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Arun Jaitley Cricket Stadium

2023-10-11T16:47:41Z

Sahil Kothari: its arun jaitley stadium now not feroz shah kotla stadium

{{short description|Cricket stadium in New Delhi}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox venue
| name = Arun Jaitley Stadium
| former names = Feroz Shah Kotla Stadium
| logo_image =
| logo_caption =
| image = Arun Jaitley Stadium during India vs Australia 2019 ODI.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = Arun Jaitley stadium, Delhi
| fullname =
| former_names =
| location = [[Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg]],Near [[Delhi Gate, Delhi|Delhi Gate]], [[Delhi]]
| coordinates =
| broke_ground =
| built =
| opened = 1883
| renovated =
| expanded =
| closed =
| demolished =
| owner = [[Delhi & District Cricket Association]]
| operator = Delhi & District Cricket Association
| surface = Grass (Oval)
| scoreboard =
| construction_cost = ₹114.5 crore
| suites =
| architect =
| project_manager =
| structural engineer =
| services engineer =
| general_contractor =
| main_contractors =
| capacity = 41,842<ref name="cricbuzz.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-venues/51/feroz-shah-kotla|title= Feroz Shah Kotla Stadium Delhi details, matches, stats - Cricbuzz |publisher=Cricbuzz|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref>
| record_attendance =
| executive_suites =
| dimensions =
| acreage =
| tenants =
| publictransit = {{ric|Delhi Metro}} {{rcb|Delhi Metro|Violet|croute}} [[Delhi Gate metro station|Delhi Gate]]
| embedded = {{Infobox cricket ground
| embed=yes
| ground_name = Arun Jaitly Ground
| nickname =
| image =
| caption =
| country = India
| location = [[Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg]], [[Delhi]]
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| coordinates = {{coord|28|38|16|N|77|14|35|E|type:landmark|display=it}}
| pushpin_map = Delhi India#Delhi#India
| pushpin_relief = yes
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in [[Delhi]]##Location within [[Delhi]]##Location within India
| establishment = 1882
| seating_capacity =
| owner = Utpal Kant
| operator =
| tenants = [[India national cricket team]] [[Delhi cricket team]] [[Delhi Capitals]]
| end1 = Stadium End [[Image:FerozShahKotlaCricketGroundPitchDimensions.svg|250px]]
| end2 = Pavilion End
| international = true
| firsttestdate = 10–14 November
| firsttestyear = 1948
| firsttesthome = India
| firsttestaway = West Indies
| lasttestdate = 17–19 February
| lasttestyear = 2023
| lasttesthome = India
| lasttestaway = Australia
| firstodidate = 15 September
| firstodiyear = 1982
| firstodihome = India
| firstodiaway = Sri Lanka
| lastodidate = 11 October
| lastodiyear = 2023
| lastodihome = India
| lastodiaway = Afghanistan
| firstt20idate = 23 March
| firstt20iyear = 2016
| firstt20ihome = Afghanistan
| firstt20ihomevar = 2013
| firstt20iaway = England
| lastt20idate = 9 June
| lastt20iyear = 2022
| lastt20ihome = India
| lastt20iaway = South Africa
| firstwtestdate = 12–14 November
| firstwtestyear = 1976
| firstwtesthome = India
| firstwtestaway = West Indies
| lastwtestdate = 21–24 January
| lastwtestyear = 1984
| lastwtesthome = India
| lastwtestaway = Australia
| firstwodidate = 19 February
| firstwodiyear = 1985
| firstwodihome = India
| firstwodiaway = New Zealand
| lastwodidate = 9 December
| lastwodiyear = 1997
| lastwodihome = India
| lastwodiaway = Sri Lanka
| firstwt20idate = 15 March
| firstwt20iyear = 2016
| firstwt20ihome = New Zealand
| firstwt20iaway = Sri Lanka
| lastwt20idate = 30 March
| lastwt20iyear = 2016
| lastwt20ihome = New Zealand
| lastwt20iaway = England
| date = 7 October
| year = 2023
| source = http://www.espncricinfo.com/india/content/ground/58040.html CricInfo
}}
}}

The '''Arun Jaitley Stadium''' is a [[cricket]] [[stadium]] owned and operated by the [[Delhi & District Cricket Association]] (DDCA) and located on [[Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg]], [[New Delhi]].<ref name="cricwindow.com">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cricwindow.com/Venues/Feroz-Shah-Kotla-New-Delhi.html|title = Feroz Shah Kotla, New Delhi Stadium Details}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=DDCA renames Feroz Shah Kotla as Arun Jaitley stadium|newspaper= The Times of India|date= 12 September 2019|url= https://m.timesofindia.com/sports/cricket/news/ddca-renames-feroz-shah-kotla-as-arun-jaitley-stadium/amp_articleshow/71100230.cms}}</ref> It was established in 1883 as the '''Feroz Shah Kotla Stadium''', and named after the nearby [[Feroz Shah Kotla|Kotla fort]]. It is the second oldest functional international cricket stadium in India, after the [[Eden Gardens]] of [[Kolkata]]. As of 25 October 2019, it has hosted 34 Tests, 25 ODIs and 6 T20I.

In a 2017 felicitation ceremony, the DDCA named four stands of the stadium after former India captain [[Bishan Singh Bedi]], former India all-rounder [[Mohinder Amarnath]], former India and [[Delhi cricket team|Delhi]] opener [[Gautam Gambhir]]. The home team's dressing room was named after [[Raman Lamba]] and the away dressing room after [[Prakash Bhandari]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/98488/feroz-shah-kotla-stadium-to-name-stands-after-former-india-cricket-team-players-bishan-singh-bedi-mohinder-amarnath |title=Feroz Shah Kotla to name stands after Bedi, Amarnath |work=Cricbuzz |date=21 November 2017 | access-date=21 November 2017}}</ref>

On 12 September 2019, the stadium was renamed in memory of former [[Delhi & District Cricket Association|DDCA President]] and [[Minister of Finance (India)|Finance Minister]] [[Arun Jaitley]], after his death on 24 August 2019. DDCA president Rajat Sharma said: "It was Arun Jaitley's support and encouragement that players like Virat Kohli, Virender Sehwag, Gautam Gambhir, Ashish Nehra, Rishabh Pant and many others could make India proud."<ref>{{cite web |title=Feroz Shah Kotla Stadium renamed after Arun Jaitley, pavilion stand unveiled as Virat Kohli stand |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/feroz-shah-kotla-stadium-renamed-after-arun-jaitley-pavilion-stand-unveiled-as-virat-kohli-stand-1598525-2019-09-12 |website=indiatoday.in |publisher=India Today Group |access-date=13 April 2020}}</ref> Arun Jaitley has also been credited with turning the stadium into a modern facility, increasing its seating capacity and building better facilities for players during his tenure as DDCA president. The stadium was officially renamed at a function that took place on 12 September 2019. One of the stands of the stadium was named after former Indian captain [[Virat Kohli]] on the same date. The name change has been criticised by former Indian captain [[Bishan Singh Bedi]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2020-12-23|title=Bishan Singh Bedi to DDCA: Remove my name from Kotla stand, cancel my membership|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/30586568/bishan-singh-bedi-ddca-remove-my-name-kotla-stand-cancel-my-membership|access-date=2020-12-23|website=ESPN|language=en}}</ref> After announcing the name change, DDCA clarified that only the stadium had been renamed and that the ground would be still called the ''Feroz Shah Kotla Ground''.

As of 2017, the [[India national cricket team]] had been undefeated for over 28 years in Test matches and for over 10 years in ODI matches at this ground.<ref>[http://stats.espncricinfo.com/india/engine/records/team/match_results.html?class=1;id=333;type=ground Indian record at the Kotla]</ref>

==History==
The first Test match at this venue was played on 10 November 1948 when India took on the West Indies.

=== Records ===
In 1952, playing against [[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]], [[Hemu Adhikari]] and [[Ghulam Ahmed (cricketer)|Ghulam Ahmed]] were involved in a record tenth wicket stand of 111 runs – a record that still stands. In 1965, [[S Venkataraghavan]], in his debut series, demolished the New Zealand line up with figures of 8 for 72 and 4 for 80. In 1969–70, [[Bishen Singh Bedi]] and [[Erapalli Prasanna]] combined to spin India to a famous seven wicket win over [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]], the duo picking 18 wickets between themselves.<ref name="fr">[http://www.cricinfo.com/india/content/ground/58040.html Feroz Shah Kotla] crickinfo.com</ref>
In 1981, [[Geoff Boycott]] surpassed [[Gary Sobers]]' world record test aggregate.

In 1983, [[Sunil Gavaskar]] hit his 29th test ton in this ground to equal [[Don Bradman]]'s then record tally of 29 centuries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Full Scorecard of India vs West Indies 2nd Test 1983 - Score Report {{!}} ESPNcricinfo.com|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/west-indies-tour-of-india-1983-84-61939/india-vs-west-indies-2nd-test-63351/full-scorecard|access-date=2022-11-24|website=www.espncricinfo.com|language=en}}</ref>

In 1999, [[Anil Kumble]] took all 10 wickets in an innings against [[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]], to become only the second bowler to achieve this feat after [[Jim Laker]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Full Scorecard of India vs Pakistan 2nd Test 1999 - Score Report {{!}} ESPNcricinfo.com|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/15864/scorecard/63829/india-vs-pakistan-2nd-test-pakistan-tour-of-india-1998-99|access-date=2020-07-17|website=www.espncricinfo.com|language=en}}</ref>

In December 2005, [[Sachin Tendulkar]] scored his 35th test century against [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]] to break Sunil Gavaskar record of the most test centuries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tendulkar reaches 35th Test century {{!}} ESPNcricinfo.com|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/23058059/tendulkar-reaches-35th-test-century|access-date=2020-07-17|website=www.espncricinfo.com|language=en}}</ref>

=== 2009 Dangerous pitch ===

On 27 December 2009, an ODI match between India and Sri Lanka was called off because pitch conditions were classed as unfit to host a match. Based on match referee's report of the match, the ground was banned by the [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC) for 12 months. International cricket returned as stadium at the [[2011 Cricket World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://sports.gaeatimes.com/2010/01/21/no-international-matches-in-ferozshah-kotla-until-2010-end-icc-67660/ |title=No International matches in Feroze Shah Kotla until end 2010 |access-date=12 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303210947/http://sports.gaeatimes.com/2010/01/21/no-international-matches-in-ferozshah-kotla-until-2010-end-icc-67660/ |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Indian Premier League===
Since 2008 the stadium has been the home of the [[Delhi Capitals]] (formerly Delhi Daredevils) of the [[Indian Premier League]].

===2017 Smog incident===

During the second day of third test of [[Sri Lankan cricket team in India in 2017-18]] at [[Delhi]], smog forced Sri Lanka cricketers to stop play and wear anti-pollution masks, a rare sight in terms of play interruptions. Cricketer [[Lahiru Gamage]] reported to have [[shortness of breath]].<ref>{{Cite news| title= Pollution stops play at Delhi test match as bowlers struggle to breathe|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/03/pollution-stops-play-at-delhi-test-match-as-bowlers-struggle-to-breathe}}</ref> [[Nic Pothas]], coach of Sri Lankan cricket team, reported that cricketer [[Suranga Lakmal]] had vomited regularly due to severe pollution effect on the Delhi ground. There was a haltage of play between 12:32pm to 12:49pm, which caused Indian coach [[Ravi Shastri]] to come out to consult with the on-field umpires.<ref name="SmogNDTV">{{Cite news| title=India vs Sri Lanka 3rd test angry Ravi Shastri marched on to the field twitter trolled him| publisher=NDTV sports| access-date=4 December 2017| url=https://amp.sports.ndtv.com/india-vs-sri-lanka-2017-18/india-vs-sri-lanka-3rd-test-angry-ravi-shastri-marched-on-to-the-field-twitter-trolled-him-1783278?akamai-rum=off| archive-date=31 October 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031175252/https://amp.sports.ndtv.com/india-vs-sri-lanka-2017-18/india-vs-sri-lanka-3rd-test-angry-ravi-shastri-marched-on-to-the-field-twitter-trolled-him-1783278?akamai-rum=off| url-status=dead}}</ref> BCCI president C. K. Khanna accused the Sri Lankan team of making fuss while Indian spectators called the team "melodramatic".<ref>{{cite news |title=Pollution In Delhi Is So Bad That Sri Lankan Cricketers Are Vomiting After Fielding For A Day |url=https://www.indiatimes.com/sports/pollution-in-delhi-is-so-bad-that-sri-lankan-cricketers-are-vomiting-after-fielding-for-a-day-334939.html |access-date=20 October 2021 |work=IndiaTimes |agency=IndiaTimes |publisher=IndiaTimes |date=4 December 2017 |language=en-IN}}</ref> On day 4, India's [[Mohammed Shami]] was also seen vomiting on the field.<ref name="SmogIndia">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/21675222/sri-lanka-struggles-delhi-air-genuine-shikhar-dhawan |title=SL's struggles with Delhi air may be genuine - Dhawan |access-date=6 December 2017 |work=ESPN Cricinfo|date=5 December 2017 }}</ref>

Following the match, both participating countries criticised the choice to play the Test in Delhi with the high levels of pollution.<ref name="postsmog">{{cite web |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/21697391/delhi-test-draws-criticism-sl-manager-indian-medical-association |title=Delhi Test draws criticism from SL manager, Indian Medical Association |access-date=7 December 2017 |work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> The Sri Lanka manager [[Asanka Gurusinha]] said that both teams were using oxygen cylinders in their dressing rooms due to breathing difficulties,<ref name="postsmog"/> and suggested the use of air-quality meters in future fixtures.<ref name="postsmog"/> President of the [[Indian Medical Association]], KK Agarwal, said that playing in such conditions could result in [[Respiratory disease|lung]] and [[Cardiovascular disease|heart disease]], and recommended the inclusion of atmospheric pollution as a factor in the assessment criteria for a match.<ref name="postsmog" />

==Statistics==

[[File:IndVNz2016toss.jpg|thumb|A match between India and New Zealand in 2016]]
[[File:IndVNz2016.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Feroz Shah Kotla Cricket Stadium, Delhi.jpg|thumb]]
Indian cricket team have won 10 test matches here until date out of 18 test matches.(Matches which have loss or win)

* Most successful team overall:- India - 10 wins
* Most successful visiting team:- England – 3 wins
* Highest Innings Score : 644/8 by West Indies on 6 February 1959<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/62849.html | title = West Indies tour of India, 5th Test: India v West Indies at Delhi, Feb 6-11, 1959 | access-date = 21 October 2016}}</ref>
* Lowest Innings Score : 75 all out by India on 25 November 1987<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/63466.html | title = West Indies tour of India, 1st Test: India v West Indies at Delhi, Nov 25-29, 1987 | access-date = 21 October 2016}}</ref>
* Wins Batting First : 5
* Wins Bowling First : 13
* Average Innings Score :285
* Most Runs : [[Sachin Tendulkar]] (759 runs)
* Highest Individual Score : 243 by [[Virat Kohli]] v Sri Lanka on 3 December 2017
* Most Successful Bowler : Anil Kumble (58 wickets)

== Various format records ==

=== Test record ===
The highest test score on this ground is by the [[West Indies cricket team|West Indies]], when they scored 644–8 in 1959 and 631 all out in 1948. The next highest score was made by India scoring 613–7 in 2008. The most runs scored here is by [[Dilip Vengsarkar]] (673 runs), followed by [[Sunil Gavaskar]] (668 runs) and [[Sachin Tendulkar]] (643 runs). The most wickets taken here is by [[Anil Kumble]] (58 wickets), followed by [[Kapil Dev]] (32 wickets) and [[R Ashwin]] (27 wickets).

=== ODI record ===
* Only twice had a team scored 300+ runs in an innings.
* The highest ODI total on this ground is 428/5, scored by South Africa against Sri Lanka at the [[2023 Cricket World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arun Jaitley Stadium, Delhi Cricket Team Records & Stats {{!}} ESPNcricinfo.com|url=https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/team/highest_innings_totals.html?class=2&id=333&type=ground|access-date=2020-07-17|website=Cricinfo}}</ref>
* 12 batsmen have scored ODI centuries - [[Roy Dias]] (Sri Lanka), Sachin Tendulkar (India), [[Ricky Ponting]] (Australia), [[Nick Knight (cricketer)|Nick Knight]] (England), [[AB de Villiers]] (South Africa), Virat Kohli (India), [[Kane Williamson]] (New Zealand), [[Usman Khawaja]] (Australia), [[Aiden Markram]] (South Africa), [[Rassie van der Dussen]] (South Africa), [[Quinton de Kock]] (South Africa) and [[Rohit Sharma]] (India).
* [[Viv Richards]] (West Indies) took 6 wickets against India in 1989.

==== ODI Cricket World Cup ====
This stadium has hosted One Day International (ODI) matches when India hosted the Cricket World Cup in [[1987 Cricket World Cup|1987]], [[1996 Cricket World Cup|1996]], [[2011 Cricket World Cup|2011]] and [[2023 Cricket World Cup|2023]].

===Twenty20 internationals===
====[[2016 ICC World Twenty20]]====
The ground was selected to host matches in the [[2016 ICC World Twenty20]]. Three matches from Group A were scheduled to be played here as well as one semi-final. The first ever [[Twenty20 International]] held at the ground was a Group A match between [[England national cricket team|England]] and [[Afghanistan national cricket team|Afghanistan]].

====Indian cricket team matches====
The ground hosted a T20I match on 1 November 2017 between [[Indian Cricket Team|India]] and [[New Zealand Cricket Team|New Zealand]], the first ever Indian International Twenty-20 at this ground and also the last international match for [[Ashish Nehra]]. On the eve of his farewell game, the DDCA renamed one end of the Feroz Shah Kotla Ground as "Ashish Nehra End" for one day, making Nehra the second bowler in cricket history, after [[James Anderson (cricketer)]], to have bowled from an end named after him.

The first match of the [[Bangladeshi cricket team in India in 2019–20|Bangladesh tour of India 2019–20]], the T20I in Delhi, was the 1,000th men's Twenty20 International match was played on 3 November 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/india-vs-bangladesh-1st-t20i-delhi-feroz-shah-kotla-1000th-match-preview-1615185-2019-11-02 |title=1st T20I: Bangladesh up against India, history and pollution in 1000th T20I match |work=India Today |access-date=7 November 2019}}</ref> Bangladesh won the match by seven wickets, to record their first ever victory against India in the format.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/1205576.html |title=Mushfiqur Rahim's fifty seals Bangladesh's first T20I win over India |work=ESPN Cricinfo |date=3 November 2019 |access-date=7 November 2019}}</ref>

==Accessibility==
'''Road''': [[Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg]]
bus stops : Ambedkar stadium bus stop, [[Delhi Gate, Delhi|Delhi gate]] bus stop, Saheed park bus stop, Ambedkar stadium terminal, [[Darya Ganj]], Darya Ganj Golcha Cinema

'''[[Delhi Metro]]''': [[Delhi Gate metro station|Delhi Gate Metro Station]]

'''[[Indian Railways]]''': [[Tilak Bridge railway station]] (TKJ)

'''Air''': [[Indira Gandhi International Airport]]

==See also==
*[[List of Test cricket grounds]]
*[[List of international cricket centuries at Arun Jaitley Stadium|List of international cricket centuries at the AJS]]
*[[List of international cricket five-wicket hauls at Arun Jaitley Stadium|List of international cricket five-wicket hauls at the AJS]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130630110249/http://delhigovt.nic.in/ground.asp#arc1 Arun Jaitley Stadium] at [[Government of Delhi]]

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101227121053/http://www.iplcricket.com/category/ipl-pictures/stadium-layouts/ Arun Jaitley Stadium Layout]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030704205933/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/02/06/stories/2003020600030300.htm Article on the ground from The Hindu]
* [http://content-usa.cricinfo.com/india/content/ground/58040.html Stats on the ground from Cricinfo]

{{List of cricket grounds in India}}
{{Test cricket grounds in India}}
{{Indian Premier League}}
{{Delhi}}

[[Category:Test cricket grounds in India]]
[[Category:Sports venues in Delhi]]
[[Category:Cricket grounds in Delhi]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in New Delhi]]
[[Category:1987 Cricket World Cup stadiums]]
[[Category:1996 Cricket World Cup stadiums]]
[[Category:2011 Cricket World Cup stadiums]]
[[Category:1883 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Sports venues completed in 1883]]

2023 Asia Cup

2023-10-07T19:05:21Z

Sahil Kothari: /* Fixtures */

{{Short description|Annual international cricket tournament}}
{{Distinguish|2023 AFC Asian Cup}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox cricket tournament
| name = 2023 Asia Cup
| image = File:2023 Asia Cup logo.png
| fromdate = 30 August
| todate = 17 September 2023
| administrator = [[Asian Cricket Council]]
| cricket format = [[One Day International]]
| tournament format = Group [[Round-robin tournament|round-robin]] and [[playoffs]]
| host = {{cr|Pakistan}} {{cr|Sri Lanka}}
| champions = {{cr|India}}
| count = 8
| runner up = {{cr|Sri Lanka}}
| player of the series = {{cricon|IND}} [[Kuldeep Yadav]]
| most runs = {{cricon|IND}} [[Shubman Gill]] (302)
| most wickets = {{cricon|SL}} [[Matheesha Pathirana]] (11)
| participants = 6
| matches = 13
| previous_year = 2022
| previous_tournament = 2022 Asia Cup
| next_year = 2025
| next_tournament = 2025 Asia Cup
}}
The '''2023 Asia Cup''' (also known as '''Super 11 Asia Cup''' for sponsorship reasons)<ref>{{Cite web |last=KT |first=Team |title=Super 11 sign on as title sponsor for Asia Cup |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/sports/cricket/super-11-sign-on-as-title-sponsor-for-asia-cup |access-date=28 August 2023 |website=Khaleej Times |language=en}}</ref> was the 16th edition of the men's [[Asia Cup]] cricket tournament. The matches were played as [[One Day International|One Day Internationals]] (ODIs) with [[Pakistan Cricket Board|Pakistan]] and [[Sri Lanka Cricket|Sri Lanka]] as the official host.<ref>{{cite news |title=India bat first and slot Ishan Kishan, Virat Kohli at No. 3 and 4 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/asia-cup-2023-1388374/india-vs-pakistan-3rd-match-group-a-1388394/live-cricket-score |work=ESPNcricinfo |date=2 September 2023 |language=en |quote=Even though Pakistan are the official hosts of the tournament, the Indian government didn't allow the team to travel to Pakistan, which meant the contest had to take place at a neutral venue: Pallekele in Sri Lanka.}}</ref><ref name="Forbes">{{cite news |last1=Lavalette |first1=Tristan |title=India And Pakistan Renew Cricket's Biggest Rivalry In Financial Windfall For Asia Cup |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/tristanlavalette/2023/08/30/india-and-pakistan-renew-crickets-biggest-rivalry-in-financial-windfall-for-asia-cup/ |work=Forbes |language=en |quote=Eventually, common sense prevailed as a compromise was struck with Pakistan to retain hosting duties but nine of the 13 matches will be played in Sri Lanka, including all of India's games and the final on September 17.}}</ref> It was held in Pakistan and Sri Lanka, between 30 August to 17 September 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asia Cup to be held in September before ODI World Cup, confirms ACC chairman Jay Shah |url=https://www.wionews.com/sports/asia-cup-to-be-held-in-september-before-odi-world-cup-confirms-acc-chairman-jay-shah-549650 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=WION |archive-date=6 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106074158/https://www.wionews.com/sports/asia-cup-to-be-held-in-september-before-odi-world-cup-confirms-acc-chairman-jay-shah-549650 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Asia Cup 2023 dates: Matches start on August 31; Four in Pakistan, nine in Sri Lanka |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/asia-cup-2023-schedule-ind-vs-pak-dates-august-31-four-matches-pakistan-hybrid-model-final-sri-lanka/article66971918.ece |website=SportStar |date=15 June 2023 |language=en |access-date=15 June 2023}}</ref> The tournament was contested by 6 teams.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=5 January 2023 |title=Asia Cup 2023: 50-over format tournament in September; India-Pakistan in same group |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/asia-cup-2023-tournament-with-50-over-format-in-september-india-pakistan-in-same-group-8362757/ |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=6 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106074158/https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/asia-cup-2023-tournament-with-50-over-format-in-september-india-pakistan-in-same-group-8362757/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]] were the defending champions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Brilliant Sri Lanka clinch Asia Cup 2022 title |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/2788151 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=International Cricket Council |language=en |archive-date=6 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106095012/https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/2788151 |url-status=live }}</ref> It was the first Asia Cup to be held in multiple countries, with four matches being played in Pakistan and the remaining nine matches being played in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Four Asia Cup matches in Pakistan; remaining nine in Sri Lanka |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/asia-cup-2023-four-matches-in-pakistan-nine-in-sri-lanka-1381618 |access-date=15 June 2023 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 August 2023 |title=Asia Cup 2023 - Where, when, who, what, and everything else |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/asia-cup-2023-india-pakistan-bangladesh-sri-lanka-afghanistan-and-nepal-in-action-1393201 |access-date=24 August 2023 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Forbes"/>

The five [[Asian Cricket Council#Full members|full members]] of the [[Asian Cricket Council]] were part of the tournament: [[Afghanistan national cricket team|Afghanistan]], [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]], [[India national cricket team|India]], [[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]] and [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]]. They were joined by [[Nepal national cricket team|Nepal]], who qualified by winning the [[2023 ACC Men's Premier Cup]]. For the first time, the tournament was held in a "hybrid format" with the games organised in two countries. All teams played at least a few games in Pakistan, except for India, who refused to travel to Pakistan due to disapproval from the [[Government of India|Indian Government]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=India won't travel to Pakistan for 2023 Asia Cup |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/india-won-t-travel-to-pakistan-for-2023-asia-cup-1340459 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106084454/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/india-won-t-travel-to-pakistan-for-2023-asia-cup-1340459 |archive-date=6 January 2023 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title='Asia Cup should be staged in Sri Lanka', says R Ashwin while responding to Javed Miandad's comments |date=7 February 2023 |access-date=4 September 2023 |url-access=subscription |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/asia-cup-should-be-staged-in-sri-lanka-says-r-ashwin-while-responding-to-javed-miandads-comments-8428285/lite/ |website=[[The Indian Express]] }}</ref> In January 2023, the [[Asian Cricket Council]] (ACC) announced the pathway structure and calendar for 2023 and 2024,<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date= |title=Asian Cricket Council announces new pathway structure and calendar for 2023 & 2024 |url=https://asiancricket.org/asian-cricket-council-announces-new-pathway-structure-and-calendar-for-2023-2024/ |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=Asian Cricket Council |language=en-US |archive-date=6 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106015926/https://asiancricket.org/asian-cricket-council-announces-new-pathway-structure-and-calendar-for-2023-2024/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Asia Cup 2023 {{!}} Asia Cup News {{!}} Asia Cup Schedule 2023 {{!}} Asia Cup Hybrid Model - cricfr |url=https://www.cricfr.com/2023/05/asia-cup-2023-asia-cup-news-asia-cup.html |access-date=25 May 2023 |website=www.cricfr.com}}</ref> where they confirmed the dates and format of the tournament.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ACC announces Asia Cup schedule |url=https://www.observerbd.com/news.php?id=400762 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=The Daily Observer |archive-date=6 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106074211/https://www.observerbd.com/news.php?id=400762 |url-status=live }}</ref> Originally, the tournament was scheduled to take place in 2021, but was postponed to 2023 due to the [[Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cricket|COVID-19 pandemic]]. The fixtures for the tournament were announced on 19 July 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Men's ODI Asia Cup 2023 schedule confirmed|url=https://asiancricket.org/mens-odi-asia-cup-2023/|access-date=19 July 2023|website=Asian Cricket Council|language=en}}</ref> India defeated Sri Lanka by 10 wickets in the Final to win their eighth Asia Cup title.

== Background ==
In June 2020, following a meeting with the [[Asian Cricket Council]] (ACC), the [[Pakistan Cricket Board]] (PCB) said they would be willing to let Sri Lanka host the [[2020 Asia Cup]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Asia Cup likely in Sri Lanka; PCB offers SLC to swap hosting rights |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/29300676/asia-cup-likely-sri-lanka-pcb-offers-slc-swap-hosting-rights |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612073143/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/_/id/29300676/asia-cup-likely-sri-lanka-pcb-offers-slc-swap-hosting-rights |archive-date=12 June 2020 |accessdate=12 June 2020 |work=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref> with India unwilling to travel to Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sri Lanka Cricket Offers To Host Asia Cup 2020 Edition |url=https://cricketaddictor.com/cricket/sri-lanka-host-asia-cup-2020/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610113636/https://cricketaddictor.com/cricket/sri-lanka-host-asia-cup-2020/ |archive-date=10 June 2020 |accessdate=10 June 2020 |work=Cricket Addictor|date=9 June 2020 }}</ref> The ACC issued a press release following the meeting stating that "in light of the impact and consequences of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], possible venue options for the Asia Cup 2020 were discussed and it was decided to take the final decision in due course".<ref>{{cite web |title=Pakistan gave us green light to host 2020 Asia Cup: SLC chief Shammi Silva |url=https://gulfnews.com/sport/cricket/pakistan-gave-us-green-light-to-host-2020-asia-cup-slc-chief-shammi-silva-1.1591715801263 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609181501/https://gulfnews.com/sport/cricket/pakistan-gave-us-green-light-to-host-2020-asia-cup-slc-chief-shammi-silva-1.1591715801263 |archive-date=9 June 2020 |accessdate=10 June 2020 |work=Gulf News|date=9 June 2020 }}</ref> In July 2020, an official announcement of the postponement was made by the ACC.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asia Cup 2020 postponed |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/sports/cricket/news/asia-cup-2020-postponed-1927585 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200709134318/https://www.thedailystar.net/sports/cricket/news/asia-cup-2020-postponed-1927585 |archive-date=9 July 2020 |accessdate=9 July 2020 |work=The Daily Star|date=9 July 2020 }}</ref> The 2020 edition was rescheduled to take place in [[Sri Lanka]] in June 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asia Cup postponed to 2022 |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/818593-acc-asia-cup-postponed-to-2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411225252/https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/818593-acc-asia-cup-postponed-to-2022 |archive-date=11 April 2021 |access-date=12 April 2021 |work=The News}}</ref>

In March 2021, the tournament was at risk of a further postponement after [[India national cricket team|India]] qualified for the final of the [[2019–2021 ICC World Test Championship|World Test Championship]], which clashed with the proposed dates in June.<ref>{{cite news |title=Asia Cup to be postponed if India reach final of World Test Championship: PCB |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/news/asia-cup-to-be-postponed-if-india-reach-finals-of-world-test-championship-pcb/articleshow/81256099.cms |accessdate=28 February 2021 |work=Times of India|date=28 February 2021 }}</ref> The tournament was postponed once again to 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asia Cup postponed once again |url=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/117514/cricket-asia-cup-2021-officially-pushed-back-2023-india-pakistan-sri-lanka-bangladesh-afghanistan-cricbuzzcom |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523131740/https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/117514/cricket-asia-cup-2021-officially-pushed-back-2023-india-pakistan-sri-lanka-bangladesh-afghanistan-cricbuzzcom |archive-date=23 May 2021 |work=CricBuzz|date=23 May 2021 }}</ref> In May 2021, the ACC announced that the 2021 tournament would be deferred to 2023, citing that it would be difficult to schedule the tournament due to the continued impact of COVID-19 on the scheduling of other cricket events.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= 23 May 2021|title=Cricket tournament: 2021 Asia Cup postponed to 2023 due to packed schedule |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/sports/cricket-tournament-2021-asia-cup-postponed-to-2023-due-to-packed-schedule-121052300590_1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106080348/https://www.business-standard.com/article/sports/cricket-tournament-2021-asia-cup-postponed-to-2023-due-to-packed-schedule-121052300590_1.html |archive-date=6 January 2023 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=[[Business Standard]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name="PR-May21">{{cite web |title=2021 Edition of the Asia Cup to be postponed |url=http://www.asiancricket.org/index.php/news/2021/3496 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210523140321/http://www.asiancricket.org/index.php/news/2021/3496 |archive-date=23 May 2021 |access-date=23 May 2021 |work=Asian Cricket Council}}</ref> Pakistan was scheduled to host the [[2022 Asia Cup]] after retaining the rights to host the 2022 edition.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asia Cup 2021 to be postponed amid hectic cricket calendar |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/asia-cup-2021-to-be-postponed-amid-hectic-cricket-calendar-1263594 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524131205/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/asia-cup-2021-to-be-postponed-amid-hectic-cricket-calendar-1263594 |archive-date=24 May 2021 |access-date=24 May 2021 |work=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref> However, in October 2021, following a meeting with the ACC, [[Ramiz Raja]] confirmed that Pakistan would host the tournament in 2023, with Sri Lanka hosting the 2022 edition.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asia Cup 2023 to be played in Pakistan, confirms PCB chief Ramiz Raja |url=https://www.wionews.com/sports/asia-cup-2023-to-be-played-in-pakistan-confirms-pcb-chief-ramiz-raja-421053 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015155829/https://www.wionews.com/sports/asia-cup-2023-to-be-played-in-pakistan-confirms-pcb-chief-ramiz-raja-421053 |archive-date=15 October 2021 |access-date=15 October 2021 |work=Wion News}}</ref>

In October 2022, the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]] (BCCI) secretary and ACC President [[Jay Shah]] announced that India would not travel to Pakistan, citing security concerns, and that the Asia Cup 2023 would take place in a neutral venue. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Asia Cup 2023 will be played at neutral venue, confirms BCCI secretary Jay ... |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/amp/sports/cricket/story/asia-cup-2023-venue-pakistan-bcci-secretary-jay-shah-2286769-2022-10-18&ved=2ahUKEwiYwtSGzIGBAxX3e2wGHfeCCwgQFnoECBYQBQ&usg=AOvVaw2npH5rSfOJ71vK10k70nbh |website=[[India Today]]}}</ref> In December 2022, the then PCB chairman [[Ramiz Raja]] said that Pakistan might consider pulling out of the tournament if their hosting rights were withdrawn because of India's unwillingness to travel to Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PCB could pull out of 2023 Asia Cup if tournament is moved out of Pakistan |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/pcb-could-pull-out-of-2023-asia-cup-if-tournament-is-moved-out-of-pakistan-because-of-india-1347847 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106091605/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/pcb-could-pull-out-of-2023-asia-cup-if-tournament-is-moved-out-of-pakistan-because-of-india-1347847 |archive-date=6 January 2023 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref> However, in January 2023, ACC confirmed the teams and groups of the tournament, with both India and Pakistan taking part.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Najam Sethi takes a dig at Jay Shah for 'unilaterally presenting' Asian Cricket Council calendar for 2023-2024 |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/najam-sethi-takes-a-dig-at-jay-shah-for-unilaterally-presenting-asian-cricket-council-calendar-for-2023-2024-2317875-2023-01-05 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106095015/https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/najam-sethi-takes-a-dig-at-jay-shah-for-unilaterally-presenting-asian-cricket-council-calendar-for-2023-2024-2317875-2023-01-05 |archive-date=6 January 2023 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>

In March 2023, it was proposed that Pakistan remain as hosts and that all India matches - including at least two India-Pakistan contests - would be played at a neutral venue yet to be confirmed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2023 Asia Cup likely in Pakistan and one other overseas venue for India games |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/2023-asia-cup-likely-in-pakistan-and-one-other-overseas-venue-for-ind-vs-pak-1365046 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324105545/https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/2023-asia-cup-likely-in-pakistan-and-one-other-overseas-venue-for-ind-vs-pak-1365046 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |access-date=24 March 2023 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref> The hybrid model proposed by Pakistan was rejected by Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/asia-cup-2023-sri-lanka-and-bangladesh-give-thumbs-down-to-pcb-s-hybrid-hosting-model-1374553 | title=Asia Cup 2023: Sri Lanka, Bangladesh give thumbs down to PCB's hybrid hosting model }}</ref> In response, PCB Chairman [[Najam Sethi]] proposed two options. The first option was that India play all their matches at a neutral venue with Pakistan hosting the rest of the teams. The second option was that four matches in the group stage take place in Pakistan whereas the second phase, in which matches played by the Indian team followed by the next stage matches including the final, be played at a neutral venue. Sri Lanka and Bangladesh agreed to the second option.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Blow to India: Sri Lanka, Bangladesh back Pakistan's hybrid proposal on Asia Cup 2023|url=https://www.geo.tv/amp/487735-blow-to-india-sri-lanka-bangladesh-back-pakistans-hybrid-proposal-on-asia-cup|access-date=19 May 2023|website=Geo News|date=16 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

On 15 June 2023, the [[Asian Cricket Council]] announced that the tournament would be organized in a hybrid model with four matches being held in Pakistan, and the remaining nine in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Asia Cup 2023, Dates and Venues Announced|url=https://asiancricket.org/asia-cup-2023-dates-and-venues-announced-media-release/|access-date=15 June 2023|website=Asian Cricket Council|language=en}}</ref>

== Format ==
The groups and format of the tournament were announced on 9 January 2023, with the six teams split into two groups of three.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date= 5 January 2023|title=Groups and format announced for Men's Asia Cup 2023 |url=https://www.thepapare.com/groups-and-format-announced-for-mens-asia-cup-2023/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106095012/https://www.thepapare.com/groups-and-format-announced-for-mens-asia-cup-2023/ |archive-date=6 January 2023 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=ThePapare |language=en-US}}</ref> A total of 13 matches will be played, which includes six league matches, six Super 4 matches, and a final.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Asia Cup 2023 cricket groups announced: Will India, Pakistan face each other in September? |url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/sports/cricket/asia-cup-2023-cricket-groups-announced-will-india-pakistan-face-each-other-in-september |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106095014/https://www.khaleejtimes.com/sports/cricket/asia-cup-2023-cricket-groups-announced-will-india-pakistan-face-each-other-in-september |archive-date=6 January 2023 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=Khaleej Times |language=en}}</ref> [[India national cricket team|India]], [[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]] and [[Nepal national cricket team|Nepal]], champions of the qualifier event ([[2023 ACC Men's Premier Cup]]), were placed in Group A, while the defending champions Sri Lanka was grouped with [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]] and [[Afghanistan national cricket team|Afghanistan]] in Group B.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asia Cup Cricket: Bangladesh grouped with Sri Lanka, Afghanistan |url=https://www.observerbd.com/news.php?id=400858 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106095011/https://www.observerbd.com/news.php?id=400858 |archive-date=6 January 2023 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=The Daily Observer}}</ref> The top two teams from each of the groups will progress to the Super 4. From there, the top two teams will play each other in the final.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 January 2023 |title=India, Pakistan placed in same group at 2023 Asia Cup |url=https://www.tbsnews.net/sports/india-pakistan-placed-same-group-2023-asia-cup-563138 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106095025/https://www.tbsnews.net/sports/india-pakistan-placed-same-group-2023-asia-cup-563138 |archive-date=6 January 2023 |access-date=6 January 2023 |website=The Business Standard |language=en}}</ref>

Pakistan and India were seeded as '''A1''' & '''A2''', and Bangladesh and Sri Lanka were seeded as '''B2''' & '''B1'''.
In case Nepal and Afghanistan qualify for the Super Four stage, they will take the slot of the team knocked out (Pakistan or India in Group A and Sri Lanka or Bangladesh in Group B).<ref name=":3">{{cite web |access-date=19 July 2023 |title=Pakistan vs India set for September 2 in Kandy in Asia Cup|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/asia-cup-2023-pakistan-vs-india-set-for-september-2-in-kandy-1388242 |website=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |access-date=6 August 2023 |title=Multan & Lahore Cricket Stadium will be hosted 4 matches scheduled in Pakistan & Rest will be played in Srilanka (Colombo & Kandy Cricket Stadiums)|url=https://cricinfo.pro/asia-cup-2023-venue-playing-conditions-in-pakistan-srilanka/ |website=cricinfo}}</ref>

