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Green Revolution in India

2023-07-08T13:57:15Z

Sadiq:

{{Short description|Modernization of agriculture in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2014}}
[[File:Punjab Monsoon.jpg|thumbnail|250px|The state of [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] led India's [[Green Revolution]] and earned the distinction of being the "[[Breadbasket#India|breadbasket]] of India."<ref>Kumar, Manoj, and Matthias Williams. 2009 January 29. "[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-election-punjab-idUSTRE80T00U20120130 Punjab, bread basket of India, hungers for change]." ''Reuters''.</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/sdr_pdf/shdr_pun04.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2004, Punjab |date=2004 |author=The Government of Punjab |author-link=Government of Punjab, India |access-date=9 August 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110708073911/http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/sdr_pdf/shdr_pun04.pdf| archive-date= 8 July 2011 | url-status= live}} Section: "The Green Revolution", pp. 17–20.</ref>]]

The '''Green Revolution''' was a period that began in the 1960s during which [[agriculture in India]] was converted into a modern industrial system by the adoption of technology, such as the use of [[High-yielding variety|high yielding variety (HYV) seeds]], mechanised farm tools, irrigation facilities, pesticides and fertilizers. Mainly led by agricultural scientist [[M. S. Swaminathan]] in India, this period was part of the larger [[Green Revolution]] endeavour initiated by [[Norman Borlaug|Norman E Borlaug]]<ref>Sadiq Rizvi, "[https://www.allexamnotes.com/2016/12/criticism-green-revolution/ Criticism of Green Revolution in India]" [https://www.allexamnotes.com Exam Notes], 2016</ref>, which leveraged agricultural research and technology to increase agricultural productivity in the developing world.<ref>Hardin, Lowell S. 2008. "Meetings That Changed the World: Bellagio 1969: The Green Revolution." ''Nature'' (25 Sep 2008):470-71. Cited in [https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1027&context=envstudtheses Sebby 2010].</ref>

Under premiership of [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] leader [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Swaminathan|first=M. S.|date=10 August 2009|title=From Green to Ever-Green Revolution|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/from-green-to-ever-green-revolution/499699/|url-status=live|access-date=2020-04-16|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Rajagopal|first=Gopi|date=13 October 2016|title=The Stories of Ehrlich, Borlaug and the Green Revolution|url=https://thewire.in/agriculture/paul-ehrlich-norman-borlaug-green-revolution|url-status=live|access-date=2020-04-16|website=The Wire (India)}}</ref> the Green Revolution within India commenced in 1968, leading to an increase in food grain production, especially in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], and [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Major milestones in this undertaking were the development of high-yielding varieties of [[wheat]],<ref name="about IARI">{{cite web|title=About IARI|url=http://www.iari.res.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=161&Itemid=1730|website=IARI|access-date=11 June 2015}}</ref> and [[rust (fungus)|rust]] resistant strains of wheat.<ref name=":0">{{cite web | title = Rust-resistant Wheat Varieties. Work at Pusa Institute|work=The Indian Express| url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Jcc-AAAAIBAJ&pg=3228,3861741&dq=pusa+institute&hl=en|date=7 February 1950| access-date = 13 September 2013}}</ref><ref>Newman, Bryan. 2007. "A Bitter Harvest: Farmer Suicide and the Unforeseen Social, Environmental and Economic Impacts of the Green Revolution in Punjab, India." ''Development Report'' 15. [[Food First]]. Cited in [https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1027&context=envstudtheses Sebby 2010].</ref> However, the long-term effects of green revolution have been analysed by environmental activists like [[Vandana Shiva]] who are of the opinion that it caused greater environmental, financial and sociological problems for the country like droughts, rural indebtedness and farmer suicides.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Shiva|first1=Vandana|date=March-April 1991|others=The Ecologist, Vol. 21, No. 2|title=The Green Revolution in the Punjab|url=http://livingheritage.org/green-revolution.htm|url-status=live|access-date=5 March 2019|website=Living heritage}}</ref> Reports have shown soil deterioration from the use of chemicals bringing ruin to farmers, the land, food and water supply. This caused a collapse of agricultural systems in many regions. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=M.G.|title=The Future for Rural India|publisher=Permanent Green|year=2013|pages=87-97}}</ref>

==Notable figures and institutions==
{{Quote box
| quote = Farmers, young and old, educated and uneducated, have easily taken to the new agronomy. It has been heart-warming to see young college graduates, retired officials, ex-army men, illiterate peasants and small farmers queuing up to get the new seeds.
| author = [[M. S. Swaminathan]]
| source = (1969) Punjab Miracle. [[The Illustrated Weekly of India]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Swaminathan|first=M. S.|date=2013-09-01|title=Genesis and Growth of the Yield Revolution in Wheat in India: Lessons for Shaping our Agricultural Destiny|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s40003-013-0069-3|journal=Agricultural Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=3|pages=183–188|doi=10.1007/s40003-013-0069-3|issn=2249-7218}}</ref>
| align = right
| width = 320px
}}
A number of people have been recognized for their efforts during India's Green Revolution.

