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Cricket

2023-10-13T22:19:45Z

SSS: See second para of source. Final decision to be made on 16 October.

{{Short description|Bat-and-ball game}}
{{About|the sport|the insect|Cricket (insect)|other uses}}
{{Redirect|Cricketer}}

{{Use British English|date=May 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox sport
| name = Cricket
| image = Pollock to Hussey.jpg
| imagesize = 300 px
| caption = {{Longitem|[[Shaun Pollock]] of [[South Africa cricket team|South Africa]] bowls to [[Michael Hussey]] of [[Australia cricket team|Australia]] during the 2005 [[Boxing Day Test]] match at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]}}
| union = [[International Cricket Council]]
| first = 16th century; South East England
| registered =
| clubs =
| contact = [[Contact sport#Non-contact|No]]
| team = 11 players per side ([[Substitute (cricket)|substitutes]] permitted in some circumstances)
| mgender = No, separate competitions
| type = [[Team sport]], [[bat-and-ball games|Bat-and-Ball]]
| ball = [[Cricket ball]], [[Cricket bat]], [[Wicket]] ([[Stump (cricket)|Stumps]], [[Bail (cricket)|Bails]]), [[Cricket clothing and equipment|Protective equipment]]
| venue = [[Cricket field]]
| glossary = [[Glossary of cricket terms]]
| region = Worldwide (most popular in [[Commonwealth of Nations|the Commonwealth]])
| olympic = [[1900 Summer Olympics]]
}}
{{Cricket sidebar |expanded=all}}
{{Bowling techniques sidebar |expanded=all}}
'''Cricket''' is a [[Bat-and-ball games|bat-and-ball game]] played between two teams of eleven players on a [[cricket field|field]] at the centre of which is a {{convert|22|yds|m|adj=on|abbr=off}} [[cricket pitch|pitch]] with a [[wicket]] at each end, each comprising two [[Bail (cricket)|bails]] balanced on three [[stump (cricket)|stumps]]. The [[batting (cricket)|batting]] side scores [[run (cricket)|runs]] by striking the [[cricket ball|ball]] [[Bowling (cricket)|bowled]] at one of the wickets with the bat and then running between the wickets, while the bowling and [[fielding (cricket)|fielding]] side tries to prevent this (by preventing the ball from leaving the field, and getting the ball to either wicket) and [[dismissal (cricket)|dismiss]] each batter (so they are "out"). Means of dismissal include being [[bowled]], when the ball hits the stumps and dislodges the bails, and by the fielding side either [[Caught|catching]] the ball after it is hit by the bat, but before it hits the ground, or hitting a wicket with the ball before a batter can cross the [[crease (cricket)|crease]] in front of the wicket. When ten batters have been dismissed, the [[innings]] ends and the teams swap roles. The game is adjudicated by two [[umpire (cricket)|umpires]], aided by a [[third umpire]] and [[match referee]] in international matches. They communicate with two off-field [[Scoring (cricket)|scorers]] who record the match's [[Cricket statistics|statistical information]].

[[Forms of cricket]] range from [[Twenty20]] (also known as ''T20''), with each team batting for a single innings of 20 [[Over (cricket)|overs]] (each "over" being a set of 6 fair opportunities for the batting team to score) and the game generally lasting three to four hours, to [[Test cricket|Test matches]] played over five days. Traditionally cricketers play in all-white [[Cricket clothing and equipment|kit]], but in [[limited overs cricket]] they wear club or team colours. In addition to the basic kit, some players wear protective gear to prevent injury caused by the ball, which is a hard, solid spheroid made of compressed [[leather]] with a slightly raised sewn seam enclosing a [[cork (material)|cork]] core layered with tightly wound string.

The earliest reference to cricket is in [[South East England]] in the mid-16th century. It spread globally with the expansion of the [[British Empire]], with the first international matches in the second half of the 19th century. The game's governing body is the [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC), which has over 100 members, twelve of which are [[List of International Cricket Council members|full members]] who play Test matches. The game's rules, the ''[[Laws of Cricket]]'', are maintained by [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] (MCC) in [[London]]. The sport is followed primarily in [[South Asia]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], the United Kingdom, [[Southern Africa]] and the [[West Indies]].<ref>{{cite web |date=27 June 2018 |title=ICC survey reveals over a billion fans – 90% in subcontinent |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/icc-survey-reveals-over-a-billion-fans-90-in-subcontinent-1150473 |work=[[ESPNcricinfo]]}}</ref>

[[Women's cricket]], which is organised and played separately, has also achieved international standard.

The most successful side playing [[international cricket]] is [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]], which has won seven [[One Day International]] trophies, including five [[Cricket World Cup|World Cups]], more than any other country and has been the [[ICC Test Championship|top-rated Test side]] more than any other country.{{fact|date=August 2023}}

==History==
{{main|History of cricket}}

===Origins===
{{main|History of cricket to 1725}}
[[File:Cantigas de Santa María - Xogo da pelota.jpg|thumb|A medieval "club ball" game involving an underarm bowl towards a batter. Ball catchers are shown positioning themselves to catch a ball. Detail from the ''[[Cantigas de Santa Maria|Canticles of Holy Mary]]'', 13th century.]]
Cricket is one of many games in the "club ball" sphere that basically involve hitting a ball with a hand-held implement; others include [[baseball]] (which shares many [[Comparison of baseball and cricket|similarities]] with cricket, both belonging in the more specific [[bat-and-ball games]] category<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cricket, baseball, rounders and softball: What's the difference?|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/2HdVkSClhXdp5CsD3JJ093T/cricket-baseball-rounders-and-softball-what-s-the-difference|access-date=5 September 2020|website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref>), [[golf]], [[hockey]], [[tennis]], [[squash (sport)|squash]], [[badminton]] and [[table tennis]].<ref name="JM17">Major (2007), p. 17.</ref> In cricket's case, a key difference is the existence of a solid target structure, the wicket (originally, it is thought, a "[[wicket gate]]" through which sheep were herded), that the batter must defend.<ref name="BWC1">Barclays (1986), p. 1.</ref> The cricket historian [[Harry Altham]] identified three "groups" of "club ball" games: the "[[hockey]] group", in which the ball is driven to and from between two targets (the goals); the "golf group", in which the ball is driven towards an undefended target (the hole); and the "cricket group", in which "the ball is aimed at a mark (the wicket) and driven away from it".<ref name="HSA19">Altham (1962), pp. 19–20.</ref>

It is generally believed that cricket originated as a [[children's game]] in the south-eastern counties of England, sometime during the [[England in the Middle Ages|medieval period]].<ref name="BWC1"/> Although there are claims for prior dates, the earliest definite reference to cricket being played comes from evidence given at a court case in [[Guildford]] in January 1597 ([[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]], equating to January 1598 in the modern calendar). The case concerned ownership of a certain plot of land and the court heard the testimony of a 59-year-old [[coroner]], [[John Derrick (coroner)|John Derrick]], who gave witness that:<ref name="HSA21">Altham (1962), p. 21.</ref><ref name="DU3">Underdown (2000), p. 3.</ref><ref name="JM19">Major (2007), p. 19.</ref>

<blockquote>Being a scholler in the [[Royal Grammar School, Guildford|ffree schoole of Guldeford]] hee and diverse of his fellows did runne and play there at creckett and other plaies.</blockquote>

Given Derrick's age, it was about half a century earlier when he was at school and so it is certain that cricket was being played {{Circa|1550}} by boys in [[Surrey]].<ref name="JM19"/> The view that it was originally a children's game is reinforced by [[Randle Cotgrave]]'s 1611 English-French dictionary in which he defined the noun "''crosse''{{-"}} as "the crooked staff wherewith boys play at cricket" and the verb form "''crosser''{{-"}} as "to play at cricket".<ref name="HSA22">Altham (1962), p. 22.</ref><ref name="JM31">Major (2007), p. 31.</ref>

One possible source for the sport's name is the [[Old English language|Old English]] word "''cryce''{{-"}} (or "''cricc''{{-"}}) meaning a crutch or staff. In [[Samuel Johnson]]'s ''Dictionary'', he derived cricket from "''cryce'', Saxon, a stick".<ref name="HSA21"/> In [[Old French]], the word "''criquet''{{-"}} seems to have meant a kind of club or stick.<ref name="DB3">Birley (1999), p. 3.</ref> Given the strong medieval trade connections between south-east England and the [[County of Flanders]] when the latter belonged to the [[Duchy of Burgundy]], the name may have been derived from the [[Middle Dutch]] (in use in [[County of Flanders|Flanders]] at the time) "''krick''{{-"}}(''-e''), meaning a stick (crook).<ref name="DB3"/> Another possible source is the Middle Dutch word "''krickstoel''{{-"}}, meaning a long low stool used for kneeling in church and which resembled the long low [[wicket]] with two [[stump (cricket)|stumps]] used in early cricket.<ref>Bowen (1970), p. 33.</ref> According to Heiner Gillmeister, a European language expert of [[Bonn University]], "cricket" derives from the Middle Dutch phrase for [[hockey]], ''met de (krik ket)sen'' (i.e., "with the stick chase").<ref name="17CGC">{{cite web |url=http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/SportsHistorian/2000/sh201e.pdf |last=Terry |first=David |title=The Seventeenth Century Game of Cricket: A Reconstruction of the Game |work=The Sports Historian, No. 20 |publisher=The British Society of Sports History |location=London |year=2000 |pages=33–43 |access-date=2 May 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621011709/http://www.la84foundation.org/SportsLibrary/SportsHistorian/2000/sh201e.pdf |archive-date=21 June 2009 }}</ref> Gillmeister has suggested that not only the name but also the sport itself may be of Flemish origin.<ref name="17CGC"/>

===Growth of amateur and professional cricket in England===
[[File:Historical cricket bat art.jpg|thumb|right|Evolution of the cricket bat. The original "[[hockey stick]]" (left) evolved into the straight bat from c. 1760 when [[pitched delivery bowling]] began.]]
Although the main object of the game has always been to score the most [[run (cricket)|runs]], the early form of cricket differed from the modern game in certain key technical aspects; the North American variant of cricket known as [[wicket (sport)|wicket]] retained many of these aspects.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hardman|first=Ray|title=Before There Was Baseball, There Was Wicket|url=https://www.wnpr.org/post/there-was-baseball-there-was-wicket|access-date=5 September 2020|website=www.wnpr.org|date=31 October 2013|language=en}}</ref> The [[cricket ball|ball]] was [[underarm bowling|bowled underarm]] by the [[bowling (cricket)|bowler]] and along the ground towards a [[batting (cricket)|batter]] armed with a [[cricket bat|bat]] that in shape resembled a [[hockey stick]]; the batter defended a low, two-stump [[wicket]]; and runs were called notches because the [[scoring (cricket)|scorers]] recorded them by notching tally sticks.<ref name="DB9">Birley (1999), p. 9.</ref><ref name="BWC2">Barclays (1986), pp. 1–2.</ref><ref name="JM21">Major (2007), pp. 21–22.</ref>

In 1611, the year Cotgrave's dictionary was published, [[ecclesiastical court]] records at [[Sidlesham]] in [[Sussex]] state that two parishioners, Bartholomew Wyatt and Richard Latter, failed to attend church on Easter Sunday because they were playing cricket. They were fined 12[[Penny (British pre-decimal coin)|d]] each and ordered to do [[penance]].<ref>McCann (2004), p. xxxi.</ref> This is the earliest mention of adult participation in cricket and it was around the same time that the earliest known organised inter-parish or [[village cricket|village]] match was played – at [[Chevening, Kent]].<ref name="HSA21"/><ref name="DU4">Underdown (2000), p. 4.</ref> In 1624, a player called [[Jasper Vinall]] died after he was accidentally struck on the head during a match between two parish teams in Sussex.<ref>McCann (2004), pp. xxxiii–xxxiv.</ref>

Cricket remained a low-key local pursuit for much of the 17th century.<ref name="JM31" /> It is known, through numerous references found in the records of ecclesiastical court cases, to have been proscribed at times by the [[Puritans]] before and during the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]].<ref>McCann (2004), pp. xxxi–xli.</ref><ref name="DU11">Underdown (2000), pp. 11–15.</ref> The problem was nearly always the issue of Sunday play as the Puritans considered cricket to be "profane" if played on the [[Sabbath]], especially if large crowds or [[gambling]] were involved.<ref name="DB7">Birley (1999), pp. 7–8.</ref><ref name="JM23">Major (2007), p. 23.</ref>

According to the social historian [[Derek Birley]], there was a "great upsurge of sport after the [[English Restoration|Restoration]]" in 1660.<ref name="DB11">Birley (1999), p. 11.</ref> Several members of the court of King [[Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland|Charles II]] took a strong interest in cricket during that era.<ref>"A Pictorial History of Cricket", by Brown, Bison Books, London, 1988</ref> Gambling on sport became a problem significant enough for Parliament to pass the 1664 Gambling Act, limiting stakes to £100 which was, in any case, a colossal sum exceeding the annual income of 99% of the population.<ref name="DB11"/> Along with [[horse racing]], as well as [[prizefighting]] and other types of [[blood sport]], cricket was perceived to be a gambling sport.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 11–13.</ref> Rich patrons made matches for high stakes, forming teams in which they engaged the first professional players.<ref name="RW10">Webber (1960), p. 10.</ref> By the end of the century, cricket had developed into a major sport that was spreading throughout England and was already being taken abroad by English mariners and colonisers – the earliest reference to cricket overseas is dated 1676.<ref>Haygarth (1862), p. vi.</ref> A 1697 newspaper report survives of "a great cricket match" played in Sussex "for fifty guineas apiece" – this is the earliest known contest that is generally considered a [[first-class cricket|First Class]] match.<ref>McCann (2004), p. xli.</ref><ref>Major (2007), page 36.</ref>

The patrons, and other players from the social class known as the "[[gentry]]", began to classify themselves as "[[Amateur status in first-class cricket|amateurs]]"<ref name="amateur" group="fn">The term "amateur" in this context does not mean someone who played cricket in his spare time. Many amateurs in [[first-class cricket]] were full-time players during the cricket season. Some of the game's greatest players, including [[W. G. Grace]], held amateur status.</ref> to establish a clear distinction from the professionals, who were invariably members of the [[working class]], even to the point of having separate changing and dining facilities.<ref>Major (2007), pp. 268–269.</ref> The gentry, including such high-ranking nobles as the [[Duke of Richmond|Dukes of Richmond]], exerted their honour code of ''[[noblesse oblige]]'' to claim rights of leadership in any sporting contests they took part in, especially as it was necessary for them to play alongside their "social inferiors" if they were to win their bets.<ref name="DB19">Birley (1999), p. 19.</ref> In time, a perception took hold that the typical amateur who played in first-class cricket, until 1962 when amateurism was abolished, was someone with a [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public school]] education who had then gone to one of [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] or [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] – society insisted that such people were "officers and gentlemen" whose destiny was to provide leadership.<ref name="CW23">Williams (2012), p. 23.</ref> In a purely financial sense, the cricketing amateur would theoretically claim expenses for playing while his professional counterpart played under contract and was paid a wage or match fee; in practice, many amateurs claimed more than actual expenditure and the derisive term "shamateur" was coined to describe the practice.<ref>Williams (2012), pp. 94–95.</ref><ref name="DB146">Birley (1999), p. 146.</ref>

===English cricket in the 18th and 19th centuries===
[[File:Francis Cotes - The young cricketer (1768).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Francis Cotes]], ''The Young Cricketer'', 1768]]
The game underwent major development in the 18th century to become England's national sport.<ref>"The Pictorial History of Cricket", by Ashley Brown, Bison Books, London, 1988</ref> Its success was underwritten by the twin necessities of patronage and betting.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 14–16.</ref> Cricket was prominent in London as early as 1707 and, in the middle years of the century, large crowds flocked to matches on the [[Artillery Ground]] in Finsbury.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} The [[single wicket cricket|single wicket]] form of the sport attracted huge crowds and wagers to match, its popularity peaking in the [[1748 English cricket season|1748 season]].<ref name="ASW">{{cite web |url=http://stats.acscricket.com/Cricket/1900/index.html#10 |last=Ashley-Cooper |first=F. S. |author-link=F. S. Ashley-Cooper |title=At the Sign of the Wicket: Cricket 1742–1751 |work=[[Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]] |publisher=[[Association of Cricket Statisticians and Historians|ACS]] |location=Cardiff |year=1900 |pages=4–85 |access-date=8 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908201316/http://stats.acscricket.com/Cricket/1900/index.html#10 |archive-date=8 September 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Bowling underwent an evolution around 1760 when bowlers began to [[Pitched delivery bowling|pitch the ball]] instead of rolling or skimming it towards the batter. This caused a revolution in bat design because, to deal with the [[bouncing ball]], it was necessary to introduce the modern straight bat in place of the old "hockey stick" shape.<ref>Nyren (1833), pp. 153–154.</ref>{{citation needed|date=September 2017}}

The [[Hambledon Club]] was founded in the 1760s and, for the next twenty years until the formation of [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] (MCC) and the opening of [[Lord's Old Ground]] in 1787, Hambledon was both the game's greatest club and its focal point.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} MCC quickly became the sport's premier club and the custodian of the ''[[Laws of Cricket]]''. New Laws introduced in the latter part of the 18th century included the three stump wicket and [[leg before wicket]] (lbw).<ref name="WCA63">{{cite book |last=Wisden |article=Evolution of the Laws of Cricket |title=Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, 100th edition |edition=1963 |publisher=Sporting Handbooks Ltd |location=London |pages=184–187}}</ref>

The 19th century saw [[underarm bowling]] superseded by first [[roundarm bowling|roundarm]] and then [[overarm bowling]]. Both developments were controversial.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 64–67, 97–101.</ref> Organisation of the game at county level led to the creation of the county clubs, starting with [[Sussex County Cricket Club|Sussex]] in 1839.<ref>Barclays (1986), p. 456.</ref> In December 1889, the eight leading county clubs formed the official [[County Championship]], which began in 1890.<ref name="AMCS">{{cite web |url=http://stats.acscricket.com/Cricket/1889/index.html#523/z |title=Annual Meeting of County Secretaries – the programme for 1890 |work=[[Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]] |publisher=[[Association of Cricket Statisticians and Historians|ACS]] |location=Cardiff |year=1889 |pages=478–479 |access-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908020352/http://stats.acscricket.com/Cricket/1889/index.html#523/z |archive-date=8 September 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:First photo of a cricket match by Roger Fenton.jpg|thumb|The first recorded photo of a cricket match taken on 25 July 1857 by [[Roger Fenton]]]]
The most famous player of the 19th century was [[W. G. Grace]], who started his long and influential career in 1865. It was especially during the career of Grace that the distinction between amateurs and professionals became blurred by the existence of players like him who were nominally amateur but, in terms of their financial gain, ''de facto'' professional. Grace himself was said to have been paid more money for playing cricket than any professional.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}}

The last two decades before the [[World War I|First World War]] have been called the "[[Golden Age of cricket]]". It is a nostalgic name prompted by the collective sense of loss resulting from the war, but the period did produce some great players and memorable matches, especially as organised competition at county and Test level developed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Frith |first=David |author-link=David Frith |title=The Golden Age of Cricket: 1890–1914 |year=1978 |publisher=Lutterworth Press |location=Guildford |isbn=0-7188-7022-0}}</ref>

===Cricket becomes an international sport===
[[File:England in North America 1859.jpg|thumb|right|The first English team to tour overseas, on board ship to North America, 1859]]
In 1844, the [[United States v Canada (1844)|first-ever international match]] took place between what were essentially club teams, from the [[United States national cricket team|United States]] and [[Canada national cricket team|Canada]], in [[Toronto]]; Canada won.<ref>{{cite web |last=Das |first=Deb |date=n.d. |title=Cricinfo – Cricket in the USA |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/cricket-in-the-usa-141158 |access-date=9 March 2007 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref><ref>"The Pictorial History of Cricket", by Ashley Brown, 1988, London, Bison Books</ref> In 1859, a team of English players went to North America on [[English cricket team in North America in 1859|the first overseas tour]].<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 96–97.</ref> Meanwhile, the British Empire had been instrumental in spreading the game overseas and by the middle of the 19th century it had become well established in Australia, the Caribbean, British India (which includes present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh), New Zealand, North America and South Africa.<ref>Barclays (1986), pp. 62, 78, 87, 99, 113, 127 & 131.</ref>

In 1862, an English team made the first tour of Australia.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 97.</ref> The first Australian team to travel overseas consisted of [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] [[Stockman (Australia)|stockmen]] which [[Australian Aboriginal cricket team in England in 1868|toured England in 1868]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nma.gov.au/collections/collection_interactives/cricketing_journeys/cricket_html/the_australian_eleven/the_australian_eleven_the_first_australian_team |title=The Australian Eleven: The first Australian team |publisher=National Museum of Australia |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=8 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180908065539/http://www.nma.gov.au/collections/collection_interactives/cricketing_journeys/cricket_html/the_australian_eleven/the_australian_eleven_the_first_australian_team |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1876–77, an [[England cricket team|England team]] took part in what was retrospectively recognized as the first-ever [[Test cricket|Test match]] at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] against [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]].<ref>Reg Hayter, "The Centenary Test Match", ''[[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack|Wisden]]'' 1978, pp. 130–32.</ref> The rivalry between England and Australia gave birth to [[The Ashes]] in 1882, and this has remained Test cricket's most famous contest.<ref>{{cite book |first=Wendy |last=Lewis |author-link=Wendy Lewis |author2=Simon Balderstone |author3=John Bowan |name-list-style=amp |title=Events That Shaped Australia |page=75 |publisher=New Holland |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-74110-492-9}}</ref> Test cricket began to expand in 1888–89 when [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]] played England.<ref>Brown, 1988</ref>

===World cricket in the 20th century===
[[File:Bradman&Bat.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Don Bradman]] of [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]] had a record Test batting average of 99.94.]]
The inter-war years were dominated by [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]]'s [[Don Bradman]], statistically the greatest Test batter of all time. Test cricket continued to expand during the 20th century with the addition of the [[West Indies cricket team|West Indies]] (1928), [[New Zealand national cricket team|New Zealand]] (1930) and [[India national cricket team|India]] (1932) before the Second World War and then [[Pakistan national cricket team|Pakistan]] (1952), [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]] (1982), [[Zimbabwe national cricket team|Zimbabwe]] (1992), [[Bangladesh national cricket team|Bangladesh]] (2000), [[Ireland national cricket team|Ireland]] and [[Afghanistan national cricket team|Afghanistan]] (both 2018) in the post-war period.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wisden |article=Dates in Cricket History |title=Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, 100th edition |edition=1963 |publisher=Sporting Handbooks Ltd |location=London |page=183}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=1982 |title=Notes by the Editor |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/152210.html |access-date=2 July 2017 |work=Wisden Cricketers' Almanack online |publisher=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref> [[South Africa cricket team|South Africa]] was banned from international cricket from 1970 to 1992 as part of the [[Sporting boycott of South Africa during the apartheid era|apartheid boycott]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Booth |first=Douglas |title=The Race Game: Sport and Politics in South Africa |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |page=[https://archive.org/details/racegamesportpol0000boot/page/88 88] |isbn=0-7146-4799-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/racegamesportpol0000boot/page/88 }}</ref>

===The rise of limited overs cricket===
Cricket entered a new era in 1963 when English counties introduced the [[limited overs cricket|limited overs]] variant.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wisden |article=One-Day Knockout Competition, 1963 |title=Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, 100th edition |edition=1963 |publisher=Sporting Handbooks Ltd |location=London |pages=1074–1076}}</ref> As it was sure to produce a result, limited overs cricket was lucrative and the number of matches increased.<ref>Barclays (1986), pp. 495–496.</ref> The first [[Limited Overs International]] was played in 1971 and the governing [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC), seeing its potential, staged the first limited overs [[Cricket World Cup]] in 1975.<ref>Barclays (1986), pp. 496–497.</ref> In the 21st century, a new limited overs form, [[Twenty20]], made an immediate impact.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} On 22 June 2017, [[Afghanistan national cricket team|Afghanistan]] and [[Ireland cricket team|Ireland]] became the 11th and 12th ICC full members, enabling them to play [[Test cricket]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Afghanistan, Ireland get Test status |work=ESPNcricinfo |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/afghanistan-ireland-get-test-status-1105347 |access-date=2 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/cricket/40364481 |title=Ireland & Afghanistan awarded Test status by International Cricket Council |date=2017 |work=BBC Sport |access-date=2 July 2017}}</ref>

==Laws and gameplay==
{{main|Laws of Cricket}}
[[File:cricket field parts.svg|right|thumb|upright=0.9|A typical [[cricket field]].]]
In cricket, the rules of the game are specified in a code called ''[[The Laws of Cricket]]'' (hereinafter called "the Laws") which has a global remit. There are 42 Laws (always written with a capital "L"). The earliest known version of the code was drafted in 1744 and, since 1788, it has been owned and maintained by its custodian, the [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] (MCC) in London.<ref name=Laws>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/ |title=Laws |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=4 July 2017}}</ref>

===Playing area===
{{main|Cricket field|Cricket pitch|Crease (cricket)|Wicket}}
Cricket is a [[bat-and-ball games|bat-and-ball game]] played on a [[cricket field]] (see image, right) between two teams of eleven players each.<ref name=Law1>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-1-the-players/ |title=Law 1 – Players |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=1 July 2017}}</ref> The field is usually circular or oval in shape and the edge of the playing area is marked by a [[boundary (cricket)|boundary]], which may be a fence, part of the stands, a rope, a painted line or a combination of these; the boundary must if possible be marked along its entire length.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-19-boundaries/ |title=Law 19 – Boundaries |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=3 July 2017}}</ref>

In the approximate centre of the field is a rectangular [[cricket pitch|pitch]] (see image, below) on which a wooden target called a [[wicket]] is sited at each end; the wickets are placed {{convert|22|yd}} apart.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-7-the-pitch/ |title=Law 7 – The pitch |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703104152/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-7-the-pitch/ |archive-date=3 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The pitch is a flat surface {{convert|10|ft|m}} wide, with very short grass that tends to be worn away as the game progresses (cricket can also be played on artificial surfaces, notably matting). Each wicket is made of three wooden [[stump (cricket)|stumps]] topped by two [[bail (cricket)|bails]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-8-the-wickets/ |title=Law 8 – The wickets |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=3 July 2017}}</ref>

[[File:Cricket pitch.svg|thumb|upright=3.4|center|Cricket pitch and creases]]
As illustrated above, the pitch is marked at each end with four white painted lines: a [[crease (cricket)|bowling crease]], a [[crease (cricket)|popping crease]] and two [[crease (cricket)|return creases]]. The three stumps are aligned centrally on the bowling crease, which is eight feet eight inches long. The popping crease is drawn four feet in front of the bowling crease and parallel to it; although it is drawn as a twelve-foot line (six feet either side of the wicket), it is, in fact, unlimited in length. The return creases are drawn at right angles to the popping crease so that they intersect the ends of the bowling crease; each return crease is drawn as an eight-foot line, so that it extends four feet behind the bowling crease, but is also, in fact, unlimited in length.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-9-bowling-popping-and-return-creases/ |title=Law 9 – The bowling, popping and return creases |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703094104/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-9-bowling-popping-and-return-creases/ |archive-date=3 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Match structure and closure===
{{main|Innings|Result (cricket)}}
[[File:A modern Cricket bat (back view).jpg|thumb|upright|A modern [[Sanspareils Greenlands|SG]] cricket bat (back view).]]
Before a match begins, the team [[captain (cricket)|captains]] (who are also players) [[toss (cricket)|toss a coin]] to decide which team will bat first and so take the first [[innings]].<ref name=inns/> Innings is the term used for each phase of play in the match.<ref name=inns>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-12-innings/ |title=Law 12 – Innings |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702074358/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-12-innings/ |archive-date=2 July 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In each innings, one team [[batting (cricket)|bats]], attempting to [[scoring (cricket)|score]] [[run (cricket)|runs]], while the other team [[bowling (cricket)|bowls]] and [[fielding (cricket)|fields]] the [[cricket ball|ball]], attempting to restrict the scoring and [[dismissal (cricket)|dismiss]] the batters.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-18-scoring-runs/ |title=Law 18 – Scoring runs |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=2 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-27-appeals/ |title=Law 27 – Appeals |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703084014/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-27-appeals/ |archive-date=3 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> When the first innings ends, the teams change roles; there can be two to four innings depending upon the type of match. A match with four scheduled innings is played over three to five days; a match with two scheduled innings is usually completed in a single day.<ref name=inns /> During an innings, all eleven members of the fielding team take the field, but usually only two members of the batting team are on the field at any given time. The exception to this is if a batter has any type of illness or injury restricting his or her ability to run, in this case the batter is allowed a [[Runner (cricket)|runner]] who can run between the wickets when the batter hits a scoring run or runs,<ref name="Law25">{{cite web|title=LAW 25 BATTER'S INNINGS; RUNNERS {{!}} MCC|url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/batsman-s-innings;-runners|url-status=live|access-date=5 January 2020|website=www.lords.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608183206/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws/batsman-s-innings;-runners |archive-date=8 June 2019 }}</ref> though this does not apply in international cricket.<ref name=ICCTestPlayCond>{{Cite web|url=https://icc-static-files.s3.amazonaws.com/ICC/document/2019/09/02/9182955c-04a4-4fa0-a2b6-f5908f02a51d/ICC-Test-Match-Playing-Conditions-Final-1-September-2019.pdf|title=ICC Test Match Playing Conditions|date=1 September 2019|publisher=ICC}}</ref> The order of batters is usually announced just before the match, but it can be varied.<ref name=Law1 />

The main objective of each team is to score more runs than their opponents but, in some forms of cricket, it is also necessary to [[Dismissal (cricket)|dismiss]] all of the opposition batters in their final innings in order to win the match, which would otherwise be [[result (cricket)#Draw|drawn]].<ref name=result>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-21-the-result/ |title=Law 21 – The result |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170115221857/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-21-the-result/ |archive-date=15 January 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> If the team batting last is all out having scored fewer runs than their opponents, they are said to have "lost by ''n'' runs" (where ''n'' is the difference between the aggregate number of runs scored by the teams). If the team that bats last scores enough runs to win, it is said to have "won by ''n'' wickets", where ''n'' is the number of wickets left to fall. For example, a team that passes its opponents' total having lost six wickets (i.e., six of their batters have been dismissed) have won the match "by four wickets".<ref name=result />

In a two-innings-a-side match, one team's combined first and second innings total may be less than the other side's first innings total. The team with the greater score is then said to have "won by an innings and ''n'' runs", and does not need to bat again: ''n'' is the difference between the two teams' aggregate scores. If the team batting last is all out, and both sides have scored the same number of runs, then the match is a [[Result (cricket)#Tie|tie]]; this result is quite rare in matches of two innings a side with only 62 happening in [[first-class cricket|first-class matches]] from the earliest known instance in 1741 until January 2017. In the [[Test cricket|traditional form]] of the game, if the time allotted for the match expires before either side can win, then the game is declared a [[result (cricket)#Draw|draw]].<ref name=result />

If the match has only a single innings per side, then usually a maximum number of [[over (cricket)|overs]] applies to each innings. Such a match is called a "[[Limited overs cricket|limited overs]]" or "one-day" match, and the side scoring more runs wins regardless of the number of wickets lost, so that a draw cannot occur. In some cases, ties are broken by having each team bat for a one-over innings known as a [[Super Over]]; subsequent Super Overs may be played if the first Super Over ends in a tie. If this kind of match is temporarily interrupted by bad weather, then a complex mathematical formula, known as the [[Duckworth–Lewis–Stern method]] after its developers, is often used to recalculate a new target score. A one-day match can also be declared a "no-result" if fewer than a previously agreed number of overs have been bowled by either team, in circumstances that make normal resumption of play impossible; for example, wet weather.<ref name=result />

In all forms of cricket, the umpires can abandon the match if bad light or rain makes it impossible to continue.<ref name=Law3>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-3-the-umpires/ |title=Law 3 – The umpires |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=4 July 2017}}</ref> There have been instances of entire matches, even [[Test cricket|Test matches]] scheduled to be played over five days, being lost to bad weather without a ball being bowled: for example, the third Test of the 1970/71 series in Australia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/31/31362.html |title=Australia v England, 3rd Test, 1970/71 |publisher=CricketArchive |access-date=4 July 2017}}</ref>

====Innings====
{{main|Innings}}
The innings (ending with 's' in both singular and plural form) is the term used for each phase of play during a match. Depending on the type of match being played, each team has either one or two innings. Sometimes all eleven members of the batting side take a turn to bat but, for various reasons, an innings can end before they have all done so. The innings terminates if the batting team is "all out", a term defined by the Laws: "at the [[dismissal (cricket)|fall of a wicket]] or the retirement of a batter, further balls remain to be bowled but no further batter is available to come in".<ref name=inns/> In this situation, one of the batters has not been dismissed and is termed [[not out]]; this is because he has no partners left and there must always be two active batters while the innings is in progress.

