company]] (BESCOM),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bescom.org/en/aboutus/index.asp |title=About Us |work=Official webpage of BESCOM | access-date=5 May 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080731092131/http://www.bescom.org/en/aboutus/index.asp | archive-date=31 July 2008 | url-status=dead}}</ref> while [[water supply]] and [[sanitation]] facilities are provided by the [[Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board]] (BWSSB).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bwssb.org/mission-history/ |title=BESCOM Mission Statement |access-date=13 October 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020070108/http://bwssb.org/mission-history/ |archive-date=20 October 2012 }}</ref>

The city has offices of the [[Consulate General of Germany, Bangalore|Consulate General of Germany]],<ref>{{cite news |title=German consulate in Bangalore formally inaugurated |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/Content/Nov212008/city20081121102018.asp?section=updatenews |access-date=25 June 2012 |newspaper=Deccan Herald |date=21 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211220647/http://archive.deccanherald.com/Content/Nov212008/city20081121102018.asp?section=updatenews |archive-date=11 December 2013}}</ref> France,<ref>{{cite web |title=Nos coordonnées |url=http://ambafrance-in.org/-Bangalore,1026- |publisher=Consulat général de France à Bangalore | access-date=25 June 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628143941/http://ambafrance-in.org/-Bangalore,1026- | archive-date=28 June 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref> Japan,<ref>{{cite web |title=Consulate of Japan, Bangalore |url=http://www.in.emb-japan.go.jp/Contact_Us/bangalore.html |publisher=Embassy of Japan, New Delhi |access-date=25 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120708015906/http://www.in.emb-japan.go.jp/Contact_Us/bangalore.html |archive-date=8 July 2012}}</ref> Israel,<ref>{{cite news |last=Bose |first=Praveen |title=Israel to open consulate in Bangalore |url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/israel-to-open-consulate-in-bangalore/478574/ | access-date=27 June 2012 |newspaper=Business Standard |date=27 June 2012}}</ref> British Deputy High Commission,<ref>{{cite web |title=Bangalore Location and Access |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/world/organisations/british-deputy-high-commission-bangalore | access-date=7 May 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130413080141/https://www.gov.uk/government/world/organisations/british-deputy-high-commission-bangalore | archive-date=13 April 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref> along with honorary consulates of Ireland,<ref>{{cite web |title=Department of Foreign Affairs |url=http://www.irelandinindia.com/home/index.aspx?id=52432 |publisher=Embassy of Ireland, New Delhi |access-date=25 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626040307/http://www.irelandinindia.com/home/index.aspx?id=52432 |archive-date=26 June 2012}}</ref> Finland,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.formin.fi/public/default.aspx?nodeid=40278&contentlan=2&culture=en-US |title=Contact Information: Finland's Honorary Consulate, Bangalore (India) – Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland: Diplomatic missions: Bangalore (Honorary Consulate) |publisher=Formin.fi |date=3 March 2010 |access-date=25 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717054718/http://www.formin.fi/public/default.aspx?nodeid=40278&contentlan=2&culture=en-US |archive-date=17 July 2011}}</ref> Switzerland,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://meaprotocol.nic.in/cgi-bin/db2www/foreignmission.d2w/seDataMis#SwitzerlandBangalore |title=Missions List |publisher=Meaprotocol.nic.in |access-date=25 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115134951/http://meaprotocol.nic.in/cgi-bin/db2www/foreignmission.d2w/seDataMis |archive-date=15 November 2010}}</ref> Maldives,<ref>{{cite web |title=Maldives Honorary Consuls in India |url=http://www.maldiveshighcom.in/index.php/honconsuls |publisher=Maldives High Commission, New Delhi |access-date=25 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001201140/http://www.maldiveshighcom.in/index.php/honconsuls |archive-date=1 October 2011}}</ref> Mongolia, Sri Lanka and Peru.<ref>{{cite web |title=Embassy of Peru in India and Honorary Consulates |url=http://www.embassyperuindia.in/embassyofperuinindia.html |publisher=Government of Peru | access-date=22 August 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020072225/http://www.embassyperuindia.in/embassyofperuinindia.html | archive-date=20 October 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref> It also has a trade office of Canada<ref>{{cite web |title=Trade Office of Canada in Bangalore |url=http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/india-inde/offices-bureaux/bangalore.aspx?lang=eng&view=d |publisher=Government of Canada | access-date=25 June 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730125211/http://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/india-inde/offices-bureaux/bangalore.aspx?lang=eng&view=d | archive-date=30 July 2012 | url-status=dead }}</ref> and a virtual Consulate of the United States.<ref>{{cite web |title=United States Virtual Consulate Bangalore, India |url=http://chennai.usconsulate.gov/vppbangalore.html |publisher=Consulate General of the United States, Chennai |access-date=25 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125193948/http://chennai.usconsulate.gov/vppbangalore.html |archive-date=25 November 2011 }}</ref>

=== Pollution control ===

As of 2022, Bangalore produces around 6000 [[metric tonnes]] of [[waste|solid waste]] per day.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-06 |title=Bengaluru: BBMP chief commissioner calls for decentralised waste management system |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bangalore/bengaluru-decentralised-waste-management-system-7855463/ |access-date=2022-06-20 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> This waste is transported from collection units located near [[Hesaraghatta Lake]], to the garbage dumping sites.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/feb/07level.htm |title=Bangalore: Pollution levels at all time high |work=Rediff.com | access-date=6 September 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019095614/http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/feb/07level.htm | archive-date=19 October 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref> The city has considerable dust pollution, hazardous waste disposal, and disorganised, unscientific waste retrievals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/report_exclusive-50pct-of-bangalores-air-pollution-caused-due-to-dust_1618349 |title=Exclusive! 50% of Bangalore's air pollution caused due to dust – Bangalore |work=Daily News and Analysis |date=28 November 2011 | access-date=6 September 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031065230/http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/report_exclusive-50pct-of-bangalores-air-pollution-caused-due-to-dust_1618349 | archive-date=31 October 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref> The IT hub, the Whitefield region, is the most polluted area in Bangalore.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-02-23/bangalore/31090885_1_whitefield-rspm-air-pollution-levels |title=Whitefield is most polluted area in Bangalore |date=23 February 2012 | access-date=28 June 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510214742/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-02-23/bangalore/31090885_1_whitefield-rspm-air-pollution-levels | archive-date=10 May 2013 | url-status=dead |work=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref> In 2016, a study found that over 36% of diesel vehicles in the city exceed the national limit for emissions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/36-diesel-vehicles-exceed-national-limit-for-emissions-Study/articleshow/53851872.cms |title=36% diesel vehicles exceed national limit for emissions: Study |work=The Times of India |date=25 August 2016 |access-date=30 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825204433/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/36-diesel-vehicles-exceed-national-limit-for-emissions-Study/articleshow/53851872.cms |archive-date=25 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Anil Kumar, Commissioner of the BBMP, said: "The deteriorating air quality in cities and its impact on public health is an area of growing concern for city authorities. While much is already being done about collecting and monitoring air quality data, little focus has been given on managing the impacts that bad air quality is having on the health of citizens."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.c40.org/press_releases/35-cities-unite-to-clean-the-air-their-citizens-breathe-protecting-the-health-of-millions |title=C40: 35 Cities Unite to Clean the Air Their Citizens Breathe, Protecting the Health of Millions |website=C40 |access-date=2019-12-15}}</ref>

=== Slums ===
{{as of|alt=According to a 2012|2012}} report submitted to the [[World Bank]] by Karnataka Slum Clearance Board, Bangalore had 862 slums out of around 2000 [[slum]]s in all of Karnataka. 42% of the households migrated from different parts of India like [[Chennai]], [[Hyderabad]] and most of [[North India]], and 43% of the households had remained in the slums for over 10 years. The Karnataka Municipality works to shift 300 families annually to newly constructed buildings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.manipalworldnews.com/2014/10/30/2020-bangalore-will-full-fledged-concrete-jungle/ |title=By 2020, Bangalore will be a full-fledged concrete jungle |work=Udupi News, Manipal News, Mangalore News |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106135846/http://www.manipalworldnews.com/2014/10/30/2020-bangalore-will-full-fledged-concrete-jungle/ |archive-date=6 November 2014}}</ref> One-third of these [[Slum clearance in India|slum clearance]] projects lacked basic service connections, 60% of slum dwellers lacked complete water supply lines and shared BWSSB water supply.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-03-31 |title=60 per cent of water sources go dry in Ch'nagar |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/469004/60-per-cent-water-sources.html |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>

=== Waste management ===

Ιn 2012, Bangalore generated 2.1 million tonnes of [[Municipal Solid Waste]], or 194.3 kilograms per person.<ref>[http://www.atlas.d-waste.com/ Waste Atlas] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141007045220/http://www.atlas.d-waste.com/ |date=7 October 2014 }}(2012). City-Data: LAHORE</ref> Waste management in Karnataka is regulated by the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) under the aegis of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), a Central Government entity. As part of the Waste Management Guidelines, the government of Karnataka through the KSPCB has authorised a few well-established companies to manage [[biomedical waste|biomedical]] and other hazardous waste in Karnataka.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biomedical Waste Management {{!}} Karnataka State Pollution Control Board|url=https://kspcb.karnataka.gov.in/waste-management/biomedical-waste|access-date=2022-01-17|website=kspcb.karnataka.gov.in}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Bangalore}}
[[File:UB Tower Bangalore.jpg|left|thumb|[[UB City|UB Tower]]]]
[[File:Mercedes-Whitefield-1.jpg|thumb|[[Mercedes-Benz]] R&D in [[Whitefield, Bangalore|Whitefield]], Bangalore]]
Bangalore is one of the fastest-growing metropolises in India.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2019-03-22|title=Bengaluru: Economy, Industries, and Infrastructure|url=https://www.india-briefing.com/news/city-spotlight-bangalore-6371.html/|access-date=2021-08-24|website=India Briefing News|language=en}}</ref> Bangalore contributes 38% of India's total IT exports.<ref>{{Cite web|title='Bangalore will become the world's largest IT cluster by 2020'|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/info-tech/%E2%80%98Bangalore-will-become-the-world%E2%80%99s-largest-IT-cluster-by-2020%E2%80%99/article20909098.ece|access-date=2021-08-16|website=@businessline|date=12 November 2014 |language=en}}</ref> Its economy is primarily [[Service economy|service oriented]] and industrial,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Manufacturing cities: the planning, building, and governing of industrial infrastructure in the Bangalore metropolitan region|url=https://www.peak-urban.org/project/manufacturing-cities-planning-building-and-governing-industrial-infrastructure-bangalore|access-date=2022-01-27|website=www.peak-urban.org|language=en}}</ref> dominated by information technology, telecommunication, biotechnology, and manufacturing of electronics, machinery, automobiles, food, etc.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-22|title=Bengaluru: Economy, Industries, and Infrastructure|url=https://www.india-briefing.com/news/city-spotlight-bangalore-6371.html/|access-date=2021-08-16|website=India Briefing News|language=en}}-{{Cite web |last= |first= |last2= |last3= |first3= |title=Karnataka hopes to double its bio-economy to $50-bn in 5 yrs |url=https://bangaloremirror.indiatimes.com/bangalore/others/karnataka-hopes-to-double-its-bio-economy-to-50-bn-in-5-yrs/articleshow/79332632.cms |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=Bangalore Mirror |language=en}}-{{Cite web |date=2020-01-23 |title=Bengaluru to be world's fastest growing city: Report |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/city/top-bengaluru-stories/bengaluru-to-be-world-s-fastest-growing-city-report-797359.html |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}-{{Cite news |last=Husain |first=Mudassir |date=2019-05-12 |title=Bengaluru's growth story |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/open-page/bengalurus-growth-story/article27102964.ece |access-date=2022-06-27 |issn=0971-751X}}-{{Cite news |last=Pulakkat |first=Hari |title=How Bengaluru became the biotech capital of India |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/healthcare/biotech/healthcare/how-bengaluru-became-the-biotech-capital-of-india/articleshow/49751173.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2022-06-27}}-{{Cite web |last= |title=Bengaluru world's fastest growing tech hub, London second|url=https://telecom.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/bengaluru-worlds-fastest-growing-tech-hub-london-second-report/80264307 |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=Economic Times - Telecom.com |language=en}}-{{Cite news |last= |title=Bangalore keeps its crown as India's high-growth tech hub|url=https://www.ft.com/content/022aa805-3699-4bac-a845-81c95d015bc2|access-date=2022-06-27 |website=Financial Times|date=7 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref> Major industrial areas around Bangalore are [[Adugodi]], [[Bidadi]], [[Bommanahalli]], [[Bommasandra]], [[Domlur]], [[Hoodi]], [[Whitefield, Bangalore|Whitefield]], [[Doddaballapura]], [[Hoskote]], [[Bashettihalli]], [[Yelahanka]], [[Electronic City]], [[Peenya]], [[Krishnarajapuram]], [[Bellandur]], [[Narasapura Industrial Area|Narasapura]], [[Rajajinagar]], [[Mahadevapura, Bangalore|Mahadevapura]] etc.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Brief Industrial Profile of Bangalor Rural District|url=https://msmedibangalore.gov.in/files/Bengaluru%20Rural.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Brief Industrial Profile of Bangalor District|url=https://msmedibangalore.gov.in/files/Bengaluru%20Urban.pdf}}</ref> It is the fifth Indian city to host maximum numbers of [[Fortune 500|Fortune Companies]], after [[Mumbai]], [[Delhi]], [[Kolkata]] and [[Chennai]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bengaluru has become the hotspot for Fortune 500 giants, global companies to set up innovation centres|url=https://www.businessinsider.in/bengaluru-has-become-the-hotspot-for-fortune-500-giants-global-companies-to-set-up-innovation-centres/articleshow/52567790.cms|access-date=2021-08-16|website=Business Insider}}</ref>
[[File:World Trade Center Banglore (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[World Trade Center Bangalore]] at [[Rajajinagar]]]]
The growth of IT has presented the city with unique challenges.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shrinag|date=2019-08-20|title=Top Reasons Why Bengaluru Is A Bustling IT Hub|url=https://metrosaga.com/top-reasons-why-bengaluru-is-a-bustling-it-hub/|access-date=2021-08-16|website=MetroSaga|language=en-US|archive-date=16 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816125354/https://metrosaga.com/top-reasons-why-bengaluru-is-a-bustling-it-hub/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ideological clashes sometimes occur between the city's IT moguls, who demand an improvement in the city's infrastructure; and the state government, whose electorate is primarily from rural Karnataka.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Bengaluru world's fastest growing tech hub, London second: Report|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/technology/bengaluru-worlds-fastest-growing-tech-hub-london-second-report/articleshow/80263653.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2021-08-16}}</ref> The encouragement of high-tech industry in Bangalore, for example, has not favoured local employment development, but instead increased land values and forced out small enterprises.<ref>{{cite web|date=November 2008|title=Opportunity and exploitation in urban labour markets|url=http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/odi-publications/briefing-papers/44-urban-labour-markets-exploitation.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327183722/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/odi-publications/briefing-papers/44-urban-labour-markets-exploitation.pdf|archive-date=27 March 2009|access-date=10 May 2010|publisher=Overseas Development Institute}}</ref> The state has also resisted the massive investments required to reverse the rapid decline in city transport, driving new and expanding businesses elsewhere in India.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-07-19|title=India's Tech Hubs: Bengaluru vs Hyderabad|url=https://www.india-briefing.com/news/indias-tech-hubs-bengaluru-vs-hyderabad-19023.html/|access-date=2021-08-16|website=India Briefing News|language=en}}</ref> Bangalore is a hub for Indian [[biotechnology]]-related industry and in 2005 was home to around 47% of the 265 biotechnology companies in India, including [[Biocon]], India's largest biotechnology company, giving Bangalore the nickname of the "Biotech Capital of India".<ref name="biorank2">{{Cite news|date=23 April 2005|title=Bangalore Helix to be a reality soon|work=The Hindu|location=Chennai, India|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/04/23/stories/2005042301960600.htm|url-status=live|access-date=4 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012172400/http://hindu.com/2005/04/23/stories/2005042301960600.htm|archive-date=12 October 2007}}</ref><ref name="biolead2">{{Cite news|last=Chatterjee|first=Sumeet|date=4 October 2007|title=Biocon in drug development talks with Bayer|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/health-SP/idUSBOM33872620071004|url-status=live|access-date=4 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222175316/http://www.reuters.com/article/health-SP/idUSBOM33872620071004|archive-date=22 December 2007}}</ref> Bangalore is also the country's fourth largest [[fast-moving consumer goods]] (FMCG) market.<ref name="4thlargest2">[http://ia.rediff.com/money/2006/aug/23bang.htm?q=bp&file=.htm "Bangalore most affluent market"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307113339/http://ia.rediff.com/money/2006/aug/23bang.htm?q=bp&file=.htm|date=7 March 2008}}. 2006. Rediff.com. 23 August 2006.</ref> ''Forbes'' considers Bangalore one of "The Next Decade's Fastest-Growing Cities".<ref>{{cite news|last=Kotkin|first=Joel|date=10 July 2010|title=The World's Fastest-Growing Cities|work=Forbes|url=https://www.forbes.com/2010/10/07/cities-china-chicago-opinions-columnists-joel-kotkin.html|url-status=live|access-date=21 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309160030/http://www.forbes.com/2010/10/07/cities-china-chicago-opinions-columnists-joel-kotkin.html|archive-date=9 March 2012}}</ref> The city is the third largest hub for [[high-net-worth individual]]s.<ref name="HNWI2" /> There were a large number of [[high-net-worth individuals]] with a {{INR}}4.5 crore investment surplus in 2007.<ref name="HNWI2">[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/NEWS/India_Business/After_Mumbai__Delhi_Bangalore_home_to_richest/articleshow/1842018.cms "Bangalore third richest city in country"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070430232332/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/NEWS/India_Business/After_Mumbai__Delhi_Bangalore_home_to_richest/articleshow/1842018.cms|date=30 April 2007}}.2007. ''The Times of India'' 1 April 2007</ref> In the Ease of Living Index 2020, it was ranked the most livable Indian city with a population of over a million.<ref name=":2"/>

The city is widely regarded as the "[[Silicon Valley]] of India", as the largest IT hub of the country.<ref name="cnn-Dec2012" /> [[Infosys]], [[Wipro]], [[Mindtree]], [[Mphasis]], [[Flipkart]], [[Myntra]] are headquartered in Bangalore.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shubham|date=2021-03-09|title=Top 10 IT Companies in Bangalore in 2021 - StartUpCrow|url=https://startupcrow.com/top-it-companies-in-bangalore/|access-date=2021-08-16|language=en-US}}</ref> Information technology companies located in the city contributed 33% of India's ₹1,442 billion (US$20 billion) IT exports in 2006–07.<ref name="Nasscom2">{{cite news|author=Jairam Ramesh|date=30 September 2007|title=IT in India: Big successes, large gaps to be filled|work=Business Standard|url=http://www.business-standard.com/common/storypage_c.php?leftnm=10&autono=299725|url-status=live|access-date=4 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204103043/http://www.business-standard.com/common/storypage_c.php?leftnm=10&autono=299725|archive-date=4 December 2007}}</ref> Bangalore's IT industry is divided into three main [[Business cluster|clusters]]: [[Software Technology Parks of India]] (STPI); [[International Tech Park, Bangalore]] (ITPB); and [[Electronic City]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=10 Amazing Software Technological Parks in Bengaluru|url=http://www.walkthroughindia.com/walkthroughs/10-amazing-software-technological-parks-in-bengaluru/|access-date=2021-08-16|language=en-US}}</ref> Most of the IT companies are located in [[Bommanahalli]], [[Domlur]], [[Whitefield, Bangalore|Whitefield]], [[Electronic City]], [[Krishnarajapuram]], [[Bellandur]], [[Mahadevapura, Bangalore|Mahadevapura]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=14 January 2021|title=Bengaluru world's fastest growing tech hub, London second: Report|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/bengaluru-worlds-fastest-growing-tech-hub-london-second-report/articleshow/80262770.cms|access-date=2021-08-16|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

== Transport ==
=== Air ===

[[File:Bengaluru-airport.jpg|thumb|The [[Kempegowda International Airport]] is located in [[Devanahalli]].|left]]
Bangalore is served by [[Kempegowda International Airport]], located at [[Devanahalli]], about {{cvt|40|km|0}} from the city centre.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-06 |title=Bengaluru could get a second airport in no time. But after these hurdles are removed |url=https://theprint.in/theprint-essential/bengaluru-could-get-a-second-airport-in-no-time-but-after-these-hurdles-are-removed/517156/ |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=ThePrint |language=en-US}}</ref> Formerly Bangalore International Airport, the airport started operations from 24 May 2008 and is privately managed by a consortium led by the [[GVK (conglomerate)|GVK Group]]. The city was earlier served by the [[HAL Airport]] at [[Vimanapura]], a residential locality in the eastern part of the city.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aai.aero/traffic_news/april2k6_annex3.jsp |title=Airports Authority of India: Traffic statistics – Passengers (Intl+Domestic), Annexure IIIC |date=April 2006 |access-date=25 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120154236/http://www.aai.aero/traffic_news/april2k6_annex3.jsp |archive-date=20 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aai.aero/traffic_news/april2k6_annex2.jsp |title=Airports Authority of India: Traffic statistics – Aircraft movements (Intl+Domestic), Annexure IIC |date=April 2006 |access-date=25 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518032235/http://www.aai.aero/traffic_news/april2k6_annex2.jsp |archive-date=18 May 2013 }}</ref><ref name="traff">{{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/archives/Oct272006/index211220061026.asp |work=Deccan Herald |location=India |title=Expressway for airport drive |author=R. Krishnakumar | access-date=2 July 2007 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929123204/http://www.deccanherald.com/archives/Oct272006/index211220061026.asp | archive-date=29 September 2007}}</ref> The airport is the third-busiest in India after [[Delhi]] and [[Mumbai]] in terms of passenger and airplane traffic.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-12-14/bangalore/28098026_1_passenger-traffic-traffic-figures-airport |location=India |title=Passenger traffic tops 9.3m at Bangalore airport |date=14 December 2009 |access-date=29 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612140911/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-12-14/bangalore/28098026_1_passenger-traffic-traffic-figures-airport |archive-date=12 June 2013 |url-status=dead |work=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref> Taxis and air-conditioned [[Volvo]] buses operated by [[Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation|BMTC]] connect the airport with the city.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-04-27|title=BMTC Announces Additional Volvo AC Bus Service Connecting Bengaluru Airport and City|url=https://www.news18.com/news/auto/bmtc-announces-additional-volvo-ac-bus-service-connecting-bengaluru-airport-and-city-3681602.html|access-date=2022-01-20|website=News18|language=en}}</ref>

=== Railways and Metro ===

[[File:Bangalore Metro Station, India.jpg|thumb|Namma Metro (Green line)]]
As of 2022, a [[rapid transit]] system called the ''[[Namma Metro]]'' is being built in stages. Initially opened with the {{cvt|7|km|mi}} stretch from [[Baiyappanahalli metro station|Baiyappanahalli]] to MG Road in 2011,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/south-indias-first-metro-flagged-off/article2554937.ece |title=South India's first metro flagged off |first=Anil Kumar |last=Sastry |date=20 October 2011 |work=The Hindu| access-date=24 January 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124195748/http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/south-indias-first-metro-flagged-off/article2554937.ece| archive-date=24 January 2018| url-status=live}}</ref> metro lines totaling {{cvt|42.30|km|mi}} for the north–south and east–west lines were made operational in June 2017.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2017/jun/08/all-of-bangalore-metro-phase-1-will-be-up-and-running-from-june-18-1614155.html |title=All of Bangalore Metro Phase-1 will be up and running from June 18 |date=8 June 2017 |author=S Lalitha |work=The New Indian Express| access-date=24 January 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131151249/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2017/jun/08/all-of-bangalore-metro-phase-1-will-be-up-and-running-from-june-18-1614155.html| archive-date=31 January 2018| url-status=live}}</ref> Phase 2 of the metro covering {{cvt|72.1|km|mi}} is under construction and includes two new lines along with the extension of the existing north–south and east–west lines.<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://english.bmrc.co.in/FileUploads/phase2forweb.pdf |title=Bangalore Metro Rail Project Phase 2 |publisher=Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Limited| access-date= 24 January 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125015209/http://english.bmrc.co.in/FileUploads/phase2forweb.pdf| archive-date= 25 January 2018| url-status=live }}</ref> There are also plans to extend the north–south line to the airport, covering a distance of {{cvt|29.6|km|mi}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/kempegowda-airport-in-bengaluru-to-get-metro-rail-connectivity-by-2021/article21429684.ece |title=Cabinet clears 29.62-km Nagawara–Kempegowda International Airport line |date=12 December 2017 |work=The Hindu}}</ref>

Bangalore is a divisional headquarters in the [[South Western Railway zone]] of the [[Indian Railways]]. There are four major railway stations in the city: [[Bangalore City railway station|Krantiveera Sangolli Rayanna Railway Station]]; [[Bangalore Cantonment railway station]]; [[Yesvantpur Junction railway station|Yeshwantapur Junction]], [[Krishnarajapuram railway station]] and newly inagurated [[Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminal|Sir M. Visvesvaraya Terminus]], with railway lines towards [[Jolarpettai]] in the east; [[Guntakal]] in the north; [[Kadapa]] (only operational until [[Kolar]]) in the northeast; [[Tumkur]] in the northwest; [[Hassan, Karnataka|Hassan]] and [[Mangalore]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/new-train-between-b-luru-and-m-716009.html |title=New train between Bengaluru and Mangaluru |date=1 February 2019 |access-date=16 December 2019 |work=[[Deccan Herald]]}}</ref> in the west; [[Mysore]] in the southwest; and [[Salem, Tamil Nadu|Salem]] in the south. There is also a railway line from [[Baiyyappanahalli railway station|Baiyappanahalli]] to Vimanapura, no longer in use. Though Bangalore has no commuter rail as of 2022, there have been demands for a suburban rail service because of the large number of employees working in the IT corridor areas of Whitefield, Outer Ring Road and Electronic City. The [[Rail Wheel Factory]] is Asia's second-largest manufacturer of wheel and axle for railways and is headquartered in Yelahanka, Bangalore.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kojano.com/about-city/how-to-reach/bangalore-transport_i141 |title=Rail Wheel Factory |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129025919/http://kojano.com/about-city/how-to-reach/bangalore-transport_i141 |archive-date=29 November 2014 }}</ref>

=== Bus ===

[[File:BMTC Volvo.jpg|thumb|BMTC's ''Vajra'' buses are a popular in the IT corridor. It was introduced in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/66569/bangaloreans-begin-bond-sleek-swedish.html |title=Bangaloreans begin to bond with the sleek Swedish behemoths |work=Deccan Herald |location=India |date=28 April 2010 |author=Sharmada Shastry | access-date=30 April 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502014107/http://www.deccanherald.com/content/66569/bangaloreans-begin-bond-sleek-swedish.html | archive-date=2 May 2010 | url-status=live}}</ref> BMTC is the first RTC to do so in India. Special Volvo buses to airports are known as ''Vayu Vajra''.]]

Buses operated by [[Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation]] (BMTC) are a staple of city public transport.<ref name="bus">{{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/Content/Jun202007/city200706208444.asp |title=Loyalty may pay for Volvo commuters! |author=S Praveen Dhaneshkar |work=Deccan Herald |date=20 June 2007 | access-date=10 April 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819052527/http://www.deccanherald.com/Content/Jun202007/city200706208444.asp | archive-date=19 August 2007 | url-status=dead}}</ref> While commuters can buy tickets on boarding these buses, BMTC also provides an option of a bus pass to frequent users.<ref name="bus" /> BMTC runs air-conditioned luxury buses on major routes and operates shuttle services from various parts of the city to [[Kempegowda International Airport]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bangalore-city.com/transport/bangalore-buses.html |title=Bangalore-city.com, Bangalore Bus Information, City Buses, Volvo Buses, Tata Marcopolo Buses, Long Distance Buses |publisher=Bangalore-city.com | access-date=29 March 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125082050/http://bangalore-city.com/transport/bangalore-buses.html | archive-date=25 January 2010 | url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation]] operates 6,918 buses on 6,352 schedules, connecting Bangalore with other parts of Karnataka and with neighbouring states. The main bus depots that [[Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation|KSRTC]] maintains are the [[Kempegowda Bus Station]], locally known as "Majestic bus stand", where most of the buses going out of the city ply from. Some of the KSRTC buses to [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Telangana]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] ply from [[Shantinagar Bus Station]], Satellite Bus Station at Mysore Road and [[Baiyyappanahalli#Satellite bus station, NGEF|Baiyappanahalli satellite bus station]].<ref>{{cite web |date=17 March 2011 |title=KSRTC's Tamil Nadu-bound buses to ply from Shantinagar |url=http://cityplus.jagran.com/city-news/ksrtc-s-tamil-nadu-bound-buses-to-ply-from-shantinagar_1300340102.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002121244/http://cityplus.jagran.com/city-news/ksrtc-s-tamil-nadu-bound-buses-to-ply-from-shantinagar_1300340102.html |archive-date=2 October 2013 |access-date=10 June 2013 |website=Jagran |publisher= }}</ref> BMTC and KSRTC were the first operators in India to introduce Volvo city buses and intra-city coaches in India. Three-wheeled, yellow and black or yellow and green [[auto-rickshaw]]s, referred to as ''autos'', are popular for transport. They are metered and can accommodate up to three passengers. [[Taxicab|Taxis]] are usually available via phone calls or online services; they are metered and generally more expensive than auto-rickshaws.<ref name="auto">{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/12/15/stories/2006121520050300.htm |work=The Hindu |title=Stir leaves hundreds stranded |access-date=17 June 2012 |date=15 December 2006 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813153608/http://www.hindu.com/2006/12/15/stories/2006121520050300.htm |archive-date=13 August 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Road===

[[File:Vehicles_plying_on_Bengaluru_Mysuru_Expressway.jpg|thumb|[[National Highway 275 (India)|National Highway 275]] (NH-275), running from Bangalore to [[Mangalore]]]]
Bangalore is well-connected with [[National Highways of India|national highways]] with the rest of the country. The highways are [[National Highway 44 (India)|National Highway 44]] (NH-44), [[National Highway 48 (India)|National Highway 48]] (NH-48) (also [[AH47|Asian Highway 47]] (AH-47)), [[National Highway 275 (India)|National Highway 275]] (NH-275), [[National Highway 75 (India)|National Highway 75]] (NH-75), [[National Highway 648 (India)|National Highway 648]] (NH-648) and [[National Highway 948 (India)|National Highway 948]] (NH-948), along with state highways. An average of 1,750 vehicles are registered daily in Bangalore [[Regional Transport Office]]s (RTOs).<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-04-01 |title=Bengaluru's vehicle population crosses 80 lakh |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/bengalurus-vehicle-population-crosses-80-lakh/article26705015.ece |access-date=2022-06-07 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The total number of vehicles, as of 2020, are around {{lakh | 85}} vehicles, and the city's roads total {{cvt|11000|km|0}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/report-banglore-has-1-car-for-every-2-people-1567546 |title=Vehicles in Bangalore | access-date=20 November 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141114123722/http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/report-banglore-has-1-car-for-every-2-people-1567546 | archive-date=14 November 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=14 August 2020|first=Christin Mathew|last=Philip|title=How many vehicles ply in Bengaluru? Transport department in dark|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/how-many-vehicles-ply-on-city-roads-transport-dept-clueless/articleshow/77533015.cms|access-date=2022-02-20|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

Bangalore currently has one [[Expressways of India|expressway]], the [[National Highway 275 (India)#Bengaluru-Mysuru section|Bangalore–Mysore Expressway]], operational since March 2023, which is part of NH-275.<ref>{{cite news|title=Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurates 118-km Bangalore-Mysore Expressway|url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/prime-minister-narendra-modi-inaugurates-118-km-bangalore-mysore-expressway/cid/1921956|work=The Telegraph|date=12 March 2023|access-date=13 March 2023|language=en}}</ref> In the coming years, the city will get more expressways, resulting in enhanced connectivity and commute with the rest of the country. They are as follows:

*[[Bangalore–Chennai Expressway]]: Under construction since August 2019,<ref>{{cite news|author1=Shivakumar, C.|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2020/feb/02/chennai-bangalore-expressway-work-to-start-in-six-months-nirmala-sitharaman-2097828.html|title = Chennai-Bangalore Expressway work to start in six months: Nirmala Sitharaman|work=The New Indian Express|date=2 February 2020|access-date=16 March 2023|language=en}}</ref> to be completed by March 2024.<ref>{{cite news|author1=Shivakumar, C.|title=Chennai-Bengaluru expressway: 14km road work complete|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2023/jan/26/chennai-bengaluru-expressway-14km-road-work-complete-2541479.amp|work=The New Indian Express|date=26 January 2023|access-date=26 January 2023|language=en}}</ref>
*[[Pune–Bengaluru Expressway|Pune–Bangalore Expressway]]: Proposed, to be completed by 2028.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/bharatmala-2-0-to-focus-on-expressways-add-4000-km-greenfield-roads/articleshow/67617128.cms|title=Bharatmala 2.0 to focus on expressways, add 4000 km greenfield roads|work=TOI|access-date=5 November 2022|language=en}}</ref>
*[[Nagpur–Hyderabad–Bengaluru Expressway]]: Proposed, expected to be completed by before 2030.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/now-drive-from-nagpur-to-bengaluru-in-just-12-hrs/articleshow/60249720.cms|title=Now, drive from Nagpur to Bengaluru in just 12 hrs|last=Anparthi|first=Anjaya|date=28 August 2017|work=Times of India|access-date=31 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180531131729/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/now-drive-from-nagpur-to-bengaluru-in-just-12-hrs/articleshow/60249720.cms|archive-date=31 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{clear}}

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Bangalore}}
{{Multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Huvina Karaga.jpg
| caption1 = [[Bangalore Karaga]], one of the oldest and most important festivals in Bangalore
| image2 = Media Reporting at Indian Cartoon Gallery.jpg
| caption2 = Indian Cartoon Gallery, Bangalore
| image3 = Demon Yakshagana.jpg
| caption3 = [[Yakshagana]] – a theatre art of coastal Karnataka is often played in town hall.
}}

Bangalore is known as the "Garden City of India" because of its greenery,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/living/evolution-of-bangalore-from-garden-city-to-silicon-valley-how-immigrants-made-the-city-their-own-7050821.html|title=Evolution of Bangalore: From Garden City to Silicon Valley, how immigrants made the city their own|date=26 July 2019 }}</ref> broad streets, and presence of many public parks, such as [[Lal Bagh]] and [[Cubbon Park]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abram |first1=David |last2=Edwards |first2=Nick |title=South India |edition=illustrated |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2003 |page=204 |isbn=978-1-84353-103-6}}</ref> In May 2012, guidebook publisher [[Lonely Planet]] ranked Bangalore third among the world's top ten cities to visit.<ref>{{cite web |author=Richard I'Anson |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/england/london/travel-tips-and-articles/76861 |title=Lonely Planet's Best in Travel: top 10 cities for 2012 – travel tips and articles |publisher=Lonely Planet |access-date=6 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120912180703/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/england/london/travel-tips-and-articles/76861 |archive-date=12 September 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Biannual]] flower shows are held at the [[Lal Bagh]] Botanical Gardens during the weeks of India's [[Republic Day (India)|Republic Day]] and [[Independence Day (India)|Independence Day]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-01-22 |title=Bengaluru's Lalbagh Republic day flower show postponed due to pandemic |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bangalore/bengalurus-lalbagh-republic-day-flower-show-postponed-due-to-pandemic-7156340/ |access-date=2022-06-09 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> [[Bangalore Karaga]] or "Karaga Shaktyotsava" is one of Bangalore's oldest festivals and is dedicated to the Hindu goddess [[Draupadi]]. It is celebrated annually by the [[Thigala]] community over a period of nine days in March or April. The Someshwara Car festival, held annually in April, is a procession of the idol of the [[Halasuru Someshwara Temple, Bangalore|Halasuru Someshwara Temple]] (Ulsoor) led by the [[Vokkaliga]]s, a major landholding community in southern Karnataka. [[Karnataka Rajyotsava]] is widely celebrated on 1 November and is a public holiday in the city, to mark the formation of [[Karnataka]] state on 1 November 1956. Other [[List of festivals in India|popular festivals]] in Bangalore are [[Ugadi]], [[Ram Navami]], [[Eid ul-Fitr]], [[Ganesh Chaturthi]], [[St. Mary's Basilica, Bangalore|St. Mary's feast]], [[Navrati|Dasara]], [[Deepawali]] and [[Christmas]].<ref>{{harvnb|Raman|1994|pp=42–45|Ref=bm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/04/02/stories/2007040221520500.htm |work=The Hindu, dated Monday, 2 April 2007 |title=Bangalore Karaga |location=Chennai, India |date=2 April 2007 |access-date=1 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081027095955/http://www.hindu.com/2007/04/02/stories/2007040221520500.htm |archive-date=27 October 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Bangalore's social and economic diversity is reflected in its cuisine.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/06/11/stories/2007061154170400.htm |title=Explore the continent |date=11 June 2007 |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=16 June 2012 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226020700/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/06/11/stories/2007061154170400.htm |archive-date=26 February 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Roadside vendors, [[tea stall]]s, and South Indian, North Indian, [[Chinese food|Chinese]] and Western fast food are all popular.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/International-cuisine-pushes-retailers-margins/articleshow/2681793.cms |title=International cuisine pushes retailers' margins |author=Anand, Swati |date=8 January 2008 |newspaper=The Times of India |access-date=16 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517155529/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/International-cuisine-pushes-retailers-margins/articleshow/2681793.cms |archive-date=17 May 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Udupi cuisine|Udupi]] restaurants are popular and serve predominantly vegetarian, regional cuisine.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/breakfast-in-bangalore/477454/ |title=Breakfast in Bangalore |author=Malhotra, Samil |date=16 June 2012 |work=Business Standard |access-date=16 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617050426/http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/breakfast-in-bangalore/477454/ |archive-date=17 June 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Bangalore is also home to many [[vegan]] restaurants and vegan activism groups, and has been named as India's most vegan-friendly city by [[PETA]]'s Indian branch.<ref>{{cite news |author=Staff Reporter |date=29 September 2014 |title=Bangalore most 'vegan-friendly' city |newspaper=The Hindu |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/bangalore-most-veganfriendly-city/article6458500.ece |url-status=live |access-date=30 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205005128/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/bangalore-most-veganfriendly-city/article6458500.ece |archive-date=5 February 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Bangalore most vegan-friendly city in India |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Bangalore-most-vegan-friendly-city-in-India/articleshow/43829855.cms |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820052435/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Bangalore-most-vegan-friendly-city-in-India/articleshow/43829855.cms |archive-date=20 August 2015 |access-date=30 September 2014 |work=[[The Times of India]] |date=30 September 2014 }}</ref>