*[[M. S. Swaminathan]], the main architect or the '''Father of the Green Revolution in India'''.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Rudolf|first=John Collins|date=2010-01-19|title=Father of India's Green Revolution Says Nation Is Threatened by Global Warming|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/18/business/global/18iht-green.html|access-date=2021-12-03|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
*[[Chidambaram Subramaniam]], the food and agriculture minister at the time, a [[Bharat Ratna]], has been called the '''Political Father of the Green Revolution'''.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Dugger|first=Celia W.|date=2000-11-10|title=Chidambaram Subramaniam, India's 'Green' Rebel, 90, Dies|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/10/world/chidambaram-subramaniam-india-s-green-rebel-90-dies.html|access-date=2021-12-03|issn=0362-4331|quote=Chidambaram Subramaniam, the political architect of the ''green revolution'' in India...}}</ref>
*[[Dilbagh Singh Athwal]], is called the '''Father of Wheat Revolution'''.<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 May 2017|title=‘Father of Wheat Revolution’ DS Athwal passes away|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/father-of-wheat-revolution-ds-athwal-passes-away/story-ZrvUSsethoakAa3DZl9V1J.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-03|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>
*Scientists such as [[Atmaram Bhairav Joshi]].
*Institutions such as [[Indian Agricultural Research Institute]] (IARI).

==Practices==

===Wheat production===
The main development was higher-yielding varieties of [[wheat]],<ref name="about IARI" /> for developing [[rust (fungus)|rust]] resistant strains of wheat.<ref name=":0" /> The introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds and the improved quality of [[fertilizers]] and [[irrigation]] techniques led to the increase in the production to make the country self-sufficient in food grains, thus improving [[agriculture in India]]. Also, other varieties such as Kalyan Sona and Sonalika were introduced by cross breeding of wheat with other crops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/india/104.htm|title=The Green Revolution in India|work=U.S. Library of Congress (released in [[public domain]])|series=Library of Congress is Country Studies|access-date=2007-10-06}}</ref> The methods adopted included the use of [[high-yielding varieties]] (HYVs) of seeds<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-38156350|title=IR8: The miracle rice which saved millions of lives|last=Rowlatt|first=Justin|date=2016-12-01|newspaper=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2016-12-05}}</ref> with modern farming methods.

The production of wheat has produced the best results in fueling self-sufficiency of India. Along with high-yielding seeds and irrigation facilities, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilized the idea of agricultural revolution. Due to the rise in use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, there was a negative effect on the [[soil]] and the land (e.g., [[land degradation]]).

===Other practices===
The other practices include high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds, Irrigation infrastructure, use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides, consolidation of holdings, land reforms, improved rural infrastructure, supply of agricultural credit, use of chemical or synthetic fertilizers, use of sprinklers or drip irrigation systems and use of advanced machinery.

==Rationale for the Green Revolution==
The Green Revolution in India was first introduced in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] in the late 1960s as part of a development program issued by international donor agencies and the Government of India.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Dutta|first=Swarup|date=June 2012|title=Green Revolution Revisited: The Contemporary Agrarian Situation in Punjab, India|journal=Social Change|volume=42|issue=2|pages=229–247|doi=10.1177/004908571204200205|s2cid=55847236|issn=0049-0857}}</ref>

During the [[British Raj]], India's grain economy hinged on a unilateral relation of exploitation.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|title=Late Victorian holocausts : El Niño famines and the making of the Third World|last=Davis|first=Mike|isbn=978-1-78168-360-6|oclc=1051845720|year = 2017}}</ref> Consequently, when India gained independence, the weakened country quickly became vulnerable to frequent famines, financial instabilities, and low productivity. These factors formed a rationale for the implementation of the Green Revolution as a development strategy in India.