== Teams and qualification ==
[[File:ACC Asia Cup 2023 participating nations.png|thumb|200px|{{legend|#0000ff|Qualified for Asia Cup as full members}}{{legend|#00c600ff|Qualified through [[2023 ACC Men's Premier Cup]]}}{{legend|#ffd500|Failed to qualify}}]]
The five [[List of International Cricket Council members|full members]] of the [[Asian Cricket Council]] qualified automatically for the tournament while [[Nepal national cricket team|Nepal]] qualified for the main tournament for the first time through [[2023 ACC Men's Premier Cup]], was held in April/May 2023 in Nepal, defeating [[United Arab Emirates national cricket team|UAE]] in the final.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sportstar |first1=Team |title=Nepal beats UAE to qualify for Asia Cup 2023 |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/nepal-qualifies-for-asia-cup-2023-schedule-india-pakistan-group/article66802657.ece |access-date=30 August 2023 |work=sportstar.thehindu.com |date=2 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable"
!Means of qualification
!Date
!Host
!Berths
!Qualified
|-
|ICC Full Member
|{{n/a}}
| None
|style="text-align:center;" |5
|
{{cr|AFG}} {{cr|BAN}} {{cr|IND}} {{cr|PAK}} {{cr|SL}}
|-
|[[2023 ACC Men's Premier Cup]]
|18 April — 2 May 2023
|{{flagicon|NEP}} [[Nepal]]
|style="text-align:center;" |1
|
{{cr|NEP}}
|}

==Squads==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left"
|-
! {{cr|AFG}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/asia-cup-karim-janat-sharafuddin-ashraf-back-in-afghanistan-odi-squad-1394391|title=Asia Cup: Karim Janat, Sharafuddin Ashraf back in Afghanistan squad |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date= 27 August 2023}}</ref>
! {{cr|BAN}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/bangladesh-announce-their-mens-asia-cup-squad-1392035 |title=Tanzid and Naim step up as Bangladesh look to the future with Asia Cup squad |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date= 12 August 2023}}</ref>
! {{cr|IND}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/1392042.html |title=Rahul, Shreyas and Tilak make it to India's Asia Cup squad |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date= 21 August 2023}}</ref>
! {{cr|NEP}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nepal pick Dhakal and Jora in Asia Cup squad |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/asia-cup-2023-dhakal-and-jora-included-in-nepal-squad-led-by-rohit-paudel-1392548 |access-date=15 August 2023 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref>
! {{cr|PAK}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/1391447.html |title=Faheem Ashraf in, Shan Masood out as Pakistan name 18 for Asia Cup and Afghanistan ODIs |work=ESPNcricinfo |access-date= 9 August 2023}}</ref>
! {{cr|SL}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/3658714|title=Key players out injured as Sri Lanka name Asia Cup squad|access-date=29 August 2023 |work=International Cricket Council}}</ref>
|- style="vertical-align:top"
|
* [[Hashmatullah Shahidi]] ([[Captain (cricket)|c]])
* [[Rahmanullah Gurbaz]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Ibrahim Zadran]]
* [[Riaz Hassan (cricketer)|Riaz Hassan]]
* [[Rahmat Shah]]
* [[Najibullah Zadran]]
* [[Mohammad Nabi]]
* [[Ikram Alikhil]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Rashid Khan]]
* [[Gulbadin Naib]]
* [[Karim Janat]]
* [[Abdul Rahman (Afghan cricketer)|Abdul Rahman]]
* [[Sharafuddin Ashraf]]
* [[Mujeeb Ur Rahman]]
* [[Noor Ahmad]]
* [[Mohammad Saleem (cricketer)|Mohammad Saleem]]
* [[Fazalhaq Farooqi]]
|
* [[Shakib Al Hasan]] ([[Captain (cricket)|c]])
* [[Liton Das|Litton Das]] ([[Captain (cricket)#vice captain|vc]])
* [[Anamul Haque]]
* [[Tanzid Hasan]]
* [[Najmul Hossain Shanto]]
* [[Towhid Hridoy]]
* [[Mushfiqur Rahim]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Mehidy Hasan]]
* [[Taskin Ahmed]]
* [[Mustafizur Rahman]]
* [[Hasan Mahmud]]
* [[Mohammad Naim]]
* [[Mahedi Hasan]]
* [[Nasum Ahmed]]
* [[Shamim Hossain]]
* <s>[[Ebadot Hossain]]</s>
* [[Afif Hossain]]
* [[Shoriful Islam]]
* [[Tanzim Hasan Sakib]]
|
* [[Rohit Sharma]] ([[Captain (cricket)|c]])
* [[Hardik Pandya]] ([[Captain (cricket)#Vice_captain|vc]])
* [[Jasprit Bumrah]]
* [[Shubman Gill]]
* [[Shreyas Iyer]]
* [[Ravindra Jadeja]]
* [[Ishan Kishan]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Prasidh Krishna]]
* [[Virat Kohli]]
* <s>[[Axar Patel]]</s>
* [[KL Rahul]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Mohammed Shami]]
* [[Mohammed Siraj]]
* [[Washington Sundar]]
* [[Shardul Thakur]]
* [[Tilak Varma]]
* [[Kuldeep Yadav]]
* [[Suryakumar Yadav]]
|
* [[Rohit Paudel]] ([[Captain (cricket)|c]])
* [[Aasif Sheikh (cricketer)|Aasif Sheikh]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Dipendra Singh Airee]]
* [[Kushal Bhurtel]]
* [[Mousom Dhakal]]
* [[Pratis GC]]
* [[Gulsan Jha]]
* [[Sundeep Jora]]
* [[Karan KC]]
* [[Sompal Kami]]
* [[Sandeep Lamichhane]]
* [[Kishor Mahato]]
* [[Kushal Malla]]
* [[Lalit Rajbanshi]]
* [[Aarif Sheikh]]
* [[Arjun Saud]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Bhim Sharki]]
|
* [[Babar Azam]] ([[Captain (cricket)|c]])
* [[Shadab Khan]] ([[Captain (cricket)#Vice_captain|vc]])
* [[Salman Ali Agha]]
* [[Shaheen Afridi]]
* [[Iftikhar Ahmed (cricketer)|Iftikhar Ahmed]]
* [[Faheem Ashraf]]
* [[Imam-ul-Haq]]
* [[Mohammad Haris]]
* [[Zaman Khan]]
* [[Mohammad Nawaz (cricketer)|Mohammad Nawaz]]
* [[Usama Mir]]
* [[Haris Rauf]]
* [[Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)|Mohammad Rizwan]] ([[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Abdullah Shafique]]
* [[Saud Shakeel]]
* [[Naseem Shah (cricketer)|Naseem Shah]]
* [[Mohammad Wasim Jr.|Mohammad Wasim]]
* [[Fakhar Zaman (cricketer)|Fakhar Zaman]]
|
* [[Dasun Shanaka]] ([[Captain (cricket)|c]])
* [[Kusal Mendis]] ([[Captain (cricket)#Vice_captain|vc]], [[Wicket-keeper|wk]])
* [[Pathum Nissanka]]
* [[Dimuth Karunaratne]]
* [[Kusal Perera]]
* [[Sahan Arachchige]]
* [[Charith Asalanka]]
* [[Dhananjaya de Silva]]
* [[Sadeera Samarawickrama]]
* <s>[[Maheesh Theekshana]]</s>
* [[Dunith Wellalage]]
* [[Matheesha Pathirana]]
* [[Kasun Rajitha]]
* [[Dushan Hemantha]]
* [[Binura Fernando]]
* [[Pramod Madushan]]
|}

Ahead of the tournament, [[Ebadot Hossain]] was ruled out of Bangladesh's squad due to an injury and was replaced by [[Tanzim Hasan Sakib]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/ebadot-hossain-out-of-asia-cup-2023-tanzim-hasan-named-replacement-1393681 |title=Injured Ebadot out of Asia Cup, Tanzim Hasan named replacement |access-date=24 August 2023 |work=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref> [[Saud Shakeel]] was added to Pakistan's squad, with [[Tayyab Tahir]] moved into the reserves.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/3652766 |title=Pakistan make changes to Asia Cup squad |access-date=26 August 2023 |work=International Cricket Council}}</ref> [[Sanju Samson]] was added to India's squad as reserves.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/3645126|title=Big calls made as India announce Asia Cup squad |access-date=26 August 2023 |work=International Cricket Council}}</ref> Initially, on 30 August 2023, [[Liton Das]] was ruled out from Bangladesh's squad for the entire tournament with a [[viral fever]], with [[Anamul Haque]] named as his replacement.<ref>{{cite news |title=Asia Cup 2023: Bangladesh Star Batter Litton Das Ruled Out Of Entire Tournament |url=https://www.freepressjournal.in/sports/asia-cup-2023-bangladesh-star-batter-litton-das-ruled-out-of-entire-tournament |access-date=30 August 2023 |work=Free Press Journal |language=en}}</ref> However after missing out Bangladesh's initial two matches, Das joined the squad after he was declared fit on 2 September 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bangladesh opener returns to squad for Asia Cup Super 4 stage |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/3671146 |access-date=5 September 2023 |website=www.icc-cricket.com |language=en}}</ref> On 5 September 2023, [[Najmul Hossain Shanto]] was ruled out of Bangladesh squad for rest of the tournament after he sustained a hamstring injury during their Group Stage match against Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Shanto out of Asia Cup with hamstring injury, Bangladesh bring in Litton |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/najmul-hossain-shanto-out-of-asia-cup-litton-das-comes-in-for-bangladesh-1396367 |access-date=5 September 2023 |work=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref> On 13 September [[Naseem Shah (cricketer)|Naseem Shah]] was ruled out of Pakistan squad for rest of the tournament after he sustained a shoulder injury during their Super Four match against India.<ref>{{cite news |title=Naseem Shah out of Asia Cup with shoulder injury, Zaman Khan drafted in|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/pakistan-zaman-khan-replaces-injured-naseem-shah-for-rest-of-asia-cup-1398050 |access-date=13 September 2023 |work=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref> On 16 September [[Axar Patel]] was ruled out of India squad for the Asia Cup Final after he sustained multiple injuries during their Super Four match against Bangladesh, he was replaced by [[Washington Sundar]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 September 2023 |title=Washington Sundar to link up with India squad for Asia Cup final |url=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/127805/washington-sundar-to-link-up-with-india-squad-for-asia-cup-final |access-date=16 September 2023 |website=Cricbuzz |language=en}}</ref> Ahead of the final, [[Maheesh Theekshana]] was ruled out of Sri Lanka's squad due to sustaining hamstring injury and was replaced by [[Sahan Arachchige]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Asia Cup 2023: Sri Lanka's Maheesh Theekshana ruled out of final against India after sustaining hamstring injury|url=https://www.firstpost.com/firstcricket/sports-news/asia-cup-2023-sri-lankas-maheesh-theekshana-ruled-out-of-final-against-india-after-sustaining-hamstring-injury-13131602.html/|access-date=16 September 2023 |work=Firstpost |language=en}}</ref>

==Venues==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| {{flagicon|PAK|size=15px}} Pakistan
! colspan="2"|
{{flagicon|SL|size=15px}} Sri Lanka
|-
! [[Lahore]]
! [[Multan]]
! [[Colombo]]
! [[Kandy]]
|-
| [[Gaddafi Stadium]]
| [[Multan Cricket Stadium]]
| [[R. Premadasa Stadium]]
| [[Pallekele International Cricket Stadium]]
|-
|Capacity: 27,000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcb.com.pk/press-release-detail/pcb-team-to-visit-bugti-stadium-next-week.html |title=PCB team to visit Bugti Stadium next week |work=Pakistan Cricket Board |date=10 January 2014 |access-date=20 July 2019}}</ref>
|Capacity: 30,000<ref>{{Cite web |title=Multan Cricket Stadium {{!}} Pakistan {{!}} Cricket Grounds {{!}} ESPNcricinfo.com |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/pakistan/content/ground/58986.html |access-date=1 November 2022 |website=Cricinfo}}</ref>
| Capacity: 35,000
| Capacity: 35,000
|-
|Matches: 3
|Matches: 1
|Matches: 6
|Matches: 3
|-
|[[File:Gaddafi stadium lahore.jpg|130px]]
|[[File: Multan Cricket Stadium in 2020.jpg|130px]]
| [[File:Block B, RPS Colombo.jpg|130x130px]]
| [[File:Pallekele International Cricket Stadium Main pavilion.jpg|130x130px]]
|-
! colspan="2"|
{{Location map+|Pakistan|width=300|float=center|caption=|places=
{{Location map~|Pakistan|lat_deg=31|lat_min=33|lon_deg=74|lon_min=20|position=left|background=|label=[[Lahore]]}}
{{Location map~|Pakistan|lat_deg=30|lat_min=11|lon_deg=71|lon_min=28|position=left|background=|label=[[Multan]]}}
}}
| colspan="2" |{{location map+ |Sri Lanka |float=center |width=300 |caption= |places=
{{location map~ |Sri Lanka |lat=6.939667 |long=79.872028 |label=[[Colombo]]
|position=Top}}
{{location map~ |Sri Lanka |lat=7.280278 |long=80.722222 |label=[[Kandy]]
|position=Top}}}}
|}

==Match officials==
[[International Cricket Council]] (ICC) and [[Asian Cricket Council]] (ACC) jointly appointed the following match officials for the tournament.<ref>{{cite news |title=Richard Illingworth, Ruchira Palliyaguru to officiate in India Pakistan Asia Cup tie |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/asia-cup/richard-illingworth-ruchira-palliyaguru-to-officiate-in-india-pakistan-asia-cup-tie/articleshow/103013859.cms?from=mdr |access-date=24 August 2023 |work=The Times of India}}</ref>

===Match referees===
* {{cricon|AUS}} [[David Boon]]
* {{Cricon|IND}} [[Javagal Srinath]]

===Umpires===
{{div col}}
* {{cricon|AFG}} [[Ahmed Shah Pakteen]]
* {{cricon|AUS}} [[Paul Wilson (cricketer)|Paul Wilson]]
* {{cricon|BAN}} [[Masudur Rahman]]
* {{cricon|ENG}} [[Richard Illingworth]]
* {{cricon|IND}} [[Jayaraman Madanagopal]]
* {{cricon|NZ}} [[Chris Gaffaney]]
* {{cricon|PAK}} [[Asif Yaqoob]]
* {{cricon|SRI}} [[Ruchira Palliyaguruge]]
* {{cricon|ZIM}} [[Langton Rusere]]
{{div col end}}

==Group stage==
===Group A===
====Points table====
{{2023 Asia Cup Group A}}

====Fixtures====
{{hatnote|Timing of matches in Pakistan are in [[Pakistan Standard Time]] (PST) ([[UTC+5]]).}}
{{hatnote|Timing of matches in Sri Lanka are in [[Sri Lanka Standard Time]] (SLST) ([[UTC+5:30]]).}}
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 30 August 2023
| time = 14:30 (PST)
| daynight = y
| team1 = {{cr-rt|PAK}}
| team2 = {{cr|NEP}}
| score1 = 342/6 (50 overs)
| runs1 = [[Babar Azam]] 151 (131)
| wickets1 = [[Sompal Kami]] 2/85 (10 overs)
| score2 = 104 (23.4 overs)
| runs2 = [[Sompal Kami]] 28 (46)
| wickets2 = [[Shadab Khan]] 4/27 (6.4 overs)
| result = Pakistan won by 238 runs
| report = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388392.html Scorecard]
|venue = [[Multan Cricket Stadium]], [[Multan]]
| umpires = [[Chris Gaffaney]] (NZ) and [[Masudur Rahman]] (Ban)
| motm = [[Babar Azam]] (Pak)
| toss = Pakistan won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain =
| notes = This was the first time Nepal and Pakistan faced each other in ODIs.
* [[Iftikhar Ahmed (cricketer)|Iftikhar Ahmed]] (Pak) scored his maiden century in ODIs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/iftikhar-ahmed-joins-pakistan-legend-zaheer-abbas-in-unique-maiden-century-list-after-unbeaten-ton-in-pak-vs-nep-match-101693402242392.html |title=Iftikhar Ahmed joins Pakistan legend Zaheer Abbas in unique 'maiden century' list after unbeaten ton in PAK vs NEP match |work=Hindustan Times|access-date= 31 August 2023}}</ref>
* [[Babar Azam]] and [[Iftikhar Ahmed (cricketer)|Iftikhar Ahmed]] scored the [[List of Pakistan One Day International cricket records#Highest partnerships by wicket|highest partnership for 5th wicket]] for Pakistan in ODI.
}}
----
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 2 September 2023
| time = 15:00 (SLST)
| daynight = y
| team1 = {{cr-rt|IND}}
| team2 = {{cr|PAK}}
| score1 = 266 (48.5 overs)
| runs1 = [[Hardik Pandya]] 87 (90)
| wickets1 = [[Shaheen Afridi]] 4/35 (10 overs)
| score2 =
| runs2 =
| wickets2 =
| result = No result
| report = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388394.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Pallekele International Cricket Stadium]], [[Kandy]]
| umpires = [[Richard Illingworth]] (Eng) and [[Ruchira Palliyaguruge]] (SL)
| motm =
| toss = India won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain = Rain prevented any further play.
| notes = As a result of this match, Pakistan qualified for the Super Four.
}}
----
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 4 September 2023
| time = 15:00 (SLST)
| daynight = y
| team1 = {{cr-rt|NEP}}
| team2 = {{cr|IND}}
| score1 = 230 (48.2 overs)
| runs1 = [[Aasif Sheikh (cricketer)|Aasif Sheikh]] 58 (97)
| wickets1 = [[Ravindra Jadeja]] 3/40 (10 overs)
| score2 = 147/0 (20.1 overs)
| runs2 = [[Rohit Sharma]] 74[[not out|*]] (59)
| wickets2 =
| result = India won by 10 wickets ([[Duckworth-Lewis-Stern method|DLS]] method)
| report = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388398.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Pallekele International Cricket Stadium]], [[Kandy]]
| umpires = [[Paul Wilson (cricketer)|Paul Wilson]] (Aus) and [[Ruchira Palliyaguruge]] (SL)
| motm = [[Rohit Sharma]] (Ind)
| toss = India won the toss and elected to field.
| rain = India were set a revised target of 145 runs from 23 overs due to rain.
| notes = This was the first time India and Nepal faced each other in ODIs.
* As the result of this match, India qualified for the Super Four and Nepal were eliminated.
}}

===Group B===
====Points table====
{{2023 Asia Cup Group B}}
====Fixtures====
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 31 August 2023
| time = 15:00 (SLST)
| daynight = y
| team1 = {{cr-rt|BAN}}
| team2 = {{cr|SL}}
| score1 = 164 (42.4 overs)
| runs1 = [[Najmul Hossain Shanto]] 89 (122)
| wickets1 = [[Matheesha Pathirana]] 4/32 (7.4 overs)
| score2 = 165/5 (39 overs)
| runs2 = [[Charith Asalanka]] 62[[not out|*]] (92)
| wickets2 = [[Shakib Al Hasan]] 2/29 (10 overs)
| result = Sri Lanka won by 5 wickets
| report = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388393.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Pallekele International Cricket Stadium]], [[Kandy]]
| umpires = [[Jayaraman Madanagopal]] (Ind) and [[Paul Wilson (cricketer)|Paul Wilson]] (Aus)
| motm = [[Matheesha Pathirana]] (SL)
| toss = Bangladesh won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain =
| notes = [[Tanzid Hasan]] (Ban) made his ODI debut.
}}
----
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 3 September 2023
| time = 14:30 (PST)
| daynight = y
| team1 = {{cr-rt|BAN}}
| team2 = {{cr|AFG}}
| score1 = 334/5 (50 overs)
| runs1 = [[Mehidy Hasan]] 112[[not out|*]] (119)
| wickets1 = [[Gulbadin Naib]] 1/58 (8 overs)
| score2 = 245 (44.3 overs)
| runs2 = [[Ibrahim Zadran ]] 75 (74)
| wickets2 = [[Taskin Ahmed]] 4/44 (8.3 overs)
| result = Bangladesh won by 89 runs
| report = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388397.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Gaddafi Stadium]], [[Lahore]]
| umpires = [[Asif Yaqoob]] (Pak) and [[Langton Rusere]] (Zim)
| motm = [[Mehidy Hasan]] (Ban)
| toss = Bangladesh won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain =
| notes = [[Shamim Hossain]] (Ban) made his ODI debut.
*''Afghanistan played their first-ever international cricket match in Pakistan.''
*''[[Mehidy Hasan]] (Ban) scored his 1000th runs in ODIs.''
*''579 runs were scored in two innings of the match, which is the highest match aggregates involving Bangladesh and Afghanistan in ODIs.''<ref>{{cite web |title=Afghanistan vs Bangladesh Head To Head ODI match team highest match aggregates |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/headtohead/team-highest-match-aggregates/afghanistan-bangladesh-40vs25/one-day-internationals-2 |website=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=4 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
*''As a result of this match, Bangladesh qualified for the Super Four.''
}}
----
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 5 September 2023
| time = 14:30 (PST)
| daynight = y
| team1 = {{cr-rt|SL}}
| team2 = {{cr|AFG}}
| score1 = 291/8 (50 overs)
| runs1 = [[Kusal Mendis]] 92 (84)
| wickets1 = [[Gulbadin Naib]] 4/60 (10 overs)
| score2 = 289 (37.4 overs)
| runs2 = [[Mohammad Nabi]] 65 (32)
| wickets2 = [[Kasun Rajitha]] 4/79 (10 overs)
| result = Sri Lanka won by 2 runs
| report = [https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388400.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Gaddafi Stadium]], [[Lahore]]
| umpires = [[Asif Yaqoob]] (Pak) and [[Chris Gaffaney]] (NZ)
| motm = [[Kusal Mendis]] (SL)
| toss = Sri Lanka won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain =
| notes = [[Mohammad Nabi]] (Afg) scored fastest fifty (24 balls) for Afghanistan in ODIs.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/cricket/asia-cup/asia-cup-mohammad-nabi-slams-afghanistans-fastest-odi-fifty/articleshow/103404060.cms| title=Asia Cup: Mohammad Nabi slams Afghanistan's fastest ODI fifty| work=[[The Times of India]]| date=5 September 2023| accessdate=6 September 2023}}</ref>
*'' As the result of this match, Sri Lanka qualified for the Super Four and Afghanistan were eliminated''.
}}

== Super Four ==
As tournament organisers, the [[Pakistan Cricket Board]] announced that 11 September would be a reserve day for the Super Four clash between India and Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rain clouds hover over Pakistan, India clash as other teams criticise 'reserve day' |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1774817/rain-clouds-hover-over-pakistan-india-clash-as-other-teams-criticise-reserve-day |work=DAWN |date=9 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> If the reserve day is triggered, the match will continue on 11 September from the point it was suspended.<ref>{{cite news |title=India vs Pakistan the only Asia Cup Super Four game with a reserve day |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/asia-cup-2023-india-vs-pakistan-the-only-super-fours-game-with-reserve-day-1397047 |work=ESPNcricinfo |date=8 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

India became the first team to qualify for the final after they beat Sri Lanka by 41 runs on 12 September. They made the tournament's final for the tenth time.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Karhadkar |first1=Amol |title=India qualifies for Asia Cup 2023 final, ends Sri Lanka's 13-match winning streak |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/india-qualifies-asia-cup-2023-final-beats-sri-lanka-odi-win-streak-colombo-ind-vs-sl-match-result-spinners-highlights/article67300410.ece |access-date=15 September 2023 |work=Sportstar |date=12 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Two days later, Sri Lanka made their 12th final, 11th in the ODI format of the tournament, after they defeated Pakistan by two wickets in a rain-disrupted match.<ref>{{cite news |title=Asia Cup 2023: Sri Lanka win last-over thriller against Pakistan, to meet Rohit Sharma's men in the final |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/sports/cricket/asia-cup-2023-sri-lanka-win-last-over-thriller-in-super-4-against-pakistan-to-meet-india-rohit-sharma-s-men-in-the-final-2023-09-15-892781 |access-date=15 September 2023 |work=indiatvnews.com |date=15 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

===Points table===
{{2023 Asia Cup Super Four}}
===Fixtures===
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 6 September 2023
| time = 14:30 (PST)
| daynight = y
| night =
| team1 = {{cr-rt|BAN}}
| team2 = {{cr|PAK}}
| score1 = 193 (38.4 overs)
| runs1 = [[Mushfiqur Rahim]] 64 (87)
| wickets1 = [[Haris Rauf]] 4/19 (6 overs)
| score2 = 194/3 (39.3 overs)
| runs2 = [[Imam-ul-Haq]] 78 (84)
| wickets2 = [[Shoriful Islam]] 1/24 (8 overs)
| result = Pakistan won by 7 wickets
| report =[https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388401.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[Gaddafi Stadium]], [[Lahore]]
| umpires = [[Ahmed Shah Pakteen]] (Afg) and [[Langton Rusere]] (Zim)
| motm = [[Haris Rauf]] (Pak)
| toss = Bangladesh won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain =
| notes = [[Haris Rauf]] (Pak) took his 50th wicket in ODIs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.timesofindia.com/sports/cricket/asia-cup/haris-rauf-ties-with-waqar-younis-to-become-third-fastest-to-50-odi-wickets-for-pakistan/articleshow/103437820.cms|title=Haris Rauf ties with Waqar Younis to become third-fastest to 50 ODI wickets for Pakistan |access-date=6 September 2023 |work=The Times of India}}</ref>
}}
----
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 9 September 2023
| time = 15:00 (SLST)
| daynight = y
| night =
| team1 = {{cr-rt|SL}}
| team2 = {{cr|BAN}}
| score1 = 257/9 (50 overs)
| runs1 = [[Sadeera Samarawickrama]] 93 (72)
| wickets1 = [[Hasan Mahmud]] 3/57 (9 overs)
| score2 = 236 (48.1 overs)
| runs2 = [[Towhid Hridoy]] 82 (97)
| wickets2 = [[Dasun Shanaka]] 3/28 (9 overs)
| result = Sri Lanka won by 21 runs
| report =[https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388403.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]]
| umpires = [[Jayaraman Madanagopal]] (Ind) and [[Paul Wilson (cricketer)|Paul Wilson]] (Aus)
| motm = [[Sadeera Samarawickrama]] (SL)
| toss = Bangladesh won the toss and elected to field.
| rain =
| notes =
}}
----
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 10–11 September 2023
| time = 15:00 (SLST)
| daynight = y
| night =
| team1 = {{cr-rt|IND}}
| team2 = {{cr|PAK}}
| score1 = 356/2 (50 overs)
| runs1 = [[Virat Kohli]] 122[[not out|*]] (94)
| wickets1 = [[Shadab Khan]] 1/71 (10 overs)
| score2 = 128 (32 overs)
| runs2 = [[Fakhar Zaman (cricketer)|Fakhar Zaman]] 27 (50)
| wickets2 = [[Kuldeep Yadav]] 5/25 (8 overs)
| result = India won by 228 runs
| report =[https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388406.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]]
| umpires = [[Chris Gaffaney]] (NZ) and [[Ruchira Palliyaguruge]] (SL)
| motm = [[Virat Kohli]] (Ind)
| toss = Pakistan won the toss and elected to field.
| rain =
| notes = [[Virat Kohli]] (Ind) scored his 13,000th run in ODIs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timesofindia.com/sports/cricket/asia-cup/masterful-virat-kohli-slams-77th-international-ton-becomes-fastest-to-13000-odi-runs/articleshow/103581903.cms|title=Masterful Virat Kohli slams 77th international ton, becomes fastest to 13,000 ODI runs|work=The Times of India|access-date=11 September 2023}}</ref>
* [[K. L. Rahul]] (Ind) scored his 2,000th run in ODIs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timesnownews.com/sports/cricket/ind-vs-pak-kl-rahul-overtakes-sanjay-manjrekar-in-elite-list-completes-2000-odi-runs-article-103555345/|title=KL Rahul Overtakes Sanjay Manjrekar in Elite List, Completes 2000 ODI Runs|work=Times Now|access-date=12 September 2023}}</ref>
* Virat Kohli scored quickest 13000 runs in terms of innings (267).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/trending/ind-vs-pak-virat-kohli-becomes-fastest-to-reach-13-000-odi-runs-x-erupts-in-joy-101694440159735.html|title=Virat Kohli becomes fastest to reach 13,000 ODI runs, X erupts in joy|work=Hindustan Times|access-date=11 September 2023}}</ref>
* Virat Kohli and K.L. Rahul scored the highest partnership for any wicket against Pakistan in ODI.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/india-vs-pakistan-virat-kohli-kl-rahul-set-all-time-asia-cup-record-with-massive-233-run-partnership-2434302-2023-09-11|title=India vs Pakistan: Virat Kohli, KL Rahul set all-time Asia Cup record with massive 233-run partnership|work=India Today|access-date=12 September 2023}}</ref>
* This was India's [[India–Pakistan cricket rivalry#ODI records|largest victory]] in terms of runs in ODI against Pakistan.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/cricketnext/india-register-biggest-ever-win-over-pakistan-hammer-babar-azams-men-by-228-runs-in-asia-cup-super-4-stage-8573724.html|title=India Register Biggest Ever Win over Pakistan, Hammer Babar Azam's Men by 228 Runs in Asia Cup Super 4 Stage|work=News18|access-date=12 September 2023}}</ref>
}}
----
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 12 September 2023
| time = 15:00 (SLST)
| daynight = y
| night =
| team1 = {{cr-rt|IND}}
| team2 = {{cr|SL}}
| score1 = 213 (49.1 overs)
| runs1 = [[Rohit Sharma]] 53 (48)
| wickets1 = [[Dunith Wellalage]] 5/40 (10 overs)
| score2 = 172 (41.3 overs)
| runs2 = [[Dunith Wellalage]] 42[[not out|*]] (46)
| wickets2 = [[Kuldeep Yadav]] 4/43 (9.3 overs)
| result = India won by 41 runs
| report =[https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388407.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]]
| umpires = [[Masudur Rahman]] (Ban) and [[Richard Illingworth]] (Eng)
| motm = [[Dunith Wellalage]] (SL)
| toss = India won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain =
| notes = [[Rohit Sharma]] (Ind) scored his 10,000th run in ODIs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/cricket/rohit-sharma-leaves-legends-tendulkar-ponting-dhoni-miles-behind-by-smashing-10000-odi-runs-in-ind-vs-sl-asia-cup-tie-101694511567902.html|title=Rohit Sharma leaves legends Tendulkar, Ponting, Dhoni miles behind by smashing 10000 ODI runs in IND vs SL Asia Cup tie|work=Hindustan Times|access-date=12 September 2023}}</ref>
* [[Dunith Wellalage]] (SL) took his first [[five-wicket haul]] in ODIs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/asia-cup-dunith-wellalage-rattles-india-as-he-takes-maiden-odi-fifer-in-super-4-match-charith-asalanka-8936818/|title=Asia Cup: Dunith Wellalage rattles India as he takes maiden ODI fifer in Super 4 match|work=The Indian Express|access-date=12 September 2023}}</ref>
* As the result of this match, India qualified for the final and Bangladesh were eliminated.
}}
----
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 14 September 2023
| time = 15:00 (SLST)
| daynight = y
| night =
| team1 = {{cr-rt|PAK}}
| team2 = {{cr|SL}}
| score1 = 252/7 (42 overs)
| runs1 = [[Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)|Mohammad Rizwan]] 86[[not out|*]] (73)
| wickets1 = [[Matheesha Pathirana]] 3/65 (8 overs)
| score2 = 252/8 (42 overs)
| runs2 = [[Kusal Mendis]] 91 (87)
| wickets2 = [[Iftikhar Ahmed (cricketer)|Iftikhar Ahmed]] 3/50 (8 overs)
| result = Sri Lanka won by 2 wickets ([[Duckworth-Lewis-Stern method|DLS method]])
| report =[https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388410.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]]
| umpires = [[Ahmed Shah Pakteen]] (Afg) and [[Langton Rusere]] (Zim)
| motm = [[Kusal Mendis]] (SL)
| toss = Pakistan won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain = The match was reduced to 42 overs per side.
* Sri Lanka were set a revised target of 252 runs due to rain.
| notes = [[Zaman Khan]] (Pak) made his ODI debut.
* As a result of this match, Sri Lanka qualified for the final and Pakistan were eliminated.
}}
----
{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 15 September 2023
| time = 15:00 (SLST)
| daynight = y
| night =
| team1 = {{cr-rt|BAN}}
| team2 = {{cr|IND}}
| score1 = 265/8 (50 overs)
| runs1 = [[Shakib Al Hasan]] 80 (85)
| wickets1 = [[Shardul Thakur]] 3/65 (10 overs)
| score2 = 259 (49.5 overs)
| runs2 = [[Shubman Gill]] 121 (133)
| wickets2 = [[Mustafizur Rahman]] 3/50 (8 overs)
| result = Bangladesh won by 6 runs
| report =[https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388412.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]]
| umpires = [[Asif Yaqoob]] (Pak) and [[Richard Illingworth]] (Eng)
| motm = [[Shakib Al Hasan]] (Ban)
| toss = India won the toss and elected to field.
| rain =
| notes = [[Tanzim Hasan Sakib]] (Ban) and [[Tilak Varma]] (Ind) both made their ODI debuts.
* [[Ravindra Jadeja]] (Ind) took his 200th wicket in ODIs.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.indianexpress.com/article/sports/cricket/asia-cup-2023-ravindra-jadeja-claims-200th-odi-wicket-as-india-tighten-grip-over-bangladesh-8941467/|title=Asia Cup 2023: Ravindra Jadeja claims 200th ODI wicket as India tighten grip over Bangladesh|work=The Indian Express|access-date=15 September 2023}}</ref>
* [[Mustafizur Rahman]] (Ban) became the quickest bowler for Bangladesh to reach 150 wickets in ODIs in terms of matches (91), surpassing [[Abdur Razzak (cricketer)|Abdur Razzak]] (108).<ref>{{cite news |title=Record that Mustafizur broke against India in Colombo |url=https://www.thedailystar.net/sports/sports-special/asia-cup-2023/news/record-mustafizur-broke-against-india-colombo-3420136 |access-date=17 September 2023 |work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |date=16 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
}}

==Final==
{{main|2023 Asia Cup final}}

{{Single-innings cricket match
| date = 17 September 2023
| time = 15:00 (SLST)
| daynight = y
| night =
| team1 = {{cr-rt|SL}}
| team2 = {{cr|IND}}
| score1 = 50 (15.2 overs)
| runs1 = [[Kusal Mendis]] 17 (34)
| wickets1 = [[Mohammed Siraj]] 6/21 (7 overs)
| score2 = 51/0 (6.1 overs)
| runs2 = [[Shubman Gill]] 27[[not out|*]] (19)
| wickets2 =
| result = India won by 10 wickets
| report =[https://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/match/1388414.html Scorecard]
| venue = [[R. Premadasa Stadium]], [[Colombo]]
| umpires = [[Richard Illingworth]] (Eng) and [[Ahmed Shah Pakteen]] (Afg)
| motm = [[Mohammed Siraj]] (Ind)
| toss = Sri Lanka won the toss and elected to bat.
| rain =
| notes = [[Rohit Sharma]] (Ind) played his 250th ODI.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/asia-cup-2023-final-rohit-sharma-9th-indian-to-250-odi-matches-india-vs-sri-lanka-colombo-2436829-2023-09-17|title=Asia Cup 2023 Final: Rohit Sharma becomes 9th Indian to play 250 ODI matches|work=India Today|access-date=17 September 2023}}</ref>
* [[Mohammed Siraj]] (Ind) became the second quickest bowler to reach 50 ODI wickets in terms of balls bowled (1,002).<ref name="sportstar">{{cite news |last1=Sportstar |first1=Team |title=IND vs SL: Siraj becomes first Indian to bag four wickets in one over, equals fastest ODI five-wicket haul |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/india-vs-sri-lanka-asia-cup-2023-final-siraj-four-wickets-one-over-lasith-malinga-record/article67318112.ece |access-date=17 September 2023 |work=Sportstar |date=17 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> He picked his first [[five-wicket haul]] in ODIs,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/sports/cricket/story/asia-cup-2023-final-mohammed-siraj-picks-4-wickets-in-an-over-becomes-4th-fastest-indian-to-pick-50-odi-wickets-2436858-2023-09-17|title=Asia Cup 2023 Final: Mohammed Siraj picks 4 wickets in an over, becomes 4th fastest Indian to pick 50 ODI wickets|work=India Today|access-date=17 September 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://sports.ndtv.com/asia-cup-2023/india-vs-sri-lanka-mohammed-siraj-lights-up-asia-cup-final-with-rapid-five-wicket-haul-watch-4398051/|title=India vs Sri Lanka: Mohammed Siraj Lights Up Asia Cup Final With Fastest 5-Wicket Haul In ODIs|work=NDTV Sports|access-date=17 September 2023}}</ref> which was the joint quickest in terms of balls bowled (16). He also claimed four wickets in an over, the first India bowler to do so in ODIs.<ref name="sportstar"/>
* Sri Lanka's 50 was their [[List of Sri Lanka One Day International cricket records|second lowest total in ODIs]], and the lowest by any team in Asia Cup tournaments, below Bangladesh's 87 [[2000 Asia Cup|in 2000]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sportstar |first1=Team |title=IND vs SL: Sri Lanka 50 all out, records lowest Asia Cup total in final |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/sri-lanka-50-all-out-asia-cup-2023-ind-vs-sl-lowest-team-scores-records-siraj-six-wickets/article67318262.ece |access-date=17 September 2023 |work=Sportstar |date=17 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref> It was also their shortest completed innings in ODIs in terms of balls faced (92), and [[List of One Day International cricket records#Shortest completed innings %28by balls%29|fifth overall]].<ref>{{cite web |title=ODI matches {{!}} Team records {{!}} Shortest completed innings (by balls) |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/shortest-completed-innings-by-balls-283160 |website=ESPNcricinfo |access-date=17 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
* This was India's highest margin of victory in ODIs, in terms of balls remaining (263).<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sportstar |first1=Team |title=Biggest ODI wins: India records best win chasing vs Sri Lanka in Asia Cup 2023 final |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/biggest-odi-wins-chasing-balls-remaining-india-vs-sri-lanka-asia-cup-2023-final-team-records/article67318407.ece |access-date=17 September 2023 |work=Sportstar |date=17 September 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
}}