An innings may end early while there are still two not out batters:<ref name=inns/>
* the batting team's [[captain (cricket)|captain]] [[Declaration and forfeiture|may declare the innings closed]] even though some of his players have not had a turn to bat: this is a tactical decision by the captain, usually because he believes his team have scored sufficient runs and need time to dismiss the opposition in their innings
* the set number of [[over (cricket)|overs]] (i.e., in a limited overs match) have been bowled
* the match has ended prematurely due to bad weather or running out of time
* in the final innings of the match, the batting side has reached its target and won the game.

=====Overs=====
{{main|Over (cricket)}}
The Laws state that, throughout an innings, "the ball shall be bowled from each end alternately in overs of 6 balls".<ref name=Law22>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-22-the-over/ |title=Law 22 – The over |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=4 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702061242/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-22-the-over/ |archive-date=2 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The name "over" came about because the umpire calls "Over!" when six balls have been bowled. At this point, another bowler is deployed at the other end, and the fielding side changes ends while the batters do not. A bowler cannot bowl two successive overs, although a bowler can (and usually does) bowl alternate overs, from the same end, for several overs which are termed a "spell". The batters do not change ends at the end of the over, and so the one who was non-striker is now the striker and vice versa. The umpires also change positions so that the one who was at "square leg" now stands behind the wicket at the non-striker's end and vice versa.<ref name=Law22/>

===Clothing and equipment===
{{main|Cricket clothing and equipment}}
[[File:WGGrace.jpg|thumb|upright|right|English cricketer [[W. G. Grace]] "taking guard" in 1883. His pads and bat are very similar to those used today. The gloves have evolved somewhat. Many modern players use more defensive equipment than were available to Grace, most notably helmets and arm guards.]]
The [[wicket-keeper]] (a specialised fielder behind the batter) and the batters wear protective gear because of the hardness of the ball, which can be delivered at speeds of more than {{convert|145|km/h|mph}} and presents a major health and safety concern. Protective clothing includes [[batting pads|pads]] (designed to protect the knees and shins), [[batting gloves]] or [[wicket-keeper's gloves]] for the hands, a [[helmet (cricket)|safety helmet]] for the head and a [[box (cricket)|box]] for male players inside the trousers (to protect the [[crotch]] area).<ref name=AppD>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/appendix-d/ |title=Appendix D |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=7 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702064301/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/appendix-d/ |archive-date=2 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Some batters wear additional padding inside their shirts and trousers such as thigh pads, arm pads, rib protectors and shoulder pads. The only fielders allowed to wear protective gear are those in positions very close to the batter (i.e., if they are alongside or in front of him), but they cannot wear gloves or external leg guards.<ref name=Law41/>

Subject to certain variations, on-field clothing generally includes a collared shirt with short or long sleeves; long trousers; woolen pullover (if needed); [[cricket cap]] (for fielding) or a safety helmet; and spiked shoes or boots to increase traction. The kit is traditionally all white and this remains the case in Test and first-class cricket but, in limited overs cricket, team colours are worn instead.<ref>Birley (1999), p. 343.</ref>

====Bat and ball====
{{main|Cricket bat|Cricket ball}}
{{multiple image
| footer = Two types of [[cricket ball]], both of the same size:
i) A used white ball. White balls are mainly used in [[limited overs cricket]], especially in matches played at night, under [[floodlights]] (left). 
ii) A used red ball. Red balls are used in [[Test cricket]], [[first-class cricket]] and some other forms of cricket (right).
| image1 = White ball 2 (cropped).JPG
| alt1 = Used white ball
| width1 = 150
| width2 = 150
| image2 = Used cricket ball (cropped).jpg
| alt2 = Used red ball
}}
The essence of the sport is that a [[bowling (cricket)|bowler]] [[delivery (cricket)|delivers]] (i.e., bowls) the [[cricket ball|ball]] from his or her end of the [[cricket pitch|pitch]] towards the [[batting (cricket)|batter]] who, armed with a [[cricket bat|bat]], is "on strike" at the other end (see next sub-section: ''Basic gameplay'').

The [[cricket bat|bat]] is made of wood, usually ''[[Salix alba]]'' (white willow), and has the shape of a blade topped by a cylindrical handle. The blade must not be more than {{convert|4.25|in|cm}} wide and the total length of the bat not more than {{convert|38|in|cm}}. There is no standard for the weight, which is usually between 2 lb 7 oz and 3 lb (1.1 and 1.4 kg).<ref name=Law6>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-6-the-bat/ |title=Law 6 – The bat |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=4 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703114233/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-6-the-bat/ |archive-date=3 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/appendix-e-the-bat/ |title=Appendix E – The bat |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=4 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703063903/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/appendix-e-the-bat/ |archive-date=3 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The [[cricket ball|ball]] is a hard leather-seamed [[spheroid]], with a circumference of {{convert|9|in|cm}}. The ball has a "seam": six rows of stitches attaching the leather shell of the ball to the string and cork interior. The seam on a new ball is prominent and helps the bowler propel it in a less predictable manner. During matches, the quality of the ball deteriorates to a point where it is no longer usable; during the course of this deterioration, its behaviour in flight will change and can influence the outcome of the match. Players will, therefore, attempt to modify the ball's behaviour by modifying its physical properties. Polishing the ball and wetting it with sweat or saliva is legal, even when the polishing is deliberately done on one side only to increase the ball's [[swing bowling|swing through the air]], but the acts of rubbing other substances into the ball, scratching the surface or picking at the seam are illegal [[ball tampering]].<ref name=Law5>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-5-the-ball/ |title=Law 5 – The ball |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=4 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702052655/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-5-the-ball/ |archive-date=2 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Player roles===

==== Basic gameplay: bowler to batter ====
During normal play, thirteen players and two [[umpire (cricket)|umpires]] are on the field. Two of the players are batters and the rest are all eleven members of the fielding team. The other nine players in the batting team are off the field in the [[cricket pavilion|pavilion]]. The image with overlay below shows what is happening when a ball is being bowled and which of the personnel are on or close to the pitch.<ref>The photo was taken during an international match between [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]] and [[Sri Lanka national cricket team|Sri Lanka]]; [[Muttiah Muralitharan]] of Sri Lanka is bowling to Australian batter [[Adam Gilchrist]].</ref>
{{overlay
|image=Muralitharan bowling to Adam Gilchrist.jpg
|width=500
|height=340
|grid=no
|overlay1=Umpire|overlay1left=75|overlay1top=2|overlay1tip=Bowler's end umpire|overlay1link=Umpire (cricket)
|overlay2=Wicket|overlay2left=105|overlay2top=68|overlay2tip=Wicket, bowler's end or non striking batter's end|overlay2link=Wicket
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|overlay4=Bowler|overlay4left=155|overlay4top=55|overlay4tip=Bowler, Muttiah Muralitharan|overlay4link=Bowling (cricket)
|overlay5=Ball|overlay5left=230|overlay5top=75|overlay5tip=White cricket ball in flight|overlay5link=Cricket ball
|overlay6=Pitch|overlay6left=235|overlay6top=165|overlay6tip=Cricket pitch, the whole area paler in colour|overlay6link=Cricket pitch
|overlay7=Popping crease|overlay7left=295|overlay7top=105|overlay7tip=Batting or popping crease|overlay7link=Crease (cricket)
|overlay7left2=265|overlay7top2=265|overlay7tip2=Batting or popping crease
|overlay8=Striking batter|overlay8left=390|overlay8top=160|overlay8tip=Striking batter, Adam Gilchrist|overlay8link=Batting (cricket)
|overlay9=Wicket|overlay9left=425|overlay9top=225|overlay9tip=Wicket, striking end|overlay9link=Wicket
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|overlay11=First slip|overlay11left=325|overlay11top=300|overlay11tip=Fielder in position, first slip for left hand batter|overlay11link=Fielding (cricket)#Catching positions
|overlay12=Return crease|overlay12left=15|overlay12top=105|overlay12tip=Return crease, one each side of each wicket|overlay12link=Crease (cricket)
|overlay12left2=455|overlay12top2=235|overlay12tip2=Return crease, one either side of each wicket
}}

In the photo, the two [[batting (cricket)|batters]] (3 & 8; wearing yellow) have taken position at each end of the [[cricket pitch|pitch]] (6). Three members of the [[fielding (cricket)|fielding]] team (4, 10 & 11; wearing dark blue) are in shot. One of the two umpires (1; wearing white hat) is stationed behind the [[wicket]] (2) at the [[bowling (cricket)|bowler's]] (4) end of the pitch. The bowler (4) is [[delivery (cricket)|bowling]] the [[cricket ball|ball]] (5) from his end of the pitch to the batter (8) at the other end who is called the "striker". The other batter (3) at the bowling end is called the "non-striker". The [[wicket-keeper]] (10), who is a specialist, is positioned behind the striker's wicket (9) and behind him stands one of the fielders in a position called "[[Fielding (cricket)#Catching positions|first slip]]" (11). While the bowler and the first slip are wearing conventional kit only, the two batters and the wicket-keeper are wearing protective gear including safety helmets, padded gloves and leg guards (pads).

While the umpire (1) in shot stands at the bowler's end of the pitch, his colleague stands in the outfield, usually in or near the fielding position called "[[square leg]]", so that he is in line with the [[popping crease]] (7) at the striker's end of the pitch. The bowling crease (not numbered) is the one on which the wicket is located between the return creases (12). The bowler (4) intends to hit the wicket (9) with the ball (5) or, at least, to prevent the striker (8) from scoring [[run (cricket)|runs]]. The striker (8) intends, by using his bat, to defend his wicket and, if possible, to hit the ball away from the pitch in order to score runs.

Some players are skilled in both batting and bowling, or as either of these as well as wicket-keeping, so are termed [[all-rounder]]s. Bowlers are classified according to their style, generally as [[fast bowling|fast bowlers]], [[seam bowling|seam bowlers]] or [[spin bowling|spinners]]. Batters are classified according to whether they are right-handed or left-handed.

====Fielding====
{{main|Fielding (cricket)}}
[[File:Cricket fielding positions2.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Fielding positions in cricket]] for a right-handed batter]]
Of the eleven fielders, three are in shot in the image above. The other eight are elsewhere on the field, their positions determined on a tactical basis by the captain or the bowler. Fielders often change position between deliveries, again as directed by the captain or bowler.<ref name=Law41>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-41-the-fielder/ |title=Law 41 – The fielder |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=7 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702064305/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-41-the-fielder/ |archive-date=2 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

If a fielder is injured or becomes ill during a match, a [[substitute (cricket)|substitute]] is allowed to field instead of him, but the substitute cannot bowl or act as a captain, except in the case of concussion substitutes in international cricket.<ref name=ICCTestPlayCond/> The substitute leaves the field when the injured player is fit to return.<ref name=Law2>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-2-substitutes-and-runners-batsman-or-fielder-leaving-the-field-batsman-retiring-or-batsman-commencing-innings/ |title=Law 2 – Substitutes, etc. |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=7 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702043645/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-2-substitutes-and-runners-batsman-or-fielder-leaving-the-field-batsman-retiring-or-batsman-commencing-innings/ |archive-date=2 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Laws of Cricket were updated in 2017 to allow substitutes to act as wicket-keepers.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Marylebone Cricket Club|title=Summary of changes to the Laws of Cricket 2017 Code|url=https://www.lords.org/assets/2017-Law-Changes-Summary-Paper.pdf|website=Lords the Home of Cricket|access-date=4 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627233220/https://www.lords.org/assets/2017-Law-Changes-Summary-Paper.pdf|archive-date=27 June 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Bowling and dismissal====
{{main|Bowling (cricket)|Dismissal (cricket)}}
[[File:Glenn McGrath 01 crop 2.jpg|right|upright=0.7|thumb|[[Glenn McGrath]] of [[Australian Cricket Team|Australia]] holds the world record for most wickets in the [[Cricket World Cup]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/most-wickets-taken-in-an-icc-world-cup-career-(male) |title=Most wickets taken in an ICC World Cup career (male)|work=[[Guinness World Records]] |access-date=23 June 2015}}</ref>]]
Most bowlers are considered specialists in that they are selected for the team because of their skill as a bowler, although some are all-rounders and even specialist batters bowl occasionally. The specialists bowl several times during an innings but may not bowl two overs consecutively. If the captain wants a bowler to "change ends", another bowler must temporarily fill in so that the change is not immediate.<ref name=Law22/>

A bowler reaches his delivery stride by means of a "run-up" and an over is deemed to have begun when the bowler starts his run-up for the first delivery of that over, the ball then being "in play".<ref name=Law22/> Fast bowlers, needing momentum, take a lengthy run up while bowlers with a slow delivery take no more than a couple of steps before bowling. The fastest bowlers can deliver the ball at a speed of over {{convert|145|km/h|mph}} and they sometimes rely on sheer speed to try to defeat the batter, who is forced to react very quickly.<ref name=pace>{{cite web |url=http://www.talkcricket.co.uk/guides/types_of_fast_bowling.html |title=Types of fast bowling |work=TalkCricket |access-date=6 July 2017}}</ref> Other fast bowlers rely on a mixture of speed and guile by making the ball [[seam bowling|seam]] or [[swing bowling|swing]] (i.e. curve) in flight. This type of delivery can deceive a batter into miscuing his shot, for example, so that the ball just touches the edge of the bat and can then be "caught behind" by the wicket-keeper or a slip fielder.<ref name=pace/> At the other end of the bowling scale is the [[Spin bowling|spin bowler]] who bowls at a relatively slow pace and relies entirely on guile to deceive the batter. A spinner will often "buy his wicket" by "tossing one up" (in a slower, steeper [[Parabolic trajectory|parabolic]] path) to lure the batter into making a poor shot. The batter has to be very wary of such deliveries as they are often "flighted" or spun so that the ball will not behave quite as he expects and he could be "trapped" into getting himself out.<ref name=spin>{{cite web |url=http://www.talkcricket.co.uk/guides/cricket_skills_spin_bowling.html |title=Spin bowling |work=TalkCricket |access-date=6 July 2017}}</ref> In between the pacemen and the spinners are the medium paced seamers who rely on persistent accuracy to try to contain the rate of scoring and wear down the batter's concentration.<ref name=pace/>

There are nine ways in which a batter can be dismissed: five relatively common and four extremely rare. The common forms of dismissal are [[bowled]],<ref name=Law30>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-30-bowled/ |title=Law 30 – Bowled |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=6 July 2017 |archive-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703094114/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-30-bowled/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[caught]],<ref name=Law32>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-32-caught-1/ |title=Law 32 – Caught |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=6 July 2017}}</ref> [[leg before wicket]] (lbw),<ref name=Law36>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-36-leg-before-wicket/ |title=Law 36 – Leg before wicket |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=6 July 2017}}</ref> [[run out]]<ref name=Law38>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-38-run-out/ |title=Law 38 – Run out |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=6 July 2017}}</ref> and [[stumped]].<ref name=Law39>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-39-stumped/ |title=Law 39 – Stumped |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=6 July 2017}}</ref> Rare methods are [[hit wicket]],<ref name=Law35>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-35-hit-wicket/ |title=Law 35 – Hit wicket |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=6 July 2017}}</ref> [[hit the ball twice]],<ref name=Law34>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-34-hit-the-ball-twice/ |title=Law 34 – Hit the ball twice |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=6 July 2017}}</ref> [[obstructing the field]]<ref name=Law37>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-37-obstructing-the-field/ |title=Law 37 – Obstructing the field |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=6 July 2017}}</ref> and [[timed out]].<ref name=Law31>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-31-timed-out-1/ |title=Law 31 – Timed out |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=6 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703092548/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-31-timed-out-1/ |archive-date=3 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Laws state that the fielding team, usually the bowler in practice, must appeal for a dismissal before the umpire can give his decision. If the batter is out, the umpire raises a forefinger and says "Out!"; otherwise, he will shake his head and say "Not out".<ref name=Law27>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-27-appeals/ |title=Law 27 – Appeals |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=6 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703084014/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-27-appeals/ |archive-date=3 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> There is, effectively, a tenth method of dismissal, [[retired out]], which is not an on-field dismissal as such but rather a retrospective one for which no fielder is credited.<ref name=Law2RO>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-2-substitutes-and-runners-batsman-or-fielder-leaving-the-field-batsman-retiring-or-batsman-commencing-innings/ |title=Law 2 – Section 9: Batsman retiring |publisher=MCC |access-date=18 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702043645/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-2-substitutes-and-runners-batsman-or-fielder-leaving-the-field-batsman-retiring-or-batsman-commencing-innings/ |archive-date=2 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Batting, runs and extras====
{{main|Batting (cricket)|Run (cricket)|Extra (cricket)}}
[[File:cricket shots.svg|thumb|left|upright|The directions in which a right-handed batter, facing down the page, intends to send the ball when playing various cricketing shots. The diagram for a [[left-handed]] batter is a [[mirror image]] of this one.]]
Batters take turns to bat via a [[batting order (cricket)|batting order]] which is decided beforehand by the team captain and presented to the umpires, though the order remains flexible when the captain officially nominates the team.<ref name=Law1/> Substitute batters are generally not allowed,<ref name=Law2/> except in the case of concussion substitutes in international cricket.<ref name=ICCTestPlayCond/>

In order to begin batting the batter first adopts a batting stance. Standardly, this involves adopting a slight crouch with the feet pointing across the front of the wicket, looking in the direction of the bowler, and holding the bat so it passes over the feet and so its tip can rest on the ground near to the toes of the back foot.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cricketweb.net/grip-stance-back-lift/ |title=Grip, Stance, Back-Lift |access-date=12 October 2019}}</ref>

A skilled batter can use a wide array of "shots" or "strokes" in both defensive and attacking mode. The idea is to hit the ball to the best effect with the flat surface of the bat's blade. If the ball touches the side of the bat it is called an "[[Edge (cricket)|edge]]". The batter does not have to play a shot and can allow the ball to go through to the [[wicketkeeper]]. Equally, he does not have to attempt a run when he hits the ball with his bat. Batters do not always seek to hit the ball as hard as possible, and a good player can score runs just by making a deft stroke with a turn of the wrists or by simply "blocking" the ball but directing it away from fielders so that he has time to take a run. A wide variety of shots are played, the batter's repertoire including strokes named according to the style of swing and the direction aimed: e.g., "[[List of cricket terms#Cut|cut]]", "drive", "hook", "pull".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.talkcricket.co.uk/guides/cricket_batting.html |title=Batting |work=TalkCricket |access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref>

The batter on strike (i.e. the "striker") must prevent the ball hitting the wicket, and try to score [[Run (cricket)|runs]] by hitting the ball with his bat so that he and his partner have time to run from one end of the pitch to the other before the fielding side can return the ball. To register a run, both runners must touch the ground behind the popping crease with either their bats or their bodies (the batters carry their bats as they run). Each completed run increments the score of both the team and the striker.<ref name=Law18>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-18-scoring-runs/ |title=Law 18 – Scoring runs |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref>

[[File:Master Blaster at work.jpg|right|thumb|[[Sachin Tendulkar]] is the only player to have scored one hundred international [[Century (cricket)|centuries]]]]

The decision to attempt a run is ideally made by the batter who has the better view of the ball's progress, and this is communicated by calling: usually "yes", "no" or "wait". More than one run can be scored from a single hit: hits worth one to three runs are common, but the size of the field is such that it is usually difficult to run four or more.<ref name=Law18/> To compensate for this, hits that reach the boundary of the field are automatically awarded four runs if the ball touches the ground ''en route'' to the boundary or six runs if the ball clears the boundary without touching the ground within the boundary. In these cases the batters do not need to run.<ref name=Law19>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-19-boundaries/ |title=Law 19 – Boundaries |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref> Hits for five are unusual and generally rely on the help of "overthrows" by a fielder returning the ball.

If an odd number of runs is scored by the striker, the two batters have changed ends, and the one who was non-striker is now the striker. Only the striker can score individual runs, but all runs are added to the team's total.<ref name="Law18" />

Additional runs can be gained by the batting team as [[extra (cricket)|extras]] (called "sundries" in Australia) due to errors made by the fielding side. This is achieved in four ways: [[no-ball]], a penalty of one extra conceded by the bowler if he breaks the rules;<ref name=Law24>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-24-no-ball/ |title=Law 24 – No ball |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=7 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703092552/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-24-no-ball |archive-date=3 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[wide (cricket)|wide]], a penalty of one extra conceded by the bowler if he bowls so that the ball is out of the batter's reach;<ref name=Law25a>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-25-wide-ball/ |title=Law 25 – Wide ball |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=7 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702061246/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-25-wide-ball/ |archive-date=2 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[bye (cricket)|bye]], an extra awarded if the batter misses the ball and it goes past the wicket-keeper and gives the batters time to run in the conventional way;<ref name=Law26>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-26-bye-and-leg-bye/ |title=Law 26 – Bye and Leg bye |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=7 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703085522/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-26-bye-and-leg-bye/ |archive-date=3 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[leg bye]], as for a bye except that the ball has hit the batter's body, though not his bat.<ref name=Law26/> If the bowler has conceded a no-ball or a wide, his team incurs an additional penalty because that ball (i.e., delivery) has to be bowled again and hence the batting side has the opportunity to score more runs from this extra ball.<ref name=Law24/><ref name=Law25a/>

====Specialist roles====
{{main|Captain (cricket)|Wicket-keeper}}
The captain is often the most experienced player in the team, certainly the most tactically astute, and can possess any of the main skillsets as a batter, a bowler or a wicket-keeper. Within the Laws, the captain has certain responsibilities in terms of nominating his players to the umpires before the match and ensuring that his players conduct themselves "within the spirit and traditions of the game as well as within the Laws".<ref name=Law1/>

The wicket-keeper (sometimes called simply the "keeper") is a specialist fielder subject to various rules within the Laws about his equipment and demeanour. He is the only member of the fielding side who can effect a [[stumped|stumping]] and is the only one permitted to wear gloves and external leg guards.<ref name=Law40>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-40-the-wicket-keeper/ |title=Law 40 – The wicket-keeper |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=4 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416223531/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-40-the-wicket-keeper/ |archive-date=16 April 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Depending on their primary skills, the other ten players in the team tend to be classified as specialist batters or specialist bowlers. Generally, a team will include five or six specialist batters and four or five specialist bowlers, plus the wicket-keeper.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.talkcricket.co.uk/guides/bowling_strategy.html |title=Bowling Strategy |work=TalkCricket |access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.talkcricket.co.uk/guides/cricket_batting_strategy.html |title=Batting Strategy |work=TalkCricket |access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref>

===Umpires and scorers===
{{main|Umpire (cricket)|Scoring (cricket)|Cricket statistics}}
[[File:Cricket Umpire.jpg|thumb|right|An umpire signals a decision to the scorers]]
The game on the field is regulated by the two [[umpire (cricket)|umpires]], one of whom stands behind the wicket at the bowler's end, the other in a position called "square leg" which is about 15–20 metres away from the batter on strike and in line with the popping crease on which he is taking guard. The umpires have several responsibilities including adjudication on whether a ball has been correctly bowled (i.e., not a [[no-ball]] or a [[wide (cricket)|wide]]); when a run is scored; whether a batter is out (the fielding side must first [[appeal (cricket)|appeal]] to the umpire, usually with the phrase "How's that?" or "Owzat?"); when intervals start and end; and the suitability of the pitch, field and weather for playing the game. The umpires are authorised to interrupt or even abandon a match due to circumstances likely to endanger the players, such as a damp pitch or deterioration of the light.<ref name=Law3/>

Off the field in televised matches, there is usually a [[third umpire]] who can make decisions on certain incidents with the aid of video evidence. The third umpire is mandatory under the playing conditions for [[Test cricket|Test]] and [[Limited Overs International]] matches played between two ICC full member countries. These matches also have a [[match referee]] whose job is to ensure that play is within the Laws and the spirit of the game.<ref name=Law3/>

The match details, including runs and dismissals, are recorded by two official [[scoring (cricket)|scorers]], one representing each team. The scorers are directed by the hand signals of an umpire (see image, right). For example, the umpire raises a forefinger to signal that the batter is out (has been dismissed); he raises both arms above his head if the batter has hit the ball for six runs. The scorers are required by the Laws to record all runs scored, wickets taken and overs bowled; in practice, they also note significant amounts of additional data relating to the game.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-4-the-scorers/ |title=Law 4 – The scorers |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=4 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702065817/https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/laws/law-4-the-scorers/ |archive-date=2 July 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

A match's [[Cricket statistics|statistics]] are summarised on a [[Cricket scorecard|scorecard]]. Prior to the popularisation of scorecards, most scoring was done by men sitting on vantage points cuttings notches on [[tally stick]]s and runs were originally called notches.<ref>Bowen (1970), p. 57.</ref> According to [[Rowland Bowen]], the earliest known scorecard templates were introduced in 1776 by T. Pratt of [[Sevenoaks]] and soon came into general use.<ref>Bowen (1970), p. 266.</ref> It is believed that scorecards were printed and sold at [[Lord's]] for the first time in 1846.<ref>Bowen (1970), p. 274.</ref>

===Spirit of the Game===
{{main|Laws of Cricket}}
Besides observing the Laws, cricketers must respect the "Spirit of Cricket", a concept encompassing [[sportsmanship]], fair play and mutual respect. This spirit has long been considered an integral part of the sport but is only nebulously defined. Amidst concern that the spirit was weakening, in 2000 a Preamble was added to the Laws instructing all participants to play within the spirit of the game. The Preamble was last updated in 2017, now opening with the line:<ref name=preamble>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/mcc/laws-of-cricket/preamble-to-the-laws/ |title=Preamble to the Laws |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=4 June 2020}}</ref>
<blockquote>"Cricket owes much of its appeal and enjoyment to the fact that it should be played not only
according to the Laws, but also within the Spirit of Cricket".</blockquote>

The Preamble is a short statement intended to emphasise the "positive behaviours that make cricket an exciting game that encourages leadership, friendship, and teamwork."<ref name=2017_changes>{{cite web |url=https://www.lords.org/assets/2017-Law-Changes-Summary-Paper.pdf |title=Summary of changes to the Laws of Cricket 2017 Code |work=Laws of Cricket |publisher=MCC |access-date=10 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627233220/https://www.lords.org/assets/2017-Law-Changes-Summary-Paper.pdf |archive-date=27 June 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Its second line states that "the major responsibility for ensuring fair play rests with the captains, but extends to all players, match officials and, especially in junior cricket, teachers, coaches and parents."<ref name=preamble/>

The umpires are the sole judges of fair and unfair play. They are required under the Laws to intervene in case of dangerous or unfair play or in cases of unacceptable conduct by a player.

Previous versions of the Spirit identified actions that were deemed contrary (for example, appealing knowing that the batter is not out) but all specifics are now covered in the Laws of Cricket, the relevant governing playing regulations and disciplinary codes, or left to the judgement of the umpires, captains, their clubs and governing bodies. The terse expression of the Spirit of Cricket now avoids the diversity of cultural conventions that exist in the detail of sportsmanship – or its absence.

==Women's cricket==
{{main|Women's cricket}}
[[File:Mithali Raj Truro 2012.jpg|right|thumb|[[Mithali Raj]] of India, is the highest run scorer in women's international cricket. ]]
[[Women's cricket]] was first recorded in [[Surrey]] in 1745.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/cricket/history-of-cricket/early-cricket |title=ICC History of Cricket (pre-1799) |publisher=ICC |access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref> International development began at the start of the 20th century and the first Test Match was played between [[Australia Women cricket team|Australia]] and [[England women's cricket team|England]] in December 1934.<ref name=ICC20C>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/about/cricket/history-of-cricket/20th-century |title=ICC History of Cricket (20th century) |publisher=ICC |access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref> The following year, [[New Zealand Womens cricket team|New Zealand]] joined them, and in 2007 [[Netherlands women cricket team|Netherland]] became the tenth women's Test nation when they made their debut against [[South Africa women cricket team|South Africa]]. In 1958, the International Women's Cricket Council was founded (it merged with the ICC in 2005).<ref name=ICC20C/> In 1973, the first Cricket World Cup of any kind took place when a Women's World Cup was held in England.<ref name=ICC20C/> In 2005, the [[International Women's Cricket Council]] was merged with the International Cricket Council (ICC) to form one unified body to help manage and develop cricket. The ICC Women's Rankings were launched on 1 October 2015 covering all three formats of women's cricket. In October 2018 following the ICC's decision to award T20 International status to all members, the Women's rankings were split into separate [[One Day International|ODI]] (for Full Members) and T20I lists.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/media-releases/877811|title=ICC Launches Global Women's T20I Team Rankings|access-date=12 October 2018|language=en}}</ref>

==Governance==
{{main|International Cricket Council}}
[[File:International_Cricket_Council_members_(by_status)_2017.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[International Cricket Council|ICC]] member nations. The (highest level) Test playing nations are shown in red; the associate member nations are shown in orange, with those with [[One Day International|ODI status]] in a darker shade; suspended or former members are shown in dark grey.]]