*Frequent famines: In 1964–65 and 1965–66, India experienced two severe droughts which led to food shortages and famines among the country's growing population.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sangha|first=Kamaljit Kaur|s2cid=59152682|date=2014|title=Modern agricultural practices and analysis of socio-economic and ecological impacts of development in agriculture sector, Punjab, India - A review|journal=Indian Journal of Agricultural Research|volume=48|issue=5|pages=331|doi=10.5958/0976-058x.2014.01312.2|issn=0367-8245}}</ref> Modern agricultural technologies appeared to offer strategies to counter the frequency of famines.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=Green revolution : history, impact and future|last=Jain, H. K.|date=2012|publisher=Studium Press LLC|isbn=978-1-4416-7448-7|oclc=967650924}}</ref> There is debate regarding India's famines prior to independence, with some arguing they were intensified by British taxation and agrarian policies in the 19th and 20th centuries,<ref name=":42" /> and others downplaying such impact of colonial rule.
*Lack of finance: Marginal farmers found it very difficult to get [[Financing|finance]] and [[credit]] at economical rates from the government and banks and hence, fell as easy prey to the [[Moneylender|money lenders]]. They took loans from [[landlords]], who charged high rates of [[interest]]s and also exploited the farmers later on to work in their fields to repay the loans ([[farm labourer]]s).{{citation needed|date=November 2016}} Proper financing was not given during the Green Revolution period, which created a lot of problems and sufferings to the farmers of India. The government also helped those under loans.
* Low productivity: In the context of India's rapidly growing population, the country's traditional agricultural practices yielded insufficient food production. By the 1960s, this low productivity led India to experience food grain shortages that were more severe than those of other developing countries. Agricultural technological advancements offered opportunities to increase productivity.<ref name=":22" />

==Criticism==
The Green Revolution yielded great economic prosperity during its early years. In Punjab, where it was first introduced, the Green Revolution led to significant increases in the state's agricultural output, supporting India's overall economy. By 1970, Punjab was producing 70% of the country's total food grains,<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Sandhu|first=Jashandeep Singh|date=2014|title=Green Revolution: A Case Study of Punjab|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=75|pages=1192–1199|via=JSTOR}}</ref> and farmers' incomes were increasing by over 70%.<ref name=":02" /> Punjab's prosperity following the Green Revolution became a model to which other states aspired to reach.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/violenceofgreen00shiv|title=The Violence of the green revolution : Third World agriculture, ecology, and politics|last=Shiva, Vandana.|date=1991|publisher=Zed|isbn=0-86232-964-7|oclc=24740968|url-access=registration}}</ref>

However, despite the initial prosperity experienced in Punjab, the Green Revolution was met with much controversy throughout India.

===Indian economic sovereignty===
Criticism on the effects of the green revolution include the cost for many small farmers using HYV seeds, with their associated demands of increased irrigation systems and pesticides. A case study is found in India, where farmers are buying [[Monsanto]] BT cotton seeds—sold on the idea that these seeds produced 'non natural insecticides'. In reality, they still had to pay for expensive pesticides and irrigation systems, which led to increased borrowing to finance the change from traditional seed varieties. Many farmers had difficulty in paying for the expensive technologies, especially if they had a bad harvest. These high costs of cultivation pushed rural farmers to take out loans—typically at high interest rates.<ref name=":12" /> Over-borrowing entrapped the farmers into a cycle of debt.<ref name=":12" />

India's liberalized economy further exacerbated the farmers' economic conditions. Indian environmentalist [[Vandana Shiva]] writes that this is the "second Green Revolution". The first Green Revolution, she suggests, was mostly publicly funded (by the Indian Government). This new Green Revolution, she says, is driven by private (and foreign) interest—notably MNCs like Monsanto—as encouraged by [[Neoliberalism]]. Ultimately, this is leading to foreign ownership over most of India's farmland, undermining farmers' interests.<ref name=":12" />

Farmer's financial issues have become especially apparent in Punjab, where its rural areas have witnessed an alarming rise in suicide rates.<ref name=":12" /> Excluding the countless unreported cases, there has been estimated to be a 51.97% increase in the number of suicides in Punjab in 1992–93, compared to the recorded 5.11% increase in the country as a whole.<ref name=":12" /> According to a 2019 Indian news report, indebtedness continues to be a grave issue affecting the people of Punjab today, demonstrated by the more than 900 recorded farmer committed suicide in Punjab in the last two years.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/farm-suicides-unabated-in-punjab-over-900-in-2-years/727671.html|title=Farm suicides unabated in Punjab, over 900 in 2 years|last=Bharti|first=Vishav|date=Feb 12, 2019|work=The Tribune}}</ref>