==Statistics==
===Most runs===
The top five highest run scorers (total runs) in the tournament are included in this table.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/tournament/batting-most-runs-career/asia-cup-2023-15623 |work=ESPNcricinfo |publisher=ESPN |title= Asia Cup 2023 — Most Runs — Records |access-date=31 August 2023}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:centre;"
|-
! Player
![[Run (cricket)|Runs]]|| [[Innings#Cricket |Innings]]
!NO|| [[Batting average (cricket)| Average]] || SR || HS
!100
!50
!4s
!6s
|- style="background:gold;"
| style="text-align:left" | {{cricon|IND}} [[Shubman Gill]]
| style="text-align:center;" |'''302'''
| style="text-align:center;" | 6
| style="text-align:center;" | 2
| 75.50 || 93.49 || 121
| style="text-align:center;" | 1
| style="text-align:center;" | 2
| style="text-align:center;" | 35
| style="text-align:center;" | 6
|-
| style="text-align:left" | {{cricon|SL}} [[Kusal Mendis]]
| style="text-align:center;" |'''270'''
| style="text-align:center;" | 6
| style="text-align:center;" | 0
| 45.00 || 85.71 || 92
| style="text-align:center;" | 0
| style="text-align:center;" | 3
| style="text-align:center;" | 27
| style="text-align:center;" | 5
|-
| style="text-align:left" | {{cricon|SL}} [[Sadeera Samarawickrama]]
| style="text-align:center;" |'''215'''
| style="text-align:center;" | 6
| style="text-align:center;" | 0
| 35.83 || 89.21 || 93
| style="text-align:center;" | 0
| style="text-align:center;" | 2
| style="text-align:center;" | 19
| style="text-align:center;" | 2
|-
| style="text-align:left" | {{cricon|PAK}} [[Babar Azam]]
| style="text-align:center;" |'''207'''
| style="text-align:center;" | 4
| style="text-align:center;" | 0
| 51.75 || 97.64 || 151
| style="text-align:center;" | 1
| style="text-align:center;" | 0
| style="text-align:center;" | 20
| style="text-align:center;" | 4
|-
| style="text-align:left" | {{cricon|PAK}} [[Mohammad Rizwan (cricketer)|Mohammad Rizwan]]
| style="text-align:center;" |'''195'''
| style="text-align:center;" | 4
| style="text-align:center;" | 2
| 97.50 || 94.20 || 86[[not out|*]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 0
| style="text-align:center;" | 2
| style="text-align:center;" | 19
| style="text-align:center;" | 3

|}

===Most wickets===
The top seven wicket-takers in the tournament are included in this table.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/records/tournament/bowling-most-wickets-career/asia-cup-2023-15623 |work=ESPNcricinfo |publisher=ESPN |title= Asia Cup 2023 — Most Wickets — Records |access-date=31 August 2023}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:centre;"
|-
! Player
![[Wicket|Wickets]] || [[Innings#cricket |Innings]]
![[Run (cricket)|Runs]]||Overs || BBI || Econ.
![[Bowling average|Ave.]]
!5WI
|- style="background:gold;"
| style="text-align:left" | {{cricon|SL}} [[Matheesha Pathirana]]
| style="text-align:center;" |'''11'''
| style="text-align:center;" | 6
| style="text-align:center;" | 270
| style="text-align:center;" | 40.5 || 4/32 || 6.61
| style="text-align:center;" | 24.54
| style="text-align:center;" | 0
|-
| style="text-align:left" | {{cricon|IND}} [[Mohammed Siraj]]
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="3" |'''10'''
| style="text-align:center;" | 4
| style="text-align:center;" | 122
| style="text-align:center;" | 26.2 || 6/21 || 4.63
| style="text-align:center;" | 12.20
| style="text-align:center;" | 1
|-
| style="text-align:left" | {{cricon|SL}} [[Dunith Wellalage]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 6
| style="text-align:center;" | 179
| style="text-align:center;" | 2.0 || 5/40 || 4.26
| style="text-align:center;" | 17.90
| style="text-align:center;" | 1
|-
| style="text-align:left" | {{cricon|PAK}} [[Shaheen Afridi]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 5
| style="text-align:center;" | 235
| style="text-align:center;" | 41.00 || 4/35 || 5.73
| style="text-align:center;" | 23.50
| style="text-align:center;" | 0
|-
| style="text-align:left" | {{cricon|IND}} [[Kuldeep Yadav]]
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="3"|'''9'''
| style="text-align:center;" | 4
| style="text-align:center;" | 103
| style="text-align:center;" | 28.3 || 5/25 || 3.61
| style="text-align:center;" | 11.44
| style="text-align:center;" | 1
|-
| style="text-align:left" | {{cricon|PAK}} [[Haris Rauf]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 4
| style="text-align:center;" | 120
| style="text-align:center;" | 25.00 || 4/19 || 4.80
| style="text-align:center;" | 13.33
| style="text-align:center;" | 0
|-
| style="text-align:left" | {{cricon|BAN}} [[Taskin Ahmed]]
| style="text-align:center;" | 4
| style="text-align:center;" | 172
| style="text-align:center;" | 33.3 || 4/44 || 5.13
| style="text-align:center;" | 19.11
| style="text-align:center;" | 0
|}

==Broadcasting==
This is the list of channels for the [[Indian subcontinent]] only.{{cn|date=September 2023}}
{| class=wikitable
!Territory
!Rights holder(s)
|-
|Afghanistan
|[[Ariana Television Network]]
|-
|Bangladesh
|[[Gazi TV]] [[Bangladesh Television|BTV National]]
|-
|India
|[[Star Sports (Indian TV network)|Star Sports]]
|-
|Nepal
|[[Star Sports (Indian TV network)|Star Sports]]
|-
|Pakistan
|[[PTV Sports]] [[Ten Sports]]
|-
|Sri Lanka
|[[TV One (Sri Lankan TV channel)|TV One]]
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/asia-cup-2023-1388374 Series home at ESPNcricinfo]

{{Asia Cup}}
{{International cricket in 2023}}

[[Category:2023 Asia Cup]]
[[Category:August 2023 events in Pakistan]]
[[Category:September 2023 events in Pakistan]]
[[Category:International cricket competitions in 2023]]
[[Category:Cricket events postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic|Asia Cup]]
[[Category:August 2023 sports events in Asia|Asia Cup]]
[[Category:September 2023 sports events in Asia|Asia Cup]]
[[Category:International cricket competitions in Pakistan]]
[[Category:2023 in Pakistani cricket]]

Savita Punia

2023-10-05T10:00:12Z

Sahil Kothari:

{{short description|Indian field hockey player}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox field hockey player
| name = Savita Punia
| image = Savita Punia receiving Arjuna Award for Hockey in 2018.jpg
| caption = Punia receiving the [[Arjuna Award]], 2018
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1990|7|11|df=y}}
| birth_place = Jodhkan, [[Sirsa district|Sirsa]], [[Haryana]], India
| height = 1.71 m
| weight = 60 kg
| position = Goalkeeper
| currentclub = National Centre Of Excellence, Delhi
| years1 =
| clubs1 = Hockey Haryana
| caps1 =
| goals1 =
| years2 =
| clubs2 = National Centre Of Excellence, Delhi
| caps2 =
| goals2 =
| nationalyears1 = 2008–
| nationalteam1 = [[India women's national field hockey team|India]]
| nationalcaps1 = 250
| nationalgoals1 = 0
| medaltemplates =
{{MedalSport|Women's [[field hockey]]}}
{{MedalCountry|{{IND}}}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Field hockey at the Asian Games|Asian Games]]}}
{{MedalSilver|[[Field hockey at the 2018 Asian Games|2018 Jakarta]]|[[Field hockey at the 2018 Asian Games – Women|Team]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[Field hockey at the 2014 Asian Games|2014 Incheon]]|[[Field hockey at the 2014 Asian Games – Women|Team]]}}
{{MedalComp|[[Commonwealth Games]]}}
{{MedalBronze|[[Hockey at the 2022 Commonwealth Games|2022 Birmingham]]|[[Hockey at the 2022 Commonwealth Games – Women's tournament|Team]]}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Women's Hockey Asia Cup|Asia Cup]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2017 Women's Hockey Asia Cup|2017 Gifu]]|}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2009 Women's Hockey Asia Cup|2009 Bangkok]]|}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2013 Women's Hockey Asia Cup|2013 Kuala Lumpur]]|}}
{{MedalBronze|[[2022 Women's Hockey Asia Cup|2022 Muscat]]|}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Women's Asian Champions Trophy|Asian Champions Trophy]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2016 Women's Asian Champions Trophy|2016 Singapore]]|}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2013 Women's Asian Champions Trophy|2013 Kakamigahara]]|}}
{{MedalSilver|[[2018 Asian Women's Hockey Champions Trophy|2018 Donghae]]|}}
{{MedalCompetition|[[Women's FIH Hockey Nations Cup|FIH Nations Cup]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2022 Women's FIH Hockey Nations Cup|2022 Spain]]|}}
}}

'''Savita Punia''' (born 11 July 1990) is an Indian [[field hockey]] player and is a member of the [[India women's national field hockey team]]. She hails from [[Haryana]] and plays as the [[Field hockey#Positions|goalkeeper]]. Savita Punia is also known as "Great Wall of India" because of her phenomenal and outstanding performance in [[2020 Summer Olympics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/sports/wall-of-india-social-media-hail-savita-punia-as-indian-womens-hockey-team-reach-semis-4035050.html|title=Wall of India! Social Media Hails Savita Punia as Indian Women's Hockey Team Reach Semis|website=News18|date=2 August 2021|access-date=2021-08-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/haryana/goalie-savita-punia-who-stood-like-a-wall-loved-to-listen-to-hockey-commentary-on-radio-as-child-291861|title=Goalie Savita Punia, who stood like a wall, loved listening to hockey commentary on radio as a child|website=TribuneIndia|access-date=2021-08-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/olympics/savita-punia-haryana-roadways-buses-kit-tokyo-2020-glory-7434502/|title=Savita Punia: From lugging kit on Haryana roadways buses to Olympic glory|website=Indian Express|date=6 August 2021|access-date=2021-08-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbesindia.com/thirtyprofile2018/savita-punia/1679/53|title=Savita Punia|website=Forbes India|access-date=2021-08-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://olympics.com/en/featured-news/who-is-savita-punia-five-things-to-know-about-india-s-unflappable-hockey-goalkee|title=Who is Savita Punia? Five things to know about India's unflappable hockey goalkeeper|website=Olympics|access-date=2021-08-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ndtv.com/offbeat/tokyo-olympics-savita-the-wall-punia-chakdeindia-trend-as-hockey-team-reaches-semis-2500434|title=Savita "The Wall" Punia, #ChakDeIndia Trend As Hockey Team Reaches Semis|website=NDTV|access-date=2021-08-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scoopwhoop.com/sports/savita-punia-india-goalkeeper-hailed-by-twitter/|title=Meet The Wall: Indians Are Hailing Goalkeeper Savita Punia After Her Stunning Performances|website=ScoopWhoop|date=2 August 2021|access-date=2021-08-07}}</ref>

==Early life==
Savita Punia was born on 11 July 1990 in Jodhkan village of [[Sirsa district]] in [[Haryana]]. She was sent to the district headquarters for better schooling. She was enrolled in the sports academy. She was encouraged by her grandfather Mahinder Singh to take up hockey and joined the Sports Authority of India (SAI) center at Hisar.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sen |first1=Debayan |title=Savita Punia fulfills grandfather's dream to become world's best |url=http://www.espn.in/field-hockey/story/_/id/24129387 |website=ESPN |accessdate=22 July 2018 |date=19 July 2018}}</ref> She was coached by Sunder Singh Kharab during her early years and later coached by Azad Singh Malik.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/hockey/rio-olympics-2016-know-your-indian-olympian-10-things-know-about-savita-punia |title=Savita Punia: 10 things to know about India's female hockey goalkeeper at Rio Olympics 2016 |date=14 July 2016 |access-date=13 May 2017}}</ref> She was initially not too interested in the game, but later, when her father spent Twenty Thousand Rupees on her kit, she started to see the game in a new light and got serious about it. In 2007, Punia was picked for a maiden national camp in Lucknow, and she trained with a top goalkeeper.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.espn.in/field-hockey/story/_/id/24129387/savita-punia-haryana-schoolgirl-became-indian-women-hockey-team-no1-goalkeeper |title=Savita Punia fulfills grandfather's dream to become world's best |work=ESPN |access-date=28 July 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

==Career==
In 2008, Punia made her first international tour, a four-nation event in Netherlands and Germany.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.livemint.com/Sports/wIy8yhBxyaBzdVKgb0xphL/Savita-Punia-Indias-lady-in-shining-armour.html |title=Savita Punia: India's lady in shining armour |last=Patwardhan |first=Deepti |date=14 March 2018 |work=livemint.com |access-date=28 July 2018}}</ref> She made her senior international debut in the year 2011. She has featured in more than 100 games at the international level. She qualified for the national team in 2007 when she was barely 17. In 2009, she participated as a member of the team in the Junior Asia Cup. In 2013, she participated in the Eighth Women's Asia Cup held in [[Malaysia]] in which she saved two crucial potential goals in the penalty shoot-out and paved the way for India to win a Bronze medal. She was a part of the bronze-winning team at the 2014 Incheon Asian Games.

In the year 2016, she displayed excellent performance when she withstood a barrage of penalty corners against Japan in the last 1 minute to help India hold on to its 1–0 lead. She helped the team qualify for the Rio Olympics after 36 years. In the Asia Cup of 2018, she made an astonishing save against China in the final, earning herself the goalkeeper of the tournament award and for her team, a slot in the 2018 World Cup in London.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.forbesindia.com/thirtyprofile2018/savita-punia/1679/53 |title=Savita Punia – Forbes India Magazine |website=Forbes India |language=en-US |access-date=28 July 2018}}</ref>

She performed effectively at the Hawke's Bay Cup in New Zealand and helped her team finish 6th in the tournament.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/sports/hockey/once-reluctant-player-savita-punia-keeps-india-in-olympic-chase/ |title=Once reluctant player, Savita Punia keeps India in Olympic chase |date=7 July 2015 |work=The Indian Express |access-date=13 May 2017 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Her outstanding performance helped the women's Indian team to beat Chile in the final match of the Women's Hockey World League Round 2.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/india-chile-womens-hockey-world-league-final/1/925068.html |title=India Women's team beat Chile via penalty shootout in Hockey World League Round 2 final |access-date=13 May 2017}}</ref>

In an interview in 2016, Punia revealed that she had been promised a job under the Haryana Government's ''Medal Lao, Naukri Pao'' scheme, but hasn't got it. A year later too, she said that nothing had changed.

==Accolades==
She was awarded the Baljit Singh Goalkeeper of the Year award at the Hockey India Annual Awards in 2015, for having phenomenal performances for India in international contributions which proved her worth as the best goalkeeper in the country. She also received a cash reward of 1 lakh rupees for her contribution to the sports.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/hockey/rio-olympics-2016-know-your-indian-olympian-10-things-know-about-savita-punia |title=Savita Punia: 10 things to know about India's female hockey goalkeeper at Rio Olympics 2016 |date=14 July 2016 |access-date=13 May 2017}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{sports links}}
*[https://www.hockeyindia.org/players/savita-profile-265 Savita Punia] at [[Hockey India]]
*{{cite web |last1=Patwardhan |first1=Deepti |title=Savita Punia: India's lady in shining armour |url=https://www.livemint.com/Sports/wIy8yhBxyaBzdVKgb0xphL/Savita-Punia-Indias-lady-in-shining-armour.html |website=Livemint |date=14 March 2018 |accessdate=22 July 2018}}

{{Navboxes
|title=India squads
| bg = #0077FF
| fg = #FFFF40
|list1=
{{India FHW Squad 2009 Asia Cup}}
{{India FHW Squad 2013 Asia Cup}}
{{India FHW Squad 2014 Asian Games}}
{{India FHW Squad 2016 Summer Olympics}}
{{India FHW Squad 2017 Asia Cup}}
{{India FHW Squad 2018 World Cup}}
{{India FHW Squad 2018 Asian Games}}
{{India FHW Squad 2020 Summer Olympics}}
{{India FHW Squad 2022 Asia Cup}}
{{India FHW Squad 2022 World Cup}}
{{India FHW Squad 2022 Commonwealth Games}}
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Punia, Savita}}
[[Category:1987 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Indian female field hockey players]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian women]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian people]]
[[Category:Asian Games medalists in field hockey]]
[[Category:Asian Games silver medalists for India]]
[[Category:Asian Games bronze medalists for India]]
[[Category:Female field hockey goalkeepers]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2014 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2016 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2020 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2018 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Field hockey players from Haryana]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2014 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2018 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Olympic field hockey players for India]]
[[Category:Sportswomen from Haryana]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2014 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2018 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2022 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for India]]
[[Category:Commonwealth Games medallists in field hockey]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]
[[Category:Medallists at the 2022 Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Field hockey players at the 2022 Asian Games]]

Tramila Bhattacharya

2023-07-20T08:15:46Z

Sahil Kothari: Published a well-researched resource.

{{Short description|Indian actress}}

{{Multiple issues|
{{Copy edit}}
{{Notability}}
}}

'''Tramila Bhattacharya''' (born 11th May 1984 in [[Kolkata]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]]) is an Indian actress working in [[Bengali language|Bengali]] and [[Hindi]] television [[Serial (radio and television)|serials]], [[streaming television]] series, and films. She started her career in the Bengali serial ''[[Seemarekha]]'' on [[Doordarshan]] Bangla in the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Debut |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/people-often-think-actors-arent-educated-its-time-to-change-the-notion-tramila-bhattacherjee/photostory/91551017.cms?picid=91551086 |access-date=2023-07-19 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> She has appeared in Bengali serials including ''[[Mohini (TV series)|Mohini]]'', ''Prati Chuyanno Minute e'', ''Pratiksha ektu bhalobashar'', ''Ekak Dashak Shatak'', ''Poush Faguner Pala'', ''Ananya'', ''Sonar Harin'', ''Ghente GHA'', ''[[Rajjotok|Rajjotak]]'', [[Aaj Aari Kaal Bhaab|''Aaj Ari kaal Bhaab'']], [[Mayurpankhi|''Mayurpankshi'']], ''[[Mohor (TV series)|Mohor]]'', ''[[Potol Kumar Gaanwala]]'', ''Adorini'', ''[[Jai Kali Kalkattawali|Jay Kali Kalkattawali]]'', ''Jay Kanhaiya Laal Ki'', ''[[Jiyon Kathi]]'', ''Mom Palok'', ''Mou-Er-Bari'', ''Agni Juger Padatik'', ''Surjomukhi'', ''Jiban rekha'', ''Subarna Golok'', ''[[Aloukika|Aloukik]]'', ''Haste Mana'', ''Ek Je Achhe Kanya'', ''Durbeen'', ''Ajob Saja,'' and others. After marriage she returned to acting in ''Ghate Ghew''.<ref>{{Cite news |title='Comeback is never easy' |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/people-often-think-actors-arent-educated-its-time-to-change-the-notion-tramila-bhattacherjee/photostory/91551017.cms?picid=91558446 |access-date=2023-07-19 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref> She has worked on the streaming television series ''[[Hello (TV series)|Hello,]]'' which was released on Hoichoi.<ref>{{Cite news |title=People often think actors aren’t educated; it’s time to change the notion: Tramila Bhattacherjee |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/people-often-think-actors-arent-educated-its-time-to-change-the-notion-tramila-bhattacherjee/photostory/91551017.cms |access-date=2023-07-19 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>https://celebs.filmifeed.com/wiki/tramila-bhattacharya/</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bangla |first=TV9 |title=Tollywood Gossip: এত সাংঘাতিক সব প্রস্তাব পেয়েছি যে ছবি করতে গিয়েও ভয়ে সরে এসেছি: ত্রমিলা ভট্টাচার্য |url=https://tv9bangla.com/entertainment/television/check-out-the-exclusive-interview-of-tollywood-actor-tramila-bhattacharya-au30-593762.html |access-date=2023-07-19 |website=TV9 Bangla |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=People often think actors aren’t educated; it’s time to change the notion: Tramila Bhattacherjee |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/bengali/people-often-think-actors-arent-educated-its-time-to-change-the-notion-tramila-bhattacherjee/photostory/91551017.cms |access-date=2023-07-19 |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

== External links ==
[https://www.imdb.com/name/nm8447139 Tramila Bhattacharya] at IMDb

[https://www.instagram.com/tramilabhattacherjee/ Tramila Bhattacharya] on Instagram

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Indian actresses]]
[[Category:Bengali actresses]]
[[Category:Television actresses]]
[[Category:Film actresses]]
[[Category:Bengali television actresses]]
[[Category:Actresses in Hindi television]]
[[Category:Actresses from Kolkata]]
[[Category:1984 births]]

South Zone women's cricket team

2023-07-09T12:12:27Z

Sahil Kothari:

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{Infobox cricket team
| name = South Zone
| image =
| colours =
| coach =
| captain = [[Sneha Deepthi]]
| established = 1974
| ground =
| first_fc = [[Young England women's cricket team|Young England]]
| first_fc_year = 1981
| first_fc_venue = [[Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium, Hyderabad|Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium]], [[Hyderabad]]
| title1 = [[Inter Zone Women's One Day Competition|IZODC]]
| title1wins = 0
| title2 = [[Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Three Day Game|IZ3D]]
| title2wins = 0
| title3 = [[Women's Senior Inter Zonal T20|IZT20]]
| title3wins = 0
| title4 = [[Women's Senior Inter Zonal One Day|IZOD]]
| title4wins = 0
| website =
}}
The '''South Zone women's cricket team''' is a [[Women's cricket|women's]] [[cricket]] team that represents southern [[India]] in the [[Women's Senior Inter Zonal One Day]] and [[Women's Senior Inter Zonal T20]]. It is a composite team of players from six teams from southern India: [[Andhra women's cricket team|Andhra]], [[Goa women's cricket team|Goa]], [[Hyderabad women's cricket team|Hyderabad]], [[Karnataka women's cricket team|Karnataka]], [[Kerala women's cricket team|Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu women's cricket team|Tamil Nadu]]. They were formed in 1974–75 to play in the Rani Jhansi Trophy, which they competed in until 2002–03, when the competition ended. They then competed in the [[Inter Zone Women's One Day Competition]], and then in the [[Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Three Day Game|Inter Zone Women's Three Day Competition]], where they finished as runners-up in the final tournament, in [[2017–18 Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Three Day Game|2017–18]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Teams/4/4768/4768.html |title=Team Profile: South Zone Women (India) |access-date=26 July 2021|publisher=CricketArchive}}</ref>

==History==
South Zone Women first played in the Rani Jhansi Trophy in the 1974–75 season, a [[List A cricket|List A]] competition. They competed in the tournament until it was dissolved after the 2002–03 season, but full results for the trophy are not recorded.<ref name="ListA">{{Cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Teams/4/4768/Womens_List_A_Matches.html |title=Women's List A Matches Played by South Zone Women|access-date=29 July 2021|publisher=CricketArchive}}</ref>

In 2007, South Zone began playing in the [[Inter Zone Women's One Day Competition]], which they competed in between the 2006–07 season until it ended after the 2013–14 season.<ref name="ListA"/> Their best finishes in the tournament came in 2006–07 and 2012–13, when they finished as runners-up.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/8/Inter_Zone_Womens_One_Day_Competition_2006-07.html |title=Inter Zone Women's One Day Competition 2006/07 |work=CricketArchive |access-date=29 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/18/Inter_Zone_Womens_One_Day_Competition_2012-13.html |title=Inter Zone Women's One Day Competition 2012/13 |work=CricketArchive |access-date=29 July 2021}}</ref>

In the 2014–15 season, the zonal teams began competing in a [[First-class cricket|two-day]] competition, the [[Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Three Day Game|Inter Zone Women's Two Day Competition]]. In the [[2014–15 Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Two Day Game|first season]], South Zone finished 4th out of the 5 teams with 6 points.<ref name="fifteen">{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/24/Inter_Zone_Womens_Two_Day_Competition_2014-15.html |title=Inter Zone Women's Two Day Competition 2014/15 |work=CricketArchive |access-date=29 July 2021}}</ref> The following season, [[2015–16 Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Three Day Game|2015–16]], the tournament became a three-day competition and South Zone finished 3rd, this time with 8 points.<ref name="sixteen">{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/26/Inter_Zone_Womens_Three_Day_Competition_2015-16.html |title=Inter Zone Women's Three Day Competition 2015/16 |work=CricketArchive |access-date=29 July 2021}}</ref> In [[2016–17 Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Three Day Game|2016–17]], the side finished bottom of the league, losing three of their four matches.<ref name="seventeen">{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/31/Inter_Zone_Womens_Three_Day_Competition_2016-17.html |title=Inter Zone Women's Three Day Competition 2016/17 |work=CricketArchive |access-date=29 July 2021}}</ref> They bounced back the [[2017–18 Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Three Day Game|following season]] however, taking their best finish in the competition as the came second, with two wins from their four matches.<ref name="eighteen">{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/31/Inter_Zone_Womens_Three_Day_Competition_2017-18.html |title=Inter Zone Women's Three Day Competition 2017/18 |work=CricketArchive |access-date=29 July 2021}}</ref>

In 2022–23, zonal cricket in India returned, in the form of the [[2022–23 Women's Senior Inter Zonal T20|Women's Senior Inter Zonal T20]].<ref name="squads">{{cite web |url=https://www.cricketworld.com/senior-womens-inter-zonal-t20-trophy-2022-full-squads-fixtures-preview-all-you-need-to-know/83080.htm |title=Senior Women's Inter Zonal T20 Trophy 2022: Full squads, Fixtures & Preview: All you need to know |publisher=CricketWorld |date=7 November 2022 |access-date=9 November 2022}}</ref> They finished third out of sixth teams in the first edition of the tournament.<ref name="izt20one">{{Cite web |title=Senior Women's Inter Zonal T20 |url=https://www.bcci.tv/domestic/243/senior-womens-inter-zonal-t20 |access-date=17 November 2022 |website=BCCI}}</ref> In February 2023, the [[2022–23 Women's Senior Inter Zonal One Day]] tournament took place, in which they finished fourth in the group stage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Senior Women's Inter Zonal One Day |url=https://www.bcci.tv/domestic/252/senior-womens-inter-zonal-one-day |access-date=22 February 2023 |website=BCCI}}</ref>

==Players==
===Current squad===
Based on squad announced for the 2022–23 season. Players in '''bold''' have international caps.<ref name="squads"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cricket.com/series/domestic/2907/senior-womens-inter-zonal-one-day-trophy-2023/squads |title=Senior Women's Inter Zonal One Day Trophy, 2023/Squads |publisher=Cricket.com |access-date=22 February 2023}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Name
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Nationality
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Domestic team
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Notes
|-
|style="text-align:center"| '''[[Sneha Deepthi]]''' || {{crw|IND}} || [[Andhra women's cricket team|Andhra]] || [[Captain (cricket)|Captain]]
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Sadanandan Akshaya || {{crw|IND}} || [[Kerala women's cricket team|Kerala]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Bareddy Anusha || {{crw|IND}} || [[Andhra women's cricket team|Andhra]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Sundaresan Anusha || {{crw|IND}} || [[Tamil Nadu women's cricket team|Tamil Nadu]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Arshi Choudhary || {{crw|IND}} || [[Tamil Nadu women's cricket team|Tamil Nadu]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Jayakumar Deepthi || {{crw|IND}} || [[Kerala women's cricket team|Kerala]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Ganesh Divya || {{crw|IND}} || [[Kerala women's cricket team|Kerala]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Saranya Gadwal || {{crw|IND}} || [[Andhra women's cricket team|Andhra]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Yuvashri Karthikeyan || {{crw|IND}} || [[Pondicherry women's cricket team|Pondicherry]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Sathyamoorthy Keerthana || {{crw|IND}} || [[Tamil Nadu women's cricket team|Tamil Nadu]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Madiwala Mamatha || {{crw|IND}} || [[Hyderabad women's cricket team|Hyderabad]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| '''[[Minnu Mani]]''' || {{crw|IND}} || [[Kerala women's cricket team|Kerala]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Aparna Mondal || {{crw|IND}} || [[Tamil Nadu women's cricket team|Tamil Nadu]] || [[Wicket-keeper]]
|-
|style="text-align:center"| '''[[Niranjana Nagarajan]]''' || {{crw|IND}} || [[Tamil Nadu women's cricket team|Tamil Nadu]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Tanaya Naik || {{crw|IND}} || [[Goa women's cricket team|Goa]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Lakshminarayan Nethra || {{crw|IND}} || [[Tamil Nadu women's cricket team|Tamil Nadu]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Ellutla Padmaja || {{crw|IND}} || [[Andhra women's cricket team|Andhra]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| '''[[Shikha Pandey]]''' || {{crw|IND}} || [[Goa women's cricket team|Goa]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| '''[[Monica Patel]]''' || {{crw|IND}} || [[Karnataka women's cricket team|Karnataka]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Shreyanka Patil || {{crw|IND}} || [[Karnataka women's cricket team|Karnataka]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Sajeevan Sajana || {{crw|IND}} || [[Kerala women's cricket team|Kerala]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Soorya Sukumar || {{crw|IND}} || [[Kerala women's cricket team|Kerala]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Pooja Vanka || {{crw|IND}} || [[Hyderabad women's cricket team|Hyderabad]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Chandu Venkateshappa || {{crw|IND}} || [[Karnataka women's cricket team|Karnataka]] ||
|-
|style="text-align:center"| Dinesh Vrinda || {{crw|IND}} || [[Karnataka women's cricket team|Karnataka]] ||
|}

==Seasons==
===Inter Zone Women's Three Day Competition===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Season
! scope="col" colspan="9" | League standings<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Teams/4/4768/Womens_First-Class_Matches.html |title=Women's First-Class Matches Played by South Zone Women |accessdate=29 July 2021}}</ref>
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Notes
|-
! scope="col" | {{abbr|P|Played}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|W|Won}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|L|Lost}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|DWF|Drawn (won on first innings)}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|DLF|Drawn (lost on first innings)}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|ND|Drawn (no decision on first innings)}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|BP|Bonus Points}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|Pts|Points}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|Pos|Position}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[2014–15 Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Two Day Game|2014–15]]
| 4 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 2 || 1 || 0 || 6 || 4th
| style="background: white;" |
|-
! scope="row" | [[2015–16 Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Three Day Game|2015–16]]
| 4 || 0 || 0 || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 8 || 3rd
| style="background: white;" |
|-
! scope="row" | [[2016–17 Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Three Day Game|2016–17]]
| 4 || 0 || 3 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 3 || 5th
| style="background: white;" |
|-
! scope="row" | [[2017–18 Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Three Day Game|2017–18]]
| 4 || 2 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 13 || 2nd
| style="background: white;" |
|}

===Women's Senior Inter Zonal T20===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Season
! scope="col" colspan="8" | League standings
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Notes
|-
! scope="col" | {{abbr|P|Played}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|W|Won}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|L|Lost}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|T|Tied}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|NR|No Result}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|NRR|Net Run Rate}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|Pts|Points}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|Pos|Position}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[2022–23 Women's Senior Inter Zonal T20|2022–23]]
| 5 || 3 || 2 || 0 || 0 || +1.421 || 12 || 3rd
| style="background: white;" |
|}

===Women's Senior Inter Zonal One Day===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Season
! scope="col" colspan="8" | League standings
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Notes
|-
! scope="col" | {{abbr|P|Played}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|W|Won}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|L|Lost}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|T|Tied}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|NR|No Result}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|NRR|Net Run Rate}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|Pts|Points}}
! scope="col" | {{abbr|Pos|Position}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[2022–23 Women's Senior Inter Zonal One Day|2022–23]]
| 5 || 2 || 3 || 0 || 0 || +0.394 || 8 || 4th
| style="background: white;" |
|}

==Honours==
* '''[[Inter Zone Women's One Day Competition]]:'''
** '''Winners (0):'''
** ''Best finish:'' Runners-up (2006–07 & 2012–13)
* '''[[Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Three Day Game]]:'''
** '''Winners (0):'''
** ''Best finish:'' Runners-up ([[2017–18 Senior Women's Cricket Inter Zonal Three Day Game|2017–18]])
* '''[[Women's Senior Inter Zonal T20]]:'''
** '''Winners (0):'''
** ''Best finish:'' 3rd ([[2022–23 Women's Senior Inter Zonal T20|2022–23]])
* '''[[Women's Senior Inter Zonal One Day]]:'''
** '''Winners (0):'''
** ''Best finish:'' 4th ([[2022–23 Women's Senior Inter Zonal One Day|2022–23]])

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Teams/4/4768/4768.html South Zone at CricketArchive]

{{Cricket in India}}
{{Women's Inter Zonal Cricket in India}}

[[Category:Indian women's first-class cricket teams]]

Kerala women's cricket team

2023-07-09T12:11:28Z

Sahil Kothari: /* Current squad */

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2017}}
{{short description|Indian women's cricket team}}
{{Infobox cricket team
|name = Kerala Women's Cricket Team
|image =
|captain = Jincy George & Sajana S
|coach = Suman Sharma<ref>{{cite web|url=https://femalecricket.com/interviews/12997-interview-how-coach-suman-sharma-helped-kerala-u-23-team-to-states-first-ever-national-title.html|title=Interview: How Coach Suman Sharma helped Kerala U-23 team to state’s first ever national title?|date=24 May 2020|first=Juili|last=Ballal|access-date=10 May 2022|work=Female Cricket}}</ref>
|founded =
|ground =
|owner = [[Kerala Cricket Association]]
| title1 = [[Women's Senior One Day Trophy]]
| title1wins = '''0'''
| title2 = [[Women's Senior T20 Trophy]]
| title2wins = '''0'''

|website = [http://www.keralacricketassociation.com/ KCA]
}}

The '''Kerala women's cricket team''' is a domestic cricket team based in the [[India]]n state of [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Teams/3/3922/3922.html|title=Kerala Women at Cricket Archive|work=Cricket Archive|access-date=13 January 2017}}</ref> The team has represented the state in [[Women's Senior One Day Trophy]] and [[Senior women's T20 league]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bcci.tv/senior-womens-one-day-league-2016-17/results|title=Women's Senior One Day Trophy|last=|first=|date=|website=BCCI TV|publisher=Board of Control for Cricket in India|access-date=13 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117083321/http://www.bcci.tv/senior-womens-one-day-league-2016-17/results|archive-date=17 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bcci.tv/senior-womens-t20-league-2016-17/results|title=Women's Senior T20 Trophy|last=|first=|date=|website=BCCI TV|publisher=Board of Control for Cricket in India|access-date=13 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116153953/http://www.bcci.tv/senior-womens-t20-league-2016-17/results|archive-date=16 January 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Playing history==
Kerala was one of the 24 teams that competed in the [[2006–07 Senior Women's One Day League|inaugural season]] of [[Women's Senior One Day Trophy]]. It competed in the South Zone, against [[Tamil Nadu women's cricket team|Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka women's cricket team|Karnataka]], [[Andhra women's cricket team|Andhra]], [[Hyderabad women's cricket team|Hyderabad]] and [[Goa women's cricket team|Goa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Events/Tables/6/Inter_State_Womens_One_Day_Competition_2006-07.html|title=Inter State Women's One Day Competition 2006/07 Points Tables|work=CricketArchive|access-date=10 May 2022}}</ref>

==Current squad==
Players with international caps are listed in '''bold'''.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:95%;"
|-
!align=center| Name
!align=center| Birth date
!align=center| Batting style
!align=center| Bowling style
!align=center| Notes
|-
| Akshaya A || {{birth date and age|1998|5|27|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[off spin]] ||
|-
| Bhoomika H Umbarje || || || ||
|-
| Jincy George || {{birth date and age|1992|5|4|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|medium fast]] || List A captain
|-
| Drishya IV || {{birth date and age|2000|2|9|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|medium fast]] ||
|-
| '''[[Minnu Mani]]''' || {{birth date and age|1999|3|24|df=y}} || Left-handed || Right-arm [[off spin]] ||
|-
| Sajana S || {{birth date and age|1995|1|4|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[off spin]] || T20 captain
|-
| Keerthi K James || {{birth date and age|1997|1|17|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[off spin]] ||
|-
| Darsana Mohanan || {{birth date and age|1999|12|30|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[off spin]] ||
|-
| Mrudhula VS || {{birth date and age|1996|10|8|df=y}} || Right-handed || ||
|-
| Sandra Suren || || || ||
|-
| Jayalekshmi Dev SJ || {{birth date and age|1999|3|25|df=y}} || Right-handed || – || Wicket-keeper
|-
| Aswathy Babu || {{birth date and age|1992|5|30|df=y}} || Right-handed || ||
|-
| Aleena Surendran || {{birth date and age|2000|10|29|df=y}} || Left-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|fast medium]] ||
|-
| Sourabhya P || {{birth date and age|2001|4|21|df=y}} || Right-handed || ||
|-
| Jipsa V Joseph || {{birth date and age|1996|9|1|df=y}} || Right-handed || Right-arm [[Fast bowling|medium fast]] ||
|-
| Najila CMC || || || ||
|-
| Nithya Loordh || || || ||
|-
| Divya Ganesh || || || ||
|-
| Sayoojya Salilan || || || ||
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Cricket in India}}
{{Women's Inter State Cricket in India}}

[[Category:Women's cricket teams in India]]
[[Category:Women in Kerala]]
[[Category:Cricket in Kerala]]

Distance education

2023-05-21T01:07:00Z

Sahil Kothari: Created an influential work.