The [[International Cricket Council]] (ICC), which has its headquarters in [[Dubai]], is the global governing body of cricket. It was founded as the Imperial Cricket Conference in 1909 by representatives from England, Australia and South Africa, renamed the International Cricket Conference in 1965 and took up its current name in 1989.<ref name=ICC20C/> The ICC in 2017 has 105 member nations, twelve of which hold full membership and can play [[Test cricket]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/about |title=About the ICC |publisher=ICC |access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref> The ICC is responsible for the organisation and governance of cricket's major international tournaments, notably the men's and women's versions of the [[Cricket World Cup]]. It also appoints the umpires and referees that officiate at all sanctioned Test matches, Limited Overs Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals.

Each member nation has a national cricket board which regulates cricket matches played in its country, selects the national squad, and organises home and away tours for the national team.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ecb.co.uk/about-us/about-the-ecb |title=About the England and Wales Cricket Board |website=ECB |access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref> In the West Indies, which for cricket purposes is a federation of nations, these matters are addressed by [[Cricket West Indies]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cricketwestindies.org/ |title=Cricket West Indies |publisher=Cricket West Indies |access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref>

The table below lists the ICC full members and their national cricket boards:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icc-cricket.com/team-rankings |title=ICC Rankings |website=International Cricket Council |publisher=ICC Development (International) Limited |access-date=9 February 2016}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! scope="col" | Nation
! scope="col" | Governing body
! scope="col" data-sort-type="date" | Full Member since<ref name="A Brief History...">{{cite web |url=http://content-usa.cricinfo.com/ci-icc/content/current/story/209608.html |title=A brief history ... |access-date=2 May 2008 |publisher=Cricinfo}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Afghanistan]]
| [[Afghanistan Cricket Board]]
| 22 June 2017
|-
! scope="row" | [[Australia]]
| [[Cricket Australia]]
| 15 July 1909
|-
! scope="row" | [[Bangladesh]]
| [[Bangladesh Cricket Board]]
| 26 June 2000
|-
! scope="row" | [[England]]
| [[England and Wales Cricket Board]]
| 15 July 1909
|-
! scope="row" | [[India]]
| [[Board of Control for Cricket in India]]
| 31 May 1926
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ireland]]
| [[Cricket Ireland]]
| 22 June 2017
|-
! scope="row" | [[New Zealand]]
| [[New Zealand Cricket]]
| 31 May 1926
|-
! scope="row" | [[Pakistan]]
| [[Pakistan Cricket Board]]
| 28 July 1952
|-
! scope="row" | [[South Africa]]
| [[Cricket South Africa]]
| 15 July 1909
|-
! scope="row" | [[Sri Lanka]]
| [[Sri Lanka Cricket]]
| 21 July 1981
|-
! scope="row" | [[West Indies cricket team|West Indies]]
| [[Cricket West Indies]]
| 31 May 1926
|-
! scope="row" | [[Zimbabwe]]
| [[Zimbabwe Cricket]]
| 6 July 1992
|}

==Forms of cricket==
{{main|Forms of cricket}}
[[File:England vs South Africa.jpg|thumb|A [[Test cricket|Test match]] between South Africa and England in January 2005. The men wearing black trousers are the [[umpire (cricket)|umpires]]. Teams in Test cricket, [[first-class cricket]] and [[club cricket]] wear traditional white uniforms and use red [[cricket ball]]s.]]
Cricket is a multi-faceted sport with multiple formats that can effectively be divided into [[first-class cricket]], [[limited overs cricket]] and, historically, [[single wicket cricket]].

The highest standard is [[Test cricket]] (always written with a capital "T") which is in effect the international version of first-class cricket and is restricted to teams representing the twelve countries that are full members of the ICC (see above). Although the term "Test match" was not coined until much later, Test cricket is deemed to have begun with two matches between [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]] and [[England national cricket team|England]] in the [[1876-77 Australian cricket season|1876–77 Australian season]]; since 1882, most Test series between England and Australia have been played for a trophy known as [[The Ashes]]. The term "first-class", in general usage, is applied to top-level domestic cricket. Test matches are played over five days and first-class over three to four days; in all of these matches, the teams are allotted two innings each and the [[Draw (cricket)|draw]] is a valid result.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dictionary of Cricket |last=Rundell |first=Michael |year=2006 |publisher=A&C Black Publishers Ltd |location=London |isbn=978-0-7136-7915-1 |page=336 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Vu9cih3u1kC&q=%22dictionary%20of%20cricket%22%20test&pg=PT336 |access-date=17 October 2011}}</ref>

Limited overs cricket is always scheduled for completion in a single day, and the teams are allotted one innings each. There are two main types: [[List A cricket|List A]] which normally allows fifty overs per team; and [[Twenty20]] in which the teams have twenty overs each. Both of the limited overs forms are played internationally as [[Limited Overs International]]s (LOI) and [[Twenty20 International]]s (T20I). List A was introduced in England in the 1963 season as a knockout cup contested by the first-class county clubs. In 1969, a national league competition was established. The concept was gradually introduced to the other leading cricket countries and the first limited overs international was played in 1971. In 1975, the first [[Cricket World Cup]] took place in England. Twenty20 is a new variant of limited overs itself with the purpose being to complete the match within about three to four hours, usually in an evening session. The first [[Twenty20 World Championship]] was held in 2007. In addition, a few full-member cricket boards have decided to start leagues that are played in the [[T10 cricket|T10 format]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=CPL to launch inaugural T10 tournament 'The 6ixty' in August |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/cpl-to-launch-inaugural-t10-tournament-the-6ixty-in-august-1320902 |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Desk |first=SportsCafe |date=2022-11-21 |title=Sri Lanka becomes first full-member cricket nation to introduce T10 League |url=https://sportscafe.in/cricket/articles/2022/nov/21/sri-lanka-becomes-first-full-member-cricket-nation-to-introduce-t-10-league |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=SportsCafe.in |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=ZC to launch six-team T10 tournament in March 2023 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/zimbabwe-cricket-launches-six-team-t10-tournament-in-march-2023-1348496 |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=T10 League Plans Expansion To Five Locations After Thumbs Up From 2 ICC Full Members {{!}} Cricket News |url=https://sports.ndtv.com/cricket/t10-league-plans-expansion-to-five-locations-after-thumbs-up-from-2-icc-full-members-3554950 |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=NDTVSports.com |language=en}}</ref> in which games are intended to last approximately 90 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quint |first=The |date=2021-01-25 |title=Explained: Everything You Need to Know About Cricket's T10 League |url=https://www.thequint.com/sports/cricket/explainer-t10-league-rules-teams-and-players |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=TheQuint |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Abu Dhabi T10 cricket league eyes global expansion |url=https://www.gulftoday.ae/sport/2022/12/07/abu-dhabi-t10-cricket-league-eyes-global-expansion |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=www.gulftoday.ae}}</ref> Limited overs matches cannot be drawn, although a [[Tie (cricket)|tie]] is possible and an unfinished match is a "[[No-result|no result]]".<ref>{{cite web |title=ICC clarification of limited overs |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/icc-clarifies-what-counts-and-what-doesn-t-255055 |access-date=8 July 2017 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=12 March 2016 |title=The first official T20 |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/blogs/content/story/980687.html |access-date=8 July 2017 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo}}</ref>

Single wicket was popular in the 18th and 19th centuries and its matches were generally considered top-class. In this form, although each team may have from one to six players, there is only one batter in at a time and he must face every delivery bowled while his innings lasts. Single wicket has rarely been played since limited overs cricket began. Matches tended to have two innings per team like a full first-class one and they could end in a draw.<ref>Major (2007), pp. 155–167 & 404–410.</ref>

==Competitions==
Cricket is played at both the international and domestic level. There is one major international championship per format, and top-level domestic competitions mirror the three main international formats. There are now a number of [[T20 leagues]], which have spawned a "T20 freelancer" phenomenon.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The T20 Revolution - The Freelancers|url=https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/107424/the-t20-revolution-the-freelancers|access-date=9 September 2020|website=Cricbuzz|language=en}}</ref>

===International competitions===
{{main|International cricket}}

Most international matches are played as parts of 'tours', when one nation travels to another for a number of weeks or months, and plays a number of matches of various sorts against the host nation. Sometimes a [[Test cricket#Perpetual trophies|perpetual trophy]] is awarded to the winner of the Test series, the most famous of which is [[The Ashes]].

The ICC also organises competitions that are for several countries at once, including the [[Cricket World Cup]], [[ICC T20 World Cup]] and [[ICC Champions Trophy]]. A league competition for Test matches played as part of normal tours, the [[ICC World Test Championship]], had been proposed several times, and its [[2019–21 ICC World Test Championship|first instance]] began in 2019. A league competition for [[One Day International|ODIs]], the [[ICC Cricket World Cup Super League]], began in August 2020. The ICC maintains [[ICC Test Championship|Test rankings]], [[ICC ODI Championship|ODI rankings]] and [[ICC T20I Championship|T20 rankings]] systems for the countries which play these forms of cricket.

Competitions for member nations of the ICC with [[List of International Cricket Council members#Associate members|Associate status]] include the [[ICC Intercontinental Cup]], for first-class cricket matches, and the [[World Cricket League]] for one-day matches, the final matches of which now also serve as the [[ICC World Cup Qualifier]].

The game's only appearance in an [[Olympic Games]] was the [[Cricket at the 1900 Summer Olympics|1900 Olympics]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The ignorant Olympians |url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/story/the-ignorant-olympians-134962 |access-date=2023-07-11 |website=ESPNcricinfo |language=en}}</ref> It was shortlisted for the [[2028 Summer Olympics]] in [[Los Angeles]] but did not make the final programme.<ref>Ansari, Aarish (27 June 2023). [https://olympics.com/en/news/los-angeles-2028-olympics-programme-provisional-list-cricket "Los Angeles 2028 Olympics: Cricket, boxing not on provisional sports list."] ''Olympics.com'' ([[International Olympic Committee]]). Retrieved 16 July 2023.</ref>

===National competitions===
{{see also|Category:Domestic cricket competitions}}
[[File:Yorkshire-CCC-1895.jpg|right|thumb|[[Yorkshire County Cricket Club]] in 1895. The team first won the County Championship in 1893.]]

====First-class====
{{main|List of current first-class cricket teams}}
First-class cricket in England is played for the most part by the 18 county clubs which contest the [[County Championship]]. The concept of a [[Champion County|champion county]] has existed since the 18th century but the official competition was not established until 1890.<ref name="AMCS"/> The most successful club has been [[Yorkshire County Cricket Club|Yorkshire]], who had won 32 official titles (plus one shared) as of 2019.<ref>{{cite book |last=Playfair |title=Playfair Cricket Annual (70th edition) |edition=2017 |editor-last=Marshall |editor-first=Ian |publisher=Headline |page=216 |location=London}}</ref>

Australia established its national first-class championship in 1892–93 when the [[Sheffield Shield]] was introduced. In Australia, the first-class teams represent the various states.<ref name="CH175">Harte, p. 175.</ref> [[New South Wales cricket team|New South Wales]] has the highest number of titles.

The other ICC full members have national championship trophies called the [[Ahmad Shah Abdali 4-day Tournament]] (Afghanistan); the [[National Cricket League]] (Bangladesh); the [[Ranji Trophy]] (India); the [[Inter-Provincial Championship]] (Ireland); the [[Plunket Shield]] (New Zealand); the [[Quaid-e-Azam Trophy]] (Pakistan); the [[Sunfoil Series|Currie Cup]] (South Africa); the [[Premier Trophy]] (Sri Lanka); the [[Regional Four Day Competition|Shell Shield]] (West Indies); and the [[Logan Cup]] (Zimbabwe).

====Limited overs====
{{main|List of domestic List A cricket competitions|List of domestic Twenty20 cricket competitions|T10 leagues}}

====Other====
{{see also|Minor Counties Cricket Championship|Second XI Championship}}

===Club and school cricket===
[[File:Y.M.C.A. women playing cricket, Sydney University, R. Donaldson, 23 April 1941.jpg|thumb|Y.M.C.A. women playing cricket as part of 'sports for troops', [[Sydney University]], 23 April 1941]]
{{main|Village cricket|Club cricket|Schools cricket}}
The world's earliest known cricket match was a [[village cricket]] meeting in [[Kent]] which has been deduced from a 1640 court case recording a "cricketing" of "the Weald and the Upland" versus "the Chalk Hill" at [[Chevening]] "about thirty years since" (i.e., {{circa|1611}}). Inter-parish contests became popular in the first half of the 17th century and continued to develop through the 18th with the first local leagues being founded in the second half of the 19th.<ref name="DU4"/>

At the grassroots level, local [[club cricket]] is essentially an amateur pastime for those involved but still usually involves teams playing in competitions at weekends or in the evening. [[Schools cricket]], first known in southern England in the 17th century, has a similar scenario and both are widely played in the countries where cricket is popular.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 9–10.</ref> Although there can be variations in game format, compared with professional cricket, the Laws are always observed and club/school matches are therefore formal and competitive events.<ref>Birley (1999), pp. 151–152.</ref> The sport has numerous informal variants such as [[French cricket]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.topendsports.com/sport/cricket/french.htm |title=Rules of French Cricket |publisher=topend sports |access-date=8 July 2017}}</ref> On the North American side, in 2023, [[Monroe Township High School]], in [[Monroe Township, Middlesex County, New Jersey|Monroe Township]], [[Middlesex County, New Jersey|Middlesex County]], [[New Jersey]], launched the first U.S. high school cricket club.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fox5ny.com/video/1229269.amp|title=Abeer Khan decided to turn cricket into something his whole community can enjoy|publisher=FOX5NY|date=June 2, 2023|access-date=June 3, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nj.com/highschoolsports/2023/05/nj-high-schooler-launches-historic-cricket-team-signaling-the-sports-growth.html?outputType=amp|title=N.J. high schooler launches historic cricket team, signaling the sport's growth|author=Corey Annan|date=May 25, 2023|access-date=June 3, 2023}}</ref>

==Culture==
{{main|:Category:Cricket culture}}

===Influence on everyday life===
Cricket has had a broad impact on popular culture, both in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and elsewhere. It has, for example, influenced the [[lexicon]] of these nations, especially the English language, with various phrases such as "that's not cricket" (that's unfair), "had a good [[Innings#Usage outside of cricket|innings]]" (lived a long life) and "[[sticky wicket]]". "On a sticky wicket" (''aka'' "sticky dog" or "glue pot")<ref>{{Cite book |last=Green |first=Jonathon |title=Dictionary of Jargon |publisher=Routledge |year=1987 |isbn=9780710099198 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofjarg00jona/page/528 528] |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofjarg00jona/page/528 }}</ref> is a [[metaphor]]<ref name="CalliesKeller2011">{{cite book |author1=Marcus Callies |author2=Wolfram R. Keller |author3=Astrid Lohöfer |title=Bi-directionality in the Cognitive Sciences: Avenues, Challenges, and Limitations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SC3cBXfj4UcC&pg=PA73 |year=2011 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-2384-5 |pages=73–}}</ref> used to describe a difficult circumstance. It originated as a term for difficult batting conditions in cricket, caused by a damp and soft pitch.<ref name="Hendrickson2001">{{cite book |author=Robert Hendrickson |title=World English: From Aloha to Zed |url=https://archive.org/details/worldenglishfrom00hend |url-access=registration |year= 2001 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-34518-3}}</ref>

===In the arts and popular culture===
{{see also|Cricket in fiction|Cricket in film and television|Cricket poetry}}
Cricket is the subject of works by noted English poets, including [[William Blake]] and [[Lord Byron]].<ref name=art>Smart, Alastair (20 July 2013). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-features/10191131/The-art-of-cricket-Enough-to-leave-you-stumped.html "The art of cricket: Enough to leave you stumped"], ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved 12 March 2016.</ref> ''[[Beyond a Boundary]]'' (1963), written by Trinidadian [[C. L. R. James]], is often named the best book on any sport ever written.<ref>Rosengarten, Frank (2007). ''Urbane Revolutionary: C. L. R. James and the Struggle for a New Society''. University Press of Mississippi, {{ISBN|87-7289-096-7}} p. 134</ref>

[[File:William Handcock Tom Wills.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Tom Wills]], cricketer and co-founder of [[Australian football]]]]
In the visual arts, notable cricket paintings include [[Albert Chevallier Tayler]]'s ''[[Kent vs Lancashire at Canterbury]]'' (1907) and [[Russell Drysdale]]'s ''[[The Cricketers]]'' (1948), which has been called "possibly the most famous Australian painting of the 20th century."<ref name="Meacham">{{cite news |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/entertainment/arts/montmartre-with-eucalypts/2009/06/05/1243708612484.html |title=Montmartre, with eucalypts |last=Meacham |first=Steve |date=6 June 2009 |work=Sydney Morning Herald |publisher=Fairfax |access-date=31 August 2009}}</ref> French [[impressionism|impressionist]] [[Camille Pissarro]] painted cricket on a visit to England in the 1890s.<ref name=art/> [[Francis Bacon (artist)|Francis Bacon]], an avid cricket fan, captured a batter in motion.<ref name=art/> [[Caribbean]] artist [[Wendy Nanan]]'s cricket images<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/07/in_pictures_caribbean_cricket_art/html/1.stm |work=BBC News |title=Caribbean cricket art, in the middle |access-date=11 June 2016}}</ref> are featured in a limited edition first day cover for [[Royal Mail]]'s "World of Invention" stamp issue, which celebrated the London Cricket Conference 1–3 March 2007, first international workshop of its kind and part of the celebrations leading up to the 2007 [[Cricket World Cup]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bletchleycovers.com |title=Cricket: Dawn of a New World |date=March 2007 |publisher=Bletchley Park Post Office |access-date=11 June 2016}}</ref>

In music, many [[Calypso music|calypsos]] make reference to the [[List of calypsos with sociopolitical influences#Sports - Cricket|Sport of Cricket]].

===Influence on other sports===
Cricket has close historical ties with [[Australian rules football]] and many players have [[List of Australian rules footballers and cricketers|competed at top levels in both sports]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Blainey |first=Geoffrey |title=A Game of Our Own: The Origins of Australian Football |publisher=Black Inc. |year=2010 |page=186 |isbn=978-1-86395-347-4}}</ref> In 1858, prominent Australian cricketer [[Tom Wills]] called for the formation of a "foot-ball club" with "a code of laws" to keep cricketers fit during the off-season. The [[Melbourne Football Club]] was founded the following year, and Wills and three other members codified the first laws of the game.<ref>{{cite book |last=de Moore |first=Greg |title=Tom Wills: His Spectacular Rise and Tragic Fall |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=2008 |pages=77, 93–94 |isbn=978-1-74175-499-5}}</ref> It is typically played on [[Australian rules football playing field|modified cricket fields]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Hess |first=Rob |title=A National Game: The History of Australian Rules Football |publisher=Viking |year=2008 |page=44 |isbn=978-0-670-07089-3}}</ref>

In England, a number of [[association football]] clubs owe their origins to cricketers who sought to play football as a means of keeping fit during the winter months. [[Derby County F. C.|Derby County]] was founded as a branch of the [[Derbyshire County Cricket Club]] in 1884;<ref>Goldstein, p. 184.</ref> [[Aston Villa F. C.|Aston Villa]] (1874) and [[Everton F. C.|Everton]] (1876) were both founded by members of church cricket teams.<ref>Goldstein, pp. 15 & 184.</ref> [[Sheffield United F. C.|Sheffield United]]'s [[Bramall Lane]] ground was, from 1854, the home of the [[Sheffield Cricket Club]], and then of [[Yorkshire County Cricket Club|Yorkshire]]; it was not used for football until 1862 and was shared by Yorkshire and Sheffield United from 1889 to 1973.<ref>Goldstein, p. 458.</ref>

In the late 19th century, a former cricketer, English-born [[Henry Chadwick (writer)|Henry Chadwick]] of [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City|New York]], was credited with devising the baseball [[box score (baseball)|box score]]<ref>His Hall of Fame plaque states, in part: "Inventor of the box score. Author of the first rule-book ... Chairman of rules committee in first nationwide baseball organization." Lederer, Rich. ''By the Numbers: Computer technology has deepened fans' passion with the game's statistics. Memories and Dreams'' (Vol. 33, No. 6; Winter 2011[–2012], pp. 32–34). [[National Baseball Hall of Fame]] official magazine.</ref> (which he adapted from the cricket scorecard) for reporting game events. The first box score appeared in an 1859 issue of the ''[[New York Clipper|Clipper]]''.<ref name=NPR>{{cite web |last=Pesca |first=Mike |title=The Man Who Made Baseball's Box Score a Hit |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=106891539 |publisher=[[National Public Radio]] |access-date=8 March 2014 |date=30 July 2009}}</ref> The statistical record is so central to the game's "historical essence" that Chadwick is sometimes referred to as "the Father of Baseball" because he facilitated the popularity of the sport in its early days.<ref name=Myth>{{cite news |last1=Arango |first1=Tim |title=Myth of baseball's creation endures, with a prominent fan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/13/sports/baseball/13doubleday.html |access-date=8 November 2014 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=12 November 2010}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Glossary of cricket terms]]
* [[Willow and Stumpy]]

'''Related sports'''
* [[Street cricket]]
** [[Bete-ombro]] - Brazilian version
** [[Plaquita]] - Dominican version
* [[Baseball]]
** [[Comparison of baseball and cricket]]
* [[Stoolball]]

==Footnotes==
<references group="fn" />

== Citations ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Sources ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Altham |first=H. S. |author-link=Harry Altham |title=A History of Cricket, Volume 1 (to 1914) |year=1962 |publisher=George Allen & Unwin |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Ashley-Cooper |first=F. S. |author-link=F. S. Ashley-Cooper |title=At the Sign of the Wicket: Cricket 1742–1751 |year=1900 |work=Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game |publisher=Cricket Magazine |location=London |oclc=28863559}}
* {{cite book |last=Barclays |title=Barclays World of Cricket |editor-last=Swanton |editor-first=E. W. |editor-link=E. W. Swanton |publisher=Willow Books |location=London |year=1986 |isbn=0-00-218193-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Birley |first=Derek |author-link=Derek Birley |title=A Social History of English Cricket |year=1999 |publisher=Aurum Press Ltd |location=London |isbn=1-85410-710-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Bowen |first=Rowland |author-link=Rowland Bowen |title=Cricket: A History of its Growth and Development |year=1970 |publisher=Eyre & Spottiswoode |location=London |isbn=0-413-27860-3}}
* {{cite book |title=The Rough Guide to English Football (2000–2001) |last=Goldstein |first=Dan |publisher=Rough Guides |location=London |date=2000 |isbn=1-85828-557-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/roughguidetoengl00dang }}
* {{cite book |last=Harte |first=Chris |title=A History of Australian Cricket |year=1993 |publisher=Andre Deutsch |location=London |page=175 |isbn=0-233-98825-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Haygarth |first=Arthur |author-link=Arthur Haygarth |title=Frederick Lillywhite's Cricket Scores & Biographies, Volume 1 (1744–1826) |year=1862 |publisher=Frederick Lillywhite |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Major |first=John |author-link=John Major |title=More Than A Game |year=2007 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=London |isbn=978-0-00-718364-7}}
* {{cite book |last=McCann |first=Tim |author-link=Timothy J. McCann |title=Sussex Cricket in the Eighteenth Century |year=2004 |publisher=Sussex Record Society |location=Lewes |isbn=0-85445-055-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Nyren |first=John |author-link=John Nyren |title=The Cricketers of my Time |orig-year=First published 1833 |editor=Ashley Mote |year=1998 |publisher=Robson Books |location=London |isbn=1-86105-168-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Underdown |first=David |author-link=David Underdown |title=Start of Play |year=2000 |publisher=Allen Lane |location=London |isbn=0-713-99330-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Webber |first=Roy |author-link=Roy Webber |title=The Phoenix History of Cricket |year=1960 |publisher=Phoenix House Ltd |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Williams, Baron Williams of Elvel |title=Gentlemen & Players – The Death of Amateurism in Cricket |year=2012 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-7538-2927-1}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Guha |first=Ramachandra |author-link=Ramachandra Guha |year=2002 |title=A Corner of a Foreign Field: The Indian History of a British Sport |location=London |publisher=Picador |isbn=0-330-49117-2 |oclc=255899689}}

==External links==

'''Organisations and competitions'''
* [http://www.icc-cricket.com/ International Cricket Council (ICC)]

'''Statistics and records'''
* [http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/records/index.html ESPNcricinfo]

'''Media'''
* Explanations of cricket:
** [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g-beFHld19c What Is Cricket? Get to know the sport]: a video produced by the [[International Cricket Council]]

'''News and other resources'''
* [https://www.britannica.com/sports/cricket-sport "Cricket"]. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' Online

{{Navboxes
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}}

[[Category:Cricket| ]]
[[Category:Ball and bat games]]
[[Category:Former Summer Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Sports originating in England]]
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Eashvar Karthic

2023-10-09T10:41:11Z

SSS: Creating Eashvar Karthic with BP:THREE

{{short description|Indian filmmaker and actor}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}{{Use Indian English|date=October 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Eashvar Karthic
| occupation = Film director, Actor
| years_active = 2017 – present
}}

'''Eashvar Karthic''' is an Indian film director and actor who primarily works in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Telugu cinema]]. He made his directorial debut in Tamil with the mystery-thriller film [[Penguin (film)|''Penguin'']] (2020).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-19 |title=I Wanted To Witness Audience's Reactions To My Film: Eashvar Karthic On His Debut Film 'Penguin' |url=https://silverscreenindia.com/streaming/features/i-wanted-to-witness-audiences-reactions-to-my-film-eashvar-karthic-on-his-debut-film-penguin/ |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=Silverscreen India |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=What if there were a Hitler in Chaplin, asks 'Penguin' director Eashvar Karthic |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/tamil/2020/jun/18/what-if-there-were-a-hitler-in-chaplin-asks-penguin-director-eashvar-karthic-2157902.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-18 |title=After 'Mahanati' It Took Me Six Months To Lock The Perfect Script: Keerthy Suresh Ahead Of 'Penguin' Release |url=https://silverscreenindia.com/movies/features/after-mahanati-it-took-me-six-months-to-lock-the-perfect-script-keerthy-suresh-ahead-of-penguin-release/ |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=Silverscreen India |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Early life ==

Eashvar grew up idolizing [[Jackie Chan]] and was inspired by the action films ''[[Rumble in the Bronx]]'' (1995) and [[Who Am I? (1998 film)|''Who Am I?'']] (1998). However, it was after watching [[Mani Ratnam]]'s [[Idhayathai Thirudathe (1989 film)|''Idhayathai Thirudathe'']] on television that he decided to be a part of the [[film industry]].<ref name=":0" /> Prior to his career in cinema, Eashvar had worked in the software industry and later in banking before transitioning into filmmaking in 2013.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2020-06-17 |title='Penguin' director Eashvar Karthic spins a thrilling premise |url=https://gulfnews.com/entertainment/south-indian/penguin-director-eashvar-karthic-spins-a-thrilling-premise-1.1592400766701 |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Career ==
He initially set out to become an actor after leaving his bank job and worked in [[theatre]], where he also discovered his talent for writing.<ref name=":1" /> After a struggle of seven years, he got an acting role in [[Magalir Mattum (2017 film)|''Magalir Mattum'']] (2017) and ''[[V1 Murder Case]]'' (2019). By then, he realized that he was more inclined to [[Film direction]].<ref name=":0" />

For over two years, he struggled to find opportunities until his friend Linga, who also acted on [[Penguin (film)|''Penguin'']] introduced him to [[Vijay Sethupathi]]. Vijay Sethupathi was impressed with one of his scripts and asked him to reach out to [[Stone Bench Creations|Stone Bench Films]], leading to the inception of "[[Penguin (film)|''Penguin'']] (2020)".<ref name=":0" />

Eashvar is currently working on his Telugu directorial debut [[Zebra (film)]], a [[Crime film|Financial Crime Thriller]] film starring [[Satyadev (actor)|Satyadev]], [[Dhananjaya (actor)|Dhananjaya]], [[Priya Bhavani Shankar]], and [[Amrutha Iyengar]]. [[Ravi Basrur]] was roped in as the music director.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pioneer |first=The |date=2023-01-26 |title=Satyadev and Daali Dhananjaya's 26th Pan-India film titled Zebra - The Pioneer |url=https://pynr.in/satyadev-and-daali-dhananjayas-26th-pan-india-film-titled-zebra/ |access-date=2023-10-08 |language=en-US}}</ref> ''Zebra'' is currently in its post-production phase.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Zebra Team begins dubbing |url=https://www.cinemaexpress.com/telugu/news/2023/aug/31/zebra-team-begins-dubbing-47155.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=[[Cinema Express]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Banerjee |first=Shourini |last2=Hameed |first2=Najwa |last3=Sukumar |first3=Akil |date=2021 |title=Female power in women centric tamil films on ott platform amazon prime |url=http://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:mcomm&volume=15&issue=1&article=004 |journal=Mass Communicator: International Journal of Communication Studies |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=27–32 |doi=10.5958/0973-967X.2021.00004.1 |issn=0973-9688}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
{{Pending films key}}

=== As director ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
!Language
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|2020
|''[[Penguin (film)|Penguin]]''
|Tamil|| <ref>{{Cite news |last=S |first=Srivatsan |date=2020-06-19 |title='Penguin' movie review: A confusing thriller with great visuals |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/reviews/penguin-movie-review/article31867265.ece |access-date=2023-10-08 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
|-
|2023
|{{Pending film|[[Zebra (film)|Zebra]]}}
|Telugu|| Post-production<ref>{{Cite web |title=Dhananjay's 26th to be helmed by Telugu director Eashvar Karthic |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/entertainment/telugu/2022/sep/20/dhananjays-26th-to-be-helmed-by-telugu-director-eashvar-karthic-2499897.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
|}

=== As actor ===

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable"
|-
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Title
!Role
! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
|2017
|[[Magalir Mattum (2017 film)|''Magalir Mattum'']]
| || rowspan="2" | <ref name=":0" />
|-
|2019
|''[[V1 Murder Case]]'' || Avinashi
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{IMDb name|id=11178397}}
* {{Twitter|id=EashvarKarthic}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Karthic, Eashvar}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Telugu film directors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian film directors]]
[[Category:21st-century Indian male actors]]
[[Category:Male actors in Tamil cinema]]
[[Category:Tamil male actors]]

Mominpur, Kolkata

2023-10-09T10:29:09Z

SSS: Created page with ''''Mominpur''' is a locality and neighbourhood in Kolkata in the state of West Bengal. It is situated between Khidderpore and New Alipore. It comes under Kolkata district and the Postal Index Number is 700027.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MOMINPUR Pin Code - 700027, Kolkata All Post Office Areas PIN Codes, Search KOLKATA Post Office Address |url=https://news.abplive.com/pincode/west-bengal/kolkata/mominpur-pincode-700027.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=news....'