===Environmental damage===
Excessive and inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides polluted waterways and killed beneficial insects and wildlife. It has caused [[overexploitation|over-use]] of soil and rapidly depleted its nutrients. The rampant irrigation practices led to eventual [[soil degradation]]. Groundwater practices have fallen dramatically. Further, heavy dependence on few major crops has led to [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]] of farmers, and the increase of [[stubble burning]] cases since 1980. These problems were aggravated due to absence of training to use modern technology and vast illiteracy leading to excessive use of chemicals.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ethirajcollege.edu.in/pdf/undergraduate/S_Eco_ug.PDF |title=Ethiraj College for Women (Autonomous) – Department of Business Economics: Syllabus |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129041409/https://www.ethirajcollege.edu.in/pdf/undergraduate/S_Eco_ug.PDF |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Increased regional disparities ===
The green revolution spread only in irrigated and high-potential rainfed areas. The villages or regions without the access of sufficient water were left out that widened the regional disparities between adopters and non-adopters. Since, the HYV seeds technically can be applied only in a land with assured water supply and availability of other inputs like chemicals, fertilizers etc. The application of the new technology in the dry-land areas is simply ruled out.

The states like Punjab, Haryana, [[Uttar Pradesh]], etc. having good irrigation and other infrastructure facilities were able to derive the benefits of the green revolution and achieve faster economic development while other states have recorded slow growth in agriculture production.<ref name="Bypassed">{{cite web|title=Green Revolution Bypassed Eastern India|url=https://www.gktoday.in/topic/green-revolution-bypassed-eastern-region-despite-fertile-soil-and-good-availability-of-water/|website=GKToday|access-date=26 December 2021}}</ref>

==Alternative farming methods ==

In the years since Green Revolution was adopted, issues of sustainability have come up due to the adverse environmental and social impacts. To meet this challenge other alternatives of farming have emerged like small subsistence farms, family homesteads, [[New Age]] communes, village and community farming collectives and women’s cooperatives with the common purpose of producing organically grown, chemical free food. In green revolution areas of the country increasing numbers of families are experimenting on their own with alternative systems of land management and the growing of crops. Building upon the idea of [[sustainable development]], commercial models for large scale food production have been developed by integrating traditional farming systems with appropropriate energy efficient technology.<ref>{{Cite book|last=George|first=Lathika|title=Mother Earth, Sister Seed|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2018|pages=177-191}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Chakravarti, A.K. 1973. "Green Revolution in India" in ''Annals of the Association of American Geographers'' 63 (September 1973): 319-30.
*Frankel, Francine R. 1971. ''India’s Green Revolution: Economic Gains and Political Costs''. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
*Gill, Monohar Singh. 1983. "The Development of Punjab Agriculture, 1977-80." ''Asian Survey'' 23 (July 1983):830-44.
*Ladejinsky, Wolf. 1970. "Ironies of India’s Green Revolution". ''Foreign Affairs'' no. 4. (July 1970): 758-68.
*Parayil, Govindan. 1992. "The Green Revolution in India: A Case Study in Technological Change," ''Technology and Culture'' 33 (October 1992): 737-56.
* Saha, Madhumita. "The State, Scientists, and Staple Crops: Agricultural 'Modernization' in Pre-Green Revolution India." ''Agricultural History'' 87 (Spring 2003):201-23
*Sebby, Kathryn. 2010. "[https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1027&context=envstudtheses The Green Revolution of the 1960's and Its Impact on Small Farmers in India [PDF]." ''Environmental Studies Undergraduate Student Theses'' 10.
*Sen, Bandhudas. 1974. ''The Green Revolution in India: A Perspective''. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

{{India topics}}
{{Agriculture in India}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Agricultural revolutions]]
[[Category:History of agriculture in India]]
[[Category:Intensive farming]]
[[Category:History of the Republic of India]]
[[Category:Economic history of India]]
[[Category:Indira Gandhi administration]]
[[Category:History of Punjab, India (1947–present)]]

Green Revolution in India

2023-07-07T19:44:58Z

Sadiq:

{{Short description|Modernization of agriculture in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2018}}
{{More citations needed|date=December 2014}}
[[File:Punjab Monsoon.jpg|thumbnail|250px|The state of [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] led India's [[Green Revolution]] and earned the distinction of being the "[[Breadbasket#India|breadbasket]] of India."<ref>Kumar, Manoj, and Matthias Williams. 2009 January 29. "[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-election-punjab-idUSTRE80T00U20120130 Punjab, bread basket of India, hungers for change]." ''Reuters''.</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/sdr_pdf/shdr_pun04.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2004, Punjab |date=2004 |author=The Government of Punjab |author-link=Government of Punjab, India |access-date=9 August 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110708073911/http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/stateplan/sdr_pdf/shdr_pun04.pdf| archive-date= 8 July 2011 | url-status= live}} Section: "The Green Revolution", pp. 17–20.</ref>]]

The '''Green Revolution''' was a period that began in the 1960s during which [[agriculture in India]] was converted into a modern industrial system by the adoption of technology, such as the use of [[High-yielding variety|high yielding variety (HYV) seeds]], mechanised farm tools, irrigation facilities, pesticides and fertilizers. Mainly led by agricultural scientist [[M. S. Swaminathan]] in India, this period was part of the larger [[Green Revolution]] endeavour initiated by [[Norman Borlaug|Norman E Borlaug]]<ref>Sadiq Rizvi, "[https://www.allexamnotes.com/2016/12/criticism-green-revolution/ Criticism of Green Revolution in India]" [https://www.allexamnotes.com Exam Notes], 2016 [https://www.allexamnotes.com/2016/12/criticism-green-revolution/]</ref>, which leveraged agricultural research and technology to increase agricultural productivity in the developing world.<ref>Hardin, Lowell S. 2008. "Meetings That Changed the World: Bellagio 1969: The Green Revolution." ''Nature'' (25 Sep 2008):470-71. Cited in [https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1027&context=envstudtheses Sebby 2010].</ref>

Under premiership of [[Indian National Congress|Congress]] leader [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Swaminathan|first=M. S.|date=10 August 2009|title=From Green to Ever-Green Revolution|url=https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/from-green-to-ever-green-revolution/499699/|url-status=live|access-date=2020-04-16|website=The Financial Express|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Rajagopal|first=Gopi|date=13 October 2016|title=The Stories of Ehrlich, Borlaug and the Green Revolution|url=https://thewire.in/agriculture/paul-ehrlich-norman-borlaug-green-revolution|url-status=live|access-date=2020-04-16|website=The Wire (India)}}</ref> the Green Revolution within India commenced in 1968, leading to an increase in food grain production, especially in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], and [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Major milestones in this undertaking were the development of high-yielding varieties of [[wheat]],<ref name="about IARI">{{cite web|title=About IARI|url=http://www.iari.res.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=161&Itemid=1730|website=IARI|access-date=11 June 2015}}</ref> and [[rust (fungus)|rust]] resistant strains of wheat.<ref name=":0">{{cite web | title = Rust-resistant Wheat Varieties. Work at Pusa Institute|work=The Indian Express| url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Jcc-AAAAIBAJ&pg=3228,3861741&dq=pusa+institute&hl=en|date=7 February 1950| access-date = 13 September 2013}}</ref><ref>Newman, Bryan. 2007. "A Bitter Harvest: Farmer Suicide and the Unforeseen Social, Environmental and Economic Impacts of the Green Revolution in Punjab, India." ''Development Report'' 15. [[Food First]]. Cited in [https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1027&context=envstudtheses Sebby 2010].</ref> However, the long-term effects of green revolution have been analysed by environmental activists like [[Vandana Shiva]] who are of the opinion that it caused greater environmental, financial and sociological problems for the country like droughts, rural indebtedness and farmer suicides.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Shiva|first1=Vandana|date=March-April 1991|others=The Ecologist, Vol. 21, No. 2|title=The Green Revolution in the Punjab|url=http://livingheritage.org/green-revolution.htm|url-status=live|access-date=5 March 2019|website=Living heritage}}</ref> Reports have shown soil deterioration from the use of chemicals bringing ruin to farmers, the land, food and water supply. This caused a collapse of agricultural systems in many regions. <ref>{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=M.G.|title=The Future for Rural India|publisher=Permanent Green|year=2013|pages=87-97}}</ref>