=== Art and literature ===

Compared to [[Delhi]] and [[Mumbai]], Bangalore lacked a contemporary art scene until the 1990s, when several art galleries emerged, including the government-established [[National Gallery of Modern Art, Bangalore|National Gallery of Modern Art]].<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/3d9f7fea-98f6-11e1-9da3-00144feabdc0.html |title=Bangalore rebooted |access-date=12 September 2013 |last=Narayan |first=Shobha |date=14 May 2012 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001094107/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/3d9f7fea-98f6-11e1-9da3-00144feabdc0.html |archive-date=1 October 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> Bangalore's international [[art festival]], ''Art Bangalore'', was established in 2010.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangalore has a heart for art |date=17 August 2013 |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-08-17/people/41419943_1_17-galleries-art-bengaluru-uzma-irfan |work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=12 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060725/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-08-17/people/41419943_1_17-galleries-art-bengaluru-uzma-irfan | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Kannada literature]] flourished in Bangalore even before Kempe Gowda laid the city's foundations. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Kannada literature was enriched by the ''[[Vachanas]]'' (a form of rhythmic writing) composed by the heads of the [[Veerashaiva]] [[Matha]]s (monastery) in Bangalore.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-02 |title=The value of vachanas |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/spectrum-top-stories/the-value-of-vachanas-1114581.html |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-10 |title='Vachana literature encourages people to live in harmony' |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/state/mangaluru/vachana-literature-encourages-people-to-live-in-harmony-1018319.html |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> The headquarters of the [[Kannada Sahitya Parishat]], a nonprofit organisation that promotes the Kannada language, is located in Bangalore.<ref>{{cite news |first=K. |last=Chandramouli |title=Lyrical land |date=26 September 2002 |url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/09/26/stories/2002092600660200.htm |work=The Hindu | access-date=13 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108175645/http://hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/09/26/stories/2002092600660200.htm | archive-date=8 November 2012 | url-status=live }}</ref> The city has its own [[literary festival]], known as the "Bangalore Literature Festival", inaugurated in 2012.<ref>{{cite news |title=History, they wrote at Bangalore Literature fest |date=12 August 2012 |url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/121208/news-current-affairs/article/history-they-wrote-bangalore-literature-fest |work=[[Deccan Chronicle]] | access-date=7 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921083725/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/121208/news-current-affairs/article/history-they-wrote-bangalore-literature-fest | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Karnataka Chitrakala Parishath]] is an art gallery that showcases a collection of painting, sculptures, and various other forms of art.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Nathan |first=Archana |date=2016-05-12 |title=Chitrakala Parishath: An art haven like no other |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/chitrakala-parishath-an-art-haven-like-no-other/article8590355.ece |access-date=2022-03-22 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-22 |title=Covid threat gone, Crowds return to Bengaluru's Chitrakala Parishath |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/city/life-in-bengaluru/covid-threat-gone-crowds-return-to-bengalurus-chitrakala-parishath-1032947.html |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> The Indian Cartoon Gallery is located in the heart of Bangalore, dedicated to the art of cartooning, and is the first of its kind in India. The gallery conducts fresh cartoon exhibitions of various professional as well as amateur cartoonists every month. The gallery has been organised by the [[Indian Institute of Cartoonists]] based in Bangalore that serves to promote and preserve the work of eminent cartoonists in India. The institute has organised more than one hundred exhibitions of cartoons.<ref>[http://www.readwhere.com/read/1071561/Bangalore-Mirror/Doodle-Do#page/1/2 Doodle-Do (Listing)] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202015615/http://www.readwhere.com/read/1071561/Bangalore-Mirror/Doodle-Do#page/1/2 |date=2 February 2017 }} [[Bangalore Mirror]], Bangalore, 31 December 2016.</ref>

=== Theatre, music, and dance ===

Bangalore is home to the [[Kannada film industry]], which produces about 200 Kannada feature films each year.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Khajane |first=Muralidhara |date=2018-12-09 |title=Kannada films set new record with 224 releases, but that's where the good news ends |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/kannada-films-set-new-record-with-224-releases-but-its-not-all-good-news/article25704344.ece |access-date=2022-07-01 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> Bangalore also has an active theatre culture; popular theatres include [[Ravindra Kalakshetra]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bangaloreorbit.com/bangaloredarshan/monuments-in-bangalore/ravindra-kalakshetra.html |title=Ravindra Kalakshetra |work=Bangalore Orbit |access-date=16 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313171703/http://www.bangaloreorbit.com/bangaloredarshan/monuments-in-bangalore/ravindra-kalakshetra.html |archive-date=13 March 2012}}</ref> and the [[Ranga Shankara]].<ref name="rangashankara">{{cite news |url=http://archive.deccanherald.com/Content/Sep102007/metromon2007090924391.asp |title=An experience called 'Ranga Shankara' |last1=Murali |first1=Janaki |date=10 September 2007 |newspaper=Deccan Herald |access-date=16 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194402/http://archive.deccanherald.com/Content/Sep102007/metromon2007090924391.asp |archive-date=29 October 2013}}</ref> The city has an active English- and foreign-language theatre scene; popular theatres include Ranga Shankara and [[Chowdiah Memorial Hall]].<ref name="rangashankara" />

Kannada theatre is popular in Bangalore and consists mostly of political satire and light comedy. Plays are organised mostly by community organisations, but some by amateur groups. Drama companies touring India under the auspices of the [[British Council]] and [[Max Müller]] Bhavan also stage performances in the city frequently.<ref>{{harvnb|Raman|1994|p=37|Ref=bm}}</ref> The Alliance Française de Bangalore also hosts numerous plays throughout the year.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our Mission – Alliance française de Bangalore|url=https://bangalore.afindia.org/culture/our-mission/|access-date=2022-01-17|language=en-US}}</ref>

Bangalore is also a major centre of [[Indian classical music]] and dance.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ravindran |first=Nirmala |title=Dance and Music is part of our culture |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/In+the+city/1/13928.html |access-date=17 June 2012 |newspaper=India Today |date=27 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529024740/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/In+the+city/1/13928.html |archive-date=29 May 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> The cultural scene features a diverse set of music concerts, dance performances and plays. Performances of [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] (South Indian) and [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]] (North Indian) classical music, and dance forms like [[Bharat Natyam]], [[Kuchipudi]], [[Kathakali]], [[Kathak]], and [[Odissi]] are very popular.<ref name="bm">{{harvnb|Raman|1994|pp=34–35|Ref=bm}}</ref> [[Yakshagana]], a theatre art indigenous to coastal Karnataka is often played in town halls.<ref>
{{cite news |first=Sharath M. |last=Sharma |title=It's Yakshagana season |date=22 August 2010 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/its-yakshagana-season/article587170.ece |work=The Hindu | access-date=13 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921080008/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/its-yakshagana-season/article587170.ece | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref> The two main music seasons in Bangalore are April–May during the [[Rama Navami|Ram Navami]] festival, and September–October during the [[Dusshera]] festival, when music activities by cultural organisations are at their peak.<ref name="bm" /> Though both classical and contemporary music are played in Bangalore, rock music dominates the music of urban Bangalore; Bangalore has its own subgenre of rock, "Bangalore Rock", an amalgamation of [[classic rock]], [[hard rock]] and [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]], and some [[jazz]] and [[blues]].<ref>{{cite news |title=You know music is in Bangalore's DNA, bands tell why |date=24 December 2011 |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/1629608/report-you-know-music-is-in-bangalores-dna-bands-tell-why |work=DNA | access-date=21 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925075622/http://www.dnaindia.com/bangalore/1629608/report-you-know-music-is-in-bangalores-dna-bands-tell-why | archive-date=25 September 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref> Notable bands from Bangalore include [[Raghu Dixit Project]], [[Kryptos (band)|Kryptos]], [[Inner Sanctum (band)|Inner Sanctum]], [[Agam (band)|Agam]], [[All the fat children]], and [[Swaratma]]. Bangalore is sometimes called as the "[[public house|Pub]] Capital of India" and the "Rock/Metal Capital of India" because of its underground music scene.{{sfn|Plunkett|2001|p=124}}

== Education ==
{{Main|Education in Bangalore}}
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=== Schools ===
{{Main|List of schools in Bangalore}}
Bangalore has a literacy rate of around 88%, according to the [[2011 Census of India|2011 national census]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-04-08 |title=State's literacy rate lagging |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/152272/states-literacy-rate-lagging.html |access-date=2022-07-03 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> Until the early 19th century, education in Bangalore was mainly run by religious leaders and restricted to students of that religion.<ref name="gaz">{{harvnb|Rao|1929|p=494|Ref=mg}}</ref> The western system of education was introduced during the rule of [[Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar]]. In 1832, the British [[Wesleyan]] Mission established the first English school, the [[United Mission School|Wesleyan Canarese School]]. The fathers of the Paris Foreign Missions established the [[St. Joseph's Boys' High School, Bangalore|St. Joseph's European School]] in 1858.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stjosephsindianinstitutions.com//?page_id=9 |title=History |work=stjosephsindianinstitutions.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324111204/http://www.stjosephsindianinstitutions.com/?page_id=9 |archive-date=24 March 2014}}</ref> The Bangalore High School was started by the Mysore government in 1858 and the [[Bishop Cotton Boys' School]] was started in 1865. In 1945 when World War II came to an end, King George Royal Indian Military Colleges was started at Bangalore by [[George VI|King George VI]]; the school is popularly known as [[Bangalore Military School]].<ref name="gaz1">{{harvnb|Rao|1929|p=497|Ref=mg}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Punekar |first1=Vijaya Bhaskar |title=Assimilation: A Study of North Indians in Bangalore |publisher=Popular Prakashan |year=1974 |page=54 |isbn=9788171540129}}</ref>

Primary, middle school and secondary education in Bangalore is offered by various schools which are affiliated to one of the government or government recognised private boards of education, such as the [[Secondary School Leaving Certificate]] (SSLC), [[Central Board of Secondary Education]] (CBSE), [[Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations]] (CISCE), [[International Baccalaureate]] (IB), [[International General Certificate of Secondary Education]] (IGCSE) and [[National Institute of Open Schooling]] (NIOS).<ref name="boards">{{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/Archives/july012004/edu2.asp |work=Deccan Herald |date=1 July 2004 |title=Broad choice of Class X boards | access-date=16 October 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071106093218/http://www.deccanherald.com/Archives/july012004/edu2.asp | archive-date=6 November 2007}}</ref> [[List of schools in Bangalore|Schools in Bangalore]] are either government run or are private (both aided and un-aided by the government).<ref name="aid">
{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2004-05-18/bangalore/28338778_1_karnataka-schools-fear-psychosis-trimester |title=Trimester system in all Karnataka schools from 1 June |access-date=16 October 2007 |date=18 May 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811061156/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2004-05-18/bangalore/28338778_1_karnataka-schools-fear-psychosis-trimester |archive-date=11 August 2011 |url-status=dead |work=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=S. |last=Bageshree |title=What will happen to government schools now? |date=9 May 2012 |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/what-will-happen-to-government-schools-now/article3398125.ece |work=The Hindu | access-date=14 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921074411/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/what-will-happen-to-government-schools-now/article3398125.ece | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref> Bangalore has a significant number of [[international schools]] due to large number of expats and people employed in the [[Information technology|IT]] sector.<ref>{{cite web |title=IT crowd, elite prefer international schools |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bangalore/IT-crowd-elite-prefer-international-schools/articleshow/20868328.cms |website=The Times of India |access-date=1 December 2015 |last=Ullas |first=Sruthy Susan |date=2 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620164658/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bangalore/IT-crowd-elite-prefer-international-schools/articleshow/20868328.cms |archive-date=20 June 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> After completing their secondary education, students either attend a [[pre-university course]] or continue an equivalent high school course in one of three streams – [[Liberal arts|arts]], [[commerce]] or [[science]] – in various combinations.<ref name="streams">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/16/stories/2006051618850300.htm |title=Students, parents throng PU colleges in city | access-date=16 October 2007 |location=Chennai, India |date=16 May 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070921111926/http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/16/stories/2006051618850300.htm | archive-date=21 September 2007 |work=[[The Hindu]] | url-status=dead}}</ref> Alternatively, students may enroll in diploma courses. Upon completing the required coursework, students enroll in general or professional degrees in universities through lateral entry.<ref>{{cite news |title=Diploma students have a chance in government engineering colleges |date=29 August 2013 |url=http://newindianexpress.com/cities/bangalore/Diploma-students-have-a-chance-in-government-engineering-colleges/2013/08/29/article1757185.ece |work=[[The Indian Express]] | access-date=14 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060905/http://newindianexpress.com/cities/bangalore/Diploma-students-have-a-chance-in-government-engineering-colleges/2013/08/29/article1757185.ece | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Darinia |last=Khongwir |title=PUC is not the only option |date=6 May 2009 |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-05-06/bangalore/28156113_1_sslc-pu-karnataka-examination-authority |work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=14 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202231106/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-05-06/bangalore/28156113_1_sslc-pu-karnataka-examination-authority | archive-date=2 December 2013 | url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Universities ===
{{main|List of institutions of higher education in Bangalore}}
[[File:National Law School of India University, Bangalore, India - 20130524-01.JPG|thumb|120px|[[National Law School of India University]], a premier law university ]]
Established in 1858, the [[Central College of Bangalore]] is the city's oldest college. It was affiliated originally with [[University of Mysore]] and subsequently with [[Bangalore University]]. In 1882 priests from the [[Paris Foreign Missions Society]] established [[St. Joseph's College, Bangalore|St. Joseph's College]]. [[Bangalore University]] was established in 1886; it is affiliated with over 500 colleges and has a total student enrolment of over 300,000. The university has two campuses within Bangalore – Jnanabharathi and Central College.<ref name="univ">{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-01-09/bangalore/27875270_1_bu-bed-colleges-bangalore-university |title=BU overloaded, wants to split |access-date=16 October 2007 |date=9 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811061209/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2007-01-09/bangalore/27875270_1_bu-bed-colleges-bangalore-university |archive-date=11 August 2011 |url-status=dead |work=[[The Times of India]] }}</ref> [[University Visvesvaraya College of Engineering]] was established in 1917 by [[M. Visvesvaraya]] and is affiliated with many private engineering colleges.
Among the prominent research institutes in Bangalore are the [[Indian Institute of Science]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research]], [[National Centre for Biological Sciences]], [[National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences]] and the [[National Institute of Advanced Studies]]. Some private institutions in Bangalore include [[Symbiosis International University]], [[SVKM's NMIMS]], [[CMR University]], [[Christ University]], [[Jain University]], [[PES University]], [[RV University]], [[Dayananda Sagar University]] and [[Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences]]. Private medical colleges include [[St. John's Medical College]], [[M. S. Ramaiah Medical College]], [[Kempegowda Institute of Medical Sciences]], and [[Vydehi Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangalore, the education hub |date=27 June 2011 |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-06-27/education/29708615_1_education-hub-indian-institute-education-destination |work=[[The Times of India]] | access-date=14 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060824/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-06-27/education/29708615_1_education-hub-indian-institute-education-destination | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=dead }}
</ref>

== Media ==

The first [[printing press]] in Bangalore was established in 1840 in Kannada by the [[Wesleyan]] Christian Mission.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wesleyan methodists promoted language, education |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2011/nov/14/wesleyan-methodists-promoted-language-education-309916.html |access-date=2022-05-28 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> In 1859, the bi-weekly ''Bangalore Herald'' became the first English newspaper to be published in Bangalore, and in 1860, the ''Mysore Vrittanta Bodhini'' became the first Kannada newspaper to be circulated in Bangalore.<ref name="newshist">{{cite book |author=M. Fazlul Hasan |publisher=Historical Publications |title=Bangalore Through the Centuries |pages=165–166 |year=1970}}</ref><ref name="ppr">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SB3_VodABdIC&q=1840+printing+press+bangalore&pg=PA54 |title=Assimilation: A Study of North Indians in Bangalore |author=Vijaya B. Punekar | access-date=4 October 2007 |isbn=978-81-7154-012-9 |year=1974}}</ref> ''[[Vijaya Karnataka]]'' and ''[[The Times of India]]'' are the most widely circulated newspapers in Kannada and English, respectively, closely followed by the ''[[Prajavani]]'' and ''[[Deccan Herald]]''{{Nbsp}}''–'' both owned by the Printers (Mysore) Limited, the largest print media house in Karnataka.<ref name="vke">{{Cite news |url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2190334.cms |work=The Economic Times |title=Double dhamaka |author=Preiti Sharma |access-date=7 October 2007 |date=18 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012205827/http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2190334.cms |archive-date=12 October 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="toidh">{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1061119/asp/look/story_7016875.asp |work=The Telegraph |author=Shuma Raha |title=Battleground Bangalore | access-date=7 October 2007 |location=Calcutta, India |date=19 November 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011172555/http://telegraphindia.com/1061119/asp/look/story_7016875.asp | archive-date=11 October 2007 | url-status=dead}}</ref> Other circulated newspapers include ''[[Vijayavani|Vijayvani]]'', ''[[Vishwavani News|Vishwavani]]'', ''[[Kannada Prabha|Kannadaprabha]]'', ''[[Sanjevani]]'', ''[[Bangalore Mirror]]'', ''[[Udayavani]]'' provide localised news updates.<ref>{{cite news |first=K. |last=Satyamurty |title=Exploring Bangalore, a mouse click away |date=22 November 2000 |url=http://www.hindu.com/2000/11/22/stories/0422402j.htm | access-date=17 September 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921060725/http://www.hindu.com/2000/11/22/stories/0422402j.htm | archive-date=21 September 2013 | url-status=dead |work=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref>

[[All India Radio]], the Indian national state radio service, started broadcasting from its Bangalore station on 2 November 1955.<ref name="radio">{{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/Archives/jan232006/metromon1727452006122.asp |work=Deccan Herald |date=23 January 2006 |title=Idhu Akashvani, Bengalooru! | access-date=7 October 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204092005/http://www.deccanherald.com/Archives/jan232006/metromon1727452006122.asp | archive-date=4 December 2007 | url-status=dead}}</ref> All broadcasts were [[Amplitude modulation|AM]] until 2001, when [[Radio City (Indian radio station)|Radio City]] became the first private channel in India to start transmitting [[Frequency modulation|FM]] radio from Bangalore;<ref name="rc">{{cite web |url=http://www.blonnet.com/2002/05/23/stories/2002052301450400.htm |work=Business Line |date=23 May 2002 |title=Radio City goes on air in Mumbai | access-date=7 October 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011191801/http://blonnet.com/2002/05/23/stories/2002052301450400.htm | archive-date=11 October 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref> a number of other FM channels have been initiated since.<ref name="gaga">{{cite web |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/archives/jan82006/index204517200617.asp |work=Deccan Herald |date=8 January 2006 |title=Radio gaga: 6 more FM stations | access-date=7 October 2007 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204092025/http://www.deccanherald.com/archives/jan82006/index204517200617.asp | archive-date=4 December 2007}}</ref> The city probably has India's oldest [[Amateur radio|amateur (ham) radio]] club – the Bangalore Amateur Radio Club (VU2ARC), established in 1959.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.barc.in |title=Bangalore Amateur Radio Club | Fifty Golden Years 1959–2009 |publisher=Barc.in | access-date=29 March 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100108140405/http://www.barc.in/ | archive-date=8 January 2010 | url-status=live }}
</ref>

Bangalore got its first television network when [[Doordarshan]] established a relay centre on 1 November 1981.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How DD brought Indian homes entertainment |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2009/oct/09/how-dd-brought-indian-homes-entertainment-91209.html |access-date=2022-05-24 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref> A production centre was established in the Doordarshan's Bangalore office in 1983, thereby allowing the introduction of a news program in Kannada on 19 November 1983.<ref name="dd" /> Doordarshan also launched a Kannada satellite channel on 15 August 1991, now named [[DD Chandana]].<ref name="dd">{{cite web |url=http://www.pibbng.kar.nic.in/media.htm |work=the Press Information Bureau |title=Doordarshan, Bangalore |access-date=7 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011182720/http://pibbng.kar.nic.in/media.htm |archive-date=11 October 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[STAR TV (Asia)|Star TV]] was the first Bangalorean private satellite channel, starting in September 1991.<ref name="startv">{{cite web |url=http://thehindujobs.com/thehindu/2001/07/29/stories/13290695.htm |work=The Hindu |date=29 July 2001 |title=Tune in to quality |author=Sevanti Ninan |access-date=8 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012225516/http://thehindujobs.com/thehindu/2001/07/29/stories/13290695.htm |archive-date=12 October 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Direct To Home]] (DTH) services also became available in Bangalore from around 2007.<ref name="dth">{{cite web |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-eworld/article1679696.ece |work=Business Line |date=8 May 2007 |title=Going for the action | access-date=25 January 2012}}</ref>

The first [[Internet service provider]] in Bangalore was [[STPI]], which started offering internet services in early 1990s.<ref name="stpint">{{cite web |url=http://www.iimahd.ernet.in/publications/data/2006-05-02rbasant.pdf |title=Bangalore Cluster: Evolution, Growth and Challengers |author=Rakesh Basant |access-date=8 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025132717/http://www.iimahd.ernet.in/publications/data/2006-05-02rbasant.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This Internet service was, however, restricted to corporates until [[VSNL]] started offering [[Dial-up Internet access|dial-up internet]] services to the general public at the end of 1995.<ref name="vsnldi">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/computer/1998/sep/07net.htm |title=A short recap on Internet developments in India | access-date=8 October 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016132614/http://www.rediff.com/computer/1998/sep/07net.htm | archive-date=16 October 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref> Bangalore has the largest number of [[broadband Internet]] connections in India.<ref name="bbi">{{Cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/12/29/stories/2006122922770200.htm |title=A highly net-savvy city | access-date=8 October 2007 |location=Chennai, India |date=29 December 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012040754/http://hindu.com/2006/12/29/stories/2006122922770200.htm | archive-date=12 October 2007 |work=[[The Hindu]] | url-status=dead}}</ref>

Namma Wifi is a free [[municipal wireless network]] in Bangalore, the first free WiFi in India. It began operations on 24 January 2014. Service is available at M.G. Road, Brigade Road, and other locations. The service is operated by D-VoiS and is paid for by the Karnataka state government.<ref>{{cite news |title=Free wifi on M.G. Road and Brigade Road from Friday |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/free-wifi-on-mg-road-and-brigade-road-from-friday/article5606757.ece |work=The Hindu |date=23 January 2014 | access-date=6 October 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703193207/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/bangalore/free-wifi-on-mg-road-and-brigade-road-from-friday/article5606757.ece | archive-date=3 July 2014 | url-status=live }}</ref> Bangalore was the first city in India to have access to [[4G]] mobile internet services.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Julka |first=Harsimran |title=Bharti Airtel offers 4G services on mobiles in Bangalore |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/telecom/bharti-airtel-offers-4g-services-on-mobiles-in-bangalore/articleshow/30362058.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2022-05-25}}</ref>

== Sports ==

[[File:Test Match Cricket India Vs. Pakistan.jpg|thumb|The [[Chinnaswamy Stadium]] during India vs Pakistan test match in 2007]]
[[File:Sree Kanteerava Stadium.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of [[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]]]
[[Cricket]] is the most popular sport in the city.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007-06-13 |title=The Hindu : Karnataka / Bangalore News : Price is no problem for these cricket enthusiasts |url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/11/20/stories/2005112018750300.htm |access-date=2022-03-21 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613051554/http://www.hindu.com/2005/11/20/stories/2005112018750300.htm |archive-date=13 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Various popular sports played in the state of Karnataka |url=https://www.karnatakaonline.in/about/sports |access-date=2022-03-21 |website=www.karnatakaonline.in}}</ref> Bangalore's many parks and gardens allow for impromptu games.<ref>{{harvnb|Bangalore — Mysore|pp=29|Ref=bm}}</ref> Many national cricketers have come from Bangalore, including former captains [[Rahul Dravid]] and [[Anil Kumble]]. Some other notable Bangaloreans who have represented India include [[Gundappa Viswanath]], [[Syed Kirmani]], [[E. A. S. Prasanna]], [[B. S. Chandrasekhar]], [[Roger Binny]], [[Venkatesh Prasad]], [[Sunil Joshi]], [[Robin Uthappa]], [[Vinay Kumar]], [[KL Rahul]], [[Karun Nair]], [[Mayank Agarwal]], [[Brijesh Patel]] and [[Stuart Binny]]. Bangalore's international cricket stadium is the [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]], which has a [[seating capacity]] of 40,000<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://content-usa.cricinfo.com/india/content/ground/57897.html |title=Cricinfo Page on Chinnaswamy Stadium |publisher=Content-usa.cricinfo.com | access-date=29 March 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208225213/http://content-usa.cricinfo.com/india/content/ground/57897.html | archive-date=8 February 2009 | url-status=live }}</ref> and has hosted matches during the [[1987 Cricket World Cup]], [[1996 Cricket World Cup]] and the [[2011 Cricket World Cup]]. The Chinnaswamy Stadium is the home of India's [[National Cricket Academy]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncabcci.com/contact_us |title=Address from NCA Website |publisher=ncabcci.com | access-date=9 October 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317031436/http://ncabcci.com/contact_us | archive-date=17 March 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Karnataka State Cricket Association]] and the [[Indian Premier League]] (IPL) franchise [[Royal Challengers Bangalore]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Royal Challengers Bangalore Cricket Team Scores, RCB team Matches, Schedule, News, Players |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/team/royal-challengers-bangalore-335970 |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>

[[Association football]] also has a significant following in Bangalore and has produced several notable players.<ref>{{Cite web |last=K |first=Navya P. |date=2010-06-29 |title=Bangaloreans gearing up to make it big in football |url=https://bengaluru.citizenmatters.in/2134-current-football-scene-bangalore-2134 |access-date=2022-03-21 |website=Citizen Matters, Bengaluru |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-06-17 |title=Bengaluru home to great football heroes |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/metrolife/metrolife-on-the-move/bengaluru-home-to-great-football-heroes-675404.html |access-date=2022-03-21 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref> The city is home to [[Indian Super League]] (ISL)'s [[Bengaluru FC]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.the-aiff.com/club/8021|title=Bengaluru Football Club |publisher=the-aiff.com | access-date=13 May 2023}}</ref> The other clubs of the city include [[FC Bengaluru United]], [[Ozone FC]] and [[South United FC]] of [[I-League 2nd Division]].<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |last2= |last3= |first3= |title=Primus, Opoku to lead FCBU's challenge {{!}} Football News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/football/i-league/primus-opoku-to-lead-fcbus-challenge/articleshow/77944033.cms |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=The Times of India |date= 5 September 2020|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-03-08 |title=Ozone releases just one player for Santosh Trophy |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/663604/ozone-releases-just-one-player.html |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-01-03 |title=Bangalore gets new pro football club |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-08-19/top-stories/33272756_1_football-club-ksfa-president-ar-khaleel-bangalore |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103094928/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-08-19/top-stories/33272756_1_football-club-ksfa-president-ar-khaleel-bangalore |archive-date=2013-01-03 |url-status=dead |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=The Times Of India}}</ref> It hosted some games of the 2014 [[Unity World Cup]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laici.va/content/laici/en/media/notizie/unity-world-cup.html |title=Expo 2014 Unity World Cup in Goa |date=15 September 2014 |access-date=15 November 2021 |work=Pontificial Council for the Laity}}</ref>

The city hosts the [[Women's Tennis Association]] (WTA) [[Bangalore Open]] tournament annually. Beginning September 2008, Bangalore has also been hosting the [[Kingfisher Airlines Tennis Open]] [[Association of Tennis Professionals|ATP]] tournament annually.<ref name="kingfisheropen">[http://cbs.sportsline.com/tennis/story/10834314 Bangalore replaces Mumbai on ATP Tour circuit] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130202212150/http://cbs.sportsline.com/tennis/story/10834314 |date=2 February 2013 }}. CBSSportsline.com.</ref>

Bangalore is home to the [[Bangalore rugby football club]] (BRFC).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2009/06/25/stories/2009062551400400.htm |title=Kicking up a storm |date=25 May 2009 |location=Chennai, India | access-date=8 October 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629190252/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2009/06/25/stories/2009062551400400.htm | archive-date=29 June 2009 | url-status=dead |work=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref> The city also has a number of elite clubs, like Century Club, The Bangalore Golf Club, the Bowring Institute and the exclusive [[Bangalore Club]], whose previous members include [[Winston Churchill]] and the Maharaja of Mysore.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Shekhar |first=Divya |title=Bangalore Club: How Bangalore Club wrote off the Rs 13 Winston Churchill owed it as 'irrecoverable debt' |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/how-bangalore-club-wrote-off-the-rs-13-winston-churchill-owed-it-as-irrecoverable-debt/articleshow/63829069.cms |access-date=2022-07-11}}</ref>

India's [[Davis Cup]] team members [[Mahesh Bhupathi]]<ref name="mahesh">[http://www.sportsline.com/tennis/players/playerpage/384909 Profile] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116171624/http://www.sportsline.com/tennis/players/playerpage/384909 |date=16 November 2007 }}. CBSSports.com. CBS Interactive</ref> and [[Rohan Bopanna]]<ref name="rohan">{{cite web |url=http://www.daviscup.com/en/players/player/profile.aspx?playerid=10024192 |title=Davis Cup – Player profile – Rohan BOPANNA (IND) |work=daviscup.com |publisher=[[International Tennis Federation]] | access-date=7 December 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302232744/http://www.daviscup.com/en/players/player/profile.aspx?playerid=10024192 | archive-date=2 March 2011 | url-status=live }}</ref> reside in Bangalore. Other sportspeople from Bangalore include national swimming champion [[Nisha Millet]], world [[snooker]] champion [[Pankaj Advani (billiards player)|Pankaj Advani]] and former [[All England Open]] badminton champion [[Prakash Padukone]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://badmintonmania.wordpress.com/touch-play-the-prakash-padukone-story/ |title=Touch Play: The Prakash Padukone Story | Badminton Mania |publisher=Badmintonmania.wordpress.com | access-date=10 June 2013 |date=28 February 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318035611/http://badmintonmania.wordpress.com/touch-play-the-prakash-padukone-story/ | archive-date=18 March 2013 | url-status=live }}</ref>

Bangalore's [[Kanteerava Indoor Stadium]] hosted the [[SABA Championship]] in 2015 and 2016. [[India's national basketball team]] won the gold medal on both occasions. Bangalore is home to the [[Bengaluru Beast]]—the 2017 vice-champion of India's top professional basketball division, the [[UBA Pro Basketball League]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-03-01 |title=Bengaluru and Punjab in semifinals |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/bengaluru-and-punjab-in-semifinals/article17389001.ece |access-date=2022-07-11 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

The Kanteerava Indoor Stadium and [[Sheraton Hotels and Resorts|Sheraton]] Grand have hosted various [[kabaddi]] matches, including the entire [[Pro Kabaddi League]] [[2021–22 Pro Kabaddi League season|Season 8]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=PKL Season 8 to start on December 22 in Bengaluru|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/kabaddi/pro-kabaddi-league-season-eight-to-begin-december-22-bengaluru/article37783126.ece|access-date=2022-01-17|website=Sportstar|date=December 2021 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Bengaluru Bulls]] is one of the teams in this league.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bengaluru Bulls gear up for Pro Kabbadi League |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2014/jul/21/Bengaluru-Bulls-gear-up-for-Pro-Kabbadi-League-638266.html |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>

[[File: Bengaluru FC vs Shillong Lajong, 7 January 2017.jpg|thumb|250px|Banner unveiled by fans at [[Bengaluru FC]] vs [[Shillong Lajong]] on 7 January 2017]]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
|+ City-based professional clubs
|-
! Club !! Sport !! League !! Stadium !! Span
|-
| [[Bangalore Warhawks]]
| [[American football]]
| [[Elite Football League of India|EFLI]]
| HAL Sports Complex
| 2012–
|-
| [[Bengaluru Beast]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[UBA Pro Basketball League|UBA]]
|
| 2015–
|-
| [[Bengaluru Raptors]]
| [[Badminton]]
| [[Premier Badminton League|PBL]]
| [[Koramangala Indoor Stadium]]
| 2013–
|-
| [[Bangalore Raptors]]
| [[Tennis]]
| [[Champions Tennis League]]
| KSLTA Tennis Stadium
| 2014–2014
|-
| [[Bengaluru Bulls]]
| [[Kabaddi]]
| [[Pro Kabaddi League|PKL]]
| [[Kanteerava Indoor Stadium]]
| 2014–
|-
| [[Bengaluru FC]]
| [[Association football|Football]]
| [[Indian Super League]]
| [[Sree Kanteerava Stadium]]
| 2013–
|-
| [[FC Bengaluru United]]
| [[Football (soccer)|Football]]
| [[I-League 2nd Division]]
| [[Bangalore Football Stadium]]
| 2018–
|-
| [[Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C.|HAL Bangalore]]
| [[Football (soccer)|Football]]
| [[I-League]]
| [[Bangalore Football Stadium]]
| N/A
|-
| [[Ozone FC]]
| [[Football (soccer)|Football]]
| [[I-League 2nd Division]]
| [[Bangalore Football Stadium]]
| 2015–
|-
| [[South United FC]]
| [[Football (soccer)|Football]]
| [[I-League 2nd Division]]
| [[Bangalore Football Stadium]]
| 2013–
|-
| [[KGF Academy]]
| [[Football (soccer)|Football]]
| [[I-League 2nd Division]]
| [[Bangalore Football Stadium]]
| 2011–
|-
| [[Bangalore Hi-Fliers]]
| [[Field hockey]]
| [[Premier Hockey League|PHL]]
| [[Bangalore Hockey Stadium]]
| 2005–2008
|-
| [[Karnataka Lions]]
| [[Field hockey]]
| [[World Series Hockey|WSH]]
| [[Bangalore Hockey Stadium]]
| 2011–2012
|-
| [[Royal Challengers Bangalore]]
| [[Cricket]]
| [[Indian Premier League|IPL]]
| [[M. Chinnaswamy Stadium]]
| 2008–
|-
| [[Bengaluru Torpedoes]]
| [[Volleyball]]
| [[Prime Volleyball League]]
| [[Koramangala Indoor Stadium]]
| 2021–
|}

== Sister cities ==
{{see also|List of twin towns and sister cities in India}}

* {{flagicon|Belarus}} [[Minsk, Belarus]] (1973) <ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-08-08 |title=No lessons learnt from 'Sister City' |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/content/349804/no-lessons-learnt-sister-city.html |access-date=2022-07-10 |website=Deccan Herald |language=en}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|United States}} [[Cleveland, Ohio]], United States (1992) <ref>{{Cite web|title=Cleveland's Sister Cities {{!}} City of Cleveland|url=https://www.clevelandohio.gov/CityofCleveland/Home/Government/MayorsOffice/Office_of_Government_Affairs/SisterCities|access-date=2022-01-20|website=www.clevelandohio.gov|archive-date=29 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329094132/https://www.clevelandohio.gov/CityofCleveland/Home/Government/MayorsOffice/Office_of_Government_Affairs/SisterCities|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|United States}} [[San Francisco, California]], United States (2008) <ref>{{Cite web|date=1 December 2009|title=San Francisco chooses Bangalore as its Indian sister|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/san-francisco-chooses-bangalore-as-its-indian-sister/articleshow/5286021.cms|access-date=2022-01-20|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|CHN}} [[Chengdu, Sichuan]], China (2013)<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangalore's Chinese twin comes calling |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/bangalores-chinese-twin-comes-calling/article5416395.ece |newspaper=The Hindu |date=3 December 2013 |access-date=25 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140830151156/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-karnataka/bangalores-chinese-twin-comes-calling/article5416395.ece |archive-date=30 August 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of people from Bangalore]]
* [[List of neighbourhoods in Bangalore]]
* [[List of tallest buildings in Bangalore]]
* [[List of tourist attractions in Bangalore]]
* [[List of Chola temples in Bangalore]]
* [[Taluks of Bangalore]]
* [[Tourism in Karnataka]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Works cited ===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=De |first1=Aditi |title=Multiple city: writings on Bangalore |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-14-310025-6 |ref=Aditi2008}}
* {{cite book |last1=Government of Karnataka |title=Karnataka State Gazetteer: Bangalore District |year=1990 |ref=kar | author-link1=Government of Karnataka}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nair |first1=Janaki |title=The Promise of the Metropolis: Bangalore's Twentieth Century |edition=illustrated |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-566725-7 |ref=nair}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pinto |first1=Jerry |last2=Srivastava |first2=Rahul |title=Talk of the Town |publisher=Penguin Books India |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-14-333013-4 |ref=TalkoftheTown}}
* {{cite book |last=Plunkett |first=Richard |title=South India |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |date=2001 |isbn=1-86450-161-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Raman |first1=A. |title=Bangalore — Mysore |edition=illustrated |publisher=[[Orient Blackswan]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-86311-431-1 |ref=bm}}
* {{cite book |last=Rao |first=C. Hayavadana | author-link=C. Hayavadana Rao |title=The Mysore State Gazetteer |year=1929 |ref=mg}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sarma |first1=I.K. | author-link=Inguva Kartikeya Sarma |title=Temples of the Gangas of Karnataka |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-19-560686-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Srinivas |first1=Smriti |title=Landscapes of Urban Memory: The Sacred and the Civic in India's High-tech City |edition=revised |publisher=[[Orient Blackswan]] |year=2004 |isbn=9788125022541 |ref=Sri2004}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite web |author=Archaeological Survey of India|author-link=Archaeological Survey of India |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.22764/page/n1/mode/1up |title=Annual Report of the Archaeological researches in Mysore during the year 1914–15 |publisher=Central Archaeological Library |location=New Delhi}}
* {{cite book |last=Rangachari |first=Edgar Thurston, K. |title=Castes and tribes of southern India |year=1993 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |location=New Delhi |isbn=9788120602885 |ref=EdgarThurston}}
* {{cite book |last=Rice |first=B. Lewis |title=Mysore : a gazetteer compiled for government. |url=https://archive.org/details/mysoregazetteerc0000rice |year=2001 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-8120609778 |ref=MysoreGazetteer}}
* {{cite book |last=Stein |first=Burton |title=The New Cambridge History of India. |year=1989 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-26693-2 |ref=BurtonStein | title-link=The New Cambridge History of India}}
* {{cite book |last=Hasan |first=Fazlul |title=Bangalore Through The Centuries |location=Bangalore |publisher=Historical Publications |date=1970}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Vagale |first=Uday Kumar |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10919/9941 |title=Public Space in Bangalore: Present and Future Projections |date=6 May 2004 |publisher=Virginia Tech |hdl=10919/9941 |access-date= 26 September 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120605195117/http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05172004-231956/unrestricted/4.pdf |archive-date= 5 June 2012 |type=Thesis |url-status=live }} {{small|(792 kB)}}. Digital Libraries and Archives. 2006. Virginia Tech. 27 April 2004.
* {{cite book |last1=Meyer |first1=William Stevenson |last2=Burn |first2=Richard |last3=Cotton |first3=James Sutherland |last4=Risley |first4=Herbert Hope |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/ |title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India |date=2006 |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]|orig-year=1909}}
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Bangalore|volume=3|page=315|short=1}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.bdabangalore.org/ Official website of Bangalore Development Authority]
* {{Britannica|51705}}
* {{GovPubs|Bangalore}}
* {{curlie|Regional/Asia/India/Karnataka/Localities/Bangalore/}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|7902476}}

{{Geographic location
|Centre=Bangalore
|North=[[Maharashtra]]
|East=[[Andhra Pradesh]]
|South=[[Tamil Nadu]]
|West=''[[Arabian Sea]]''
}}
{{Navboxes
| title=Articles related to Bangalore
| list =
{{Bangalore topics|left}}
{{Navboxes
| title=[[File:Gnome-globe.svg|25px]]{{nbsp}}Geographic locale
| list =
'''[[Geographic coordinate system|Lat. and Long.]] {{Coord|12|58|44|N|77|35|30|E|display=inline}}'''
}}
{{Bangalore Urban district}}
{{Schools in Bangalore}}
{{State and Union Territory capitals of India}}
{{Megacities}}
{{Million-plus cities in India}}
{{World's most populated urban areas}}
}}

{{Subject bar|commons=yes |commons-search=Category:Bangalore |n=yes |wikt=yes |b=yes |q=yes |s=yes |v=yes |voy=yes |d=yes }}