{{Orphan|date=October 2023}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Mominpur
| official_name = Mominpore
| native_name = मोमिनपुर
| native_name_lang = hi
| settlement_type = Municipality
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = India
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_type2 = Division
| subdivision_type3 = District
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Bengal]]
| subdivision_name2 = Presidency
| subdivision_name3 = [[Kolkata district]]
| subdivision_type4 = Ward
| named_for = Syed Shah Momin Durwesh Baba
| leader_party = [[Trinamool Congress]]
| leader_title = Member of the Legislative Assembly
| leader_name = [[Javed Ahmed Khan]]
| leader_title1 = Member of the Parliament
| leader_name1 = [[Mala Roy]] ([[Trinamool Congress]])
| subdivision_name4 = [[Ward No. 79, Kolkata Municipal Corporation|Ward Number 79]]
}}

'''Mominpur''', also spelled '''Mominpore''', is a locality and neighbourhood in Kolkata in the state of West Bengal. It is situated between [[Kidderpore|Khidderpore]] and [[New Alipore]]. It comes under [[Ward No. 79, Kolkata Municipal Corporation]] of [[Kolkata Municipal Corporation]] of Kolkata district and the Postal Index Number is 700027.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MOMINPUR Pin Code - 700027, Kolkata All Post Office Areas PIN Codes, Search KOLKATA Post Office Address |url=https://news.abplive.com/pincode/west-bengal/kolkata/mominpur-pincode-700027.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=news.abplive.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=News |first=India TV |title=Mominpur Pin Code {{!}} Postal Code (Zip Code) of Mominpur, Kolkata, West Bengal, India |url=https://www.indiatvnews.com/pincode/west-bengal/kolkata/mominpur |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=www.indiatvnews.com}}</ref> There is a planned Metro station named [[Mominpur metro station]].

== Education ==

* Bidya Bharti School, Mominpur
* St. George High School
* Mominpur Government Primary School
* Loyola Higher Secondary School
* Mominpur Saguna High School<ref>{{Cite web |title=MOMINPUR SAGUNA F P SCHOOL - Saguna - Vii District North Twenty Four Pargana (West Bengal) |url=https://schools.org.in/north-twenty-four-pargana/19111902401/mominpur-saguna-f-p-school.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=schools.org.in}}</ref>
* Mominpur UP School<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mominpur U.P. School, Kolkata - Reviews, Address, Admissions and Fees 2023 |url=https://www.icbse.com/schools/mominpur-u-p-school-9qyq1d |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=iCBSE |language=en-US}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Neighbourhoods in Kolkata]]

Sanjana Ramesh

2023-10-08T10:56:00Z

SSS: Created page

{{short description|Indian basketball player (born 2001)}}
'''Sanjana Ramesh''' (born 12 April 2001) is an Indian [[college basketball]] player who plays for the [[Northern Arizona Lumberjacks women's basketball|Northern Arizona Lumberjacks]] of the [[Big Sky Conference]]. She was named in the Indian women's team for [[2022 Asian Games]] in Hangzhou, China.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-26 |title=Full list of Indian athletes for Asian Games 2023 |url=https://www.firstpost.com/sports/asian-games-2023-full-list-of-634-indian-athletes-who-will-take-part-in-hangzhou-event-13042652.html |access-date=2023-10-07 |work=[[Firstpost]] }}</ref>

== Early life ==
Ramesh was born in [[Bangalore]], Karnataka. She attended Delhi Public School (South), Bengaluru.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Achal |first=Ashwin |date=2018-11-15 |title=India’s Sanjana receives Division I scholarship with NAU Basketball |url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/basketball/india-sanjana-ramesh-joins-northern-arizona-lumberjacks-womens-basketball/article25504041.ece |access-date=2023-10-07 |work=[[Sportstar]] }}</ref> Originally from Chennai, Sanjana started playing basketball because her school did not have a football team. She wanted to prove as a sportswoman to her brother, a footballer, and ended up taking basketball as a career.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vaidya |first=Jaideep |date=2018-06-07 |title=Sibling rivalry got her into basketball, but India’s Sanjana Ramesh now has bigger goals |url=https://scroll.in/field/881616/sibling-rivalry-got-her-into-basketball-but-indias-sanjana-ramesh-now-has-bigger-goals |access-date=2023-10-07 |website=Scroll.in }}</ref>

== College career ==
In November 2018, Sanjana signed to play [[college basketball]] at [[Northern Arizona University]], becoming the second Indian female basketball player to earn an [[NCAA Division I]] scholarship after Kavita Akula, who enrolled at [[Grand Canyon University]] in 2017.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-24 |title=Sanjana Ramesh living and thriving in 'isolation' in build-up to second season with Northern Arizona University|url=https://www.firstpost.com/sports/sanjana-ramesh-living-and-thriving-in-isolation-in-build-up-to-second-season-with-northern-arizona-university-9048911.html |access-date=2023-10-07 |work=[[Firstpost]] }}</ref> In 2020, Sanjana received the Golden Eagle Scholar-Athlete Award recipient.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-25 |title=Sanjana Ramesh, adjusting to new normal in a foreign land |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/other-sports/sanjana-ramesh-adjusting-to-new-normal-in-a-foreign-land/story-1nZCRNE1A8S41QFLeM3k4K.html |access-date=2023-10-07 |website=Hindustan Times }}</ref>

==National team career==
Ramesh captained the [[India women's national under-16 basketball team]] at the [[2017 FIBA U16 Women's Asian Championship]]. She helped India win Division B and the country earned a spot in Division A. At the development camp of Basketball Without Borders Asia, Sanjana was awarded the Most Valuable Player that helped her get the US college scholarship.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://nauathletics.com/sports/womens-basketball/roster/sanjana-ramesh/5634 Northern Arizona Lumberjacks bio]
* [https://basketball.asia-basket.com/player/Sanjana-Ramesh/451937?Women=1 Sanjana Ramesh] at [[FIBA Asia]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ramesh, Sanjana}}
[[Category:2001 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Basketball players from Karnataka]]
[[Category:Indian women's basketball players]]
[[Category:Point guards]]
[[Category:Basketball players at the 2022 Asian Games]]
[[Category:Asian Games competitors for India]]
[[Category:Northern Arizona Lumberjacks women's basketball players]]
[[Category:Indian expatriate basketball people in the United States]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Bangalore]]

Deputy Minister of Human Resources (Malaysia)

2023-10-08T10:42:45Z

SSS: Created page with '{{Short description|Malaysian government deputy minister}} The '''Deputy Minister of Human Resources''' (Malay: Timbalan Menteri Sumber Manusia; {{zh|t=人力资源部副部长}}; Tamil: மனித வளத்துறை துணை அமைச்சர் ) is a Malaysian cabinet position serving as deputy head of the Ministry of Human Resources. {{Infobox official post | post = Deputy Minist...'

{{Short description|Malaysian government deputy minister}}
{{Orphan|date=October 2023}}

The '''Deputy Minister of Human Resources''' ([[Malay language|Malay]]: Timbalan Menteri Sumber Manusia; {{zh|t=人力资源部副部长}}; [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: மனித வளத்துறை துணை அமைச்சர் ) is a Malaysian cabinet position serving as deputy head of the Ministry of Human Resources.

{{Infobox official post
| post = Deputy Minister
| body = Human Resources
| native_name = Timbalan Menteri Sumber Manusia
| insignia = Coat of arms of Malaysia.svg
| insigniasize =
| insigniacaption = [[Coat of arms of Malaysia|Coat of Arms]] of [[Government of Malaysia]]
| insigniaalt =
| flag =
| flagsize =
| flagalt =
| flagborder =
| flagcaption =
| image =
| imagesize =
| alt =
| imagecaption =
| incumbent = [[Mustapha Sakmud]]
| acting =
| incumbentsince = {{start date|2022|12|10|df=y}}
| department = [[Ministry of Human Resources (Malaysia)|Ministry of Human Resources]]
| style = Yang Berhormat
| type =
| status =
| abbreviation =
| member_of = [[Cabinet of Malaysia]]
| reports_to = [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Prime Minister]] [[Minister of Human Resources (Malaysia)|Minister of Human Resources]]
| residence =
| seat = Putrajaya
| nominator =
| appointer = Yang di-Pertuan Agong
| appointer_qualified = on advice of the Prime Minister
| termlength =
| termlength_qualified =
| constituting_instrument =
| precursor =
| inaugural = [[V. Manickavasagam]] (as Assistant Minister of Labour)
| formation =
| first =
| last =
| abolished =
| superseded_by =
| succession =
| unofficial_names =
| deputy =
| salary =
| website = 
| footnotes =
}}

==List of Deputy Ministers of Human Resources==
The following individuals have been appointed as Deputy Minister of Human Resources, or any of its precedent titles:<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[The Star (Malaysia)]]|access-date=2 November 2019|date=18 February 2006|url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2006/02/18/ministers-deputies-sworn-in/|title=Ministers, deputies sworn in|work=[[Bernama]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[The Star (Malaysia)]]|access-date=2 November 2019|date=19 March 2008|url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2008/03/19/new-ministers-and-deputy-ministers|title=New ministers and deputy ministers}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Malaysiakini]]|url=https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/102006|title=Najib names his new cabinet|date=9 April 2009|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[New Straits Times]]|title=Najib chairs first cabinet meeting after appointment of new ministers|date=2 July 2014|url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/2015/09/najib-chairs-first-cabinet-meeting-after-appointment-new-ministers|work=[[Bernama]]|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|access-date=2 November 2019|title=Cabinet reshuffle: Who's in, who's out|date=28 July 2015|publisher=[[The Star (Malaysia)]]|url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2015/07/28/new-ministers-cabinet}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[The Star (Malaysia)]]|title=Husni resigns, Noh Omar made minister|date=27 June 2016|url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2016/06/27/najib-cabinet-live-story|last1=Murad|first1=Dina|last2=Kanyakumari|first2=D.|last3=Tan|first3=Yi Liang|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nst.com.my/news/politics/2022/12/859408/full-list-deputy-ministers-announced-pm-anwar|title=Full list of deputy ministers announced by PM Anwar|work=[[New Straits Times]]}}</ref>

'''Colour key''' (for political coalition/parties): 
{|class="wikitable"
! Coalition
! Component party
! Timeline
|-
| rowspan=3|{{legend2|{{party color|Alliance Party (Malaysia)}}|[[Alliance Party (Malaysia)|Alliance Party]]|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
| {{legend2|{{party color|Malaysian Indian Congress}}|[[Malaysian Indian Congress]] (MIC)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
| rowspan=3 align=center | 1957–1973
|-
|{{legend2|{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}|[[United Malays National Organisation]] (UMNO)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
|-
| {{legend2|{{party color|Malaysian Chinese Association}}|[[Malaysian Chinese Association]] (MCA)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
|-
| rowspan=2 | {{legend2|{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}|[[Barisan Nasional]] (BN)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
| {{legend2|{{party color|Malaysian Indian Congress}}|[[Malaysian Indian Congress]] (MIC)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
| rowspan=2 align=center | 1973–present
|-
|{{legend2|{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}|[[United Malays National Organisation]] (UMNO)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
|-
| rowspan=2| {{legend2|{{party color|Pakatan Harapan}}|[[Pakatan Harapan]] (PH)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
| {{legend2|{{party color|National Trust Party (Malaysia)}}|[[National Trust Party (Malaysia)|National Trust Party]] (AMANAH)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
| rowspan=2 align=center | 2015–present
|-
| {{legend2|{{party color|People's Justice Party (Malaysia)}}|[[People's Justice Party (Malaysia)|People's Justice Party]] (PKR)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
|-
| {{legend2|{{party color|Perikatan Nasional}}|[[Perikatan Nasional]] (PN)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
| {{legend2|{{party color|Malaysian Islamic Party}}|[[Malaysian Islamic Party]] (PAS)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}
| align=center | 2020–present
|}

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="9" |

=== Assistant Minister of Labour ===
|-
! Portrait
! Name (Birth–Death) Constituency
! colspan="2" | Political coalition
! colspan="2" | Political party
! Took office
! Left office
! [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Prime Minister]] (Cabinet)
|-
| [[File:Tan Sri V. Manickavasagam.jpg|100px]]
| [[V. Manickavasagam]] {{small|(1926–1979) MP for [[Klang (federal constituency)|Klang]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Alliance Party (Malaysia)}}; color:white"|
| [[Alliance Party (Malaysia)|Alliance]]
! style="background:{{party color|Malaysian Indian Congress}}; color:white"|
| [[Malaysian Indian Congress|MIC]]
| 1961
| 1962
| [[Tunku Abdul Rahman]] {{small|([[Second Rahman cabinet|II]])}}
|-
| [[File:Lee San Choon 2006.jpg|100px]]
| [[Lee San Choon]] {{small|(1935–2023) MP for [[Segamat Selatan (federal constituency)|Segamat Selatan]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|Malaysian Chinese Association}}; color:white"|
| [[Malaysian Chinese Association|MCA]]
|
|
| [[Abdul Razak Hussein]] {{small|([[First Razak cabinet|I]])}}
|-
! colspan="9" |''Post rebranded into Assistant Minister of Labour and Social Welfare''
|-
! colspan="9" |

=== Assistant Minister of Labour and Social Welfare ===
|-
! Portrait
! Name (Birth–Death) Constituency
! colspan="2" | Political coalition
! colspan="2" | Political party
! Took office
! Left office
! [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Prime Minister]] (Cabinet)
|-
|
| [[V. Manickavasagam]] {{small|(1926–1979) MP for [[Klang (federal constituency)|Klang]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|Malaysian Indian Congress}}; color:white"|
| [[Malaysian Indian Congress|MIC]]
| 1962
| 1964
| [[Tunku Abdul Rahman]] {{small|([[Second Rahman cabinet|II]])}}
|-
! colspan="9" |''Post rebranded into Deputy Minister of Labour and Manpower''
|-
! colspan="9" |

=== Deputy Minister of Labour and Manpower ===
|-
! Portrait
! Name (Birth–Death) Constituency
! colspan="2" | Political coalition
! colspan="2" | Political party
! Took office
! Left office
! [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Prime Minister]] (Cabinet)
|-
|
| [[Hassan Adli Arshad]] {{small|(?–?) MP for [[Bagan Datuk (federal constituency)|Bagan Datok]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Malays National Organisation|UMNO]]
| 1974
| 1976
| [[Abdul Razak Hussein]] {{small|([[Second Razak cabinet|II]])}}
|-
|
| [[Abdullah Majid]] {{small|(?–?) MP for [[Raub (federal constituency)|Raub]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Malays National Organisation|UMNO]]
| 1976
| 31 December 1976
| [[Hussein Onn]] {{small|([[First Hussein cabinet|I]]}}
|-
|
| [[K. Pathmanaban]] {{small|(1938–2001) MP for [[Telok Kemang (federal constituency)|Telok Kemang]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|Malaysian Indian Congress}}; color:white"|
| [[Malaysian Indian Congress|MIC]]
| 1 January 1977
| 1981
| [[Hussein Onn]] {{small|([[First Hussein cabinet|I]] • [[Second Hussein cabinet|II]])}}
|-
|
| [[Zakaria Abdul Rahman]] {{small|(?–?) MP for [[Besut (federal constituency)|Besut]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Malays National Organisation|UMNO]]
| rowspan=2|1981
| rowspan=2|1983
| rowspan=2|[[Mahathir Mohamad]] {{small|([[First Mahathir cabinet|I]] • [[Second Mahathir cabinet|II]])}}
|-
|
| [[William Lye Chee Hien]] {{small|(?–?) MP for [[Gaya (federal constituency)|Gaya]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|Sabah People's United Front}}; color:white"|
| [[Sabah People's United Front|BERJAYA]]
|-
! colspan="9" |''Post rebranded into Deputy Minister of Labour''
|-
! colspan="9" |

=== Deputy Minister of Labour ===
|-
! Portrait
! Name (Birth–Death) Constituency
! colspan="2" | Political coalition
! colspan="2" | Political party
! Took office
! Left office
! [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Prime Minister]] (Cabinet)
|-
|
| [[Zakaria Abdul Rahman]] {{small|(?–?) MP for [[Besut (federal constituency)|Besut]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Malays National Organisation|UMNO]]
| rowspan=2|1983
| rowspan=2|1986
| rowspan=2|[[Mahathir Mohamad]] {{small|([[Second Mahathir cabinet|II]])}}
|-
|
| [[William Lye Chee Hien]] {{small|(?–?) MP for [[Gaya (federal constituency)|Gaya]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|Sabah People's United Front}}; color:white"|
| [[Sabah People's United Front|BERJAYA]]
|-
|
| Wan Abu Bakar Wan Mohamad {{small|(?–?) MP for [[Jerantut (federal constituency)|Jerantut]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Malays National Organisation|UMNO]]
| rowspan=2|11 August 1986
| 20 May 1987
| rowspan=3|[[Mahathir Mohamad]] {{small|([[Third Mahathir cabinet|III]])}}
|-
|
| Kalakau Untol {{small|(?–?) MP for [[Tuaran (federal constituency)|Tuaran]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Sabah National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Sabah National Organisation|USNO]]
| rowspan=2|26 October 1990
|-
|
| [[K. Pathmanaban]] {{small|(1938–2001) MP for [[Telok Kemang (federal constituency)|Telok Kemang]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|Malaysian Indian Congress}}; color:white"|
| [[Malaysian Indian Congress|MIC]]
| 20 May 1987
|-
! colspan="9" |''Post rebranded into Deputy Minister of Human Resources''
|-
! colspan="9" |

=== Deputy Minister of Human Resources ===
|-
! Portrait
! Name (Birth–Death) Constituency
! colspan="2" | Political coalition
! colspan="2" | Political party
! Took office
! Left office
! [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Prime Minister]] (Cabinet)
|-
|
| M. Mahalingam {{small|(?–?) MP for [[Kapar (federal constituency)|Kapar]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|Malaysian Indian Congress}}; color:white"|
| [[Malaysian Indian Congress|MIC]]
| 1 December 1993
| 3 May 1995
| [[Mahathir Mohamad]] {{small|([[Fourth Mahathir cabinet|IIII]])}}
|-
|
| [[Abdul Kadir Sheikh Fadzir]] {{small|(?–?) MP for [[Kulim-Bandar Baharu (federal constituency)|Kulim-Bandar Baharu]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Malays National Organisation|UMNO]]
| 8 May 1995
| 12 November 1996
| rowspan=2|[[Mahathir Mohamad]] {{small|([[Fifth Mahathir cabinet|V]])}}
|-
|
| [[Affifudin Omar]] {{small|(?–?) MP for [[Padang Terap (federal constituency)|Padang Terap]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Malays National Organisation|UMNO]]
| 12 November 1996
| 14 December 1999
|-
|
| [[Abdul Latiff Ahmad]] {{small|(b.1958) MP for [[Mersing (federal constituency)|Mersing]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Malays National Organisation|UMNO]]
| 15 December 1999
| 26 March 2004
| [[Mahathir Mohamad]] {{small|([[Sixth Mahathir cabinet|VI]])}} [[Abdullah Ahmad Badawi]]br>{{small|([[First Abdullah cabinet|I]])}}
|-
|
| [[Abdul Rahman Bakar]] {{small|(b.1952) MP for [[Marang (federal constituency)|Marang]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Malays National Organisation|UMNO]]
| 27 March 2004
| 18 March 2008
| [[Abdullah Ahmad Badawi]] {{small|([[Second Abdullah cabinet|II]])}}
|-
|
| [[Noraini Ahmad]] {{small|(b.1967) MP for [[Parit Sulong (federal constituency)|Parit Sulong]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Malays National Organisation|UMNO]]
| 19 March 2008
| 9 April 2009
| [[Abdullah Ahmad Badawi]] {{small|([[Third Abdullah cabinet|III]])}}
|-
|
| Maznah Mazlan {{small|(b.?) Senator}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Malays National Organisation|UMNO]]
| 10 April 2009
| 15 May 2013
| [[Najib Razak]] {{small|([[First Najib cabinet|I]])}}
|-
|
| [[Ismail Abdul Muttalib]] {{small|(b.1954) MP for [[Maran (federal constituency)|Maran]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Barisan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Barisan Nasional|BN]]
! style="background:{{party color|United Malays National Organisation}}; color:white"|
| [[United Malays National Organisation|UMNO]]
| 16 May 2013
| 9 May 2018
| [[Najib Razak]] {{small|([[Second Najib cabinet|II]])}}
|-
| [[File:Mahfuz Omar 2013.png|100px]]
| [[Mahfuz Omar]] {{small|(b.1957) MP for [[Pokok Sena (federal constituency)|Pokok Sena]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Pakatan Harapan}}; color:white"|
| [[Pakatan Harapan|PH]]
! style="background:{{party color|National Trust Party (Malaysia)}}; color:white"|
| [[National Trust Party (Malaysia)|AMANAH]]
| 2 July 2018
| 24 February 2020
| [[Mahathir Mohamad]] {{small|([[Seventh Mahathir cabinet|VII]])}}
|-
| [[File:Awang Hashim.jpg|100px]]
| [[Awang Hashim]] {{small|(b.?) MP for [[Pendang (federal constituency)|Pendang]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Perikatan Nasional}}; color:white"|
| [[Perikatan Nasional|PN]]
! style="background:{{party color|Malaysian Islamic Party}}; color:white"|
| [[Malaysian Islamic Party|PAS]]
| 10 March 2020
| 24 November 2022
| [[Muhyiddin Yassin]] {{small|([[Muhyiddin cabinet|I]])}} [[Ismail Sabri Yaakob]] {{small|([[Ismail Sabri cabinet|I]])}}
|-
|
| [[Mustapha Sakmud]] {{small|(b.1968) MP for [[Sepanggar (federal constituency)|Sepanggar]]}}
! style="background:{{party color|Pakatan Harapan}}; color:white"|
| [[Pakatan Harapan|PH]]
! style="background:{{party color|People's Justice Party (Malaysia)}}; color:white"|
| [[People's Justice Party (Malaysia)|PKR]]
| 10 December 2022
| ''Incumbent''
| [[Anwar Ibrahim]] {{small|([[Anwar Ibrahim cabinet|I]])}}
|-
|}

== See also ==
* [[Minister of Human Resources (Malaysia)]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Ministry of Human Resources (Malaysia)]]
[[Category:Politics of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Government of Malaysia]]

Kartikeya Singh

2023-10-07T11:47:10Z

SSS: Created page with ''''Kartikeya Singh''' (also known as '''Kartik Singh''' and '''Kartik Kumar''') is an Indian politician affiliated with the Rashtriya Janata Dal. He currently serves as a member of the Bihar Legislative Council and was appointed as a Cabinet Minister in the government led by Nitish Kumar in Bihar.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bihar's newly sworn-in law minister avoids warrant in kidnapping case |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/politi...'

{{Short description|Indian politician}}
{{Orphan|date=October 2023}}

{{Infobox politician
| name = Kartikeya Singh
| image =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| residence = [[Mokama]]
| nationality = Indian
| party = [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]]
| office = [[Member of Legislative Council]]
| term_start = April 2022
| term_end = Incumbent
| office2 = [[Minister of Law (India)|Minister of Law]]
| term_start2 = August 16, 2022<ref>{{cite news |title=Kartikeya Singh Profile: जानिए बिहार के कानून मंत्री के बारे में जिन पर दर्ज है अपहरण का केस |url=https://www.naidunia.com/national-kartikeya-singh-case-of-kidnapping-against-bihar-law-minister-was-to-be-presented-on-the-day-he-took-oath-7748385 |publisher=Nai Duniya |date=August 17, 2022 |language=Hindi}}</ref>
| term_end2 = August 31, 2022
| occupation = [[Politician]]
| spouse = Ranjana Kumari
| office3 = Minister of Sugarcane Industries
| term_start3 = August 31, 2022
| term_end3 = August 31, 2022
}}

'''Kartikeya Singh''' (also known as '''Kartik Singh''', '''Kartik Kumar''' and '''Kartik Master'''<ref>{{cite news |title=Bihar CM Nitish Kumar shifts tainted minister Kartik Master |url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/bihar-nitish-kumar-kartik-master-1503106102.html |publisher=[[The Statesman (India)|The Statesman]] |date=August 31, 2022}}</ref>) is an Indian politician affiliated with the [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]]. He currently serves as a member of the [[Bihar Legislative Council]] and was appointed as a [[Cabinet minister]] in the government led by [[Nitish Kumar]] in [[Bihar]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Bihar's newly sworn-in law minister avoids warrant in kidnapping case |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/politics/bihar-s-newly-sworn-in-law-minister-avoids-warrant-in-kidnapping-case-122081700591_1.html |publisher=[[Business Standard]] |date=August 17, 2022}}</ref>

== Background and career ==
Kartik Kumar is considered to be close to don-turned-politician [[Anant Kumar Singh]]. He was elected to the [[Bihar Legislative Council]] in April 2022, winning the election from Patna on the ticket of [[Rashtriya Janata Dal]].<ref>{{cite news |title='Tainted' Bihar minister Kartik Kumar resigns hours after being handed new portfolio |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/bihar-minister-kartikeya-singh-accused-in-kidnapping-case-resigns-1994945-2022-08-31 |publisher=[[India Today]] |date=September 1, 2022}}</ref>

He briefly served as Bihar's Law Minister before his removal from the position in August 2022. He was removed from the post of Law Minister due to facing kidnapping charges in a 2014 case and being issued a warrant in the case by the Danapur sub-divisional court. His removal came following opposition from various political parties and public protests against his appointment to the Law Ministry. After his removal from the Law Ministry, Kartik Kumar was appointed as the Minister of Sugarcane Industries. However, he resigned from this position on the same day of his appointment.<ref>{{cite news |title=Kartikeya Singh, Bihar minister who resigned faces kidnapping charges |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/new-bihar-law-minister-kartikeya-singh-faces-arrest-in-kidnapping-case-bjp-questions-8095292/ |publisher=[[Indian Express]] |date=September 1, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Controversial Bihar minister's portfolio changed, CM Nitish Kumar shifts Kartikeya to sugarcane ministry |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/controversial-bihar-ministers-portfolio-changed-cm-nitish-kumar-shifts-kartikeya-to-sugarcane-ministry/videoshow/93900177.cms?from=mdr |publisher=[[Times of India]] |date=August 31, 2022}}</ref>

He was a teacher before entering politics. His wife, Ranjana Kumari, served as the chief ([[village head|Mukhiya]]) for two consecutive terms. He came into contact with [[Anant Kumar Singh]] in 2005. He also served as an election strategist for Anant Singh. He has assets worth Rs. 99 crore, as per his declaration in the election.<ref name=ujala>{{cite news |last1=Jha |first1=Sanjeev Kumar |title=Bihar Cabinet: दागी कार्तिकेय सिंह से छिना कानून मंत्रालय, अब सीएम नीतीश ने दी ये जिम्मेदारी |url=https://www.amarujala.com/bihar/law-ministry-snatched-from-kartikeya-singh-after-serious-allegations-now-got-this-department |publisher=[[Amar Ujala]] |date=August 11, 2022}}</ref>

As of August 2020, he faces multiple charges including [[theft]], [[kidnapping]], [[rioting]], obstructing government work, [[criminal conspiracy]] and [[extortion]] while armed with deadly weapons. He is also accused of causing damage to public infrastructure such as roads, bridges and rivers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kartik Kumar (Winner) |url=https://myneta.info/biharmlc/candidate.php?candidate_id=325 |publisher=My Neta Info}}</ref><ref name=ujala/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Members of the Bihar Legislative Council]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Janata Dal (United) politicians]]

{{Bihar-RJD-politician-stub}}

Koshal

2023-10-07T10:00:40Z

SSS: redirect page

'''Koshal''' is the surname of the following notable people:
*[[Raghuveer Singh Koshal]] (1933–2015), Indian politician
*[[Syarhey Koshal]] (born 1986), Belarusian football player

==See also==
*[[Kosal (disambiguation)]]
*[[Koshel]]

{{surname}}

Gurkeerat Singh Mann

2022-10-30T14:24:45Z

SSS: Redirected page to Gurkeerat Singh

#REDIRECT[[Gurkeerat Singh]]

Rape

2022-10-22T18:41:14Z

SSS: Finished writing a new contribution.