{{Short description|Mode of delivering education to students who are not physically present}}
{{Distinguish|homeschooling|out-of-school learning}}

{{Use dmy dates}}
[[File:Online class Kerala 2021.jpg|thumb|Student in [[Kerala]], India participating in distance education during the [[Impact of COVID-19 on education|COVID-19 pandemic]]]]
'''Distance education''', also known as '''distance learning''', is the education of students who may not always be physically present at [[school]],<ref name="Kaplan Haenlein 2016">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2016.03.008 |title=Higher education and the digital revolution: About MOOCs, SPOCs, social media, and the Cookie Monster |journal=Business Horizons |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=441–50 |year=2016 |last1=Kaplan |first1=Andreas M. |last2=Haenlein |first2=Michael }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Honeyman |first=M |author2=Miller, G | title= Agriculture distance education: A valid alternative for higher education? | journal =Proceedings of the 20th Annual National Agricultural Education Research Meeting | pages= 67–73 |url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED366794.pdf#page=80 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430055648/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED366794.pdf |archive-date=2015-04-30 |url-status=live }}</ref> or where the learner and the teacher are separated in both time and distance.<ref name=":2" /> Traditionally, this usually involved '''correspondence courses''' wherein the student corresponded with the school via [[mail]]. Distance education is a technology-mediated modality and has evolved with the evolution of technologies such as video conferencing, TV, and the Internet.<ref name=":3" /> Today, it usually involves '''online education''' and the learning is usually mediated by some form of technology. A distance learning program can either be completely a remote learning, or a combination of both online learning and traditional offline classroom instruction (called hybrid<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tabor | first = Sharon W |title= Narrowing the Distance: Implementing a Hybrid Learning Model |journal= Quarterly Review of Distance Education | volume = 8 |issue=1 |pages=48–49 |publisher=IAP |issn=1528-3518 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b46TLTrx0kUC | access-date=23 January 2011| isbn = 9787774570793 }}</ref> or [[Blended learning|blended]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vaughan |first1=Dr Norman D. |editor1-first=MF |editor1-last= Cleveland-Innes |editor2-first= DR | editor2-last =Garrison |title=An Introduction to Distance Education: Understanding Teaching and Learning in a New Era |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AI5as0yooGoC | access-date=23 January 2011 | year=2010 | publisher=Taylor & Francis | isbn=978-0-415-99598-6 | page=165 | chapter=Blended Learning}}</ref> Other modalities include distance learning with complementary virtual environment or teaching in virtual environment (e-learning).<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Terry |last2=Rivera Vargas |first2=Pablo |title=A Critical look at Educational Technology from a Distance Education Perspective |journal=Digital Education Review |issue=37 |pages=208–229 |doi=10.1344/der.2020.37.208-229 |hdl=2445/172738 |s2cid=225664918 |url=http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/handle/2445/172738 |issn=2013-9144|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

[[Massive open online course]]s (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through the [[World Wide Web]] or other network technologies, are recent educational modes in distance education.<ref name="Kaplan Haenlein 2016" /> A number of other terms (distributed learning, [[educational technology|e-learning]], [[m-learning]], online learning, virtual classroom, etc.) are used roughly synonymously with distance education. E-learning has shown to be a useful educational tool. E-learning should be an interactive process with multiple learning modes for all learners at various levels of learning. The distance learning environment is an exciting place to learn new things, collaborate with others, and retain self-discipline.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/distance-learning|title=Simonson, Michael and Berg, Gary A.. "distance learning"|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=April 18, 2023}}</ref>

== History ==
One of the earliest attempts at distance education was advertised in 1728. This was in the ''[[Boston Gazette]]'' for "Caleb Philipps, Teacher of the new method of [[Short Hand]]", who sought students who wanted to learn the skills through weekly mailed lessons.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holmberg |first1=Börje |title=The evolution, principles and practices of distance education |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTtdNQAACAAJ | access-date=2011-01-23 |series=Studien und Berichte der Arbeitsstelle Fernstudienforschung der Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg [ASF] |volume= 11 |year=2005 |publisher= Bibliotheks-und Informationssystem der Universitat Oldenburg |language=de |isbn=3-8142-0933-8 | page=13}}</ref>

The first distance education course in the modern sense was provided by Sir [[Isaac Pitman]] in the 1840s who taught a system of shorthand by mailing texts transcribed into shorthand on [[postcard]]s and receiving transcriptions from his students in return for correction. The element of student feedback was a crucial innovation in Pitman's system.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/134/214|author=Alan Tait|publisher=The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning|title=Reflections on Student Support in Open and Distance Learning|journal=The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning|volume=4|issue=1|doi=10.19173/irrodl.v4i1.134|doi-access=free}}</ref> This scheme was made possible by the introduction of [[Uniform Penny Post|uniform postage rates]] across [[England]] in 1840.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MEax6VBfRscC|title=distance learning... a magazine for leaders volume 2 number 6|author=IAP|page=18|isbn=9787774554229}}</ref>

This early beginning proved extremely successful and the Phonographic Correspondence Society was founded three years later to establish these courses on a more formal basis. The society paved the way for the later formation of Sir Isaac Pitman Colleges across the country.<ref name=MooreKearsley>{{cite book | last= Moore | first= Michael G. |author2=Greg Kearsley | year= 2005 | title= Distance Education: A Systems View | edition= 2nd | location= Belmont, CA | publisher= Wadsworth | isbn= 0-534-50688-7}}</ref>

The first correspondence school in the United States was the [[Society to Encourage Studies at Home]] which was founded in 1873.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robinson|first=Cole, Elizabeth|title=The Invisible Woman and the Silent University.|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED548106|journal=ProQuest LLC|isbn=9781267371676|language=en}}</ref>

Founded in 1894, [[Wolsey Hall, Oxford]] was the first distance-learning college in the UK.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uni-oldenburg.de/fileadmin/user_upload/c3l/master/mde/download/asfvolume11_eBook.pdf |title=The Evolution, Principles and Practices of Distance Education, Borj Holmberg, Bibliotheks-und Informationssytem der Universitat Oldenburg 2005 page 15 |access-date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=29 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829155503/https://www.uni-oldenburg.de/fileadmin/user_upload/c3l/master/mde/download/asfvolume11_eBook.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== University correspondence courses ===
The [[University of London]] was the first university to offer distance learning degrees, establishing its [[University of London External Programme|External Program]] in 1858. The background to this innovation lay in the fact that the institution (later known as [[University College London]]) was [[non-denominational]] and the intense religious rivalries at the time led to an outcry against the "godless" university. The issue soon boiled down to which institutions had [[Academic degree|degree]]-granting powers and which did not.<ref name="Rothblatt Article">{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/368852 |jstor=368852 |title=Supply and Demand: The "Two Histories" of English Education |journal=History of Education Quarterly |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=627–44 |year=1988 |last1=Rothblatt |first1=Sheldon |last2=Muller |first2=Detlef K. |last3=Ringer |first3=Fritz |last4=Simon |first4=Brian |last5=Bryant |first5=Margaret |last6=Roach |first6=John |last7=Harte |first7=Negley |last8=Smith |first8=Barbara |last9=Symonds |first9=Richard |s2cid=248820306 }}</ref>

[[File:The London University by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd 1827-28.JPG|thumb|''The London University'' in 1827, drawn by [[Thomas Hosmer Shepherd]]]]
The compromise that emerged in 1836 stated that a new, officially recognized organization, the "University of London," would be given the sole authority to conduct the examinations leading to degrees, which would act as an examining body for the University of London colleges, originally University College London and [[King's College London]], and award their students University of London degrees. As Sheldon Rothblatt states: "Thus arose in nearly archetypal form the famous English distinction between [[teaching]] and [[exam]]ining, here embodied in separate institutions."<ref name="Rothblatt Article" />

With the state giving examining powers to a separate entity, the groundwork was laid for the creation of a program within the new university that would both administer examinations and award qualifications to students taking instruction at another institution or pursuing a course of self-directed study. Referred to as "People's University" by [[Charles Dickens]] because it provided access to [[higher education]] to students from less affluent backgrounds, the External Program was chartered by [[Queen Victoria]] in 1858, making the University of London the first university to offer distance learning degrees to students.<ref name="External Programme History">{{cite web |url=http://www.londonexternal.ac.uk/about_us/history.shtml |title="History", University of London External Programme Website |publisher=Londonexternal.ac.uk |access-date=27 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="Key Facts">{{cite web |url=http://www.londonexternal.ac.uk/about_us/facts.shtml |title="Key Facts", University of London External Programme Website |publisher=Londonexternal.ac.uk |access-date=27 April 2010}}</ref> Enrollment increased steadily during the late 19th century, and its example was widely copied elsewhere.<ref name="Guardian Article">{{cite web|url=http://www.guardianabroad.co.uk/education/article/283 |author=Tatum Anderson |title=History lessons at the people's university |publisher=Guardianabroad.co.uk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070524102204/http://www.guardianabroad.co.uk/education/article/283 |archive-date=24 May 2007 |access-date=20 September 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> This program is now known as the University of London International Programme and includes Postgraduate, Undergraduate, and Diploma degrees created by colleges such as the London School of Economics, Royal Holloway, and Goldsmiths.<ref name="Key Facts" />

[[File:Portrait of William Rainey Harper.jpg|thumb|[[William Rainey Harper]] encouraged the development of external university courses at the new University of Chicago in the 1890s.]]
In the United States, [[William Rainey Harper]], founder and first president of the [[University of Chicago]], celebrated the concept of extended education, where a research university had satellite colleges elsewhere in the region.<ref>{{Cite web |title=William Rainey Harper |url=https://president.uchicago.edu/ |access-date=2023-02-17 |website=president.uchicago.edu |language=en}}</ref>

In 1892, Harper encouraged correspondence courses to further promote education, an idea that was put into practice by [[Chicago]], Wisconsin, Columbia, and several dozen other universities by the 1920s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Levinson |first1=David L |title=Community colleges: a reference handbook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrnPJcb7c54C |year= 2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn= 1-57607-766-7 |page=69 |access-date=2011-01-23}}</ref><ref>Von V. Pittman, ''Correspondence Study in the American University: A Second Historiographical Perspective,'' in Michael Grahame Moore, William G. Anderson, eds. ''Handbook of Distance Education'' pp 21-36</ref> Enrollment in the largest private for-profit school based in [[Scranton, Pennsylvania]], the [[International Correspondence Schools]] grew explosively in the 1890s. Founded in 1888 to provide training for immigrant coal miners aiming to become state mine inspectors or foremen, it enrolled 2500 new students in 1894 and matriculated 72,000 new students in 1895. By 1906 total enrollments reached 900,000. The growth was due to sending out complete textbooks instead of single lessons, and the use of 1200 aggressive in-person salesmen.<ref>Joseph F. Kett, ''Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties: From Self-Improvement to Adult Education in America'' (1996) pp 236-8</ref><ref>J.J. Clark, "The Correspondence School—Its Relation to Technical Education and Some of Its Results," ''Science'' (1906) 24#611 pp 327-8, 332, 333. Clark was manager of the school's text-book department.</ref> There was a stark contrast in pedagogy:

{{blockquote|The regular technical school or college aims to educate a man broadly; our aim, on the contrary, is to educate him only along some particular line. The college demands that a student shall have certain educational qualifications to enter it and that all students study for approximately the same length of time; when they have finished their courses they are supposed to be qualified to enter any one of a number of branches in some particular profession. We, on the contrary, are aiming to make our courses fit the particular needs of the student who takes them.<ref>Clark, "The Correspondence School" (1906) p 329</ref>}}

Education was a high priority in the [[Progressive Era]], as American high schools and colleges expanded greatly. For men who were older or were too busy with family responsibilities, night schools were opened, such as the [[YMCA]] school in Boston that became [[Northeastern University]]. Private correspondence schools outside of the major cities provided a flexible, focused solution..<ref>Kett, ''Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties,'' p 240</ref> Large corporations systematized their training programs for new employees. The National Association of Corporation Schools grew from 37 in 1913 to 146 in 1920. Private schools that provided specialized technical training to everyone who enrolled, not just employees of one company, began to open across the nation in the 1880s. Starting in Milwaukee in 1907, public schools began opening free vocational program.<ref>{{cite book|author=William Millikan|title=A Union Against Unions: The Minneapolis Citizens Alliance and Its Fight Against Organized Labor, 1903–1947|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GseChEHIysAC&pg=PA60|year=2003|publisher=Minnesota Historical Society Press|pages=60–61|isbn=978-0-87351-499-6}}</ref>

Only a third of the American population lived in cities of 100,000 or more population in 1920; in order to reach the rest, correspondence techniques had to be adopted. The vast distances in Australia, was especially active; the [[University of Queensland]] established its Department of Correspondence Studies in 1911.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/0158791820030207 |title=Distance education in Australian higher education – a history |journal=Distance Education |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=255–78 |year=2009 |last1=White |first1=Michael }}</ref> In South Africa, the [[University of South Africa]], formerly an examining and certification body, started to present distance education tuition in 1946. The International Conference for Correspondence Education held its first meeting in 1938.<ref>{{cite book|author=Francis Lee|title=Letters and bytes: Sociotechnical studies of distance education|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6_V7z998PlgC&pg=PA48|year=2009|publisher=Francis Lee|page=48|isbn=9789173935180}}</ref> The goal was to provide individualized education for students, at low cost, by using a pedagogy of testing, recording, classification, and differentiation.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/07341510801900318 |title=Technopedagogies of mass‐individualization: Correspondence education in the mid twentieth century |journal=History and Technology |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=239–53 |year=2008 |last1=Lee |first1=Francis |s2cid=144728618 }}</ref><ref>Ellen L. Bunker, "The History of Distance Education through the Eyes of the International Council for Distance Education," in Michael Grahame Moore, William G. Anderson, eds. ''Handbook of Distance Education'' pp 49-66</ref> Since then, the group has changed its name to the International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICDE), with its main office in Oslo, Norway.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.icde.org/who-we-are|title=Who we are|website=www.icde.org|access-date=2019-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325213612/https://www.icde.org/who-we-are|archive-date=25 March 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Open universities ===
{{Main articles|Open university}}
The [[Open University]] (OU) in the United Kingdom was founded by the then [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government led by [[Harold Wilson]]. Based on the vision of [[Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington|Michael Young]], planning commenced in 1965 under the [[Secretary of State for Education and Skills|Minister of State for Education]], [[Jennie Lee, Baroness Lee of Asheridge|Jennie Lee]], who established a model for the Open University as one of widening access to the highest standards of scholarship in higher education and setting up a planning committee consisting of university vice-chancellors, educationalists, and television broadcasters, chaired by Sir Peter Venables. The British Broadcasting Corporation's ([[BBC]]) Assistant Director of Engineering at the time, [[James Redmond (broadcaster)|James Redmond]], had obtained most of his qualifications at [[wikt:night school|night school]], and his natural enthusiasm for the project did much to overcome the technical difficulties of using television to broadcast teaching programs.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Walton Hall Pen&Ink.jpg|thumb|[[Walton Hall, Milton Keynes|Walton Hall]], renovated in 1970 to act as the headquarters of the newly established [[Open University]] (artist: Hilary French)]]
The Open University revolutionized the scope of the correspondence program and helped to create a respectable learning alternative to the traditional form of education. It has been at the forefront of developing new technologies to improve distance learning service<ref>{{cite web|title=A Brief History of Distance Education|author=Bizhan Nasseh|url=http://www.seniornet.org/edu/art/history.html|access-date=14 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728165252/http://www.seniornet.org/edu/art/history.html|archive-date=28 July 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> as well as undertaking research in other disciplines. [[Walter Perry]] was appointed the OU's first vice-chancellor in January 1969, and its foundation secretary was [[Anastasios Christodoulou]]. The election of the new [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government under the leadership of [[Edward Heath]], in 1970; led to budget cuts under [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] [[Iain Macleod]] (who had earlier called the idea of an Open University "blithering nonsense").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.open.ac.uk/about/ou/p3.shtml|title=The OU story}}</ref> However, the OU accepted its first 25,000 students in 1971, adopting a radical open admissions policy. At the time, the total student population of conventional universities in the United Kingdom was around 130,000.<ref>{{Cite web|title=History|url=http://www.openuniversity.edu/why-the-ou/quality/history|access-date=2020-08-25|website=The Open University|language=en}}</ref>

[[Athabasca University]], Canada's open university, was created in 1970 and followed a similar, though independently developed, pattern.<ref name="byrne">{{cite book | last =Byrne | first =T. C. | author-link =Tim Byrne | title =Athabasca University The Evolution of Distance Education | publisher = University of Calgary Press | year= 1989 |location = Calgary, Alberta | page = 135| isbn = 0-919813-51-8}}</ref> The Open University inspired the creation of Spain's [[National University of Distance Education]] (1972)<ref>{{cite web |title= History of UNED (in Spanish) | location=ES | access-date=2012-01-26| url= http://portal.uned.es/portal/page?_pageid=93,499271,93_20500119&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL }}</ref> and Germany's [[University of Hagen|FernUniversität in Hagen]] (1974).<ref>{{cite web |title= Three Decades |url= http://www.fernuni-hagen.de/english/profile/3decades/learning.shtml |publisher= FernUniversität in Hage |location= UK |access-date= 2011-01-23 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20101123042944/http://fernuni-hagen.de/english/profile/3decades/learning.shtml |archive-date= 23 November 2010 |url-status= dead }}</ref> There are now many similar institutions around the world, often with the name "Open University" (in [[English language|English]] or in the local language).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=13.2 HISTORY OF DISTANCE EDUCATION|url=http://members.aect.org/edtech/ed1/13/13-02.html|access-date=2020-08-25|website=members.aect.org}}</ref>

The University of the Philippines Open University was established in 1995 as the fifth constituent [[University of the Philippines System]] and was the first distance education and online university in the Philippines. Its mandate is to provide educational opportunities to individuals aspiring for higher education and improved qualifications but were unable to take advantage of traditional modes of education because of personal and professional obligations.

Most [[open universities]] use distance education technologies as delivery methods, though some require attendance at local study centers or at regional "summer schools". Some open universities have grown to become ''mega-universities''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniel | first1 = John S |title= Mega-Universities and Knowledge Media: Technology Strategies for Higher Education | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Sy3nDKphDAkC | access-date=2011-01-23 |year=1998 | publisher= Routledge | isbn= 0-7494-2634-9}}</ref>

===COVID-19 pandemic===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| width = 200
| header = Distance lessons over video conferences in the world during the COVID-19 pandemic ...
| image1 = Урок математики во время пандемии COVID-19 (cropped squared).png
| alt1 =
| caption1 = ... in Russia
| image2 = A chemistry distance lesson during the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy (cropped squared).jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = ... in Italy
| total_width =
}}

{{Further|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education}}
[[File:8938Filipino_homeschooling_students_01.jpg|thumb|150px|right| Filipino homeschooling students – blended (printed-digital modular) distance learning with self-learning materials during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic in [[San Miguel, Bulacan]]]]
The [[COVID-19 pandemic]] resulted in the closure of the vast majority of schools worldwide for in-person learning.<ref name="Template_UNESCO-closures">{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse |title=School closures caused by Coronavirus (COVID-19) |website=UNESCO |language=en|access-date=2021-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.unesco.org/news/290-million-students-out-school-due-covid-19-unesco-releases-first-global-numbers-and-mobilizes |title=290 million students out of school due to COVID-19: UNESCO releases first global numbers and mobilizes response |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=6 March 2020}}</ref> Many schools moved to online remote learning through platforms including—but not limited to—[[Zoom (software)|Zoom]], [[Cisco Webex]], [[Google Classroom]], [[Google Meet]], [[Microsoft Teams]], [[D2L]], and [[Edgenuity]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.poconorecord.com/lifestyle/20200501/virtual-learning-gets-mixed-reviews-from-pocono-parents|title=Virtual learning gets mixed reviews from Pocono parents|last=Hood|first=Micaela}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.11alive.com/article/news/health/coronavirus/georgia-school-districts-digital-learning-grants-atlanta/85-3a783e3c-2642-44e9-8fa6-090012604481|title=Georgia awards $21 million in digital learning grants|last=Raymond|first=Jonathon}}</ref> Concerns arose over the impact of this transition on students without access to an internet-enabled device or a stable internet connection.<ref name="Aristovnik et al. 2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aristovnik A, Keržič D, Ravšelj D, Tomaževič N, Umek L|title = Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Life of Higher Education Students: A Global Perspective| journal = Sustainability | volume = 12 | issue = 20 | pages = 8438 | date = October 2020 | doi=10.3390/su12208438| doi-access = free }}</ref> Distanced education during the COVID-19 pandemic has interrupted synchronous learning for many students and teachers; where educators were no longer able to teach in real-time and could only switch to asynchronous instruction, this significantly and negatively affected their coping with the transition,<ref name = JelinskaParadowski2021a>{{Cite journal|last1=Jelińska|first1=Magdalena|last2=Paradowski|first2=Michał B.|title=Teachers' engagement in and coping with emergency remote instruction during COVID-19-induced school closures: A multi-national contextual perspective|journal=Online Learning Journal|volume=25|issue=1|pages=303–328|doi=10.24059/olj.v25i1.2492|doi-access=free}}</ref> and posed various legal issues, especially in terms of copyright.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1007/s12115-021-00584-w|title = The Right to Teach in a Hyper-Digital Age: Legal Protections for (Post-)Pandemic Concerns|year = 2021|last1 = Deflem|first1 = Mathieu|journal = Society|volume = 58|issue = 3|pages = 204–212|pmid = 34075264|pmc = 8161721}}</ref> A recent study about the benefits and drawbacks of online learning found that students have had a harder time producing their own work.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last1=Mukhtar|first1=Khadijah|last2=Javed|first2=Kainat|last3=Arooj|first3=Mahwish|last4=Sethi|first4=Ahsan|title=Advantages, Limitations and Recommendations for online learning during COVID-19 pandemic era|journal=Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences|volume=36|issue=COVID19–S4|pages=S27–S31|doi=10.12669/pjms.36.COVID19-S4.2785|issn=1682-024X|pmc=7306967|pmid=32582310}}</ref> The study suggests teachers should cut back on the amount of information taught and incorporate more activities during the lesson, in order for students to create their own work.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Though schools are slow to adapt to new technologies, [[COVID-19]] required schools to adapt and learn how to use new digital and online learning tools.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Hew |first1=Khe Foon |last2=Jia |first2=Chengyuan |last3=Gonda |first3=Donn Emmanuel |last4=Bai |first4=Shurui |title=Transitioning to the "new normal" of learning in unpredictable times: pedagogical practices and learning performance in fully online flipped classrooms |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00234-x |journal=International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=57 |doi=10.1186/s41239-020-00234-x |issn=2365-9440 |pmc=7750097 |pmid=34778516}}</ref> [[Web conferencing]] has become more popular since 2007.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bower |first=Matt |title=Synchronous collaboration competencies in web‐conferencing environments – their impact on the learning process |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2011.565502 |journal=Distance Education |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=63–83 |doi=10.1080/01587919.2011.565502 |s2cid=17247273 |issn=0158-7919}}</ref> Researchers have found that people in [[online classes]] perform just as effectively as participants in conventional learning classes.<ref name=":1" /> The use of online learning is becoming a pathway for learners with sparse access to physical courses so they can complete their degrees.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Veletsianos |first=George |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1145122616 |title=Learning online : the student experience |others=Johns Hopkins University. Press |isbn=978-1-4214-3810-8 |location=Baltimore, Maryland |oclc=1145122616}}</ref> Furthermore, digital classroom technologies allow those living remotely to access learning, and it enables the student to fit learning into their schedule more easily.{{citation needed}}

== Technologies ==
[[Internet]] technology has enabled many forms of distance learning through [[open educational resources]] and facilities such as [[Educational technology|e-learning]] and [[Massive open online course|MOOCs]]. Although the expansion of the Internet blurs the boundaries, distance education technologies are divided into two modes of delivery: [[synchronous learning]] and [[asynchronous learning]].

In synchronous learning, all participants are "present" at the same time in a virtual classroom, as in traditional classroom teaching. It requires a timetable. [[Web conferencing]], [[videoconferencing]], [[educational television]], and [[instructional television]] are examples of synchronous technology, as are [[direct-broadcast satellite]] (DBS), [[internet radio]], [[live streaming]], [[telephone]], and [[web-based VoIP]].<ref name="lever-duffy">{{cite book |last1=Lever-Duffy |first1=Judy |last2= McDonald |first2= Jean B |others= Ana A. Ciereszko, Al P. Mizell
| title= Teaching and Learning with Technology
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9wxKAAAAYAAJ | access-date = 23 January 2011 | edition = 3rd
| publisher=Allyn & Bacon | isbn=978-0-205-51191-4 | page=377}}</ref>

Web conferencing software helps to facilitate class meetings, and usually contains additional interaction tools such as text chat, polls, hand raising, emoticons etc. These tools also support asynchronous participation by students who can listen to recordings of synchronous sessions. Immersive environments (notably [[SecondLife]]) have also been used to enhance participant presence in distance education courses. Another form of synchronous learning using the classroom is the use of robot proxies<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brown |first=Robbie |title=A Swiveling Proxy That Will Even Wear a Tutu |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/08/education/for-homebound-students-a-robot-proxy-in-the-classroom.html |access-date=2023-02-17 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> including those that allow sick students to attend classes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Robot brings classroom to sick students |url=https://www.norwichbulletin.com/story/news/education/2014/11/10/robot-brings-classroom-to-sick/35775732007/ |access-date=2023-02-17 |website=Norwich Bulletin |language=en-US}}</ref>

Some universities have been starting to use robot proxies to enable more engaging synchronous hybrid classes where both remote and in-person students can be present and interact using [[telerobotics]] devices such as the Kubi Telepresence robot stand that looks around and the Double Robot that roams around. With these telepresence robots, the remote students have a seat at the table or desk instead of being on a screen on the wall.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://designstudio.educ.msu.edu/from-a-spot-on-the-wall-to-a-seat-at-the-table/|title=From a Spot on the Wall to a Seat at the Table – CEPSE/COE Design Studio|access-date=25 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108162011/http://designstudio.educ.msu.edu/from-a-spot-on-the-wall-to-a-seat-at-the-table/|archive-date=8 November 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Meyer |first=Leila |title=Michigan State Tests Telepresence Robots for Online Students |url=https://campustechnology.com/articles/2015/02/24/michigan-state-tests-telepresence-robots-for-online-students.aspx |access-date=2023-02-17 |website=Campus Technology |language=en-US}}</ref>

In asynchronous learning, participants access course materials flexibly on their schedules. Students are not required to be together at the same time. Mail correspondence, which is the oldest form of distance education, is an asynchronous delivery technology, as are [[message board]] forums, [[e-mail]], [[video]] and [[audio recording]]s, print materials, [[voicemail]], and [[fax]].<ref name="lever-duffy" />

The two methods can be combined. Many courses offered by both open universities and an increasing number of campus-based institutions use periodic sessions of residential or day teaching to supplement the sessions delivered at a distance.<ref name="Burns">{{cite book |last1=Burns |first1=Mary | title= Distance Education for Teacher Training: Modes, Models and Methods | url= http://go.edc.org/07xd | access-date = 10 September 2012}}</ref> This type of mixed distance and campus-based education has recently come to be called "[[blended learning]]" or less often "hybrid learning". Many open universities use a blend of technologies and a blend of learning modalities (face-to-face, distance, and hybrid) all under the rubric of "distance learning".

Distance learning can also use interactive radio instruction (IRI), interactive audio instruction (IAI), online [[virtual world]]s, digital games, webinars, and webcasts, all of which are referred to as e-Learning.<ref name="Burns"/>

=== Radio and television ===
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | audio1 = [http://www.wnyc.org/story/745-air-college-talk/ Air college talk.], 2:45, 2 December 1931, [[WNYC]]<ref name="smarth">{{cite web | title = Air college talk. | publisher = [[WNYC]] | date = 2 December 1931 | url = http://www.wnyc.org/story/745-air-college-talk/ | access-date = 5 November 2016 }}</ref> }}
The rapid spread of film in the 1920s and radio in the 1930s led to proposals to use it for distance education.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cuban |first=Larry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uQeEn1vEUSQC |title=Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920 |publisher=Teachers College Press |isbn=978-0-8077-2792-8 |language=en}}</ref> By 1938, at least 200 city school systems, 25 state boards of education, and many colleges and universities broadcast educational programs for public schools.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tyson | first1 = Levering | year = 1936 | title = Ten Years of Educational Broadcasting | journal = [[School and Society]] | volume = 44 | pages = 225–31 }}</ref> One line of thought was to use radio as a master teacher.
{{blockquote|Experts in given fields broadcast lessons for pupils within the many schoolrooms of the public school system, asking questions, suggesting readings, making assignments, and conducting tests. This mechanizes education and leaves the local teacher only the tasks of preparing for the broadcast and keeping order in the classroom.<ref>Lloyd Allen Cook. (1938). ''Community Backgrounds of Education: A Textbook and Educational Sociology'', pp 249–250</ref>}}

The first large-scale implementation of radio for distance education [[Distance education in Chicago Public Schools in 1937|took place in 1937 in Chicago]]. During a three-week school closure implemented in response to a [[polio]] outbreak that the city was experiencing, [[William Johnson (educator)|superintendent of Chicago Public Schools William Johnson]] and assistant superintendent Minnie Fallon implemented a programs of distance learning that provided the city's [[Primary school|elementary school]] students with instruction through radio broadcasts.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Strauss |first1=Valerie |last2=Hines |first2=Michael |title=Perspective {{!}} In Chicago, schools closed during a 1937 polio epidemic and kids learned from home — over the radio |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2020/04/03/chicago-schools-closed-during-1937-polio-epidemic-kids-learned-home-over-radio/ |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=16 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=White |first1=Theresa Mary |title=Coping with Administrative Pressures in the Chicago Schools' Superintendency: An Analysis of William Henry Johnson, 1936-1946 |url=https://ecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3615&context=luc_diss |publisher=Loyola University Chicago |access-date=15 August 2021 |page= 126}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Foss |first1=Katherine A. |title=Remote learning isn't new: Radio instruction in the 1937 polio epidemic |url=https://theconversation.com/remote-learning-isnt-new-radio-instruction-in-the-1937-polio-epidemic-143797 |website=The Conversation |access-date=16 August 2021 |language=en }}</ref>

A typical setup came in Kentucky in 1948 when [[John Wilkinson Taylor (educator)|John Wilkinson Taylor]], president of the [[University of Louisville]], teamed up with [[NBC]] to use radio as a medium for distance education. The chairman of the [[Federal Communications Commission]] endorsed the project and predicted that the "college-by-radio" would put "American education 25 years ahead". The university was owned by the city, and local residents would pay the low tuition rates, receive their study materials in the mail, and listen by radio to live classroom discussions that were held on campus.<ref>Dwayne D. Cox and William J. Morison. (1999). ''The University of Louisville'', pp 115–117</ref> Physicist [[Daniel Q. Posin]] also was a pioneer in the field of distance education when he hosted a televised course through [[DePaul University]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Vyse|first1=Stuart|title=Before Carl Sagan and Neil deGrasse Tyson, There Was Dan Q. Posin|url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/before_carl_sagan_and_neil_degrasse_tyson_there_was_dan_q._posin|website=Committee for Skeptical Inquiry|access-date=25 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424223305/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/before_carl_sagan_and_neil_degrasse_tyson_there_was_dan_q._posin|archive-date=24 April 2018}}</ref>

[[Charles Wedemeyer]] of the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] also promoted new methods. From 1964 to 1968, the [[Carnegie Corporation of New York|Carnegie Foundation]] funded Wedemeyer's ''Articulated Instructional Media Project'' (AIM) which brought in a variety of communications technologies aimed at providing learning to an off-campus population. The radio courses faded away in the 1950s.<ref>Cuban. (1986). ''Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920'', pp 19–26</ref> Many efforts to use television along the same lines proved unsuccessful, despite heavy funding by the [[Ford Foundation]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Christopher H. Sterling|author2=Cary O'Dell|title=The Concise Encyclopedia of American Radio|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmmLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA609|year=2011|publisher=Routledge|page=609|isbn=978-1-135-17684-6}}</ref><ref>Robert J. Taggart. (2007). "The Promise and Failure of Educational Television in a Statewide System: Delaware, 1964–1971." ''American Educational History Journal'', ''24'' (1), 111–122. [https://books.google.com/books?id=n_eEVfDG44kC&pg=PA111 online]</ref><ref>Cuban. (1986).''Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920'', pp 27–50</ref>

From 1970 to 1972 the Coordinating Commission for Higher Education in California funded Project Outreach to study the potential of tele-courses. The study included the [[University of California]], [[California State University]], and community colleges. This study led to coordinated instructional systems legislation allowing the use of public funds for non-classroom instruction and paved the way for the emergence of tele-courses as the precursor to the online courses and programs of today. The [[Coastline Community College]]s, The [[Dallas College|Dallas County Community College District]], and [[Miami Dade College|Miami Dade Community College]] led the way. The ''Adult Learning Service'' of the US [[Public Broadcasting Service]] came into being and the "wrapped" series, and individually produced tele-course for credit became a significant part of the history of distance education and online learning.

=== Internet ===
{{Main|Virtual education}}The widespread use of computers and the [[Internet]] has made distance learning easier and faster, and today [[virtual school]]s and [[Virtual university|virtual universities]] deliver full curricula online.<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Gold|first1 = Larry|last2 = Maitland|first2 = Christine|editor1-first = Ronald A.|editor1-last = Phipps|editor2-first = Jamie P.|editor2-last = Merisotis|title = What's the difference? A review of contemporary research on the effectiveness of distance learning in higher education|url = https://books.google.com/books?ei=ldA7TcruEZG38gODpYykCA|access-date = 23 January 2011|year = 1999|publisher = Institute for Higher Education Policy|location = Washington, DC}}</ref> The capacity of the Internet to support voice, video, text, and immersion teaching methods made earlier distinct forms of telephone, videoconferencing, radio, television, and text-based education somewhat redundant. However, many of the techniques developed and lessons learned with earlier media are used in Internet delivery.

The first online courses for graduate and undergraduate credit were offered in 1985 by [[Connected Education]] through [[The New School]] in New York City, with students earning the MA in Media Studies completely online via computer conferencing, with no in-person requirements.<ref name="T.H.E.">{{cite web|url=http://thejournal.com/Articles/1997/06/01/Technology-in-Education-and-the-Next-TwentyFive-Years.aspx|title=Technology in Education and the Next Twenty-Five Years|last=Withrow|first=Frank|work=T.H.E. Journal}}</ref><ref name="New Scientist">{{cite magazine | url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14820045.300-carry-on-learning-learning-cyberspace.html | title=Carry on learning | author=Ray Percival | magazine=New Scientist }}</ref><ref name="Netweaver">{{cite web | url=http://cgi.gjhost.com/~cgi/mt/netweaverarchive/000144.html | title=Connected Education, Inc. | author=Gail S. Thomas | work=Netweaver | publisher=Electronic Networking Association | date=1988-02-01 | accessdate=2008-08-25 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827214245/http://cgi.gjhost.com/~cgi/mt/netweaverarchive/000144.html | archivedate=2008-08-27 }}</ref> This was followed in 1986 by the [[University of Toronto]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tonybates.ca/2016/01/17/celebrating-the-30th-anniversary-of-the-first-fully-online-course/|title=Celebrating the 30th anniversary of the first fully online course |last=Bates|first=Tony|website=www.tonybates.ca|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> through the Graduate School of Education (then called OISE: the [[Ontario Institute for Studies in Education]]), offering a course in "Women and Computers in Education", dealing with gender issues and educational computing. The first new and fully online university was founded in 1994 as the [[Open University of Catalonia]], headquartered in Barcelona, Spain. In 1999 [[Jones International University]] was launched as the first fully online university [[Educational accreditation|accredited]] by a regional accrediting association in the US.<ref>{{cite web|title = Accreditation|url = http://www.jiu.edu/about-jiu/accreditation|publisher = Jones International University|location = US|access-date = 23 January 2011|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130421085153/http://www.jiu.edu/about-jiu/accreditation|archive-date = 21 April 2013}}</ref>

Between 2000 and 2008, enrollment in distance education courses increased rapidly almost every country in both developed and developing countries.<ref>{{cite web |last=Walton Radford |first=Alexandria |title=Learning at a Distance: Undergraduate Enrollment in Distance Education Courses and Degree Programs |url=http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012154.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016140229/http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2012/2012154.pdf |archive-date=2011-10-16 |url-status=live |publisher=National Center for Education Statistics |access-date=30 November 2011}}</ref> Many private, public, [[non-profit]], and for-profit institutions worldwide now offer distance education courses from the most basic instruction through to the highest levels of degree and doctoral programs. [[New York University]] and International University Canada, for example, offer [[online degree]]s in engineering and management-related fields through [[NYU Tandon Online]]. Levels of accreditation vary: widely respected universities such as Stanford University and Harvard now deliver online courses—but other online schools receive little outside oversight, and some are fraudulent, i.e., [[diploma mill]]s. In the US, the [[Distance Education Accrediting Commission]] (DEAC) specializes in the accreditation of distance education institutions.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.deac.org/accred.html |title=Accreditation |publisher=DEAC |access-date=20 September 2016}}</ref>

In the United States in 2011, it was found that a third of all the students enrolled in postsecondary education had taken an accredited online course in a postsecondary institution.<ref name="Lederman2">{{cite news|last = Lederman|first = Doug |title = Growth for Online Learning |url = http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/01/08/survey-finds-online-enrollments-slow-continue-grow|access-date = 30 March 2013 |newspaper = InsideHigherEd|date = 8 January 2013}}</ref> Growth continued. In 2013 the majority of public and private colleges offered full academic programs online.<ref name="Lederman2" /> Programs included training in the [[mental health]],<ref name="Blackmore, C. 2007">Blackmore, C., van Deurzen, E., & Tantam, D. (2007). Therapy training online: Using the internet to widen access to training in mental health issues. In T. Stickley & T. Basset (Eds.) Teaching Mental Health (pgs. 337-352). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.</ref> [[occupational therapy]],<ref name="Jedlicka, J. S. 20022">Jedlicka, J. S., Brown, S. W., Bunch, A. E., & Jaffe, L. E. (2002). A comparison of distance education instructional methods in occupational therapy. Journal of Allied Health, 31(4), 247-251.</ref><ref name="Stanton, S. 20012">Stanton, S. (2001). Going the distance; Developing shared web-based learning programmes. Occupational Therapy International, 8(2), 96-106.</ref> [[family therapy]],<ref name="Maggio, L. M. 20012">Maggio, L. M., Chenail, R., & Todd, T. (2001). Teaching family therapy in an electronic age. Journal of Systemic Therapies, 20(1), 13-23.</ref> [[art therapy]],<ref name="Orr, P. 20102">Orr, P. (2010). Distance supervision: Research, findings, and considerations for art therapy. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 37, 106-111.</ref> [[physical therapy]],<ref name="Stanton, S. 20012" /> and [[rehabilitation counseling]]<ref name="Stebnicki, M. A. 20012">Stebnicki, M. A. & Glover, N. M. (2001). E-supervision as a complementary approach to traditional face-to-face clinical supervision in rehabilitation counseling: Problems and solutions. Rehabilitation Education, 15(3), 283-293.</ref> fields.

By 2008, online learning programs were available in the United States in 44 states at the K-12 level.<ref>Olszewski-Kubilius, Paula; Corwith, Susan. "Distance Education: Where It Started and Where It Stands for Gifted Children and Their Educators." Gifted Child Today, v. 34 issue 3, 2011, pp. 16–24,.</ref>

[[Internet forum]]s, online [[discussion group|discussion groups]], and [[online learning community]] can contribute to a distance education experience. Research shows that [[socialization]] plays an important role in some forms of distance education.<ref name="SRE4(13)2">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.09.199 |title=Alleviating the Senses of Isolation and Alienation in the Virtual World: Socialization in Distance Education |journal=Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences |volume=93 |pages=332–7 |year=2013 |last1=Sazmandasfaranjan |first1=Yasha |last2=Shirzad |first2=Farzad |last3=Baradari |first3=Fatemeh |last4=Salimi |first4=Meysam |last5=Salehi |first5=Mehrdad |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[ECourse|E-Course]]s are available from educational platforms such as [[Khan Academy]] and [[MasterClass]] on many topics and for students of all levels.

== Paced and self-paced models ==
Most distance education uses a paced format similar to traditional campus-based models in which learners commence and complete a course at the same time. Some institutions offer self-paced programs that allow for continuous enrollment, and the length of time to complete the course is set by the learner's time, skill, and commitment levels. Self-paced courses are almost always offered asynchronously. Each delivery method offers advantages and disadvantages for students, teachers, and institutions.

[[Andreas Kaplan|Kaplan]] and Haenlein classify distance education into four groups according to "Time dependency" and "Number of participants":
# [[MOOCs]] (Massive Open Online Courses): Open-access online course (i.e., without specific participation restrictions) that allows for unlimited (massive) participation;
# [[Small private online course|SPOCs]] (Small Private Online Courses): Online course that only offers a limited number of places and therefore requires some form of formal enrollment;
# SMOCs (Synchronous Massive Online Courses): Open-access online course that allows for unlimited participation but requires students to be "present" at the same time (synchronously);
# SSOCs (Synchronous Private Online Courses): Online course that only offers a limited number of places and requires students to be "present" at the same time (synchronously).<ref name="Kaplan Haenlein 2016"/>

Paced models are a familiar mode since they are used almost exclusively in campus-based schools. Institutes that offer both distance and campus programs usually use paced models so that teacher workload, student semester planning, tuition deadlines, exam schedules, and other administrative details can be synchronized with campus delivery. Student familiarity and the pressure of deadlines encourage students to readily adapt to and usually succeed in paced models. However, student freedom is sacrificed as a common pace is often too fast for some students and too slow for others. In additional life events, professional or family responsibilities can interfere with a student's capability to complete tasks to an external schedule. Finally, paced models allow students to readily form communities of inquiry<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://coi.athabascau.ca|title = Community of Inquiry site|publisher = Athabasca University}}</ref> and to engage in collaborative work.

Self-paced courses maximize student freedom, as not only can students commence studies on any date, but they can complete a course in as little time as a few weeks or up to a year or longer. Students often enroll in self-paced study when they are under pressure to complete programs, have not been able to complete a scheduled course, need additional courses, or have pressure which precludes regular study for any length of time. The self-paced nature of the programming, though, is an unfamiliar model for many students and can lead to excessive procrastination, resulting in course incompletion. Assessment of learning can also be challenging as exams can be written on any day, making it possible for students to share examination questions with resulting loss of academic integrity. Finally, it is extremely challenging to organize collaborative work activities, though some schools<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title = Teaching Crowds: Learning and Social Media|last1 = Dron|first1 = Jon|publisher = AU Press|year = 2014|last2 = Anderson|first2 = Terry}}</ref> are developing cooperative models based upon networked and connectivist pedagogies<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.19173/irrodl.v12i3.890 |title=Three generations of distance education pedagogy |journal=The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=80–97 |year=2011 |last1=Anderson |first1=Terry |last2=Dron |first2=Jon |doi-access=free }}</ref> for use in self-paced programs.