[[Category:Bangalore| ]]
[[Category:1537 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Bangalore Urban district]]
[[Category:Cities in Karnataka]]
[[Category:High-technology business districts in India]]
[[Category:Indian capital cities]]
[[Category:Metropolitan cities in India]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1537]]
[[Category:Geographical articles missing image alternative text]]

India at the 1962 Asian Games

2023-10-01T21:42:24Z

Samareshadak689: /* Medals by sport */

{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox country at games
| NOC = IND
| NOCname = [[Indian Olympic Association]]
| oldcode =
| year = 1962
| date =
| games = Asian Games
| location = [[Jakarta]]
| competitors =
| sports =
| flagbearer =
| officials =
| gold = 10
| silver = 13
| bronze = 10
| rank = 3
| appearances = auto
| seealso =
| website =
}}

'''[[India]]''' participated in the '''[[1962 Asian Games]]''' held in the city of [[Jakarta]], Indonesia from 24 August 1962 to 4 September 1962. India ranked 3rd with 12 gold medals in this edition of the [[Asian Games|Asiad]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ocasia.org/Game/MWinner.aspx?AMWCode=8&GCode=1 |title=Overall Medal Standings – Jakarta 1962 |access-date=20 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308071023/http://www.ocasia.org/Game/MWinner.aspx?AMWCode=8&GCode=1 |archive-date=8 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Medals by sport==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! width=200|Sport
|bgcolor=gold width=60|'''Gold''' || bgcolor=silver width=60|'''Silver''' || bgcolor=#cc9966 width=60|'''Bronze'''
! width=60|Total
|-
|align=left| [[Athletics at the 1962 Asian Games|Athletics]] || 5 || 5 || 4 || 14
|-
|align=left| [[Boxing at the 1962 Asian Games|Boxing]] || 1 || 0 || 2 || 3
|-
|align=left| [[Field hockey at the 1962 Asian Games|Hockey]] || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1
|-
|align=left| [[Football at the 1962 Asian Games|Football]] || 1 || 0 || 0 || 1
|-
|align=left| [[Wrestling at the 1962 Asian Games|Wrestling]] || 3 || 6 || 3 || 12
|-
|align=left| [[Shooting at the 1962 Asian Games|Shooting]] || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1
|-
|align=left| [[Volleyball at the 1962 Asian Games|Volleyball]] || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1
|-
! Total || 10 || 13 || 10 || 33
|}

==Football==
Head coach: {{flagicon|IND}} [[Syed Abdul Rahim]]

{{nat fs g start}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=GK|name=[[Pradyut Barman]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Railways football team|Railways]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=GK|name=[[Peter Thangaraj]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1962|8|25|1935|12|24}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan Sporting]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=DF|name=[[O. Chandrashekar|Menon Chandrashekar]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1962|8|25|1935|7|10}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Maharashtra football team|Bombay]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Tarlok Singh (footballer)|Tarlok Singh]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Services football team|Services]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Fortunato Franco]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Maharashtra football team|Bombay]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Jarnail Singh (footballer)|Jarnail Singh]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1962|8|25|1936|2|20}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Mohun Bagan AC|Mohun Bagan]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Ram Bahadur Chhetri]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1962|8|25|1937|2|15}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Pradip Kumar Banerjee]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1962|8|25|1936|6|23}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Railways football team|Railways]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Yousuf Khan (footballer)|Mohammed Yousuf Khan]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1962|8|25|1937|8|5}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Hyderabad City Police FC|Hyderabad City Police]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=FW|name=[[D.M.K. Afzal]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Hyderabad City Police FC|Hyderabad City Police]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Chuni Goswami]] ([[Captain (association football)|c]])|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1962|8|25|1938|1|15}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Mohun Bagan AC|Mohun Bagan]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Tulsidas Balaram]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1962|8|25|1936|10|4}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Prasanta Sinha]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=FW|name=[[D. Ethiraj]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1962|8|25|1934|7|1}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Services football team|Services]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Arumai Nayagam]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Mohun Bagan AC|Mohun Bagan]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g player|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Arun Ghosh]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1962|8|25|1941|7|7}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{nat fs g end}}

=== Preliminary round ===
<onlyinclude>{{#invoke:sports table|main|style=WDL
|section=Group B
|res_col_header=Q
|show_positions=n
|use_goal_ratio=y
|winpoints=2

|team1=KOR|name_KOR={{fb|KOR|1949}}
|team2=IND|name_IND={{fb|IND}}
|team3=JPN|name_JPN={{fb|JPN|1947}}
|team4=THA|name_THA={{fb|THA}}
|win_KOR=3|draw_KOR=0|loss_KOR=0|gf_KOR=6|ga_KOR=2
|win_IND=2|draw_IND=0|loss_IND=1|gf_IND=6|ga_IND=3
|win_JPN=1|draw_JPN=0|loss_JPN=2|gf_JPN=3|ga_JPN=4
|win_THA=0|draw_THA=0|loss_THA=3|gf_THA=4|ga_THA=10

|col_A=#ccffcc|text_A=
|result1=A|result2=A
|update=complete|source=[https://www.rsssf.org/tablesa/asgames62.html RSSSF]
}}</onlyinclude>

{{footballbox
| date = 26 August 1962
| time =
| team1 = {{fb-rt|IND}}
| score = 0–2
| report =
| team2 = {{fb|KOR|1949}}
| goals1 =
| goals2 = [[Chung Soon-choon]] {{goal|30}} [[Cha Tae-sung]] {{goal|}}
| stadium = [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium|Senayan Main Stadium]], [[Jakarta]]
| attendance = 95,000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=i35lAAAAIBAJ&pg=1971%2C3569827|title=Though Beaten In Soccer, India Can Still Make In Last 4|date=28 August 1962|publisher=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=13 January 2014}}</ref>
| referee =
}}
----
{{footballbox
| date = 28 August 1962
| time =
| team1 = {{fb-rt|THA}}
| score = 1–4
| report = https://www.sportskeeda.com/football/indian-football-team-at-the-asian-games-1962-jakarta
| team2 = {{fb|IND}}
| goals1 =
| goals2 = [[P. K. Banerjee|Banerjee]] {{goal|}} {{goal|}} [[Chuni Goswami|Goswami]] {{goal|}} [[Tulsidas Balaram|Balaram]] {{goal|}}
| stadium = [[Jakarta]]
| attendance =
| referee =
}}
----
{{footballbox
| date = 29 August 1962
| time =
| team1 = {{fb-rt|IND}}
| score = 2–0
| report = https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19620830&printsec=frontpage&hl=en
| team2 = {{fb|JPN|1947}}
| goals1 = [[P. K. Banerjee|Banerjee]] {{goal|54}} [[Tulsidas Balaram|Balaram]] {{goal|70}}
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Jakarta]]
| attendance =
| referee =
}}

=== Semifinals ===
{{footballbox
| date = 1 September 1962
| time =
| team1 = {{fb-rt|VSO}}
| score = 2–3
| report = https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19620902&printsec=frontpage&hl=en
| team2 = {{fb|IND}}
| goals1 = Phan Duong Cam {{goal|52|pen.}} Do Thol Vinh {{goal|64}}
| goals2 = [[Chuni Goswami|Goswami]] {{goal|13||75}} [[Jarnail Singh (footballer)|J. Singh]] {{goal|41}}
| stadium = [[Jakarta]]
| attendance =
| referee =
}}

=== Gold medal match ===
{{footballbox
| date = 4 September 1962
| time =
| team1 = {{fb-rt|IND}}
| score = 2–1
| report =
| team2 = {{fb|KOR|1949}}
| goals1 = [[Pradip Kumar Banerjee|P. K. Banerjee]] {{goal|17}} [[Jarnail Singh (footballer)|J. Singh]] {{goal|20}}
| goals2 = [[Cha Tae-sung]] {{goal|85}}
| stadium = [[Gelora Bung Karno Stadium|Senayan Main Stadium]], [[Jakarta]]
| attendance = 100,000<ref name="report">{{cite news|title=India Emerge Asian Games Football Champions|date=5 September 1962|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]}}</ref>
| referee = J. Ferguson ([[Football Association of Singapore|Singapore]])<ref name="report"/>
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite web|url=https://www.the-aiff.com/article/federation-declares-pk-banerjees-birthday-as-aiff-grassroots-day|title=Federation declares PK Banerjee's birth anniversary as AIFF Grassroots Day|website=the-aiff.com|publisher=[[All India Football Federation]]|date=12 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512143401/https://www.the-aiff.com/article/federation-declares-pk-banerjees-birthday-as-aiff-grassroots-day|archive-date=12 May 2023|first=AIFF|last=Media Team|location=New Delhi}}

{{Nations at the 1962 Asian Games}}

[[Category:Nations at the 1962 Asian Games]]
[[Category:India at the Asian Games|1962]]
[[Category:1962 in Indian sport|Asian Games]]

India at the 1954 Asian Games

2023-10-01T21:13:45Z

Samareshadak689: /* Medal winners {{cite web|url=https://newschoupal.com/asian-games-1954-indian-medal-winners|title=Asian Games 1954 Indian medal winners}} */

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox country at games
| NOC = IND
| NOCname = [[Indian Olympic Association]]
| oldcode =
| year = 1954
| date =
| games = Asian Games
| location = [[Manila]]
| competitors =
| sports =
| flagbearer =
| officials =
| gold = 5
| silver = 4
| bronze = 8
| rank = 5
| appearances = auto
| seealso =
| website =
}}

'''India''' participated in the '''1954 Asian Games''' held in the city of [[Manila]], Philippines from 1 May 1954 to 9 May 1954. India ranked 5th with 4 gold medals in this edition of the [[Asian Games|Asiad]].<ref>[http://www.ocasia.org/2AG.asp 2nd Asian Games medal tally ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210122609/http://www.ocasia.org/2AG.asp |date=10 February 2007 }}</ref>

==Medal table==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
!colspan=6|Medals by discipline
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Discipline
![[Image:Gold medal icon.svg]]
![[Image:Silver medal icon.svg]]
![[Image:Bronze medal icon.svg]]
!Total
|- style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;"
|[[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]]
|5
|3
|6
|14
|- style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;"
|[[Wrestling at the 1954 Asian Games|Wrestling]]
|0
|1
|1
|2
|- style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;"
|[[Diving at the 1954 Asian Games|Diving]]
|0
|0
|1
|1
|- style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;"
!Total
!5
!4
!8
!17
|}

==Medal winners<ref> {{cite web|url=https://newschoupal.com/asian-games-1954-indian-medal-winners|title=Asian Games 1954 Indian medal winners}}</ref>==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:100%"
|-
! width="80"|Medal
! width="250"|Name
! width="200"|Sport
! width="250"|Event
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[Sarwan Singh]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's 110m hurdles]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || Ajit Singh Balla || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's high jump]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[Parduman Singh Brar]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's shot put]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[Parduman Singh Brar]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's discus throw]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[Christine Brown]] [[Stephie D'Souza]] [[Violet Peters]] [[Mary D'Souza]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Women's 4 × 400 m relay]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || [[Joginder Singh Dhanaor]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's 400m]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || [[Sohan Singh Dhanoa]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's 800m]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || [[Joginder Singh Dhanaor]] [[Ivan Jacob]] Harjeet Singh J. B. Joseph || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's 4 × 400 m relay]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || B. G. Kashid || [[Wrestling at the 1954 Asian Games|Wrestling]] || [[Wrestling at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's
lightweight 67 kg]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[M. Gabriel|Marian Gabriel]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's 100 m]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Dalu Ram || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's 5000 m]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Dalu Ram || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's 3000 m steeplechase]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[Ishar Singh]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's shot put]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[Ronnie O'Brien]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's decathlon]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[Christine Brown]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1954 Asian Games|Women's 100 m]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[K. P. Thakkar]] || [[Diving at the 1954 Asian Games|Diving]] || [[Diving at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's 10 m platform]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Sohan Singh || [[Wrestling at the 1954 Asian Games|Wrestling]] || [[Wrestling at the 1954 Asian Games|Men's middleweight 79 kg]]
|}

==Football==
Head coach: {{flagicon|IND}} [[Balaidas Chatterjee]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Basu |first1=Jaydeep |last2=Warrier |first2=Sunil |last3=Chaudhuri |first3=Arunava |title=The Indian senior team at the 1954 Manila Asian Games |url=http://www.indianfootball.de/specials/india/indianteam/1954asiangames.html |website=indianfootball.de |access-date=31 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180606235430/http://www.indianfootball.de/specials/india/indianteam/1954asiangames.html |archive-date=6 June 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{National football squad start (no caps)}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=GK|name=[[Sanjeeva Uchil]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Maharashtra football team|Bombay]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=GK|name=[[Sanat Sett]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Sailen Manna]] ([[Captain (association football)|c]])|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1954|5|1|1924|9|1}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Mohun Bagan]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Sayed Khwaja Aziz-ud-Din]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1954|5|1|1930|7|12}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Hyderabad City Police FC|Hyderabad City Police]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Thenmadom Varghese]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Maharashtra football team|Bombay]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Anthony Patrick]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Hyderabad City Police FC|Hyderabad City Police]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Muhammad Noor|Noor Muhammad]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Hyderabad City Police FC|Hyderabad City Police]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Chandan Singh Rawat]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1954|5|1|1928|7|26}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Amal Dutta]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1954|5|1|1928|7|26}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[G.R. Gokul]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Sayed Moinuddin]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Hyderabad City Police FC|Hyderabad City Police]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Ahmed Khan (footballer)|Ahmed Khan]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1954|5|1|1926|12|24}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Andhra Pradesh football team|Hyderabad]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Joe D'Sa]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1954|5|1|1932|8|3}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Maharashtra football team|Bombay]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[J. Krishnaswamy|Krishna Kittu]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Anthony Braganza]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Maharashtra football team|Bombay]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[M. Jayaram]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Services football team|Services]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Thangarajan]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Tamil Nadu football team|Madras]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad end}}

=== Preliminary round ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; font-size:90% "
!width=160|Team
!width=25|{{Tooltip|Pld|Played}}
!width=25|{{Tooltip|W|Won}}
!width=25|{{Tooltip|D|Drawn}}
!width=25|{{Tooltip|L|Lost}}
!width=25|{{Tooltip|GF|Goals for}}
!width=25|{{Tooltip|GA|Goals against}}
!width=25|{{Tooltip|GD|Goal difference}}
!width=25|{{Tooltip|Pts|Points}}
|- bgcolor="ccffcc"
|align=left|{{fb|INA}}
|2||2||0||0||9||3||+6||'''4'''
|-
|align=left|{{fb|IND}}
|2||1||0||1||3||6||−3||'''2'''
|-
|align=left|{{fb|JPN|1870}}
|2||0||0||2||5||8||−3||'''0'''
|}

{{footballbox
| date = 3 May
| time =
| team1 = {{fb-rt|IND}}
| score = 3–2
| report = https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=P9oYG7HA76QC&dat=19540505&printsec=frontpage&hl=en
| team2 = {{fb|JPN|1870}}
| goals1 = [[Sayed Moinuddin|Moinuddin]] {{goal|6||28}} [[Joe D'Sa]] {{goal|42}}
| goals2 = [[Takashi Takabayashi|Takabayashi]] {{goal|47}} [[Taizo Kawamoto|Kawamoto]] {{goal|78}}
| stadium = [[Rizal Memorial Stadium]], [[Manila]]
| attendance =
| referee =
}}
----
{{footballbox
| date = 5 May
| time =
| team1 = {{fb-rt|IND}}
| score = 0–4
| report = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=2GFlAAAAIBAJ&sjid=G5QNAAAAIBAJ&pg=1393%2C2131993
| team2 = {{fb|INA}}
| goals1 =
| goals2 = [[Djamiat Dhalhar|Dhalhar]] {{goal|28|pen.|80}} [[Ramang]] {{goal|51||69}}
| stadium = [[Rizal Memorial Stadium]], [[Manila]]
| attendance =
| referee =
}}

==See also==
*[[G. Muthuraj]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Nations at the 1954 Asian Games}}

[[Category:Nations at the 1954 Asian Games]]
[[Category:India at the Asian Games|1954]]
[[Category:1954 in Indian sport|Asian Games]]

{{India-sport-stub}}
{{Asian-games-stub}}

India at the 1951 Asian Games

2023-10-01T13:40:19Z

Samareshadak689: /* Medal winners {{cite web|url=https://newschoupal.com/asian-games-1951-indian-medal-winners|title=Asian Games 1951 Indian medal winners}} */

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2018}}
{{Infobox country at games
| NOC = IND
| NOCname = [[Indian Olympic Association]]
| oldcode =
| year = 1951
| date =
| games = Asian Games
| location = [[New Delhi]]
| competitors =
| sports =
| flagbearer =
| officials =
| gold = 15
| silver = 16
| bronze = 20
| rank = 2
| appearances = auto
| seealso =
| website =
}}

'''[[India]]''' participated and hosted the '''[[1951 Asian Games]]''' held in the capital city , [[New Delhi]] from 4 to 11 March 1951. India was ranked second with 15 gold medals in this edition of the [[Asian Games|Asiad]].<ref>[http://www.ocasia.org/1AG.asp 1st Asian Games medal tally] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008024647/http://www.ocasia.org/1AG.asp |date=8 October 2008 }}</ref>

[[Sachin Nag]]'s gold medal in the men's 100m freestyle swimming was the first ever gold for India at the Asian Games, and remains their only gold medal in Asian Games swimming events as of the conclusion of the [[2022 Asian Games]].

The [[India national football team]] won the gold medal in the [[Football at the 1951 Asian Games|men's football]] competition.
==Medal table==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
!colspan=6|Medals by discipline
|- style="text-align:center;"
!Discipline
![[File:Gold medal icon.svg]]
![[File:Silver medal icon.svg]]
![[File:Bronze medal icon.svg]]
!Total
|- style="text-align:center;"
|[[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]]
|10
|12
|12
|34
|- style="text-align:center;"
|[[Cycling at the 1951 Asian Games|Cycling]]
|0
|1
|2
|3
|- style="text-align:center;"
|[[Diving at the 1951 Asian Games|Diving]]
|2
|1
|1
|4
|- style="text-align:center;"
|[[Football at the 1951 Asian Games|Football]]
|1
|0
|0
|1
|- style="text-align:center;"
|[[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Swimming]]
|1
|1
|4
|6
|- style="text-align:center;"
|[[Water polo at the 1951 Asian Games|Water polo]]
|1
|0
|0
|1
|- style="text-align:center;"
|[[Weightlifting at the 1951 Asian Games|Weightlifting]]
|0
|1
|1
|2
|- style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;"
!Total
!15
!16
!20
!51
|}

==Medal winners<ref> {{cite web|url=https://newschoupal.com/asian-games-1951-indian-medal-winners|title=Asian Games 1951 Indian medal winners}}</ref>==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:100%"
|-
! width="80"|Medal
! width="250"|Name
! width="200"|Sport
! width="250"|Event
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[Lavy Pinto]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 100 m]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[Lavy Pinto]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 200 m]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[Ranjit Singh (athlete)|Ranjit Singh]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 800 m]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[Nikka Singh]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 1500 m]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || A. S. Bakshi Govind Singh Balwant Singh Karan Singh || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 4 × 400 m relay]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || Chota Singh || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's marathon]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || Mahabir Prasad ||[[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 10000 m walk]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[Bakhtawar Singh]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 50 km walk]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[Madan Lal (athlete)|Madan Lal]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's shot put]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[Makhan Singh (discus thrower)|Makhan Singh]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's discus throw]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[K. P. Thakkar]] || [[Diving at the 1951 Asian Games|Diving]] || [[Diving at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 3 m springboard]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[K. P. Thakkar]] || [[Diving at the 1951 Asian Games|Diving]] || [[Diving at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 10 m platform]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[India national football team]] [[Berland Anthony]] [[Syed Khwaja Azizuddin]] [[A. M. Bachan]] Sunil Chatterjee Abhoy Ghosh [[D. N. Devine Jones]] [[Ahmed Khan (footballer)|Ahmed Khan]] G. Y. S. Laiq [[Sheikh Abdul Latif]] Loganathan [[Sailen Manna]] [[Sheoo Mewalal]] [[Santosh Nandy]] [[Muhammad Noor]] [[Chandan Singh Rawat]] [[P. B. A. Saleh]] [[Mohammad Abdus Sattar]] [[T. Shanmugham]] [[Runu Guha Thakurta]] [[Kenchappa Varadaraj]] [[Thenmaddom Varghese]] [[Pansanttom Venkatesh]] || [[Football at the 1951 Asian Games|Football]] || [[Football at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's team]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chaseyoursport.com/Football/The-Golden-Years-of-Indian-Football/659|title=The Golden Years of Indian Football|website=www.chaseyoursport.com|publisher=Chase Your Sport|location=Kolkata|first=Rounak|last=Majumdar|date=22 April 2019|access-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107230046/https://www.chaseyoursport.com/Football/The-Golden-Years-of-Indian-Football/659|archive-date=7 November 2020}}</ref>
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[Sachin Nag]] || [[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Swimming]] || [[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 100 m freestyle]]
|-
| {{gold medal}} || [[India men's national water polo team]] Jahan Ahir Ganesh Das D. Daver R. Dean [[Isaac Mansoor]] G. Rattansey [[Khamlillal Shah|Kanti Shah]] || [[Water polo at the 1951 Asian Games|Water polo]] || [[Water polo at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's team]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || [[M. Gabriel|Marian Gabriel]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 200 m]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || A.S.Bakshi || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 400 m]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || Kulwant Singh || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 800 m]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || Pritam Singh || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 5000 m]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || Teja Singh || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 400 m hurdles]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || [[Lavy Pinto]] [[M. Gabriel|Marian Gabriel]] [[Ram Swaroop]] [[Alfred Shamin]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 4×100 m relay]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || B. Das || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 50 km walk]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || [[Baldev Singh (athlete)|Baldev Singh]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's long jump]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || [[Somnath Chopra]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's hammer throw]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || [[Parsa Singh]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's javelin throw]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || [[Roshan Mistry]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Women's 100 m]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || [[Mary D'Souza]] [[Roshan Mistry]] [[Banoo Gulzar]] [[Pat Mendonca]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Women's 4×100 m relay]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || Dhangar Lhanguard [[Raj Kumar Mehra]] Madan Mohan Gurdev Singh || [[Cycling at the 1951 Asian Games|Cycling]] || [[Cycling at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's team pursuit]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || Ashu Dutt || [[Diving at the 1951 Asian Games|Diving]] || [[Diving at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 3 m springboard]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || [[Khamlillal Shah|Kanti Shah]] || [[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Swimming]] || [[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 100 m backstroke]]
|-
| {{silver medal}} || [[Kamineni Eswara Rao]] || [[Weightlifting at the 1951 Asian Games|Weightlifting]] || [[Weightlifting at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's middle heavyweight 90 kg]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Govind Singh || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 400 m]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Gurbachan Singh || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 10000 m]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Ajit Singh || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 3000 m steeplechase]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Surat Singh Mathur || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's marathon]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Kesar Singh || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 10000 m walk]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Kishen Singh || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's hammer throw]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Khurshid Ahmed || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's decathlon]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[Mary D'Souza]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Women's 200 m]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Marie Semoes || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Women's high jump]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Sylvia Gauntlet || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Women's long jump]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || Barbara Webster || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Athletics]] || [[Athletics at the 1951 Asian Games|Women's shot put]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[Rohinton Noble]] || [[Cycling at the 1951 Asian Games|Cycling]] || [[Cycling at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's sprint]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[Netai Chand Bysack]] || [[Cycling at the 1951 Asian Games|Cycling]] || [[Cycling at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 1 km time trial]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || T. T. Dand || [[Diving at the 1951 Asian Games|Diving]] || [[Diving at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 10 m platform]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[Bimal Chandra]] || [[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Swimming]] || [[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 400 m freestyle]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[Jehangir Naegamwalla]] || [[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Swimming]] || [[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 200 m breaststroke]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[Isaac Mansoor]] [[Bimal Chandra]] [[Sambhu Saha]] [[Sachin Nag]] || [[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Swimming]] || [[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 4 x 100 m freestyle relay]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[Khamlillal Shah|Kanti Shah]] [[Jehangir Naegamwalla]] [[Sachin Nag]] || [[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Swimming]] || [[Swimming at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 3 x 100 m medley relay]]
|-
| {{bronze medal}} || [[Dandamudi Rajagopal]] || [[Weightlifting at the 1951 Asian Games|Weightlifting]] || [[Weightlifting at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's heavyweight +90 kg]]
|}

==Aquatics==
===Diving===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%"
|-
!rowspan=2|Athletes
!rowspan=2|Event
!colspan=2|Final
|-
!Result
!Rank
|-
|align=left|[[K. P. Thakkar]]
|align=left rowspan=2|[[Diving at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 3 m springboard]]
|371.25
|{{gold1}}
|-
|align=left|[[Ashu Dutta]]
|327.20
|{{silver2}}
|-
|align=left|[[K. P. Thakkar]]
|align=left rowspan=2|[[Diving at the 1951 Asian Games|Men's 10 m platform]]
|362.05
|{{gold1}}
|-
|align=left|[[TT Dand]]
|276.60
|{{bronze3}}
|-
|}

===Water Polo===
Two teams entered the event - India and Singapore

====Team====
[[Jahan Ahir]] [[Ganesh Das]] [[D. Daver]] [[R. Dean]] [[Isaac Mansoor]] [[G. Rattansey]] [[Kanti Shah (swimmer)|Kanti Shah]]

'''Gold medal match'''
{{waterpolobox
|date=11 March
|team1={{gold1}} '''{{wp-rt|IND}}'''
|score1='''6'''
|score2=4
|team2={{wp|SIN|colonial}}
|H1= 2–3 |H2= 4–1
|goals1= [[Kanti Shah (swimmer)|Shah]], [[R. Dean|Dean]] 2
|goals2= [[Sim Boon Hoon|Sim B.H.]] 2
|location=[[Major Dhyan Chand National Stadium|National Stadium Swimming Pool]], [[New Delhi]] }}

== Football ==

Coach: [[Syed Abdul Rahim]]
{{National football squad start (no caps)}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=GK|name=[[Berland Anthony]]|age= |club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Thenmaddom Varghese|T.M. Varghese]]|age= |club=[[Maharashtra football team|Bombay]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Sailen Manna]] ([[Captain (association football)|c]])|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1951|3|5|1924|9|1}} |club=[[Mohun Bagan]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Sheikh Abdul Latif]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1951|3|5|1928|8|15}} |club=[[Mohammedan SC (Kolkata)|Mohammedan Sporting]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Chandan Singh Rawat]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1951|3|5|1928|7|26}} |club=[[Services football team|Services]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Muhammad Noor|Noor Mohammed]]|age= |club=[[Hyderabad City Police FC|Hyderabad City Police]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Pansanttom Venkatesh]]|age= |club=[[East Bengal F.C.|East Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Sahu Mewalal]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1951|3|5|1926|7|1}} |club=[[Eastern Railway FC|Eastern Railway]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Ahmed Khan (footballer)|Ahmed Khan]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1951|3|5|1926|12|24}} |club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[P. B. A. Saleh]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1951|3|5|1928|11|28}} |club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=GK|name=[[Kenchappa Varadaraj]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1951|3|5|1924|5|7}} |club=[[Karnataka football team|Mysore]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[T. Shanmugham]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1951|3|5|1920|6|19}} |club=[[Karnataka football team|Mysore]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Santosh Nandy]]|age= |club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Syed Khwaja Azizuddin]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1951|3|5|1930|7|12}} |club=[[Hyderabad City Police FC|Hyderabad City Police]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Sunil Chatterjee]]|age= |club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Abhoy Ghosh]]|age= |club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[D. N. Devine Jones|D.N. Devine Jones]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1951|3|5|1928|8|15}} |club=[[Services football team|Services]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[G.Y.S. Laiq]]|age= |club=[[Hyderabad City Police FC|Hyderabad City Police]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Loganathan (footballer)|Loganathan]]|age= |club=[[Tamil Nadu football team|Madras]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Madar Abdus Sattar]]|age= |club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Runu Guha Thakurta]]|age= |club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[A. M. Bachan]]|age= |club=[[Odisha football team|Orissa]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad end}}

===Quarterfinals===
{{footballbox
|date= 5 March
|time = 16:15
|team1={{fb-rt|IND}}
|score= 3–0
|report=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesa/asgames51.html
|team2={{fb|INA}}
|goals1= [[Sheoo Mewalal|Mewalal]] {{goal|27}} [[Chairuddin Siregar|Siregar]] {{goal|42|o.g.}} [[Pansanttom Venkatesh|Venkatesh]] {{goal|45}}
|goals2=
|stadium=[[Major Dhyan Chand National Stadium|National Stadium]], [[New Delhi]]
|referee= }}
===Semifinals===
{{footballbox
|date= 7 March
|time = 16:15
|team1={{fb-rt|IND}}
|score= 3–0
|report=https://www.rsssf.org/tablesa/asgames51.html
|team2={{fb|AFG|1930}}
|goals1= [[Pansanttom Venkatesh|Venkatesh]] {{goal|10}} [[Sheoo Mewalal|Mewalal]] {{goal|16}} [[Santosh Nandy|Nandy]] {{goal|55}}
|goals2=
|stadium=[[Major Dhyan Chand National Stadium|National Stadium]], [[New Delhi]]
|referee= }}
===Gold medal match===
{{footballbox
|date= 10 March
|time = 17:00
|team1={{fb-rt|IRN|1925}}
|score= 0–1
|report = [https://www.teammelli.com/matchdata/details/matchdetails.php?id=15 Report]
|team2={{fb|IND}}
|goals1=
|goals2= [[Sheoo Mewalal|Mewalal]] {{goal|34}}
|stadium=[[Major Dhyan Chand National Stadium|National Stadium]], [[New Delhi]]
|referee= }}

All times are India Standard Time ([[UTC+05:00]])

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Nations at the 1951 Asian Games}}

[[Category:Nations at the 1951 Asian Games]]
[[Category:India at the Asian Games|1951]]
[[Category:1951 in Indian sport|Asian Games]]

{{India-sport-stub}}
{{Asian-games-stub}}

India at the 1986 Asian Games

2023-10-01T13:19:52Z

Samareshadak689:

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox country at games
| NOC = IND
| NOCname = [[Indian Olympic Association]]
| oldcode =
| year = 1986
| date =
| games = Asian Games
| location = [[Seoul]]
| competitors =
| sports =
| flagbearer =
| officials =
| gold = 5
| silver = 9
| bronze = 23
| rank = 5
| appearances = auto
| seealso =
| website =
}}

'''[[India]]''' participated in the [[1986 Asian Games]] held in [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]] from September 20 to October 5, 1985. Ranked 5th with 5 gold medals, 9 silver medals and 23 bronze medals with a total of 37 over-all medals.<ref>[http://www.ocasia.org/10AG.asp 1986 Asian Games medal tally] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090307052031/http://www.ocasia.org/10AG.asp |date=2009-03-07 }}</ref> 4 of the 5 gold medals were won by [[P.T.Usha]]. [[Khajan Singh]] won a silver medal in men's 200m butterfly swimming, which was the only swimming medal for India at the Asian Games between [[1951 Asian Games|1951]] and [[2010 Asian Games|2010]].

==Medals by sport==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! width=200|Sport
|bgcolor=gold width=60|'''Gold''' || bgcolor=silver width=60|'''Silver''' || bgcolor=#cc9966 width=60|'''Bronze'''
! width=60|Total
|-
|align=left| [[Athletics at the 1986 Asian Games|Athletics]] || 4 || 2 || 3 || 9
|-
|align=left| [[Badminton at the 1986 Asian Games|Badminton]] || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1
|-
|align=left| [[Boxing at the 1986 Asian Games|Boxing]] || 0 || 4 || 5 || 9
|-
|align=left| [[Equestrian at the 1986 Asian Games|Equestrian]] || 0 || 0 || 2 || 2
|-
|align=left| [[Field Hockey at the 1986 Asian Games|Hockey]] || 0 || 0 || 2 || 2
|-
|align=left| [[Judo at the 1986 Asian Games|Judo]] || 0 || 0 || 4 || 4
|-
|align=left| [[Sailing at the 1986 Asian Games|Sailing]] || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1
|-
|align=left| [[Wrestling at the 1986 Asian Games|Wrestling]] || 1 || 0 || 2 || 3
|-
|align=left| [[Shooting at the 1986 Asian Games|Shooting]] || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3
|-
|align=left| [[Swimming at the 1986 Asian Games|Swimming]] || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1
|-
|align=left| [[Volleyball at the 1986 Asian Games|Volleyball]] || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1
|-
|align=left| [[Weightlifting at the 1986 Asian Games|Weightlifting]] || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1
|-

! Total || 5 || 9 || 23 || 37
|}

==Football==
Coach: [[P. K. Banerjee]]

{{National football squad start (no caps)}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=GK|name=[[Atanu Bhattacharya]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=GK|name=[[Brahmanand Sankhwalkar]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1986|9|20|1954|3|6}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Salgaocar FC|Salgaocar]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Aloke Mukherjee]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1986|9|20|1960|5|1}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Tarun Dey]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Sudip Chatterjee (footballer)|Sudip Chatterjee]] ([[Captain (association football)|c]])|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1986|9|20|1959|2|5}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Krishnendu Roy]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[V. P. Sathyan]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1986|9|20|1965|4|29}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Kerala Police (football team)|Kerala Police]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Derrick Pereira]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1986|9|20|1962|3|17}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Goa football team|Goa]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=DF|name=[[Charanjit Singh (footballer)|Charanjit Singh]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=Punjab State Electricity Board|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Bikash Panji]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Mauricio Afonso]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1986|9|20|1961|11|16}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[Dempo SC|Dempo]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Prasanta Banerjee]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1986|9|20|1958|2|12}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=MF|name=[[Debashish Mishra]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Krishanu Dey]]|age={{Birth date and age2|df=yes|1986|9|20|1962|2|14}} |caps=|goals=|club=[[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Camilo Gonsalves]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[Goa football team|Goa]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Babu Mani]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Biswajit Bhattacharya]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[East Bengal Club|East Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad player (no caps)|no=|pos=FW|name=[[Sisir Ghosh]]|age= |caps=|goals=|club=[[West Bengal football team|Bengal]]|clubnat=IND}}
{{National football squad end}}

=== Preliminary round ===
{{#invoke:sports table|main|style=WDL
|winpoints=2
|team1=KOR|name_KOR={{fb|KOR|1984}}
|team2=CHN|name_CHN={{fb|CHN|name=China}}
|team3=BHR|name_BHR={{fb|BHR|1972}}
|team4=IND|name_IND={{fb|IND}}
|win_KOR=2|draw_KOR=1|loss_KOR=0|gf_KOR=7|ga_KOR=2
|win_CHN=2|draw_CHN=0|loss_CHN=1|gf_CHN=9|ga_CHN=6
|win_BHR=1|draw_BHR=1|loss_BHR=1|gf_BHR=4|ga_BHR=5
|win_IND=0|draw_IND=0|loss_IND=3|gf_IND=1|ga_IND=8
|col_A=#ccffcc
|result1=A|result2=A
|update=complete|source=[https://www.rsssf.org/tablesa/asgames86.html RSSSF]
}}
{{footballbox|date=20 September
|team1={{fb-rt|KOR|1984}}
|score=3–0
|goals1= [[Noh Soo-jin]] {{goal|10}} [[Choi Soon-ho]] {{goal|36}} [[Park Chang-sun]] {{goal|84|pen.}}
|team2={{fb|IND}}
|stadium= [[Busan Gudeok Stadium|Gudeok Stadium]], [[Busan]] }}
----
{{footballbox|date=22 September
|team1={{fb-rt|CHN|name=China}}
|score=2–1
|team2={{fb|IND}}
|goals1= [[Ma Lin (footballer)|Ma Lin]] {{goal|22||25}}
|goals2= [[Debashish Mishra|Mishra]] {{goal|37}}
|stadium= [[Busan Gudeok Stadium|Gudeok Stadium]], [[Busan]] }}
----
{{footballbox|date=26 September
|team1={{fb-rt|BHR|1972}}
|score=3–0
|team2={{fb|IND}}
|goals1= [[Abdulrahman Hisham|Hisham]] {{goal|3||45}} [[Yousif Ali Hassan|Hassan]] {{goal|23}}
|stadium= [[Busan Gudeok Stadium|Gudeok Stadium]], [[Busan]] }}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Nations at the 1986 Asian Games}}

[[Category:Nations at the 1986 Asian Games]]
[[Category:India at the Asian Games|1986]]
[[Category:1986 in Indian sport|Asian Games]]

{{India-sport-stub}}
{{Asian-games-stub}}

Partition of India

2023-09-26T15:59:01Z

Samareshadak689: /* Bengal */

{{Short description|1947 division of British India}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox historical event
| image = Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg
| image_size = 260
| caption = Prevailing religions of the British Raj (1901), the basis for the partition
| Location = [[South Asia]]
| Date = 14–15 August 1947
| cause = [[Indian Independence Act 1947]]
| Result = [[Partition (politics)|Partition]] of [[British India]] into two independent Dominions, [[Dominion of India|India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[sectarian violence]], [[Religious persecution#Religious cleansing|religious cleansing]], and [[Refugee crisis|refugee crises]]
| fatalities = 200,000–2 million
| displaced = 10–20 million
}}
[[File:British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg|thumb|262px|British Indian Empire in ''[[The Imperial Gazetteer of India]]'', 1909. [[British Raj|British India]] is shaded pink, the [[princely state]]s yellow.]]

The '''Partition of India''' in 1947 was the [[Partition (politics)|change of political borders]] and the division of other assets that accompanied the dissolution of the [[British Raj]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and the creation of two independent [[dominion]]s in [[South Asia]]: [[Dominion of India|India]] and [[Dominion of Pakistan|Pakistan]].<ref name=fisher-partition>{{citation|last=Fisher|first=Michael H.|year=2018|title=An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century|location=Cambridge and New York|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-11162-2 |lccn=2018021693|doi=10.1017/9781316276044|s2cid=134229667 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZVuDwAAQBAJ|quote=The partition of South Asia that produced India and West and East Pakistan resulted from years of bitter negotiations and recriminations ... The departing British also decreed that the hundreds of princes, who ruled one-third of the subcontinent and a quarter of its population, became legally independent, their status to be settled later. Geographical location, personal and popular sentiment, and substantial pressure and incentives from the new governments led almost all princes eventually to merge their domains into either Pakistan or India. ... Each new government asserted its exclusive sovereignty within its borders, realigning all territories, animals, plants, minerals, and all other natural and human-made resources as either Pakistani or Indian property, to be used for its national development... Simultaneously, the central civil and military services and judiciary split roughly along religious 'communal' lines, even as they divided movable government assets according to a negotiated formula: 22.7 percent for Pakistan and 77.3 percent for India.|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=khan-great-partition>{{citation|last=Khan|first=Yasmin|author-link=Yasmin Khan|title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan|edition=2|location=New Haven and London|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-23032-1|year=2017|orig-year=2007|page=1|quote=South Asians learned that the British Indian empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets. Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority live in the countryside, ploughing the land as landless peasants or sharecroppers, it is hardly surprising that many thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, did not hear the news for many weeks afterwards. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first that they knew about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India}}</ref> The Dominion of India is today the [[India|Republic of India]], and the Dominion of Pakistan—which at the time comprised two regions lying on either side of India—is now the [[Pakistan|Islamic Republic of Pakistan]] and the [[Bangladesh|People's Republic of Bangladesh]]. The partition was outlined in the [[Indian Independence Act 1947]]. The change of political borders notably included the division of two provinces of [[British Raj|British India]],{{efn|British India consisted of those regions of the British Raj, or the British Indian Empire, which were directly administered by Britain; other regions of nominal sovereignty that were indirectly ruled by Britain were called [[princely state]]s.}} [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] and [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]].{{sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=25|ps=: "When the British divided and quit India in August 1947, they partitioned not only the subcontinent with the emergence of the two nations of India and Pakistan, but also the provinces of Punjab and Bengal."}} The majority [[Muslim]] districts in these provinces were awarded to Pakistan and the majority non-Muslim to India. The other assets that were divided included the [[British Indian Army]], the [[Royal Indian Navy]], the [[Royal Indian Air Force]], the [[Indian Civil Service]], the [[Rail transport in India#History|railways]], and the central treasury. Provisions for self-governing independent Pakistan and India legally came into existence at midnight on 14 and 15 August 1947 respectively.