{{Short description|Type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse without consent}}
{{About|a form of human sexual assault|rape among non-human animals|Sexual coercion among animals|other uses|Rape (disambiguation)}}

[[File:Comprehensive Scale of Rape (2018) - LRW-SCALE-11.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|A map of the world showing a composite index about rape of women in 2018, data by [[WomanStats Project]]. {{legend|#ffffff|Rape is not a major problem in this society}}
{{legend|#fef0d9|Rape is a problem in this society}}
{{legend|#fdcc8a|Rape is a significant problem in this society}}
{{legend|#fc8d59|Rape is a major problem in this society}}
{{legend|#d7301f|Rape is endemic in this society}}
{{legend|#c4c4c4|No data}}]]
{{rape}}

'''Rape''' is a type of [[sexual assault]] involving [[sexual intercourse]] or other forms of [[sexual penetration]] carried out against a person without their [[consent]]. The act may be carried out by physical force, [[coercion]], [[Abusive power and control|abuse of authority]], or against a person who is incapable of giving valid consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, has an [[intellectual disability]], or is below the legal [[age of consent]].<ref name="Chapter 6">{{cite web |title=Chapter 6: Sexual Violence |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42495/9241545615_eng.pdf?sequence=1 |access-date=11 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schulhofer |first1=Stephen J. |title=Reforming the Law of Rape |journal=Minnesota Journal of Law & Inequality |volume=35 |page=335}}</ref> The term ''rape'' is sometimes used interchangeably with the term ''sexual assault.''<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Petrak |editor1-first=Jenny |editor2-last=Hedge |editor2-first=Barbara|title=The Trauma of Sexual Assault Treatment, Prevention and Practice. |year=2003 |location=Chichester |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-85138-8 |page=2 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=6KZfQ6cSVHoC |page=2}}}}</ref>

The rate of reporting, prosecuting and convicting for rape varies between jurisdictions. Internationally, the incidence of rapes recorded by the police during 2008 ranged, per 100,000 people, from 0.2 in [[Azerbaijan]] to 92.9 in [[Botswana]] with 6.3 in [[Lithuania]] as the [[median]].<ref name="unodc1">[http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Crime-statistics/Sexual_violence_sv_against_children_and_rape.xls "Rape at the National Level, number of police recorded offenses".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029210321/http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Crime-statistics/Sexual_violence_sv_against_children_and_rape.xls }} United Nations.</ref> Worldwide, [[sexual violence]], including rape, is primarily committed by males against females.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs239/en/ |title=Violence against women |website=World Health Organization |access-date=2017-09-08}}</ref> Rape by strangers is usually less common than rape by people the victim knows, and [[Rape of males by males|male-on-male]] and [[Lesbian rape|female-on-female]] [[prison rape]]s are common and may be the least reported forms of rape.<ref>[[Human Rights Watch]] [https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2001/prison/report7.html#_1_48 No Escape: Male Rape In U.S. Prisons. Part VII. Anomaly or Epidemic: The Incidence of Prisoner-on-Prisoner Rape.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903190935/http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2001/prison/report7.html#_1_48 }}; estimates that 100,000–140,000 violent male-male rapes occur in U.S. prisons annually; compare with [https://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2007/offenses/violent_crime/forcible_rape.html FBI statistics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916010913/http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2007/offenses/violent_crime/forcible_rape.html }} that estimate 90,000 violent male-female rapes occur annually.</ref><ref>Robert W. Dumond, "Ignominious Victims: Effective Treatment of Male Sexual Assault in Prison," August 15, 1995, p. 2; states that "evidence suggests that [male-male sexual assault in prison] may be a staggering problem". Quoted in {{Cite book |last1=Mariner |first1=Joanne |last2=(Organization) |first2=Human Rights Watch |title=No escape: male rape in U.S. prisons |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=QkFfYfEO5IgC |page=370}} |access-date=7 June 2010|date=2001-04-17|publisher=Human Rights Watch|isbn=978-1-56432-258-6|page=370}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Struckman-Johnson |first=Cindy |author2=David Struckman-Johnson |year=2006 |title=A Comparison of Sexual Coercion Experiences Reported by Men and Women in Prison |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |volume=21 |issue=12 |pages=1591–1615 |issn=0886-2605 |pmid=17065656 |doi=10.1177/0886260506294240|s2cid=27639359 }}; reports that "Greater percentages of men (70%) than women (29%) reported that their incident resulted in oral, vaginal, or anal sex. More men (54%) than women (28%) reported an incident that was classified as rape."</ref>

Widespread and systematic rape (e.g., [[war rape]]) and [[sexual slavery]] can occur during international conflict. These practices are [[crimes against humanity]] and [[war crime]]s. Rape is also recognized as an element of the crime of [[genocide]] when committed with the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a targeted ethnic group.

People who have been raped can be [[Psychological trauma|traumatized]] and develop [[posttraumatic stress disorder|post-traumatic stress disorder]].<ref name="aaets">{{cite web |url=http://www.aaets.org/article178.htm |title=Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in Rape Survivors |publisher=The American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress |year=1995 |access-date=2013-04-30}}</ref> Serious injuries can result along with the risk of [[pregnancy]] and [[sexually transmitted infection]]s. A person may face violence or threats from the rapist, and, sometimes, from the victim's family and relatives.<ref name="zeenews.india">{{cite web |url=http://zeenews.india.com/news/uttar-pradesh/rape-victim-threatened-to-withdraw-case-in-up_694364.html |title=Rape victim threatened to withdraw case in UP |publisher=Zeenews.india.com |access-date=2013-02-03}}</ref><ref name="wisemuslimwomen">{{cite web |url=http://www.wisemuslimwomen.org/currentissues/stigmitizationofrape/ |title=Stigmatization of Rape & Honor Killings |publisher=WISE Muslim Women |access-date=2013-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108041415/http://www.wisemuslimwomen.org/currentissues/stigmitizationofrape/ |archive-date=2012-11-08 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="bbc">{{Cite news |last=Harter |first=Pascale |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13760895 |title=BBC News – Libya rape victims 'face honour killings' |journal=BBC News |access-date=2013-02-03}}</ref>
{{TOC limit}}

== Etymology ==

The term ''rape'' originates from the [[Latin language|Latin]] [[wikt:Special:Search/rapere|''rapere'']] (supine stem ''raptum''), "to snatch, to grab, to carry off".<ref name = "cor">Corinne J. Saunders, ''Rape and Ravishment in the Literature of Medieval England'', Boydell & Brewer, 2001, p. 20.</ref><ref name = "Kei">Keith Burgess-Jackson, ''A Most Detestable Crime: New Philosophical Essays on Rape'', Oxford University Press, New York, 1999, p.16.</ref> In Roman law, the carrying off of a woman by force, with or without intercourse, constituted "raptus".<ref name = "Kei"/> In [[Medieval English]] law the same term could refer to either kidnapping or rape in the modern sense of "sexual violation".<ref name = "cor"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Burgess-Jackson |first1=Keith |title=A most detestable crime : new philosophical essays on rape |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=9780195120752 |page=16}}</ref> The original meaning of "carry off by force" is still found in some phrases, such as "rape and pillage", or in titles, such as the stories of the [[The Rape of the Sabine Women|Rape of the Sabine Women]] and [[Europa (mythology)|The Rape of Europa]] or the poem ''[[The Rape of the Lock]]'', which is about the theft of a lock of hair.

== Definitions ==
=== General ===
{{Main|Types of rape|Laws regarding rape}}
{{See also|Rape by gender}}
Rape is defined in most jurisdictions as [[sexual intercourse]], or other forms of [[sexual penetration]], committed by a perpetrator against a victim without their [[consent]].<ref name="Book04">{{cite book |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Merril D. |title=Encyclopedia of rape |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediarape00smit_435 |url-access=limited |year=2004 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Conn. [u.a.] |isbn=978-0-313-32687-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediarape00smit_435/page/n190 169]–170 |edition= 1st}}</ref> The definition of rape is inconsistent between governmental health organizations, law enforcement, health providers, and legal professions.<ref name="Maier2008" /> It has varied historically and culturally.<ref name="Book04"/><ref name="Maier2008">{{cite journal |last1=Maier |first1=S. L. |title="I Have Heard Horrible Stories...": Rape Victim Advocates' Perceptions of the Revictimization of Rape Victims by the Police and Medical System |journal=Violence Against Women |volume=14 |issue=7 |year=2008 |pages=786–808 |issn=1077-8012 |doi=10.1177/1077801208320245|pmid=18559867 |s2cid=12906072 }}</ref> Originally, ''rape'' had no sexual connotation and is still used in other contexts in English. In [[Roman law]], it or ''raptus'' was classified as a form of ''crimen vis'', "crime of assault".<ref>[[Justinian]], ''Institutiones'' [http://www.constitution.org/sps/sps02_j1-4.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143943/http://www.constitution.org/sps/sps02_j1-4.htm}}</ref><ref>Adolf Berger, ''Encyclopedic Dictionary on Roman Law'', pp. 667 (''raptus'') and 768 (''vis'') [{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=iklePELtR6QC }}]</ref> ''Raptus'' referred to the abduction of a woman against the will of the man under whose authority she lived, and sexual intercourse was not a necessary element. Other definitions of rape have changed over time. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia considered rape as a crime that required coercion or force or threat of force against the victim or a third person.<ref>{{cite web |title=Rule 93. Rape and Other forms of Sexual Violence |url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule93 |access-date=17 October 2022 |publisher=International Committee of the Red Cross}}</ref>

Until 2012, the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) considered rape a crime solely committed by men against women. In 2012, they changed their definition from "The carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will" to "The penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or [[Oral sex|oral penetration]] by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim." The previous definition, which had remained unchanged since 1927, was considered outdated and narrow. The updated definition includes recognizing any gender of victim and perpetrator and that rape with an object can be as traumatic as penile/vaginal rape. The bureau further describes instances when the victim is unable to give consent because of mental or physical incapacity. It recognizes that a victim can be incapacitated by drugs and alcohol and unable to give valid consent. The definition does not change federal or state criminal codes or impact charging and prosecution on the federal, state, or local level; it rather means that rape will be more accurately reported nationwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.usdoj.gov/blog/archives/1801 |title=An Updated Definition of Rape (U.S. Dept of Justice, January 6, 2012) |access-date=30 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313021145/http://blogs.usdoj.gov/blog/archives/1801 |archive-date=13 March 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/07/us/politics/federal-crime-statistics-to-expand-rape-definition.html |title=Federal Crime Statistics to Expand Rape Definition |work=The New York Times |first=Charlie|last=Savage |via=NYTimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fbi.gov/audio-repository/news-podcasts-thisweek-rape-definition-changed/view |title=Rape Definition Changed}}</ref>

Health organizations and agencies have also expanded rape beyond traditional definitions. The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) defines rape as a form of [[sexual assault]],<ref name="Krug2002">{{cite web |title=WORLD REPORT ON VIOLENCE AND HEALTH |publisher=World Health Organization |page=149 |access-date=5 December 2015 |editor1-last=Krug |editor1-first=Etienne G. |display-editors=etal |isbn=978-92-4-154561-7 |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42495/1/9241545615_eng.pdf}}</ref> while the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) includes rape in their definition of sexual assault; they term rape a form of [[sexual violence]]. The CDC lists other acts of coercive, non-consensual sexual activity that may or may not include rape, including [[drug-facilitated sexual assault]], acts in which a victim is made to penetrate a perpetrator or someone else, intoxication where the victim is unable to consent (due to incapacitation or being unconscious), non-physically forced penetration which occurs after a person is pressured verbally (by intimidation or misuse of authority to force to consent), or completed or attempted forced penetration of a victim via unwanted physical force (including using a weapon or threatening to use a weapon).<ref name = cdcstats>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/sv_surveillance_definitionsl-2009-a.pdf |access-date=6 June 2017 |publisher=National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title=Sexual Violence Surveillance: Uniform Definitions and Recommended Data Elements, Version 2.0. |last1=Basile |first1=KC |last2=Smith |first2=SG |last3=Breiding |first3=MJ |last4=Black |first4=MC |last5=Mahendra |first5=RR}}</ref><ref name=Markovchick2016>{{cite book |last=Markovchick |first=Vincent |title=Emergency medicine secrets |publisher=Elsevier |location=Philadelphia, PA |year=2016 |isbn=9780323355162 |pages=516–520 |chapter=Sexual Assault}}</ref> The [[Veterans Health Administration]] (VHA) has implemented universal screening for what has been termed "military sexual trauma" ([[Military sexual trauma|MST]]) and provides medical and [[mental health]] services free of charge to enrolled veterans who report MST (Title 38 United States Code 1720D; Public Law 108–422).

Some countries or jurisdictions differentiate between rape and sexual assault by defining rape as involving penile penetration of the vagina, or solely penetration involving the penis, while other types of non-consensual sexual activity are called sexual assault.<ref name="Kalbfleisch">{{cite book |last1=Kalbfleisch |first1=Pamela J. |last2=Cody |first2=Michael J. |title=Gender Power and Communication in Human Relationships |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2012 |access-date=April 30, 2013 |isbn=978-1-136-48050-8 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=LyMo1RUJwj0C |page=218}} }}</ref><ref name="Plummer">{{cite book |author=Ken Plummer |title=Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experiences |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |pages=187–191 |access-date=August 24, 2013 |isbn=978-1-134-92242-0 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=OSO3q4XEfz4C |page=189}} }}</ref> Scotland, for example, emphasizes penile penetration, requiring that the sexual assault must have been committed by use of a penis to qualify as rape.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sexual Offences (Scotland) Act 2009 |publisher=legislation.gov.uk/[[UK Statute Law Database]] |year=2009 |access-date=December 12, 2013 |url=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2009/9/section/1}}</ref><ref name="BBC News, rape">{{cite news |author1=Tom de Castella |author2=Jon Kelly |title=Assange case: How is rape defined? |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-19333439 |access-date=December 12, 2013}}</ref> The 1998 [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] defines rape as "a physical invasion of a sexual nature committed on a person under circumstances which are coercive".<ref name="Book04" /> In other cases, the term ''rape'' has been phased out of legal use in favor of terms such as ''sexual assault'' or ''criminal sexual conduct''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.msu.edu/~sdclub/resources/criminal%20code.doc |title=Criminal code |access-date=2010-12-31}}</ref>

=== Scope ===
[[File:Listening to girls in Zambia (8220719638).jpg|thumb|In [[Zambia]], 43% of girls and women between the ages of 15 and 49 have experienced some form of sexual violence.<ref>{{cite news |title=Zambia: End Sexual Violence in Schools |url=https://www.equalitynow.org/zambia_end_sexual_violence_in_schools |work=[[Equality Now]]}}</ref>]]
Victims of rape or sexual assault come from a wide range of [[gender]]s, ages, [[sexual orientation]]s, ethnicities, geographical locations, cultures, and degrees of impairment or disability. Incidences of rape are classified into a number of categories, and they may describe the relationship of the perpetrator to the victim and the context of the sexual assault. These include [[date rape]], [[gang rape]], [[marital rape]], [[incest|incestual rape]], [[child sexual abuse]], [[prison rape]], [[acquaintance rape]], [[war rape]] and [[statutory rape]]. Forced sexual activity can be committed over a long period of time with little to no physical injury.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/sexinfo/article/rape |title=UCSB's SexInfo |publisher=Soc.ucsb.edu |access-date=2010-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407114548/http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/sexinfo/article/rape |archive-date=2019-04-07 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Rosdahl">{{cite book |last=Rosdahl |first=Caroline |title=Textbook of basic nursing |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Philadelphia |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-60547-772-5}}</ref><ref name="Kelly2011" />

=== Consent ===
{{See also|Bodily integrity|Consent|Sexual consent|Freedom of choice}}
Lack of consent is key to the definition of rape.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tchen |first1=C.M. |title=Rape Reform and a Statutory Consent Defense |journal=Journal of Law and Criminology |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=1518–1555 |doi=10.2307/1143064 |jstor=1143064 |url=https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6408&context=jclc }}</ref> Consent is affirmative "informed approval, indicating a freely given agreement" to sexual activity.<ref name="cdcstats" /> It is not necessarily expressed verbally, and may instead be overtly implied from actions, but the absence of objection does not constitute consent.<ref name="Gruber2016">{{cite journal |last=Gruber |first=Aya |title=Consent Confusion |url=http://scholar.law.colorado.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=articles |journal=Cardozo Law Review |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=415–458 |access-date=March 20, 2017 |archive-date=March 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321171150/http://scholar.law.colorado.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=articles |url-status=dead }}</ref> Lack of consent may result from either forcible compulsion by the perpetrator or an inability to consent on the part of the victim (such as people who are asleep, intoxicated or otherwise mentally compromised).<ref name="amnesty.org">[https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ior53/001/2011/en/ Rape and sexual violence: Human rights law and standards in the International Criminal Court] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307175250/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ior53/001/2011/en/ }}. Amnesty International 2011</ref> Sexual intercourse with a person below the [[age of consent]], i.e., the age at which legal competence is established, is referred to as statutory rape.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koon-Magnin |first1=Sarah |last2=Ruback |first2=R. Barry |title=The perceived legitimacy of statutory rape laws: the effects of victim age, perpetrator age, and age span: The perceived legitimacy of statutory rape laws |journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology |volume=43 |issue=9 |pages=1918–1930 |doi=10.1111/jasp.12131}}</ref> In India, consensual sex given on the false promise of marriage constitutes rape.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/sex-on-false-promise-of-marriage-is-rape-supreme-court/article26831183.ece|title=Sex on false promise of marriage is rape: Supreme Court|last=Correspondent|first=Legal|work=The Hindu|access-date=2019-04-14|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

[[Duress]] is the situation when the person is threatened by force or violence and may result in the absence of an objection to sexual activity. This can lead to the presumption of consent.<ref name="amnesty.org" /> Duress may be actual or threatened force or violence against the victim or someone close to the victim. Even [[blackmail]] may constitute duress. [[Abuse of power]] may constitute duress. For instance, in the Philippines, a man commits rape if he engages in sexual intercourse with a woman ''"By means of fraudulent machination or grave abuse of authority"''.<ref>[http://www.chanrobles.com/republicactno8353.htm REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8353] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920031202/http://www.chanrobles.com/republicactno8353.htm }}. Philippine Law. Approved: September 30, 1997</ref> The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in its landmark 1998 judgment used a definition of rape that did not use the word 'consent': "a physical invasion of a sexual nature committed on a person ''under circumstances which are coercive''."<ref>[http://www.unictr.org/Portals/0/English%5CAnnualReports%5Ca-54-315.pdf Fourth Annual Report of ICTR to the General Assembly (1999)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103151517/http://www.unictr.org/Portals/0/English/AnnualReports/a-54-315.pdf }} March 23, 2007</ref>

Marital rape, or spousal rape, is non-consensual sex in which the perpetrator is the victim's spouse. It is a form of [[Sexual violence by intimate partners|partner rape]], [[domestic violence]], and sexual abuse. Once widely accepted or ignored by law, marital rape is now denounced by international conventions and is increasingly criminalized. Still, in many countries, marital rape either remains legal or is illegal but widely tolerated and accepted as a husband's prerogative. In 2006, the UN Secretary-General's ''In-depth study on all forms of violence against women'' stated that (pg 113): "Marital rape may be prosecuted in at least 104 states. Of these, 32 have made marital rape a specific criminal offense, while the remaining 74 do not exempt marital rape from general rape provisions. Marital rape is not a prosecutable offense in at least 53 States. Four States criminalize marital rape only when the spouses are judicially separated. Four States are considering legislation that would allow marital rape to be prosecuted."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/vaw/publications/English%20Study.pdf |title=VAW/for printer/1/14/0 |access-date=2014-02-12}}</ref> Since 2006, several other states have outlawed marital rape (for example [[Thailand]] in 2007<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6225872.stm |title=Asia-Pacific | Thailand passes marital rape bill |work=BBC News |access-date=2014-02-12}}</ref>).

In the US, the criminalization of marital rape started in the mid-1970s, and in 1993 North Carolina became the last state to make marital rape illegal.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1957&dat=19930702&id=_xYxAAAAIBAJ&pg=6288,228462 |title=The Daily Gazette — Google News Archive Search |access-date=30 October 2014}}</ref> In many countries, it is not clear if marital rape may or may not be prosecuted under ordinary rape laws. In the absence of a marital rape law, it may be possible to bring prosecution for acts of forced sexual intercourse inside marriage by prosecuting, through the use of other criminal offenses (such as assault based offenses), the acts of violence or criminal threat that were used to obtain submission.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aware.org.sg/rape/ |title=Rape & Sexual Assault | AWARE Singapore |publisher=Aware.org.sg |access-date=2014-02-12}}</ref>

Consent may be complicated by law, language, context, culture and sexual orientation.<ref name="Kulick2003">{{cite journal |last1=Kulick |first1=Don |title=No |journal=Language & Communication |volume=23 |issue=2 |year=2003 |pages=139–151 |issn=0271-5309 |doi=10.1016/S0271-5309(02)00043-5}}</ref> Studies have shown that men consistently perceive women's actions as more sexual than they intend.<ref>{{Cite book | chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-rape/#MenRea|title=Mens rea|chapter=Feminist Perspectives on Rape|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|year=2017}}</ref> In addition, verbalized "no" to sex may be interpreted as "keep trying", or even "yes" by offenders. Some may believe that when injuries are not visible, the woman must have consented. If a man solicits sex from another man, the pursuer may be regarded as virile.<ref name="Kulick2003"/>

== Motives ==
{{Further|Causes of sexual violence}}
The WHO states that the principal factors that lead to the perpetration of sexual violence against women, including rape, are:<ref>{{cite web |last=WHO | author-link = World Health Organization |title=Violence against women |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs239/en/ |website=who.int |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |access-date=3 February 2013}}</ref>
* beliefs in family honor and sexual purity;
* attitudes of [[male entitlement|male sexual entitlement]];
* weak legal sanctions for sexual violence.

No single facet explains the motivation for rape; the underlying motives of rapists can be multi-faceted. Several factors have been proposed: [[anger]],<ref>Oliva, Janet R. S''exually Motivated Crimes: Understanding the Profile of the Sex Offender and Applying Theory to Practice''. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2013.Pg 72</ref> [[power (philosophy)|power]],<ref>Oliva, Janet R. ''Sexually Motivated Crimes: Understanding the Profile of the Sex Offender and Applying Theory to Practice''. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2013.Pg 72</ref> [[Sexual sadism disorder|sadism]], sexual gratification, or [[Sociobiological theories of rape|evolutionary proclivities]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thornhill |first1=Randy |last2=Palmer |first2=Craig T. |title=A natural history of rape biological bases of sexual coercion |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-282-09687-5}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Pinker |first=Steven |contribution=Chapter 19: children |editor-last=Pinker |editor-first=Steven |title=The blank slate: the modern denial of human nature |pages=372–399 |publisher=Penguin Group |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-101-20032-2 |postscript=.}}</ref> However, some factors have significant causal evidence supporting them. American [[clinical psychologist]] [[David Lisak]], co-author of a 2002 study of undetected rapists,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lisak |first1=David |last2=Miller |first2=Paul M. |author-link1=David Lisak |title=Repeat rape and multiple offending among undetected rapists |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |journal=[[Violence & Victims]] |doi=10.1891/vivi.17.1.73.33638 |pmid=11991158|s2cid=8401679 }} [http://www.innovations.harvard.edu/cache/documents/1348/134851.pdf Pdf.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019071835/http://www.innovations.harvard.edu/cache/documents/1348/134851.pdf }}</ref> says that compared with non-rapists, both undetected and convicted rapists are measurably more angry at women and more motivated by a desire to dominate and control them, are more impulsive, disinhibited, anti-social, [[hypermasculine]], and less empathic.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lisak |first=David |author-link=David Lisak |title=Understanding the predatory nature of sexual violence |journal=Sexual Assault Report |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=49–64 |url=http://www.civicresearchinstitute.com/sar.html |access-date=10 June 2014 }} [http://www.davidlisak.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf/SARUnderstandingPredatoryNatureSexualViolence.pdf Pdf.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180918030047/http://www.davidlisak.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf/SARUnderstandingPredatoryNatureSexualViolence.pdf }}</ref>

Sexual aggression is often considered a masculine identity characteristic of manhood in some male groups and is significantly correlated to the desire to be held higher in esteem among male peers.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Petty GM, Dawson B |title=Sexual aggression in normal men: incidence, beliefs and personality characteristics |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |doi=10.1016/0191-8869(89)90109-8 |year=1989 |volume=10 |pages=355–362 |issue=3}}</ref> Sexually aggressive behavior among young men has been correlated with gang or group membership as well as having other delinquent peers.<ref name="Ouimette PC 1998">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ouimette PC, Riggs D |title=Testing a mediational model of sexually aggressive behavior in nonincarcerated perpetrators |journal=Violence and Victims |year=1998 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=117–130 |pmid=9809392 |doi=10.1891/0886-6708.13.2.117 |s2cid=33967482 }}</ref><ref name="Borowsky IW 1997">{{cite journal |vauthors=Borowsky IW, Hogan M, Ireland M |title=Adolescent sexual aggression: risk and protective factors |journal=Pediatrics |year=1997 |volume=100 |issue=6 |pages=E7 |doi=10.1542/peds.100.6.e7 |pmid=9382908|doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Gang rape]] is often perceived by male perpetrators as a justified method of discouraging or punishing what they consider as immoral behavior among women – for example, wearing short skirts or visiting bars. In some areas in [[Papua New Guinea]], women can be punished by public gang rape, usually through permission by elders.<ref name="Jenkins">Jenkins C. Sexual behavior in Papua New Guinea. In: Report of the Third Annual Meeting of the International Network on Violence Against Women, January 1998. Washington, DC, International Network on Violence Against Women, 1998.</ref>{{update inline}}

Gang rape and [[mass rape]] are often used as a means of male bonding. This is particularly evident among soldiers, as gang rape accounts for about three quarters or more of [[war rape]], while gang rape accounts for less than a quarter of rapes during peacetime. Commanders sometimes push recruits to rape, as committing rape can be taboo and illegal and so builds loyalty among those involved. Rebel groups who have forced recruitment as opposed to volunteer recruits are more involved in rape, as it is believed the recruits start with less loyalty to the group.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/international/2018/10/13/the-nobel-committee-shines-a-spotlight-on-rape-in-conflict |title=Nobel committee shines a spotlight on rape in conflict|publisher=The Economist Magazine |access-date=27 May 2019}}</ref> In [[Sexual violence in Papua New Guinea|Papua New Guinea]], urban gangs such as [[Raskol gangs]] often require new members to rape women as part of their initiation.<ref name=vlad>{{cite web|url=http://www.vladsokhin.com/projects/crying-meri|title=Crying Meri|publisher=Vlad Sokhin|access-date=12 February 2014}}</ref>

Perpetrators of [[sex trafficking]] and [[cybersex trafficking]] allow or carry out rape<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/cheap-tech-widespread-internet-access-fuel-rise-cybersex-trafficking-n886886|title=Cheap tech and widespread internet access fuel rise in cybersex trafficking|website=NBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carback|first1=Joshua T. |title=Cybersex Trafficking: Toward a More Effective Prosecutorial Response|journal=Criminal Law Bulletin |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=64–183|ref=none}} p. 64.</ref><ref name=autogenerated7>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/women-and-girls/oppressed-enslaved-brutalised-women-trafficked-north-korea-chinas/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/women-and-girls/oppressed-enslaved-brutalised-women-trafficked-north-korea-chinas/ |archive-date=2022-01-10 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Oppressed, enslaved and brutalised: The women trafficked from North Korea into China's sex trade|newspaper=The Telegraph|last1=Smith|first1=Nicola|last2=Farmer|first2=Ben}}{{cbignore}}</ref> for financial gain<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/first-paedophile-in-nsw-charged-with-cybersex-trafficking/news-story/bd7d1e178b1f6f55ad99f8d0433afa94|title=First paedophile in NSW charged with cybersex trafficking|website=the Daily Telegraph}}</ref> and/or sexual gratification.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/philippines-makes-more-child-cybersex-crime-arrests-rescues|title=Philippines Makes More Child Cybersex Crime Arrests, Rescues|website=VOA}}</ref> [[Rape pornography]], including [[child pornography]], is created for profit and other reasons.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/website-selling-real-rape-and-child-pornography-videos-shut-down-after-arrest-in-netherlands-us-justice-department-says/2020/03/12/5f9f02ce-6471-11ea-acca-80c22bbee96f_story.html|title=Website selling 'real' rape and child pornography videos shut down after arrest in Netherlands, Justice Department says|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> There have been instances of [[child sexual abuse]] and child rape videos on [[Pornhub]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mohan|first=Megha|title=Call for credit card freeze on porn sites|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-52543508|website=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title='I was raped at 14, and the video ended up on a porn site'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/stories-51391981|publisher=BBC News}}</ref>

== Effects ==
One metric used by the WHO to determine the severity of global rates of coercive, forced sexual activity was the question "Have you ever been forced to have sexual intercourse against your will?" Asking this question produced higher positive response rates than being asked, whether they had ever been abused or raped.<ref name="Krug2002"/>

The WHO report describes the consequences of sexual abuse:
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Gynaecology#Diseases|Gynecological disorders]]
* [[Reproductive system disease|Reproductive disorders]]
* [[Sexual dysfunction|Sexual disorders]]
* [[Infertility]]
* [[Pelvic inflammatory disease]]
* [[Complications of pregnancy|Pregnancy complications]]
* [[Miscarriage]]
* [[Sexual dysfunction]]
* Acquiring [[sexually transmitted infection]]s, including [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]]
* Mortality from [[Injury|injuries]]
* Increased risk of [[suicide]]
* [[Depression (mood)|Depression]]
* [[Chronic pain]]
* [[Somatic symptom disorder|Psychosomatic disorders]]
* [[Unsafe abortion]]
* [[Unwanted pregnancy]] (see [[Pregnancy from rape]])<ref name="Krug2002" />

{{div col end}}
 

=== Emotional and psychological ===
Frequently, victims may not recognize what happened to them was rape. Some may remain in denial for years afterwards.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |url=http://ndaa.org/pdf/pub_introducing_expert_testimony.pdf |title=Introducing expert testimony to explain victim behavior in sexual and domestic violence prosecutions |last=Long |first=Jennifer |website=NDAA.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829004137/http://ndaa.org/pdf/pub_introducing_expert_testimony.pdf |archive-date=2017-08-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=248189 |title=Victim Responses to Sexual Assault: Counterintuitive or Simply Adaptive |website=www.ncjrs.gov |access-date=2017-09-09}}</ref> Confusion over whether or not their experience constitutes rape is typical, especially for victims of psychologically coerced rape. Women may not identify their victimization as rape for many reasons such as feelings of shame, embarrassment, non-uniform legal definitions, reluctance to define the friend/partner as a rapist, or because they have internalized victim-blaming attitudes.<ref name=":4" /> The public often perceives these behaviors as 'counterintuitive' and, therefore, as evidence of a dishonest woman.<ref name=":3" />

Victims may react in ways they did not anticipate. After the rape, they may be uncomfortable/frustrated with and not understand their reactions.<ref name="Psych2013rev">{{cite journal |last1=Mason |first1=F |last2=Lodrick |first2=Z |title=Psychological consequences of sexual assault. |journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=27–37 |pmid=23182852 |doi=10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2012.08.015}}</ref><ref>Note: One of the authors of the "Psychological consequences of sexual assault" article describes what she means by "friend" and "flop" in an article: {{cite journal |last1=Lodrick |first1=Zoe |title=Psychological trauma – what every trauma worker should know. |journal=The British Journal of Psychotherapy Integration. |volume=4 |issue=2 |url=http://www.zoelodrick.co.uk/training/article-1}} Friend: "Friend is the earliest defensive strategy available to us..... Throughout life when fearful most humans will activate their social engagement system (Porges, 1995). ... The social engagement system, or friend response to threat, is evident in the child who smiles or even laughs when being chastised." Flop: "Flop occurs if, and when, the freeze mechanism fails.... The survival purpose of the flop state is evident: if 'impact' is going to occur the likelihood of surviving it will be increased if the body yields, and psychologically, in the short-term at least, the situation will be more bearable if the higher brain functions are 'offline'."</ref> Most victims respond by 'freezing up' or becoming compliant and cooperative during the rape. These are common survival responses of all mammals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bracha |first=H. Stefan |title=Freeze, Flight, Fight, Fright, Faint: Adaptationist Perspectives on the Acute Stress Response Spectrum |journal=CNS Spectrums |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=679–685 |doi=10.1017/S1092852900001954 |pmid=15337864 |s2cid=8430710 |issn=2165-6509|url=http://cogprints.org/5014/1/2004_C.N.S_Five_Fs_of_FEAR--Freeze_Flight_Fight_Fright_Faint.pdf }}</ref> This can cause confusion for others and the person assaulted. An assumption is that someone being raped would call for help or struggle. A struggle would result in torn clothes or injuries.<ref name="Psych2013rev" />