== Benefits ==
Distance learning can expand access to education and training for both general populace and businesses since its flexible scheduling structure lessens the effects of the many time-constraints imposed by personal responsibilities and commitments.<ref name=Oblinger>{{cite journal |last=Oblinger |first=Diana G. |year=2000 |title=The Nature and Purpose of Distance Education |journal=The Technology Source |issue=March/April |publisher=Michigan Virtual University |location=Michigan |url=http://technologysource.org/article/nature_and_purpose_of_distance_education/ |access-date=23 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718000146/http://technologysource.org/article/nature_and_purpose_of_distance_education/ |archive-date=18 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="CFP">{{cite journal|last1=Masson|first1=M|title=Benefits of TED Talks|journal=Canadian Family Physician|volume=60|issue=12|pages=1080|pmid=25500595|pmc=4264800}}</ref> Devolving some activities off-site alleviates institutional capacity constraints arising from the traditional demand on institutional buildings and infrastructure.<ref name=Oblinger /> As a result, more classes can be offered and enable students to enroll in more of their required classes on time and prevent delayed graduation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Christian |last2=Baker |first2=Rachel |last3=Li |first3=Qiujie |last4=Orona |first4=Gabe Avakian |last5=Warschauer |first5=Mark |title=Increasing success in Higher Education: The relationships of online course taking with college completion and time-to-degree |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3102/01623737211055768 |journal=Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis |language=en |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=355–379 |doi=10.3102/01623737211055768 |s2cid=244498785 |issn=0162-3737}}</ref> Furthermore, there is the potential for increased access to more experts in the field and to other students from diverse geographical, social, cultural, economic, and experiential backgrounds.<ref name="Maggio, L. M. 20012" /><ref name="CFP"/>
As the population at large becomes more involved in [[lifelong learning]] beyond the normal schooling age, institutions can benefit financially, and adult learning business courses may be particularly lucrative.<ref name=Oblinger /><ref name="CFP"/> Distance education programs can act as a catalyst for institutional innovation<ref name=Oblinger /> and are at least as effective as face-to-face learning programs,<ref name="Blackmore, C. 2007" /><ref name="Jedlicka, J. S. 20022" /><ref name=Nguyen>{{cite journal|last1=Nguyen|first1=Tuan|title=The Effectiveness of Online Learning: Beyond No Significant Difference and Future Horizons|journal=MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching|volume=11|issue=2|pages=309–319|url=http://jolt.merlot.org/Vol11no2/Nguyen_0615.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906052453/http://jolt.merlot.org/Vol11no2/Nguyen_0615.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-06 |url-status=live}}</ref> especially if the instructor is knowledgeable and skilled.<ref name="Orr, P. 20102" /><ref name="CFP"/>

Distance education can also provide a broader method of communication within the realm of education.<ref name="CFP"/> With the many tools and programs that technological advancements have to offer, communication appears to increase in distance education amongst students and their professors, as well as students and their classmates. The distance educational increase in communication, particularly communication amongst students and their classmates, is an improvement that has been made to provide distance education students with as many of the opportunities as possible as they would receive in in-person education. The improvement being made in distance education is growing in tandem with the constant technological advancements. Present-day online communication allows students to associate with accredited schools and programs throughout the world that are out of reach for in-person learning. By having the opportunity to be involved in global institutions via distance education, a diverse array of thought is presented to students through communication with their classmates. This is beneficial because students have the opportunity to "combine new opinions with their own, and develop a solid foundation for learning".<ref name="calpoly1">{{cite journal|title=Educational Benefits of Online Learning|pages=1–6|year=1998|url=http://blackboardsupport.calpoly.edu/content/faculty/handouts/Ben_Online.pdf|publisher=CalPoly.edu|access-date=29 March 2013|journal=|archive-date=18 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130418021957/http://blackboardsupport.calpoly.edu/content/faculty/handouts/Ben_Online.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> It has been shown through research that "as learners become aware of the variations in interpretation and construction of meaning among a range of people [they] construct an individual meaning", which can help students become knowledgeable of a wide array of viewpoints in education.<ref name="calpoly1" /> To increase the likelihood that students will build effective ties with one another during the course, instructors should use similar assignments for students across different locations to overcome the influence of co-location on relationship building.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00308.x |title=Homophily of Network Ties and Bonding and Bridging Social Capital in Computer-Mediated Distributed Teams |journal=Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=1062–84 |year=2006 |last1=Yuan |first1=Y. Connie |last2=Gay |first2=Geri |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The high cost of education affects students in higher education, and distance education may be an alternative in order to provide some relief.<ref name=Nguyen /><ref name="CFP"/> Distance education has been a more cost-effective form of learning, and can sometimes save students a significant amount of money as opposed to traditional education.<ref name="CFP"/> Distance education may be able to help to save students a considerable amount financially by removing the cost of transportation.<ref name="worldwidelearn2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwidelearn.com/education-articles/benefits-of-online-learning.htm |title=Benefits of Online Education |publisher=Worldwidelearn.com |access-date=1 April 2013}}</ref> In addition, distance education may be able to save students from the economic burden of high-priced course textbooks. Many textbooks are now available as electronic textbooks, known as e-textbooks, which can offer digital textbooks for a reduced price in comparison to traditional textbooks. Also, the increasing improvements in technology have resulted in many school libraries having a partnership with digital publishers that offer course materials for free, which can help students significantly with educational costs.<ref name="worldwidelearn2013" />

Within the class, students are able to learn in ways that traditional classrooms would not be able to provide. It is able to promote good learning experiences and therefore, allow students to obtain higher satisfaction with their online learning.<ref name=Kirtman>{{cite journal|last=Kirtman|first=Lisa|title=Online Versus In-Class Courses: An Examination of Differences in Learning Outcomes|journal=Issues in Teacher Education|volume=18|issue=2|pages=103–115|url=http://www1.chapman.edu/ITE/public_html/ITEFall09/12kirtman.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606074223/http://www1.chapman.edu/ITE/public_html/ITEFall09/12kirtman.pdf |archive-date=2013-06-06 |url-status=live|access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref> For example, students can review their lessons more than once according to their needs. Students can then manipulate the coursework to fit their learning by focusing more on their weaker topics while breezing through concepts that they already have or can easily grasp.<ref name=Kirtman /> When course design and the [[learning environment]] are at their optimal conditions, distance education can lead students to higher satisfaction with their learning experiences.<ref name=Nguyen /> Studies have shown that high satisfaction correlates to increased learning. For those in a healthcare or mental health distance learning program, online-based interactions have the potential to foster deeper reflections and discussions of client issues<ref name="Stanton, S. 20012"/> as well as a quicker response to client issues, since supervision happens on a regular basis and is not limited to a weekly supervision meeting.<ref name="Stebnicki, M. A. 20012" /><ref name="CFP"/> This also may contribute to the students feeling a greater sense of support, since they have ongoing and regular access to their instructors and other students.<ref name="Stanton, S. 20012" /><ref name="Stebnicki, M. A. 20012" />

Distance learning may enable students who are unable to attend a traditional school setting, due to [[disability]] or illness such as decreased mobility and immune system suppression, to get a good education.<ref>{{cite journal|title=An Exploration of the Representation of Students with Disabilities in Distance Education|journal=Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration|volume=14|issue=4|url=http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter144/woods_maiden_brandes144.html|access-date=7 December 2012|last1=Woods|first1=Michael L.|last2=Maiden|first2=Jeffrey|last3=Brandes|first3=Joyce A.}}</ref> Children who are sick or are unable to attend classes are able to attend them in "person" through the use of [[robot]] proxies. This helps the students have experiences in the classroom and social interaction that they are unable to receive at home or the hospital, while still keeping them in a safe learning environment. Over the last few years{{When}} more students are entering safely back into the classroom thanks to the help of robots. An article from the ''New York Times'', "A Swiveling Proxy Will Even Wear a Tutu", explains the positive impact of virtual learning in the classroom,<ref>Brown, Robbie. (2013). ''The New York Times''. [https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/08/education/for-homebound-students-a-robot-proxy-in-the-classroom.html A Swiveling Proxy That Will Even Wear a Tutu]</ref> and another<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.norwichbulletin.com/article/20141109/news/141109566|title=Robot brings classroom to sick students|first=Elizabeth|last=Regan|website=The Bulletin}}</ref> explains how even a simple, stationary telepresence robot can help.<ref>{{cite web|author=Elizabeth Regan |year=2014 |title=Robot brings classroom to sick students |work=Norwich Bulletin |url=http://www.norwichbulletin.com/article/20141109/NEWS/141109566 |archive-url=https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:zQpHWdDZBs8J:https://www.norwichbulletin.com/article/20141109/NEWS/141109566 | archive-date=17 November 2020}}</ref>
Distance education may provide equal access regardless of socioeconomic status or income, area of residence, gender, race, age, or cost per student.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://madamenoire.com/105928/cyber-charter-schools-the-end-of-public-education-or-a-new-beginning |title=Cyber-charter Schools: The end of Public Education or a New Beginning}}</ref> Applying [[universal design]] strategies to distance learning courses as they are being developed (rather than instituting accommodations for specific students on an as-needed basis) can increase the [[accessibility]] of such courses to students with a range of abilities, disabilities, learning styles, and native languages.<ref>Burgstahler, S.,{{cite web |url=http://www.washington.edu/doit/Brochures/Technology/equal_access_uddl.html |title=Equal Access: Universal Design of Distance Learning |access-date=12 February 2013}}</ref>
Distance education graduates, who would never have been associated with the school under a traditional system, may donate money to the school.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/01930826.2010.488597 |title=Untapped Potential: Seeking Library Donors among Alumni of Distance Learning Programs |journal=Journal of Library Administration |volume=50 |issue=5–6 |pages=515–29 |year=2010 |last1=Casey |first1=Anne Marie |last2=Lorenzen |first2=Michael |s2cid=62142672 |url=https://commons.erau.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=hunt-library-staff-works }}</ref>

Distance learning may also offer a final opportunity for adolescents that are no longer permitted in the general education population due to behavior disorders. Instead of these students having no other academic opportunities, they may continue their education from their homes and earn their diplomas, offering them another chance to be an integral part of society.

Distance learning offers individuals a unique opportunity to benefit from the expertise and resources of the best universities currently available. Moreover, the online environment facilitates pedagogical innovation such as new program structures and formats.<ref>{{cite web|author=Andreas Kaplan |year=2021 |title=Business Schools: Going Digital Simply Must Make Sense!|url=https://blog.efmdglobal.org/2021/01/05/business-schools-going-digital-simply-must-make-sense/}}</ref> Students have the ability to collaborate, share, question, infer, and suggest new methods and techniques for continuous improvement of the content. The ability to complete a course at a pace that is appropriate for each individual is the most effective manner to learn given the personal demands on time and schedule.<ref name="CFP"/> Self-paced distance learning on a mobile device, such as a smartphone, provides maximum flexibility and capability.

Distance learning can also reduce the phenomenon of rural exodus by enabling students from remote regions to remain in their hometowns while pursuing higher education. Eliminating the distance barrier to higher education can also increase the number of alternatives open to students, and foster greater competition between institutions of higher learning regardless of geography.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Joel |last=Goldenberg |title=Quebec can become a 'leader in distance learning" at universities: MEI|url=https://www.thesuburban.com/news/city_news/quebec-can-become-a-leader-in-distance-learning-at-universities-mei/article_59a7d233-2b80-5622-867b-86cd0b2075bc.html|access-date=2021-10-13|website=The Suburban Newspaper|language=en}}</ref>

== Criticism ==
Barriers to effective distance education include obstacles such as domestic distractions and unreliable technology,<ref>{{cite web|last=Östlund|first=Berit|title=Stress, disruption and community — Adult learners' experiences of obstacles and opportunities in distance education|url=http://www.eurodl.org/index.php?p=&sp=full&article=179|publisher=Department of Child and Youth Education, Special Education and Counselling, Umeå University|access-date=3 December 2011|archive-date=25 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425225833/http://www.eurodl.org/index.php?p=&sp=full&article=179|url-status=dead}}</ref> as well as students' program costs, adequate contact with teachers and support services, and a need for more experience.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jill M. |last=Galusha |title=Barriers to Learning in Distance Education |url=http://www.infrastruction.com/barriers.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000229041104/http://www.infrastruction.com/barriers.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 February 2000 |access-date=10 April 2012 }}</ref>

Some students attempt to participate in distance education without proper training with the tools needed to be successful in the program. Students must be provided with training opportunities (if needed) on each tool that is used throughout the program. The lack of advanced technology skills can lead to an unsuccessful experience. Schools have a responsibility to adopt a proactive policy for managing technology barriers.<ref>{{cite web |last=Stephens |first=D. |title=Quality issues in distance learning |url=http://www.aacsb.edu/publications/whitepapers/quality-issues-distance-learning.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601203911/http://www.aacsb.edu/publications/whitepapers/quality-issues-distance-learning.pdf |archive-date=1 June 2012}}</ref> Time management skills and self-discipline in distance education is just as important as complete knowledge of the software and tools being used for learning.

The results of a study of Washington state community college students showed that distance- learning students tended to drop out more often than their traditional counterparts due to difficulties in language, time management, and study skills.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ccrc.tc.columbia.edu/publications/online-hybrid-courses-washington.html?UID=872|title=Online and Hybrid Course Enrollment and Performance in Washington State Community and Technical Colleges|last=Gabriel}}</ref>

According to Pankaj Singhm, director of [[NIMS University|Nims University]], "distance learning benefits may outweigh the disadvantages for students in such a technology-driven society, however before indulging into the use of [[educational technology]] a few more disadvantages should be considered." He describes that over multiple years, "all of the obstacles have been overcome and the world environment for distance education continues to improve." Dr. Pankaj Singhm also claims there is a debate to distance education stating, "due to a lack of direct face-to-face social interaction. However, as more people become used to personal and social interaction online (for example dating, chat rooms, shopping, or blogging), it is becoming easier for learners to both project themselves and socializes with others. This is an obstacle that has dissipated."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scdl.net/InternationalConference/PDFS/DigitalProceeding/Full%20paper%20Pankaj%20Singh.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125020431/http://www.scdl.net/InternationalConference/PDFS/DigitalProceeding/Full%20paper%20Pankaj%20Singh.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 January 2018|title=Unleashing the potential of ODL – "Reaching the unreached"|website=Symbiosis Center for Distance Learning}}</ref>

Not all courses required to complete a degree may be offered online. Health care profession programs in particular require some sort of patient interaction through field work before a student may graduate.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.distancelearningnet.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-distance-learning/| title = GoDaddy Corporate Domains – Protected}}</ref> Studies have also shown that students pursuing a medical professional graduate degree who are participating in distance education courses, favor a face to face communication over professor-mediated chat rooms and/or independent studies. However, this is little correlation between student performance when comparing the previous different distance learning strategies.<ref name="Jedlicka, J. S. 20022" />

There is a theoretical problem with the application of traditional teaching methods to online courses because online courses may have no upper size limit. [[Daniel Barwick]] noted that there is no evidence that large class size is always worse or that small class size is always better, although a negative link has been established between certain types of instruction in large classes and learning outcomes; he argued that higher education has not made a sufficient effort to experiment with a variety of instructional methods to determine whether the large class size is always negatively correlated with a reduction in learning outcomes.<ref>{{cite web|last=Barwick |first=Daniel W.|url=http://www.insidehighered.com/views/2007/12/06/barwick |title=Views: Does Class Size Matter? |website=Inside Higher Ed |access-date=3 October 2011}}</ref> Early proponents of [[Massive Open Online Courses]] (MOOCs) saw them as just the type of experiment that Barwick had pointed out was lacking in higher education, although Barwick himself has never advocated for MOOCs.

There may also be institutional challenges. Distance learning is new enough that it may be a challenge to gain support for these programs in a traditional brick-and-mortar academic learning environment.<ref name="Stanton, S. 20012" /> Furthermore, it may be more difficult for the instructor to organize and plan a distance learning program,<ref name="Stebnicki, M. A. 20012"/> especially since many are new programs and their organizational needs are different from a traditional learning program.

Additionally, though distance education offers industrial countries the opportunity to become globally informed, there are still negative sides to it. Hellman states that "These include its cost and capital intensiveness, time constraints and other pressures on instructors, the isolation of students from instructors and their peers, instructors' enormous difficulty in adequately evaluating students they never meet face-to-face, and drop-out rates far higher than in classroom-based courses."<ref name="Hellman, Judith Adler 2003">Hellman, Judith Adler. "The Riddle of Distance Education." Geneva. 1 June 2003.</ref>

A more complex challenge of distance education relates to cultural differences between students and teachers and among students. Distance programs tend to be more diverse as they could go beyond the geographical borders of regions, countries, and continents, and cross the cultural borders that may exist concerning race, gender, and religion. That requires a proper understanding and awareness of the norms, differences, preconceptions, and potential conflicting issues.<ref name="Nasiri et Mafakheri">{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/03075079.2014.914906 |title=Postgraduate research supervision at a distance: A review of challenges and strategies |journal=Studies in Higher Education |volume=40 |issue=10 |pages=1962–9 |year=2014 |last1=Nasiri |first1=Fuzhan |last2=Mafakheri |first2=Fereshteh |s2cid=144996503 }}</ref>

== Educational technology ==
The modern use of electronic [[educational technology]] (also called e-learning) facilitates distance learning and independent learning through the extensive use of [[information and communications technology]] (ICT),<ref name="CFP"/> replacing traditional content delivery with postal correspondence. Instruction can be synchronous and asynchronous online communication in an interactive learning environment or virtual communities, in lieu of a physical classroom. "The focus is shifted to the education transaction in the form of a virtual community of learners sustainable across time."<ref>Garrison, D.R. (20 May 2011). E-Learning in the 21st Century: A Framework for Research and Practice. New York: Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN|0-203-83876-9}}{{page needed}}</ref>

One of the most significant issues encountered in the mainstream correspondence model of distance education is transactional distance, which results from the lack of appropriate communication between learner and teacher. This gap has been observed to become wider if there is no communication between the learner and teacher and has direct implications for the learning process and future endeavors in distance education. Distance education providers began to introduce various strategies, techniques, and procedures to increase the amount of interaction between learners and teachers. These measures e.g. more frequent face-to-face tutorials, and increased use of information and communication technologies including teleconferencing and the Internet, were designed to close the gap in transactional distance.<ref>Soekartawi, Haryono, A. & Librero, F. 2002. Greater Learning Opportunities Through Distance Education: Experiences in Indonesia and the Philippines. ''Journal of Southeast Asian Education'', Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 283–320. Retrieved from [https://web.archive.org/web/20140307211743/http://www.seameo-journal.com/journal/index.php/education/article/viewFile/39/38]</ref>

== Credentials ==
{{Main|Online credentials for learning}}

Online credentials for learning are digital credentials that are offered in place of traditional paper credentials for a skill or educational achievement. Directly linked to the accelerated development of internet communication technologies, the development of [[digital badge]]s, [[electronic passport]]s and [[massive open online course]]s (MOOCs) have a very direct bearing on our understanding of learning, recognition and levels as they pose a direct challenge to the status quo. It is useful to distinguish between three forms of online credentials: Test-based credentials, online badges, and online certificates.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002428/242887e.pdf|title=Level-setting and recognition of learning outcomes: The use of level descriptors in the twenty-first century|last1=Keevy|first1=James|last2=Chakroun|first2=Borhene|publisher=Paris, UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=978-92-3-100138-3|pages=129–131}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Degree completion program]]
* [[Digital divide]]
* Distance and on-line learning advocates
** [[Herbert Gross]]
** [[Linda Harasim]]
* [[Educational technology]]
* [[Homeschooling]]
* [[Learning environment]]
* [[Low-residency program]]
* [[Media psychology]]
* [[New media]]
* [[Online school]]
* [[Open supported learning]]
* [[Open-door academic policy]]
* [[Qualifications framework#Qualifications frameworks for online learning|Qualifications frameworks for online learning]]
* [[School of the Air]], distance education in Australia
* ''[[Sunrise Semester]]''
* [[Videotelephony]]
* [[Virtual education]]

== Sources ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = Level-setting and recognition of learning outcomes: The use of level descriptors in the twenty-first century
| author = Keevey, James; Chakroun, Borhene
| publisher = UNESCO
| page numbers = 129-131
| source = UNESCO
| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002428/242887e.pdf
| license statement URL = http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=242887&set=0058D22B8C_1_128&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1
| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*Anderson, T. (2008). ''Theory and Practice of Online Education'' (2nd ed) {{ISBN|9781897425084}}
* Anderson, T., & Dron, J. (2010). Three generations of distance education pedagogy. ''The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning'', 12(3), 80–97.
* Bates, T. (2005). ''Technology, e-learning and distance education'': RoutledgeFalmer.
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.24.611.327 |pmid=17772791 |title=The Correspondence School--Its Relation to Technical Education and Some of Its Results |journal=Science |volume=24 |issue=611 |pages=327–34 |year=1906 |last1=Clark |first1=J. J. |bibcode=1906Sci....24..327C |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1447968 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hampel | first1 = Robert L | year = 2010 | title = The Business of Education: Home Study at Columbia University and the University of Wisconsin in the 1920s and 1930s | journal = Teachers College Record | volume = 112 | issue = 9| pages = 2496–2517 | doi = 10.1177/016146811011200905 | s2cid = 141830291 }}
*Holmberg, Börje. (1995). ''Theory and Practice of Distance Education'' (2nd ed) [https://www.questia.com/library/109055550/theory-and-practice-of-distance-education online]
* Jacob, J.U., Ensign M. (2020). [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32369-1 Transactional Radio Instruction: Improving Educational Outcomes for Children in Conflict Zones], Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32369-1.
* Kett, Joseph F. (1994). ''Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties: From Self-Improvement to Adult Education in America'' {{ISBN|978-0804726801}}
* {{cite book|author=Moore, Michael Grahame and William Anderson|title=Handbook of Distance Education|year=2012|edition=2nd|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-1-4106-0729-4}} [https://www.questia.com/library/104778858/handbook-of-distance-education online edition]
*Major, C. H. (2015). Teaching online: A guide to theory, research, and practice. (Johns Hopkins University Press).
* Moore, M. G. (1990). ''Contemporary issues in American distance education'' (Ed.)
* Peters, O. (1994). Distance education and industrial production: A comparative interpretation in outline(1973). ''Otto Peters on distance education: The industrialization of teaching and learning'', 107–127.
* Saba, F. (2011). Distance Education in the United States: Past, Present, Future. ''Educational Technology'', 51(6), 11.
*Stubblefield, Harold W., and Patrick Keane. (1994). ''Adult Education in the American Experience: From the Colonial Period to the Present'' {{ISBN| 978-0787900250}}
* Taylor, J. C. (2001). Fifth-generation distance education. ''e-Journal of Instructional Science and Technology'' (e-JIST), 4(1), 1-14.
* Terry Evans, M. H., David Murphy (Ed.). (2008). ''International Handbook of Distance Education''. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
* Walsh, T. (2011). ''Unlocking the Gates: How and Why Leading Universities Are Opening Up Access to Their Courses'' (Princeton University Press, 2011) [https://www.questia.com/read/120917363/unlocking-the-gates-how-and-why-leading-universities online]

== External links ==
* {{curlie|Reference/Education/Distance_Learning|Distance learning}}
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book//browse?type=lcsubc&key=Radio%20in%20education&c=x "Radio in education"] full-text books and articles online; from 1930s and 1940s
* [http://www.aupress.ca/index.php/books/bySeries?s=DistanceEducation "Issues in Distance Education book series from Athabasca University Press"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016232455/http://aupress.ca/index.php/books/bySeries?s=DistanceEducation }}. A series of over 10 books related to distance education research. Available in print for sale or online as open access.
* [http://www.washington.edu/doit/Resources/accessdl.html The Center on Accessible Distance Learning (AccessDL)], DO-IT Center, University of Washington

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Madanlal Pahwa

2022-10-19T13:37:29Z

Sahil Kothari: Page formed.

#REDIRECT [[Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi]]

Indo-Pakistan Wars

2022-09-28T03:25:10Z

Sahil Kothari: Created a captivating write-up.

#REDIRECT [[Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts]]

Sati (practice)

2022-06-16T02:57:24Z

Sahil Kothari: Produced a new page layout.

{{Short description|Historical Hindu practice of widow immolation}}
{{about|ritual suicide/murder|other uses|Sati (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates}}
[[File:Suttee. Wellcome V0041335.jpg|thumb|250px|A 19th-century painting depicting the act of sati]]

'''Sati''' or '''suttee'''{{Refn|group=note|The spelling ''suttee'' is a phonetic spelling using 19th-century English orthography. The ''satī'' transliteration uses the more modern [[ISO 15919|ISO]]/[[IAST]] (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration), the academic standard for writing the Sanskrit language with the Latin alphabet system.<ref name="asnic.utexas.edu"/>}} was a historical practice in which a [[widow]] sacrifices herself by sitting atop her deceased [[husband]]'s funeral [[pyre]].<ref name=thomaswb182-185>{{cite book|last=Weinberger-Thomas|first=Catherine|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein/page/182 182]–185|url=https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein|url-access=registration|title=Ashes of Immortality: Widow-Burning in India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1999|isbn=978-0226885681}} Quote: Between 1943 and 1987, some thirty women in Rajasthan (twenty-eight, according to official statistics) immolated themselves on their husband's funeral pyre. This figure probably falls short of the actual number. (p. 182)</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=DHE3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT83 Feminist Spaces: Gender and Geography in a Global Context], Routledge, Ann M. Oberhauser, Jennifer L. Fluri, Risa Whitson, Sharlene Mollett. Quote: ''Sati'' is a practice in which widows commit suicide by burning themselves (or being burned) on their husband's funeral pyres. While this practice was never widespread, and is now obsolete, it was nonetheless at the center of discussions around Indian & Nepalese culture and tradition during the last century-and-a-half."</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal |jstor= 25058378 |quote= Suttee, or sati, is the obsolete Hindu practice in which a widow burns herself upon her husband's funeral pyre...|title= The Sati, the Bride, and the Widow: Sacrificial Woman in the Nineteenth Century|last1=Gilmartin|first1=Sophie|journal=Victorian Literature and Culture|year= 1997|volume= 25|issue= 1 |pages= 141–158|doi= 10.1017/S1060150300004678|s2cid= 162954709}}</ref>{{sfn|Sharma|2001|pp=19–21}}{{sfn|Leslie|1993}} Although it is debated whether it received scriptural mention in early Hinduism, it has been linked to related Hindu practices in the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan-speaking]] regions of [[India]] which diminished the rights of women, especially those to the inheritance of property.{{Refn|group=note|"The legal rights, as well as the ideal images, of women were increasingly circumscribed during the Gupta era. The Laws of Manu, compiled from about 200 to 400 C.E., came to be the most prominent evidence that this era was not necessarily a golden age for women. Through a combination of legal injunctions and moral prescriptions, women were firmly tied to the patriarchal family, ... Thus the Laws of Manu severely reduced the property rights of women, recommended a significant difference in ages between husband and wife and the relatively early marriage of women, and banned widow remarriage. Manu's preoccupation with chastity reflected possibly a growing concern for the maintenance of inheritance rights in the male line, a fear of women undermining the increasingly rigid caste divisions, and a growing emphasis on male asceticism as a higher spiritual calling."<ref name="RamusackSievers1999">{{citation|last=Ramusack|first=Barbara N.|editor=Barbara N. Ramusack, Sharon L. Sievers|title=Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PA27|year=1999|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-21267-7|pages=27–29|chapter=Women in South Asia}}</ref>}}{{Refn|group=note|"Therefore, by the time of the Mauryan Empire the position of women in mainstream Indo-Aryan society seems to have deteriorated. Customs such as child marriage and dowry were becoming entrenched; and a young women’s purpose in life was to provide sons for the male lineage into which she married. To quote the Arthashāstra: ‘wives are there for having sons’. Practices such as female infanticide and the neglect of young girls were also developing at this time. Further, due to the increasingly hierarchical nature of the society, marriage was becoming a mere institution for childbearing and the formalization of relationships between groups. In turn, this may have contributed to the growth of increasingly instrumental attitudes towards women and girls (who moved home at marriage). It is important to note that, in all likelihood, these developments did not affect people living in large parts of the subcontinent—such as those in the south, and tribal communities inhabiting the forested hill and plateau areas of Southern Asia where hindiusm was practised. That said, these deleterious features have continued to blight Indo-Aryan-speaking areas of the subcontinent until the present day.<ref name="Dyson2018-20">{{citation|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8|pages=20}}</ref>}} A cold form of sati, or the neglect and casting out of Hindu widows, has been prevalent from ancient times.<ref name="brule-inheritance">{{cite book | last = Brule | first = Rachel E. | title = Women, Power, and Property: The Paradox of Gender Equality Laws in India | location = Cambridge and New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press| page = 68 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fdX7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 | isbn = 978-1-108-83582-4 | year = 2020}} Quote: Sati is a particularly relevant social practice because it is often used as a means to prevent inheritance of property by widows. In parallel, widows are also sometimes branded as witches – and subjected to violent expulsion from their homes – as a means to prevent their inheritance.</ref>{{Refn|group=note|"Darkness can be said to have pervaded one aspect of society during the inter-imperial centuries: the degradation of women. In [[Hinduism]], the monastic tradition was not institutionalized as it was in the heterodoxies of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], where it was considered the only true path to spiritual liberation. (p. 88) Instead, Hindu men of upper castes, passed through several stages of life: that of initiate, when those of the [[Dwija|twice-born castes]] received the sacred thread; that of student, when the upper castes studied the [[Vedas]]; that of the married man, when they became householders; ... Since the Hindu man was enjoined to take a wife at the appropriate period of life, the roles and nature of women presented some difficulty. Unlike the monastic ascetic, the Hindu man was exhorted to have sons, and could not altogether avoid either women or sexuality. ... [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]] approved of child brides, considering a girl of eight suitable for a man of twenty-four, and one of twelve appropriate for a man of thirty.(p. 89) If there was no dowry, or if the groom’s family paid that of the bride, the marriage was ranked lower. In this ranking lay the seeds of the curse of dowry that has become a major social problem in modern India, among all castes, classes and even religions. (p. 90) ... the widow’s head was shaved, she was expected to sleep on the ground, eat one meal a day, do the most menial tasks, wear only the plainest, meanest garments, and no ornaments. She was excluded from all festivals and celebrations since she was considered inauspicious to all but her own children. This penitential life was enjoined because the widow could never quite escape the suspicion that she was in some way responsible for her husband’s premature demise. ... The positions taken and the practices discussed by Manu and the other commentators and writers of [[Dharmashastra]] are not quaint relics of the distant past, but alive and recurrent in India today – as the attempts to revive the custom of sati (widow immolation) in recent decades has shown."<ref name="Stein2010-90">{{citation|last=Stein|first=Burton|title=A History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA87|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1|page=87}}</ref>}} Greek sources from around 300 BCE make isolated mention of sati,<ref name="Pigoń2008"/><ref name="Bosworth2005"/><ref name=":1"/> but it probably developed into a real fire sacrifice in the medieval era within the northwestern [[Rajput]] clans to which it initially remained limited,{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=50-53}} to become more widespread during the late medieval era.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p= 21–23}}{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp= 205–206}}{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p= 162–167}}

During the early-modern [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] period of 1526–1857, it was notably associated with elite Hindu Rajput clans in western [[India]], marking one of the points of divergence between Hindu Rajputs and the Muslim [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]]s, who banned the practice.<ref name="AsherTalbot2006">{{citation|last1=Asher|first1=Catherine B.|last2=Talbot|first2=Cynthia|title=India before Europe|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1GEWAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT268|year= 2006|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-1-139-91561-8|pages= 268–}}</ref> In the early 19th century, the [[British Empire|British]] [[East India Company]], in the process of extending its [[Company rule in India|rule]] to most of India, initially tolerated the practice; [[William Carey (missionary)|William Carey]], a British [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Evangelism|evangelist]], noted 438 incidents within a 30-mile (48-km) radius of the capital, [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], in 1803, despite its ban within Calcutta.<ref name="Bpp">
{{cite web |last1= Hardgrave |first1= Robert L. Jr. |title= Bengal Past and Present |url= https://www.laits.utexas.edu/solvyns-project/Satiart.rft.html |website=University of Texas |access-date=12 September 2018
}}
</ref> Between 1815 and 1818 the number of incidents of sati in [[Bengal]] doubled from 378 to 839. Opposition to the practice of sati by evangelists like Carey, and by Hindu reformers such as [[Ram Mohan Roy]] ultimately led the British [[Governor-General of India]] [[Lord William Bentinck]] to enact the [[Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829]], declaring the practice of burning or burying alive of Hindu widows to be punishable by the criminal courts.{{sfn|Sharma|2001|pp= 6–7}}{{sfn|Marshman|1876|page= 374}}{{sfn|Dodwell|1932|page= 140}} Other legislation followed, countering what the British perceived to be interrelated issues involving violence against Hindu women, including the [[Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856]], [[Female Infanticide Prevention Act, 1870]], and [[Age of Consent Act, 1891]]. Ram Mohan Roy observed that when women allow themselves to be consigned to the funeral pyre of a deceased husband it results not just "from religious prejudices only", but, "also from witnessing the distress in which widows of the same rank in life are involved, and the insults and slights to which they are daily subject."<ref name=sartori-lead>{{cite book|last = Sartori | first = Andrew | title = Bengal in Global Concept History: Culturalism in the Age of Capital|location = Chicago and London | publisher = University of Chicago Press | page = 83| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=n0gCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-226-73493-4}}</ref>

Isolated incidents of sati were recorded in India in the late-20th century, leading the Indian government to promulgate the [[Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987]], criminalising the aiding or glorifying of sati.<ref name="Trial by fire"/> The modern laws have proved difficult to implement; as of 2020, at least 250 sati temples existed in India in which prayer ceremonies, or ''[[puja (Hinduism)|puja]]s'', were performed to glorify the avatar of a mother goddess who immolated herself on a husband's funeral pyre after hearing her father insult him; prayers were also performed to the ''practice'' of a wife immolating herself alive on a deceased husband's funeral pyre.{{Refn|group=note|Although recorded cases of sati have diminished dramatically, sati temples, where prayers, known as ''pujas'' are carried out and festivals organized to glorify both the patron goddess, Sati, the benevolent avatar of the mother goddess who immolated herself on the funeral pyre in response to her father's insults to her husband, as does the practice of a wife's self-immolation following her husband's death. Today, India has at least 250 sati temples and legal prohibitions are too vague to effectively prohibit pujas there.<ref name=brule-inheritance/>}}

==Etymology and usage==
[[File:OrchhaSatiTemple.jpg|thumb|Orchha Sati Shrine]]

''Sati'' ([[Sanskrit]]: सती / ''{{IAST|satī}}'') is derived from the name of the goddess [[Sati (goddess)|Sati]], who self-immolated because she was unable to bear her father [[Daksha]]'s humiliation of her and her husband [[Shiva]].