==Notable figures and institutions==
{{Quote box
| quote = Farmers, young and old, educated and uneducated, have easily taken to the new agronomy. It has been heart-warming to see young college graduates, retired officials, ex-army men, illiterate peasants and small farmers queuing up to get the new seeds.
| author = [[M. S. Swaminathan]]
| source = (1969) Punjab Miracle. [[The Illustrated Weekly of India]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Swaminathan|first=M. S.|date=2013-09-01|title=Genesis and Growth of the Yield Revolution in Wheat in India: Lessons for Shaping our Agricultural Destiny|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s40003-013-0069-3|journal=Agricultural Research|language=en|volume=2|issue=3|pages=183–188|doi=10.1007/s40003-013-0069-3|issn=2249-7218}}</ref>
| align = right
| width = 320px
}}
A number of people have been recognized for their efforts during India's Green Revolution.

*[[M. S. Swaminathan]], the main architect or the '''Father of the Green Revolution in India'''.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Rudolf|first=John Collins|date=2010-01-19|title=Father of India's Green Revolution Says Nation Is Threatened by Global Warming|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/18/business/global/18iht-green.html|access-date=2021-12-03|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
*[[Chidambaram Subramaniam]], the food and agriculture minister at the time, a [[Bharat Ratna]], has been called the '''Political Father of the Green Revolution'''.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Dugger|first=Celia W.|date=2000-11-10|title=Chidambaram Subramaniam, India's 'Green' Rebel, 90, Dies|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/10/world/chidambaram-subramaniam-india-s-green-rebel-90-dies.html|access-date=2021-12-03|issn=0362-4331|quote=Chidambaram Subramaniam, the political architect of the ''green revolution'' in India...}}</ref>
*[[Dilbagh Singh Athwal]], is called the '''Father of Wheat Revolution'''.<ref>{{Cite web|date=15 May 2017|title=‘Father of Wheat Revolution’ DS Athwal passes away|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/father-of-wheat-revolution-ds-athwal-passes-away/story-ZrvUSsethoakAa3DZl9V1J.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-03|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>
*Scientists such as [[Atmaram Bhairav Joshi]].
*Institutions such as [[Indian Agricultural Research Institute]] (IARI).

==Practices==

===Wheat production===
The main development was higher-yielding varieties of [[wheat]],<ref name="about IARI" /> for developing [[rust (fungus)|rust]] resistant strains of wheat.<ref name=":0" /> The introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds and the improved quality of [[fertilizers]] and [[irrigation]] techniques led to the increase in the production to make the country self-sufficient in food grains, thus improving [[agriculture in India]]. Also, other varieties such as Kalyan Sona and Sonalika were introduced by cross breeding of wheat with other crops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/india/104.htm|title=The Green Revolution in India|work=U.S. Library of Congress (released in [[public domain]])|series=Library of Congress is Country Studies|access-date=2007-10-06}}</ref> The methods adopted included the use of [[high-yielding varieties]] (HYVs) of seeds<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-38156350|title=IR8: The miracle rice which saved millions of lives|last=Rowlatt|first=Justin|date=2016-12-01|newspaper=BBC News|language=en-GB|access-date=2016-12-05}}</ref> with modern farming methods.

The production of wheat has produced the best results in fueling self-sufficiency of India. Along with high-yielding seeds and irrigation facilities, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilized the idea of agricultural revolution. Due to the rise in use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, there was a negative effect on the [[soil]] and the land (e.g., [[land degradation]]).

===Other practices===
The other practices include high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds, Irrigation infrastructure, use of pesticides, insecticides and herbicides, consolidation of holdings, land reforms, improved rural infrastructure, supply of agricultural credit, use of chemical or synthetic fertilizers, use of sprinklers or drip irrigation systems and use of advanced machinery.

==Rationale for the Green Revolution==
The Green Revolution in India was first introduced in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] in the late 1960s as part of a development program issued by international donor agencies and the Government of India.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Dutta|first=Swarup|date=June 2012|title=Green Revolution Revisited: The Contemporary Agrarian Situation in Punjab, India|journal=Social Change|volume=42|issue=2|pages=229–247|doi=10.1177/004908571204200205|s2cid=55847236|issn=0049-0857}}</ref>

During the [[British Raj]], India's grain economy hinged on a unilateral relation of exploitation.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|title=Late Victorian holocausts : El Niño famines and the making of the Third World|last=Davis|first=Mike|isbn=978-1-78168-360-6|oclc=1051845720|year = 2017}}</ref> Consequently, when India gained independence, the weakened country quickly became vulnerable to frequent famines, financial instabilities, and low productivity. These factors formed a rationale for the implementation of the Green Revolution as a development strategy in India.