Dissociation can occur during the assault.<ref name="Psych2013rev" /> Memories may be fragmented especially immediately afterwards. They may consolidate with time and sleep.<ref name="Psych2013rev" /> A man or boy who is raped may be stimulated and even ejaculate during the experience of the rape. A woman or girl may orgasm during a sexual assault. This may become a source of shame and confusion for those assaulted along with those who were around them.<ref name="Male2013" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chivers |first1=ML |last2=Seto |first2=MC |last3=Lalumière |first3=ML |last4=Laan |first4=E |last5=Grimbos |first5=T |title=Agreement of self-reported and genital measures of sexual arousal in men and women: a meta-analysis. |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=5–56 |pmid=20049519 |pmc=2811244 |doi=10.1007/s10508-009-9556-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Levin |first1=RJ |last2=van Berlo |first2=W |title=Sexual arousal and orgasm in subjects who experience forced or non-consensual sexual stimulation – a review. |journal=Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=82–8 |doi=10.1016/j.jcfm.2003.10.008 |pmid=15261004}}</ref>

Trauma symptoms may not show until years after the sexual assault occurred. Immediately following a rape, the survivor may react outwardly in a wide range of ways, from expressive to closed down; common emotions include distress, anxiety, shame, revulsion, helplessness, and guilt.<ref name=Psych2013rev/> Denial is not uncommon.<ref name=Psych2013rev/>

In the weeks following the rape, the survivor may develop symptoms of [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|post-traumatic stress syndrome]] and may develop a wide array of psychosomatic complaints.<ref name=Psych2013rev/><ref name=Hoffman2016>{{cite book |last1=Hoffman |first1=Barbara |display-authors=etal |title=Williams Gynecology |publisher=McGraw Hill Professional |isbn=9780071849098 |edition=3rd}}</ref>{{rp|310}} PTSD symptoms include re-experiencing of the rape, avoiding things associated with the rape, numbness, and increased anxiety and [[startle response]].<ref name=Psych2013rev/> The likelihood of sustained severe symptoms is higher if the rapist confined or restrained the person, if the person being raped believed the rapist would kill them, the person who was raped was very young or very old, and if the rapist was someone they knew.<ref name=Psych2013rev/> The likelihood of sustained severe symptoms is also higher if people around the survivor ignore (or are ignorant of) the rape or blame the rape survivor.<ref name=Psych2013rev/>

Most people recover from rape in three to four months, but many have persistent PTSD that may manifest in anxiety, depression, substance abuse, irritability, anger, flashbacks, or nightmares.<ref name=Psych2013rev/> In addition, rape survivors may have long-term [[generalised anxiety disorder]], may develop one or more [[specific phobia]]s, [[major depressive disorder]], and may experience difficulties with resuming their social life and with sexual functioning.<ref name=Psych2013rev/> People who have been raped are at higher risk of suicide.<ref name=Male2013/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jina |first1=R |last2=Thomas |first2=LS |title=Health consequences of sexual violence against women. |journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=15–26 |pmid=22975432 |doi=10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2012.08.012}}</ref>

Men experience similar psychological effects of being raped, but they are less likely to seek counseling.<ref name=Male2013>{{cite journal |last1=McLean |first1=IA |title=The male victim of sexual assault. |journal=Best Practice & Research. Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=39–46 |pmid=22951768 |doi=10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2012.08.006}}</ref>

Another effect of rape and sexual assault is the stress created in those who study rape or counsel the survivors. This is called [[vicarious traumatization]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Guidelines for the prevention and management of vicarious trauma among researchers of sexual and intimate partner violence |url=http://www.svri.org/sites/default/files/attachments/2016-06-02/SVRIVTguidelines.pdf |publisher=Sexual Violence Research Initiative }}</ref>

=== Physical ===

The presence or absence of physical injury may be used to determine whether a rape has occurred.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=G |title=The (in)significance of genital injury in rape and sexual assault. |journal=Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine |volume=34 |pages=173–8 |doi=10.1016/j.jflm.2015.06.007 |pmid=26165680}}</ref> Those who have experienced sexual assault yet have no physical trauma may be less inclined to report to the authorities or to seek health care.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kennedy |first=K. M. |title=The Relationship of Victim Injury to the Progression of Sexual Crimes through the Criminal Justice System |journal=Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine |year=2012 |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=309–311 |doi=10.1016/j.jflm.2012.04.033|pmid=22847045 |hdl=10147/266322 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

While penetrative rape generally does not involve the use of a condom, in some cases a condom is used. The use of a condom significantly reduces the likelihood of pregnancy and [[disease transmission]], both to the victim and the rapist. Rationales for condom use include: avoiding contracting infections or diseases (particularly HIV), especially in cases of rape of [[sex worker]]s or in gang rape (to avoid contracting infections or diseases from fellow rapists); eliminating evidence, making prosecution more difficult (and giving a sense of invulnerability); giving the appearance of consent (in cases of acquaintance rape); and thrill from planning and the use of the condom as an added prop. Concern for the victim is generally not considered a factor.<ref name="condom">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/22/nyregion/rapists-and-condoms-is-use-a-cavalier-act-or-a-way-to-avoid-disease-and-arrest.html |title=Rapists and Condoms; Is Use a Cavalier Act or a Way to Avoid Disease and Arrest? |first=Craig |last=Wolff |newspaper=[[New York Times]]}}</ref>

=== Sexually transmitted infections ===
{{See also|Virgin cleansing myth|Prison rape in the United States#Sexually transmitted infections}}

Those who have been raped have relatively more reproductive tract infections than those who have not been raped.<ref name="Kimura 2013">{{cite book |last=Kimura |first=Seiji |title=Physical and emotional abuse triggers, short and long-term consequences and prevention methods |publisher=[[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]] |location=Hauppauge, New York |year=2013 |isbn=9781624174469}}</ref> HIV can be transmitted through rape. Acquiring AIDS through rape puts people at increased risk for psychological problems. Acquiring HIV through rape may lead to behaviors that create a risk of injecting drugs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.svri.org/hiv.htm |title=Sexual Violence and HIV |publisher=Sexual Violence Research Initiative |access-date=2013-02-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218202407/http://www.svri.org/hiv.htm |archive-date=2013-02-18 }}</ref> Acquiring sexually transmitted infections increases the risk of acquiring HIV.<ref name="Kimura 2013"/>
The belief that having sex with a [[Virginity|virgin]] can cure HIV/AIDS exists in parts of Africa. This leads to the rape of girls and women.<ref name="cure" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Jenny |first=Carole |title=Child Abuse and Neglect: Diagnosis, Treatment and Evidence — Expert Consult |year=2010 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-1-4377-3621-2 |page=187 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=BKILM5KWFKwC |page=187}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Klot, Jennifer |author2=Monica Kathina Juma |title=HIV/AIDS, Gender, Human Security and Violence in Southern Africa |publisher=Africa Institute of South Africa |location=Pretoria |year=2011 |page=47 |isbn=978-0-7983-0253-1 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=du0aR53YsYMC |page=47}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2002/april/virgin.htm |title=HIV/AIDS, the stats, the Virgin Cure and infant rape |publisher=Science in Africa |access-date=2013-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115094218/http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2002/april/virgin.htm |archive-date=2012-01-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The claim that the myth drives either HIV infection or child sexual abuse in South Africa is disputed by researchers [[Rachel Jewkes]] and Helen Epstein.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The myth of the virgin rape myth |url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2809%2961858-4/fulltext |journal=The Lancet |volume=374 |issue=9699 |pages=1419; author reply 1419–20 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61858-4 |pmid=19854367 |vauthors=Epstein H, Jewkes R |s2cid=33671635 }} "In the current South African case, this claim is predicated on racist assumptions about the amorality of African men..."</ref>

=== Victim blaming, secondary victimization and other mistreatment ===
{{Main|Victim blaming|Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims}}
[[File:Sátiro y ninfa..JPG|thumb|An example of the idealized female resistance: In this Roman depiction of a fight between a [[Nymph]] and a [[Satyr]] ([[Naples National Archaeological Museum]]), the Nymph is shown vigorously resisting the Satyr's sexual advances, punching him on the mouth – lack of which might be construed as implying consent.]]
Society's treatment of victims has the potential to exacerbate their trauma.<ref name=":4" /> People who have been raped or sexually assaulted are sometimes blamed and considered responsible for the crime.<ref name="Maier2008" /> This refers to the [[just-world hypothesis|just world fallacy]] and [[Rape myth|rape myth acceptance]] that certain victim behaviors (such as being intoxicated, [[flirting]] or wearing sexually [[provocation (legal)|provocative]] clothing) may encourage rape.<ref>Pauwels, B. (2002). "Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable control model perspective." ''Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering,'' 63(5-B).</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Grubb |first1=Amy |last2=Turner |first2=Emily |title=Attribution of blame in rape cases: A review of the impact of rape myth acceptance, gender role conformity and substance use on victim blaming |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=443–452 |doi=10.1016/j.avb.2012.06.002|url=https://pure.coventry.ac.uk/ws/files/3956894/Grubb4.pdf }}</ref> In many cases, victims are said to have "asked for it" because of not resisting their assault or violating female gender expectations.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Abrahms D. |author2=Viky G. |author3=Masser B. |author4=Gerd B. |year=2003 |title=Perceptions of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=111–125 |pmid=12518974 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.111}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> A global survey of attitudes toward sexual violence by the [[Global Forum for Health Research]] shows that victim-blaming concepts are at least partially accepted in many countries. Women who have been raped are sometimes deemed to have behaved improperly. Usually, these are cultures where there is a significant social divide between the freedoms and status afforded to men and women.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalforumhealth.org/filesupld/vaw/attitudes.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050205184952/http://www.globalforumhealth.org/filesupld/vaw/attitudes.html |archive-date=2005-02-05 |title=Attitudes to sexual violence |access-date=2010-12-31}}</ref>

{{blockquote|"Rape victims are blamed more when they resist the attack later in the rape encounter rather than earlier (Kopper, 1996), which seems to suggest the stereotype that these women are engaging in token resistance (Malamuth & Brown, 1994; Muehlenhard & Rogers, 1998) or leading the man on because they have gone along with the sexual experience thus far. Finally, rape victims are blamed more when they are raped by an acquaintance or a date rather than by a stranger (e.g., Bell, Kuriloff, & Lottes, 1994; Bridges, 1991; Bridges & McGr ail, 1989; Check & Malamuth, 1983; Kanekar, Shaherwalla, Franco, Kunju, & Pinto, 1991; L'Armand & Pepitone, 1982; Tetreault & Barnett, 1987), which seems to evoke the stereotype that victims really want to have sex because they know their attacker and perhaps even went out on a date with him. The underlying message of this research seems to be that when certain stereotypical elements of rape are in place, rape victims are prone to being blamed."<ref name = bud2001/>}}

Commentators state: "individuals may endorse rape myths and at the same time recognize the negative effects of rape."<ref name=bud2001>{{cite journal |author1=Amy M. Buddie |author2=Arthur G. Miller |title=Beyond Rape Myths: A more complex view of perceptions of rape victims |journal=Sex Roles |year=2001 |doi=10.1023/A:1013575209803 |url=http://business.highbeam.com/435388/article-1G1-82782443/beyond-rape-myths-more-complex-view-perceptions-rape |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509055551/http://business.highbeam.com/435388/article-1G1-82782443/beyond-rape-myths-more-complex-view-perceptions-rape |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-05-09 |volume=45 |issue=3/4 |pages=139–160 |s2cid=142661015 }} [http://www.taasa.org/library/pdfs/TAASALibrary22.pdf PDF copy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118073552/http://www.taasa.org/library/pdfs/TAASALibrary22.pdf }}</ref> A number of [[gender role]] stereotypes can play a role in rationalization of rape. These include the idea that power is reserved to men whereas women are meant for sex and objectified, that women want forced sex and to be pushed around,<ref name="neumann">Neumann, S., Gang Rape: Examining Peer Support and Alcohol in Fraternities. Sex Crimes and Paraphilias</ref> and that male sexual impulses and behaviors are uncontrollable and must be satisfied.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Joan Z. Spade |author2=Catherine G. Valentine |title=The kaleidoscope of gender: prisms, patterns, and possibilities |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=TmDv-DzF1ZMC}} |access-date=1 October 2011|date=10 December 2007|publisher=Pine Forge Press|isbn=978-1-4129-5146-3}}</ref>

For females, victim-blaming correlates with fear. Many rape victims blame themselves. Female jurors might look at the woman on the witness stand and believe she had done something to entice the defendant.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Blame the rapist, not the victim|url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/feb/19/blame-the-rapist|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=2022-04-19}}</ref> In Chinese culture, victim-blaming is often associated with the crime of rape, as women are expected to resist rape using physical force. Thus, if rape occurs, it is considered to be at least partly the woman's fault, and her virtue is called into question.<ref>Xue J, Fang G, Huang H, Cui N, Rhodes KV, Gelles R. Rape myths and the cross-cultural adaptation of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale in China. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 2016 5. [Epub ahead of print]. DOI: 10.1177/0886260516651315</ref>

==== Honor killings and forced marriages ====

In many cultures, those who are raped have a high risk of suffering additional violence or threats of violence after the rape. This can be perpetrated by the rapist, friends, or relatives of the rapist. The intent can be to prevent the victim from reporting the rape. Other reasons for threats against those assaulted is to punish them for reporting it, or of forcing them to withdraw the complaint. The relatives of the person who has been raped may wish to prevent "bringing shame" to the family and may also threaten them. This is especially the case in cultures where female virginity is highly valued and considered mandatory before marriage; in extreme cases, rape victims are killed in [[honor killings]].<ref name="zeenews.india" /><ref name="wisemuslimwomen" /><ref name="bbc" /><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-17379721 |title=BBC News — Morocco protest after raped Amina Filali kills herself |journal=BBC News |access-date=2013-02-03}}</ref>

== Treatment ==
In the US, [[victims' rights]] include the right to have a victims advocate preside over every step of the medical/legal exam to ensure sensitivity towards victims, provide emotional support, and minimize the risk of re-traumatization. Victims are to be informed of this immediately by law enforcement or medical service providers.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.victimlaw.org/victimlaw/pages/victimsRight.jsp |title=VictimLaw – Victims Right |website=www.victimlaw.org|access-date=2017-09-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://victimsofcrime.org/help-for-crime-victims/get-help-bulletins-for-crime-victims/what-is-a-victim-advocate- |title=What is a Victim Advocate- |website=victimsofcrime.org |access-date=2017-09-09 |archive-date=2018-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924185128/http://victimsofcrime.org/help-for-crime-victims/get-help-bulletins-for-crime-victims/what-is-a-victim-advocate- |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Emergency department|Emergency rooms]] of many hospitals employ sexual assault nurse/forensic examiners (SAN/FEs) with specific training to care for those who have experienced a rape or sexual assault. They are able to conduct a focused medical-legal exam. If such a trained clinician is not available, the emergency department has a sexual assault protocol that has been established for treatment and the collection of evidence.<ref name=Markovchick2016/><ref name=mci2017>{{cite book |first=Thomas K. |last=McInerny |title=Textbook of Pediatric Care – 2nd Edition |publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics |isbn=978-1-58110-966-5}} [http://online.statref.com/Do STAT!Ref Online Electronic Medical Library]{{Dead link|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}[subscription required]</ref> Staff are also trained to explain the examinations in detail, the documentation and the rights associated with the requirement for [[informed consent]]. Emphasis is placed on performing the examinations at a pace that is appropriate for the person, their family, their age, and their level of understanding.<ref name="mci2017" /> Privacy is recommended to prevent [[self-harm]].<ref name="Cybulska2013"/>

=== Non-genital injuries ===

====Physical assessment====
Many rapes do not result in serious physical injury.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kennedy |first=K. M. |title=Heterogeneity of Existing Research Relating to Sexual Violence, Sexual Assault and Rape Precludes Meta-analysis of Injury Data |journal=Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine |year=2013 |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=447–459 |doi=10.1016/j.jflm.2013.02.002|pmid=23756514 |hdl=10147/296808 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The first [[medical treatment|medical response]] to sexual assault is a complete assessment. This general assessment will prioritize the treatment of injuries by the [[emergency room]] staff. Medical personnel involved are trained to assess and treat those assaulted or follow protocols established to ensure privacy and best treatment practices. Informed consent is always required prior to treatment unless the person who was assaulted is unconscious, intoxicated or does not have the mental capacity to give consent.<ref name=Markovchick2016/><ref name = mci2017/> Priorities governing the physical exam are the treatment of serious life-threatening emergencies and then a general and complete assessment.<ref name="HockettSaucier2015">{{cite journal |last1=Hockett |first1=Jericho M. |last2=Saucier |first2=Donald A. |title=A systematic literature review of "rape victims" versus "rape survivors": Implications for theory, research, and practice |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior |volume=25 |year=2015 |pages=1–14 |issn=1359-1789 |doi=10.1016/j.avb.2015.07.003}}</ref> Some physical injuries are readily apparent such as [[human bites|bites]],<ref name="NYJH" /> broken teeth, [[Swelling (medical)|swelling]], [[bruising]], [[laceration]]s and scratches. In more [[violent]] cases, the victim may need to have gunshot wounds or [[stab wound]]s treated.<ref name=Markovchick2016/> The loss of consciousness is relevant to the medical history.<ref name = mci2017/> If abrasions are found, [[immunization]] against [[tetanus]] is offered if 5 years have elapsed since the last immunization.<ref name="Varcarolis" />

====Diagnostic testing====
After the general assessment and treatment of serious injuries, further evaluation may include the use of additional diagnostic testing such as [[x-rays]], [[computer-aided tomography|CT]] or [[MRI]] image studies and blood work. The presence of infection is determined by sampling of body fluids from the mouth, throat, vagina, [[perineum]], and [[anus]].<ref name = mci2017/>

====Forensic sampling====
{{Main|Rape investigation}}
Victims have the right to refuse any evidence collection. Victims advocates ensure the victims' wishes are respected by hospital staff. After the physical injuries are addressed and treatment has begun, then [[Forensic science|forensic examination]] proceeds along with the gathering of evidence that can be used to identify and document the injuries.<ref name=Markovchick2016/> Such [[evidence]]-gathering is only done with the complete consent of the patient or the [[caregiver]]s of the patient. Photographs of the injuries may be requested by staff.<ref name = mci2017/> At this point in the treatment, if a victims' advocate had not been requested earlier, experienced [[Counsel|social support staff]] are made available to the patient and family.<ref name="Hoffman2012">{{cite book |last=Hoffman |first=Barbara |title=Williams gynecology |publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical |location=New York |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-07-171672-7}}</ref>

If the patient or the caregivers (typically parents) agree, the medical team utilizes standardized sampling and testing usually referred to as a forensic evidence kit or "[[rape kit]]".<ref name = mci2017/> The patient is informed that submitting to the use of the rape kit does not [[obligation|obligate]] them to file [[criminal charges]] against the perpetrator. The patient is discouraged from bathing or showering to obtain samples from their hair.<ref name="Hoffman2012" /> Evidence gathered within the past 72 hours is more likely to be valid.<ref name="mci2017" /> The sooner that samples are obtained after the assault, the more likely that evidence is present in the sample and provides valid results. Once the injuries of the patient have been treated and she or he is stabilized, the sample gathering will begin. Staff will encourage the presence of a rape/sexual assault counselor to provide an advocate and reassurance.<ref name="Hoffman2012" />

During the medical exam, evidence of bodily secretions is assessed. Dried semen that is on clothing and skin can be detected with a fluorescent lamp.<ref name="mci2017" /><ref>"Semen fluoresces best at wavelengths of 420 and 450 nm, when viewed through orange goggles. A Wood lamp emits light at only a 360-nm wavelength. Therefore specialized alternate light sources that emit wavelengths at 420 and 450 nm, such as a Bluemaxx, should be used. Although this type of lamp will improve the detection of dried semen, many other substances will fluoresce as well; thus, confirmation of semen cannot be made with this method.", McInerny (2017)</ref> Notes will be attached to those items on which semen has been found. These specimens are marked, placed in a paper bag,<ref>This practice discourages the growth of microorganisms which could alter the analysis. Cybulska</ref> and are marked for later analysis for the presence of seminal vesicle-specific antigen.<ref name="mci2017" /><ref name="Cybulska2013"/>

Though technically, medical staff are not part of the legal system, only trained medical personnel can obtain evidence that is admissible during a trial. The procedures have been standardized. Evidence is collected, signed, and locked in a secure place to guarantee that legal evidence procedures are maintained. This carefully monitored procedure of evidence collection and preservation is known as the [[chain of evidence]]. Maintaining the chain of evidence from the medical examination, testing, and [[tissue (biology)|tissue]] sampling from its origin of collection to court allows the results of the sampling to be admitted as evidence.<ref name="Hoffman2012" /> Photography is often used for documentation.<ref name="VAW2013" />

===After the examination===
Some physical effects of the rape are not immediately apparent. Follow up examinations also assess the patient for [[tension headaches]], [[fatigue (medical)|fatigue]], sleep pattern disturbances, gastrointestinal irritability, chronic pelvic pain, menstrual pain or irregularity, pelvic inflammatory disease, sexual dysfunction, premenstrual distress, fibromyalgia, vaginal discharge, vaginal itching, burning during urination, and generalized vaginal pain.<ref name="HockettSaucier2015" />

The World Health Organization recommends<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42788/924154628X.pdf;jsessionid=A75321438AE831AA07EDE72363B69C19?sequence=1 |title=WHO Guidelines for medico-legal care for victims of sexual violence|access-date=2019-08-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Responding to Children and Adolescents Who Have Been Sexually Abused: WHO Clinical Guidelines|publisher=World Health Organization |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK493119/ |isbn=9789241550147 |series=WHO Guidelines Approved by the Guidelines Review Committee|location=Geneva|pmid=29630189}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Amin|first1=Avni |last2=MacMillan |first2=Harriet|last3=Garcia-Moreno |first3=Claudia|title=Responding to children and adolescents who have been sexually abused: WHO recommendations|journal=Paediatrics and International Child Health|volume=38 |issue=2|pages=85–86 |pmid=29493421 |doi=10.1080/20469047.2018.1427179|s2cid=3631696|issn=2046-9047}}</ref> offering prompt access to [[Emergency contraception|emergency]] [[contraceptive]] medications which can significantly reduce risk of an undesired pregnancy if used within 5 days of rape;<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542751/|title=Ulipristal versus Levonorgestrel for Emergency Contraception: A Review of Comparative Cost-Effectiveness |last1=Tran|first1=Khai|last2=Grobelna|first2=Aleksandra |publisher=Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health|series=CADTH Rapid Response Reports |location=Ottawa (ON) |pmid=31219689}}</ref> it is estimated that about 5% of male-on-female rapes result in pregnancy.<ref name="Varcarolis">{{cite book |author=Varcarolis, Elizabeth |year=2013 |title=Essentials of psychiatric mental health nursing |location=St. Louis |publisher=Elsevier |pages=439–442}}</ref> When rape results in pregnancy, [[Medical abortion|abortion]] pills can be safely and effectively used to end a pregnancy up to 10 weeks from the last menstrual period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen|first1=Melissa J. |last2=Creinin |first2=Mitchell D.|title=Mifepristone With Buccal Misoprostol for Medical Abortion: A Systematic Review|journal=Obstetrics and Gynecology|volume=126|issue=1 |pages=12–21|doi=10.1097/AOG.0000000000000897|pmid=26241251 |s2cid=20800109|issn=1873-233X |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2pw521h5}}</ref> In the US, federal [[Hyde Amendment|funding]] is available to cover the cost of abortion services for pregnancies that occur as a result of rape, even in states that do not offer public-funding for abortion services.

=== Genital injuries ===

An internal pelvic exam is not recommended for sexually immature or prepubescent girls due to the probability that internal injuries do not exist in this age group. However, an internal exam may be recommended if significant bloody discharge is observed.<ref name="mci2017" /> A complete [[pelvic exam]] for rape ([[anal rape|anal]] or vaginal) is conducted. An [[dentistry|oral exam]] is done if there have been [[injurie]]s to the mouth, teeth, gums, or [[pharynx]]. Though the patient may have no complaints about [[genital pain]] signs of trauma can still be assessed. Before the complete bodily and genital exam, the patient is asked to undress, standing on a white sheet that collects any [[debris]] that may be in the clothing. The clothing and sheet are properly bagged and labeled along with other samples that can be removed from the body or clothing of the patient. Samples of [[fiber]]s, mud, hair, or leaves are gathered if present. Samples of [[body fluid|fluids]] are collected to determine the presence of the perpetrator's [[saliva]] and [[semen]] that may be present in the patient’s mouth, [[vagina]] or [[rectum]]. Sometimes the victim has [[Abrasion (medical)|scratched]] the perpetrator in defense and fingernail scrapings can be collected.<ref name="Hoffman2012" />

Injuries to the genital areas can include swelling, lacerations, and bruising.<ref name="Hoffman2012" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Health & physical assessment in nursing|last=Donita|first=D'Amico|others=Barbarito, Colleen|isbn=9780133876406|edition= 3rd|location=Boston|pages=664|oclc=894626609|date = 2015-02-10}}</ref> Common genital injuries are [[Rectal pain|anal injury]], labial abrasions, hymenal bruising, and tears of the posterior [[Frenulum of labia minora|fourchette]] and fossa.<ref name="Hoffman2012" /> Bruises, tears, abrasions, inflammation and lacerations may be visible. If a foreign object was used during the assault, x-ray visualization will identify retained fragments.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kr6ZBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Forensic Gynaecology|last=Dalton|first=Maureen|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781107064294}}</ref> Genital injuries are more prevalent in [[post-menopausal]] women and [[prepubescent]] girls. Internal injuries to the [[cervix]] and vagina can be visualized using [[colposcopy]]. Using colposcopy has increased the detection of internal trauma from six percent to fifty-three percent. Genital injuries to children who have been raped or sexually assaulted differ in that the abuse may be on-going or may have happened in the past after the injuries heal. [[Scar]]ring is one sign of the sexual abuse of children.<ref name="Hoffman2012" />

Several studies have explored the association between skin color and genital injury among rape victims. Many studies found a difference in rape-related injury based on race, with more injuries being reported for white females and males than for black females and males. This may be because the dark skin color of some victims obscures bruising. Examiners paying attention to victims with darker skin, especially the thighs, labia majora, posterior fourchette, and fossa navicularis, can help remedy this.<ref>Baker RB, Fargo JD, Shambley-Ebron D, Sommers MS. A source of healthcare disparity: Race, skin color, and injuries after rape among adolescents and young adults. Journal of Forensic Nursing, 2010; 6: 144–150</ref>

=== Infections ===

The presence of a sexually contracted infection can not be confirmed after rape because it cannot be detected until 72 hours afterwards.<ref name = marc2015>{{cite book |last=Marcdante |first=Karen |title=Nelson essentials of pediatrics |publisher=Elsevier/Saunders |location=Philadelphia |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4557-5980-4}}[subscription required]</ref>

The person who was raped may already have a sexually transmitted infection and if diagnosed, it is treated.<ref name="Varcarolis" /><ref name=VAW2013/> Prophylactic antibiotic treatment for [[vaginitis]], [[gonorrhea]], [[trichomoniasis]] and [[chlamydia infection|chlamydia]] may be performed. Chlamydial and gonococcal infections in women are of particular concern due to the possibility of ascending infection. [[Immunization]] against [[Hepatitis B vaccination|hepatitis B]] is often considered.<ref name = marc2015/><ref name="Varcarolis" /><ref name="Cybulska2013">{{cite journal |last1=Cybulska |first1=Beata |title=Immediate medical care after sexual assault |journal=Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology |volume=27 |issue=1 |year=2013 |pages=141–149 |issn=1521-6934 |doi=10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2012.08.013|pmid=23200638 }}[subscription required]</ref> After prophylactic treatment is initiated, further testing is done to determine what other treatments may be necessary for other infections transmitted during the assault.<ref name="Varcarolis" /> These are:
* Serum [[hepatitis B]] surface antigen assay
* Microscopic evaluation of [[vaginal discharge]] (saline wash and staining)
* [[Microbiological culture|Cultures]] for [[Neisseria gonorrhoeae]] and Chlamydia trachomatis from each penetrated location
* [[Venereal Disease Research Laboratory test|Serum Venereal Disease Research Laboratory test]]
* [[Complete blood count]] (CBC)
* [[Liver function tests]]
* [[Creatinine|Serum creatinine level]]<ref name="Varcarolis" />

Treatment may include the administration of [[zidovudine]]/[[lamivudine]], [[tenofovir]]/[[emtricitabine]], or [[ritonavir]]/[[lopinavir]]. Information regarding other treatment options is available from the CDC.<ref name="Hoffman2012" />

The transmission of HIV is frequently a major concern of the patient.<ref name=VAW2013/> Prophylactic treatment for HIV is not necessarily administered. Routine treatment for HIV after rape or sexual assault is controversial due to the low risk of infection after one sexual assault. Transmission of HIV after one exposure to penetrative anal sex is estimated to be 0.5 to 3.2 percent. Transmission of HIV after one exposure to penetrative vaginal intercourse is 0.05 to 0.15 percent. HIV can also be contracted through the oral route but this is considered rare.<ref name="Hoffman2012" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Antiretroviral Postexposure Prophylaxis After Sexual, Injection-Drug Use, or Other Nonoccupational Exposure to HIV in the United States |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5402a1.htm |access-date=2015-12-10}}</ref> Other recommendations are that the patient be treated prophylactically for HIV if the perpetrator is found to be infected.<ref name="NYJH">{{cite web |title=HIV Clinical Resource: HIV Prophylaxis for Victims of Sexual Assault |publisher=Office of the Medical Director, New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute in Collaboration with Johns Hopkins University Division of Infectious Disease |url=http://www.hivguidelines.org/clinical-guidelines/post-exposure-prophylaxis/hiv-prophylaxis-for-victims-of-sexual-assault/ |access-date=2015-12-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130135/http://www.hivguidelines.org/clinical-guidelines/post-exposure-prophylaxis/hiv-prophylaxis-for-victims-of-sexual-assault/|archive-date=2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Testing at the time of the initial exam does not typically have forensic value if patients are sexually active and have an STI since it could have been acquired before the assault. Rape shield laws protect the person who was raped and who has positive test results. These laws prevent having such evidence used against someone who was raped. Someone who was raped may be concerned that a prior infection may suggest sexual promiscuity. There may, however, be situations in which testing has a legal purpose, as in cases where the threat of transmission or actual transmission of an STI was part of the crime. In nonsexually active patients, an initial, baseline negative test that is followed by a subsequent STI could be used as evidence, if the perpetrator also had an STI.<ref name=VAW2013/>