The term ''sati'' was originally interpreted as "[[Chastity|chaste]] woman". ''Sati'' appears in [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and [[Sanskrit]] texts, where it is synonymous with "good wife";<ref name="Imperialism">{{cite book |title=Imperialism: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies |author = P. J. Cain, Mark Harrison |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |page = 209|isbn=978-0415206303 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkY3W7PZ-FkC}}</ref> the term ''suttee'' was commonly used by [[Anglo-Indian]] English writers.<ref name="doniger611">{{cite book|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|title=The Hindus: An Alternative History|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781594202056|url-access=registration|year=2009|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0143116691|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781594202056/page/611 611]}}</ref> ''Sati'' designates therefore originally the woman, rather than the rite. Variants are:
* ''Sativrata'', an uncommon and seldom used term,<ref name=":3">{{cite book|last=Harlan|first=Lindsey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC&pg=PA119|title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives|year=1992|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520073395|page=119 footnote 12}}</ref> denotes the woman who makes a vow, ''vrata'', to protect her husband while he is alive and then die with her husband.
* ''Satimata'' denotes a venerated widow who committed ''sati''.<ref name=":4">{{cite book|last=Harlan|first=Lindsey|page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC&pg=PA119|title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives|year=1992|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520073395|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford}}</ref>

The rite itself had technical names:
* ''Sahagamana'' ("going with") or ''sahamarana'' ("dying with").
* ''Anvarohana'' ("ascension" to the pyre) is occasionally met, as well as ''satidaha'' as terms to designate the process.<ref name=":5">{{cite book|last=Weinberger-Thomas|first=Catherine|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein/page/21 21]|url=https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein|url-access=registration|title=Ashes of Immortality: Widow-Burning in India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1999|isbn=978-0226885681}}</ref>
* ''Satipratha'' is also, on occasion, used as a term signifying the custom of burning widows alive.<ref name=":6">{{cite book|last=Bharti|first=Dalbir|page=49|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7U36KQVBVIgC&pg=PA49|title=Women and the Law|publisher=APH Publishing|year=2008|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8131304426}}</ref>

The Indian Commission of [[Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987]] Part I, Section 2(c) defines ''sati'' as the act or rite itself.<ref name="NRCW">{{cite web|url=http://nrcw.nic.in/shared/sublinkimages/13.htm|title=Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 Official text of the Act|publisher=[[Government of India]]'s National Resource Centre for Women (NCRW)|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025224737/http://nrcw.nic.in/shared/sublinkimages/13.htm|archive-date=25 October 2009}}</ref>

==Origin and spread==
The origins and spread of the practice of ''sati'' are complex and much debated questions, without a general consensus.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}}{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=162–167}} It has been speculated that rituals such as widow sacrifice or widow burning have prehistoric roots.{{refn|group=note|Early 20th-century pioneering anthropologist [[James G. Frazer]] thought that the legendary Greek story of [[Capaneus]], whose wife Evadne threw herself on his funeral pyre, might be a relic of an earlier custom of live widow-burning.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pausanias|last2=Frazer|first2=James G.|page=200|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CetszVxoxAoC&pg=PA200|title=Pausanias's Description of Greece|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012| location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1108047258|volume=3}}</ref> In Book 10 of Quintus Smyrnaeus' Posthomerica (lines 467ff.), Oenone is said to have thrown herself on he burning pyre of her erstwhile husband Paris, or Alexander. The strangling of widows after their husbands' deaths are attested to from cultures as disparate as the [[Natchez people]] in present-day [[Louisiana]], to a number of [[Pacific Islander]] cultures.<ref>''On Natchez, and on Anatom in present day [[Vanuatu]]'', {{cite book|last=Mackenzie|first=Donald A.|pages=158–159|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6chKHROa1icC&pg=PA158|title=Myths of Pre-Columbian America|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|year=1923|isbn=978-0486293790}} ''Tahiti, Hawaii, Samoa'' {{cite book|last=Brantlinger|first=Patrick|pages=[https://archive.org/details/tamingcannibalsr00bran/page/34 34]–35|url=https://archive.org/details/tamingcannibalsr00bran|url-access=registration|title=Taming Cannibals: Race and the Victorians|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0801462641}}, ''Fiji'' {{cite book|last1=Thornley|first1=Andrew|last2=Vualono|first2=Tauga|page=166|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JTuavWoQW9oC&pg=PA166|title=A Shaking of the Land: William Cross and the Origins of Christianity in Fiji |isbn=978-9820203747 |publisher=University of the South Pacific |location=Suva, Fiji}}</ref> [[Ibn Fadlan]] describes a 10th-century CE [[ship burial]] of the [[Rus' (people)|Rus']]. When a female slave had said she would be willing to die, her body was subsequently burned with her master on the pyre.<ref>However, in this ritual described by Ibn Fadlan, the slave girl is described as being stabbed to death prior to being burned. See p. 19, at {{cite web|website=library.cornell.edu|title=Ibn Fadlan and the Rusiyyah|author=James E. Montgomery|url=http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/montgo1.pdf}}</ref>}} The archaeologist [[Elena Efimovna Kuzmina]] has listed several parallels between the burial practices of the ancient Asiatic steppe [[Andronovo culture]]s (fl. 1800–1400 BCE) and the [[Vedic Age]].<ref name=":7">See table 18 at {{cite book |author=Elena Efimovna Kuzmina |page=341 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x5J9rn8p2-IC&pg=PA341 |title=The Origin of the Indo-Iranians |editor=J.P. Mallory |year=2007 |publisher=Brill |location=Leyden |isbn=978-9004160545|author-link=Elena Efimovna Kuzmina }}</ref> She considers ''sati'' to be a largely symbolic double burial or a double cremation, a feature she argues is to be found in both cultures,<ref name=":8">{{cite book |author=Elena Efimovna Kuzmina |page=340 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x5J9rn8p2-IC&pg=PA340 |title=The Origin of the Indo-Iranians |editor=J.P. Mallory |year=2007 |publisher=Brill |location=Leyden |isbn=978-9004160545|author-link=Elena Efimovna Kuzmina }}</ref> with neither culture observing it strictly.<ref name=":9">{{cite book |author=Elena Efimovna Kuzmina |page=194 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x5J9rn8p2-IC&pg=PA194 |title=The Origin of the Indo-Iranians |editor=J.P. Mallory |year=2007 |publisher=Brill |location=Leyden |isbn=978-9004160545|author-link=Elena Efimovna Kuzmina }}</ref>

===Vedic symbolic practice===
According to [[Romila Thapar]], in the [[Vedic period]], when "mores of the clan gave way to the norms of caste", wives were obliged to join in quite a few rituals but without much authority. A ritual with support in a Vedic text was a "symbolic self-immolation" which it is believed a widow of status needed to perform at the death of her husband, the widow subsequently marrying her husband's brother.{{sfn|Thapar|2002|p=118}} In later centuries, the text was cited as the origin of Sati, with a variant reading allowing the authorities to insist that the widow sacrifice herself in reality by joining her deceased husband on the funeral pyre.{{sfn|Thapar|2002|p=118}}

[[Anand Yang|Anand A. Yang]] notes that the Rig Veda refers to a "mimetic ceremony" where a "widow lay on her husband's funeral pyre before it was lit but was raised from it by a male relative of her dead husband."{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=20}} According to Yang, the word ''agre'', "to go forth", was (probably in the 16th century) mistranslated into ''agneh'', "into the fire", to give Vedic sanction for ''sati''.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=20}}

===Early medieval origins===
[[File:Eran_pillar_of_Goparaja_(detail).jpg|thumb|The [[Bhanugupta|Eran pillar of Goparaja]] is considered as the earliest known Sati stone in India (circa 510 CE).<ref name=Vakataka>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OswUZtL1_CUC&q=sati+stone+510+ad&pg=PA190 |title=Vakataka – Gupta Age Circa 200–550 A.D.|page=190|isbn=9788120800267|last1=Majumdar|first1=Ramesh Chandra|last2=Altekar|first2=Anant Sadashiv|year=1986}}</ref> [[Bhanugupta|The inscription]] explains: he "went to heaven, becoming equal to [[Indra]], the best of the gods; and [his] devoted, attached, beloved, and beauteous wife, clinging [to him], entered into the mass of fire (funeral pyre)".<ref name=":10">{{cite book |last1=Fleet |first1=John Faithful |title=Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol.3 (inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings) |page=354 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.108395/page/n457/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name="Vakataka"/> ]]

Sati as the burning of a widow with her deceased husband seems to have been introduced in the post-[[Gupta Empire|Gupta times]], after 500 CE.{{sfn|Thapar|2002|p=304}} [[Vidya Dehejia]] states that sati was introduced late into Indian society, and became regular only after 500 CE.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=50}} According to [[Ashis Nandy]], the practice became prevalent from the 7th century onward and declined to its elimination in the 17th century to gain resurgence in Bengal in the 18th century.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Nandy|first=Ashis|title=Sati: A Nineteenth Century Tale of Women, Violence and Protest in the book "At the Edge of Psychology"|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1980|pages=1}}</ref> Historian [[Roshen Dalal]] postulates that its mention in some of the [[Puranas]] indicates that it slowly grew in prevalence from 5th–7th century and later became an accepted custom around 1000 CE among those of higher classes, especially the [[Rajputs]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=sati+shiva+greeks+widow&pg=PA363|last=Dalal |first=Roshen |year=2010 |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |publisher=Penguin Books India |page=363 |isbn=9780143414216 }}</ref>{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}} One of the stanzas in the [[Mahabharata]] describes [[Madri]]'s suicide by ''sati'', but is likely an [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolation]] given that it has contradictions with the succeeding verses.<ref>{{Cite book|first=M. A.|last=Mehendale|url=http://archive.org/details/InterpolationsInTheMahabharata|title=Interpolations In The Mahabharata|pages=200–201}}</ref>

According to Dehejia, sati originated within the [[kshatriyas]] (warrior) aristocracy and remained mostly limited to the warrior class among Hindus.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=51-53}} According to Thapar, the introduction and growth of the practice of sati as a fire sacrifice is related to new Kshatriyas, who forged their own culture and took some rules "rather literally",{{sfn|Thapar|2002|p=304}} with a variant reading of the Veda turning the symbolic practice into the practice of a widow burning herself with her husband.{{sfn|Thapar|2002|p=118}} Thapar further points to the "subordination of women in patriarchal society", "changing 'systems of kinship{{'"}}, and "control over female sexuality" as factors in the rise of ''sati''.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21}}

===Medieval spread===
The practice of sati was emulated by those seeking to achieve high status of the royalty and the warriors as part of the process of [[sanskritisation]],{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}} but its spread was also related to the centuries of Islamic invasion and its expansion in South Asia,{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}}<ref name=ssshashi>{{cite book|last=Sashi|first=S.S.|page=115|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh|volume=100|year=1996|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=9788170418597}}</ref> and to the hardship and marginalisation that widows endured.{{sfn|Leslie|1993|p=43}} Crucial was the adoption of the practice by Brahmins, despite prohibitions for them to do so.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=22}}

Sati acquired an additional meaning as a means to preserve the honour of women whose men had been slain,{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=21–23}} akin to the practice of ''[[jauhar]]'',{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=165-166}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Social Problems And Welfare In India|year=1992|publisher=Ashish Publishing House|author=Jogan Shankar}}</ref> with the ideologies of ''[[jauhar]]'' and ''sati'' reinforcing each other.{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=165-166}} ''Jauhar'' was originally a self-chosen death for noble women facing defeat in war, and practised especially among the warrior Rajputs.{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=165-166}} Oldenburg posits that the enslavement of women by Greek conquerors may have started this practice,{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=162–167}} On attested Rajput practice of jauhar during wars, and notes that the ''kshatriyas'' or Rajput castes, not the Brahmins, were the most respected community in Rajasthan in north-west India, as they defended the land against invaders centuries before the coming of the Muslims.{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=165}} She proposes that Brahmins of the north-west copied Rajput practices, and transformed sati ideologically from the 'brave woman' into the 'good woman'.{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=165}} From those Brahmins, the practice spread to other non-warrior castes.{{sfn|Oldenburg|1994|p=165-166}}

According to David Brick of Yale University, sati, which was initially rejected by the Brahmins of Kashmir, spread among them in the later half of the first millennium. Brick's evidence for claiming this spread is the mention of sati-like practices in the ''[[Vishnu Smriti]]'' (700–1000 CE), which is believed to have been written in Kashmir. Brick argues that the author of the Vishnu Smriti may have been mentioning practices existing in his own community. Brick notes that the dates of other Dharmasastra texts mentioning ''sahagamana'' are not known with certainty, but posits that the priestly class throughout India was aware of the texts and the practice itself by the 12th century.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=205–206}} According to Anand Yang, it was practised in Bengal as early as the 12th century, where it was originally practised by the Kshatriya caste and later spread to other upper and lower castes including Brahmins.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=22}} Julia Leslie writes that the practice increased among Bengal Brahmins between 1680 and 1830, after widows gained inheritance rights.{{sfn|Leslie|1993|p=43}}

===Colonial era revival===
Sati practice resumed during the colonial era, particularly in significant numbers in colonial [[Bengal Presidency]].<ref name=umanarayan/> Three factors may have contributed this revival: sati was believed to be supported by Hindu scriptures by the 19th century; sati was encouraged by unscrupulous neighbours as it was a means of property annexation from a widow who had the right to inherit her dead husband's property under Hindu law, and sati helped eliminate the inheritor; [[Poverty in India#Poverty prevalence and estimates|poverty]] was so extreme during the 19th century that sati was a means of escape for a woman with no means or hope of survival.<ref name=umanarayan>Uma Narayan (1997), Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, and Third World Feminism, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415914192}}, pp. 59–65</ref>

Daniel Grey states that the understanding of origins and spread of sati were distorted in the colonial era because of a concerted effort to push "problem Hindu" theories in the 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Grey | first1 = Daniel | year = 2013 | title = Creating the 'Problem Hindu': Sati, Thuggee and Female Infanticide in India: 1800–60 | journal = Gender & History | volume = 25 | issue = 3| pages = 498–510 | doi = 10.1111/1468-0424.12035 | s2cid = 142811053 }}</ref> Lata Mani wrote that all of the parties during the British colonial era that debated the issue subscribed to the belief in a "[[golden age]]" of Indian women followed by a decline in concurrence to the Muslim conquests. This discourse also resulted in promotion of a view of British missionaries rescuing "Hindu India from Islamic tyranny".<ref>Mani, L. (1998). Contentious traditions : the debate on Sati in colonial India. Berkeley: University of California Press.pg 193</ref> Several British missionaries who had studied classical Indian literature attempted to employ Hindu scriptural interpretations in their missionary work to convince their followers that Sati was not mandated by Hinduism.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/islamiceuropeane00adas|url-access=registration|quote=sati muslim conquests british saved india.|author=Michael Adas|publisher=Temple University Press|title= Islamic & European Expansion: The Forging of a Global Order|page=[https://archive.org/details/islamiceuropeane00adas/page/358 358]|isbn=9781566390682|year=1993}}</ref>

==History==

===Earliest records===
Few reliable records exist of the practice before the time of the [[Gupta Empire]] (c. 400 CE).

====Early Greek sources====
Among those that do reference the practice, the lost works of the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] historian [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia]], who travelled to India with the expedition of [[Alexander the Great]] in {{circa|327 BCE}}, are preserved in the fragments of [[Strabo]]. There are different views by authors on what Aristobulus hears as widows of one or more tribes in India performing self-sacrifice on the husband's pyre, one author also mentions that widows who declined to die were held in disgrace.<ref name="Pigoń2008">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j5vzBgAAQBAJ&q=aristobulus+strabo+fragments+sati&pg=PA135|title = The Children of Herodotus: Greek and Roman Historiography and Related Genres|page= 135 |editor = Jakub Pigoń|isbn = 978-1443802512|publisher = Cambridge Scholars Publishing|date = 18 December 2008}}</ref><ref name="Bosworth2005">{{cite book|title = The Legacy of Alexander: Politics, Warfare, and Propaganda under the Successors|pages= 177 |author = A. B. Bosworth|isbn = 978-0199285150|publisher = Oxford University Press|year= 2005 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Guillemard|first=F. H. H.|title=A History of Ancient Geography|publisher=Cambridge University Press Warehouse|pages=152}}</ref> In contrast, [[Megasthenes]] who visited India during 300 BCE does not mention any specific reference to the practice,<ref>{{Cite book|last=McCrindle|first=John Watson|title=Ancient India as Described by Megasthenês and Arrian|publisher=Thacker & Co}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> which Dehejia takes as an indication that the practice was non-existent then.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=51-52}}

[[Diodorus]] writes about the wives of Ceteus, the Indian captain of [[Eumenes]], competing for burning themselves after his death in the [[Battle of Paraitakene]] (317 BCE). The younger one is permitted to mount the pyre. Modern historians believe Diodorus's source for this episode was the eyewitness account of the now lost historian [[Hieronymus of Cardia]]. Hieronymus' explanation of the origin of ''sati'' appears to be his own composite, created from a variety of Indian traditions and practices to form a moral lesson upholding traditional Greek values.<ref name="Bosworth174-187">Bosworth, pp. 174–187</ref> Modern scholarship has generally treated this instance as an isolated incident, not representative of general culture.

Two other independent sources that mention widows who voluntarily joined their husbands' pyres as a mark of their love are [[Cicero]] and [[Nicolaus of Damascus]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j5vzBgAAQBAJ&q=nicolaus+of+damascus+sati&pg=PA137|title = The Children of Herodotus: Greek and Roman Historiography and Related Genres|page= 136 |editor = Jakub Pigoń|isbn = 978-1443802512|publisher = Cambridge Scholars Publishing|date = 18 December 2008}}</ref>

====Early Sanskrit sources====
Some of the early Sanskrit authors like [[Daṇḍin]] in ''[[Dashakumaracharita|Daśakumāracarita]]'' and [[Banabhatta]] in ''[[Harshacharita]]'' mention that women who burnt themselves wore extravagant dresses. Bana tells about Yasomati who, after choosing to mount the pyre, bids farewell to her relatives and servants. She then decks herself in jewellery which she later distributes to others.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j5vzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA126|title = The Children of Herodotus: Greek and Roman Historiography and Related Genres|page= 126 |editor = Jakub Pigoń|isbn = 978-1443802512|publisher = Cambridge Scholars Publishing|date = 18 December 2008}}</ref> Although [[Prabhakaravardhana]]'s death is expected, Arvind Sharma suggests it is another form of sati.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJmWgz2mv5oC&q=yasomati+sati&pg=PA41|title = Sati: Historical and Phenomenological Essays|page= 41 |authors= Arvind Sharma, Ajit Ray, Alaka Hejib|isbn = 978-8120804647|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|year = 1988}}</ref> The same work mentions [[Harsha]]'s sister Rajyasri trying to commit sati after her husband died.<ref>Social and Religious Reform Movements in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Institute of Historical Studies, Siba Pada Sen, '''181'''</ref><ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sqFQAwAAQBAJ&q=rajyasri+sati&pg=PT498|title = The First Spring Part 1: Life in the Golden Age of India| author= Abraham Eraly |isbn = 978-9351186458 | publisher= Penguin UK|date = May 2014}}</ref> In ''[[Kadambari]]'', Bana greatly opposes sati and gives examples of women who did not choose sahgamana.<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UJmWgz2mv5oC&q=kadambri+bana+sati&pg=PA15|title = Sati: Historical and Phenomenological Essays|page= 15 |authors= Arvind Sharma, Ajit Ray, Alaka Hejib|isbn = 978-8120804647|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|year = 1988}}</ref>

====Sangam literature====
Padma Sree asserts that other evidence for some form of sati comes from [[Sangam literature]] in [[Tamilakam|Tamilkam]]: for instance the {{Transliteration|ta|[[Silappatikaram]]}} written in the 2nd century CE. In this tale, Kannagi, the chaste wife of her wayward husband Kovalan, burns Madurai to the ground when her husband is executed unjustly, then climbs a cliff to join Kovalan in heaven. She became an object of worship as a chaste wife, called [[Pattini]] in Sinhala and {{Transliteration|ta|Kannagiamman}} in Tamil, and is still worshipped today. An inscription in an urn burial from the 1st century CE tells of a widow who told the potter to make the urn big enough for both her and her husband. The {{Transliteration|ta|[[Manimekalai]]}} similarly provides evidence that such practices existed in Tamil lands, and the {{Transliteration|ta|[[Purananuru]]}} claims widows prefer to die with their husband due to the dangerous negative power associated with them. However she notes that this glorification of sacrifice was not unique to women: just as the texts glorified "good" wives who sacrificed themselves for their husbands and families, "good" warriors similarly sacrificed themselves for their kings and lands. It is even possible that the sacrifice of the "good" wives originated from the warrior sacrifice tradition. Today, such women are still worshipped as ''[[Village deities of South India|Gramadevatas]]'' throughout South India.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Padma|first=Sree|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199325023.001.0001|title=Vicissitudes of the Goddess|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199325023.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-932502-3}}</ref>

====Inscriptional evidence====
According to [[Axel Michaels]], the first inscriptional evidence of the practice is from [[Nepal]] in 464 CE, and in India from 510 CE.<ref name=axelmichaels>{{cite book|last=Michaels|first=Axel|pages=149–153|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PD-flQMc1ocC&pg=PA149|title=Hinduism: Past and Present|year=2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691089539}}</ref> The early evidence suggests that widow-burning practice was seldom carried out in the general population.<ref name=axelmichaels/> Centuries later, instances of ''sati'' began to be marked by inscribed memorial stones called Sati stones. According to J.C. Harle, the medieval memorial stones appear in two forms – ''viragal'' (hero stone) and ''satigal'' (sati stone), each to memorialise something different. Both of these are found in many regions of India, but "rarely if ever earlier in date than the 8th or 9th century".<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=25203206|title=An Early Indian Hero-Stone and a Possible Western Source|last1=Harle|first1=J. C.|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|year=1970|volume=102|issue=2|pages=159–164|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00128333|s2cid=163747976 }}</ref> Numerous memorial ''sati'' stones appear 11th-century onwards, states Michaels, and the largest collections are found in [[Rajasthan]].<ref name=axelmichaels/> There have been few instances of sati in the [[Chola Empire]] in [[South India]]. Vanavan Mahadevi, the mother of [[Rajaraja Chola I]] (10th century) and Viramahadevi the queen of [[Rajendra Chola I]] (11th century) both committed Sati upon their husband's death by ascending the pyre.<ref>{{cite book|title=Women in India: A Social and Cultural History [2 volumes]: A Social and Cultural History|author=Sita Anantha Raman|publisher=ABC-CLIO, 8 June 2009 – Social Science – 468 pages|page=167}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Woman, Her History and Her Struggle for Emancipation|author=B. S. Chandrababu, L. Thilagavathi|publisher=Bharathi Puthakalayam, 2009 – Feminism – 624 pages|page=136}}</ref> The 510 CE inscription at [[Eran]] mentioning the wife of Goparaja, a vassal of [[Bhanugupta]], burning herself on her husband's pyre is considered to be a Sati stone.<ref name=Vakataka />

===Practice in Hindu-influenced cultures outside India===
{{See also|Greater India}}

The early 14th-century CE traveller of [[Pordenone]] mentions wife burning in Zampa ([[Champa]]), in nowadays south/central [[Vietnam]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Phillips|first=Kim M.|page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5GkYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119|title=Before Orientalism: Asian Peoples and Cultures in European Travel Writing, 1245–1510|year=2013|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0812208948}}</ref>{{Refn|group=note|Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived in Vietnam by early centuries of 1st millennium, likely from trade and the Cambodian Khmer influence. In the 10th century CE, Mahayana Buddhism became the officially sponsored religion. From the 11th century and thereafter, Buddhism in Vietnam incorporated many Chinese Confucian influences.<ref>{{citation|title=History of Buddhism in Vietnam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tUN8tC0ftJcC |author=Nguyễn Tài Thư |publisher=CRVP| year=2008|isbn=978-1565180987|pages=75–89}}</ref>}} Anant Altekar states that ''sati'' spread with Hindu migrants to Southeast Asian islands, such as to [[Java]], [[Sumatra]] and [[Bali]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|page=130|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA130|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-8120803244}}</ref> According to Dutch colonial records, this was however a rare practice in Indonesia, one found in royal households.<ref>{{cite book|author=M.C. Ricklefs|title=A History of Modern Indonesia Since C. 1200|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AAdBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA166 |year=2008|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-05201-8 |pages=165–166 }}</ref>

[[File:Balinese rite of Suttee in Houtman 1597 Verhael vande Reyse ... Naer Oost Indien.jpg|thumb|Description of the [[Bali]]nese rite of self-sacrifice or ''Suttee'', in [[Frederik de Houtman]]'s 1597 ''Verhael vande Reyse ... Naer Oost Indien'']]
In [[Cambodia]], both the lords and the wives of a dead king voluntarily burnt themselves in the 15th and 16th centuries.<ref>The archeologist [[Georges Coedès]] made that inference on basis of some inscriptions in Cambodia,{{cite book|last=Sharan|first=Manesh K.|page=192|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8B886QamMBMC&pg=PA192|title=Studies In Sanskrit Inscriptions Of Ancient Cambodia|year=2003|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-8170170068}}, also, see Yule & Burnell (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=F51h6q-bB6sC&pg=PA494 pp. 495 Hobson-Jobson: The Definitive Glossary of British India]</ref>{{Refn|group=note|Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived in Cambodia by the mid 1st millennium, likely over both land trading routes and maritime Asian trade. Mahayana Buddhism likely arrived in the 5th or 6th century CE.<ref name="Harris2008"/> Mahayana competed with Hinduism from the 8th century onwards, as Khmer kings switched their royal support as they warred with Siam kings, with [[Mahayana]] becoming the officially sponsored religion in the 12th century and [[Theravada]] starting to arrive.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ian Harris|title=Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVnMxVz_Bg8C |year=2008|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-3298-8 |pages=10–28 }}</ref> From the 15th century and thereafter, Theravada Buddhism replaced Mahayana, and became the predominant religion.<ref name="Harris2008">{{cite book|author=Ian Harris|title=Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVnMxVz_Bg8C |year=2008|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-3298-8 |pages=4–8 }}</ref>}} According to European traveller accounts, in 15th century [[Mergui]], in present-day extreme south [[Myanmar]], widow burning was practised.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lach|first=Donald F.|page=525|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0x1Io6VOuAIC&pg=PA525|title=Asia in the Making of Europe: The Century of Discovery|volume=1|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0226467320}}</ref> A Chinese pilgrim from the 15th century seems to attest the practice on islands called Ma-i-tung and Ma-i (possibly [[Belitung]] (outside Sumatra) and Northern [[Philippines]], respectively).<ref>{{cite book|last=Creese|first=Helen|page=317, footnote 12|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCUrhg_EibgC&pg=PA317|title=Women of the Kakawin World: Marriage and Sexuality in the Indic Courts of Java and Bali|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|location=Armonk, NY|year=2005|isbn=978-0765601605}}</ref>

According to the historian [[K. M. de Silva|K.M. de Silva]], Christian missionaries in [[Sri Lanka]] with a substantial Hindu minority population, reported "there were no glaring social evils associated with the indigenous religions-no ''sati'', (...). There was thus less scope for the social reformer."<ref>{{cite book|last=de Silva|first=K.M.|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_dByI_qil26YC/page/n290 266]|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_dByI_qil26YC|title=A History of Sri Lanka|year=1981|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|isbn=978-0520043206}}</ref> However, although ''sati'' was non-existent in the colonial era, earlier Muslim travellers such as [[Sulaiman al-Tajir]] reported that ''sati'' was optionally practised, which a widow could choose to undertake.<ref>On ''al-Tajir'', ''Ibn Batuta'' and ''Marco Polo'' {{cite book |last1=Hermes |first1=Nizar F. |editor-last=Netton |editor-first=Ian R. |chapter=The Orient's Medieval Orient(alism) |page=211 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lpsfb48_-xoC&pg=PA211 |title=Orientalism Revisited: Art, Land and Voyage |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0415538541}}, On ''al-Qazwini'' {{cite book|last=Tennent|first=James E.|page=574|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DRg-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA574|title=Ceylon: An Account of the Island|volume=1|publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts|location=London|year=1859}}</ref>

===Mughal Empire (1526–1857)===
[[File:A Hindu princess committing suttee against the wishes of the Wellcome L0022809.jpg|thumb|A painting by Mohammad Rizā showing Hindu princess committing Sati against the wishes but with the reluctant approval of the Emperor [[Akbar]]. In the right foreground, attending the Sati on horseback, is the third son of Akbar, Prince [[Daniyal Mirza|Dāniyāl]].]]
{{Main|Mughal Empire}}

;Ambivalence of Mughal rulers
According to [[Annemarie Schimmel]], the Mughal Emperor [[Akbar]] (r.1556–1605) was averse to the practice of Sati; however, he expressed his admiration for "widows who wished to be cremated with their deceased husbands".<ref name=annemarie113>{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel|editor=Burzine K. Waghmar|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Reaktion|isbn=978-1-86189-185-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/113 113]–114}}</ref> He was averse to abuse, and in 1582, Akbar issued an order to prevent any use of compulsion in ''sati''.<ref name=annemarie113/><ref name=Columbia>[http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_17.html XVII. "Economic and Social Developments under the Mughals"] from ''Muslim Civilization in India'' by S. M. Ikram, edited by Ainslie T. Embree New York: Columbia University Press, 1964</ref> According to M. Reza Pirbhai, a professor of South Asian and World history, it is unclear if a prohibition on ''sati'' was issued by Akbar, and other than a claim of ban by Monserrate upon his insistence, no other primary sources mention an actual ban.<ref>{{cite book|author=M. Reza Pirbhai|title=Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szKwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 |year=2009|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-90-474-3102-2|pages=107–108}}</ref> Instances of ''sati'' continued during and after the era of Akbar.<ref>{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel|editor=Burzine K. Waghmar|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne |url-access=registration|year=2004| publisher=Reaktion |isbn=978-1-86189-185-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/empireofgreatmug00anne/page/166 166]}}</ref><ref name=pirbhai108/>{{refn|group=note|For example, according to a poem, ''Sūz u gudāz'' ("Burning and melting") by Muhammad Riza Nau'i of Khasbushan (d. 1610), Akbar attempted to prevent a ''sati'' by calling a widow before him and offering her wealth and protection. The poet reports hearing the story from Prince Dāniyāl, Akbar's third son. According to Arvind Sharma, a professor of Comparative Religion specializing on Hinduism, the widow "rejected all this persuasion as well as the counsel of the Brahmins, and would neither speak nor hear of anything but the Fire".{{Sfn|Sharma|2001|p=25}} According to Sharma, "in most accounts of sati of the pre-17th century period, in which the role of the [[Brahmin|Brahamanas]] can be identified, they appear in the role of persons dissuading the widow from committing sati."{{Sfn|Sharma|2001|p=25}}}}

[[Jahangir]] (r.1605–1627), who succeeded Akbar in the early 17th century, found ''sati'' prevalent among the Hindus of Rajaur.{{Sfn|Sharma|2001|p=23}}<ref name=pirbhai108/> During this era, many Muslims and Hindus were ambivalent about the practice, with Muslim attitude leaning towards disapproval. According to Sharma, the evidence nevertheless suggests that ''sati'' was admired by Hindus, but both "Hindus and Muslims went in large numbers to witness a sati".{{Sfn|Sharma|2001|p=23}} According to Reza Pirbhai, the memoirs of Jahangir suggest ''sati'' continued in his regime, was practised by Hindus and Muslims, he was fascinated by the custom, and that those Kashmiri Muslim widows who practised ''sati'' either immolated themselves or buried themselves alive with their dead husbands. Jahangir prohibited such sati and other customary practices in Kashmir.<ref name=pirbhai108>{{cite book|author=M. Reza Pirbhai|title=Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=szKwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 | year=2009| publisher=Brill Academic| isbn=978-90-474-3102-2|page=108}}</ref>

[[Aurangzeb]] issued another order in 1663, states [[S. M. Ikram|Sheikh Muhammad Ikram]], after returning from Kashmir, "in all lands under Mughal control, never again should the officials allow a woman to be burnt".<ref name=Columbia/> The Aurangzeb order, states [[S. M. Ikram|Ikram]], though mentioned in the formal histories, is recorded in the official records of Aurangzeb's time.<ref name=Columbia/> Although Aurangzeb's orders could be evaded with payment of bribes to officials, adds [[S. M. Ikram|Ikram]], later European travellers record that ''sati'' was not much practised in Mughal empire, and that Sati was "very rare, except it be some Rajah's wives, that the Indian women burn at all" by the end of Aurangzeb's reign.<ref name=Columbia/>

;Descriptions by Westerners
The memoirs of European merchants and travellers, as well the colonial era Christian missionaries of British India described Sati practices under Mughal rulers.<ref name=rajkumar173/> [[Ralph Fitch]] noted in 1591:<ref name="Ralf">{{cite book |last1=Horton |first1=Ryley, J. |title=Ralph Fitch |publisher=T. Fisher and Urwin |page=60 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.38807/2015.38807.Ralph-Fitch#page/n88/search/her+head+is+shauen |access-date=12 September 2018}}</ref>
{{blockquote |text=When the husband died his wife is burned with him, if she be alive, if she will not, her head is shaven, and then is never any account made of her after.}}

[[François Bernier]] (1620–1688) gave the following description:

{{blockquote|At [[Lahore|Lahor]] I saw a most beautiful young widow sacrificed, who could not, I think, have been more than twelve years of age. The poor little creature appeared more dead than alive when she approached the dreadful pit: the agony of her mind cannot be described; she trembled and wept bitterly; but three or four of the Brahmens, assisted by an old woman who held her under the arm, forced the unwilling victim toward the fatal spot, seated her on the wood, tied her hands and feet, lest she should run away, and in that situation the innocent creature was burnt alive.<ref>[[François Bernier|François Bernier's]] Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656–1668.</ref>}}

The Spanish missionary Domingo Navarrete wrote in 1670 of different styles of Sati during Aurangzeb's time.<ref name="Banerjee2016p82">{{cite book|author=P. Banerjee|title=Burning Women: Widows, Witches, and Early Modern European Travelers in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n7EYDAAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-05204-9|pages=82–83}}</ref>

===British and other European colonial powers===
[[File:A Hindoo Widow Burning Herself with the Corpse of her Husband.jpg|thumb|A [[Hindu]] widow burning herself with the corpse of her husband, 1820s, by the London-based illustrator [[Frederic Shoberl]] from traveller accounts]]

====Non-British colonial powers in India====
[[Afonso de Albuquerque]] banned ''sati'' immediately after the [[Portuguese conquest of Goa]] in 1510.<ref>{{cite book
|first=Roger
|last=Crowley
|year=2015
|title=Conquerors: How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire
|publisher=Faber & Faber
|location=London}}</ref> Local Brahmins convinced the newly arrived [[Francisco Barreto]] to rescind the ban in 1555 in spite of protests from the local Christians and the Church authorities, but the ban was reinstated in 1560 by [[Constantino de Bragança]] with additional serious criminal penalties (including loss of property and liberty) against those encouraging the practice.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kaleidoscope of Women in Goa, 1510–1961|url=https://archive.org/details/kaleidoscopeofwo0000silv/page/91|page=91|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|first=Fatima|last=da Silva Gracias|isbn = 9788170225911}}</ref><ref>[http://www.goacom.com/culture/religion/gch/ To Cherish and to Share: The Goan Christian Heritage] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722224224/http://www.goacom.com/culture/religion/gch/ }} Paper presented at the 1991 Conference on Goa at the [[University of Toronto]] by: John Correia Afonso S.J. from: "South Asian Studies Papers", no 9; Goa: Goa Continuity and Change; Edited by Narendra K. Wagle and George Coelho; University of Toronto Centre for South Asian Studies 1995</ref>

The Dutch and the French banned it in [[Chinsurah]] and [[Pondicherry district|Pondichéry]], their respective colonies.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shashi|first=S.S.|page=118|year=1996|title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh|volume=100|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=978-8170418597}}</ref> The Danes, who held the small territories of [[Tranquebar]] and [[Serampore]], permitted it until the 19th century.<ref>In a minute from [[Lord William Bentinck|William Bentinck]] from 8 November 1829, he states that the Danish government at Serampore has not forbidden the rite, in conformity to the example of the British government,{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=S.K.|page=132|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-yzSIlcP-7kC&pg=PA132|title=Raja Rammohun Roy: An Apostle Of Indian Awakening |year=2005|location=New Delhi|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-8183240185}} According to a couple of Danish historians, the general Danish ban on ''sati'' was issued conjointly with the British in 1829, {{cite book|last1=Rostgaard|first1=Marianne|last2=Schou|first2=Lotte|page=125|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9blZI5of1JkC&pg=PA125|title=Kulturmøder i dansk kolonihistorie|publisher=Gyldendal Uddannelse|year=2010|location=Copenhagen|isbn= 978-8702061413}}</ref> The Danish strictly forbade, apparently early the custom of ''sati'' at ''Tranquebar'', a colony they held from 1620 to 1845 (whereas Serampore (Frederiksnagore) was Danish colony merely from 1755 to 1845).<ref>{{cite book|last=Kent|first=Neil|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sj5CaMNhLjQC&pg=PA105|title=The Soul of the North: A Social, Architectural and Cultural History of the Nordic Countries, 1700–1940|publisher=Reaktion Books|year=2001|location=London|isbn=978-1861890672}}</ref>

====Early British policy====
[[File:Suttee by James Atkinson.jpg|thumb|right|Suttee, by [[James Atkinson (Persian scholar)|James Atkinson]] 1831]]
[[File:Widow Buring in India (August 1852, p.84, IX) - Copy.jpg|thumb|Widow Burning in India (August 1852), by the Wesleyan Missionary Society<ref name="Juvenile1852">{{cite journal|title=Widow Burning in India|journal=The Wesleyan Juvenile Offering: A Miscellany of Missionary Information for Young Persons|volume=IX|page=84|url=https://archive.org/download/wesleyanjuvenil08socigoog/wesleyanjuvenil08socigoog.pdf|access-date=24 February 2016|publisher=Wesleyan Missionary Society}}</ref>]]
The first official British response to sati was in 1680 when the Agent of Madras [[Streynsham Master]] intervened and prohibited the burning of a Hindu widow <ref name="Stern2012">{{cite book|author=Philip J. Stern|title=The Company-State: Corporate Sovereignty and the Early Modern Foundations of the British Empire in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MpAVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA95|access-date=29 April 2020|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-993036-4|pages=95–}}</ref><ref name="Muthiah2008">{{cite book|author=S. Muthiah|title=Madras, Chennai: A 400-year Record of the First City of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbR_LLkqdI8C&pg=PA444|access-date=29 April 2020|year=2008|publisher=Palaniappa Brothers|isbn=978-81-8379-468-8|pages=444–}}</ref> in [[Madras Presidency]]. Attempts to limit or ban the practice had been made by individual British officers, but without the backing of the [[East India Company]]. This is because it followed a policy of non-interference in Hindu religious affairs and there was no legislation or ban against Sati.<ref name="Alka2018">{{cite book|author=Grover B.L. & Mehta Alka|title=A New Look at Modern Indian History (From 1707 to The Modern Times), 32e|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bkRxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA126|access-date=29 April 2020|year=2018|publisher=S. Chand Publishing|isbn=978-93-5253-434-0|page=127}}</ref> The first formal British ban was imposed in 1798, in the city of [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] only. The practice continued in surrounding regions. In the beginning of the 19th century, the evangelical church in Britain, and its members in India, started campaigns against ''sati''. This activism came about during a period when British missionaries in India began focusing on promoting and establishing Christian educational systems as a distinctive contribution of theirs to the missionary enterprise as a whole.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kathryn Kish Sklar|first=James Brewer Stewart|title=Women's Rights and Transatlantic Antislavery in the Era of Emancipation|pages=128}}</ref> Leaders of these campaigns included [[William Carey (missionary)|William Carey]] and [[William Wilberforce]]. These movements put pressure on the company to ban the act. William Carey, and the other missionaries at [[Serampore]] conducted in 1803–04 a census on cases of ''sati'' for a region within a 30-mile radius of Calcutta, finding more than 300 such cases there.<ref name=rajkumar173>{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Raj|page=173|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ubRkhPM0ETMC&pg=PA173|title=Essays on Indian Renaissance|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|year=2003|isbn=978-8171416899}} Carey's actual figures for the year 1803 was 275; for the months April–October 1804, the missionaries arrived at the figure 115. For 1803 and 1804 statistics {{cite book|last=Buchanan|first=Claudius|pages=112–113|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PbEPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA112|title=Two Discourses Preached Before the University of Cambridge ... July 1, 1810: And a Sermon Preached Before the Society for Missions to Africa and the East|year=1811|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge}} More detailed on figures in {{cite book|last1=Buchanan|first1=Claudius |year=1805|pages=102–104|url=https://archive.org/stream/memoirofexpedien00buch#page/n129/mode/2up|title=Memoir of the expediency of an ecclesiastical establishment for British India|publisher=T.Cadell and W.Davies|location=London}}</ref> The missionaries also approached Hindu theologians, who opined that the practice was encouraged, rather than enjoined by the [[Puranas|Hindu scriptures]].<ref name=hinduethics19>{{cite book|last1=Coward|first1=Harold| last2=Lipner | first2=Julius |author-link2=Julius J. Lipner|last3=Young | first3=Katherine | page=19|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=--WD-HSt-fYC |title=Hindu Ethics: Purity, Abortion, and Euthanasia |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1989|isbn=0887067638}}</ref>{{sfn|Sharma|2001|pp=32–33}}

Serampore was a Danish colony, rather than British, and the reason why Carey started his mission in Danish India, rather than in British territories, was because the East India Company did not accept Christian missionary activity within their domains. In 1813, when the Company's Charter came up for renewal William Wilberforce, drawing on the statistics on ''sati'' collected by Carey and the other Serampore missionaries and mobilising public opinion against suttee, successfully ensured the passage of a Bill in Parliament legalising missionary activities in Indias, with a view to ending the practice through the religious transformation of Indian society. He stated in his address to the House of Commons:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mangalwadi|first1=Vishal|title=Creating the Better Hour: Lessons from William Wilberforce|publisher=Stroud & Hall|year=2007|isbn=978-0979646218|editor-last=Stetson|editor-first=Chuck|location=Macon, GA|pages=140–142|chapter=India:Peril&Promise|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T2IyKWOm1YgC&pg=PA141}}</ref> <blockquote>Let us endeavour to strike our roots into the soil by the gradual introduction and establishment of our own principles and opinions; of our laws, institutions and manners; above all, as the source of every other improvement, of our religion and consequently of our morals</blockquote>[[Elijah Hoole]] in his book ''Personal Narrative of a Mission to the South of India, from 1820 to 1828'' reports an instance of Sati at Bangalore, which he did not personally witness. Another missionary, Mr. England, reports witnessing Sati in the [[Bangalore Cantonment|Bangalore Civil and Military Station]] on 9 June 1826. However, these practices were very rare after the Government of [[Madras Presidency|Madras]] cracked down on the practice from the early 1800s (p. 82).<ref name=Hoole>{{cite book|last1=Hoole|first1=Elijah|title=Personal Narrative of a Mission to the South of India, from 1820 to 1828|publisher=Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/personalnarrati00hoolgoog/page/n263 332]|url=https://archive.org/details/personalnarrati00hoolgoog|quote=Elijah Hoole bangalore.|access-date=5 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="SI Nack">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.si.com/vault/1996/09/30/208924/muhammad-ali-joe-frazier-war-of-words |title='The Fight's Over, Joe' |magazine=Sports Illustrated |access-date=25 October 2016}}</ref>

The British authorities within the Bengal Presidency started systematically to collect data on the practice in 1815.{{citation needed}}

====Principal reformers and 1829 ban====
[[File:Plaque of Bipro Charan Chuokurbutty at Scottish Church College.jpg|thumb|Plaque of Last Legal Sati of Bengal, [[Scottish Church College]], [[Kolkata]]]]
The principal campaigners against Sati were [[Christians|Christian]] and [[Hindu]] reformers such as [[William Carey (missionary)|William Carey]] and [[Ram Mohan Roy]]. In 1799 Carey, a [[Baptist]] [[Missionary#Christian missions|missionary]] from England, first witnessed the burning of a widow on her husband's funeral pyre. Horrified by the practice, Carey and his coworkers [[Joshua Marshman]] and [[William Ward (missionary)|William Ward]] opposed ''sati'' from that point onward, lobbying for its abolishment. Known as the [[Serampore Trio]], they published essays forcefully condemning the practice{{sfn|Sharma|2001|pp=6–7}} and presented an address against Sati to then Governor General of India, [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Lord Wellesley]].<ref name="marshman">{{cite book|last=Marshman|first=John Clark|title=History of India from the earliest period to the close of the East India Company's government |publisher= Edinburgh: W. Blackwood |year=1876|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmT_Tv-VGUC|isbn=9781108021043}}</ref>

In 1812, [[Ram Mohan Roy|Raja Ram Mohan Roy]], founder of [[Brahmo Samaj]], began to champion the cause of banning ''sati'' practice. He was motivated by the experience of seeing his own sister-in-law being forced to die by ''sati''.<ref name=hm>{{cite book|last=Chaurasia|first=Radhey Shyam|title=History of Modern India, 1707 A.D. to 2000 A.D.|year=2002|page=118|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MS_jrForJOoC&q=RAM+MOHAN+ROY+SATI+PRACTICE&pg=PA118|isbn=9788126900855}}</ref> He visited Kolkata's cremation grounds to persuade widows against immolation, formed watch groups to do the same, sought the support of other elite Bengali classes, and wrote and disseminated articles to show that it was not required by Hindu scripture.<ref name=hm/> He was at loggerheads with Hindu groups which did not want the Government to interfere in religious practices.<ref name="dodwell">{{cite book|title=The Cambridge History of the British Empire, Volume 5. The Indian empire 1858–1918|editor= H. H. Dodwell|year=1932| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G-48AAAAIAAJ}}</ref>

From 1815 to 1818 ''Sati'' deaths doubled. Ram Mohan Roy launched an attack on ''Sati'' that "aroused such anger that for awhile his life was in danger".<ref>Sharma 2001, pp. 6, 7.</ref> In 1821 he published a tract opposing Sati, and in 1823 the Serampore missionaries led by Carey published a book containing their earlier essays, of which the first three chapters opposed Sati. Another Christian missionary published a tract against Sati in 1927.