The partition caused large-scale loss of life and an unprecedented migration between the two dominions.<ref name=chaterjee-washbrook>{{citation|last1=Chatterji|first1=Joya|last2=Washbrook|first2=David|chapter=Introduction: Concepts and Questions|title=Routledge Handbook of the South Asian Diaspora|editor1-last=Chatterji|editor1-first=Joya|editor2-last=Washbrook|editor2-first=David|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-48010-9|year=2013|quote=[[Joya Chatterji]] describes how the partition of the British Indian empire into the new nation states of India and Pakistan produced new diaspora on a vast, and hitherto unprecedented, scale, but hints that the sheer magnitude of refugee movements in South Asia after 1947 must be understood in the context of pre-existing migratory flows within the partitioned regions (see also Chatterji 2013). She also demonstrates that the new national states of India and Pakistan were quickly drawn into trying to stem this migration. As they put into place laws designed to restrict the return of partition emigrants, this produced new dilemmas for both new nations in their treatment of 'overseas Indians'; and many of them lost their right to return to their places of origin in the subcontinent, and also their claims to full citizenship in host countries.}}</ref> Among refugees who survived, it solidified the belief that safety lay among co-religionists. In the instance of Pakistan, it made palpable a hitherto only-imagined refuge for the Muslims of British India.<ref name=metcalf&metcalt-partition>{{citation|last1=Metcalf|first1=Barbara D.|last2=Metcalf|first2=Thomas R.|year=2012|title=A Concise History of Modern India|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-02649-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIfqyY7jlsC|quote=The loss of life was immense, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand up to a million. But, even for those who survived, fear generated a widespread perception that one could be safe only among the members of one's own community; and this in turn helped consolidate loyalties towards the state, whether India or Pakistan, in which one might find a secure haven. This was especially important for Pakistan, where the succour it offered to Muslims gave that state for the first time a visible territorial reality. Fear too drove forward a mass migration unparalleled in the history of South Asia. Within a period of some three or four months in late 1947 a number of Hindus and Sikhs estimated at some 5 million moved from West Punjab into India, while 5.5 million Muslims travelled in the opposite direction. The outcome, akin to what today is called 'ethnic cleansing', produced an Indian Punjab 60 per cent Hindu and 35 per cent Sikh, while the Pakistan Punjab became almost wholly Muslim. A similar, though less extensive, migration took place between east and west Bengal, though murderous attacks on fleeing refugees, with the attendant loss of life, were much less extensive in the eastern region. Even those who did not move, if of the wrong community, often found themselves treated as though they were the enemy. In Delhi itself, the city's Muslims, cowering in an old fort, were for several months after partition regarded with intense suspicion and hostility. Overall, partition uprooted some 12.5 million of undivided India's people.}}</ref> The migrations took place hastily and with little warning. It is thought that between 14 million and 18 million people moved, and perhaps more. [[Excess mortality]] during the period of the partition is usually estimated to have been around one million.<ref name=dyson-partition-demographics>{{citation|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|page=189|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|quote=The sudden refugee flows related to Partition may at the time have been unsurpassed in modern world history. It is likely that at least 14–18 million people moved. Previous assessments of the mortality associated with Partition have varied between 200,000 and 1 million. The first figure, attributed to Mountbatten (the last Viceroy) smacks of a number that—conveniently from an official perspective—minimises the loss of life. However, the figure of 1 million may also be too low. The data, however, do not allow for a firmer judgement.}}</ref> The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphere of hostility and suspicion between India and Pakistan that affects [[India–Pakistan relations|their relationship]] to this day.

The term ''partition of India'' does not cover:
* the separation of [[British rule in Burma|Burma]] (Myanmar) from the British Raj in 1937
* the much earlier separation of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) from the rule of the [[East India Company]] in 1796.
* Other political entities or transformations in the region that were not a part of the partition were:
** the [[Political integration of India|political integration]] of [[princely state]]s into the two new dominions;
** the annexation of the princely states of [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] and [[Junagadh State|Junagadh]] by India;
** the dispute and division of the princely state of [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] between India, Pakistan, and later China;
** the incorporation of the enclaves of [[French India]] into India during the period 1947–1954;
** the [[annexation of Goa]] and other districts of [[Portuguese India]] by India in 1961;
** the [[Bangladesh Liberation War|secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan]] in 1971.

[[Kingdom of Nepal|Nepal]] and [[Bhutan]] signed treaties with the British designating them as ''independent states'' and were not a part of British-ruled India.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23632 Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. "Nepal."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060318100442/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23632 |date=18 March 2006 }}, [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-25008 Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. "Bhutan."]</ref> The Himalayan [[Kingdom of Sikkim]] was established as a [[princely state]] after the ''Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty'' of 1861, but its sovereignty had been left undefined.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Sikkim|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-46212|year=2008|access-date=23 February 2017|archive-date=12 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212232228/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-46212|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1947, Sikkim became an independent kingdom under the [[suzerainty]] of India. The [[Maldives]] became a [[protectorate]] of the [[British crown]] in 1887 and gained its independence in 1965.

==Background==

===Pre-World War II (1905–1938)===

====Partition of Bengal: 1905====
{{main|Partition of Bengal (1905)}}

<gallery mode="packed" height="152">
File:Hindu percent 1909.jpg|1909 percentage of Hindus.
File:Muslim percent 1909.jpg|1909 percentage of Muslims.
File:Sikhs buddhists jains percent1909.jpg|1909 percentage of Sikhs, Buddhists, and Jains.
</gallery>

In 1905, during his second term as [[Governor-General of India|viceroy of India]], [[Lord Curzon]] divided the [[Bengal Presidency]]—the largest [[Administrative division|administrative subdivision]] in British India—into the Muslim-majority province of [[Eastern Bengal and Assam]] and the Hindu-majority province of [[Bengal]] (present-day Indian states of [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], and [[Odisha]]).<ref name="spear176">{{harvnb|Spear|1990|p=176}}</ref> Curzon's act, the [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|partition of Bengal]]—which had been contemplated by various colonial administrations since the time of [[Lord William Bentinck]], though never acted upon—was to transform [[Nationalism|nationalist]] politics as nothing else before it.<ref name="spear176" />

The Hindu elite of Bengal, many of whom owned land that was leased out to Muslim [[peasant]]s in East Bengal, protested strongly. The large [[Bengali Hindus|Bengali-Hindu]] [[Indian middle class|middle-class]] (the ''[[Bhadralok]]''), upset at the prospect of Bengalis being outnumbered in the new Bengal province by [[Biharis]] and [[Oriyas]], felt that Curzon's act was punishment for their political [[assertiveness]].<ref name="spear176" /> The pervasive protests against Curzon's decision predominantly took the form of the ''[[Swadeshi movement|Swadeshi]]'' ('buy Indian') campaign, involving a boycott of British goods. Sporadically, but flagrantly, the protesters also took to [[political violence]], which involved attacks on civilians.<ref>{{harvnb|Spear|1990|p=176}}, {{harvnb|Stein|Arnold|2010|p=291}}, {{harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=193}}, {{harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=156}}</ref> The violence was ineffective, as most planned attacks were either prevented by the British or failed.<ref name="bandyo260" /> The [[Battle cry|rallying cry]] for both types of protest was the slogan ''[[Bande Mataram]]'' ([[Bengali language|Bengali]], lit: 'Hail to the Mother'), the title of a song by [[Bankim Chandra Chatterjee]], which invoked a [[mother goddess]], who stood variously for Bengal, India, and the Hindu goddess [[Kali]].<ref name="ludden193">{{harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=193}}</ref> The unrest spread from [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcutta's English-educated students returned home to their villages and towns.<ref name="ludden199">{{harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=199}}</ref> The religious stirrings of the slogan and the political outrage over the partition were combined as young men, in such groups as [[Jugantar]], took to [[bomb]]ing public buildings, staging armed robberies,<ref name="bandyo260">{{harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=260}}</ref> and [[Assassination|assassinating]] British officials.<ref name="ludden193" /> Since Calcutta was the imperial capital, both the outrage and the slogan soon became known nationally.<ref name="ludden193" />

The overwhelming, predominantly-Hindu protest against the partition of Bengal, along with the fear of reforms favouring the Hindu majority, led the Muslim elite of India in 1906 to the new viceroy [[Lord Minto]], asking for separate electorates for Muslims. In conjunction, they demanded representation in proportion to their share of the total population, reflecting both their status as former rulers and their record of cooperating with the British. This would result in the founding of the [[All-India Muslim League]] in [[Dhaka|Dacca]] in December 1906. Although Curzon by now had returned to England following his resignation over a dispute with his military chief, [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]], the League was in favor of his partition plan. The Muslim elite's position, which was reflected in the League's position, had crystallized gradually over the previous three decades, beginning with the [[1871 Census of India|1871 Census of British India]], which had first estimated the populations in regions of Muslim majority.<ref name="ludden200">{{harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=200}}</ref> For his part, Curzon's desire to court the Muslims of East Bengal had arisen from British anxieties ever since the 1871 census, and in light of the history of Muslims fighting them in the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|1857 Rebellion]] and the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]].<ref name="ludden200" />

In the three decades since the 1871 census, Muslim leaders across [[North India]] had intermittently experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups.<ref name="ludden200" /> The [[Arya Samaj]], for example, had not only supported the [[cow protection movement]] in their agitation,<ref>{{harvnb|Stein|Arnold|2010|p=286}}</ref> but also—distraught at the census' Muslim numbers—organized "reconversion" events for the purpose of welcoming Muslims back to the Hindu fold.<ref name="ludden200" /> In the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]], Muslims became anxious in the late-19th century as Hindu political representation increased, and Hindus were politically mobilized in the [[Hindi–Urdu controversy]] and the anti-cow-killing riots of 1893.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=20}} In 1905 Muslim fears grew when [[Lokmanya Tilak|Tilak]] and [[Lala Lajpat Rai|Lajpat Rai]] attempted to rise to leadership positions in the Congress, and the Congress itself rallied around the symbolism of Kali.<ref name="ludden200" /> It was not lost on many Muslims, for example, that the ''bande mataram'' rallying cry had first appeared in the novel ''[[Anandmath]]'' in which Hindus had battled their Muslim oppressors.<ref name="ludden201">{{harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=201}}</ref> Lastly, the Muslim elite, including [[Dhaka Nawab Family|Nawab of Dacca]], [[Khwaja Salimullah]], who hosted the League's first meeting in his mansion in [[Shahbag]], was aware that a new province with a Muslim majority would directly benefit Muslims aspiring to political power.<ref name="ludden201" />

====World War I, Lucknow Pact: 1914–1918====
{{Main|Lucknow Pact}}

[[File:Indiantroops medical ww1.jpg|thumb|Indian medical orderlies attending to wounded soldiers with the ''Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force'' in [[Mesopotamia]] during [[World War I]]]]

[[File:Gandhi back in india1915.gif|thumb|[[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]] (seated in the carriage, on the right, eyes downcast, with black flat-top hat) receives a big welcome in Karachi in 1916 after his return to India from South Africa]]

[[File:Jinnah lucknow pact1916.jpg|thumb|[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], seated, third from the left, was a supporter of the Lucknow Pact, which, in 1916, ended the three-way rift between the Extremists, the Moderates and the League]]

[[World War I]] would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the [[British Indian Army]] would take part in the war, and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers from [[dominion]]s like Canada and Australia, would travel to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by the new medium of the radio.<ref name="brown-p197-198">{{harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=197–198}}</ref> India's international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s.<ref name="brown-p197-198" /> It was to lead, among other things, to India, under its name, becoming a [[League of Nations members#1920: founder members|founding member]] of the [[League of Nations]] in 1920 and participating, under the name, "Les Indes Anglaises" (British India), in the [[1920 Summer Olympics]] in [[Antwerp]].<ref>[http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1920/1920.pdf Olympic Games Antwerp 1920: Official Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505163318/http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1920/1920.pdf |date=5 May 2011 }}, Nombre de bations representees, p. 168. Quote: "31 Nations avaient accepté l'invitation du Comité Olympique Belge: ... la Grèce – la Hollande Les Indes Anglaises – l'Italie – le Japon ..."</ref> Back in India, especially among the leaders of the [[Indian National Congress]], it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians.<ref name="brown-p197-198" />

The [[Lucknow Pact|1916 Lucknow Session]] of the Congress was also the venue of an unanticipated mutual effort by the Congress and the Muslim League, the occasion for which was provided by the wartime partnership between Germany and Turkey. Since the Ottoman Sultan, also held guardianship of the Islamic holy sites of [[Mecca]], [[Medina]], and [[Jerusalem]], and, since the British and their allies were now in conflict with the Ottoman Empire, doubts began to increase among some Indian Muslims about the "religious neutrality" of the British, doubts that had already surfaced as a result of the [[Partition of Bengal (1905)|reunification of Bengal]] in 1911, a decision that was seen as ill-disposed to Muslims.<ref name="brown-p200-201">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=200–201}}</ref> In the Lucknow Pact, the League joined the Congress in the proposal for greater self-government that was campaigned for by Tilak and his supporters; in return, the Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in the provincial legislatures as well as the Imperial Legislative Council. In 1916, the Muslim League had anywhere between 500 and 800 members and did not yet have its wider following among Indian Muslims of later years; in the League itself, the pact did not have unanimous backing, having largely been negotiated by a group of "Young Party" Muslims from the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]] (UP), most prominently, the brothers [[Mohammad Ali Jauhar|Mohammad]] and [[Maulana Shaukat Ali|Shaukat Ali]], who had embraced the Pan-Islamic cause.<ref name="brown-p200-201" /> It gained the support of a young lawyer from Bombay, [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], who later rose to leadership roles in the League and the Indian independence movement. In later years, as the full ramifications of the pact unfolded, it was seen as benefiting the Muslim minority elites of provinces like UP and Bihar more than the Muslim majorities of Punjab and Bengal. At the time, the "Lucknow Pact" was an important milestone in nationalistic agitation and was seen so by the British.<ref name="brown-p200-201" />

====Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms: 1919====
[[Secretary of State for India]] [[Edwin Samuel Montagu|Montagu]] and [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy]] [[Frederic John Napier Thesiger, 3rd Baron Chelmsford|Lord Chelmsford]] presented a report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter.<ref name="brown-p205-207">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=205–207}}</ref> After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee to identify who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the [[Government of India Act of 1919]] (also known as the [[Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms]]) was passed in December 1919.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> The new Act enlarged both the provincial and [[Imperial Legislative Council|Imperial]] legislative councils and repealed the Government of India's recourse to the "official majority" in unfavourable votes.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications, and income-tax were retained by the [[Governor-General of India|viceroy]] and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land-revenue, local self-government were transferred to the provinces.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new [[Diarchy|dyarchical]] system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps.

A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> Seats were also reserved for non-[[Brahmin]]s, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principle of "communal representation," an integral part of the [[Minto-Morley Reforms]], and more recently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for [[Muslims]], [[Sikhs]], [[Christianity in India|Indian Christians]], [[Anglo-Indians]], and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and imperial legislative councils.<ref name="brown-p205-207" /> The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level, though restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control.<ref name="brown-p205-207" />

====Introduction of the two-nation theory: 1920s====
{{main|Two-nation theory}}

The ''two-nation theory'' is the assertion, based on the former Indian Muslim ruling class' sense of being culturally and historically distinct, that Indian [[Hindus]] and Muslims are two distinct [[nation]]s.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-78yjVybQfkC&q=The+Idea+of+Pakistan |page= 36 |quote=Thus the idea of Pakistan rests on the elite Indian muslim sense of being culturally and historically distinct |title= the Idea of Pakistan |author= Stephen P. Cohen |date=2004 |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield |isbn= 9780815797616 }}</ref><ref name="winks2001">Talbot, Ian. 1999. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=eEd7tQEACAAJ&pg=PA253 Pakistan's Emergence]." Pp. 253–63 in ''[[The Oxford History of the British Empire|The Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography]]'', edited by [[Robin Winks|R. W. Winks]]. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-820566-1}}. {{OCLC|1036799442}}.</ref><ref name="khan1940">{{Citation|title=Pakistan: The Heart of Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=swIYjzJOx5wC|year=1940|isbn=978-1443726672|quote="... There is much in the Musalmans which, if they wish, can roll them into a nation. But isn't there enough that is common to both Hindus and Muslims, which if developed, is capable of molding them into one people? Nobody can deny that there are many modes, manners, rites, and customs that are common to both. Nobody can deny that there are rites, customs, and usages based on religion that do divide Hindus and Muslims. The question is, which of these should be emphasized ..."|author=Liaquat Ali Khan|publisher=Thacker & Co. Ltd.|access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref> It argued that religion resulted in cultural and social differences between Muslims and Hindus.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JSHFDgAAQBAJ |title= Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 Volumes]
|author= Cenap Çakmak |date= 2017 |publisher= ABC-CLIO |page= 866 |isbn= 9781610692175
}}</ref> While some professional Muslim Indian politicians used it to secure or safeguard a large share of political spoils for the Indian Muslims with the withdrawal of British rule, others believed the main political objective was the preservation of the cultural entity of Muslim India.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=APLmIxRyEjEC&dq=barani+two+nation+theory&pg=PA16 |title= Two Nations: The Philosophy of Muslim Nationalism |author=Anil Chandra Banerjee |date=1981 |publisher= Concept }}</ref> The two-nation theory was a founding principle of the [[Pakistan Movement]] (i.e., the ideology of [[Pakistan]] as a Muslim [[nation-state]] in South Asia), and the partition of India in 1947.<ref name="Two-Nation Theory Exists">{{cite news|title=Two-Nation Theory Exists |newspaper=Pakistan Times |url=http://www.pakistantimes.net/2007/04/03/oped2.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111023629/http://www.pakistantimes.net/2007/04/03/oped2.htm |archive-date=11 November 2007 }}</ref>

[[Theodore Beck]], who played a major role in founding of the [[All-India Muslim League]] in 1906, was supportive of two-nation theory. Another British official supportive of the theory includes [[Theodore Morison]]. Both Beck and Morison believed that parliamentary system of majority rule would be disadvantageous for the Muslims.<ref name="Ahmed 2020">{{cite book | last=Ahmed | first=I. | title=Jinnah: His Successes, Failures and Role in History | publisher=Penguin Random House India Private Limited | year=2020 | isbn=978-93-5305-664-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1hP9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT118 | access-date=2023-07-11 | pages=117–118}}</ref>

[[Arya Samaj]] leader [[Lala Lajpat Rai]] laid out his own version of two-nation theory in 1924 to form "a clear partition of India into a Muslim India and a non-Muslim India". Lala believed in partition in response to the riots against Hindus in Kohat, [[North-West Frontier Province]] which diminished his faith in Hindu-Muslim unity.<ref name="Ahmed 2020"/><ref name="Hoodbhoy">{{cite book | last=Hoodbhoy | first=P. | title=Pakistan: Origins, Identity and Future | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2023 | isbn=978-1-000-85667-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MgSqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT231 | access-date=2023-07-11 | page=231}}</ref><ref name="Bonney 2004">{{cite book | last=Bonney | first=R. | title=Three Giants of South Asia: Gandhi, Ambedkar, and Jinnah on Self-determination | publisher=Media House | series=South Asian history academic papers | year=2004 | isbn=978-81-7495-174-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SpmpK8hgbkkC&pg=PA7 | access-date=2023-07-11 | page=7}}</ref>

[[Hindu Mahasabha]] leader [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]]'s [[Hindutva]] ideology had embryonic form of a two-nation theory since 1920s.<ref name="Bapu">{{cite book | last=Bapu | first=Prabhu | title=Hindu Mahasabha in Colonial North India, 1915-1930: Constructing Nation and History | publisher=Routledge | series=Online access with subscription: Proquest Ebook Central | year=2013 | isbn=978-0-415-67165-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iUFalxUFFWkC | page=77}}</ref> Savarkar in 1937 during the 19th session of the [[Hindu Mahasabha]] in Ahmedabad supported two-nation theory where he said "there are two nations in the main: the Hindus and the Muslims, in India".<ref name="counterview">{{cite web | url=https://www.counterview.net/2016/01/savarkar-in-ahmedabad-declared-support.html | title=Savarkar in Ahmedabad 'declared' two-nation theory in 1937, Jinnah followed 3 years later | date=24 January 2016 }}</ref>

[[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] undertook the ideology that religion is the determining factor in defining the nationality of Indian Muslims in 1940. He termed it as the awakening of Muslims for the creation of Pakistan.<ref>[[Conor Cruise O'Brien|Cruise O'Brien, Conor]]. August 1988. "[https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/88aug/obrien.htm Holy War Against India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128075043/https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/88aug/obrien.htm |date=28 January 2021 }}". ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'' 262(2):54–64. Retrieved 8 June 2020.</ref> However, Jinnah opposed Partition of Punjab and Bengal, and advocated for the integration of all Punjab and Bengal into Pakistan without the displacement of any of its inhabitants, whether they were Sikhs or Hindus.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1614173 |title=The Two-Nation Reality versus Theory: Opposition to Partition |author= Javed Jabbar |date=2021-03-21 |work=Dawn |access-date=2023-03-27 }}</ref> The theory is also a source of inspiration to several [[Hindu nationalism|Hindu nationalist]] organizations, with causes as varied as the redefinition of Indian Muslims as non-Indian foreigners and second-class citizens in India, the expulsion of all Muslims from [[India]], the establishment of a legally Hindu state in India, prohibition of conversions to [[Islam]], and the promotion of [[Shuddhi (Hinduism)|conversions or reconversions]] of Indian Muslims to Hinduism.<ref name="epw1979r">Shakir, Moin. 1979. "Review: Always in the Mainstream." ''[[Economic and Political Weekly]]'' 14(33):1424. {{JSTOR|4367847}}

"[T]he Muslims are not Indians but foreigners or temporary guests—without any loyalty to the country or its cultural heritage—and should be driven out of the country ..."</ref><ref name="sankhdher1991">Sankhdher, M. M., and K. K. Wadhwa. 1991. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bwGKAAAAMAAJ National unity and religious minorities]''. Gitanjali Publishing House. {{ISBN|978-81-85060-36-1}}.

"... In their heart of hearts, the Indian Muslims are not Indian citizens, are not Indians: they are citizens of the universal Islamic ummah, of Islamdom ..."</ref><ref name="savarkar1989">[[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar|Savarkar, Vinayak Damodar]], and Sudhakar Raje. 1989. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ByFuAAAAMAAJ Savarkar: commemoration volume]''. Savarkar Darshan Pratishthan.

"His historic warning against conversion and call for Shuddhi was condensed in the dictum 'Dharmantar is Rashtrantar' (to change one's religion is to change one's nationality) ..."</ref><ref name="chakravarty1990">[[Nikhil Chakravarty|Chakravarty, Nikhil]], ed. 1990. ''Mainstream'', 28:32–52. {{ISSN|0542-1462}}. "'Dharmantar is Rashtrantar' is one of the old slogans of the VHP..."</ref>

There are varying interpretations of the two-nation theory, based on whether the two postulated nationalities can coexist in one territory or not, with radically different implications. One interpretation argued for sovereign autonomy, including the right to secede, for Muslim-majority areas of the Indian subcontinent, but without any transfer of populations (i.e., Hindus and Muslims would continue to live together). A different interpretation contends that Hindus and Muslims constitute "two distinct and frequently antagonistic ways of life and that therefore they cannot coexist in one nation."<ref name="caldarola1982">{{Citation | title=Religions and societies, Asia and the Middle East | author=Carlo Caldarola | year=1982 | isbn=978-90-279-3259-4 | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R1ME01zxL98C | quote="... Hindu and Muslim cultures constitute two distinct and frequently antagonistic ways of life, and that therefore they cannot coexist in one nation ..." | access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref> In this version, a transfer of populations (i.e., the total removal of Hindus from Muslim-majority areas and the total removal of Muslims from Hindu-majority areas) was a desirable step towards a complete separation of two incompatible nations that "cannot coexist in a harmonious relationship."<ref name="harman1977">{{Citation | title=Plight of Muslims in India | author=S. Harman | year=1977 | isbn=978-0-9502818-2-7 | publisher=DL Publications | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0x1uAAAAMAAJ | quote="... strongly and repeatedly pressed for the transfer of the population between India and Pakistan. At the time of partition, some of the two-nation theory protagonists proposed that the entire Hindu population should migrate to India, and all Muslims should move over to Pakistan, leaving no Hindus in Pakistan and no Muslims in India ..." | access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref><ref name="sankhdher1992">{{Citation | title=Secularism in India, dilemmas and challenges | author=M. M. Sankhdher | year=1992 | isbn=9788171004096 | publisher=Deep & Deep Publication | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h8wfAAAAIAAJ | quote="... The partition of the country did not take the two-nation theory to its logical conclusion, i.e., complete transfer of populations ..." | access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Gandhi at Peshawar meeting.jpg|thumb|Gandhi and [[Abdul Ghaffar Khan]] at a pro-independence rally in [[Peshawar]], 1938]]

Opposition to the theory has come from two sources. The first is the concept of a [[Greater India|single Indian nation]], of which Hindus and Muslims are two intertwined communities.<ref name="zakaria2004">{{Citation | title=Indian Muslims: where have they gone wrong? | author=Rafiq Zakaria | year=2004 | isbn=978-81-7991-201-0 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-aMlKSmWRQ8cC | quote="... As a Muslim, Hindus, and Muslims are one nation and not two ... two nations have no basis in history... they shall continue to live together for another thousand years in united India ..."}}</ref> This is a founding principle of the modern, officially-[[Secularity|secular]] [[Republic of India]]. Even after the formation of Pakistan, debates on whether Muslims and Hindus are distinct nationalities or not continued in that country as well.<ref name="gop1953">[[Pakistan Constituent Assembly]]. 1953. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=AmIKAAAAIAAJ Debates: Official report, Volume 1; Volume 16]." [[Government of Pakistan|Government of Pakistan Press]]."[S]ay that Hindus and Muslims are one, single nation. It is a very peculiar attitude on the part of the leader of the opposition. If his point of view were accepted, then the very justification for the existence of Pakistan would disappear ..."</ref> The second source of opposition is the concept that while Indians are not one nation, neither are the Muslims or Hindus of the subcontinent, and it is instead the relatively [[Homogeneity and heterogeneity|homogeneous]] provincial units of the subcontinent which are true nations and deserving of [[sovereignty]]; the [[Baloch people|Baloch]] have presented this view,<ref name="janmahmad1989">{{Citation | title=Essays on Baloch national struggle in Pakistan: emergence, dimensions, repercussions | author=Janmahmad | year=1989 | publisher=Gosha-e-Adab | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRErAAAAMAAJ | quote="... would be completely extinct as a people without any identity. This proposition is the crux of the matter, shaping the Baloch attitude towards Pakistani politics. For Baloch to accept the British-conceived two-nation theory for the Indian Muslims would mean losing their Baloch identity in the process ..." | access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref> [[Sindhis|Sindhi]],<ref>{{Citation | title=The idea of Pakistan | author=Stephen P. Cohen | author-link=Stephen P. Cohen | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-8157-1502-3 | publisher=Brookings Institution Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-78yjVybQfkC | page=212 | quote="[In the view of G. M. Sayed,] the two-nation theory became a trap for Sindhis—instead of liberating Sindh, it fell under Punjabi-Mohajir domination, and until his death in 1995 he called for a separate Sindhi 'nation', implying a separate Sindhi country." | access-date=6 April 2016}}</ref> and [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]]<ref name="salim1991">{{Citation | title=Pashtun and Baloch history: Punjabi view | author=Ahmad Salim | year=1991 |publisher=Fiction House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-yvxtAAAAMAAJ | quote="... Attacking the 'two-nation theory' in Lower House on December 14, 1947, Ghaus Bux Bizenjo said: "We have a distinct culture like Afghanistan and Iran, and if the mere fact that we are Muslim requires us to amalgamate with Pakistan, then Afghanistan and Iran should also be amalgamated with Pakistan ..."}}</ref> sub-nationalities of Pakistan and the [[Assamese people|Assamese]]<ref name="SinghSingh20082">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lQpswqcdDLIC&pg=PA137|title=Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy|author1=Principal Lecturer in Economics Pritam Singh|author2=Pritam Singh|year=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-04946-2|pages=137–|access-date=1 August 2017}}</ref> and [[Punjabis|Punjabi]]<ref name="Singh2008">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzZ8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT173|title=Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy|author=Pritam Singh|date=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-04945-5|pages=173–|access-date=1 August 2017}}</ref> sub-nationalities of India.

====Muslim homeland, provincial elections: 1930–1938====
[[File:Nehru bajaj sarojini khan azad1940a.jpg|thumb|[[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Sarojini Naidu]], [[Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan]], and [[Maulana Azad]] at the 1940 Ramgarh session of the Congress in which Azad was elected president for the second time]]

[[File:Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman.jpg|thumb|[[Chaudhari Khaliquzzaman]] (left) seconding the 1940 Lahore Resolution of the [[All-India Muslim League]] with [[Jinnah]] (right) presiding, and [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] centre]]

In 1933, [[Choudhry Rahmat Ali]] had produced a pamphlet, entitled ''[[Pakistan Declaration|Now or Never]]'', in which the term ''[[Pakistan]]'', 'land of the pure,' comprising the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]], [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North West Frontier Province (Afghania)]], [[Kashmir]], [[Sind Province (1936–55)|Sindh]], and [[Balochistan (Chief Commissioner's Province)|Balochistan]], was coined for the first time.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=31}} It did not attract political attention and,{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=31}} a little later, a Muslim [[delegation]] to the [[Parliamentary Committee]] on Indian Constitutional Reforms gave short shrift to the idea of Pakistan, calling it "chimerical and impracticable."{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=31}} In 1932, British Prime Minister [[Ramsay MacDonald]] accepted [[B. R. Ambedkar|Dr. Ambedkar]]'s demand for the "[[Scheduled castes|Depressed Classes]]" to have separate representation in the central and provincial legislatures. The Muslim League favoured the award{{clarify|date=December 2021}} as it had the potential to weaken the Hindu caste leadership. [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who was seen as a leading advocate for [[Dalit]] rights, went on a fast to persuade the British to repeal the award.{{clarify|date=December 2021}} Ambedkar had to back down when it seemed Gandhi's life was threatened.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-turning-point-in-1932/article23752117.ece|title=The turning point in 1932: on Dalit representation|date=3 May 2018|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=28 May 2018|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109111508/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-turning-point-in-1932/article23752117.ece|url-status=live}}</ref>

Two years later, the ''[[Government of India Act 1935]]'' introduced provincial autonomy, increasing the number of voters in India to 35 million.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} More significantly, law and order issues were for the first time devolved from British authority to provincial governments headed by Indians.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} This increased Muslim anxieties about eventual Hindu domination.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} In the [[1937 Indian provincial elections]], the Muslim League turned out its best performance in Muslim-minority provinces such as the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]], where it won 29 of the 64 reserved Muslim seats.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} In the Muslim-majority regions of the Punjab and Bengal regional parties outperformed the League.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} In Punjab, the [[Unionist Party (Punjab)|Unionist Party]] of [[Sikandar Hayat Khan (Punjabi politician)|Sikandar Hayat Khan]], won the elections and formed a government, with the support of the Indian National Congress and the [[Shiromani Akali Dal]], which lasted five years.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} In Bengal, the League had to share power in a coalition headed by [[A. K. Fazlul Huq]], the leader of the [[Krishak Praja Party]].{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}}

The Congress, on the other hand, with 716 wins in the total of 1585 provincial assemblies seats, was able to form governments in 7 out of the 11 provinces of [[British India]].{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} In its manifesto, Congress maintained that religious issues were of lesser importance to the masses than economic and social issues. The election revealed that it had contested just 58 out of the total 482 Muslim seats, and of these, it won in only 26.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} In UP, where the Congress won, it offered to share power with the League on condition that the League stops functioning as a representative only of Muslims, which the League refused.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} This proved to be a mistake as it alienated Congress further from the Muslim masses. Besides, the new UP provincial administration promulgated cow protection and the use of Hindi.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=32}} The Muslim elite in UP was further alienated, when they saw chaotic scenes of the new Congress Raj, in which rural people who sometimes turned up in large numbers in government buildings, were indistinguishable from the administrators and the law enforcement personnel.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|pp=32–33}}

The Muslim League conducted its investigation into the conditions of Muslims under Congress-governed provinces.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}} The findings of such investigations increased fear among the Muslim masses of future Hindu domination.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}} The view that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress was now a part of the public discourse of Muslims.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}}

===During and post-World War II (1939–1947)===
[[File:Indian Empire (1947).png|thumb|300px|[[Colonial India]] in 1947, before the partition, covering the territory of modern [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]]]]

With the outbreak of [[World War II]] in 1939, [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Linlithgow]], [[Viceroy of India]], declared war on India's behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}} By contrast the Muslim League, which functioned under state patronage,{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=34}} organized "Deliverance Day" celebrations (from Congress dominance) and supported Britain in the war effort.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}} When Linlithgow met with nationalist leaders, he gave the same status to [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah|Jinnah]] as he did to [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]], and, a month later, described the Congress as a "Hindu organization."{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=34}}

In March 1940, in the League's annual three-day session in [[Lahore]], Jinnah gave a two-hour speech in English, in which were laid out the arguments of the [[two-nation theory]], stating, in the words of historians Talbot and Singh, that "Muslims and Hindus...were irreconcilably opposed monolithic religious communities and as such, no settlement could be imposed that did not satisfy the aspirations of the former."{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}} On the last day of its session, the League passed what came to be known as the [[Lahore Resolution]], sometimes also "Pakistan Resolution," {{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=33}} demanding that "the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in the majority as in the north-western and eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign." Though it had been founded more than three decades earlier, the League would gather support among South Asian Muslims only during the Second World War.<ref>{{cite book|author=Yasmin Khan|title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan, New Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_PEpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|date=2017|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-23364-3|pages=18–|quote=Although it was founded in 1909 the League had only caught on among South Asian Muslims during the Second World War. The party had expanded astonishingly rapidly and was claiming over two million members by the early 1940s, an unimaginable result for what had been previously thought of as just one of the numerous pressure groups and small but insignificant parties.|access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref>

====August Offer, Cripps Mission: 1940–1942====
{{Main|August Offer|Cripps Mission}}

In August 1940, [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Linlithgow]] proposed that India be granted [[dominion|dominion status]] after the war. Having not taken the Pakistan idea seriously, Linlithgow supposed that what Jinnah wanted was a non-federal arrangement without Hindu domination. To allay Muslim fears of Hindu domination, the "August Offer" was accompanied by the promise that a future constitution would consider the views of minorities.<ref>{{cite book|author1=William Roger Louis|author2=Wm. Roger Louis|title=Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC&pg=PA397|year=2006|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-347-6|pages=397–|quote=He made a serious misjudgment in underestimating Muslim sentiment before the outbreak of the war. He did not take the idea of 'Pakistan' seriously. After the adoption of the March 1940 Lahore resolution, calling for the creation of a separate state or states of Pakistan, he wrote: 'My first reaction is, I confess, that silly as the Muslim scheme for partition is, it would be a pity to throw too much cold water on it at the moment.' Linlithgow surmised that what Jinnah feared was a federal India dominated by Hindus. Part of the purpose of the famous British 'August offer' of 1940 was to assure the Muslims that they would be protected against a 'Hindu Raj' as well as to hold over the discussion of the 1935 Act and a 'new constitution' until after the war.|access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref> Neither the Congress nor the Muslim League were satisfied with the offer, and both rejected it in September. The Congress once again started a program of [[civil disobedience]].<ref>{{cite book|author=L. J. Butler|title=Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FciqvzTfAuEC&pg=PA41|year=2002|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-448-1|pages=41–|quote=Viceroy Linlithgow's 'August Offer,' made in 1940, proposed Dominion status for India after the war, and the inclusion of Indians in a larger Executive Council and a new War Advisory Council, and promised that minority views would be taken into account in future constitutional revision. This was not enough to satisfy either the Congress or the Muslim League, who both rejected the offer in September, and shortly afterward Congress launched a fresh campaign of civil disobedience.|access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref>

In March 1942, with the Japanese fast moving up the [[Malayan Peninsula]] after the [[Fall of Singapore]],{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=34}} and with the Americans supporting independence for India,{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|pp=34–35}} [[Winston Churchill]], then Britain's prime minister, sent Sir [[Stafford Cripps]], leader of the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]], with an offer of dominion status to India at the end of the war in return for the Congress's support for the war effort.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=35}} Not wishing to lose the support of the allies they had already secured—the Muslim League, Unionists of Punjab, and the princes—Cripps's offer included a clause stating that no part of the British Indian Empire would be forced to join the post-war dominion. The League rejected the offer, seeing this clause as insufficient in meeting the principle of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ayesha Jalal|title=The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_0LBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT81|date=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-93570-8|page=81|quote=Provincial option, he argued, was insufficient security. Explicit acceptance of the principle of Pakistan offered the only safeguard for Muslim interests throughout India and had to be the precondition for any advance at the center. So he exhorted all Indian Muslims to unite under his leadership to force the British and the Congress to concede 'Pakistan.' If the real reasons for Jinnah's rejection of the offer were rather different, it was not Jinnah but his rivals who had failed to make the point publicly.|access-date=27 April 2018}}</ref> As a result of that proviso, the proposals were also rejected by the Congress, which, since its founding as a polite group of lawyers in 1885,{{Sfn|Khan|2007|p=18}} saw itself as the representative of all Indians of all faiths.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=35}} After the arrival in 1920 of Gandhi, the pre-eminent strategist of Indian nationalism,{{Sfn|Stein|Arnold|2010|p=289|ps=: Quote: "Gandhi was the leading genius of the later, and ultimately successful, campaign for India's independence"}} the Congress had been transformed into a mass nationalist movement of millions.{{Sfn|Khan|2007|p=18}}