Treatment failure is possible due to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of pathogens.<ref name="BaardaSikora2015">{{cite journal |last1=Baarda |first1=Benjamin I. |last2=Sikora |first2=Aleksandra E. |title=Proteomics of Neisseria gonorrhoeae: the treasure hunt for countermeasures against an old disease |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=6 |pages=1190 |year=2015 |issn=1664-302X |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2015.01190|pmid=26579097 |pmc=4620152 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Emotional and psychiatric ===

Psychiatric and emotional consequences can be apparent immediately after the rape and it may be necessary to treat these very early in the evaluation and treatment.<ref name=VAW2013>{{cite book |title=Violence Against Women |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice – Office of Violence Against Women |url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ovw/241903.pdf |access-date=10 January 2016}}</ref> Other treatable emotional and psychiatric disorders may not become evident until some time after the rape. These can be [[eating disorder]]s, anxiety, fear, intrusive thoughts, fear of crowds, avoidance, anger, depression, humiliation, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) hyperarousal, sexual disorders (including fear of engaging in sexual activity), mood disorders, suicidal ideation, borderline personality disorder, nightmares, fear of situations that remind the patient of the rape and fear of being alone,<ref name="HockettSaucier2015" /> [[Psychomotor agitation|agitation]], [[numbness]] and emotional distance.<ref name="Hoffman2012" /> Victims are able to receive help by using a telephone hotline, [[counseling]], or shelters.<ref name="Rosdahl" /> Recovery from sexual assault is a complicated and controversial concept,<ref name="Recovering from sexual assault" /> but support groups, usually accessed by [[List of anti-sexual assault organizations in the United States|organizations]] are available to help in recovery. Professional counseling and ongoing treatment by trained health care providers are often sought by the victim.<ref name="Bud2015">{{cite book |last=Budrionis |first=Rita |title=The sexual abuse victim and sexual offender treatment planner, with DSM-5 updates |publisher=Wiley |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-119-07481-6}}</ref>

Some clinicians are specially trained in the treatment of those who have experienced rape and sexual assault/abuse. Treatment can be lengthy and challenging for both the counselor and the patient. Several treatment options exist and vary by accessibility, cost, or whether or not insurance coverage exists for the treatment. Treatment also varies depending upon the expertise of the counselor—some have more experience and or have specialized in the treatment of sexual trauma and rape. To be the most effective, a treatment plan should be developed based upon the struggles of the patient and not necessarily based upon the traumatic experience. An effective treatment plan will consider the following: current stressors, coping skills, physical health, interpersonal conflicts, self-esteem, family issues, involvement of the guardian, and the presence of mental health symptoms.
<ref name="Bud2015" />

The degree of success for emotional and psychiatric treatments is often dependent upon the terminology used in the treatment, i.e. redefining the event and experience. Labels used like ''rape victim'' and ''rape survivor'' to describe the new identities of women who have been raped suggest that the event is the dominant and controlling influence on her life. These may affect supportive personnel. The consequences of using these labels need to be assessed.<ref name="HockettSaucier2015" /> Positive outcomes of emotional and psychiatric treatment for rape exist; these can be an improved self-concept, the recognition of growth, and implementing new coping styles.<ref name="HockettSaucier2015" />

A perpetrator found guilty by the court is often required to receive treatment. There are many options for treatment, some more successful than others.<ref>{{cite book |last=Saleh |first=Fabian |title=Sex offenders identification, risk assessment, treatment, and legal issues |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-517704-6}}</ref> The psychological factors that motivated the convicted perpetrator are complex but treatment can still be effective. A counselor will typically evaluate disorders that are currently present in the offender. Investigating the developmental background of the offender can help explain the origins of the abusive behavior that occurred in the first place. Emotional and psychological treatment has the purpose of identifying predictors of recidivism, or the potential that the offender will commit rape again. In some instances, neurological abnormalities have been identified in the perpetrators, and in some cases they have themselves experienced past trauma. Adolescents and other children can be the perpetrators of rape, although this is uncommon. In this instance, appropriate counseling and evaluation are usually conducted.<ref name="Kelly2011">{{cite book |last=Kelly |first=Gary |title=Sexuality today |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York, NY |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-07-353199-1}}</ref>

Short-term treatment with a [[benzodiazepine]] may help with anxiety (although caution is recommended with the use of these medications as people can become addicted and develop withdrawal symptoms after regular use) and antidepressants may be helpful for symptoms of [[PTSD|post traumatic stress disorder]], depression and panic attacks.<ref name="Varcarolis" />

== Prevention ==
{{Main|Initiatives to prevent sexual violence}}
As sexual violence affects all parts of society, the response to sexual violence is comprehensive. The responses can be categorized as individual approaches, healthcare responses, community-based efforts, and actions to prevent other forms of sexual violence.<ref name="Chapter 6"/>

Sexual assault may be prevented by secondary school,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Smothers |first1=M.K. |year=2011 |title=A Sexual Assault Primary Prevention Model with Diverse Urban Youth |journal=Journal of Child Sexual Abuse |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=708–727 |last2=Smothers |first2=D. Brian |s2cid=20570694 |pmid=22126112 |doi=10.1080/10538712.2011.622355}}</ref> college,<ref name="Foubert">{{cite journal |author=Foubert J.D. |year=2000 |title=The Longitudinal Effects of a Rape-prevention Program on Fraternity Men's Attitudes, Behavioral Intent, and Behavior |journal=Journal of American College Health |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=158–63 |doi=10.1080/07448480009595691 |url=https://apps.carleton.edu/campus/gsc/assets/1_4_Longitudinal_Effects.pdf |pmid=10650733 |s2cid=38521575}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Vladutiu C.J. |year=2011 |title=College- or university-based sexual assault prevention programs: a review of program outcomes, characteristics, and recommendations |journal=Trauma, Violence, and Abuse |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=67–86 |pmid=21196436 |doi=10.1177/1524838010390708 |s2cid=32144826 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> and workplace education programs.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=10520434 |volume=19 |issue=7 |title=Sexual assault prevention programs: current issues, future directions, and the potential efficacy of interventions with women |vauthors=Yeater EA, O'Donohue W |journal=Clin Psychol Rev |pages=739–71 |doi=10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00075-0 |citeseerx=10.1.1.404.3130}}</ref> At least one program for [[fraternity]] men produced "sustained behavioral change."<ref name="Foubert" /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Garrity S.E. |year=2011 |title=Sexual assault prevention programs for college-aged men: A critical evaluation |journal=Journal of Forensic Nursing |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=40–8 |pmid=21348933 |doi=10.1111/j.1939-3938.2010.01094.x |s2cid=39471249}}</ref> With regard to [[campus sexual assault]], nearly two thirds of students reported knowing victims of rape, and in one study over half reported knowing perpetrators of sexual assault; one in ten reported knowing a victim of rape; and nearly one in four reported knowing a victim of alcohol-facilitated rape.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sorenson SB, Joshi M, Sivitz E |title=Knowing a sexual assault victim or perpetrator: A stratified random sample of undergraduates at one university |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |volume=29 |pages=394–416}}</ref>

== Statistics ==
{{Main|Rape statistics}}
{{See also|Estimates of sexual violence}}

International Crime on Statistics and Justice by the [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]] (UNODC) find that worldwide, most victims of rape are women and most perpetrators male.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/Crime-statistics/International_Statistics_on_Crime_and_Justice.pdf |title=International Statistics on Crime and Justice |website=www.unodc.org |publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes |last=Harrendorf, Haskenan, Malby |first=Stefan, Marku, Steven}}</ref> Rapes against women are rarely reported to the police and the number of female rape victims is significantly underestimated.<ref name=":1" /> Southern Africa, Oceania, and North America report the highest numbers of rape.<ref name=":1" />

Most rape is committed by someone the victim knows.<ref name="Finley 2018">{{cite book |last=Finley |first=Laura |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Merril D. |title=Encyclopedia of Rape and Sexual Violence, Volume 1 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-44-084489-8 |page=1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7SJWDwAAQBAJ&q=%22acquaintance+rape%22 |chapter=Acquaintance rape }}</ref> By contrast, rape committed by strangers is relatively uncommon. Statistics reported by the [[Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network]] (RAINN) indicate that 7 out of 10 cases of sexual assault involved a perpetrator known to the victim.<ref name="Smith 2018">{{cite book |editor-last=Smith |editor-first=Merril D. |title=Encyclopedia of Rape and Sexual Violence, Volume 2 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-44-084489-8 |page=430 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7SJWDwAAQBAJ&q=%22stranger+rape%22 |chapter=Stranger rape }}</ref>

[[File:Rape Rate.png|thumb|upright=1.5|right|UNODC : Reported rape per 100,000 population (2011)]]
The humanitarian news organization [[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]] claims that an estimated "500,000 rapes are committed annually in South Africa<ref>{{cite news |title=SOUTH AFRICA: One in four men rape |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/84909/south-africa-one-in-four-men-rape |newspaper=[[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]] Africa |access-date=11 December 2011}}</ref> once called 'the world's rape capital.'<ref>"[https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/03/05/south-africa-once-called-the-worlds-rape-capital-is-running-out-of-rape-kits/ South Africa, once called 'the world's rape capital,' is running out of rape kits] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705194819/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/03/05/south-africa-once-called-the-worlds-rape-capital-is-running-out-of-rape-kits/ }}". ''[[The Washington Post]]''. March 5, 2013.</ref> The country has some of the highest incidences of child sexual abuse in the world with more than 67,000 cases of rape and sexual assaults against children reported in 2000, with welfare groups believing that unreported incidents could be up to 10 times higher.<ref name="cure">"[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/southafrica/1362134/South-African-men-rape-babies-as-cure-for-Aids.html South African men rape babies as 'cure' for Aids] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008021044/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/southafrica/1362134/South-African-men-rape-babies-as-cure-for-Aids.html }}". ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''. November 11, 2001</ref> Current data suggest that the incidence of rape has risen significantly in India.<ref name="SharmaSrivastava2015">{{cite journal |last1=Sharma |first1=Indira |last2=Srivastava |first2=Shruti |last3=Bhatia |first3=MS |last4=Chaudhuri |first4=Uday |last5=Parial |first5=Sonia |last6=Sharma |first6=Avdesh |last7=Kataria |first7=Dinesh |last8=Bohra |first8=Neena |title=Violence against women |journal=Indian Journal of Psychiatry |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=S333–8 |year=2015 |issn=0019-5545 |doi=10.4103/0019-5545.161500|pmid=26330651 |pmc=4539878 }}</ref>

Most rape research and reports of rape are limited to male–female forms of rape. Research [[Rape of males|on male-on-male and female-on-male rape]] is rare. Fewer than one in ten male–male rapes are reported. As a group, males who have been raped by either gender often get little services and support, and legal systems are often ill-equipped to deal with this type of crime. Instances in which the perpetrator is female may not be clear and can lead to dismissing women as sexual aggressors, which can obscure the dimensions of the problem. Research also suggests that men with sexually aggressive peers have a higher chance of reporting coercive or forced sexual intercourse outside gang circles than men without such sexually aggressive peers.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gwartney-Gibbs PA, Stockard J, Bohmer S |title=Learning courtship aggression: the influence of parents, peers and personal experiences- |journal=[[Family Relations (journal)|Family Relations]] |year=1983 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=276–282 |doi=10.2307/583540 |jstor=583540|url=https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/handle/1794/28125 }}</ref>

Risk factors vary among different ethnicities in the [[United States]]. About one third of [[African American]] adolescent females report encountering some form of sexual assault including rape.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zitelli |first=Basil |title=Zitelli and Davis' atlas of pediatric physical diagnosis |publisher=Saunders/Elsevier |location=Philadelphia, PA |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-323-07932-7}}</ref> One in three [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] women will experience sexual assault, more than twice the national average for American women.<ref name="Williams2012">{{cite news |author=Timothy Williams |title=For Native American Women, Scourge of Rape, Rare Justice |newspaper=New York Times}}</ref>

== Prosecution ==

=== Reporting ===
In 2005, sexual violence, and rape in particular, was considered the most under-reported violent crime in Great Britain.<ref name="Kelly2005">{{cite book |last=Kelly |first=Liz |title=A gap or a chasm? : Attrition in reported rape cases |publisher=Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate |location=London |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84473-555-6}}</ref> The number of reported rapes in Great Britain is lower than both incidence and prevalence rates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://broken-rainbow.org.uk/research/Dv%20crime%20survey.pdf |title=Domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking: Findings from the British Crime Survey |access-date=2010-12-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812213652/http://broken-rainbow.org.uk/research/Dv%20crime%20survey.pdf |archive-date=August 12, 2011}}</ref> Victims who do not act in an expected or stereotypical way may not be believed, as happened in the case of a [[Washington and Colorado serial rape cases|Washington state woman raped in 2008]] who withdrew her report after facing police skepticism.{{sfnp|Smith|2018|pp=438–440}} Her rapist went on to assault several more women before being identified.<ref name="Miller & Armstrong 2015">{{cite news |last1=Miller |first1=T. Christian |last2=Armstrong |first2=Ken |title=An Unbelievable Story of Rape |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/false-rape-accusations-an-unbelievable-story |work=ProPublica |publisher=The Marshall Project }}</ref>

The legal requirements for reporting rape vary by jurisdiction—each US state may have different requirements.{{citation needed}} New Zealand has less stringent limits.<ref>
{{cite web |title=Reporting Rape, Western Cape Government, New Zealand |url=https://www.westerncape.gov.za/service/reporting-rape |access-date=2015-12-08}}
</ref>

In Italy, a 2006 National Statistic Institute survey on sexual violence against women found that 91.6% of women who suffered this did not report it to the police.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sgdatabase.unwomen.org/searchDetail.action?measureId=26309&baseHREF=country&baseHREFId=675 |title=The Secretary Generals database on violence against women |publisher=UN Secretary General's Database on Violence Against Women |access-date=2013-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201182537/http://sgdatabase.unwomen.org/searchDetail.action?measureId=26309&baseHREF=country&baseHREFId=675 |archive-date=2014-02-01}}</ref>

=== Conviction ===

In the United Kingdom, in 1970, there was a 33% rate of conviction, while by 1985 there was a 24% conviction rate for rape trials in the UK; by 2004, the conviction rate reached 5%.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/jul/31/ukcrime.immigrationpolicy |title=50,000 rapes each year but only 600 rapists sent to jail |author=Miranda Sawyer |publisher=The Guardian.}}</ref> At that time the government report has expressed documented the year-on-year increase in attrition of reported rape cases, and pledged to address this "justice gap".<ref name="Kelly2005" /> According to Amnesty International Ireland had the lowest rate of conviction for rape, (1%) among 21 European states, in 2003.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amnesty.ie/news/damning-indictment-ireland%E2%80%99s-attitude-women |title=A damning indictment of Ireland's attitude to women | Amnesty International |publisher=Amnesty INternational |access-date=2013-02-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308122902/http://amnesty.ie/news/damning-indictment-ireland%E2%80%99s-attitude-women |archive-date=2013-03-08 }}</ref> In America as of 2012, there exists a noticeable discrepancy in conviction rates among women of various ethnic identities; an arrest was made in just 13% of the sexual assaults reported by American Indian women, compared with 35% for black women and 32% for whites.<ref name="Williams2012"/>

Judicial bias due to rape myths and preconceived notions about rape is a salient issue in rape conviction, but [[Voir dire|''voir dire'' intervention]] may be used to curb such bias.<ref>Mallios C, Meisner T. Educating juries in sexual assault cases: Using voir dire to eliminate jury bias. Strategies: The Prosecutors' Newsletter on Violence Against Women, 2010; 2. http://www.aequitasresource.org/EducatingJuriesInSexualAssaultCasesPart1.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421041500/http://www.aequitasresource.org/EducatingJuriesInSexualAssaultCasesPart1.pdf }}</ref>

== False accusation ==
{{Main|False accusation of rape}}
A false accusation of rape is the reporting of a rape where no rape has occurred. It is difficult to assess the true prevalence of false rape allegations, but it is generally agreed by scholars that rape accusations are false about 2% to 10% of the time.<ref>DiCanio, M. (1993). ''The encyclopedia of violence: origins, attitudes, consequences''. New York: Facts on File. {{ISBN|978-0-8160-2332-5}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsvrc.org/sites/default/files/publications_nsvrc_factsheet_media-packet_statistics-about-sexual-violence_0.pdf|title=Statistics about sexual violence|website=National Sexual Violence Resource Center|access-date=January 8, 2018}}</ref><ref name=Lisak2010/> In most cases, a false accusation will not name a specific suspect.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weiser |first1=Dana M |title=Confronting Myths About Sexual Assault: A Feminist Analysis of the False Report Literature False Reports |journal=Family Relations |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=46–60 |doi=10.1111/fare.12235 }}</ref>

Eight percent of 2,643 sexual assault cases were classified as false reports by the police in one study. The researchers noted that many of these classifications were based on the personal judgments and [[bias]]es of the police investigators and were made in violation of official criteria for establishing a [[false allegation]]. Closer analysis of this category applying the Home Office counting rules for establishing a false allegation, which requires "strong evidential grounds" of a false allegation or a "clear and credible" retraction by the complainant, reduced the percentage of false reports to 3%. The researchers concluded that "one cannot take all police designations at face value" and that "[t]here is an over-estimation of the scale of false allegations by both police officers and prosecutors".<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/hors293.pdf|title=A gap or a chasm? Attrition in reported rape cases|author=Home Office Research|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308223729/http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/hors293.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 8, 2008}}</ref>

Another large-scale study was conducted in Australia, with 850 rapes reported to the Victoria police between 2000 and 2003 (Heenan & Murray, 2006). Using both quantitative and qualitative methods, the researchers examined 812 cases and found 15.1% of complaints were withdrawn, 46.4% were marked "no further police action", and 2.1% of the total were "clearly" classified by police as false reports. In these cases, the alleged victim was either charged with filing a false police report, or threatened with charges, and the complaint subsequently withdrawn.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncjrs.gov/app/abstractdb/AbstractDBDetails.aspx?id=243182 |title=Abstracts Database — National Criminal Justice Reference Service |publisher=Ncjrs.gov |access-date=2010-12-31}}</ref>

In the United Kingdom, the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) analyzed every rape complaint made over a 17-month period and found that "the indication is that it is therefore extremely rare that a suspect deliberately makes a false allegation of rape or domestic violence purely out of malice."<ref name="huffingtonpost.co.uk">{{Cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2013/03/13/false-rape-allegations-ra_n_2865823.html |title='Damaging Myths' About False Rape Accusations Harming Real Victims |last=UK |first=The Huffington Post |website=HuffPost UK|access-date=2017-09-08}}</ref><ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20130831095627/http://cps.gov.uk/publications/research/perverting_course_of_justice_march_2013.pdf Charging perverting the course of justice and wasting police time in cases involving allegedly false rape and domestic violence allegations]" Archived from: http://www.cps.gov.uk/publications/research/perverting_course_of_justice_march_2013.pdf</ref>

FBI reports consistently put the number of "unfounded" rape accusations around 8%. The unfounded rate is higher for forcible rape than for any other Index crime. The average rate of unfounded reports for Index crimes is 2%.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091229015318/http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/Cius_97/96CRIME/96crime2.pdf Crime Index Offenses Reported]. FBI.gov. 1996</ref> "Unfounded" is not synonymous with a false allegation.<ref>[http://www.oregonsatf.org/resources/docs/False_Allegations.pdf False Allegations, Recantations, and Unfounding in the Context of Sexual Assault] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727154203/http://oregonsatf.org/resources/docs/False_Allegations.pdf }}. Attorney General's Sexual Assault Task Force Oregon, US January 10, 2008.</ref> Bruce Gross of the Forensic Examiner described it as meaningless, saying a report could be marked as unfounded if there is no physical evidence or the alleged victim did not sustain any physical injuries.

Other studies have suggested that the rate of false allegations in the United States may be higher. A nine-year study by Eugene J. Kanin of [[Purdue University]] in a small metropolitan area in the Midwestern United States claimed that 41% of rape accusations were false.<ref name=":2">{{cite news |last=Kanin |first=E.J. |title=An alarming national trend: False rape allegations |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=23 |number=1 |year=1994}}</ref> However [[David Lisak]], an associate professor of psychology and director of the Men's Sexual Trauma Research Project at the [[University of Massachusetts Boston]] states that "Kanin's 1994 article on false allegations is a provocative opinion piece, but it is not a scientific study of the issue of false reporting of rape". He further states that Kanin's study has a significantly poor systematic methodology and had no independent definition of a false report. Instead, Kanin classified reports that the police department classified as false also as false.<ref name="VAW2">{{Cite journal |journal=Violence Against Women |volume=16 |issue=12 |title=False Allegations of Sexual Assault: An Analysis of Ten Years of Reported Cases |first1=David |last1=Lisak |first2=Lori |last2=Gardinier |last3=Nicksa |first3=Sarah C. |first4=Ashley M. |last4=Cote |year=2010 |doi=10.1177/1077801210387747 |pages=1318–1334 |pmid=21164210|s2cid=15377916 }}</ref> The criterion for falsehood was simply a denial of a polygraph test of the accuser.<ref name=":2"/> A 1998 report by the [[National Institute of Justice]] found that DNA evidence excluded the primary suspect in 26% of rape cases and concluded that this "strongly suggests that postarrest and postconviction DNA exonerations are tied to some strong, underlying systemic problems that generate erroneous accusations and convictions".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/dnaevid.pdf |last1=Connors |first1=Edward |last2=Lundregan |first2=Thomas |last3=Miller |first3=Neal |last4=McEwen |first4=Tom |title=Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science: Case Studies in the Use of DNA Evidence to Establish Innocence After Trial |publisher=National Institute of Justice |pages=xxviii–xxix}}</ref> However, this study also noted that analyzed samples involved a specific subset of rape cases (e.g. those where "there is no consent defense").

A 2010 study by David Lisak, Lori Gardinier and other researchers published in the journal of [[Violence Against Women (journal)|''Violence against Women'']] found that out of 136 cases reported in a ten-year period, 5.9% were found likely to be false.<ref name=Lisak2010>{{Cite journal |title=False Allegations of Sexual Assault: An Analysis of Ten Years of Reported Cases |journal=Violence Against Women |issn=1077-8012 |pmid=21164210 |pages=1318–1334 |volume=16 |issue=12 |doi=10.1177/1077801210387747 |first1=David |last1=Lisak |first2=Lori |last2=Gardinier |first3=Sarah C. |last3=Nicksa |first4=Ashley M. |last4=Cote|s2cid=15377916 }}</ref> A 2018 study in the UK by [[Lesley McMillan]] published in the ''[[Journal of Gender Studies]]'' found that although police estimated 5–95% of rape claims were likely to be false, the analysis showed no more than 3–4% were possible to be evidenced as "fabricated'.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McMillan|first=Lesley|title=Police officers' perceptions of false allegations of rape|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09589236.2016.1194260|journal=Journal of Gender Studies|language=en|volume=27|issue=1|pages=9–21|doi=10.1080/09589236.2016.1194260|s2cid=148033737|issn=0958-9236}}</ref>

== History ==
=== Definitions and evolution of laws ===
[[File:Tizian 094.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Tarquin and Lucretia]]'', by [[Titian]], 1571. According to ancient Roman legend, the rape of [[Lucretia]] by the king's son, led to the formation of the [[Roman Republic]]]]
{{Main|History of rape}}
Virtually all societies have had a concept of the crime of rape. Although what constituted this crime has varied by historical period and culture, the definitions tended to focus around an act of forced vaginal intercourse perpetrated through physical violence or imminent threat of death or severe bodily injury, by a man, on a woman, or a girl, not his wife. The [[actus reus]] of the crime, was, in most societies, the insertion of the penis into the vagina.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=mdZktFIzfCgC}} |title=Development of Global Prohibition Regimes: Pillage and Rape in War – Tuba Inal |access-date=2013-06-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=X_w83yCJCOQC}} |title=The Routledge History of Sex and the Body: 1500 to the Present |date=2013-03-14 |access-date=2013-06-15}}</ref> The way sexuality was conceptualized in many societies rejected the very notion that a woman could force a man into sex — women were often seen as passive while men were deemed to be assertive and aggressive. Sexual penetration of a male by another male fell under the legal domain of [[sodomy]].

[[Rape law]]s existed to protect [[virgin]]al daughters from rape. In these cases, a rape done to a woman was seen as an attack on the estate of her father because she was his property and a woman's virginity being taken before marriage lessened her value; if the woman was married, the rape was an attack on the husband because it violated his property.<ref name="Sanders">{{cite book |author=Teela Sanders|title=Sex Offenses and Sex Offenders|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2012|page=82|access-date=28 January 2017|isbn=978-0190213633 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rb5LDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA82}}</ref><ref name="Yllö">{{cite book |author1=Kersti Yllö |author2=M. Gabriela Torres |title=Marital Rape: Consent, Marriage, and Social Change in Global Context |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2016|page=20|access-date=28 January 2017 |isbn=978-0190238377 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WpNHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20}}</ref> The rapist was either subject to payment (see [[wreath money]]) or severe punishment.<ref name="Yllö"/><ref name="Tomm">{{cite book|author=Winnie Tomm|title=Bodied Mindfulness: Women's Spirits, Bodies and Places|publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]]|year=2010|page=140|isbn=978-1554588022 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_dnfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT140 |access-date=28 January 2017}}</ref><ref name="Tetlow">{{cite book |author=Elisabeth Meier Tetlow |title=Women, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: Volume 1: The Ancient Near East |publisher=[[A&C Black]] |year=2010 |page=131|isbn=978-0826416285 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ONkJ_Rj1SS8C&pg=PA131 |access-date=30 January 2017}}</ref> The father could rape or keep the rapist's wife or make the rapist marry his daughter.<ref name="Sanders"/><ref name="Tetlow"/> A man could not be charged with raping his wife since she was his property. Thus, marital rape was allowed.<ref name="Yllö"/><ref name="Carline">{{cite book |first=Anna|last=Carline|first2=Patricia|last2=Easteal |title=Shades of Grey – Domestic and Sexual Violence Against Women: Law Reform and Society|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2014|page=209|isbn=978-1317815242 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqeQBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA209 |access-date=30 January 2017}}</ref> Author Winnie Tomm stated, "By contrast, rape of a single woman without strong ties to a father or husband caused no great concern."<ref name="Tomm"/> An incident could be excluded from the definition of rape due to the relation between the parties, such as marriage, or due to the background of the victim. In many cultures forced sex on a prostitute, slave, war enemy, member of a [[racial minority]], etc., was not rape.<ref>{{cite web |title=Case Closed: Rape and Human Rights in Nordic countries |publisher=[[Amnesty International]] |url=http://www.amnesty.dk/sites/default/files/mediafiles/44/case-closed.pdf |archive-date=2013-10-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020202147/http://www.amnesty.dk/sites/default/files/mediafiles/44/case-closed.pdf}}</ref>

From the classical antiquity of [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] into the [[Colonialism|Colonial period]], rape along with arson, [[treason]] and murder was a [[capital offense]]. "Those committing rape were subject to a wide range of capital punishments that were seemingly brutal, frequently bloody, and at times spectacular." In the 12th century, kinsmen of the victim were given the option of executing the punishment themselves. "In England in the early fourteenth century, a victim of rape might be expected to gouge out the eyes and/or sever the offender's testicles herself."<ref>"The Medieval Blood Sanction and the Divine Beneficene of Pain: 1100–1450", Trisha Olson, ''Journal of Law and Religion'', 22 JLREL 63 (2006)</ref> Despite the harshness of these laws, actual punishments were usually far less severe: in late Medieval Europe, cases concerning rapes of marriageable women, wives, widows, or members of the lower class were rarely brought forward, and usually ended with only a small monetary fine or a marriage between the victim and the rapist.<ref name="Eckman">{{cite journal |last=Eckman |first=Zoe |url=http://medievalists.net/files/11020201.pdf |title=An Oppressive Silence: The Evolution of the Raped Woman in Medieval France and England |journal=Historian: Journal of the Undergraduate History Department at New York University |volume=50 |year=2009 |pages=68–77}}</ref>

In ancient Greece and Rome, both male-on-female and male-on-male concepts of rape existed. Roman laws allowed three distinct charges for the crime: ''stuprum'', unsanctioned sexual intercourse (which, in the early times, also included adultery); ''vis'', a physical assault for purpose of lust; and ''iniuria'', a general charge denoting any type of assault upon a person. The aforementioned ''Lex Iulia'' specifically criminalized ''per vim stuprum'', unsanctioned sexual intercourse by force. The former two were public criminal charges which could be brought whenever the victim was a woman or a child of either gender, but only if the victim was a freeborn Roman citizen (''[[ingenui|ingenuus]]''), and carried a potential sentence of death or exile. ''Iniuria'' was a civil charge that demanded monetary compensation, and had a wider application (for example, it could have been brought in case of sexual assault on a slave by a person other than their owner.) [[Augustus]] Caesar enacted reforms for the crime of rape under the assault statute ''Lex Iulia de vi publica'', which bears his family name, ''Iulia''. It was under this statute rather than the adultery statute of ''Lex Iulia de adulteriis'' that Rome prosecuted this crime.<ref>James Fitzjames Stephen, ''A History of the Criminal Law of England'', p. 17 [{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=jecTHASFYeUC }}]</ref> Rape was made into a "public wrong" (''iniuria publica'') by the Roman Emperor [[Constantine I|Constantine]].<ref>George Mousourakis, ''The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law'' p. 30 [{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=8qE1zFHyGXoC }}]</ref><ref>Brundage, James A., "Rape and Seduction in Medieval Canon Law", in ''Sexual Practices and the Medieval Church'', edited by Vern L. Bullough and James Brundage, Buffalo, 1982, p.141</ref>