[[Swaminarayan|Sahajanand Swami]], the founder of the [[Swaminarayan Hinduism|Swaminarayan sect]], preached against the practice of ''sati'' in his area of influence, that is [[Gujarat]]. He argued that the practice had no [[Vedas|Vedic]] standing and only God could take a life he had given. He also opined that widows could lead lives that would eventually lead to salvation. [[John Malcolm|Sir John Malcolm]], the [[List of Governors of Bombay|Governor of Bombay]] supported Sahajanand Swami in this endeavour.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Hinduism'' (2007) Constance A. Jones. Facts on File Inc.</ref>

In 1828 [[Lord William Bentinck]] came to power as Governor of India. When he landed in Calcutta, he said that he felt "the dreadful responsibility hanging over his head in this world and the next, if... he was to consent to the continuance of this practice (sati) one moment longer."<ref>Marshman 1876 p. 757.</ref>

Bentinck decided to put an immediate end to ''Sati''. Ram Mohan Roy warned Bentinck against abruptly ending ''Sati''.<ref>Sharma 2001, p. 9.</ref> However, after observing that the judges in the courts were unanimously in favour of reform, Bentinck proceeded to lay the draft before his council.<ref>Dodwell 1932 p.141.</ref> [[Charles Metcalfe, 1st Baron Metcalfe|Charles Metcalfe]], the Governor's most prominent counselor expressed apprehension that the banning of ''Sati'' might be "used by the disaffected and designing" as "an engine to produce insurrection". However these concerns did not deter him from upholding the Governor's decision "in the suppression of the horrible custom by which so many lives are cruelly sacrificed."<ref>Dodwell 1932 p. 142.</ref>

Thus on Sunday morning of 4 December 1829 Lord Bentinck issued Regulation XVII declaring ''Sati'' to be illegal and punishable in criminal courts. It was presented to William Carey for translation. His response is recorded as follows: "Springing to his feet and throwing off his black coat he cried, 'No church for me to-day... If I delay an hour to translate and publish this, many a widow's life may be sacrificed,' he said. By evening the task was finished."<ref>Sharma pp. 7–8.</ref>

On 2 February 1830 this law was extended to [[Madras Presidency|Madras]] and [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]].<ref name=hist>{{cite book|last=Rai|first=Raghunath|title=History |page=137|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4-8Z0gqBkoC&q=RAM+MOHAN+ROY+SATI+PRACTICE&pg=PA137|isbn=9788187139690}}</ref> The ban was challenged by a petition signed by "several thousand... Hindoo inhabitants of Bihar, Bengal, Orissa etc"<ref>Dodwell 1932 p. 141.</ref> and the matter went to the [[Privy Council]] in London. Along with British supporters, Ram Mohan Roy presented counter-petitions to parliament in support of ending Sati. The Privy Council rejected the petition in 1832, and the ban on ''Sati'' was upheld.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kulkarni|first1=A.R.|last2=Feldhaus|first2=Anne|page=192|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YSU9Qp9w0MC&pg=PA192|title=Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion|chapter=Sati in the Maratha Country|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1996|location=Albany, NY|isbn=978-0791428382}}</ref>

After the ban, [[Baloch people|Balochi]] priests in the [[Sindh]] region complained to the British Governor, [[Charles James Napier|Charles Napier]] about what they claimed was a meddlement in a sacred custom of their nation. Napier replied:<blockquote>Be it so. This burning of widows is your custom; prepare the funeral pile. But my nation has also a custom. When men burn women alive we hang them, and confiscate all their property. My carpenters shall therefore erect gibbets on which to hang all concerned when the widow is consumed. Let us all act according to national customs!</blockquote>Thereafter, the account goes, no suttee took place.<ref name="quote">Napier, William. (1851) ''History Of General Sir Charles Napier's Administration Of Scinde''. (p. 35). London: Chapman and Hall [https://archive.org/details/historygenerals00napigoog/page/n51 ] at books.google.com. Retrieved 10 July 2011</ref>

====Princely states/Independent kingdoms====
[[File:Sati Stone, memorials to Indian widows found all over India, 18th century CE, currently housed in the British Museum.jpg|thumb|Sati Stone from the 18th century CE, now in the [[British Museum]]]]
''Sati'' remained legal in some [[princely states]] for a time after it had been banned in lands under British control. [[Baroda State|Baroda]] and other princely states of [[Kathiawar Agency]] banned the practice in 1840,<ref>Proceedings – Indian History Congress – Volume 48 by Indian History Congress 1988 – p. 481, see also {{cite book|last=Thornton|first=Edward|year=1858|page=73, column 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55BbvGEV5uAC&pg=PA73|title=A Gazetteer of the Territories Under the Government of the East India Company and of the Native States on the Continent of India|location=London|publisher=W.H. Allen}}</ref> whereas [[Kolhapur State|Kolhapur]] followed them in 1841,<ref>For 1841 proclamation, {{cite book |editor-last=Thomas |editor-first=R. Hughes |page=258 |publisher=Government |location=Bombay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b5lRAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA258 |title=Treaties, Agreements, and Engagements, Between the Honorable East India Company and the Native Princes, Chiefs, and States, in Western India, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, &c: Also Between Her Britannic Majesty's Government, and Persia, Portugal, and Turkey |year=1851}}</ref> the princely state of [[Indore]] some time before 1843.<ref>See footnote {{cite journal|editor=William Gifford|year=1851|pages=257–276|last=Wilson|first=Horca H.|title=Widow Burning-Major Ludlow |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TzwMAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA270|journal=The Quarterly Review|volume=89}}</ref> According to a speaker at the [[East India House]] in 1842, the princely states of [[History of Satara district|Satara]], [[Kingdom of Nagpur|Nagpur]] and [[Princely State of Mysore|Mysore]] had by then banned ''sati''.<ref>{{cite journal|page=286|title=Debate at the East India House, March 23rd 1842|volume=37|journal=The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Miscellany|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6VAAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA286|publisher=W.H. Allen|location=London}} The ''Raja of Satara'' banned the practice already in 1839, {{cite book|author=House of Commons, Great Britain|page=45, No. 1531|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dY8SAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA45|chapter=Papers relative to the Raja of Sattara|volume=39|title=Parliamentary Papers, House of Commons and Command|publisher=H.M. Stationery Office|location=London}}</ref> [[Jaipur State|Jaipur]] banned the practice in 1846, while [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]], [[Gwalior State|Gwalior]] and [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]] did the same in 1847.<ref>On ''Hyderabad'' and ''Gwalior'' {{cite book|last=Trotter|first=James|page=97|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zIMfAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA97|title=The History of the British Empire in India|volume=1|year=1866|publisher=Wm. H. Allen & Company|location=London}}, ''Jammu and Kashmir'' {{cite journal|title=Bengal and Agra, Miscellaneous|journal=The Indian News and Chronicle of Eastern Affaires|page=76|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3dNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA76|volume=132|publisher=Alexander E. Murray|location=London}}</ref> [[Awadh]] and [[Bhopal State|Bhopal]] (both Muslim-ruled states) were actively suppressing ''sati'' by 1849.<ref>[[William Sleeman]] travelling in Awadh in 1849 says sati is prohibited there. {{cite book|last=Sleeman|first=William H.|page=250|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_HkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA250|title=A Journey Through the Kingdom of Oude in 1849–1850: With Private Correspondence Relative to the Annexation of Oude to British India|volume=2|year=1858|publisher=Richard Bentley|location=London}} Bhopal is reported in 1849 to engage actively in suppression of the rite, {{cite journal|page=712|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtoEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA712|title=Notes and suggestions on Indian Affairs, chapter VI|journal=The Dublin University Magazine|volume=34,204|location=Dublin|publisher=James McGlashan}}</ref> [[Cutch (princely state)|Cutch]] outlawed it in 1852<ref>{{cite book|last=Townsend|first=Meredith|year=1858|location=Serampore|publisher=Serampore Press|page=155|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AAcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA155|title=The Indian Official Thesaurus: Being Introductory to Annals of Indian Administration}}</ref> with [[Jodhpur State|Jodhpur]] having banned ''sati'' about the same time.<ref>Finishing writing in April 1853, [[John William Kaye]] says Jodhpur is the most recent important state to have banned the rite. {{cite book|last=Kaye|first=John W.|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177534/page/n553 543]|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177534|title=The Administration of the East India Company: A History of Indian Progress|location=London|year=1853|publisher=R. Bentley}}</ref>

The 1846 abolition in Jaipur was regarded by many British as a catalyst for the abolition cause within [[Rajputana]]; within 4 months after Jaipur's 1846 ban, 11 of the 18 independently governed states in Rajputana had followed Jaipur's example.<ref>A much quoted table given at page 270 in {{cite journal|editor=William Gifford|year=1851|pages=257–276|last=Wilson|first=Horca H.|title=Widow Burning-Major Ludlow |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TzwMAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA270|journal=The Quarterly Review|volume=89}}</ref> One paper says that in the year 1846–1847 alone, 23 states in the whole of India (not just within Rajputana) had banned ''sati''.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Bengal and Agra, Miscellaneous|journal=The Indian News and Chronicle of Eastern Affaires|page=76|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3dNAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA76|volume=132|publisher=Alexander E. Murray|location=London}}</ref><ref>Index of official correspondences to some 20 princely states relative to the suppression of ''sati'' can be found in {{cite book|author=Foreign and Political Department|pages=313–314|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQIMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA313|title=A collection of treaties, engagements, and sunnuds, relating to India and neighbouring countries: Index|volume=8|year=1866|publisher=Cutter|location=Calcutta}}</ref> It was not until 1861 that ''Sati'' was legally banned in all the princely states of India, [[Udaipur State|Mewar]] resisting for a long time before that time. The last legal case of ''Sati'' within a princely state dates from 1861 [[Udaipur]] the capital of Mewar, but as Anant S. Altekar shows, local opinion had then shifted strongly against the practice. The widows of Maharanna Sarup Singh declined to become ''sati'' upon his death, and the only one to follow him in death was a concubine.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|pages=141–142|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA141|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=9788120803244}}</ref> Later the same year, the general ban on ''sati'' was issued by a proclamation from [[Queen Victoria]].<ref>Sati: A Historical Anthology by Andrea Major – 2007– p. xvii ''On Mewar and Queen Victoria's 1861 proclamation'', {{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Lindsay|last2=Thomas|first2=Amelia|page=42|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zz0_zXPb68kC&pg=PA43|title=Rajasthan, Delhi & Agra|publisher=Lonely Planet|year=2008|isbn=978-1741046908}}</ref>

In some princely states such as [[Travancore State|Travancore]], the custom of ''Sati'' never prevailed, although it was held in reverence by the common people. For example, the regent [[Gowri Parvati Bayi]] was asked by the [[Residencies of British India|British Resident]] if he should permit a ''sati'' to take place in 1818, but the regent urged him not to do so, since the custom of ''sati'' had never been acceptable in her domains.<ref>{{cite journal|volume=7, 198|page=383|publisher=James Burns|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e9HNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA383|title=Tinnevelly|journal=Church of England Magazine}}</ref> In another state, Sawunt Waree ([[Sawantvadi]]), the king Khem Sawant III (r. 1755–1803) is credited for having issued a positive ''prohibition'' of sati over a period of ten or twelve years.<ref>p. 182 in {{cite journal|journal=The Oriental Herald|volume=2,6|title=Burning of Hindoo Widows|pages=173–185|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yo8eAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA182|publisher=J. M. Richardson|location=London|editor=James S. Buckingham}}</ref> That prohibition from the 18th century may never have been actively enforced, or may have been ignored, since in 1843, the government in Sawunt Waree issued a new prohibition of ''sati''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Townsend|first=Meredith|year=1858|location=Serampore|publisher=Serampore Press|page=307|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AAcoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA307|title=The Indian Official Thesaurus: Being Introductory to Annals of Indian Administration}}</ref>

===Modern times===

====Legislative status of sati in present-day India====
[[File:Burning of a Widow.jpg|thumb|''Ceremony of Burning a Hindu Widow with the Body of her Late Husband'', from ''Pictorial History of China and India'', 1851]]

Following the outcry after the ''sati'' of [[Roop Kanwar]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Rajalakshmi | first = T.K. | title = "Sati" and the verdict | journal = Frontline Magazine, the Hindu | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | date= 28 February – 12 March 2004 | url = http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2105/stories/20040312002504600.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071010045417/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2105/stories/20040312002504600.htm | url-status = usurped | archive-date = 10 October 2007 }}</ref> the Indian Government enacted the Rajasthan Sati Prevention Ordinance, 1987 on 1 October 1987.<ref name="Trial by fire">[http://www.sabrang.com/cc/archive/2004/mar04/sreport3.html Trial by fire], ''Communalism Combat'', Special Report, February–March 2004, Volume 10, No. 96, [[Sabrang Communications]]</ref> and later passed the Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987.<ref name="NRCW"/>

The Commission of [[Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987]] Part I, Section 2(c) defines ''sati'' as:
<blockquote>
The burning or burying alive of –
:(i) any widow along with the body of her deceased husband or any other relative or with any article, object or thing associated with the husband or such relative; or
:(ii) any woman along with the body of any of her relatives, irrespective of whether such burning or burying is claimed to be voluntary on the part of the widow or the women or otherwise<ref name="NRCW"/>
</blockquote>
[[File:Jodhpur Sati.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A shrine to wives of the [[Maharaja]]s of [[Jodhpur]] who have died by sati. The palmprints are typical.]]

The ''Prevention of Sati Act'' makes it illegal to support, glorify or attempt to die by sati. Support of sati, including coercing or forcing someone to die by sati, can be punished by [[Capital punishment|death sentence]] or [[life imprisonment]], while glorifying sati is punishable with one to seven years in prison.

Enforcement of these measures is not always consistent.<ref>{{cite news | title = No violation of Sati Act, say police | url = http://www.hindu.com/2005/06/01/stories/2005060110150500.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071206101700/http://www.hindu.com/2005/06/01/stories/2005060110150500.htm | url-status = dead | archive-date = 6 December 2007 | work = [[The Hindu]] | date = 6 June 2005 | access-date = 20 November 2007}}</ref> The National Council for Women (NCW) has suggested amendments to the law to remove some of these flaws.<ref>[http://ncw.nic.in/page2.htm No. 2: Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619070016/http://ncw.nic.in/page2.htm }} National Council for Women, Proposed amendments to the 1987 Sati Prevention Act</ref> Prohibitions of certain practices, such as worship at ancient shrines, is a matter of controversy.

====Current situation====
There were 30 reported cases of ''sati'' or attempted ''sati'' over a 44-year period (1943–1987) in India, the official number being 28.<ref name=thomaswb182>{{cite book|last=Weinberger-Thomas|first=Catherine|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein/page/182 182]–185|url=https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein|url-access=registration|title=Ashes of Immortality: Widow-Burning in India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1999|isbn=978-0226885681}}</ref><ref>[http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/lessons/lesson5/lesson5.php?s=3 Letter, Panduranga Joshi Kulkarni], [http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/index.html Women in World History] A project of the Center for History and New Media, [[George Mason University]].</ref> A well-documented case from 1987 was that of 18-year-old [[Roop Kanwar]].<ref name=thomaswb182/><ref name="rediff2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/aug/07mp.htm |title=Magisterial inquiry ordered into 'sati' incident |work=rediff.com |access-date=26 July 2010}}</ref> In response to this incident, additional legislation against ''sati'' practice was passed, first within the state of Rajasthan, then nationwide by the central government of India.<ref name="NRCW"/><ref name="Trial by fire"/>

In 2002, a 65-year-old woman by the name of Kuttu died after sitting on her husband's funeral pyre in [[Panna district]] of Madhya Pradesh.<ref name="rediff2002"/> On 18 May 2006, Vidyawati, a 35-year-old woman allegedly committed sati by jumping into the blazing funeral pyre of her husband in Rari-Bujurg Village, Fatehpur district, Uttar Pradesh.<ref>''The Times of India'', [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1538375.cms "Woman commits 'sati' in UP village"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101002080411/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1538375.cms }}, 19 May 2006.</ref>

On 21 August 2006, Janakrani, a 40-year-old woman, burned to death on the funeral pyre of her husband Prem Narayan in Sagar district; Janakrani had not been forced or prompted by anybody to commit the act.<ref>BBC News, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5273336.stm "India wife dies on husband's pyre"], 22 August 2006.</ref>

On 11 October 2008 a 75-year-old woman, Lalmati Verma, committed ''sati'' by jumping into her 80-year-old husband's funeral pyre at Checher in the Kasdol block of Chhattisgarh's Raipur district; Verma killed herself after mourners had left the cremation site.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-10-13/india/27900245_1_pyre-woman-jumps-cremation-ground |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105031805/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-10-13/india/27900245_1_pyre-woman-jumps-cremation-ground |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 November 2012 |title=Woman jumps into husband's funeral pyre |work=[[The Times of India]] |location=Raipur}}</ref>

Scholars debate whether these rare reports of ''sati'' [[suicide]] by widows are related to culture or are examples of mental illness and suicide.<ref name=coluccilester225/> In the case of Roop Kanwar, Dinesh Bhugra states that there is a possibility that the suicides could be triggered by "a state of depersonalization as a result of severe bereavement", then adds that it is unlikely that Kanwar had mental illness and culture likely played a role.<ref>D Bhugra and K Bhui (2007), Textbook of cultural psychiatry, Cambridge University Press, pages xvii–xviii</ref> However, Colucci and Lester state that none of the women reported by media to have committed ''sati'' had been given a psychiatric evaluation before their ''sati'' suicide and thus there is no objective data to ascertain if culture or mental illness was the primary driver behind their suicide.<ref name=coluccilester225>Erminia Colucci and David Lester (2012), Suicide and Culture: Understanding the Context, Hogrefe, {{ISBN|978-0889374362}}, pp. 225–226</ref> Inamdar, Oberfield and Darrell state that the women who commit ''sati'' are often "childless or old and face miserable impoverished lives" which combined with great stress from the loss of the only personal support may be the cause of a widow's suicide.<ref>S. C. Inamdar ''et al.'' (1983), A suicide by self-immolation: psychological perspectives, International Journal of Social Psychiatry, Vol 29, pp. 130–133</ref>

'''The Enforcement of India's 1987 Sati Law'''

The passing of The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 was seen as an unprecedented move to many in India, and was hailed as a new era in the Women's rights movement. Unfortunately, the enforcement of this law has been lacklustre at best. {{citation needed}}

The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 appears to be facing its greatest challenge on the aspect of the law which penalises the glorification of Sati in Section 2 of this Act:

“(i) The observance of any ceremony or the taking out of a procession in connection with the commission of Sati; or

(ii) The supporting, justifying or propagating of the practice of Sati in any manner; or

(iii) The arranging of any function to eulogise the person who has committed Sati; or

(iv) The creation of a trust, or the collection of funds, or the construction of a temple or other structure or the carrying on of any form of worship or the performance of any ceremony thereat, with a view to perpetuate the honour of, or to preserve the memory of, a person who has committed Sati."<ref name=":2" />

The punishment for glorifying sati is a minimum one-year sentence that can be increased to seven years in prison and a minimum fine of 5,000 rupees that can be increased to 30,000 rupees.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pachauri |first1=S.K. |last2=Hamilton |first2=R.N.C. |title=SATI PROBLEM — PAST AND PRESENT |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44158159 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=63 |pages=898–908 |jstor=44158159 |issn=2249-1937}}</ref> This Section of the Act has become heavily criticised by both sides of the Sati debate. Proponents of Sati argue against it, claiming the practice to be a part of Indian culture.<ref name=":3" /> Simultaneously, those against the practice of Sati also question the practicality of such a law, since it may be interpreted in a manner so as to punish the victim.<ref name=":5" /> Enforcement aside, the existence of the law is debated as well.{{clarify}}{{citation needed}}

The nation continues to witness a cultural divide in regards to their opinions of Sati, with a great deal of the glorification of this practice occurring within it. The Calcutta Marwari have been noted to follow the practice of Sati worship, yet the community alleges it to be a part of their culture and insist they be permitted to follow their practices.<ref name=":4" /> Additionally, the practice is still fervently revered in parts of rural India, with entire temples still dedicated to previous victims of Sati.<ref name=":8" />

India is steeped in a heavily patriarchal system and their norms, making it difficult for even the most vigilant of authorities to enforce the 1987 Act.{{speculation inline}} An instance of this can be seen in 2002 where two police officers were attacked by a mob of approximately 1000 people when attempting to stop an instance of Sati.<ref name=":9" /> In India, the powers of the police remain structurally limited by the political elite.<ref name=":6" /> Their limited powers are compounded by “patriarchal values, religious freedoms, and ideologies"<ref name=":10" /> within India.

Furthermore, enforcement of this law is easily circumnavigated by authorities by writing off cases of Sati as acts of suicide.<ref name=":7" /> This is attributed{{By whom}} to not only a hesitancy to prosecute when the punishment remains so severe, but also another indication of a deeply patriarchal society.{{citation needed}}

==Practice==
Accounts describe numerous variants in the sati ritual. The majority of accounts describe the woman seated or lying down on the funeral pyre beside her dead husband. Many other accounts describe women walking or jumping into the flames after the fire had been lit,<ref>See Kamat for two examples</ref> and some describe women seating themselves on the funeral pyre and then lighting it themselves.<ref>[http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/lessons/lesson5/lesson5.php?s=1 Primary Sources: Letter, Francois Bernier] [http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/index.html ''Women in World History''], a project of the Center for History and New Media, George Mason University.</ref>

===Variations in procedure===
Although ''sati'' is typically thought of as consisting of the procedure in which the widow is placed, or enters, or jumps, upon the funeral pyre of her husband, slight variations in funeral practice have been reported here as well, by region. For example, the mid-17th-century traveller Tavernier claims that in some regions, the ''sati'' occurred by construction of a small hut, within which the widow and her husband were burnt, while in other regions, a pit was dug, in which the husband's corpse was placed along with flammable materials, into which the widow jumped after the fire had started.<ref>On hut, p. 170, on pit, p. 171 {{cite book|last1=Tavernier|first1=Jean Baptiste|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/sixvoyagesJohnB00Tave#page/170/mode/2up/|pages=170–171|year=1678|last2=P.|first2=J. (tr.)|chapter= 2.2.10|title=The six voyages of John Baptista Tavernier|publisher=R.L. and M.P.|location=London}}</ref> In mid-nineteenth-century [[Lombok]], an island in today's [[Indonesia]], the local [[Balinese people|Balinese]] aristocracy practised widow suicide on occasion; but only widows of royal descent could burn themselves alive (others were stabbed to death by a [[kris knife]] first). At Lombok, a high bamboo platform was erected in front of the fire and, when the flames were at their strongest, the widow climbed up the platform and dived into the fire.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Zollinger|first=M.|editor=James R. Logan|pages=165–170|title=On the religion of the Sassak|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXMEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA165|journal=The Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia|year=1848|volume=2|publisher=Mission Press|location=Singapore}}</ref>

===Live burials===
Most Hindu communities, especially in North India, only bury the bodies of those under the age of two, such as baby girls. Those older than two are customarily cremated.<ref>{{cite book|author=PV Ayyar|title=Indian Customs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5hBvZY7SxeEC&pg=PA155 |year=1992|publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0153-6 |pages=155–156}}</ref> A few European accounts provide rare descriptions of Indian ''sati'' that included the burial of the widow with her dead husband.<ref name="asnic.utexas.edu">[http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/hardgrave/Satiart.rft.html The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns] by Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr.</ref> One of the drawings in the Portuguese [[Códice Casanatense]] shows the live burial of a Hindu widow in the 16th century.<ref>{{cite book
| last = De Matos
| first=Luis
| title = Imagens do Oriente no século XVI: Reprodução do Códice português da Biblioteca Casanatense
| location = Lisbon
| publisher = Imprensa Nacional Casa da Moeda
| year = 1985}}</ref> [[Jean-Baptiste Tavernier]], a 17th-century world traveller and trader of gems, wrote that women were buried with their dead husbands along the [[Coromandel Coast|Coast of Coromandel]] while people danced during the cremation rites.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tavernier|first1=Jean Baptiste|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/sixvoyagesJohnB00Tave#page/171/mode/2up|page=171|year=1678|last2=P.|first2=J. (tr.)|chapter= 2.2.10|title=The six voyages of John Baptista Tavernier|publisher=R.L. and M.P.|location=London}}</ref>
[[File:Codice Casanatense Hindu Burial.jpg|thumb|Hindu widow of [[Dhangar]] caste being buried alive with her dead husband's body. Source: [[Códice Casanatense]] (c. 1540).]]

The 18th-century [[Flemings|Flemish]] painter [[Frans Balthazar Solvyns]] provided the only known eyewitness account of an Indian sati involving a burial.<ref name=solvynsrlh/> Solvyns states that the custom included the woman shaving her head, music and the event was guarded by [[East India Company]] [[Presidency armies|soldiers]]. He expressed admiration for the Hindu woman, but also calls the custom barbaric.<ref name=solvynsrlh>[http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/hardgrave/Satiart.rft.html ''The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns''], by Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr.</ref>

The Commission of [[Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987]] Part I, Section 2(c) includes within its definition of ''sati'' not just the act of burning a widow alive, but also that of burying her alive.<ref name="NRCW"/>

===Compulsion===
''Sati'' is often described as voluntary, although in some cases it may have been forced. In one narrative account in 1785, the widow appears to have been drugged either with [[bhang]] or [[opium]] and was tied to the pyre which would have prevented her from escaping the fire, if she changed her mind.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/hardgrave/Satiart.rft.html |title=The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns |last=Hardgrave |first=Robert L. Jr}} The account uses the word "likely".</ref>
[[File:Hindu Suttee.jpg|thumb|right|"A Hindu Suttee", 1885 book]]
The Anglo-Indian press of the period proffered several accounts of alleged forcing of the woman. As an example, ''[[The Calcutta Review]]'' published accounts as the following one:{{blockquote|In 1822, the Salt Agent at Barripore, 16 miles south of Calcutta, went out of his way to report a case which he had witnessed, in which the woman was forcibly held down by a great bamboo by two men, so as to preclude all chance of escape. In Cuttack, a woman dropt herself into a burning pit, and rose up again as if to escape, when a washerman gave her a push with a bamboo, which sent her back into the hottest part of the fire.<ref>{{cite news| year= 1867| page=256 |title= Suttee| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qp4IAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA256|work=The Calcutta Review|volume=XLVI|publisher=R.C.LePage and Co.|location=Calcutta}}</ref> This is said to be based on the set of official documents.<ref>Papers relative to East India Affairs, viz., Hindoo Widows and Voluntary Immolations. Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed. 1821–25, pp. 221–261, ''ibidem''</ref> Yet another such case appearing in official papers, transmitted into British journals, is case 41, page 411 here, where the woman was, apparently, thrown twice back in the fire by her relatives, in a case from 1821.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Oriental Herald| volume= 15,48| title=Official Papers laid before Parliament Respecting the burning of Hondoo Widows| pages=399–424|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BPIaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA411| location= London| publisher=James S. Buckingham|editor-first=J.S. |editor-last=Buckingham}}</ref>}}

Apart from accounts of direct compulsion, some evidence exists that precautions, at times, were taken so that the widow could not escape the flames once they were lit. Anant S. Altekar, for example, points out that it is much more difficult to escape a fiery pit that one has jumped in, than descending from a pyre one has entered on. He mentions the custom of the fiery pit as particularly prevalent in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and western India. From [[Gujarat]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]], where the widow typically was placed in a hut along with her husband, her leg was tied to one of the hut's pillars. Finally, from Bengal, where the tradition of the pyre held sway, the widow's feet could be tied to posts fixed to the ground, she was asked three times if she wished to ascend to heaven, before the flames were lit.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.| page= 134| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA131|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day| year= 1956| publisher= Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-8120803244|postscript= (techniques for preventing escape)}}</ref>

The historian [[Anant Sadashiv Altekar]] states that some historical records suggest without doubt that instances of sati were forced, but overall the evidence suggests most instances were a voluntary act on the woman's part.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|pages=135–137|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA137|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-8120803244}}</ref>

===Symbolic sati===

There have been accounts of symbolic ''sati'' in some [[Hindu]] communities. A widow lies down next to her dead husband, and certain parts of both the marriage ceremony and the funeral ceremonies are enacted, but without her death. An example in [[Sri Lanka]] is attested from modern times.<ref>[http://www.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~shakti/EnglishHP/suttee.html Defying blessings of the goddess and the community: Disputes over sati (widow burning) in contemporary India] by Masakazu Tanaka, section 6 in Tanaka's essay.</ref> Although this form of symbolic ''sati'' has contemporary evidence, it should by no means be regarded as a modern invention. For example, the ancient and sacred [[Atharvaveda]], one of the four [[Veda]]s, believed to have been composed around 1000 BCE, describes a funerary ritual where the widow lies down by her deceased husband, but is then asked to ascend, to enjoy the blessings from the children and wealth left to her.<ref name="Altekar 1956 118">{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|page=118|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA118|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-8120803244}}</ref>

In 20th-century India, a tradition developed of venerating ''jivit'' (living satis). A ''jivit'' is a woman who once desired to commit sati, but lives after having sacrificed her desire to die.<ref>{{cite book|page=538|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ienxrTPHzzwC&pg=PA538|chapter=Sati|title=South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka|last1=Harlan|first1=Lindsey |editor-last=Claus |editor-first=Peter J. |editor-last2=Diamond |editor-first2=Sarah |editor-last3=Mills |editor-first3=Margaret A. |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=New York, London |year=2003 |isbn=978-0415939195}}</ref> Two famous ''jivit'' were Bala Satimata, and Umca Satimata, both lived until the early 1990s.<ref>On these two women, and a general in-depth treatment of ''jivit'' tradition, see {{cite book|last=Harlan|first=Lindsey|pages=171–181|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC&pg=PA171|title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives|year=1992|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520073395|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford}}</ref>

==Prevalence==

Records of ''sati'' exist across the subcontinent. However, there seems to have been major differences historically, in different regions, and among communities. Furthermore, no reliable figures exist for the numbers who have died by ''sati'', in general.
[[File:Muhammad Qasim Bride.jpg|thumb|200px|The bride throws herself on her husband's funeral pyre. This miniature painting made in Iran originates from the period of the [[Safavid dynasty]], first half 17th century. (Attributed to the painter Muhammad Qasim.)]]

===Numbers===
An 1829 report by a Christian missionary organisation includes among other things, statistics on ''sati''. It begins with a declaration that "the object of all missions to the heathen is to substitute for these systems the Gospel of Christ", thereafter lists ''sati'' for each year over the period 1815–1824 which totals 5,369, followed by a statement that a total of 5,997 instances of women were burned or buried alive in the Bengal presidency over the 10-year period, i.e., average 600 per year. In the same report, it states that the Madras and Bombay presidencies totalled 635 instances of ''sati'' over the same ten-year period.<ref name=missionaryherald130>{{cite journal|pages=130–131|volume=25,4|journal=The Missionary Herald|title=Burning of Widows in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GsMPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA130|publisher=American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions |location=Boston}}</ref> The 1829 missionary report does not provide its sources and acknowledges that "no correct idea can be formed of the number of murders occasioned by suttees", then states some of the statistics is based on "conjectures".<ref name=missionaryherald130/> According to Yang, these "numbers are fraught with problems".{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=23}}

[[Lord William Bentinck|William Bentinck]], in an 1829 report, stated without specifying the year or period, that "of the 463 satis occurring in the whole of the [[Bengal Presidency|Presidency of Fort William]],{{refn|group=note|at its greatest extent in 19th-century, this Presidency included modern era states of Utar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, parts of Assam, Tripura in India and modern era Bangladesh}} 420 took place in Bengal, Behar, and Orissa, or what is termed the Lower Provinces, and of these latter 287 in the Calcutta Division alone". For the Upper Provinces, Bentinck added, "in these Provinces the satis amount to forty three only upon a population of nearly twenty millions", i.e., average one sati per 465,000.<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1829bentinck.html Modern History Sourcebook: On Ritual Murder in India], 1829 by [[Lord William Bentinck|William Bentinck]] Within previously cited statistics from 1815–1824, the year ''1816'' had 442 reported incidents of ''sati'', the only figure in that statistics on the 400-level</ref>

===Social composition and age distribution===
Anand Yang, speaking of the early nineteenth century, says that contrary to conventional wisdom, ''sati'' was not, in general, confined to being an upper class phenomenon, but spread through the classes/castes. In the 575 reported cases from 1823, for example, 41 percent were Brahmins, some 6 percent were Kshatriyas, whereas 2 percent were Vaishiyas, and 51 percent Sudras. In [[Banaras]], though, in the 1815–1828 British records, the upper castes were only for two years represented with less than 70% of the total; in 1821, all sati were from the upper castes there.