====Quit India Resolution: August 1942====
{{Main|Quit India Movement}}

In August 1942, Congress launched the [[Quit India Resolution]], asking for drastic constitutional changes which the British saw as the most serious threat to their rule since the [[Indian rebellion of 1857]].{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=35}} With their resources and attention already spread thin by a global war, the nervous British immediately jailed the Congress leaders and kept them in jail until August 1945,{{Sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=209}} whereas the Muslim League was now free for the next three years to spread its message.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=34}} Consequently, the Muslim League's ranks surged during the war, with Jinnah himself admitting, "The war which nobody welcomed proved to be a blessing in disguise."{{Sfn|Khan|2007|p=43}} Although there were other important national Muslim politicians such as Congress leader [[Abul Kalam Azad]], and influential regional Muslim politicians such as [[A. K. Fazlul Huq]] of the leftist [[Krishak Praja Party]] in Bengal, [[Sikander Hyat Khan]] of the landlord-dominated [[Unionist Muslim League|Punjab Unionist Party]], and [[Abdul Ghaffar Khan|Abd al-Ghaffar Khan]] of the pro-Congress [[Khudai Khidmatgar]] (popularly, "red shirts") in the [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North West Frontier Province]], the British were to increasingly see the League as the main representative of Muslim India.<ref>{{harvnb|Robb|2002|p=190}}</ref> The Muslim League's demand for Pakistan pitted it against the British and Congress.<ref name="Metcalf20092">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pR0LzVCpfw8C&pg=PA410|title=Islam in South Asia in Practice|last=Gilmartin|first=David|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3138-8|editor-last=D. Metcalf|editor-first=Barbara|pages=410–|chapter=Muslim League Appeals to the Voters of Punjab for Support of Pakistan|quote=At the all-India level, the demand for Pakistan pitted the League against the Congress and the British.|access-date=23 September 2017}}</ref>

====Labour victory in the British elections, decision to decolonize: 1945====
In the 1945 general elections in Britain, [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] won. A government headed by [[Clement Attlee]], with [[Stafford Cripps]] and [[Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence|Lord Pethick-Lawrence]] in the Cabinet, was sworn in. Many in the new government, including Attlee, had a long history of supporting the decolonization of India. The government's [[exchequer]] had been exhausted by the Second World War and the British public did not appear to be enthusiastic about costly distant involvements.{{sfn|Brown|1994|p=330|ps=India had always been a minority interest in British public life; no great body of public opinion now emerged to argue that war-weary and impoverished Britain should send troops and money to hold it against its will in an empire of doubtful value. By late 1946 both Prime Minister and Secretary of State for India recognized that neither international opinion nor their own voters would stand for any reassertion of the ''raj'', even if there had been the men, money, and administrative machinery with which to do so.}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=212|ps=More importantly, though victorious in war, Britain had suffered immensely in the struggle. It simply did not possess the manpower or economic resources required to coerce a restive India.}} Late in 1945, the British government decided to end British Raj in India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948.<ref name="British Raj Independence movement">{{cite web|title=From Empire to Independence: The British Raj in India 1858–1947|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/independence1947_01.shtml|website= History|publisher=BBC|access-date=2 August 2014 | last=Dr Chandrika Kaul |date=3 March 2011}}</ref> Attlee wrote later in a memoir that he moved quickly to restart the self-rule process because he expected colonial rule in Asia to meet renewed opposition after the war from both nationalist movements and the United States,<ref>{{cite book| author=Attlee, Clement|title=As It Happened|publisher=Viking Press|date=1954|page=254 }}</ref> while his exchequer feared that post-war Britain could no longer afford to garrison an expansive empire. {{sfn|Brown|1994|p=330|ps=India had always been a minority interest in British public life; no great body of public opinion now emerged to argue that war-weary and impoverished Britain should send troops and money to hold it against its will in an empire of doubtful value. By late 1946 both Prime Minister and Secretary of State for India recognized that neither international opinion nor their own voters would stand for any reassertion of the ''raj'', even if there had been the men, money, and administrative machinery with which to do so.}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=212|ps=More importantly, though victorious in war, Britain had suffered immensely in the struggle. It simply did not possess the manpower or economic resources required to coerce a restive India.}}

====Indian provincial elections: 1946====
{{further|1945 Indian general election|1946 Indian provincial elections}}

In January 1946, [[Mutiny|mutinies]] broke out in the armed services, starting with RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow [[repatriation]] to Britain.<ref name="judd-mutiny">{{harvnb|Judd|2004|pp=172–173}}</ref> The insurgencies came to a head in February 1946 with the [[Royal Indian Navy mutiny|mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy]] in [[Mumbai|Bombay]], followed by others in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], [[Madras]], and [[Karachi]]. Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed, they had the effect of spurring the [[Attlee ministry|Attlee government]] to action. Labour Prime Minister [[Clement Attlee]] had been deeply interested in Indian independence since the 1920s, and for years had supported it. He now took charge of the government position and gave the issue the highest priority.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} A [[Cabinet Mission]] was sent to India led by the Secretary of State for India, [[Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence|Lord Pethick Lawrence]], which also included [[Stafford Cripps|Sir Stafford Cripps]], who had visited India four years before. The objective of the mission was to arrange for an orderly transfer to independence.<ref name="judd-mutiny" />

In early 1946, new elections were held in India. Muslim voters could choose between a united Indian State or partition.<ref name="Metcalf2012">{{cite book|author=Barbara Metcalf|title=Husain Ahmad Madani: The Jihad for Islam and India's Freedom|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQjrAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT107|date=2012|publisher=Oneworld Publications|isbn=978-1-78074-210-6|pages=107–|access-date=26 June 2017}}</ref> This coincided with the infamous [[Indian National Army trials#The first trial|trial of three senior officers]] − [[Shah Nawaz Khan (general)|Shah Nawaz Khan]], [[Prem Sahgal]], and Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon − of [[Subhas Chandra Bose]]'s defeated [[Indian National Army]] (INA) who stood accused of [[treason]]. Now as the trials began, the Congress leadership, although having never supported the INA, chose to defend the accused officers.<ref>{{harvnb|Judd|2004|pp=170–171}}</ref> The officers' subsequent convictions, the public outcry against the beliefs{{clarify|date=December 2021}}, and the eventual remission of the sentences created positive [[propaganda]] for the Congress, which enabled it to win the party's subsequent electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces.<ref>{{harvnb|Judd|2004|p=172}}</ref>

British rule had lost its legitimacy for most Hindus, and conclusive proof of this came in the form of the 1946 elections with the Congress winning 91 percent of the vote among non-Muslim constituencies, thereby gaining a majority in the Central Legislature and forming governments in eight provinces, and becoming the legitimate successor to the British government for most Hindus. If the British intended to stay in India the acquiescence of politically active Indians to British rule would have been in doubt after these election results, although many rural Indians may still have acquiesced to British rule at this time.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=328–329|ps=: "Yet these final years of the raj showed conclusively that British rule had lost legitimacy and that among the vast majority of Hindus Congress had become the raj's legitimate successor. Tangible proof came in the 1945–6 elections to the central and provincial legislatures. In the former, Congress won 91 percent of the votes cast in non-Muslim constituencies, and in the latter, gained an absolute majority and became the provincial raj in eight provinces. The acquiescence of the politically aware (though possibly not of many villagers even at this point) would have been seriously in doubt if the British had displayed any intention of staying in India."}}</ref> The Muslim League won the majority of the Muslim vote as well as most reserved Muslim seats in the provincial assemblies, and it also secured all the Muslim seats in the Central Assembly.
{{Gallery
|align=center
|width=180 |lines=4
|File:Cabinet mission to india1946.jpg|Members of the [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India]] meeting [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]]. On the extreme left is [[Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence|Lord Pethick Lawrence]]; on the extreme right, [[Stafford Cripps|Sir Stafford Cripps]].
|File:Old-muslim-couple1947.jpg|An aged and abandoned Muslim couple and their grandchildren are sitting by the roadside on this arduous journey. "The old man is dying of exhaustion. The caravan has gone on," wrote Bourke-White.
|File:Old-sikh-man-carrying-wife1947.jpg|An old Sikh man is carrying his wife. Over 10 million people were uprooted from their homeland and traveled on foot, bullock carts and trains to their promised new home.
|File:Gandhi Badshah Khan in Bela Bihar 1947.jpg|Gandhi in Bela, Bihar, after attacks on Muslims, 28 March 1947.
}}

====Cabinet Mission: July 1946====
{{Main|1946 Cabinet Mission to India}}

Recovering from its performance in the 1937 elections, the Muslim League was finally able to make good on the claim that it and Jinnah alone represented India's Muslims<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2012">{{cite book|author1=Barbara D. Metcalf|author2=Thomas R. Metcalf|title=A Concise History of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c7UgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA212|date=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-53705-6|pages=212–|access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref> and Jinnah quickly interpreted this vote as a popular demand for a separate homeland.<ref name="Stein2010">{{cite book|author=Burton Stein|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA347|date=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1|pages=347–|access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref> Tensions heightened while the Muslim League was unable to form ministries outside the two provinces of Sind and Bengal, with the Congress forming a ministry in the NWFP and the key Punjab province coming under a coalition ministry of the Congress, Sikhs and Unionists.<ref name="BoseJalal2004">{{harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2004|pp=148–149}}</ref>

The British, while not approving of a separate Muslim homeland, appreciated the simplicity of a single voice to speak on behalf of India's Muslims.<ref>{{cite book|author=Burton Stein|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA347|date=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1|page=347|quote=His standing with the British remained high, however, for even though they no more agreed with the idea of a separate Muslim state than the Congress did, government officials appreciated the simplicity of a single negotiating voice for all of India's Muslims.|access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref> Britain had wanted India and its army to remain united to keep India in its system of 'imperial defence'.<ref name="Roberts2003">{{cite book|author=Jeffery J. Roberts|title=The Origins of Conflict in Afghanistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pj8DIT_bva0C&pg=PA85|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-97878-5|pages=85–|quote=Virtually every Briton wanted to keep India united. Many expressed moral or sentimental obligations to leave India intact, either for the inhabitants' sake or simply as a lasting testament to the Empire. The Cabinet Defense Committee and Chiefs of Staff stressed the maintenance of a united India as vital to the defense (and economy) of the region. A unified India, an orderly transfer of power, and a bilateral alliance would, they argued, leave Britain's strategic position undamaged. India's military assets, including its seemingly limitless manpower, naval and air bases, and expanding production capabilities, would remain accessible to London. India would thus remain of crucial importance as a base, training ground, and staging area for operations from Egypt to the Far East.|access-date=13 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Britain, the Commonwealth and the End of Empire|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/endofempire_overview_01.shtml|first=John|last=Darwin|date=3 March 2011|work=BBC|access-date=10 April 2017|quote=But the British still hoped that a self-governing India would remain part of their system of 'imperial defense'. For this reason, Britain was desperate to keep India (and its army) united.|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112030518/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/endofempire_overview_01.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> With India's two political parties unable to agree, Britain devised the ''Cabinet Mission Plan''. Through this mission, Britain hoped to preserve the united India which they and the Congress desired, while concurrently securing the essence of Jinnah's demand for a Pakistan through 'groupings.'<ref name="MetcalfMetcalf2002">{{cite book|author1=Barbara D. Metcalf|author2=Thomas R. Metcalf|title=A Concise History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGCBNTDv7acC&pg=PA212|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-63974-3|pages=212–|quote=By this scheme, the British hoped they could at once preserve united India desired by the Congress, and by themselves, and at the same time, through the groups, secure the essence of Jinnah's demand for a 'Pakistan'.|access-date=10 April 2017}}</ref> The Cabinet mission scheme encapsulated a federal arrangement consisting of three groups of provinces. Two of these groupings would consist of predominantly Muslim provinces, while the third grouping would be made up of the predominantly Hindu regions. The provinces would be autonomous, but the centre would retain control over the defence, foreign affairs, and communications. Though the proposals did not offer independent Pakistan, the Muslim League accepted the proposals. Even though the unity of India would have been preserved, the Congress leaders, especially Nehru, believed it would leave the Center weak. On 10 July 1946, [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] gave a "provocative speech," rejected the idea of grouping the provinces and "effectively torpedoed" both the [[Cabinet mission plan]] and the prospect of a United India.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Barbara D. Metcalf|author2=Thomas R. Metcalf|title=A Concise History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGCBNTDv7acC&pg=PA213|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-63974-3|pages=211–213|quote=Its proposal for an independent India involved a complex, three-tiered federation, whose central feature was the creation of groups of provinces. Two of these groups would comprise the Muslim majority provinces of east and west; a third would include the Hindu majority regions of the center and south. These groups, given responsibility for most of the functions of government, would be subordinated to a Union government, would be subordinated to a Union government controlling defense, foreign affairs, and communications. Nevertheless, the Muslim League accepted the Cabinet mission's proposals. The ball was now in Congress's court. Although the grouping scheme preserved a united India, the Congress leadership, above all Jawaharlal Nehru, now slated to be Gandhi's successor, increasingly concluded that under the Cabinet mission proposals the Center would be too weak to achieve the goals of the Congress, which envisioned itself as the successor to the Raj. Looking ahead to the future, the Congress, especially its socialist wing headed by Nehru, wanted a central government that could direct and plan for an India, free of colonialism, that might eradicate its people's poverty and grow into an industrial power. India's business community also supported the idea of a strong central government In a provocative speech on 10 July 1946, Nehru repudiated the notion of compulsory grouping or provinces, the key to Jinnah's Pakistan. Provinces, he said, must be free to join any group. With this speech, Nehru effectively torpedoed the Cabinet mission scheme, and with it, any hope for a united India.|access-date=18 March 2020}}</ref>

====Direct Action Day: August 1946====
After the Cabinet Mission broke down, in July 1946, Jinnah held a press conference at his home in Bombay. He proclaimed that the Muslim league was "preparing to launch a struggle" and that they "have chalked out a plan". He said that if the Muslims were not granted a separate Pakistan then they would launch "direct action". When asked to be specific, Jinnah retorted: "Go to the Congress and ask them their plans. When they take you into their confidence I will take you into mine. Why do you expect me alone to sit with folded hands? I also am going to make trouble."<ref name="Bourke-White, Margaret 1949 p. 15">Bourke-White, Margaret (1949). Halfway to Freedom: A Report on the New India in the Words and Photographs of Margaret Bourke-White. Simon and Schuster. p. 15.</ref>

The next day, Jinnah announced 16 August 1946 would be "[[Direct Action Day]]" and warned Congress, "We do not want war. If you want war we accept your offer unhesitatingly. We will either have a divided India or a destroyed India."<ref name="Bourke-White, Margaret 1949 p. 15"/>

On that morning, armed Muslim gangs gathered at the [[Ochterlony Monument]] in Calcutta to hear [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]], the League's Chief Minister of Bengal, who, in the words of historian Yasmin Khan, "if he did not explicitly incite violence certainly gave the crowd the impression that they could act with impunity, that neither the police nor the military would be called out and that the ministry would turn a blind eye to any action they unleashed in the city."{{Sfn|Khan|2007|pp=64–65}} That very evening, in Calcutta, Hindus were attacked by returning Muslim celebrants, who carried pamphlets distributed earlier which showed a clear connection between violence and the demand for Pakistan, and directly implicated the celebration of Direct Action Day with the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would later be called the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946".{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=69|ps=: Quote: "Despite the Muslim League's denials, the outbreak was linked with the celebration of Direction Action Day. Muslim procession that had gone to the staging ground of the 150-foot [[Ochterlony Monument]] on the maidan to hear the Muslim League Prime Minister Suhrawardy attacked Hindus on their way back. They were heard shouting slogans as 'Larke Lenge Pakistan' (We shall win Pakistan by force). Violence spread to North Calcutta when Muslim crowds tried to force Hindu shopkeepers to observe the day's strike (''hartal'') call. The circulation of pamphlets in advance of Direct Action Day demonstrated a clear connection between the use of violence and the demand for Pakistan."}} The next day, Hindus struck back, and the violence continued for three days in which approximately 4,000 people died (according to official accounts), both Hindus and Muslims. Although India had had outbreaks of religious violence between Hindus and Muslims before, the [[Calcutta]] killings were the first to display elements of "[[ethnic cleansing]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=67}} Quote: "The signs of 'ethnic cleansing' are first evident in the Great Calcutta Killing of 16–19 August 1946."</ref> Violence was not confined to the public sphere, but homes were entered and destroyed, and women and children were attacked.{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=68}} Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress-led interim government was installed, with [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] as united India's prime minister.

The communal violence spread [[1946 Bihar riots|to Bihar]] (where Hindus attacked Muslims), to [[Noakhali riots|Noakhali in Bengal]] (where Muslims targeted Hindus), to [[Garhmukteshwar]] in the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]] (where Hindus attacked Muslims), and on to [[Rawalpindi]] in March 1947 in which Hindus and Sikhs were [[1947 Rawalpindi massacres|attacked or driven out]] by Muslims.<ref>{{harvnb|Talbot|Singh|2009|p=67}} Quote: "(Signs of 'ethnic cleansing') were also present in the wave of violence that rippled out from Calcutta to Bihar, where there were high Muslim casualty figures, and to Noakhali deep in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta of Bengal. Concerning the Noakhali riots, one British officer spoke of a 'determined and organized' Muslim effort to drive out all the Hindus, who accounted for around a fifth of the total population. Similarly, the Punjab counterparts to this transition of violence were the Rawalpindi massacres of March 1947. The level of death and destruction in such West Punjab villages as Thoa Khalsa was such that communities couldn't live together in its wake."</ref>

====Plan for partition: 1946–1947====
The British Prime Minister Attlee appointed [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Louis Mountbatten]] as [[Governor-General of India|India's last viceroy]], giving him the task to oversee British India's independence by 30 June 1948, with the instruction to avoid partition and preserve a united India, but with adaptable authority to ensure a British withdrawal with minimal setbacks. Mountbatten hoped to revive the Cabinet Mission scheme for a federal arrangement for India. But despite his initial keenness for preserving the centre, the tense communal situation caused him to conclude that partition had become necessary for a quicker transfer of power.<ref>{{cite book |last= Ziegler |first= Philip |title= Mountbatten: The Official Biography |location= London |publisher= HarperCollins |year= 1985 |isbn= 978-0002165433 |page= [https://archive.org/details/mountbattenoffic00phil/page/359 359] |url= https://archive.org/details/mountbattenoffic00phil/page/359 }}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ayesha Jalal|title=The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D63KMRN1SJ8C&pg=PA251|date=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-45850-4|page=250|quote=These instructions were to avoid partition and obtain a unitary government for British India and the Indian States and at the same time observe the pledges to the princes and the Muslims; to secure agreement to the Cabinet Mission plan without coercing any of the parties; somehow to keep the Indian army undivided, and to retain India within the Commonwealth. (Attlee to Mountbatten, 18 March 1947, ibid, 972–974)|access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ayesha Jalal|title=The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D63KMRN1SJ8C&pg=PA251|date=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-45850-4|page=251|quote=When Mountbatten arrived, it was not wholly inconceivable that a settlement on the Cabinet Mission's terms might still be secured limited bloodshed called for a united Indian army under effective control. But keeping the army intact was now inextricably linked with keeping India united, this is why Mountbatten started by being vehemently opposed to 'abolishing the center'.|access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Talbot|first1=Ian|title=Partition of India: The Human Dimension|journal=Cultural and Social History|year=2009|volume=6|issue=4|pages=403–410|quote=Mountbatten had intended to resurrect the Cabinet Mission proposals for a federal India. British officials were unanimously pessimistic about a Pakistan state's future economic prospects. The agreement to an Indian Union contained in the Cabinet Mission proposals had been initially accepted by the Muslim League as the grouping proposals gave considerable autonomy in the Muslim majority areas. Moreover, there was the possibility of withdrawal and thus acquiring Pakistan by the backdoor after a ten year interval. The worsening communal situation and extensive soundings with Indian political figures convinced Mountbatten within a month of his arrival that partition was the only way to quickly and smoothly transfer power.|doi=10.2752/147800409X466254|s2cid=147110854}}</ref>

====Proposal of the ''Indian Independence Act''====
{{Main|Indian Independence Act 1947}}

When Lord Mountbatten formally proposed the plan on 3 June 1947, Patel gave his approval and lobbied Nehru and other Congress leaders to accept the proposal. Knowing Gandhi's deep anguish regarding proposals of partition, Patel engaged him in private meetings discussions over the perceived practical unworkability of any Congress-League [[Coalition government|coalition]], the rising violence, and the threat of civil war. At the All India Congress Committee meeting called to vote on the proposal, Patel said:<ref>{{cite book|last=Menon|first=V. P.|title=Transfer of Power in India|page=385}}</ref><blockquote>I fully appreciate the fears of our brothers from [the Muslim-majority areas]. Nobody likes the division of India, and my heart is heavy. But the choice is between one division and many divisions. We must face facts. We cannot give way to emotionalism and sentimentality. The [[Congress Working Committee|Working Committee]] has not acted out of fear. But I am afraid of one thing, that all our toil and hard work of these many years might go waste or prove unfruitful. My nine months in office have completely disillusioned me regarding the supposed merits of the [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India|Cabinet Mission Plan]]. Except for a few honourable exceptions, Muslim officials from the top down to the chaprasis ([[peon]]s or servants) are working for the League. The communal veto given to the League in the Mission Plan would have blocked India's progress at every stage. Whether we like it or not, [[de facto]] Pakistan already exists in the Punjab and Bengal. Under the circumstances, I would prefer a de jure Pakistan, which may make the League more responsible. Freedom is coming. We have 75 to 80 percent of India, which we can make strong with our genius. The League can develop the rest of the country.</blockquote>Following Gandhi's denial<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NurqxSttqjoC&pg=PA38|title=Gandhi, the Forgotten Mahatma|first=Jagdish Chandra|last=Jain|date=1 January 1987|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=9788170990376|access-date=22 May 2020}}</ref> and Congress' approval of the plan, Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari represented Congress on the Partition Council, with Jinnah, Liaqat Ali Khan and Abdur Rab Nishtar representing the Muslim League. Late in 1946, the [[Attlee ministry|Labour government in Britain]], its [[exchequer]] exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, decided to end British rule of India, with power being transferred no later than June 1948. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, [[Louis Mountbatten]], advanced the date, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence.

====Radcliffe Line====
{{Main|Radcliffe Line}}
[[File:How India be split up (1947).jpg|thumb|Map speculating on a possible division of India from the Daily Herald newspaper, 4th June 1947.]]

In June 1947, the nationalist leaders, including [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] and [[Abul Kalam Azad]] on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, [[B. R. Ambedkar]] representing the [[Dalit|Untouchable]] community, and [[Master Tara Singh]] representing the [[Sikhs]], agreed to a partition of the country in stark opposition to Gandhi's opposition to partition. The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation of Pakistan; the plan included a partition of the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal. The communal violence that accompanied the publication of the [[Radcliffe Line]], the line of partition, was even more horrific. Describing the violence that accompanied the partition of India, historians Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh wrote:<blockquote>There are numerous eyewitness accounts of the maiming and mutilation of victims. The catalogue of horrors includes the disemboweling of pregnant women, the slamming of babies' heads against brick walls, the cutting off of the victim's limbs and genitalia, and the displaying of heads and corpses. While previous communal riots had been deadly, the scale and level of brutality during the Partition massacres were unprecedented. Although some scholars question the use of the term '[[genocide]]' concerning the partition massacres, much of the violence was manifested with genocidal tendencies. It was designed to cleanse an existing generation and prevent its future reproduction."{{Sfn|Talbot|Singh|2009|pp=67–68}}</blockquote>

====Independence: August 1947====
[[File:Partition of India 1947 en.svg|thumb|200px|The partition of India: green regions were all part of Pakistan by 1948, and orange ones part of India. The darker-shaded regions represent the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]] and [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] provinces partitioned by the Radcliffe Line. The grey areas represent some of the key [[princely state]]s that were eventually integrated into India or Pakistan.]]

Mountbatten administered the independence oath to Jinnah on the 14th, before leaving for India where the oath was scheduled on the midnight of the 15th.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Farooqui |first1=Tashkeel Ahmed |last2=Sheikh |first2=Ismail |date=15 August 2016 |title=Was Pakistan created on August 14 or 15? |work=The Express Tribune |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/1160291/pakistan-created-august-14-15/ |url-status=live |access-date=16 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816113500/http://tribune.com.pk/story/1160291/pakistan-created-august-14-15/ |archive-date=16 August 2016}}</ref> On 14 August 1947, the new [[Dominion of Pakistan]] came into being, with [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]] sworn in as its first Governor-General in [[Karachi]]. The following day, 15 August 1947, India, now [[Dominion of India]], became an independent country, with official ceremonies taking place in [[New Delhi]], Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]]. Mountbatten remained in [[New Delhi]] for 10 months, serving as the first [[Governor-General of India|governor-general]] of an independent India until June 1948.{{Sfn|Heathcote|2002|p=189}} Gandhi remained in Bengal to work with the new refugees from the partitioned subcontinent.

==Geographic partition, 1947==

===Mountbatten Plan===
[[File:Mountbatten 4 august 1947.jpg|thumb|upright|Mountbatten with a countdown calendar for the transfer of power in the background]]
At a press conference on 3 June 1947, Lord Mountbatten announced the date of independence – 14 August 1947 – and also outlined the actual division of British India between the two new dominions in what became known as the "Mountbatten Plan" or the "3 June Plan". The plan's main points were:
* Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab]] and [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]] [[Legislatures of British India|legislative assemblies]] would meet and vote for partition. If a simple majority of either group wanted partition, then these provinces would be divided.
* [[Sindh|Sind]] and [[Balochistan|Baluchistan]] were to make their own decision.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Transfer of Power in India|last=Menon|first=V.P|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=1957|isbn=978-8125008842|page=512}}</ref>
* The fate of [[North-West Frontier Province]] and [[Sylhet District|Sylhet]] district of [[Assam]] was to be decided by a [[referendum]].
* The separate independence of Bengal was ruled out.
* A [[Boundary commissions (United Kingdom)|boundary commission]] to be set up in case of partition.

The Indian political leaders had accepted the Plan on 2 June. It could not deal with the question of the [[princely state]]s, which were not British possessions, but on 3 June Mountbatten advised them against remaining independent and urged them to join one of the two new Dominions.<ref>Sankar Ghose, ''Jawaharlal Nehru, a biography'' (1993), p. 181</ref>

The [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]]'s demands for a separate country were thus conceded. The [[Indian National Congress|Congress]]'s position on unity was also taken into account while making Pakistan as small as possible. Mountbatten's formula was to divide India and, at the same time, retain maximum possible unity. Abul Kalam Azad expressed concern over the likelihood of violent riots, to which Mountbatten replied:<blockquote>At least on this question I shall give you complete assurance. I shall see to it that there is no bloodshed and riot. I am a soldier and not a civilian. Once the partition is accepted in principle, I shall issue orders to see that there are no communal disturbances anywhere in the country. If there should be the slightest agitation, I shall adopt the sternest measures to nip the trouble in the bud.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Jagmohan |date=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QsDSGn8jLPAC |title=Soul and Structure of Governance in India |publisher=Allied Publishers |page=49 |isbn=978-8177648317 |access-date=13 August 2016}}</ref> </blockquote>[[Jagmohan]] has stated that this and what followed showed a "glaring failure of the government machinery."<ref name=":0" />

On 3 June 1947, the partition plan was accepted by the [[Congress Working Committee]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5l0BPnxN1h8C&pg=PA341|title=Hindu Culture During and After Muslim Rule: Survival and Subsequent Challenges|last=Gopal|first=Ram|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd|year=1991|isbn=978-8170232056|page=133|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref> ''Boloji''{{Unreliable source?|date=April 2017}} states that in Punjab, there were no riots, but there was communal tension, while Gandhi was reportedly isolated by Nehru and Patel and observed ''maun vrat'' (day of silence). Mountbatten visited Gandhi and said he hoped that he would not oppose the partition, to which Gandhi wrote the reply: "Have I ever opposed you?"<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-NnfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=India's Foreign Relations, 1947–2007|last=Ray|first=Jayanta Kumar|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=58|isbn=978-1136197154|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref>

Within British India, the border between India and Pakistan (the [[Radcliffe Line]]) was determined by a British Government-commissioned report prepared under the chairmanship of a London [[barrister]], [[Cyril Radcliffe|Sir Cyril Radcliffe]]. Pakistan came into being with two non-contiguous areas, [[East Pakistan]] (today Bangladesh) and [[West Pakistan]], separated geographically by India. India was formed out of the majority Hindu regions of British India, and Pakistan from the majority Muslim areas.

On 18 July 1947, the [[British Parliament]] passed the [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian Independence Act]] that finalized the arrangements for partition and abandoned British [[suzerainty]] over the [[princely state]]s, of which there were several hundred, leaving them free to choose whether to [[Instrument of Accession|accede]] to one of the new dominions or to remain independent outside both.<ref>[[Ishtiaq Ahmed (political scientist)|Ishtiaq Ahmed]], ''State, Nation and Ethnicity in Contemporary South Asia'' (London & New York, 1998), p. 99</ref> The [[Government of India Act 1935]] was adapted to provide a legal framework for the new dominions.

Following its creation as a new country in August 1947, Pakistan applied for membership of the United Nations and was accepted by the General Assembly on 30 September 1947. The [[Dominion of India]] continued to have the existing seat as India had been a founding member of the United Nations since 1945.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raju |first=Thomas G. C. |date=Fall 1994 |title=Nations, States, and Secession: Lessons from the Former Yugoslavia |journal=Mediterranean Quarterly |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=40–65}}</ref>

===Punjab Boundary Commission===
[[File:Punjabdoabs1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|A map of the Punjab region {{circa|1947}}.]]
The Punjab—the region of the five rivers east of [[Indus]]: [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Beas River|Beas]], and [[Sutlej]]—consists of [[Fluvial processes|inter-fluvial]] ''[[doab]]s'' ('two rivers'), or tracts of land lying between two [[Confluence|confluent rivers]] (see map on the right):
* the [[Sindh Sagar Doab|''Sindh-Sagar'' doab]] (between Indus and Jhelum);
* the [[Jech Doab|''Jech'' doab]] (Jhelum/Chenab);
* the [[Rechna Doab|''Rechna'' doab]] (Chenab/Ravi);
* the [[Bari Doab|''Bari'' doab]] (Ravi/Beas); and
* the [[Bist Doab|''Bist'' doab]] (Beas/Sutlej).

In early 1947, in the months leading up to the deliberations of the Punjab Boundary Commission, the main disputed areas appeared to be in the Bari and Bist doabs. Some areas in the Rechna doab were claimed by the Congress and [[Sikhs]]. In the Bari doab, the districts of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Lahore District|Lahore]], and [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]] were all disputed.<ref name="spate">{{harvnb|Spate|1947|pp=126–137}}</ref> All districts (other than Amritsar, which was 46.5% Muslim) had Muslim majorities; albeit, in Gurdaspur, the Muslim majority, at 51.1%, was slender. At a smaller area-scale, only three ''[[tehsil]]s'' (sub-units of a district) in the Bari doab had non-Muslim majorities: [[Pathankot district|Pathankot]], in the extreme north of Gurdaspur, which was not in dispute; and [[Amritsar]] and [[Tarn Taran Sahib|Tarn Taran]] in Amritsar district. Nonetheless, there were four Muslim-majority tehsils east of Beas-Sutlej, in two of which Muslims outnumbered Hindus and Sikhs together.<ref name="spate" />

Before the Boundary Commission began formal hearings, governments were set up for the East and the West Punjab regions. Their territories were provisionally divided by "notional division" based on simple district majorities. In both the Punjab and Bengal, the Boundary Commission consisted of two Muslim and two non-Muslim judges with Sir [[Cyril Radcliffe]] as a common chairman.<ref name="spate" /> The mission of the Punjab commission was worded generally as: "To [[Demarcation line|demarcate]] the boundaries of the two parts of Punjab, based on ascertaining the [[Contiguous distribution|contiguous]] majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims. In doing so, it will take into account other factors." Each side (the Muslims and the Congress/Sikhs) presented its claim through counsel with no liberty to bargain. The judges, too, had no mandate to compromise, and on all major issues they "divided two and two, leaving Sir Cyril Radcliffe the invidious task of making the actual decisions."<ref name="spate" />

==Independence, population transfer, and violence==
{{Main|Violence against women during the partition of India}}
{{Gallery
|align=center
|width=180 |lines=4
|File:Send-off-delhi1947.jpg|Train to Pakistan being given an honor-guard send-off. New Delhi railway station, 1947
|File:Oxcart-train1947.jpg|Rural Sikhs in a long oxcart train headed towards India. 1947.
|File:Two-men-carrying-woman1947.jpg|Two Muslim men (in a rural refugee train headed towards Pakistan) carrying an old woman in a makeshift ''doli'' or palanquin of 1947.
|File:Refugeetrain1.jpg|A refugee train on its way to Punjab, Pakistan
}}

[[Population transfer|Massive population exchanges]] occurred between the two newly formed states in the months immediately following the partition. There was no conception that population transfers would be necessary because of the partitioning. Religious minorities were expected to stay put in the states they found themselves residing. An exception was made for Punjab, where the transfer of populations was organized because of the communal violence affecting the province; this did not apply to other provinces.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n5c9ta97GeoC&pg=PA40|title=The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories|author=Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali Zamindar|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-231-13847-5|pages=40–|quote=Second, it was feared that if an exchange of populations was agreed to in principle in Punjab, ' there was likelihood of trouble breaking out in other parts of the subcontinent to force Muslims in the Indian Dominion to move to Pakistan. If that happened, we would find ourselves with inadequate land and other resources to support the influx.' Punjab could set a very dangerous precedent for the rest of the subcontinent. Given that Muslims in the rest of India, some 42 million, formed a population larger than the entire population of West Pakistan at the time, economic rationality eschewed such a forced migration. In divided Punjab, millions of people were already on the move, and the two governments had to respond to this mass movement. Thus, despite these important reservations, the establishment of the MEO led to an acceptance of a 'transfer of populations' in divided Punjab, too, 'to give a sense of security' to ravaged communities on both sides. A statement of the Indian government's position of such a transfer across divided Punjab was made in the legislature by Neogy on November 18, 1947. He stated that although the Indian government's policy was 'to discourage mass migration from one province to another.' Punjab was to be an exception. In the rest of the subcontinent migrations were not to be on a planned basis, but a matter of individual choice. This exceptional character of movements across divided Punjab needs to be emphasized, for the agreed and 'planned evacuations' by the two governments formed the context of those displacements.|access-date=24 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UAkarK3gLDgC&pg=PA149|title=The Making of the Modern Refugee|author=Peter Gatrell|date=2013|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-967416-9|pages=149–|quote=Notwithstanding the accumulated evidence of inter-communal tension, the signatories to the agreement that divided the Raj did not expect the transfer of power and the partition of India to be accompanied by a mass movement of population. Partition was conceived as a means of preventing migration on a large scale because the borders would be adjusted instead. Minorities need not be troubled by the new configuration. As Pakistan's first Prime Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, affirmed, 'the division of India into Pakistan and India Dominions was based on the principle that minorities will stay where they were and that the two states will afford all protection to them as citizens of the respective states'.|access-date=24 April 2018}}</ref>

"The population of undivided India in 1947 was approx 390 million. After partition, there were 330 million people in India, 30 million in West Pakistan, and 30 million people in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)."{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} Once the boundaries were established, about 14.5 million people crossed the borders to what they hoped was the relative safety of religious majority. The 1951 Census of Pakistan identified the number of displaced persons in Pakistan at 7,226,600, presumably all Muslims who had entered Pakistan from India; the 1951 Census of India counted 7,295,870 displaced persons, apparently all Hindus and [[Sikhs]] who had moved to India from Pakistan immediately after the partition.<ref name="Springer Science & Business Media3">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tGiSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |title=Population Redistribution and Development in South Asia |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |year=2012 |isbn=978-9400953093 |page=6 |access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref> The overall total is therefore around 14.5 million, although since both censuses were held about 4 years after the partition, these numbers include net population increase following the [[mass migration]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/2017/aug/14/when-muslims-left-pakistan-for-india-1642817.html|title=When Muslims left Pakistan for India|work=The New Indian Express|type=Opinion|access-date=19 August 2017|archive-date=5 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905102113/http://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/2017/aug/14/when-muslims-left-pakistan-for-india-1642817.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Regions affected by partition==
The newly formed governments had not anticipated, and were completely unequipped for, a two-way migration of such staggering magnitude. Massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the new India-Pakistan border. Estimates of the number of deaths vary, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 2,000,000. The worst case of violence among all regions is concluded to have taken place in Punjab.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |title=Partition of India: The Human Dimension |journal=Cultural and Social History |year=2009 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=403–410 |quote=The number of casualties remains a matter of dispute, with figures being claimed that range from 200,000 to 2 million victims. |doi=10.2752/147800409X466254 |s2cid=147110854}}</ref><ref name="Butalia 2000">{{Cite book |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/b/butalia-silence.html|title=The Other Side of Silence: Voices From the Partition of India |last=Butalia |first=Urvashi |author-link=Urvashi Butalia |publisher=Duke University Press |year=2000 |page=3 |isbn=0-8223-2494-6 |quote=Never before or since have so many people exchanged their homes and countries so quickly ... people moved between the new, truncated India and the two wings, East and West, of the newly created Pakistan ... Slaughter sometimes accompanied and sometimes prompted their movement; many others died from malnutrition and contagious diseases. Estimates of the dead vary from 200,000 (the contemporary British figure) to two million (a later Indian estimate) ... despite many warnings, the new governments of India and Pakistan were unprepared for the convulsion: they had not anticipated ... |access-date=25 March 2016 |archive-date=25 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325043612/https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/b/butalia-silence.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |author-link=Yoginder Sikand |year=2004 |title=Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-Faith Relations |publisher=Routledge |page=5 |isbn=978-1-134-37825-8 |quote=Partition wrought in its wake the greatest forced migration in the history of humankind ... between 1 and 2 million people, Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs and Dalits, were killed.}}</ref>

===Punjab===
[[File:A refugee special train at Ambala Station during partition of India.jpg|thumb|A refugee special train at Ambala Station during the Partition of India]]

The Partition of India split the former [[Punjab Province (British India)|British province of Punjab]] between the [[Dominion of India]] and the [[Dominion of Pakistan]]. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan's [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab province]]; the mostly Hindu and Sikh eastern part became India's [[East Punjab]] state (later divided into the new states of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]]). Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and the fears of all such minorities were so great that the partition saw many people displaced and much inter-communal violence. Some have described the violence in Punjab as a retributive genocide.<ref name="washedu">{{cite web|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf|title=The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946–47: means, methods, and purposes|access-date=19 December 2006|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414111514/http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Total migration across Punjab during the partition is estimated at 12 million people;{{efn|"Some 12 million people were displaced in the divided province of Punjab alone, and up to 20 million in the subcontinent as a whole."<ref name="Zamindar2013">{{cite book |chapter=India–Pakistan Partition 1947 and forced migration |author=Vazira Fazila‐Yacoobali Zamindar |title=The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration |chapter-url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm285 |date=4 February 2013 |doi=10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm285 |isbn=9781444334890 |access-date=16 January 2021 |archive-date=22 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122014723/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm285 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} around 6.5 million Muslims moved into West Punjab, and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved into East Punjab.

[[File:Refugees on train roof during Partition.ogv|thumb|Video of refugees on train roof during the Partition of India.]]