*Frequent famines: In 1964–65 and 1965–66, India experienced two severe droughts which led to food shortages and famines among the country's growing population.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sangha|first=Kamaljit Kaur|s2cid=59152682|date=2014|title=Modern agricultural practices and analysis of socio-economic and ecological impacts of development in agriculture sector, Punjab, India - A review|journal=Indian Journal of Agricultural Research|volume=48|issue=5|pages=331|doi=10.5958/0976-058x.2014.01312.2|issn=0367-8245}}</ref> Modern agricultural technologies appeared to offer strategies to counter the frequency of famines.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=Green revolution : history, impact and future|last=Jain, H. K.|date=2012|publisher=Studium Press LLC|isbn=978-1-4416-7448-7|oclc=967650924}}</ref> There is debate regarding India's famines prior to independence, with some arguing they were intensified by British taxation and agrarian policies in the 19th and 20th centuries,<ref name=":42" /> and others downplaying such impact of colonial rule.
*Lack of finance: Marginal farmers found it very difficult to get [[Financing|finance]] and [[credit]] at economical rates from the government and banks and hence, fell as easy prey to the [[Moneylender|money lenders]]. They took loans from [[landlords]], who charged high rates of [[interest]]s and also exploited the farmers later on to work in their fields to repay the loans ([[farm labourer]]s).{{citation needed|date=November 2016}} Proper financing was not given during the Green Revolution period, which created a lot of problems and sufferings to the farmers of India. The government also helped those under loans.
* Low productivity: In the context of India's rapidly growing population, the country's traditional agricultural practices yielded insufficient food production. By the 1960s, this low productivity led India to experience food grain shortages that were more severe than those of other developing countries. Agricultural technological advancements offered opportunities to increase productivity.<ref name=":22" />

==Criticism==
The Green Revolution yielded great economic prosperity during its early years. In Punjab, where it was first introduced, the Green Revolution led to significant increases in the state's agricultural output, supporting India's overall economy. By 1970, Punjab was producing 70% of the country's total food grains,<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Sandhu|first=Jashandeep Singh|date=2014|title=Green Revolution: A Case Study of Punjab|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=75|pages=1192–1199|via=JSTOR}}</ref> and farmers' incomes were increasing by over 70%.<ref name=":02" /> Punjab's prosperity following the Green Revolution became a model to which other states aspired to reach.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/violenceofgreen00shiv|title=The Violence of the green revolution : Third World agriculture, ecology, and politics|last=Shiva, Vandana.|date=1991|publisher=Zed|isbn=0-86232-964-7|oclc=24740968|url-access=registration}}</ref>

However, despite the initial prosperity experienced in Punjab, the Green Revolution was met with much controversy throughout India.

===Indian economic sovereignty===
Criticism on the effects of the green revolution include the cost for many small farmers using HYV seeds, with their associated demands of increased irrigation systems and pesticides. A case study is found in India, where farmers are buying [[Monsanto]] BT cotton seeds—sold on the idea that these seeds produced 'non natural insecticides'. In reality, they still had to pay for expensive pesticides and irrigation systems, which led to increased borrowing to finance the change from traditional seed varieties. Many farmers had difficulty in paying for the expensive technologies, especially if they had a bad harvest. These high costs of cultivation pushed rural farmers to take out loans—typically at high interest rates.<ref name=":12" /> Over-borrowing entrapped the farmers into a cycle of debt.<ref name=":12" />

India's liberalized economy further exacerbated the farmers' economic conditions. Indian environmentalist [[Vandana Shiva]] writes that this is the "second Green Revolution". The first Green Revolution, she suggests, was mostly publicly funded (by the Indian Government). This new Green Revolution, she says, is driven by private (and foreign) interest—notably MNCs like Monsanto—as encouraged by [[Neoliberalism]]. Ultimately, this is leading to foreign ownership over most of India's farmland, undermining farmers' interests.<ref name=":12" />

Farmer's financial issues have become especially apparent in Punjab, where its rural areas have witnessed an alarming rise in suicide rates.<ref name=":12" /> Excluding the countless unreported cases, there has been estimated to be a 51.97% increase in the number of suicides in Punjab in 1992–93, compared to the recorded 5.11% increase in the country as a whole.<ref name=":12" /> According to a 2019 Indian news report, indebtedness continues to be a grave issue affecting the people of Punjab today, demonstrated by the more than 900 recorded farmer committed suicide in Punjab in the last two years.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/punjab/farm-suicides-unabated-in-punjab-over-900-in-2-years/727671.html|title=Farm suicides unabated in Punjab, over 900 in 2 years|last=Bharti|first=Vishav|date=Feb 12, 2019|work=The Tribune}}</ref>