Yang notes that many studies seem to emphasise the young age of the widows who committed ''sati''. However, by study of the British figures from 1815 to 1828, Yang states the overwhelming majority were ageing women: The statistics from 1825 to 1826 about two thirds were above the age of 40 when committing ''sati''.{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=29-31}}

===Regional variations of incidence===
Anand Yang summarizes the regional variation in incidence of ''sati'' as follows:
{{blockquote|..the practice was never generalized..but was confined to certain areas: in the north,..the Gangetic Valley, [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Rajasthan]]; in the west, to the southern [[Konkan]] region; and in the south, to [[Madurai]] and [[Vijayanagara]].{{sfn|Yang|2008|p=22}}}}

====Konkan/Maharashtra====
Narayan H. Kulkarnee believes that ''sati'' came to be practised in medieval [[Maharashtra]] initially by the [[Maratha]] nobility claiming [[Rajput]] descent. Then, according to Kulkarnee, the practice of ''sati'' may have increased across caste distinctions as an honour-saving custom in the face of Muslim advances into the territory. But the practice never gained the prevalence seen in Rajasthan or Bengal, and social customs of actively dissuading a widow from committing ''sati'' are well established. Apparently not a single instance of forced ''sati'' is attested for the 17th and 18th centuries CE.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kulkarnee|first1=Narayan H. |editor-last=Kusuman |editor-first=K.K |chapter=A Note on Sati in Maharashtra|pages=215–220|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4JqgSUSXDsC&pg=PA215|title=A Panorama of Indian Culture: Professor A. Sreedhara Menon Felicitation Volume|year=1990|publisher=Mittal Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8170992141}}</ref> Forced or not forced, there were several instances of women from the Bhosale family committing sati. One was Shivaji's eldest childless widow, [[Putalabai]], committing sati after her husband's death.One controversial case was that of Chhatrapati Shahu's widow being forced to commit sati due to political intrigues regarding succession at the Satara court following Shahu's death in 1749.The most "celebrated" case of sati was that of Ramabai, the widow of Brahmin Peshwa [[Madhavrao I]] committing sati in 1772 on her husband's funeral pyre.This was considered unusual because unlike "kshatriya" widows, Brahmin widows very rarely followed the practice.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YSU9Qp9w0MC|title=Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion|last=Feldhaus|first=Anne|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=9780791428382|language=en|pages=181–188|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324034030/https://books.google.com/books?id=1YSU9Qp9w0MC|archive-date=2018-03-24}}</ref>

====South India====
Several sati stones have been found in Vijayanagar empire. These stones were erected as a mark of a heroic deed of sacrifice of the wife and her husband towards the land.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=HG|first=Rekha|title=Sati Memorial Stones of Vijayanagara Period – A Study|journal=History Research Journal|volume=5| issue = 6|pages=1}}</ref> The ''sati'' stone evidence from the time of the empire is regarded as relatively rare; only about 50 are clearly identified as such. Thus, Carla M. Sinopoli, citing Verghese, says that despite the attention European travellers paid the phenomenon, it should be regarded as having been fairly uncommon during the time of the Vijayanagara empire.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sinopoli|first=Carla M.|pages=230–231|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J3nHg-eKWuIC&pg=PA230|title=The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, C. 1350–1650|location=Cambridge|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1139440745}}</ref>

The [[Madurai Nayak dynasty]] (1529–1736 CE) seems to have adopted the custom in larger measure, one Jesuit priest observing in 1609 Madurai the burning of 400 women at the death of Nayak Muttu Krishnappa.<ref>''On early rarity and Nayak adoption'', {{cite book|last1=Kulkarni|first1=K.R. |editor-last=Feldhaus |editor-first=Anne |chapter=Sati in Maratha Country |page=276 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1YSU9Qp9w0MC&pg=PA176|title=Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion|year=1996|publisher=SUNY Press|location=Albany, NY|isbn=978-0791428382}}, ''on Jesuit witness'', {{cite book|last=Weinberger-Thomas|first=Catherine|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein/page/119 119]|url=https://archive.org/details/ashesofimmortali0000wein|url-access=registration|title=Ashes of Immortality: Widow-Burning in India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=1999|isbn=978-0226885681}}</ref>

The [[Kongu Nadu]] region of Tamil Nadu has the highest number of Veera Maha Sati (வீரமாசதி) or Veeramathy temples (வீரமாத்தி) from all the native Kongu castes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.karikkuruvi.com/2014/12/blog-post.html?m=1&grqid=Qf0uqMzz&hl=en-IN|title=கொங்கதேசத்தில் வீரமாத்தி|website=www.karikkuruvi.com}}</ref>

A few records exist from the [[Princely State of Mysore]], established in 1799, that say permission to commit ''sati'' could be granted. Dewan (prime minister) [[Purnaiah]] is said to have allowed it for a Brahmin widow in 1805,<ref>{{cite book|last=Pinto|first=Janet|page=115|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5MuPfDa468C&pg=PA115|title=The Indian Widow: From Victim To Victor|year=2002|publisher=St Pauls BYB|location=Mumbai|isbn=978-8171085330}}</ref> whereas an 1827 eye-witness to the burning of a widow in [[Bangalore]] in 1827 says it was rather uncommon there.<ref>{{cite journal|editor=Buckingham, James Silk|author=Eye-witness|title=Suttee at Bangalore|pages=281–285|volume=LVI|journal=The Oriental Herald|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ohxUAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA281}}</ref>

====Gangetic plain====
In the Upper Gangetic plain, while ''sati'' occurred, there is no indication that it was especially widespread. The earliest known attempt by a government, that of the [[Islam|Muslim]] Sultan [[Muhammad ibn Tughluq]] to stop this Hindu practice took place in the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in the 14th century.<ref>L. C. Nand, ''Women in Delhi Sultanate'', Vohra Publishers and Distributors Allahabad 1989.</ref>

In the Lower Gangetic plain, the practice may have reached a high level fairly late in history. According to available evidence and the existing reports of occurrences, the greatest incidence of ''sati'' in any region and period, in total numbers, occurred in Bengal and Bihar in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/Organizations/healthnet/SAsia/forums/sati/prevention.html|title=The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 (No. 3 of 1988)|publisher=[[Harvard School of Public Health]]|access-date=12 October 2005|archive-date=14 March 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314115903/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/Organizations/healthnet/SAsia/forums/sati/prevention.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Nepal and Bali====
The earliest stone inscription in the Indian subcontinent relating to ''sati'' has been found in [[Nepal]], dating from the 5th century, wherein the king successfully persuades his mother not to commit ''sati'' after his father dies.<ref>John Whelpton (2005), A History of Nepal, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521804707}}, p. 19</ref> This inscription suggests that ''sati'' was practised but not compulsory.<ref>DR Regmi (1983), Inscriptions of Ancient Nepal, {{ISBN|978-0391025592}}, p. 11</ref> Nepal formally banned ''sati'' in 1920.<ref>Human Rights Watch, Human Rights Violations in Nepal (1989), {{ISBN|978-0929692319}}, p. 14</ref>

On the [[Indonesia]]n island of [[Bali]], ''sati'' (known as ''masatya'') was practised by the aristocracy as late as 1903, until the Dutch colonial masters pushed for its termination, forcing the local Balinese princes to sign treaties containing the prohibition of ''sati'' as one of the clauses.<ref name=merlecalvin>''A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1300'', by Merle Calvin Ricklefs, ''on forced treaties'', see {{cite book|last=Wiener|first=Margaret J.|pages=267–268|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GE1uc1UNXNYC&pg=PA267|title=Visible and Invisible Realms: Power, Magic, and Colonial Conquest in Bali|year=1995|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226885827}}</ref> Early Dutch observers of the Balinese custom in the 17th century said that only widows of royal blood were allowed to be burned alive. Concubines or others of inferior blood lines who consented or wanted to die with their princely husband had to be stabbed to death before being burned.<ref>{{cite book|last=Creese|first=Helen|pages=240–241|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCUrhg_EibgC&pg=PA240|title=Women of the Kakawin World: Marriage and Sexuality in the Indic Courts of Java and Bali|year=2005|publisher=M.E. Sharpe, Inc.|isbn=978-0765601605|location=Armonk, NY}}</ref>

==Terminology==
{{Hinduism}}
Lindsey Harlan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.conncoll.edu/directories/faculty-profiles/lindsey-harlan/|title=Lindsey Harlan|website=Connecticut College}}</ref> having conducted extensive field work among [[Rajput]] women, has constructed a model of how and why women who committed ''sati'' are still venerated today, and how the worshippers think about the process involved.<ref>This section is based on chapter 4, {{cite book|last=Harlan|first=Lindsey|pages=112–153|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HLrPYOe38gC&pg=PA112|chapter=Satimata tradition: The Transformative process|title=Religion and Rajput Women: The Ethic of Protection in Contemporary Narratives|year=1992|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520073395|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford}}</ref> Essentially, a woman becomes a ''sati'' in three stages:
# having been a ''pativrata'', or dutiful wife, during her husband's life,
# making, at her husband's death, a solemn vow to burn by his side, thus gaining status as a ''sativrata'', and
# having endured being burnt alive, achieving the status of ''satimata''.

===Pativrata===
The ''pativrata'' is devoted and subservient to her husband, and also protective of him. If he dies before her, some culpability is attached to her for his death, as not having been sufficiently protective of him. Making the vow to burn alive beside him removes her culpability, as well as enabling her to protect him from new dangers in the afterlife.

===Sativrata===
In Harlan's model, having made the holy vow to burn herself, the woman becomes a ''sativrata'', a transitional stage between the living and the dead, before ascending the funeral pyre. Once a woman had committed herself to becoming a ''sati'', popular belief thought her endowed with many supernatural powers. Lourens P. Van Den Bosch enumerates some of them: prophecy and clairvoyance, and the ability to bless with sons women who had not borne sons before. The gifts from a ''sati'' were venerated as valuable relics, and in her journey to the pyre, people would seek to touch her garments to benefit from her powers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Van Den Bosch |first=Lourens P. |page=184 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q7uHAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 |title=Between Poverty and the Pyre: Moments in the History of Widowhood |editor-last=Bremmer |editor-first=Jan |editor-last2=Van Den Bosch |editor-first2=Lourens P. |year=2002 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-1134888832 |chapter=The Ultimate Journey}}</ref>

Lindsey Harlan probes deeper into the ''sativrata'' stage. As a transitional figure on her path to becoming a powerful family protector as ''satimata'', the ''sativrata'' dictates the terms and obligations the family, in showing reverence to her, must observe in order for her to be able to protect them once she has become satimata. These conditions are generally called ''ok''. A typical example of an ''ok'' is a restriction on the colours or types of clothing the family members may wear.

''Shrap'', or curses, are also within the ''sativrata'''s power, associated with remonstrations on members of the family for how they have failed. One woman cursed her in-laws when they brought neither a horse nor a drummer to her pyre, saying that whenever in future they might have need of either (and many religious rituals require the presence of such a thing), it would not be available to them. {{citation needed}}

===Satimata===
After her death on the pyre, the woman is finally transformed into the shape of the ''satimata'', a spiritual embodiment of goodness, with her principal concern being a family protector. Typically, the ''satimata'' manifests in the dreams of family members, for example to teach the women how to be good ''pativratas'', having proved herself through her sacrifice that she was the perfect ''pativrata''. However, although the ''satimata'''s intentions are always for the good of the family, she is not averse to letting children become sick, for example, or the cows' udders to wither, if she thinks this is an appropriate lesson to the living wife who has neglected her duties as ''pativrata''.

==In scriptures==
David Brick, in his 2010 review of ancient Indian literature, states{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

{{blockquote|There is no mention of ''sahagamana'' (sati) whatsoever in either Vedic literature or any of the early Dharmasutras or Dharmasastras. By "early Dharmasutras or Dharmasastras", I refer specifically to both the early Dharmasutras of Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Gautama, Baudhayana and Vasistha, and the later Dharmasastras of Manu, Narada, and Yajnavalkya. – David Brick, Yale University{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}}}

The earliest scholarly discussion of sati, whether it is right or wrong, is found in the Sanskrit literature dated to 10th- to 12th-century.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=206–211}} The earliest known commentary on sati by [[Medhatithi]] of Kashmir argues that sati is a form of suicide, which is prohibited by the Vedic tradition.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}} [[Vijnanesvara]], of the 12th-century [[Chalukya]] court, and the 13th-century [[Madhvacharya]], argue that sati should not to be considered suicide, which was otherwise variously banned or discouraged in the scriptures.{{sfn|Sharma|2001|p=102, footnote 206}} They offer a combination of reasons, both in favour and against sati.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=212–213}}

In the following, a historical chronology is given of the debate within Hinduism on the topic of ''sati''.

===The oldest Vedic texts===
The most ancient texts still revered among Hindus today are the [[Vedas]], where the ''Saṃhitās'' are the most ancient, four collections roughly dated in their composition to 1700–1100 BCE. In two of these collections, the [[Rigveda]] and the [[Atharvaveda]], many verses share relevance to the idea of ''sati''.

Claims about the mention of sati in [[Rig Veda]] vary. There are differing interpretations of one of the passages which reads:

: इमा नारीरविधवाः सुपत्नीराञ्जनेन सर्पिषा संविशन्तु |
:अनश्रवो.अनमीवाः सुरत्ना आ रोहन्तु जनयोयोनिमग्रे || (RV 10.18.7)

This passage and especially the last of these words has been interpreted in different ways, as can be seen from various English translations:

:''May these women, who are not widows, who have good husbands, who are mothers, enter with unguents and clarified butter:''
:''without tears, without sorrow, let them first go up into the dwelling.''<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=25228678|title=On the Supposed Vaidik Authority for the Burning of Hindu Widows, and on the Funeral Ceremonies of the Hindus|author=Professor Wilson|journal=The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|year=1856|volume=16|pages=201–214|doi=10.1017/S0035869X00156333|s2cid=164115687 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/2232783}}</ref> (Wilson, 1856)

:''Let these women, whose husbands are worthy and are living, enter the house with [[ghee]] (applied) as [[collyrium]] (to their eyes).''
:''Let these wives first step into the pyre, tearless without any affliction and well adorned.''<ref name="kane">[https://web.archive.org/web/20091027153622/http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Agora/4229/in3.htm 3.1 Women in Indo-Aryan Societies:Sati] this translation is ascribed to Kane, pp. 199–200</ref> (Kane, 1941)

Verse 7 itself, unlike verse 8, does not mention widowhood, but the meaning of the syllables ''[[yoni]]'' (literally "seat, abode") have been rendered as "go up into the ''dwelling''" (by [[Horace Hayman Wilson|Wilson]]), as "step into the ''pyre''" (by [[Pandurang Vaman Kane|Kane]]), as "mount the ''womb''" (by [[Stephanie W. Jamison|Jamison]]/Brereton)<ref>Compare alternative translation by Jamison/Brereton:
:''These women here, non-widows with good husbands – let them, with fresh butter as ointment, approach together.''
:''Without tears, without afflictions, well-jeweled, let the wives first mount the womb.''
[[Stephanie W. Jamison]], Joel P. Brereton: The Rigveda: 3-Volume Set. Oxford University Press, 2014. {{ISBN|978-0199720781}}. p. 1401. [https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ digital format]</ref> and as "go up to ''where he lieth''" (by [[Ralph T. H. Griffith|Griffith]]).<ref>Compare also alternative translation by Griffith:
:''Let these unwidowed dames with noble husbands adorn themselves with fragrant balm and unguent.''
:''Decked with fair jewels, tearless, free from sorrow, first let the dames go up to where he lieth.''
[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10018.htm Hymn XVIII. Various Deities.], ''Rig Veda'', tr. by [[Ralph T. H. Griffith]] (1896)</ref> A reason given for the discrepancy in translation and interpretation of verse 10.18.7, is that one consonant in a word that meant house, ''yonim agree'' ("foremost to the ''yoni''"), was deliberately changed by those who wished claim scriptural justification, to a word that meant fire, ''yomiagne''.<ref>O. P. Gupta, "The Rigveda: Widows don't have to burn", ''[[The Asian Age]]'', 23 October 2002, available at [http://www.hindu-religion.net/showflat/cat/hinduism/67586/0/collapsed/5/o/1 Hindu-religion.net] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222092234/http://www.hindu-religion.net/showflat/cat/hinduism/67586/0/collapsed/5/o/1 }}.</ref>

In addition, the following verse, which is unambiguously about widows, contradicts any suggestion of the woman's death; it explicitly states that the widow should return to her house.

:उदीर्ष्व नार्यभि जीवलोकं गतासुमेतमुप शेष एहि |
:हस्तग्राभस्य दिधिषोस्तवेदं पत्युर्जनित्वमभि सम्बभूथ || (RV 10.18.8)

:''Rise, come unto the world of life, O woman — come, he is lifeless by whose side thou liest. Wifehood with this thy husband was thy portion, who took thy hand and wooed thee as a lover.''

Dehejia states that Vedic literature has no mention of any practice resembling Sati.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=50-51}} There is only one mention in the Vedas, of a widow lying down beside her dead husband who is asked to leave the grieving and return to the living, then prayer is offered for a happy life for her with children and wealth. Dehejia writes that this passage does not imply a pre-existing sati custom, nor of widow remarriage, nor that it is authentic verse because its solitary mention may also be explained as a later date insertion into the text.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=50-51}}{{refn|group=note|On this idea of discontuation, see {{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|pages=118|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA118|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-8120803244}}}} Dehejia writes that no ancient or early medieval era Buddhist texts mention sati, and if the practice existed it would likely have been condemned by these texts.{{sfn|Dehejia|1994|p=50-51}}

===1st-millennium BCE texts===

====Absence in religious texts====
David Brick, a professor of South Asian Studies, states that neither ''sati'' nor equivalent terms such as ''sahagamana'' are ever mentioned in any Vedic literature (Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads), or in any of the early Dharmasutras or Dharmasastras.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

The [[Brahmana]] literature, one of the layers within the ancient Vedic texts, dated about 1000 BCE – 500 BCE are entirely silent about ''sati'' according to the historian Altekar. Similarly, the [[Kalpa (Vedanga)#Grhyasutras|Grhyasutras]], a body of text devoted to ritual, with composition date about the time of the youngest within Brahmana literature, ''sati'' is not mentioned, either. What is mentioned concerning funeral rites, though, is that the widow is to be brought back from her husband's funeral pyre, either by his brother, or by a trusted servant. In the [[Taittiriya Aranyaka]] from about the same time, it is said that when leaving, the widow took from her husband's side such objects as his bow, gold and jewels (which previously would have been burnt with him), and a hope expressed that the widow and her relatives would lead a happy and prosperous life afterwards. According to Altekar, it is "clear" that the custom of actual widow burning had died out a long time previously at this stage.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|pages=118–119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA118|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-8120803244}}</ref>

Nor is the practice of ''sati'' mentioned anywhere in the [[Dharmaśāstra#The Dharmasutras|Dharmasutras]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|page=119|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA119|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-8120803244}}</ref> texts tentatively dated by [[Pandurang Vaman Kane]] to 600–100 BCE, while [[Patrick Olivelle]] thinks the bounds should be roughly 250–100 BCE instead.<ref>For extended dating debate, including Kane reference, see {{cite book|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|pages=xxv–xxxiv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d0YTQ9Ty8r4C&pg=PR25|title=The Dharmasutras: The Law Codes of Ancient India|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0191606045}}</ref>

Not only is sati not mentioned in Brahmana and early Dharmasastra literature, [[Satapatha Brahmana]] explains that suicide by anyone is inappropriate (adharmic). This [[Śruti]] prohibition became one of the several basis for arguments presented against sati by 11th- to 14th-century Hindu scholars such as Medhatithi of Kashmir,{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

:''Therefore, one should not depart before one's natural lifespan.'' – Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, 10.2.6.7{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

Thus, in none of the principal religious texts believed composed before the Common Era is there any evidence at all for a sanctioning of the practice of ''sati''. It is wholly unmentioned, although the archaic Atharvaveda do contain hints of a funeral practice of ''symbolic'' sati. In addition, the twelfth-century CE commentary of Apararka, claiming to quote the Dharmasutra text [[Apastamba]], it says that the Apastamba prescribes that if a widow has made a vow of burning herself (anvahorana, "ascend the pyre"), but then ''retracts'' her vow, she must expiate her sin by the penance ritual called ''Prajapatya-vrata''<ref>''On 12th-century Apararka date'', see for example, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Urakx-uhGFkC&pg=PA75 p. 75], ''On penance'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=Urakx-uhGFkC&pg=PA207 p. 207], in {{cite book|last=Banerji|first=Sures C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Urakx-uhGFkC|year=1999|title=A Brief History of Dharmaśāstra|publisher=Abhinav Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8170173700}}</ref>

Justifications for the practice are given in the ''[[Vishnu Smriti]]'', dated 6th-9th century CE by [[Patrick Olivelle]]:

:''When a woman's husband has died, she should either practice ascetic celibacy or ascend (the funeral pyre) after him.'' — Vishnu Smriti, 25.14{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

====Valmiki Ramayana====
The oldest portion of the epic [[Ramayana]], the Valmiki Ramayana, is tentatively dated for its composition by Robert P. Goldman to 750–500 BCE.<ref>See in particular his discussion on the preceding pages of conclusion given at {{cite book|last=Goldman|first=Robert P|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWX43jnbOngC&pg=PA23|page=23|title=Balakanda: An Epic of Ancient India|year=1990|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691014852|location=Princeton, New Jersey}} An important strand in Goldman's argument for the dating concerns which cities are considered capitals, and which are not</ref> Anant S. Altekar says that no instances of ''sati'' occur in this earliest, archaic part of the whole Ramayana.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altekar|first=Anant S.|page=121|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYG4K0yYHQgC&pg=PA121|title=The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day|year=1956|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Pub|location=Delhi|isbn=978-8120803244}}</ref>

According to Ramashraya Sharma, there is no conclusive evidence of the sati practice in the [[Ramayana]]. For instance, [[Tara (Ramayana)|Tara]], [[Mandodari]] and the widows of [[Ravana]], all live after their respective husband's deaths, though all of them announce their wish to die, while lamenting for their husbands. The first two remarry their brother-in-law. He also mentions that though [[Dashratha]], father of Rama, died soon after his departure from the city, his mothers survived and received him after the completion of his exile. The only instance of sati appears in the ''Uttara Kanda'' – believed to be a later addition to the original text – in which [[Kushadhwaja]]'s wife performs sati.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Ramashraya |title=A socio-political study of the Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa|edition=1|year=1971|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|pages=96–98}}
</ref> The Telugu adaptation of the Ramayana, the 14th-century Ranganatha Ramayana, tells that [[Sulochana (Ramayana)|Sulochana]], wife of [[Indrajit]], became sati on his funeral pyre.<ref>{{cite book |title=Indian epic values: Rāmāyana and its impact |last=Pollet|first=Gilbert |year=1995|publisher=Peeters Publishers|isbn=90-6831-701-6|page= 62|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVnK3q48dL0C&q=Sulochana&pg=PA62 }}</ref>

====Mahabharata====

Instances of ''sati'' are found in the Mahabharata.

[[Madri]], the second wife of [[Pandu]], immolates herself. She believes she is responsible for his death, as he had been cursed with death if he ever had intercourse. He died while performing the forbidden act with Madri; she blamed herself for not rejecting him, as she knew of the curse. Also, in the case of Madri the entire assembly of sages sought to dissuade her from the act, and no religious merit is attached to the fate she chooses against all advice. In contrast, [[Kunti]], the first wife of Pandu and the leading female character of Mahabharata, suffered several ordeals along with her sons, the [[Pandavas]], and lived to see the end of the Mahabharata war. In the Musala-parvan of the Mahabharata, the four wives of [[Vasudeva]] are said to commit ''sati''. Furthermore, as news of Krishna's death reaches [[Hastinapur]], five of his wives ascended the funeral pyre.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=[[Indian History Congress]]|first1=Om|last1=Prakash Mishra|first2=S.|last2=Pradhan|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44155841|title=Sati memorials and cenotaphs of Madhya Pradesh - A survey|volume=62|year=2001|page=1014| jstor=44155841 }}</ref>

Against these stray examples within the Mahabharata of ''sati'', there are scores of instances in the same epic of widows who do not commit sati, none of them blamed for not doing so.<ref>For this discussion, see for example, {{cite book|last=Sagar|first=Krishna C.|page=291 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC&pg=PA291|title=Foreign Influence on Ancient India|year=1992|publisher= Northern Book Centre|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-8172110284}}</ref>

===Principal Smrtis, c. 200 BCE–1200 CE===
[[File:Satigal (sati stone) in Kedareshvara temple at Balligavi.JPG|thumb|Satigal (sati stone) near [[Kedareshvara Temple, Balligavi]], [[Karnataka]]]]
The four works, [[Manusmriti|{{IAST|Manusmṛti}}]] (200 BCE–200 CE), {{IAST|[[Yājñavalkya Smṛti]]}} (200–500 CE), {{IAST|[[Nāradasmṛti]]}} (100 BCE–400 CE) and the {{IAST|[[Viṣṇusmṛti]]}} (700–1000 CE) are the principal [[Smrti]] works in the [[Dharmaśāstra]] tradition, along with the Parasara Smrti, composed in the latter period, rather than in the earlier.{{citation needed}}

The first three principal smrtis{{typo help inline|reason=similar to smritis}}, those of Manu, Yājñavalkya and Nārada, do not contain any mention of sati.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

====Emergence of debate on sati, 700–1200 CE====

[[Moriz Winternitz]] states that Brihaspati Smriti prohibits burning of widows.<ref name=winternitz>{{cite book|last1=Winternitz|first1=M|title=History of Indian Literature, Vol. 3|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120800564|page=598|quote=Quote: The Brihaspati-Smriti is in fact a kind of Varttika on the Manava-Dharmasastra. It prohibits burning of widows.}}</ref> Brihaspati Smriti was authored after the three principal smritis of Manu, Yājñavalkya and Nārada.<ref name=winternitz/>

Passages of the Parasara Smriti say:
:''If a woman adheres to a vow of ascetic celibacy ([[brahmacarya]]) after her husband has died, then when she dies, she obtains heaven, just like those who were celibate. Further, three and a half krores or however many hairs are on a human body – for that long a time (in years) a woman who follows her husband (in death) shall dwell in heaven.'' — Parasara Smriti, 4.29–31{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

Neither of these suggest sati as mandatory, but Parasara Smriti elaborates the benefits of sati in greater detail.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

Within the dharmashastric tradition espousing ''sati'' as a justified, and even recommended, option to ascetic widowhood, there remained a curious conception worth noting the achieved status for a woman committing ''sati''. Burning herself on the pyre would give her, and her husband, automatic, but not eternal, reception into heaven ([[svarga]]), whereas only the wholly chaste widow living out her natural life span could hope for final liberation ([[moksha]]) and breaking the cycle of rebirth. Thus, acknowledging that performing ''sati'' only achieved an inferior otherworldy status than successful widowhood could achieve, ''sati'' became recommended when coupled with a dismissal of the effective possibility for a widow to remain truly chaste.

While some smriti passages allow sati as optional, others forbid the practice entirely. [[Vijñāneśvara]] (c. 1076–1127), an early Dharmaśāstric scholar, claims that many smriti call for the prohibition of sati among Brahmin widows, but not among other social castes. Vijñāneśvara, quoting scriptures from Paithinasi and Angiras to support his argument, states:

:Due to Vedic injunction, a [[Brahmin]] woman should not follow her husband in death, but for the other social classes, tradition holds this to be the supreme Law of Women... when a woman of Brahmin caste follows her husband in death, by killing herself she leaders neither herself nor her husband to heaven.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

However, as proof of the contradictory opinion of the smriti on sati, in his [[Mitākṣarā]], Vijñāneśvara argues Brahmin women are technically only forbidden from performing sati on pyres other than those of their deceased husbands.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}} Quoting the Yājñavalkya Smṛti, Vijñāneśvara states, "a Brahmin woman ought not to depart by ascending a separate pyre." David Brick states that the Brahmin sati commentary suggests that the practice may have originated in the warrior and ruling class of medieval Indian society.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}} In addition to providing arguments in support of sati, Vijñāneśvara offers arguments against the ritual.

Those who supported the ritual, did however, put restrictions on sati. It was considered wrong for women who had young children to care for, those who were pregnant or menstruating. A woman who had doubts or did not wish to commit sati at the last moment, could be removed from the pyre by a man, usually a brother of the deceased or someone from her husband's side of the family.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}

David Brick,{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}} summarizing the historical evolution of scholarly debate on sati in medieval India, states:
{{blockquote|To summarize, one can loosely arrange Dharmasastic writings on sahagamana into three historical periods. In the first of these, which roughly corresponds to the second half of the 1st millennium CE, smrti texts that prescribe sahagamana begin to appear. However, during approximately this same period, other Brahmanical authors also compose a number of smrtis that proscribe this practice specifically in the case of Brahmin widows. Moreover, Medhatithi – our earliest commentator to address the issue – strongly opposes the practice for all women. Taken together, this textual evidence suggests that sahagamana was still quite controversial at this time. In the following period, opposition to this custom starts to weaken, as none of the later commentators fully endorses Medhatithi's position on sahagamana. Indeed, after Vijnanesvara in the early twelfth century, the strongest position taken against sahagamana appears to be that it is an inferior option to brahmacarya (ascetic celibacy), since its result is only heaven rather than [[moksa]] (liberation). Finally, in the third period, several commentators refute even this attenuated objection to sahagamana, for they cite a previously unquoted smrti passage that specifically lists liberation as a result of the rite's performance. They thereby claim that sahagamana is at least as beneficial an option for widows as brahmacarya and perhaps even more so, given the special praise it sometimes receives. These authors, however, consistently stop short of making it an obligatory act. Hence, the commentarial literature of the dharma tradition attests to a gradual shift from strict prohibition to complete endorsement in its attitude toward sahagamana.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}}}}

===Legend of goddess Sati===
Although the myth of the goddess [[Dakshayani|Sati]] is that of a wife who dies by her own volition on a fire, this is not a case of the practice of ''sati''. The goddess was not widowed, and the myth is quite unconnected with the justifications for the practice.

===Justifications for involuntary sati===
Julia Leslie points to ''[[Strī-dharma-paddhati]]'', an 18th-century CE text on the duties of the wife by [[Tryambakayajvan]] that contains statements she regards as evidence for a sub-tradition of justifying strongly encouraged, pressured, or even forced ''sati''. Although the standard view of the sati within the justifying tradition is that of the woman who out of moral heroism chooses sati, rather than choosing to enter ascetic widowhood.{{sfn|Leslie|1993}}{{refn|group=note|And thus, critically, ''sati'' regarded as an essentially voluntary act, the woman afterwards worthy of worship.{{sfn|Leslie|1993}}}} Tryambaka is quite clear upon the automatic good effect of sati for the woman who was a 'bad' wife:
{{blockquote|Women who, due to their wicked minds, have always despised their husbands [...] whether they do this (i.e., sati), of their own free will, or out of anger, or even out of fear – all of them are purified from sin.}}{{refn|group=note|For direct quotation, see p.56, for rest of discussion, consult essay {{harvtxt|Leslie|1993 p=45}}}}

Thus, as Leslie puts it, becoming (or being pressured into the role of) a ''sati'' was, within ''Tryambaka''{{'s}} thinking, the only truly effective method of atonement for the bad wife.

===Exegesis scholarship against sati===
Opposition to sati was expressed by several exegesis scholars such as the ninth- or tenth-century Kashmir scholar Medatithi – who offers the earliest known explicit discussion of sati,{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=203–223}} the 12th- to 17th-century scholars Vijnanesvara, Apararka and Devanadhatta, as well as the mystical Tantric tradition, with its valorisation of the feminine principle.

Explicit criticisms were published by [[Medhatithi]], a commentator on various theological works.{{sfn|Brick|2010|p=208}} He offered two arguments for his opposition. He considered sati a form of suicide, which was [[Religious views of suicide#Hinduism|forbidden by the Vedas]]: "One shall not die before the span of one's life is run out."{{sfn|Brick|2010|p=208}} Medhatithi offered a second reason against sati, calling it against [[dharma]] (''adharma''). He argued that there is a general prohibition against violence of any form against living beings in the Vedic dharma tradition, sati causes death which is sufficient proof of violence, and thus sati is against Vedic teachings.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=207–208}}

Vijnanesvara presents both sides of the argument, for and against sati. He argues first that Vedas do not prohibit sacrifice aimed to stop an enemy and in pursuit of heaven, and sati for these reasons is thus not prohibited. He then presents two arguments against sati, calling it "unobjectionable". The first is based on hymn 10.2.6.7 of Satapatha Brahmana will forbids suicide. His second reason against sati is an appeal to relative merit between two choices. Death may grant a woman's wish to enter heaven with her dead husband, but living offers her the possibility of reaching [[moksha]] through knowledge of the Self through learning, reflecting and meditating. In Vedic tradition, moksha is of higher merit than heaven, because moksha leads to eternal, unsurpassed bliss while heaven is impermanent and smaller happiness. Living gives her an option to discover deeper, fulfilling happiness than dying through sati does, according to Vijnanesvara.{{sfn|Brick|2010|pp=212–213}}

Apararka acknowledges that Vedic scripture prohibits violence against living beings and "one should not kill"; however, he argues that this rule prohibits violence against another person, but does not prohibit killing oneself if one wants to. Thus sati is a woman's choice and it is not prohibited by Vedic tradition, argues Apararka.{{sfn|Brick|2010|p=214}}

===Counter-arguments within Hinduism===
Reform and [[bhakti]] movements within Hinduism favoured egalitarian societies, and in line with the tenor of these beliefs, generally condemned the practice, sometimes explicitly. The 12th-century [[Virashaiva]] movement condemned the practice.<ref>[http://www.lingayat.com/alingayat/alingayat.asp "About Lingayat"] on lingayat.com {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050205043742/http://www.lingayat.com/alingayat/alingayat.asp }}</ref> Later, [[Swaminarayan|Sahajananda Swami]], the founder of [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] [[Swaminarayana]] sampradaya preached against sati in the 18th century in western India.

In a petition to the [[East India Company]] in 1818, [[Ram Mohan Roy]] wrote that: "All these instances are murders according to every [[shastra]]."<ref>{{cite book|last=Mani|first=Lata |title=Contentious Traditions: The Debate on Sati in Colonial India|year=1998|publisher=University of California Press|pages=57}}
</ref>

==In culture==


European artists in the eighteenth century produced many images for their own native markets, showing the widows as heroic women, and moral exemplars.<ref>[http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/hardgrave/Satiart.rft.html "The Representation of Sati: Four Eighteenth Century Etchings by Baltazard Solvyns"] by Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr. ''Bengal Past and Present'', 117 (1998): 57–80.</ref>

In [[Jules Verne]]'s novel ''[[Around the World in Eighty Days]]'', Phileas Fogg rescues [[Princess Aouda]] from forced sati.<ref name="Verne">{{cite book |last1=Verne |first1=Jules |title=Around the World in 80 Days |publisher=James R. Osgood and Company |location=Boston |pages=83–98 |url=https://archive.org/details/Aroundworldineig00vern_201303/page/n157/mode/2up |access-date=29 May 2022}}</ref>

In her article "[[Subaltern (postcolonialism)#The voice of the subaltern|Can the Subaltern Speak?]]", Indian philosopher [[Gayatri Spivak]] discussed the history of sati during the colonial era<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=naJtCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 Gayatri Spivak: Deconstruction and the Ethics of Postcolonial Literary Interpretation] p. 50, Ola Abdalkafor, Cambridge Scholars Publishing</ref> and how the practise took the form of imprisoning women in India in a [[double bind]] of self-expression attributed to [[mental illness]] and social rejection, or of self-incrimination according to colonial legislation.<ref name="sharp6">{{cite book | last = Sharp | first = J. | title = Geographies of Postcolonialism
| chapter = Chapter 6, Can the Subaltern Speak? | publisher = Sage Publications | year = 2008}}</ref> The woman who commits sati takes the form of the [[Subaltern (postcolonialism)|subaltern]] in Spivak's work, a form much of [[Postcolonialism|postcolonial]] studies takes very seriously.{{citation needed}}

The 2005 novel ''[[The Ashram]]'' by Indian writer [[Sattar Memon]], deals with the plight of an oppressed young woman in India, under pressure to commit suttee and the endeavours of a western spiritual aspirant to save her.{{citation needed}}

In [[Krishna Dharabasi]]'s Nepali novel ''Jhola'', a young widow narrowly escapes self immolation. The novel was later adapted into a [[Jhola|movie]] titled after the book.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.nepalitimes.com/article/review/Jhola-Nepali-film,947 | title=Jhola | Review | Nepali Times }}</ref>

Amitav Ghosh's ''Sea of Poppies'' (2008) represents the practice of sati in Gazipur city in the state of Uttar Pradesh and reflects the feelings and experience of a young woman named 'Deeti' who escaped sati as her family and relatives were forcing her to do sati after her old husband died.

[[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem ''The Last Suttee'' (1889) recounts how the widowed queen of a Rajput ruler disguised herself as a [[nautch]] girl in order to pass through a line of guards and die upon his pyre.<ref>page 238, Rudyard Kipling's Verse. Definitive Version, Hodder and Stroughton Ltd London, January 1960</ref>

==See also==
* [[Jauhar]]
* [[Self-immolation]]
* [[Ritual suicide]]
* [[Deorala]]
* [[Thalaikoothal]]
* [[Witch-hunt]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|2}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}

*{{citation|last=Brick|first=David|editor=Margo Kits|title=Martyrdom, Self-Sacrifice, and Self-Immolation: Religious Perspectives on Suicide|chapter=Sati|pages=162–181|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-19-065648-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XHhUDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Brick|first1=David|title=The Dharmasastric Debate on Widow Burning|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=2010|volume=130|issue=2|pages=203–223|jstor=23044515}}

* {{cite journal | last1 = Cassels | first1 = Nancy G | year = 1965 | title = Bentinck: Humanitarian and Imperialist – The Abolition of Suttee | journal = Journal of British Studies | volume = 5 | issue = 1| pages = 77–87 | doi = 10.1086/385511 | jstor = 175184 | s2cid = 144873615 }}

* {{Citation | last =Dehejia | first =Vidya | year =1994 | chapter =Comment: A Broader Landscape | editor-last =Hawley | editor-first =John Stratton | title =Sati, the Blessing and the Curse | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0195077742}}

* {{cite journal|last= Elliott|first=Mark C.|s2cid= 31374587|year= 1999| jstor= 179248 | title= Manchu Widows and Ethnicity in Qing China|journal= Comparative Studies in Society and History|volume= 41|pages= 33–71| number= 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |author-link=Mark Elliott (historian)|doi= 10.1017/S0010417599001863|pmid= 20120554}}

* {{cite journal |last=Garzilli |first=Enrica |title=First Greek and Latin Documents on Sahagamana and Some Connected Problems (Part 1) |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/indo/1997/00000040/00000003/00072348;jsessionid=og713ih0tc8h.victoria |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |volume=40 |issue=3 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071002020930/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/indo/1997/00000040/00000003/00072348;jsessionid=og713ih0tc8h.victoria |archive-date=2 October 2007}}
* {{cite journal |last = Garzilli |first = Enrica |title = First Greek and Latin Documents on Sahagamana and Some Connected Problems (Part 2) |url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/indo/1997/00000040/00000004/00077521;jsessionid=og713ih0tc8h.victoria |journal = Indo-Iranian Journal |volume = 40 |issue = 4 |date = October 1997 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071001103638/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/indo/1997/00000040/00000004/00077521;jsessionid=og713ih0tc8h.victoria |archive-date = 1 October 2007 |df = dmy-all }}

* {{cite book |editor-last=Hawley|editor-first=John Stratton|year=1994|title=Sati, the blessing and the curse: the burning of wives in India |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-507774-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_VbHItKQjYC}}

* {{cite book |last=Kane |first=M. P. V. |title=History of Dharmashastra |volume=IV |publisher=[[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute]] |year=1953}}

* {{cite book |last1=Leslie |first1=Julia |year=1993|chapter=Suttee or Sati: Victim or Victor? |page=46 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPdYkFguJ8IC&pg=PA46 |title=Institutions and Ideologies: A SOAS South Asia Reader |editor-last=Arnold |editor-first=David |editor-last2=Robb |editor-first2=Peter |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0700702848 |volume=10}}

* Mani, L. (1987). Contentious traditions: the debate on sati in colonial India. Cultural Critique, (7), 119–156.
* Mani, L. (1998). Contentious traditions: The debate on sati in colonial India. University of California Press.
* [[Meenakshi Jain]] (2016). Sati: Evangelicals, Baptist Missionaries, and the Changing Colonial Discourse, Aryan Books International. {{ISBN|978-8173055522}}

* {{cite book |last=Nand |first=L. C. |title=Women in Delhi Sultanate |publisher=Vohra Publishers and Distributors |location=Allahabad |year=1989}}

* {{Citation | last =Oldenburg | first =Veena Talwar | year =1994 | chapter =Comment: The Continuing Invention of the Sati Tradition | editor-last =Hawley | editor-first =John Stratton | title =Sati, the Blessing and the Curse| publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0195077742}}

* Sangari, K., & Vaid, S. (1981). Sati in Modern India: a report. Economic and Political Weekly, 1284–1288.
* {{cite book|last= Sharma|first=Arvind|title=Sati: Historical and Phenomenological Essays|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJmWgz2mv5oC|year=2001|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0464-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Singh |first=Nagendra Kr. |year=2000 |title=Ambedkar on religion |location=New Delhi |publisher=Anmol Publications |isbn=81-261-0503-8}}

* {{Citation | last =Thapar | first =Romila | year =2002 | title =The Penguin History of Early India. From the Origins to AD 1300 | publisher = Penguin}}
* {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Edward |year=1928 |title=Suttee A Historical And Philosophical Enquiry Into The Hindu Rite Of Window Burning |location=London |publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd |isbn=978-1138566408 |url=https://archive.org/details/sutteeahistorica015478mbp}}

* {{citation|last=Vijaykumar|first=Lakshmi|chapter=Hindu religion and suicide in India|title=Oxford Textbook on Suicidology and Suicide Prevention|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=24–25|isbn=978-0-19-257371-1|editor=Danuta Wasserman|editor-link=Danuta Wasserman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8q4SEAAAQBAJ}}

* {{cite book |last1=Yang |first1=Anand A. | year =2008 | chapter =Whose Sati? Widow-Burning in early Nineteenth Century India |editor-last =Sarkar | editor-first =Sumit | editor-last2 =Sarkar | editor-first2 =Tanika |title=Women and Social Reform in Modern India: A Reader |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, Indiana |isbn=978-0253352699|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GEPYbuzOwcQC&pg=PA21 }}

* Zechenter, E. M. (1997). In the name of culture: Cultural relativism and the abuse of the individual. Journal of Anthropological Research, 319–347.
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091025224737/http://nrcw.nic.in/shared/sublinkimages/13.htm Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987]. Official text of the Act on [[Government of India]]'s National Resource Centre for Women (NCRW)
* Maja Daruwala, [http://www.pucl.org/from-archives/Gender/sati.htm A History of Sati Legislation in India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622063508/http://www.pucl.org/from-archives/Gender/sati.htm }}, People's Union for Civil Liberties.
* {{Cite NSRW|wstitle=Suttee|short=x}}
{{Social issues in India}}
{{Violence against women/end}}
{{Superstitions}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sati (Practice)}}
[[Category:Violence against women in Asia]]
[[Category:Death customs]]
[[Category:Fire in religion]]
[[Category:Suicide methods]]
[[Category:Superstitions of India]]
[[Category:Women's rights in religious movements]]
[[Category:Widowhood in India]]
[[Category:Hindu rituals related to death]]
[[Category:Suicide in India]]
[[Category:Gender and Hinduism]]
[[Category:Femicide]]
[[Category:Violence against women in India]]
[[Category:Women and death]]
[[Category:Indo-European culture]]
[[Category:Human sacrifice]]
[[Category:Traditions involving fire]]
[[Category:Criticism of Hinduism]]
[[Category:Suicide in Nepal]]
[[Category:Violence against women in Nepal]]