Virtually no Muslim survived in East Punjab (except in [[Malerkotla]] and [[Nuh district|Nuh]]) and virtually no Hindu or Sikh survived in West Punjab (except in [[Rahim Yar Khan District|Rahim Yar Khan]] and [[Bahawalpur District|Bahawalpur]]).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.thefridaytimes.com/tft/a-heritage-all-but-erased/|title=A heritage all but erased|date=25 December 2015|work=The Friday Times|access-date=26 June 2017|archive-date=24 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424215718/https://www.thefridaytimes.com/2015/12/25/a-heritage-all-but-erased/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Lawrence James observed that "Sir Francis Mudie, the governor of West Punjab, estimated that 500,000 Muslims died trying to enter his province, while the British High Commissioner in Karachi put the full total at 800,000. This makes nonsense of the claim by Mountbatten and his partisans that only 200,000 were killed": [James 1998: 636].<ref name="EPW" />

During this period, many alleged that Sikh leader [[Tara Singh (activist)|Tara Singh]] was endorsing the killing of Muslims. On 3 March 1947, at [[Lahore]], Singh, along with about 500 Sikhs, declared from a [[dais]] "Death to Pakistan."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sikh-history.com/sikhhist/personalities/sewadars/tarasingh.html|title=Sikh Social Warriors|access-date=25 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723065112/http://www.sikh-history.com/sikhhist/personalities/sewadars/tarasingh.html|archive-date=23 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to political scientist [[Ishtiaq Ahmed (political scientist)|Ishtiaq Ahmed]]:<ref>{{cite web|date=27 September 2018|title=The 'bloody' Punjab partition – VIII|url=http://www.sacw.net/article2843.html|access-date=25 July 2018|archive-date=25 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725214556/http://www.sacw.net/article2843.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="fairobserver.com">{{cite web|last=Ahmed|first=Ishtiaq|date=31 January 2013|title=The Punjab Bloodied, Partitioned and Cleansed|url=http://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/punjab-bloodied-partitioned-and-cleansed/|access-date=1 March 2017|archive-date=9 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809173128/https://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/punjab-bloodied-partitioned-and-cleansed/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="dawnshafiqbutt">{{cite news |last=Butt|first=Shafiq|date=24 April 2016|title=A page from history: Dr Ishtiaq underscores need to build bridges|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1254069|work=Dawn|access-date=1 March 2017|archive-date=10 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810040954/https://www.dawn.com/news/1254069|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Talbot|first1=Ian|year=1993|title=The role of the crowd in the Muslim League struggled for Pakistan|journal=The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History|volume=21|issue=2|pages=307–333|doi=10.1080/03086539308582893|quote=Four thousand Muslim shops and homes were destroyed in the walled area of Amritsar during a single week in March 1947. were these exceptions which prove the rule? It appears that casualty figures were frequently higher when Hindus rather than Muslims were the aggressors.}}</ref>

<blockquote>On March 3, radical Sikh leader Master Tara Singh famously flashed his [[kirpan]] (sword) outside the Punjab Assembly, calling for the destruction of the Pakistan idea prompting violent response by the Muslims mainly against Sikhs but also Hindus, in the Muslim-majority districts of northern Punjab. Yet, at the end of that year, more Muslims had been killed in East Punjab than Hindus and Sikhs together in West Punjab.</blockquote>

Nehru wrote to Gandhi on 22 August that, up to that point, twice as many Muslims had been killed in [[East Punjab]] than Hindus and Sikhs in [[West Punjab]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Nisid Hajari|title=Midnight's Furies: The Deadly Legacy of India's Partition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bO5zCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA139|year=2015|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-547-66921-2|pages=139–|access-date=18 December 2017}}</ref>
{{clear}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Religion in [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]] (1941)<ref name="PunjabCensus1941">{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/site/south-asia-open-archives/saoa/censusofindia1941-28216851/|title=CENSUS OF INDIA, 1941 VOLUME VI PUNJAB PROVINCE|access-date=23 August 2022}}</ref>{{rp|42}}
|-
! Religion
! Population
! Percentage
|-
| [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 18,259,744
|{{Percentage | 18259744 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi|Including [[Ad-Dharmi]]s}}
| 10,336,549
|{{Percentage | 10336549 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 5,116,185
|{{Percentage | 5116185 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 512,466
|{{Percentage | 512466 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain Prateek Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 45,475
|{{Percentage | 45475 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
| Others{{efn|name=others|Including [[Buddhism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Judaism]], [[Tribal religions in India|Tribals]], others, or not stated}}
| 39,442
|{{Percentage | 39442 | 34309861 | 2 }}
|-
| '''Total Population'''
| '''34,309,861'''
| '''{{Percentage | 34309861 | 34309861 | 2 }}'''
|}
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break|width=33%}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religion in West Punjab (1941)<ref name="PunjabCensus1941"/>{{rp|42}}{{efn|name=WestPunjab1941|1941 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Lahore District|Lahore]], [[Sialkot District|Sialkot]], [[Gujranwala District|Gujranwala]], [[Sheikhupura District|Sheikhupura]], [[Gujrat District|Gujrat]], [[Shahpur District|Shahpur]], [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]], [[Rawalpindi District|Rawalpindi]], [[Attock District|Attock]], [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]], [[Montgomery District|Montgomery]], [[Lyallpur District|Lyallpur]], [[Jhang District|Jhang]], [[Multan District|Multan]], [[Muzaffargarh District|Muzaffargargh]], [[Dera Ghazi Khan District|Dera Ghazi Khan]]), one [[tehsil]] ([[Shakargarh Tehsil|Shakargarh]] – then part of [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur District]]), one [[princely state]] ([[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]), and one tract (Biloch Trans–Frontier) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the western side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1941 census data here:<ref name="PunjabCensus1941"/>{{rp|42}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and tract would ultimately make up the subdivision of West Punjab, which also later included [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]]. The state that makes up this region in the contemporary era is [[Punjab, Pakistan]].}}
|-
! Religion
! Population
! Percentage
|-
| [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 13,022,160
|{{Percentage | 13022160 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| 2,373,466
|{{Percentage | 2373466 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 1,530,112
|{{Percentage | 1530112 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 395,311
|{{Percentage | 395311 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain Prateek Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 9,520
|{{Percentage | 9520 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|-
| Others{{efn|name=others}}
| 19,534
|{{Percentage | 19534 | 17350103 | 2 }}
|-
| '''Total Population'''
| '''17,350,103'''
| '''{{Percentage | 17350103 | 17350103 | 2 }}'''
|}
Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of [[Punjab, Pakistan]] and [[Islamabad Capital Territory]].
{{Col-break|width=33%}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Religion in East Punjab (1941){{efn|name=EastPunjab1941|1941 figure taken from [[Census in British India|census data]] by combining the total population of all [[Districts of British India|districts]] ([[Hisar district|Hisar]], [[Rohtak district|Rohtak]], [[Gurgaon district|Gurgaon]], [[Karnal district|Karnal]], [[Jalandhar district|Jalandhar]], [[Ludhiana district|Ludhiana]], [[Firozpur district|Firozpur]], [[Amritsar district|Amritsar]], [[Simla District|Simla]], [[Kangra district|Kangra]], [[Ambala district|Ambala]], [[Hoshiarpur district|Hoshiarpur]], and [[Gurdaspur district|Gurdaspur]] (minus [[Shakargarh Tehsil]])), and [[princely state]]s ([[Loharu State|Loharu]], [[Dujana]], [[Pataudi State|Pataudi]], [[Kalsia State|Kalsia]], [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], [[Malerkotla State|Malerkotla]], [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], [[Patiala State|Patiala]], [[Jind State|Jind]], [[Nabha State|Nabha]], [[Sirmur State|Sirmoor]], [[Simla Hill States|Simla Hill]], [[Bilaspur State (princely state)|Bilaspur]], [[Mandi State|Mandi]], [[Suket State|Suket]], and [[Chamba State|Chamba]]) in Punjab Province, British India that ultimately fell on the eastern side of the [[Radcliffe Line]]. See 1941 census data here:<ref name="PunjabCensus1941"/>{{rp|42}} Immediately following the partition of India in 1947, these districts and princely states would ultimately make up the subdivision of East Punjab, which also included [[Patiala and East Punjab States Union]], [[Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Bilaspur State (1950–1954)|Bilaspur State]]. The states that make up this region in the contemporary era are [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].}}<ref name="PunjabCensus1941"/>{{rp|42}}
|-
! Religion
! Population
! Percentage
|-
| [[Hinduism]] [[File:Om.svg|15px]]{{efn|name=ad-dharmi}}
| 7,963,083
|{{Percentage | 7963083 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Islam]] [[File:Star and Crescent.svg|15px]]
| 5,237,584
|{{Percentage | 5237584 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Sikhism]] [[File:Khanda.svg|15px]]
| 3,586,073
|{{Percentage | 3586073 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Christianity]] [[File:Christian cross.svg|15px]]
| 117,155
|{{Percentage | 117155 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
| [[Jainism]] [[File:Jain Prateek Chihna.svg|15px]]
| 35,955
|{{Percentage | 35955 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
| Others{{efn|name=others}}
| 19,908
|{{Percentage | 19908 | 16959758 | 2 }}
|-
| '''Total Population'''
| '''16,959,758'''
| '''{{Percentage | 16959758 | 16959758 | 2 }}'''
|}
Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions of [[Punjab, India]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Haryana]], and [[Himachal Pradesh]].
{{Col-break|width=33%}}
{{Col-end}}
{{clear}}

===Bengal===
{{Main|Partition of Bengal (1947)}}
The province of [[Bengal]] was divided into the two separate entities of [[West Bengal]], awarded to the Dominion of India, and [[East Bengal]], awarded to the Dominion of Pakistan. East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan in 1955,{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} and later became the independent nation of [[Bangladesh]] after the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] of 1971.

The districts of [[Murshidabad District|Murshidabad]] and [[Malda district|Malda]], located on the right bank of the Ganges, were given to India despite having Muslim majorities. The Hindu-majority [[Khulna District]], located on the mouths of the Ganges and surrounded by Muslim-majority districts, were given to Pakistan, as were the eastern-most [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]].<ref name="Spoils">{{cite book |last=Chatterji |first=Joya |author-link=Joya Chatterji |year=2007 |title=The Spoils of Partition: Bengal and India, 1947–1967 |pages=31, 58–60 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-87536-3}}</ref>

Thousands of Hindus, located in the districts of East Bengal, which were awarded to Pakistan, found themselves being attacked, and this religious persecution forced hundreds of thousands of Hindus from East Bengal to seek refuge in India. The massive influx of Hindu refugees into Calcutta affected the demographics of the city. Many Muslims left the city for East Pakistan, and the refugee families occupied some of their homes and properties.

Total migration across Bengal during the partition is estimated at 3.3 million: 2.6 million Hindus moved from East Pakistan to India and 0.7 million Muslims moved from India to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).

====Chittagong Hill Tracts====
The sparsely populated [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] were a special case. Located on the eastern limits of Bengal, it provided the Muslim-majority [[Chittagong]] with a [[hinterland]]. Despite the Tracts' 98.5% Buddhist majority in 1947<ref name=Khisha>{{cite book|last=Khisha|first=Mukur K.|title=All That Glisters|year=1998|publisher=Minerva Press|isbn=978-1861060525|pages=49}}</ref> the territory was given to Pakistan.<ref name="Spoils" />

===Sindh===
There was no mass violence in Sindh as there was in Punjab and Bengal.
At the time of partition, the majority of [[Sindh]]'s prosperous upper and middle class was Hindu. The Hindus were mostly concentrated in cities and formed the majority of the population in cities including [[Hyderabad, Sindh|Hyderabad]], [[Karachi]], [[Shikarpur, Pakistan|Shikarpur]], and [[Sukkur]]. During the initial months after partition, only some Hindus migrated. In late 1947, the situation began to change. Large numbers of Muslims refugees from India started arriving in Sindh and began to live in crowded refugee camps.<ref name="Sindhi Voices from the Partition">{{Cite web|url=https://www.theheritagelab.in/sindhi-voices-partition/|title=Sindhi Voices from the Partition|publisher=The HeritageLab.in|date=16 August 2020|access-date=8 June 2020|archive-date=8 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608110538/https://www.theheritagelab.in/sindhi-voices-partition/|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 6 December 1947, communal violence broke out in Ajmer in India, precipitated by an argument between
some Sindhi Hindu refugees and local Muslims in the Dargah Bazaar. Violence in Ajmer again broke out in the middle of December with stabbings, looting and arson resulting in mostly Muslim casualties.<ref name="Bhavnani">{{cite book |title=The Making of Exile: Sindhi Hindus and the Partition of India |last=Bhavnani |first=Nandita |publisher=Westland |year=2014 |isbn=978-93-84030-33-9}}</ref> Many Muslims fled across the Thar Desert to Sindh in Pakistan.<ref name="Bhavnani" /> This sparked further anti-Hindu riots in [[Hyderabad, Sindh]]. On 6 January anti-Hindu riots broke out in Karachi, leading to an estimate of 1100 casualties.<ref name="Bhavnani" /><ref>{{cite book |title=The Global World of Indian Merchants, 1750–1947 |last=Markovits |first=Claude |year=2000 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-62285-1 |page=278}}</ref> The arrival of Sindhi Hindu refugees in North Gujarat's town of Godhra in March 1948 again sparked riots there which led to more emigration of Muslims from Godhra to Pakistan.<ref name="Bhavnani"/> These events triggered the large scale of exodus of Hindus.
An estimated 1.2 – 1.4 million Hindus migrated to India primarily by ship or train.<ref name="Sindhi Voices from the Partition"/>

Despite the migration, a significant Sindhi Hindu population still resides in Pakistan's Sindh province, where they number at around 2.3 million as per Pakistan's 1998 census. Some districts in Sindh had a Hindu majority like [[Tharparkar District]], [[Umerkot]], [[Mirpurkhas]], [[Sanghar]] and [[Badin]], but these have decreased drastically due to persecution.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pakistanhinducouncil.org/hindupopulation.asp |title=Population of Hindus in the World |website=Pakistan Hindu Council |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518031747/http://www.pakistanhinducouncil.org/hindupopulation.asp |archive-date=18 May 2013}}</ref>
Due to the religious persecution of Hindus in Pakistan, Hindus from Sindh are still migrating to India.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/05/world/asia/pakistan-hindu-india-modi.html |title=Hard Times Have Pakistani Hindus Looking to India, Where Some Find Only Disappointment |first=Maria |last=Abi-Habib |date=5 October 2019 |work=The New York Times |access-date=10 July 2020 |archive-date=2 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210102204537/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/05/world/asia/pakistan-hindu-india-modi.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Gujarat===
<ref name="YājñikaSheth2005">{{cite book|author1=Acyuta Yājñika|author2=Suchitra Sheth|title=The Shaping of Modern Gujarat: Plurality, Hindutva, and Beyond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmKIiAPgnF0C&pg=PA225|year=2005|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-400038-8|pages=225–|access-date=16 July 2018}}</ref> It experienced large refugee migrations.
An estimated 642,000 Muslims migrated to Pakistan, of which 75% went to Karachi largely due to business interests. The [[1951 Census of India|1951 Census]] registered a drop of the Muslim population in the state from 13% in 1941 to 7% in 1951.<ref name="YājñikaSheth2005"/>

The number of incoming refugees was also quite large, with over a million people migrating to Gujarat.
These Hindu refugees were largely Sindhi and Gujarati.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|title=Partition and Gujarat: The Tangled Web of Religious, Caste, Community and Gender Identities|year=2011|publisher=tandfonline|doi=10.1080/00856401.2011.620556|last1=Balasubrahmanyan|first1=Suchitra|journal=South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies|volume=34|issue=3|pages=460–484|s2cid=145404336}}</ref>

===Delhi===
[[File:Muslim refugees in the Tomb of Humayun.png|thumb|Muslim refugees in the Tomb of Humayun, 1947]]
[[File:Manchester guardian purana-qila1947.jpg|thumb|upright|A crowd of Muslims at the Old Fort (Purana Qila) in Delhi, which had been converted into a vast camp for Muslim refugees waiting to be transported to Pakistan. ''[[The Guardian|Manchester Guardian]]'', 27 September 1947.]]

For centuries Delhi had been the capital of the [[Mughal Empire]] from Babur to the successors of Aurangzeb and previous Turkic Muslim rulers of North India. The series of Islamic rulers keeping Delhi as a stronghold of their empires left a vast array of Islamic architecture in Delhi, and a strong Islamic culture permeated the city. In 1911, when the British Raj shifted their colonial capital from Calcutta to Delhi, the nature of the city began changing. The core of the city was called 'Lutyens' Delhi,' named after the British architect Sir [[Edwin Lutyens]], and was designed to service the needs of the small but growing population of the British elite. Nevertheless, the 1941 census listed Delhi's population as being 33.2% Muslim.

As refugees began pouring into Delhi in 1947, the city was ill-equipped to deal with the influx of refugees. Refugees "spread themselves out wherever they could. They thronged into camps ... colleges, temples, ''[[Gurdwara|gurudwaras]]'', ''[[Dharamshala (type of building)|dharmshalas]]'', [[Barracks|military barracks]], and gardens."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|title=Gandhi before India|date=3 February 2015|publisher=National Geographic Books |isbn=978-0-307-47478-0|oclc=903907799}}</ref> By 1950, the government began allowing squatters to construct houses in certain portions of the city. As a result, neighbourhoods such as [[Lajpat Nagar]] and [[Patel Nagar]] sprang into existence, which carry a distinct Punjabi character to this day. As thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees from Punjab fled to the city, upheavals ensued as communal [[pogrom]]s rocked the historical stronghold of Indo-Islamic culture and politics. A Pakistani diplomat in Delhi, Hussain, alleged that the Indian government was intent on eliminating Delhi's Muslim population or was indifferent to their fate. He reported that army troops openly gunned down innocent Muslims.<ref name="Hajari2015">{{cite book|author=Nisid Hajari|title=Midnight's Furies: The Deadly Legacy of India's Partition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bO5zCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA160|year=2015|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-547-66921-2|pages=160–|access-date=18 November 2017}}</ref> Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru estimated 1,000 casualties in the city. Other sources put the casualty rate 20 times higher. [[Gyanendra Pandey (historian)|Gyanendra Pandey]]'s 2010 account of the violence in Delhi puts the figure of Muslim casualties in Delhi at between 20,000 and 25,000.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zamindar |first=Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali |date=2010 |title=The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories |publisher=Columbia University Press |page=247 |isbn=978-0-231-13847-5}}</ref>

Tens of thousands of Muslims were driven to refugee camps regardless of their political affiliations, and numerous historical sites in Delhi such as the [[Purana Qila]], Idgah, and Nizamuddin were transformed into [[refugee camp]]s. In fact, many Hindu and Sikh refugees eventually occupied the abandoned houses of Delhi's Muslim inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kumari |first=Amita |year=2013 |title=Delhi as Refuge: Resettlement and Assimilation of Partition Refugees |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |pages=60–67}}</ref>

At the culmination of the tensions, total migration in Delhi during the partition is estimated at 830,000 people; around 330,000 Muslims had migrated to Pakistan and around 500,000 Hindus & Sikhs migrated from Pakistan to Delhi.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/capital-gains-how-1947-gave-birth-to-a-new-identity-a-new-ambition-a-new-delhi/story-e0GfoFrhwStTU2910v5DrJ_amp.html|title=Capital gains: How 1947 gave birth to a new identity, a new ambition, a new Delhi|date=24 April 2018|publisher=Hindustan Times|access-date=13 May 2021|archive-date=13 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513122824/https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/capital-gains-how-1947-gave-birth-to-a-new-identity-a-new-ambition-a-new-delhi/story-e0GfoFrhwStTU2910v5DrJ_amp.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[1951 Census of India|1951 Census]] registered a drop of the Muslim population in the city from 33.2% in 1941 to 5.3% in 1951.<ref>{{cite book |title=Muslims In Indian Cities |last=Sharma |first=Bulbul |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers India |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-5029-555-7}}</ref>

===Princely states===
In several cases, rulers of [[princely state]]s were involved in communal violence or did not do enough to stop in time. Some rulers were away from their states for the summer, such as those of the Sikh states. Some believe that the rulers were whisked away by communal ministers in large part to avoid responsibility for the soon-to-come ethnic cleansing.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} In [[Bahawalpur|Bhawalpur]] and [[Patiala]], upon the return of their ruler to the state, there was a marked decrease in violence, and the rulers consequently stood against the cleansing. The [[Nawab of Bahawalpur]] was away in Europe and returned on 1 October, shortening his trip. A bitter [[Hassan Suhrawardy]] would write to [[Mahatma Gandhi]]:

{{Blockquote|What is the use now, of the Maharaja of Patiala, when all the Muslims have been eliminated, standing up as the champion of peace and order?<ref>{{cite book |last1=Copland |first1=Ian |title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India, c. 1900–1950 |date=2005 |page=159}}</ref>}}

With the exceptions of [[Jind]] and [[Kapurthala State|Kapurthala]], the violence was well organised in the Sikh states, with logistics provided by the [[Durbar (court)|durbar]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Copland |first1=I |title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India, c. 1900–1950 |date=2005 |page=158}}</ref> In [[Patiala State|Patiala]] and [[Faridkot State|Faridkot]], the Maharajas responded to the call of [[Master Tara Singh]] to cleanse India of Muslims. The Maharaja of Patiala was offered the headship of a future united Sikh state that would rise from the "ashes of a Punjab civil war."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Copland |first1=Ian |title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India, c. 1900–1950 |date=2005 |page=148}}</ref> The Maharaja of Faridkot, Harinder Singh, is reported to have listened to stories of the massacres with great interest going so far as to ask for "juicy details" of the carnage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Copland|first=Ian|date=2002|title=The Master and the Maharajas: The Sikh Princes and the East Punjab Massacres of 1947|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3876650|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=36|issue=3|pages=657–704|doi=10.1017/S0026749X02003050|jstor=3876650|s2cid=146123606|issn=0026-749X|access-date=20 November 2021|archive-date=20 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120220504/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3876650|url-status=live}}</ref> The Maharaja of [[Bharatpur State]] personally witnessed the cleansing of [[Meo (ethnic group)|Muslim Meos]] at Khumbar and [[Deeg]]. When reproached by Muslims for his actions, [[Brijendra Singh]] retorted by saying: "Why come to me? Go to Jinnah."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=squHDAAAQBAJ&q=%22Why+come+to+me%3F+Go+to+Jinnah.%22&pg=PA157|title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India, c. 1900–1950|isbn=9780230005983|last1=Copland|first1=I.|date=26 April 2005|publisher=Springer |access-date=11 March 2021}}</ref>

In [[Alwar State|Alwar]] and [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]] communal sentiments extended to higher echelons of government, and the prime ministers of these States were said to have been involved in planning and directly overseeing the cleansing. In [[Bikaner]], by contrast, the organisation occurred at much lower levels.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Copland |first1=Ian |title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India, c. 1900–1950 |date=2005 |page=157}}</ref>

====Alwar and Bharatpur====
In [[Alwar]] and [[Bharatpur, Rajasthan|Bharatpur]], princely states of Rajputana (modern-day Rajasthan), there were bloody confrontations between the dominant, Hindu land-holding community and the Muslim cultivating community.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZdLhnFet4w4C&pg=PA39|title=Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism and History in India|last=Pandey|first=Gyanendra|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-521-00250-9|page=39|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref> Well-organised bands of [[Hindu Jats]], [[Ahir]]s and [[Gurjar]]s, started attacking [[Meo (ethnic group)|Muslim Meos]] in April 1947. By June, more than fifty Muslim villages had been destroyed. The Muslim League was outraged and demanded that the Viceroy provide Muslim troops. Accusations emerged in June of the involvement of Indian State Forces from Alwar and Bharatpur in the destruction of Muslim villages both inside their states and in British India.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EwJeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306|title=The Indian Army and the End of the Raj|last=Marston|first=Daniel|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1139915762|page=306|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref>

In the wake of unprecedented violent attacks unleashed against them in 1947, 100,000 Muslim Meos from Alwar and Bharatpur were forced to flee their homes, and an estimated 30,000 are said to have been massacred.<ref>{{harvnb|Khan|2007|p=135}}</ref> On 17 November, a column of 80,000 Meo refugees went to Pakistan. However, 10,000 stopped travelling due to the risks.<ref name=":1" />

====Jammu and Kashmir====
{{Main|1947 Jammu massacres}}

In September–November 1947 in the [[Jammu]] region of the [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|princely state of Jammu and Kashmir]], a large number of Muslims were killed, and others driven away to [[West Punjab]]. The impetus for this violence was partly due to the "harrowing stories of Muslim atrocities", brought by Hindu and Sikh refugees arriving to Jammu from West Punjab since March 1947. The killings were carried out by extremist [[Hindus]] and [[Sikhs]], aided and abetted by the forces of the [[Dogra dynasty|Jammu and Kashmir]] State, headed by the [[Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir]] [[Hari Singh]]. Observers state that Hari Singh aimed to alter the demographics of the region by eliminating the Muslim population and ensure a Hindu majority.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chattha, Ilyas Ahmad (September 2009), Partition and Its Aftermath: Violence, Migration and the Role of Refugees in the Socio-Economic Development of Gujranwala and Sialkot Cities, 1947–1961|publisher=University of Southampton, retrieved 16 February 2016|pages=179, 183}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |author=A.G. Noorani |date=25 February 2012 |title=Horrors of Partition |url=http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2904/stories/20120309290407300.htm |magazine=Frontline |access-date=7 March 2017 |archive-date=25 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225142101/http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2904/stories/20120309290407300.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> This was followed by a massacre of Hindus and Sikhs starting in November 1947, in Rajouri and Mirpur by Pashtun tribal militias and Pakistani soldiers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Snedden |first=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Snedden |year=2013 |orig-year=First published 2012 as ''The Untold Story of the People of Azad Kashmir'' |title=Kashmir: The Unwritten History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0cPjAAAAQBAJ |publisher=HarperCollins India |page=56 |isbn=978-93-5029-898-5 |access-date=12 July 2021}}; {{cite book |last=Das Gupta |first=Jyoti Bhusan |year=2012 |orig-year=First published 1968 |title=Jammu and Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dpTpCAAAQBAJ |publisher=Springer |page=97 |isbn=978-94-011-9231-6 |access-date=12 July 2021}}</ref> Women were raped and sexually assaulted. Many of those killed, raped and injured had come to these areas to escape massacres in West Punjab, which had become part of Pakistan.

==Resettlement of refugees: 1947–1951==

===Resettlement in India===
According to the [[1951 Census of India]], 2% of India's population were refugees (1.3% from [[West Pakistan]] and 0.7% from [[East Pakistan]]).

The majority of Sikh and Hindu Punjabi refugees from [[West Punjab]] were settled in [[Delhi]] and [[East Punjab]] (including Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). Delhi received the largest number of refugees for a single city, with the population of Delhi showing an increase from under 1 million (917,939) in the Census of India, 1941, to a little less than 2 million (1,744,072) in the 1951 Census, despite a large number of Muslims leaving Delhi in 1947 to go to Pakistan whether voluntarily or by coercion.<ref>Census of India, 1941 and 1951</ref> The incoming refugees were housed in various historical and military locations such as the [[Purana Qila]], [[Red Fort]], and military barracks in [[Kingsway Camp]] (around the present [[University of Delhi|Delhi University]]). The latter became the site of one of the largest refugee camps in northern India, with more than 35,000 refugees at any given time besides [[Kurukshetra]] camp near [[Panipat]]. The campsites were later converted into permanent housing through extensive building projects undertaken by the Government of India from 1948 onwards. Many housing colonies in Delhi came up around this period, like [[Lajpat Nagar]], [[Rajinder Nagar]], [[Nizamuddin East]], [[Punjabi Bagh]], Rehgar Pura, [[Jangpura]], and Kingsway Camp. Several schemes such as the provision of education, employment opportunities, and easy loans to start businesses were provided for the refugees at the all-India level.<ref>{{cite book |title=Since 1947: Partition Narratives among Punjabi Migrants of Delhi |last=Kaur |first=Ravinder |year=2007 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-568377-6}}</ref> Many Punjabi Hindu refugees were also settled in Cities of Western and Central [[Uttar Pradesh]]. A Colony consisting largely of Sikhs and [[Punjabi Hindus]] was also founded in Central Mumbai's [[Sion Koliwada (Vidhan Sabha constituency)|Sion Koliwada]] region, and named [[Guru Tegh Bahadur Nagar]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/article/887276/facing-eviction-residents-of-mumbais-partition-era-colony-fear-they-will-become-refugees-again|title=Facing eviction, residents of a Mumbai Partition-era colony fear they will become homeless again|last=Johari|first=Aarefa|work=Scroll.in|access-date=20 October 2018|archive-date=2 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802154416/https://scroll.in/article/887276/facing-eviction-residents-of-mumbais-partition-era-colony-fear-they-will-become-refugees-again|url-status=live}}</ref>

Hindus fleeing from East Pakistan (now [[Bangladesh]]) were settled across [[East India|Eastern]], [[Central India|Central]] and [[Northeast India|Northeastern India]], many ending up in neighbouring Indian states such as [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]], and [[Tripura]]. Substantial number of refugees were also settled in [[Madhya Pradesh]] (incl. [[Chhattisgarh]]) [[Bihar]] (incl. [[Jharkhand]]), [[Odisha]] and [[Andaman islands]] (where Bengalis today form the largest linguistic group)<ref>{{cite news |title=Meet the Bengali refugees who now dominate businesses, farms in Chhattisgarh's tribal belt |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/meet-the-bengali-refugees-who-now-dominate-businesses-farms-in-chhattisgarhs-tribal-belt/articleshow/73362371.cms |work=Economic Times |date=19 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/over-1cr-bengali-refugees-living-outside-bengal/articleshow/67348291.cms|title=Over 1 crore Bengali refugees living outside Benga|date=2 January 2019|work=The Times of India|access-date=1 August 2021|archive-date=5 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605133643/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/over-1cr-bengali-refugees-living-outside-bengal/articleshow/67348291.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sindhi Hindus settled predominantly in [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]], and [[Rajasthan]]. Substantial, however, were also settled in [[Madhya Pradesh]], A few also settled in [[Delhi]]. A new township was established for Sindhi Hindu refugees in Maharashtra. The [[Governor-General of India]], Sir Rajagopalachari, laid the foundation for this township and named it [[Ulhasnagar]] ('city of joy').

Substantial communities of Hindu Gujarati and Marathi Refugees who had lived in cities of Sindh and [[Saraikistan|Southern Punjab]] were also resettled in Cities of Modern-day Gujarat and Maharashtra.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-why-create-problems-when-we-live-in-peace-marathi-speaking-community-from-karachi-to-shiv-sena-2137208|title=Why create problems when we live in peace: Marathi-speaking community from Karachi to Shiv Sena|date=22 October 2015|work=DNA|access-date=26 July 2021|archive-date=26 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726223609/https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-why-create-problems-when-we-live-in-peace-marathi-speaking-community-from-karachi-to-shiv-sena-2137208|url-status=live}}</ref>

A small community of Pashtun Hindus from [[Loralai]], [[Balochistan]] was also settled City of [[Jaipur]]. Today they number around 1,000.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1697086/pakistan|title=70 years on, one Pashtun town still safeguards its old Hindu-Muslim brotherhood|work=Arab News|date=30 June 2020|access-date=1 August 2021|archive-date=1 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801203052/https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1697086/pakistan|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Refugee camps====
The list below shows the number of relief camps in districts of Punjab and their population up to December 1948.<ref>{{cite conference |url=http://data.conferenceworld.in/IETES/20.pdf |title=Statistics of Refugee Camps and Their Administration in Combined Punjab |last1=Pushpa |date=26 November 2017 |publisher=A.R. Research Publication |book-title= |pages=129–130 |location=Chandigarh, India |conference=4the International Conference on 'Recent Research Development in Environment, Social Sciences and Humanities' |isbn=978-93-86171-82-5}}</ref>
{|class="Wikipedia sortable"
|+Number of relief camps in East Punjab
! District (up to December 1948)
!No. of camps
!No. of persons
|-
|Amritsar||5||1,29,398
|-
|Gurdaspur||4||3,500
|-
|Ferozpur||5||53,000
|-
|Ludhiana||1||25,000
|-
|Jalandhar||19||60,000
|-
|Hoshiarpur||1||11,701
|-
|Hissar||3||3,797
|-
|Rohtak||2||50,000
|-
|Ambala||1||50,000
|-
|Karnal (including Kurukshetra)||4||3,25,000
|-
|Gurugram (Gurgaon)||40||20,000
|-
|Total||85||7,21,396
|}

===Resettlement in Pakistan===
The 1951 Census of Pakistan recorded that the most significant number of Muslim refugees came from the [[East Punjab]] and nearby [[Rajputana|Rajputana states]] ([[Alwar]] and [[Bharatpur, Rajasthan|Bharatpur]]). They numbered 5,783,100 and constituted 80.1% of Pakistan's total refugee population.<ref name="Chitkara">{{cite book |title=Converts Do Not Make A Nation |last=Chitkara |first=G.M. |publisher=APH Publishing |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-7024-982-5 |page=216}}</ref> This was the effect of the retributive ethnic cleansing on both sides of the Punjab where the Muslim population of East Punjab was forcibly expelled like the Hindu/Sikh population in [[West Punjab]].

Migration from other regions of India were as follows: [[Bihar]], [[West Bengal]], and [[Odisha|Orissa]], 700,300 or 9.8%; UP and Delhi 464,200 or 6.4%; [[Gujarat]] and [[Mumbai|Bombay]], 160,400 or 2.2%; [[Bhopal]] and [[Hyderabad]] 95,200 or 1.2%; and [[Chennai|Madras]] and [[Mysore]] 18,000 or 0.2%.<ref name="Chitkara" />

So far as their settlement in Pakistan is concerned, 97.4% of the refugees from East Punjab and its contiguous areas went to West Punjab; 95.9% from Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa to the erstwhile East Pakistan; 95.5% from UP and Delhi to West Pakistan, mainly in [[Karachi Division]] of [[Sindh]]; 97.2% from Bhopal and Hyderabad to [[West Pakistan]], mainly [[Karachi]]; and 98.9% from Bombay and Gujarat to West Pakistan, largely to Karachi; and 98.9% from Madras and Mysore went to West Pakistan, mainly Karachi.<ref name="Chitkara" />

West Punjab received the largest number of refugees (73.1%), mainly from East Punjab and its contiguous areas. Sindh received the second largest number of refugees, 16.1% of the total migrants, while the Karachi division of Sindh received 8.5% of the total migrant population. East Bengal received the third-largest number of refugees, 699,100, who constituted 9.7% of the total Muslim refugee population in Pakistan. 66.7% of the refugees in East Bengal originated from West Bengal, 14.5% from Bihar and 11.8% from Assam.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ghosh |first=Papiya |year=2001 |title=The Changing Discourse Of The Muhajirs |journal=India International Centre Quarterly |volume=28 |issue=3 |page=58 |jstor=23005560}}</ref>

NWFP and Baluchistan received the lowest number of migrants. NWFP received 51,100 migrants (0.7% of the migrant population) while Baluchistan received 28,000 (0.4% of the migrant population).

The government undertook a census of refugees in West Punjab in 1948, which displayed their place of origin in India.