===Environmental damage===
Excessive and inappropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides polluted waterways and killed beneficial insects and wildlife. It has caused [[overexploitation|over-use]] of soil and rapidly depleted its nutrients. The rampant irrigation practices led to eventual [[soil degradation]]. Groundwater practices have fallen dramatically. Further, heavy dependence on few major crops has led to [[Biodiversity loss|loss of biodiversity]] of farmers, and the increase of [[stubble burning]] cases since 1980. These problems were aggravated due to absence of training to use modern technology and vast illiteracy leading to excessive use of chemicals.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ethirajcollege.edu.in/pdf/undergraduate/S_Eco_ug.PDF |title=Ethiraj College for Women (Autonomous) – Department of Business Economics: Syllabus |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=29 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210129041409/https://www.ethirajcollege.edu.in/pdf/undergraduate/S_Eco_ug.PDF |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Increased regional disparities ===
The green revolution spread only in irrigated and high-potential rainfed areas. The villages or regions without the access of sufficient water were left out that widened the regional disparities between adopters and non-adopters. Since, the HYV seeds technically can be applied only in a land with assured water supply and availability of other inputs like chemicals, fertilizers etc. The application of the new technology in the dry-land areas is simply ruled out.

The states like Punjab, Haryana, [[Uttar Pradesh]], etc. having good irrigation and other infrastructure facilities were able to derive the benefits of the green revolution and achieve faster economic development while other states have recorded slow growth in agriculture production.<ref name="Bypassed">{{cite web|title=Green Revolution Bypassed Eastern India|url=https://www.gktoday.in/topic/green-revolution-bypassed-eastern-region-despite-fertile-soil-and-good-availability-of-water/|website=GKToday|access-date=26 December 2021}}</ref>

==Alternative farming methods ==

In the years since Green Revolution was adopted, issues of sustainability have come up due to the adverse environmental and social impacts. To meet this challenge other alternatives of farming have emerged like small subsistence farms, family homesteads, [[New Age]] communes, village and community farming collectives and women’s cooperatives with the common purpose of producing organically grown, chemical free food. In green revolution areas of the country increasing numbers of families are experimenting on their own with alternative systems of land management and the growing of crops. Building upon the idea of [[sustainable development]], commercial models for large scale food production have been developed by integrating traditional farming systems with appropropriate energy efficient technology.<ref>{{Cite book|last=George|first=Lathika|title=Mother Earth, Sister Seed|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2018|pages=177-191}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Chakravarti, A.K. 1973. "Green Revolution in India" in ''Annals of the Association of American Geographers'' 63 (September 1973): 319-30.
*Frankel, Francine R. 1971. ''India’s Green Revolution: Economic Gains and Political Costs''. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
*Gill, Monohar Singh. 1983. "The Development of Punjab Agriculture, 1977-80." ''Asian Survey'' 23 (July 1983):830-44.
*Ladejinsky, Wolf. 1970. "Ironies of India’s Green Revolution". ''Foreign Affairs'' no. 4. (July 1970): 758-68.
*Parayil, Govindan. 1992. "The Green Revolution in India: A Case Study in Technological Change," ''Technology and Culture'' 33 (October 1992): 737-56.
* Saha, Madhumita. "The State, Scientists, and Staple Crops: Agricultural 'Modernization' in Pre-Green Revolution India." ''Agricultural History'' 87 (Spring 2003):201-23
*Sebby, Kathryn. 2010. "[https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1027&context=envstudtheses The Green Revolution of the 1960's and Its Impact on Small Farmers in India [PDF]." ''Environmental Studies Undergraduate Student Theses'' 10.
*Sen, Bandhudas. 1974. ''The Green Revolution in India: A Perspective''. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

{{India topics}}
{{Agriculture in India}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Agricultural revolutions]]
[[Category:History of agriculture in India]]
[[Category:Intensive farming]]
[[Category:History of the Republic of India]]
[[Category:Economic history of India]]
[[Category:Indira Gandhi administration]]
[[Category:History of Punjab, India (1947–present)]]