In contrast to the modern understanding of the subject, Romans drew clear distinctions between "active" (penetrative) and "passive" (receptive) partners, and all these charges implied penetration by the assailant (which necessarily ruled out the possibility of female-on-male or female-on-female rape.) It is not clear which (if any) of these charges applied to assaults upon an adult male, though such an assault upon a citizen was definitely seen as a grave insult (within Roman culture, an adult male citizen could not possibly consent to the receptive role in sexual intercourse without a severe loss of status.) The law known as [[Lex Scantinia]] covered at least some forms of male-on-male ''stuprum'', and [[Quintillian]] mentions a fine of 10,000 sesterces – about 10 years' worth of a Roman legionnaire's pay – as a normal penalty for ''stuprum'' upon an ''ingenuus''. However, its text is lost and its exact provisions are no longer known.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1084&context=mjgl |title=Roman Rape: An Overview of Roman Rape Laws from the Republican Period to Justinian's Reign |author=Nghiem L. Nguyen |year=2006}}</ref>

Emperor [[Justinian]] continued the use of the statute to prosecute rape during the sixth century in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]].<ref>[[Justinian]] [http://www.constitution.org/sps/sps02_j1-4.htm ''Institutiones''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143943/http://www.constitution.org/sps/sps02_j1-4.htm }}</ref> By [[late antiquity]], the general term ''raptus'' had referred to abduction, [[elopement]], robbery, or rape in its modern meaning. Confusion over the term led ecclesiastical commentators on the law to differentiate it into ''raptus seductionis'' (elopement without parental consent) and ''raptus violentiae'' (ravishment). Both of these forms of ''raptus'' had a civil penalty and possible excommunication for the family and village receiving the abducted woman, although ''raptus violentiae'' also incurred punishments of mutilation or death.<ref>[[Basil of Caesarea]], [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.ix.cclxxi.html ''Letters''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212062150/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.ix.cclxxi.html }} circa 374 AD</ref>

In the United States, a husband could not be charged with raping his wife until 1979.<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=http://time.com/3975175/spousal-rape-case-history/ |title=When Spousal Rape First Became a Crime in the U.S. |last=Rothman |first=Lily |magazine=Time|access-date=2017-09-08}}</ref> In the 1950s, in some states in the US, a white woman having consensual sex with a black man was considered rape.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Challenge of Defining Rape |last=Urbina |first=Ian |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/12/sunday-review/being-clear-about-rape.html|access-date= 5 December 2015}}</ref> Prior to the 1930s, rape was considered a [[sex crime]] that was always committed by men and always done to women. From 1935 to 1965, a shift from labeling rapists as criminals to believing them to be mentally ill "sexual [[psychopaths]]" began making its way into popular opinion. Men caught for committing rape were no longer sentenced to prison but admitted to mental health hospitals where they would be given medication for their illness.<ref name=Maschke1997>Maschke, Karen J. ''The Legal Response to Violence against Women''. New York: Garland Pub., 1997. {{ISBN|9780815325192}}</ref> Because only men deemed insane were the ones considered to have committed rape, no one considered the everyday person to be capable of such violence.<ref name=Maschke1997/>

Transitions in women's roles in society were also shifting, causing alarm and blame towards rape victims. Because women were becoming more involved in the public (i.e. searching for jobs rather than being a housewife), some people claimed that these women were "loose" and looking for trouble. Giving up the [[gender role]]s of mother and wife was seen as defiant against traditional values while immersing themselves within society created the excuse that women would "not [be] entitled to protection under the traditional guidelines for male-female relationships".<ref name=Maschke1997/>

Until the 19th century, many jurisdictions required [[ejaculation]] for the act to constitute the offense of rape.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite book |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=X_w83yCJCOQC}} |title=The Routledge History of Sex and the Body: 1500 to the Present |date=2013-03-14 |access-date=2013-06-15}}</ref> Acts other than vaginal intercourse did not constitute rape in [[common law]] countries and in many other societies. In many cultures, such acts were illegal, even if they were consensual and performed between married couples (see [[sodomy laws]]). In England, for example, the [[Buggery Act 1533]], which remained in force until 1828, provided for the death penalty for "[[buggery]]". Many countries criminalized "non-traditional" forms of sexual activity well into the modern era: notably, in the US state of [[Idaho]], sodomy between consensual partners was punishable by a term of five years to life in prison as late as 2003, and this law was only ruled to be inapplicable to married couples in 1995.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.glapn.org/sodomylaws/sensibilities/idaho.htm |last=Painter |first=George |title=The History of Sodomy Laws in the United States – Idaho |website=Gay & Lesbian Archives of the Pacific Northwest |access-date=2015-12-11}}</ref> Today, in many countries, the definition of the actus reus has been extended to all forms of penetration of the vagina and anus (e.g. penetration with objects, fingers or other body parts) as well as insertion of the penis in the mouth.

In the United States, before and during the [[American Civil War]] when [[chattel slavery]] was widespread, the law focused primarily on rape as it pertained to black men raping white women. The penalty for such a crime in many jurisdictions was death or castration. The rape of a black woman, by any man, was considered legal.<ref name=Maschke1997 /> As early as the 19th century, American women were criticized if they "stray[ed] out of a [dependent] position...fought off [an] attacker...[or] behaved in too self reliant a manner..." in which case "the term rape no longer applied".<ref>Hamilton Arnold, Marybeth. "Chapter 3 Life of a Citizen in the Hands of a Woman." ''Passion and Power: Sexuality in History''. Ed. Kathy Lee. Peiss, Christina Simmons, and Robert A. Padgug. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1989. {{ISBN|978-0877225966}}</ref>

In 1998, Judge [[Navanethem Pillay]] of the [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] said: "From time immemorial, rape has been regarded as [[Wartime sexual violence|spoils of war]]. Now it will be considered a war crime. We want to send out a strong message that rape is no longer a trophy of war."<ref name="paulwalters" />

In ''Aydin v Turkey'', the [[European Court of Human Rights]] (ECHR) ruled for the first time that rape amounts to torture, thus violating article 3 of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]. It stated, "Rape of a detainee by an official of the State must be considered to be an especially grave and abhorrent form of ill-treatment given the ease with which the offender can exploit the vulnerability and weakened resistance of his victim."<ref>ECHR 25 September 1997, no. 57/1996/676/866, paragraph 83, [https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-58371%22] ''Aydin v Turkey''] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107024019/http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid%22: }}.</ref>

In ''M.C. v Bulgaria'', the Court found that the use of violence on the part of the perpetrator is not a necessary condition for a sexual act to be qualified as rape. It stated, "Indeed, rapists often employ subtle coercion or bullying when this is sufficient to overcome their victims. In most cases of rape against children, violence is not necessary to obtain submission. Courts are also recognizing that some women become frozen with fear at the onset of a sexual attack and thus cannot resist."<ref>ECHR 4 december 2003, no. 39272/98, paragraph 146, [https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-61521%22]} ''M.C. v Bulgaria''] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107024019/http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid%22: }}.</ref>

===War rape===
{{See also|Wartime sexual violence}}
[[File:Konstantin Makovsky - The Bulgarian martyresses.jpg|right|thumb|''The Bulgarian martyresses'', a painting depicting the rape of Bulgarian women by [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] troops during the [[April Uprising]] of 1876]]
Rape, in the course of war, dates back to antiquity, ancient enough to have been mentioned in the Bible.<ref name="Women in the Old Testament" />When [[Amazon rainforest|Amazon]]'s [[Yanomami]] tribes fought and raided nearby tribes, women were often raped and brought back to the ''[[shabono]]'' to be adopted into the captor's community.<ref>R. Brian Ferguson (1995). ''Yanomami Warfare: A Political History''. Santa Fe: School for American Research Press.</ref>

The [[Mongols]], who established the [[Mongol Empire]] across much of [[Eurasia]], caused [[Destruction under the Mongol Empire|much destruction]] during [[Timeline of Mongol conquests|their invasions]].<ref>[http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/WestTech/xmongol.htm "Rise of Mongol Power"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211192523/http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/WestTech/xmongol.htm }}</ref>

Historian [[Jack Weatherford]] said that the earliest incident of mass rape attributed to Mongols took place after [[Ogodei Khan]] sent an army of 25,000 soldiers to North China, where they defeated an army of 100,000. The Mongols were said to have raped the surviving soldiers at the command of their leader. Ogodei Khan was also said to have ordered mass rapes of the [[Oirats|Oirat]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Weatherford |first1=Jack |title=The Secret History of the Mongol Queens |publisher=Broadway Books |isbn=978-0307407160 |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FZ4xHb9bCZAC&pg=PA90}}</ref> According to [[Rogerius of Apulia]], a monk who survived the [[First Mongol invasion of Hungary|Mongol invasion of Hungary]], the Mongol warriors "found pleasure" in humiliating local women.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Richard Bessel |author1-link = Richard Bessel |author2=Dirk Schumann |title=Life after death: approaches to a cultural and social history of Europe during the 1940s and 1950s |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=NilW70Yol74C |page=143}} |access-date=1 October 2011|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00922-5|pages=143–}}</ref>

The [[systematic rape]] of as many as 80,000 women by the Japanese soldiers during the six weeks of the [[Nanking Massacre]] is an example of such atrocities.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080308163835/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9712/13/remembering.nanjing/ Chinese city remembers Japanese 'Rape of Nanjing']. CNN. December 13, 1997</ref> During [[World War II]], an estimated 200,000 Korean and Chinese women were forced into prostitution in [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] military brothels as so-called "[[comfort women]]".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090324104443/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200703/200703190023.html Comfort Women Were 'Raped': U.S. Ambassador to Japan]. chosun.com. March 19, 2007</ref> French Moroccan troops, known as [[Goumier]]s, committed rapes and other war crimes after the [[Battle of Monte Cassino]]. ''(See [[Marocchinate]].)''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://listserv.acsu.buffalo.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind9705&L=twatch-l&D=1&O=D&F=P&P=1025 |title=Italian women win cash for wartime rapes |publisher=Listserv.acsu.buffalo.edu |access-date=2010-12-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130715172056/http://listserv.acsu.buffalo.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind9705&L=twatch-l&D=1&O=D&F=P&P=1025 |archive-date=2013-07-15 }}</ref> French women in Normandy complained about [[Rape during the liberation of France|rapes during the liberation of Normandy]].<ref>{{cite magazine |author=Mathieu von Rohr |title='Bandits in Uniform': The Dark Side of GIs in Liberated France |magazine=[[Der Spiegel|Spiegel]] |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/new-book-reveals-dark-side-of-american-soldiers-in-liberated-france-a-902266.html |access-date=2013-05-31}}</ref>

Rapes were committed by [[War crimes of the Wehrmacht|Wehrmacht]] forces on Jewish women and girls during the [[Invasion of Poland]] in September 1939;<ref>{{Cite book|title=55 Dni Wehrmachtu w Polsce" Szymon Datner Warsaw 1967 page 67 "Zanotowano szereg faktów gwałcenia kobiet i dziewcząt żydowskich" (Numerous rapes were committed against Jewish women and girls)}}</ref> they were also committed against Polish, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian women, and girls during mass executions which were primarily carried out by the [[Selbstschutz]] units, with the assistance of Wehrmacht soldiers who were stationed in territory that was under the administration of the German military; the rapes were committed against female captives before they were shot.<ref>{{Cite web |title=war crimes |url=http://www.kki.net.pl/~museum/rozdz3%2C2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029144245/http://www.kki.net.pl/~museum/rozdz3%2C2.htm|archive-date=2007-10-29|url-status=dead}}</ref> Only one case of rape was prosecuted by a German court during the military campaign in Poland, and even then the German judge found the perpetrator guilty of ''[[Rassenschande]]'' (committing a shameful act against his race as defined by the [[racial policy of Nazi Germany]]) rather than rape.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Numer: 17/18/2007 Wprost "Seksualne Niewolnice III Rzeszy"}}</ref> Jewish women were particularly vulnerable to rape during [[The Holocaust]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=holocaust studies |url=http://vallentinemitchell.metapress.com/content/122369 |archive-date=2013-12-02|archive-url=https://archive.today/20131202112303/http://vallentinemitchell.metapress.com/content/122369|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Rapes were also committed by German forces stationed on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]], where they were largely unpunished (as opposed to rapes committed in Western Europe).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Jews, Germans, and Allies|last=Grossmann |first=Atina|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400832743 |location=Princeton|pages=290 |doi=10.1515/9781400832743}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gegenwind.info/175/sonderheft_wehrmacht.pdf |title=Zur Debatte um die Ausstellung Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941-1944 im Kieler Landeshaus 1999}}</ref> The Wehrmacht also established a system of military brothels, in which young women and girls from occupied territories were forced into prostitution under harsh conditions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Numer: 17/18/2007 Wprost "Seksualne Niewolnice III Rzeszy"}}</ref> In the [[Soviet Union]], women were kidnapped by German forces for prostitution as well; one report by the [[International Military Tribunal]] writes "''in the city of [[Smolensk]] the German Command opened a brothel for officers in one of the hotels into which hundreds of women and girls were driven; they were mercilessly dragged down the street by their arms and hair''."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Nazi Law of the Third German Law|last=Guz|first=Tadeusz|publisher=Towarzystwo Naukowe Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego Jana Pawła II|isbn=9788373067523|pages=72 |doi=10.18290/2016entguz}}</ref>

Rapes happened in territories occupied by the [[Red Army atrocities#World War II|Red Army]]. A female Soviet war correspondent described what she had witnessed: "The Russian soldiers were raping every German female from eight to eighty. It was an army of rapists."<ref name="They raped every German female from eight to 80" /> According to German historian [[Miriam Gebhardt]], as many as 190,000 women were raped by [[Allied-occupied Germany|U.S. soldiers in Germany]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Were Americans As Bad as the Soviets? |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/book-claims-us-soldiers-raped-190-000-german-women-post-wwii-a-1021298.html |work=Der Spiegel }}</ref>

According to researcher and author [[Krisztián Ungváry]], some 38,000 civilians were killed during the [[Siege of Budapest]]: about 13,000 from military action and 25,000 from starvation, disease and other causes. Included in the latter figure are about 15,000 Jews, largely victims of executions by Hungarian [[Arrow Cross Party]] militia. When the Soviets finally claimed victory, they initiated an orgy of violence, including the wholesale theft of anything they could lay their hands on, random executions and mass rape. An estimated 50,000 women and girls were raped,<ref name="Ungvary 512">{{cite book |last=Ungvary |first=Krisztian |author2=Ladislaus Lob |author3=John Lukacs |title=The siege of Budapest: One Hundred Days in World War II |publisher=Yale University Press |page=512 |isbn=978-0-300-10468-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLY1z-XLd_IC&q=AFTER+THE+BATTLE+40+-+BUDAPEST+1944&pg=PR5}}</ref>{{rp|348–350}}<ref>{{cite journal |first=Mark |last=James |title=Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 1944–1945 |journal=[[Past & Present (journal)|Past & Present]] |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/past_and_present/v188/188.1mark.html |doi=10.1093/pastj/gti020 |volume=188 |issue=August 2005 |pages=133–161 |issn=1477-464X |s2cid=162539651 }}</ref><ref group=note name="rape group=note">"The worst suffering of the Hungarian population is due to the rape of women. Rapes—affecting all age groups from ten to seventy are so common that very few women in Hungary have been spared." Swiss embassy report cited in Ungváry 2005, p.350. (Krisztian Ungvary ''The Siege of Budapest'' 2005)</ref> although estimates vary from 5,000 to 200,000.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bessel |first=Richard |author2=Dirk Schumann |title=Life after Death: Approaches to a Cultural and Social History of Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=376 |isbn=978-0-521-00922-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NilW70Yol74C}}</ref>{{rp|129}} Hungarian girls were kidnapped and taken to Red Army quarters, where they were imprisoned, repeatedly raped and sometimes murdered.<ref name="Naimark">{{cite book |first=Norman M. |last=Naimark |title=The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949 |publisher=Cambridge: Belknap |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-674-78405-5}}</ref>{{rp|70–71}}

== See also ==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=18em|
* ''[[A Natural History of Rape]]''
* ''[[Against Our Will]]''
* [[Abusive power and control]]
* [[Child grooming]]
* [[Courtship disorder]]
* [[Criminal transmission of HIV]]
* [[Emergency contraception]] (the morning after pill)
* [[Factors associated with being a victim of sexual violence]]
* [[Nicaea (mythology)]] (traumatic rape in Greek Mythology)
* [[Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims]]
* [[Rape culture]]
* [[:Category:Rape in fiction|Rape in fiction]]
* [[Sexual violence by intimate partners]]
* [[Serial rapist]]
* [[Special Victims Unit]] (also known as the Sex Crimes Unit)
* [[Women Against Rape]]
}}

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== References ==

{{Reflist|30em|refs=



<ref name="paulwalters">[[Navanethem Pillay]] is quoted by Professor Paul Walters in his presentation of her honorary [[doctorate of law]], [[Rhodes University]], April 2005 [https://web.archive.org/web/20081001193848/http://www.ru.ac.za/academic/graduation/addresses_and_citations/2005/Judge_Pillay_citation.doc Judge Navanethem Pillay. Introduction by Professor Paul Walters, Public Orator] (doc file)</ref>

<ref name="They raped every German female from eight to 80">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/g2/story/0,3604,707835,00.html |title=They raped every German female from eight to 80 |work=The Guardian |access-date=2008-01-01 |last=Beevor |first=Antony |location=London |date=2002-05-01}}</ref>

<ref name="Ancient origins: Sexual violence in warfare, Part I">{{Cite journal |title=Ancient origins: Sexual violence in warfare, Part I |first=Elisabeth |last=Vikman |doi=10.1080/13648470500049826 |pmid=28135871 |journal=Anthropology & Medicine |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=21–31|s2cid=30831085 }}</ref>



<ref name="Recovering from sexual assault">{{cite web |url=http://www.rainn.org/get-information/sexual-assault-recovery |title=Recovering from Sexual Assault |publisher=Rainn.org |access-date=2010-12-31}}</ref>



<ref name="Women in the Old Testament">{{Cite book |last=Nowell |first=Irene |title=Women in the Old Testament |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=xQlzkEefX5MC}} |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-2411-1 |page=69 |year=1997}}</ref>





}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bergen |first=Raquel Kennedy |title=Wife rape: understanding the response of survivors and service providers |publisher=Sage Publications |location=Thousand Oaks |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8039-7240-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/wiferapeundersta0000berg }}
* {{Cite book |last=Denov |first=Myriam S. |title=Perspectives on female sex offending: a culture of denial |publisher=Ashgate |location=Aldershot, Hants, England |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7546-3565-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Freedman |first=Estelle B. |title=Redefining rape: sexual violence in the era of suffrage and segregation |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-6747-2484-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Groth |first=Nicholas A. |title=Men Who Rape: The Psychology of the Offender |publisher=Plenum Press |year=1979 |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0-7382-0624-0 |page=227}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Jozkowski |first1=Kristen N. |last2=Canan |first2=Sasha N. |last3=Rhoads |first3=Kelley |last4=Hunt |first4=Mary |title=Methodological considerations for content analysis of sexual consent communication in mainstream films |journal=[[Sexualization, Media, & Society]] |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=237462381667918 |doi=10.1177/2374623816679184 |doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last1=King |first1=Michael B. |last2=Mezey |first2=Gillian C. |title=Male victims of sexual assault |journal=Medicine, Science, and the Law |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2000 |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=122–4 |doi=10.1177/002580248702700211 |pmid=3586937 |isbn=978-0-19-262932-6|s2cid=5555193 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Ellis |title=Theories of Rape: Inquiries Into the Causes of Rape |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-89116-172-1 |page=185}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=McKibbin |first1=William F. |last2=Shackelford |first2=Todd K. |last3=Goetz |first3=Aaron T. |last4=Starratt |first4=Valerie G. |title=Why do men rape? An evolutionary psychological perspective |journal=[[Review of General Psychology]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=86–97 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.12.1.86 |s2cid=804014 }} [http://www.toddkshackelford.com/downloads/McKibbin-et-al-RGP-2008.pdf Pdf.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625204134/http://www.toddkshackelford.com/downloads/McKibbin-et-al-RGP-2008.pdf }}
* Gabriella Nilsson, Lena Karlsson, Monika Edgren, Ulrika Andersson, eds. Rape Narratives in Motion. Germany, Springer International Publishing, 2019.
* {{Cite book |last1=Odem |first1=Mary E. |last2=Clay-Warner |first2=Jody |title=Confronting Rape and Sexual Assault |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, Maryland |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-842-02599-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/confrontingrapes00odem }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Palmer |first1=Craig |last2=Thornhill |first2=Randy |title=A natural history of rape biological bases of sexual coercion |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Mass |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-585-08200-4}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Pierce |first1=Karen F. |last2=Deacy |first2=Susan | author-link2 = Susan Deacy |last3=Arafat |first3=K.W. |title=Rape in antiquity |year=2002 |publisher=The Classical Press of Wales in association with Duckworth |location=London |isbn=978-0-7156-3147-8}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Rice |first1=Marnie E. |last2=Lalumiere |first2=Martin L. |last3=Quinsey |first3=Vernon L. |title=The causes of rape: understanding individual differences in male propensity for sexual aggression (the law and public policy.) |publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-59147-186-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Shapcott |first=David |title=The Face of the Rapist |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1988 |location=Auckland, NZ |isbn=978-0-14-009335-3 |page=234}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.vox.com/culture/2017/11/30/16644394/language-sexual-violence "The complicated, inadequate language of sexual violence"], Vox, Nov 30, 2017

{{Medical resources
| ICD10 ={{ICD10|T|74|2}}, {{ICD10|Y05}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|E960.1}}
| ICDO =
| OMIM =
| MedlinePlus = 001955
| eMedicineSubj =
| eMedicineTopic =
| eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|article|806120}}
| MeshID = D011902
}}
{{Sex}}
{{Human sexuality}}
{{Sexual ethics}}
{{Violence against women/end}}
{{Abuse}}
{{Religious persecution}}
{{Types of crime}}

[[Category:Rape| ]]
[[Category:Acute pain]]
[[Category:Crimes against women]]
[[Category:Forced prostitution]]
[[Category:Sex and the law]]
[[Category:Sex crimes]]
[[Category:Sex trafficking| ]]
[[Category:Sexual abuse]]
[[Category:Sexual ethics]]
[[Category:Violence against children]]
[[Category:Violence against men]]
[[Category:Violence against women]]
[[Category:Bharatpedia pages referenced by the press]]
[[Category:Common law offences in Ireland]]

Divide and Rule

2022-08-17T15:07:58Z

SSS: Contributed a new entry to the platform.

#REDIRECT [[Divide and rule]] {{R from other capitalisation}}

Bhupinder Singh, Sr.

2022-06-03T18:57:44Z

SSS: Bhupinder Singh (cricket player): what is Sr. ?

#REDIRECT [[Bhupinder Singh (Indian cricketer)]]
{{R from move}}

Draft:FORA.tv

2021-05-27T13:01:33Z

SSS: Created page with "{{Infobox dot-com company |name =FORA.tv, Inc. |logo =Foratv-logo.jpg |logo size =200px |logo alt =The FORA.tv logo is its name written..."

{{Infobox dot-com company
|name =FORA.tv, Inc.
|logo =Foratv-logo.jpg
|logo size =200px
|logo alt =The FORA.tv logo is its name written in gray letters with the letter O having colored squares inside, as if on a globe.
|company_type =[[Privately held company|Privately Held]]
|foundation =2005
|location_city =[[San Francisco|San Francisco, California]]
|location_country =U.S.
|key_people =Bob Appel, CEO and President
|homepage =[http://www.fora.tv/ fora.tv]
|screenshot =
|caption =
|url =[http://www.fora.tv/ fora.tv]
| alexa = {{IncreaseNegative}} 64,787 ({{as of|2015|1|1|alt=January 2015}})<ref name="alexa">{{cite web|url= http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/fora.tv |title= Fora.tv Site Info | publisher= [[Alexa Internet]] |accessdate= 2014-04-01 }}</ref>
|language =
|website_type =[[Video production]], [[webcasting]] and [[video on demand]]
}}

'''FORA.tv''' is a company that offers services for event video production, online distribution and monetization.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212042028/https://news.com.com/2061-10802_3-6153396.html |title=The YouTube for thinkers |work=CNET News |date= January 25, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2007/01/26/on-one-youtube-competitor-all-joking-aside/ |work=DealBook | title= On One YouTube Competitor, All Joking Aside ||date=January 26, 2007}}</ref> The company currently serves more than 500 organizations, primarily working with event and conference organizers.

==Company history==
FORA.tv was founded by Brian Gruber in 2005<ref name="Crunchbase">{{Cite web|url=https://www.crunchbase.com/organization/fora-tv|title=FORA.tv {{!}} Crunchbase|website=Crunchbase|language=en|access-date=2018-06-19}}</ref> as a forum for the exchange of intelligent ideas and conversation (hence the name fora, plural for forum, and the "library" part of the website) and provided video services to conferences while doing that. Gruber was the first marketing director for [[C-SPAN]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/person.asp?personId=39505075&privcapId=252686490&previousCapId=36743764&previousTitle=FORA.tv,%20Inc.|title=Brian Gruber: Executive Profile & Biography - Bloomberg|website=www.bloomberg.com|access-date=2018-06-30}}</ref> FORA.tv is known for its intellectual videos<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/2007/10/online-video-st/|title=Online Video Startup Fora.tv Raises $2 Million|work=WIRED|access-date=2018-06-30|language=en-US}}</ref> with a few calling it "The C-SPAN of the Web".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://venturebeat.com/2008/05/07/foratv-the-c-span-of-the-web-raises-4m/|title=Fora.tv, the C-Span of the Web, raises $4M|date=2008-05-07|work=VentureBeat|access-date=2018-06-30|language=en-US}}</ref> By 2008, they had partnered with numerous schools and institutions, acquiring a broad library of public lectures and colloquia.<ref name="Boston">{{Cite news|url=http://archive.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2008/11/02/u_tube/?page=full|title=U Tube|last=MacIntyre|first=Jeffrey|work=Boston.com|access-date=2018-06-19}}</ref> The library provided several ways to interact with the videos, such as comments, transcripts, and translations.<ref name="tubefilter">{{Cite news|url=https://www.tubefilter.com/2008/01/01/review-of-foratv/amp/|title=Review of FORA.tv - Tubefilter|date=2008-01-01|work=Tubefilter|access-date=2018-06-30|language=en-US}}</ref> In February 2009, the company partnered with [[WIRED]] creating a channel that features videos about technological, science, business, and cultural issues.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://fora.tv/pressroom/release/2/FORA_tv_Partners_with_WIRED_com_for_Online_Video_Channel |work=Press Room|publisher=FORA.tv |title=FORA.tv Partners with WIRED.com for Online Video Channel |accessdate=2008-05-29 |date=2009-02-20 }}</ref> [[Time (magazine)|Time]] featured FORA.tv and four others out of Time's "50 Best Websites 2009".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://content.time.com/time/video/player/0,32068,35042201001_1918215,00.html|title=50 Best Websites: 5 You May Not Know - Video|website=TIME.com|language=en-us|access-date=2018-06-09}}</ref> FORA.tv was often compared with the online [[TED (conference)|TED Talks]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/1550880/face-ted-talks-vs-foratv|last=Barol|first=Bill|title=Face-Off: TED Talks vs. FORA.tv|date=2010-03-01|work=Fast Company|access-date=2018-06-19|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619141818/http://www.fastcompany.com:80/1550880/face-ted-talks-vs-foratv|archive-date=2013-06-19}}</ref><ref name="Boston" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=992it9di5B8C&pg=PA210&lpg=PA210&dq=%22fora.tv%22+%22ted+talks%22|title=Journalism of Ideas: Brainstorming, Developing, and Selling Stories in the Digital Age|last=Reimold|first=Daniel|date=2013-06-26|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136206290|language=en}}</ref> Website traffic continued to grow for the intellectual hour-long videos to about 3 million views per month by September 2010, tripling in 18 months.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2010/09/02/fora-tv-triples-traffic-wait-that-many-people-want-hour-long-videos-on-economics/|title=Fora.TV Triples Traffic. Wait, That Many People Want Hour-Long Videos on Economics?|last=Lacy|first=Sarah|website=techcrunch.com|date=Sep 2, 2010|language=en-US|access-date=2018-06-19}}</ref>

FORA.tv is funded by private investors including [[William Randolph Hearst III|William R. Hearst III]] and Adobe Ventures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.beet.tv/2008/05/foratv-raises-4.html|title=FORA.tv Raises $4 Million Round from Hearst, Adobe, Others – Beet.TV|work=Beet.TV - The Root to the Media Revolution|access-date=2018-06-19|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Services==
FORA.tv's services range from single-camera shoots to full-scale conference video production. FORA.tv's revenue methods for its partners include sponsorships, pay-per-view and advertising. FORA.tv has offices in [[San Francisco]] and [[New York City]].

FORA.tv provides a digital forum where people can get and discuss information on technology, politics, culture, entertainment and more. FORA.tv hosts a curated library that features more than 25,000 unmediated video drawn from its clients’ live events, lectures and debates at universities, think tanks, conferences, etc.

==Clients==
[[Brookings Institution]],<ref name="wsj">{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB118194674116237258|title=Matters of the Mind|last=Gomes|first=Lee|date=2007-06-18|work=Wall Street Journal|access-date=2018-06-30|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660}}</ref> [[Asia Society]],<ref name="wsj" /> [[Hoover Institution]],<ref name="wsj" /> [[C-SPAN]],<ref name="tubefilter" /> [[Heritage Foundation]],<ref name="tubefilter" /> [[Cato Institute]],<ref name="tubefilter" /> [[Link TV]],<ref name="tubefilter" /> [[Cambridge University]],<ref name="tubefilter" /> [[Americans for Informed Democracy]],<ref name="tubefilter" /> [[Chatham House]],<ref name="ft">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/21474173-5e9a-378b-8053-d2dff5393285|title=Fora.tv: YouTube for policy wonks|website=Financial Times|date=
January 29, 2007|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-06-30}}</ref> [[Council on Foreign Relations]],<ref name="ft" /> [[The New Yorker]], [[Intelligence Squared]], [[Wired Magazine]], [[New York Magazine]], [[The Long Now Foundation]], [[HSBC]], [[New York University Stern School of Business]], [[The Atlantic]], [[Maker Faire]], [[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]], [[California Academy of Sciences]] and [[TED (conference)|Ted]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fora.Tv}}
[[Category:American websites]]
[[Category:Video hosting]]
[[Category:Video on demand services]]
[[Category:Privately held companies based in California]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 2005]]
[[Category:Mission District, San Francisco]]