====Data====
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break|width=33%}}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+'''Number of Muslim refugees in West Punjab from the Districts of East Punjab and Neighbouring Regions'''{{sfn|Chattha|2009|p=111}}
|-
!Places
!Number
|-
|Amritsar (East Punjab)
|741,444
|-
|Jalandhar (East Punjab)
|520,189
|-
|Gurdaspur (East Punjab)
|499,793
|-
|Hoshiarpur (East Punjab)
|384,448
|-
|Karnal (East Punjab)
|306,509
|-
|Hissar (East Punjab)
|287,479
|-
|Ludhiana (East Punjab)
| resource="File:Refugees on train roof during Partition.ogv" height="" width="" |255,864
|-
|Ambala (East Punjab)
|222,939
|-
|Gurgaon (East Punjab)
|80,537
|-
|Rohtak (East Punjab)
|172,640
|-
|Delhi
|91,185
|-
|Kangra (East Punjab)
|33,826
|-
|United Provinces
|28,363
|-
|Shimla (East Punjab)
|11,300
|-
|'''Total'''
|'''3,636,516'''
|}
{{Col-break|width=33%}}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+ '''Number of Muslim refugees in West Punjab from the Princely states in East Punjab and Rajputana'''{{sfn|Chattha|2009|p=111}}
|-
!Name
!Number
|-
|Patiala (East Punjab)
|308,948
|-
|Alwar (Rajputana)
|191,567
|-
|Kapurthala (East Punjab)
|172,079
|-
|Faridkot (East Punjab)
|66,596
|-
|Bharatpur (Rajputana)
|43,614
|-
|Nabha (East Punjab)
|43,538
|-
|Jind (East Punjab)
|41,696
|-
|Together other small states
|39,322
|-
|'''Total'''
|'''907,360'''
|}
{{Col-break|width=33%}}
{{Col-end}}
{{clear}}

== Missing people ==
A study of the total population inflows and outflows in the districts of Punjab, using the data provided by the [[1931 Census of India|1931]] and [[1951 Census of India|1951 Census]] has led to an estimate of 1.3 million missing Muslims who left western India but did not reach Pakistan.<ref name="EPW">{{Cite journal |last1 = Bharadwaj |first1 = Prasant |first2 = Asim |last2 = Khwaja |first3 = Atif |last3 = Mian |date = 30 August 2008 |title = The Big March: Migratory Flows after the Partition of India |url = http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/akhwaja/papers/Big%20March%20EPW%20Publish08.pdf |journal = Economic & Political Weekly |page = 43 |access-date = 16 January 2016 |archive-date = 3 December 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121203132100/http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/akhwaja/papers/Big%20March%20EPW%20Publish08.pdf |url-status = dead }}</ref> The corresponding number of missing [[Hindus]]/[[Sikhs]] along the western border is estimated to be approximately 0.8 million.<ref name="Bharadwaj, Prasant 2008">Bharadwaj, Prasant; Khwaja, Asim; Mian, Atif (30 August 2008). "The Big March: Migratory Flows after the Partition of India" (PDF). ''Economic & Political Weekly'': 43. Retrieved 16 January 2016</ref> This puts the total of missing people, due to partition-related migration along the Punjab border, to around 2.2 million.<ref name="Bharadwaj, Prasant 2008"/>
Another study of the demographic consequences of partition in the Punjab region using the 1931, 1941 and 1951 censuses concluded that between 2.3 and 3.2 million people went missing in the Punjab.<ref>Hill, K., Selzer, W., Leaning, J., Malik, S., & Russell, S. (2008). The Demographic Impact of Partition in Punjab in 1947. Population Studies, 62(2), 155–170.</ref>

==Rehabilitation of women==
{{See also|Violence against women during the Partition of India}}

Both sides promised each other that they would try to restore women abducted and raped during the riots. The Indian government claimed that 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women were abducted, and the Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted during riots. By 1949, there were legal claims that 12,000 women had been recovered in India and 6,000 in Pakistan.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=m-EYXNnvMugC&q=12000&pg=PA125 Perspectives on Modern South Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and ... – Kamala Visweswara] (16 May 2011)</ref> By 1954, there were 20,728 Muslim women recovered from India, and 9,032 Hindu and Sikh women recovered from Pakistan.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=yNN4SE7cL60C&dq=muslim+hindu+women+recovered+1947+riots&pg=PA99 Borders & boundaries: women in India's partition – Ritu Menon, Kamla Bhasi] (24 April 1993).</ref> Most of the Hindu and Sikh women refused to go back to India, fearing that their families would never accept them, a fear mirrored by Muslim women.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781856494489|url-access=registration|title=Embodied violence: Communalising women's sexuality in South Asia|last2=de Alwi|first2=Malathi|publisher=Zed Books|year=1996|isbn=978-1-85649-448-9|last1=Jayawardena|first1=Kumari}}</ref>

Some scholars have noted some 'positive' effects of partition on women in both Bengal and Punjab. In Bengal, it had some emancipatory effects on refugee women from East Bengal, who took up jobs to help their families, entered the public space and participated in political movements. The disintegration of traditional family structures could have increased the space for the agency of women. Many women also actively participated in the communist movement that later took place in West Bengal. Regarding Indian Punjab, one scholar has noted, "Partition narrowed the
physical spaces and enlarged the social spaces available to women, thereby
affecting the practice of purda or seclusion, modified the impact of caste and
regional culture on marriage arrangements and widened the channels of
educational mobility and employment for girls and women."<ref>{{cite journal |last=SenGupta |first=Anwesha |date=Summer 2012 |title=Looking Back at Partition and Women: A Factsheet |url=http://wiscomp.org/peaceprints/4-1/4.1.9.pdf |journal=Peace Prints: South Asian Journal of Peacebuilding |volume=4 |issue=1 |page=}}</ref>

==Post-partition migration==

===Pakistan===
Even after the [[1951 Census of India|1951 Census]], many Muslim families from India continued migrating to Pakistan throughout the 1950s and the early 1960s. According to historian [[Omar Khalidi]], the Indian Muslim migration to [[West Pakistan]] between December 1947 and December 1971 was from [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Delhi]], [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Karnataka]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Tamil Nadu]], and [[Kerala]]. The next stage of migration was between 1973 and the 1990s, and the primary destination for these migrants was Karachi and other urban centres in Sindh.<ref name="Khalidi">{{cite journal|last=Khalidi|first=Omar|date=Autumn 1998|title=From Torrent to Trickle: Indian Muslim Migration to Pakistan, 1947–97|journal=Islamic Studies|volume=37|pages=339–352|jstor=20837002|number=3}}</ref>

In 1959, the [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO) published a report stating that from 1951 to 1956, a total of 650,000 Muslims from India relocated to West Pakistan.<ref name="Khalidi"/> However, Visaria (1969) raised doubts about the authenticity of the claims about Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan, since the 1961 Census of Pakistan did not corroborate these figures. However, the [[1961 Pakistan Census|1961 Census of Pakistan]] did incorporate a statement suggesting that there had been a migration of 800,000 people from India to Pakistan throughout the previous decade.<ref name="lse.ac.uk">{{Cite web |url=http://www.lse.ac.uk/asiaResearchCentre/_files/ARCWP04-Karim.pdf |title=Effects of Migration, Socioeconomic Status and Population Policy on Reproductive Behaviour |access-date=15 January 2016 |archive-date=27 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127011533/http://www.lse.ac.uk/asiaResearchCentre/_files/ARCWP04-Karim.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Of those who left for Pakistan, most never came back.{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan declined drastically in the 1970s, a trend noticed by the Pakistani authorities. In June 1995, [[Ministry of Interior (Pakistan)|Pakistan's interior minister]], [[Naseerullah Babar]], informed the National Assembly that between the period of 1973–1994, as many as 800,000 visitors came from India on valid travel documents. Of these only 3,393 stayed.<ref name="Khalidi" /> In a related trend, intermarriages between Indian and Pakistani Muslims have declined sharply. According to a November 1995 statement of Riaz Khokhar, the [[High Commissioner of Pakistan|Pakistani High Commissioner]] in New Delhi, the number of cross-border marriages has dropped from 40,000 a year in the 1950s and 1960s to barely 300 annually.<ref name="Khalidi" />

In the aftermath of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, 3,500 Muslim families migrated from the Indian part of the [[Thar Desert]] to the Pakistani section of the Thar Desert.<ref name=":2">Hasan, Arif; Mansoor, Raza (2009). ''Migration and Small Towns in Pakistan; Volume 15 of Rural-urban interactions and livelihood strategies are working paper''. IIED. p. 16. {{ISBN|978-1-84369-734-3}}.</ref> 400 families were settled in Nagar after the 1965 war and an additional 3000 settled in the [[Chachro Taluka|Chachro taluka]] in Sindh province of West Pakistan.<ref name="Hasan, Arif 1987 p. 25">Hasan, Arif (30 December 1987). "Comprehensive assessment of drought and famine in Sind arid ones leading to a realistic short and long-term emergency intervention plan" (PDF). p. 25. Retrieved 12 January 2016.</ref> The government of Pakistan provided each family with 12 acres of land. According to government records, this land totalled 42,000 acres.<ref name="Hasan, Arif 1987 p. 25"/>

The 1951 census in Pakistan recorded 671,000 refugees in East Pakistan, the majority of which came from West Bengal. The rest were from [[Bihar]].<ref name="Hill et al., page 13">{{Cite web |url=http://iussp2005.princeton.edu/papers/52236 |title=The Demographic Impact of Partition: Bengal in 1947 |last1=Hill |first1=K. |last2=Seltzer |first2=W |last3=Leaning |first3=J. |last4=Malik |first4=S. J. |last5=Russell |first5=S. S. |date=1 September 2006 |format=PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901210605/http://iussp2005.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=52236|access-date=22 May 2020|archive-date=1 September 2006}}</ref> According to the ILO in the period 1951–1956, half a million Indian Muslims migrated to East Pakistan.<ref name="Khalidi" /> By 1961 the numbers reached 850,000. In the aftermath of the riots in [[Ranchi]] and [[Jamshedpur]], Biharis continued to migrate to East Pakistan well into the late sixties and added up to around a million.<ref>Ben Whitaker, ''The Biharis in Bangladesh'', Minority Rights Group, London, 1971, p. 7.</ref> Crude estimates suggest that about 1.5 million Muslims migrated from West Bengal and Bihar to East Bengal in the two decades after partition.<ref>Chatterji – Spoils of partition. p. 166</ref>

===India===
Due to [[Persecution of Hindus#Pakistan|religious persecution in Pakistan]], Hindus continue to flee to India. Most of them tend to settle in the state of Rajasthan in India.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1206092|title=Hindu refugees from Pakistan encounter suspicion and indifference in India|last=Rizvi|first=Uzair Hasan|date=10 September 2015|work=Dawn|access-date=15 January 2016|archive-date=14 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214025324/http://www.dawn.com/news/1206092|url-status=live}}</ref> According to data of the [[Human Rights Commission of Pakistan]], just around 1,000 Hindu families fled to India in 2013.<ref name=":3"/> In May 2014, a member of the ruling [[Pakistan Muslim League Nawaz|Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz]] (PML-N), Dr. [[Ramesh Kumar Vankwani]], revealed in the [[National Assembly of Pakistan]] that around 5,000 Hindus are migrating from Pakistan to India every year.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1105830|title=5,000 Hindus migrating to India every year, NA told|last=Haider|first=Irfan|date=13 May 2014|work=Dawn|access-date=15 January 2016|archive-date=29 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229174650/http://www.dawn.com/news/1105830|url-status=live}}</ref> Since India is not a signatory to the [[Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees|1951 United Nations Refugee Convention]], it refuses to recognise Pakistani Hindu migrants as refugees.<ref name=":3" />

The population in the [[Tharparkar District|Tharparkar district]] in the Sindh province of West Pakistan was 80% Hindu and 20% Muslim at the time of independence in 1947. During the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|Indo-Pakistani Wars of 1965]] and [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971]], an estimated 1,500 Hindu families fled to India, which led to a massive demographic shift in the district.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite news |last1=Yagnik |first1=Bharat |last2=Chauhan |first2=Ashish |title=Shivnagar: State's biggest 'ghetto' of '71 war refugees {{!}} Ahmedabad News |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/shivnagar-states-biggest-ghetto-of-71-war-refugees/articleshow/68237599.cms |work=The Times of India |date=3 March 2019 |access-date=1 August 2021 |archive-date=1 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801005739/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/shivnagar-states-biggest-ghetto-of-71-war-refugees/articleshow/68237599.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> During these same wars, 23,300 Hindu families also migrated to [[Jammu Division]] from [[Azad Kashmir]] and [[Punjab, Pakistan|West Punjab]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/over-54000-families-of-pok-west-pakistan-residing-in-various-parts-of-jammu-province/articleshow/46839265.cms?from=mdr|title=Over 54,000 families of PoK, Punjab residing in various parts of Jammu Province|date=7 April 2015|publisher=Economic Times|access-date=1 August 2021|archive-date=1 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801005004/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/over-54000-families-of-pok-west-pakistan-residing-in-various-parts-of-jammu-province/articleshow/46839265.cms?from=mdr|url-status=live}}</ref>

The migration of Hindus from East Pakistan to India continued unabated after partition. The [[1951 Census of India|1951 census in India]] recorded that 2.5 million refugees arrived from East Pakistan, of which 2.1 million migrated to West Bengal while the rest migrated to Assam, Tripura, and other states.<ref name="Hill et al., page 13" /> These refugees arrived in waves and did not come solely at partition. By 1973, their number reached over 6 million. The following data displays the major waves of refugees from East Pakistan and the incidents which precipitated the migrations:<ref>P. N. Luthra – Rehabilitation, pp. 18–19</ref><ref>Aditi Kapoor, {{usurped|[https://web.archive.org/web/20070305174949/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2000/07/30/stories/13300611.htm A home ... far from home?]}}, ''The Hindu'', 30 July 2000. During the Bangladesh liberation war, 11 million people from both communities took shelter in India. After the war, 1.5 million decided to stay.</ref>

====Post-partition migration to India from East Pakistan====
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|-
! Year
! Reason
! Number
|-
| 1947
| Partition
| 344,000
|-
| 1948
| Fear due to the [[annexation of Hyderabad]]
| 786,000
|-
| 1950
| [[1950 Barisal Riots]]
| 1,575,000
|-
| 1956
| Pakistan becomes [[Islamic Republic]]
| 320,000
|-
| 1964
| [[1964 East Pakistan genocide|Riots]] over [[Hazratbal disappearance episode|Hazratbal incident]]
| 693,000
|-
| 1965
| [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]]
| 107,000
|-
| 1971
| [[Bangladesh liberation war]]
| 1,500,000
|-
! 1947–1973
! Total
! 6,000,000<ref>{{citation |title='Dispersal' and the Failure of Rehabilitation: Refugee Camp-dwellers and Squatters in WestBengal |first=Joya |last=Chatterji |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=41 |number=5 |date=September 2007 |jstor=4499809 |page=998|doi=10.1017/S0026749X07002831 |s2cid=145529015 }}</ref>
|}

In 1978, India gave citizenship to 55,000 Pakistani Hindus.<ref name=":3" /> By the time of the [[1998 Census of Pakistan]], Muslims made up 64.4% of the population and Hindus 35.6% of the population in Tharparkar.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}
Around 70,000 Hindus migrated to India due to increased persecution in the aftermath of the riots and mob attacks in response to [[Demolition of the Babri Masjid]].{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

==Documentation efforts and oral history==
In 2010, a [[Berkeley, California]] and [[Delhi, India]]-based non-profit organization, [[The 1947 Partition Archive]], began documenting [[Oral history|oral histories]] from those who lived through the partition and consolidated the interviews into an archive.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sengupta |first=Somini |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/14/arts/potent-memories-from-a-divided-india.html |title=Potent Memories From a Divided India |date=13 August 2013 |work=The New York Times |access-date=22 February 2020 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=13 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213173415/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/14/arts/potent-memories-from-a-divided-india.html |url-status=live }}</ref> As of June 2021, nearly 9,700 interviews are preserved from 18 countries and are being released in collaboration with five university libraries in India and Pakistan, including [[Ashoka University]], [[Habib University]], [[Lahore University of Management Sciences]], [[Guru Nanak Dev University]] and [[Delhi University]] in collaboration with [[Tata Trusts]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kamal |first=Neel |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/1947-partition-archive-releases-university-access-points-in-india-and-pakistan-universities-for-researchers/articleshow/83422027.cms |title=1947 Partition Archive releases University Access Points in India and Pakistan Universities for Researchers |date=11 June 2021 |work=The Times of India |access-date=4 July 2021 |language=en-IN |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709091632/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/1947-partition-archive-releases-university-access-points-in-india-and-pakistan-universities-for-researchers/articleshow/83422027.cms |url-status=live }}</ref>

In August 2017, The Arts and Cultural Heritage Trust (TAACHT) of United Kingdom set up what they describe as "the world's first [[Partition Museum]]" at Town Hall in [[Amritsar]], Punjab. The Museum, which is open from Tuesday to Sunday, offers [[multimedia]] exhibits and documents that describe both the political process that led to partition and carried it forward, and video and written narratives offered by survivors of the events.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/partition-museum-1029593-2017-08-15 |title=Worlds first Partition Museum to be inaugurated in Amritsar, Gulzar's book to be launched |access-date=4 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185858/https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/partition-museum-1029593-2017-08-15 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2019 book by [[Kavita Puri]], ''[[Partition Voices|Partition Voices: Untold British Stories]]'', based on the [[BBC Radio 4]] documentary series of the same name, includes interviews with about two dozen people who witnessed partition and subsequently migrated to Britain.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ghosh |first=Bishwanath |url=https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/partition-voices-untold-british-stories-review-the-long-shadow-of-partition/article29232929.ece |title='Partition Voices – Untold British Stories' review: The long shadow of Partition |date=24 August 2019 |work=The Hindu |access-date=22 February 2020 |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X |archive-date=22 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222040957/https://www.thehindu.com/books/books-reviews/partition-voices-untold-british-stories-review-the-long-shadow-of-partition/article29232929.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://scroll.in/article/937336/this-collection-of-partition-interviews-gives-us-new-ways-to-look-at-migration-and-refugees |title=This collection of Partition interviews gives us new ways to look at migration and refugees |last=Mishra |first=Anodya |date=15 September 2019 |work=Scroll.in |language=en-US |access-date=22 February 2020 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126030410/https://scroll.in/article/937336/this-collection-of-partition-interviews-gives-us-new-ways-to-look-at-migration-and-refugees |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Perspectives==
{{main|Opposition to the Partition of India}}
[[File:Refugees on train roof during Partition.ogv|thumb|Refugees on train roof during partition]]

The partition was a highly controversial arrangement, and remains a cause of much tension on the [[Indian subcontinent]] today. According to American scholar Allen McGrath,<ref>{{cite book |author=Stephen P. Cohen |author-link=Stephen P. Cohen |year=2004 |title=The Idea of Pakistan |url=https://archive.org/details/ideaofpakistan00cohe |url-access=registration |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/ideaofpakistan00cohe/page/59 59] |isbn=978-0-8157-9761-6 |quote=American scholar Allen Mcgrath}}</ref> many British leaders including the British [[Viceroy]], Mountbatten, were unhappy over the partition of India.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Allen McGrath |year=1996 |title=The Destruction of Pakistan's Democracy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0FuAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=38 |isbn=978-0-19-577583-9 |quote=Undivided India, their magnificent imperial trophy, was besmirched by the creation of Pakistan, and the division of India was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, Mountbatten among them. |access-date=21 March 2017}}</ref> [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Mountbatten of Burma]] had not only been accused of rushing the process through but also is alleged to have influenced the [[Radcliffe Line]] in India's favour.<ref name="Ferguson2003">{{cite book |author=Niall Ferguson |title=Empire: how Britain made the modern world |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QhEiAQAAIAAJ |year=2003 |publisher=Allen Lane |page=349 |isbn=9780713996159 |quote=In particular, Mountbatten put pressure on the supposedly neutral Boundary Commissioner, Sir Cyril Radcliffe—cruelly mocked at the time by W.H.Auden—to make critical adjustments in India's favor when drawing the frontier through the Punjab. |author-link=Niall Ferguson |access-date=17 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.weeklyholiday.net/150202/inret.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060117062957/http://www.weeklyholiday.net/150202/inret.html |url-status=dead |title=K. Z. Islam, 2002, The Punjab Boundary Award, ''In retrospect'' |archive-date=17 January 2006 |access-date=22 May 2020}}</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6926464.stm Partitioning India over lunch, Memoirs of a British civil servant Christopher Beaumont] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629113420/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6926464.stm |date=29 June 2017 }}. BBC News (10 August 2007).</ref> The commission took longer to decide on a final boundary than on the partition itself. Thus the two nations were granted their independence even before there was a defined boundary between them.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

Some critics allege that British haste led to increased cruelties during the partition.<ref>Stanley Wolpert, 2006, Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-515198-4}}</ref> Because independence was declared ''prior'' to the actual partition, it was up to the new governments of India and Pakistan to keep public order. No large population movements were contemplated; the plan called for safeguards for minorities on both sides of the new border. It was a task at which both states failed. There was a complete breakdown of law and order; many died in riots, massacre, or just from the hardships of their flight to safety. What ensued was one of the largest population movements in recorded history. According to [[Richard Symonds (academic)|Richard Symonds]], at the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless.<ref>{{cite book |last=Symonds |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Symonds (academic) |year=1950 |title=The Making of Pakistan |location=London |publisher=Faber and Faber |page=74 |oclc=1462689 |quote=At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve millions became homeless.}}</ref>

However, many argue that the British were forced to expedite the partition by events on the ground.<ref name="Lawrence p 72">Lawrence J. Butler, 2002, ''Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World'', p. 72</ref> Once in office, Mountbatten quickly became aware that if Britain were to avoid involvement in a civil war, which seemed increasingly likely, there was no alternative to partition and a hasty exit from India.<ref name="Lawrence p 72"/> Law and order had broken down many times before partition, with much bloodshed on both sides. A massive civil war was looming by the time Mountbatten became Viceroy. After the Second World War, Britain had limited resources,<ref>Lawrence J. Butler, 2002, ''Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World'', p 72</ref> perhaps insufficient to the task of keeping order. Another viewpoint is that while Mountbatten may have been too hasty, he had no real options left and achieved the best he could under difficult circumstances.<ref>Ronald Hyam, ''Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation, 1918–1968'', p. 113; Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-86649-9}}, 2007</ref> The historian Lawrence James concurs that in 1947 Mountbatten was left with no option but to cut and run. The alternative seemed to be involved in a potentially bloody civil war from which it would be difficult to get out.<ref>Lawrence James, ''Rise and Fall of the British Empire''</ref>

Conservative elements in England consider the partition of India to be the moment that the [[British Empire]] ceased to be a world power, following [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Curzon]]'s dictum: "the loss of India would mean that Britain drop straight away to a third-rate power."<ref>Judd, Dennis, The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600–1947. Oxford University Press: New York. (2010) p. 138.</ref>

[[File:Partition of India.PNG|thumb|upright=1.2|Four nations ([[Dominion of India]], [[Dominion of Pakistan]], [[Dominion of Ceylon]], and [[Union of Burma]]) that gained independence in 1947 and 1948]]

Venkat Dhulipala rejects the idea that the British [[divide and rule]] policy was responsible for partition and elaborates on the perspective that Pakistan was popularly imagined as a sovereign Islamic state or a 'New Medina', as a potential successor to the defunct Turkish caliphate<ref name="The Express Tribune">{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.com.pk/story/943379/was-pakistan-sufficiently-imagined-before-independence/|title=Was Pakistan sufficiently imagined before independence?|date=23 August 2015|work=The Express Tribune|access-date=8 March 2017|archive-date=8 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308145112/https://tribune.com.pk/story/943379/was-pakistan-sufficiently-imagined-before-independence/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":12"/> and as a leader and protector of the entire Islamic world. Islamic scholars debated over creating Pakistan and its potential to become a true Islamic state.<ref name="The Express Tribune"/><ref name=":12">{{Cite news|url=https://scroll.in/article/810132/the-venkat-dhulipala-interview-on-the-partition-issue-jinnah-and-ambedkar-were-on-the-same-page|title=The Venkat Dhulipala interview: 'On the Partition issue, Jinnah and Ambedkar were on the same page'|last=Ashraf|first=Ajaz|work=Scroll.in|access-date=8 March 2017|archive-date=5 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205112539/http://scroll.in/article/810132/the-venkat-dhulipala-interview-on-the-partition-issue-jinnah-and-ambedkar-were-on-the-same-page|url-status=live}}</ref> The majority of Barelvis supported the creation of Pakistan<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzivCgAAQBAJ&q=barelvi+ulema+pakistan+movement&pg=PA167|title=State and Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and Security|last1=Long|first1=Roger D.|last2=Singh|first2=Gurharpal|last3=Samad|first3=Yunas|last4=Talbot|first4=Ian|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1317448204|page=167|quote=In the 1940s a solid majority of the Barelvis were supporters of the Pakistan Movement and played a supporting role in its final phase (1940–7), mostly under the banner of the All-India Sunni Conference which had been founded in 1925.|access-date=18 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XfI-hEI8a9wC&q=Barelvi+ulama+1946+elections&pg=PA87|title=Pakistan: The Struggle Within|last=John|first=Wilson|publisher=Pearson Education India|year=2009|isbn=978-8131725047|page=87|quote=During the 1946 election, Barelvi Ulama issued fatwas in favour of the Muslim League.|access-date=18 November 2020|archive-date=24 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424215714/https://books.google.com/books?id=XfI-hEI8a9wC&q=Barelvi+ulama+1946+elections&pg=PA87|url-status=live}}</ref> and believed that any co-operation with Hindus would be counter productive.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WgFeAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA135|title=The Awakening of Muslim Democracy: Religion, Modernity, and the State|last=Cesari|first=Jocelyne|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1107513297|page=135|quote=For example, the Barelvi ulama supported the formation of the state of Pakistan and thought that any alliance with Hindus (such as that between the Indian National Congress and the Jamiat ulama-I-Hind [JUH]) was counterproductive.|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref> Most Deobandis, who were led by Maulana Husain Ahmad Madani, [[Opposition to the partition of India|were opposed to the creation of Pakistan]] and the two-nation theory. According to them Muslims and Hindus could be a part of a single nation.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9sI_Y2CKAcC&pg=PA224|title=A History of Pakistan and Its Origins|last=Jaffrelot|first=Christophe|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2004|isbn=978-1843311492|page=224|quote=Believing that Islam was a universal religion, the Deobandi advocated a notion of a composite nationalism according to which Hindus and Muslims constituted one nation.|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KPKoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|title=Indian Muslims and Citizenship: Spaces for Jihād in Everyday Life|last=Abdelhalim|first=Julten|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1317508755|page=26|quote=Madani...stressed the difference between ''qaum'', meaning a nation, hence a territorial concept, and ''millat'', meaning an Ummah and thus a religious concept.|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-tWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA52|title=Living with Religious Diversity|last=Sikka|first=Sonia|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|isbn=978-1317370994|page=52|quote=Madani makes a crucial distinction between ''qaum'' and ''millat''. According to him, qaum connotes a territorial multi-religious entity, while millat refers to the cultural, social and religious unity of Muslims exclusively.|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref>

In their authoritative study of the partition, Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh have said that the partition was not the inevitable end of the so-called British 'divide and rule policy' nor was it the inevitable end of Hindu-Muslim differences.<ref>Jayeeta Sharma (2010) A Review of "The Partition of India," History: Reviews of New Books, 39:1, 26–27, {{doi|10.1080/03612759.2011.520189}}</ref>

A cross-border student initiative, ''The History Project'', was launched in 2014 to explore the differences in perception of the events leading up to the partition. The project resulted in a book that explains both interpretations of the shared history in Pakistan and India.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/ |title=The News International: Latest News Breaking, Pakistan News |work=The News International |access-date=22 May 2020 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202012815/http://tns.thenews.com.pk/marshall-plan-pakistan/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://thehistory-project.org/ |title=The History Project |publisher=The History Project |access-date=18 November 2017 |archive-date=1 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301055805/http://www.thehistory-project.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Artistic depictions of the partition==
{{main|Artistic depictions of the Partition of India}}

The partition of India and the associated bloody riots inspired many in India and Pakistan to create literary, cinematic, and artistic depictions of this event.<ref name="Cleary2002">{{cite book |last=Cleary |first=Joseph N. |title=Literature, Partition and the Nation-State: Culture and Conflict in Ireland, Israel, and Palestine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=omFqtDGADfYC |access-date=27 July 2012 |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65732-7 |page=104 |quote=The partition of India figures in a good deal of imaginative writing...}}</ref> While some creations depicted the massacres during the refugee migration, others concentrated on the aftermath of the partition and the difficulties faced by the refugees in both sides of the border. Works of fiction, films, and art that relate to the events of partition continue to be made to the present day.

===Literature===
Literature describing the human cost of independence and partition includes, among others:<ref name="Natarajan1996">{{cite book|last=Bhatia|first=Nandi|title=Handbook of Twentieth-Century Literatures of India|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|year=1996|isbn=978-0-313-28778-7|editor-last=Natarajan|editor-first=Nalini|pages=146–147|chapter=Twentieth Century Hindi Literature|access-date=27 July 2012|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1lTnv6o-d_oC}}</ref><ref name="Roy2011">{{cite book|last=Roy|first=Rituparna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HCQfRFr6iMgC|title=South Asian Partition Fiction in English: From Khushwant Singh to Amitav Ghosh|date=2011|publisher=[[Amsterdam University Press]]|isbn=978-90-8964-245-5|pages=24–29|access-date=27 July 2012}}</ref>
* "Terhi Lakir" (The Crooked Line; 1943) by [[Ismat Chughtai]]
* "[[Subh-e-Azadi]]" ('Freedom's Dawn'; 1947), [[Urdu poetry|Urdu poem]] by [[Faiz Ahmad Faiz]]
* "[[Toba Tek Singh (short story)|Toba Tek Singh]]" (1955), short story by [[Saadat Hassan Manto]]
* ''[[Train to Pakistan]]'' (1956) by [[Khushwant Singh]]
* ''[[A Bend in the Ganges]]'' (1965) by [[Manohar Malgonkar]]
* ''Tamas'' (1974) by [[Bhisham Sahni]]
* ''AZADI'' (1975) by [[Chaman Nahal]], originally written in English and winner of the 1977 [[Sahitya Akademi Award|Sahitya Akedemi Award]] in India
* ''[[Cracking India|Ice-Candy Man]]'' (1988) by [[Bapsi Sidhwa]]
* What the Body Remembers (1999) by [[Shauna Singh Baldwin]]
* ''Forgotten Atrocities'' (2012), [[memoir]] by Bal K. Gupta

[[Salman Rushdie]]'s novel ''[[Midnight's Children]]'' (1980), which won the [[Booker Prize]] and [[The Best of the Booker]], wove its narrative based on the children born with magical abilities on midnight between 14 and 15 August 1947.<ref name="Roy2011" /> ''[[Freedom at Midnight]]'' (1975) is a non-fiction work by [[Larry Collins (writer)|Larry Collins]] and [[Dominique Lapierre]] that chronicled the events surrounding the first [[Independence Day (India)|Independence Day]] celebrations in 1947.

The novel ''Lost Generations'' (2013) by Manjit Sachdeva describes the March 1947 massacre in rural areas of [[Rawalpindi]] by the [[Muslim League (Opposition)|Muslim League]], followed by massacres on both sides of the new border in August 1947 seen through the eyes of an escaping [[Sikhs|Sikh]] family, their settlement and partial rehabilitation in Delhi, and ending in ruin (including death), for the second time in 1984, at the hands of mobs after a Sikh assassinated the prime minister.

===Film===
The partition has been a frequent topic in film.<ref name="Bhatia2008">{{cite book |last=Mandal |first=Somdatta |editor1-last=Bhatia |editor1-first=Nandi |editor2-last=Roy |editor2-first=Anjali Gera |title=Partitioned Lives: Narratives of Home, Displacement, and Resettlement |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YWB0GmmoOSMC |access-date=27 July 2012 |year=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-1416-4 |pages=66–69 |chapter=Constructing Post-partition Bengali Cultural Identity through Films}}</ref><ref name="hindi guide">{{cite journal |last1=Dwyer |first1=R. |title=Bollywood's India: Hindi Cinema as a Guide to Modern India |doi=10.1080/03068374.2010.508231 |journal=Asian Affairs |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=381–398 |year=2010 |s2cid=70892666 }} {{subscription required}}</ref><ref name="Sarkar2009">{{cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Bhaskar |title=Mourning the Nation: Indian Cinema in the Wake of Partition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wghFNlpM3PIC |access-date=27 July 2012 |date=2009 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8223-4411-7 |page=121}}</ref> Early films relating to the circumstances of the independence, partition and the aftermath include:
* ''Lahore'' (1948)
* ''[[Chinnamul]]'' (1950, directed by [[Nemai Ghosh (director)|Nemai Ghosh]]; Bengali)<ref name="Bhatia2008" />
* ''[[Nastik (1954 film)|Nastik]]'' (1954)
* ''[[Chhalia]]'' (1960)
* ''[[Bhowani Junction (film)|Bhowani Junction]]'' (1956, directed by [[George Cukor]])
* ''[[Dharmputra]]'' (1961)<ref name="vishwanath 2009" />
* [[Ritwik Ghatak]]'s Bengali trilogy: ''[[Meghe Dhaka Tara (1960 film)|Meghe Dhaka Tara]]'' (1960), ''[[Komal Gandhar]]'' (1961), and ''[[Subarnarekha (1962 film)|Subarnarekha]]'' (1962)<ref name="Bhatia2008" /><ref name="ritwik journal">Raychaudhuri, Anindya. 2009. "Resisting the Resistible: Re-writing Myths of Partition in the Works of Ritwik Ghatak." ''Social Semiotics'' 19(4):469–481. {{doi|10.1080/10350330903361158}}.</ref>
* ''[[Garm Hava]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Tamas (film)|Tamas]]'' (1987)<ref name="vishwanath 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Vishwanath |first1=Gita |last2=Malik |first2=Salma |year=2009 |title=Revisiting 1947 through Popular Cinema: a Comparative Study of India and Pakistan |journal=[[Economic and Political Weekly]] |volume=XLIV |issue=36 |pages=61–69 |url=http://www.careerlauncher.com/lstcontent/plansuppliments/attachments/40/62/REVISITING%201947%20THROUGH%20popular%20cinema.pdf |access-date=27 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053940/http://www.careerlauncher.com/lstcontent/plansuppliments/attachments/40/62/REVISITING%201947%20THROUGH%20popular%20cinema.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2013}}</ref>
* [[Partition (1987 film)|''Partition'']] (1987)<ref>{{Citation|last=McMullen|first=Ken|title=Partition|date=1997-03-05|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0093704/|type=Drama|publisher=Bandung Productions, Channel Four|access-date=2021-10-29|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029052817/https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0093704/|url-status=live}}</ref>

From the late 1990s onwards, more films on the theme of partition were made, including several mainstream ones, such as:
* ''[[Earth (1998 film)|Earth]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Train to Pakistan (film)|Train to Pakistan]]'' (1998; based on the aforementioned book)
* ''[[Hey Ram]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Gadar: Ek Prem Katha]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Khamosh Pani]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Pinjar (film)|Pinjar]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Partition (2007 film)|Partition]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Madrasapattinam]]'' (2010)<ref name="vishwanath 2009" />
* ''[[Begum Jaan]]'' (2017)
* ''[[Viceroy's House (film)|Viceroy's House]]'' (2017)
* ''[[Sarhad (documentary)|Sarhad]]'' (2019)
* ''[[Gandhi Godse – Ek Yudh]]'' (2023)

The biographical films ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'' (1982), ''[[Jinnah (film)|Jinnah]]'' (1998), ''[[Sardar (1993 film)|Sardar]]'' (1993), and ''[[Bhaag Milkha Bhaag]]'' (2013) also feature independence and partition as significant events in their screenplay.
* The Pakistani drama ''[[Dastaan (2010 TV series)|Dastaan]]'', based on the novel ''[[Bano (novel)|Bano]]'', highlights the plight of Muslim girls who were abducted and raped during partition.
* The 2013 [[Google]] India "[[Reunion (advertisement)|Reunion]]" advertisement, which is about the partition, has had a strong impact in India and Pakistan, leading to hope for the easing of travel restrictions between the two countries.<ref name="expresstrib">{{cite news |url=http://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/19647/google-can-envision-pakistan-india-harmony-in-less-than-4-minutes-can-we/ |title=Google can envision Pakistan-India harmony in less than 4 minutes…can we? |last=Naqvi |first=Sibtain |date=19 November 2013 |newspaper=[[The Express Tribune]] |access-date=22 November 2013 |archive-date=22 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122010954/http://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/19647/google-can-envision-pakistan-india-harmony-in-less-than-4-minutes-can-we |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="pti">{{cite news |url=http://www.deccanchronicle.com/131115/news-current-affairs/article/google-ad-reignites-hope-easier-indo-pak-visas |title=Google reunion ad reignites hope for easier Indo-Pak visas |agency=[[Press Trust of India|PTI]] |date=15 November 2013 |newspaper=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |access-date=22 November 2013 |archive-date=18 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131118085407/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/131115/news-current-affairs/article/google-ad-reignites-hope-easier-indo-pak-visas |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="tears">{{cite news |url=http://www.pri.org/stories/2013-11-20/ad-google-india-may-bring-you-tears |title=This ad from Google India brought me to tears |last=Chatterjee |first=Rhitu |date=20 November 2013 |work=The World |publisher=[[Public Radio International]] |access-date=22 November 2013 |archive-date=24 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131124204857/http://www.pri.org/stories/2013-11-20/ad-google-india-may-bring-you-tears |url-status=live }}</ref> The advertisement went viral<ref name="ibt">{{cite news |url=http://au.ibtimes.com/articles/522379/20131115/google-india-reunion-pakistan-partition-1947-suman.htm#.UoZy-WR4ZAt |title=Google Search: Reunion Video Touches Emotions in India, Pakistan; Goes Viral [Video] |last=Peter |first=Sunny |date=15 November 2013 |newspaper=[[International Business Times]] |access-date=22 November 2013 |archive-date=21 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121105651/http://au.ibtimes.com/articles/522379/20131115/google-india-reunion-pakistan-partition-1947-suman.htm#.UoZy-WR4ZAt |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="tia">{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-11-14/internet/44072930_1_yusuf-sweet-shop-ad |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117102808/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-11-14/internet/44072930_1_yusuf-sweet-shop-ad |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 November 2013 |title=Google's India-Pak reunion ad strikes emotional chord |date=14 November 2013 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> and was viewed more than 1.6 million times before officially debuting on television on 15 November 2013.<ref name="apjohnson">{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/india-pakistan-agree-emotional-google-ad-hit-20898645 |title=Google ad an unlikely hit in both India, Pakistan by referring to traumatic 1947 partition |last=Johnson |first=Kay |date=15 November 2013 |publisher=[[ABC News]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |access-date=28 June 2020 |archive-date=22 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122200122/http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/india-pakistan-agree-emotional-google-ad-hit-20898645 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The partition is also depicted in the [[History|historical]] [[sports drama]] film ''[[Gold (2018 film)|Gold]]'' (2018), based on events which impacted the [[India men's national field hockey team|Indian national field hockey team]] at the time.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/gold-fact-check-truth-vs-fiction-akshay-kumar-film-1321509-2018-08-23 |title=Gold fact check: Truth vs fiction in Akshay Kumar film |last1=Bhattacharya |first1=Ananya |date=23 August 2018 |website=India Today |access-date=22 January 2021 |archive-date=6 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806073756/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/bollywood/story/gold-fact-check-truth-vs-fiction-akshay-kumar-film-1321509-2018-08-23 |url-status=live|quote=In 1947, when Kishan Lal walked next to Dhyan Chand in East Africa in the Indian colours, the legendary field hockey team from 1936 had all but emptied. With 1947 came the Partition and most of the talented players were partitioned too with many moving to Pakistan}}</ref>
* "[[Demons of the Punjab]]", a 2018 episode of British sci-fi show ''[[Doctor Who]]'', depicts the events of the partition from the perspective of a family torn apart by their religious differences.
* The [[Disney+]] television series ''[[Ms. Marvel (miniseries)|Ms. Marvel]]'' (2022) depicts a fictional version of the partition, from the perspective of a Muslim family fleeing to Pakistan.

===Art===
The early members of the [[Bombay Progressive Artists' Group|Bombay Progressive Artist's Group]] cited the partition as a key reason for its founding in December 1947. Those members included [[F. N. Souza]], [[M. F. Husain]], [[S. H. Raza]], [[Sadanand Bakre|S. K. Bakre]], [[H. A. Gade]], and [[K. H. Ara]], who went on to become some of the most important and influential Indian artists of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|date=12 May 2012|title=Progressive Artists Group of Bombay: An Overview|url=http://www.artnewsnviews.com/view-article.php?article=progressive-artists-group-of-bombay-an-overview&iid=29&articleid=800|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214145023/http://www.artnewsnviews.com/view-article.php?article=progressive-artists-group-of-bombay-an-overview&iid=29&articleid=800|archive-date=14 December 2013|access-date=18 November 2017|publisher=Artnewsnviews.com}}</ref>

Contemporary Indian artists that have made significant artworks about the partition are [[Nalini Malani]], [[Anjolie Ela Menon]], [[Satish Gujral]], [[Nilima Sheikh]], [[Arpita Singh]], [[Krishen Khanna]], Pran Nath Mago, S. L. Parasher, [[Arpana Caur]], Tayeba Begum Lipi, Mahbubur Rahman, Promotesh D Pulak, and [[Pritika Chowdhry]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Storey|first=Thomas|date=2013-08-07|title=Traversing Boundaries: Five Bangladeshi Artists Question the Legacy of Partition|url=https://theculturetrip.com/asia/bangladesh/articles/traversing-boundaries-five-bangladeshi-artists-question-the-legacy-of-partition/|access-date=2022-01-08|website=Culture Trip|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108042614/https://theculturetrip.com/asia/bangladesh/articles/traversing-boundaries-five-bangladeshi-artists-question-the-legacy-of-partition/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Micieli-Voutsinas|first=Jacque|date=2013|title="Subaltern" Remembrances: Mapping Affective Approaches to Partition Memory|journal=Social Transformations: Journal of the Global South|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=27–58|doi=10.13185/ST2013.01103|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Micieli-Voutsinas|first=Jacque|date=2015-07-03|title=What the Nation Re-members: Resisting Victim Nationalism in Partition Memorial Project|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/2373566X.2015.1103196|journal=GeoHumanities|volume=1|issue=2|pages=398–413|doi=10.1080/2373566X.2015.1103196|s2cid=147050563|issn=2373-566X|access-date=29 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Partition Art - Pritika Chowdhry's art installations about Partition|url=https://www.pritikachowdhry.com/partition-art|access-date=2022-01-08|website=Pritika Chowdhry Art|language=en|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108042618/https://www.pritikachowdhry.com/partition-art|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-12-14|title=A Visual History of the Partition of India : A Story in Art • The Heritage Lab|url=https://www.theheritagelab.in/india-partition-art/|access-date=2021-10-29|website=The Heritage Lab|language=en-GB|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029052819/https://www.theheritagelab.in/india-partition-art/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sharma|first=Ekatmata|date=2019-08-17|title=Revisiting Partition through art|url=https://www.artculturefestival.in/revisiting-partition-through-art/|access-date=2021-10-29|website=Art Culture Festival|language=en-US|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029052819/https://www.artculturefestival.in/revisiting-partition-through-art/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Project Dastaan]] is a peace-building initiative that reconnects displaced refugees of the partition in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh with their childhood communities and villages through [[virtual reality]] digital experiences.

==See also==

* [[Violence against women during the partition of India]]
* [[History of Bangladesh]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Pakistan]]
* [[History of the Republic of India]]
* [[Indian independence movement]]
* [[Kashmir conflict]]
* [[List of princely states of India]]
* [[Pakistan Movement]]
* [[Princely states of Pakistan]]
* [[The 1947 Partition Archive]]
* [[Partition Horrors Remembrance Day]]
* [[Religion in Bangladesh]]
* [[Religion in India]]
* [[Religion in Pakistan]]
* [[Religious violence in India]]
* [[Sectarian violence in Pakistan]]

==Notes==

{{notelist}}
{{Notelist|40em}}

==References==

{{reflist}}
[https://thediplomat.com/2017/08/70-years-of-the-radcliffe-line-understanding-the-story-of-indian-partition/ 70 Years of the Radcliffe Line: Understanding the Story of Indian Partition]

==Bibliography==

;Textbook histories:
{{Refbegin|30em}}
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* {{citation |last1=Bose |first1=Sugata |author-link1=Sugata Bose |last2=Jalal |first2=Ayesha |author-link2=Ayesha Jalal |title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political economy: second edition |year=2004 |orig-year=First published 1997 |url=https://archive.org/details/modernsouthasiah00bose |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-30786-4}}
* {{citation |last=Brown |first=Judith Margaret |title=Modern India: the origins of an Asian democracy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq7tAAAAMAAJ |year=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-873112-2 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=15 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815113830/https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq7tAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{citation|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|access-date=24 April 2022|archive-date=18 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018184311/https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Heathcote |first=Tony |title=The British Admirals of the Fleet 1734–1995 |location= Havertown |publisher= Pen & Sword |year=2002 |isbn= 978-0-85052-835-0 }}
* {{citation |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |title=A history of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-32920-0 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=12 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212172523/https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC |url-status=live }}
* {{citation |last=Ludden |first=David |title=India and South Asia: a short history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wQJuAAAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=Oneworld |isbn=978-1-85168-237-9 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=13 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213003743/https://books.google.com/books?id=wQJuAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{citation |last=Markovits |first=Claude |title=A history of modern India, 1480–1950 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C |year=2004 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-152-2 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=14 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914214458/https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C |url-status=live }}
* {{citation |last1=Metcalf |first1=Barbara Daly |author-link1=Barbara D. Metcalf |last2=Metcalf |first2=Thomas R. |author-link2=Thomas R. Metcalf |title=A concise history of modern India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86362-9 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225220847/https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C |url-status=live }}
* {{citation |last=Peers |first=Douglas M. |title=India under colonial rule: 1700–1885 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6iNuAAAAMAAJ |year=2006 |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-0-582-31738-3 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=15 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200815000750/https://books.google.com/books?id=6iNuAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{citation |last=Robb |first=Peter |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC |year=2002 |publication-date=2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-34549-2 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=22 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160522095558/https://books.google.com/books?id=GQ-2VH1LO_EC |url-status=live }}
* {{citation |last=Spear |first=Percival |author-link=Percival Spear |year=1990 |orig-year=First published 1965 |title=A History of India |volume=2 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-013836-8 }}
* {{citation |last1=Stein |first1=Burton |last2=Arnold |first2=David |title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3GZfqCabsC |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=21 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521102914/https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3GZfqCabsC |url-status=live }}
* {{citation|last=Talbot|first=Ian|title=A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eNg_CwAAQBAJ|year=2016|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-19694-8|access-date=24 April 2022|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411230326/https://books.google.com/books?id=eNg_CwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{citation|last=Talbot|first=Ian|title=Pakistan: A New History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fLf2ngEACAAJ|year=2015|publisher=Hurst|isbn=978-1-84904-370-0|access-date=24 April 2022|archive-date=12 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212194517/https://books.google.com/books?id=fLf2ngEACAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{citation |last1=Talbot |first1=Ian |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal |title=The Partition of India |url=https://archive.org/details/partitionofindia0000talb |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-85661-4 |access-date=15 November 2015}}
* {{citation |last=Wolpert |first=Stanley |title=A new history of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JT0wAQAAIAAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533756-3 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=1 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501083356/https://books.google.com/books?id=JT0wAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}
;Monographs:
* Ansari, Sarah. 2005. ''Life after Partition: Migration, Community and Strife in Sindh: 1947–1962''. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 256 pages. {{ISBN|0-19-597834-X}}
* Ayub, Muhammad (2005). An army, Its Role and Rule: A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil, 1947–1999. RoseDog Books. {{ISBN|978-0-8059-9594-7}}..
* [[Urvashi Butalia|Butalia, Urvashi]]. 1998. ''The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India''. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 308 pages. {{ISBN|0-8223-2494-6}}
* {{citation |last=Bhavnani |first=Nandita |year=2014 |title=The Making of Exile: Sindhi Hindus and the Partition of India |publisher=Westland |isbn=978-93-84030-33-9}}
* Butler, Lawrence J. 2002. ''Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World''. London: I.B.Tauris. 256 pages. {{ISBN|1-86064-449-X}}
* Chakrabarty; Bidyut. 2004. ''The Partition of Bengal and Assam: Contour of Freedom'' (RoutledgeCurzon, 2004) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108233199 online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424215722/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia?a=o&d=108233199 |date=24 April 2022 }}
* {{citation |first=Ilyas Ahmad |last=Chattha |year=2009 |title=Partition and Its Aftermath: Violence, Migration and the Role of Refugees in the Socio-Economic Development of Gujranwala and Sialkot Cities, 1947–1961 |publisher=University of Southampton, School of Humanities, Centre for Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies}}
* Chatterji, Joya. 2002. ''Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 1932—1947''. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. 323 pages. {{ISBN|0-521-52328-1}}.
* Chester, Lucy P. 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110728100016/http://www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk/catalogue/book.asp?id=1204410 Borders and Conflict in South Asia: The Radcliffe Boundary Commission and the Partition of Punjab.] Manchester University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-7190-7899-6}}.
* {{cite book |last=Copland |first=Ian |chapter=The Abdullah Factor: Kashmiri Muslims and the Crisis of 1947 |editor=D. A. Low |title=Political Inheritance of Pakistan |year=1991 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9781349115563 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VaeuCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA254 |ref={{sfnref|Copland, The Abdullah Factor}} |access-date=10 April 2022 |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330114134/https://books.google.com/books?id=VaeuCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA254 |url-status=live }}
* Daiya, Kavita. 2008. ''Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender, and National Culture in Postcolonial India''. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 274 pages. {{ISBN|978-1-59213-744-2}}.
* Dhulipala, Venkat. 2015. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1Z6TBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR2 Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India]''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|1-10-705212-2}}
* Gilmartin, David. 1988. ''Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan''. Berkeley: University of California Press. 258 pages. {{ISBN|0-520-06249-3}}.
* Gossman, Partricia. 1999. ''Riots and Victims: Violence and the Construction of Communal Identity Among Bengali Muslims, 1905–1947''. Westview Press. 224 pages. {{ISBN|0-8133-3625-2}}
* Hansen, Anders Bjørn. 2004. "Partition and Genocide: Manifestation of Violence in Punjab 1937–1947", India Research Press. {{ISBN|978-81-87943-25-9}}.
* Harris, Kenneth. ''Attlee'' (1982) pp 355–87
* {{citation |last=Hasan |first=Mushirul |title=India's Partition: Process, Strategy and Mobilization |publisher=New Delhi: Oxford University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-19-563504-1 }}.
* Herman, Arthur. ''Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age'' (2009)
* [[S. M. Ikram|Ikram]], S. M. 1995. ''Indian Muslims and Partition of India''. Delhi: Atlantic. {{ISBN|81-7156-374-0}}
* {{citation |last= Jain |first=Jasbir |year=2007 |title=Reading Partition, Living Partition |publisher=Rawat |isbn=978-81-316-0045-0 }}
* {{citation |last=Jalal |first=Ayesha |year=1993 |title=The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-45850-4 }}
* {{citation |last=Judd |first=Denis |title=The lion and the tiger: the rise and fall of the British Raj, 1600–1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlf9u1asHTAC |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280579-9 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=27 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427171159/https://books.google.com/books?id=hlf9u1asHTAC |url-status=live }}
* Kaur, Ravinder. 2007. "Since 1947: Partition Narratives among Punjabi Migrants of Delhi". Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-568377-6}}.
* {{citation |last=Khan |first=Yasmin |title=The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i9WdQp2pwOYC |year=2007 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-12078-3 |access-date=15 November 2015 |archive-date=5 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105131324/https://books.google.com/books?id=i9WdQp2pwOYC |url-status=live }}
* Khosla, G. D. ''Stern reckoning : a survey of the events leading up to and following the partition of India'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press:358 pages Published: February 1990 {{ISBN|0-19-562417-3}}
* {{citation |last=Lamb |first=Alastair |year=1991 |title=Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846–1990 |publisher=Roxford Books |isbn=978-0-907129-06-6 }}
* Mookerjea-Leonard, Debali. 2017. ''Literature, Gender, and the Trauma of Partition: The Paradox of Independence''. London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-1138183100}}.
* [[Moon, Penderel]]. (1999). ''The British Conquest and Dominion of India'' (2 vol. 1256 pp)
* Moore, R.J. (1983). ''Escape from Empire: The Attlee Government and the Indian Problem'', the standard history of the British position
* Nair, Neeti. (2010) ''Changing Homelands: Hindu Politics and the Partition of India''
* Page, David, Anita Inder Singh, Penderel Moon, G. D. Khosla, and Mushirul Hasan. 2001. ''The Partition Omnibus: Prelude to Partition/the Origins of the Partition of India 1936–1947/Divide and Quit/Stern Reckoning''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-565850-7}}
* Pal, Anadish Kumar. 2010. ''World Guide to the Partition of INDIA''. Kindle Edition: Amazon Digital Services. 282 KB. {{ASIN|B0036OSCAC}}
* Pandey, Gyanendra. 2002. ''Remembering Partition:: Violence, Nationalism and History in India''. Cambridge University Press. 232 pages. {{ISBN|0-521-00250-8}} [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105038993 online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424215727/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia?a=o&d=105038993 |date=24 April 2022 }}
* Panigrahi; D.N. 2004. ''India's Partition: The Story of Imperialism in Retreat'' London: Routledge. [https://www.questia.com/SM.qst?act=adv&contributors=D.%20N.%20Panigrahi&dcontributors=D.%20N.%20Panigrahi online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424215723/https://www.gale.com/databases/questia?act=adv&contributors=D.+N.+Panigrahi&dcontributors=D.+N.+Panigrahi |date=24 April 2022 }}
* [[Masood Ashraf Raja|Raja, Masood Ashraf]]. Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity, 1857–1947, Oxford 2010, {{ISBN|978-0-19-547811-2}}
* Raza, Hashim S. 1989. ''Mountbatten and the partition of India''. New Delhi: Atlantic. {{ISBN|81-7156-059-8}}
* Shaikh, Farzana. 1989. ''Community and Consensus in Islam: Muslim Representation in Colonial India, 1860–1947''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 272 pages. {{ISBN|0-521-36328-4}}.
* Singh, Jaswant. (2011) ''Jinnah: India, Partition, Independence''
* Talib, Gurbachan Singh, & Shromaṇī Guraduārā Prabandhaka Kameṭī. (1950). Muslim League attack on Sikhs and Hindus in the Punjab, 1947. Amritsar: Shiromani Gurdwara Parbankhak Committee.
* Talbot, Ian. 1996. ''Freedom's Cry: The Popular Dimension in the Pakistan Movement and Partition Experience in North-West India''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-577657-7}}.
* Talbot, Ian and Gurharpal Singh (eds). 1999. ''Region and Partition: Bengal, Punjab and the Partition of the Subcontinent''. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 420 pages. {{ISBN|0-19-579051-0}}.
* Talbot, Ian. 2002. ''Khizr Tiwana: The Punjab Unionist Party and the Partition of India''. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 216 pages. {{ISBN|0-19-579551-2}}.
* Talbot, Ian. 2006. ''Divided Cities: Partition and Its Aftermath in Lahore and Amritsar''. Oxford and Karachi: Oxford University Press. 350 pages. {{ISBN|0-19-547226-8}}.
* Wolpert, Stanley. 2006. ''Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India''. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 272 pages. {{ISBN|0-19-515198-4}}.
* Wolpert, Stanley. 1984. ''Jinnah of Pakistan''

;Articles:
* Brass, Paul. 2003. [http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab,1946–47: means, methods, and purposes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414111514/http://faculty.washington.edu/brass/Partition.pdf |date=14 April 2021 }} ''Journal of Genocide Research'' (2003), 5#1, 71–101
* {{citation | last1 = Gilmartin | first1 = David | year = 1998 | title = Partition, Pakistan, and South Asian History: In Search of a Narrative| journal = The Journal of Asian Studies | volume = 57 | issue = 4| pages = 1068–1095 | doi=10.2307/2659304| jstor = 2659304 | s2cid = 153491691 | doi-access = free }}
* {{citation | last1 = Gilmartin | first1 = David | year = 1998 | title = A Magnificent Gift: Muslim Nationalism and the Election Process in Colonial Punjab | journal = Comparative Studies in Society and History | volume = 40 | issue = 3| pages = 415–436 | jstor=179270| doi = 10.1017/S0010417598001352 | s2cid = 144603264 }}
* Gupta, Bal K. "Death of Mahatma Gandhi and Alibeg Prisoners" www.dailyexcelsior.com
* Gupta, Bal K. "Train from Pakistan" www.nripulse.com
* Gupta, Bal K. "November 25, 1947, Pakistani Invasion of Mirpur". www.dailyexcelsior.com
* {{citation |last=Jeffrey |first=Robin |year=1974 |title=The Punjab Boundary Force and the Problem of Order, August 1947 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=491–520 |jstor=311867 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x0000562x|s2cid=145786107 }}
* {{Citation |url=https://www.academia.edu/5044993 |title=Bodies of Partition: Of Widows, Residue and Other Historical Waste |journal=Histories of Victimhood, Ed., Henrik Rønsbo and Steffen Jensen, Pennsylvania University Press |author=Ravinder Kaur |year=2014 |access-date=10 May 2015 |archive-date=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424215716/https://www.academia.edu/5044993 |url-status=live }}
* Kaur, Ravinder. 2009. [https://www.academia.edu/3195375/Distinctive_Citizenship_Refugees_Subjects_and_Post-colonial_State_in_Indias_Partition 'Distinctive Citizenship: Refugees, Subjects and Postcolonial State in India's Partition'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020023854/http://www.academia.edu/3195375/Distinctive_Citizenship_Refugees_Subjects_and_Post-colonial_State_in_Indias_Partition |date=20 October 2017 }}, Cultural and Social History.
* Kaur, Ravinder. 2008. [https://www.academia.edu/3195344/Narrative_absence_An_Untouchableaccount_of_Partition_migration 'Narrative Absence: An 'untouchable' account of India's Partition Migration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019233320/http://www.academia.edu/3195344/Narrative_absence_An_Untouchableaccount_of_Partition_migration |date=19 October 2017 }}, Contributions to Indian Sociology.
* Kaur Ravinder. 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080724043212/http://opendemocracy.net/article/conflicts/india_pakistan/partition "India and Pakistan: Partition Lessons"]. Open Democracy.
* Kaur, Ravinder. 2006. [https://www.academia.edu/3195382/The_Last_Journey_Exploring_Social_Class_in_the_1947_Partition_Migration "The Last Journey: Social Class in the Partition of India"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020003419/http://www.academia.edu/3195382/The_Last_Journey_Exploring_Social_Class_in_the_1947_Partition_Migration |date=20 October 2017 }}. Economic and Political Weekly, June 2006. epw.org.in
* Khalidi, Omar (1998-01-01). "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20837002?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents From Torrent to Trickle: Indian Muslim Migration to Pakistan, 1947–97] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330184359/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20837002?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents |date=30 March 2017 }}". Islamic Studies. 37 (3): 339–352.
* {{citation |last1=Khan |first1=Lal |title=Partition – Can it be undone? |publisher=Wellred Publications |year=2003 |page=228 |isbn=978-1-900007-15-3}}
* {{citation | last1 = Mookerjea-Leonard | first1 = Debali | year = 2005 | title = Divided Homelands, Hostile Homes: Partition, Women and Homelessness | journal = Journal of Commonwealth Literature | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 141–154 | doi=10.1177/0021989405054314| s2cid = 162056117 }}
* {{citation | last1 = Mookerjea-Leonard | first1 = Debali | year = 2004 | title = Quarantined: Women and the Partition | journal = [[Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East]] | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 35–50 | doi = 10.1215/1089201x-24-1-35 | s2cid = 145294986 | url = https://muse.jhu.edu/article/181217 | access-date = 27 July 2021 | archive-date = 20 April 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210420180043/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/181217 | url-status = live }}
* {{citation | last1 = Morris-Jones | year = 1983 | title = Thirty-Six Years Later: The Mixed Legacies of Mountbatten's Transfer of Power | journal = International Affairs | volume = 59 | issue = 4| pages = 621–628 | doi=10.2307/2619473| jstor = 2619473}}
* {{citation |title=The Partition of India |journal=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] |date=22 December 2001 |first=A. G. |last=Noorani |volume=18 |issue=26 |url=http://hindu.com/fline/fl1826/18260810.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080402193634/http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1826/18260810.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 April 2008 |access-date=12 October 2011 }}
* {{citation |last=Spate |first=O. H. K. |author-link = Oskar Spate |title=The Partition of the Punjab and of Bengal |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=110 |issue=4/6 |year=1947 |pages=201–218 |doi=10.2307/1789950 |jstor=1789950 }}
* {{citation | last1 = Spear | first1 = Percival | year = 1958 | title = Britain's Transfer of Power in India | journal = Pacific Affairs | volume = 31 | issue = 2| pages = 173–180 | doi=10.2307/3035211| jstor = 3035211 }}
* {{citation | last1 = Talbot | first1 = Ian | year = 1994 | title = Planning for Pakistan: The Planning Committee of the All-India Muslim League, 1943–46| journal = Modern Asian Studies | volume = 28 | issue = 4| pages = 875–889 | doi=10.1017/s0026749x00012567| s2cid = 145250631 }}
* {{citation | last1 = Visaria | first1 = Pravin M | year = 1969 | title = Migration Between India and Pakistan, 1951–61| journal = Demography | volume = 6 | issue = 3| pages = 323–334 | doi=10.2307/2060400| pmid = 21331852 | jstor = 2060400 | s2cid = 23272586 | doi-access = free }}
* Chopra, R. M., "The Punjab And Bengal", Calcutta, 1999.

; Primary sources
* Mansergh, Nicholas, and Penderel Moon, eds. ''The Transfer of Power 1942–47'' (12 vol., London: HMSO . 1970–83) comprehensive collection of British official and private documents
* Moon, Penderel. (1998) ''Divide & Quit''
* Narendra Singh Sarila, "The Shadow of the Great Game: The Untold Story of India's Partition," Publisher: Carroll & Graf

; Popularizations:
* Collins, Larry and Dominique Lapierre: ''Freedom at Midnight''. London: Collins, 1975. {{ISBN|0-00-638851-5}}
* Seshadri, H. V. (2013). The tragic story of partition. Bangalore: Sahitya Sindhu Prakashana, 2013.
* Zubrzycki, John. (2006) ''The Last Nizam: An Indian Prince in the Australian Outback''. Pan Macmillan, Australia. {{ISBN|978-0-330-42321-2}}.

; Memoirs and oral history:
* {{citation |last=Azad |first=Maulana Abul Kalam |author-link=Abul Kalam Azad |year=2003 |orig-year=First published 1959 |title=India Wins Freedom: An Autobiographical Narrative |location=New Delhi |publisher=Orient Longman |isbn=978-81-250-0514-8}}
* Bonney, Richard; Hyde, Colin; Martin, John. "Legacy of Partition, 1947–2009: Creating New Archives from the Memories of Leicestershire People," ''Midland History,'' (Sept 2011), Vol. 36 Issue 2, pp 215–224
* Mountbatten, Pamela. (2009) ''India Remembered: A Personal Account of the Mountbattens During the Transfer of Power''

;Historical-Fiction:
* Mohammed, Javed: ''Walk to Freedom'', Rumi Bookstore, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-9701261-2-2}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==


* [http://www.1947partitionarchive.org 1947 Partition Archive]
* [https://www.britannica.com/event/Partition-of-Bengal Partition of Bengal] – [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]
* [http://www.indianmemoryproject.com/category/battle-and-conflict/1947-partition/ India Memory Project – 1947 India Pakistan Partition]
* [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/the-road-to-partition/ The Road to Partition 1939–1947 – The National Archives]
* [https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/lords/1947/jul/16/indian-independence-bill Indian Independence Bill, 1947] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515165404/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/lords/1947/jul/16/indian-independence-bill |date=15 May 2021 }}
* [http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x5ymvad India's Partition: The Forgotten Story British film-maker Gurinder Chadha, directors of Bend It Like Beckham and Viceroy's House, travels from Southall to Delhi and Shimla to find out about the Partition of India – one of the most seismic events of the 20th century. Partition saw India divided into two new nations – Independent India and Pakistan. The split led to violence, disruption, and death.]
* [https://www.andrewwhitehead.net/partition-voices-sir-ian-scott.html Sir Ian Scott, Mountbatten's deputy private secretary in 1947, talking about the run up to Partition]
* [https://digital.soas.ac.uk/oa3 India: A People Partitioned oral history interviews by Andrew Whitehead, 1992–2007] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515165403/https://digital.soas.ac.uk/oa3 |date=15 May 2021 }}

; Bibliographies:
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130923121836/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Independent/partition_bibliography.html Select Research Bibliography on the Partition of India], Compiled by Vinay Lal, Department of History, UCLA; [[University of California at Los Angeles]]
* [http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/SSEAL/SouthAsia/india_colonial.html South Asian History: Colonial India] – [[University of California, Berkeley]] Collection of documents on colonial India, Independence, and Partition
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/india/indiasbook.html#Indian%20Nationalism Indian Nationalism] – [[Fordham University]] archive of relevant public-domain documents

{{Indian independence movement}}
{{Pakistan Movement}}
{{Indo-Pakistani relations}}
{{Secession in Countries}}

[[Category:Bangladesh and the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:India and the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Pakistan and the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Partition of India]]
[[Category:Dissolutions of countries|India]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Ethnic cleansing in Asia]]
[[Category:Forced migration]]
[[Category:History of the British Empire]]
[[Category:History of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:History of the Republic of India]]
[[Category:Partition (politics)]]
[[Category:Pakistan Movement]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:August 1947 events in Asia]]
[[Category:Politically motivated migrations]]
[[Category:1947 in British India]]
[[Category:1940s in Islam]]
[[Category:Genocides in Asia]]

Beauty Dungdung

2023-09-07T13:46:06Z

Samareshadak689: Just completed a fresh chapter.

'''Beauty Dungdung''' (21 July 2003)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Beauty Dungdung Profile |url=https://www.hockeyindia.org/players/beauty-dungdung-profile-5188 |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Hockey India |language=en}}</ref> is an [[Indian people|Indian]] field hockey player and member of [[India women's national field hockey team|Indian women hockey team]]. She plays for Indian Oil Corporation Limited in the domestic hockey tournaments. She plays in the forward line.

== Early life ==
Beauty Dungdung hails from Karangaguri village, in the tribal district of Simdega in Jharkhand.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Unnikrishnan |first=Dilip |title=Hockey: From Simdega to Indian senior team, Beauty Dungdung’s rise against the odds |url=https://scroll.in/field/1037829/hockey-from-simdega-to-indian-senior-team-beauty-dungdungs-rise-against-the-odds |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US}}</ref> She is born to Ambrose and Nilima. She has three brothers, Juwel, Shakti and Sachin, all were hockey players.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women's hockey: How Beauty charted her inspirational rise to the Indian team |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/sports/others/womens-hockey-how-beauty-charted-her-inspirational-rise-to-the-indian-team-101668689695280.html |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref> Her father and grandfather Gulm Dungdung were National level hockey players. She studied at the SS Balika High School at Simdega.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women's hockey: How Beauty charted her inspirational rise to the Indian team |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/sports/others/womens-hockey-how-beauty-charted-her-inspirational-rise-to-the-indian-team-101668689695280.html |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Hindustan Times |language=en}}</ref>

== Hockey career ==
Dungdung made her Senior India debut at the FIH Women's Nations Cup in Valencia, Spain in December 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=The Bridge |title=Jharkhand's Beauty Dungdung fulfils her India dreams |url=https://thebridge.in/hockey/jharkhands-beauty-dungdung-fulfils-india-dreams-37406 |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=thebridge.in |language=en}}</ref> Earlier, she was part of the Indian team that took part in the FIH Hockey Women's Junior World Cup 2021, Potchefstroom, South Africa where India finished fourth. Dungdung first caught the eye as an under-14 player in 2016. Pratima Barwa was one of the first coaches that taught basics to Dungdung at Simdega sports hostel which is run by Jharkhand state government.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Beauty Dungdung – Bucketful of Promise for Indian Women’s Team Forwardline - Latest Hockey News ,Hockey Passion,Hockey Analysis, Hockey Interviews |url=https://hockeypassion.in/hockey-perspectives/beauty-dungdung-bucketful-of-promise-for-indian-womens-team-forwardline/ |access-date=2023-09-07 |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2019, she first made her debut for the junior India team that took part in the Chile tour. She scored four goals including a hat-trick and was picked up for the 2022 Women's FIH Junior World Cup. Later, she was named as the captain for the Under-23 5-Nations Tournament in Ireland, where she was adjudged as the 'Best Player' of the tournament.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Unnikrishnan |first=Dilip |title=Hockey: From Simdega to Indian senior team, Beauty Dungdung’s rise against the odds |url=https://scroll.in/field/1037829/hockey-from-simdega-to-indian-senior-team-beauty-dungdungs-rise-against-the-odds |access-date=2023-09-07 |website=Scroll.in |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dungdung, Beauty}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:2003 births]]
[[Category:Indian field hockey players]]
[[Category:Indian female field hockey players]]
[[Category:Field hockey players from Jharkhand]]

Roger Verdi

2023-07-23T19:42:05Z

Samareshadak689: Created page with '{{Infobox Football biography | playername = Roger Verdi | image = | fullname = Rajinder Singh Birdi | dateofbirth = | ...'

{{Short description|English footballer (born 1953)}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
{{Use British English}}
{{Infobox football biography
|name = Roger Verdi
|image =
|image_size =
|caption =
|fullname = Rajinder Singh Virdee
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1953|2|4|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]]
|height = {{height|ft=5|in=10}}<ref name=auto>{{cite web |title=Roger Verdi|
website=nasljerseys.com | date=4 February 1953 | url=http://www.nasljerseys.com/Players/V/Verdi.Roger.htm | language=la | access-date=23 July 2023}}</ref>
|position = [[Defender (association football)|Defender]]
|youthyears1 =
|youthclubs1 = [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]]
|youthyears2 =
|youthclubs2 = [[Ipswich Town F.C.|Ipswich Town]]
|years1 = 1972
|clubs1 = [[Vancouver Spartans]]
|caps1 = 25
|goals1 = 1
|years2 = 1972–1973
|clubs2 = [[Montreal Olympique]]
|caps2 = 25
|goals2 = 1
|years3 = 1974
|clubs3 = [[Miami Toros]]
|caps3 = 10
|goals3 = 0
|years4 = 1975–1977
|clubs4 = [[St. Louis Stars (soccer)|St. Louis Stars]]
|caps34 = 59
|goals4 = 0
|years5 = 1978
|clubs5 = [[San Jose Earthquakes (1974–88)|San Jose Earthquakes]]
|caps5 = 9
|goals5 = 0
|years6 = 1979
|clubs6 = [[Cleveland Cobras]]
|caps6 =
|goals6 =
|years7 = 1979
|clubs7 = [[Columbus Magic]]
|caps7 =
|goals7 =
|years8 = 1980
|clubs8 = [[Phoenix Fire (soccer)|Phoenix Fire]]
|caps8 = 0
|goals8 = 0
|years9 = 1980–1981
|clubs9 = [[Phoenix Inferno]]
|caps9 = 38
|goals9 = 2
|totalcaps = 141+
|totalgoals = 3+
}}
'''Roger Verdi''' (born '''Rajinder Singh Virdee''' on 4 February 1953) is an English retired professional [[association football|footballer]] who spent his entire career in North America, making over 100 league appearances in the [[North American Soccer League (1968-1984)|North American Soccer League]].

==Early life==
Verdi was born on 4 February 1953,<ref name="auto"/><ref>1977 St. Louis Stars (NASL) media guide</ref> as '''Rajinder Singh Virdee''' in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]], to Indian Sikh parents.<ref name = "IndianFootball">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianfootball.com/features/interview/interview50.html|title=Interview with Roger Verdi|accessdate=6 May 2009|date=June 2007|author=Harmit Singh Kamboe|publisher=IndianFootball.com}}</ref> He was the youngest of their two sons.<ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/47763294|title=Roger Verdi: Marking Pele and playing darts with George Best|date=3 April 2019|publisher=BBC Sport}}</ref> The family moved to England when Verdi was aged seven, settling in [[Smethwick]].<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/> He attended [[Sandwell Boys school]].<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/>

Verdi changed his name due to racism.<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/> He went by 'Roger Jones' and 'Roger Jones Verdi' before settling on 'Roger Verdi'.<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/>

==Career==
===England===
Verdi played with the youth teams of both [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]] and [[Ipswich Town F.C.|Ipswich Town]],<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/> but failing to get a professional contract with either team, moved to North America.<ref name = "IndianExpress">{{cite web|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/oldStory/30606/|title=He played against Pele, Best, Banks, now he wants to coach here|accessdate=6 May 2009|author=Shamya Dasgupta|date=31 August 2003|publisher=IndianExpress.com}}</ref>

===North America===
Verdi began his career in Canada with the [[Vancouver Spartans]].<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/>

Verdi played in the [[North American Soccer League (1968-1984)|NASL]] between 1972 and 1978 for the [[Montreal Olympique]], [[Miami Toros]], [[St. Louis Stars (NASL)|St. Louis Stars]] and [[San Jose Earthquakes (NASL)|San Jose Earthquakes]], making a total of 103 league appearances.<ref name="auto"/> He later played in the [[American Soccer League (1933–1983)|ASL]] for the [[Cleveland Cobras]], [[Columbus Magic]], and the [[Phoenix Fire (soccer)|Phoenix Fire]], and in the [[Major Indoor Soccer League (1978–1992)|MISL]] for [[Phoenix Inferno]].<ref name="auto"/>

===Coaching career===
After his playing career ended he moved into coaching, holding assistant coaching positions with Athlone Town FC, Stockport County, Phoenix Inferno and Cleveland Cobras. Other coaching positions include Co-director for Hubert Vogelsinger Soccer Academy in Texas, Connecticut and California and has been the Technical Director for youth clubs in Washington, New Mexico. He joined DFW Tornados as a coach in 2010.<ref name="DFW Tornados">{{cite web|url=http://www.dfwtornados.org/coaches/coach_roger_verdi.htm|title=DFW Tornados Coaches|accessdate=31 March 2011|author=DFW Tornados|publisher=www.dfwtornados.org|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306011413/http://www.dfwtornados.org/coaches/coach_roger_verdi.htm|archivedate=6 March 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

He is also the owner of the Roger Verdi International Soccer Academy.<ref name = "DFW Tornados"/>

==Later life==
Verdi retired to [[Dallas]], [[Texas]], working in construction.<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/>

== See also ==

* [[List of Sikh footballers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Verdi, Roger}}
[[Category:1953 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Footballers from Nairobi]]
[[Category:English people of Punjabi descent]]
[[Category:British sportspeople of Indian descent]]
[[Category:British Asian footballers]]
[[Category:English men's footballers]]
[[Category:English expatriate men's footballers]]
[[Category:Kenyan people of Indian descent]]
[[Category:Kenyan emigrants to the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:North American Soccer League (1968–1984) players]]
[[Category:Montreal Olympique players]]
[[Category:Miami Toros players]]
[[Category:St. Louis Stars (soccer) players]]
[[Category:San Jose Earthquakes (1974–1988) players]]
[[Category:Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players]]
[[Category:Ipswich Town F.C. players]]
[[Category:Expatriate men's soccer players in Canada]]
[[Category:Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States]]
[[Category:Men's association football defenders]]
[[Category:English expatriate sportspeople in the United States]]
[[Category:English expatriate sportspeople in Canada]]
[[Category:Cleveland Cobras players]]
[[Category:Columbus Magic players]]
[[Category:Phoenix Inferno players]]
[[Category:American Soccer League (1933–1983) players]]
[[Category:Major Indoor Soccer League (1978–1992) players]]
[[Category:Phoenix Fire (soccer) players]]

{{England-footy-defender-1950s-stub}}

Minnu Mani

2023-07-19T08:52:41Z

Samareshadak689: Formulated a fresh page structure.

{{Short description|Indian cricketer}}
{{Infobox cricketer
| name = Minnu Mani
| female = Yes
| image =
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| full_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1999|03|24|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]], [[Kerala]], India
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nickname =
| height =
| batting = Left handed
| bowling = Right arm [[offbreak]]
| role = [[All-rounder]]
| family =
| website =

| country = India
| international = true
| internationalspan = 2023–present

| T20Idebutdate = 9 July
| T20Idebutyear = 2023
| T20Idebutagainst = Bangladesh
| T20Icap = 74
| lastT20Idate = 11 July
| lastT20Iyear = 2023
| lastT20Iagainst = Bangladesh
| T20Ishirt =

| club1 = [[Kerala women's cricket team|Kerala]]
| year1 = 2014/15{{endash}}present
| clubnumber1 =
| club2 = [[Delhi Capitals (WPL)|Delhi Capitals]]
| year2 = 2023{{endash}}present
| clubnumber2 =

| columns = 1

| column1 = [[Women's Twenty20 International|T20I]]
| matches1 = 3
| runs1 = 6
| bat avg1 = 6.00
| 100s/50s1 = 0/0
| top score1 = 5[[not out|*]]
| deliveries1 = 66
| wickets1 = 5
| bowl avg1 = 11.60
| fivefor1 = 0
| tenfor1 = 0
| best bowling1 = 2/9
| catches/stumpings1 = 0/–

| source = https://www.espncricinfo.com/cricketers/minnu-mani-960949 ESPNcricinfo
| date = 14 July
| year = 2023
}}

'''Minnu Mani''' (born 24 March 1999) is an Indian cricketer. She plays for [[Delhi Capitals (WPL)|Delhi Capitals]] in [[Women's Premier League (cricket)|Women's Premier League]]. In domestic cricket, she represents [[Kerala women's cricket team|Kerala]] cricket team. She is the first Kerala woman cricketer to play for [[India women's national cricket team|India]].

==Early life==
Minnu hails from Choyimoola in [[Wayanad district]] of [[Kerala]]. Her father, Mani CK, is a daily wage labourer and her mother, Vasantha, is a homemaker. She belongs to the [[Kurichiya|Kurichiya tribe]], one of the Scheduled Tribes in Wayanad.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/sports/minnu-mani-labourer-s-daughter-becomes-first-from-kerala-to-make-indian-women-s-cricket-team-news-300117|title=Minnu Mani, Labourer's Daughter, Becomes First From Kerala to Make Indian Women's Cricket Team |work=Outlook India|access-date=6 July 2023}}</ref> She has a younger sister, Mimitha.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mathrubhumi.com/sports/features/minnu-mani-interview-who-earns-maiden-india-call-up-1.8700070|title='സ്‌പെഷ്യല്‍ ക്ലാസുണ്ടെന്നുവരെ പറഞ്ഞ് ക്രിക്കറ്റ് കളിക്കാന്‍ പോയിട്ടുണ്ട്' - മിന്നുമണി |work=Mathrubhumi|access-date=6 July 2023|language=ml}}</ref> She studied at Mananthavady Government Vocational Higher Secondary School, Edappady till Grade 8 and St Sebastian Highschool, [[Thodupuzha]] till Grade 10. She completed her higher secondary education at Sarvajana Higher Secondary School, [[Sulthan Bathery]] and graduated from [[Government College for Women, Thiruvananthapuram]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.madhyamam.com/sports/cricket/minnu-mani-first-malayalee-women-in-indian-cricket-1177458|title=മിന്നുകയാണു കേരളത്തിന്റെ പൊന്നുമണി |work=Madhyamam|access-date=6 July 2023|language=ml}}</ref> As of 2023, she is pursuing her [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] in [[Sociology]] through distance learning.<ref name=".0"/>

She started playing cricket at 10 with boys at paddy fields. Initially, her family didn't support the idea of her playing cricket. Her physical education teacher, Elsamma noticed her skill and took her to selection trials of the [[Wayanad district|Wayanad]] District Under-13 team. The next year, she played in the Kerala U-16 team and represented Kerala at the senior level aged 16. Minnu had to travel one and a half hours daily, switching four buses to reach the nearest stadium from her home for cricket practice.<ref name=".0">{{cite web|url=https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/meet-minnu-mani-tribal-woman-cricketer-kerala-who-s-set-play-india-179343|title=Meet Minnu Mani, tribal woman cricketer from Kerala who’s set to play for India |work=The News Minute|access-date=6 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/wpl/wpl-auction-tribal-girl-minnu-mani-reaps-rich-rewards-for-her-sacrifices/articleshow/97904549.cms?from=mdr|title=WPL Auction: Tribal girl Minnu Mani reaps rich rewards for her sacrifices |work=The Times of India|access-date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Domestic career==
Minnu made her debut for Kerala at the age of 16. She was the key performer when the Kerala U-23 women's team won the national T20 championship in 2018 with of 188 runs and 11 wickets. In 2019, she represented India Blue in the Under-23 One Day Challenger Trophy. She got her maiden call for the India A team touring Bangladesh and was called for ACC Emerging Women's Asia Cup in the same year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.onmanorama.com/sports/cricket/2019/10/02/tribal-girl-from-wayanad-minnu-mani-chases-dream.html|title=Wielding the willow, this tribal girl from Wayanad chases a dream|work=OnManorama|access-date=6 July 2023}}</ref>

==Indian Premier league==
In February 2023, she was bought by the [[Delhi Capitals (WPL)|Delhi Capitals]] in the WPL auction ahead of the [[2023 Women's Premier League (cricket)|2023 Women's Premier League]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sudarshanan |first1=S |title=Bid-by-bid updates - 2023 WPL auction |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/live-blog/live-blog-2023-wpl-auction-1358703 |website=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=6 July 2023 }}</ref>

==International career==
In July 2023, she was called up to the Indian team [[India women's cricket team in Bangladesh in 2023|touring Bangladesh]], making her the first female cricketer from Kerala to earn an India call-up.<ref>{{cite web |title=India’s tour of Bangladesh: Minnu Mani becomes the first from Kerala to get picked in Indian women’s squad |url=https://www.thehindu.com/sport/cricket/indias-tour-of-bangladesh-minnu-mani-becomes-the-first-from-kerala-to-get-picked-in-indian-womens-squad/article67037214.ece |website=The Hindu |access-date=6 July 2023}}</ref> She made her [[Women's Twenty20 International cricket]] (WT20I) debut for India Women against [[Bangladesh women's national cricket team|Bangladesh Women]] on 9 July 2023.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1382163.html|title=1st T20I, Mirpur, July 09, 2023, India Women tour of Bangladesh |work=ESPN Cricinfo|access-date=9 July 2023}}</ref> She finished the series as India's highest wicket-taker, with 5 wickets from three matches.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/series/bowling-most-wickets-career/india-women-in-bangladesh-t20i-series-2023-15514/women-s-twenty20-internationals-10|title=India Women tour of Bangladesh- Records |work=ESPN Cricinfo|access-date=13 July 2023}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{ESPNcricinfo|id=960949}}
* {{CricketArchive|id=1448011}}

{{Delhi Capitals WPL squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mani, Minnu}}
[[Category:1999 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:South Zone women cricketers]]
[[Category:Delhi Capitals (WPL) cricketers]]
[[Category:20th-century Indian women]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women]]

Vidhya Vijaykumar

2023-07-13T19:13:44Z

Samareshadak689: Shared an influential publication.

#REDIRECT [[Vidhya Vijayakumar]]

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1976 Indian Rajya Sabha elections

2022-03-21T22:18:02Z

Samareshadak689: Shared an influential publication.

#REDIRECT [[1976 Rajya Sabha elections]]

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1967 Indian Rajya Sabha elections

2022-01-17T19:18:45Z

Samareshadak689: Crafted original article content.

#REDIRECT [[1967 Rajya Sabha elections]]

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